Layout & Special Features Of GT46MAC

1. Lay Out

1 2 3 6 7 21 8 9 10 11 12 13

19 14 5 16
20 4 15 17 18

1. DRIVERS CAB 12. COOLING FANS

2. #1 ELECTRICAL CONTROL CABINET 13. RADIATORS
3. DYNAMIC BRAKE GRIDS & FANS 14. AC TRACTION MOTOR
4. #1 TCC 15. BATTERY BOX
5. #2 TCC 16. FUEL TANK
6. DUST BIN BLOWER 17. UNDER FRAME
7. TRACTION MOTOR BLOWER 18. DRAFT GEAR
8. EXHAUST MANIFOLD 19. COUPLER
9. ENGINE 20. AIR BRAKE RACK
10 EQUIPMENT RACK 21. TRACTION ALTERNATOR
11 AIR COMPRESSOR

• AC-AC locomotives hitherto manufactured by GM have been only for the

North American market which does not impose any major constraint on the
layout primarily because axle loads are in region of 30t are permitted on
North American Railroads. Development of the layout for GT46MAC the
axle load for which is restricted to around 20.5 t , was therefore, a major
exercise in locomotive design.

• The locomotive has been designed on the ‘platform’ concept i.e. the layout
and the mounting of equipment is arranged in such a manner that
retrofitment of equipment developed in future on existing locomotives as
well as equipment changes/upgradation of the existing design of the
locomotive can be implemented without any major change in the
underframe, superstructure and even layout.
2 GT46MAC is provided with the following special features-

• 710G3B fuel efficient engine is a low maintenance high fuel efficiency

diesel engine. The fuel efficiency of this locomotive is 11 % better than
the existing WDM2 locomotive. The engine has many modern features like
:

• Laser hardened cylinder liners,

• Unit fuel injectors which eliminate the problematic HP tube
• Inconel valves and Hydraulic valve adjuster
• Durable crankcase and piston structure

• AC-AC transmission has the following features / advantages -

• High adhesion and Tractive effort

• Maintenance-free traction motors
• No limitation of minimum continuous speed
• High reliability and availability
• Lower rolling resistance and higher energy efficiency

• Computer Control, a 32 BIT computer control for locomotive controls

having, following advanced features -

• Trouble Shooting and Self -Diagnostics

• Alpha Numeric display
• Archive memory and Data logging
• Radar based super series Wheel Slip/Slide Control system

• High adhesion HTSC bogies, which have traction bar arrangement with
unidirectional traction motors resulting in low maintenance, longer wheel
life and higher adhesion.

• Improved mechanical systems, the notable being -

• microprocessor based engine cooling system

• High lube oil sump capacity
• Self-cleaning inertial type primary filter
• Efficient secondary air filtration

• Improved Miscellaneous Electrical Systems, the notables being:

• Wide range dynamic brakes effective down to near standstill

• Maintenance-free roller suspension bearings having lower rolling
resistance
• Efficient filtration for electronic cabinet
5. Locomotive Design

There have been significant changes in locomotive technology during

past 10-15 years. Modern electric and diesel-electric locomotives have
sophisticated control systems that allow precise control for power application
to the rails. These locomotives, therefore, have the ability to significantly out-
perform older technology locomotives. Introduction of AC-AC technology
ensures that the locomotives are dispatched to gain the maximum benefit of
the increased dispatchable adhesion.

The following mechanical principles and mathematical formulas

that govern locomotive power application need to be clearly defined:

5.1 Locomotive Horsepower

There are four different horsepower ratings on a locomotive:

5.1.1 Brake horsepower.

Brake horsepower is measured at the engine crankshaft and is a measure

of the TOTAL horsepower available for conversion to electrical energy at
the main generator plus the power required for driving accessory loads.

5.1.2 Traction Horsepower

Traction horsepower = Brake horsepower - Accessory loads

GT46MAC locomotive has the following accessory horsepower

demands:

• Auxiliary Generator.

• Traction Motor/Main Generator Blower.

• Air Compressor - mechanically driven by engine, but has a zero

horsepower load when unloaded and is disengaged. GT46MAC
has a clutch which disengages when no compressed air is
required.

• Inertial Filter Blower Motor.

• Radiator Cooling Fans - electrically driven by the companion

alternator. GT46MAC utilises two speed-cooling fans to lessen
the horsepower demands for engine cooling when full cooling is not
required.

• AC Inverter Blowers - electrically driven by the companion

alternator.
Traction HP rating is the most commonly used rating when quoting
locomotive horsepower. When railroads dispatch loads on hp/ton basis,
they in almost all cases use traction hp for calculations.

5.1.2 Net Traction Horsepower

Net Traction Horsepower = Traction Horsepower x Generator Efficiency

In case of GT46MAC locomotive, 0.94 is the efficiency of the main generator.

5.1.3 Rail Horsepower

Rail horsepower, the power delivered by the locomotive wheels at the rails,
can be expressed by Rail Horsepower = Traction Horsepower x
Transmission Efficiency

Transmission efficiency is through:

• Main Generator

• Switch Gear

• Cables

• Traction Motors

• Traction Motor Axle Gears.

• Inverters

5.1.4 Draw Bar Horsepower

The power developed at the draw bar called Draw Bar Horsepower and is the
actual horsepower used to pull a trailing load. It is the engine to generator
horsepower minus electrical transmission losses minus horsepower
necessary to move the locomotive only.

Drawbar Horsepower =

{(Engine to Generator H.P. x Transmission Efficiency) - (Loco weight x locomotive

resistance x kmph)}

270 kg km per hour

Due to the fact that the formula includes "locomotive resistance" and kmph, it
is necessary to specify the grade and curve condition as well as the speed of
movement to obtain draw bar hp value. The resistance for each one percent
of grade requires an additional 9.2 kg/t. Each degree of curvature requires
and additional about 0.37 kg/t. The influence of Rolling Resistance on DB
horse power will be explained later. It should be clear that the Draw bar
horsepower decreases with increased speed.

5.1.5 Horsepower Required to Pull a given Train Load

The calculations to find the Drawbar horsepower to pull a given train up a

specified grade and curvature can also be made.

Drawbar HP required =

Resistance X Wt. of Freight Car X No. of Freight Cars X kmph

270

Draw bar horsepower requirements will increase with increased speed.

5.2 Resistance

5.2.1 Rolling Resistance

The rolling resistance of a train can be determined by formula is

generally is taken from tables and curves based on formula. The most widely
used of such formulae is the "Davis Formula". Rolling resistance is
generally expressed in kg/t and is summation of Flange Resistance,
Journal Resistance and Air Resistance.

Other things being equal, total Rolling Resistance increases as speeds

increase.

5.2.2 Grade Resistance

Grade resistance, expressed in kg/t , is independent of and unrelated

to train speed. It is due to the force of gravity. It is always equal to 10
kg/tonne for each percent of grade as illustrated in the calculations below.

1 m rise
1% Grade =
100 m distance

when Weight, W = 1 tonne = 1000 Kg Comment [D1]:

RG = 1/100 x 1000 Kg = 10 Kg

Grade resistance = 10 Kg per 1 % of grade.

Rise in elevation x 100 x RG (10

kg/t)
Total Grade Resistance =
Distance travelled .
5.2.3 Curve Resistance

A one degree curve is a curve whose central angle extends to a chord

of 30.48 m (100 feet). A 30.48 m (100 feet ) chord is 1/360 of a complete
circle, the radius of a 1' curve is 1746.5 m (5730 feet). Curve resistance is
expressed in kg / t / degree.

Degree of curvature = 5730 / Radius in feet or 1746 / Radius in m

5.3 Tractive Effort

Tractive effort is defined as the turning force produced at the rails by

the driving wheels. Tractive Effort can be expressed mathematically as
follows for an AC locomotive.

Tractive Effort = Traction Horsepower x 315 mile-Ibs/hr / Speed in miles per

hour
or
Traction Horsepower x 230 km-kg/hr / Speed in km per hour

a. Tractive effort depends on five major factors:

I. Horsepower of the diesel engine.

II. Ability of the main generator.
III. Ability of the traction motors.
IV. Gear ratio.
V. Adhesion
• Weight on driving wheels.
• Rail condition.
• Wheel Slip Control System.
• Inverter System.

b. The effect of the above factors on tractive effort is explained

below:

i) Horsepower of the Engine

HP of the diesel engine primarily determines the possible TE a

locomotive can develop at the rims of the driving wheels. T.E
calculations use the Traction HP for calculation purposes.

With an increase in the horsepower of the engine, either T.E. of

the locomotive will increase for the same speed or speed will be
increase with the same T.E.

ii) Ability of the Main Generator

 The main generator is the first step in the transmission of engine
horsepower to the wheels. The main generator converts the
mechanical power into electrical energy, referred to as kW. This
electrical energy is then used by the traction motors to turn the
locomotive wheels. kW are measured by the following formulas :

Main Generator Voltage x Main Generator

Current
Main Generator Kilowatts =
1000 W per kilowatt
Tractive Horsepower = Main Generator Kilowatt /0.746 HP per
kilowatt

The generator can produce any combination of amperage and voltage

within the rated power range of the locomotive.

iii) Ability of the Traction Motors

Traction motors transform the electrical energy of the main

generator into mechanical force to turn the locomotive wheels. At low
speeds, the traction motors must be capable of operating at their
thermal limit. Maximum locomotive speed is limited by the safe
rotational speed of the armature. In a DC motor, the armature
windings limit the maximum speed of the armature to approximately
2400 RPM. In an AC motor for the GT46MAC, the induction rotor
allows the operating RPM to increase to 3600 RPM.

The ratings of the traction motors also affect the "Minimum

Continuous Speed" of a DC locomotive, as well as the tractive
horsepower available for transmission to the motors. With an AC
locomotive, however, "Minimum Continuous Speed" is not a
consideration. With AC traction motors, the locomotive can be put to
full throttle at standstill without any damage to the motors.

iv) Effect of Gear Ratio

At full load, a given power output will produce a corresponding

rotor speed regardless of gear ratio. The effect of changing gear ratio
is to change the train speed at which full load can be applied
continuously without thermal damage to the motors.

Therefore:

1. Increasing the gear ratio reduces the minimum speed (hence

increases tonnage) at which a given locomotive can operate
without heat damage to the motors.

2. Reducing the gear ratio, the maximum speed at which a given

locomotive can operate without mechanical damage to the motors.
v) Adhesion

Adhesion can be defined by the following locomotive formula:

% Adhesion = Tractive Effort (kg) X 100/ Locomotive Weight

There are three classes of adhesion:

• Required (Train Weight and Grade dependent)

• Available (Operation under a given set of rail conditions)
• Developed (Locomotive capability through enhancements-wheel
slip control)

The adhesion rating of a locomotives depends upon confidence

level. This means that at a confidence level of 98%, the user can
count on the locomotive developing the given adhesion factor 98% of
the time. This is also termed as "All Weather Adhesion".

There are cases where trains can be dispatched with a lower

confidence level and a higher adhesion requirement. For example,
trains may be dispatched during the summer months at a lower
confidence level i.e. the user is counting on higher adhesions because
of good weather conditions. Under inclement weather conditions, the
locomotives can be dispatched at a higher confidence level of making
a successful trip as the rail conditions deteriorate. There is a large gain
in dispatchable adhesion as the confidence level drops to say 80 %.
This means that if one counts on the locomotive to produce 43%
adhesion, it will probably make the run successfully only 80% of the
time without help.

• Weight on Driving wheels

The weight on the driving wheels is that portion of the entire

weight supported by the wheels driven by traction motors. The weight
on driving wheels is in an important factor in the locomotive's
"adhesion". Adhesion is the grip produced by friction between the steel
wheels and steel rails. Adhesion is required to keep the wheels from
slipping. In the modern locomotives which allow "wheel creep"
(controlled wheel slip), however, the maximum tractive effort can be
much higher due to the precise control of the wheel creep systems.

• Rail Conditions

With a given weight on rails, adhesion depends on rail

conditions. Dampness, water, leaves, rust, ice, frost, and oil cause
rails to be slippery. With GT46MAC locomotive, the adhesion may
TEMPORARILY reach as much as 45% (with ideal rail conditions).
Practical year round adhesion factor may be as low as 33 %.

• Wheel Slip Control System

 The wheel slip control system used on a locomotive can have a
dramatic effect on the adhesion level achieved. Until the introduction
of the "Super Series" wheel slip control system, all wheel slip control
systems were "corrective" type systems. In other words, they operated
under the principle that all wheel slip is bad and would reduce power to
traction motors to control the slip.

The introduction of "Super Series" improved dispatchable

adhesion. The "Super Series" wheel creep control system allows the
wheels to exceed ground speed by a certain percentage, depending on
rail conditions, to improve adhesion. Super Series is activated
automatically through the control system.

The introduction of AC technology also improves the wheel

creep control system due to its rapid response. In a DC locomotive,
power is modulated by varying the DC field current of the main
generator. There is an inherent lag time as the main generator's
magnetic field requires time to collapse. With the AC locomotive, the
wheel creep corrections are far more rapid as the devices that control
the power output to the AC traction motors (called Gate Turn Off
Thrystors, or simply GT0s) can have their switching sequence changed
almost instantaneously. Power corrections are much more rapid and
smoother with the AC traction equipped locomotive.

• Inverter System

GT46MAC locomotive utilizes a system called "truck control",

where one inverter controls all of the axles within a truck unlike GE
which uses single axle inverter system i.e. one inverter per axle.

While "truck control" system has less number of physical

components to maintain, this has the disadvantage of the power
reduction in the event of an inverter failure.

5.4 Dynamic braking effort

Dynamic braking effort may be considered as negative tractive effort. It is

useful for controlling train speed. Dynamic Brakes are normally not used to
stop a train but are used to assist deceleration.

Dynamic Brakes are the preferred tool to control train speed on, many
railroads for the following reasons:

i) It saves considerable brake shoe wear, the subsequent reduction in

air brake use minimizes the chance of stuck brakes on the train.

ii) It eliminates the fuel inefficient practice of 'Stretch braking' a train

with air brakes.
5.5 Brake Effort

Braking effort for a train can be calculated by the Following formula:

Brake Effort = (-GR r+ CR + CarR) x (Trailing load in tonne + Locomotive Wt.

in tonne)

where GR = Grade resistance

CR = Curve resistance

CarR = Car resistance

5.6 Comparison Between Four Axle & Six Axle Locomotive

Six axle locomotive has 50% more Traction Motors than a four axle
locomotive resulting in:

• Six axle locomotive has about 50% more tractive effort than a four
axle locomotive.

• Six axle locomotive weighs about 50% more than a four axle
locomotive.

• Six axle locomotive's minimum continuous speed is approximately

40% more than a four axle locomotives with equal horsepower.

With equal trailing tonnage, six axle locomotive's running time on a given
run over the railroad is slightly longer than the four axle locomotive. This is
because of the increased rolling resistance with the additional two motors /
axles.

As a general rule, if the locomotive's primary mission is to haul trains at

high speeds (intermodal use), four axle locomotive is better suited. If the
locomotive's primary responsibility is heavy service over terrain with grades
and curves, six axle locomotive is better suited.
 Locomotive Design

There have been significant changes in locomotive technology during

past 10-15 years. Modern electric and diesel-electric locomotives have
sophisticated control systems that allow precise control for power application
to the rails. These locomotives, therefore, have the ability to significantly out-
perform older technology locomotives. Introduction of AC-AC technology
ensures that the locomotives are dispatched to gain the maximum benefit of
the increased dispatchable adhesion.

The following mechanical principles and mathematical formulas

that govern locomotive power application need to be clearly defined:

1 Locomotive Horsepower

There are four different horsepower ratings on a locomotive:

1.1 Brake horsepower.

Brake horsepower is measured at the engine crankshaft and is a measure

of the TOTAL horsepower available for conversion to electrical energy at
the main generator plus the power required for driving accessory loads.

1.2 Traction Horsepower

Traction horsepower = Brake horsepower - Accessory loads

GT46MAC locomotive has the following accessory horsepower

demands:

• Auxiliary Generator.

• Traction Motor/Main Generator Blower.

• Air Compressor - mechanically driven by engine, but has a zero

horsepower load when unloaded and is disengaged. GT46MAC
has a clutch which disengages when no compressed air is
required.

• Inertial Filter Blower Motor.

• Radiator Cooling Fans - electrically driven by the companion

alternator. GT46MAC utilises two speed-cooling fans to lessen
the horsepower demands for engine cooling when full cooling is not
required.

• AC Inverter Blowers - electrically driven by the companion

alternator.

1
Traction HP rating is the most commonly used rating when quoting
locomotive horsepower. When railroads dispatch loads on hp/ton basis,
they in almost all cases use traction hp for calculations.

1.3 Net Traction Horsepower

Net Traction Horsepower = Traction Horsepower x Generator Efficiency

In case of GT46MAC locomotive, 0.94 is the efficiency of the main generator.

1.4 Rail Horsepower

Rail horsepower, the power delivered by the locomotive wheels at the rails,
can be expressed by Rail Horsepower = Traction Horsepower x
Transmission Efficiency

Transmission efficiency is through:

• Main Generator

• Switch Gear

• Cables

• Traction Motors

• Traction Motor Axle Gears.

• Inverters

1.5 Draw Bar Horsepower

The power developed at the draw bar called Draw Bar Horsepower and is the
actual horsepower used to pull a trailing load. It is the engine to generator
horsepower minus electrical transmission losses minus horsepower
necessary to move the locomotive only.

Drawbar Horsepower =

{(Engine to Generator H.P. x Transmission Efficiency) - (Loco weight x locomotive

resistance x kmph)}

270 kg km per hour

Due to the fact that the formula includes "locomotive resistance" and kmph, it
is necessary to specify the grade and curve condition as well as the speed of
movement to obtain draw bar hp value. The resistance for each one percent
of grade requires an additional 9.2 kg/t. Each degree of curvature requires
and additional about 0.37 kg/t. The influence of Rolling Resistance on DB

2
horse power will be explained later. It should be clear that the Draw bar
horsepower decreases with increased speed.

1.6 Horsepower Required to Pull a given Train Load

The calculations to find the Drawbar horsepower to pull a given train up a

specified grade and curvature can also be made.

Drawbar HP required =

Resistance X Wt. of Freight Car X No. of Freight Cars X kmph

270

Draw bar horsepower requirements will increase with increased speed.

2 Resistance

2.1 Rolling Resistance

The rolling resistance of a train can be determined by formula is

generally is taken from tables and curves based on formula. The most widely
used of such formulae is the "Davis Formula". Rolling resistance is
generally expressed in kg/t and is summation of Flange Resistance,
Journal Resistance and Air Resistance.

Other things being equal, total Rolling Resistance increases as speeds

increase.

2.2 Grade Resistance

Grade resistance, expressed in kg/t , is independent of and unrelated

to train speed. It is due to the force of gravity. It is always equal to 10
kg/tonne for each percent of grade as illustrated in the calculations below.

1 m rise
1% Grade =
100 m distance

when Weight, W = 1 tonne = 1000 Kg Comment [D1]:

RG = 1/100 x 1000 Kg = 10 Kg

Grade resistance = 10 Kg per 1 % of grade.

Rise in elevation x 100 x RG (10

kg/t)
Total Grade Resistance =
Distance travelled .

3
2.3 Curve Resistance

A one degree curve is a curve whose central angle extends to a chord

of 30.48 m (100 feet). A 30.48 m (100 feet ) chord is 1/360 of a complete
circle, the radius of a 1' curve is 1746.5 m (5730 feet). Curve resistance is
expressed in kg / t / degree.

Degree of curvature = 5730 / Radius in feet or 1746 / Radius in m

3 Tractive Effort

Tractive effort is defined as the turning force produced at the rails by

the driving wheels. Tractive Effort can be expressed mathematically as
follows for an AC locomotive.

Tractive Effort = Traction Horsepower x 315 mile-Ibs/hr / Speed in miles per

hour
or
Traction Horsepower x 230 km-kg/hr / Speed in km per hour

a. Tractive effort depends on five major factors:

I. Horsepower of the diesel engine.

II. Ability of the main generator.
III. Ability of the traction motors.
IV. Gear ratio.
V. Adhesion
• Weight on driving wheels.
• Rail condition.
• Wheel Slip Control System.
• Inverter System.

b. The effect of the above factors on tractive effort is explained

below:

i) Horsepower of the Engine

HP of the diesel engine primarily determines the possible TE a

locomotive can develop at the rims of the driving wheels. T.E
calculations use the Traction HP for calculation purposes.

With an increase in the horsepower of the engine, either T.E. of

the locomotive will increase for the same speed or speed will be
increase with the same T.E.

4
 ii) Ability of the Main Generator

The main generator is the first step in the transmission of engine

horsepower to the wheels. The main generator converts the
mechanical power into electrical energy, referred to as kW. This
electrical energy is then used by the traction motors to turn the
locomotive wheels. kW are measured by the following formulas :

Main Generator Voltage x Main Generator Current

Main Generator Kilowatts =
1000 W per kilowatt
Tractive Horsepower = Main Generator Kilowatt /0.746 HP per
kilowatt

The generator can produce any combination of amperage and voltage

within the rated power range of the locomotive.

iii) Ability of the Traction Motors

Traction motors transform the electrical energy of the main

generator into mechanical force to turn the locomotive wheels. At low
speeds, the traction motors must be capable of operating at their
thermal limit. Maximum locomotive speed is limited by the safe
rotational speed of the armature. In a DC motor, the armature
windings limit the maximum speed of the armature to approximately
2400 RPM. In an AC motor for the GT46MAC, the induction rotor
allows the operating RPM to increase to 3600 RPM.

The ratings of the traction motors also affect the "Minimum

Continuous Speed" of a DC locomotive, as well as the tractive
horsepower available for transmission to the motors. With an AC
locomotive, however, "Minimum Continuous Speed" is not a
consideration. With AC traction motors, the locomotive can be put to
full throttle at standstill without any damage to the motors.

iv) Effect of Gear Ratio

At full load, a given power output will produce a corresponding

rotor speed regardless of gear ratio. The effect of changing gear ratio
is to change the train speed at which full load can be applied
continuously without thermal damage to the motors.

Therefore:

1. Increasing the gear ratio reduces the minimum speed (hence

increases tonnage) at which a given locomotive can operate
without heat damage to the motors.

5
2. Reducing the gear ratio, the maximum speed at which a given
locomotive can operate without mechanical damage to the motors.

v) Adhesion

Adhesion can be defined by the following locomotive formula:

% Adhesion = Tractive Effort (kg) X 100/ Locomotive Weight

There are three classes of adhesion:

• Required (Train Weight and Grade dependent)

• Available (Operation under a given set of rail conditions)
• Developed (Locomotive capability through enhancements-wheel
slip control)

The adhesion rating of a locomotives depends upon confidence

level. This means that at a confidence level of 98%, the user can
count on the locomotive developing the given adhesion factor 98% of
the time. This is also termed as "All Weather Adhesion".

There are cases where trains can be dispatched with a lower

confidence level and a higher adhesion requirement. For example,
trains may be dispatched during the summer months at a lower
confidence level i.e. the user is counting on higher adhesions because
of good weather conditions. Under inclement weather conditions, the
locomotives can be dispatched at a higher confidence level of making
a successful trip as the rail conditions deteriorate. There is a large gain
in dispatchable adhesion as the confidence level drops to say 80 %.
This means that if one counts on the locomotive to produce 43%
adhesion, it will probably make the run successfully only 80% of the
time without help.

• Weight on Driving wheels

The weight on the driving wheels is that portion of the entire

weight supported by the wheels driven by traction motors. The weight
on driving wheels is in an important factor in the locomotive's
"adhesion". Adhesion is the grip produced by friction between the steel
wheels and steel rails. Adhesion is required to keep the wheels from
slipping. In the modern locomotives which allow "wheel creep"
(controlled wheel slip), however, the maximum tractive effort can be
much higher due to the precise control of the wheel creep systems.

• Rail Conditions

With a given weight on rails, adhesion depends on rail

conditions. Dampness, water, leaves, rust, ice, frost, and oil cause
rails to be slippery. With GT46MAC locomotive, the adhesion may

6
 TEMPORARILY reach as much as 45% (with ideal rail conditions).
Practical year round adhesion factor may be as low as 33 %.

• Wheel Slip Control System

The wheel slip control system used on a locomotive can have a

dramatic effect on the adhesion level achieved. Until the introduction
of the "Super Series" wheel slip control system, all wheel slip control
systems were "corrective" type systems. In other words, they operated
under the principle that all wheel slip is bad and would reduce power to
traction motors to control the slip.

The introduction of "Super Series" improved dispatchable

adhesion. The "Super Series" wheel creep control system allows the
wheels to exceed ground speed by a certain percentage, depending on
rail conditions, to improve adhesion. Super Series is activated
automatically through the control system.

The introduction of AC technology also improves the wheel

creep control system due to its rapid response. In a DC locomotive,
power is modulated by varying the DC field current of the main
generator. There is an inherent lag time as the main generator's
magnetic field requires time to collapse. With the AC locomotive, the
wheel creep corrections are far more rapid as the devices that control
the power output to the AC traction motors (called Gate Turn Off
Thrystors, or simply GT0s) can have their switching sequence changed
almost instantaneously. Power corrections are much more rapid and
smoother with the AC traction equipped locomotive.

• Inverter System

GT46MAC locomotive utilizes a system called "truck control",

where one inverter controls all of the axles within a truck unlike GE
which uses single axle inverter system i.e. one inverter per axle.

While "truck control" system has less number of physical

components to maintain, this has the disadvantage of the power
reduction in the event of an inverter failure.

4 Dynamic braking effort

Dynamic braking effort may be considered as negative tractive effort. It is

useful for controlling train speed. Dynamic Brakes are normally not used to
stop a train but are used to assist deceleration.

Dynamic Brakes are the preferred tool to control train speed on, many
railroads for the following reasons:

i) It saves considerable brake shoe wear, the subsequent reduction in

air brake use minimizes the chance of stuck brakes on the train.

7
 ii) It eliminates the fuel inefficient practice of 'Stretch braking' a train
with air brakes.

5 Brake Effort

Braking effort for a train can be calculated by the Following formula:

Brake Effort = (-GR r+ CR + CarR) x (Trailing load in tonne + Locomotive Wt.

in tonne)

where GR = Grade resistance

CR = Curve resistance

CarR = Car resistance

6 Comparison Between Four Axle & Six Axle Locomotive

Six axle locomotive has 50% more Traction Motors than a four axle
locomotive resulting in:

• Six axle locomotive has about 50% more tractive effort than a four
axle locomotive.

• Six axle locomotive weighs about 50% more than a four axle
locomotive.

• Six axle locomotive's minimum continuous speed is approximately

40% more than a four axle locomotives with equal horsepower.

With equal trailing tonnage, six axle locomotive's running time on a given
run over the railroad is slightly longer than the four axle locomotive. This is
because of the increased rolling resistance with the additional two motors /
axles.

As a general rule, if the locomotive's primary mission is to haul trains at

high speeds (intermodal use), four axle locomotive is better suited. If the
locomotive's primary responsibility is heavy service over terrain with grades
and curves, six axle locomotive is better suited.

8
15. Locomotive Testing And Painting

15.1 Locomotive Test

General Motors adheres to following concept/philosophy:

⇒ All individual assemblies and components are tested during the

locomotive assembly either at the GM works or at the supplier end.
⇒ All electronic and air brake equipment are to be left unplugged during
assembly.

15.2 Testing should verify/ audit integration of all locomotive system and sub-system.
A very elaborate test procedure for the complete locomotive is followed by EMD before
the locomotive is put on line. The test procedure is based on the relevant Engineering
Test Instructions, defects found on previous units and reports from the service
department. In case of GT46MAC, which would be a prototype even as it is electrically
similar to SD70MAC, the procedure for the first locomotive is a more exhaustive and
stringent test protocol. After completion of testing, the test records are scrutinised. As
test checks are completed or at the end of the shift, they are to be initialled by the test
personnel opposite to the test numbers.

After the preliminary inspection, Hi Pot Test for power & control circuits including
Dynamic brake is done to ensure that no damage has been done during production
assembly. It is followed by continuity check on various sub-system and installation of
EM2000 modules. All the connections to other electronic system are completed and
power-up & self-tests done. During testing the following safety procedure are taken into
consideration.
The second stage of testing starts with pre-lube of engine. The engine is started
and all mechanical and electrical checks including Siemen’s Commissioning checks are
completed. A pre-load test is done to confirm that other systems are ready for load test,
e.g., Inertial blower and also customer specific feature, if any. During the load test, the
locomotive power output is dissipated in the dynamic grids to confirm the integrity of the
cabling of Dynamic brake system. The locomotives not having self load Test feature,
are connected to external grids. During the Load Test, measurement of cab noise and
vibrations at few selected locations are also done.

Finally, in the last stage, the locomotive is prepared for Track Test. Air brake
system is checked to ensure its integrity, besides any other specific feature which
remains to be checked. The track test is done on a test track of 1/2 miles length approx.
with maximum permissible speed of 35 kmph.(located in Diesel Division). it is done for
single unit as well as multiple unit. The functioning of speed indicator, ground relay and
pneumatic controls checked, besides push pull test for Dynamic brake Drag operation.

A pre-delivery inspection is carried out by down-loading all the fault/unusual

message encountered during testing of the loading and a final inspection carried out
before dispatching the locomotive.
♦ On microprocessor units whenever a module is installed or removed, power supply
to the computer is switched off. A wrist grounding strap is used.
♦ All the electronic system should be disconnected prior to megger and hi-pot testing.
♦ To check the continuity and test point voltage, only digital type meter should be used
♦ Under open circuit condition, the main generator should not be excited.
♦ The meter leads and jumpers should not touch the carbody ground from 15V
circuits.
♦ Test points in 15 Volt supply should not be jumpered.
♦ Engine blow-out must be performed before starting the engine if the engine has
been down for eight hours or more.

Some preliminary tests like checking of hand brakes, wheels, air compressor,
engine oil, dust etc. are done before starting the actual testing. The testing consists of
the following well defined steps sequentially -

⇒ Hi Pot test
⇒ Trainline continuity
⇒ Lighting circuit
⇒ Blower/Fans operation
⇒ Power contactor operation
⇒ EM2000 module application and computer preliminary test
⇒ EM 2000 system integration
⇒ Dynamic brake signals
⇒ Sanding
⇒ TM blower shutter
⇒ Engine run
⇒ Engine start
⇒ AG checks
⇒ Air compressor control, low air engine speed up & air system safety valve
⇒ TCC phase module temperature control
⇒ TCC power supplies, systems and operations test
⇒ Excitation test
⇒ Preload
⇒ Load test
⇒ Track test
⇒ Traction inverter cut-out
⇒ Multiple unit operation
⇒ Pre delivery test

15.3 Locomotive Painting:

The locomotive after complete testing is brought to specially designed painting

booth. The painting is done as per the following sequence:

⇒ Preparatory booth

The locomotive is washed, degreased and deburring of all external welded joints
completed. The appropriate areas e.g., consoles in the cab, TG fan, valves & pipes,
rubber side bearer etc. are masked.
 ⇒ Painting Booth

There are two painting booths where the following activity are done:-

• The external is coated with the epoxy primer.

• The cab and long-hood exterior surfaces are given polyurethane paint coat.

• The polyurethane masked stickers as per the painting style ( pertaining to rail
road name, road number and longitudinal strips) are affixed at the appropriate
locations. The masks are removed after the final painting.

• The external surfaces including underframe & bogies are then given one coat of
polyurethane paint. Two hours drying time is given before applying another coat
of the same paint. The dry & wet gauges are used to measure the paint thickness
. Normally the paint thickness is of the order of 6 thou and its uniformity over the
surface is maintained by the experience of the painter.

EMD also have separate painting booth for small piece parts and underframe.
The underframe assembly after fabrication is given one coat of epoxy paint before &
after piping and cabling. Similarly assembled equipment rack is also given one coat of
epoxy paint.

16. Visits To Various Facilities

16.1 Visit To M/S Atchison Castings/Kansas -USA

Atchison Castings Corporation (ACC) was re-organized in 1991 with the purpose
of becoming a broad based foundry company. ACC products are iron and steel
castings ranging in size from 1 to 120, 000 lb. ACC customers are leaders in their own
field and include General Motors, Caterpillar, General Dynamics, Rockwell International,
Westinghouse, John Deere, General Electric, Morrison Knubsen, Bombardier, ABB etc.

The company was founded in Atchison, Kansas in 1872 to supply iron castings to
the Railroads. In 1956, the facility was acquired by Rockwell International. In 1991,
ACC acquired Rockwell’s Foundry in Atchison, Kansas and Machine Shop in St.
Joseph, MO.

All the castings are electronically analysed in the design development process
and create modifications using solidification software techniques, which optimise quality
and cost without adversely affecting functional performance. M/s Atchison Casting is
using their proprietary bonding agent. They have also very excellent sand recovery
system.

All the casting ranges produced by ACC Castings are machined in fully finished
condition at St. Joe division (Atchison Castings Machine Shop) which is a separate
unit.
 The casting of truck requires one piece thin walled, high integrity, frame
castings. With solidification and mould filling simulation on computer, the company is
able to achieve excellent quality. Bogie frame for HTSC truck have been developed as
U-section in place of traditional Box-section. This design eliminates use of cores. The
use of cores increase the cost of production and decrease the quality of castings. M/s
GM/EMD and M/s Atchison Castings have collaborated for development of this design.

It is learnt that for future supplies of cast steel HTSC bogie frames to DLW, M/s
Atchison Casting has entered into a TOT contract with M/s Simplex Engg. & Foundry
Works/Bhilai.

16.2 Visit To M/S Lord Corporation/ Erie/ PA - USA

Lord Corporation have facilities for designing, manufacturing and testing of metal
bonded rubber components as per customer requirements.

Main component supplied to EMD is metal bonded rubber spring used in

secondary suspension and metal bonded rubber bushes for various joints.

The design of metal bonded rubber spring is done on FEM package to optimise
the profile of rubber to avoid stress concentration.

Lord Corpn. have modern manufacturing facility for manufacture of metal

bonded rubber components. Transfer moulding process is followed for moulding the
rubber. For bonding between metal and rubber, they use special type of chemical
developed for this purpose.

M/s Lord corporation have extensive fatigue testing facilities. Company has set
up new testing shop which is equipped modern fatigue testing machines, vibration
shaker which are controlled by computer various data are recorded and analysed
further. since major percentage of their products are supplied to aircraft industry, so
they have installed three axis machines by which they can conduct all modes of testing
simultaneously. The locomotive components are required to be tested for one million
cycle at varying frequency.

17. Computer Aided Design By Unigraphics

EMD uses Unigraphics package which is a completely integrated software and is

used for drawing-drafting and modelling. The underframe, car body, cab, bogie frame
and other bogie components such as wheels, axles, axle box, traction motors,
suspension and brake rigging components are generated by solid modelling and
assembled together. The package is very useful for preparation of layouts and study of
infringement/clearances between different components of bogie. The package also
enables calculation of weights, moment of inertia and centre of gravity which are
required for vehicle dynamics studies. The models prepared by Unigraphics can be
transferred to ANSYS for finite element analysis. The package is supported by standard
library of components such as nuts, bolts, screws, etc.; the components most commonly
used can be generated and can also be included in the library.

Sizing of various cross section was done by keeping section modules of this
bogie frame same with a similar bogie frame with box section. Afterwards optimisation
of sections were carried out by FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS by applying load cases.

18. Recommendations

18.1 DLW should install Unigraphics system and ANSYS FEM package not only to
fully assimilate EMD technology but also develop expertise in design of new
locomotives of horse power ranging from 3000 to 5000 hp with EMD 12 cylinder and
20 cylinder engines.

18.2 DLW should follow EMD project management and design review process in
design and manufacture of locomotives and assemblies.

GT46MAC LOCOMOTIVE

Specification

Track Gauge 1676 mm

Total Weight on Rails 126 t
Design Speed 100 kmph
Wheel Arrangement Co-Co Height
(top of rail to top of cooling fan) 4,120 mm
Overall Length Over Buffers 21, 245 mm
Fuel Capacity 6,000 L
Cooling Water Capacity 1144 L

Performance Specification

TCV 4,000
Starting Tractive Effort 540 kN
Braking effort capability 270 kN

Engine 16-71OG3B
 Turbocharger High Efficiency
Fuel Injection Unit Fuel Injection

Traction Technology AC-AC

No. of invertors One/truck

EM2000 Advanced Computer

32-bit microprocessor
Reduction in modules and components compared to Dash-2 series controls
Improved reliability and performance
Information can be downloaded to a laptop computer
Flexible and expendable to accommodate future system enhancements
Complete self-diagnostics
Archived unit history data,

HTSC Bogie

No wearing surfaces extends bogie overhaul intervals to 1.6 million km

Dual high adhesion and high speed
Available gear ratios for heavy haul and passenger operation

Cab Features

Air operated windshield wipers

Dual desk type control console - optional
Multi-resettable vigilance controls - optional

Air System Direct drive air compressor

Brake System Electronic Air Brake System

Reliability and Serviceability

90-day maintenance intervals

AC motors doubles traction motor life
No running maintenance required
* No brushes, commutator, or rotor insulation
* No flashovers
Bogie Inverter Control
* High level of reliability with fewer parts
1.6 million kilometre overhaul with HTSC Bogie
6-year engine overhaul period
Safety Aspects

Increased Crashworthiness
Provision of Anti-climber
 WDG4 loco
DESCRIPTION OF BOGIE
1. WDG4 loco is provided with HTSC (High Tensile Steel Cast) Bogies.
2. This is a three-axle bolster-less bogie with two-stage suspension with helical coil springs in primary
stage and rubber compression springs in secondary stage of suspension.
3. The locomotive car body weight is transferred directly to the bogie frame through four rubber
“Compression” spring assemblies.

4. The lateral stiffness of rubber springs is utilized to provide lateral guidance at the secondary stage
and provide the yaw stiffness for stability.

5. Lateral spacing of rubber springs affords stability of locomotive on curves and damping provided by
rubber springs and yaw dampers prevents nosing at high speed.

6. The bogie frame is supported on axles through “soft primary” suspension consisting of twelve
single helical coil springs, two springs mounted on each axle box, to provide ride quality and
equalization of wheel-set loads.

7. Shims of different thickness are provided above the outer and inner rubber “compression” spring
assemblies for axle load equalization.

8 Centre pivot does not take any vertical load and is used only for transfer of traction and braking
forces.

9.. The bogie is fitted with lightweight asynchronous, axle hung, nose suspended traction motors.

10. All traction motor nose positions are oriented to the same side of each axle within the bogie frame.

11. The relatively stiff secondary suspension, uni-directional arrangement of traction motors and low
center pivot limits the weight transfer between axles during adhesion.

12.. For wheel-set guidance in longitudinal mode, guide link fitted with rubber bush is provided between
axle box and bogie frame to cushion the longitudinal thrust.

13.. Traction and braking forces are transmitted from wheel-set to bogie frame through these guide
links.

14. Axle boxes are fitted with tapered roller bearings with integrated bearing adapter.

15. Six vertical hydraulic dampers are provided in primary stage between axle and bogie frame, one
with each nest of primary springs on the axle box.

16. Two hydraulic yaw dampers are provided in secondary stage between bogie frame and the loco
under frame to supplement the damping provided by rubber springs.
 17. The yaw dampers are oriented in such a way that they provide damping both in lateral and yaw
modes.

18 Safety links are provided at the lateral stop locations between bogie frame and the under frame.

19 These links serve to prevent separation of the bogie from the locomotive car body in case of
derailment and also provide means of lifting the bogie along-with the locomotive car body.

20 Safety “hoops” are installed between each axle interlock bracket.

21. The locomotive is provided with conventional brake gear arrangement with single composition brake
shoe per wheel.

Ride Characteristics of WDG4 locomotive

• Designed for 110 km/h
• Axle load of 21.0t
• Maximum Lateral force 4t
• Derailment coefficient <1
• Lateral and Vertical acceleration 0.3g preferred ( 0.35g max.)
• RI in Lateral & Vertical 3.75 preferred (max. 4.0)

Ride and stability Performance

• Oscillation test was carried on Main Line track (Lucknow - Sultanpur) speed of 115 km/h
• Max. Lateral force observed was 2.9t
• Derailment Coefficient was 0.30
• RI Vertical at 115 km/h was 3.65
• RI Lateral at 115 km/h was 3.83
• Acceleration in Vertical and Lateral mode were within limit.
Some special features of bogie
• Cast “U” type frame-High strength.
• Unidirectional TM- High Adhesion.
• Use of Guide links-Low flange force.
• TM suspension through nose links-maintenance free.
• Four bar mechanism centre pivot arrangement-maintenance free.
• Soft primary helical springs-better load equalisation.
• Stiff secondary rubber springs-controls pitching.

WDP4 loco
Design features of WDP4 bogie
• Basic design is similar to that of WDG4 bogie the differences are highlighted
• Axle load 19.5t
• AA1 (B1) wheel arrangement
• Lighter bogie frame (reduction of section of end transom).
• Softer Primary helical springs.
• Axle size is smaller of axle 3 & 4.
• Secondary rubber lateral stiffness made softer
• Different shimming due to difference in axle load.
• Stiffer guide links.
• Use of happy pads.
• Different Damper capacity.

Performance observed
• Tested at Pueblo USA
• On standard gauge
• Tested up to Max speed of 180km/h
• Lateral force, Derailment coefficient, Acceleration/RI (Vertical & Lateral) were measured.
• Curving performance was checked.
Design parameters
• Speed potential of 180 km/h
• Lateral force 3t
• Derailment coefficient < 1
• RI Vertical & Lateral < 4.0
• Acceleration Vertical & Lateral mode < 0.35g
• For track standards maintained to C&MI Vol-1
Ride Characteristics of WDP4 locomotive
• Oscillation test was carried on at Pueblo(USA) speed of 180km/h
• Max. Lateral force observed was 1.5t
• Derailment Coefficient was 0.18
• RI Vertical at 180 km/h was 3.66
• RI Lateral at 180 km/h was 3.42
• Acceleration in Vertical and Lateral mode were within limit(less than 0.19g/0.15g)
LUBE OIL SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
The complete engine lubrication system is a combination of four separate systems. They
are the main lubricating system, the piston cooling system, the scavenging system and the
soak back or turbo lube system.
Each system has its own oil pump. The main lube oil pump and piston cooling oil pump
(although individual pumps) are contained in the same housing and driven from a
common drive shaft. There are separate pumps for scavenging and turbo lube oil system
also.
The main lube, piston cooling and scavenging pumps are driven mechanically from
engine through accessory gear train at the front of the engine. The turbo soak back pump
is driven electrically by an AC motor.
System lube oil capacity: 950 Litres/ 1450 Ltrs, The oil level is checked by an oil gauge
(Dip Stick). The oil level should be between low and full marks when the engine is at idle
and the oil is hot (66°C)
The system lube oil pressure is 125 psi. (LOPS setting: 8-12 psi at idle and 25-29 psi at
full speed)
The filter by pass valve is set at 40 psi.
The turbo soak back oil pressure is 50 psi.

Main lubricating system

The main lubricating oil system supplies oil under pressure to most of the moving parts
of the engine. It takes oil from strainer housing and sends it to main oil manifold, located
above the crank shaft. System oil pressure is limited upto 125 psi by a relief valve
situated in the passage between the pump and the manifold.
Oil tubes at the center of each main bearing “A” frame conduct oil from the main
manifold to the upper half of the main bearings. Drilled passages in the crankshaft supply
oil to the connecting rod bearings, torsional damper and accessory drive gear at the front
of the crank shaft. Leak off oil from adjacent main bearings lubricates the crank shaft
thrust bearings.
Oil from manifold enters the gear train at the rear of the engine, at the idler gear stub
shaft. Oil passages in the base of the stub shaft distribute the oil. One passage conducts
oil upward to the left bank camshaft drive gear stub shaft bracket through a jumper, and
downward to the lower idler gear stub shaft and bearing. Another passage conducts oil to
the right bank camshaft drive stub shaft bracket and on to the turbocharger oil filter
supply line. After passing through the filter, the oil enters the return line, returning to the
upper idler gear stub shaft bore and bearing. Filtered oil enters the turbocharger oil
system from upper idler gear stub shaft. An oil pressure line connects to the top of
turbocharger oil manifold, adjoining the filter. This oil pressure line goes to the low oil
pressure device in the governor.
Oil enters the hollow bore camshafts from the camshaft drive stubshafts. Radial holes in
the camshaft conduct oil to each camshaft bearing. An oil line from one camshaft bearing
at each cylinder supplies oil to the rocker arm shaft, rocker arm cam follower assemblies,
hydraulic lash adjusters and injector rocker arm button. Leak off oil returns to the oil pan.
Passages in the turbocharger conduct oil to the turbo charger bearings, idler gear, planet
gear assembly and auxiliary drive bore.

Piston cooling oil system

Piston cooling oil system pump receives oil from a common section with the main lube
oil pump and delivers oil to the two piston cooling oil manifolds extending the length of
the engine, one in each side. A piston cooling oil pipe at each cylinder directs a stream of
oil through the carrier to cool the underside of the piston crown and the ring belt. Some of
the oil enters the grooves in the piston pin bearing and the remainder drains out through
holes in the skirt to the sump.
Scavenging oil system
The scavenging oil system pump takes oil from the oil pan sump through the scavenging
oil strainer. The pump then forces the oil through the oil filters and cooler, which are
located at the equipment rack near the engine. Oil then returns to the strainer housing to
supply the main lube oil pump and piston-cooling pump with cooled and filtered oil.
Excess oil spills over a dam in the strainer housing and returns to the oil pan.
Soak back oil system
To ensure lubrication of the turbo bearings prior to engine start, and the removal of
residual heat from the turbo after engine shutdown, a separate lube oil pressure source is
provided, called soak back system. The working of this system is controlled
automatically by the locomotive control system.

The motor is timed to operate 35 minutes after each time it is started. Oil circulation
through the turbocharger is necessary prior to starting the engine and during the period
when the engine oil pressure is building up to provide proper lubrication.
Turbo lube pump timing after shut down is based on the throttle position. Throttle
position is logged by the computer. If throttle remains in position for 2 minutes or more
the timing is as follows:

Throttle position Time

1 15 Mins
2 20 Mins
3 25 Mins
4 30 Mins
5 (or higher) 35 Mins
An AC motor driven pump draws lube oil from oil pan, pumps the oil through a filter and
head of the turbocharger oil filter directly into the turbocharger bearing area. The motor
driven pump and the filter are mounted on the side of the oil pan on the Right Bank of the
engine.
A 55 psi relief valve, located in the head of the filter, controls the system pressure. A
bypass valve set at 70 psi is also located at the filter head. This valve will open to permit
oil from the soak back pump to bypass the filter element, if clogged. So that, lubrication
can be supplied to the turbocharger to prevent turbo damage.

SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Lube oil strainer housing

Lube oil strainer housing is situated at the accessory end of the crank case It contains one
strainer (coarse) at the suction side of the scavenging pump and two strainers (fine) at the
suction side of the main lube and piston cooling pump.
An oil level is maintained in the strainer housing up to the bottom of the overflow
opening by the scavenging system. This oil serves as the supply for the main lube and
piston cooling system. Excess oil not used by these systems returns to the engine sump. A
spring-loaded valve is provided to drain the oil from the strainer housing into the engine
sump for strainer maintenance. Both of these valves are located under the filler cover.
Normally oil is added to the engine by strainer housing.

STRAINER
The scavenging oil strainer (coarse) is installed in the housing at the suction side of
scavenging pump. All oil for the scavenging system is drawn through it. Its duty is to
protect scavenging pump from foreign materials.
Main and piston cooling oil strainers (Fine): They are two in numbers, installed within
the housing by a crab and hand wheel on the stud between the holes. Each strainer is
sealed at the top by a “O” ring seal to arrest leakage. Each strainer consists of an element
of pleated perforated metal core covered with mesh screening, and a metal cylinder that
encloses the element. Cylinder prevents collapse of the element in the event of high
pressure drop. The element is attached to the cylinder by a through bolt in the cylinder,
which runs through the base of the element and is secured with a lock nut. The
unperforated outer cylinder provides a constant head of oil since suction is from the
bottom only and not through the entire length of the screen. Oil flow is from the bottom
of the strainer between the cylinder and the mesh screen, through the mesh screen and the
perforated metal core into the center of the element, then out the top of the strainer.

Main Lube Oil and Piston Cooling pump

The main lube oil and piston cooling pumps are positive displacement helical gear type
pumps contained in one housing. A spacer plate separates the two pumps between the
sections of the pump body. Each has individual oil inlet and discharge opening. The lube
oil and piston cooling pump assembly is mounted in the center of the accessory drive
housing, and driven by the accessory drive gear.
Discharge capacity of main lube oil pump: 229 GPM at 900 rpm
Discharge capacity of piston cooling pump: 109 GPM at 900 rpm

Scavenging Oil Pump

The scavenging oil pump is a positive displacement helical gear type pump, exactly
similar to main and piston cooling pump except for the spacer between them. The
scavenging pump is mounted on the accessory housing in line with, and to the left of the
crankshaft, and is driven by accessory drive gear. The pump body, split transversely for
ease of maintenance, contains sets of mated pumping gears. The driving gears are
retained on the pump drive gear shaft by woodruff keys. The idler shaft is held stationary
in the housing by a setscrew, and the driven pump gears rotate on this shaft on bushings
pressed into the gear bores. The drive shaft turns in bushings pressed into the pump body.
Pump discharge capacity: 405 GPM at 900 rpm.
Lube oil Filter Tank

Lube oil filter tank is situated at the equipment rack in the front side of the engine. It
consists of 05 Nos. pleated paper type filter elements. Filter elements must be renewed if
filter tank pressure reaches 25 psi. at 8th notch and 7 psi at idle.at 66°C lube oil
temperature. A bypass valve is provided in the filter tank to bypass the filter during cold
start or plugged filter element. The bypass valve works at 40 psi differential pressure.

LUBE OIL COOLER

Lube Oil Cooler

The lube oil cooler assembly is positioned at an angle in the equipment rack at the front
side of the engine. The external construction of the cooler consists of a fabricated steel oil
tank surrounding the oil cooler core.
The cooling water returning from the radiators enters the cooler through flange
connection at the top side, flows down through the cooler tubes and is discharged through
flanged connection at the bottom of the cooler.
The lubricating oil enters the shell space through a flanged connection near one end of
the cooler, flows transversely around the tubes and around the end of the baffles, and
leaves the shell through a flanged connection near the opposite end of the cooler.
The coolant and the oil flow through the cooler in opposite directions to produce the
maximum cooling effect.
Lube Oil Pressure Relief Valve
The lube oil pressure relief valve is installed on the lube oil cross over manifold, inside
the accessory gear train housing on the left side of the engine. This valve is accessible for
inspection and service by removing the Engine Protection Device.
The purpose of the valve is to limit the maximum pressure of the lube oil entering the
engine oil system. When the lube oil pump pressure exceeds the spring tension on the
valve, the valve will be lifted off its seat and relieve the excess pressure. This oil drains
into the accessory housing and then into oil pan.

Turbocharger oil filter

The turbocharger oil filter provides additional protection for the high speed bearings and
other lubricated areas of turbocharger, by filtering the oil just before it is admitted to the
turbocharger.
Oil enters the filter through a cast manifold and, after passing through the filter, returns to
the upper idler gear stubshaft and into the turbocharger. The filter element is of pleated
paper construction, and is disposable. The filter is mounted on camshaft drive housing at
the right bank of the engine. Some engines have disposable spin on type turbo lube filter.
The filters should always be filled with clean oil before installing on the engine.
 FORCED AIR SYSTEM
This is a centralised system for storing and providing clean air for all-purpose engine
requirement like cooling, combustion air and pressurisation of compartments etc. Its
location is in between the TCCs and engine compartment. It is properly sealed so that
unfiltered air should not rush into it. Entry of air is done through inertial filters located at
either side of the locomotive car body and dirt blower expels separated dirt, out to the
atmosphere through the roof of the locomotive.
Air that is drawn into the compartment is primarily to supply:
• Combustion air for the diesel engine
• Cooling air for MG, companion Alternator and rectifier bank
• Cooling air for Traction Motors
• Cooling air for Traction Inverter equipments
• Pressurisation of engine room and electrical cabinets

BLOWERS
Various blowers used in this system are:
1. M G BLOWER
Mounted on Aux. Generator on the front side closest to the Main Generator. Both MG
Blower and TM Blower are mounted on the same housing separated by a partition.
It supplies air for:
• Cooling Main Generator Rectifier bank, Main Generator, Companion Alternator
and finally to Engine Room.
• Maintain slight positive pressure in the engine room
• Part of this air is used by Air Compressor and thus reduces the load of its filter
assembly
2. TM BLOWER
Mounted on Aux Generator on the front side away from the Main Generator. It
supplies air for:
• Traction Motor cooling
• Generator pit operator operation
• Main electrical cabinet pressurisation
• Traction computer cooling
3. TCC ELECTRONIC BLOWER
Mounted at Central Air compartment. It is driven by AC motor powered by
Companion Alternator. This air is further filtered by paper filter located under each
filter cabinet. Used for:
• Cooling and pressurising a part of the Inverter Cabinet containing DC Link
Capacitors, gate units and Traction Computers
4. TCC BLOWERS
There are two TCC Blowers, one for each cabinet. It’s a 3 phase AC motor driven
blower powered by Companion Alternator. Initial command for blower operation
comes from TCC Computer and finally executed by EM 2000. They draw air directly
from the ambient across the modules and expel it across the R-2 snubber resistor.
They are used for supplying air for cooling phase module and cabinet.
ENGINE AIR INTAKE FILTER (FIBER GLASS BAG)
Additional filtration is required for the air used by the engine. For this a fiberglass
bag filter element is used for engine intake air filter. It is equipped with pressure
switches to sense the pressure difference between turbocharger inlet and ambient. The
switches are located inside the electrical cabinet and connected by tubes to the turbo
inlet side of engine air filter and to ambient. They work as follows:
• If pressure difference exceed 356 mm/ 14″ of water column Filter Vacuum Switch
(FVS) will trip closed and display message will read (FILTER VACUUM
SWITCH TRIPPED)
• If pressure difference reaches 610 mm/ 24″ of water column Engine Filter Switch
(EFS) trip close and EM 2000 will reduce engine speed and load to 6th notch with
the display message (ENGINE AIR FILTERS ARE DIRTY- CHANG OUT
REQUIRED, POWER MAY BE LIMITED TO 6TH NOTCH).
Hose stems are provided on the front of the electrical cabinet to take the manometer
reading of pressure drops across the inertial air filter, the engine plus inertial air filters
and the electrical cabinet filters.
14. Electrical Systems & Traction Alternator Design & Aux. System
Design

14.1 Locomotive Electrics- Basic AC-AC System:

The system basically uses diesel engine, alternator, rectifier, d.c. link,
invertor(s) and asynchronous motors. The alternator is directly coupled to the
diesel engine. The frequency of the alternator output varies with the speed of
diesel engine. The voltage is rectified and the power is fed through a d.c. link
to the invertor of the tractive system. Drive system uses asynchronous
motors. Asynchronous motor when used on railway vehicle has to be
supplied variable alternating voltage of variable frequency (VVVF). This is
accomplished by the invertor the input to which is d.c. voltage through d.c.
link. All AC-AC diesel locomotives employ this principle. The number of
invertors and the size of the alternator depends on the amount of energy to be
converted.

ENGINE GENERATOR INVERTOR TRACTION

MOTOR

G = M
3~ 3~ 3~

The electronic control system ensures that the correct control inputs
are given to the invertor. It also controls and monitors the diesel engine, the
alternator and the other auxiliaries of the locomotive. It is the central control
unit which ensures that the locomotive operates optimally.
14.2 Main Alternator and Companion Alternator

Alternator is foot mounted with flange coupling with the engine.

Alternator TA17 is a 3 phase, 10 pole machine equipped with two
independent and interwoven sets of stator winding. It is basically two
generators in one - two sets of stator windings, permanently connected in
series, work with a rotating field common to both the windings in order to
provide a higher generator output voltage, which is a basic requirement of a
low current high voltage generator used on AC-AC locomotives.

The main alternator has a companion auxiliary generator CA 6 for

power supply to large auxiliaries. It is also the main excitation source for the
main alternator. The companion alternator is an electrically independent
machine and is mechanically coupled on the main shaft of the traction
alternator. The companion alternator rotor field is excited directly by auxiliary
supply of the locomotive (74+4 VDC). It receives the excitation current from
the auxiliary generator through slip rings located adjacent to the slip rings of
the main generator. The output voltage is directly proportional to the speed of
rotation but varies to some extent with change in alternator temperature and
load.
 Both these alternators are forced air cooled. A dedicated blower
coupled to the engine crankshaft provides cooling to the Alternator / Rectifier
system. The air flow pattern has been depicted below.

Axial & Radial Cooling In EMD

Alternator
AIR FLOW

STS CORE
STACKS

AIR FLOW

COMPANION ALTERNATOR

RECTIFIER

ALTERNATOR MAIN WINDING

14.3 Rectifier

AC output from the main alternator is supplied to air cooled rectifier.

The rectifier assembly consists of high current, high voltage silicon diodes
connected in 3 phase full wave bridge rectifier circuits. RC circuits are
connected to suppress the transients signal.

14.4 Traction Motor

The asynchronous motor with a squirrel cage rotor is the simplest of

all electrical machines. When fed by a 3- phase alternating voltage, a
magnetic field rotates in the stator. The speed of rotation of this field is directly
proportional to the frequency of the A.C. voltage. The rotating magnetic field
causes the rotor to turn at a slightly lower speed due to electric slip. This
difference in speed is responsible for the development of the torque.

The only winding fed with voltage in the asynchronous motor is housed
in stator. To prevent hot-spot developing in winding overhang, it is directly
ventilated. The winding is impregnated under vacuum. There are no exposed
metallic parts, so that excellent protection is assured. The rotor is squirrel
type, i.e. it consists of un-insulated copper bars joint to sturdy short-circuiting
rings. There is no commutator, sliprings, Brushgear or anything similar.

Following aspects are given primary importance while designing AC

traction motors :

♦ Vibrations and shocks from track

♦ Envelope dimensions - more torque packed in small space
♦ Reliability - TM subjected to different elements like movement of
locomotive, dirt heat & humidity
♦ Presence of transients
♦ Requirement of starting and road characteristics

14.5 Electrical Control Cabinet No. 1 (HVC)

Electrical control cabinet is for mounting of the following main

equipment :-

• Main Control Panel

• DC Link switch gear
• Braking contactors
• Circuit breakers
• EM2000 computer chassis
• EM2000 support hardware
• GFC, GFD & IMGF
• SCR bridge
• Power supply for GTO1 & GTO2
• TCC blower contactors - six numbers
• IB1 ,IB2 , IBKBL1 , IBKBL2 transducers
• Display Screen on ECC#1 door
• Engine Control Panel
• TMA transducer
• 74 V receptacles

• The routine testing of HVC is an elaborate process . There is a

dedicated test station which is microprocessor controlled and
has the facility to check the important aspects related with
performance and reliability, viz., continuity of all the wires on the
cabinet and actual operation of the relays, switches and
contactors. All the test data is logged, abnormalities identified
and a printout is taken for undertaking the rectification work.

• The software for the test station is written in HP Basic. EM

2000 Modules, which are not mounted at this stage, are
therefore not tested at EMD. The cabinet complete is
despatched to DD , London, OT.

14.5.1 Design Aspects Of ECC#1

 • Ventilation Engineering of the cabinet has been done based on
the cooling requirements of major components, e.g. power
chassis , EM2000 , SCR Bridge Assembly. Main duct has been
constructed along the wall sided which branches to supply air to
the components.
• The panel is modular so as to facilitate quicker assembly.
• The cabinet is pressurised to avoid ingress of dust etc. A
pressure of 2 to 3” of water gauge is maintained.
• No electro pneumatic contactors are used on this cabinet.
• Components and cables of a common electrical circuit are
grouped together (e.g. GFC, GFD, RE2 , RE32, CA32 and the
SCR Bridge) in order to reduce EMC interference.

14.5.2 Electrical Cabinets 2 & 3

Electrical cabinet number two and three are smaller cabinets than the
HVC. These cabinets consist of the following components:
Cabinet# 2.

♦ Auxiliary Generator circuit breaker

♦ ST & STA contactors - for starting of engine.
♦ RE11 & RE12
♦ BCASM - Battery Charging assembly
♦ Provision for Shunt DC
♦ DVR - Digital Voltage Regulator
♦ Inductor L4,5,6
♦ Air Filter
Cabinet# 3 (AC Cabinet)
♦ Cooling fan contactors -six numbers
♦ Terminal Boards
♦ MRPTs- Main reservoir pressure transducer
♦ DIP80 - Diode Panel and CMUX hardware for multiplexing
♦ Air Filter

146 EM 2000

EM2000 is a modern locomotive computer control system. The

system, has effectively replaced the outdated electronic and IC-based
control systems used earlier. Some of the basic features of the system,
inter alia, are-

• Significant reduction in number of control modules

• Better fault detection of components
• Self diagnostics and self tests to aid in troubleshooting
• Memory archive and data snap shot

The main computer chassis contains the following modules

 • One CPU module which uses a 32 bit Motorola 68020 16 Mhz
microprocessor
• Three Digital Input/Output (I/O) modules ( DIOs)
• One communication module (COM)
• One Analogue to digital and digital to analogue module ( ADA)
• One memory module ( MEM )

The computer chassis is split in the middle by a metal partition.

The right houses the high speed data modules, CPU, MEM and COM.
The left side houses the I/O handlers, i.e., ADA and DIOs. On the front
of all the above modules, Fault LEDs are mounted on the face plate.
These LEDs illuminate for a couple of seconds as part of the ‘power up’
diagnostic routine. These are tripped by watchdog timer faults,
database errors or through certain other conditions satisfied in the
software.
Comment [D1]:
14.6.1 CPU Module

• CPU Module is the brain of the entire computer system. which

processes all incoming locomotive parameters and controls
locomotive responses to derive the operating characteristics. It
contains the following hardware
• 32 bit Motorola 68020 16.5 Mhz microprocessor with a math co-
processor for enhancing the speed and efficiency of information
processing
• Motorola 68881 floating point co-processor running at 16.5 M Hz
• 512 KB ‘flash prom’ memory storage which can be easily
reprogrammed in the field with the aid of laptop computer
communicating through an RS 232 port or through special module
called MMB. While the time required to load a programme from
MMB is approximately 15 seconds, the same through laptop
computer is 15 minutes. The programme storage can be upgraded
to 1 MB.
• 128 KB static RAM for data storage, which can be upgraded to 1
MB
• 64 K B static dual port RAM for inter processor communication .
• 6840 Programmable timers which are use for periodic inputs and
out puts.
• RS232 Serial port with programmable baud rates.
• RS422 Serial port with programmable baud rates. One of these
port is dedicated to the display unit.

CPU module plays a very active role in SCR gating sequence as it

sends the weak gate signals to the FCD and receives information from the
zero cross detection circuit on the FCF so that it knows what phase angle
to fire at to achieve desired alternator excitation.

14.6.2 Digital Input /Out Put (I/O) Modules

 The digital inputs and output to and from EM2000 are handled by
three such modules. Each module has 24 input channels and 26 output
channels. This module works as an interface between locomotive’s 74
VDC control system and the computer’s 5 VDC system.

The DIO input channels are either +74 VDC or 0 VDC signals
depending upon the relay/contactor status, picked up or dropped out. The
DIO output channels, in turn, depend upon the logic built-up, either +74
or 0 VDC, so as to pickup or drop out the relay/contactor by supplying the
gating power to the field effect transistor.

Multiplexing is a selective monitoring process through which several

inputs may be monitored through the use of only one input channel. In
other words not all inputs need be monitored constantly.

14.6.3 Communication Module

All the computers on board i.e. EM2000, Sibas 16, electronic brake
computer etc. need communication with each other. The two traction
computers SIBAS 16 communicates to each other and to EM2000. The
link carries all sorts of the information which, inter alia, could be data
ranging from torque requests, feed backs to contactor requests and
acknowledgements to fault annunciation etc.

14.6.4 Analogue To Digital And Digital To Analogue Module

It is responsible for converting analogue input signals to digital signal

for processing the data and digital information from the CPU into an
analogue signal that is required by the receiving device (external
ammeters). It has within it -

• Differential analogue inputs

• Hall effect transducer current inputs
• General purpose frequency inputs for period & frequency
measurements

14.6.5 Memory (Archive Memory) Module

This module holds dynamic locomotive parameters and archive data

that are required to remain intact even in case of power failure. It has one
128 KB battery backed static RAM . which can be upgraded. The amount
of data stored with each fault is substantial. For selected faults such as
ground relay, data is stored from each of the 5 seconds before the
occurrence of the fault.

14.6.6 Panel Mounted Modules

Many other modules, called panel mounted modules, belonging to the

EM2000 control are directly mounted to the rear panel of the HVC. These
modules are-
 • Analogue signal conditioner modules- ASC 300- scales and filters
analogue signals.
• Firing control driver - FCD 300 - amplifies SCR gate signals to control
the CA6 output for main alternator field.
• Firing control feedback - FCF 300 - scales three phase companion
alternator frequency feedback
• Voltage amplifying module- VAM 300- trainline 24 T interface for slow
speed pace setter control ( optional for GT46MAC)
• Trainline filter - TLF 300- scales and filters digital data from trainline
signals.

14.7 Power Supply

EM2000 control system requires different power supply and conditioner

modules which are mounted in the Power Chassis. These modules
are-

• PSM 300 module for Power supply of +5V DC - the main power supply
for EM2000
• PSM310 module for +12VDC -
• PSM 320 module for Power supply of +15VDC - for feed back circuits
like hall effect transducer devices & analogue circuits viz. magnetic
speed pickup
• PRG300 power regulator is the power conditioner for the PSM modules
and functions properly even with the voltage variation within 20-95
VDC. It regulates the output voltage between 64-77 VDC when the
input voltage is between 25-68VDC. If the input is beyond this range,
there is a variation in the output within the acceptable limit.

14.8 Development Of Software

The software for EM2000, or any sophisticated computer system, is

developed by EMD in the following steps-

Development of Sales Specification

Finalization of System Specification
Development of Software Specification
Actual Software Code Writing
Software Test

A locomotive characterisation report, which identifies the exact type of

the equipment used, defines all the functions and indicates the value of all the
parameters, is issued by the Product Engineering group. This report forms
the basic locomotive document and the foundation on which the entire
software of the locomotive is built up.

14.9 Locomotive Performance & Train Run Simulation

 EMD has developed versatile computer simulation programme for train
run simulation and offers this service to all its customers on commercial basis.

14.10 Thyristors, GTOs And AC Motor Control

The thyristor offers immense advantages like compactness, high

reliability, excellent time response and low loss. An added advantage of using
thyristors in power converters for drive control is the easy manner in which
they can be adopted for sophisticated feed-back schemes. As a result,
microprocessor control of thyristor-drive systems can provide great
operational flexibility.

GTO thyristor or the ‘gate turn-off thyristor’ is referred to briefly as

‘GTO’. It is a four-layer silicon semiconductor device and is an improvement
over the normal, slow devices used in line commutated converters into
increasingly faster devices with better dynamic characteristics by refining the
gate geometry.

GTO allows fast turn-off with a negative current impulse by means of

the gate alone, which is not possible with the conventional thyristor. This
results in simplification of the converter circuitry.

A three-phase inverter system with variable voltage and frequency

output, is achieved by using GTOs for speed/torque control of 3-phase
asynchronous motor.

14.11 Pulse-Width Modulation

Six load carrying thyristors and six free wheeling diodes are the
basic ingredients of three phase bridge inverter circuit. A DC-link capacitor is
added for stabilising the DC-link voltage and supplying of magnetising
reactive power required for induction motor.
D C L I N K C A P.

+ + +

M
INPUT CONVERTER 3~
+ + +

V O L T. - S O U R C E I N V E R T E R
 PWM INVERTER CIRCUIT
FIG-7

Amplitude and frequency setting take place solely by the principle of

pulse width modulation (PWM). The max. possible amplitude of the phase-to-
phase output voltage Uv depends on the magnitude of the DC link voltage
Ud such that,

Uv = 0.78 Ud

This method of voltage control of an inverter is known as pulse-width

modulation.

14.12 Locomotive Cables, Wire Running And Layout

GT46MAC locomotive employs mainly the Exxon cables. The cables used on
this locomotive are classified into following categories:

♦ Category 0 - These are used in the circuits with extremely high

potential requiring increased creepage distances.(DC link cables)
♦ Category 1- These are used in the circuits of high potential and high
current levels ( Generator , Traction Motors and Battery Trunk Lines to be
routed through cleats)
♦ Category 2 - These are used in the circuits of AC voltage and high
current DC voltage (conductors larger than AWG#12, not including traction
circuit)
♦ Category 3 - These are used in locomotive control logic wiring
(typically 74 V DC including all electro mechanical devices)
♦ Category 4 - Low voltage and energy control signal lines ( shielded
multi conductor cables, and signals below 24 V)
♦ Category 5 - Specific conductors requiring independent routing
(communication radio antenna cabling, or high energy unfused
conductors)

14.13 Locomotive Cabling:

♦ All the cables which are to be laid out on the underframe are performed
with end lugs, connectors, sockets provided. For this purpose there is a
separate section consisting of the wire measuring and cutting table, end
shearing machine for preparing the ends and crimping of the lugs. The
bigger size lugs are made in house using metallic tubes on a lug making
machine, others are bought out from trade.
♦ The cabling on the underframe is done in the belly up position (in the over-
turned position)
♦ The cable layout has been so planned that all the cables are planned to
run on only one side of the underframe i.e. on the left side in the belly up
position looking from the short hood side.
♦ Brackets for the rubber cleats are welded to the underframe before the
laying of cables is started and are located through out the length of the
underframe.
♦ The power cables are laid first followed by the control cables. For the
control wires running between EM2000 and Traction Control Cabinet use
is made of special channel having EMI protection and runs on the top
corner through out the length of U/frame.
♦ The cleats used are of BUNA-N rubber. Special clamps for smaller
diameter cables are used which have a rubber lining to prevent the
damage of insulation of cable due to vibrations and prevention from
grounding.
♦ Splicing of the power cable going into the traction motor is done to avoid
running of large number of cables from TCC and the exposed joints are
covered using heat shrinkable silicon rubber boots.
♦ Cutouts on the underframe are already provided for the cables and no oxy
cutting of the underframe is done at all during the cabling stage.

A separate wire running list as per zone, wire category and wire tag is
prepared and circulated to the shop to give details of wire running from source
to destination. The wire running list is derived from the locomotive schematic
as soon as the same is ready.

14.14 Electrical Schematics

The schematic of GT46MAC consists of two major parts - EMD

schematics and Siemens schematic. The schematic conventions followed by
EMD and Siemens are different.

The major equipment covered by the two sections of schematic are as

under-

EMD schematic - EMD manufactured or vendor supplied equipment

viz. alternator - rectifier, locomotive computer, electrical control cabinets
including all switches, contactors and relays, auxiliary machines, safety and
alarm circuits, third party equipment like radar etc.

Siemens schematic - Siemens manufactured equipment viz. inverter

and inverter control equipment, traction computer and traction motors.

The EMD schematic is built around the main block diagram of the
electrical equipment of the locomotive. The schematic is a representation of
the hard wiring along with the connection/termination details of the equipment.
All the computer/microprocessor modules, which control the operation of the
hardware like relays, contactors etc., have been represented as a block. The
logic used by EMD is not known.

All the electrical sub-assemblies like ECCs, control consoles etc. have
been allocated a zone identification. This schematic also explains the various
wiring nomenclature used in the EMD schematic. For locating any item, the
equipment locator chart provided in the schematic can be used which
identifies location based on the zone in which the equipment in question lies
on the locomotive and schematic sheet no. along with the location on the
schematic sheet. Similarly, the circuit for any function like engine cooling
control, engine governor control, traction motor bearing temperature probe
etc. can be located easily in the schematic by using an alphabetical index. In
addition, locator charts based on digital & analogue input/output functions
employed on EM 2000. A chart detailing the location of various switches and
circuit breakers as well as the sequence of operation of main interlock contact
of the switches is also provided in the schematic.

The schematic is very versatile and the category, size and specification
of any wire can be read straightaway from the connecting points. In addition,
details of all plugs and receptacles are also provided clearly indicating the
used & potential free pin numbers. Details of terminal boards are also given
with internal & external connections with locomotive wire numbers.

The schematic can be divided into three strings of control viz. Battery
(i.e. on battery side & past battery knife switch), local control (PA / NA string)
& control (13T/4T string). The schematic shows the interfacing with the
inverter cabinet (TCC1 & TCC2) and other third party.

The Siemens schematic has been drawn by Siemens and is annexed

to the EMD schematic. As indicated earlier, this schematic is meant largely for
inverter and inverter control equipment, traction computer and traction
motors. The schematic gives the details of the arrangement of GTOs along
with other devices like anti parallel diodes, snubber capacitors and resistors
etc. The protection circuits including the hard and soft crowbar circuits for
protection of GTOs, have been shown in the schematic. The interface and
connections to the SIBAS traction computer have also been shown.

14.15 Integration Of Electrics With Engine And Other Mechanical

Systems

The following mechanical aspects which are closely linked or interfaced

with the electrics of the locomotive are -

• Coupling of alternator with engine

• Torque requirement of the engine and starter motor requirement
• Engine cooling system interface with EM 2000
• Engine cooling fan design and air circuit
 FUEL OIL SYSTEM
OBJECTIVE
• Understand the Fuel Oil System of WDM2 Locomotive.
• Learn the function of individual components of Fuel Oil System.
• Learn the concept of Fuel Feed System and Fuel Injection System.
• Check the efficiency of fuel feed system on full load condition
• Learn the purpose of fuel efficient kit application on diesel engine

STRUCTURE
1. Introduction
2. Fuel Feed System and it's associate components
3. Functioning of fuel feed system
4. Fuel Injection System ( fuel injection pump & nozzle )
5. Orifice test of fuel feed system
6. Calibration of fuel injection pumps
7. Phasing of fuel injection pumps
8. Fuel injection nozzle test
9. Nozzle valve lift
10. Fuel efficient kit
11. Summary
12. Self Assessment

INTRODUCTION
All locomotive units have individual fuel oil system. The fuel oil system is designed
to introduce fuel oil into the engine cylinders at the correct time, at correct pressure, at
correct quantity and correctly atomised. The system injects into the cylinder correctly
metered amount of fuel in highly atomised form. High pressure of fuel is required to lift
the nozzle valve and for better penetration of fuel into the combustion chamber. High
pressure also helps in proper atomisation so that the small droplets come in better contact
with the fresh air in the combustion chamber, resulting in better combustion. Metering of
fuel quantity is important because the locomotive engine is a variable speed and variable
load engine with variable requirement of fuel. Time of fuel injection is also important for
better combustion.
FUEL OIL SYSTEM
The fuel oil system consists of two integrated systems. These are-
 FUEL FEED SYSTEM.
 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM.

FUEL FEED SYSTEM AND ITS ASSOCIATE COMPONENTS

The fuel feed system provides the back-up support to the fuel injection pumps by
maintaining steady supply of fuel to them at the required pressure so that the fuel pump

1
can meter and deliver the oil to the cylinder at correct pressure and time. The fuel feed
system includes the following:-
• Fuel oil tank

A fuel oil tank of required capacity (normally 5000ltrs), is fabricated under the
superstructure of the locomotive and located in between the two bogies. Baffle walls are
used inside it to arrest surge of oil when the locomotive is moving. A strainer filter at the
filling plug, an indirect vent, drain plug, and glow rod type level indicators are also
provided.
• Fuel primary filter

A filter is provided on the suction side of the fuel transfer pump to allow only filtered oil
into the pump. This enhances the working life of the fuel transfer pump. This filter is most
often a renewable bleached cotton waste packed filter, commonly known as socks type
filter element. These socks type filters are coarse filters and have a greater ability to
absorb moisture, and are economical. However, in certain places, it has been replaced by
paper type filter, which have longer service life.
• Fuel transfer pump or booster pump

The fuel feed system has a transfer pump to lift the fuel from the tank. The gear type
pump is driven by a dc motor, which is run by storage batteries through a suitable circuit.
The pump capacity is 14 ltrs per minute at 1725 rpm at pressure 4 to 4.8 kg/cm. sq.
• Fuel relief valve

The spring- loaded relief valve is meant for by passing excess oil back to the fuel tank,
thus releasing excess load on the pump and on the motor, to ensure their safety. It is
adjusted to a required pressure (normally 5 kg/cm2), and it by- passes the excess fuel back
to the oil tank. It also ensures the safety of the secondary filter and the pipe lines.
• Fuel secondary filter

The fuel secondary filter is located after the booster pump in the fuel feed system. The
filter used is a paper type filter, cartridge of finer quality, renewable at regular intervals.
This filter arrests the finer dirt particles left over by the primary filter and ensures longer
life of the fuel injection equipments.
• Fuel regulating valve

The fuel-regulating valve is spring-loaded valve of similar design as the fuel relief valve.
It is located after the secondary filter in the fuel feed system. This valve is adjusted to the
required pressure (3 kg/cm2), and always maintains the same pressure in the fuel feed
system by releasing the excess oil to the fuel oil tank. There is no by-passing of oil if the
pressure is less than the adjusted level.
Functioning of fuel feed system
The fuel booster pump or transfer pump is switched on and the pump starts sucking oil
from the fuel oil tank, filtered through the primary filter. Because of variable consumption
by the engine, the delivery pressure of the pump may rise increasing load on the pump and
its drive motor. When the rate of consumption of the fuel by the engine is low, the relief
valve ensures the safety of the components by releasing load, by- passing the excess

2
pressure back to the tank. Then oil passes through the paper type secondary filter and
proceeds to the right side fuel header. The fuel header is connected to eight numbers of
fuel injection pumps on the right-bank of the engine, and a steady oil supply is maintained
to the pumps at a pressure of 3 Kg./ sq. cm. Then the fuel oil passes on to the left side
header and reaches eight fuel injection pumps on the left bank through jumper pipes. The
regulating valve remaining after the left side fuel header, takes care of excess pressure
over 3 Kg/cm Square by passing the extra oil back to the tank. A gauge connection is
taken from here leading to the driver's cabin for indicating the fuel oil feed pressure. Thus
the fuel feed system keeps fuel continuously available to the fuel injection pumps, which
the pumps may use or refuse depending on the demand of the engine.
FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
When diesel engine is started, all fuel injection pumps start functioning. According to
firing order all F.I. pumps start discharging fuel oil at high pressure to there respective
nozzles through high pressure line tube. Fuel injection nozzle injects fuel oil to
combustion chamber at 4000 psi. The internal function of F.I. pump and nozzle are
described below.
1.
FUEL INJECTION PUMP
It is a constant stroke plunger type pump with variable quantity of fuel delivery to suit the
demands of the engine. The fuel cam controls the pumping stroke of the plunger. The
length of the stroke of the plunger and the time of the stroke is dependent on the cam
angle and cam profile, and the plunger spring controls the return stroke of the plunger.
The plunger moves inside the barrel, which has very close tolerances with the plunger.
When the plunger reaches to the BDC, spill ports in the barrel, which are connected to the
fuel feed system, open up. Oil then fills up the empty space inside the barrel. At the
correct time in the diesel cycle, the fuel cam pushes the plunger forward, and the moving
plunger covers the spill ports. Thus, the oil trapped in the barrel is forced out through the
delivery valve to be injected into the combustion chamber through the injection nozzle.
The plunger has two identical helical grooves or helix cut at the top edge with the relief
slot. At the bottom of the plunger, there is a lug to fit into the slot of the control sleeve.
When the rotation of the engine moves the camshaft, the fuel cam moves the plunger to
make the upward stroke. It may also rotate slightly, if necessary through the engine
governor, control shaft, control rack, and control sleeve. This rotary movement of the
plunger along with reciprocating stroke changes the position of the helical relief in respect
to the spill port and oil, instead of being delivered through the pump outlet, escapes back
to the low pressure feed system. The governor for engine speed control, on sensing the
requirement of fuel, controls the rotary motion of the plunger, while it also has
reciprocating pumping strokes. Thus, the alignment of helix relief with the spill ports will
determine the effectiveness of the stroke. If the helix is constantly in alignment with the
spill ports, it bypasses the entire amount of oil, and nothing is delivered by the pump. The
engine stops because of no fuel injected, and this is known as ‘NO-FUEL’ position. When
alignment of helix relief with spill port is delayed, it results in a partly effective stroke and
engine runs at low speed and power output is not the maximum. When the helix is not in
alignment with the spill port through out the stroke, this is known as ‘FULL FUEL
POSITION’, because the entire stroke is effective.

3
Oil is then passed through the delivery valve, which is spring loaded. It opens at the oil
pressure developed by the pump plunger. This helps in increasing the delivery pressure of
oil. it functions as a non-return valve, retaining oil in the high pressure line. This also
helps in snap termination of fuel injection, to arrest the tendency of dribbling during the
fuel injection. The specially designed delivery valve opens up due to the pressure built up
by the pumping stroke of plunger. When the oil pressure drops inside the barrel, the
landing on the valve moves backward to increase the space available in the high-pressure
line. Thus, the pressure inside the high-pressure line collapses, helping in snap termination
of fuel injection. This reduces the chances of dribbling at the beginning or end of fuel
injection through the fuel injection nozzles.

FUEL INJECTION NOZZLE

The fuel injection nozzle or the fuel injector is fitted in the cylinder head with its tip
projected inside the combustion chamber. It remains connected to the respective fuel
injection pump with a steel tube known as fuel high pressure line. The fuel injection
nozzle is of multi-hole needle valve type operating against spring tension. The needle
valve closes the oil holes by blocking the oil holes due to spring pressure. Proper angle on
the valve and the valve seat, and perfect bearing ensures proper closing of the valve.
Due to the delivery stroke of the fuel injection pump, pressure of fuel oil in the fuel duct
and the pressure chamber inside the nozzle increases. When the pressure of oil is higher
than the valve spring pressure, valve moves away from its seat, which uncovers the small
holes in the nozzle tip. High-pressure oil is then injected into the combustion chamber
through these holes in a highly atomised form. Due to injection, hydraulic pressure drops,
and the valve returns back to its seat terminating the fuel injection, termination of fuel
injection may also be due to the bypassing of fuel injection through the helix in the fuel
injection pump causing a sudden drop in pressure.
ORIFICE TEST

This test is a rough and ready method to ascertain the efficiency of the fuel feed system
under full load condition. The procedure of testing is as under:

1. An orifice plate of 1/8 inch is fitted in the system before the regulating valve.
2. A container to be placed under the orifice to collect the oil that would leak through it
during the test.
3. The fuel booster pump to be switched on for 60 seconds.

The rate of leakage should be about 9 lt. of fuel per minute through the orifice ( with the
engine in stopped condition ). The system should be able to maintain 3 kg /cm.sq pressure
with this rate of leakage, which simulates approx. the full load consumption by the engine.
In the event of drop in pressure the rate of leakage would also be less indicating some
defect in the system reducing its efficiency to meet the full requirement of fuel during
peak load. The above test is easy, reliable and also saves time.

CALIBRATION OF FUEL INJECTION PUMPS

4
 Each fuel injection pump is subject to test and calibration after repair or overhaul to
ensure that they deliver the same and stipulated amount of fuel at a particular rack
position. Every pump must deliver regulated and equal quantity of fuel at the same time
so that the engine output is optimum and at the same time running is smooth with
minimum vibration.

The calibration and testing of fuel pumps are done on a specially designed machine. The
machine has a 5 HP reversible motor to drive a cam shaft through V belt. The blended
test oil of recommended viscosity under controlled temperature is circulated through a
pump at a specified pressure for feeding the pump under test. It is very much necessary
to follow the laid down standard procedure of testing to obtain standard test results.
The pump under test is fixed on top of the cam box and its rack set at a particular position
to find out the quantum of fuel delivery at that position. The machine is then switched on
and the cam starts making delivery strokes. A revolution counter attached to it is set to
trip at 300 RPM or 100 RPM as required. With the cam making strokes, if the pump
delivers any oil, it returns back to the reservoir in normal state. A manually operated
solenoid switch is switched on and the oil is diverted to a measure glass till 300 strokes
are completed after operation of the solenoid switch. Thus the oil discharged at 300
working strokes of the pump is measured which should normally be within the
stipulated limit. The purpose of measuring the output in 300 strokes is to take an average
to avoid errors. The pump is tested at idling and full fuel positions to make sure that they
deliver the correct amount of fuel for maintaining the idling speed and so also deliver full
HP at full load. A counter check of the result at idling is done on the reverse position of
the motor which simulates slow running of the engine.

If the test results are not within the stipulated limits as indicated by the makers then
adjustment of the fuel rack position may be required by moving the rack pointer, by
addition or removal of shims behind it. The thickness of shims used should be punched on
the pump body. The adjustment of rack is done at the full fuel position to ensure that the
engine would deliver full horse power. Once the adjustment is done at full fuel position
other adjustment should come automatically. In the event of inconsistency in results
between full fuel and idling fuel, it may call for change of plunger and barrel assembly.

The calibration value of fuel injection pump of WDM2 engines as supplied by the
makers is as follows at 300 working strokes:

9 mm (Idling) 34 cc +1/-5
30 mm (Full load) 351 cc +5/-10
The calibration values for YDM4 engines are as under.

9 mm (idling ) 45 cc +1/-5
28 mm (full load) 401 cc +4/-11

Errors are likely to develop on the calibration machine in course of time and it is
necessary to check the machine at times with master pumps supplied by the makers.
These pumps are perfectly calibrated and meant for use as reference to test the

5
calibration machine itself. Two master pumps, one for full fuel and the other for idling
fuel are there and they have to be very carefully preserved only for the said purpose.

PHASING OF FUEL INJECTION PUMPS

Every fuel injection pump after repair / overhauling and testing needs phasing while
fitting on the engine. In course of working the drive mechanism of the FIP suffers from
wear and causes loss of motion. This may also cause shorter length of plunger stroke
and lesser fuel delivery. The pump lifter is adjusted individually for all the FIPs. An
adjustment is provided in the valve lifter mechanism to adjust the markings between the
guide cup and the sight window so that they coincide with each other after positioning
the engine. This adjustment is known as
phasing of the pump to make up the wear loses.

FUEL INJECTION NOZZLE TEST

The criteria for good nozzle is good atomization, correct spray pattern and no leakage
or dribbling. Before a nozzle is put to test the assembly must be rinsed in fuel oil, nozzle
holes cleaned with wire brush and spray holes cleaned with steel wire of correct
thickness.

The fuel injection nozzles are tested on a specially designed test stand, where the
following tests are conducted.

SPRAY PATTERN

Spray of fuel should take place through all the holes uniformly and properly
atomized. While the atomization can be seen through the glass jar, an impression taken
on a sheet of blotting paper at a distance of 1 to 1 1/2 inch also gives a clear impression
of the spray pattern.

SPRAY PRESSURE

The stipulated correct pressure at which the spray should take place 3900-4050 psi
for new and 3700-3800 psi for reconditioned nozzles. If the pressure is down to 3600
psi the nozzle needs replacement. The spray pressure is indicated in the gauge provided in
the test machine. Shims are being used to increase or decrease the tension of nozzle
spring which increases or decreases the spray pressure

DRIBBLING

There should be no loose drops of fuel coming out of the nozzle before or after the
injections. In fact the nozzle tip of a good nozzle should always remain dry. The process
of checking dribbling during testing is by having injections manually done couple of
times quickly and check the nozzle tip whether leaky.
Raising the pressure within 100 psi of set injection pressure and holding it for about 10
seconds may also give a clear idea of the

6
 The reasons of nozzle dribbling are 1) Improper pressure setting 2) Dirt stuck up
between the valve and the valve seat 3) Improper contact between the valve and valve
seat 4) Valve sticking inside the valve body.

NOZZLE CHATTER

The chattering sound is a sort of cracking noise created due to free movement of the
nozzle valve inside the valve body. If is not proper then chances are that the valve is not
moving freely inside the nozzle.

NOZZLE LEAK OFF RATE

A very minute portion of the oil inside the nozzle passes clearance between the valve
and the valve body for the purpose of lubrication. Excess clearance between them may
cause excess leak off, thus reducing the amount of fuel actually injected.

The process of checking the leak off rate is by creating pressure in the nozzle up to
3500 psi and holds the pressure till it drops to 1000 psi. The drop of pressure is due to the
leak off and higher the leak off rate the pressure drop is quicker. In the event of the leak
off time recorded below stipulation the nozzle valve and the valve body have to be
changed for excessive wear and clearance between them.

CHECKING OF NOZZLE VALVE LIFT

The valve and the valve seat are surface hardened components. Any attempt to work
them beyond the hardened surface is restricted. The amount of wear on the valve face
and the seat is measured with the help of a dial gauge and the process is known as
checking of valve lift.
FUEL EFFICIENT KIT
Certain modifications carried out on WDM2 locomotive engine to improve specific fuel
consumption by over 6%, ruduction in existing exhaust gas temperature by over 100 deg.-
C and reduction in lube oil consumption. These modifications are considered as
fuel efficient kit. Modifications are given below:
1. Modified water connection to after cooler: - Water inlet of the after cooler is
connected from outlet of the radiator, to provide water at minimum possible
temperature into the after cooler. Previously it was connected from water pump
discharge side.
2. 17 mm fuel injection pump:- 15 mm pumps are being replaced by 17 mm
pumps, to have sharper fuel injection. For this, modified fuel pump support
with wider fuel cam roller, shall be used on fuel efficient engine. The
maximum rack opening with 17 mm pump is restricted to 28+_ 0.25 mm
instead of existing 29.5+-0.25 mm. Changes will have to be made in the lever/
linkage of the governor for this.

7
 3. Modified cam shaft with 140 degree over lap:- The cam shaft has been
modified to increase the over lap from 123 degree to 140 degree to improve the
scavenging.
4. Large After Cooler: Large After Cooler with higher effectiveness has been
introduced to provide cooled air to engine. For this Turbo mounting bracket
and certain pipe line connections will need to be changed.
5. Steel capped pistons: In the fuel efficient engine, peak firing pressure likely to
exceed 1800 psi and thus steel cap pistons are required to be used. Use of steel
cap pistons will also result in lower lube oil consumption.
6. High efficiency Turbo Charger: Existing 720 turbo chargers being replaced by
high efficiency ABB VTC 304/ NAPIER NA 295 turbo chargers having
capacity to develop 2.2kg/cm2 air pressure/ booster pressure.

SUMMARY
Fuel Feed System is responsible for supply of clean oil with adequate quantity at required
pressure to Fuel Injection System, to meet the requirement of fuel oil of the engine at rated
output. In Fuel Feed System, Fuel tank acts as reservoir of HSD oil of the engine; Primary
and Secondary filters maintain cleanliness of oil in the system. Fuel Booster Pump works
for generating pressure and maintaining adequate supply of fuel in the system; Relief and
Regulating Valves maintain constant pressure in the feed system.
Fuel Injection System comprises of mainly two components (a) Fuel Injection Pump (b)
Fuel Injection Nozzle. Fuel Injection Pump is a plunger type Pump having constant stroke
with variable delivery. The quantity of fuel delivered is decided by the position of the
helix groove, that varies with the twisting of the plunger according to the fuel rack
position. Hence it is responsible for supplying correct quantity of pressurized fuel upto the
nozzle. Nozzle is responsible for delivering pressurized fuel in atomized form into the
combustion chamber. The breaking pressure i.e. the final pressure at which fuel is released
into the combustion chamber is decided by the setting of Nozzle Valve Spring pressure.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What are the functions of Relief Valve and Regulating Valve in fuel feed
system?
2. Draw a neat sketch of the Fuel Feed System of WDM2 type locomotive and
label it
3. How quantity of fuel delivery varies in Fuel Injection Pump?
4. What are the functions of Fuel Injection Nozzle?
5. Describe the function of fuel injection nozzle.
6. How can you check the efficiency of the fuel feed system under full load
condition?
7. What is fuel-efficient kit?

8
9
CHARGE AIR SYSTEM

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this unit is to make you understand about :-
• the need for supercharging
• various methods of supercharging
• Turbo Supercharging as applied in WDM2 type Locomotive
• various components of Turbo Supercharger and their duties.
• Lubricating, Cooling and Air Cushioning of Turbo Supercharger Components.
• Cooling of supercharged air
STRUCTURE
1. Introduction
2. Advantage of supercharging
3. Turbo Supercharger and its working principle
4. Main components of Turbo Supercharger
5. Lubricating, Cooling and Air Cushioning
6. After cooling of Charge Air
7. Summary
8. Self Assessment

10
INTRODUCTION
The diesel engine produces mechanical energy by converting heat energy derived from
burning of fuel inside the cylinder. For efficient burning of fuel, availability of sufficient
air in proper ratio is a prerequisite.
In a naturally aspirated engine, during the suction stroke, air is being sucked into the
cylinder from the atmosphere. The volume of air thus drawn into the cylinder through
restricted inlet valve passage, within a limited time would also be limited and at a pressure
slightly less than the atmosphere. The availability of less quantity of air of low density
inside the cylinder would limit the scope of burning of fuel. Hence mechanical power
produced in the cylinder is also limited.
An improvement in the naturally aspirated engines is the super-charged or pressure
charged engines. During the suction stroke, pressurised stroke of high density is being
charged into the cylinder through the open suction valve. Air of higher density containing
more oxygen will make it possible to inject more fuel into the \same size of cylinder and
produce more power,, by effectively burning it.
ADVANTAGES OF SUPER CHARGED ENGINES.
A super charged engine of given bore and stroke dimensions can produce 50 percent or
more power than a naturally aspirated engine. The power to weight ratio in such a case is
much more favourable.
Charging of air during the suction stroke causes better scavenging in the cylinders. This
ensures carbon free cylinders and valves, and better health for the engine also.
Higher heat developed in a super charged engine due to the burning of more fuel, calls for
better cooling of the components. The cool air charged into the cylinders has better
cooling effect on the cylinders, piston, cylinder head, and valves, and save them from
failure due to thermal stresses.
Better ignition due to higher temperature developed by higher compression in the
cylinder.
Better fuel efficiency due to complete combustion of fuel by ensuring availability of
matching quantity of air or oxygen.
METHOD OF SUPERCHARGING
Different methods of pressurising air for supercharging in engines are adopted.
Using a reciprocating type of air compressor. These are unsuitable for locomotive engines,
because of their large size, and higher power demand. Moreover, The system does not
maintain proper air to fuel ratio.
Specially designed roots blower or centrifugal blowers. These have the same drawbacks as
the reciprocating compressors.
Most efficient and economical method of supercharging is by a centrifugal blower run by
the exhaust gas driven turbine. In the system, energy left over in the exhaust gas, which
would otherwise have been wasted, is used to drive the gas turbine in the turbo super
charger. The turbine in turn drives the centrifugal blower, which sucks air from
atmosphere and pressurises it. This does away with the need for an additional power
required for driving the blower, thus saving energy. Moreover, this system can maintain
more favourable air and fuel ratio at all speed and load conditions of the engine than any
other system.

11
TURBO SUPERCHARGER AND ITS WORKING PRINCIPLE
The exhaust gas discharge from all the cylinders accumulate in the common exhaust
manifold at the end of which, turbo- supercharger is fitted. The gas under pressure there
after enters the turbo- supercharger through the torpedo shaped bell mouth connector and
then passes through the fixed nozzle ring. Then it is directed on the turbine blades at
increased pressure and at the most suitable angle to achieve rotary motion of the turbine at
maximum efficiency. After rotating the turbine, the exhaust gas goes out to the
atmosphere through the exhaust chimney. The turbine has a centrifugal blower mounted at
the other end of the same shaft and the rotation of the turbine drives the blower at the
same speed. The blower connected to the atmosphere through a set of oil bath filters,
sucks air from atmosphere, and delivers at higher velocity. The air then passes through the
diffuser inside the turbo- supercharger, where the velocity is diffused to increase the
pressure of air before it is delivered from the turbo- supercharger.
Pressurising air increases its density, but due to compression heat develops. It causes
expansion and reduces the density. This effects supply of high-density air to the engine.
To take care of this, air is passed through a heat exchanger known as after cooler. The
after cooler is a radiator, where cooling water of lower temperature is circulated through
the tubes and around the tubes air passes. The heat in the air is thus transferred to the
cooling water and air regains its lost density. From the after cooler air goes to a common
inlet manifold connected to each cylinder head. In the suction stroke as soon as the inlet
valve opens the booster air of higher pressure density rushes into the cylinder completing
the process of super charging.
The engine initially starts as naturally aspirated engine. With the increased quantity of fuel
injection increases the exhaust gas pressure on the turbine. Thus the self-adjusting system
maintains a proper air and fuel ratio under all speed and load conditions of the engine on
its own. The maximum rotational speed of the turbine is 18000 rpm for the 720A model
Turbo supercharger and creates 1.8 kg/cm2 air pressure in air manifold of diesel engine,
known as booster pressure. Low booster pressure causes black smoke due to incomplete
combustion of fuel. High exhaust gas temperature due to after burning of fuel may result
in considerable damage to the turbo supercharger and other component in the engine.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF TURBO-SUPERCHARGER
Turbo- supercharger consists of following main components.
• Gas inlet casing.
• Turbine casing.
• Intermediate casing
• Blower casing with diffuser
• Rotor assembly with turbine and rotor on the same shaft.

GAS INLET CASING

The inlet casing of the latest type of turbo are of CH 20 stainless steel which is highly heat
resistant. The function of this casing is to take hot gases from the exhaust manifold and
pass them through the nozzle ring, which is bolted to the casing face. This assembly is
fitted on the turbine casing with cap screws.

TURBINE CASING

12
The turbine casing houses the turbine inside it, and is cored to have circulation of water
through it for cooling purposes. It has an oval shaped gas outlet passage at the top. It is
fitted in between the inlet casing and the intermediate casing. It is made of alloy cast iron
or fabricated.
INTERMEDIATE CASING
This casing is also water-cooled and have cored passage for water circulation and is made
of alloy cast iron or fabricated like the turbine casing. It is placed between turbine casing
and the blower casing. It separated the exhaust and the airside and also supports the
turbine rotor on the two tri-metal bearings, which are interference-fit in the intermediate
casing.
BLOWER HOUSING ASSEMBLY
This houses the blower and is in two parts, namely the blower inlet, and the blower
housing. Air enters through the blower inlet axially, and discharged radially from the
blower through the vane diffuser. The vane diffuser is a precision alluminium casting and
screwed on the blower casing.
ROTOR ASSEMBLY
The rotor assembly consists of rotor shaft, rotor blades, thrust collar, impeller, inducer,
centre studs, nosepiece, locknut etc. assembled together. The rotor blades are fitted into fir
tree slots, and locked by tab lock washers. This is a dynamically balanced component, as
this has a very high rotational speed.
LUBRICATING, COOLING AND AIR CUSHIONING
LUBRICATING SYSTEM
One branch line from the lubricating system of the engine is connected to the turbo-
supercharger. Oil from the lube oils system circulated through the turbo- supercharger for
lubrication of its bearings. After the lubrication is over, the oil returns back to the lube oil
system through a return pipe. Oil seals are provided on both the turbine and blower ends
of the bearings to prevent oil leakage to the blower or the turbine housing.
COOLING SYSTEM
The cooling system is integral to the water cooling system of the engine. Circulation of
water takes place through the intermediate casing and the turbine casing, which are in
contact with hot exhaust gases. The cooling water after being circulated through the turbo-
supercharger returns back again to the cooling system of the locomotive.
AIR CUSHIONING
There is an arrangement for air cushioning between the rotor disc and the intermediate
casing face to reduce thrust load on the thrust face of the bearing which also solve the
following purposes.
• it prevents hot gases from coming in contact with the lube oil.

• it prevents leakage of lube oil through oil seals.

• it cools the hot turbine disc.

Pressurised air from the blower casing is taken through a pipe inserted in the turbo-
supercharger to the space between the rotor disc and the intermediate casing. It serves the
purpose as described above.
TURBO RUN –DOWN TEST

13
Turbo run-down test is a very common type of test done to check the free running time of
turbo rotor. It indicates whether there is any abnormal sound in the turbo, seizer/ partial
seizer of bearing, physical damages to the turbine, or any other abnormality inside it. The
engine is started and warmed up to normal working temperature and running at fourth
notch speed. Engine is then shut down through the over speed trip machanism. When the
rotation of the crank shaft stops, the free running time of the turbine is watched through
the chimney and recorded by a stop watch. THE minimum time allowed for free running
is90 seconds and maximum 180 seconds. Low or high turbo run down time are both
considered to be harmful for the engine.
AFTER COOLER
It is a simple radiator, which cools the air to increase its density. Scales formation on the
tubes, both internally and externally, or choking of the tubes can reduce heat transfer
capacity. This can also reduce the flow of air through it. This reduces the efficiency of the
diesel engine. This is evident from black exhaust smoke emissions and a fall in booster
pressure.
Fitments of higher capacity turbosupercharger- following new generation
turbosuperchargers have been identified by RDSO for 2600/3100HP diesel engine.
ABB VTC 304, NAPIER NA-295, GE 7S1716, HISPANO
SUIZA HS 5800 NGT, ABB TPL61

SUMMARY
Supercharging is the method of pressurizing the induced air to increase the efficiency and
performance of the engine. This can be achieved by any of the methods, like, engine
crankshaft driven Centrifugal / Roots Blower, exhaust gas driven Turbo Supercharger etc.
Exhaust gas driven Turbo Supercharger being more economical and scientific, it is applied
in WDM2 Locomotive Engine. In this system, the streamlined exhaust manifold collects
the exhaust gas of all cylinders and directs it to Turbine through a Fixed Nozzle Ring. The
Rotor Shaft comprises of Turbine and Compressor unit integral on it, which is supported
by two Nos. Trimetal Bearings, housed in the intermediate casing. Thus exhaust gas
driven turbine drives the compressor, being the integral part of the rotor shaft. The
discharge of the compressor gets pressurized at diffuser and finally the hot compressed air
after getting cooled at Aftercooler is stored in the Inlet Manifold of the engine, which in
turn goes into the cylinder as per the working cycle.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What are the advantages of supercharging?
2. What are the various methods of supercharging? Which method is considered
to be more scientific and why?
3. What is the importance of air cushioning? How is it done?
4. Describe the wdm2 loco charge air system with neat sketch.

14
LUBE OIL SYSTEM
OBJECTIVE
To understand about: -
• the function of lubrication system in diesel engine
• the lube oil system of WDM2 locomotive engine
• the function of Relief & Regulating valve
• the purpose of by passing arrangement of lube oil
• the factors affect the low lube oil pressure & contamination in lube oil
• the factors affect high lube oil consumption

STRUCTURE
1. Introduction
2. Lube Oil system of WDM2 Locomotive
3. Problems in lube oil system
4. Lube oil quality observation by laboratory
5. Summary
6. Self assessment

INTRODUCTION
The lubricating system in a diesel engine is of vital importance. The lubricating oil
provides a film of soft slippery oil in between two frictional surfaces to reduce friction and
wear. It also serves the following purposes.
1. Cooling of bearing, pistons etc.

2. Protection of metal surfaces from corrosion, rust, surface damages and

wear.
3. Keep the components clean and free from carbon, lacquer deposits and
prevent damage due to deposits.
The importance of lube oil system is comparable to the blood circulation system in
the human body. Safety of the engine, its components, and their life span will
largely depend upon the correct quality of oil in correct quantity and pressure to
various location of diesel engine.

LUBE OIL SYSTEM OF WDM2 LOCO

The diesel engine of WDM2 class locomotives has full flow filtration lube oil system with
bypass protection. The system essentially consists of the following components.
1. Gear type lube oil pump driven by the engine crankshaft.
2. Spring loaded relief valve, adjusted to 7.5 kg/cm2.
3. Lube oil filter tank accommodating eight nos. of filter elements.
4. Differential bypass valve set at 1.4 kg/cm2 differential pressure across the
filter tank.

15
 5. Lube oil cooler, which has a bunch of element tubes through which cooling
water circulates and circulation of lube oil takes place around the tubes.
6. Regulating valve, which is a spring loaded valve adjusted to 4kg/cm2.
7. Lube oil strainer, which is a wire mesh type filter reusable after cleaning.
8. Oil pressure switch (OPS), which is meant to automatically shut down the
engine in case of a drop in lube oil pressure below 1.3 kg/cm2.
9. Oil pressure gauge, which indicates the main oil header pressure.
10. Oil sump having capacity 1260 lt. RR606 multigrade oil.

The lube oil pump on the free end of the engine is driven by the engine crankshaft through
suitable gears and keeps it running along with the engine. When the engine is started the
pump draws oil from the engine oil sump and delivers it. The delivery pressure of the
pump has to be controlled as the pump is driven by an engine of variable speed and would
often have higher delivery pressure or load on it than actually required. This would mean
loss of more power from the engine for driving the pump. Higher pressure may also
endanger the safety of the filters and the pipelines and its joints. The relief valve releases
the delivery pressure above its setting and bypasses it back to the oil sump. Oil then flows
to a filter tank containing eight nos. of paper type filter elements. The filter has a bypass
valve across it set a differential pressure of 1.4 kg/cm2. Due to the choking of the filter
elements, if the pressure differential between the inlet and the outlet of the tank is more
than 1.4 kg/cm2, then the differential bypass valve opens up to bypass a part of oil without
filtration, and thus reduces the pressure on the filters. Although allowing unfiltered oil into
the engine is not advisable, but there is another filter at later stage through which oil has to
pass before entering the engine. Moreover, higher pressure on the filters may cause
damage to the filters, and cause greater damage to the engines. After the filtration, the oil
passes to the coolers, gets cooled by transferring heat to water, and regains its lost
viscosity. At he discharge side of the cooler, a regulating valve adjusted at 4 kg/cm2 is
provided to regulate the pressure. Excess pressure is regulated by passing the oil back to
the engine oil sump. The oil then finds its way to the main oil header after another stage of
filtration in the strainer type filter from which it is distributed for lubrication to different
places as required. Direct individual connections are taken from the main oil header to all
the main bearings. Oil thus passes through the main bearings supporting the crankshaft on
the engine block, passes through the crank pin to lubricate the connecting rod big end
bearing and the crank pin journals. It reaches the small end through rifle drilled hole and
after lubricating the gudgeon pin and bearings enters into the pistons. The Aluminium
alloy pistons are provide with spiral oil passage inside them for internal circulation of lube
oil. This is done with the purpose of cooling the pistons, which are highly thermally
loaded components. After circulation through the pistons, the oil returns back to the oil
sump, but in this process, a part of the oil hits the running connecting rod and splashes on
the cylinder liners for their lubrication. The actual lube oil pressure is a function of lube
oil pump, temperature of oil, engine speed and regulating valve setting. A line from the
main oil header is connected to a gauge in the driver's cabin to indicate the pressure level.
If lube oil pressure drops to less than 1.3 kg/cm2, engine will automatically shut down
through a safety device (OPS) to protect it from damage due to insufficient lubrication.
From the main oil header, two branch lines are taken to the right and left side secondary
headers to lubricate the components on both banks of the V shape engine. Each branch

16
line of the secondary header lubricates the camshaft bearings, fuel pump lifters, valve
lever mechanisms, and spray oil to lubricate the gears for camshaft drive. A separate
connection is taken to the turbo super charger from the right side header for lubrication of
its bearings. After circulation to all the points of lubrication, the oil returns back to the
sump for recirculation through the same circuit.
Problems in lube oil system
There are four factors, which effect the lube oil system pressure directly that is lube oil
pump discharge capacity, diesel engine temperature, pressure setting value of Relief &
Regulating valve and quality of lube oil. Some other factors like choking of filters /
strainer, low oil level in c/case, contaminated lube oil, low idling speed and excessive
wear/ clearance in bearings also effect the system pressure.
During running of diesel engine it is observed that lube oil contaminated with water and
oil level in c/case is increasing, which indicates water leakage inside the c/case. The
sources are leakage of cylinder liner bottom gasket & sleeve, cracked cylinder liner,
cracked cylinder head etc. Sometimes it is observed that lube oil contaminated with fuel
oil, which indicates nozzles dribbling or fuel leak off gallery cracked. It is also observed
that some engines consume high rate of lube oil, which indicates clearance between valve
and valve guide is more, engine piston rings worn out or turbo oil seal damaged.
Lube oil quality observation by laboratory
To maintain sound health of the engine, control on quality of oil is as much necessary as
the pressure. Every maintenance depot/diesel shed is equipped with a laboratory, which
keeps strict watch on the quality of lube oil of each individual loco.
Contamination in any form i .e. by fuel oil, cooling water, soot, dirt etc. in service is
immediately reported for corrective action in maintenance. Change in other properties like
viscosity, PH value, TBNE etc. are also watched at regular intervals. Lube oil changing in
locos are normally done on condition basis.
Spectrographic analysis at regular schedule is also done to ascertain the extent of
concentration of wear metal particles in the oil. This can indicate the wear pattern of the
engine components or ensure longer service life.
SUMMARY
The Diesel Engine of WDM 2 Locomotive has full flow filtration lube oil system with
bypass protection. RR-407 is the Lube oil used in the system. Engine crankshaft driven,
gear type lube oil pump sucks oil from the engine sump and delivers it into the system. A
relief valve, set at 110 psi, is fitted just after the pump to save the pump from excess
loading. Pumped oil then passes through filter tank, containing 8 Nos. of filter elements,
for filtration. A bypass valve, set at 20 psi differential pressure, is fitted across the filter
tank to maintain the continuity of flow, in case the filter gets choked.. Lube oil cooler
fitted in the system maintain operating temperature of lube oil, by dissipating excess heat
through water, circulating around it. Regulating valve, set at 75 psi, maintains the pressure
of the whole system. The oil then passes through a strainer and finally gets stored into
main and secondary headers, from where it is distributed to various components of the
engine for lubrication. Cooling of Piston is done by circulation of lube oil through it. For
this, lube oil from main header reaches to main bearing through S-pipes. Again from main
bearing, through internal drill passages of crankshaft and con.rod, oil reaches to piston.
After circulating inside the piston, the oil flows down to sump through an opening
provided in the piston. While flowing down the oil gets splashed by crankshaft for

17
lubricating liners. Finally the oil drops down to sump after lubricating all the components
of the engine.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What are the various factors that affect the low lube oil system pressure?
2. Draw a neat sketch of WDM2 engine Lube Oil system and label it.
3. What are the various factors that affect the high lube oil consumption?
4. What are the sources for fuel contamination in lube oil?
5. What are the sources for water contamination in lube oil?

18
COOLING SYSTEM
OBJECTIVE
To understand about
• the need for cooling system in a diesel engine
• the benefit of water cooling system
• harmful effects of natural water in cooling system
• the method of water treatment and the quality of treated water
• the water cooling system of WDM2 Locomotive

STRUCTURE
1. Introduction
2. Cooling water and its treatment
3. Cooling water system of wdm2 locomotive engine
4. Water pump
5. Modifications in cooling system
6. Summary
7. Self assessment

19
 INTRODUCTION
After combustion of fuel in the engine, about 25-30 % of heat produced inside the
cylinder is absorbed by the components surrounding the combustion chamber like piston,
cylinder, cylinder head etc. Unless the heat is taken away from them and dispersed
elsewhere, the components are likely to fail under thermal stresses. All internal
combustion engines are provided with a cooling system designed to cool the excessively
hot components, distribute the heat to the other surrounding components to maintain
uniform temperature throughout the engine, and finally dissipate the excess heat to
atmosphere to keep the engine temperature within suitable limits. Different cooling
systems, like air cooling, water cooling are adopted, depending on the engine design,
working conditions and service etc.. The advantage of having a water cooling system is
that it maintains a uniform level of temperature throughout the engine and by controlling
the water temperature, the engine temperature can be controlled effectively.
COOLING WATER AND ITS TREATMENT
Although natural water can meet the basic requirement, its use is prohibited for the
cooling of the engine because it contains many dissolved solids and corrosive elements.
Some of the dissolved solids may form scales on the heat exchanger surface and reduce
the heat transfer coefficient. It also accelerates corrosion. Other minerals get collected in
the form off sludge at an elevated temperature. This sludge may get deposited at the low-
pressure zone and choke the passage of circulation. The insulation caused by the scale
deposits results in unequal expansion and localized stress, which may eventually rupture
the engine block, cylinder block, cylinder heads etc. to eliminate all of these, distilled or
de-mineralized water is used in the cooling system of the diesel locomotive.
The water sample is tested for chromate concentration, hardness, pH value, and chloride
content. In case Chromate concentration is found lower than the required quantity,
mixture is added. Water is changed if hardness and chloride is higher than the
recommended limit. Water is also changed if found contaminated with oil etc.
When water is changed due to contamination etc. the system is cleaned by adding Tri-
Sodium Phosphate, and circulating water for 45min, this water is drained out, and fresh
distilled water with chromate mixture is filled in the locomotive.

COOLING WATER SYSTEM

The WDM2 class locomotives have a closed circuit non-pressurised water cooling system
for the engine. The system is filled in by 1210 ltrs. Of distilled water or demineralised
water treated with nonchromate corrosion inhibitor (Borate nitrite treatment) to maintain a
concentration of 4000 PPM. The pH value is '8.5-9.5'. The water circuit has two storage
tanks in two segments known as expansion tanks on top of the locomotive. Apart from
supplementing in case of shortage in the system, these interconnected tanks have some
empty space left at the top to provide expansion to the water when it is hot. A centrifugal
pump driven by the engine crankshaft through a gear sucks water from the system and
delivers it through outlet under pressure. The outlet of the pump has three branch lines
from a three-way elbow. The branching off leads water to the different places as follows-
1. To the turbo-supercharger through a flexible pipe to cool the intermediate casing,
bearings on both sides of the rotor and the turbine casing. After cooling the components in
the turbo-supercharger, water return to the inlet side of the pump through a bubble
collector. The bubble collector with a vent line is a means to collect air bubbles formed

20
due to evaporation and pass it onto the expansion tank, so that thy cannot cause air lock in
the water circulatory system.
2. The second line leads to the left bank of the cylinder block and water enter the
engine block and circulates around the cylinder liners, cylinder heads on the left bank of
the engine, and then passes onto the water outlet header. Individual inlet connections with
water jumper pipes and outlet water riser pipes are provided to each cylinder head for
entry and outlet of water from cylinder head to the water outlet header. Cooling of
cylinder liners, piston rings, cylinder heads, valves, and fuel injection nozzles are done in
this process. Water then proceeds the left side radiator for circulation through it, and
releases its heat into the atmosphere to cool itself down before recirculation through the
engine once again.
3. The third connection from the three-way elbow leads to the right side of the
cylinder block. After cooling the cylinder liners, heads etc. on the Right Bank the water
reaches the right side radiator for cooling itself. Before it enters the radiator, a connection
is taken to the water temperature manifold where a thermometer is fitted to indicate the
water temperature. Four other temperature switches are also provided here, out of which
T1 is for starting the movement of radiator fan at 60O C slowly through the eddy current
clutch. The second switch T2 picks up at a water temperature of 64O C and accelerates the
radiator fan to full speed. The third switch is the ETS3 (Engine Temperature Switch),set at
90 degree calcius protection against hot engine, which gives bell alarm and red lamp
indication. The fourth switch is ETS4 (set at 95 degree calcius) which brings the engine
back to the idling speed and power cutoff also takes place to reduce load on the engine. In
this situation the GF switch is cut off and engine is notched up to full notch. It helps in
bringing down the cooling water temperature quickly with the radiator fan moving at full
speed. Water temperature is controlled by controlling the movement of the radiator fan.
Cooling water from the left side radiator passes through the lube oil cooler, where water
circulates inside a bunch of element tubes and lube oil circulates around the tubes. Thus
passing through the lube oil cooler and cooling the lube oil, it unites with the suction pipe
for recirculation through the cooling circuit. Cooling water from right side radiator passes
through after cooler, where water circulates inside a bunch of element tubes and cooling
the charge air, it unites with the suction pipe for recirculation.
Apart from hot engine protection, another safety is also provided by way of low water
switch (LWS). In the event of cooling water level falling below one inch from the bottom
of the tank, the LWS shuts down the engine through the governor with warning bell and
alarm indication to ensure the safety of the engine. Vent lines are provided from the after
cooler, lube oil cooler, radiators. Turbo-supercharger vent box and bubble collectors etc.
are provided to maintain uninterrupted circulation of cooling water by eliminating the
hazards of air locks in the system.
Cooling water is subjected to laboratory tests at regular intervals for quality controls.
Contamination, chloride contents, and hardness etc.. are checked to reduce corrosion and
scaling. The concentration of anti-corrosive mixture is also checked and laboratory
advises corrective action in case of contamination. Proper quality control of cooling water
and use of proper quantity of nonchromate corrosion inhivitor prevents scaling and
corrosion in the system, and ensures longer life of the components. Normally 8.2kg is
added for new water in WDM2 locomotive.
WATER PUMP

21
MODIFICATIONS PERTAINING TO COOLING WATER SYSTEM OF WDM2
LOOMOTIVE
Louvred fin radiator: - The radiator core has been redesigned by providing louvred fins
thereby increasing the cooling capacity by 14% due to improved air flow pattern through
the radiator.
High efficiency turbochargers:- High efficiency turbochargers has been provided on the
fuel efficient version of wdm2 locos. This has resulted in lowering of the exhaust gas
temperature by around 15% with modified after cooler.
Large after cooler & water connection:- Large after cooler & water connection has
been provided on the fuel efficient locos. This has reduced the heat input to the cooling
system.
Revision of ETS setting :- The setting of ETS3 is raised to 90 deg.C from 85 deg.C in
order to avoid frequent hot engine alarms. Subsequently, with the introduction of
pressurised cooling water system, one more ETS is added with the idea of providing only
hot engine alarm through ETS3 at 90 deg. C and bringing the engine to idle by ETS4 at 95
deg. C. This change not only reduces the occurrences of hot engine alarm but also
increases the heat transfer potential of the radiator at high temperature.
Revised setting of OPS:- The setting of low lube oil pressure switch on WDM2 locos
used to be 1.8 kg/ cm2 with a view to obviate the problem of engine shutting down due
to operation of OPS while suddenly easing throttle from higher notches to idle,
particularly during summer season, the OPS setting has been revised to 1.3 kg/ cm2.
Pressurisation of cooling water system:- The cooling water circuit has been pressurised
upto 7 psi thereby increasing the boiling point by 11 deg. C. This has not only increased
the margin before the cooling water gets converted to steam but has also increased the
temperature differential acrossed the radiators at peak engine temperature, thereby
increasing the rate of cooling in radiators. This has been achieved by providing a pressure
cap assembly on the water tank.
Flexible water inlet elbow:- Rubber hose type flexible water inlet elbow has been
developed in place of the rigid one piece metallic water inlet elbow for obtaining better
leakproofness even in face of mislignments between the engine block and the cylinder
head.
Digital water temperature indicator cum switch:- This has been developed to replace
the existing water temperature gauge as well as the four engine temperature switches
whose performance was quite unreliable. This aims at ensuring operation of radiator fan
and alarm at proper temperature.
Electronic water level indicator cum switch:- This has been developed to replaced the
existing water level gauge as well as the low water switch. This indicator shall give
precise and reliable information regarding the water level to the driver in the cab itself.
Improved type pipe joints:- This has been improved to replace the existing pipe joints
viz. dressers victaulics by superior rubber hoses along with double wire stainless steel
clamps and by stainless steel bellows.

SUMMARY
In the process of combustion, about 25% to 30% of the total heat developed is absorbed
by the components of the engine forming the combustion chamber. Hence an effective
cooling system is essential to dissipate the accumulated heat. Amongst the various

22
methods of cooling the water cooling system is the most effective method of cooling, as it
maintains the uniformity of temperature through out the engine. In WDM2 type engine
water cooling system is being used with 1200 ltrs system capacity. Dimeneralised water
treated with chromium compound is used as coolant water. In this system a centrifugal
pump, driven by engine crankshaft is being used to deliver water into the system with
pressure. The outlet of the pump is being divided into main three heads- one for cooling
turbo charger and after-cooler and the other two for cooling the engine components
situated at left and right bank of the engine. Finally the water gets collected at headers and
sent to radiator for cooling. An induced draft radiator fan is used to blow air through the
radiators for cooling. The radiator fan takes drive from the engine crankshaft through ECC
(EDDY CURRENT CLUTCH). A temperature switch controls the clutching effect of
ECC and hence radiator fan rpm. Safety devices are provided both for hot engine and low
water conditions of the engine.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What type of water is used in cooling water system of locomotive? How water
treatment is done?
2. What are the harmful effects of using natural water in cooling system?
3. Draw a neat sketch of the cooling water system and label it.
4. How does Radiator Fan get drive? How its rpm is controlled?
5. What is the purpose of providing vent box and bubble collector in cooling water
circuit?
6. What are the modifications carried out in cooling water system?

23
UNIT M2- DIESEL ENGINE COMPONENTS

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this block is to make you understand about the major components of the
Diesel Engine as per the following details:

• Construction

• Manufacturing process

• Salient features and required dimensional accuracy in the key areas

• Assembling technique and their inspection procedure.
• Failure analysis of components

STRUCTURE

Introduction
Engine base

Engine Block

Crankshaft

Camshaft

Cylinder Head and valves

Liner

Piston, Piston Rings & Con Rod

Failure analysis of components & Failure investigation.

Summary

1
Key words

Self-assessment

INTRODUCTION
This unit contains, in brief, the essential details in respect of design, construction,
working principle and maintenance procedure of the Diesel Engine components. The
discussion has been kept confined to standard locomotives of Indian Railways that is
WDM2..

The Diesel engines consists of following major components & assemblies: -

1.Engine base 2.Engine block 3.Crank 4.Cam shaft
shaft
5.Cylinder head 6. Liner 7.Piston, Piston rings and
and Valves Connecting rods.

ENGINE BASE :-
When diesel engines were of low speed and low horse power the engine base and
blocks were made of heavy cast iron casting. In older types engines one of the main
functions of the base was to take the crank shaft. In the modern engines the crank
shaft is underhung from the engine block.

With the development in diesel engines and with the change in design, fabricated
engine blocks and bases are finding favour though in some small horse power engines
cast iron blocks are still in use. The engine ;base of ALCO Locos WDM2, WDM4
are made from weldable quality steel to specification IS-2062 with 0.2% of carbon.

The engine bases of ALCO Locos have following functions.

It has to -
a) Support the engine block
b) Serve as oil sump
c) Accommodate lube oil mainheader
d) Take lub oil pump and water pump at the free end
e) Allow openings for crank case inspection
f) Take fitment of crank case explosion cover

2
 g) Foundation pads are provided for transmitting load to the chassis and also to take
lower blots of the main generator magnet frame.
A perforated screen is fitted to the base to prevent foreign matter like pieces of metal
etc. getting access to the sump. The top face of the base which takes the engine block
is machined smooth and a sealing compound is applied before fitting the block to make
the crank case air tight so that crank case vacuum can be maintained.

Except for the size and sump capacity the engine base of YDM4 Locos is same as that of
WDM2 in respect of material and manufacturing technique.

In case of WDS4B Engines there is no separate base. The function of oil sump is
performed by fabricated steel sheet fitted at the bottom of the block with gasket in
between.

ENGINE BLOCK
The engine block is the most important and very highly stressed structure on
which are fitted a number of important fittings like crank shaft, cam shaft, cylinder heads,
cylinder liners, pistons, Con. Rods, fuel injection pumps and cross-head, turbo support,
governor etc to form a complete Power pack.

Manufacturing Process
This structure is fabricated from low carbon steel to specification IS-2062. The
saddle, however, is a forging out of steel to specification IS-1875. The fabrication is done
in a definite sequence to minimize distortion and build up of stresses. In order to ensure
that best quality of fabrication is done in all cases down hand welding is resorted to. For
this purpose extensive use of positioners are made. Wherever possible, continuous
welding is done in the process of automatic submerged arc welding. To make sure that
there is no defect in the welding, X-ray testing of welding is done liberally.
After fabrication by welding stress relieving and shot blasting is done and then
hydraulic test of water chamber is done so that no water leakage can take place. Finally
the block is taken to the marking table for marking and then machining. After marking, the
engine blocks are placed on the planning machine for machining the sides and the top
faces, all the faces being machined at a time. While setting up for machining, it is ensured
that the side faces are at right angle to the end face. The bottom face and the saddle faces
are also machined in the same machine.
The blocks are then taken for serration milling of saddle faces. In continuation
with serration of saddle faces the serration milling of bearings caps are done. This is to
avoid error caused due to wear and tear to the milling cutter. Each bearing cap is marked
for the location so that the bearing cap cannot be pooled about or wrongly fitted. After the
milling operation the depth of serration, and distance between two consecutive pitches are

3
measured with the help of special dial gauges.
After the inspection the bearing caps are assembled and they are tightened to the
specified torque value. Subsequent to fitting of the caps to the block the engine block is
placed on the horizontal boring cum milling machine. On this machine, end face milling is
done and boring of main bearing housing and camshaft bearing is done in one setting with
the help of a fixture. This is done to ensure that the distance between crankshaft to
camshaft is exactly equal throughout and the central line is perfectly parallel to each other.
The maximum possible misalignment permitted in main bearing housing bore are as
follows: -
Horizontal misalignment:
1. Between adjacent bores. 0.002"
2. Between any to any bore. 0.004"
Vertical misalignment:
1. Between adjacent bore 0.0015"
2. Between any to any bore. 0.003"
This sort of misalignment can be checked with the help of mandrel and feeler
gauge. But this is considered to be rather crude method. It is advisable to make such
checks with the help of optical instruments like collimators to give accurate results.
After the boring of crank and camshaft bearing housing, the work of machining
top & middle decks of cylinder liners is taken up. The two bores, the chamfers and facing
of the top face are all done simultaneously with the help of machine with two boring bars
fixed at an angle of 45O.
The engine blocks have been found to show signs of distortion after a life of 12 to
15 years or as an after effect of crankshaft seizure or major accident. In order to cope with
such defects, capacity has been created in DLW for reclamation of blocks.
The method of construction, manufacture, inspection and maintenance of
YDM4/WDS6 engines base and block is almost the same as WDM2 block except for
dimensional difference and except for the fact that WDM2 are 16 cylinder "VEE" blocks
and YDM4 are with 6 cylinder in line engine blocks.
Maintenance & Inspection
Schedule: POH
Details of Inspection:
• Visual Inspection: To check about the physical damages in the block and take
decision about its reuse or reclamation.
• Examination of threads and renewals of threads, if essential.

4
 • Measurement of top and bottom deck to select liner as well as to change liner
sleeve, if necessary.
• Measure cam bearing dimension and change bearing, if necessary.
• Main Bearing Inspection:
1. Check serration of saddle and M/ Bearing cap by serration gauge.
2. Fit main bearing cap and elongate properly upto .040" as per laid
down procedure.
3. Measure each bore at two different planes ½" away from both sides
and in each plane at 3 different locations, vertical and at 45°angular
position at both sides of it.
Difference in readings at a particular plane gives the value of
ovality (limit 0.003")
Difference in vertical readings gives the value of vertical taper
(limit 0.001"}.
*Difference in angular readings gives value of angular taper (limit
0.003")
Concentricity of Main Bearing bore should be maintained within
the following limit:
Horizontal misalignment: 1) between adjacent bores: 0.002"
2) Between any to any: 0.004"
Vertical misalignment: 1)Adjacent 0.0015"
2)Between any to any 0.003"
Misalignment is checked with the help of Mandrel and filler gauge.
• While assembling, block and base should be perfectly aligned within the
limit (Gen end: 0.000", side ways: 0,002" max).
• Hydraulic test: Hydraulic test conducted at 2.5 kg/cm² at normal
temperature to check whether any leakage exists between block and liner. If
so, liner O-rings are changed or other corrective measures are taken
accordingly. This is done after assembling liners during assembly stage.

CRANKSHAFT
The engine crankshaft is probably the singular costliest item in the diesel engine. It
is the medium of transforming reciprocating motion to rotary motion. The crankshaft may
be assembled type or two pieces bolted type or may be single piece forging. Balance
weights can be either bolted up or welded. The standard Locomotives of Indian Railways
5
are with single-piece crankshaft with welded counter weights. In case of CLW/MAK
engines the counter weights are bolted.
The ALCO crankshafts are manufactured from chrome-molybdenum steel
equivalent to SAE 4140. The process of forging is such that continuous grain is
maintained. In manufacture of crankshaft, following sequence of operation is generally
followed: -
a) Forging and forming operation
b) Rough machining
c) Drill of oil holes.
d) Ultrasonic & Mechanical testing
e) Welding of counter weights & their X-ray test.
f) Stress relieving & shot blasting
g) Final machining & for giving fillet radius at crank journal corners and making oil holes.
h) Nitriding
i) Grinding Lapping
j) Static & dynamic balancing
k) Final inspection
There are two processes of surface hardening with details given below:-
Method of hardening Hardness Depth of hardness
Induction hardening C-40 0.124"
Nitriding C-60 0.012 to 0.015"
Generally for low HP engines the first process is preferred, as depth of case is more and
the crank journals and man bearing journals can be ground down to next step size. In case
of high HP and high-speed engines, the preference is for the second process as it gives
long life, the rate of wear being negligible.
Maintenance & Inspection
Schedule: POH
Procedure: After cleaning thoroughly, Dye penetration / Magnaflux test is conducted to
detect surface crack. Measure the following dimensions:
Crank pin: Positioning it vertically check dimension at two locations just
beside two oil holes (at two right angular planes in each location) to check
ovality and taperness.
Nominal Dia: 6", Limit upto 5.996"

6
Ovality: .002"(max) Taperness: .001"(max)
Main journal: Position the crankshaft, keeping No 1 crankpin in vertical
location, measure the dimension as that of crank pin.
Nominal Dia: 8.5", Limit upto 8.496"
Ovality:002" (max) Taperness: .001" (max)
Fillet Radius: Checked through a special gadget. (.0005" filler gauge should
not pass between the gadget and the fillet)
Eccentricity checking: Eccentricity is checked between any three consecutive
main journals (1,2,3) is given by the distance between the center points of
journal 2 and the mid point of the line joining the center points of journals 1
& 3. The limit of eccentricity is .001". Eccentricity is checked by the
following way:
• Place the crankshaft horizontally on a "V" block supported at No3 and No
7 Main Journals, keeping No 1 crank pin in vertical position.
• Mark Dial of a clock at the free end flange in this position, to understand
angular location of the maximum deviated zone.
• Record the readings of maximum deviation of every main journal along
with their angular location.
• An example of calculating the eccentricity (For No 1,2,3 Main Journals)
is given below:
- Highest total indicator reading (TIR) for:
No 1 M.J.0.0015" at 3 o'clock location.
No 2 M.J. 0.004" at twelve o'clock
No 3 M.J. 0.0015 at 1-30 o'clock
- Plot the graph according to deflection and o'clock location,
with suitable scale.
- Connect TIR position of No1 and No3 with a straight line.
- Mark the midpoint of the above straight line and connect it
with the TIR of No 2. This is the relative runout of No 1,2,and
3 main journals.
- Divide the runout by 2. This is the eccentricity and must not
exceed .001". (This case it is .00175" and not acceptable.)
- Repeat the above case for each group of three consecutive
main journals

7
 12 0'CLOCK
2 .0035 TIR

3
1 3 O'CLOCK

Crank web deflection: Checking of crank web deflection is one of the major
works while assembling engine.
Main generator is coupled at one end of the crankshaft, whose other end is
supported on a bearing housed at the magnet frame. As such, due to
mislocation of magnet frame, if axis of armature does not completely align
with the axis of the crankshaft, the unbalanced mass of armature will cause
uneven loading on crank web at different angular positions during rotation.
This causes deflection on crank web, which will be changing at various
positions of crankshaft during rotation. Such kind of continuous cyclic
variation of load leads to main bearing seizure and breakage of crankshaft.
The crank web deflection can be measured by fitting a deflection gauge at
the located punch mark on the 8th crank web, nearer to TG and rotating the
crankshaft in both the directions
The permissible limit of deflection on each side is ±. 0008", TIR ±. 0016".
Correction is made by adding or subtracting shims at the mountings of
magnet frame with engine block. The magnet frame is mounted at two
locations with the engine block and at two locations at the base. Adjustable
shims are provided at the mountings of the magnet frame with the block. The
shims of the magnet frame with the base are fixed and normally not disturbed
during crankshaft deflection.
CAM SHAFT
In diesel engine the cam shaft performs the vital role of opening and closing inlet
and exhaust valves and allowing timely injection of fuel inside the cylinder. Usual practice
is to provide 3 cams for each cylinder the two outer cams being for exhaust and inlet
valves and the central cam being for fuel injection.
Like most of the Diesel engine manufacturers, ALCO engines have cams integral
with camshaft. Each camshaft section takes care of two cylinders. After profile milling of
the cam lobes the cams are given for induction hardening. Subsequent to this the cams are
put on profile grinding machine. The individual camshafts are joined together by bolting.

8
The location of dowel hole is of importance as it determines the relative angular position
of one camshaft section with respect to the adjacent one.
In order to avoid wrong assembly respective catalogue Nos. of camshaft sections
are punched onto the shaft. Care has to be taken to see that the correct section is fitted in
correct location. The rifle hole is made in the center of the shaft for lubrication of cam
bearings. Lubrication to cam lobes is provided by oil coming from valve lever mechanism
via the push rod.
Material composition: The ALCO camshafts are made from AISI specification
1050 with following metallurgical composition.
Carbon 0.48 to 0.53%
Manganese 0.60 to 0.90%
Chromium 0.15 to 0.30% Max.
Phosphorus 0.025% Max.
Sulphur 0.025% max.
Assembly & Inspection
Schedule: POH
Inspection: Check cam profile through profile gauge.( If damaged or worn out
the cam segment is changed.)
Setting of Cam shaft & Valve/ FIP timing:
(a) Timing Mark & Pointer
• Timing Marks are provided on Timing Disc (Main Generator fan) fitted
with Main Generator armature, mounted on crankshaft. (Relation between
crank shaft, armature and armature fan are maintained through dowels,
provided)
• TDC, INJ Pointer is mounted on the block to read the relative position of
cylinder corresponding to pointer and timing disc. (Pointer needs to be
calibrated during engine overhauling by finding TDC with the help of dial
indicator or trammel gauge.)
(b) Setting of cam shaft
• Assemble the cam segments as per correct sequence and order (Part
Number indicates the sequence and dowels fix their angular relation). Thus
left and right side camshafts are formed.
• Position the crankshaft to 1R TDC. Match both side cam gears with
crankshaft gear in such way that cut marks (line mark) on cam gear should
perfectly match with block edges.

9
 • Now fit both camshafts matching with the key holes of cam gears.
• Secure the camshafts finally on cam gear by tightening it properly through
locknut.
(c) Valve Timing
• Rotate the crankshaft and bring the corresponding cylinder to compression
stroke (ensure compression stroke by feeling free rotation of push rods.)
• Check the gap between the valve stem and yoke. It should be 0.034". If not
adjust it through valve lever adjustment nut and yoke adjustment nut.
(d) FIP Timing
• Rotate the engine to bring the injection point against the corresponding
cylinder.
• Match the body cut mark of FIP at inspection window with the given line
mark on guide cup .If not, adjust it through timing allenscrew provided at
the bottom of the FP lifter.

CYLINDER HEAD

The cylinder head is held on to the cylinder liner by seven hold down studs or
bolts provided on the cylinder block. It is subjected to high shock stress and combustion
temperature at the lower face, which forms a part of combustion chamber. It is a
complicated casting where cooling passages are cored for holding water for cooling the
cylinder head. In addition to this provision is made for providing passage of inlet air and
exhaust gas. Further, space has been provided for holding fuel injection nozzles, valve
guides and valve seat inserts also.
In cylinder heads valve seat inserts with lock rings are used as replaceable wearing part.
The inserts are made of stellite or weltite. To provide interference fit, inserts are frozen in
ice and cylinder head is heated to bring about a temperature differential of 250°F and the
insert is pushed into recess in cylinder head. The valve seat inserts are ground to an angle
of 44.5° whereas the valve is ground to 45° to ensure line contact. (In the latest engines the
inlet valves are ground at 30° and seats are ground at 29.5°). Each cylinder has 2 exhaust
and 2 inlet valves of 2.85" in dia. The valves have stem of alloy steel and valve head of
austenitic stainless steel, butt-welded together into a composite unit. The valve head
material being austenitic steel has high level of stretch resistance and is capable of
hardening above Rockwell –34 to resist deformation due to continuous pounding action.
The valve guides are interference fit to the cylinder head with an interference of 0.0008"
to 0.0018". After attention to the cylinder heads the same is hydraulically tested at 70 psi
and 190°F. The fitment of cylinder heads is done in ALCO engines with a torque value of

10
550 Ft.lbs. The cylinder head is a metal-to-metal joint on to cylinder.
The cylinder head castings are made from special alloy cast iron as per specification given
below: -
Material composition:
Total carbon 3.00 to 3.40%
Silicon 1.80 to 2.20%.
Sulphur 0.12% to 0.8%.
Phosphorous 0.15 Max..
Manganese 0.65% to 90%
Chromium 0.20% to 0.40%
Nickel 1% Min.
Molybdenum 0.35% to 0.45%
ALCO 251+ cylinder heads are the latest generation cylinder heads, used in uprated
engines, with the following feature:
-Fire deck thickness reduced for better heat transmission.
-Middle deck modified by increasing number of ribs (supports) to increase
its mechanical strength. The flying buttress fashion of middle deck
improves the flow pattern of water eliminating water stagnation at the
corners inside cylinder head.
-Water holding capacity increased by increasing number of cores (14
instead of 11)
-Use of frost core plugs instead of threaded plugs, arrest tendency of
leakage.
-Made lighter by 8 kgs (Al spacer is used to make good the gap between
rubber grommet and cylinder head.)
-Retaining rings of valve seat inserts eliminated.
Benefits:-
-Better heat dissipation
-Failure reduced by reducing crack and eliminating sagging effect of fire
deck area.
Maintenance and Inspection
Schedule: Yearly
• Cleaning: By dipping in a tank containing caustic solution or ORION-355
11
 solution with water (1:5) supported by air agitation and heating.
• Crack Inspection: Check face cracks and insert cracks by dye penetration test.
• Hydraulic Test: Conduct hyd. test (at 70 psi, 200°F) for checking water
leakage at nozzle sleeve, ferrule, core plugs and combustion face.
• Dimensional checks :
(a) Face seat thickness: within 0.005" to 0.020"
(b) Interference:
I. Valve seat insert to housing: 0.0015" to 0.0035" (Stellite)
0.003" to 0.005" (Weltite)
II. Valve Guide: 0.0008" to 0.0018"
III. Yoke Guide: 0.0015"
(c) Projected Height:
I. Valve Guide: 2.25"
II. Yoke Guide: 3.210" to 3.272"
(d) Clearance between valve and guide: 0.004" to 0.007"
(e) Thickness of valve disc & Insert: 5/32" (new) 3/32" (min)
(f) Straightness of valve stem: Runout should not exceed 0.0005"
(g) Free & Compressed height (at 118 lbs.) of springs: 3 13/16" & 4 13/16"
• Checks during overhauling:
(a) Ground the valve seat insert to 44.5°/29.5°, maintain run out of insert
within 0.002" with respect to valve guide while grinding.
(b) Grind the valves to 45°/30° and ensure continuous hair line contact with
valve guide by checking colour match.
(c) Ensure no crack has developed to inserts after grinding, checked by dye
penetration test.
(d) Make pairing of springs and check proper draw on valve locks and proper
condition of groove and locks while assembling of valves.
(e) Lap the face joint to ensure leak proof joint with liner.
(f) Blow by test:
I. On bench blow by test is conducted to ensure the sealing effect of
cylinder head.

12
 II. Blow by test is also conducted to check the sealing efficiency of
the combustion chamber on a running engine, as per the following
procedure:
a) Run the engine to attain normal operating temperature (65°C)
b) Stop running after attaining normal operating temperature.
c) Bring the piston of the corresponding cylinder at TDC in
compression stroke.
d) Fit blow-by gadget (Consists of compressed air line with the
provision of a pressure gauge and stopcock) removing
decompression plug.
e) Charge the combustion chamber with compressed air.
f) Cut off air supply at 70 psi. through stop cock and record the
time when it comes down to zero.
g) 7 to 10 secs is OK., if less check the leakage.
h) To check leakage, charge continuously at 70 psi
-Leakage through TSC indicates head defective.
-Leakage through Sump indicates defect in Piston or Liner.
(g) Tale-tell hole checks: Tale tell hole in cylinder head tells about the condition
of cylinder heads in running condition as per the following:
I. No leakage: OK
II. Fuel droplets: Upto 2 drops/min OK.
If more, Nozzle leak off rate is high.
III. Fuel Mist: Nozzle seat defective.
IV. Water leakage: Nozzle Sleeve cracked.
V. L/Oil leakage: Rubber ring on Nozzle perished.
LINERS

Liner forms the wall of the combustion chamber as well as it also guides the movement of
piston inside it. Liners are mainly of two types i.e. (a) Dry liner (b) Wet liner.
(a) Dry liners are those, which does not come in direct contact with coolant but fits in as a
sleeve inside an already complete cylinder. The temperature of the inside surface of dry
liner is higher than corresponding wet liner. Dry liners are in use in only very small
engines.
(b) Wet liners are those, which not only form the cylinder wall, but also form a part of the

13
water jacket. ALCO Locomotives are fitted with wet liners, which have slight interference
fit on upper and lower decks. In addition to this, synthetic rubber seals of suitable qualities
are to be used, one on the upper deck groove and two on middle deck. Lack of
interference or defect in gaskets may result in water leakage causing water contamination
of crank case oil. The liner bore has chrome-plated surface and is honey combed by
electrolytic process. ALCO liners have no step size in the bore. It has got only one
standard size permitting a wear of 0.009 inch.
The General Motor cylinder liners are fabricated type embodying the water jacket. In
General Motor Locomotives, instead of liner bore being chrome plated the piston rings are
chrome plated.
The ALCO cylinder liners are made of high strength close-grained alloy cast iron heat-
treated to relieve stresses. The liner metal composition of a typical ALCO engine is given
below: -

COMPOSITION
(Unalloyed cast iron grade 17)
Carbon 3.00 -0 3.50%
Silicon 1.70 to 2.30%
Sulphur 0.12% Max (mandatory)
Phosphorus 0.15% Max (mandatory)
Manganese 0.60 to 0.90%
Chromium 0.25 to 0.60 %
Molybdenum 0.35 to 0.70% (mandatory)
Maintenance & Inspection: Yearly inspection, 3 yearly & POH renewal
The cylinder liners suffer from the following major defects:
(a) Wear in the bore (Nominal bore 9”.Max allowed 9.009”)
Max ovality: .003”(max) Max taperness: .002”(max)
(b) Loss of interference in the top & bottom decks.
In the bottom deck portion, in between Liner and block a sleeve is used, made of
spheroidal cast iron. Hence in case of losing interference or any other defect the sleeve is
renewed.
Interference between block to sleeve: .004” to .008”
Int. between sleeve to liner: .0005”to .0015”
As the liners form water jacket with the engine block, hence for proper sealing one rubber

14
ring of Si- rubber and two rubber rings of Viton rubber are used at the top and bottom
deck respectively. It is essential to change the rubber rings while renewing or removing
liners.
(c)Cavitation erosion of outside circumference particularly near the location of fuel
injection pump side and also opposite to fuel injection pump side.
• The cylinder liners can be reclaimed by re-chrome-plating in case of wear in the bore
up to a certain limit. In case of cavitation and erosion, if the cavity is more than 1/8"
deep then the liner has to be taken out of use.

PISTONS, PISTON RINGS AND CONNECTING ROD

PISTON
The piston is the most important component in the diesel engine as it takes direct part in
transmission of power. It is, therefore, necessary that the designers and users must know
the essential details about the piston. The combustion of fuel results in large amount of
heat being developed. Out of this about 18% of the heat is absorbed by piston only.
The functions of the piston are: -
(a) It compresses the air to required pressure & temperature.
(b) It receives the thrust of expanding gases and transmits the force through connecting
rod (for rotating crankshaft).
(c) It forms the crosshead through which side thrust due to angularity of connecting rod is
transmitted to the cylinder wall.
(d) With the help of piston rings it prevents leakage of gas from combustion chamber to
crank case.
Guiding factors for dimensions are as follows: -
(a) The top portion of the piston is in contact with direct heat of combustion. Inspite of
cooling arrangement, it takes up more expansion and as such the need for more clearance
at this location.
(b) Relief has to be provided at the piston pin located area to prevent seizure of piston due
to bulging of material at this location in course of working.
Ring Grove Insert
The top most ring bears the maximum burnt of high pressure hot gases. This result in
heavy wears in the upper ring groove. In order to over come this problem, Ni-resist ring
insert is fitted in the uppermost ring groove. Ni-resist rings apart from being dove tailed in
Aluminium casting/forging, are molecularly bounded to the Aluminium body by AI-FIN-
process.

15
Piston material:
In many ways cast iron is best-suited material for manufacture of piston. The reasons are
as follows: -
(a) Co-efficient of expansion matches with cylinder liner whereas Aluminium has got
twice the co-efficient of cast iron.
(b) Heat conductivity is 3 times better than Aluminium.
(c) Compression strength is much more than Aluminium at high temperature.
(d) Wear is less than Aluminium.
But the two main disadvantages with cast iron piston are: -
(a) Weight of Aluminium is 0.097 1bs. per cubic inch in place of cast from which is 0.284
1bs. per cubic inch. Thus cast iron pistons are about 3 times heavier than Aluminium
piston in weight.
(b) Possibilities of cylinder liner being scored are more in case of cast iron piston.
The factor of weight has become more over riding in view of the high speed of the modern
diesel engines and hence Aluminium alloy pistons are favoured. ALCO 251 engines
pistons are of Aluminium alloy with composition given below-
COMPOSITION
Copper 5.8 to 6.8%
Zinc 0.10% max.
Manganese 0.20 to 0.40
Titanium 0.02 to 0.10
Vanadium 0.05 to 0.15 %
Zirconium 0.10 to 0.25 %
Silicon 0.20% Max.
Iron 0.30% Max.
Magnesium 0.02% Max.
Other 0.15% TOTAL
Aluminium - remainder
These pistons are in two parts i.e. the piston body (or skirt) and the ring carrier having
interference fit. The joint between the ring carrier and piston is welded at the crown by
inert gas welding.
Mahle has developed single cast Al alloy piston, reducing the chances of dislodging of
ring carrier during working.

16
Steel cap pistons are used in Fuel efficient and upgraded engines.
PISTON RINGS
The main functions of piston rings are: -
a) Sealing of combustion chamber and thus prevents blow by of air and high temperature
combustion gasses from getting access to crank case.
b) Scraps down excess lube oil from walls of cylinder liner and thus prevents reaching
lube oil into combustion chamber.
Piston rings are made of malleable grey cast iron with open graphite structure and a hard
pearlitic matrix. The piston ring operates during a part of its life under conditions of
marginal lubrication hence material composition has important role in this regard.
Piston rings are used in combination to perform the above functions. They are either 5 ring
combination or 6 ring combinations. Now a days 5 ring combinations are in use.
Compression Rings: 1. Square Face 1. Square Face
2.Taper Face 2. Taper Face
3. Taper Face 3. Taper Face
Oil scrapper Rings: 4.DoubleTaper face 4.DoubleTaper Face
5. Conformable 5.Double Taper face
6. Conformable
In the latest fuel efficient engines barrel faced piston rings are used in place of square
faced compression rings and both the oil scrapper rings are conformable rings.

CONNECTING ROD
Connecting rod is a member connecting piston and crankshaft and is a medium for
converting the reciprocating motion to rotary motion. In four stroke engines during the
compression and power stroke the connecting rod is subject to high compressive load. In
suction stroke it undergoes high tensile stresses. In case of two-cycle engine the
connecting rod is only subject to compressive load. Connecting rod length is usually
about 4 to 5 times of the crank radius. They are I beam sections of fine-grained, fully
killed alloy steel forging. Connecting rods are having a fine-drilled hole from the big end
to the small end for transporting oil for lubrication at small end bearing and piston pin and
for cooling of piston.
The connecting rod assembly consists of: -
(i) Connecting rod, (ii) Connecting rod cap (iii) Piston pin bushing (iv) Bearing Shell
upper (v) Bearing Shell lower (vi) Connecting rod bolts and nuts.
During assembly the bolts are to be tightened with specified torque value and elongation

17
upto .015” to .018”. Connecting rods are mostly made of carbon steel or alloy steel
forging. The metallurgical composition of connecting rod is given below in percentage.
COMPOSITION
Carbon 0.43
Manganese 0.75%
Phosphorous 0.025% Max.
Sulphur 0.025% Max.
Silicon 0.20 %
Nickel 0.40 %
Chromium 0.40 - 0.60%
Molybdenum 0.15 - 0.25%
Boron 0.5% Min.
Maintenance & Inspection:
Schedule: Yearly
Cleaning: Solution of ORION 516 in HSD Oil is used for Piston cleaning.
Checks: Zyglo test for checking surface cracks.
Visual checks for checking damages in piston crown, Ring grooves, circlip groove
and Ni- resist insert
Dimension checks:
a) Piston crown, skirt and bottom
b) Piston pin hole dia: ( Tolerance : +0.001”, Ovality : 0.0005”)
c) Con rod to Piston side clearance: 0.013”to 0.024”
d) Piston to pin Dia clearance: 0.0005 to 0.0025”( max 0.0035”)
e) Bushing to pin dia. clearance 0.0025 to 0.004” (max 0.006”)
Piston ring checks during assembly:
a) Proper sequencing
b) Maintaining proper side ( top and bottom)
c) Ring Gap check:
Compression Ring: 0.045 to 0.055” (max 0.200”)
Oil Scrapper Ring: 0.030 to 0.040” ( max 0.125”)

18
 d) Side clearance
Compression Ring: 0.006 to 0.0085”(max 0.012”)
Oil Scrapper Ring: 0.002 to 0.0045” (max 0.006”)
e) Maintain 180° interval between two consecutive ring gaps.
Con Rod checks:
a) Measure big end bore dia, ovality (max 0.003”)
b) Twist: 0.002”, bend 0.001”(max)
c) Length of Con Rod bolt 11±.005”

FAILURE ANALYSIS OF COMPONENTS & FAILURE INVESTIGATION

A part or assembly is said to have failed under one of the three conditions-
When it becomes completely inoperable-occurs when the component breaks into two or
more pieces.
When it is still inoperable but is no longer able to perform its intended function
satisfactorily- due to wearing and minor damages.
When serious deterioration has made it unreliable or unsafe for continuous use, thus
necessitating its complete removal from service for repair or replacement-due to presence
of cracks such as thermal cracks, fatigue crack, hydrogen flaking.

GENERAL PRACTICE OF FAILURE INVESTIGATION

The objective of failure investigation, and subsequent analysis is to determine the primary
cause of failure, and based on this determination, decide on corrective measures, which
should be initiated to prevent similar failures. The principal stages of investigation are-

Collection of background data and collection of sample-

All available information regarding the manufacturing, processing, and service history
should be collected. Particulars and condition of other affected components should also be
noted. Details about operating conditions must also be noted meticulously. Selection of
the sample should be done prior to starting the examination.

2. Visual examination of failed components-

After the receipt of the broken and affected components in a metallurgical lab, each
sample is registered against a particular sample number. The fracture face is cleaned with
K oil. And soft metallic brush. Location of the fracture must be done in relation to some
fixed corner or side depending upon the specimen. Examine the fracture face with a

19
magnifying glass to determine the type of fracture. Nature of stress raiser can also be
determined. Examination can be done for the presence of welding or reclamation marks,
wearing etc., and if possible, photographs may be taken.

To determine the nature of fracture and stress raiser-

On the basis of visual examination, fractures may be classified as:

Ductile fractures: it involves a reduction in area and neck formation at the location of the
fracture. Overloading is the main reason of this type of fracture. Generally found in tough
materials

Brittle fractures: the entire fracture face is crystalline without any origin. Sudden shock or
loading is the main cause of this type of fracture. There is no reduction in area of cross
section at the point of fracture. Generally occurs in fragile materials. However, sometimes
a part made of tough material, can sometime fracture in a brittle manner if that part
contains a large enough flaw or if there is sufficient elastic or plastic constraint.

Fatigue fractures. They result from the application of repeated or cyclic stresses, each of
them may be substantially below the normal yield strength of the material. Fatigue
fracture face has two distinct zones. It is comparatively smooth and huge concentric
circles or marks originating from a single nucleus are present. They generally show slight
roughness as the crack grows. The remaining portion is crystalline in nature due to the
sudden fracture.

3. Non-destructive testing:- These tests include magnetic particle inspection, ultrasonic

testing, liquid penetrant inspection, and radiography. These tests are done to find out
surface and sub-surface defects. The magnetic particle inspection is done on Ferro-
magnetic components, while penetrant tests, ultrasonic tests, and radiography tests can be
done on all the components.

Mechanical testing:- Mechanical tests include hardness tests, UTS, elongation, bend tests,
izod-charpy tests etc. They help ascertain whether the component conforms to the physical
properties mentioned in the drawing. Nick break test is done on non-ferrous materials to
see segregation and oxidation.

Chemical testing:- Drillings of the component are taken to determine its chemical
composition.

Macro examination:- Two types of macro examination are done:

Deep etch test to determine the grain flow and to decide whether the component is forged,
rolled, or cast. It gives indication of inclusion, segregation, rolling seam etc.

Sulphur print: this test gives the indication of Sulphur segregation, and is done by pressing

20
Silver Bromide paper dipped in 5% sulphuric acid on the polished surface of transverse
cut section.

Micro-examination:- This determines the microstructure, inclusion, and mode of heat

treatment given to the component. This also tells about the presence of micro-cracks,
welding, structural changes due to working etc. a small piece of fractured material is cut,
including the region of fracture, and is polished. The final polishing of longitudinal section
is done on the polishing disc. Unetched micro-examination is done on the polished surface
after etching the micro-piece with suitable chemicals under bench microscope, at
magnification from 100 to 1000.

Analysis of all the evidence, formulation of conclusion on the basis of all the previous
steps.

Recommendations are made on the basis of findings, and remedial measures are suggested
to minimize such failures.

SUMMARY

This unit mainly deals about the Diesel Engine of WDM2 type Locomotive, the standard
Diesel Locomotive, in use, in Indian Railways. Diesel Engine is the power unit of the
Locomotive, hence it is also called power pack assembly. It is a V shaped 16 cylinder
Engine. Engine Block, made of fabricated steel, forms the structure of the Engine. Various
components are housed in it to form the complete Engine assembly. Cylinder Liner, Cyl
Head and Piston form the combustion chamber of the engine. Cylinder head forms the lid
of the combustion chamber. It houses inlet and exhaust valves to provide passage for
incoming air and outgoing gas. It also accommodates Nozzle for supply of fuel in
atomized form into the combustion chamber. Cylinder Liner is made of cast iron with
honey combed chromeplated bore. They are basically wet type liner. Piston, made of Al
alloy, in combination with special malleable grey cast iron Piston Rings seals the
combustion chamber. Con Rod, made of forged steel, connects the movement of piston
with Crankshaft. Crankshaft, made of forged steel with hardened surface, converts the
reciprocating motion of Piston into rotating motion as the output power. It also gives drive
to camshaft, water pump, lube oil pump, Expressor, Radiator Fan, main generator and
many other auxiliaries of the engine. Camshaft operates inlet & exhaust valves and Fuel
Injection pump of different cylinders as per their firing order. Each piece of camshaft takes
care of two Nos. of cylinder, hence, there are total 8 Nos. of cam pieces to form left and
right bank camshaft. Cam shaft is made of forged steel and surface hardened to reduce
wear and tear. Camshaft and Crankshaft are supported with bi-metal and tri-metal
bearings at their housing to reduce wear and tear, which are further assisted by lubrication
system to do so. Different methods of failure investigation and their analysis help to detect
the failures and to decide corrective measure to save the components from premature
failure in service.

21
KEY WORDS

Saddle: The portion of the engine block, which houses the crankshaft.

Mandrel: Gauge (straight iron bar) for checking alignment of main bearing bore.

SELF ASSESSMENT

1. What are the main components housed in the Engine Block to form the complete
Diesel Engine.

What is crank web deflection? How it is adjusted?

What are the duties of a Camshaft? Each section of camshaft serves how many cylinders?
Describe briefly the procedure of installation of camshaft in the Engine block.

What are the common defects noticed in the liners in course of service?

What are the guiding factors for selecting the dimensions of the piston?

What checks and measures should be done during fitment of piston rings?

What checks and measurements are required to be done during overhauling of Cylinder
heads?

What are the various types of fracture? How do you detect them?

22
UNIT M5-WOODWARD GOVERNOR

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this unit is to make you understand about

• the principle of governing

• duties of governor in locomotive engine and their types
• features of woodward governor
• hydraulic circuits pertaining to different activities of governor
• testing of governor
• trouble shooting of governor

STRUCTURE
• Principle of governing
• Introduction to Woodward Governor
• Basic governing section
• Speed setting section
• Load control section
• Fuel limiting section
• Load control override
• Lube oil pressure shutdown and alarm
• Testing of Governor
• Trouble shooting
• Summary
• Self assessment

1
PRINCIPLE OF GOVERNING

There is a particular RPM at which the efficiency of the engine is

highest. This Rpm is guided by the pre assigned load to the engine.
But the RPM of engine gets varied if the load on the engine gets
changed. Hence to maintain the RPM constant, Governor is applied in
the engine. The Governor basically makes the correction of engine
speed by changing the amount of fuel supply into the engine, they
are called speed governors. In the locomotive engine where fixed
throttle system exists, Governor is required to maintain both the
RPM and HP constant at any specific notch (throttle position). As
such in the locomotive besides fuel correction, correction is made
on the load also.
Depending upon how the Governor recognises the engine RPM and
actuates for its correction the governors are classified as
mechanical, hydraulic or electric. Sometimes they work in
combination like mech-hydraulic, electro-hydraulic etc.
In all the diesel electric locomotive of Indian Railways either GE
(electro hydraulic) or Woodward (hydraulic) governors are used.

INTRODUCTION
The Woodward governor for locomotive applications is a
standard hydraulic governor which regulates engine speed with a
number of special devices for locomotive and train operation. It
senses engine rpm mechanically from cam gear through a set of gear
train constituted in the base unit. It includes an electro-
hydraulic speed setting mechanism for remote control of engine
speed, a mechanical-hydraulic load control device for
automatic regulation of engine load to maintain a specific power
output at each speed setting, and a single acting spring return
hydraulic power servo. The power servo has a reciprocating or
linear output. The governor usually has both a servomotor and a
rheostat as an integral part of the governor to adjust the
generator exciter rheostat.

SPECIFICATIONS OF A TYPICAL GOVERNOR

Mounting Attitude : Vertical

Drive Shaft Keyed 1 1/8" - 48 Serrations

Maximum speed Range 200 to 1600 RPM

Drive Power 1/2 hp at maximum drive speed and

normal hydraulic fluid viscosity.

Hydraulic Fluid Petroleum base-lubricating oil

2
Recommended Viscosity Range 100 to 300 SUS (Minimum of 50 to
a maximum of 3000 SUS for wide
range applications)

Recommended oil temperature 140 to 200 deg F.

range

Supply Self contained (2.25 litres

capacity approx.)

Useful work capacity 8.0 foot pounds

Maximum work capacity 12.0 foot pounds

Stroke linear 1 inch

reciprocating output

Weight 105 to 130 pounds depending on

optional features.

The basic Woodward locomotive governor has three functional

sections, a basic governing section, a speed setting section and
a load control section.

BASIC GOVERNING SECTION

(FIG-1)

This section consists of an oil pump, two accumulators, a

speeder spring, a flyweight head and bushing assembly, a thrust
bearing, a pilot valve plunger, a buffer compensation system, and
a power cylinder.

The governor drive shaft passes through the governor base

and engages the flyweight head and bushing. The pump supplies
pressure oil for operation of the basic governor section, the
speed setting section, the load control system (except where
engine oil is supplied to the control system), and all other
auxiliary features or devices.

A spring loaded accumulator and relief valve system

maintains the governor oil operating pressure at 100 psi. Where
the operating pressure is reached, the spring pressure is
overcome and the oil is released to sump. The four check valves
in the pump result in the same direction of flow regardless of
the direction of rotation of the pump.

The governor drive rotates the oil pump and the flyweight
head and bushing . A thrust bearing rides on top of the flyweight
head toes permitting the rotational motion between the downward
force of the speeder spring and the upward force of the

3
flyweights.

The relative motion between the bushing and plunger

minimises static friction. A "spring driven" ballhead assembly is
used to lessen vibration from the engine. These vibrations may
originate from a source other than the drive itself. But reach
the governor through the drive connection. Unless minimised or
eliminated, these vibrations are sensed as speed changes and the
governor will continually adjust the full rack in an attempt to
maintain a constant speed.

The greater of two opposing forces moves the pilot valve

plunger up or down. Flyweight force tends to lift the plunger
while speeder spring force tends to lower the plunger. When the
engine is onspeed at any speed setting, these forces are balanced
and the flyweights assume a vertical position. In this position,
the control land on the pilot valve plunger is centred over the
regulating port(s) in the rotating bushing. A change in either of
these two forces will move the plunger from its centred position.
The plunger will be lowered.

(1) When the governor speed setting is unchanged but an

additional load slows the engine and governor (thereby decreasing
Flyweight force), or

(2) When engine speed is unchanged but speeder spring force

is increased to raise the governor speed setting.

Similarly, the pilot-valve plunger will be raised.

(1) When the governor speed setting is unchanged but load on

the engine is reduced causing a rise in engine and governor speed
(and hence, an increase in flyweight force), or

(2) Where engine speed is unchanged but speeder-spring force

is reduced to lower the governor speed setting.

When the plunger is lowered (an underspeed condition)

pressure oil is directed into the buffer compensation system and
power cylinder to raise the power piston and increase fuel. When
lifted (an overspeed condition)oil is permitted to drain from
these areas to sump and the power piston moves downward to
decrease fuel.

The buffer piston, springs and needle valve in the hydraulic

circuits between the pilot-valve plunger and power cylinder make
up the buffer compensation system. This system functions to
stabilise the governing action by minimising overshoot or
undershoot following a change in governor speed setting or a
change in load on the engine. It establishes a temporary negative-
feedback signal (temporary droop) in the form of a pressure

4
differential which is applied across the compensation land of the
pilot valve plunger. The flow of oil into or out of the buffer
system displaces the buffer piston in the direction of flow. This
movement increase the loading on one spring while decreasing the
load on the other and creates a slight difference in the pressure
on either side of the piston with the higher pressure on the
side opposite the spring being compressed. These pressure are
transmitted to the opposite sides of the plunger compensation
land and produce a net force, upward or downward which assists in
recentring the plunger whenever a fuel correction is made.

SPEED SETTING OR LOAD INCREASE

Increasing the speed setting or increasing load on the

engine at a given speed setting have an identical effect. In
either case, the flyweights move inward (underspeed) due to the
increase in speeder-spring force or due to the decrease in
centrifugal force caused by the decrease in engine speed as load
is added. The movement of the flyweights is translated into a
downward movement of the pilot valve plunger. This directs
pressure oil into the buffer system, causing the power piston to
move upward in the increase fuel direction. The oil pressures on
either side of the buffer piston are simultaneously transmitted to
the plunger-compensation land with the higher pressure on the
lower side. The net upward force thus produced is added to
flyweight force and assists in restoring the balance of forces
and recentring the pilot valve plunger. In effect, this enables
the governor to control the additional fuel for acceleration by
stopping the power piston when the differential pressure across
the buffer piston reaches a level which causes enough net upward
force on pilot valve plunger to recentre it.

It will, therefore, be seen that the first correction to

fuel, thus applied, is directly dependant on the amount of speed
error (or the difference in the speeder spring force and the
centrifugal force). As the engine continues to accelerate
towards the set speed, the compensation force is gradually
dissipated to offset the continuing increase in flyweight force.
This is done by equalising the pressures on each side of the
compensation land through the needle valve at a rate
proportional to the continued rate of acceleration. If the rate
of dissipation is the same as the rate of increase in flyweight
force, the pressure differential is reduced to zero at the
instant flyweight force becomes exactly equal to speeder spring
force. This minimises speed overshoot and permits the governor to
quickly re-establish stable operation. The needle valve setting
determines the rate at which the differential pressure is
dissipated and allows the speed rise to be "matched" to the
leakage rate set with the needle valve. If the rate of speed rise
does not correspond to the leakage rate the pilot valve plunger
is uncentred again and another fuel correction (increase or

5
decrease depending on the direction of unbalance of pilot valve
plunger) is applied to bring the rate of speed rise in line with
that corresponding to the set leakage rate. The speed recovery
rate can thus be controlled to prevent overshoot or hunting.
Closing the needle valve is thus analogous to increasing the
damping on the governor speed maintaining action. The compressed
buffer spring returns the buffer piston to its centred position
as the pressure differential is dissipated.

Wherever large changes in speed setting or load are made

the buffer piston will move far enough to uncover a bypass port in
the buffer cylinder. This limits the pressure differential across
the buffer piston and permits oil to flow directly to the power
cylinder. Thus, the power piston is made to respond quickly to
large changes in speed setting or load.

SPEED SETTING OR LOAD DECREASE

Decreasing the speed setting or decreasing load on the

engine at a given speed setting also are identical in effect, and
cause a reverse action to that described above. The flyweight
move outward (overspeed), lifting the pilot valve plunger and
allowing all to drain from the buffer compensation system. The
buffer piston moves away from the area under the power piston
which then moves downward in the decrease fuel direction. The
differential pressure acting across the compensation land produce
a net downward force tending to assist the speeder spring in
recentring the pilot valve plunger before the engine has fully
decelerated. This stops power piston movement when the
differential pressure across the buffer piston reaches a level
which causes enough net downward force on pilot valve plunger to
recentre it. As before, it will be seen that the first correction
is related to the speed error. Dissipation of the compensation
force occurs in the same manner as previously described and, in
this instance, controls the rate of reduction of speed.

COMPENSATION CUTOFF

With large decreases in speed or load, the power piston will

move to the "no fuel" position and block the compensation oil
passage between the power cylinder and needle valve to prevent
normal equalisation of the compensation pressure. This holds the
buffer piston off centre and the compensation force remains at a
high level as the pressure differential cannot decay with the
compensation oil passage blocked. The higher pressure
differential, added to the effect of the speeder spring,
temporarily increases the governor speed setting. The governor
brings corrective action as soon as engine speed drops below the
temporary speed setting and starts the power piston upward to
restore the fuel supply in sufficient time to prevent a large
underspeed transient. The above action is sometimes referred to

6
as "compensation cut-off". When the upward movement of the power
piston again uncovers the compensation oil passage, normal
compensating action will resume and start regulating the rate of
approach to the target speed.

NOTE :- Due to the location of the compensation cut-off portion

the power cylinder wall, the governor/fuel rack linkage must be
designed so that the power piston"gap" does not exceed 1.03
inches at idle speed no load.

SPEED SETTING SECTION

FIG1

This section consists of a speed setting piston, a speed

setting pilot valve plunger housed within a rotating bushing,four
speed setting solenoids, a triangular plate, and restoring
linkage mechanism.

GENERAL

The speed setting section provides a method of changing

compression (force) of the speeder spring which opposes flyweight
centrifugal force. It does this by controlling the position of
the speed setting piston in the speed setting cylinder, when
control oil is admitted to the cylinder, the piston moves
downward, compressing the speeder spring and raising the speed
setting. When oil is allowed to drain from the cylinder, the
piston spring forces the piston upward, reducing speeder spring
force and lowering the speed setting. The flow of oil in or out
of the speed setting cylinder is regulated by the speed setting
pilot valve plunger in the rotating bushing. The plunger is
controlled by the solenoids which provide incremental control of
speed in equally spaced steps. An integral gear on the governor
flyweight head drives the bushing through a splined mating gear
on the lower end of the bushing.

The rate of movement of the speed setting piston over its

full downward stroke (idle to maximum speed) is usually retarded
to occur over some specific time interval to minimise exhaust
smoke during accelerations. This done by admitting governor
pressure oil into the rotating bushing through an orifice which
registers with the main supply port once in every revolution of
the bushing. This retards the rate at which oil is supplied to
the control port in the bushing and, thus, the rate of oil flow
to the speed setting cylinder. The diameter of the orifice
determines the specific time interval which may be anywhere
within a nominal range of 1 to 50 seconds. Typical engine
acceleration period for switching and suburban service is
approximately 5 seconds, for freight or passenger service about
15 seconds and for turbo supercharged engines the timing may be

7
as much as 50 seconds to permit the supercharger to accelerate
with the engine.

On turbo supercharged units. the rate of movement of the

speed setting piston over its full upward stroke (Maximum to idle
speed) also is retarded to prevent compressor surge during
decelerations. This timing may be anywhere within a nominal range
of 1 to 15 seconds. In this case, a vertical slot in the drain
land of the pilot valve plunger registers with a drain port in
the rotating bushing once each revolution. This retards the rate
at which the oil is allowed to drain from the speed setting
cylinder.

SPEED SETTING

Three of the four speed setting solenoids A, B and C

actuate the speed setting pilot valve plunger by controlling the
movement of the triangular plate which rests on top of the
floating lever attached to the plunger.

The fourth solenoid D controls the position of the rotating

bushing with respect to the plunger. Energising the A, B and C
solenoids, singly or in various combinations, depresses the
triangular plate a predetermined distance. The movement of the
plate is transmitted through the floating lever to uncentre the
speed setting pilot valve plunger and oil is sent to the speed
setting cylinder, forcing the speed setting piston downward to
increase the governor speed setting. Energising the D solenoid
pushes the rotating bushing downward and opens the control port
to drain oil from the speed setting cylinder and thus decrease
the speed setting. An identifying letter is found on the solenoid
bracket adjacent to each solenoid.

Table 1 - Typical Engine Speed Chart

THROTTLE SOLENOIDS ENERGIZED SPEED (RPM)

POSITION A B C D GOVERNOR ENGINE
----------------------------------------------------
STOP * 0 0
IDLE 430 400
1 430 400
2 * 522 485
3 * 613 571
4 * * 708 657
5 * * * 798 743
6 * * * * 890 829
7 * * 962 914
8 * * * 1074 1000
-----------------------------------------------------
Advancing or retarding the throttle control from one step to
the next energises or de-energises the solenoids in various

8
combinations to increase or decrease engine speeds in
approximately equal increments. A common solenoid energising
sequence in relation to engine speed is given in Table 1. In the
arrangement shown all solenoids are de-energised at IDLE and
first notch. Energizing A increases speed by one increment, B
adds four increments, C adds two increments and D reduces speed
two increments when used in combination with A, B and C. When the
throttle is moved to the STOP position, solenoid D only is
energised.

Whenever a change in speed setting is made, the movement of

the speed setting piston, downwards or upward, is transmitted or
fed back through the restoring linkage and floating lever to
recentre the pilot valve plunger. This stops the flow of oil into
or out of the speed setting cylinder at a position corresponding
to that speed setting.

SPEED SETTING INCREASE

When one or more of the solenoids is energised by the

movement of the throttle, the solenoid plungers move downward and
depress the triangular plate and in turn the floating lever.
Since the right end of the lever is attached to the lower end of
the restoring link, the left end of the lever is forced downward
to uncentre (lower) the pilot valve plunger. This directs
intermittent pressure oil to the speed setting cylinder which
forces the piston downward to further compress the speeder spring
and thereby increase the speed setting.

The downward movement of the piston is transmitted through

the restoring linkage to right end of the floating lever and
causes it to move downward a proportional amount. This allows the
loading spring under the pilot valve plunger to raise the
plunger, with the floating lever pivoting about the triangular
plate. This action will continue until the plunger is again
recentred, stopping the flow of oil in the speed setting cylinder
at the instant the piston reaches the new lower position
corresponding to the increased speed setting.

SPEED SETTING DECREASE

Moving the throttle to a lower step de-energizes (or

energizes) one or more of the solenoids and causes a reverse
action to that of speed setting increase. The triangular plate
moves upward, being held in contact with the solenoid plungers by
a loading spring. This allows the loading spring under the pilot
valve plunger to uncentre (raise) the plunger which allows oil to
drain from the speed setting cylinder. The upward movement of the
speed setting piston is transmitted through the restoring linkage

9
to recentre the plunger.

Table 2 - Solenoid Adjustment

for ALCO Engine

Order of Throttle Energised Item of

Adjustment position Solenoids Setting

1 6 ABCD Base speed

setting nut

2 8 ABC D

3 7 BC A

4 4 AC B

5 Idle or 1 None C

NORMAL SHUTDOWN
(See Fig.1)

Under normal operating conditions, the engine is shut down

by moving the throttle to the STOP position. This energizes the D
solenoid pushing the rotating bushing down and opening the
control port to drain the oil from the speed setting cylinder.
The speed setting piston then moves up lifting the shutdown nuts
and shutdown rod in the process. This lifts the governor pilot
valve plunger, draining oil from the buffer compensation system
and allowing the power piston to move down to the shutdown (no
fuel) position. The upward movement of the speed setting piston
is limited by the stop screw.

The speed setting piston stop screw limits piston rod

travel. due to this the restarting of the engine is easier
because less oil volume is required to move the speed setting
piston down.

LOW IDLE FEATURE

With a view to achieve fuel economy the Indian Railways

adopted the low idle feature under which the engine runs at 340
rpm at idle. This low idle setting is reached by energising the A
and D solenoids together. A look at Table 1 will indicate that
this should ordinarily result in a speed setting of 315 rpm; i.e.
idle speed minus the 85 rpm step ;between notches. Since the
desired low idle speed setting is 340 rpm, it would appear that
this is unattainable. However, the objective is achieved by

10
making use of the tolerances for speed setting at various
notches. While carrying out the experimental trials for getting
the low idle speed of 340 rpm M/s Woodward faced difficulties in
achieving the close tolerance of 4 rpm at normal idle.
Accordingly this tolerance has been raised to +8 rpm. Even with
this it may not be possible to achieve low idle speed within
specified tolerance in one pass through the setting sequence.

According to the RDSO report "it may be necessary to repeat the

governor speed setting sequence once again/few number of times by
varying the position of base speed setting nut (forward/backward)
every time in small increments (however by maintaining 6th notch
speed within tolerance limits) followed by remaining sequence of
adjustments in the specified order until the low idle speed is
achieved within specified limits of tolerance."

The recommended speed setting sequence for WDM2 and YDM4

locos is given in Table 3.

Table 3 Speed setting sequence for LOW IDLE feature

STEP SOL. WDM2 WDM2 YDM4 YDM4 ADJUST

Nominal Gov.RPM Nominal Gov.RPM (seq)

Eng.RPM Eng.RPM
------------------------------------------------------------------
Low Idle AD 340 365+4 340 307+4 -

Idle/ 1 - 400 430+8 400 361+8 C (5)

2 A 486 522+15 500 452+15 -

3 C 571 613+15 600 542+15 -

4 AC 657 706+4 700 633+4 B (4)

5 BCD 743 798+15 800 723+15 -

6 ABCD 829 890+4 900 813+4 Base Nut(1)

7 BC 914 982+4 1000 904+4 A (3)

8 ABC 1000 1074+4 1100 994+4 D (2)

------------------------------------------------------------------

11
LOAD CONTROL SECTION
FIG1
In most governor applications, the primary function of the
governor is to automatically maintain a specific engine speed
under varying load conditions by controlling the fuel flow to go to
the engine. With the locomotive governor, a secondary function
is included to maintain a constant engine power output at
each specific speed setting. Thus, for each throttle setting, there
is both a constant engine speed and a predetermined rate of
fuel flow required. To satisfy both conditions, the load on the
engine must be adjusted as the locomotive operating conditions
(speed and locomotive auxiliaries) vary and it is the function of
the load control mechanism in the governor to do this.

NOTE :- It should be kept in mind that maintaining a constant

engine speed does not mean that locomotive road speed also will
be constant.

Control of engine-load is achieved by regulating engine

speed and fuel setting. This is done by adjusting the generator
field excitation current through the use of a vane servo
controlled variable resistance in the generator field circuit.
The vane servo is controlled by the load control pilot valve and
related linkage in the governor. The load control linkage is so
arranged that for each speed setting there is only one fuel
setting (engine power output) at which the load control pilot
valve plunger will be centred.

An increase or decrease in either governor speed setting or

engine load will change fuel flow. The power piston moving in
either the increase or decrease fuel direction will (through the
floating lever linkage) move the load control pilot valve up or
down, respectively. The vane servo decreases or increases field
excitation and in turn engine load.

The vane servo is a rotary type, and in usually integral

with the governor using governor oil for its operation. It
consists of a commutator about which a set of moveable brushes
rotate to change the value of the resistance in the generator
field excitation circuit. The brushes are driven by the
servomotor which, in turn, is controlled by the load control
pilot valve. The integral vane servo is used with low wattage
pilot or amplifier type excitation systems. Drain oil from the
vane servo is circulated through the cover of the unit to provide
necessary cooling for the resistor pack.

The load control pilot valve plunger is suspended from the

load control floating lever. The lever is connected to the power
piston tailrod at one end and to the speed setting piston rod at
the other end. Any movement of either or both pistons causes a
corresponding movement of the plunger which is housed within a

12
non-rotating bushing. Pressure oil is supplied to the plunger
either externally from the engine lubricating oil system or
internally from the governor oil pump. Two lands on the plunger
control the flow of oil to or from the vane servo. Whenever the
the load control pilot valve in the governor column is uncentred,
pressure oil is directed to one or the other side of the vane
servo while the opposite side is opened to drain. This causes the
vane to rotate which, in turn, rotates the contact brush assembly
about the commutator.
When internal governor oil issued for operation of the vane
servo, a supply (cut-off) valve is provided in the oil supply
passage to the load control pilot valve. The supply valve is
closed during starting so that all available oil from the
governor oil pump is delivered to the speed setting and power
pistons to quickly open the fuel racks and thus minimise cranking
time. After the engine starts, the increase in governor oil
pressure opens the supply valve and restores normal load control
system operation. This valve also serves secondary function,
reducing the oil pressure in the load control system to control
the vane servo response rate (timing).

OPERATION WITH LOAD INCREASE

Assuming that the train is in motion and that the electrical

load is balanced with the desired engine fuel (power output)at
the existing governor speed setting, the load control system will
be stationary with the LCPV plunger centred. When a
compressor turns or ( or any situation increasing load) the
engine speed decreases and the governor increases fuel flow to
bring the engine back to the preset speed while still carrying
the added load.
The power piston moves upward simultaneously raising the
right end of the load control floating lever, which in turn,
lifts the LCPV plunger above centre. This directs pressure oil
through the upper control port in the bushing to the decrease
excitation side of the vane servo while opening the lower port in
the bushing to drain. With a reduction in load, the engine will
overspeed and the governor will then act to reduce fuel. The
reduction in the field excitation current and engine fuel will
continue until the power piston and floating lever have returned
to their original positions. The recentres the LCPV plunger and
stops the servomotor. Consequently, the electrical load is reduced
sufficiently to bring the engine power output (fuel flow) to the
original level. At this point, the engine will have also returned
to an on speed condition.

OPERATION WITH LOAD DECREASE

Under the same conditions as stated above, a decrease in any

load will causes the engine to decrease fuel and , in the
process, lower the right end of the floating lever. This moves

13
the LCPV plunger below centre and directs pressure oil through
the lower control port in the bushing to the increase excitation
side of the vane servo. With an increase in load, the engine will
underspeed and the governor will act to increase fuel. This
increase in field excitation current and engine fuel will
continue until the power piston and floating lever have returned
to their original positions. This recentres the LCPV plunger and
stops the servomotor. Consequently the electrical load is
increased sufficiently to again bring the power output (fuel flow)
to the original level.

OPERATION WITH SPEED SETTING INCREASE

Advancing the throttle to a higher step causes the speed

setting piston to move downward. This lowers the left end of the
below centre. Pressure oil is directed to the increase excitation
side of the vane servo. The governor acts to increase fuel to
compensate for both the increase in speed setting and the
simultaneous increase in electrical load. As the power piston
moves upward, it raises the right end of the floating lever to
return the LCPV plunger to its centred position. This stops the
servomotor as the power piston reaches its new higher position
corresponding to the increased speed setting. At this point, the
electrical load has been sufficiently increased to balance the
increase in engine power output.

OPERATION WITH SPEED SETTING DECREASE

Moving the throttle to a lower speed setting causes the

speed setting piston to move upward. This raises the left end of
the load control floating lever and lifts the LCPV plunger above
centre. Pressure oil is directed to the decrease excitation side
of the vane servo. The governor acts to decrease fuel to
compensate both for the decrease in speed setting and the
simultaneous decrease in electrical load. As the power piston
moves downward. It lowers the right end of the floating lever to
return the LCPV plunger to its centred position. This stops the
servomotor as the power piston reaches its new lower position
corresponding in the decreased speed setting. At this point, the
electrical load has been sufficiently decreased to balance the
decrease in engine power output.

VANE SERVO TIMING

The rate of vane servo movement (timing) must be controlled

to effect a controlled rate of load application and to provide
stability of the overall system. Several methods are commonly
used to provide a balanced action and are identical in that they
restrict the flow of oil to and from the vane servo and thus
determine its rate of movement.
The timing valve assembly consists of two adjustable ball

14
check valves in series (See inset E Fig.1). The ball valves are
individually housed and internally installed in the top of the
governor column. The valves are individually adjustable to
provide the desired maximum rate of movement over the full travel
of the servomotor in either the increase or decrease-excitation
direction.

MINIMUM OR MAXIMUM FIELD START ADJUSTMENT

The load control system in the governor may be set up for

either "Minimum" or "Maximum" field start.

MINIMUM FIELD START builds up engine load slowly, providing

a smooth take-up of slack in the train. The LCPV plunger is
mechanically set above centre with the throttle in IDLE position.
Field excitation is retarded due to the retarded position of the
LCPV plunger. The vane servo rheostat remains in the minimum-
excitation position until the throttle is moved in the increase-
speed direction. This lowers the LCPV plunger to the recentre
position and beyond to increase excitation.

MAXIMUM FIELD START enables the engine load to build up

immediately for rapid acceleration. The LCPV plunger is
mechanically set below centre with the throttle in IDLE position.
LCPV plunger. The vane-servo rheostat remains in the maximum-
excitation position until the throttle is moved in the increase-
speed direction to raise the LCPV plunger.

LOAD CONTROL OVERRIDE

Under certain condition of locomotive operation,

(transition, maximum field start and wheel slip), it is
sometimes desirable or necessary to override the normal action
of the governor load-control mechanism to cause a reduction in
generator-excitation current when it would normally respond by
increasing excitation current.

The load-control-override mechanism in the governor consists

of an overriding solenoid (ORS), a two-position overriding control
valve, and an overriding piston within a cylinder which
surrounds the upper end of the load-control pilot-valve plunger.
See Fig.1. Energising the ORS pushes the overriding valve
plunger down closing the drain to sump and all lowing pressure
oil to flow into the overriding cylinder. The overriding piston
moves upward, contacting the spring collar on the stem of the
LCPV plunger and lifting the plunger above its centred position.
The slot in the link connecting the LCPV plunger to the floating
lever permits the plunger to rise independently of the lever.
This directs pressure oil to the decrease-excitation side of the
vane servo, thus reducing generator output. When the ORS is
deenergized, the overriding valve plunger moves upward, closing

15
the pressure port and allowing the oil to drain from the
overriding cylinder. This restores normal load-control system
operation.

TRANSITION is a condition where the electrical circuits between

the generator and traction motors are automatically changed, as
road speed changes, to provide more efficient transmission of
electrical power. Overriding is used in these circumstances to
protect the switchgear from arcing which would occur during
transition if high current existed in the traction motor
circuits.

WHEEL SLIP is a condition when rail and load conditions cause

drive wheel slip, and an immediate decrease in load occurs at the
traction motors and generator. The resulting increase in engine
speed would normally cause the load-control system to respond by
increasing generator output at a time when it should, in fact,
be reduced. Overriding is used in these circumstance in
conjunction with wheel slip relays to cause a reduction in
generator output until wheel slippage ceases.

FUEL SCHEDULE AND LOAD CONTROL ADJUSTMENTS

It has been explained that the load control system has the
characteristic of keeping the engine power (fuel rack) constant
at any notch. This is achieved provided the load control rheostat
end limits are not reached before the load (fuel rack) is brought
to the programmed level. For every speed setting there is a
unique fuel position which will balance the LCPV plunger. It will
be readily seen that for a higher notch (speed setting) the
lower position of the speed setting piston will result in higher
fuel rack balancing position. Thus the load control will tend to
fix the fuel rack position for each notch (speed setting)
according to the Fig.2.

FUEL
RACK

ENGINE RPM
Fuel Schedule (Fig: 2)

16
 The characteristic in Fig. 2 can be adjusted according to
the design by suing the range adjustment and eccentric screws at
the top end of the LCPV suspension. This characteristic is
referred to as the fuel programme or fuel schedule. Ordinarily it
is a straight line with a slope as shown but on some locos
considerations of notchwise power level spacing may require a two
slope characteristic. This may be achieved by using the optional
two slope pickup screw arrangement (not described in this
handout).

RACK SETTING

When a calibrated governor is installed on the engine it is

necessary to adjust the fuel rack linkage so that specified
governor power piston gaps result in specified fuel racks. A well
adjusted fuel schedule on the governor is meaningless unless rack
linkage is aligned carefully on the engine. This process of
alignment is commonly referred to as rack setting.

After mounting the governor on the engine the spacer block

corresponding to notch 8 power piston gap (0.220" in case of WDM2
and YDM4 Locos) is applied and the output shaft jacked up to make
this spacer tight. (CAUTION- MAKE SURE THAT NOBODY STARTS THE
ENGINE IN THIS CONDITION) Now the individual FIP racks are
adjusted so that they are at the specified notch 8 setting (29mm
for WDM2). The jack is taken out and the racks are checked to see
that they satisfy the condition for stopping the engine. This is
merely a check and the rack setting must be done only with the
notch 8 spacer as described.

FUEL LIMITER (Optional)

GENERAL

The fuel limiter is an auxiliary system designed primarily

for use on Woodward governors installed on turbo super charged
locomotive engines. It is used with absolute manifold air
pressure as a reference.

During acceleration on turbo supercharged engines, it is

possible to supply more fuel to the engine than can be burned
with the available air. This results from the normal lag of
supercharger speed.

The fuel limiter restricts the movement of the governor

power piston towards the increase-fuel direction, limiting engine
fuel during acceleration, as a function of manifold air pressure
(an approximation of the weight of air available at any instant).
Fuel limiting improves the air to fuel ratio and during

17
acceleration, allows complete combustion. This improves
acceleration and reduces smoke. Fuel limiting also protects the
engine if the turbo supercharger fails or reductions in engine
air supply occur due to other causes.

Fig. 4 illustrates the unlimited, limited and steady state

fuel schedules for a typical engine together with a typical
acceleration transient from one steady state condition to another.

DESCRIPTION

The fuel limiter is essentially consisting of a

floating lever, a bellcrank, a pressure sensor and cam, and a
hydraulic amplifier together with a feedback lever and a fuel
limit lever. The right end of the floating lever is connected to
the tailrod of the governor power piston and pivots about one leg
of the bellcrank. The left end of the floating lever rests on the
right end of the hydraulic amplifier feedback lever. The position
of the bellcrank, and therefore the position of the floating
lever pivot point is determined by the position of the fuel limit
cam. Raising the floating lever pivot as manifold air pressure
increases, allows the governor power piston to move upward a
proportionally greater distance before fuel limiting occurs.

The pressure sensor is a force balance device consisting of

an inlet check valve, an orifice pack restriction, a piston and
cam assembly, a restoring spring, a bleed valve and either a
gauge pressure or an absolute pressure bellows arrangement. The
sensor establishes a corresponding piston ( and cam) position for
each different manifold air pressure. The relationship between
manifold air pressure and governor power piston position (fuel
flow) where limiting occurs is determined by the profile and
angular tilt of the cam. Cam profiles are either linear or non
linear depending on engine and turbo supercharger
characteristics.

The hydraulic amplifier is a pilot operated single acting

hydraulic cylinder. The amplifier provides the force necessary to
overcome the resistance of the speeder spring, and lift the
shutdown rod and the governor pilot valve plunger when the fuel
limit is reached for a given manifold air pressure.

Pressured oil enters the fuel limiter through the inlet

check valve. Oil is directed to the upper side of the sensor
piston and through the orifice pack restriction to the under side
of the sensor piston. The inlet check valve prevents siphoning of
the oil from the limiter housing during shutdown periods and
omits the time lag to refill the orifice pack and piston
cylinder. This prevents the sensor piston from going to maximum
fuel position during start up. The bleed valve regulates the rate
of oil flow from the area under the sensor piston to sump.

18
 The sensing element of the absolute pressure type fuel
limiter consists of two opposed, flexible metallic bellows of
equal effective area. The upper bellow is evacuated and the lower
bellow senses manifold air pressure. A spacer joins the bellows
at the centre while the outer end of each bellow is restrained to
prevent movement. Manifold air pressure acting internally on the
sensing bellow produces a force causing the spacer to move toward
the evacuated bellow. The evacuated bellow force is directly
proportional to the absolute manifold air pressure. Movement of
the bellows spacer is transmitted through an output strap and a
bleed valve pin to the bleed valve diaphragm.

The bellows force tends to open the bleed valve while the
restoring sparing force tends to close the valve. When these
opposing force balance, the bleed valve diaphragm floats just off
of its seat bypassing oil to sump. This rate of oil flow
maintains a constant volume of oil in the area under the sensor
piston.

ACTION ON INCREASE OF SPEED SETTING

Assume that the governor speed setting is increased. The

governor power piston moves upward supplying the additional fuel
required for engine acceleration. Since manifold air pressure
lags engine acceleration, the fuel limiter cam and bell crank
initially remain stationary until manifold air pressure rises.
As the governor power piston moves upward increasing fuel, the
fuel limit floating lever pivots about the upper leg of the
bellcrank and depresses the right end of the feedback lever on
the hydraulic amplifier. This pushes the amplifier pilot valve
plunger below centre allowing pressured oil to flow into the area
under the amplifier piston, causing the piston to rise. As the
piston rises, it simultaneously lifts the left ends of both the
fuel limiter lever and the feedback lever. When the fuel limit
contacts the fuel limit nut on the shutdown bushing, it begins
lifting the shutdown rod to recentre the governor pilot valve
plunger. The upward movements of the fuel limit and feedback
levers continue until the left end of the feedback lever
raises far enough to recentre the amplifier pilot valve plunger
stopping the upward movement of the governor power piston. This
limits the amount of fuel to provide a proper air/fuel ratio for
efficient burning. Although the governor flyweights are in an
underspeed condition at his time, the power piston remains
stationary until manifold air pressure rises.

As engine speed and load increase, manifold air pressure

rises after a short time lag. The increase in manifold air
pressure produces a; proportionate increase in the sensing force.
The increased sensing force, causes the bleed valve diaphragm to
move further off its seat. This allows a greater flow of oil to

19
sump. The increased flow rate results in greater drop of pressure
across the orifice pack and the pressure in lower chamber falls.
This disturbs the equilibrium of sensor piston and it starts
moving down. The downward movement increases the restoring spring
force and the bleed valve diaphragm moves closer to the seat.
The oil leakage rate falls and the pressure in the lower chamber
recovers. The downward movement increases the restoring spring
force and the bleed valve diaphragm moves closer to the seat.
The oil leakage rate falls and the pressure in the lower chamber
recovers. The downward movement of the sensor piston, therefore,
stops when the restoring spring force and oil pressure acting
upwards again balance the force due to governor oil pressure
above the sensor piston. Thus for every value of manifold air
pressure there is a corresponding equilibrium position of the
sensor piston and the cam.

As the sensor piston and cam move downward in response to

a rise in manifold air pressure, the bell crank rotates in a cw
direction. This allows the floating lever pivot point, the left
end of the lever and in turn the hydraulic amplifier pilot valve
plunger to rise.

The loading spring under the pilot valve plunger maintains

a positive contact between the plunger levers, bellcrank and cam.
When the pilot valve plunger rises above centre, the oil under the
amplifier piston bleeds to sump through a drilled passage in
the centre of the plunger. The passage in the plunger restricts
the rate of oil flow to sump and decreases the rate of movement
of the amplifier piston to minimise hunting. As the amplifier
piston moves downward. The left end of the fuel limit lever also
moves downward. This lowers the shutdown rod which in turn lowers
the governor pilot valve plunger and increases engine fuel.

The sequence of events described above occurs in a

continuous and rapid sequence. Normal governor operation is
overridden during an acceleration transient and engine fuel is
scheduled as a function of manifold air pressure, regardless of
governor speed setting. To prevent interference with normal
governing action during steady state operation, the fuel limit
piston and cam, therefore, continue their downward movement until
sufficiently below the effective limiting point.

ACTION ON DECREASE IN MANIFOLD AIR PRESSURE

A drop in manifold air pressure rotates the bellcrank to a

ccw direction. This lowers the fuel limit floating lever,
depressing the pilot valve plunger and releases pressured oil to
the underside of the amplifier piston. The shutdown rod and
governor pilot valve plunger are raised, releasing oil from the
power piston cylinder to sump, and decreasing fuel to the engine.
The left end of the fuel limit floating lever pivots upwards

20
releasing the hydraulic amplifier pilot valve plunger upward.
As the control land of the pilot valve plunger opens the port
from the piston cylinder, oil is bled to sump through a hole in
the pilot valve plunger shaft. The shutdown rod is lowered,
allowing the governor pilot valve plunger to recentre.

LOAD CONTROL OVERRIDE LINKAGE (Optional)

The load control override linkage consists of an overriding

lever which connects the left end of the fuel limit lever to the
load control overriding solenoid through a pin and a yield spring
combination. The overriding solenoid adjustment set screw must be
adjusted to fully depress the overriding solenoid plunger
completely, at a point just before the fuel limit lever contacts
the fuel limit nut. Pressurised oil is released to the underside
of the overriding piston, lifting the load control pilot valve
plunger in the decrease load direction. During acceleration
transients when fuel limiting occurs, the integral vane
servomotor begins to unload prior to an acceleration lag reducing
overload and poor acceleration. Depending on engine and turbo-
supercharger characteristics, premature unloading can permit the
engine to pressure rapidly enough to prevent any fuel limiting to
take place.

As engine speed nears the new setting and manifold air

pressure rises, a downward movement of the fuel limit lever
permits the overriding solenoid plunger to rise. Oil is released
from under the load control overriding piston to sump, lowering
the load control pilot valve plunger. The load control pilot
valve plunger moves down, releasing pressured oil to the vane
servomotor and increases excitation. This restores load on the
engine according to normal load control settings.

ADJUSTMENTS

Fig. shows the typical fuel limit obtained by the fuel

limiter. The fuel limit curve has to be adjusted by using various
adjustments in the linkage and the pressure sensor. The steps
involved are given below.

1. Pressure Sensor Calibration :- With zero gauge pressure the

eccentric adjustment screw is turned till the sensor piston is a
specified distance (say 0.165 inch) below its topmost position.

2. Linkage Adjustment :- Adjust fuel limit nuts so that the

fuel limit lever is nearly horizontal (determined visually) when
it just touches the bottom of fuel limit nuts.

3. Fuel Limit Low End Setting :- Adjust the fuel limit

21
adjustment screw till the specified fuel limit is obtained at
zero gauge pressure.

4. Fuel Limit High End Setting :- Adjust the fuel limit cam
angle till the specified fuel limit is obtained at the high end
of the fuel limit schedule. Repeat steps 3 and 4, if necessary.

Fig. 5 illustrates the interrelationship and individual

effects of the fuel limit adjustment screw and the fuel limit cam
angle (tilt) on fuel limit schedule. Adjustment of the fuel limit
screw raises for (or lowers) the schedule a like amount over its
entire length. Adjustment of the fuel limit cam alters the slope
of the schedule with the greatest change occurring at the high
end. The contour of the schedule is a reflection of the cam
profile and may be non-linear as illustrated or linear.

LUBE OIL PRESSURE SHUTDOWN AND ALARM

Engine oil pressure is directed to the oil pressure

diaphragm. The shutdown valve plunger is connected to the
diaphragm which has three forces acting on it. Load spring and
engine oil pressures act to move it to the right while governor
speed setting servo oil pressure acts to move it to the left.
Normally, load spring and engine oil pressures hold the diaphragm
and shutdown valve plunger to the right, permitting oil to the
left of the shutdown piston to drain to sump.

When engine lube oil pressure drops below a safe level,

speed setting servo oil pressure (which is dependent on the speed
setting and on the rate of the speed setting servo spring)
overcomes the load spring and engine oil pressure forces and
moves the diaphragm and shutdown valve plunger to the left.
Governor pressure oil is directed around the shutdown valve
plunger to the shutdown piston and ;moves it to the right. The
shutdown piston moves the inner spring and the shutdown plunger
to the right. The differential piston with two diaphragms
(Fig.11) allows a high engine lube oil pressure trip point
without a corresponding increase in the speed setting servo oil
pressure. The engine lube oil pressure required to initiate
shutdown is increased. When the shutdown plunger moves
sufficiently, it trips the alarm switch. In addition oil trapped
above the governor speed-setting servo piston flows at down the
smaller diameter on the left end of the shutdown plunger and
drains to sump. This action allows the speed setting servo spring
to raise the speed setting servo piston. When the piston moves
sufficiently, the piston rod lifts the shutdown nuts and rod. The
shutdown rod lifts the governor pilot valve plunger. When it is
lifted above its centred position oil trapped below the power

22
piston drains to sump and the power piston moves to the no fuel
position.

ANTI-BLOCKING VALVE

"Blocking" the shutdown mechanism by pushing the plunger

back or by stopping its outward movement will not prevent a
shutdown. A spring loaded ball valve within the shutdown plunger
is normally held on its seat and has no effect on the operation
of the shutdown mechanism. However, in the event of a blocking
action as described, the action of the shutdown piston pushing on
the valve pin, will move the ball valve off its seat and the oil
from the speed setting piston will drain through the shutdown
plunger and out to the governor sump. This will shut the engine
down as previously explained.

BYPASS VALVE

Governor pressure oil is supplied to the shutdown piston in

one of two ways, depending on the speed setting. At 2nd notch and
above, the bypass valve is moved down off its seat by the
triangular plate. Governor pressure oil passes directly to the
shutdown piston and immediately initiates engine shutdown in the
event of lube-oil failure.

When starting and at idle speeds, the bypass valve is closed

(due to the higher position of the triangular plate) and governor
pressure oil travels through an intermittent flow orifice in the
rotating bushing. With each rotation of the bushing, a slot in
the bushing registers with an oil supply passage in the governor
column and a hole in the adjustment sleeve. Thus intermittent
pressure oil is passed to the shutdown valve plunger. The
adjustment sleeve may be turned (by readjusting the time delay
pointer) so that the cross sectional area of the oil passage is
increased or decreased. Thus the volume of oil supplied with each
rotation of the bushing is increased or decreased. Turning the
pointer cw increases volume and decreases the time required to
pass sufficient oil to initiate shutdown.

SHUTDOWN PRESSURE LEVEL

Since the speed setting servo oil pressures are higher at

higher notches, the pressure of engine oil required to keep the
shutdown valve plunger to the right will be higher. This means
that with this device the operating point (engine oil pressure)
will be higher at higher notches. This matches with the normal
design considerations for the safe operation of the engine.

23
GOVERNOR TEST
The need or maintaining test charts for every Woodward
governor leaving the test room cannot ;be over emphasised. Well
designed test charts given the setting sequence and briefly
indicate the method of setting. When carefully followed they
serve to remind the workman of what he must do. Ignoring the
importance of these charts could be an unnecessary invitation to
trouble.

It must be mentioned that there is nothing like a

universally applicable test chart for all governor models
employed even on one class of locos. Ensure that the test room
staff has sufficient copies of the relevant test charts for all
the models being tested or calibrated by them. These charts can
be obtained from DLW, RDSO and M/s Woodward. A typical test chart
for particular model in use on WDM2 Locos is given in Table 4.

Table 4 - TEST RECORD OF WOODWARD ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC GOVERNOR

Shed - Model No.8573-463

Date of Removal - Gov.Sl.No. -
From Loco No.- To Loco No. -
Cause of Removal - Tested on Dt. -
Tested By
Date Fitted -

1. Tested with SAE30 oil at 170 - 190 deg F case temperature.

YES/NO
2. Governor oil pressure at 150 rpm. ......psi
(Range 100-110 psi)

3. Close compensating needle valve and back off 2 to 3 turns to

reduce damping while following the adjustment procedures.

4. Apply 60" of Hg. gauge pressure to the pressure sensor in

order to ease the fuel limit.

24
5. Speed Adjustment

Not- Sol. Nominal Tolerance Adj. Seq. Actual Speeds

ch Test Std Bracket Increasing Decreasing
rpm rpm
-------------------------------------------------------------------
1 - 430 426-434 C 5 .... ....

2 A 522 507-537 .... ....

3 C 613 598-628 .... ....

4 AC 706 702-710 B 4 .... ....

5 BCD 798 783-813 .... ....

6 ABCD 890 886-894 Base 1 .... ....

7 BC 982 978-986 A .... ....

8 ABC 1074 1070-1078 D .... ....

-------------------------------------------------------------------

6.Speed Setting Timing

Notch l to notch 8 (Range 11-21 sec.) .......sec

7.Normal Shutdown

a. Adjust the shutdown bushing to have 0.032 + 0.005 inch

(0.8 + 0.1 mm) clearance above speed setting piston at idle.

b. Adjust speed setting piston stop screw by turning it in till

it makes contact with the speed setting piston and then
backing it out by two turns.

8. Lube Oil Shutdown

a. Tripping pressure at notch l (Range 28-32 psi).....psi

b. Tripping pressure at notch 8 (Range 55-59 psi).....psi
c. Adjust bypass screw to just obtain ;instant trip at notch
1 then back up screw 1/2 turn.
d. Time delay at idle (Range 35-45 sec). .....sec
e. Trips instantly at notch2. YES/NO
f. Shuts down if shutdown plunger is pushed or pulled YES/NO
G. Signal switch operates. YES/NO

25
9.Load Control Schedule

Align the load control pointer to the`O' mark when the LCPV
plunger is in the balanced position as indicated by the indicator
dot remaining stationary at any point other than the minimum or
maximum positions. With60" of Hg gauge pressure applied on the
bellows, adjust the eccentric and range adjustment screws to
obtain the following fuel schedule.

a. At notch 8 and with the 0.220 inch spacer tight in the

piston gap, adjust the eccentric screw so that the load control
indicator is stationary but not at extremes.
b. At notch 1 and with the 0.820 inch spacer tight in the
piston gap, adjust the range adjustment screw so that the
load control pointer points to`O' mark.
c. Repeat steps a and b till the fuel schedule is obtained.

10. Manifold Pressure Fuel Limiting.

a. Adjust valve seat eccentric so that sensor piston is down

0.165 inch from its top at zero gauge pressure.
b. Adjust cam angle and fuel limit adjusting screw to obtain
the following schedule with speed bogged 7 - 13 rpm at notch 8.

Absolute Press. Gap (Inches) at Limiting Actual Gap

in inches of Hg Normal Tolerance inches
-----------------------------------------------------------
30 0.795 0.790-0.800 ...........

34 0.615 0.600-0.630 ...........

50 0.375 0.360-0.399 ...........

65 0.222 0.207-0.237 ...........

-----------------------------------------------------------

11. Overriding Solenoid

a. Loosen lock nut on ORS and turn the adjustment screw down
till armature bottoms. Back off screw by 2.5 turns and
secure by lock nut.

b. Adjust override trip lever so that the mechanical override

takes place 0.005 - 0.015 inches (of tail rod movement) prior to
the fuel limiting.
c. Check that ORS functions normally when energised.

26
12. Vane Servo Timing

a. Check timing with the load control indicator pointing to

maximum or minimum marks.
b. With ball valves open the timing to be within 6 - 10 sec.
c. Adjust the ball valve to set the timing from maximum to
minimum position (Range 9-11 sec) ........sec
d. Adjust the ball valve to set the timing from minimum to
maximum position. (Range 28-32 sec) ........sec

13. Excitation Resistor

a. Resistance with the vane servo at maximum. ........sec

(should be less than 0.1 ohms)
b. Resistance increases uniformly without indication of
open or short as the vane servo moves from maximum to
minimum. YES/NO
c. Resistance at minimum position of servo
(Range 27.5 to33.5 ohms) ........ohms

14.General
a. Speed setting servo scale aligned at idle and scribed at
notch 8. YES/NO
b. Gap scale on tail rod set at 1/2" with0.500" gap block.
YES/NO
c. Governor free of leaks. YES/NO
d. Solenoids Operate at 64 volts or less. YES/NO
e. Reset needle valve to 1/4 turn open (or according to
experience). Final setting must be done on the engine.
f. Governor cover sealed with the authorised seal. YES/NO

Signatures of the Mechanic Signatures of the Supervisor

27
TROUBLE SHOOTING
INTRODUCTION

It is impossible to anticipate every kind of trouble that is

encountered in the field. This covers the most common troubles
experienced. Poor governing may be due to faulty governor
performance, or it ;may be due to the governor attempting to
correct for faulty operation of the engine or turbine auxiliary
equipment. The effect of any auxiliary equipment on the overall
control requirements of the governor also must be considered. A
carefully maintained test chart will assist in trouble shooting.

OIL

Fill the governor with oil to the mark on the oil level
gauge with the engine idling. Oil must be VISIBLE IN THE GAUGE
GLASS during all other conditions.

Dirty oil causes approximately 50% of all governor troubles.

Use clean new or filtered oil. containers should be perfectly
clean. Oil contaminated with water breaks down rapidly, causes
foaming and corrodes internal governor parts.

COMPENSATING NEEDLE VALVE

The compensating needle valve must be correctly adjusted with

the governor controlling the engine, even though the compensation
may have been previously adjusted at the factory or on governor
test equi9pment. Although the governor may appear to be operating
satisfactorily because the unit runs at constant speed without
load, the compensation may still not be correctly adjusted.

High overspeeds and low underspeeds , or slow return to

speed after a load change or speed setting change, are some of
the results of an incorrect setting of the compensating needle
valve.

DEFINATIONS

Use the chart on the following pages to determine the

probable causes of faulty operation and to correct these
troubles. Terms used in the chart are defined as follows :-

HUNT

A rhythmic variation of speed which can be eliminated by

blocking governor operation manually but which will recur when
returned to governor control.

28
SURGE

A rhythmic variation of speed always of large magnitude,

which can be eliminated by blocking governor action manually and
which will not recur when returned to governor control, unless
speed adjustment is changed or the load changes.

JIGGLE

A high frequency vibration of the governor fuel rod end (or

terminal shaft) and fuel linkage. do not confuse this with normal
controlling action of the governor.

PRELIMINARY INSPECTION

Governor troubles are usually revealed in speed variations

of the prime mover, but it does not necessarily follows that such
variations are caused by the governor. When improper speed
variations appear the following procedure should be performed.

1. Check the load to be sure the speed changes are not the
result of malfunctions in the vane servo generator control
circuits, switchgear etc.

2. Check engine operation to be sure all cylinders are firing

properly and that the fuel injectors are in good operating
condition and properly calibrated.

3. Check linkage between governor and fuel racks to be sure

there is no binding or excessive backlash.

4. Check setting of governor compensation needle valve.

5. Check speed setting circuits for voltage level and sequencing.

6. Check for fuel pressure changes.

7. Check governor oil pressure. a test port is provided in two

sides of the governor power case for this purpose.

8. The source of most troubles in any hydraulic governor stems

from dirty oil. Grit and other impurities can be introduced into
the governor with the oil, or form when the oil begins to break
down (oxidise) or become sludgy. The internal moving parts are
continually lubricated by the oil within the unit. Valves,
pistons and plungers will stick and even "freeze" in their bores.
due to excessive wear caused by grit and impurities in the oil. If
this is the case erratic operation and poor response can be
corrected by flushing the unit with fuel oil or kerosene. The use
of commercial solvents is not recommended as they may damage
seals or gaskets.

29
9. Check drive to governor for any evidence of misalignment,
roughness, excessive backlash etc.

10. Remember that no repair should be attempted on the governor

while it is installed on the engine. The only acceptable place
for internal adjustments of a Woodward governor is the test stand.
It is a good practice to permit the opening of governor cover only
in the dust free test room.

Table 5 - Troubleshooting

TROURBLE CAUSE CORRECTION

1. Engine A. Needle valve adjustment Adjust needle valve.
hunts incorrect
or
surges B. Lost motion in engine Repair linkage, fuel
pumps.
C. Low oil level. No harm Add oil slowly to the
will be done if top of correct level in gauge.
oil is visible in
gauge glass.

E. Dirty oil, foaming oil Drain oil, flush governor

in governor. to clean and refill with
proper clear oil bleed air
and adjust the needle valve
F. Governor worn or not a. Check flyweight pins
correctly adjusted and bearings for wear.
b. Check flyweight toes
for wear and flat spots.
c. Check flyweight head
thrust bearing.
d. Pilot valve plunger may
be sticking. Clean and
polish if necessary.
(CAUTION - Do not break
corners of control land.)
e. Check vertical adjustment
of pilot valve plunger
and correct, if necessary

f. Clean and polish all

moving parts to ensure
smooth and free operation.

30
2. Fuel A. Low oil pressure in a. Check governor pump
pump governor gears and gear pockets
racks for excessive wear. No
do not correction except to
open replace worn parts.
quickly b. Flush governor and
when refill with clean oil
cranking to remove dirt in pump
engine check valve.

B. Cranking speed too low Correct condition

C. Shutdown nuts not Adjust correctly

adjusted correctly.

3.Jiggle A. Rough engine drive Inspect drive mechanism

at Governor a. Check alignment of
rod end or gears.
terminal b. Inspect for rough gear
shaft. teeth, eccentric gears,
or excessive backlash
in gear train.
c. Check gear keys & nuts
or set screws holding
drive gears to shafts.
d. check engine vibration
damper.
e. If governor has serrated
drive shaft, check for
wear of shaft and
serrated coupling

B. Failure of flexible Remove, dissemble and clean

drive in fly-weight flyweight head parts.
head.

Check spring and install

new spring coupling assembly
if necessary. Centre the
coupling for equal travel
in opposite directions.

C. Governor not bolted Loosen screws, disconnect

down evenly on engine fuel linkage and turn
mounting pad. governor 45 degree cw and
ccw.Tighten screws.

31
4.Engine A. Low Governor oil See item 2-A of this
is slow pressure Table.
to reco
-ver from
a speed B. Fuel supply restricted Clean fuel filters and
deviation Fuel supply lines.
from a
change
in load C. Engine may be Reduce the load
or slow overloaded
to res-
pond to D. Supercharger does not Overhaul the turbo.
change come to new speed quick-
in speed ly to supply sufficient
setting air to burn the added
fuel.

5.Engine A. Fuel racks do not open a. Check rack stops &

does enough adjust as necessary
not b. Check linkage between
pick governor and fuel pumps
up and adjust if necessary.
rated c. Gov.oil pressure may be
full too low. See Item 2-A
load of this Table.

B. Supercharger does not Overhaul supercharger.

supply sufficient air

6. Engine A. Governor action Adjust needle valve

over- underdamped opening.
speeds
on
starting

7. Engine A. Governor action Adjust needle valve

stalls underdamped. opening.
on decel
-eration
to
minimum B. Compensation not being Check rack linkage
speed. cut off at idle. setting.

Fuel limiter troubles such as erratic operation or slow

response to changes in manifold air pressure are usually the
result of oil contamination. Correct this type of trouble by
flushing the governor with fuel oil or kerosene.

32
8. Hard The fuel limiter's sipho- Replace check valve.
starting ning check valve leaking
and/or Sensor piston goes to
excessive max fuel position at
smoke start-up then returns to
for short min fuel position as
duration housing refills with oil.
during
starting
after
a rela-
tively
long
shutdown
period.

9. Excessi- A. Fuel limiter orifice Drain governor oil, flush

ve smoke pack clogged sensor gov. with fuel oil or
during piston goes to and kerosene. Refill with
acceler- remains at max fuel clean oil, operate for a
ation position. short time, drain and
refill. If necessary remove
fuel limiter orifice pack
disassemble and clean.

B. Fuel limiter not Adjust as instructed.

adjusted.
C. Restoring spring Replace restoring
fatigued. spring.

10. Engine Load control override Adjust as instructed.

bogs linkage improperly
during adjusted.
Acceleration.

11. Erratic A. Contaminated or foamy Drain oil, flush with fuel

operat- oil, sludge formation oil or kerosene. Refill
ion. with clean oil, operate
for short time, drain and
refill. If necessary,
remove fuel limiter,
disassemble and clean.

B. Low governor oil level Add oil to correct level

due to air entrapment indicated on sight
gauge glass. Check for
leakage, particularly at
governor drive shaft oil

33
 seal. Check manifold air
pressure line for
presence of oil which
would indicate leakage at
fuel limiter bellows.

C. Leakage in manifold Repair leaks

air pressure lines
or fittings
D.Fuel-limiter bellows Replace bellows
leaking.

12. Dead band Fuel limiter-sensor Adjust as instructed

at low or piston travel not
high end properly calibrated
of fuel with manifold air-
limiting pressure change.
schedule

SUMMARY
The duty of a governor in an engine is to maintain the engine RPM
constant. The correction of engine RPM is made by increasing or
decreasing the fuel supply. In a locomotive engine the duty of
governor is to maintain both the RPM and HP constant at different
notches. This is maintained by correcting both the fuel and the
load on generator (correction of field excitation of generator).
Generally there are two types of governor used in diesel electric
locomotives. They are GE (Electro hydraulic) and WOODWARD
(hydraulic). The sensing device of engine RPM in GE governor is
electrical, through Tacho-generator taking drive from cam gear.
Woodward governor senses engine RPM mechanically from cam gear
through a set of gear trains situated in the base unit.

In Woodward governor there are various hydraulic circuits to

perform different functions of the engine. The basic governing
section consists of flyweight assembly, speeder spring, pilot valve
plunger and bushing, buffer compensation device and power piston
assly. The duty of basic governing section is to maintain engine
RPM constant with the correction of fuel supply. The responsibility
of speed setting section is to set the speeder spring force
according to the notch position. In this, there are 4 solenoids,
which are energised, in different combinations according to the
throttle position as set by the driver. They cause movement of
speed setting plunger and bushing to increase or decrease fluid
supply at the top of speed setting piston, responsible for varying
speeder spring force, according to notch position. The duty of load
control section is to increase or decrease the field excitation of

34
generator in order to correct the HP output of the engine to remain
constant. It consists of a resistance pack, the resistance of which
is varied through a vane servo, which is controlled by a pilot
valve plunger.
In addition to the above functions this governor has the additional
facility to shut down the locomotive in case of low lube oil
pressure of the engine. The fuel limiter section regulates the fuel
supply according to booster air pressure. The over riding solenoid
reduces the power output by reducing excitation in case of wheel
slip, transition etc.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What is the duty of Governor in a locomotive?
2. Explain the buffer compensation system in basic governing
section.
3. Explain the speed setting action of the governor.
4. Explain the load control function of the governor.
5. What do you understand by min field start and max field start? In
which locomotive do they have?
6. What is the duty of over riding solenoid? How does it work?
7. Explain the function of low oil pressure safety device in the
governor.
8. What is the function of fuel limiting section? How does it work?

35
 EXPRESSOR
(6 CD, 4 UC COMPRESSOR EXHAUSTER)
Objective

• To learn the requirement of expressor in locomotive.

• To learn the function of exhauster.
• To learn the function of compressor.
• To learn the loading-unloading arrangement of compressor.
• To learn the function of air governor.

Structure

1 Introduction
2 Construction and description
3 Working of exhauster
4 Working of compressor
5 Loading – unloading of compressor
6 NS-16 Air governor
7 Lubrication of expressor
8 Expressor crank case vacuum
9 Alignment of expressor
10 Summary
11 Self assessment

• INTRODUCTION

In Indian Railways, the trains normally work on

vacuum brakes and the diesel locos on air brakes. As such
provision has been made on every diesel loco for both
vacuum and compressed air for operation of the system as a
combination brake system for simultaneous application on
locomotive and train.

In ALCO locos the exhauster and the compressor are

combined into one unit and it is known as EXPRESSOR. It
creates 22" of vacuum in the train pipe and 140 PSI air
pressure in the reservoir for operating the brake system
and use in the control system etc.

The expressor is located at the free end of the

egine block and driven through the extension shaft
attached to the engine crank shaft. The two are
coupled together by splined flexible coupling (Kopper's
coupling). Naturally the expressor crank shaft has eight

1
speeds like the engine crank shaft and runs between 400 RPM
to 1000 RPM range.

• CONSTRUCTION AND DESCRIPTION

The expressor consists of the following components

mainly;

(1) Crank case (2) Crank shaft (3) Four Nos. of

exhauster cylinders with cylinder heads (4) One low
pressure compressor cylinder with cylinder head (5) One
high pressure cylinder with cylinder head (6) Six nos.
of pistons with connecting rods (including one LP, one
HP and four exhauster). (7) Lube oil pump.

Each of two crank journals support three connecting

rods. The crankshaft is supported at the both ends by
double row ball bearings. Outside the ball bearings are
located oil seals to prevent the leakage of oil from inside
the crank case and air from out side into it.

The specific features and data are given below:-

Details Compressor(LP) Compressor(HP) Exhauster

1. No.of cylinders 1 1 4

2. Cylinder bore 7.750" 4.250" 7.250"

3. Stroke 5.625" 5.625" 5.265"

4. Piston rings 2+2 2+2 2+2

(Comp.& oil scrapper)

5. Normal working pressure - 140 PSI or 10 Kg/cm.sq.

6. Rated speed - 1000 RPM

7. Compressor displacement - 153.5 CFM / 4350 LPM at rated

speed.
61.4 CFM / 17400 LPM at
rated
speed.

8. Exhauster displacement - 614 CFM / 17400 LPM at rated

speed.

2
 246 CFM / 6960 LPM at idling.

9. H.P consumed - 115 H.P max.

10. Lube oil pressure - 25 PSI to 60 PSI.

11. Oil sump capacity - 21 Lts.

12. Weight in assembled condition - 982 Kg.

• WORKING OF EXHAUSTER

Air from vacuum train pipe is drawn into the

exhauster cylinders through the open inlet valves in the
cylinder heads during its suction stroke. Each of the
exhauster cylinders have one or two inlet valves and two
discharge valves in the cylinder head. A study of the inlet
and discharge valves as given in a seperate diagram would
indicate that individual components like (1) plate valve
outer (2) plate valve inner (3) spring outer (4) spring
inner etc. are all interchangable parts. Only basic
difference is that they are arranged in the reverse manner
in the valve assemblies which may also have different size
and shape.The retainer stud in both the assemblies must
project upward to avoid hitting the piston.

The pressure differential between the available

pressure in the vacuum train pipe and inside the exhauster
cylinder opens the inlet valve and air is drawn into the
cylinder from train pipe during suction stroke. In the
next stroke of the piston the air is compressed and forced
out through the discharge valve while the inlet valve
remains closed. The differential air pressure also
automatically open or close the discharge valves, the same
way as the inlet valves operate. This process of suction
of air from the train pipe continues to create required
amount of vacuum and discharge the same air to atmosphere.
The VA-1 control valve helps in maintaining the vacuum to
requsite level despite continued working of the xhauster.

• COMPRESSOR

The compressor is a two stage compressor with one low

pressure cylinder and one high pressure cylinder. During
the first stage of compression it is done in the low

3
pressure cylinder where suction is through a wire mesh
filter. After compression in the LP cylinder air is
delivered into the discharge manifold at a pressure of 30 /
35 PSI. Working of the inlet and exhaust valves are
similar to that of exhauster which automatically open or
close under differential air pressure. For inter-cooling
air is then passed through a radiator known as
inter-cooler. This is an air to air cooler where
compressed air passes through the element tubes and cool
atmospheric air is blown on the out side fins by a fan
fitted on the expressor crank shaft. Cooling of air at
this stage increases the volumatric efficiency of air
before it enters the high- pressure cylinder. A safety
valve known as inter cooler safety valve set at 60 PSI is
provided after the inter cooler as a protection against
high pressure developing in the after cooler due to defect
of valves.

After the first stage of compression and after-

cooling the air is again compressed in a cylinder of
smaller diameter to increase the pressure to 135-140 PSI
in the same way. This is the second stage of compression in
the HP cylinder. Air again needs cooling before it is
finally sent to the air reservoir and this is done while
the air passes through a set of coiled tubes
below the loco superstructure.

• LOADING AND UNLOADING OF COMPRESSOR

To avoid the compressor running hot due to overloading

and also to avoid the wastage of engine horse power,
arrangements are provided to unload the compressor when a
particular pressure is reached. In other words the
compessor cylinders are not required to compress air any
further when the main reservoir pressure reaches 10
kg/sq.cm. So the compressor stops loading the main
reservoir. Due to no further compression being done,
reservoir pressure naturally falls due to normal
consumption and leakages. When the M.R. pressure comes down
to 8 kg/sq.cm. the compressor resumes loading of the M.R.
again.

Basically in these compressors unloading is effected

by the unloader plunger prongs pressing down the inlet
valves of both L.P. & H.P. cylinders to keep them in open
position as soon as 10kg pressure is reached in the M.R.

4
It continues to be so till the pressure comes down to 8
kg/sq.cm. Thus the compressor remains unloaded or releived
of load in the range between 10 to 8 kg/sq.cm. M.R.
pressure. In this case,the L.P. cylinder air
drawn in through the intake filter is thrown out in the
same direction. In case of the H.P. cylinder air is pushed
back to the inter cooler and L.P. discharge manifold.
This is achieved through the function of the unloader
plunger in conjuction with the air governor.

• NS - 16 AIR GOVERNOR

The function of the air govornor is to transmit main

air reservoir pressure to the top of unloader plunger as
soon as the MR pressure reaches 10 kg/sq.cm. With the
fall of pressure to 8kg. the same supply is discontinued
and existing pressure in the unloader valve is vented out.
This actions keep the suction valve open when loading of
MR is not required any more and again allow the compressor
to work normally for loading when needed.

The NS-16 air govornor consists of govornor body in

two pieces of bronze castings and a pipe bracket with a
number of air passages. It also incorporates (1) wire
mesh filter (2) cut out cock (3) cut out adjusting stem
(4) cut out valve spring (5) cut out valve spring
adjusting nut (6) cut in tail valve (7) cut in valve (8)
cut in valve adjusting stem (9) cut in valve
spring (10) cut in valve adjusting nut.

When MR pressure gets access into the air governor

through pipe A, it passes through the filter (1) to passage
B and then bifurcates in the pipe bracket. A part of this
air passes through the passage C at the bottom of the cut
out valve. The other portion of the air passes through
passage D and work on the cut in tail valve.

Once the MR pressure reaches 10 kg. the pressure

acting at the bottom of the cut out valve overcomes the
cut out valve spring tension and lifts the valve to get
access to passage E. The air pressure acting on cut in
tail valve lifts the cut in valve thereby opening the
passage from E to F which leads to the top of the unloader
plunger. At the same time the exhaust passage G of the
casting is blocked by the upper lips of cut in valve.

5
 Once the MR pressure goes below 10kg. but remains
above 8kg.the cut out valve spring forces the cut out
valve to be seated and the passage from C to E is blocked.
But the cut in valve is still kept up with the help of
pressure between 10kg to 8kg and the amount of air passing
through the cut in tail valve keeps on supplying air to the
unloader valve top.

As soon as the MR pressure drops to 8kg., or below

the cut in valve spring closes the valve and thereby block
the passage to F and no further air is supplied to the top
of unloader. Further, whatever air is there in the pipe
line is exhausted as soon as the cut in tail valve upper
lips move down opening the connecting passage G to exhaust
port.

• LUBRICATION

The lube oil system of the expressor is a seperate

system indipendent of the lube oil system of the engine.
Lubricating oil of SAE 30 or SAE 40 grade is filled in the
sump of 21 lts. capacity. A gear type pump under hung
from the crank- shaft journal and is driven through sproket
and chain. The sump oil is sucked through a strainer
filter screen by the pump and then circulate the same to
the journal bearings at a pressure between 45 psito 60 psi.
It also lubricates the small end bush of the connecting
rods and the cylinder liners. A connection is taken from
the pump housing to the stem valve , lift of which
indicates adequacy of oil pressure. A relief valve is
also provided to release oil pressure in case the pressure
in the system is beyond its usual limit.

• EXPRESSOR CRANK CASE VACUUM

The expressor crank case must have some vacuum to

prevent oil throw over through the exhaust by
preventing development of pressure in the crank case.

Crank case vacuum is maintained by connecting the

vacuum pipe to the crank case by a pipe connection
through the crank case vacuum maintaining valve.
Normally in well maintained expressors a differential of 5"
of vacuum is considered ideal. In other words when train
pipe vacuum is 22", the crank case vacuum should be 17".

6
It has been experienced that oil throw over and sticking
of expressor valves (with its consequential adverse
effects) are inversely proportional to the amount of crank
case vacuum. It is advisable to take expressor for
attention, once the crank case vacuum drops below 15".

• ALIGNMENT OF EXPRESSOR

Though the expressor is coupled up with the engine

extension shaft through the medium of flexiable splined
coupling, special care has to be taken for ensuring proper
alignment at the time of installation. The following checks
are required to be made :-

(1) SHAFT SEPERATION - While installing the expressor it is

to be ensured that a gap is left between the expressor
crank -shaft and the engine crank- shaft ends. A maximum of
9/16" is recommended to be maintained between the two ends.

Similarly distance of maximum 3.3/8" and minimum of

3.1/8" is required to be maintained between the two
hubs which are shrunk fitted on to the taper ends of
engine extension shaft and expressor crank shaft. To
determine the correct hub seperation and shaft seperation,
as mentioned above, the distance from from the end of
each sleeve to the end of the hub is to be measured
without dismantling the expressor. The distance should be
between 2.1/2" to 2.3/4"

(2) ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT - During installation of the

expressor it can suffer from angular misalignment in
vertical plane, horigental plane or may be a combination
of both. In order to ensure that there is no angular
misalignment the distance between the two hubs should be
kept equal all round the circumference of the hub face. A
tolerance of + 0.006 only is permissible. This measurement
is to be taken at the outer circumference of the hub-face
with the help of micrometer at every 90 degree.

(3) OFF-SET MISALIGNMENT - There may not be any angular

misalignment, but there may be off-set misalignment. For
checking off-set misalignment use a dial indicator,
fitted on the expressor crank shaft nut with suitable
clamping arrangement. While the crank -shaft is manually
rotated with the help of expressor cooing fan and the limit
of 0.0008" is to be maintained.

7
 Judicious use of jack screws is to be made for
insurting or removing shims at the base for correction of
misalignment and also for lateral shifting of the
expressor.

(4) BACK - LASH - In view of the facts that the couplings

are splined type flexible couplings, some amount of
clearance between the male and female couplings are
provided. Back -lash of 0.024" at 3.1/2" radius is to be
maintained when new. Thus, when two sleeves are coupled
together a total back- lash of 0.50" should be
there. The maximum limit permitted after use is 0.001" at
3.1/2" radious. The back -lash mesurement is also done with
the help of a dial indicator while moving the sleeve by
hand.

• SUMMARY
The expressor is located at the free end of the engine
bloke and driven through the extension shaft atteched to
the engine crank -shaft. Expressor is a combind unit of
exhauster and compressor. The main function of exhauster
unit is to create vacuum 22'' in train pipe. Air from
vacuum train pipe is drawn into the exhauster cylinders
through the inlet valves during its suction stroke and that
air is thrown out to atmosphere during compression stroke
through descharge valves.

The main function of compressor unit is to create air

pressure in main reservoir of locomotive upto 10kg/cm2.
Atmospheric air is drown into the compressor LP cylinder
through the open inlet valves during suction stroke and
same air is descharged to HP cylinder through descharge
valves and delivery pipe. The HP cylinder compress the air
at high pressure and descharges it in main reservoir of
locomotive for the use of brake system.

• SELF ASSESSMENT

1 Describe the function of exhauster unit?

2 Describe the function of compressor unit?
3 Describe the function of loading-unloading arrangement of
compressor unit?
4 Why crank case vacuum is provided in expressor?
5 Describe lube oil system of expressor?

8
 DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE
TWIN PIPE DUAL BRAKE SYSTEM
A9 AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE
The A9-Autometic Brake Valve is a compact, self-
lapping, pressure maintaining brake valve.It is capable of
graguting the application or release of locomotive and
train brakes. THE a9 AUTOMETIC BRAKE VALVE HAS FIVE
POSITIONS:

9
 DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE
TWIN PIPE DUAL BRAKE SYSTEM

Introduction

Diesel locomotives of Indian Railways are equipped with brake system designed by
either M/S WABCO/ USA or M/S KNORR Germany or IRAB-1 Indian Railways or M/S
KNORR Brake (NYAB). Initially locomotives were equipped with M/S WABCO, USA
designed 28LV-1 Brake system for use in vacuum brake train only. In 80's locomotives
were switched over to 28LAV-1 Brake system for use both in vacuum and air braked
Trains.

In 90's some of the locomotives were equipped with IRAB-1 brake system, which are
suitable for only air-braked trains.

Recently acquired WDG4 and WDP4 locomotives are equipped with CCB (computer
control brake) system designed by KNORR BRIMSE (NYAB), which are suitable for air
braked train only.

1
 Over view of Diesel locomotive Brake System

Type of brake system - Designed by – Fitted on

6SLAV-1 air & vacuum WABCO/USA WDM1

brake System

28LV-1 air & vacuum ,, WDM2, WDM4, WDM6,

brake System WDM3, YDM3, YDM4,
YDM5, WDS5, WDS6

28LAV-1 twin pipe dual ,, WDM2A, WDP1, WDP2,

brake System WDG2, WDM2c

KNORR air & vacuum M/S KNORR WDM3, WDS2, WDS3,

brake System Germany WDS4, YDM1, YDM2,
ZDM1, ZDM3

,, hydro pneumatic ,, ZDM4, ZDM5

IRAB-1 brake system RDSO WDM2C, WDP2, WDG2

CCB System KNORR BRAKE WDG4, WDP4

(NYAB)

2
 Air circuits of 28 LAV-1 brake system

1. Independent brake system (Loco brake)

2. Vacuum train brake system

3. Brake pipe system (Air train brake)

4. Feed pipe system

5. Proportionate brake system

6. Safety devices

7. Multi unit operation

3
 Important feature of the 28LAV-1 brake system

1.Locomotive brakes may be applied with any desired pressure between the minimum and
maximum. This pressure will be maintained automatically in the locomotive brake cylinders
against normal leakage from them.

2. The locomotive brakes can be graduated on & off with either the automatic or the independent
brake valve.

3. It is always possible to release the locomotive brakes with the independent brake valve, even
when automatically applied.

4. The maximum braking position emergency, ensuring the shortest possible stops distance.

5. It is always possible to haul both vacuum / air brake trains.

6. Automatic brake application and power cut off with idle rpm of engine is always possible
during train parting.

7. Multiple unit operation is also possible.

4
 Independent Brake system (Loco Brake)

Objective

- Understand the loco brake system

- Learn the concept of requirement of loco brake
- Learn the function of SA-9 Valve
- Learn the roll of MU2B Valve in loco brake
- Learn the function of C2-Relay Valve

Structure

- Introduction
- Purpose of this system
- Loco Brake valves
- Description of independent brake system

Introduction

Loco brake system is provided to stop the Locomotive, whenever it runs as light
engine. It is purely compressed air brake system known as independent brake system. For
this separate air circuit is provided in 28LAV-1 & IRAB-1 Brake system which is
independent to other air circuit. SA9 Independent brake valve is provided in driving
control stand for application & release of loco brake. Valve has three positions ie. quick
release, release and application.

Purpose of this system

Independent Brake System is designed to apply and release brake on locomotive.

When locomotive is moving itself Independent Brake is applied.

Loco brake valves

System consists SA9 Independent Brake valve, Double check valve and C2-Relay
valve.

Description of loco brake (Independent brake) system

The SA9 Valve handle is kept normally in release position (right side). MR air is
always available at port no.30 of SA9 valve. When handle is brought in application
potion (left side) than SA9 port 30 connects port 20 and starts supplying pilot air to C2-
Relay air valve. The pilot air passes through MU2B Valve port no. 2&20 and inters to
C2-Relay at port no.2. See the line diagram of loco brake system. The pilot air pressure

5
depends upon the handle position, at maximum it is 3.5kg/cm2. The C2-relay air valve
actuates after getting pilot air and connects MR pressure to brake cylinders of
locomotive through port no.1&3. The brake cylinder pressure depends upon pilot air
pressure, supplied into C2-Relay chamber through port no.2. For full brake application
SA9 handle is moved to maximum travel position. In this way independent brake/loco
brake is applied. There is a gauge line taken from front truck of locomotive to driver’s
cabin control stand for indicating brake cylinder pressure. When SA9 handle is placed in
release position, loco brakes are released. How MR air is reduced to 3.5kg/cm2 see
internal function of the SA9 valve & C2-Relay valve.

SA9 Brake valve handle is normally kept in release position. Loco brake can be applied
through SA9 Valve handle. It can be applied any desired pressure between the minimum
and maximum. This pressure will be automatically maintained in the locomotive brake
cylinders against normal leakage from them. The locomotive brake can be graduated on
and off with either the automatic (A9) or the independent brake valves (SA9). It is always
possible to release the locomotive brakes with the SA9 valve.

6
 VACCUM BRAKE SYSTEM

Objective

- Understand the vacuum Brake train

- Understand the train brake application and release
- Roll of A9 automatic brake valve
- Roll of VA1B control valve
- Roll of HS4 control air pressure valve

Structure

- Introduction
- Purpose of this system
- Vacuum Brake System valves
- Description of vacuum brake system

Introduction

Indian Railway runs both the trains vacuum and air brake. In vacuum brake train
brakes are controlled through vacuum of train pipe. After coupling the locomotive to the
vacuum brake train the vacuum is obtained in train pipe. An exhauster unit is provided to
create the vacuum in the train pipe as well as the Vacuum cylinders of each coach/wagon.
A9 automatic brake valve is provided in driving control stand through which vacuum is
controlled. Normally valve handle is kept in release position.

Purpose of this system

This system is designed to apply and release brakes on vacuum brake train. Which is
achieved through A9 Automatic Brake valve.

Vacuum brake system valves

System consists A9 Automatic Brake valve, VA1B Control valve and HS4 Control
valve.

Description of Vacuum Brake system

Locomotive and train has a long vacuum brake pipe, in which 56cm vac. is
maintained through an exhauster unit. There is a VA1B control valve in between train
pipe and exhauster unit, which controls 56cm vac.in train pipe. A9 automatic brake valve
is provided in driving control stand to apply vacuum brake on train. When A9 handle is
placed in application zone, train pipe vacuum drops and brakes are applied through
vacuum cylinders of coaches.

7
 The function of A9valve is to supply control pressure to Add.C2-Relay valve. The
function of VA1Bcontrol valve is to maintain 56cm vac. in train pipe. The function of
HS4 valve is to supply 1.7kg/cm2-air pressure to bottom chamber of VA1B control valve
at port no.1. Other valves are provided in this circuit for MU operation. See line diagram
of vacuum brake circuit.

Charging of system

Air at 8 to 10kg/cm2 pressure is charged at different valves through MR-2. See the
line diagram of vacuum system. Port no.30 of A9 valve, port no.1 of Add.C2-Relay valve
and port no.1 of HS4 control pressure valve. A9 valve handle is kept at release position
normally. Simultaneously A9valve will supply control pressure to Add. C2-Relay valve,
through MU2B valve. After getting supply of control pressure, Add.c2-relay valve will
supply 5kg/cm2 pressure to BP pipe. BP pipe is connected to VA1B control valve top
chamber at port no.3. At port no.1 control pressure at 1.7kg/cm2 is supplied through HS4
control valve. VA1-B control valve maintains 56cm vacuum in train pipe.

Application of brake

A9 handle is moved in application zone for brake application. A9 reduces Control

pressure to Add.C2 Relay valve. Add. C2 Relay reduces BP pressure in proportion to
control pressure dropage. BP pressure may be zero if A9handle moved at over reduction
position. If handle is placed at emergency position BP will drop to zero immediately
within 3 sec. After dropping BP pressure brakes are applied.

Releasing of brake

When handle is moved to release position, A9 valve starts supplying full control pressure
to Add. C2 Relay valve causing BP pressure start increasing to 5kg/cm2 and brakes are
released.

Vacuum trouble in train

Following test are recommended:-

1. BLOCKAGE TEST: Remove one end of the vacuum hose pipe and raise it upwards.
If more than 8cm vacuum is created, there is a blockage in the system.

2. EFFICIENCY TEST: Against an 8 mm leak disc, the loco should create 53 cm

vacuum.

3. LEAKAGE TEST: Vacuum on dummy and on leak disc should be not vary by more
than 3 cm.

8
 The Board has therefore standarised the vacuum level in engine and brake van for all
Railways both the traction.

Type of service Engine Brake van Average

M/E 53 47 50

Passenger 50 44 47

Goods 46 38 42

9
 Proportionate brake system

Objective
- To learn about the proportionate brake
- To learn about proportionate brake valve
- How the prop/brake is isolated
- Why prop/brake is isolated

Structure
- Introduction
- Prop/system valves
- Purpose of this system
- Description of system

Introduction
In prop/brake system locomotive brake works in proportion to train brake. If train
brake is partially applied to slow down the train in proportion to that loco brake will be
applied. This work is done through proportionate brake valve.

Proportionate brake system valves

Proportionate brake system consists SA9valve, MU2Bvalve, Proportionate brake
valve, C2 Relay valve, Double check valve.

Purpose of this system

System is designed for Locomotive brake application during train brake
application through A9 handle. This is known as synchronising brake system also.

Description of the system

In this system proportionate valve is connected to vacuum pipe and MR pipe,
when vacuum is dropped to zero for train brake application, at the same time vacuum of
prop/valve chamber A is also drops to zero. See the line diagram of proportionate brake
system. Then Prop/valve supplies control /pilot air pressure to C2-Relay air valve and
loco brakes are applied.

To avoid loco brake, in SA9 valve Quick Release position is provided. If handle is
moved to Quick release position then loco brake will not take place. Prop/valve has two
vac./chambers, which are connected to SA9 valve port no.1&7. At Q/Rel. position both
ports are connected causing both chamber of prop/valve equalized. So there is no action
inside the valve.

In IRAB-1 Brake system C3W-Distributor valve is provided in place of

proportionate brake valve, which senses the BP pressure.

10
 Brake Pipe System

Objective

- To learn about air brake train

- To learn about Additional C2-Relay valve
- To learn about Air Flow Measuring valve
- To learn about R-6 Relay Air valve
- To learn about Air Flow Indicator

Structure

- Introduction
- BP system valves
- Purpose of this system
- Description of BP system

Introduction

BP system is introduced to run Air Brake train, where train brake is controlled
through BP pipe instead of vacuum pipe. Additional C2-Relay valve is introduced in this
system to supply sufficient air to BP system.

BP system valves

BP system consists A9 Automatic brake valve, MU2B valve, Add./C2-Relay

valve, Air flow measuring valve,R-6 Relay air valve and Air flow indicator.

Purpose of this system

This system is introduced to run air brake train. Air Brake system can sustain better
brake power and can haul a long train.

Description of BP system

MR air is connected to A9valve at port 30 and Add./C2-Relay valve at port 1. Normally

A9 handle is kept at release position and maintains 5kg/cm2-air pressure in brake pipe. In
this position brakes are found released position. When A9handle is moved to application
zone, B P pressure drops through Add. C2-Relay valve, port 3 is connected to exhaust. In
this condition brakes are applied.
Brake release
When A9 handle is moved to release position, Add. C2-Relay valve port3 is connected
to port1 and B P pipe is charged to 5kg/ cm2 and brakes are released.

11
 Feed pipe system

Objective

- To learn about Feed Pipe system

- To learn about the Feed Valve
- To learn about the Duplex Check valve
- To learn about the double pipe system

Structure

- Introduction
- FP system valves
- Purpose of this system
- Description of the system

Introduction

Air Brake system has two brake pipes, BP pipe and FP pipe. BP Pipe is provided for
brake application and release where as FP Pipe is provided to help in release time.

FP system valves

System consists Feed valve and Duplex check valve, which are connected from MR-1.

Purpose of the system

Feed Pipe system is introduced to reduced the release time after brake application in
air brake trains.

Description of the system

FP System is charged 6kg/cm2 through MR pipe and Feed valve. Air flows from
MR-1 to Duplex check valve, which allows air to outlet when MR pressure becomes
more than 5kg/cm2. Air reaches directly to Feed valve through cut-out cock. Feed valve
supply air to feed pipe at 6kg/cm2. How Feed valve reduces the MR pressure to 6kg/cm2
see the internal function of the valve.

12
 Safety devices

Objective
- To learn about the safety device of brake system
- To learn about the function of H5 Relay valve
- To learn about the function of HB5 Relay valve
- To learn about the function of D1 Emergency brake valve

Structure
- Introduction
- Safety valves
- Purpose of this system
- Description of safety valves system

Introduction

Locomotive and Train brake system is designed to apply brake automatically during
emergency situation. When driver applies brake suddenly without notching down the
engine during emergency situation safety valve functions.

System valves
System consists H5-Relay air valve, HB5-Relay air valve and D-1 Emergency brake
valve.

Purpose of these valves

These valves work in train parting.

Description of safety valve system

H5-Relay valve is connected to BP system, Which senses the 5kg/cm2 pressure.

When pressure drops below 2.5kg/cm2 then H5valve starts supply of MR pressure to
POWER CUT OFF SWITCH (PCS). PCS brings the engine to idle notch rpm with power
cut off. See the line diagram of safety devices system.

HB5-Relay air valve is connected to vacuum pipe through VA1B Control protection
valve. When vacuum drops 15cm below the requisite vacuum, VA1B control valve
bottom diaphragm follower hits the protection valve stem. Pro/valve moves down
connecting HS4 pressure 1.7kg/cm2 to HB5-Relay valve chamber. The HB5 valve
supplies MR pressure to PCS unit. PCS brings the engine to idle notch rpm with power
cut off. See the line diagram of safety devices system.
When D-1 Emergency brake valve is opened, train pipes vacuum/air suddenly drops,
which actuates H5/HB5 Relay air valves.

13
 Multiple Unit Operation

Objective
- learn the function of multi unit locomotive
- learn about multi unit pipe connections
- learn about multi unit testing
- learn about multi unit advantage

Structure
- Introduction
- Purpose of multi unit
- Multi unit valves
- Multi unit pipe connections
- Multi unit valves & cut out cock position
- Multi unit testing
- MU advantage
- Description of MU system

Introduction

When two or three locomotives are coupled together in multi unit service, called
multi unit operation. In multi unit locomotive one set of crew is provided to run the
train and look after the other locomotives. It can haul a long train.

Purpose of multi unit

The scope of multi unit operation is provided in all brake system. Which can haul a
long load with one-set of driver. Multi-unit operation is beneficial for Railways.

Multi unit valves

There are four valves, which works in MU operation, MU2B valve, F1-Selector
valve, VA1 Release valve and A1 Differential pressure valve.

14
Multi unit pipe connections

Attach the following air & vac. pipelines:

Multi unit for Multi unit for

Air brake train Vacuum brake train
BP to BP √ √
FP to FP √ ×
BC to BC √ √
MR Eq.to MR Eq. √ √
Vac. hose to Vac.hose × √

Multi unit cable should be connected between two locos.

Multi unit valves and cut out cock position

The locomotive operating as a lead/control unit, all valves and cocks are set as in a single
unit locomotive operation. Locomotive operating as a trailing unit, the MU2B valve is set
in ``Trail or dead” position.

Lead loco: no change

Trail loco: MU valve in trail position
¾”COC of BP in close position
A9 & SA9 handle in release position
A1-deferential pressure valve handle in open position.

Multi unit testing

First the loco should be tested individually for its Independent Brake/Train Brake
application and release. Then trail loco to be placed in trail position and both the locos to
be tested through lead loco for Independent Brake application & release. It should be
performed as a single unit.

Secondly the trail loco position should be changed in lead position and lead loco in
trail position. Now again the Independent Brake application & release to be tested
through lead loco. It should be performed as a single unit.

Multi unit locos should be examined for Train Brake also through A9 valve. It
should maintain the drop of pressure in both the locos simultaneously according to notch
position. BP system is also examined through this test.
For FP system Feed Valve cut out cock is opened, both the locos should maintain
the same pressure.

MU advantage

- The Multi Unit locomotives can haul a long load.

15
- One set of crew is required for Multi Unit locomotives.

Description of MU system

In MU system, when MU2B valve knob is placed in trail position, it changes its port
connections and supplies MR pressure to F1-Selector valve. After getting MR pressure
F1-Selector valve changes its port connections. See the internal function of MU2B valve
and F1-Selector valve.

A1- Differential Pressure valve is connected to BP pipe and VA1 Release valve. Trail
Locomotive exhauster unit is isolated in MU operation. Only during release of brakes
after application, A1 Differential Pressure valve supplies BP air pressure to VA1-Release
valve to connect train pipe. See the internal function of VA1 Release and A1 Differential
valve.

16
Modifications

Automatic switching `ON’ of flasher light

Introduction

At present, Driver of the train is required to switch ON flasher light in emergency

situation. Some time it is over looked by the Driver, so RDSO developed an automatic
switching ON of flasher light circuit by modification in locomotive brake system. BP
pressure drop is linked to operate flasher light.

Objective

- To operate flasher light automatically during train parting

- Not to operate flasher light during normal brake application and release

Modification 1

BP pressure is charged through MR airport of Additional C2-Relay valve with ¾”

opening normally. A magnet valve with ¾” opening and a 5mm dia. Choke is provided in
MR line of Additional C2 Relay valve in this modification. When A9 Valve handle is
moved to release position (after application), Magnet valve push button is pressed to
provide ¾” opening to charge BP system. This position is known as `RELEASE’
position.

When BP system is charged and brakes are released then Magnet valve opening is
closed, only 5.5mm choke is connected to BP system to maintain normal leakage of the
train. This position is known as `RUN’ position. See the diagram of modification 1.

Modification 2
See Fig.2, for pure air brake IRAB-I system locomotive.

In this modification two pressure switches provided on BP circuit, designated as P1

between A9valve & MU2B valve on Additional C2-Rlay valve control pressure and P2
on loco BP pipe.

Pressure settings of P1&P2 are as under:-

P1 to close at pressure below 4.6 kg/cm2
P1 to open at pressure above 4.9 kg/cm2
P2 to close at pressure below 4.5 kg/cm2
P2 to open at pressure above 4.8 kg/cm2

17
During train parting on air brake trains, due to restricted charging, BP drops. Pressure just
below 4.5 kg/cm2, P2 will close, which energises electrical circuit connected with P2 to
bring Diesel Loco to idle rpm, to give audio & visual indications, also to switch ON
flasher light automatically.

However, BP also drops during normal brake application while the above mentioned
may take place, to avoid this situation, an additional pressure switch P1 is provided there.
The P1 pressure switch closes when pressure in the Additional C2-elay control line is
below 4.6 kg/cm2 which pressure drop, is faster than the drop in BP pipe of loco.
Therefore, P1 closes earlier than P2 and deactivates electrical circuit of P2.

But there is a possibility of loco coming to idle rpm during release of brake by
A9valve, control pressure of Additional C2-Relay builds up faster than BP on loco, to
avoid this situation an OFF delay relay has been provided in series with electrical contact
of pressure switch P1. This relay provides time delay in activation of P2 electrical circuit.
Time delay relay is set to introduce a time delay of 60 seconds. During this time delay
relay period BP builds up 4.8 kg/cm2 and P2 opens. In this way automatic switching ON
of flasher light, audio-visual indications, loco coming to idle rpm during normal brake
release, is avoided.

For dual brake 28LAV-1 system locomotive

See Fig.2a for vacuum brake train, the flasher light functions discussed above,
remains same while working in air brake train. However, while working vacuum brake
trains the flasher light function achieved by connecting the flasher light circuit to the
existing PCS.

It has been observed that during normal operation and control of vacuum brake
train, BP pressure goes below the H5 Relay valve setting, thereby operating PCS. This
will also happen when emergency brake is applied through A9valve, in both vacuum and
air brake trains. Therefore, the flasher light may gets witched ON repeatedly during
normal train operation also. To avoid this, the modification ensures that the flasher light
will not get switched ON when emergency brake is applied on train through A9 valve.

For this purpose, in modified scheme two pressure switches designated as PCS1
and PCS2 have been provided. PCS2 is directly mounted on the brake pipe of
locomotive. It is a replacement of H5 Relay air valve. PCS-1 is connected to HB5 Relay
air valve similar to the existing system and will operate during train parting on vacuum
brake train.

On pure air brake loco only PCS-2 will be there. On dual brake loco, both PCS-1
and PCS-2 will be there. H5 Relay air valve and double check valve will be removed on
both pure air brake and dual air brake locomotives. The pressure setting of PCS-1 and
PCS-2 are as under:

PCS-1 to close at pressure below 6.5 kg/cm2

18
 PCS-1 to open at pressure at above 7.5 kg/cm2
PCS-2 to open at pressure above 4 kg/cm2
PCS-2 to close at pressure below 2.8 kg/cm2

FLASHER LIGHT

Conventional Flasher Light Modified Auto Flasher Light

Train Train
Air Brake Vac. Brake Air Brake Vac. Brake

. Switching ON of flasher
Light Manual Manual Automatic Automatic
P2 PCS-1
. Engine speed to idle
rpm H5 + HB5 + PCS-2 HB5 +
PCS PCS PCS-1

. L E D indication Manual Manual Automatic Automatic

Alarm chain pull indication

With the above modification, flasher light will switch ON automatically during train
parting both on passenger and freight trains. It is proposed to use above modification to
give indication to driver and to stop the train during alarm chain pull on air brake trains.
It is proposed to achieve above objective by increasing orifice size of alarm chain
apparatus on coaches to 8mm from the existing 4mm size in second phase of
modification after the completion of modification of locomotives as mentioned above.
During this transition period, the existing PATB system (audio visual system connected
with air flow measuring valve) should be retained on locomotives because with 4mm
orifice size on coaches during alarm chain pulling, adequate brake pipe pressure drop will
not be there on locomotive to activate audio visual indication provided by the modified
system with Realase and Run position. Therefore the driver will get indication of alarm
chain pulling from the existing PATB system.

19
BRAKE SYSTEM VALVES

(28 L A V –1)

20
 A-9 AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE

1. Introduction

The A-9 Automatic Brake Valve is a compact, self-lapping, pressure maintaining

brake valve, which is capable of graduating the application or release of locomotive and
train brakes. The A-9 Automatic Brake Valve has five positions: Release, Minimum
Reduction, Full Service, Over-reduction, and Emergency. The full service application
position is preceded by a zone in which brake pipe air is supplied or exhausted in
proportion to brake valve handle movement through this zone, thus providing the
graduation of an automatic application or release of the locomotive and train brakes.

2. Objective

The A9 Automatic Brake Valve maintains 5kg/cm2-air pressure in Brake Pipe

System against normal leakage at its release position. It also maintains air pressure drop
in the system according to its handle position.

3. Construction

The A-9 Automatic Brake valve consists of a self-lapping regulating portion,

which supplies or exhausts the brake pipe pressure, and a vent valve which is actuated
only when the brake valve handle is placed in Emergency position for the purpose of
venting brake pipe pressure at an emergency rate. The self-lapping portion is actuated by
regulating cam dog 3 on the brake valve handle shaft 32 which controls the supply or
exhaust of brake pipe pressure. The vent valve 19 is actuated by special cam dog 23
attached to the brake valve handle which is operative only in Emergency position of the
brake valve handle.

The A-9 Automatic Brake Valve is provided an adjusting handle or set screw 15
which serves to permit the proper adjustment of the automatic brake valve to supply
brake pipe air to the required operating pressure. There is a inlet valve assembly along
with double ball check valve, which moves up and down, when handle moves.

4. Operation

Charging
The A9 automatic brake valve handle is kept at release position normally. The
regulating cam dog 3 holds the inlet and exhaust unit at farthest down ward position.
While the regulating valve spring 12 will cause the double ball check assembly 5 to be
seated at the exhaust valve and unseated at the inlet valve (see diagrammatic). Main
reservoir air is supplied at port No. 30 in the pipe bracket and passes through a strainer to
the open inlet valve in to port No.5. This air in port 5 is also ported through a choke
passage to the face of regulating valve diaphragm 9. When the pressure on the face of the
regulating valve diaphragm 9 overcomes regulating valve spring 12 tension, the

21
regulating valve diaphragm assembly moves down ward and allow the inlet valve spring
to seat the double ball check assembly at the inlet valve seat. The A-9 Automatic Valve
resumes a lap position.

Application
When the brake valve handle is moved into the minimum reduction, service
application zone or full service position, the regulating cam dog 3 on the brake valve
handle shaft 32 will permit the inlet valve assembly to move away from the exhaust port
by the exhaust valve spring 7. The inlet valve assembly will carry the double ball check
assembly with it. This movement will unseat the double ball check valve at exhaust valve
seat, thus allowing brake pipe air to flow to exhaust. With the reduction of pressure on
regulating valve diaphragm 9, the regulating valve spring 12 will cause a movement of
the diaphragm assembly toward the inlet valve and the double ball check valve assembly
will be seated at the exhaust valve seat again. The brake valve to assume a lap position.
Pressure drop in
Minimum reduction—.5/.7kg/cm2
Full service-------------1.7/2kg/cm2
Over-reduction--------2.5kg/cm2

Release after application

Movement of the brake valve handle toward release position will cause regulating cam 3
to move the inlet valve assembly toward the regulating valve diaphragm assembly. This
movement will cause the double ball check valve 5 to be unseated at the inlet valve. Main
reservoir air will then flow through the inlet valve to port No. 5. The supply of main
reservoir air to the face of regulating valve diaphragm 9 will increase and move down
word, resulting in the compression of the regulating valve spring 12. When the force have
equalized across the regulating valve diaphragm 9, the double ball check assembly 5 will
again seat at the inlet valve due to the force of the inlet valve spring and the brake valve
will assume a lap position. Thus it can be seen that the brakes can be graduated off in
proportion to the brake valve handle movement from an application position toward
release position.

Emergency position
When the brake valve handle is moved to emergency position, the brake valve
will perform all the service operations. In the emergency position, the emergency cam
dog 23 is actuated through special cam dog 23 to open vent valve 19 and allow brake
pipe air to be vented at an emergency rate. Release after an emergency is the same as
previously described under release after service.

22
 SA 9 INDEPENDENT BRAKE VALVE

1. Introduction

The SA9 independent Brake Valve is a compact, self– lapping pressure

maintaining independent brake valve, which performs the function of graduating the
application or release of the locomotive air brakes independently of the automatic brake
valve. The SA9 Independent Brake Valve is also capable of releasing an automatic brake
application on the locomotive without affecting the application on the train brakes. The
independent brake valve has three positions: Quick Release, Release, and Application.
The quick release position is the farthest right-hand position of the brake valve and serves
to release an automatic brake application on the locomotive. The application position
consists of a zone in which regulated air pressure is supplied or exhausted in proportion
to brake valve handle movement through this zone, thus piloting the graduating of brake
cylinder pressure during an independent application or release.

2. Objective

The SA9 Independent Brake Valve maintains 3.5kg/cm2-air pressure in the

independent brake system against normal leakage through C2-Relay valve. It is suppose
to maintain graduated application and release according to its handle position.

3. Construction

The SA9 Independent Brake Valve consists of a self–lapping regulating portion,

which supplies or exhausts air pressure for piloting the graduated application or release of
brake cylinder pressure on the locomotive. This brake valve also includes a quick release
valve. Both the self-lapping regulating portion and quick release valves of the SA9
Independent Brake valve is actuated by cams attached to the brake valve handle stem. It
has regulating valve spring 12, which regulates supply pressure. Exhaust valve spring 7
regulates the movement of exhaust valve. Inlet valve spring keeps inlet ball valve at seat.
Quick release valve 17 keeps port no.1&7 separate through its rubber ` o’ rings.

4. Operation

Charging.
In the release position of the brake valve handle, the inlet valve, due to the spring
tension of exhaust valve Sparing 7, is positioned at its farthest travel from the regulating
valve diaphragm assembly. Which will unseat the double ball check valve at the exhaust
valve while being seated at the inlet valve by the inlet valve spring. With the exhaust
valve open, there is no air pressure in the independent application port no. 20. Main
reservoir air is supplied through port 30 in the pipe bracket and a strainer to the spring
chamber of the inlet valve where it is blanked.

23
 Vacuum pressure in the vacuum brake pipe is supplied through port No. 1 in the
pipe bracket to the spring chamber of the quick release valve where it is blanked.
Vacuum reservoir pressure coming from the control valve is supplied through port No. 7
in the pipe bracket and is also blanked to the position of release valve 17.

Application
When the brake valve handle is moved in to the application zone, the regulating
cam dog 3 on the brake valve handle shaft 24 forces the inlet valve assembly towards the
regulating valve diaphragm assembly and causes the double ball check valve to seat at the
exhaust port and open at the inlet valve, thus supplying main reservoir air through the
open inlet valve in to the independent application and release pipe(Port 20) which will
pilot the locomotive brake application. Main reservoir air is also ported through a choke
passage to the face of the regulating valve diaphragm 9. When the pressure on the
face of the regulating valve diaphragm 9 overcomes the force exerted by the regulating
valve spring 12, the regulating valve diaphragm assembly will move down word. This
will allow the inlet valve spring to move the double ball check assembly to the inlet valve
seat, thus the brake valve will assume a lap position.

Release after application

When the independent brake valve handle is moved toward release position, the
regulating cam dog 3 allows to move the inlet valve assembly up word, carrying the
double ball check valve assembly with it, thus unseating the exhaust port while inlet
valve remaining seated at the inlet valve seat. A graduated release of brake cylinder
pressure will be there, in proportion to the movement of the brake valve handle. At the
same time, pressure will be released from top of the diaphragm. When the forces across
the regulating valve diaphragm 9 have equalized, the double ball check valve assembly
will be seated at both the inlet and exhaust valve seats, and thus the independent brake
valve will again assume a lap position.

Quick release position

The quick release position of the independent brake valve provides a means of
releasing an automatic brake application on the locomotive without affecting the
automatic brake application present on the train brakes.

When the independent brake valve handle is placed in the quick

release position, the release valve cam 19 positions the release spool valve 17 to connect
vacuum control reservoir port 7 to vacuum brake pipe port 1. Since the automatic brake
application is in effect on the train, the vacuum pressure in the vacuum control reservoir
will be greater than that of vacuum brake pipe, thus the vacuum control reservoir will be
permitted to equalize with the vacuum brake pipe. This will cause the proportionate brke
valve to assume a release position and subsequently cause the release of the brake
cylinder pressure on the locomotive. The equalizing of the vacuum control reservoir and
vacuum brake pipe will have no effect on the VA1–B control valve, thus the vacuum
train brakes will remain applied.

24
 24 – A DOUBLE CHECK VALVE

1. Introduction

Double check valve is used to provide control of two sources without interaction
between the two.

2. Objective

The double check valve has two receiving ends, that is why this valve is used at
several points in air brake system, wherever two air sources are possible.

2. Construction

There is an internal floating check valve with "O" ring seal 7, automatically
directs the flow of air from one or the other of the two controlling devices to a common
discharge. At the same time, prevents this air from flowing to the inoperative controlling
device.

3. Operation

Referring to the assembly view, when a pressure differential exists between the
two end ports, the higher air pressure forces the check valve 4 over to seal against its seat
3 on the flow pressure side. This closes the passage between the low-pressure port and
the common port in the body 2. Air then flows from the high-pressure port through the
common port to the control device.

25
 PROPORTIONATE BRAKE VALVE

1. Introduction

The Proportionate Brake valve is a vacuum operated, automatic, self-lapping,

pressure maintaining type valve designed to be controlled by vacuum pressure. It supplies
and exhausts brake cylinder air pressure on locomotive. The movement of the automatic
brake valve handle in application zone effects the brake cylinder air pressure.

2. Objective

The Proportionate Brake Valve senses the vacuum drop in vacuum train pipe and
applies proportionate brake on locomotive.

3. Construction

The Proportionate brake valve consists of a pipe bracket and a valve portion. The
valve portion contains two diaphragms large and small selected to provide for proper
reference of vacuum train pipe and loco brake cylinder pressure. Movement of the spool
valve controls the supply of air to pilot the brake cylinder pressure. During a brake
application, the spool valve and large diaphragm assembly moves up to open the
application check valve 3. The spool valve element also serves to exhaust at the bottom
of the brake valve, the air pressure controlling the supply to the brake cylinders. Port I is
connected to vacuum train pipe and the chamber A under the large diaphragm as w ell as
to the top chamber through a ball valve. Top chamber is connected to port 7 and vacuum
reservoir pipe. At release position ball valve is lifted connecting both the chambers to
train pipe for creating same vacuum. Thus, initially, the pressure in the vacuum control
reservoir and the vacuum train pipe is the same.

4. Operation

MR air pressure is supplied to the top of the application check valve3 through port
30. When the A9 brake valve handle is moved to service position, brake pipe pressure is
reduced. This pressure reduction affects the VA1-B control valve, which in turn,
functions to admit atmospheric air in to the vacuum train pipe. Atmospheric air flows to
port 1 of the proportionate brake valve where the vacuum in the chamber under the large
diaphragm is destroyed. The increase of pressure in this chamber acts upon the
diaphragm to move the spool valve stem up ward to open the application check valve 3.
When the application check valve 3 is opened, the MR air through limiting valve flows to
C2-Relay valve for piloting the loco brake cylinder pressure. Same air is ported through a
choke to the spring chamber above the small diaphragm of Prop/valve. When the air
pressure builds up and balances against force of the vacuum train pipe pressure on the
large diaphragm. When this balance is reached, the spool valve moves down and closes
the application check valve 3 at which time the spool valve will assume a lap position.

26
 As the brake valve handle is moved towards release position, the brake pipe
pressure is increased, thus the VA1-B control valve functions to connect the vacuum train
pipe to the exhauster. In the train pipe vacuum is created as well as in the bottom
chamber of large diaphragm. The diaphragm follower will resume the previous position.
The brake cylinder pilot pressure will be exhausted through the service valve stem at port
10. The exhaust of brake cylinder pressure will be proportional to the brake pipe pressure.
With each movement of the brake valve handle towards release position, a proportionate
amount of brake cylinder pressure will be exhausted. Thus, it can be seen that when the
brake valve handle is moved from service position towards release position, a graduated
release of locomotive brakes take place.

The quick release of an automatic brake application on the locomotive is

achieved through quick release position of SA9 valve. The vacuum control reservoir
piped to port 7 is connected to the vacuum train pipe port 1. The equalization of pressures
across the large diaphragm will permit the spool valve assembly downward. Thus
causing the brake cylinder control air to flow through the spool valve and exhaust to
atmosphere at port 10.

27
 C-2 RELAY VALVE

1. Introduction

The C-2 Relay Valve is a diaphragm operated, self-lapping valve which functions
to supply and exhaust brake cylinder air pressure during brake applications and release.

2. Objective

The C2-Relay valve maintains 3.5kg/cm2-air pressure in locomotive brake

system against normal leakage.

3. Operation

Application
While supply air pressure present in port 1 and no air pressure present on control
diaphragm 36, both supply valve 6 and exhaust valve 23 will be seated by the respective
springs. Assume that air pressure is admitted to the control port 2 of the valve. This
pressure will be delivered to the upper side of diaphragm 36 causing it to move
downward, carrying diaphragm stem 20 with it. During this movement, the diaphragm
stem will contact the differential type supply valve 6 and unseat it by compressing supply
valve spring 5. Supply air from port 1 will then flow past the unseated valve to the
delivery port 3 where it is piped to the brake cylinders. Supply air also flows through a
choke in the exhaust valve to the underside of the control diaphragm 36. When the
pressure under the diaphragm is substantially equal to the control pressure on top of the
diaphragm, the diaphragm assembly will move back toward its initial position, and
supply valve 6 will seal, aided by spring 5 , thus cutting off further flow of supply air to
the delivery port.

The relay valve will maintain this delivery pressure against leakage. In the case of
a reduction in delivery pressure, the high pressure on the upper side of diaphragm 36 will
cause movement downward, repeating the application cycle and restoring the delivery
pressure to the desired valve.
Release
When the control pressure to the valve is reduced, the high pressure on the
underside of diaphragm 36 will cause it to move upward, carrying stem 20 with it. During
this movement, the shoulder on the diaphragm stem will contact differential type exhaust
valve 23 and unseat it by compression of spring 27. Air from the delivery port will then
flow past unseated exhaust valve 23 to atmosphere, reducing the pressure in the brake
cylinders. When the pressure has been reduced to balance the pressure in the diaphragm,
the diaphragm assembly will move back to its initial position and exhaust valve 23 will
seal, aided by spring 27, thus cutting off the flow of brake cylinder air to exhaust. If the
control pressure is completely removed from diaphragm 36, the valve will completely
exhaust the delivery pressure to the brake cylinders.

28
 ADDITIONAL C2-RELAY VALVE

The construction and internal function of Additional C2-Relay and C2-Relay

valves are same and both are interchangeable. But in Add. C2-Relay pipe bracket
¾"dia.outlet port is provided for faster charging and C2-Relay has ½" dia. outlet port.

29
 MU – 2B VALVE

1. Introduction

The MU- 2B valve is a two-position valve with a pipe bracket. It is used in

multiple unit service. The MU-2B valve pilots the F-1 selector valve. It is a device that
enables equipment of one locomotive to be controlled by equipment of another. It also
controls the movement of the VA1 release valve. The two positions used in the MU-
2B valve is "LEAD" and "TRAIL or DEAD."

2. Objective

This valve is provided to work in multiunit operation. In trail unit brake

application valves are isolated through this valve.

3. Construction

MU2B Valve has two positions, which works as a spool valve. It has number of
port connections.

4. Operation

In "LEAD" position, main reservoir air piped to port 63 is connected to port 53

and thus to the double check valve that leads to the piston of the VA–1 release valve.
Independent brake control pressure is connected to port 2 &20 of the MU– 2B valve. Port
13 and port 3 are connected as a means of providing the passage to charge the brake pipe
from the automatic brake valve. Port 30 connected to the F1 selector valve provides the
connection for a supply of MR air that positions the F1 selector valve when the
locomotive is used as a trailing unit.

When the unit is used as a trail locomotive, the MU-2B valve is positioned in
"TRAIL or DEAD" position. Ports 2, 3, and 20 are blanked at the MU-2B valve. Port 53
is connected to exhaust at the MU- 2B valve. Main reservoir piped to port 63 is
connected to port 30, which in turn, positions the F-1 selector valve of trail position
operation. At the F- 1 selector valve, brake cylinder equalizing pipe air, port 14, is
connected to ports 16 and 20, both of which are connected through a double check valve
and thus to the control port of the relay valve. This provides a passage for air emanating
from the lead unit during a brake application.

30
 F1 SELECTOR VALVE

1. Introduction

The F-1 Selector valve performs the function of arranging the brake equipment on
the locomotive to lead or trail, other type of brake equipment. It performs the function of
protecting a trailing locomotive brake equipment by automatically resetting the brake
control to lead position in the event of a separation between locomotive units.

2. Objective
To apply loco brake on trailing locomotives during parting of multi unit locos. It
works as a safety valve.

3. Construction

The selector valve consists of three sections and a pipe bracket. The pipe bracket has
number of port connections. Port 15 controls the protection portion. The transfer sections
are controlled by pressure in pipes Nos. 53 and 63. Connections are made as shown in the
positioning chart for the positions "Lead", "Trail or Dead". There are three-spool valve
no.6, 9 & 12. Which changes the port connections during trail and loco parting.

2. Operation

Operation of the selector valve is under control of the MU2B valve.

Lead position
When the 28LAV-1 equipped locomotive is the lead unit, air pressure to ports 53
and 63 of the selector valve is vented and connections made as shown in lead position of
the position diagrammatic. Control valve pressure flows from port 4 to 16 and from there
through a double check valve to the C-2 Relay valve. Pressure from the brake cylinder
line flows from port 30 to 14, hence to the brake cylinder-equalizing pipe of the lead
locomotive. The brake cylinder-equalizing pipe is used to control brakes on trailing units.

Trail position
When the 28LAV-1 equipped locomotive is the trailing unit or the dead unit,
operation of the selector valve is achieved by supplying MR pressure to port 53 of the
selector valve, causing the selector valve to assume the position as shown in the position
diagrammatic under "Trail or Dead". Under this condition, air pressure from the brake
cylinder equalizing pipe enters port 14 and flows to ports 16 and 20 and thus to the C-2
Relay Valve of the trailing or dead locomotive. Thus, automatic and independent brake
applications initiated at the lead -locomotive are transmitted to the trailing or dead
28LAV1quipped locomotive and result in the same brake cylinder pressures as on the
lead locomotive.

31
 VA1B CONTROL VALVE

1. Introduction

The VA1B Control valve controls the vacuum of train pipe. It connects the train
pipe to atmosphere or exhauster as per variation in BP pressure. It is a very sensitive
valve, which works on two deferent pressure 5kg/cm2 and 1.7 kg/cm2. It helps to operate
the train vacuum brakes. This valve also acts as a pilot to operate the locomotive air
brake through proportionate brake valve.

2. Objective

VA1B control valve is deployed in vacuum brake system to apply and release the
train brake.

3. Construction

The control valve has three portions. Top cover, valve body and bottom cover
with protection valve. The valve body contains sleeve, control valve 6, contacted on its
upper side through its upper pusher pin 7 to small diaphragm 8 through diaphragm
follower 9. It is also contacted on its bottom side through lower pusher pin 19 to large
diaphragm 21 through diaphragm follower 22. The VA1B Control valve has six pipe
connections (see piping diagram).
3 – Brake Pipe pressure
6 – Vacuum train pipe
2 --Vacuum train pipe
1 – Vacuum Control pipe
7 – Vacuum Reservoir Pipe to exhauster
8 – Atmosphere through GD-80 filter
Top diaphragm makes two chambers, chamber A is connected to B P pressure
5kg/cm2 through port 3 and chamber B is connected to atmosphere through a breather
port. Bottom diaphragm makes two chambers, chamber C is connected to vacuum train
pipe through port2 and chamber D is connected to vacuum control pressure 1.7kg/cm2
through port1.

3. Operation

The VA1B control valve is actuated through A9 valve. The deferent positions of
A9 is described below.

32
Release

When 5kg/cm2 pressure is available in chamber A, 56cm vacuum in chamber C,

and 1.7kg/cm2 pressure in chamber D, the valve remains in balanced or lapped position
and all the ports are closed.

Suppose there has been a brake application, in chamber A pressure will drop and
in chamber C vacuum will drop. When the A9 valve handle is moved in release position
the brake pipe pressure starts increasing, the pressure in chamber A also increases, the
control valve moves down connecting port 7 to port 6. In this way the exhauster starts
creating vacuum in the train pipe. As the vacuum is restored in the vacuum train pipe and
in chamber C of the control valve, the 1.7kg/cm2 pressure supplied to chamber D moves
the diaphragm 20 and valve 6 upward. When the vacuum in chamber C is increased to
approximately 56cm the upward movement of the valve 6 will lap itself leaving only
enough opening to permit the exhauster to maintain vacuum against leakage in the train
pipe.

Application

When the vacuum is restored in the vacuum brake system and it is desired to
apply the brakes, the brake valve handle is moved to application position, causing a
reduction in brake pipe pressure.

As chamber A of the VA1B Control Valve is connected to the brake pipe, a

reduction in pressure in this chamber also takes place. The 1.7kg/cm2 pressure in
chamber D then moves the diaphragm follower and control valve upward as the brake
pipe pressure is reduced. The control valve connects pipe 6 and chamber C to
atmospheric port 8. Thus, atmospheric air pressure enters the vacuum train pipe. Thereby
the vacuum brakes are applied on train. The pipe connection no. 2 between chamber C
and pipe 6 allows drop in vacuum in chamber C through a choke also and the valve
comes to lap position. The constant braking force is maintained against normal leakage. It
is understood that two pressure i.e. brake pipe and vacuum are varying and for different
combination of these two forces the valve gets lapped position giving different braking
forces.

Emergency

When it is desired to make the shortest possible stop, the brake valve handle is
moved to Emergency position, causing an emergency rate of brake pipe reduction.

33
 HS-4 CONTROL AIR VALVE

1. Introduction

The HS4 control air valve delivers a constant, uniform, predetermined air
pressure. It serves to regulate the operation of another device in the system. In addition,
the air delivered through the valve may be used to operate auxiliary devices.

2. Objective

HS4 valve is provided to supply constant air pressure to bottom chamber of

VA1B control valve. It is adjusted at 1.7kg/cm2.

3. Construction

HS4 control air valve has inlet valve 5a, exhaust valve 5b, inlet valve spring seat
6a, exhaust valve spring seat 6b, inlet valve spring 7a, exhaust valve spring 7b, exhaust
valve seat 10, valve spring 21, diaphragm 11, follower 12, diaphragm spring 17, and
diaphragm spring seat 16. Turning adjusting handle 15 regulates the delivery pressure of
the HS-4 valve.

4. Operation

Air pressure enters the HS4 control air valve at the port marked "In" and flows
through a strainer to the chamber above inlet valve 5a. In open position, diaphragm
spring 17 acts through follower 12, exhaust valve seat 10 and exhaust valve 5b to raise
and open inlet valve 5a. Exhaust valve 5b and exhaust valve seat 10 move upward
together and the exhaust valve remains seated. Air from the supply port "in" flows by the
unseated inlet valve 5a to the delivery port and through a choke to the chamber above
diaphragm 11. When the delivered air pressure reaches the amount called for the setting
of adjusting handle 15, it forces diaphragm 11 downward.

Exhaust valve seat 10 moves with diaphragm 11 and inlet valve spring 7a seated
the inlet valve 5a, cutting the connection between the "In" and "Out" passages. Spring 7a,
acting through inlet valve 5a, also keeps exhaust valve 5b seated.

The HS4 control air valve will remain in closed position until the air pressure in
the delivery pipe and in the chamber above the diaphragm falls below the predetermined
amount, allowing spring 17 to move diaphragm 11 upward. This movement, acting
through exhaust valve seat 10 and exhaust valve 5b, lifts inlet valve 5a from its seat,
again connecting the supply and delivery ports until the desired supply pressure is
reached.

34
 The HS4 control air valve also contains provision for reducing any excess
pressure in the delivery pipe, as when the pressure called for by the setting of adjusting
handle 15 is lowered. Excess pressure in the chamber above diaphragm 11 moves the
diaphragm and exhaust valve seat 10 downward away from exhaust valve 5b, The excess
air pressure then flows past the unseated exhaust valve 5b, through the exhaust valve
spring chamber and the diaphragm spring chamber and out to atmosphere through the
opening in the bottom cover.

35
 VA1 RELEASE VALVE

1. Introduction

The VA-1 Release valve without choke is used in some instances as a remote
controlled cut out cock. It is installed in the vacuum brake pipeline between the VA1B
control valve and the vacuum brake pipe. On a lead unit, the VA1 release valve is held
open by supply MR air delivered from MU2B port no.53. On a trail unit, the VA1 release
valve remains closed and is held open only during release of an automatic brake by the
brake pipe pressure supplied from A1differential pilot air pressure valve.

2. Objective

It functions during multi unit operation. The trail unit loco exhauster is cut off
from train pipe during multi unit operation through this valve and connects at release
position for few seconds.

3. Construction

The release valve houses a piston type valve consisting of a valve stem 3, valve
seat 4, follower 5 and valve stem spring 8. Three pipe connections are port 1 leads to
vacuum train pipe, port 2 to VA1B control valve and port 3 to an auxiliary device that
supplies air to unseat the valve stem.

4. Operation

In normal operation, when the unit is in lead position, the VA1 release valve is unseated
by the supply of air to pipe 3 connected to the bottom of the piston. Thus, as the
exhauster is operating continuously, the vacuum in the vacuum train pipe may be created
or destroyed by the movement of the VA1B control valve spool valve. The VA1 release
valve on the trailing unit remains closed at all times. It is open only during release of an
automatic brake, at which time air delivered to port 3 unseats the piston and thus permits
the exhauster on the trailing unit to assist in evacuation of the vacuum brake pipe.

36
 A- 1DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE VALVE

1. Introduction

The A1 Differential pilot valve automatically operates the VA1 Release valve to
restore the vacuum in the vacuum train pipe and release the trailing stock vacuum brakes,
when the brake pipe is recharged.

2. Objective

TheA1 Differential pilot valve opens the VA1 release valve to connect trail loco
vacuum train pipe at release position after application.

3. Construction

Referring to the diagrammatic, the differential pilot valve consists of the

diaphragm 7, the diaphragm spring 18, the check valves 13 & 15 and the check valve
spring 14. There are four ports in the valve 1 leads to the air brake pipe, 2 leads to the
vacuum release valve, 3 leads to a volume reservoir and Exhaust choke is opening to
atmosphere.

4. Operation

The A1 Differential pilot valve is actuated through A9 valve position. Which

described below.
Release
When the handle of the automatic brake valve is in Running positions, air from the brake
pipe enters the A-1 Differential pilot valve through port 1, charging chamber A above
diaphragm 7. Chamber A is connected through choke 3 to chamber B below the
diaphragm, but the charging of chamber B is restricted by choke 3 and the attached
volume reservoir. Thus the faster build- up of pressure in Chamber A moves diaphragm 7
downward against the lower pressure in Chamber B, unseating check valve 15 to permit
brake pipe air from Chamber A to flow to pipe 2 and the VA1 release valve.

At the air brake pipe is charged, the air in chamber A continues to flow through choke 3
to chamber B, decreasing the differential pressure across diaphragm 7 until spring 18
moves the diaphragm upward. This movement seats check valve 15, cuttings off the flow
of brake pipe air to pipe 2 and the vacuum release valve. The air trapped in pipe 2
exhausts through the choked opening Ex. to atmosphere, permitting the VA1 release
valve to return to its normal position.
Application

37
When air brake pipe pressure is reduced, as occurs in service and emergency
applications, a corresponding reduction takes place in chamber A of the differential pilot
valve. As choke 3 limits the rate at which the air in chamber B can follow the reduction
in chamber A, the resulting higher pressure in chamber B lifts check valve 13, connecting
the two chambers. In this way chamber B air pressure closely follows the reduction in
pressure in chamber A and the brake pipe. When the reduction is stopped, spring 14 seats
check valve 13. The remaining slight differential in pressures between chambers A and
B, due to spring 14, is equalized through choke 3.

If the air brake pipe pressure is further reduced, check valve 13 again is unseated
as explained above to allow the air pressure in chamber B to flow in to chamber A.

When the brakes are released, the increase in air brake pipe pressure in chamber
A unseats check valve 15, allowing air from the brake pipe to flow through pipe 2 to the
VA1 release valve, as explained under "Release".

38
 COMBINED CUT-OUT COCK AND STRAINER

The combined cutout cock and strainer prevents the entrance of dirt and moisture
in to the air brake devices. Thus device has the cut-out cock and strainer portion
combined in to one casting and is readily accessible for cleaning or repairing of the cock
key and removable curly haired strainer.

39
 N- 1 REDUCING VALVE

1. Introduction

The N-1 Reducing valve reduces a supply of compressed air to a constant,

predetermined pressure. Air supplied by the N-1 Reducing valve usually operates
auxiliary devices.

2. Objective

To supply constant pressure as per setting value continuously to any other device.

3. Construction

See the diagrammatic view of the reducing valve. Compressed air enters at the
port marked " Supply" and flows through passage `s’ to supply chamber C. As shown,
the valve is in lap position with the inlet and exhaust valves seated, as when the system
is charged to the setting of adjusting screw 45.

4. Operation

When the air pressure in the delivery line and in chamber B and A has fallen to a
predetermined level, spring 47 moves diaphragm follower 41, exhaust valve seat 39 and
the exhaust & inlet valves upward. This movement unseats the inlet valve, and supply
air from chamber C flows past inlet valve seat 31 in to chamber B and then through
passage `r’ to the delivery port. The air also flows through choke D to chamber A above
diaphragm 40. When the air pressure in passage `r’ and chamber A reaches the pressure
for which adjusting screw 45 is set, the air pressure and exhaust valve spring 38 move
diaphragm 40, follower 41 and exhaust valve seat 39 downward. Inlet valve spring 34
moves the inlet valve down on its seat 31, cutting- off further flow of air from chamber
C to chamber B.

If the delivery pipe and chambers B and A charged in excess of the setting of
adjusting screw 45, the air pressure and exhaust valve spring 38 will move diaphragm 40
and exhaust valve seat 39 downward away from the exhaust valve. The overcharge of air
from chambers B and A then flow past exhaust valve seat 39 in to spring housing 43 and
out the exhaust opening to atmosphere. As the pressure in chamber A reaches the setting
of screw 45, spring 47 moves diaphragm follower 41 and exhaust valve seat 39 upward
to seat the exhaust valve, preventing further exhaust of air.

40
 D-1 EMERGENCY BRAKE VALVE

1. Introduction

The D-1 Emergency brake valve is connected to the vacuum train pipe and B P
pipe, permits a vacuum brake or air brake application on train. It should be used only in
case of actual danger and then should be left open until the train stops.

2. Objective

D-1 Emergency brake valve is provided to stop the train at emergency position,
when Driver wants to stop the train immediately. This valve stop the train at minimum
possible distance.

3. Construction

When installed the D-1 Emergency brake valve should be in a vertical position, so
that the handle should be at vertical position and valve 13a rests closed on its valve seal
15b as shown in the assembly view. Handle pushes the discharge port of BP as well as
provides sufficient opening of vacuum pipe to atmosphere.

4. Operation

When the handle of the D-1 valve is pulled, the handle lever 4 lifts the valve 13a
off its seat and permits atmospheric air to enter the vacuum train pipe at a fast rate due to
the large opening. The other end of the handle pushes B P check valve to atmosphere
through its large opening. This causes a fast vacuum brake or air brake application on
train.

41
 D-24-B FEED VALVE

1. Introduction

The D24B Feed valve supplies air pressure to feed pipe system. It is connected
from MR-1. In single pipe operation D24B Feed valve is isolated through a cut out cock.

2. Objective

The D-24-B Feed valve regulates the pressure in the Feed pipe.

3. Construction

This feed valve is located in a branch pipe from the main reservoir (see-piping
Diagram for location in this installation). The supply port is marked "7", the delivery
port is marked "20" and the regulating port is marked "la", with external control, feed
valve delivery pressure flows out port 20, through the brake valve and into the Feed pipe.
Feed pipe air then flows back to regulate the feed valve through a branch pipe connected
to port la. With internal control, the delivery port 20 is connected directly to the
regulating port la through the feed valve pipe back.

Body 2 encloses the parts of the regulating and supply portions of the feed valve.
The regulating portion consists of pressure adjusting handle 26, for setting regulating
spring 21 and bellows diaphragm 19 so that disc regulating valve 27 seats at the desired
pressure thus controlling the air pressure delivered by the feed valve. Regulating valve
27, actuated by pusher pin 34 (located off center), permits a finer graduation by opening
the valve with a tilting motion. Pusher pin 34 has a shield, which deflects any
foreign matter in the air away from the guide portion. Regulating valve spring 32 keeps
regulating valve 27 seated when the delivered air pressure is at the regulating valve
spring setting.

The supply portion consists of piston 7, which operates supply valve 11 to admit
or cut-off, the delivered air as controlled by the regulating portion. Supply valve spring 9
keeps supply valve 11 closed when the delivered air pressure is at the regulating valve
spring setting.

4. Operation

Main reservoir air from passage 7 enters the feed valve at chamber A and flows
through a strainer to chamber B, then through the choke in piston 7 to chamber C,
passage 7a and chamber D. The regulating valve 27 is unseated so that the air from
chamber D can flow to chamber E, passage 20a, chamber F, and discharge passage 20 to

42
the brake valve. Due to the choke in piston 7, a pressure differential is created across the
piston, so that the higher air pressure in chamber B moves piston 7 upward. This moves
supply valve 11 off its seat 14 and compresses supply valve spring 9. Main reservoir air
can then flow directly from chamber A past unseated supply valve 11 to chamber F and
passage 20 to the Feed pipe thus charging the system.

The delivered air pressure is reflected at the top of the bellows diaphragm through
passage la, either from the brake pipe or directly through the pipe bracket.

When the delivered air pressure and air in the chamber above the bellows
diaphragm becomes greater than that of regulating spring 21, diaphragm 19 is moved
downward, permitting regulating valve spring 32 to seat regulating valve27. Thus air
from chambers C and D is cut off from chamber E. The air pressure in chamber C is the
same as that in chamber B. Then supply valve spring 9 moves piston 7 downward seating
supply valve 11 and cutting off the flow of main reservoir air to chamber F and delivery
port 20.

If there is leakage in the system the force of delivery air pressure on top of
diaphragm 19 becomes less than that of regulating spring 21. The diaphragm 19 will then
be moved upward, unseating the regulating valve and again connecting air from
chambers C and D to chamber E. A pressure differential is thus created across piston 7,
so that the piston is moved upward, unseating supply valve 11 from seat 14. Main
reservoir air is permitted to flow from chamber A to chamber F and delivery passage 20,
as previously described.

The D-24-B Feed Valve is adjusted by turning adjusting handle 26. A clockwise
movement increases the pressure setting and a counter clockwise movement lowers the
pressure setting.

43
 AIR FLOW MEASURING VALVE

1. Introduction

The air flow measuring valve is suitable for use on locomotives that are equipped
to operate trains fitted with 28LAV1 brake system and is designed for fitting in the main
air supply pipe.

2. Objective

This valve indicates the leakage of BP pipe through an indicator in term of

wagon. Indicator is provided on driving control stand so that Driver can watch easily.

3. Construction

The AFM valve has two main connections, one is connected to main air supply
and other to the Additional C2-Relay valve. Choke A is provided to supply MR air to top
of disc valve. Disc valve has two small ports, one connects to MR air and other connects
to Additional C2 Relay valve. Disc valve is pressed down through a follower & spring on
its seat. Choke B is provided in between top chamber of main valve and MR supply line.
Choke C is provided to supply `main diaphragm top chamber air’ to indicator, when
diaphragm moves down word. Choke D is provided for calibrating the valve.

4. Operation

When the brake pipe is fully charged with air and the air brake is in the release
condition, the air flowing from the main air supply through the Air flow measuring
valve and to the brake pipe is that necessary to overcome leakage. In this condition the
check valve is closed as shown in diagram and air from the main supply passes through
choke A in to the space under the check valve follower and out to the Additional C2-
Relay valve. It also passes in to the chamber under the diaphragm via the space around
the follower. At the same time, air from the main supply passes through a filter and
choke B in to the chamber above the diaphragm.

So long as the pressures above and below the diaphragm are equal, the diaphragm
floats against the choke C. As brake pipe leakage occurs, the pressure at the outlet port
and under the diaphragm falls and the diaphragm is moved down away from the choke C
by the pressure above it. This permits air entering the chamber above the diaphragm via
choke B, to flow through choke C to an indicator and through choke D to atmosphere.

Choke D is smaller than choke C and an intermediate pressure builds up in the

passage between them and registers on the indicator. This intermediate pressure is
related to the flow of air through choke C that is controlled by the diaphragm reacting to
the pressure under it. As the pressure under the diaphragm and at the outlet port relative

44
to the main supply pressure, also determines the flow of air through choke A, it follows
that the intermediate pressure is related to this flow of air as well. The indicator
therefore provides a visual indication of the amount of air flowing to the brake pipe.
During initial charging or release of brakes, when a large quantity of air passed to the
brake pipe, the pressure at the out let port and in spring chamber reduces sufficiently. It
allows the supply pressure to lift the disc valve off its seat and permit unrestricted flow
of air to the brake pipe through Additional C2-Relay valve. Under these conditions a
high intermediate pressure builds up in the passages between chokes C and D, and the
indicator indicates a high rate of airflow.

Choke D is variable to facilitate calibration and may be altered by means of an adjusting

screw, turning the screw clockwise reduces the aperture and turning it anticlockwise
enlarges it.

45
 AIR FLOW INDICATOR

1. Introduction

It is an air pressure gauge with two pointers. Red pointer is called reference
pointer, which is attached to a knurled knob and protrudes through the dial glass, so that
it can be set manually in any desired position, where as the other pointer moves on the
scale depending up on the air flow. The indicator is connected to the measuring valve
through R-6 relay valve. The scale on the gauge is calibrated not in the units of airflow
but in numbers which normally indicates the number of wagons. The 60 marks
correspond to the maximum rate of airflow that can be accepted to overcome leakage on
a 60 wagon train.

2. Objective

It is a device through which BP (Air brake train ) leakage can be seen in the
Driver’s cabin.

3. Operation

When a train has been made up and the brake system is being charged with air before
moving off, there is a high rate of flow of air to the brake pipe and the indicator pointer
takes up a position in the uncalibrated sector of the scale. As the air pressure in the brake
pipe rises and the rate of airflow consequently diminishes, the indicator pointer falls
back. When the system is fully charged, it stabilises at a reading corresponding to the
airflow, to overcome leakage. If the train comprises 60 wagons, for example, this reading
is normally 60 or less, a higher reading indicates excessive leakage from the brake pipe.

At this stage, before starting the train, the driver sets the reference pointer to
coincide with the indicator pointer and thereby fixes a datum point on the scale. The
indicator pointer should return whenever the brake is fully released during the ensuing
journey, so long as the make- up of the train is not changed.

Therefore, during the journey, the indicator pointer falls below the reference
pointer or rises above it, indicates leakage decreased or increased respectively. During the
release process, the indicator pointer falls back steadily towards the reference pointer and
the deviation between the two pointers at any time indicates the state of release of the
brake. When the system is fully recharged the two pointers approximately coincide again,
if they do not coincide it is evident that the brake pipe leakage has changed and the
amount of deviation between the two pointers gives the driver some idea of the
magnitude of the change. An indicator pointer reading below the datum point shows that
the leakage has been reduced, conversely a higher reading indicates an increase in the
leakage. Some small variations are to be expected during a journey.

46
 If a guard emergency brake valve is opened or a brake pipe coupling is parted or
broken, the indicator pointer rises rapidly to a corresponding high reading.

Whenever the make–up of the train is changed, the reference pointer is reset
manually to provide a new datum point.

Calibration

The Airflow measuring valve includes a calibration choke enclosed by a vent

plug. This feature is provided to facilitate the calibration of the equipment on the vehicle.
There is a test stand, where the needle valve setting is calibrated on 130 psi charging line.
Where AFM valve indicator gauge reads 70 psi.

47
 R-6 Relay Valve

1. Introduction

R-6 Relay valve is a simple relay valve which provides air pressure in 1:1
ratio and is mounted just near the AFM valve. It is required because of long piping from
the AFM valve to the indicator.

2. Objective

This is a simple relay valve, which provides air pressure in 1:1 ratio and
mounted in between the indicator and the AFM valve. It is required because of long
piping from the AFM valve to the indicator and unavoidable leakage at joints in both the
cabs.

4. Construction

R6-Relay valve consists of the cast aluminum cover, houses the spring loaded
relay piston and tapped to receive an air pressure signal. The body also aluminum,
contains the combined inlet and exhaust valve and is tapped to provide two supply and
four delivery ports. A rubber disc protects the exhaust vent in the base.

5. Operation

When air pressure signal from AFM valve, is received at port A of the R-6
Relay valve, air flows in chamber C between the cover1 and the top of the relay piston
assembly 2. A relatively small-applied pressure reacts quickly over the larger area of the
relay piston 2 and forces the piston down against the spring 7. This movement of the
piston closes the exhaust passage 6 and the valve sheet 13 opens the inlet/exhaust
valve11, which is also moved down against the return spring 10. Air then flows from
main reservoir through port B to chamber D and from there it passes out of the delivery
port E. This flow continues until the force of the applied air pressure above the piston
balances the combined forces of the piston, valve return spring and the air pressure
beneath the piston. After getting balanced the piston moves up closing the inlet/exhaust
valve. The valve is now in the lapped condition with both the inlet and the exhaust
closed. If the signal pressure from air flow measuring valve is reduced at the port A the
force below the piston is now greater , and the piston rises until the valve seat 13 is lifted
clear of the valve allowing air to atmosphere past the rubber flap at 6 through the hollow
passage in the piston at 5. The exhaust of the air continues within the force below the
piston is reduced to balance t hat above the piston and the exhaust of air closes again,
bringing the valve in lap condition. This phenomenon is repeated wherever the applied
pressure at port A is varied, either up or down as the valve is self-lapping.

48
 AIR DRYER

1. Introduction

Air dryer is a complete air cleaning and drying unit, which is provided in
between MR-1 and MR-2 of Diesel Locomotive. It helps to the Automatic Drain &
Check valve also by purging the Dryer system. Purging is the removal of collected
moisture from the desiccant beeds. Drying means the desiccant in the dryer is drying the
compressed air by absorbing the water vapour from the air passing through that tower. It
supplies dry and clean air to the locomotive brake system.

2. Objective

The primary purpose of the dryer is to provide dry, oil free and clean
compressed air to the locomotive brake system.

3. Construction

The current design consists of a borosilicate coalescing filter known as pre

coalescer and twin regenerative desiccant towers that operates simultaneously. These two
towers are connected to pre coalescer to remove oil and water aerosols. Pre coalescer and
dryer towers are connected by a common inlet and outlet manifold with solenoid
assembly. All the electrical controls, which program the sequence of operation, are
located in housing attached to the outlet manifold.

The first component is a multi layered Pre coalescing element. Two other layers
are constructed by small microscopic fibers, which are random in size to enhance the
collection of oil and water aerosols. The unit is mounted with aluminum housing with a
pneumatically operated double seated drain valve, attached to the sump.

The second component is a pneumatically controlled inlet check valve located

within the inlet manifold for each of the identically designed dryer tower. Each dryer
tower consists of finned aluminum housing containing a desiccant canister. This canister
includes a pneumatic compactor to hold the desiccant tightly within the canister to
minimise attrition or dusting of the desiccant and a mesh filter that is attached to the
bottom of the desiccant canister along with the pneumatically operated single seated
purge.

The third component is a spring-loaded outlet check valve mounted in the outlet
manifold of the dryer towers adjacent to the humidity indicators.

49
4. Function

Air from no.1 MR flows into the Air dryer inlet manifold down to the cell of
the pre coalescing element and exits through the pre coalescing element where oil and
water aerosols are collected. Air then flows up around the out side of the element and
through the interning manifold to both of the dryer towers. Contaminants such as oil and
water aerosols are collected in the element, migrate to the sump. These contaminants are
then discharged to the atmosphere through a double seated pneumatically operated drain
valve attached to the bottom of the pre coalescing sump. This valve is activated
momentarily each time of the dryer cycles. Filtered air leaving the pre coalescing element
passes through the manifold with pneumatically operated inlet check valve and inters the
top of each of the air dryer tower.

The internal design of the housing slings the air down word around desiccant
canister in a simplified path. This simplifical movement cools the air and separates
moisture from the air, which settles in the sump at the bottom of each tower. The air then
flows through a oval stainless steel mesh filter attached to the bottom of the desiccant
canister. The secondary filter restricts and collects all droplets and contaminants not
removed by the pre coalescing element. The filter is self cleaned each time the single
seated pneumatically operated purge valve is operated at bottom. The actuation of the
valve also expels to atmosphere any separated water, which is collected in the sump. The
air passing through the secondary filter now passes upward through the desiccant bed
where water vapour is absorbed by the desiccant beeds. The result is that the air existing
top of the canister is very dry with an extremely low relative humidity. The dry airs now
flows through the outlet manifold, which contains the humidity indicators and the outlet
check valve prier to entering the locomotive air system. The identical airflow through
both towers permits the maximum flow of air to charge the air system initially. When the
locomotive air system pressure reaches a pre determined point normally 100 psi+/-5, a
pressure switch within the dryer closes. This supplies power to the timing control circuit,
which energises the solenoid on one tower and the tower start purging.

5. Drying and purging cycle

There is an arrangement of drying and purging cycle, which is governed by

timer circuit. One tower drying by collecting moisture from air while the other purging
the collected moisture from the desiccant beeds. It continues for one minute. After one-
minute timer circuit changes the position, the tower that was drying begins to purge and
the tower that was purging begins to dry air.

6. Timer circuit

The timer circuit is electronically timed to operate the tower. When air
pressure reaches 100 psi, the pressure switch closes. The timing circuitry energises the
solenoid on one tower, which provides pneumatic signal & closes the inlet check valve
and at the same time opens the purge valve at the bottom of the housing. Simultaneously
the spring loaded outlet check valve is closed and stops the flow of air to the tower. A

50
small amount of dry filtered air from the top of the drying tower flows through an internal
orifice and to the desiccant beeds removing collected moisture. At the same time the
opposite tower collects moisture from the compressed air, which passing through the
desiccant beeds. After one minute the electronic timer reverses the operation of the tower.
The purging tower now becomes the drying tower. The solenoid is de-energised which
causes the inlet and outlet check valves to open and the purge valve to close permitting
full air flow through the desiccant beeds that absorb water vapour. Simultaneously the
solenoid circuit on the opposite tower is energised.

7. Checking the proper function of the air dryer system

This is accomplished by inspecting the humidity indicators, which indicates as

follows.

Blue indicator--- indicates dryer has been performing correctly.

Lavender indicator--- dryer is suspect.
White indicator--- possible damaged dryer. Check for water in final filters.
Yellow or brown indicator--- damaged dryer.

51
 D1 PILOT AIR VALVE

1. Introduction

D1pilot air valve is provided in synchronizing brake system and located

between proportionate valve and C2-Relay valve. D1valve is kept open in normal
operation. Proportionate valve supplies air to C2-Relay valve through this valve.

2. Objective

This valve is provided to avoid the synchronizing brake / automatic brake

application on the locomotive during dynamic brake application.

3. Construction

D1valve has two ports, marked IN & OUT. These ports are positioned through
a spool valve and spring. There is an air chamber against the spool valve spring force,
which is connected to atmosphere through a vent hole in normal position. There is a
magnet valve, which opens MR air to air chamber while magnet coil is energised.

4. Function

The D1-Pilot air valve provides air path to C2-Relay valve in normal position.
When dynamic brake is applied, magnet valve coil is energised and MR pressure port is
opened. Then MR pressure reaches to D1 valve air chamber, which pushes the spool
valve against spring force and disconnects the IN&OUT port. In this position the OUT
port is connected to exhaust. Which ensures the loco brake is in release position.

When dynamic brake is released, the D1 valve coil is de-energised, which

closes the MR port and the existing air chamber pressure connects to the vent. In this way
the spool valve regains the previous position.

52
 HB-5 RELAY AIR VALVE

1. Introduction

The HB5-Relay air valve is provided in vacuum brake circuit. It is connected to

protection valve, MR pressure pipeline and PCS. When train pipe vacuum drops below a
pre determined value, it gets HS4 air pressure from VA1B protection valve. This valve
works as a safety valve in vacuum brake circuit and relays vacuum drop in train pipe to
Driver by power cut off and idling diesel engine speed.

2. Objective

This valve is provided to power cut off and idling diesel engine during vacuum
brake train parting and emergency brake application.

3. Construction

This valve has a pipe bracket containing number of port connections and a valve
body. The diaphragm makes two chambers, top is connected to VA1B protection valve
and bottom (spring chamber) is connected to A1 Differential pressure valve through port
13. The passage below spring chamber is connected to exhaust and delivery port 11,
which leads to PCS. There are two valves, valve 16 connects port 12 MR to port 11,
which leads to PCS and valve 17 connects port 11 to port 9 exhaust. At bottom supply
valve spring is there, which normally keeps the supply valve in close position.

4. Function

Control pressure (HS4) enters through passage 10 to the chamber above

diaphragm 10. See the line diagram of safety devices. When the pressure reaches above
spring setting, the diaphragm and its follower 5 move down word, compressing spring 6
and seating valve 17 on the top of valve16. As the downward movement continues, valve
16 moves away from its seat, compressing the lower spring. Passage 9 is now closed by
valve 17, while passage 12 MR is connected to passage 11, which leads to PCS.

When control pressure above diaphragm 10 is vented, spring 6 returns diaphragm

follower 5 and valve 17 to their upper position, unseating valve 17. The lower spring then
seats valve16 and closes passage 12 MR, while passage 11 is connected to passage 9
exhaust through the unseated valve 17. In this way the air, which was supplied to PCS is
exhausted.
If the HS4 control pressure is not removed from top chamber due to stuck up of
protection valve, the spring chamber gets BP pressure through port 13 from A1
Differential pressure valve. It will nullify the action of HS4 control pressure by returning
the diaphragm follower 5 at its previous position. At the same time BP pressure will be
supplied to spring chamber of protection valve to reset the protection valve.

53
 H5 RELAY AIR VALVE

1. Introduction

The H5-Relay air valve is provided in BP System and works as a safety vale. It is
connected to BP pipe, MR pressure line and PCS. It relays BP pressure drop to the
Driver by power cut off and idling diesel engine speed.

2. Objective

This valve is provided to operate power cut off switch (PCS) during train parting
and emergency brake application. This also works, when BP pressure drops 2.5kg/cm2.

3. Construction

This valve consists a pipe bracket and valve body, where diaphragm makes two
chambers. Top chamber always gets 5kg/cm2 air pressure from BP pipe and bottom
chamber (spring chamber) is connected to atmosphere through a breather port. Below the
spring chamber passage is connected to supply port 9 MR, which is normally closed
through valve 17. Valve 15 normally connects port 11(which leads to PCS) to exhaust.

4. Function

BP pressure enters through passage 10 to the chamber above diaphragm. See the
line diagram of safety devices. When the pressure reaches above spring setting, the
diaphragm and its follower 5 move down word, compressing spring 6 and seating valve
17 on top of valve 15. As the downward movement continues, valve 15 moves away from
its seat, compressing 19. Passage 9 is closed by valve 17, while passage 12 exhaust is
connected to passage 11, which leads to PCS.

When BP pressure above diaphragm 10 is vented out, spring 6 returns diaphragm

follower 5 and valve 17 to their upper position, unseating valve 17. Spring 19 then seats
valve 15and closes passage 12 exhaust, while passage 11 is connected to passage 9
through the unseated valve 17. In this way the air, which was supplied to PCS is
exhausted now.

54
55
UNIT M 3- PLAIN BEARINGS

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this unit is to make you understand about the following:

• Roll of Plain bearing in general and their application in diesel locomotive

• Classification of bearings
• To study desired properties of bearings in connection to material selection and
manufacturing.
• Good workmanship practices
• Failure mechanism and their remedies

STRUCTURE
1. Introduction

2. Use of plain bearings in locomotives

3. Classification of plain bearings and their desired properties

4. Failure trend

5. Workmanship improvement

6. Failure mechanism and suggested remedies

7. Summary

8. Self assessment exercise

1
1. INTRODUCTION

Plain bearing plays a vital role in the Diesel Engine. This is being the weakest
part of the diesel engine, for any abnormality in the operation of diesel engine and
fitment lapses of bearings, they become the easiest prey. Hence knowledge on bearing
is essential for the reliable and failurefree service of the Diesel Locomotive.

The function of a bearing is to reduce friction and wear of the load-bearing

shaft of a machine having rotational / sliding motion. But its function remains
incomplete without the assistance of Lubrication. Optimum condition of bearing
lubrication exists when the sliding surfaces are separated by a film of lubricant thick
enough to prevent metal-to-metal contact of the shaft with the bearing, depending
upon surface roughness and load characteristics. Favourable surface configuration,
adequate oil viscosity and a high bearing characteristic number are essential to
produce hydrodynamic film lubrication. A pure hydrodynamic Lubrication perfects
the work of plain bearings, so they are also called hydrodynamic bearings. High loads,
moderate speeds, extreme temperatures or insufficient lubricant promotes the most
undesirable condition of lubrication. In limiting condition hydrodynamic Lubrication
transforms to boundary layer lubrication and dry bearings and during this transition
phase the bearing metallurgy meets the tribological requirement. Hence, selection of
bearing material is very important to meet the boundary conditions specially during
starting and stopping of engine while temporary loss of lubrication takes place.

2. USE OF PLAIN BEARINGS IN LOCOMOTIVES

The important areas of Diesel Locomotive where plain bearings used are:-
Main bearing (at crankshaft main journal), Con Rod bearings (Big and small end),
TSC Bearings, Valve lever bushes, Cam bushes, T/Motor suspension bearings etc.
In recent trend, Roller bearings are replacing the plain bearings in many areas, as in
the case of suspension bearings of diesel locomotives. But there are some areas like
crankshaft bearings and Con Rod bearings, plain bearings have no substitute because
of their fitment constraint and superiority of performance at shock/impact loading. In
Turbo supercharger also use of plain bearing is continued because of its superiority
over roller bearing at higher speed range.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF PLAIN BEARINGS & THEIR DESIRED

PROPERTIES.

Plain bearings are mainly designed to bear load in radial direction. They are
either bush type or split type depending upon fitment requirement. Crankshaft
bearings (Main bearings and con rod big end bearings) are split type and in other
areas they are bush types. In 9th main bearing collared bearing is used to bear load
both in radial and axial direction, they are called thrust bearings.

Plain bearings are further classified as Bi-metal or Tri-metal bearings depending upon
number of layer used to form bearing. In Bimetal bearing two layers are used having
one babbit layer and the steel back. In Trimetal bearing two babbit layers are there
with the steel back.

2
The manufacturing process, material composition and thickness of the babbit layers
are decided to meet the following desired properties of the bearing i.e. Load Capacity
(Ability to withstand max pressure with low friction and moderate wear), Mechanical
strength, Fatigue strength, Compatibility (Anti seizure & Anti scoring property), Bond
strength, Conformability (Ability to compensate slight misalignment and variation in
shape of shaft and bearing surface), embeddability and corrosion resistance.

COMPATIBILITY: This is the measure of anti scoring & anti welding property of
bearings, to meet boundary conditions during starting and stopping.
CONFORMABILITY: Ability to compensate slight misalignment and to conform to
variation in the shape of shaft and housing.(Materials with low Modulus of elasticity
and good Plasticity have better conformability)
EMBEDDABILITY: Ability to embed dirt and foreign particles. ( Embeddability and
conformity are the parallel properties of metal)
LOAD CAPACITY: Is the measure of Max Pressure that the bearing material can
withstand with low friction and moderate wear. This depends upon Viscosity of
Lubricant, Surface finish of Shaft, Operating temperature and composition of Bearing
Materials.
STRENGTH: Compressive and Shear Strength are important. Tensile and Yield
Strength are the easy measure of Mechanical Strength.(In general low strength
materials provides more deflection under load and better conformability.)
A material with low Shear Strength can sustain shearing of small particles with little
heat generation and welding
FATIGUE STRENGTH: Ability to sustain load of reversible nature, such as in IC
Engines. Sufficiently high Fatigue Strength is necessary to enable bearing to operate
within Elastic limit without developing cracks and surface pits.
A thin layer of soft materials with strong Steel backing gives the desirable
combination of Fatigue Strength and Compressive Strength.
CORROSION RESISTANCE: Acidic behaviour of lubricant (due to oxidation,
mixing of exhaust gases etc) causes such corrosion. Pb is more prone to corrosion
where as Sn and Al are not usually affected.
HARDNESS: Softer the material, the better its antiscoring, conformability and
embeddability properties. Higher hardness provides better load capacity and greater
wear resistance.

Typical configurations of ALCO Bi-metal and Tri-metal bearings are sketched

below for better understanding of the above aspects.

3
Used in: Cam shaft bearing bushes, Con Rod little end bushes, Valve Lever bushes,
Push Rod lifter bushes etc.

Configuration:
a) STEEL BACK: Remainder of thickness. Made of cold rolled steel,
conforming to AISI C-1010 or C 1015 killed steel

b) BRONZE OVERLAY: 0.015” to 0.030” thickness, Cold Rolled.

Metallurgy:
Cu: 77% (min). Pb: 8-11% , Sn: 8-11% , Zn: 0.75% (max), Sb: 0.50%
(max)
Ni: 0.50%(max), Fe: 0.35% (max) and other elements 0.40% (max)

It is essential that Pb globules are uniformly distributed without showing

of gravity segregation. The layer should show a uniform Eutectic structure.

ALCO TRIMETAL BEARING

Used in: Main Bearing Shells, Con Rod Big end Bearing Shells and Turbo
Bearing Bushes.
Configuration:

a) STEEL BACK: Remainder of thickness. Made of cold rolled steel,

conforming to AISI C-1010 or C 1020 killed steel

b) INTERMEDIATE LAYER:
Thickness: 0.015” to o.035”
Cold rolled alongwith steel back

4
 Material Specification:
Cu: 68-75%, Sn: 2-4%, Pb: 23-27%, Zn: 0.20%(max),Ag:0.20%
(max),
Fe: 0.50%(max), Ni: 0.50%(max), Sb:0.25%(max), other elements
0.35%(max).

c) NICKEL DAM
Thickness 0.000075” to 0.000100”, Centrifugally Cast.
It prevents tin migration from overlay to intermediate layer.

d) OVERLAY
Thickness 0.0015” to 0.002”, Centrifugally cast.
Material specification: Cu: 2-3%, Sn: 8-12%, Pb: Remainder

A graphical analysis of Fatigue life in relation to babbit layer thickness and

operating temperature is attached to understand the affect of babbit layer thickness
and operating temperature on the fatigue life of bearings.

5
 Effect of babbit thickness and Temperature on
Fatigue Life of Bearing

BEARING TERMINOLOGIES (As per the sketch attached below, in fig 1 to 4)

Knowledge on bearing terminology of split type bearings will help in understanding
correct fitment technique of split bearings

6
7
FAILURE TREND

The failure trend of bearing can be compared with the human mortality graph (A bath
tub design).

No of death
(No of failures)

Age

Infant mortality Ageing death

In case of bearings, infant mortality is caused either due to manufacturing and

design defects or due to severe workmanship lapse (like blocked oil passages or
dislocating of bearing with the oil passages) or due to severe abnormalities of the
working behaviour of the engine.

The failure due to ageing death of bearing can be arrested by correctly

formulating and following the renewal schedule.

In the region other than ageing death and infant mortality a proper
investigation is required to diagnose the problem and to find solution accordingly.

4. WORKMANSHIP IMPROVEMENT

Besides all other factors a good workmanship contributes a lot for saving failure. A
few tips have been given below towards good maintenance practice: -
I. Maintain clean & dirt free working environment.
II. Do not rub or polish bearing surface.
III. Clean the bearing and its housing using clean clothes only.
IV. Ensure clean and free oil passage.
V. Make the locating Dowel/Nick free from burrs, to ensure correct seat of
bearing at its housing.
VI. Never apply oil at the backside of bearing and its housing.
VII. Measure the bore dia & check the ovality and taperness of the housing and
also the eccentricity of the shaft & bore.
VIII. Ensure positive Nip and Freespread. for correct fitting of bearings.

8
 Nip:- Is the increased peripheral length of the bearing from its housing. It
should be +ve to ensure interference fit.

Free spread:- In the free state the split end of the bearing is spread over than
the actual dimension of its housing. This is called free spread. This is to ensure
conformity of the bearing with its seat.

B−A= FREE SPREAD

+ NIP
B
B

IX. Clearly mark on bearing its location with in the engine.

X. Tighten bolts in correct sequence to the correct torque or stretch as defined in
the engine instruction manual.
XI. Check that the shaft rotate freely inside the bearing after assembly.

5. FAILURE MECHANISM & SUGGESTED REMEDIES

Besides badworkmanship many other reasons are there that led to premature failure of
bearings. As such proper failure analysis is essential for their remedies. Some of the
typical defects and their suggested remedies are listed below: -

1. Fatigue Failure: - Crack like appearance at initial stage. Starting from top
surface reaches bond layer and then propagates horizontally. Babbit layer gets
peeled off and forms cavities, on severe attack.

Probable reason:-

(i) Mechanical: -
(a) Excessive dynamic loading
(b) Higher cyclic variation of load, due to-
• Improper vibration damping.
• Big range of variation of firing pressures in
different cylinders.
• Excessive torquing.
(ii) Thermal: - Improper heat dissipation due to

a) Less clearance
b) Improper Lubricant –Dirty, Less/More Viscous.
Coolant character of lube oil lost due to depletion of
additives.

9
 c) Loss of heat conductivity between bearing and housing
due to
• Dirt/ Oil packing/air gap between bearing back and
housing.
d) Oil temperature high due to dirty improper heat exchanger.

Remedial action can be taken accordingly.

2. Chemical Corrosion: - Can be viewed under microscope only. Black spots are
noticed due to presence of PbSO4 in Pb matrix.
Reason: - Acidified Lube oil (PH value of Lube oil should not go below 4.5).

This is due to:

• Sulphur content of fuel oil high(should not be allowed more
than 0.5%)
• Excessive blow by of exh gas through sump.
• Periodicity of lube oil changing not followed.

Remedial measure can be taken accordingly.

3. Water Corrosion:- Whitish bordered localised shining surface at the loaded

zone and remaining portion looks dull.

Reason:- Mixing of water with lube oil due to lube oil cooler tube burst or
damaged Liner O ring etc.

Lube oil should be changed if water mixed with lube oil goes above 0.25%
and proper rectification of the source of leakage should be done.

4. Cavitation erosion: - Erosion of babbit layer in hen track pattern appears

perpendicularly to the oil groove at the unloaded zone of the bearing.
This is caused due to formation and collapsing of vapour bubbles in the oil
film, under the state of rapid pressure variation during crank cycle.

Reason:-
(i) Lube oil improper due to the absence of proper antifoaming
additives or antifoaming additive lost its character due mixing
of water in lube oil.
(ii) Aeration in lube oil system.
(iii) Excessive hunting
(iv) Improper vibration damping
(v) Under designed or partly choked oil holes.

5. Scoring/Mechanical wear: -Score and localised wear marks are noticed due to

• Bad filtration of lube oil.(Due to operating of by pass valve,

clogged/damaged filter element).
• Bad filtration of charge air.
• Distortion in housing.
• Rough journal.

10
 • Deformed journal.
• Foreign material between bearing back and housing.
• Biased wear due to wrong fitment of bearing, misaligned bearing housing /
bend or twisted Con.Rod.

6. Wiping & Seizure: Starts with dislocation of the babbit layer and finally gets
welded with the shaft causing seizure.

It happens due to: -

(a) Failure of lubrication due to leakage in 'S' pipe or
choked oil passage
(b) Low lube oil pressure; insufficient to maintain required
oil film thickness for hydro dynamic lubrication.
(c) Heavy Fuel/Water contamination.
5% Fuel Dilution leads to mechanical wear.
10% Fuel dilution may cause scizure.
20% variation in Lube oil viscosity causes wiping and
scizure. (Viscosity of oil goes high due to water contamination,
oxidation of lube oil, heavy blow by through crankcase).
(d) In compatible or adultered lubricant may lead to wiping
and seizure.

Zn additive in lube oil causes depletion of Ag lining

from babbit layer. As such Zn additive should not be used
where Ag is used as a constituent of babbit layer.

(e) Excessive Crank web deflection may lead to wiping and

seizure
Crank web deflection should be restricted within ±
.0008".

7. Split Line Fretting:- Relative motion between two halves at the split end
develops fretting at the joint faces of split type bearings. Finally it leads to
bond separation and seizure.
This is due to:-
(a) Excessive torquing, beyond the capacity of the bolts to
sustain both static and dynamic loading.
(b) Low capacity bolts (Suffered plastic deformation)

Can’t sustain Nip stress and dynamic loading.

8. Creep/ back fretting:-This is developed due to relative motion of the bearing

with its housing. Fretting starts between bearing back and its housing and
propagates upto the babbit layer. Thus it affects to heat dissipation and finally
leads to seizure.
This is due to: -
i) Negative or lesser Nip, causing inadequate interference.

11
 ii) In correct torquing (Both high or low torque)
iii) Use of low capacity bolt.

9. Static Fretting: - Fretting developed at the loaded zone of bearing at static

condition, due prolonged vibration sustained by the bearing originated from
third source. This happens mainly, if the assembled component or engine is
kept for a long time in such area where ground vibration is very high or, it
may develop during transportation of machinery or component with improper
mounting and clamping.

To arrest such failure due to static fretting it is always advisable to check

bearings in assembled engines or its subassemblies before use, after keeping
them for long days in reserve. Especially where ground vibration from 3rd
sources is very high.

12
6. SUMMARY

Plain bearing plays a vital role in diesel locomotive. Because of its sophisticated
design and weaker structure knowledge of plain bearing about its design, working
and maintenance aspects is very much essential for trouble free service of
locomotive. Design, selection of material and manufacturing aspects of bearings
are decided, based upon the desired properties of the bearings like load strength,
fatigue life, embeddability, conformity, corrosion resistance etc. Plain bearings are
either split or bush type depending upon their fitment requirement. Plain bearings
are normally radially loaded, flanged bearings are also used to sustain both radial
and axial loading. They are further classified to bi-metal or tri-metal bearings
depending upon No of babbit layers used. Proper fitment technique in split
bearings is very much important for the reliable service of bearings, as being
discussed in this chapter. In addition to these, failure mechanism and their
remedies as discussed in this unit will help in minimising the failure upto a great
extent.

7. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

i) In what parameter performance of plain bearing supersedes roller

bearings?
ii) What are Nip and free spread in a split bearing? What is their importance
for fitment of split bearings?
iii) Discuss in brief about the following bearing failures:
a) Fatigue failure
b) Chemical corrosion
c) Split line and back fretting

13
UNIT M 8- LOAD BOX TEST
OBJECTIVE

The objective of this unit is to make you understand about the following:
• What is load box test?
• Why, when and how it is conducted
• What are the types of load boxes used in Indian Railways and their relative merits
• What checks are conducted during load box test
• How to diagnose problem from load box results

STRUCTURE

1. Introduction
1.1 What is
1.2 Types of load box and their comparison
1.3 Why, when and where to conduct
2. Load box procedure
2.1 Preparation for starting Loco
2.2 Starting
2.3 Notch up
2.4 Preload testing
• Shut down condition
• Running condition
2.5 Preparation for load box
• Mechanical
• Electrical
2.6 Break in test
3. Observation
4. Interpretation of load box observation
5. Summary
6. Self assessment Exercise

2
1.INTRODUCTION

1.1.WHAT IS?

This is a test to check the capability and performance of the engine by simulating the actual working
condition of the locomotive at rated output, in static condition.

During load box test, the output of the engine is measured in terms of electrical parameter (volt and
ampere).In this, the output of the generator is connected across a set of resistance (Load Resistance)
instead of connecting it with the Traction Motors.The output of the engine is dissipated in terms of heat
across the resistance during Load Box test.

1.2 TYPES OF LOAD BOX

They are of two types, based on the type of load resistance connected:

1) Grid Resistance Load Box. 2) Water Resistance Load Box.

COMPARISON

WATER RESISTANCE GRID RESISTANCE

Merit De-Merit
1) Load resistance can be varied at 1) Load Resistance can be changed only
infinite stages, hence a continuous HP at limited stages (3 to 6). Hence a
curve can be plotted through this. complete graph can not be plotted to
understand the complete behaviour of the
output.
2) Load resistance can be changed during 2) To change the load resistance in grid
loaded condition. type, the locomotive requires to be
stepped down to lower notch as such load
test gets interrupted as many times the
resistance required to be changed.
3) Water load box can be conducted for a 3) Grid resistance load box can not be
longer duration because of better heat conducted for longer duration, as it gets
dissipation facility heated up quickly causing hazardous
environment and gives erratic reading.

De-merit Merit
4) Requires permanent establishment to 4) Comparatively handy and can be
setup water load box, hence can not be shifted with lesser effort
shifted easily.

1.3 WHY, WHEN AND WHERE TO CONDUCT

Why
1) To see whether the engine gives designed output or not.
2) Whether all systems are functioning properly or not.
3) Whether any problem is connected to any system or component.

3
When

1) After new manufacturing

2) Before and after major repairs
3) Before and after major schedule.
4) To diagnose any specific problem existing in the engine

Where

It is conducted on the specified Load Box area in the shed or in the workshop.
(In case of GM locomotive, the facility of Load Box Test exists within the loco itself)

2. PROCEDURE

2.1 PREPARATION FOR STARTING LOCO

1) Water filling
2) Fuel filling and bleeding test.
3) Supplement the engine with supplements e.g.T/G Gear Box oil, Gov. oil, Expressor Oil,
Intake filter oil, Right Angle gear box oil and also greasing Rod fan bearings, Horizontal
shaft coupling, universal shaft coupling, cardium compound filling in Expressor Coupling
etc.
4) Pre lubrication.
Lube oil is not directly filled in the Engine sump. Instead , it is filled
through an external pump by opening a dummy in the L/Oil main header (as shown in the figure below) so
that the Lube oil can circulate through all the engine components and finally drops down to the sump.This
is also termed as prelubrication. During prelubrication the following checks are necessary to carryout.

ENG

Main Dummy
Header Pump
.
L/Oil container

**During prelubrication Test filters are necessary to be fitted to arrest the worn out metal particles
and the metal chips left out in the process of overhauling or manufacture.
9 Nos are fitted in place of S-Pipes and 2 Nos. in the secondary headers.

Check:during prelubrication

The flow of lubricant during prelubrication will be as per the following pattern:

Oozing : Con Rod bearings, M/Bearings, cam bush, valve lever bushes
Spray like jets : Piston
Pouring : F.P. Support, valve lever, Yoke
Dripping : Liners

4
Trickling : Cam Gear.

2.2 STARTING

1)Engine is started immediately after prelubrication and allowed to run for a minute or two. During
running unusual sound or leakage is observed, if any.

2) If O.K, run the engine for 5 minutes and stop. Check the following

Check Main Bearing temperature, it should not vary more than 5°C from one bearing to another.
Check and rectify if any leakage is there in L/oil system (specially S pipes ) or water system etc.
Check the lube oil sump strainer for any foreign particle, metal dust etc.

3) Run for 30 minutes, observe unusual sound, leakage, smoke etc. if any.

4) Stop engine and check M/Brg temperature, internal leakage of water, L/ oil etc. if any.
Exam crank case for any foreign material or worn out metals.

5) Continue run until temperature reaches 120°F and check between two stretch of runs.
6) Run the engine for 6 to 8 hours to complete idle run.

2.3 NOTCH UP

1) Engine is then notched up to 8 th notch with the continuation of 15 minutes run in each notch.
2) After notch up remove all the test filters and connect the original pipes before conducting load box.
Check all the test filters for any foreign materials or worn out metal particles, if any. Take remedial
measures accordingly.

2.4 PRE LOAD TESTING

• SHUT DOWN CONDITION

1) Electrical testing
a) Conduct insulation test (Meggar test ) between Power circuit to earth. Control
circuit to earth. Power to Control and also in all cards.
Range: 1 to 5 Mega Ohms

b) Check all C- Brushes of rotating equipments.

2) Mechanical testing
a)Exam crank case for the following:
i) Foreign material, split pin, loose nut etc.
ii) Internal leakage, if any.

• RUNNING CONDITION

1) Electrical testing
a) Notch wise voltage at No Load to be checked connecting voltmeter
Across CK1&CK2 (fixed contact)
b) Check engine speed notch wise.
c) Check reference volt across wire No 29 A&4 : 24.4 volt (E type )

5
 d) Check AC Volt across 31L-31M,31M-31N,31N-31L: 100 to 105 V on 8th notch.
e) Check Battery Volt (across CK1&CK2 moving contact): 72 ± 2 volt.
f) Check correct operation of LOPS, LWS, T1 T2 &ETS, PCS, GROUND
RELAY, WSR etc.
2) Mechanical testing
a) Check correct setting of OST.

b) Check Turbo Rundown Test : 90 to 180 secs

2.5 PREPARATION FOR LOAD TESTING.

• Mechanical
i) Fit adopter for KIENE gauge removing all decompression plugs.
ii) Fit temperature gauge removing exhaust plugs.
iii)Fit temp gauge before and after TSC.
iv)Connect temp gauge before and after After Cooler.
v) Connect temp gauge before and after L/Oil Cooler.
vi)Fit Pressure Gauge before and after L/Oil Filter tank.
vii) Fit Pressure Gauge at Water Pump outlet and Water Headers.
viii) fit Vacuum Gauge at Expressor Crank case.
ix) Fit Water Manometer at crank case cover for measuring Crank case Vacuum.
(Specially fabricated for taking crankcase vacuum.)

• Electrical

ACCR

GF
A
CK1
V

GEN
EXC. SYSTEM

LOAD
CK2

1. Disconnect 3 GA-2 cable from MG negative terminal. In their place connect 3, 2300/24 cables at the
negative side of water load box.
2. Disconnect 3 motor armature cable A1, A2, A3 and 3 GA 11 cables running each to P1, P21and P31
from negative side of ACCR. Connect three 2300/24 cables instead of six to the positive side of the
water box.
3. Connect voltmeter, ammeter according to the figure, as above.

6
2.6 BREAK IN ON LOAD

25% of rated load 60 min / 30 min ( New / Overhauled Engine )

50% of rated load 60 min / 30 min ( - do - )
75% of rated load 120 min/ 60 min ( - do - )
100% of rated load 120 min/ 60 min ( -do - )

3. OBSERVATION
Observation of load box test will be conducted as per the chart supplied.

LOAD TEST CHART

Loco No. Engine No Trac Gen No Date

Reason for load testing: Time started

Time completed
Name of supervisor Name of fitter (mech):
Name of fitter (elec):
Ambient Temp Altitude Fuel Temp Fuel density

Readings to be taken on each notch

(A)
Notch Lube oil Pressure Fuel oil Booster Engine Rack LCP Excitation
Eng Com Exh Pressure Air Speed Position position current
pressure RPM in mm
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Idle
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th

Notch Auxiliary Reference AC Voltage Load Load Horse Corrected Water

Voltage Voltage between 3ϕ Current Voltage Power HP Temp
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Idle
&
8th
notch

7
Notch Colour of Current Specific Fuel Efficiency Crank case vacuum Remarks
smoke limit Consumption Engine Expr./
Comp
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Idle
& 8th
notch

A) Readings to be taken on 8th notch

Cyl. No Compression Firing Exhaust Cyl. No Compression Firing Exhaust

Pressure Pressure Gas Temp Pressure Pressure Gas Temp
1R 1L
2R 2L
3R 3L
4R 4L
5R 5L
6R 6L
7R 7L
8R 8L

Exhaust gas temperature Charge Air temperature

Before Turbo: Before After Cooler:

After Turbo: After After Cooler:

Lubricating Oil temperature Lubricating Oil Pressure

Before Lube Oil Cooler Before Filter Tank

After Lube oil cooler After Filter Tank

Cooling Water Pressure Water Temperature

At the pump outlet Inlet to After Cooler

At the header Rt. side Inlet to lube oil cooler
Lt. side
Efficiency

After cooler Specific Fuel Consumption

Lube Oil Cooler D.E. Thermal Efficiency

Observation of the supervisors:

Signature
Remarks of Foreman:
Signature

Orders of the controlling officers:

Signature

8
4. INTERPRETATION OF LOAD BOX OBSERVATION

SL RPM RACK HP LCP TROUBLED REMARKS

NO AREA
1 OK OK OK I) Just active More movement of LCP in
WW- 5:30 TO I) No trouble active / Load control zone
3:00 indicates more loading by
GE -10:30 TO MG. Because of defect/
9:00
wrong adjustment of card
II) More active ii) Excitation No 186, 292, 254, 293, &
Control ACCR.
2 OK OK LESS Move towards Diesel Engine - Less TRD, low BAP
load control and allied indicate defective TSC/
systems. After Cooler.
- Fall in fuel oil pressure
indicates choked filters,
leaky system or
inefficient Fuel Booster
Pump.
- Low compression and
firing pressure indicate
inefficient engine
- Neither of these
defects indicate faulty
calibration of FIP.
3 OK LESS LESS I) Active i) Governor i) LCP in load control zone
(Under load with less rack and correct
control) BAP indicates wrong
adjustment of LCP in
WW Gov LCPV should
be adjusted both in 1st &
8th notch to get correct
ii)Not in load load control schedule. In
control GE Gov LCP brush arm
ii) Excitation must be set at 1:00(in
control dead condition) during
o/hauling.

ii) Less rack & less HP

without load control
indicate less loading by
MG. The defect could be
in 253,186,292,254,293
& ACCR.
Defective MG & exc.
may also cause this
problem in isolated
cases.
4 As per More in i) Less or i) Diesel engine i) Incorrect FIP calibration
notch lower ok & allied
notches systems ii) The MG is imposing
more load in lower
ii) More ii) Excitation
notches. This may be
control
due to defect/ wrong
adjustment of
186,292,293 & ACCR

9
 SL RPM RACK HP LCP TROUBLED REMARKS
NO AREA
5 Bogging More in More in Fluctuating Governor Short-circuited commutator
down or lower lower adjustment or segments of LCP or loose
excess notches notches LCP defective contact between
hunting or or commutator & brush arm
unstable unstable
lead to sudden load
variation
6 Drop in Max i) Slightly GE: 7:00 i)Excitation i) Probable defect cards
speed less WW: minimum control - 253,186 & 254
ii) Less ii) DE & allied
hp system ii) Less TRD, low BAP
indicate defective TSC/
after cooler
-Fall in fuel oil pressure
indicates choked filters,
leaky system or
inefficient fuel booster
pump
-Low compression and
firing pressure indicate
inefficient D/E
-Neither of these defects
indicate faulty calibration
of FIP

5. SUMMARY
Load Box test is conducted to check and verify the capability and performance of the diesel engine
by simulating the actual working condition in static condition of the locomotive. This is also used as a
diagnostic tool to identify problems related to any system or component. At every maintenance depot
POH shop and manufacturing unit there is a specified area to conduct load box test. Based upon the type
of resistances used, they are of two types, Water and Grid resistance type Load Box. During load box test,
the output of the generator is connected across a set of resistance instead of connecting it with the Traction
Motors. The output of engine is measured in terms of electrical parameters i.e. volt and ampere, across the
resistances connected in load box. Several other mechanical and electrical parameters are also recorded to
diagnose problems related to engine performance, based on the observations made during load box test.

6. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

1. What is Load Box test? Why, when and where they are conducted?
2. What are the types of Load Boxes used in Indian Railways? Compare their relative merits?
3. What is Prelubrication? What checks are to be conducted during Prelubrication?
4. What mechanical and electrical checks are conducted as pre load test during Load Box?
5. What is calculated HP? And how is it corrected?

10
 UNIT M 6-TRANSMISSION IN DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this unit is to make you understand about
• the need for transmission in a diesel engine
• the duties of an ideal transmission
• the requirements of traction
• the relation between HP and Tractive Effort
• the factors related to transmission efficiency
• various modes of transmission and their working principle
• the application of hydraulic transmission in diesel locomotive

STRUCTURE
1. Introduction
2. Duties of an ideal transmission
3. Engine HP and Locomotive Tractive Effort
4. Factors related to efficiency
5. Rail and wheel adhesion
6. Types of transmission system
7. Principles of Mechanical Transmission
8. Principles of Hydrodynamic Transmission
9. Application of Hydrodynamic Transmission ( Voith Transmission )
10. Principles of Electrical Transmission
11. Summary
12. Self assessment

1
 1. INTRODUCTION
A diesel locomotive must fulfill the following essential requirements-
1. It should be able to start a heavy load and hence should exert a very high
starting torque at the axles.
2. It should be able to cover a very wide speed range.
3. It should be able to run in either direction with ease.
Further, the diesel engine has the following drawbacks:
• It cannot start on its own.

• To start the engine, it has to be cranked at a particular speed, known as a starting

speed.

• Once the engine is started, it cannot be kept running below a certain speed known
as the lower critical speed (normally 35-40% of the rated speed). Low critical
speed means that speed at which the engine can keep itself running along with its
auxiliaries and accessories without smoke and vibrations.

• The engine cannot be allowed to run above a certain speed known as high critical
speed. It is 112 to 115% of rated speed. The high critical speed is the speed at
which the engine can keep itself running without damaging itself due to thermal
loading, and centrifugal forces.

• It is a constant torque engine for a particular fuel setting irrespective of its speed.
It can develop rated power at rated speed and fuel setting only.

• It is unidirectional.

• To de-clutch power, the engine has to be shut down, or a separate mechanism has
to be introduced.

To satisfy the above operating requirements of the locomotive, it becomes necessary

to introduce an intermediate device between the diesel engine and the locomotive
wheels. This device, called transmission, should accept whatever the diesel engine gives,
with all its limitations mentioned above and be able to feed the axles in such a way that
the locomotive fulfills the essential requirements.
Any transmission should fulfil the following requirements.
1. It must transmit the power from the diesel engine to the wheels.
2 It must have a provision to connect and disconnect the engine from the axles
for starting and stopping the locomotive.
3. It must incorporate a mechanism to reverse the direction of motion of the
locomotive.
4 It must provide a permanent speed reduction, as the axle speeds are normally
very low when compared with the speed of the crankshaft of the diesel engine.
5 It must provide a high torque multiplication at start, which should gradually fall
as the vehicle picks up speed and vice-versa.

The requirements of traction are-

1. It requires high starting torque at zero speed so that the train can start without jerk.
2. Once the train is started, torque should reduce quickly, uniformly, and speed
should increase with high acceleration.

2
 3. The sped and power characteristics should change automatically & uniformly
depending on the road requirements so that the power transmission is jerk free.
4. The power transmission should be reversible with identical speed and torque
characteristics with easy reversibility in both directions.
5. There should be a power de-clutching arrangement whenever required.

2. DUTIES OF AN IDEAL TRANSMISSION

1. It should be able to multiply the torque and reduce the speed to such a level that
the train can be started without a jerk.
2. Once the train has started, it should decrease the torque and increase the speed as
required, automatically.
3. The torque & speed characteristics should be varied uniformly throughout the
traction depending upon the road requirements, so that the power transmission is
jerk free.
4. It should be capable of reversing the power transmission easily, with identical
torque & speed characteristics in both the directions.
5. It should be light, robust, and should occupy very little space.
6. It should be reliable and ask for minimum maintenance.
7. It should be approachable easily for maintenance and ask for low minimum nos. of
consumable.
8. It should not transmit road shocks and vibrations to the engine.
9. It should have good efficiency, good utilisation factor, and good degree of
transmission.
10. It should be capable of starting the engine, if required.
11. It should be able to apply brakes, if required.

3. ENGINE HP AND TRACTIVE EFFORT

The power produced by the diesel engine at its crankshaft is the horsepower, which is
proportional to the multiplication of torque and the speed of the engine. In any diesel
engine torque and speed are the two independent quantities- the torque produced by
the engine is proportional to the load to overcome the resistance for its rotation, and
the speed of the crankshaft depends on the HP produced by the engine.
Tractive effort of a locomotive is the effort or force exerted by the driving wheels on
the rails. The torque produced at the crankshaft of the diesel engine is multiplied by
the transmission system, and is available at the axle as the axle torque. The wheel on
the rail applies this torque, divided by the radius of the wheel gives the effort at the
wheel-rims is called Tractive effort. As the horsepower of the diesel engine is constant
for a fixed throttle setting and speed, the horsepower available at the axles will also be
constant from zero to the maximum vehicle speed when using an ideal transmission
system. Depending on the speed of the vehicle, the tractive effort is varied
automatically (increased torque at decreased speed, and vice-versa). In other words,
the tractive effort-speed curve of a diesel locomotive obtained by using an ideal
transmission system would be a rectangular hyperbola. In this case the full installed
horse-power at site is available at the rails from zero to the maximum track speed, but
in actual practice, the tractive effort curve falls well below the theoretical curve mainly
due to three reasons-
1. Power consumed by auxiliaries such as cooling fan, compressors, exhausters,
dynamo etc.
2. Power utilisation factor of the transmission.
3. Transmission efficiency at the rails.

3
 4. FACTORS RELATED TO EFFICIENCY

Power Utilisation Factor

The diesel engine when viewed as a constant torque engine is capable of developing
its full rated horsepower only when running at its maximum speed and maximum fuel
setting. Therefore to utilise its full power from zero to hundred percent of vehicle
speed, the engine must run always at its maximum speed with full fuel setting. But this
is not the case in actual practice. When the engine is coupled to the wheels through a
transmission system such as a coupling or a multi-stage gearbox, the engine speed is
directly governed by the inherent characteristics of transmission and hence its power
varies proportionately. The ratio between the horsepower input to the transmission in
peak notch operation at any instant of the vehicle speed and the maximum horsepower
installed at the site conditions is known as power utilisation factor.
Transmission efficiency
This is defined as the ratio between the rail horsepower and horsepower input to the
transmission at any vehicle speed.
Degree of transmission
This is a very important factor for selecting a transmission system for a diesel
locomotive. This is defined as a product of power utilisation factor and the
transmission efficiency. In other words, this is the ratio between the rail horsepower at
any instant, and the installed horsepower at the site.

5. RAIL AND WHEEL ADHESION

The locomotive wheels run on a metal track. Any tangential force exerted at the wheel
rims will cause a linear movement of the vehicle only if the driving wheels have a grip
on the rails, as otherwise the wheels will slip and the vehicle will not advance. The
maximum force that can be exerted by the driving wheels without causing a slip is
called the adhesive limit of the locomotive. This depends primarily on the adhesive
weight of the locomotive as well as friction between the contact surfaces of the rail
and wheels. The coefficient of adhesion at start, between the rail and wheel rim,
generally lies between 0.25 and 0.33, depending upon the type of transmission, axle
configuration, bogie design etc. The selection of a transmission system for a
locomotive should be in such a way that the tractive effort at start should always be
well above adhesive limit of the locomotive, so that the starting load is limited by the
adhesive factor and not by the engine power.

6. TYPES OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Mechanical Transmission

• Gear

• Friction Clutch

• Belt and Pulley

• Chain and sprocket.

Hydrodynamic Transmission

4
 • Fluid coupling

• Torque converter

Electrical Transmission

• DC electrical

• AC/DC electrical

• AC electrical

• Linear motor etc.

7. PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL TRANSMISSION

In this system of transmission, a clutch and a multi ratio gearbox are employed.
The multi ratio gear box consists of several gear trains. The engine power is transmitted
through one gear pair at a time. As the engine is rigidly connected to the wheels through
a fixed gear ratio in each gear, the vehicle speed varies directly with the engine speed.
As the power output of the engine is proportional to the engine speed, the power
delivered by the vehicle also varies with the engine speed.
The transmission efficiency of the mechanical transmission is the highest, as
there is no conversion of energy during the power transmission process. But the other
parameters are inferior when compared with other types of transmission systems.

8. PRINCIPLES OF HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSMISSION

In hydrodynamic mode of transmission the velocity / the momentum of the fluid is the
contributing factor for transmission of power. The rate of change of momentum of the
fluid from driving to the driven member decides the amount of torque being
transmitted in this system. Hydrodynamic drives are of two types.

FLUID COUPLING

HYDRAULIC TORQUE CONVERTER.

Fluid coupling
It is a device employed in a power transmission system simply to transmit torque
from one end to the other through a fluid medium. There are two principle members.
Those are-
1 Impeller or pump, generally connected to the input side of the
power transmission system.
2 Turbine or runner, connected to the output side.
All the blades or wings in both the members are straight and radial. In most of
the cases, these two elements are produced by Aluminium castings.
Working principle:
The power output of the engine is supplied to the impeller. The speed of every
particle of the fluid that passes through the rotating impeller increases. In a turbine the
reverse action takes place. The high speed fluid exerts a push on the turbine blades. This

5
causes the turbine to produce an output power. In this way, the coupling transmits power
to the external load.
The two members of the coupling are identical with respect to the inside to
their inside and outside diameters, design and positioning of blade diameters etc.
Therefore, the kinetic energy or torque absorbed by the impeller is equal to that released
in the turbine. Hence, there can be no torque conversion in a fluid coupling, and impeller
torque is always equal to the turbine torque.
Slip
This is the difference between impeller and turbine speeds. When there is no
slip, there is no transfer of fluid from impeller to the turbine and hence no torque is
transmitted. This is because the turbine sets up a head of fluid equal and opposite to the
head of the fluid set up by the impeller. To transmit any torque, a fluid coupling must
necessarily have some slip depending upon its size and speed. Torque can be transmitted
either way depending upon the speeds of its two members. The higher speed member
automatically becomes the torque receiving or input side.
Hydraulic torque converter
The principle components are three. Those are-
1. Impeller or pump, connected to the input side of the transmission system.
2. Turbine or runner, connected to the output side.
3. Reaction member or guide-wheel, which is placed in the fluid circuit to guide
the fluid coming from the turbine into the impeller, and is normally connected
to the casing. This remains stationary.
The general working principle and the basic characteristics are very similar to those
of fluid coupling, as described above, but for the following variations.
The principle members are not identical in construction and the wings or blades
provided in them are shaped and positioned to form various angles with respect to the
axis of rotation to obtain required performance. The torque condition of the impeller and
turbine are not the same due to the existence of a reaction member in the fluid circuit.
Therefore, the impeller torque undergoes a change in turbine, and is either increased or
decreased according to the speeds of the two members.
Some facts about torque converter
1. In transmitting power, a torque converter behaves like a gearbox having
infinite gear ratios, and hence provides a stepless variation of torque at the turbine end
for a constant input torque. This inherent characteristic suits very well with the output
torque requirement of a locomotive.
2. Due to the conversion of energy from mechanical to hydraulic in the
impeller, and hydraulic to mechanical in turbine, there is a loss of power in the
transmission. Hence its transmission efficiency is poorer than a mechanical
transmission. However, it compares well with the electrical transmission.
3. For a definite output speed, its transmission efficiency is superior, when
working under part load. Hence, it is ideal for shunting locomotives.
4. It does not transmit shocks and vibration from either side due to the
presence of a hydraulic medium.
5. It permits the selection of a high-speed diesel engine as its prime mover.
Thus, it reduces its gross weight of the locomotive.

9. APPLICATION OF HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSMISSION

REVERSIBLE HYDRAULIC TRANSMISSION (VOITH TRANSMISSION)

Advantages of reversible transmission

6
 1. Separate torque converters are provided for each direction of running of
locomotive. A change in the direction of travel of locomotive is effected by filling
/emptying the appropriate converter.
2. Mechanical components such as claw/clutches, external/internal splined
components, shifting fork, slide blocks, pneumatic cylinders and linkage mechanism,
tooth on tooth safety devices etc. are dispensed with.
3. While the vehicle is in motion, by engaging the converter intended for the
opposite direction of the travel, hydrodynamic braking can be achieved till the vehicle
comes to a standstill position. The retardation of the vehicle will be very smooth, and
sharp without any wear and tear of brake blocks, brake-rigging components.
4. The controls and monitoring devices in the locomotive are much simplified
when compared with the conventional type of mechanical reversible transmission.
5. The transmission can be instantaneously switched on to either direction of travel
at any time, while the locomotive is stationary or is moving, unlike in mechanical
reversible transmission where the shifting of the claw clutch is to be carried out only
when both the primary and the secondary rotating components are absolutely standstill.

MERITS OF HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSMISSION OVER CONVENTIONAL ELECTRIC

TRANSMISSION

Efficiency
Transmission efficiency of any hydraulic transmission using torque converter is
comparable to any electrical transmission. The efficiency of hydro-mechanical
transmission is about 10 % higher. The comparative saving in fuel costs will be
substantial especially in high horsepower super-fast train locomotive.
Power to weight ratio
The horsepower to weight ratio of a diesel hydraulic locomotive is comparatively higher
due to the use of high-speed diesel engine and lower weight of transmission. For
example, the power to weight ratio of the WDM2. (Electrical transmission) is 23 hp/tonne,
as against 33 hp/tonne for the WDM3 (hydraulic transmission). One of the main reasons
is that the hydraulic transmission permits use of high-speed (low weight) diesel engine, as
power absorbing capacity of the torque converter is proportional to the cube of its
impeller speed. In case of an electrical transmission, the peripheral speed of the generator
-armature becomes a limitation for choosing the engine speed.
Adhesion
Coefficient of starting adhesion is comparatively higher owing to coupled axles of the
diesel hydraulic locomotives as against the independently driven axle hung traction
motors of the diesel electric locomotives.
Part load efficiency
The part load efficiency of the hydraulic transmission, whether using a converter, or using
a coupling, is comparatively higher at lower vehicle speed than electric transmission,
where generator and traction motor efficiency remain more or less constant, and
independent of horse power transmitted. This advantage is predominant especially in
shunting locomotives, where the diesel engine operates most of the time at part notches at
low vehicle speeds.

7
10. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION

GENERAL
Most of the Diesel Electric Locomotives serving in Indian Railways are single engined
with one D.C. self ventilated, separately excited, single bearing main generator.
This supplies power to six nose suspended, force ventilated, series wound D.C. motors
connected in three series pairs.
Power for electrically driven auxiliaries and control circuits is obtained from a self-
excited, self ventilated auxiliary generator mounted on the end of main generator. This
also supplies the battery charging current. Output of auxiliary generator is maintained
constant at different speed by a voltage regulator. It also takes care about the limit of
current going out to avoid damage to the generator. 8 lead acid batteries in series with
four cells per battery, being provided for starting the engine by motoring the main
generator, and to supply all the control circuits and the locomotive lighting.
The locomotive is provided with electrical end jumper cables to enable it to work in
multiple with a number of other locomotives.

POWER CIRCUITS
The main generator is separately excited with or without a differential series field to give
the required characteristic form.
Each traction motor has separate reversing switch contacts for reversing the field current,
and field diverting arrangements.
Wheel slip sensing arrangement is provided between all three motor pairs using three
relays. Ground fault sensing arrangement is provided in the generator circuit using a
relay, to avoid damage to the electrical machines and circuits.
FIELD WEAKENING AND TRANSITION
As has already been mentioned the series type dc motors are used as traction motors. This
type of motor draws a high current at low speed and a low current at high speed. If its
load is heavy, it runs at low speed; if light, it runs at high speed.
The generator delivers electrical power. When the load resistance is low, the amperes are
high and when resistance is high, the amperes are low. To achieve maximum fuel
efficiency, the engine should be loaded in such a way so that it gives constant horsepower
for a particular speed setting, and accordingly the fuel for each throttle setting is
scheduled.
So to get most of the engine, one should stay on the constant horse power curve. As the
traction motors are the load, and current changes with change in speed of the motor, the
voltage also changes accordingly power being constant.
When the train accelerates, i.e. the motor speed increases, the voltage output of main
generator goes on increasing and at a particular train speed, generator voltage reaches its
limit and horse power is reduced by the excitation system. With this situation more train
speed can't be achieved.
To get higher train speed, either the motor fields are weakened or the motors are
rearranged in the circuit. This increases traction motor current. With higher current now
the motor speed starts increasing.
Normally the motor field is made weak, connecting resistor in parallel to the field, and
rearrangement is done by changing the motors from series-parallel to parallel grouping.
An automatic regulator, on getting signal about locomotive speed does the change in
motor circuit.

8
11. SUMMARY
In a diesel engine an intermediate device is used to transmit the power of the engine upto
wheels. This intermediate device is called transmission. It is essential to have a
transmission in a diesel engine because of certain inherent limitations in it. An ideal
transmission has to fulfil many a requirements: like, torque multiplication during starting,
automatic picking up of speed with the submission of torque just after starting, modifying
torque and speed characteristics automatically as per load and road condition and also to
facilitate reversing facility to the train etc. There are various modes of transmission like
mechanical, electrical, hydraulic etc. Amongst them suitability of transmission is based
on the requirement of traction and their operating efficiency. Overall transmission
efficiency, percentage utilisation of rail wheel adhesion and power to weight ratio should
be given due consideration while selecting the type of transmission for a locomotive In
consideration to the above facts, electrical transmission is widely used in the railways.
But in shunting locomotives hydraulic transmission is also used, because of its relative
merit over electric transmission on the areas like, - part load efficiency, coefficient of
starting adhesion and power to weight ratio being high.
Hydraulic transmission works on hydrodynamic principle. Previously, Suri transmissions
were in use. It was a hydro- mechanical transmission, in which a reversing gearbox was
in use to reverse the direction of movement of the locomotive. But in recent days, Voith
transmission, the hydraulic transmission itself takes care of reversing facility. It is a
superior version of hydraulic transmission over Suri Transmission.
12. SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Why transmission is necessary for a diesel engine?
2. What should be the duties of an ideal transmission?
3. What do you understand by Tractive Effort? What is its relation with rail wheel
adhesion?
4. Explain the working of fluid coupling and torque converter in hydrodynamic
transmission?
5. Based on what merits hydrodynamic transmission is applied in some shunting
locomotives?
6. Explain the principle of working of an electrical transmission?

9
UNIT 2 D.C. MACHINES
DC machines have been widely used in Diesel Electric locomotives for their operating
characteristics. These machines require frequent maintenance and attention to keep them in
healthy state. It is important and necessary to be well informed about the construction,
operating principle and probable areas of defects for a maintenance man so that they are
confidant in maintaining these machines regularly. This block has been divided in five units
to deal with the generator, motor, commutation, carbon brushes and flashover separately. The
DC Generator has been discussed in Unit 2.1, DC Motor in Unit 2.2, commutation in Unit
2.3, carbon brush in Unit 2.4 and flashover in Unit2.5.

1
UNIT 2 D.C. MACHINES
UNIT 2.1
DC Generator
UNIT 2.2
DC Motor
UNIT 2.3
Commutation
UNIT 2.4
Carbon brushes
UNIT 2.5
Flashover

2
___________________________________________________________________________
UNIT 2.1 DC GENERATOR
OBJECTIVES

• After completing this unit, you will be able to:

• understand the working principle of DC generator
• appreciate the construction of DC generator
• define the EMF equation of a generator
• define and appreciate commutation of DC machine
• identify types of DC generators and their characteristics

STRUCTURE
1. Introduction
2. Constructional Details of DC generators
2.1 Yoke
2.2 Pole core or pole shoes
2.3 Field coils
2.4 Armature core
2.5 Armature winding
2.5.1 Lap winding
2.5.2 Wave winding
2.6 Commutator
2.7 Brushes and bearings
3. EMF equation
4. Principle of operation
5. Commutation
6. Types of DC generators
7. Generator characteristic
7,1 Open Circuit or no load Characteristic
7.2 External or load Characteristic
7.3 Internal or Total characteris tic
7.4 Critical Resistance
8. Summary
9. Self-assessment exercises

3
1. INTRODUCTION
A machine, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, is called a Generator.
This energy conversion is based on the dynamically induced emf. According to the Faraday's
law of electromagnetic Induction, an induced emf is produced in the conductor which cuts the
magnetic flux. This emf causes a current to flow in the conductor if its circuit is closed.
Hence the basic essentials for an electrical generator are: -
(i) Magnetic field;
(ii) Conductor or conductors and;
(iii) Relative motion between magnetic field and conductors.

2. CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF A DC GENERATOR

Here we are dealing with a DC generator. But there is a good similarity with a DC motor also
as far as construction is concerned.
The following are the main parts of a DC generator:
• Yoke
• Pole core or pole shoes
• Field coils
• Armature core
• Armature winding
• Commutator
• Brushes and bearings

2.1 YOKE OR MAGNET FRAME

This is the outer part of the DC generator. It provides the mechanical supports for the poles
and acts as a protecting cover for the whole machine. It carries the magnetic flux produced by
the poles. Yokes are made out of cast iron or cast steel. The modern process of forming the
yoke consists of rolling a steel slab round a cylindrical mandrel and then welding it at the
bottom. The feet and the terminal box etc. are welded to the frame afterwards. Such yokes
possess sufficient mechanical strength and have high permeability.

2.2 POLE CORE OR POLE SHOES

The field magnet consists of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole shoes serve two purposes.
(i) They spread out the flux in the air gap and also being the larger cross section reduced the
reluctance of the magnetic path.
(ii) They support the exciting coils.

2.3 FIELD COILS

The field coils or pole coils, which consist of copper wire, are former-wound for the current
dimension. Then the former is removed and the wound coil is put into place over the core.

4
2.4 THE ARMATURE CORE
It houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and hence cut the
magnetic flux of the field magnets. Its most important function is to provide a path of very
low reluctance to the flux through the armature from North Pole to South Pole. It is laminated
to reduce the loss due to eddy currents. Thinner the lamination, greater will be resistance
offered to the induced emf and hence smaller the current. And thus the loss is also small.

2.5 ARMATURE WINDINGS

It is generally former wound. These are first wound in the form of flat rectangular coils and
then are pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller.
Two types of windings are mainly used - namely lap winding & Wave winding.

2.5.1 Lap winding

In lap winding finish end of one coil is connected to a commutator segment and to the start
end of the adjacent coil situated under the same pole and similarly all coils are connected.
Since the successive coils overlap each other and hence the name (Ref. fig.1).

2.5.2 Wave winding

It is also called as series winding. In this winding, the coil side is not connected back but
progresses forward to another coil sides. In this way the winding progresses, passing
successively every N pole and S pole till it returns to coil side from where it was started. As
the winding shape is wavy, the winding is, therefore, called wave winding (Ref. fig.2).

2.6 COMMUTATOR

The commutator, whose function is to facilitate the collection of current from the armature, is
cylindrical in structure, built up of segments of high conductivity, hard drawn copper
insulated from one another by mica sheets. It also converts alternating current into
unidirectional current (DC).

2.7 BRUSHES&BEARINGS

The function of brushes is to collect current from the commutator. These are rectangular in
shape, made of carbon normally. These brushes are housed in brush holder usually of the box
type variety.
Generally ball bearings are employed due to their reliability but for heavy duty, roller
bearings are also used. The balls and rollers are generally packed in hard oil for quieter
operation. Sleeve bearings are also used where low wear is required.

3. E.M.F. EQUATION OF A GENERATOR

Generated E.M.F, E = PφZN 60 A Volts
Where, P = No. of poles.
φ = Flux per pole in Wb (Weber)
Z =Total nos. of conductors.
5
N = r.p.m.
A = nos. of parallel paths in Armature.
(A = 2 for wave winding & A = P for lap winding)

4. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The principle of electro-magnetic induction, discovered by Faraday, states that when a
conductor is moved across a magnetic field so as to cut the lines of force, electro-motive
force or E.M.F. measured in volts, is generated across the conductor. Thus, if an open loop or
wire is made to rotate between the poles of a permanent magnet, as shown in fig.3 and fig.4,
there will be a tendency for electricity to flow through the wire. The magnitude of this EMF
or voltage, depends on the speed of rotation, and on the strength of the magnet, i.e. "the
magnetic flux".

The direction of voltage generated in a conductor depends on the direction of the motion of
the conductor across a magnetic field and the direction of the field itself. Since the magnet
has two poles, two conductors can be connected together in series to form a loop and their
voltages will be additive. Several loops can be joined together to form a coil having a number
of turns, all the voltages being added together. For each half revolution, embracing one
complete pole, the voltage will start from zero, rise to a maximum and fall to zero again. For
the remaining half revolution a similar series of events will occur, but the direction of the
voltage is reversed. This very simple form of alternating current (A.C.) generator is shown in
fig.3.

To change this primitive machine into a direct current (D.C. generator) fig.4, it is necessary
to introduce a commutator. In order to attain constancy of direction, the ends of the loop,
instead of being connected to slip rings, are connected to a split metal ring, the two halves
being insulated from each other. By placing the collecting brushes (C & D) on the
commutator in such a position that the voltage induced in the loop is zero when the brushes
change from one segment to the other voltage at the brushes will be uniform in direction,
although it will still be alternating, commutator simply alters the connection of the loop to the
external circuit at the instant when the induced electromotive force changes in direction.

If the loop of wire is closed by connecting the brushes (C&D) to an external resistance(R),
which represents the 'load' imposed on the machine, electric current will flow through the
loop and the resistance (R). In practice, the amount of current, which flows, is measured in
amperes (amps). The magnitude of the current, which will flow through the circuit, depends
on the voltage generated and on the value of the joint resistance of the loop of wire and the
external resistance. Voltage, which the machine is capable of developing at the certain speed
and with a magnet of the given strength, the current flow, measured in volts, divided by the
total resistance of the circuit, measured in ohms.

If the loop of wire be rotated in one direction, the current will flow in the wire under the
south pole (S), in the direction of the arrow, that is, away from the brush (C), and then in the
wire under the north pole (N) towards the brush (D). From the brush (D), it will go to the
external circuit and then back to the brush (C); thus completing the electric circuit. After
rotating such that the position of the segments is reversed, it will be noticed that the picture
remains identical and therefore the current flow will be in the same direction.

6
Although the primitive direct current generator, so far described, produces a uni-directional
current flow, it is obvious that for each revolution of the coil the induced current will start
from zero value, rise to a maximum value, fall to zero then rise to a maximum value again
and finish at the zero point from which it started. However, by increasing the number of coils
and spreading them out evenly, the flow of current can be made very nearly constant. This
also means that there would be an increased number of segments in the commutator in
proportion to the increased number of coils. In practice, a direct current generator has many
coils consisting of insulated copper wire or strip, and in order to concentrate the magnetic
flux where it is required, they are embedded in slots in a soft-iron laminated cylinder. This
assembly is called the armature.

The permanent magnet of the original example is replaced by an electro-magnet having many
poles wound with insulated copper wire; these are field coils and are referred to as the field
system. The field strength, or excitation, depends upon the number of turns of wire on each
pole and on the magnitude of current flowing through the wire.

From this it can be seen that there are two ready means of regulating the output of the
generator; one by varying the speed of rotation of the armature and the other by altering the
magnetic strength of the field system. The variation of speed of rotation is readily obtained by
varying the governor setting on the diesel engine, which drives the armature, and by inserting
variable resistance in the field system, the amount of current flowing through the coils of the
Electro-magnets can be varied.

In a diesel locomotive, the driver of the locomotive makes these adjustments, as required, by
moving his control handle, thereby simultaneously affecting engine speed and generator
excitation. The main generator frame is coupled directly to the diesel engine flywheel casing.
The armature is of the single bearing type, that is to say, one end of the shaft is coupled to the
engine flywheel, and the other end is supported in a roller bearing, housed in an end plate
bolted to the generator frame. The main generator is self ventilated, having its own fan which
draws air through the machine so as to cool the windings and maintain them at a safe working
temperature.

5. COMMUTATION
We have seen that current induced in the armature conductors of a DC generator is
alternating and to make it unidirectional in the external circuit we use commutator. Also the
flow of direction of current in the conductor envisages as the conductor's position changes
from one pole to another i.e. as conductors pass out of the influence of a `N' pole and other
that of a `S' pole the current in them is reversed. This reversal of current takes place along the
Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA).

Thus, commutation is a group of phenomena related to current reversal in the conductors of

an armature winding when they place through the M.N.A. where they are short-circuited by
the brushes placed on the commutator.

Commutation is said to be good if there is no sparking between the brushes and commutator
when current reversal in the coil section takes place. Contrary to that, it is said to be poor if
there is sparking at the brushes during current reversal in the coil section.

7
6. TYPES OF GENERATORS
In accordance with the method of excitation D.C. generators are divided into two categories -
1. Separately excited Generator
2. Self excited generators.
Since the separately excited generators have limited application we look forward for self-
excited generators.
Generators with self-excitation can be divided according to the way of the field winding
connection into following categories-
1. Shunt-excited generators
2. Series excited generators and,
3. Compound-wound generators

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERATOR

There are 3 important characteristics of a DC generator.

1. Open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.)
2. External characteristic or load characteristics
3. Internal characteristic or total characteristic

7.1. O.C.C. or NOLOAD CHARACTERISTIC

It represents the relation between generated E.M.F. and field current. If it is practically the
same for all types of generator whether they are self-excited or separately excited.

7.2. EXTERNAL OR LOAD CHARACTERISTIC

It is a curve representing the relation between the terminal voltage V and the load current IL.

7.3. INTERNAL OR TOTAL CHARACTERISTIC

It is a curve, which represents the relation between the generated EMF.(Eg.) and armature
current Ia.

7.4. CRITICAL RESISTANCE

The value of that resistance due to which field resistance line becomes tangent to the O.C.C.
curve is called critical resistance.

8
8. SUMMARY
Necessary informations regarding operating principle, constructions, characteristic of DC
generators have been given in this unit. These informations will help in maintaining the
machines to ensure reliability and their trouble free functioning. Some informations have
been given about commutation of DC machines, which would prove to be important to
understand behavior of DC machines. Sketches and diagrams have been included in this unit
to understand the block with more practical and systematic approach.

9. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1. Name different components of a dc generator and describe their functions.
2. State the EMF equation of a generator and mention detail names of different symbols.
3. Explain the commutation process of a dc machine with necessary diagrams.

9
UNIT 2.2 DC MOTORS

OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit, you should be able to:
• understand the working principle of DC motor
• appreciate the construction of DC motor
• define the speed equation
• understand characteristics of DC motors
• appreciate brush grades and their selection criteria

STRUCTURE
1. Introduction
2. DC motor and its principle of operation
3. Back emf.
4. Types of DC motors
5. Speed equation
6. Speed control
7. Characteristic of DC motors
8. Constructional details of DC motor
9. Heating and cooling
10. Rating of DC motor
11. Summary
12. Self-assessment exercises

10
1. INTRODUCTION

A motor is a mechanism by which electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy. Its
operating principle is the reverse of a DC generator. When a coil, carrying current, is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences forces, which turn it about in a direction perpendicular to
both the field and current. Thus the motor armature placed inside the magnetic field gets
motion, converting electrical energy to mechanical.

2. DC MOTORS – Principle of operation

A motor is a mechanism by which electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.
Both in principle and design, a DC motor is the reverse of a DC generator.

A steady current is passed through the armature coil from the commutator and the brushes are
so arranged as to reverse the current every half revolution. When a coil, carrying a current, is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences forces, which turn it about in a direction
perpendicular to both the field and the current. Due to the rotating torque the motion of
rotation will not be continuous, unless the direction of the current is reversed each half
revolution with the help of a split ring commutator (in a 2-pole machine).

The electric motor is fundamentally similar to the primitive form of D.C. generator described
earlier and is based on the fact that, if a "loop of wire". If it is supplied, through its
commutator, with electric current from a battery or any other source of direct current (D.C.)
supply, the loop will rotate.

If the brushes of the machine were connected to the terminals of a primary cell, instead of
being connected to load R, the "loop of wire "would rotate. A greatly enhanced performance
would be obtained by having an iron core on this loop, a further improvement would be to
have many loops, another to have increased pole area, and a still further improvement would
be obtained by having electromagnets instead of permanent magnets.

When used for traction, the direct current electric motor is usually of the series wound type,
that is, the current, which passes through the armature also, passes through the field coils.
The reason for this is that a motor having this particular type of winding has characteristics
eminently desirable for traction work, its torque being proportional to the current flow,
multiplied by the magnetic strength of the field system. The series wound motor is capable;
therefore, of producing a high torque when the vehicle is started, and also has the advantage
that as the load increases its speed drops.

The direct current traction motor can be considered as having the following major parts;

1. The electro-magnetic system consisting of the frame with pole pieces, the field windings
and brush gear.
2. The reduction gears between the armature shaft and the road wheels, together with the gear
case, which protects the gear wheels and holds the gear lubricant.
3. The axle bearing where the traction motor frame rests on the axle of the vehicle, this
arrangement maintains a constant.
4. The nose suspension arrangement prevents the frame of the motor from rotating round the
axle of the vehicle, The nose is spring borne on a bogie cross member.
11
3. BACK EMF

Due to the rotation of the armature coil (i.e. a conductor) in the magnetic field, the motor
works as a DC generator and induced e.m.f acts in the circuit, which opposes the current.
This induced e.m.f is called back e.m.f.

4. TYPES OF D.C.MOTORS
Like DC generators, DC motors are also of 3 types-
(i) Series wound motor,
(ii) Shunt wound motor and
(iii) Compound wound motor.

5. SPEED EQUATION
We know that back e.m.f. is produced by the generator action of the motor
Hence back e.m.f. E = PφZN , where symbols have their usual meanings.
60 A
Let V be the applied voltage and Ia and Ra is the armature circuit current and resistance
respectively.
Then E = V − I a Ra
PφZN = V − I a Ra
60 A
(V − I a Ra ) × 60 A
Or N =
PφZ
Or N ∝ (V − I a Ra ) since P Z & A are constants. for a particular motor.
φ
Or N ∝ V φ , Since Ia Ra drop is very small as compared to the applied voltage V.
Or N ∝ 1 / φ , if applied voltage V is constant.
Hence speed is inversely proportional to flux / per pole if the applied voltage is constant.

6. SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

We know that, N = (V-Ia Ra) / φ

From this formula it follows that the speed of a D.C. motor can be regulated by:
(i) varying the supply mains voltage V
(ii) Varying the voltage drop in the armature circuit Ia Ra
(iii) Varying the field flux

Methods

(ii) & (iii) are possible in any installation with constant supply voltage. But the first method is
possible only in special installation; that permits the control of the supply voltage.

12
7. CHARACTERISICS OF D.C.MOTORS

There are three important characteristics of a D.C motor, which are given below: -
(Ref. Attached figures)

(i) Torque - Armature current characteristics

This shows the relation between mechanical torque developed and armature current.

(ii) Speed- Armature current characteristics

As the name indicates, it relates speed with armature current.

(iii) Speed - Torque characteristics

The characteristics curve gives the relation between speed and torque of a DC motor.

8. CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF DC MOTOR

8.1 INTER POLES

In addition to the main field coils of a motor being in series with the armature, there are also
the coils of a smaller system of field magnets known as inter-poles. On generators with
separately excited main fields, the inter-pole coils are in series with the armature.

The inter-poles are smaller than the main poles of either a generator or motor, but are the
same length and positioned alternatively with the main poles. In a generator the polarity of an
inter-pole is the same as the main pole ahead of it according to the rotational direction of the
armature. The polarity of an inter-pole in a motor is the same as the main pole proceeding it.
An electrical machine with no inter-poles would have some magnetically neutral regions
between its pole-pieces. When a coil of the armature reaches a position during its rotation in
the neutral region, its connections are short-circuited with the connection of the armature coil
in advance, because in this position the commutator brushes will be in contact with both of
their corresponding commutator segments. The purpose of the inter-poles, being situated in
the neutral regions, is to induce a current in the short-circuited armature windings, which
flows in the same direction as the current, which will flow when it has left the neutral region.
The use of inter-poles also serves to prevent the distortion of the main field of the generator
by the reaction of the armature field, and thereby prevents the induction of Electro-motive
forces into coil sides, which are being short- circuited by the brushes.

In small machines the need for inter-poles is not important but on large generators and motors
the net effect of the inter-poles is to improve the commutation. Ideally there should be no
sparking of the brushes on the commutator surface, although this is often difficult to achieve
in practice.

13
9. HEATING AND COOLING
Every electrical machine is a power (or energy) conversion device. During these power
conversion some of the energy is wasted. In electrical machines the loss in energy occurs in
electrical circuits and in portions of magnetic circuits also. There are also frictional losses in
the dynamic parts of the machines. These losses are converted in the form of heat energy,
which increases, or tends to increase the temperature of iron and copper above that of the
ambient temperature, which in turn effects the winding insulation. In addition to the effect it
has on the insulation, an excessive temperature rise may also adversely influence the
mechanical operating conditions of a given machine part. Thus, for example the original
dimension of the commutator may change. Solder between the commutator and windings
may get washed out. So to avoid all these, it is very essential to provide a cooling system on
machines.

In most cases, the cooling is done by air currents. The cooling of machines by air streams is
called ventilation. The ventilation employed depends on the environmental conditions of the
place where the machine is to operate.

According to the method of ventilation employed, the following types of machines are
distinguished: -

(i) Machines with natural ventilation.

(ii) Machines with internal self-ventilation.
(iii) Machines with external self-ventilation.
(iv) Machines with independent ventilation.

Enclosures have got the direct bearing with the ventilation. The following are the main types
of enclosures: -
(i) Open pedestal
Rotor and stator windings are in free contact with the surroundings.
(ii) Open end Bracket
Rotors and stator windings are in contact with surrounding through openings.
(iii) Protected (formerly called semi-enclosed)
Openings in the frame are protected with wire, perforated covers etc.
(iv) Drip proof
Opening so constructed that no solid or liquid particles falling at an angle greater than 150
will enter the machine.
(v) Splash proof
Similar to drip proof but the angle of approach is 100O from vertical.
(vi) Duct or pipe ventilated
Air for ventilation enters and emerges through a pipe through the openings.
(vii) Totally enclosed
Exchange of air throughout side and inside of the machine is prohibited.
(viii) Water proof
The machine is totally enclosed so as to exclude water applied as a stream as specified.
(ix) Flame proof
It is designed normally for mines.
(x) Resistant
Machine is so constructed, that it will not be harmed easily by moisture fume, alkali etc.
14
(XI) Submersible
So constructed that it will work when submerged in water under specified condition of
pressure and time.

10. RATINGS
There are three types of ratings as specified.
(i) Continuous Rating: This is an output, which a machine delivers continuously without
exceeding the permissible temperature. It can deliver 25% overload for two hours.
(ii)Continuous maximum Rating: This is similar to continuous rating but not allowing
overload.
(iii) Short time ratings: This is an output which a machine can deliver for a specified period
(say 1 hr 1/2 hr, 1/4 hr etc) without exceeding the maximum temperature rise limit.

11. SUMMARY
Informations regarding operating principle, construction, characteristic and selection of
carbon brushes for DC motors have been given in this unit. These informations will help in
maintaining the motors to ensure reliability and their trouble free functioning. Sketches and
diagrams have been included in this unit to understand the unit with more practical and
systematic approach.

13. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

1. Describe and mention the speed equation of a dc motor.

2. What are the different types of cooling arrangements of DC motors?
3. What do you mean by rating of a motor? What are the types of ratings?

15
UNIT 2.3 COMMUTATION
OBJECTIVES

After completion of this unit you will be able to understand:

• cause of sparking in DC machines
• reactance voltage
• emf equation
• contribution of commutating poles
• reason for use of high resistance brushes

STRUCTURE

1. Introduction
2. Cause of sparking
3. Reactance voltage
4. Emf commutation
5. Commutating poles
6. Use of high resistance brush
7. Summary
8. Self Assessment Exercise

16
1. INTRODUCTION
Owing to the thinness of the insulation between the commutator segments, it is obvious that a
brush may be in contact with two or more segments at the same instant. Hence, if an armature
coil has its ends connected to two of these segments, the coil will be short-circuited by the
brush, and as the armature rotates, each coil will, of necessity, be short-circuited. This period
of short-circuit is the period during which the current is being delivered from the commutator
segments concerned, to the brush, and it is, therefore, called the period of commutation.

By commutation we mean the changes that take place in an armature coil during the period
that it is short-circuited by a brush. These changes are illustrated in figure 1, the winding
being represented as a ring winding for simplicity. Currents of magnitude I amp are flowing
to the brush through the armature from the right and left, the total current delivered by the
brush, therefore, being 2I amps. In the first diagram the coil B is on the point of being short-
circuited, and it is carrying, in a direction from left to right, half the current delivered by the
armature to the brush. The second diagram shows the same coil in the middle of the short
circuit period, from which it will be seen that it is possible for the current I flowing from right
and left to reach the brush without passing through this coil. In the third diagram, the same
coil B is shown immediately after short circuit, and in this position it is, or should be,
carrying the full current in a direction from right to left. We thus see that during the short
circuit period, the current in the short-circuited coil must be reversed and brought up to its
full value in the reversed direction.

2. CAUSE OF SPARKING
If the current in coil B has not attained its full value in the position shown in the third
diagram, then since the coil C is carrying the full current, and this current must reach the
brush, the difference between the currents carried by coil B & C has to jump from the
commutator bar to the brush in the form of a spark. Thus suppose that the armature
conductors are carrying a current of 50 amps, but the current in coil B has only reached 40
amps, then by the end of short-circuit, the difference of 10 amps will have to jump to the
brush in the form of a spark. The energy in these sparks may be very high, the result being a
very high temperature rise of the commutator, and pitting and roughening of the segments in
a very short time.

The cause of sparking at the commutator is, therefore, the failure of the current in the short-
circuited coil to reach the full value in the reversed direction by the end of short-circuit.
Suppose the current in each conductor is I amp, then what is required is that the current shall
change from +I to -I during the time of short-circuit. This is represented in fig.2 in the form
of a graph. "Curve I" shows what happened when the current does not reach the full value;
"curve II" shows the ideal, a gradual change of current from +I to -I; "curve III" shows what
may happen if one of the remedies for under commutation in overdone and the current in the
reversed direction is forced up to a value greater than I.

3. REACTANCE VOLTAGE
The difficulty experienced by the current in attaining the full value in the reversed direction
by the end of short-circuit, is due to the fact that the current in the short-circuited coil is
17
changing. When the coil is carrying a steady current, this current produces a magnetic field of
constant strength, and the number of lines of force linking with, or threading, the coil is
constant. Under these conditions there is no change in number of lines of force and
consequently there is no e.m.f. induced in the coil other than that produced by the rotation of
the coil in the main field. But when the current changes in magnitude, or direction, or both,
then there is a change in the number of lines of force linking with the coil, and in
consequence an e.m.f. is induced. The production of this e.m.f is thus exactly similar to the
production of an e.m.f in a coil by thrusting a magnet in to it, the only difference being that
the necessary change in the number of lines of force linking with the coil is produced, not by
the introduction of a magnet, but by a change in the current carried by the coil. Like all
induced e.m.f., this induced e.m.f. is a back e.m.f., it tries to stop the change of current. Now
the direction of current is from left to right in the first diagram of fig.1, and right to left in the
third, and so the induced voltage acts in the original direction of the current, thereby
preventing it from attaining its full value in the reversed direction by the end of short-circuit.
This induced voltage is called the reactance voltage.

4. E.M.F. COMMUTATION
The cause of difficult commutation is the reactance voltage, and follows that if this voltage
could be neutralized, spark-less commutation would be achieved. In order to neutralize the
reactance voltage it is necessary to induce in the short-circuited coils another e.m.f which is
opposite in direction to the reactance voltage, and, therefore, in same direction as the current
when reversed. The old method of achieving this consisted in rocking the brushes forward
until they were some way ahead of the magnetic neutral plane. The result of this was that the
short-circuited coils were located ahead of the neutral plane, and were therefore, under the
influence of the next pole further ahead. This pole induced an e.m.f in them in the required
direction, because after commutation they would be entirely under its influence until they
reached the next brush. There are two very serious objections to this method. The first is that
with a changing load the position of the magnetic neutral plane is continually changing, thus
necessitating the continual adjustment of the brush position. With modern dynamos it is
invariably specified that they shall operate spark-less at any load between zero and full-load
with a fixed brush position. The second objection is that the magnetic field which induces the
commutating e.m.f. is the fringe of flux under the leading pole tip, and we have seen in a
previous lesson that this flux is gradually wiped out as the load increases. With heavy leads it
is, therefore, necessary to give the brushes a very large load, unless some other method of
securing spark-less commutation is adopted.

5. COMMUTATING POLES
In order that a commutating e.m.f may be induced in the short-circuited coils it is necessary
that these coils shall be situated in a magnetic field, called the commutating field. Instead of
making use of the fringe of flux under the leading tips of the main poles, the modern method
is to employ separate poles called commutating poles, or interpoles. These are narrow poles
placed mid-way between the main poles and excited, so that each one has the same polarity
as the next main pole further ahead, thereby giving a commutating field of the right kind.
This is illustrated in fig.4. By the use of these poles the necessity for rocking the brushes
forward with increasing load is done away with and, as a result, the machine can be worked
with a fixed brush position. Now the reactance voltage is proportional to the change of

18
current, which takes place in the short-circuited coil, and this in turn is proportional to the
current delivered by the armature. The commutating e.m.f and the commutation magnetic
field produced by the interpoles must therefore be proportional to the armature current. For
this reason, the exciting current through the interpole windings must not be kept constant but
must vary with the load. This is achieved by series excitation of the interpoles; that is, their
exciting coils are connected in series with the armature, thereby carrying a current equal to
the armature current. For small machines the exciting coils consist of insulated cable capable
of carrying the full armature current, but with very large machines delivering very large
currents the exciting coils consist of very heavy copper strips wound on edge. An interpole of
this type is shown in fig.3. In extreme cases the coil may consist of a heavy copper casting.
The next illustration (fig.5) shows a complete stator with main and commutating poles.

It will be readily understood that for a given armature current there is proper value of the
commutating field, and that it is possible for this field to be too strong. In such a case the
reversed current in the short-circuited coil is forced to too high a value by the end of short-
circuit, and sparking at the commutator takes place in the reversed direction. This is called
over-commutation and is represented graphically by "curve III" in fig.2.

6. USE OF HIGH RESISTANCE BRUSHES

A second method of obtaining good commutation is to use brushes having a high contact
resistance when pressing on the commutator segment, since brushes of this kind help to force
the current coming up to the brush from the leading side of the armature, through the short-
circuited armature coils. This can be understood from Fig.6 in which the winding is again
represented as a ring winding for simplicity. The total current collected by the brush from the
armature is represented as 2I, and one-half of this, namely I amp comes from the left and I
amp from the right. The current I coming from the left reaches the brush via commutator
segment a and it has to traverse the contact resistance r1 between this segment and the brush.
It has also an alternative path to the brush via the short-circuited coil and across the segment
b, the resistance in this path being the contact resistance r2 between segment b and the brush.
At the commencement of short-circuit the brush will be mainly in contact with segment b and
will only just touch segment a, with the result that the resistance r1 will be very high (because
of the very small area of contact) while r2 will be low. A large portion of the current coming
from the left will, therefore, at this instant, take the lower resistance path through the short-
circuited coil. As the commutator moves past the brush, the area of contact with segment a
gradually increases, while that with segment b decreases and therefore, contact resistance r1
gradually decreases while r2 increases. There is thus a gradual tendency for that portion of
the current I coming from the left and flowing through the short-circuited coil, to leave the
coil and take the direct path to the brush across the segment a. This is as it should be, because
the current coming from the left is not in the reversed direction and it is necessary to
eliminate it from the short-circuited coil as quickly as possible. Now consider the current I
coming up to the brush from the right. There are also two parallel paths open to this current
as soon as it reaches the commutator segment b. The first is straight across the segment b to
the brush and the second is round the short-circuited coil and then across the segment a. With
brushes having a low contact resistance with the commutator there is no inducement for the
current to take this second path. With carbon brushes, which have a high contact resistance,
more and more of the current flowing to the brush from the right hand will be shunted round
the short-circuited coil as the segment b passes the brush, because, as we have seen, the
contact resistance r2 is gradually increasing, where-as the resistance r1 is gradually
19
decreasing. Finally when the period of short circuit is almost ended, the brush will only just
be touching segment b and r2 will be very high, becoming infinitely great when the segment
has left the brush. The whole of the current I from the right will then be flowing through the
short-circuited coil. Furthermore, this current is in the necessary reversed direction.

For the above reasons carbon brushes have almost entirely replaced the copper brushes which
used to be used with older machines. The disadvantage of carbon brushes is that they can
only be worked at a current density of about 40 to 50 amperes per sq. inch as compared with
150 to 200 for copper brushes. This necessitates a larger area of contact at the brush face and,
therefore, a longer commutator.

The properties of a few grades of brush are shown in the following table: -

BRUSH TYPE MAX. CURRENT MAX.CONTACT PRESSURE ON

DENSITY RESISTANCE COMMUTATOR
(amp/in.2) (ohms/in.2) (lb/in2)
Copper Ordinary. 200 0.003 1.5
Carbon 40 0.04 2.0
Electro- graphite 60 0.02 2.0

For the same area of brush, (Contact resistance of carbon brush) / (Contact resistance of
copper brush)= 0.04 =13
0.003

But for the same current collected, the contact area of the carbon brush must be 200/40 = 5
times the area of the copper brush, because of its smaller working current density. Hence,
since the contact resistance is inversely proportional to the contact area, we have, for the
same current collected, (Contact resistance of carbon brush)/ (Contact resistance of copper
brush)=13/5=2.6

This is sufficient to give improved commutation.

If a machine gives difficulty with commutation, it can often be cured by fitting new brushes
having a higher contact resistance than the old ones. Brushes of high resistance often have a
high coefficient of friction, and if such a change is made it is necessary to make sure that the
armature temperature rise does not become too much high because of the increased brush
friction. The specification for machines normally limits the temperature rise of the
commutator to 45OC.

20
7. SUMMARY
Information has been given about commutation of DC machines, use of high contact
resistance type carbon brushes, cause of sparking and how to avoid it, which would prove to
be important to understand behavior of DC machines. The contribution of commutating poles
to improve commutation has been described so that their importance is appreciated.

8. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1. Justify the use of high contact resistance type carbon brush in traction machines for
improving commutation.
2. What do you mean by emf commutation? How does it made proper by using
commutating poles?
3. Why an Electro-graphite carbon brush is used in traction machines? Justify.

21
UNIT 2.4 CARBON BRUSHES

OBJECTIVES
On completion of this unit, you should be able to understand:
• Brush material
• Brush angles
• Types of brushes
• Electrical characteristics of brushes
• Selection of brush grades
• Service performance of brushes
• Analysis of commutation problems
• Technical data of brushes
• Carbon brushes for BHEL machines

STRUCTURE

1. Introduction
2. Brush material
3. Brush angles
4. Types of brushes
5. Electrical characteristics
6. Selection of brush grades
7. Service performance
8. Analysis of commutation problems
9. Technical data
10. Carbon brushes for BHEL machines

22
1. INTRODUCTION
Brushes provide connection between rotating armatures and external circuitry, and play a
major role in satisfactory commutation of DC machines.

During commutation, in the armature coil under short circuit by the brush, the current
reverses from +I to -I. Since the change of current takes place in a very short period, an emf
is induced in the armature coil undergoing commutation. Commutating poles are provided to
nullify this emf by creating an equal and opposite voltage in the same coil. However due to
design limitations/manufacturing tolerances, it is not possible to totally balance out the
induced emf (known as reactance voltage), and therefore the residual voltage in the coil
causes a circulation of current, which appears in the form of sparking under the brushes.
As the process of commutation became more apparent, it was realised that a brush of
comparatively higher resistance could materially assist the commutation.

In the early experimentally period, before 1880, when DC motors were under development,
copper brushes, in the form of brush and not as a solid block, were used. It was from the
early period that the term brush emanated, and is still continuing. Copper brushes used to
cause high commutator wear, heavy sparking, and even welding into the commutator
surface. these problems and the fact that higher resistance of the brush assists commutation,
led to the use of the carbon as a brush material.

The other reason for using carbon for brushes on electrical machines is that the wear of
the carbon brush and electrical erosion, considerably exceeds that of commutator resulting
in higher commutator life.

Charles Van Depoele, one of the early traction pioneers in America, was the first to try
brushes made of carbon on traction motors after successful trials in 1884.

2. BRUSH MATERIALS
Carbon is used for the brush in the following forms:
1. Natural Graphite
2. Hard Carbon
3. Electro-graphite Carbon
4. Metalized Carbons and Graphite

These grades of carbon are obtained by varying the combination of raw materials, and the
processes followed for mixing them. The following chart shows the cycle used for
production of non-metallic carbon brush material. flow sheet for the production of non-
metallic brush material

A few examples of processes and material variants and their usual effect on the performance
are given below:
Raw materials
Graphite - decrease friction
Copper, Silver - decrease contact drop
Pressing
Pressing at higher pressures reduce the porosity, give greater strength, increased brush life
23
and narrower blackened results.
Graphitisation
Reduces the hardness, friction and specific resistance.
Impregnation
• Oils and waxes generally improve friction, stability and increase contact drop slightly.
• Resins strengthen brush material so that it becomes more resistant to breaking and
chipping.
• PTFE reduces friction under humid conditions.
• Barium floride reduces friction and wear at very low humidity.
In view of the above an exceedingly complex multivariant relationship exists between
the various aspects of performance requirements, specifications of raw materials and
processing. Therefore, stability of a particular make and grade of brushes can only be
established after extensive tests and trials.
For traction machines, the Electro-graphite grades are most suitably used. Technical data
on some of the most commonly used brush grades for traction machines is given in annexure.

3. BRUSH ANGLES
Brushes are often defined by the methods of applying them to the commutator. They are
three main classes:
1. Reaction
2. Trailing
3. Radial
(No. 1 & 2 are used only on non-reversing machines.)
Reaction Brushes
The brushes are said to be `reaction' or `leading' when the commutator is rotated against
the angle of tilt i.e. the brushes are inclined in a leading direction. The angle between the
centre line of the brush and the normal lines between 30 to 40 degrees.
Trailing Brushes
The brushes are said to be `trailing' when the commutator is run in the same direction as the
brushes are tilted. The tilt angle usually lies between 7 to 15 degrees.
Radial Brushes
Traction motors are invariably fitted with radial brushes i.e. their centre line is radial to the
commutator, which permits operation under similar conditions for both direction of
rotation.

4. BRUSH TYPES
Split Brushes

Commutator, howsoever well designed and manufactured, losses its truness in the long run
of service and high/low spots are often formed on its surface. The unavoidable commutator
eccentricity gives rise to radial forces, which tend to break commutator to brush contact.
The split brush arrangements gives some freedom to each piece of carbon to move
independently so that the commutator surface is closely followed and electrical contact is
maintained. The biggest advantage is the resistance between leading and trailing edge of the
split brush tends to reduce circulating currents.

24
Rubber-Top Brushes

Apart from damping the radial forces, the rubber-tops prevent passage of current through
the brush holder springs. The springs thus do not get over heated and loose their tensions.

5. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
(BRUSH TO COMMUTATOR CONTACT)

It is perhaps surprising that very little is known even today regarding brush to commutator
phenomenon.

Microscopic study has revealed that area of the contact initially is only of the order of
1/4000th of brush area. As the machine is started, due to very high current density at these
contact points, the carbon gets heated up and a gaseous layer is formed between the brush
and commutator, which helps in current conduction. The commutator losses its fresh
copper colour, and initial high brush wear (due to initial high friction and high current
density), gradually comes down. The colour of the film on commutator becomes stable after
some hours, or in some cases after several days of running, depending on the operating
conditions. If no mechanical/electrical or thermal disturbances occur, brush tracks present
an uniform polished colour, varying from dark chocolet to mild black.

During the course of service, the first indications of any commutation problem due to
internal or external factors are often revealed from the condition of the commutator film.
It is therefore extremely necessary to have adequate familiarity of the different types of the
commutator films. This information is usually given in the brush literature. IEC
specification No. 276 gives illustrations of some typical films. Part 4. of IS-3003, also
includes some of such specifications.

6. SELECTION OF BRUSH GRADES

Brush grade selection involves considerable tests both on the test bed and under actual
service conditions. It is sometimes found that brushes which are considered satisfactory on
the test bed do not operate satisfactorily in service. In view of this, the proper grade can
only be selected after suitable service trials and evaluation.

Indian Standard Specification IS-3003 covers dimensions, requirements and test

procedures for carbon brushes.

Divergence in the physical properties and dimensions of carbon brushes can cause
considerable trouble in service. Verification of the properties involves exhaustive testing,
and since the carbon brushes are required to be procured rather frequently, it is not
practicable to carry out such a large amount of tests on each lot purchased. It is extremely
important, therefore, to restrict the brush procurement from established and well proven
sources only, even if the prices may be higher. Also, whenever a new supply source or a
new brush grade is considered, detailed tests/service trials should be carriied out before
approving the same for bulk use.

25
Some of the defects usually noticed on the carbon brushes are:
1. Dimensions not confirming to the drawing
2. Bowed/Curved and chipped carbons
3. Poor quality of pig tails, which results in their getting frayed/broken in service
4. Bad joints between pigtail and carbons, resulting in high unequal voltage drops across
the same
5. Hair line, invisible cracks at pigtail to carbon joints
6. Physical properties not conforming to the grade

7. SERVICE PERFORMANCE
Howsoever good may be the design/manufacture of the machine, and the quality of the
brushes, satisfactory performance cannot continue to be obtained without resorting to
regular and proper maintenance of the brush-gear and commutator.

The importance of early detection of commutation troubles cannot be over emphasized. As

such it is imperative that from the time the machines are commissioned, suitable statistical
information should be collected on the basis of regular observations. Analysis of the
data thus collected will help to avoid the possibility of any particular commutation
problem assuming epidemic proportions.

Section II of BHEL's Workshop Manual covers the aspects which govern the satisfactory
commutating performance of traction machines. In this section guidelines for operation,
maintenance and trouble shooting are also covered.

8. ANALYSIS OF COMMUTATION PROBLEMS

The commutation problems are caused by several factors, some of which are enumerated
here:
8.1 Carbon brushes
Poor quality of brushes, bad carbon to pigtail joints, wrong brush grades, mixing of grades
on same machine, brushes too loose or tight in brush holders, improper bedding, brushes
too thin or thick, brush angles not correct, etc.
8.2 Brush Gear
Brushes in incorrect positions, low or high spring tensions, unequal current sharing by
brushes of the same arm, incorrect brush stagger, spring carrying current, excessive
vibrations due to poor/defective mounting of brush holders, high brush box to commutator
clearance, unequal pressure on parts of split brush, brush holders prone to flashover
damages, poor accessibility for maintenance, etc.
8.3 Commutator
Eccentricity, ovality, high and low bars, flats on commutator, pround mica, oily or dirty
surface, bridging of mica grooves, rough surface, high commutator temperatures,
inadequate stability due to poor seasoning, etc.
8.4 Machine Faults
Compole strength and gaps not correct, clogged ventilation ducts, poor ventilation, defective
armature bearings, dynamic unbalance, wrong connections of compole or main field
windings, armature or field winding faults, inadequate equalization, commutating zone
too narrow or unsymmetrical, poor commutation performance in general, saturated
compoles, low field/armature ampere turns ratio, etc.
26
 8.5 External Causes
Excessive vibrations due to defects in machine mounting or defective bogie designs or
poor rail track, leakage from ventilation ducts, collapsed bellows, prolonged light load
running, rapidly fluctuating or excessive loads, faults in control circuitry, mal-operation of
line contactors, unequal load sharing by machines, excessive wheel slips or wheel
locking, humid or corrosive atmosphere, towing of motors without lifting the brushes,
oil/water/brake-shoe-dust coming with cooling air, high voltage transients, high ripple
contents, poor maintenance, inadequate facilities in maintenance depots, etc.

Annexure-1
TECHNICAL DATA FOR CARBON BRUSHES
___________________________________________________________________________
EG0 EG236S EG14D EG225 EG59 EG259 EG7097 EG389 EG6754
(M) (M) (M) (M) (RE) (M) (LC) (LC) (LC)
Normal current 10 11 9.5 11.0 11.5 8.5 10 10 10
density (Amp/cm2)
Contact drop at 1.0 1.4 1.25 1.15 1.25 1.65 2.5 2.5 2.5
normal current (Volts)
Specific resistance 1100 2200 4200 4100 5100 5800 4100 1700 4000
(ohm-cm)
Apparent density 1.15 1.6 1.72 1.48 1.65 1.73 1.62 1.46 1.72
(gms/cm2)
Coef. of friction 11 . 11 . 11 . 14 .15 . 05 .15 . 15 .15
% porosity (Apparent) 20 13.2 27.0 13
Shore hardness 36 65 77 34 65 65 70 30 86
(Scleroscope)
Compr. strength (Kg/cm2)410 840 230 750
Transverse band 210 180 250 130 210 300 320 270 390
strength (Kg/cm2)
Shear strength (Kg/cm2) 98 250 46 310
Normal max. 20 50 45 50 50 50 50 45 45
speed (M/sec)
Note: Most carbon materials are of a brittle granular structure, thus the physical properties
can not be held within close tolerances. The figures quoted above therefore are typical
values but considerable variability is to be expected between individual
measurements.
Annexure-2
CARBON BRUSHES FOR BHEL TRACTION MACHINES

Sl.No. Machine Type Brush Grade Size (TxWxL) Drg. No. Qty./Machine

1. 133AY / 133AX EG14D Morgan 2(9.5X63.5X57) D4775841 4

2. 253BW / 253AZ/ EG14D Morgan/ 2(12.7X44.45X60) D4775798 8
TM4601AZ/TM4603AZ EG7097 Le Carbone
3. TM4939AZ/165/165M 2(9.5X57.15X51) D4775839 12
EG14D Morgan/ EG6754 Le Carbone
4. AG15/AG2513 RE59 Ringsdroff 12.7X31.75X44.45 D4775293 8
5. MG51 (GENERATOR) RE59 Ringsdroff 12.5X31.75X43.2 D4775077 4
6. MG51 (MOTOR) EG225 Morgan 2(6.35X22.2X43.2) D4775076 2
27
7. TG10931/TG10919 EG225 Morgan 2(11.1X31.75X64) D4775851 60
EG389 Le Carbone
8. EC9005/2 EGO Morgan 9.5X9.5X25 B4900350 4
9. TM2701AZ EG14D Morgan 16X64X65 D4775847 2
10. TM3603AZ EG14D Morgan 2(11X40X60) D4776200 8

9, SUMMARY
In DC-DC and AC-DC diesel locomotives, a large number of DC machines have been used.
Carbon brushes play an important role in these machines. Understanding the characteristics
and its working helps the maintainers/users to run the machines trouble free. The brush
material, brush rigging, types of brushes and electrical characteristics help the users in
selecting proper grade for a particular application. The service performance is recorded and
monitored in order to decide the proper selection of brush grade too.
Commutation in DC machines is a critical phenomenon. Proper analysis of commutation
problem helps in minimising the troubles. This unit also contains technical data of different
carbon brushes, which are in use. A chart showing grades of brushes for specific application
is given to help the reader .

11. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Describe, How do you select a brush grade for an application.

2. Why is it necessary to monitor service performance of brush.
3. How do you analyse the commutation problem of a DC machine.
4. Why are the brushes placed at an angle in unidirectional machines.
5. Describe the process to obtain an Electro-graphite brush material.

28
UNIT 2.5 FLASHOVER

OBJECTIVES
On completion of this unit, you should be able to:
• Describe the cause of flashover.
• Detect a machine running with the risk of flashover.
• Suggest remedial actions.

STRUCTURES

1. Introduction
2. The trouble
2.1 Dirt
2.2 Loss of contact
2.3 Sudden extreme load changing
3. The ultimate effect
4. Detection and remedy
5. Summary
6. Self-assessment exercises

29
1. INTRODUCTION
Flashovers are caused. They do not just happen. Something seems puzzling and mysterious
only if it is not understood. With the gain of knowledge, the mystry disappears. If any one
can find out what flashovers are and how are they caused, what to do to prevent them, that
makes sense.

A generator flashover, seen for the first time, is truly awesome. The blast of fire, the
smoke and noise are enough to make one jump as if it was a stroke of lightening. The
traction motor flashover is also caused in the same way.

The commutator is the stage on which the flashover appears. Fig. 1 shows how the
commutator is built up of copper segments separated from each other by thickness of mica.
Each pair of segments has an armature coil connected between them. Electricity enters by
way of one set of brushes, through the copper segments and into the winding. When it
reaches the segment under the other set of brushes, it leaves. The mica insulation separates
the copper segments and keeps the electricity flowing through the armature coil. If this
insulation breaks down, electricity will short cut across the surface of the commutator.
Almost instantly, the current jumps from one brush holder to other brush holder with
explosive force forming an arc. This is known as flashover.

2. THE TROUBLE
The voltage between the segments of a machine is quite low and the thicker mica has an
insulation capacity many times greater for the purpose. What then causes such relatively
wide spaces to breakdown and permit the machine to flashover ? (Fig. 2 indicates the
distribution of voltage.) Across the top of the mica, there is an air space. If dirt does collect
at these spaces and packs between the segments, the current begings to leak through it.
The space is made wide so that it will take longer to fill with dirt and be harden to bridge. If
the space is not cleaned in time, insulation breaks down and flash over may result.
These insulating space may also be bridged by copper fins or copper dust left over from
stonning and resurfacing the commutator. Dirt and foreign materials are not the only cause
of flashover. Air, being a good insulator is broken down into conductive gas by the
action of intense heat. The change of air to a conductive gas is known as ionisation. It can be
caused by flame or spark, by high voltage or by certain kinds of radiation.

Under certain operation conditions, motor or generator brushes will spark. The affect of
this is not always serious. What happens depends upon how intense the sparking is and
how long it lasts. Under some abnormal condition the spark at the brush may be so
vicious and hot that it blasts a cloud of conductive gas and fiery particles across the
commutator surface. These bridge the spaces between segments and electricity short cuts
across the commutator surface. Every thing is then set for a flashover. The intense spark that
sets off a flash over may occur when a brush bounches off the commutartor while the
machine is carrying a load. It may also occur when there is a sudden extreme change in
load, for greater than the machine can handle. The insulating spaces between the segments
may be bridged by hot conducting gases generated by the intense heat resulting from :-

i) Dirt between segments which burns when current flows through it.
ii) Loss of contact of brushes from commutator which draws a hot spark.
30
 iii) Intense sparking at the brushes caused by sudden extreme load changing.

2.1 DIRT
Dirt and foreign particles in the insulating space between commutator segments caused the
majority of the flashovers. When enough dirts collects to bridge the space between
segments, current begins to leak across (Fig. 5A) . The dirt heats and fuses into a better
path. Current flow incfreases, specially as the oeprating voltage increases. The spot grows ,
and finally begins to glow (Fig.5B). As the commutartor turns, these glowing spot looks like
a continuous ring of fire. Finally the spot gets white hot. Then it errupts conductive gases
and incandescent particles (Fig.5C). As the commutator turns (Fig.6A), these form a fiery
trail behind the spot. These breaks down the insulating air space between segments that may
not be glowing and sets the stage for next act.

The current short cuts (Fig.6B) from the hot spot, across the segments bridged by the
firery gases, back to the brush holder in a sizzling vicious spark. The intense heat and
energy in these spark blast conductive gases acrosss the commutator circuit (Fig.6C) with
explosive violence. The gas cloud races ahead of the glowing spot and breaks down the
air resistance across the rest of the commutator from brush to brush, then full power of the
machine jumps across (Fig.6D) in the final flashover.

2.2 LOSS OF CONTACT

Dirt may be the most frequent, but it is not the only cause of flashovers. Sometimes loss of
brush contact will be to blame. These may be expected at high speed with a rough
commutator surface or weak brush holder springs. It may also occur when brushes are
jammed in the holders by muck or dirt so that they cannot follow the commutator surface
quickly enough. Servere mechanical shock may jar the brush off the commutator.

If brush breaks contact with the commutator, it draws an electric arc (Fig.7 ). If these are
severe enough, it will spray conductive gases over the commutator. If the fiery gas bridges
enough segments, the collective voltage will cause the current to arc back to the brush
(Fig.6B). The blast of conductive gas from these arc back may reach across the surface of the
commutator to the next brush (Fig.6C). The full power of the machine then flashes over
these short cut path (Fig.6D). Again, instead of doing useful work, the energy will be
expanded in the terrifically hot, destructive blast of flashover.

2.3 SUDDEEN EXTREME LOAD CHANGING (The surprise attack)

Flashovers, that occur when the commutator is in perfect mechanical and electrical
condition are most complexing. These are caused by sudden and extreme change in load,
too great for machine to handle. Fig. 8A shows that, in a machine, current divides as it
enters the winding. It remits and leaves through the out going brushes. Current flows in
one direction when the coil is on one side of the brush and in the opposite direction when
it gets to the other side. So the current must reverse in the split second it takes for the coil to
pass under the brush, which is known as commutation.

If the current does not reverse in time the coil will come out from under the brush with the
current still flowing in old direction. The meeting point with the current in other part,
31
which is known as neutral point will no longer will be in the brush. This shifting of
neutral point corwds the current to one edge of the brush. Then it breaks out over the
surface of the commutator in a spark to reach in a shifted point (Fig.8B).

The greater the current, the harder it is to get it all completely reversed as the coil zips
under the brush. Machines have interpoles or commutating poles , to speed up this current
reversal and keeps the neutral point under the bursh. These are smaller poles located
between the main poles in the machine frame. They help commutation only. The
magentism of these poles builds up a voltage in the armature coil as they pass through the
zone covered through the brush contact. This voltage speeds up the current reversal to get
it done before the coil leaves the brush contact.

These poles are designed to do a good commutating job up to, and even beyond full load.
When , however, a very overpowering current flows through the winding, the magnmetism
in the iron cannot build up quickly enough. This means there is not enough voltage to
reverse the current in time and sparking results. Moreover, as after saturation of the
pole pieces no more magnetism can be expected , hence, there is a limit to the help the pole
can give in reversing the current in the coil. When the current gets so heavy that this help
is not enough then this sparking is the ultimate result.

When the machine is operating at full voltage, the jolt of sudden extreme overload causes
vacious sparking at the brushes. Conductive gas bridges segments (Fig.8C). Current starts
leak over the commutator surface (Fig,6B). The blast of fiery gas completes the short
circuit between the brush holder (Fig.6 C&D).

Every day motors and generators demonstrate their ability Still the flashover occur if
anything goes wrong. For instance, a contactor fails to operate momentarily, short circuiting
generator.

A sudden surge of current occurs during high speed wheel slip. Taking a cross over at
high speed may cause a brush of motor to bounce and flash a motor over. It is just like
short circuiting of the generator because the current is no longer flowing through the
motor winding, but short cutting across the commutator. So the current drawn from the
generator reaches unreasonably high value. It knocks the generator off balance. The heavy
sparking and flashover is the knock out blow.

3. THE ULTIMATE EFFECT

The space surrounding the commutator is filled with flame and conductive gases. These
reach between brush holder and also over the frame part of the machine. Current can now
flow from the brush holder to the frame and through the frame back to opposite bursh holder.

Flashover current can also strike from the commutator circuit through the fiery gases to
the steel commutator cap. From here it finds its way to ground through shell, armature shaft
and bearing. This is the cause of electric pitting of roller bearings and races.

When the confined space around the commutator is filled with ionised air and flame, the
current can strike in many directions with destructive force (Fig.9). String bands are burnt,
brush holders are flashover, bearings are damaged and if grease and dirt are present they may
32
be set on fire. However, the current strikes the ground and it is detected by the ground
relay.

4. DETECTION AND REMEDY

Detection of these types of defects can only be done visually. Insulation resistance
between the segments cannot be taken with the help of a meter as they are connected to
the windings. Megger readings and high pot tests are of no good because they check what
is called resistance to ground.

Inspecting the defects visually, they can be rectified by cleaning, undercutting mica so
that they look white or grey, air curing the machine or by blowing the commutator surface
with compressed air. In case of improper or inadequate brush pressure, the brush gear
can also be attended. Polishing, grinding or machining may also be required if the
commutator surface is rough, having the defects of high bar etc. In some of the cases short
circuited or open circuited winding may also cause flash over and can be detected by bar to
bar milli-volt drop test or taking the micro ohm readings.

5. SUMMARY
Flashover of DC machines is a chronic disease. It is the prime cause of pre-mature failures of
most of the DC machines. Moreover, it remains a mystery to the user that when the machine
will fail and how an expert rectified the fault. This unit describes the causes of the flashover
due to dirt deposition, loss of contact of carbon brushes and sudden extreme load changing,
which are very common in case of traction machines.
Stage wise development of defects and ultimate effect on the machine has been elaborately
described to help the maintainer to understand these defects and take remedial measures.
Checking to judge the healthiness of the machine has also been described.

6. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

1. Describe how does the dirt deposition on the commutator surface lead to flashover.
2. Describe the reason of flashover due to loss of contact between the carbon brush and
commutator.
3. Describe the process of detection and remedy of a machine suffered from flashover.

33
____________________________________
UNIT 6 DYNAMIC BRAKING

OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit, you should be able to:
• Understand the principle of operation of Resistive Brake
• Learn a motor can run as a generator
• Appreciate the braking control
• Understand the effectiveness of Dynamic Brake
• Appreciate the characteristic of Dynamic Brake
• Appreciate the requirement of auxiliary systems

STRUCTURE

1. Introduction: Principle of operation

2. Motors as generators
3. Braking control
4. Re-calibration of system
5. Dynamic braking effectiveness
6. Protection against wheel sliding
7. Braking effort and its characteristics
8. Auxiliary systems: Resistor cooling and motor cooling
9. Train brake application with dynamic brake
1. INTRODUCTION
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION-RESISTIVE BRAKING

The installation of dynamic braking on diesel electric locomotives has become

quite common. By taking advantage of the traction motors ability to act as a generator,
the diesel electric locomotive offers a form of braking power which, without the use of
air, can be used as a speed controlling brake on grades or a slowing brake on level track.
Use of dynamic brake lessens brake shoe and wheel wear on both locomotive and train.
On long down grades dynamic brake operation enables a train to be handled with fewer
air applications. This results in safer train operation, due to the locomotive and car wheels
running cooler. In Fig.1 the action of wheels with dynamic braking is shown. The
momentum of the train turns the wheels. This drives traction motor as generator and
forces current through the braking resistors as shown by the arrows and the resistors heat
up. The traction motor, working as a generator, resists the turning of the wheels and tends
to stop it, so the motor is used to do the same thing as the brake shoes. In this case the
braking resistor and motor instead of the brake shoes and wheel get hot. Hence, the
blowers must cool them. The wheels and brake shoes do not wear because there is no
rubbing. To have dynamic braking the wheels must be turning. This is because generator
generates only when it is turning. So the dynamic braking cannot be used to hold or stop
train. For this purpose air brakes are to be used.

In Fig.2, how dynamic braking works on a four motor locomotive is shown. The
momentum of the train pushes the locomotive and turns the wheels, which drives the
motors. The output of the motors is fed into the braking resistors. The driver controls the
braking by moving the selector handle. A load-meter shows him how much braking
current he is getting.

2. MOTORS AS GENERATORS
We know that DC machine can be used as either a motor or a generator. Fig.3 (a)
shows the motoring connections. Current is being pumped through the motor armature
and field by the generator. This causes the motors to turn and move the locomotive. In
Fig.3 (b) switches have been shown to change the motor connections. Now the generator
pumps current through the motor fields only. Two things have happened to the armature-

1. It was cut off from the generator,

2. It was connected across the braking resistor.

Now we have separated the motor field from its armature and are pumping current
through the field only. If the locomotive is moving, the wheels are turning and driving the
armature. It is connected across a resistor so that it has load. In electrical language we
have a separately excited generator with a load resistance.

In Fig.3 (b) we see that the field current is flowing in the same direction as in
3(a). But the armature current is reversed in (b). If wee reverse the field current 39(c), the
armature current will flow in the same direction as in motoring (a) i.e. if we change from
motoring to braking if the field current stays the same, the braking current will reverse. If
the field current is reversed, the braking current will stay the same. There are some
points about the Fig.3 circuit to be known for understanding dynamic braking: -

The more current we put through the motor field, (within certain limits) the more
braking current we will get.

The lower the braking resistance, the higher the braking current (this resistance is
fixed when the locomotive is built).

3. The faster the armature turns, the higher is the braking current.
4. The higher the braking current, the more braking we get.

3. BRAKING CONTROL
The key to controlling the output of almost any generator is its field. In this case,
it is the traction motor field. Ref. Fig.3, the main generator supplies the current to the
traction motor field. In excitation system chapter we have seen how the main generator
output is controlled in motoring. The same control is used for braking, but the generator
is connected to the motor field only. By controlling this we control the dynamic braking
current. The driver does this by moving the selector handle.

For example at high train speed we need a weak motor field to hold the braking
current to a reasonable value. This calls for a small main generator output. The driver
achieves this by moving the selector handle. At low speed we need a strong motor field to
get full braking current. He gets this by moving the selector handle further into the
braking sector. The driver can get the amount of braking he wants for any speed by
moving the selector handle.

The capacity of braking resistors is limited by the amount of heat it can withstand.
To prevent them from getting damaged blower fans are used. The power for driving these
fans is used from the power generated during the application of dynamic brake. When
there is no braking current, the fans do not run, but as the braking increases, with that the
braking current and heat increases and also the fan speed increases hence giving more
cooling. Braking resistors usually require little attention. Dirt and water are the biggest
source of trouble.

4. RECALIBRATION OF SYSTEMS
Assume that a train is drifting downgrade, and that the engine-man is preparing to
apply the dynamic brake moves the throttle to “IDLE” position. With the throttle in ‘idle’
all power contactors drop out and the motor-generator circuits become completely de-
energized.

Now the engine-man moves the selector handle from whatever motoring position
it was in, to the ‘off’ and then to the ‘Big D’ position. Moving the SH to ‘Big D’
accomplishes the following:
i) Causes braking switch (BKT) to throw reconnecting the power circuits.
a) Connects all motor fields in series,
b) Connects series motor fields across main generator,
c) Connects motor armatures across braking grids.

ii) Energizes braking relay (BKR) which:

a) Raises engine speed to 4th notch,
b) Replaces engine speed signal with braking control signal at reference-
mixer circuit.
c) Re-calibrates control circuits as required,

iii) Sets up braking potentiometer (BKCP):

Figure.5 shows a typical motor-generator circuit for a 4 motor locomotive. All

power contactors are in their braking positions and the directions of current flow are
shown.

Note that the starting field is in the circuit with the generator armature and motor
fields during braking. This is done to make the generator more stable at the very low
range of voltages used in braking. Current in the starting field creates an opposite effect
to that in the shunt field; consequently much more exciting terminal voltages than would
otherwise be needed. This makes it possible to operate the exciter at output levels more
nearly comparable to those in motoring.

5. DYNAMIC BRAKING EFFECTIVENES

Maximum braking excitation (selector handle all the way forward) will give
maximum braking effort for any locomotive speed. If, for example, the engine-man
imposes maximum excitation at a speed of say a few miles per hours; the braking effort
will be relatively low because the armatures are turning slowly.

If, on the contrary, the train is moving faster, the higher rotational speed of the
armatures will tend to cause a higher current to flow through them, therefore, a greater
braking effort will follows. In cases in which the tonnage is such that the train speed on a
grade cannot be controlled fully with dynamic braking, and would tend to accelerate
despite the use of dynamic braking, the engine-man can use the air brakes on the train to
complement the action of dynamic braking.

6. PROTECTION AGAINST WHEEL SLIDING

It is desirable to provide protection against the possibility of wheel sliding. When
two separately excited generators are connected in series with each other across a load
and the speed of one is permitted to slow below the speed of the other, the faster
generator feeds current through the armature of the slower generator. The latter generator
thus has current flowing through its armature from a separate source (the faster generator)
and excitation current in its field. This causes it to act as a motor with a torque applied to
it and it slows further. Eventually, it might possibly stop and skid the wheels or even
reverse them. Even if wheel skidding does not occur, the fact that one motor and its
connected wheels are rotating slower than the other wheels of the locomotive, will cause
the slower wheels to be dragged along, thus causing what is best described a “rolling
slide”
7. BRAKING EFFORT AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
In dynamic braking, the system produces the traction motor characteristic shown
in Figure 7. Variable limits are placed on both the traction motor field and armature
current to provide smooth control and prevent damage to the motor or braking grids.

7.1 ARMATURE CURRENT LIMIT

In dynamic braking it is desirable to automatically limit the current which can be

supplied by the motors, so as to protect the motors and the braking grids. This is done by
measuring armature current in terms of traction motor voltage, using a voltage divider
across a traction motor in braking.

8. AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

8.1 RESISTOR COOLING SYSTEM

The current which the traction motor armatures pumps through the braking
resistors represents the power required to decelerate the train, which must be dissipated in
the form of heat. To remove the heat from the resistance grids, motor driven fans blow air
through them. The electrical energy to run the braking blower is taken from the energy
supplied by the traction motors in braking.
The cooling system is self-controlled to provide the proper amount of cooling air
for various degrees of braking power. As braking power and heat increase, the motor
driven fans run faster to supply more cooling air.

8.2 TRACTION MOTOR COOLING SYSTEM

During normal motoring operation the traction motors are forced ventilated by
mechanical blowers driven by the diesel engine. In dynamic braking, circuits are added to
the engine speed control system to increase engine speed to approximately 4th. Notch in
order to supply sufficient air for motor cooling during dynamic braking operation.

9. TRAIN BRAKING WITH DYNAMIC BRAKING

The brakes may be applied on the train while the dynamic brake is being used.
The dynamic braking circuits include the dynamic brake interlock magnet valve coil. The
magnet valve (BKIV) is a part of the locomotive’s air brake system. Its function is to
prevent the locomotive’s air brakes from system. Its function is to prevent the
locomotive’s air brakes from being automatically applied when dynamic braking is being
used and a train line reduction is made.
10.SUMMARY

A diesel locomotive equipped with dynamic brake is very useful in controlling

rate of acceleration in grades and speed in level track without using conventional air
brake, which leads to excessive unwanted wear of brake blocks and wheels. Resistive
brake with automatic limit is very common for diesel locomotives, which provides a
facility of braking effort control through drivers' selector handle. The braking effort
achieved with resistive brake has a typical characteristic of depending on train speed. The
braking grids (resistors) have self-cooling arrangement, which does not involve separate
energy source. To cool the traction motors during their operation as generators, the
engine driven traction motor blowers are run as higher speed by increasing the engine
RPM.

11.SELF-ASSESMENT EXERCISES

1. Explain the principle of resistive braking.

2. What do you mean by braking control and how it is achieved in diesel electric
locomotives?
3. Explain the effectiveness of resistive braking.
4. Explain the characteristic of resistive braking with necessary diagram.
5. What are the auxiliary systems involved in dynamic brake system?
UNIT 7 SAFETY DEVICES

OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit, you should be able to:

• Appreciate the functioning of low lube oil switch

• Appreciate the functioning of hot engine alarm
• Appreciate the function of low water level switch
• Appreciate the ground fault detection devices
• Appreciate wheel slip protection device
• Appreciate function of pneumatic control switch

STRUCTURE

1. Low lube oil switch

2. Hot engine alarm
3. Low water level safety
4. Ground in power circuit
5. Safety auxiliary relay
6. Wheel slip protection
7. MU stop button
8. Pneumatic control switch
9. Safety devices of YDM4/WDS6
10. Summary
11. Self-assessment exercises

1
1. LOW LUBE OIL SWITCH

This safety device is provided to protect the engine against low lubricating oil pressure.
When the lubricating oil pressure falls below 30 psi (2.1 kg/cm2) the oil pressure switch is
repositioned. The Governor clutch coil is de-energised. The Governor arms A & B are separated by
bias spring; also the Governor stabilising coil is energised. The Governor shuts down the engine.
The engine start light comes on; low lubricating oil pressure indicating light (green) comes on.

2. HOT ENGINE ALARM

(a) Variable speed drive for radiator fan

This device is used to keep the cooling water temperature within permissible limits. At
predetermined temperature it starts first the radiator fan to run at medium speed, then at faster
speeds, and finally brings the engine to idle if the radiator fan can not control the temperature.

(b) Hot engine safety circuit

Engine temperature sensitive switch, ETS, closes when the cooling water temperature rises
above 84OC (1850F). The hot engine indication light (red) comes on. Signal relay SR is energised
through ETS. Engine temperature relay ETR is also energised. The Governor speed coil is set for
idle speed, also the alarm gong comes on.

3. LOW WATER LEVEL SAFETY (Fig.1&2)

This safety device is provided against low cooling water level. If the cooling water level
drops to a predetermined level the alarm sounds and the engine shuts down. The LWS contact
opens in clutch coil circuit. The Governor clutch coil is de-energised. The Engine is shut down
through the governor circuit. LWS also energises wire 5B thereby the hot engine light comes on.
The signal relay is energised (SR) and the alarm gong rings.

4. GROUND IN POWER CIRCUIT

The ground relay, GR, is energised whenever insulation resistance between main generator
circuit and ground goes down. The reset knob of GR comes out. The ground relay contact GR
opens and generator field contactor GF is de-energised. The Generator Field contact opens the
generator field circuit, and power to motors is cut off. The Governor speed coil is set up for the
idle speed when the GR contact closes in the Governor speed coil circuit. The ground relay light
(white) comes on. The signal relay is energised, resulting in alarm gong sounding

5. SAFETY AUXILIARY RELAY

Whenever the governor speed coil starts getting the reference current, the safety auxiliary
relay SAR operating coil is energised and its contact picks up. This safety device is provided to
prevent the Diesel Engine from over speeding in case any open circuit takes place in the speed coil
circuit. If this condition arises SAR operating coil will be de-energised, resulting in de-energisation
of the clutch coil. The Governor arms A and B are separated by bias spring and the engine comes to
stop.

2
 In addition to this a mechanical device is also provided to prevent the engine from over-
speeding (over speed trip mechanism) when the Diesel engine speed goes to more than 1120 RPM
this device trips the engine to shut mechanically by moving the fuel racks to no fuel position.

6. WHEEL SLIP PROTECTION

Whenever wheel slip relay WSR1 or WSR2 or WSR3 is energised wheels slip buzzer
sounds by wire 10 through wire 13. Wheel slip light comes on. By closing WSR1 or WSR2 or
WSR3 interlocks the PWM main turn off winding in the excitation system is connected across
battery source and the generator power is reduced.

7. M.U.STOP BUTTON / SWITCH

When it is desired to stop all engines working in multiple unit operation, this emergency
stop button is pushed.

8. PNEUMATIC CONTROL SWITCH

This switch (PCS) trips during emergency brake application, train partition, vigilance
control device being not minded by the driver at the specified time etc. When PCS trips, engine
speed and power returns to notch one through the governor speed circuit.

9. SAFETY DEVICES - YDM4/WDS6

9.1 LOW LUBRICATING OIL PRESSURE

This safety device is provided to protect the engine against low lubricating oil pressure. As soon as
the lubricating oil pressure falls below safe minimum the engine through the governor shuts down
giving an alarm signal

9.2 HOT ENGINE ALARM

(a) Variable speed drive radiator fan

This device used to keep the cooling water temperature within permissible limits. Reaction
is similar to that in the WDM2 locomotive.

(b) Hot engine safety circuit

If engine water temperature exceeds the set value of temperature switch (ETS1) a contact
closes and energises signal relay (SR). The warning light comes on and alarm gong sounds. If the
temperature continues to rise above the set value to temperature switch (ETS2) if used, a contact
opens and de-energises the engine run relay (ERR) when ERR drops out the engine speed returns to
idle.

9.3 LOW WATER LEVEL SAFETY (Fig.9)

This safety device is provided against low cooling water level. If cooling water level drops
to predetermined level in the expansion tank the alarm sounds and the engine shuts down.

3
9.4 GROUND RELAY

If a ground occurs in the power or control circuits, ground relay (GR) will operate. A
normally closed contact drops out the generator field contactor (GF) thus the generator excitation is
removed. GF interlock also opens in the separate excitation circuit to remove exciter excitation.
Engine run relays are energized; all the governor speed solenoids drop out forcing the engine to
return to idle speed.

9.5 WHEEL SLIP PROTECTION

Wheel Slip relays (WSR) are connected between points of equal potential in the traction
motor circuits. If a motor slips during operation, a difference of potential will exist across the relay
coil and the relay picks up. When the relay is energised, its contacts will light a lamp and sound the
warning buzzer.

Also a contact on the wheel slip relay, in series with the governor over-ride solenoid will
close. This action will reduce main generator output to the traction motors; automatically correcting
wheel slip and then re-applying power when wheel slipping has stopped. The throttle handle does
not have to be moved back unless slipping is corrected.

9,6 ENGINE OVERSPEED

If the engine exceeds a set value of engine speed, the over-speed mechanism operates the
engine over speed switch (EOS de-energises ERR, and the engine shuts down. In this case alarm
gong will not operate.

9.7 PNEUMATIC CONTROL SWITCH

This switch (PCS) trips during emergency brake application, train partition on vigilance
control device operation (if used). When the PCS trips, the resulting circuit operation causes the
engine speed and power return to notch 1.

9.8 ENGINE SHUT DOWN

Normal shutdown or stopping of the engine is accomplished by moving the engine control
switch (ECS) to “SU STOP” position. If the locomotive is being operated in multiple, or if engine
must be shut down in emergency, the ECS switch should be moved to “MU STOP” position.

4
10. SUMMARY
Safety devices play a very important role in the diesel locomotive to avoid extensive
damage of engine components as well as transmission components. Among the safety devices,
some are to ensure safety of the engine components and the diesel engine and rests are for safety of
the transmission. There are minor differences between the safety devices of WDM2 and YDM4
locomotives. The over speed safety of WDM2 is a mechanical device and that of YDM4 is
electrical. The wheel slip protection system of WDM2 reduces excitation during the occurrence of
wheel slip and over-ride solenoid comes in operation in YDM4 in order to have load control.

11. SELF-ASSESMENT EXERCISES

1. What does happen if the lube oil pressure of diesel engine falls below pre-set value?
2. Which device senses the cooling water level in expansion tank and what does it do in such
occurrence?
3. What does the ground relay do?
4. How do the wheel slip relays sense traction motor faults and what happens in such situation?
5. How does the over-speed safety device shuts down the engine in YDM4 loco?

5
UNIT 4 TRANSITION

OBJECTIVES
• After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• Appreciate the need for transition in Diesel Electric Locomotives
• Understand field weakening process
• Understand Transition
• Understand Wheel Speed Based transition and its regulation system
• Appreciate Voltage-Ampere Based transition
• Understand and identify the components involved in transition regulation

STRUCTURE
1. Introduction:
1.1. Role of Traction motor
1.2. Traction Generator
1.3. Diesel Engine
2. Process of field weakening and paralleling:
2.1 Forward Transition
2.2 Backward Transition
3. Automatic transition regulation
4. Wheel speed based transition
4.1. System components
4.2. System operation
5. Generator Volts and Ampere based transition
6. Summary
7. Self Assessment Exercises

1
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of transition is to keep the diesel engine working on the full horse power part of the
generator curve for the maximum possible period of locomotive operation- from its low speed to
the maximum speed. In this we change the traction motor circuits, so that they draw value of
current that falls on horsepower curve, as the locomotive speed changes. This change of motor
circuits is called transition.

For better understanding of the transition let us review our knowledge of traction motor, traction
generator and diesel engine characteristics.

1.1 TRACTION MOTORS:-

We use series type D.C. motors for traction purposes. This type of motor draws a high current at
low speed and a low current at high speed. If its load is heavy, it runs at low speed if light it runs
at high speed. The way such a motor acts is shown in Fig.E4.1. While doing Foot-plating, this
can be noticed on the load meter.

1.2 TRACTION GENERATOR: -

The traction generator is a d-c generator. It takes mechanical power from the diesel engine and
converts it to electrical power for the traction motors. We have seen in the chapter on Excitation
system how the generator is controlled so that it delivers power as shown Fig.E4.2. When the
load resistance is low the amperes are high. When the load resistance is high the amperes are
low. The generator characteristic can be obtained from the load test.

1.3 DIESEL ENGINE: -

The diesel engine converts the energy of burning fuel into mechanical power. With the throttle at
8th: notch and full fuel the engine will run at its rated speed and produce its rated horsepower. If
we try to get more power it will stall. If we try to get less power, the racks will back 'off' (the
engine will take less fuel). To get the most out engine we must stay on the full horse power part
of the generator curve Fig.E4.2.

The purpose of transition is to obtain higher speed of the locomotive and still utilize the constant
horsepower of the engine at a speed setting. The out put characteristic of the traction generator,
as determined by the excitation system, is such that it holds the diesel engine at approximately
constant horse power at a particular speed setting.

When the locomotive is starting, and at low locomotive speeds, the main generator supplies a
high current to the traction motors. As the traction motor armatures begin turning, they generate
a voltage commonly called back EMF. This back EMF, as if increases the effective resistance to
the current flow. Therefore, as the locomotive speed increases, the generator voltage must
increase to maintain the traction motor current. The traction motor current will decrease however
because of the constant power characteristic of the generator (Fig.E4.1). With further increase in
locomotive speed, if the back EMF reaches the voltage limit of generator, the generator current
starts falling and the horsepower reduces (Fig.E4. 2).

2
However, by changing the generator motor connections, the back voltage is reduced and the
generator can force more current to the motors to enable acceleration. To achieve higher starting
torque, sometimes, two traction motors are connected in series during starting of the locomotive.
In these locomotives, changing their connections from series to parallel can reduce the back emf.
Weakening the motor fields can also reduce back emf. The change in the motor connections, or
weakening of fields is known as an event of transition. The number of events is decided from the
generator characteristic and the number of motors.

2. PROCESS OF FIELD WEAKENING AND PARALLELING

2.1 FORWARD TRANSITION

We want to keep the engine working on the constant horsepower part of the generator curve as
much of the times as possible. To do this we use what is called transition. That is, as the
locomotive speed changes, we change the traction motor circuits so that they will draw a value of
current that falls on the horsepower curve. Let us see how transition is used to accelerate a train.

At the start the traction motors are connected to the generator as shown Fig.E4.3 (This
connection is called 2S-3PFF i.e. two traction motors in series and three parallel paths with full
field). This means the generator supplies current through three paths to run six traction motors.
So it has to supply only three times the signal motor current in starting. Even though the current
drawn by each motor is very high, by using such a circuit the generator is kept to a reasonable
size.

In Fig.E4.3 we can see how the current drops off as the train moves out. This is shown by the
arrows on the horsepower curve .At about 10 miles an hour we get on the full horse power
portion of the curve. From this point it is necessary to stay on this part of the curve to get
constant power from the engine. If we have a locomotive with 75 MPH gearing and 40 inch
wheels, when we reach about 19.2 MPH (30.8 KMPH) point C in Fig.E4.3 is reached, the motor
current will have dropped so much that continued acceleration would be at reduced horsepower
along the field limit line.

To prevent this, the motor fields are shunted as shown in Fig.E4.4 (this is called 2S-3P WF, i.e.
two motors in series three parallel paths with weak field). Part of the motor current then flows
around the field) through the shunting contractors (FS21, FS22 etc.), and the shunting resistors.
This causes motors to draw more current from the generator, because of fall in counter emf. With
this, operating point moves back down toward the bottom of horsepower curve as show n in Fig.
E4.4. On some locomotives field shunting is done in two or more steps. This is done to keep the
motor current to safe value.

MATHEMATICALLY

V − I a Ra
N=
KØ
By reducing K, speed N can be increased
Also T = Ø × I
3
When voltage is reduced, torque remaining the same, I has to increase so we slide down from
point 3 to point 2 in Fig.E4.4.

As the train continues to accelerate, the generator current, will again decrease as shown by the
arrows in Fig. E4.4 (the generator current decreases as with the locomotive speed the back EMF
of traction motors goes on increasing). At 30 M.P.H. (48 km/h), it will be back at the top of
horsepower curve again. To prevent unloading, the motor current must be again increased by
2nd.transition. This time we do this differently. We change the motor connections from series
parallel to parallel as shown in Fig.E4.5. Instead of three paths for the generator current there are
now six. This causes generator current to increase. The operating point is now back at the bottom
of the horsepower curve again as shown in Fig.E4.5 (We call this 6P-FF i.e. six traction motors
in parallel with full field.).

In making second transition the shunting contractors (FS21, 22 etc) Fig.E4.4 are first opened.
This unshunts the motor fields. Then the series contactors S1, S2, S3 in Fig.E4.4 are opened and
finally the parallel contactors, P1, P22, P31, P2, P22 and P32 in Fig.E4.5 pick up. This may
happen in different sequence on various locomotives, but the end result is the same. Since the
generator is at high voltage when this sequence begins its voltage must be reduced before
switching of motors can be safely accomplished. This is done by opening the generator field
contactor- G.F.

This transition should take place at the right time. If it occurs too late, or at a too high a speed
locomotive will loose power before transition. If it occurs too soon, there will be a loss of power
after transition. In either case the operating point will not fall on the full horsepower curve.

As the train continues to accelerate, the generator current again drops off. By the time speed
reaches 50.8 M.P.H. (81.7 kmph), the generator will again be operating at the top of the
horsepower curve, point C in Fig.E4.5. Now we go for parallel field shunting (transition 3). As in
series field shunting, part of the motor current bypasses the motor field through the shunting
resistor. The increased generator current moves the operating point down the horsepower curve
as shown in Fig.E4.6, permitting further acceleration at full horsepower.

2.2 BACKWARD TRANSITION

If the train hits sufficiently steep grade, it will begin to slow down. As the speed drops, motor
current increase as shown in Fig.E4.7. Suppose the train is travelling at 49 m.p.h. when it hits the
grade. This point P is shown near the top of the curve. As the train slows down, generator current
increases. At a speed of ground 30 m.p.h. the locomotive will be operating at the bottom of the
full horsepower curve, point B. Something must be done or the operating point will go below B
on locomotives without current limits this could mean overheating the generator. With current
limit the locomotive will operate at reduced power, which reduces engine efficiency. The current
that the generator must supply can be reduced by making a backward transition. This will
transfer the operating point back to the top of the horsepower curve point as shown. If the speed
continues to drop unshunting is done.

There is one little difference in backward transition 3 to 2 from forward transition 2 to 3 on some
locomotives, which at times is confusing. The generator field is left on in backward transition,
but not in forward transition. There is a reason for it. If we look at the horsepower curve Fig.E4.8
4
we will see that backward transition takes place at point B where the generator current is high
and the voltage is low. At this low voltage there is little chances of generator flashing ever when
switching is done. Also during switching, this provides for the quickest rise to full voltage after
the switching is completed so, we are still operating at full horsepower, but not at top of the
horsepower curve.

From the above, we can understand that transition takes place back and forth as train speed and
load change. Its purpose is to hold operating point on the generator horsepower curve. This keeps
the engine delivering full horsepower at all times. Let us now see how transition is done.

3. AUTOMATIC TRANSITION
We have seen that transition is made at a definite train speed and also at a definite point on the
generator horsepower curve. This makes possible two methods of bringing about transition
automatically, e.g.

(i) Train speed based transition.

(ii) Generator volts and amps based transition.

4. WHEEL SPEED BASED TRANSITION (Electronically controlled)

4.1 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The type E transition control is a fully automatic transistorised system for controlling traction
motor field shunting and connections. It consists of an axle driven generator and a control panel.

4.1.1. CONTROL PANEL

The panel is a steel fabricated housing contains semiconductor components mounted on plug-in-
type cards with necessary adjusting facilities.

4.1.2 AXLE ALTERNATOR

The alternator has 40 poles made up of permanent magnets imbedded in a plastic stator, and a
rotor carried on a shaft driven by the locomotive axle. The rotor rotates within the stator.
Voltages are induced in the stator coil by the action of alternator ‘L’ shaped and straight soft iron
bars in the rotor. The ‘L’ shaped bars guide the flux in a path enclosing the coil while the straight
bars short circuit the flux to avoid enclosing the coil. This voltage has a frequency proportional
to the speed of the axle driving the rotor. Only a few volts are generated, even at high speed, at a
frequency of 20 cycles per revolution.

5
4.2. SYSTEM OF OPERATION
4.2.1 THEORY

In order to properly control transition and since transition is based upon locomotive track speed,
an accurate indication of that speed is required. The axle alternator in combination generates this
speed sensitive signal with a saturating transformer.

The saturable transformer requires the same amount of volt seconds to saturate it regardless of
the speed at which saturation is achieved. The saturation characteristic at low speed and high
speed of the axle alternator is shown in Fig.E4.9. The area of each pulse remains same regardless
of speed. However, when rectified and filtered, the high-speed signal will result in a higher
average voltage than the low speed signal since there are more pulses per unit time due to higher
frequency. Since average voltage is directly related to frequency and frequency is directly related
to speed, a straight-line characteristic of average volts versus speed can be obtained to give an
accurate measure of speed.

Fig.E4.9 shows a basic, linear speed measuring circuit in conjunction with a transistor switch.
The speed varying voltage is sensed by a voltage divider connected to a NPN transistor and 5
volts zener diode. As the speed varying voltage increases, a point is reached where the sampling
point on R1 is 5 volts which exactly equals the battery voltage of the reference diode. Any
further increase in speed will raise the voltage of sampling point above the reference diode
voltage and cause a current to flow from the base to the emitter of the transistor. This will turn
"ON" the transistor and initiate the desired control function. A drop in speed will cause control
functions to ease. Resistor R2 allows sufficient current to flow in the Zener diode to insure its
operating beyond the knee of its characteristic and give sharp control.

4.2.2. ACTUAL CIRCUITS

A typical automatic transition circuit is shown in Fig.E4.10. The 3-phase axle alternator feeds the
circuit, with the leads connected to the automatic transition panel, providing an a-c. Voltage
proportional to train speed. This a-c signal is rectified by a full wave bridge rectifier TRT
consisting of potentiometers in series, the number of circuits being determined by the number of
events to be controlled.

Field shunting in series parallel is one event, requiring a potentiometer TP11, a transistor TT11
for actuating the sensitive relay TSSR1 controlling the event, and various resistors. The panel
contains sensitive relays for controlling large control relays, a zener diode, various resistors and
diode for protecting the transistors from negative voltage spikes and a capacitor for positive spike
protection.

Each of the circuits across the filtered output of the secondary winding of saturating transformer
WET33 will have a voltage between the negative side of the D-C circuit and the brush arm of its
potentiometer. This voltage is proportional to axle generator speed. The potentiometer is set so
that the voltage of the zener diode TZD when the speed for the desired event is reached. As an
example, considering the first event in a typical locomotive, potentiometer TP11 sees a portion of
the d-c voltage resulting from a given train speed. Because field shunting in a series parallel is
desired at a certain speed, the adjustment of TP11 is made so that the voltage of its brush arm
6
will equal the breakdown voltage of TZD at that speed. This will feed current through TCR21
into the base of transistor TT11, through the emitter and resistor TCR4 and through the zener
diode TZD back to the negative side of the circuit. This turn `ON' transistor TT11 and pick up
relay TSSR1 and TSSR1 will then actuate the field shunting relay FSR, which is a heavy duty
relay having contacts, which will set up the field shunting circuits.

When the relay FSR picks up, it connects the brush arm of potentiometer TP21 through the new
closed S21 finger to the positive side of the d-c circuit and this boosts the voltage at the brush
arm of TP11. The actual point on the characteristics of the transistor TT11 and the relay TSSR1.
Adjusting the TP21 potentiometer makes an adjustment of dropout speed.

The voltage divider network made up of TCR2 provided approximately 25 volts across each of
the transistors between the positive of the locomotive battery circuit and the common connection
with the transistor emitters, to protect the transistors from operating at more than their normal
working voltage. A small current fed from the locomotive battery negative to bias the Zener
diode TZD to make control sharper and to get past the so-called knee of the Zener diode
characteristic. This is done because the Zener diode will pass a very small current at a lower
voltage than its normal breakdown value and then pass more current as this voltage is raised to
the desired breakdown value. If control current is tending to turn ‘ON’ a transistor, it has to flow
through the zener diode without the bias current flowing, sufficient current might flow at a
voltage lower than the breakdown voltage to turn `ON' the transistor and actuate the system at a
lower speed than intended. This speed would vary from day to day, depending on the
characteristics of the various devices involved in the circuit. By biasing the diodes with current
from another source which has no effect on the transistors, the transistor turn on current will flow
only when the breakdown voltage is equalled or exceeded.

5. GENERATOR VOLTS AND AMPERES BASED TRANSITION

The second method of controlling automatic transition is based on generator volts and amperes.
Relays that pick up on generator voltage at the top of the generator horsepower curve, point C in
Fig.E4.2 bring about forward transition. Usually one relay is used for field shunting in series
parallel and parallel. Another relay is used for series-parallel to parallel transition. One or more
additional relays, that operate in generator current at the bottom of the horse power curve, point
B in Fig.E4.2 are also required for backward transition. For satisfactory operation, these relays
should be accurately calibrated on the bench.

7
6. SUMMARY
In DC-DC or AC-DC locomotives, where the traction motors are DC series motors, transition
becomes unavoidable. Transitions from full field to weak field or series combination to parallel
combination of traction motors help in achieving maximum speed of the locomotive by still
using rated power of the engine in any of the notches. Automatic transition regulation is and
important activity, which ensures the change at correct moment without which locomotive
suffers from bad fuel efficiency and time loss in line. Wheel speed based transition is superior to
voltage-ampere based transition as the latter has low response control components e.g. relays etc.
The sensitivity and maintainability has improved substantially with use of electronic components
in the system. The availability of components in the open electronics market is possible which
reduces downtime of control panels and requirement of unit exchange spares.

8. SELF-ASSESMENT EXCERCISES

1. Explain the need for transition briefly.

2. How does the process of field weakening help in achieving higher loco speed?
3. What do you mean by forward and backward transitions?
4. Which system do you feel better (whether wheel speed based or voltage ampere based) and
why?

8
UNIT8 TROUBLE SHOOTING

OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to identify and understand:
• The locomotive troubles
• Troubles in dead and idling locomotives and the trouble shooting
• Trouble shooting in running locomotives

STRUCTURES
1. Introduction
2. Troubles
3. Troubles in dead and idling locomotives
3.1 Engine not taking start
3.2 Some of the auxiliary machines are not running
3.3.Loco can not move (Not getting Power)
3.4.Loco starting with heavy jerk
3.5.Loco is moving but load-meter is showing zero or negative
3.6.Low Hauling Power
4. Fault experienced when the loco was moving
4.1 Engine over-speeds
4.2 Engine not responding to throttle or speed is erratic
4.3 Engine hunting
4.4 Engine shuts down and crew unable to restart
4.5 Low HP
4.6 Engine bogs down under load
4.7 Operation of ground relay
4.8 Operation of wheel slip relay
4.9 GF not picking up
4.10 Operation of Power Contactors is erratic
4.11 Transition is picking up
4.12 Wheel slip indication in a particular transition
4.13 Hot engine indication
4.14 Battery charging stopped
5. Summary
6. Self-assessment Exercises
1. INTRODUCTION
A considerable portion of road troubles are experienced due to some defects in
electrical components and machines, which can be rectified with very little effort. In some of the
cases they be temporarily attended to save the road failure of the locomotive. As the road
troubles are faced by the supervisors/officers first on foot-plate, it would be very much helpful if
they rectify the fault on road (temporarily or permanently) and avoid the stalling of rolling
stock.
Keeping in view all these situations, the Railway Officials are given brief knowledge
of Diesel Electric Locomotives with circuit analysis, as the trouble shooting can not be really
done without knowing their working etc.

This chapter includes the defects and possibilities of the place of defects with
their remedial actions, which can only be rectified en-route. One smart and intelligent official
on foot-plate can also attend the troubles, which have not been covered in this, with the help of
the schematic diagram attached to this chapter.

2. TROUBLES
Road troubles may be classified in two categories :

1. Failure of component, which can not be rectified, but can be temporarily attended or by-passed
to save or avoid a road failure.

2. Troubles due to accumulation of foreign particles like dirt, dust, etc, which leads to erratic or
non-operation of the respective circuit and component. These faults can be rectified en-route, if
they are pin-pointed.

Road troubles are experienced in three stages :

1. When the engine is dead and one driver is taking over charge.
2. Engine is idling, when driver is taking charge.
3. Fault or trouble is experienced while loco was hauling the load.

3. TROUBLES IN DEAD AND IDLING LOCOS

Normally when one driver takes charge of one locomotive at out-station, he gets the
loco in engine idling condition, but sometimes locos are found in dead condition also. During
checking of the locomotives, some troubles are faced. They are as under :

1. Engine can not be started

2. Some of the auxiliary machines are not running
3. Loco can not move (Not getting Power)
4. Loco starting with heavy jerk
5. Loco is moving but load-meter is showing zero or negative
6. Low Hauling Power
3.1. Engine not taking start
Before going to start the diesel engine, the driver is supposed to put on some of the
breakers just to run some of the auxiliary machines and energise some circuits to make the fuel
available to the fuel pump etc.

The switches and breakers to put on (STARTING SEQUENCE):

a) Close the knife switch

b) Put on the MB1 (Battery Breaker)
c) Put on the MB2 (Control Breaker)
d) Put on MCB1 & MCB2 (Master Control Breakers) fitted in the control stands - DMR
should pick up
e) Put on MFPB1 & MFPB2 (Master fuel pump breakers) - FPC should pick up
f) Put on FPB (Fuel Pump Breaker)
g) Put on AFPB (Addl. Fuel pump bkr.) - Fuel Pump Motor should run and fuel pressure
should run and fuel oil pressure should develop
g) Put on CEB (Crank case exhauster Breaker) - Crank case motor should run

Now engine is ready to take start

If any of the motors etc. are not functioning then the machines and respective wires
etc. are to be checked according to starting circuit (Aux. Control Circuit)

3.1.1 Engine not cranking

To start the engine ECS to be kept in idle and engine start button is to push - CK1 &
CK2 should pick up and engine should crank - if not check the interlocks in series with opt. coil
of CK1 & CK2 namely, ESR4-N.C. (71-50T), ECS-close (50T-50C), P22-NC(43-43A), S1-NC
(43A-43B).

If CK1 is picking up and CK2 is not then the interlock of CK1 (43B-43C) is to check
for correct operation (it should make when CK1 is closed).

3.1.2 Engine cranking but shuts down with release of Start Button

If this fault is experienced, then it is clear that the condition mentioned in 1.1 is
fulfilled.

The checking regarding this fault are :

a) Whether the lube oil pressure is building up or not, operation of OPS (oil pressure switch) can
be checked by tthe stop of glowing of engine start lamp provided near the start button.
b) Water level may be inadequate or LWS (low water level switch) is defective - if LWS is in
operated condition, then the alarm gong will sound both in idle and run position of ECS.

c) Tachometer generator may not be giving out put or taco-generator drive gear is worn out
- Tacho-generator wires should be checked for proper connection etc.

NOTE In some cases if incoming driver stops the engine at 800c of cooling water temperature,
then it takes excessive time to cool down (specially in summer). In that case also fresh driver (out
going) could not start the engine because the lube oil pressure does not build up as needed (2 to
2.2 kg/cm2) till engine cools down and viscosity of lube oil increases.

3.2. Not running of auxiliary machines and leads to non-starting of the engine as discussed
above in 1.1

3.3. Loco unable to move (Not getting power)

This defect is related mainly with problems in propulsion control circuit, power circuit
and excitation circuit.

3.3.1 Not getting power due to defects in propulsion circuit

After putting on the GF switch and notching up the throttle to 1st. notch putting the
Reverser handle either in forward or reverse, the GF cont. should close. With the closure of GF
cont. the traction generator should produce voltage and the power is transmitted to the traction
motors to move the wheels. Cause of not getting power to be checked according to the
sequence as follows :

3.3.1.1 Check the GF Contactor's operation

If not operating - Check BKT1-NC (6-6A)

ECS RUN (6A-6B) close
GR-NC (6C-6D)
TR-NC (6D-6E)
CK1-NC (6E-6F)
CK2-NC (6F-6H)

Maximum possibility of non-operation, however, may be due to welding of either CK1 or

CK2 contactor. Sometimes TR interlock (6D-6E) also remains in open condition due to
accumulation of dirt.

3.3.1.2 Check the operation of S1, S21 & S31 power contactors

3.3.1.2.1 S1 is not picking up - details of interlocks can be seen through diagrams.

Maximum possibilities - (i) Contact of ECS (8D-18A) should remain closed

(ii) TR-NC (8E-8F)
 (iii) P1-NC (8F-8M)

3.3.1.2.2 S21 is not picking up - (S1 picking up)

Maximum possibility - P21-NC (8M-8G)

3.3.1.2.3 S31 is not picking up - (S1 & S21 picking up)

Maximum possibility - P31-NC (8M-8G)

3.3.1.3 Position of BKTs and REVs is also to be checked

3.3.2 Power is not getting due to defect in power circuit

It is noticed very often that some of the power contactors through which electricity is
fed to the traction motors do not operate due to defective magnet valves. Normally defective
magnet valves can not be rectified en-route. However, bypassing one or more traction motors
loco can be proceeded if possible. In such cases load meter may show or may not show. Power
may also not be available due to wheel slip or power ground. Fault may be in the power circuit
but the wheel sli[p and power ground will be described in separately.

3.3.3 Power not getting due to defects in Excitation Control Panel

The panel is to control the excitation of main generator. Normally the failure of the
panel components / cards can not be rectified until there are separate cards available. However, it
sometimes happens that two locos are failing with different reasons in one station or place. And
if one loco is failing with some trouble in excitation circuit / panel causing no power, can be
rectified replacing the cards taking from other loco.

a) It is advisable to replace all the excitation panel cards as a set to help the shed people in
maintaining record. If any one becomes interested to identify the defective card, the cards are
then to be replaced one by one and the result can be seen. Card 253 or 293 or 186 or 188 may be
the defective one. Sometimes more than one card may also be found faulty.

b) Wire at FCP (field control panel) may get disconnected or burnt. FCP tubes are always hot.
They should be allowed to cool down first and then proceed for repair. If it is clear that from
which point the wire got disconnected, then they can be connected.

c) Sometimes BKR (braking relay) interlocks (22E-32D) and (32C-32D) do not make proper
contact. They should be in closed condition during motoring. If there is any dirt accumulation,
they can be cleaned.

d) LCP (load control potentiometer) in governor may not be touching with commutator and
reference voltage increases causing low or no power.. Normally it is due loose brush arm
mounting screw. However, before tightening the screw the commutator surface and the
brush-arm should be cleaned thoroughly.
e) NO contacts of WSRs (10H-10T) also create this problem being closed. They should be
separated if the concerned WSR is not operated.

f) If the exciter fails to generate voltage, Traction Generator does not produce output due to no
excitation.

By checking the carbon brushes and connection on terminal board, its defect can be
identified very often.

3.4. Heavy jerk experienced during starting the loco

Jerk is caused due to excessive 1st. notch current to the traction motors. The reason
may be the following :(Remedial actions are also indicated)

3.4.1 GF interlock (61E-61EE) may be wrongly adjusted.

It should close when GF contactor is in open condition. If the interlocks are not
getting closed properly, they can be rectified bending the finger. Sometimes they remain
electrically separated due to accumulation of dirt. This fault can be rectified cleaning the
contacts.

3.4.2 Defect in 188 card :

Due to sudden notching down, sometimes it happens that diode ERD20 & 21 get punctured
(short circuited). It causes no current through suicide winding of PWM (pulse width
modulator). By replacing this card with a healthy one the fault can be rectified. In this case
availability of spare 188 card is the main factor.

3.4.3 Defect in other cards :

Card No. 253, 186, 254 may also create the problem of jerk. In all these cases by replacing the
cards the fault can be rectified.

3.4.4 Current flow through PWM suicide winding may also get disrupted if the ER15
resistor inside control compartment gets open circuited and leads to jerk in 1st. notch. In such
condition nothing can really be done en-route. It requires replacement.

3.5. Loco is moving but load meter is showing zero or negative

Load-meter indicates the current flow through traction motor no.1. S1 power
contactor is related with this motor. If S1 does not operate or if there is an open circuit in the
concerning circuits, then the load-meter may not show. But in that case full power (in fact the
tractive effort) will also not be available.
 In some of the cases due to ground fault in battery charging circuit or excitation
circuit, polarity of main generator gets reversed and uncontrolled amount of current flows to
traction motors in reverse direction. Normally jerk is also experienced during starting of train or
locomotive. Engine also sounds unusually due to overloading. Load meter shows negative. To
save the traction motors, loco should be stopped as quick as possible. However, the driver can
proceed in lower notches with a close watch to the load meter and the shed people is informed for
assistance. Fault in excitation circuit also creates this problem.

3.6. Low hauling power

In maximum cases, such indication is due to inability of the engine. However, due to
defect or mull-operation of the circuits, sometimes, may cause such problems. By checking the
rack movement at 8th. notch on load, cause of low HP can be pin pointed. If the rack movement
is not maximum as specified (29.5mm in WDM2), then electrical may be held responsible. Of
course in case of PG Woodward governor the argument will not stand because insufficient
booster pressure or even wrong adjustment inside the governor may also force the rack not to
move full.

If the rack movement is less than the limit in 8th. notch, then check the following :

3.6.1 In motoring condition, BKR contact 32D-22E should remain closed. Contact can be
assured cleaning the contact tip.

3.6.2 Breakage of FCP wire may cause the same problem

3.6.3 Movement (unwanted) of LCP in PG Governor causes this problem.

3.6.4 If the LCP brush-arm of GE Gov. becomes loose, same problem occurs. The
mounting screw is to be tightened then.

3.6.5 Exciter should also be checked for proper brush fitting etc. In case, if the brush
sets of brush gear is found defective, one set from another brush gear can be taken out and fitted
in the defective gear. One set of brushes per brush gear is allowed in case of emergency. One
set from auxiliary generator can also be taken out and fitted accordingly.

3.6.6 Operation of WSR also causes no or low power, which is dealt latter.

3.6.7 Defects in cards :

Card 254, 293, 186, 188 may also cause this problem on certain defective conditions.

4. FAULT EXPERIENCED WHEN THE LOCO WAS MOVING

In maximum cases locos do fail in this condition, and it has been seen that because of
nervousness or inadequate knowledge of the crew, the fault could not be rectified though they
should have been rectified en-route with minimum effort.
The failures of this condition can be classified in following
categories :

4.8 Engine over-speeds

4.9 Engine not responding to throttle or speed is erratic
4.10Engine hunting
4.11Engine shuts down and crew unable to restart
4.12Low HP
4.13Engine bogs down under load
4.14Operation of ground relay
4.8 Operation of wheel slip relay
4.9 GF not picking up
4.10 Operation of Power Contactors is erratic
4.11 Transition is picking up
4.12 Wheel slip indication in a particular transition
4.13 Hot engine indication
4.14 Battery charging stopped

DEFECT CAUSE REMEDY

4.1 Engine Over-speeds No oil in Gov. Top up

(In case of emergency only fuel oil can be used in PG Gov. and in GE Gov fuel oil and crank case
oil with a ratio of 2:1 can be used)

Gov. Amphenol plug loose Tighten

Tacho gen. wire broken Connect
Wire form ECP broken Connect

4.2 Engine not Notch wise ESR oprations Check the broken contact
responding to TH are not correct on ESR and connect
(erratic speed) Open the back cover
of control stand and
clean the fingers

(ESR operations - ESR1, ESR3, ESR1+3, ESR2+3+4, ESR1+2+3+4, ESR2+3, ESR1+2+3.)

DEFECT CAUSE REMEDY

4.3 Engine hunting Dirty Gov. oil - Change

Foaming of Gov. oil Attend leakage
Stab. Rheostat dirty or Clean & Tighten
brush arm loose.
Wire on ECP or Gov. broken Connect
Cam of ECS broken Separate 50L-50P
ESR2interlock open (50L-50P) Clean the tips

4.4 Engine shuts down Fuel Booster Pump is not If the motor is working but
and unable to restart working pump is not working then
(pressure is not building up) coupler allen screw may be
There may be two tightened. If the motor is not
conditions, either it moving, check. carbon brushes,
shuts down on load or comm.and connection to motor
without load. If it shuts
down on load, then can Breakage of wire in ECP & Gov. Connect
be restarted
Breakage of wire in Tach. gen. Connect

Failure of inter locks as indicated Attend as stated

in para 1(Engine not cranking) (Unable to start condition)
.
4.5 Low HP Discussed in 6.

4.6 Bogs down on load - NC of BKR (32C-32D) Clean

DEFECT CAUSE REMEDY

4.7 GR Operation:- Explosive: Check the source

The operation may if from main generator
be during engine
starting. Such (a) Dirty commutator Clean surface with 00
ground fault is . sand paper
commonly known as
starting ground (b) Brushes are sticky
and is difficult inside pockets Polish the brushes
to rectify without
adequate facility (c) Pig tails worked Cut the pigtail
en-route. The loco out of brush and and throw out
may be allowed to touching ground
run with this
fault. But if it (d) Foreign particle Throw it out
is a power ground on commutator
The loco fails positively
if not rectified.
First check whether if from power contactor
explosive
or non-explosive (a) Metal deposition inside arc Replace with parallel cont.
chute arc chute.
.
*Loco should run at slow speed so that parallel contactors do not operate.

(b) Sluggish operation Disconnecting the magnet valve

of Power Conts on or two motors may be by
passed, if the load permits.

(c) Foreign particles Throw it out.

If from Traction Motor(s)

(a) Commutator dirty Clean

(b) Broken or sticky

carbon brush Attend as T/Gen

(c) Foreign material - do -

If from FS Contactors To be attended as power

contactors excepting magnet
valve portion.
 DEFECT CAUSE REMEDY

Non-Explosive:-

(A man with knowledge of power circuit can only rectify this type of ground fault with adequate
facility eg. Megger, Avometer etc. However, some effort still can be made to find out the faulty
member and rectify, if possible, as stated below).

Foreign material inside Main Gen, Throw out the foreign material.
Traction motor, BKTs, REVs,
PCs,FS Conts, WSRR, WSRs,.
FCP etc

Any broken wire touching Isolate or cut out the piece

ground if possible

Traction motor cable(s) rubbing Separate them and tieing with

with motor cap(s) and the rope so that rubbing avoided
insulation is damaged (cut).

4.8 Wheel slip indication:-

First locate, which relay is getting energised and at what speed to understand the motor
combinations (transition).

For 0 to 30KMPH One or some of the FS contactors Separate them manually. Also
(1st. Transition) got welded. clean the tips.

WSR1 Unequal current flow Check BKT1, REV1 and S1

in TM No. 1 & 4 for proper operation
. Try to make them OK manually
if any fault is noticed

WSR2 Unequal current Check BKT2, REV1 and S31

in TM No. 2 & 5 for proper operation.
Attend as above
.
WSR3 Unequal current Check BKT1, REV1
in TM No. 3 & 6 and S21 for correct operation.
Attend as above
.
All the relays are WSRR open circuited Connect the broken wire if
operating . possible.
NOTE In some of the cases due to brake binding, wrong adjustment of slack adjuster,
inadequate brake cyl. travel, oil dropping on particular wheel etc., wheel slip is experienced.
They are also to be checked. Also in case of pinion slip same wheel slip indication will be
experienced and can be found out on checking only.

DEFECT CAUSE REMEDY

Wheel slip experienced One or some of the FS Check for Mechanical blocking.
at speed range of contactors are not operating. Check broken wire of opt. coil.
30 KMPH to 47 KMPH
or at 30 KMPH only. FS22,23,24 & 26 not operating Check FS21interlock operation
for closure during operation.
Check broken wire from opt.
coil & interlock.

Wheel slip at a speed of

47 KMPH and above

WSR1 operating Either P2 or P31 not operating Check leakage on magnet

valves

WSR2 operating Either P22 or P32 not operating -do-

WSR3 operating Either P1 or P21 not operating -do-

Other than these, if any of the six motors got defective, two motors can be isolated and loco
can be run with four motors. In that case, S1 or S21 or S31 can be dumied putting wedge inside
concerned magnet valve. Following chart will help to locate the concerned contactor for any motor
with different WSR operations.

Combination Contactor Motors WSRs

Series Parallel S1 1&4 1

S21 3&6 3

S31 2&5 2

Parallel P1 & P21 4&6 3

P31 &P2 5&1 1

P22 & P32 3 &2 2

Finding out a faulty motor
Say, in one locomotive, in series parallel circuit (0 to 47 Kmph) WSR1 is getting operated.
S1 magnet valve is to be disconnected or wedged first. If load permits, train speed increase.
Transitions will take normally. But when it will attain a speed of 47 Kmph. and second transition
will pick up, wheel slip will again be experienced. Check the relay getting operated. If WSR1 is
getting operated again, then TM1 is faulty. Disconnect or wedge P2 magnet valve. Above 47
Kmph, the locomotive will run with 5 Motors. If WSR3 operates during parallel transition (above
47 Kmph), isolate TM4 wedging or disconnecting P1 magnet valve. This type of isolation helps in
Mail/Express services, where loco runs with lesser loads.

DEFECT CAUSE REMEDY

4.9 GF not picking ECS cam broken, unable to put ECS Short circuit 6A-6B
up in run (All RUN contacts should be
shorted opening IDLE contacts)

GR 6B-6C open Make it close

TR 6D-6E open Short the contact.

CK1 or CK2 welded Get them separated

Make sure that CK16E-6F
& CK2 6F-6H are closed.
(Sometimes due to wrong fitting
of CK1/CK2 arc chutes causes
this problem.)

GF switch defective Both GF switches can't be

defective at a time.
Find out the defective and
short circuit it. Both the
switches shouldn't be shorted

(GF contactor should not be closed with wedge, because it would give jerk in 1st. notch.)

4.10 Operation of PC are erratic: It is dependent on magnet valve operation. Find out the
faulty contactor and operate manually by wedging respective magnet valve armature. If it
operates, then check the circuit if given :

DEFECT CAUSE REMEDY

S1 not operating BKR 8C-8D (NC) open Make them close

ECS 8D-18A (RUN) or or clean contact
P1 8F-8M (NC) open
DEFECT CAUSE REMEDY

S21 not operating P21 8M-8Z (NC) open -do-

but S1 operating

S31 not operating P31 8M-8G (NC) open -do-

S1&S21 operating

P1 P21 & P31 not S31 8L-8S (NC) open -do-

operating

P2 not operating S1 8K-8U (NC) open -do-

P22&P32 operating

P22 not operating S21 8K-8W (NC) open -do-

P2&P32 operating

P32 not operating S31 8K-8W (NC) open -do-

P2&P22 operating

P2, P22 & P32 GF 8L-8R (NC) open or excessive gap Adjust gap (not more than 1/8")
not operating of P21 8E-8K (NO) and ensure proper operation

Sometimes Reverser magnet valves do not operate due to loss of contact in control stand.
In that case, driver should work from other control stand. Driver should also try to operate
from other control stand, in case of any trouble experienced in controlling engine speed.

4.11 Transition is not picking up

DEFECT CAUSE REMEDY

1st. Transition
not picking up

Operation of six FS contactors is the indication of 1st transition. But to operate them, FSR must
operate.

FSR not operating Close P2 6T-6V (NC)

Close S21 6V-6W (NO)
Close TR 6W-6X (NC)
(If still not working, operate FSR usually because fault is inside first 210 card)
 DEFECT CAUSE REMEDY

FSR picking up but FS Contactors are Clean FSR 6-19H (NO) (contact
not picking up can also be changed with spare)

FS21 & FS25 are operating rests FS21 13-19J (NO) is to be

are not operating cleaned and broken wire etc. to
be connected

2nd. Transition
not picking up
Operation of six parallel contactors is the indication of 2nd. transition. For their operation TR must
operate.

TR not picking up Fault inside 2nd. 210 card.

Operate TR manually. (If Manual switch is there, use it.)

TR operating but PCs not operating Clean and make TR NO contact

8E-8L

Parallel PCs are operating but GF Make sure that P326C-6E (NO)
not picking up is closing Adjust if required

3rd. Transition
not picking up

Operation of FS contactors is the indication of 3rd. transition.

FSR not operating Clean and make TR6V-6X

(NO) contact

If still FSR not picking up, defect is in 3rd. 210 Card.

4.12 Wheel Slip Indication: - Covered in 3.8 in details.

4.13 Hot Engine indication:

It is experienced in summer season to the maximum extent. Normally locos do not fail
en-route due to hot engine. But if the locomotive is equipped with ETR, the diesel engine comes
to IDLE after ETS operation. As the viscosity of lube oil goes down with increase in
temperature, due to sudden fall in engine speed, the lube oil pressure drops below the drop out
setting pressure of OPS. As a result engine shuts down and could not be restarted, till the
temperature of the diesel engine comes down, and the viscosity of lube oil goes up. Normally most
of the sheds bypassed the ETR so that after operation of ETS, engine speed does not drop to
idle. Driver gets the audio-visual indication only. Getting this indication, driver should notch
down to 6th. notch or so and slowly pass the blocked section. The alarm gong will go on
sounding. As soon as he reaches the next station, he should notch down to 3rd. notch and not to
IDLE. GF switch should be put off on 3rd. notch itself, so that the lube oil pressure is maintained
at its safe value. After putting off GF, he should start FAST PUMPING. In summer, if engine
gets shut down causing low lube oil pressure, it normally takes 1 hour or more to cool in a state
when radiator fan does not work, and leads to loco failure.

4.14 Battery is not taking charge: (B.A. showing discharge)

It indicates failure of Battery Charging Circuit. Proceed to check the cause as follows :

Check VRP fuse Renew with spare if doubtful.

Check AGFB Reset if tripped.

Check VRP base for loose or cut wire Tighten/connect.

Check Aux. Gen. brush gear and brushes. Attend/replace as required.

Check BX-BN Card for proper placement. Cards should be placed properly, after
putting off AGFB.

5. Summary
Troubles experienced by the driver or other inspectors travelling in the footplate both in dead
and idling locomotives have been dealt in this unit. What could be the probable reasons of troubles
and how the trouble shooting should be done have been described in the form of charts. It is
expected that this unit would help the officials in footplate to rectify the fault without taking
assistance of maintenance people.
The reasons of road failures e.g. engine not taking start, not getting power, low hauling power,
load meter showing zero, transition trouble, jerk in first notch, etc. which contribute about 70% of
the electrical failures, have been described in this unit. Identification of probable areas, which
normally go wrong, would help the Railway in minimising detentions, if appropriate actions are
timely taken by the officials on footplate. There are some defects, which, perhaps, are difficult to
rectify en-route, without proper assistance and spares, have also been incorporated in this write-up.

6. Self-assessment Exercises
1. Write the probable causes of automatic shut down and suggest en-route trouble shooting for
them.
2. What could be the probable reasons of jerk in first notch? What actions could be taken en-
route to rectify the defects?
3. How to proceed to rectify a fault of wheel slip?
4. How to identify the cause of low hauling power and what actions should be taken for these
causes?
5. Writ down the steps of checking for battery not taking charge.