FAO World Animal Genetic Resources 2007

THE STATE
OF THE WORLD’s
ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES FOR
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
COMMISSION ON GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 2007
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© FAO 2007
Citation: FAO. 2007. The State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture, edited by Barbara Rischkowsky & Dafydd Pilling. Rome.
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Foreword
T
he wise management of the world’s agricultural biodiversity is becoming an ever
greater challenge for the international community. The livestock sector in particular
is undergoing dramatic changes as large-scale production expands in response to
surging demand for meat, milk and eggs. A wide portfolio of animal genetic resources is
crucial to adapting and developing our agricultural production systems. Climate change
and the emergence of new and virulent animal diseases underline the need to retain this
adaptive capacity. For hundreds of millions of poor rural households, livestock remain a
key asset, often meeting multiple needs, and enabling livelihoods to be built in some of
the world’s harshest environments. Livestock production makes a vital contribution to food
and livelihood security, and to meeting the United Nations Millennium Development Goals.
It will be of increasing significance in the coming decades.
And yet, genetic diversity is under threat. The reported rate of breed extinctions is of
great concern, but it is even more worrying that unrecorded genetic resources are being
lost before their characteristics can be studied and their potential evaluated. Strenuous
efforts to understand, prioritize and protect the world’s animal genetic resources for
food and agriculture are required. Sustainable patterns of utilization must be established.
Traditional livestock keepers – often poor and in marginal environments – have been
the stewards of much of our animal genetic diversity. We should not ignore their role or
neglect their needs. Equitable arrangements for benefit-sharing are needed, and broad
access to genetic resources must be ensured. An agreed international framework for the
management of these resources is crucial.
This report is the first global assessment of the status and trends of animal genetic
resources, and of the state of institutional and technological capacity to manage these
resources. It provides a basis for renewed efforts to ensure that the commitments to the
improved management of genetic resources set out in the World Food Summit Plan of
Action are realized. It is a milestone in the work of the Commission on Genetic Resources
for Food and Agriculture. The support provided by the world’s governments, exemplified
by the 169 Country Reports submitted to FAO, has been particularly heartening. I am
also greatly encouraged by the contribution that the process of preparing this report has
already made to awareness of the topic and to catalysing activity at national and regional
levels. However, much remains to be done. The launch of The State of the World’s Animal
Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture at the International Technical Conference on
Animal Genetic Resources at Interlaken, Switzerland, must be a springboard for action. I
wish to take this opportunity to appeal to the international community to recognize that
animal genetic resources are a part of our common heritage that is too valuable to neglect.
Commitment and cooperation in the sustainable use, development and conservation of
these resources are urgently required.
Jacques Diouf
FAO Director-General
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Contents
Acknowledgements xxi
Preface xxv
The reporting and preparatory process xxvii
Executive summary xxxv
Part 1 The state of agricultural biodiversity in the livestock sector
Introduction
SECTION A: ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF LIVESTOCK DIVERSITY 5
1 Introduction 5
2 The livestock domestication process 6
3 Ancestors and geographic origins of our livestock 10
4 Dispersal of domesticated animals 14
5 Transformations in livestock following domestication 17
6 Conclusions 18
References 19
SECTION B: STATUS OF ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES 23

1 Introduction 23
2 State of reporting 23
3 Species diversity 27
3.1 The big five 28
3.2 Other widespread species 29
3.3 Species with a narrower distribution 30
4 Breed diversity 31
4.1 Overview 31
4.2 Local breeds 34
4.3 Regional transboundary breeds 35
4.4 International transboundary breeds 36
5 Risk status of animal genetic resources 37
6 Trends in breed status 44
6.1 Changes in the number of breeds in the different breed groups 44
6.2 Trends in genetic erosion 45
7 Conclusions 48
SECTION C: FLOWS OF ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES 51

1 Introduction 51
2 Driving forces and historical phases in gene flows 51
2.1 Phase 1: prehistory to the eighteenth century 52
2.2 Phase 2: nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries 53
2.3 Phase 3: mid-twentieth century to the present 53
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SECTION C: FLOWS OF ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES - continued
3 The big five 55
3.1 Cattle 56
3.2 Sheep 61
3.3 Goats 65
3.4 Pigs 67
3.5 Chickens 69
3.6 Other species 70
4 Impacts of gene flows on diversity 71
4.1 Diversity-enhancing gene flow 71
4.2 Diversity-reducing gene flow 72
4.3 Diversity-neutral gene flow 72
4.4 The future 73
References 73
SECTION D: USES AND VALUES OF ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES 77

1 Introduction 77
2 Contribution to national economies 77
3 Patterns of livestock distribution 80
4 Food production 84
5 Production of fibre, skins, hides and pelts 86
6 Agricultural inputs, transport and fuel 88
7 Other uses and values 90
7.1 Savings and risk management 90
7.2 Sociocultural roles 92
7.3 Environmental services 95
8 Roles of livestock for the poor 97
9 Conclusions 99
References 100
SECTION E: ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES AND RESISTANCE TO DISEASE 101

1 Introduction 101
2 Disease resistant or tolerant breeds 103
2.1 Trypanosomiasis 104
2.2 Ticks and tick-borne diseases 104
2.3 Internal parasites 104
2.4 Foot rot 106
2.5 Bovine leukosis 107
2.6 Diseases of poultry 107
3 Opportunities for within-breed selection for disease resistance 108
4 Conclusions 110
References 110
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SECTION F: THREATS TO LIVESTOCK GENETIC DIVERSITY 113
1 Introduction 113
2 Livestock sector trends: economic, social and policy factors 114
3 Disasters and emergencies 120
4 Epidemics and disease control measures 126
5 Conclusions 131
References 132
Part 2 Livestock sector trends
Introduction
SECTION A: DRIVERS OF CHANGE IN THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR 141
1 Changes in demand 141
1.1 Purchasing power 143
1.2 Urbanization 143
1.3 Consumer taste and preference 145
2 Trade and retailing 145
2.1 Flows of livestock and their products 145
2.2 The rise of large retailers and vertical coordination along
the food chain 147
3 Changing natural environment 149
4 Advances in technology 149
5 Policy environment 150
SECTION B: LIVESTOCK SECTOR’S RESPONSE 153

1 Landless industrialized production systems 155
1.1 Overview and trends 155
1.2 Environmental issues 161
2 Small-scale landless systems 163
2.1 Overview 163
2.3 Trends 164
3 Grassland-based systems 165
3.1 Overview 165
3.3 Trends 168
4 Mixed farming systems 170
4.1 Overview 170
4.3 Trends 173
5 Issues in mixed irrigated systems 174
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SECTION C: IMPLICATIONS OF THE CHANGES IN THE LIVESTOCK SECTOR
FOR GENETIC DIVERSITY 177
References 179
Part 3 The state of capacities in animal genetic resources management
Introduction
SECTION A: INSTITUTIONS AND STAKEHOLDERS 187
1 Introduction 187
2 Analytical framework 187
2.1 Stakeholders’ involvement and background at country level 188
2.2 Assessment of institutional capacities at country level 188
2.3 Organizations and networks with a potential role in regional
and international collaboration 190
3 Stakeholders, institutions, capacities and structures 190
3.1 Stakeholder involvement in the State of the World process
at country level 190
3.2 Assessment of institutional capacities at country and
regional level 191
3.3 Organizations and networks with a potential role in
subregional, regional and international collaboration 196
4 Conclusions 201
References 203
Annex 204
SECTION B: STRUCTURED BREEDING PROGRAMMES 215

1 Introduction 215
2 Species priorities and breeding objectives 216
2.1 Cattle 216
2.2 Buffaloes 217
2.3 Sheep and goats 218
2.4 Pigs 219
2.5 Poultry 219
2.6 Other species 219
3 Organizational structures 220
4 Tools and implementation 222
5 Overview of breeding programmes by region 225
5.1 Africa 225
5.2 Asia 227
5.3 Europe and the Caucasus 229
5.4 Latin America and the Caribbean 230
5.5 Near and Middle East 232
5.6 North America and Southwest Pacific 232
6 Conclusions and future priorities 233
References 235
Annex 236
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SECTION C: CONSERVATION PROGRAMMES 243
1 Introduction 243
2 Global status 244
3 Stakeholders 245
3.1 National governments 245
3.2 Universities and research institutes 246
3.3 Civil society organizations and breeders’ associations 246
3.4 Farmers 246
3.5 Part-time or hobby farmers 247
3.6 Breeding companies 247
4 Conservation at species level – status and opportunities 247
4.1 Cattle 247
4.2 Sheep 248
4.3 Goats 249
4.4 Pigs 249
4.5 Chickens 249
4.6 Horses 250
5 In vivo and in vitro conservation programmes – regional analysis 250
5.1 Africa 250
5.2 Asia 253
5.3 Europe and the Caucasus 255
5.4 Latin America and the Caribbean 256
5.5 Near and Middle East 258
5.6 North America 258
5.7 Southwest Pacific 259
6 Opportunities for improving conservation programmes 260
7 Conclusions and priorities 261
References 263
SECTION D: REPRODUCTIVE AND MOLECULAR BIOTECHNOLOGY 265

1 Introduction 265
2 Global overview 265
3 Africa 266
4 Asia 268
5 Europe and the Caucasus 269
6 Latin America and the Caribbean 271
7 Near and Middle East 272
8 North America 272
9 Southwest Pacific 272
10 Conclusions 273
References 273
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SECTION E: LEGISLATION AND REGULATION 275
1 International legal framework – major instruments 275
1.1 Introduction 275
1.2 Legal framework for the management of biodiversity 275
1.3 Access and benefit-sharing 277
1.4 Legal framework for international trade 278
1.5 Intellectual property rights 279
1.6 Legal framework for biosecurity 280
1.7 Conclusions 283
References 284
2 Emerging legal issues 285
2.1 Patenting 285
2.2 Livestock Keepers’ Rights 291
3 Regulatory frameworks at regional level 291
3.2 European Union legislation: an example of
a comprehensive regional legal framework 292
3.3 Conclusions 301
Legislation cited 302
4 National legislation and policy 307
4.2 Methods 307
4.3 Implementation of AnGR-related legislation and programmes 308
4.4 Country Report analysis 309
4.5 Conclusions 332
References 333
Part 4 State of the art in the management of animal genetic resources
Introduction
SECTION A: BASIC CONCEPTS 339
1 Animal genetic resources and breeds 339
2 Management of animal genetic resources 340
3 Risk status classification 342
References 345
SECTION B: METHODS FOR CHARACTERIZATION 347

1 Introduction 347
2 Characterization – as the basis for decision-making 347
3 Tools for characterization 350
3.1 Surveying 350
3.2 Monitoring 352
3.3 Molecular genetic characterization 354
3.4 Information systems 354
4 Conclusions 357
References 358
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SECTION C: MOLECULAR MARKERS – A TOOL FOR EXPLORING
GENETIC DIVERSITY 359
1 Introduction 359
2 The roles of molecular technologies in characterization 361
3 Overview of molecular techniques 362
3.1 Techniques using DNA markers to assess genetic diversity 362
3.2 Using markers to estimate effective population size 367
3.3 Molecular tools for targeting functional variation 367
4 The role of bioinformatics 372
5 Conclusions 372
References 375
SECTION D: GENETIC IMPROVEMENT METHODS TO SUPPORT

SUSTAINABLE UTILIZATION 381
1 Introduction 381
2 The context for genetic improvement 381
2.1 Changing demand 381
2.2 Diverse production environments 382
2.3 Increasing recognition of the importance of genetic diversity 382
2.4 Scientific and technological advances 382
2.5 Economic considerations 387
3 Elements of a breeding programme 388
3.1 Breeding goals 390
3.2 Selection criteria 391
3.3 Design of breeding scheme 392
3.4 Data recording and management 392
3.5 Genetic evaluation 393
3.6 Selection and mating 394
3.7 Progress monitoring 395
3.8 Dissemination of genetic progress 395
4 Breeding programmes in high-input systems 396
4.1 Dairy and beef cattle breeding 396
4.2 Sheep and goat breeding 400
4.3 Pig and poultry breeding 402
5 Breeding programmes in low-input systems 405
5.1 Description of low-input systems 405
5.2 Breeding strategies 406
6 Breeding in the context of conservation 420
6.1 Methods for monitoring small populations 420
6.2 Conservation through breeding 421
7 Conclusions 421
References 423
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SECTION E: METHODS FOR ECONOMIC VALUATION 429
1 Introduction 429
2 Development of methodologies for economic analysis 431
3 Application of economic methodologies in animal genetic
resources management 433
3.1 Value of animal genetic resources to farmers 433
3.2 Costs and benefits of conservation 434
3.3 Targeting of farmers for participation in in situ breed
conservation programmes 436
3.4 Priority setting in livestock conservation programmes 437
3.5 Priority setting in livestock breeding strategies 438
3.6 General policy analysis 438
4 Implications for policies and future research 439
References 440
SECTION F: METHODS FOR CONSERVATION 443

1 Introduction 443
2 Arguments for conservation 444
2.1 Arguments related to the past 445
2.2 Safeguarding for future needs 445
2.3 Arguments related to the present situation 447
3 The unit of conservation 448
4 Conservation of plant versus animal genetic resources 449
5 Information for conservation decisions 450
6 In vivo conservation 454
6.1 Background 454
6.2 Genetic management of populations 454
6.3 Self-sustaining strategies for local breeds 455
6.4 In situ versus ex situ approaches to in vivo conservation 460
7 Current status and future prospects for cryoconservation 461
7.1 Gametes 462
7.2 Embryos 463
7.3 Cryoconservation of somatic cells and somatic cell cloning 463
7.4 Choice of genetic material 465
7.5 Security in genebanks 465
8 Resource allocation strategies in conservation 466
8.1 Methods for setting priorities 466
8.2 Optimization strategies for planning conservation programmes 467
9 Conclusions 470
References 473
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SECTION G: RESEARCH PRIORITIES 477
1 Information for effective utilization and conservation 477
2 Information systems 477
3 Molecular methods 478
4 Characterization 478
5 Genetic improvement methods 478
6 Conservation methods 479
7 Decision-support tools for conservation 480
8 Economic analysis 480
9 Access and benefit-sharing 481
Part 5 Needs and challenges in animal genetic resources management
Introduction
SECTION A: KNOWLEDGE OF ANIMAL GENETIC DIVERSITY: CONCEPTS,
METHODS AND TECHNOLOGIES 487
SECTION B: CAPACITY IN ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 493
1 Capacity in characterization, sustainable use and conservation

of animal genetic resources 493
2 Capacity in institutions and policy-making 494
SECTION C: MAJOR CHALLENGES FOR LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT

AND ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 499
SECTION D: ACCEPTING GLOBAL RESPONSIBILITY 503
Abbreviations and acronyms 505
Annexes (on CD-ROM)
Country Reports
Reports from International Organizations
Subregional Reports
Thematic Studies
List of breeds documented in the Global Databank for Animal Genetic
Resources
List of breeds at risk
List of authors, reviewers and their affiliations
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BOXES
1 The domestication process 6

2 Molecular characterization – a tool to understand livestock origin and diversity 9
3 The history of African pastoralism 15
4 What is new compared to the World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity? 24
5 Glossary: populations, breeds, regions 25
6 Glossary: risk status classification 37
7 Gene flows resulting from colonization 53
8 Nelore cattle 60
9 Continuous repackaging of genes – Dorper sheep 64
10 Hybrid pigs 67
11 The chicken breeding industry 70
12 Linguistic links between cattle and wealth 91
13 The history of Hungarian Grey cattle – changing uses over time 96
14 Genetic resistance to African swine fever 109
15 Mongolian reindeer under threat 116
16 Policy distortions influencing the erosion of pig genetic resources in Viet Nam 118
17 Which dairy breeds for tropical smallholders? 119
18 War and rehabilitation in Bosnia and Herzegovina 126
19 The concept of productivity 140
20 Sustainable utilization of the Iberian pig in Spain – a success story 144
21 Overcoming constraints to the development of small-scale market-oriented
dairying 146
22 Facts and trends in the emerging world food economy 151
23 Suggestions for strengthening national structures 202
24 Research and breed development in Africa 226
25 Sheep breeding in Tunisia 226
26 Buffalo breeding in India 227
27 Goat breeding in the Republic of Korea 228
28 Duck breeding in Viet Nam 228
29 Pig breeding in Hungary 230
30 Horse breeding – tradition and new requirements 230
31 Beef cattle breeding in Brazil 231
32 Breeding llamas in Argentina 232
33 Influence of market forces on livestock breeding in the United States of America 233
34 Sheep breeding in Australia 233
35 Mali – role of the government 246
36 Ethiopia – in situ conservation 251
37 Morocco’s Plan Moutonnier – designated breeding areas to sustain
local sheep breeds 252
38 Conservation strategies in China 254
39 Denmark – opportunities for in vivo conservation 256
40 Brazil – implementation of a genebank 258
41 United States of America – priorities in conservation programmes 259
42 Australia – involvement of diverse stakeholders 260
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43 Impact of international zoosanitary regulations on animal genetic resources
management – the example of FMD 282
44 The first patented animal 286
45 The African Union Model Law 292
46 Malawi’s Environmental Management Act 308
47 Turkey’s Law on Pastures No. 4342 (1998) 310
48 Slovenia’s Livestock Breeding Act (2002) 311
49 Mozambique’s Livestock Development Policy and Strategies 312
50 Slovenia’s regulation on Conservation of Farm Animal Genetic Resources 314
51 Uganda’s National Animal Genetic Resources Progamme 315
52 Ukraine’s Law on Animal Breeding 316
53 Turkey’s Regulation on Protection of Animal Genetic Resources (2002) 316
54 Lesotho’s Importation and Exportation of Livestock and
Livestock Products Proclamation 318
55 Malaysia’s Animals Ordinance 318
56 Hungary’s Decree No. 39 319
57 Botswana’s Stock Diseases (Semen) Regulations 320
58 Barbados’s incentive programme 320
59 Uganda’s Animal Breeding Act (2001) 322
60 Guatemala – decentralization of the registration of pure-bred animals 323
61 Mongolia’s White Revolution Programme 324
62 The Philippine’s White Revolution 325
63 Russian Federation – Veterinary and Sanitary Requirements
No. 13-8-01/1-8 (1999) 327
64 India – rules for transportation 328
65 West Africa – pastoralists crossing borders 328
66 The Islamic Republic of Iran’s Act of National Veterinary System (1971) 330
67 Definition of breed adopted by FAO 339
68 Production environment descriptors for animal genetic resources 350
69 Information systems at global level 356
70 DNA, RNA and protein 359
71 The new “–omics” scientific disciplines 360
72 Recent developments in molecular biology 360
73 Extraction and multiplication of DNA and RNA 362
74 Commonly used DNA markers 363
75 Sampling genetic material 364
76 QTL mapping 367
77 The population genomics approach 369
78 Databases of biological molecules 372
79 Glossary: molecular markers 374
80 Changing body size of beef cattle in the United States of America 391
81 Calving problems in Belgian White Blue cattle 396
82 Cross-breeding to address inbreeding-related problems in Holstein cattle 397
83 Norwegian Red Cattle – selection for functional traits 399
84 Community-based sheep management in the Peruvian Andes 406
85 Genetic improvement of an indigenous livestock breed – Boran cattle in Kenya 407
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86 A llama breeding programme in Ayopaya, Bolivia 408
87 Pastoralists’ breeding criteria – insights from a community member 410
88 The Bororo Zebu of the WoDaaBe in Niger – selection for reliability in
an extreme environment 412
89 Community-driven breeding programmes for local pig breeds in north Viet Nam 414
90 The cost of heterosis 417
91 Nigeria’s Village Poultry Improvement Scheme 417
92 A community-based and participatory dairy goat cross-breeding programme
in a low-input smallholder system in the eastern highlands of Kenya 418
93 Economic values 430
94 Glossary: conservation 443
95 Red Maasai sheep – accelerating threats 444
96 Lleyn sheep of Wales – revival in fortunes in tune with modern demands 446
97 Decision-making in conservation and utilization – use of genetic diversity data 452
98 Spatial analysis of genetic diversity 453
99 In situ conservation of the Norwegian Feral Sheep 456
100 Examples of incentive payment schemes at the national level 457
101 An index of economic development potential for targeting in situ conservation
investments 458
102 Community-based in situ conservation programme – a case from Patagonia 459
103 Changes in production systems leading to replacement of local buffaloes
– a case from Nepal 460
104 Revival of the native Red and White Friesian cattle in the Netherlands 464
105 Revival of the Enderby cattle in New Zealand 465
106 Glossary: objective decision aids 468
107 Optimum allocation of conservation funds – an example featuring African
cattle breeds 469
108 The Svalbard Global Seed Vault: an international seed depository in the Arctic 472
TABLES
1 Regional overview of Country Reports xxviii

2 Country Reports received xxix
3 Reports from international organizations xxx
4 Origin and domestication of livestock species 7
5 Status of information recorded in the Global Databank for Animal Genetic
Resources 23
6 Distribution of mammalian species by region 26
7 Distribution of avian species by region 27
8 Proportion of the world’s population size (2005) and number of local and
regional transboundary breeds (January 2006) of the major livestock species
by region 33
9 Mammalian species – number of reported local breeds 34
10 Avian species – number of reported local breeds 34
11 Mammalian species – number of reported regional transboundary breeds 35
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12 Avian species – number of reported regional transboundary breeds 36
13 Mammalian species – number of reported international transboundary breeds 36
14 Avian species – number of reported international transboundary breeds 36
15 Number of extinct mammalian breeds 43
16 Number of extinct avian breeds 43
17 Years of extinction 43
18 Reclassification of regional and international transboundary breeds
from 1999 to 2006 45
19 Changes in risk status of transboundary breeds from 1999 to 2006 46
20 Risk status of transboundary breeds reported after 1999 46
21 Changes in risk status of local breeds (1999) reclassified
as transboundary breeds (2006) 46
22 Changes in risk status of local breeds from 1999 to 2006 47
23 Risk status of local breeds reported after 1999 47
24 Workforce employed in agriculture and land area per agricultural worker 79
25 Number of animals by species/1000 human population 83
26 Number of animals by species/1000 ha agricultural land 83
27 Production of food of animal origin (kg/person/year) 84
28 Production of fibres, skins and hides (1000 tonnes/year) 87
29 Trends in the use of animals for draught power 88
30 Roles of livestock by livelihood strategy 98
31 Selected studies indicating breed difference in resistance or tolerance
to specific diseases 102
32 Mammalian breeds reported to DAD-IS as having resistance or tolerance
to specific diseases or parasites 103
33 Breeds reported to DAD-IS as showing resistance or tolerance
to trypanosomiasis 104
34 Breeds reported to DAD-IS as showing resistance or tolerance to tick-burden 105
to tick-borne diseases 105
to internal parasites 106
37 Breeds reported to DAD-IS as showing resistance or tolerance to foot rot 107
38 Cattle breeds reported to DAD-IS as showing resistance or tolerance to leukosis 107
39 Breeds reported to DAD-IS as showing resistance or tolerance to avian diseases 108
40 Impact of recent disease epidemics 128
41 Examples of breeds affected by the FMD outbreak in the United Kingdom
in 2001 129
42 Projected trends in meat consumption from 2000 to 2050 142
43 Projected trends in milk consumption from 2000 to 2050 143
44 Standards in the livestock market and implications for small-scale producers 148
45 Trends in production of meat and milk in developing and developed countries 155
46 Livestock numbers and production of the world’s livestock production systems
– averages for 2001-2003 157
47 The developing countries with the highest meat and milk production (2004) 157
48 Agriculture’s contribution to global greenhouse gas and other emissions 162
xvii
49 Estimated number of pastoralists in different geographic regions 166
50 Land with rainfed crop production potential 171
51 Main crop–animal interactions in crop-based livestock systems 171
52 Share of irrigated production in total crop production of developing countries 175
53 Sources of information (Country Report sections) for the national-level
assessments 189
54 Institutional assessment – infrastructure, capacities and participation 192
55 Institutional assessment – research and knowledge 193
56 Institutional assessment – state of policy development 194
57 Organizations and networks that play or may play a role in animal genetic
resources management at regional/subregional level 197
58 Institutional assessment at country level 207
59 List of international organizations and reports on their activities 214
60 Countries prioritizing breeding activities (by species) 217
61 Structured breeding activities for the main livestock species 217
62 Strategies and tools used in cattle breeding 218
63 Training, research and farmers’ organizations in current policies 220
64 Stakeholder involvement in the development of animal genetic resources 222
65 Number of countries reporting the use of artificial insemination 224
66 Importance of species and locally adapted versus exotic breeds in
current policies 224
67 List of subsample countries that provided information in predefined tables 236
68 Strategies and tools used in sheep breeding 237
69 Strategies and tools used in goat breeding 237
70 Strategies and tools used in pig breeding 238
71 Strategies and tools used in chicken breeding 239
72 Countries reporting structured breeding activities in minor species 239
73 Stakeholder involvement in structured cattle breeding activities 240
74 Stakeholder involvement in structured sheep breeding activities 240
75 Stakeholder involvement in structured goat breeding activities 241
76 Stakeholder involvement in structured pig breeding activities 241
77 Number of countries with conservation programmes 245
78 Conservation activities – at the global level 248
79 Conservation activities in Africa 251
80 Conservation activities in Asia 253
81 Conservation activities in Europe and the Caucasus 256
82 Conservation activities in Latin America and the Caribbean 257
83 Conservation activities in the Near and Middle East 258
84 Conservation activities in North America 259
85 Conservation activities in the Southwest Pacific 260
86 Use of biotechnologies by region 265
87 Use of biotechnologies by species 266
88 Instruments for sustaining livestock production systems 312
89 Instruments in the field of conservation 315
90 Instruments in the field of genetic improvement 317
91 Instruments related to institutions active in genetic improvement 322
xviii
92 Instruments in the field of standard setting 323
93 Instruments for promoting trade in livestock products 326
94 Instruments regulating import and export of genetic material 326
95 Instruments regulating livestock movements and import and export of live
animals and livestock products 329
96 Regulations in the field of animal health 330
97 Information recorded for mammalian species in the Global Databank for
Animal Genetic Resources 351
98 Information recorded for avian species in the Global Databank for
Animal Genetic Resources 352
99 Breeding objectives in ruminants 397
100 Breeding objectives in pigs 402
101 Breeding objectives in poultry 403
102 Overview of valuation methodologies 432
103 Conservation benefits and costs under a range of valuation methodologies
– the case of the Box Keken pig (Yucatan, Mexico) 435
104 Comparisons of biological, operational and institutional factors influencing
plant and animal genetic resources conservation 451
105 Current status of cryoconservation techniques by species 464
FIGURES
1 Assignment of countries to regions and subregions in this report xxxiii

2 Archaeological map of agricultural homelands and spread of
Neolithic/Formative cultures, with approximate radiocarbon dates 5
3 Major centres of livestock domestication – based on archaeological and
molecular genetic information 10
4 Origin and migration routes of domestic cattle in Africa 16
5 Proportion of national breed populations for which population figures
have been reported 25
6 Regional distribution of major livestock species in 2005 28
7 Distribution of the world’s mammalian breeds by species 28
8 Distribution of the world’s avian breeds by species 29
9 Number of local and transboundary breeds at global level 32
10 Number of local and transboundary breeds at regional level 32
11 Proportion of the world’s breeds by risk status category 38
12 Risk status of the world’s mammalian breeds in January 2006: absolute (table)
and percentage (chart) figures by species 39
13 Risk status of the world’s avian breeds in January 2006: absolute (table) and
percentage (chart) figures by species 40
14 Risk status of the world’s mammalian breeds in January 2006: absolute (table)
and percentage (chart) figures by region 41
15 Risk status of the world’s avian breeds in January 2006: absolute (table) and
percentage (chart) figures by region 42
xix
16 Local, regional and international breeds in 1999 and 2006 44
17 Changes in risk status of transboundary breeds from 1999 to 2006 45
18 Changes in risk status of local breeds from 1999 to 2006 47
19 Distribution of transboundary breeds 56
20 Distribution of Holstein-Friesian cattle 57
21 Distribution of Charolais cattle 57
22 Distribution of transboundary cattle breeds of Latin American,
African or South Asian origin 59
23 Distribution of transboundary sheep breeds 62
24 Gene flow of improved Awassi and Assaf sheep from Israel 64
25 Distribution of Saanen goats 66
26 Distribution of Boer goats 66
27 Distribution of Large White pigs 68
28 Contribution of agriculture and livestock to total GDP by region 78
29 Contribution of livestock to agricultural GDP 79
30 Percentage of permanent pasture in total agricultural land 80
31 Livestock density in relation to human population 81
32 Livestock density per square kilometre of agricultural land 82
33 Net exports – meat 85
34 Net exports – milk equivalent 85
35 Net exports – eggs 86
36 Number of disasters by type and year 121
37 Changes in the meat consumption of developing and developed countries 141
38 Distribution of livestock production systems 154
39 Meat production from ruminants versus monogastrics in developing and
developed countries 156
40 Changes in the quantity of cereals used as feed (1992-1994 and 2020) 158
41 Changes in the distribution of the size of pig farms in Brazil (1985 to 1996) 159
42 Estimated contribution of livestock to total phosphate supply on agricultural
land in areas presenting a phosphate mass balance of more than 10 kg
per hectare in selected Asian countries (1998 to 2000) 161
43 State of institutions – regional comparison 195
44 State of institutions – subregional comparison within Africa 205
45 State of institutions – subregional comparison within Asia 205
46 State of institutions – subregional comparisons within Latin America
and the Caribbean 206
47 Information required to design management strategies 348
48 Structure of the poultry breeding industry 389
xx
Acknowledgements
T
his report could not have been prepared without the assistance of the many
individuals who generously contributed their time, energy and expertise. FAO would
like to take this opportunity to acknowledge these contributions.
The core of the information for the State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources for
Food and Agriculture was provided by the 169 governments that submitted Country Reports;
the first and most important acknowledgement therefore goes to these governments and
to all those individuals in each country who contributed to these reports, in particular the
National Coordinators for the Management of Animal Genetic Resources and the National
Consultative Committees. The development of training materials the conduct of training
workshops, the preparation and analysis of the Country Reports, the follow-up workshops
and the various international, regional and national consultations were facilitated by the
following team: Daniel Benitez-Ojeda, Harvey D. Blackburn, Arthur da Silva Mariante,
Mamadou Diop, M’Naouer Djemali, Anton Ellenbroek, Erling Fimland, Salah Galal,
Andreas Georgoudis, Peter Gulliver, Sipke-Joost Hiemstra, Yusup Ibragimov, Jarmo Juga,
Ali Kamali, Sergeij Kharitonov, Richard Laing, Birgitta Malmfors, Moketal Joel Mamabolo,
Peter Manueli, Elzbieta Martyniuk, Carlos Mezzadra, Rafael Morales, Ruben Mosi, Siboniso
Moyo, David R. Notter, Rafael Núñez-Domínguez, Dominique Planchenault, Geoffrey
Pollott, Adrien Raymond, Peter Saville, Hermann Schulte-Coerne, Louise Setshwaelo, Paul
Souvenir Zafindrajaona, David Steane, Arunas Svitojus, Lutfi Tahtacioglu, Vijay Taneja,
Frank Vigh-Larsen, Hans-Gerhard Wagner, Mateusz Wieczorek, Hongjie Yang and Milan
Zjalic. An FAO–WAAP (World Association for Animal Production) agreement assisted a
large number of developing countries in report preparation. This important contribution
to the reporting process could not have been accomplished without the coordination and
hard work of Jean Boyazoglu and his colleagues at WAAP.
The State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture was
prepared and coordinated by Barbara Rischkowsky with the assistance of Dafydd Pilling.
The preparation was facilitated and supported by the Service Chief of Animal Production,
Irene Hoffmann, and current and former officers of the Animal Genetic Resources Group:
Badi Besbes, David Boerma, Ricardo Cardellino, Mitsuhiro Inamura, Pal Hajas, Keith
Hammond, Manuel Luque Cuesta, Beate Scherf, Kim-Anh Tempelman and Olaf Thieme.
Administrative and secretarial support was provided by Carmen Hopmans and Kafia Fassi-
Fihri. The finalization, layout and printing were supervised by Beate Scherf.
The sections of the report were prepared and reviewed by individual experts or expert
teams who will be acknowledged below by section. This form of acknowledgement intends
to thank the authors for contributing their time, expertise and energy, both in the process
of writing, and in reviewing and editing. It will also allow the interested public to identify
resource persons for specific topics. This is facilitated by an alphabetical list of authors and
reviewers on the attached CD-ROM.
Case studies were prepared by: Camillus O. Ahuya, Tony Bennett, Ismaïl Boujenane,
Achilles Costales, Erling Fimland, Cary Fowler, John Gibson, Alexander Kahi, John M. King,
Saverio Krätli, Maria Rosa Lanari, Ute Lemke, Thomas Loquang, Manuel Luque Cuesta, Paolo
Ajmone Marsan, André Markemann, Marnie Mellencamp, Okeyo Mwai, Kor Oldenbroek,
John Bryn Owen, Vincente Rodríguez-Estévez, Hans Schiere, Marianna Siegmund-Schulze,
Henner Simianer, David Steane, Angelika Stemmer, Kim-Ahn Tempelman, Hongjie Yang
and Anne Valle Zárate.
xxi
Additional material for the preparation of text boxes was provided by Brian Donahoe,
Morgan Keay, Juhani Mäki-Hokkonen, Kirk Olson and Dan Plumley.
Data entry into the Global Databank was carried out by Ellen Geerlings and Lucy
Wigboldus. Analysis of the Global Databank was performed by Mateusz Wieczorek,
Alberto Montironi, Justyna Dybowska, Kerstin Zander and Beate Scherf. All maps (if not
otherwise stated) were prepared by Thierry Lassueur with support from Tim Robinson and
Pius Chilonda.
Thematic studies were coordinated by Beate Scherf and Irene Hoffmann and prepared by:
Erika Alandia Robles, Simon Anderson, Kassahun Awgichew, Roswitha Baumung, P.N. Bhat,
Stephen Bishop, Kwame Boa-Amponsem, Ricardo Cardellino, Arthur da Silva Mariante,
Mart de Jong, Adam G. Drucker, Christian Gall, Michael Goe, Elisha Gootwine, Douglas
Gray, Claire Heffernan, Sipke-Joost Hiemstra, Sabine Homann, Christian G. Hülsebusch,
Le Thi Thanh Huyen, Antonella Ingrassia, Ute Lemke, Nils Louwaars, Daniele Manzella,
Jacobus Hendrik Maritz, Elzbieta Martyniuk, Marcus Mergenthaler, Klaus Meyn, Giulietta
Minozzi, H. Momm, Katinka Musavaya, David R. Notter, Kor Oldenbroek, Marta Pardo Leal,
Roswitha Roessler, Cornelia Schäfer, Kim-Anh Tempelman, Morton W. Tvedt and Anne Valle
Zárate.
Subregional factsheets presented on the attached CD-ROM were prepared by Marieke
Reuver, Marion De Vries, Harvey Blackburn, Campbell Davidson, Salah Galal, Ellen Geerlings
and National Coordinators from Europe and the Caucasus. Reports on subregional priorities
were compiled by Milan Zjalic.
Graphic design and layout was by Omar Bolbol and Daniela Scicchigno.
Listing every person by name is not easy, and carries with it the risk that someone may
be overlooked. Apologies are conveyed to anyone who may have provided assistance
whose name has been inadvertently omitted. Any errors or omissions in this work are the
responsibility of those who compiled it. None of the contributors should be considered
responsible for such defects. In this regard, FAO appreciates any corrections.
xxii
Part / Section Authors Reviewers
PART 1: The state of agricultural biodiversity in the livestock sector
Origin and history of livestock diversity Olivier Hanotte Ilse Koehler-Rollefson

Status of animal genetic resources Barbara Rischkowsky, Mateusz Wieczorek
Dafydd Pilling,
Beate Scherf
Flows of animal genetic resources Evelyn Mathias, Beate Scherf,
Ilse Koehler-Rollefson, Annette von Lossau
Paul Mundy
Uses and values of animal genetic Dafydd Pilling,
resources Barbara Rischkowsky
with Manuel Luque Cuesta
Animal genetic resources and disease Dafydd Pilling, Steve Bishop,
resistance Barbara Rischkowsky Jan Slingenbergh
Threats to livestock genetic diversity Dafydd Pilling, Anni McLeod,
Claire Heffernan, Simon Mack,
Michael Goe Jan Slingenbergh
PART 2: Livestock sector trends

Pierre Gerber, Hans Schiere
Dafydd Pilling,
Barbara Rischkowsky
PART 3: The state of capacities in animal genetic resources management
Institutions and stakeholders Maria Brockhaus Irene Hoffmann,
Beate Scherf,
Ricardo Cardellino,
Jean Boyazoglu,
Annette von Lossau,
Ilse Koehler-Rollefson
Structured breeding programmes Olaf Thieme Juhani Mäki-Hokkonen
Conservation programmes Kor Oldenbroek

with Milan Zjalic
Reproductive and molecular Dafydd Pilling Salah Galal

biotechnology with Milan Zjalic
Legislation and regulation
International legal framework – major Dafydd Pilling drawing on FAO Clive Stannard,
instruments legislative study No 89 Niels Louwaars
Patenting – an emerging legal issue Dafydd Pilling Niels Louwaars,

with Claudio Chiarolla Morten Walløe Tvedt
Regulatory frameworks at regional level Dafydd Pilling drawing on FAO Sipke Joost Hiemstra,
legislative study No 89 Danielle Manzella,
Hermann Schulte-Coerne,
Kai-Uwe Sprenger
National legislation and policy Susette Biber-Klemm
with Cari Rincker
xxiii
Part / Section Authors Reviewers
PART 4: The state of the art in animal genetic resources management
Basic concepts Barbara Rischkowsky, Beate Scherf,

Dafydd Pilling Ricardo Cardellino
Methods for characterization Workneh Ayalew, Ed Rege
Beate Scherf,
Barbara Rischkowsky
Molecular markers – a tool for exploring Paolo Ajmone Marsan, Han Jianlin,
genetic diversity with Kor Oldenbroek Paul Boettcher
Genetic improvement methods to support Badi Besbes, Beate Scherf,
sustainable utilization Victor Olori, Ricardo Cardellino,
Jim Sanders Keith Hammond
Methods for economic valuation Adam Drucker Gianni Cicia
Methods for conservation Jean-Pierre Brillard, Workneh Ayalew,
Gustavo Gandini, Harvey Blackburn,
John Gibson, Jean Boyazoglu,
David Notter, Ricardo Cardellino,
Dafydd Pilling, Coralie Danchin,
Barbara Rischkowsky, Sipke Joost Hiemstra,
Henner Simianer Elzbieta Martyniuk,
Roger Pullin,
Beate Scherf,
Michele Tixier-Boichard
Research priorities all authors all reviewers
PART 5: Needs and challenges in animal genetic resources management
Barbara Rischkowsky, Animal Genetic Resources

Irene Hoffmann Group and CGRFA
Secretariat
xxiv
Preface
A
gricultural biodiversity is the product of thousands of years of activity during which
humans have sought to meet their needs in a wide range of climatic and ecological
conditions. Well-adapted livestock have been an essential element of agricultural
production systems, particularly important in harsh environments where crop farming is
difficult or impossible.
The capacity of agro-ecosystems to maintain and increase their productivity, and to adapt
to changing circumstances, remains vital to the food security of the world’s population. For
livestock keepers, animal genetic diversity is a resource to be drawn upon to select stocks
and develop new breeds. More broadly, genetically diverse livestock populations provide
society with a greater range of options to meet future challenges.
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has, since the early
1960s, provided assistance to countries to characterize their animal genetic resources for
food and agriculture (AnGR) and develop conservation strategies. In 1990, FAO’s Council
recommended the development of a comprehensive programme for the sustainable
management of AnGR at the global level. A meeting of experts in 1992, and subsequent
sessions of FAO’s governing bodies, provided impetus to the development of the Global
Strategy for the Management of Farm Animal Genetic Resources, which was initiated in
1993. The Animal Production and Health Division of FAO was designated as the Global Focal
Point for Animal Genetic Resources, and given the role of coordinating further development
of the Global Strategy. In 1995, the Twenty-eighth Session of the FAO Conference took
the decision to broaden the mandate of the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources to
cover all aspects of agro-biodiversity of relevance to food and agriculture; the Commission,
originally established in 1983, was the first permanent intergovernmental forum dealing
with agricultural genetic resources. Work on AnGR was the first element of this expanded
role. The Commission was renamed the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture (CGRFA).
The international agenda

FAO’s commitment to maintaining agricultural biodiversity is consistent with the increasing
prominence of biodiversity on the agenda of the international community. This development
is the result of a recognition that threats to biodiversity are increasing, whether measured
in terms of the extinction of species, the destruction of ecosystems and habitats, or the loss
of genetic diversity within the species utilized for agriculture. The 1992 United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) held in Rio de Janeiro was
an important landmark. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), signed in Rio by 150
governments, committed the nations of the world to conserve their biodiversity, to ensure
its sustainable use, and to provide for equitable sharing of the benefits arising from its use.
By 2005, 188 countries had become Parties to the CBD. The Conference of Parties (COP) of
the CBD (the governing body of the Convention) has specifically recognized the special
nature of agricultural biodiversity and the need for distinctive solutions in this field (see for
example decision V/5, taken at the Fifth Meeting of the COP in 2000).
Agenda 21, adopted by 179 governments at the time at Rio Earth Summit in 1992, is a
plan of action to be undertaken at global, national and local levels by governments, the
organizations of the United Nations System and other stakeholders, to address all areas
of human impact on the environment. The Agenda’s Chapter 14, “Promoting Sustainable
Agriculture and Rural Development”, addresses the question of increasing food production
xxv
and enhancing food security in a sustainable way. It included programme areas related to
the conservation and development of AnGR.
The threat to food security posed by the loss of biodiversity was noted in the Plan of
Action adopted at the 1996 World Food Summit held in Rome. Under Objective 3.2(f) of the
Rome Declaration, the governments of the world affirmed that they would “promote the
conservation and sustainable utilization of animal genetic resources.”
Meeting the Millennium Development Goals, adopted by the United Nations in 2000,
presents another great challenge to the international community. The adverse effects of
biodiversity loss on progress towards the achievement of these goals are cause for concern
(UNDP, 2002)1. As well as underpinning food security, biological diversity is the basis of
many economic activities, and is vital to ecosystem functioning. Declining biodiversity tends
to be associated with greater shocks and fluctuations in ecosystems, and it is the poor that
are usually the most vulnerable to these effects. Many poor people are closely dependent
on natural resources for their livelihoods, and frequently have a wealth of knowledge
regarding the plants and animals with which they work. It has been suggested that this
knowledge could be a source of income for the poor if it leads to the development and
marketing of unique biological products. In reality, the extent to which the benefits of such
developments actually accrue to the poor is often limited – highlighting the need not only
for conservation of biodiversity, but for equitable frameworks for its utilization.
Within the international framework for the management and conservation of biological
diversity, the work of CGRFA focuses on the particular features and problems associated with
the management of agro-biodiversity, and the need for distinctive solutions for this field.
1
UNDP. 2002. Building on hidden opportunities to achieve the Millenium Development Goals. Poverty reduction through
sustainable biodiversity use, by I Koziell & C.I. McNeill. New York.
xxvi
The reporting and
preparatory process
I
n 1999, the CGRFA during its Eighth Regular Session agreed that FAO should coordinate
the preparation of a country-driven report on the State of the World’s Animal Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture (SoW-AnGR)2. In 2004, the Intergovernmental
Technical Working Group on Animal Genetic Resources (ITWG-AnGR) – a subsidiary
body established by the Commission to address issues relevant to the conservation and
sustainable use of AnGR – reviewed progress in the preparation of the SoW-AnGR and
endorsed a draft outline including a Report on Strategic Priorities for Action. The CGRFA
subsequently endorsed this outline at its Tenth Regular Session. The agreed timetable for
the preparation of the SoW-AnGR was that a draft would be available for review by the
CGRFA at its Eleventh Regular Session in 2007, and that the report would be finalized at the
first International Technical Conference on Animal Genetic Resources.
The first draft of the SoW-AnGR was made available to the Fourth Session of the ITWG-
AnGR in December 2006. The Working Group requested more time to undertake a review
of the report. It was agreed that members of the Working Group would provide comments
on the draft to FAO by 31 January 2007, in order for FAO to undertake any necessary
revisions prior to the presentation of the SoW-AnGR to the CGRFA at its Eleventh Regular
Session. The Working Group further agreed that the review process should be open to all
Member Countries of the Commission. FAO, therefore, invited all CGRFA Member Countries
to submit comments within the agreed time frame.
Inputs to the State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources

reporting process
The process of preparing the SoW-AnGR included a number of elements through which the
information required was gathered and analysed.
Country Reports
In order to ensure the country-driven nature of the process, in March 2001, FAO invited
188 countries to submit Country Reports assessing their AnGR. Guidelines for the preparation
of the Country Reports were produced, including a proposed structure. Regional training
and follow-up workshops were conducted between July 2001 and November 2004. The
overall objectives of the Country Reports were to analyse and report on the state of AnGR,
on the status and trends of these resources, and on their current and potential contribution
to food, agriculture and rural development; to assess the state of countries’ capacity to
manage AnGR, in order to determine priorities for future capacity-building; and to identify
national priorities for action in the field of conservation and sustainable utilization of
AnGR, and related requirements for international cooperation. The first Country Reports
were received in the second half of 2002, with the majority being submitted during 2003
and 2004. The latest Country Report was submitted in October 2005, bringing the total
to 169 (Tables 1 and 2).
The fact that the submission of the Country Reports was spread over several years meant
that as the process of preparing the SoW-AnGR progressed, more information became
available for analysis. For this reason, it should be noted that the latest arrivals among the
Country Reports could not be fully included in the process of analysis and report preparation.
2
The term animal genetic resources (AnGR) as applied throughout the report is an abbreviation of animal
genetic resources used for food and agriculture and excludes fish.
xxvii
The length of the reporting process also means that the information presented in the SoW-
AnGR does not necessarily reflect the very latest developments in the state of institutions
and capacity at the national level.
TABLE 1
Regional overview of Country Reports
Region3 COUNTRY REPORTS
Submitted Total
Final Draft
Africa 45 4 49
Asia 22 4 26
Europe and the Caucasus 38 3 41
Latin America and the Caribbean 21 9 30
Near and Middle East 6 3 9
North America 2 0 2
Southwest Pacific 9 3 12
Total 143 26 169
Reports received by 31 December 2005.
3
Note that these regions do not correspond to the usual FAO regions; see below for further explanation.
xxviii
1
TABLE 2
Country Reports received
Region Countries
Africa (49) Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape
Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho,
Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique,
Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal,
Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Swaziland, Togo, Tunisia,
Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Asia (26) Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia,

Iran (Islamic Republic of), Japan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People’s
Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal,
Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Viet Nam
Europe and the Caucasus (41) Albania, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland,
Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia and Montenegro4, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,
Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom
Latin America and Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Barbados, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile,
the Caribbean (30) Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El
Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia,
Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic
of)
Near and Middle East (9) Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Oman, Sudan, Syrian
Arab Republic, Yemen
North America (2) Canada, United States of America
Southwest Pacific (12) Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Niue, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau,
Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu
Reports received by 31 December 2005.
Reports from international organizations

Following a request from the ITWG, in August 2004, FAO invited 77 international organizations
to submit a report of their work in the field of AnGR, as a contribution to the SoW-AnGR.
These reports were to cover activities such as research, extension, education, training, public
awareness, communications and advocacy, and also to include a description of the organization
and information on institutional capacities which support activities in AnGR. Specific subjects
to be described included (if applicable) inventory and characterization, sustainable use and
development, conservation, valuation, policy and legislation, documentation and information
databases, animal and human health, and food safety, as well as opportunities and proposals
for interaction with other organizations and United Nations agencies. As of June 2006, nine
organizations had submitted reports (Table 3). Reports were received from four international
non-governmental organizations, three intergovernmental organizations, and two research
organizations. A further three international organizations informed FAO that they were not
engaged in AnGR-related activities.
4
Since June 2006 Serbia and Montenegro have become independent states. However, in the SoW-AnGR they are still
treated as one country, as in Country Report submitted to FAO.
xxix
TABLE 3
Reports from international organizations
Organization Title of the submission Received
CGIAR Centres Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) May 2004
Centres
Report to FAO for input into the SoW and the draft report on strategic
priorities for action on FAnGR Section I: Description of the CGIAR
Institutes and Programmes
SAVE SAVE Foundation (Safeguard for Agricultural Varieties in Europe) May 2004
Foundation Brief Portrait April 2004
D8 Countries Report on Animal Genetic Resources in the D-8 Countries – Strategic June 2004
Priorities for Action; and Reports
D8 Seminar on Conservation of Farm Animal Genetic Resources Cairo,
Egypt, 11–13 January 2004 September
D8 Seminar on Conservation of Farm Animal Genetic Resources, 2004
Islamabad, Pakistan, 1–3 August 2002;
Report on Workshop on Food Security in D 8 countries, Babolsar,
Islamic Republic of Iran, 16–20 October 2000
Report on Workshop on Food Security in D 8 countries, Islamabad,
Pakistan, 24–26 November 1999
LPP League for Pastoral Peoples November 2004
Report on Activities of the League for Pastoral Peoples
OIE World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) November 2004
Oral presentation to the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food
and Agriculture, 10th Session
(to be used thereafter as the OIE input in reply to the FAO AN21/47
request)
ACSAD Arab Center for the Studies of Arid zones and Dry lands (ACSAD) December 2004
The Activities of the Arab Center for the Studies of Arid zones and Dry
lands concerning the Animal Genetic Resources
IAMZ The Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Zaragoza (IAMZ) January 2005
Report on Training activities
EAAP EAAP (European Association for Animal Production) February 2005
Report of the Working Group on Animal Genetic Resources
ISAG International Society for Animal Genetics (ISAG) March 2005
Report of the ISAG/FAO advisory group on animal genetic diversity
Thematic studies
In addition to the Country Reports and the reports from international organizations, a
number of thematic studies were commissioned by FAO. These studies were intended
to contribute to the understanding of specific topics likely not to be covered in Country
Reports, but relevant to the preparation of the SoW-AnGR. During the period 2002 to 2006,
12 thematic studies were prepared:
• Opportunities for incorporating genetic elements into the management of farm
animal diseases: policy issues. A review paper on the potential of genetic elements
in the management of disease, technical opportunities, and benefits arising from the
incorporation of these elements in effective disease management5 (2002);
• Measurement of domestic animal diversity (MoDAD) – a review of recent diversity
studies. A survey evaluating the current status of molecular genetic research in
domestic animal species, with emphasis on characterization of AnGR6 (2004);
5
Background Study Paper No. 18
6
CGRFA/WG-AnGR-3/04 inf. 3
xxx
• The economics of farm animal genetic resource conservation and sustainable use:
why is it important and what have we learned? A study on the valuation of AnGR,
summarizing methodological approaches and knowledge gaps7 (2004);
• Conservation strategies for animal genetic resources. A study contrasting
opportunities, challenges, biological characteristics, institutional infrastructure and
operational considerations influencing management of plant and animal genetic
resources8 (2004);
• Environmental effects on animal genetic resources. An evaluation and synthesis of the
evidence available on a spectrum of environmental factors and their effects on AnGR at
the individual animal and the breeding population levels9 (2004);
• The legal framework for the management of animal genetic resources. An introductory
study of policy and legal frameworks for the management of AnGR including a survey
of countries in different world regions10 (2004, printed revised version 2005);
• The impact of disasters and emergencies on animal genetic resources. A study which
provides an overview of potential disasters and their possible impact on AnGR. It also
provides an analysis of the effects of emergency responses. It proposes decision-support
guidelines for disaster management11 (2006);
• The state of development of biotechnologies as they relate to the management of
animal genetic resources and their potential application in developing countries. An
introductory study of biotechnology applications and their use in developing countries,
which includes information provided in Country Reports12 (2006);
• Exchange, use and conservation of animal genetic resources: policy and regulatory
options. A study which identifies how exchange practices related to AnGR affect the
various stakeholders in the livestock sector (2006);
• A strategic approach for conservation and continued use of farm animal genetic
resources. A study which outlines patterns of change in AnGR use and their impact
on conservation. It summarizes current experience, and the capacity of alternative
conservation measures, considering the needs and aspirations of the various
stakeholders whose livelihoods depend on animal production13 (2006);
• People and animals. Traditional livestock keepers: guardians of domestic animal
diversity. A documentation of 13 case studies from all over the world on how
communities manage their local AnGR, demonstrating the value of local knowledge in
preserving the equilibrium between farmers, animals and environment14 (2007);
• Gene flow in animal genetic resources. A study on status, impact and trends. A study
providing analysis of the magnitude and direction of movement of genetic material of
the four major farm animal species: cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep. Determining factors
are identified and selected; examples of impacts on economic development, poverty
reduction and biodiversity in developing countries are presented (2007).
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
CGRFA/WG-AnGR-4/06/Inf.6
14
FAO Inter-Departmental Working Group on Biological Diversity for Food and Agriculture
xxxi
Preparation of the report
Sources of information
Different sections of the SoW-AnGR required different approaches. Some sections were
largely based on the information provided in the 148 Country Reports available by June
2005. Other sections drew heavily on the wider literature or on expert knowledge rather
than on the information gathered specifically for the SoW-AnGR process. FAO’s Domestic
Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS)15 and the FAOSTAT16 statistical database were
also utilized. Regional e-mail consultations, organized by FAO in late 2005 to review the
draft Report on Strategic Priorities for Action, provided an additional source of information,
particularly on institutional capacities.
Part 1 describes the state of agricultural diversity in the livestock sector. The chapter draws
on a number of sources. The description of AnGR inventory and of the extent of genetic
erosion is based on information drawn from DAD-IS. This information system, which was
launched in 1996, enables National Coordinators for the Management of Animal Genetic
Resources to update their national breed databank via the Internet. The guidelines for the
development of Country Reports encouraged countries to report breed-related data and
information directly to DAD-IS, and not to include details of breeds in the Country Reports.
Nonetheless, the Country Reports contained a wealth of breed-related information that
was not reported to DAD-IS. As a result of this development, and in order to ensure that the
analysis for the SoW-AnGR was based on the most up-to-date information available, FAO
provided for the extraction of these data from Country Reports and their entry into DAD-IS.
National Coordinators were then requested to validate and further complete their national
breed databanks. It was also thought desirable to enable the analysis for the SoW-AnGR
to be based on breeds and not only on national breed populations; i.e. that populations
of the same breed in different countries were not counted as separate breeds. To this end,
linkages between breed populations in different countries were introduced into the Global
Databank, based on information on names, origin and development, importation and
geographic location. Lists of all national breed populations and their proposed linkages
were sent to National Coordinators for review. The analysis of the data for the purposes of
the SoW-AnGR was carried out in January 2006, by which time data from all 169 Country
Reports had been entered into the system.
The section on uses and values of AnGR is based on FAOSTAT for population and
production statistics, and on the Country Reports for more qualitative information on
livestock functions. The section on genetic resistance to disease draws on DAD-IS and
the wider scientific literature. Broader sources were also used to describe the origin and
domestication of AnGR, sharing and exchange of AnGR, and threats to AnGR.
Part 2 describes livestock sector trends and their implications for AnGR, and draws on a
wide range of literature and statistics.
Part 3 describes the state of human capacity, breeding and conservation strategies,
legislation and the use of biotechnologies. This part of the report is largely based on the
information in the Country Reports. However, the sections on regional and international
legislation, and emerging legal and policy issues draw on wider sources.
15
http://www.fao.org/dad-is/
16
http://faostat.fao.org/
xxxii
Part 4 on the state of the art in AnGR management is largely based on the wider scientific
literature. For the preparation of the section on the state of the art in AnGR conservation,
an expert meeting was convened at FAO in Rome, in July 2005. The participants discussed
the approach to the section and allocated writing tasks. The first draft was reviewed by all
members in the writing group in October 2005. In November 2005, a workshop “Options
and Strategies for the Conservation of Farm Animal Genetic Resources” took place in
Montpellier, France. The participants at this workshop were given the opportunity to
review the revised version of the conservation section.
Part 5 analyses needs and challenges for AnGR management, based on the evidence
provided in the other chapters of the report. This analysis relates the current state of
erosion and threats to AnGR to current capacities in AnGR management and the state of
knowledge regarding methodologies and their application.
Regional classification of countries

The assignment of countries to the regions and subregions used for the purposes of
the SoW-AnGR was based on a number of factors that influence biodiversity, including
production environments, cultural specificities and the distribution of shared AnGR. Future
collaboration in the establishment of Regional Focal Points was also considered, as was
the experience gained from the process of convening SoW-AnGR subregional follow-up
workshops in 2003 and 2004. Thus, the assignments do not follow exactly the standard
FAO regions used in FAO statistics or for FAO election purposes (although for most
countries the assignment does not differ from the standard classification). The proposed
classification was reviewed at a meeting of Regional Facilitators on “Strategy for Regional
Consultations” held in August 2005. The resulting classification distinguishes seven regions,
of which three regions were further subdivided: Africa (East Africa, North and West Africa,
Southern Africa); Asia (Central Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia); Europe and the
Caucasus; Latin America and the Caribbean (Caribbean, Central America, South America);
the Near and Middle East; North America; and the Southwest Pacific.
FIGURE 1
Assignment of countries to regions and subregions in this report
State of the World : regions and subregions

North America Latin America and the Caribbean Africa Europe and the Caucasus Near and Middle East Asia Southwest Pacific
North America Caribbean North and West Africa Europe and the Caucasus Near and Middle East Central Asia Southwest Pacific
South America Southern Africa South Asia
Central America East Africa East Asia
Southeast Asia
xxxiii
Executive summary
T
he State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture is the
first global assessment of livestock biodiversity. Drawing on 169 Country Reports,
contributions from a number of international organizations and twelve specially
commissioned thematic studies, it presents an analysis of the state of agricultural
biodiversity in the livestock sector – origins and development, uses and values, distribution
and exchange, risk status and threats – and of capacity to manage these resources –
institutions, policies and legal frameworks, structured breeding activities and conservation
programmes. Needs and challenges are assessed in the context of the forces driving change
in livestock production systems. Tools and methods to enhance the use and development of
animal genetic resources are explored in sections on the state of the art in characterization,
genetic improvement, economic evaluation and conservation.
Thousands of years of animal husbandry and controlled breeding, combined with the
effects of natural selection, have given rise to great genetic diversity among the world’s
livestock populations. High-output animals – intensively bred to supply uniform products
under controlled management conditions – co-exist with the multipurpose breeds kept by
small-scale farmers and herders mainly in low external input production systems.
Effective management of animal genetic diversity is essential to global food security,
sustainable development and the livelihoods of hundreds of millions of people. The livestock
sector and the international community are facing many challenges. The rapidly rising
demand for livestock products in many parts of the developing world, emerging animal
diseases, climate change and global targets such as the Millennium Development Goals
need to be urgently addressed. Many breeds have unique characteristics or combinations
of characteristics – disease resistance, tolerance of climatic extremes or supply of specialized
products – that could contribute to meeting these challenges. However, evidence suggests
that there is ongoing and probably accelerating erosion of the genetic resource base.
FAO’s Global Databank for Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture contains
information on a total of 7 616 livestock breeds. Around 20 percent of reported breeds
are classified as at risk. Of even greater concern is that during the last six years 62 breeds
became extinct – amounting to the loss of almost one breed per month. These figures
present only a partial picture of genetic erosion. Breed inventories, and particularly surveys
of population size and structure at breed level, are inadequate in many parts of the world.
Population data are unavailable for 36 percent of all breeds. Moreover, among many of
the most widely used high-output breeds of cattle, within-breed genetic diversity is being
undermined by the use of few highly popular sires for breeding purposes.
A number of threats to genetic diversity can be identified. Probably the most significant
is the marginalization of traditional production systems and the associated local breeds,
driven mainly by the rapid spread of intensive livestock production, often large-scale and
utilizing a narrow range of breeds. Global production of meat, milk and eggs is increasingly
based on a limited number of high-output breeds – those that are most profitably utilized in
industrial production systems. The intensification process has been driven by rising demand
for animal products and has been facilitated by the ease with which genetic material,
production technologies and inputs can now be moved around the world. Intensification
and industrialization have contributed to raising the output of livestock production and to
feeding the growing human population. However, policy measures are necessary to minimize
the potential loss of the global public goods embodied in animal genetic resource diversity.
xxxv
Acute threats such as major disease epidemics and disasters of various kinds (droughts,
floods, military conflicts, etc.) are also a concern – particularly in the case of small,
geographically concentrated breed populations. Threats of this kind cannot be eliminated,
but their impacts can be mitigated. Preparedness is essential in this context as ad hoc actions
taken in an emergency situation will usually be far less effective. Fundamental to such
plans, and more broadly to the sustainable management of genetic resources, is improved
knowledge of which breeds have characteristics that make them priorities for conservation,
and how they are distributed geographically and by production system.
Policies and legal frameworks influencing the livestock sector are not always favourable
to the sustainable utilization of animal genetic resources. Overt or hidden governmental
subsidies have often promoted the development of large-scale production at the expense
of the smallholder systems that utilize local genetic resources. Development interventions
and disease control strategies can also pose a threat to genetic diversity. Development and
post-disaster rehabilitation programmes that involve livestock should assess their potential
impacts on genetic diversity and ensure that the breeds used are appropriate to local
production environments and the needs of the intended beneficiaries. Culling programmes
implemented in response to disease outbreaks need to incorporate measures to protect
rare breeds; revision of relevant legislation may be necessary.
Where the evolution of livestock production systems threatens the ongoing use of
potentially valuable genetic resources, or to safeguard against sudden disastrous losses,
breed conservation measures have to be considered. In vivo conservation options include
dedicated conservation farms or protected areas, and payments or other support measures
for those who keep rare breeds within their production environments. In vitro conservation
of genetic material in liquid nitrogen can provide a valuable complement to in vivo
approaches. Where feasible, facilitating the emergence of new patterns of sustainable
utilization should be an objective. Particularly in developed countries, niche markets for
specialized products, and the use of grazing animals for nature or landscape management
purposes, provide valuable opportunities. Well-planned genetic improvement programmes
will often be essential if local breeds are to remain viable livelihood options for their
keepers.
Implementing appropriate strategies for the low external input production systems of the
developing world is a great challenge. Pastoralists and smallholders are the guardians of
much of the world’s livestock biodiversity. Their capacity to continue this role may need to
be supported – for example by ensuring sufficient access to grazing land. At the same time,
it is essential that conservation measures do not constrain the development of production
systems or limit livelihood opportunities. A small number of community-based conservation
and breeding programmes have begun to address these issues. The approach needs to be
further developed.
Effective management of animal genetic diversity requires resources – including well-
trained personnel and adequate technical facilities. Sound organizational structures (e.g. for
animal recording and genetic evaluation) and wide stakeholder (particularly breeders and
livestock keepers) involvement in planning and decision-making are also essential. However,
throughout much of the developing world, these prerequisites are lacking. Forty-eight
percent of the world’s countries report no national-level in vivo conservation programmes,
and sixty-three percent report that they have no in vitro programmes. Similarly, in many
countries structured breeding programmes are absent or ineffective.
xxxvi
In a time of rapid change and widespread privatization, national planning is needed to
ensure the long-term supply of public goods. Livestock-sector development policies should
support equity objectives for rural populations so that these populations are able to build
up, in a sustainable way, the productive capacity required to enhance their livelihoods and
supply the goods and services needed by the wider society. The management of animal
genetic resources needs to be balanced with other goals within the broader rural and
agricultural development framework. Careful attention must be paid to the roles, functions
and values of local breeds and to how they can contribute to development objectives.
The countries and regions of the world are interdependent in the utilization of animal
genetic resources. This is clear from evidence of historic gene flows and current patterns of
livestock distribution. In the future, genetic resources from any part of the world may prove
vital to breeders and livestock keepers elsewhere. There is a need for the international
community to accept responsibility for the management of these shared resources. Support
for developing countries and countries with economies in transition to characterize,
conserve and utilize their livestock breeds may be necessary. Wide access to animal genetic
resources – for farmers, herders, breeders and researchers – is essential to sustainable use
and development. Frameworks for wide access, and for equitable sharing of the benefits
derived from the use of animal genetic resources, need to be put in place at both national
and international levels. It is important that the distinct characteristics of agricultural
biodiversity – created largely through human intervention and requiring continuous active
human management – are taken into account in the development of such frameworks.
International cooperation, and better integration of animal genetic resources management
into all aspects of livestock development, will help to ensure that the world’s wealth of
livestock biodiversity is suitably used and developed for food and agriculture, and remains
available for future generations.
xxxvii
PART 1
Introduction
The importance of the world’s biodiversity – the variety of its plants, animals and micro-
organisms, and of the ecosystems of which they form a part, is increasingly recognized.
Agricultural biodiversity encompasses the diversity of the cultivated plants and domestic
animals utilized by humankind for the production of food and other goods and services.
More broadly, it includes the diversity of the agro-ecosystems on which this production
depends. The capacity of agro-ecosystems to maintain and increase their productivity, and
to adapt to changing circumstances, is vital to the food security of the world’s population.
The 40-plus livestock species contributing to today’s agriculture and food production
are shaped by a long history of domestication and development. Selection pressures
resulting from environmental stress factors, and the controlled breeding and husbandry
imposed by humans, have combined to produce a great variety of genetically distinct
breeds1. This diversity, developed over thousands of years, is a valuable resource for
today’s livestock keepers. Genetically diverse livestock populations provide a greater
range of options for meeting future challenges, whether associated with environmental
change, emerging disease threats, new knowledge of human nutritional requirements,
fluctuating market conditions or changing societal needs.
Part 1 of the Report begins by describing the origin of the diversity of today’s animal
genetic resources for food and agriculture (AnGR) – the domestication and history of
livestock species. This is followed by a description of the current status of AnGR diversity
on a global scale, and the extent to which this diversity is threatened by genetic erosion.
The next section describes patterns of international exchange of AnGR. The roles and
values of AnGR, and their direct and indirect contributions to livelihoods and economic
output in the various regions of the world are then outlined. The importance of genetic
resistance to disease as a resource in the field of animal health is also introduced. In the
final section of Part 1, threats to the world’s AnGR diversity are discussed.
1
Central to the description of livestock diversity is the notion of the breed (see Part 4 – Section A: 1 for a discussion of
the definition of the term “breed”)
THE STATE OF AG R I CULT U R AL B I OD I VERSI T Y I N THE L I VESTOC K SEC TO R
Section A
Origin and history of

livestock diversity
1 Introduction
The history of AnGR started around 12 000 to Subsequently, thousands of years of natural
14 000 years ago, during the agricultural revolution and human selection, genetic drift, inbreeding
of the early Neolithic, with the domestication and cross-breeding have contributed to AnGR
of major crop and livestock species. This control diversity and have allowed livestock keeping to
of food production led to major demographic, be practised in a variety of environments and
technological, political and military changes. The production systems.
domestication of animals and plants is considered AnGR diversity is vital to all production systems. It
to be one of most important developments in provides the raw material for breed improvement,
history, and one of the prerequisites for the rise and for adaptation to changing circumstances. As
of human civilizations (Diamond, 2002). After the revealed by recent molecular studies, the diversity
initial domestication events, the spread of farming found in today’s indigenous livestock populations
into nearly all terrestrial habitats followed and breeds greatly exceeds that found in their
rapidly (Diamond and Bellwood, 2003; Figure 2). commercial counterparts. Unravelling the origin
FIGURE 2
Archaeological map of agricultural homelands and spread of Neolithic/Formative cultures,
with approximate radiocarbon dates
Fertile Crescent
11000 BP
Eastern USA
4000 - 3000 BP
Yangzi & Yellow River Basins
9000 BP
central Mexico
Sub-Saharan Africa?
5000 - 4000 BP
5000 - 4000 BP Amazonia?
New Guinea highlands
9000 - 6000 BP
northern South America
Approximate limits of prehistoric agriculture

(deserts, mountains etc. not differentiated)
Map drawn by Clive Hilliker and provided by Peter Bellwood.
5
THE STATE OF THE WO RLD' S A N I MAL GENE T I C RESOU RC ES FO R FOOD A ND AG R I CULT U RE
PART 1
and distribution of livestock diversity is central the availability of “favourite” foods – with the
to its current utilization, and to its long-term potential of some domesticated species to provide
conservation (Hanotte et al., 2006). support to crop farming (e.g. ploughing with
oxen or buffalo), or as pack and riding animals
(e.g. llamas, dromedaries, Bactrian camels, horses,
2 The livestock domestication donkeys and even cattle) being realized later.
process Among the world’s 148 non-carnivorous
species weighing more than 45 kg, only 15 have
Very few animal species have been successfully been domesticated. Thirteen of these species are
domesticated. Domestication was a complex and from Europe and Asia, and two originate from
gradual process, which altered the behaviour and South America. Moreover, only six have become
morphological characteristics of the ancestral widespread on all continents (cattle, sheep, goats,
animals (Box 1). The circumstances and pressures pigs, horses, and donkeys), while the remaining
that triggered the domestication of animals nine (dromedaries, Bactrian camels, llamas,
remain uncertain, and may have varied from one alpacas, reindeer, water buffalo, yaks, Bali cattle,
geographic area to another and from one species and mithun) are important in more limited areas
to another. of the globe (adapted from Diamond, 1999). The
The roots of animal domestication are proportion is even lower in the case of birds,
probably related to the ubiquitous tendency of with only ten species (chickens, domestic ducks,
hunter gatherers (presumably shared by early Muscovy ducks, domestic geese, guinea fowl,
humans) to try to tame or manage wild animals ostriches, pigeons, quails, and turkeys) currently
(Diamond, 2002). It was, however, at the end of domesticated out of around 10 000 avian species
the Pleistocene that the process of domestication (the list excludes the many birds domesticated for
actually got underway. At this time, changes in ornamental or recreational purposes).
the climate, which became more unpredictable, With the exception of the wild boar (Sus scrofa)
warmer and/or more seasonal in some areas, led the ancestors and wild relatives of major livestock
to localized expansion of human populations. species are either extinct or highly endangered as
These developments triggered the uptake of a result of hunting, changes to their habitats, and
crop farming, and affected the distribution and in the case of the wild red jungle fowl, intensive
density of the wild species hunted for food. In cross-breeding with the domestic counterpart.
these circumstances, the main driver of animal In these species, domestic livestock are the only
domestication may have been the desire to secure depositories of the now largely vanished diversity
Box 1
The domestication process
Domesticated animals are here considered to be those breeding and breed improvement (modified
species that are bred in captivity, and modified from from Zeuner, 1963). Archaeologists and animal
their wild ancestors to make them more useful to geneticists use various means to unravel the history
humans, who control their reproduction (breeding), of domestication, including study of morphological
care (shelter, protection against predators) and changes to the teeth, cranium and skeleton; and the
food supply (Diamond, 2002; Mignon-Grasteau, construction of demographic age and sex curves
2005). Domestication includes the following steps: which allow the identification of patterns indicative of
initial association with free breeding; confinement; domestication (Zeder et al., 2006).
confinement with breeding in captivity; and selective
6
TABLE 4
Origin and domestication of livestock species
Domestic species Wild Ancestor MtDNA Domestication Time Location
clades events* B.P.
Cattle Aurochs (3 subspecies) (extinct)
Bos taurus taurus B. primigenius primigenius 4 1 ~ 8000 Near & Middle East (west Asia)
B. p. opisthonomous 2 1 ~ 9500 northeast Africa
Bos taurus indicus B. p. nomadicus 2 1 ~ 7000 northern Indian subcontinent
Yak Wild yak
Poephagus grunniens P. mutus 3 1 ~ 4500 Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau
Goat Bezoar
Capra ferus Capra aegragus (3 subspecies) 5 2 ~ 10000 Near and Middle East, northern
Indian subcontinent
Sheep Asian mouflon
Ovis aries Ovis orientalis 4 2 ~ 8500 Near and Middle East/Turkey

(Central Anatolia)
Water buffalo Asian wild buffalo
Riverine B. bubalus bubalus ND 1 ~ 5000 Islamic Republic of Iran/Iraq,

Indian subcontinent
Swamp B. bubalus carabensis ND 1 ~ 4000 Southeast Asia, China
Pig Wild boar
Sus scrofa domesticus Sus scrofa (16 subspecies) 6 6 ~ 9000 Europe, Near and Middle East,
China
Indian subcontinent, Southeast
Asia
Horse Extinct
Equus caballus 17 multiple ~ 6500 Eurasian steppe
Donkey African wild donkey
Equus asinus Equus africanus ~ 6000 northeast Africa
Nubian wild ass E. a. africanus 1 1
Somali wild ass E. a. somali 1 1
Llama
Lama glama 2 subspecies ND 1 ~ 6500 Andes
L. guanicoe guanicoe
L. guanicoe cacsiliensis
7
PART 1
TABLE 4 cont.
Origin and domestication of livestock species
Domestic species Wild Ancestor MtDNA Domestication Time Location
clades events* B.P.
Alpaca
Vicugna pacos 2 subspecies ND 1 ~ 6500 Andes
V. vicugna vicugna
V. vicugna mensalis
Bactrian Camel Extinct**
Camelus bactrianus C. b. ferus ND 1 ~ 4500 Central Asia (eastern Islamic

Republic of Iran)
Dromedary Extinct
Camelus dromedarius ND 1 ~ 5000 southern Arabian Peninsula
Domestic chicken Red Junglefowl

Gallus domesticus Gallus gallus (4 subspecies 5 2 ~ 5000 Indian subcontinent
G. g. spadiceus, G. g. jabouillei ~ 7500 China – Southeast Asia
G. g. murghi, G. g. gallus)
Source: adapted and updated from Bruford et al. (2003); FAO (2005).
*Minimum number of domestication events.**Recent genetic evidence suggests that the endangered wild population are not
the ancestral maternal populations of today’s domestic Bactrian (Jianlin et al., 1999).
ND = not determined.
of the wild ancestors (Table 4). This is a major attempts to domesticate new species (e.g. oryx,
difference from crop species, in many of which zebras, African buffaloes and various species of
the wild ancestors are commonly found at the deer). However, the coming years may see further
centres of origin and represent an important development of the captive breeding of small
source of variation and adaptive traits for future and “non-conventional” species (sometimes
breeding programmes. called microlivestock) for human consumption,
The small number of animal species successfully which may become more important, at least
domesticated is largely explained by the locally or regionally (BOSTID, 1991; Hanotte and
characteristics required (or advantageous) for Mensah, 2002).
domestication, which are rarely found together Important or essential characteristics for
in a single species. All major livestock species successful domestication include behavioural
were domesticated several thousand years ago. traits such as a lack of aggression towards
It is improbable that further large mammalian humans; a strong gregarious instinct, including
species will be domesticated, at least in the “follow the leader” dominance hierarchies which
near future, as illustrated by the failure, or at allow the possibility of a human substitute as
best only partial success, of twentieth century leader; a tendency not to panic when disturbed;
8
the ability to breed in captivity; physiological the initial domestication. They were often linked
traits such as a diet that can easily be supplied to human migration, trading or simply the result
by humans (domestication of herbivores rather of the requirement of agricultural societies for
than carnivores); a rapid growth rate; relatively new livestock phenotypes. Examples include
short intervals between births; and large litter size admixture between taurine and Zebu cattle, the
(Diamond, 2002). presence of cattle genetic background in yaks and
The ancestral species of the majority of livestock Bali cattle, Asian pig hybridization with European
species have now been identified (Table 4). It is breeds, cross-breeding between dromedaries
also known that many current domestic animal and Bactrian camels, and (as revealed by recent
populations and breeds originate from more genetic studies) intensive admixture between the
than one wild ancestral population, and that in two South American domestic camelids (llamas
some cases there has been genetic admixture and alpacas) (Kadwell et al., 2001).
or introgression between species that do not
normally hybridize in the wild. These admixture
and hybridization events probably occurred after
Box 2
Molecular characterization – a tool to understand livestock origin and diversity
Recent major developments in molecular genetics Animal Genetics) recommended lists of autosomal
have provided powerful new tools, called molecular microsatellite markers for genetic diversity studies are
markers, to assess the origins of livestock species and publicly available (http://www.fao.org/dad-is).
the geographic distribution of their diversity. Different genetic markers provide different
Protein polymorphisms were the first molecular levels of genetic diversity information. Autosomal
markers used in livestock. A large number of studies, microsatellite loci are commonly used for population
particularly during the 1970s, documented the diversity estimations, differentiation of populations,
characterization of blood group and allozyme systems. calculation of genetic distances, estimation of genetic
However, the level of polymorphism observed in relationships, and the estimation of population
proteins is often low, which reduces the general genetic admixture. MtDNA sequences are the markers
applicability of protein typing in diversity studies. of choice for domestication studies, as the segregation
DNA-based polymorphisms are now the markers of an mtDNA lineage within a livestock population
of choice for molecular-based surveys of genetic will only have occurred through the domestication
diversity. Importantly, polymorphic DNA markers of a wild female, or through the incorporation of a
showing different patterns of Mendelian inheritance female into the domestic stock. More particularly,
can be studied in nearly all major livestock species. mtDNA sequences are used to identify putative
Typically, they include D-loop and cytochrome B wild progenitors, the number of maternal lineages
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences (maternal and their geographic origins. Finally, the study of
inheritance), Y chromosome-specific single nucleotide a diagnostic Y chromosome polymorphism is an
polymorphisms (SNPs) and microsatellites (paternal easy and rapid way to detect and to quantify male-
inheritance), and autosomal microsatellites (bi- mediated admixture.
parental inheritance). Autosomal microsatellites
have been isolated in large numbers from most Reproduced and adapted from FAO (2005).
livestock species. FAO/ISAG (International Society of
9
PART 1
3 Ancestors and geographic introduced founders subsequently submerged

origins of our livestock by the recruitment of local wild animals (Zeder et
al., 2006). Alternatively, ancient signatures of local
One of the most exciting areas of intersection domestication events may now be hidden by more
between archaeology and genetics has been recent arrivals of livestock from other centres of
in documenting the locations of livestock origin. Osteometric information from archaeological
domestication (Zeder et al., 2006), with sites, and ancient livestock DNA studies are
archaeology guiding genetic research, and important tools to address these questions.
genetics providing support to some controversial Livestock domestication is now thought to have
archaeological theories or revealing possible new occurred in at least 12 areas of the world (Figure
geographic origins for livestock species and their 3). Interestingly, not all centres of domestication
diversity. More particularly, it is now known that are closely associated with the homelands of our
nearly all major livestock species are the result crop species (see Figure 2). While in some cases
of multiple domestication events in distinct (e.g. the Fertile Crescent), domestication centres
geographic areas (Table 4 and Figure 3); and that of both crops and livestock are intermingled,
subsequent to the initial domestication events, in others (e.g. the African continent) crop and
genetic introgression between wild relatives and livestock domestication seem largely to have
their domestic counterparts often occurred. occurred independently. While uncertainties still
It should be noted that apparently independent surround the existence of some domestication
livestock domestication events were not necessarily centres for some species, the following
culturally independent. Some independent geographic areas are important primary centres
domestication events may have represented the of origin, and therefore diversity, of livestock
movement of a few domesticated individuals into species: the Andean chain of South America
a new area, with the genetic signatures of the (llamas, alpacas, guinea pigs); central America
FIGURE 3
Major centres of livestock domestication – based on archaeological and molecular genetic information
7 12
3 5
8 9
1 6
4 11
10
2
(1) turkey (2) guinea pig, llama, alpaca, (3) pig, rabbit (4) cattle, donkey, (5) cattle, pig, goat, sheep, Bactrian camel (6) cattle, goat ,
chicken, river buffalo, (7) horse, (8) yak, (9) pig, swamp buffalo, chicken, (10) chicken, pig, Bali cattle (11) dromedary, (12) reindeer.
10
(turkeys, Muscovy ducks); northeast Africa (cattle, far in the Americas are of European origin (Wayne
donkeys); southwest Asia including the Fertile et al., 2006).
Crescent (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs); the Indus Goats were domesticated as early as 10 000
valley region (cattle, goats, chickens, riverine years ago in the Zagros Mountains of the Fertile
buffaloes); Southeast Asia (chickens, Bali cattle); Crescent (Zeder and Hesse, 2000). The bezoar
east China (pigs, chicken, swamp buffaloes); (Capra aegragus) was probably one of the
the Himalayan plateau (yaks); and north Asia ancestors of the domestic goat, but it is possible
(reindeer). Additionally, the southern part of the that other species such as C. falconeri, contributed
Arabian Peninsula is thought to be the region of to the genetic pool of the domestic species. Today,
origin of the dromedary, the Bactrian camel may five distinct maternal mitochondrial major lineages
originate from the area that is now the Islamic have been identified in domestic goats (Luikart et
Republic of Iran, and the horse from the Eurasian al., 2001; Sultana et al., 2003; Joshi et al., 2004).
steppes. One of these lineages predominates numerically,
While domestication occurred in several places, and is present worldwide, while a second seems to
it also happened at different times. Exact dating be of contemporary origin. They probably reflect
of domestication events has, however, proved the primary caprine domestication process in the
particularly challenging. Animals undergoing Fertile Crescent, where archaeological information
the initial process of domestication would not suggests two to three areas of domestication
have been significantly different in morphology (Zagros Mountains, Taurus Mountains, Jordan
from their wild ancestors, and dates relying Valley). The other lineages are more restricted in
on morphological markers will undoubtedly their geographic distribution, and may correspond
underestimate the age of domestication to additional domestications or introgressions in
events (Dobney and Larson, 2006). The process other areas including the Indus Valley (Fernández
of molecular dating, while independent of et al., 2006).
morphological changes, is typically characterized Sheep were also probably first domesticated in
by large error rates, and often relies on uncertain the Fertile Crescent, approximately 8 000 to 9 000
calibration points. Approaches including years ago. Archaeological information suggests
demographic profiling techniques for identifying two independent areas of sheep domestication
initial attempts at livestock management by in Turkey – the upper Euphrates valley in eastern
humans, and calibration of molecular clocks Turkey, and central Anatolia (Peters et al., 1999).
using ancient DNA information, are providing Three species of wild sheep (the urial, Ovis vignei;
new avenues for pinpointing the dates of the argali, O. ammon; and the Eurasian mouflon,
domestication (Zeder et al., 2006). O. musinom/orientalis) have been proposed as
New archaeological and genetic information ancestors of domestic sheep (Ryder, 1984) or at
is constantly improving our understanding of the least to have introgressed some local breeds.
origin of livestock species. The first animal to be However, recent genetic work has indicated no
domesticated was the dog. This probably occurred contribution from the urial or argali (Hiendleder
at least 14 000 years ago – the animals being used et al., 1998). This supports the view that the Asian
for hunting and as watchdogs. It is unclear where mouflon (O. orientalis), which is found in a wide
the initial domestication took place, but many region stretching from Turkey at least as far as
maternal lineages have been found in modern the Islamic Republic of Iran, is the only progenitor
dogs – indicating multiple introgressions from of domestic sheep. The European mouflon (O.
their wild ancestor the grey wolf (Canis lupus) in musinom) is now considered to be a descendant
the Old World. Domestic dogs were, apparently, of feral sheep. Four major maternal mitochondrial
not independently domesticated in the New DNA lineages have been recorded in domestic
World; the mitochondrial lineages identified so sheep (Hiendleder et al., 1998; Pedrosa et
11
PART 1
al., 2005; Tapio et al., 2006), one or two of which The ancestor of the domestic water buffalo
could correspond to distinct domestication events, (Bubalus bubalus) is undoubtedly the wild buffalo
and the others to subsequent wild introgression. of Asia. Two main types are recognized, based
To date, no clear associations have been described on their phenotypes, karyotypes and recent
between these mitochondrial DNA lineages and mitochondrial DNA work (Tanaka et al., 1996): the
phenotypic sheep varieties (e.g. fat-tailed, thin- riverine buffalo, found in the Indian subcontinent,
tailed or fat-rumped sheep). the Near and Middle East, and eastern Europe; and
The ancestor of the domestic pig is the wild boar the swamp buffalo, found in China and Southeast
(Sus scrofa). Extensive zooarchaeological findings Asian countries. The two types hybridize in the
indicate that pigs were domesticated around 9 000 northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent.
years ago in the Near East. Material from several They were probably domesticated separately, with
sites in eastern Anatolia indicates gradual changes possible centres of domestication of the riverine
in pig morphology and demographic profiles over buffalo in the Indus Valley and/or the Euphrates
several thousand years, providing evidence of and Tigris valleys some 5 000 years ago; and of the
the domestication process and its morphological swamp buffalo in China, where it was domesticated
consequences. Both archaeological and genetic at least 4 000 years ago in association with the
evidence indicate a second major independent emergence of rice cultivation.
domestication centre in East Asia (China) (Guiffra There is an ongoing debate as to when and
et al., 2000). At least 16 distinct subspecies of wild where the horse (Equus caballus) was domesticated.
boar have been described in Eurasia and North The ancestor of the domestic horse is extinct.
Africa and, perhaps not surprisingly, a recent survey Two species have been regarded as putative wild
of mitochondrial DNA diversity among Eurasian ancestors – the tarpan (E. ferus) and the Przewalski
domestic pigs and wild boar revealed a complex horse (E. przewalskii). The Przewalski horse,
picture of pig domestication, with at least five or although very closely related to the wild ancestor, is
six distinct centres across the geographic range of probably not the direct progenitor of the domestic
the wild species (Larson et al., 2005). species (Olsen et al., 2006; Vilà et al., 2006). It is
Domestication of cattle has been particularly well difficult to assess whether archaeological horse
documented, with clear evidence of three distinct remains are wild or domestic. Substantial evidence
initial domestication events for three distinct from north Kazakhstan (Botai culture) supports
aurochs (Bos primigenius) subspecies. B. primigenius the view that horses were domesticated in this
primigenius, domesticated in the Fertile Crescent area during the Copper Age around 3700 to 3100
around 8 000 years ago, and B. p. opisthonomous, BC (Olsen, 2006). Recent molecular studies indicate
possibly domesticated as early as 9 000 years ago that the diversity of the horse on the maternal side
in the northeastern part of the African continent probably originates from several populations in
(Wendorf and Schild, 1994), are the ancestors of the different geographic areas. However, the data are
humpless B. taurus cattle of the Near East and Africa not yet conclusive as to whether there was a single
respectively. Humped Zebu cattle (Bos indicus), are domestication event and subsequent introgression,
now believed to have been domesticated at a later or multiple independent domestication events
date, around 7 000 to 8 000 years ago, in the Indus (Vilà et al., 2001; Jansen et al., 2002).
Valley region of modern-day Pakistan (Loftus et al., In contrast, the domestication of the donkey
1994; Bradley et al., 1996; Bradley and Magee, 2006). Equus asinus seems to have followed a much
Recently, a fourth domestication centre has been simpler process. Mitochondrial DNA studies have
suggested in East Asia (Mannen et al., 2004), but confirmed an African origin for the domestic
it is unclear whether it occurred independently or donkey, and have ruled out the Asiatic wild
represents local aurochs introgression in cattle of ass as a possible progenitor (Beja-Pereira et
Near Eastern origin. al., 2004). Two mitochondrial lineages suggest
12
two domestication events. One lineage is domestication. The wild reindeer was possibly the
closely linked to the Nubian wild ass (E. asinus latest large mammalian species to be domesticated.
africanus), which is still found today living wild The oldest definitive archaeological evidence of
in northeastern Sudan close to the Red Sea. reindeer domestication was discovered in the
The other lineage shows some affinities to the Altai Mountains of Siberia, and has been dated to
Somali wild ass (E. asinus somaliensis). It could, about 2 500 years ago; it indicates that reindeer
therefore, also have an African origin, although riding was practised at the time (Skjenneberg,
domestication in a neighbouring area (Arabian 1984). There is no reliable information as to how
Peninsula or Fertile Crescent) cannot be excluded. reindeer domestication reached Europe; it could
Archaeological evidence from Egypt supports an have developed independently in Scandinavia,
African centre of domestication for the donkey, or may have been adopted by the Saami people
and suggests a domestication date of around through contact with other north Eurasian
6 000 to 6 500 years ago (Clutton-Brock, 1999). pastoral communities. Reindeer husbandry is
The domestic yak (Poephagus grunniens) is believed to have developed among the Saami
endemic to Central Asia and well adapted to a cold sometime after 1600 AD. The wild reindeer is
and high-altitude environment. Yak pastoralism is known as the caribou in North America; it is
widespread in the Central Asian Highlands, and believed never to have been domesticated on this
the introduction of yak pastoralism was crucial continent (Clutton-Brock, 1999).
to the development of year-round sustainable The domestication of the Bactrian camel
occupation of the higher altitude zones of the (Camelus bactrianus) may have occurred in
Himalaya Plateau. It may have been connected with the area that is now the Islamic Republic of
the establishment of Tibetan–Burman populations Iran/Turkmenistan, or further east, in southern
in this region. Today, some wild yaks (P. mutus) Kazakhstan, northwestern Mongolia or northern
are still found on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China (Bulliet, 1975; Peters and von den
but they may have been heavily introgressed with Driesch, 1997). The earliest evidence of domestic
feral domestic yak. Three mitochondrial DNA Bactrian camels is from the site of Sahr-i Sokta in
lineages have been identified. However, similar the central part of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
geographic distributions of mitochondrial DNA from where camel bones, dung, and woven fibres
diversity suggest a single domestication event in dating from approximately 2600 BC have been
the eastern part of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau recovered (Compagnoni and Tosi, 1978).
rather than multiple domestication events (Qi, Recent genetic work indicates that the wild
2004; Guo et al., 2006). Molecular findings also camel (C. ferus) populations of the Gobi Desert,
indicate that the dispersal of domestic yaks which successfully hybridize with the domestic
followed two separate migratory routes from species, are probably not the direct maternal
their centre of domestication: the yak reached ancestors of domestic or feral camels (Jianlin, et
the “Pamir Knot” by following a westward route al., 1999). The wild ancestor of the one-humped
through the Himalaya and Kunlun Mountains; dromedary (C. dromedarius) is now extinct.
and reached Mongolia, and what is now the Domestication of the species is believed to have
Russian Federation, by following a northward started around 5 000 years ago in the southeastern
route through the Mongolian South Gobi and part of the Arabian Peninsula.
Gobi Altai Mountains (Qi et al., in press). The origin of the South American camelidae has
As in the case of the yak, the domestication now been unravelled, with the guanaco (Lama
of the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) has allowed guanicoe) and the vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) being
pastoral communities to occupy habitats that the ancestral species of the domestic llama (Lama
would otherwise be largely unsuitable for livestock glama) and alpaca (Vicugna pacos), respectively
keeping. Very little is known about reindeer (Kadwell et al., 2001). Archaeozoological evidence
13
PART 1
points to the central Peruvian Andes as the centre 4 Dispersal of domesticated

of origin of the alpaca, 6 000 to 7 000 years before animals
present. The llama was probably domesticated at
the same period in the Andes around Lake Titicaca. If the domestication process was the major
Large-scale introgressions between the two initiating event in the development of today’s
domestic species have been revealed (Wheeler et livestock diversity, the subsequent dispersion
al., 2006) – an ongoing hybridization process which and migration of domesticated species across
probably began with the Spanish conquest, which all five continents was equally important. This
destroyed the traditional breeding structures and process played a major role in the emergence of
management of the two species. the current geographic distribution of livestock
The ancestor of Bali cattle is the banteng (Bos diversity. The main factors at the root of the early
javanicus), of which three endangered subspecies dispersion of livestock species were the expansion
have been recognized. The domestication of the of agriculture, trade and military conquests.
species did not, in fact, occur on the Island of Bali, The exact mechanisms through which
where there is no evidence for the presence of agricultural expansion occurred are still debated.
the wild ancestor. The species could have been The process probably varied from one region
domesticated in Java and/or on the Indo–Chinese to another (Diamond and Bellwood, 2003). It
Peninsula. B. taurus and B. indicus introgression certainly involved both the movement of human
has been found in Bali cattle, and Bali cattle populations, and cultural exchanges between
genetic background has also been inferred in populations – as illustrated by the adoption of
several Southeast Asian cattle breeds, suggesting farming by many hunter–gatherer societies.
that the domestic species once had a wider Important examples of agricultural expansions
distribution than it has today (Felius, 1995). include that of the Neolithic, which brought
The ancestor of the mithun (B. frontalis) cattle, sheep and goats into Europe, and may
is the gaur (B. gaurus). As in the case of Bali have triggered the local domestication of the
cattle, the centre of domestication of the species wild boar. Domesticated livestock followed two
in unknown. Archaeological excavation in distinct major routes into Europe – the Danubian
northeastern Thailand (Non Nok Tha) suggests and the Mediterranean (Bogucki, 1996; Cymbron
that both species might have been domesticated et al., 2005).
as early as 7 000 years ago (Higham (1975) in The Bantu expansion which started around
Felius, 1995). 2000 BC was a major event in African history,
The domestic chicken (Gallus domesticus) is and was probably responsible for the adoption
descended from the wild red jungle fowl (Gallus of pastoralism (cattle, sheep and goats) by the
gallus), with five possible progenitor subspecies. Khoisan peoples of the Southern Africa region
While previous molecular studies suggested about 2 000 years ago (Hanotte et al., 2002)
a single domestic origin in Southeast Asia (Box 3). The origins of the indigenous pigs and
(Thailand) (Fumihito et al., 1994; 1996), at least chickens of the African continent remain largely
six distinct maternal genetic lineages have now undocumented.
been identified (Liu et al., 2006), suggesting more European colonization of the Americas led to
than one domestication centre. Archaeological the arrival of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses
information indicates a centre of chicken and chickens in the New World. In the case
domestication around the Indus Valley 5 000 of cattle there is genetic evidence for some
years ago, and another in eastern China maybe African ancestry (Liron et al., 2006), which
as early as 7 500 to 8 000 years ago (West and maybe a legacy of the slave trade between the
Zhou, 1988). two continents.
14
Box 3
The history of African pastoralism
Until recently, the history of African pastoralism was in Africa. It is, however, thought that the Zebu was
controversial and poorly understood. However, genetic present in small numbers in the eastern part of the
marker analysis of indigenous cattle populations continent perhaps as early as 2 000 years ago as
from all over the continent have now unravelled the a result of early Arab contact or long-distance sea
major events in the history of pastoralism in Africa trade, and that this initial arrival resulted in the first
(Figure 4). The earliest African cattle originated within introgression of Zebu genes into African taurine cattle.
the continent, possibly as early as around 8000 BC. The major wave of Zebu arrival probably started
The exact centre(s) of domestication remain(s) with the Arab settlements along the East Coast of
unknown, but archaeological information suggests Africa from about the seventh century AD. The major
that it might have taken place in the northeastern part inland dispersal of Zebu cattle probably followed the
of the continent (Wendorf and Schild, 1994). These movement of pastoralists (e.g. Fulani throughout the
first African cattle were humpless Bos taurus animals. Sahel), and was certainly accelerated by the rinderpest
They initially dispersed north, as well as south to the epidemics of the late nineteenth century.
borders of the tropical rainforests. Today, the only Southern Africa was the last area of the continent
remaining descendants of these indigenous African to acquire cattle pastoralism. Genetic data are now
taurine cattle are the trypanotolerant West African excluding a movement of cattle from the western
breeds (e.g. N’Dama and Baoulé), the Kuri, and the part of the continent. It appears that herding spread
Sheko breed from Ethiopia. All these populations are southward from the Great Lakes region, which 2 000
now being intensively cross-bred with Zebu cattle years ago was the site of an Eastern Bantu core area.
(Bos indicus), and their unique genetic make-up is These farmers ultimately came into contact with
disappearing through unbalanced genetic admixture. San hunter–gatherers who acquired livestock from
Zebu cattle arrived in Africa much later. The them. Influences from the Near East centre of cattle
earliest evidence for the presence of humped cattle domestication are today found in the northeastern,
is provided by Egyptian tomb paintings dating from northwestern and southern parts of the continent.
the Twelfth Dynasty of the second millennium BC. It The latter is probably a result of the settlement of
is probable that these animals were brought to Egypt European farmers in this part of the continent.
in limited numbers as war treasure and, therefore are
not connected to the later presence of Zebu cattle Adapted from Hanotte et al. (2002).
In Asia, the arrival of domestic livestock in between civilizations, and livestock were
the Japanese archipelago probably followed themselves often a traded product. The main
the establishment of farmers of Korean origin livestock species used as pack animals in the
around 400 BC, but ancient influences from Old World were the donkey, horse, dromedary
other geographic areas are also likely. In the and Bactrian camel, and in South America, the
Pacific, pigs and chickens had spread across llama. It is believed that domestication of the
western Polynesia by 900 to 700 BC, and the horse led to military expansion of horse-riding
later Polynesian expansion carried these species nomadic pastoralists in the Eurasian steppe, and
as far as Rapa Nui (Easter Island) by 900 AD. subsequent dispersion of the species across the
Beside human migrations, ancient overland Old World. Bactrian camels were also used in
trading networks played an important role in the warfare to a limited extent (Clutton-Brock, 1999),
dispersion of livestock species. The domestication and the dromedary played an important role in
of livestock enabled large-scale overland trading the expansion of Arab civilization.
15
PART 1
FIGURE 4
Origin and migration routes of domestic cattle in Africa
D Centre of
domestication
Bos taurus
(longhorn/shorthorn)
6000-2500 BC
Bos taurus
(African)
5000 BC-500 AD
Bos indicus
(Zebu - 1st wave)
>2000 BC
Bos indicus
(Zebu - 2nd wave)
>700 AD
Source: Graphics unit, ILRI (2006).
There is increasing evidence of the importance markers have revealed a more complex picture,
of ancient sea trading routes in the dispersion of with some movements resulting in an increase in
livestock. For example, recent molecular genetic diversity following admixture between populations
studies in cattle have revealed that Zebu animals originating from different centres of domestication.
were introduced into Africa via an Indian Ocean Additionally, detailed molecular studies indicate
corridor rather than overland through the Isthmus not only that cross-breeding between livestock
of Suez or the Sinai Peninsula (Hanotte et al., 2002; populations was common, but also that genetic
Freeman et al., 2006). Similarly, both archaeological introgression from wild populations occurred
and genetic information suggest that the spread of after the initial domestication events. When they
pastoralism in the Mediterranean basin followed occurred outside the species’ geographic area of
not only terrestrial costal routes, but also maritime origin and after its initial dispersion, these wild
routes (Zilhão, 2001; Beja-Pereira et al., 2006). introgressions may have resulted in localized
A loss of diversity is to be expected following the livestock genetic populations with unique genetic
dispersion and movement of livestock populations backgrounds. Examples include local aurochs
from their centres of origin. However, molecular introgression in European (Götherström et
16
al., 2005; Beja-Pereira et al., 2006) and possibly also 5 Transformations in livestock
in Asian cattle (Mannen et al., 2004). following domestication
Unravelling the geographic pattern and history
of the dispersal of livestock is essential to the Mutation, selective breeding, and adaptation have
identification of geographic areas with high levels shaped the diversity of livestock populations. The
of diversity, which are potential priority areas domestication process resulted in many changes
for conservation efforts. This requires extensive some of which may still be ongoing. Particularly
mapping of genetic diversity. Up to now, very important have been morphological changes.
few studies have been undertaken in this field. Domestic animals are generally smaller than their
However, a recent study of cattle, covering Europe, wild ancestral counterparts (the notable exception
Africa and West Asia, indicates that the highest being the chicken). Smaller animals are easier to
degree of diversity is found in areas that are at manage and to handle, they may reach puberty
the crossroads of admixture between populations sooner, and large flocks or herds can be kept more
from different centres of domestication (Freeman easily (Hall, 2004). The small West African cattle,
et al., 2006). An extensive survey of goat diversity sheep and dwarf goats are extreme examples
in Europe and the Near and Middle East clearly of size reduction, possibly the result of genetic
indicates a geographical partitioning of goat bottlenecks following adaptation to the tropical
diversity, with a large proportion of the genetic humid environment and its parasitic disease
diversity among breeds explained by their challenges. In some cases, human selection has
geographic origins (Cañón et al., 2006). deliberately resulted in extreme size differences –
Today, local and regional, as well as illustrated by the small size of the Shetland pony
transcontinental movement of livestock and the large size of the Shire horse (Clutton-
genotypes is accelerating as a result of the Brock, 1999).
development and marketing of high-yielding The body conformation of domestic animals
breeds, new breeding technologies, and the may also be distinct from that of the wild ancestors
increasing demand for livestock products. This – adapting, for example, to satisfy demand for
modern dispersion, essentially restricted to a meat products (e.g. European beef breeds), or
few breeds, and almost exclusively involving to cope with new environmental pressures (e.g.
transfers from developed to developing Sahelian goats). Selection for muscular mass has
countries, represents a major threat to the often resulted in greater muscular development
conservation and utilization of indigenous of the hind quarters relative to the shoulders
AnGR (see Section C for a further discussion of (Hall, 2004). An extreme example of selection
current gene flows). for muscular mass is the double-muscling trait
observed in some European beef breeds, and in
some sheep and pigs breeds. In cattle, the trait
results from mutation at a single gene – the
myostatin gene (Grobet et al., 1998). In sheep, it
involves the callipyge gene (Cockett et al., 2005).
The pattern of fat deposition may also show
changes following domestication. For example,
reduced predation has encouraged fat deposition
in domestic poultry. In domesticated mammals,
the hump of the Zebu and the tails of fat-tailed
and fat-rumped sheep are striking examples of
selection for fat deposition. This exaggerated
fat deposition may be quite ancient, with fat-
17
PART 1
tailed sheep already common in western Asia by 6 Conclusions

3000 BC, and humped cattle depicted on cylinder
seals from the ancient civilizations of Mohenjo- Understanding of the origin and subsequent
Daro and Harappa in the Indus Valley about 2500 history and evolution of AnGR diversity is essential
to 1500 BC (Clutton-Brock 1999). to the design of sustainable conservation and
Great variation is found in the wool and hair utilization strategies. Livestock diversity originates
coats of most domestic species. For example, from the wild ancestors, and was subsequently
sheep breeds of alpine regions have particularly shaped through the processes of mutation, genetic
thick woolly coats, while breeds from the African drift, and natural and human selection. Only a
Sahel lack wool. It is probable that these changes subset of the diversity present in the ancestral
were the result of mutations followed by artificial species survived in the domestic counterparts.
selection, perhaps as early as 6000 BC, as illustrated However, domestic livestock diversity has been
by a statuette of a woolly sheep found in the continuously evolving. Reshuffling of genes at
Islamic Republic of Iran (Clutton-Brock, 1999). each generation, mutation, and cross-breeding or
Coat and plumage coloration were also selected admixture of different gene pools has offered new
by the environment, with light coloured animals opportunities for natural and human selection.
being more adapted to hotter environments and This has been the basis of the enormous gains
dark coloured animals to cooler environments in output achieved in commercial breeds, and of
(Hall 2004). Coat colours have also been influenced the adaptation of indigenous livestock to highly
by cultural selection. Livestock breeders in the diverse and challenging environments.
developed world often favour uniformity in coat However, the world’s livestock diversity is
colour, but in the tropics, diversity in coat colour currently shrinking – with rapid and uncontrolled
may be preferred for ceremonial reasons, or loss of unique and often uncharacterized AnGR. If
simply to facilitate the identification of individual a breed or population becomes extinct, this means
animals. An illustration of the latter is the great the loss of its unique adaptive attributes, which
diversity in coat colours and patterns observed are often under the control of many interacting
among the Nguni cattle of the Zulu people genes, and are the results of complex interactions
(Poland et al., 2003). between the genotype and the environment.
It is important to realize that local adaptation,
human and/or natural selection will not always
result in reduced genetic variation or functional
diversity in the livestock population. For example,
natural selection may favour adaptive diversity
within herds kept in changing environments (e.g.
as a result of climatic variation). A recent study
of the genetic diversity of the six most important
milk proteins in cattle revealed higher diversity in
a relatively restricted geographic area of northern
Europe, with selection pressure imposed by early
(milk drinking) pastoralists being the most likely
explanation (Beja-Pereira et al, 2003).
18
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22
Section B
Status of animal
genetic resources
1 Introduction
This section presents a global overview of the regional distribution of livestock species and
diversity and status of AnGR. The analysis is based breeds is then presented, followed by an overview
on FAO’s Global Databank for Animal Genetic of the risk status of the world’s livestock breeds.
Resources for Food and Agriculture (Global Finally, trends in risk status over this six year period
Databank), as it is the only such resource that are assessed.
provides worldwide coverage. It serves as an
updated (but condensed) version of the World
Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity2 (WWL– 2 State of reporting
DAD), the previous (third) edition of which was
published in 2000. Box 4 outlines changes in the The total number of breed records in the
approach to reporting and data analysis that have Global Databank has increased greatly since
been introduced for the State of the World’s Animal the publication of the WWL–DAD:3 (Table 5).
Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (SoW- The total number of entries rose from 6 379 in
AnGR) preparation process. The section begins by December 1999 to 14 017 in January 2006. The
describing the state of reporting on AnGR, and increase was particularly marked in the case of
the progress made during the period December avian breed populations, for which the number
1999 to January 2006. A description of the current of records increased from 1 049 to 3 505. In the
case of mammalian species the number rose from
2 5 330 to 10 512. Nearly all breed populations
FAO/UNEP 2000. World watch list for domestic animal diversity,
3rd edition, edited by B.D. Scherf, Rome. (also available at reported (94 percent) are domesticated livestock,
http://www.fao.org/dad-is). only 1 percent are feral, and less than 1 percent
TABLE 5
Status of information recorded in the Global Databank for Animal Genetic Resources
Year of Mammalian species Avian species Countries

analysis covered
Number of national % with population Number of national % with population
breed populations data breed populations data
1993 2 719 53 - - 131

1995 3 019 73 863 85 172
1999 5 330 63 1 049 77 172
2006 10 512 43 3 505 39 182*
*No data recorded for Andorra, Brunei Darussalam, Gaza Strip, Holy See, Liechtenstein, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia,
Monaco, Nauru, Qatar, San Marino, Singapore, Timor-Leste, United Arab Emirates, West Bank, Western Sahara.
23
PART 1
are wild populations (for the remaining 4 percent the number of breed entries and the number for
no specification was given). which population data are available is in part
While the number of breeds recorded has accounted for by the fact that much of the latest
increased, the percentage of breeds for which data entered into the Global Databank were
population data are available, decreased from extracted from Country Reports. These reports
77 to 39 percent for avian breeds, and from 63 often mention the existence of breeds, but do not
to 43 percent for mammalian breeds (Table 5 include details of population size.
and Figure 5). Furthermore, where population Before analysis of the global state of breed
figures are reported, they may not have been diversity and risk status could be undertaken,
updated recently. The large discrepancy between some adjustments to the raw figures for the
Box 4
What is new compared to the World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity?
In 1991, FAO initiated global breed surveys to report greatly increased. The new analysis attempts to
on the seven major mammalian domestic animal correct this bias by linking national breed populations
species (ass, buffalo, cattle, goat, horse, pig and that belong to a common gene pool. This linkage
sheep). Additional surveys were initiated in 1993 to was implemented based on expert knowledge and
include yaks, the six camelid species and the 14 major revised by NCs. However, a clear definition of what
avian species. Collection of data for deer species and constitutes a common gene pool is still lacking. The
rabbits followed, and these species were included in linked breeds are referred to as transboundary breeds
the third edition of the World Watch List for Domestic (Box 5). Risk status for these breeds is estimated
Animal Diversity (WWL–DAD:3) published in 2000. based on the overall number of animals belonging to
In order to produce a more complete inventory, the breed in question.
FAO provided, during 2005, for the extraction of The method of assessing breed diversity at regional
breed-related data from 169 Country Reports, and and global levels has also been adapted: at the
the entry of these data into the Global Databank for regional level, breeds that reside in more than one
Animal Genetic Resources. Subsequently, National country, but only within the SoW-AnGR region in
Coordinators (NCs) were requested to validate and question, are now counted only once for the region
further complete their national breed databanks. regardless of how many national-level populations
The WWL–DAD:3 (2000) was criticized for there may be. International transboundary breeds,
overestimating the number of breeds categorized which occur in many regions, are counted only once at
as being “at risk”. This overestimation occurred the global level.
because risk status was assigned to each national When comparing the WWL–DAD:3 with the
breed population based on the population size in the figures provided in this Report, it must be noted that
particular country. Thus, in the case of breeds that the classification of regions has also been changed.
occur in more than one country, there was a danger Southwest Pacific and Asia are here considered to be
that the categorization was not a true reflection separate regions, while “Asia and the Pacific” was
of risk status. This problem had previously been considered a single region in WWL–DAD 3. Moreover,
recognized, but at the time the emphasis of reporting it should be noted that the regional classification used
was on local breeds. For the SoW-AnGR process, in this Report is also different from the standard FAO
countries decided to consider all their AnGR (both regional classification.
local and imported). The number of breeds wrongly
categorized as being at risk would, therefore, have
24
Box 5
Glossary: populations, breeds, regions
Wild populations: represent either wild relatives of Transboundary breeds: breeds that occur in more
domesticated livestock, wild populations that are used than one country. These are further differentiated as:
for food and agriculture, or populations undergoing – Regional transboundary breeds:
domestication. transboundary breeds that occur only in one of
Feral populations: animals are considered to be feral the seven SoW-AnGR regions.
if they or their ancestors were formerly domesticated, – International transboundary breeds:
but they are now living independently of humans; for transboundary breeds that occur in more than
example, dromedaries in Australia. one region.
Local breeds: breeds that occur only in one country. SoW-AnGR regions: seven regions were defined for
the SoW-AnGR: Africa, Asia, Europe and the Caucasus,
Latin America and the Caribbean, the Near and Middle
East, North America, and the Southwest Pacific.
FIGURE 5
Proportion of national breed populations for which population figures have been reported
Southwest Avian 20 112

Pacific
Mammalian 88 310
Avian 89 2
North America
Mammalian 200 126
Avian 14 46
Near &
Middle East Mammalian 127 172
Latin America & Avian 49 309

the Caribbean
Mammalian 212 1 428
Europe & Avian 865 617

the Caucasus
Mammalian 2 344 1 144
Avian 248 352

Asia
Mammalian 1 080 851
Avian 75 276
Africa
Mammalian 519 1 077
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
with population data without population data
25
PART 1
number of breed populations were required. Slightly more than half of the total number
Four hundred and eighty entries classified as of recorded national breed populations
“strains” or “lines” were excluded from the (6 792 entries) occur in more than one country.
analysis (in the case of avian species, further These breed populations have been linked and
validation by national and regional experts to are defined as “transboundary” breeds (Box 5).
link lines and strains to the respective breeds is The risk status assigned to a transboundary breed
needed). Furthermore, 209 breed populations takes into account all reported populations for the
that obviously belonged to the same breed, but breed in question. Breed populations occurring
had been reported twice from the same country only in one country are defined as “local” breeds.
were excluded. These adjustments left a total Transboundary breeds are classified as either
of 13 328 breed populations for inclusion in the “regional” or “international”, depending on the
analysis of diversity and risk status. extent of their distribution (Box 5).
TABLE 6
Distribution of mammalian species by region
Mammalian Africa Asia Europe Latin Near & North Southwest
species & the America Middle East America Pacific
Caucasus & the
Caribbean
percentage of countries in a region reporting breed-related information for the species
Buffalo 8 57 25 27 25 0 8
Cattle 98 96 100 94 75 100 77
Yak 0 32 2 0 0 0 0
Goat 96 96 93 94 83 100 69
Sheep 92 86 100 91 100 100 31
Pig 70 82 91 91 8 100 92
Ass 38 46 36 39 50 50 8
Horse 46 93 91 64 58 100 23
Bactrian camel 0 25 5 0 0 0 0
Dromedary 32 25 2 0 58 0 8
Alpaca 2 0 0 12 0 0 8
Llama 0 0 0 15 0 0 0
Guanaco 0 0 0 9 0 0 0
Vicuña 0 0 0 12 0 0 0
Deer* 2 25 14 9 0 50 15
Rabbit 38 39 39 48 8 0 0
Guinea pig 8 0 0 15 0 0 0
Dog 2 7 5 0 0 0 0
Shading: purple: ≥50% of countries; green: <50% of countries and ≥10% of countries; yellow: <10% of countries; white: no country.
*The main deer species under domestication are the Red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus), Sika deer (C. nipon nipon), Wapiti (C. elaphus
canadensis), Sambar (C. unicolor unicolor), Hog deer (Axis porcinus), Fallow deer (Dama dama), Rusa or Javan deer (C. timorensis russa),
Chital or Axis deer (Axis axis), Reindeer/Caribou (Rangifer tarandus), Musk deer (Moschus moschiferus), Pere David’s deer (Elaphurus
davidianus) and the Moose/Elk (Alces alces).
26
TABLE 7
Distribution of avian species by region
Avian species Africa Asia Europe Latin Near & North Southwest
& the America Middle America Pacific
Caucasus & the East
Caribbean
percentage of countries in a region reporting breed-related information for the species
Chicken 78 93 86 70 50 100 85
Duck (domestic) 32 61 50 33 17 0 46
Turkey 24 43 57 30 17 100 8
Goose (domestic) 16 39 61 21 17 50 8
Muscovy duck 16 39 20 18 17 0 62
Guinea fowl 28 18 11 9 8 0 0
Partridge 4 7 7 0 0 0 0
Pheasant 0 7 9 6 0 0 0
Quail 2 39 14 6 0 50 0
Peacock 0 0 0 3 0 0 0
Pigeon 10 21 9 6 17 0 15
Swallow 0 4 0 0 0 0 0
Cassowary 0 4 2 0 0 0 0
Emu 2 4 2 3 0 0 8
Ñandu 0 0 2 6 0 0 0
Ostrich 12 11 7 0 0 0 8
Shading: purple: ≥50% of countries; green: <50% of countries and ≥10% of countries; yellow: <10% of countries; white: no country.
3 Species diversity
Only about 40 of the 50 000 known avian and Tables 6 and 7). Goats are much less numerous in
mammalian species have been domesticated. the Americas, and Europe and the Caucasus, than
DAD-IS now reports breed-related information in other regions; and, for religious reasons, pigs
on 18 mammalian species (Table 6), 16 avian are notably lacking in Muslim countries.
species (Table 7) and two fertile interspecies
crossings (Bactrian camel × dromedary, and duck
× Muscovy duck). On a global scale, five species
– cattle, sheep, chickens, goats, and pigs – show
widespread distribution and particularly large
numbers. The first three are the most widely
distributed domestic species globally, while
the latter two are less evenly spread (Figure 6,
27
PART 1
FIGURE 6
Regional distribution of major livestock species in 2005
Species and world

population (millions)
Cattle
1 345
Sheep
1 053
Goat
786
Pig
960
Chicken
16 696
20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
North America Caribbean North & West Africa Europe & Near & Middle East Central Asia Southwest Pacific
South America Southern Africa the Caucasus South Asia
Central America East Africa East Asia
Southeast Asia
Source: FAOSTAT (available at http://faostat.fao.org).
3.1 The big five FIGURE 7

The world has over 1.3 billion cattle – about one Distribution of the world’s mammalian breeds
for every five people on the planet. Cattle are by species
important in all seven regions. Asia (most notably
3% 3%
India and China) with 32 percent of the world 5%
Buffalo
22%
total, and Latin America with 28 percent (Brazil Cattle
14%
has the world’s largest cattle population), are
Goat
the dominant regions for this species (Figure 6).
Sheep
Large cattle populations are also found in Africa 3%
Pig
(highest numbers in the Sudan and Ethiopia),
Ass
and Europe and the Caucasus (highest numbers 12%
12% Horse
in the Russian Federation and France). Elsewhere,
the United States of America and Australia have Rabbit
large national herds. Cattle breeds contribute Others

25%
Mammalian species with more than 100 recorded breeds are

28 displayed separately; the remaining mammalian species are
aggregated as others.
FIGURE 8 the total number of recorded mammalian breeds

Distribution of the world’s avian breeds in the world.
by species Goats are the least numerous of the five major
livestock species. There are about 800 million
6%
worldwide – one for every eight people. Some 70
3%
3%
percent of the world’s goats are in Asia and the
Chicken
Near and Middle East, with the largest populations
9% Duck
being found in China, India and Pakistan. Africa
Turkey
accounts for most of the rest of the world’s goats,
5% Goose
with only about 5 percent being found in Latin
Guinea fowl
American and the Caribbean, and Europe and the
63% Pigeon
11% Caucasus. Goat breeds contribute 12 percent to
Others the total number of recorded mammalian breeds
in the world.
Chickens outnumber humans by 2.5 to 1
worldwide. There are nearly 17 billion, about
half of which are in Asia, and another quarter in
Avian species with more than 50 recorded breeds are Latin America and the Caribbean. Europe and the
displayed separately; the remaining avian species are
Caucasus has a further 13 percent of the world’s
aggregated as others.
flock, followed by Africa with 7 percent. Chicken
breeds make up a large majority of the total
22 percent of the world’s total number of number of avian breeds in the world (Figure 8).
recorded mammalian livestock breeds (Figure 7).
The world’s sheep population is just over one 3.2 Other widespread species
billion – one for roughly every six people. Nearly Horses, asses and ducks are also found in all
half are found in Asia and the Near and Middle regions; however, they are less numerous than the
East (largest populations in China, India and the five species discussed above, and show a less even
Islamic Republic of Iran); Africa, Europe and the distribution than cattle, sheep and chickens.
Caucasus, and the Southwest Pacific have around The world’s 54 million horses are widely
15 percent each; and 8 percent are found in distributed. The country with the largest number
Latin America and the Caribbean. In contrast to is China, followed by Mexico, Brazil, and the
goats, which are largely restricted to developing United States of America. Other countries with
regions, several developed countries, most over a million horses are Argentina, Colombia,
notably Australia, New Zealand and the United Mongolia, the Russian Federation, Ethiopia and
Kingdom, also have large sheep populations. Kazakhstan. The contribution of horse breeds
Sheep are the species with the highest number of to the total number of mammalian breeds
recorded breeds (contributing 25 percent to the in the world (14 percent) far outweighs their
global total for mammals). contribution in terms of animal numbers.
There are about a billion pigs in the world – Asses are the transport animal of the poor and
one for every seven people. About two-thirds are of areas that lack a well-developed transport
found in Asia – the vast majority in China, with infrastructure. As such, they are predominantly
significant numbers also in Viet Nam, India and found in the developing regions of the world.
the Philippines. Europe and the Caucasus has a The largest numbers are in Asia, Africa, and
fifth of the world’s pigs, and the Americas another Latin America and the Caribbean. They are also
15 percent. Pig breeds contribute 12 percent to widely distributed in the Near and Middle East.
29
PART 1
The country with the largest ass population contribute 3 percent to the world’s total number
is China, where Mao Zedong popularized the of recorded mammalian breeds.
animal to decrease the drudgery of rural women. The yak is endemic to the Tibetan plateau. The
Breed diversity is thought to be less than in other largest populations are in China and Mongolia,
species; asses contribute only 3 percent to the with small numbers present in the Russian
world’s total number of recorded mammalian Federation, Nepal, Bhutan, Afghanistan, Pakistan,
breeds. However, asses – and research on them Kyrgyzstan and India. In many parts of the
– are often stigmatized, so it is likely that many Himalaya, yak hybrids with cattle are extremely
breeds have not yet been reported. important. Yaks have also been introduced to
Domestic ducks show an even less homogenous the Caucasus, North America (3 000 animals),
pattern of distribution than asses. They have a long and many countries in Europe. The total number
history of domestication, and were kept in ancient of recorded yak breeds is small, which reflects
Egypt, Mesopotamia, China and the Roman the narrow geographical and agro-ecological
Empire. However, production is now concentrated distribution of the species.
in China, which has 70 percent of the world’s Dromedaries, and particularly Bactrian
domestic duck population. Other major producers camels, also have quite a narrow geographical
are Viet Nam, Indonesia, India, Thailand and other distribution, and are confined to more arid agro-
countries in Southeast Asia. Among European ecological zones. Accordingly, their share of
countries, France and Ukraine have large numbers breed diversity is relatively small. The dromedary,
of ducks. Duck breeds (excluding Muscovy ducks) or one-humped camel, plays an important role
contribute 11 percent to the total number of in the Near and Middle East, Africa and Asia. In
recorded avian breeds in the world. Asia, the camel population is currently in stark
decline, although it is stable in Africa. In Africa,
3.3 Species with a narrower Somalia, the Sudan, Mauritania and Kenya have
distribution the largest populations, while India and Pakistan
Some mammalian species, such as buffaloes, yaks, account for most Asian camels. The two-humped
camelids and rabbits, and some avian species, such Bactrian camel is confined largely to Central and
as domestic geese and turkeys, have a narrow East Asia, with Mongolia and China having the
distribution and are of particular importance in largest populations.
one or two regions or in a specific agro-ecological Four species of camelids originate in South
zone. America: the domesticated llama and alpaca, and
The domestic buffalo is originally an Asian the wild guanaco and vicuña. The vast majority
animal – 98 percent of the world’s herd of 170 of llamas are found in Peru and Bolivia; small
million animals are found in this region, principally numbers are found in zoos and among hobbyists
in India, Pakistan, China and Southeast Asia. It in other countries. Guanacos and vicuñas are
has been introduced to south and southeastern utilized for fibre, hide and meat production. The
Europe, as well as to Egypt, Brazil, Papua New total number of recorded camelid breeds is small
Guinea and Australia. Buffaloes are now reported compared to many other livestock species. The
from 41 countries worldwide. There are two main South American species are very largely restricted
types of buffalo: riverine (from South Asia), an to the one region and to high altitudes.
important dairy producer especially in South Asia; The majority of the world’s farmed rabbits
and swamp (from East Asia) which played a major are found in Asia, with the largest population
role as a working animal in wet rice cultivation being in China. Large populations are also found
in Southeast Asia until the introduction of the in several Central Asian countries and in the
“iron buffalo” – the hand tractor. Buffalo breeds Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. In Europe
30
and the Caucasus, the largest population is found and international transboundary breeds are quite
in Italy. Rabbit breeds make up 5 percent of the similar in mammalian species, while in avian
total number of recorded mammalian breeds in species there are twice as many international
the world. Guinea pigs are significant only in the transboundary breeds as there are regional
Latin American and the Caribbean region, largely transboundary breeds.
in Peru and Bolivia. In all regions of the world, mammalian breeds
Domestic geese and turkeys also have a relatively outnumber avian breeds. In all regions except
narrow distribution. This distribution can be for Europe and the Caucasus, mammalian
explained by tradition and consumer preferences breeds make up nearly three-quarters of all
rather than by agro-ecological conditions. Nearly breeds reported. There is, however, considerable
90 percent of the world’s domestic geese are variation between regions in terms of the share
found in China. Egypt, Romania, Poland and of the three breed categories in the total number
Madagascar together have more than half of of breeds (Figure 10). In Europe and the Caucasus,
the rest. Turkeys originated in Central America. Asia, and the Near and Middle East, local breeds
They were brought to Europe shortly after their make up about three-quarters of all breeds. In
discovery by colonists, and many distinct breeds Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean, the
were developed in Europe. Europe and the share of local breeds is smaller, but still exceeds
Caucasus is the region with the largest population two-thirds of all breeds. Conversely, international
of domestic turkeys (43 percent), while North transboundary avian and mammalian breeds
America has over one-third of population. Goose dominate in the Southwest Pacific and North
and turkey breeds contribute 9 and 5 percent America. Regional transboundary mammalian
respectively to the global total of avian breeds. breeds are relatively numerous in Europe and the
Caucasus, Africa, and to lesser extent Asia, while it
is only in Europe and the Caucasus that there are
4 Breed diversity a significant number of regional transboundary
avian breeds.
For the assessment of the breed diversity
4.1 Overview being maintained in the regions, international
A global total of 7 616 breeds have been transboundary breeds were excluded, as they
reported; 6 536 are local breeds and 1 080 are cannot be assigned to a particular region. Europe
transboundary breeds. Among the transboundary and the Caucasus, and Asia are home to the
breeds, 523 are regional transboundary breeds largest share of breeds of most of the world’s
occurring only in one region (1 413 national-level major livestock species (Table 8). Camels are the
entries); and 557 are international transboundary exception, with the largest number of breeds
breeds with a wider distribution (5 379 national- being found in Africa. In terms of population
level entries). A total of 690 breeds are classified as size, Asia is the dominant region for most species.
extinct, of which nine are transboundary breeds. Exceptions include camels (Africa), turkeys (Europe
In the following analysis of breed diversity, extinct and the Caucasus) and horses (44 percent of which
breeds are excluded. are found in Latin America and the Caribbean).
Figure 9 shows the share of local, regional It can be seen from Table 8 that the Europe and
transboundary and international transboundary the Caucasus region’s share of breeds is far higher
breeds among the mammalian and avian breeds than its population share in most species. The
of the world (excluding extinct breeds). More turkey is an exception to the pattern. Although
than two-thirds of reported breeds belong to the region’s share of breeds is the highest in the
mammalian species. The numbers of regional world for this species, the population share is
31
PART 1
almost the same. The large number of breeds in FIGURE 10

Europe and the Caucasus is partly a result of the Number of local and transboundary breeds at
fact that many of these breeds are recognized as regional level
separate entities, but are in fact closely related Africa Asia
genetically. It also reflects the more advanced 177
180 203 432 68
state of breed recording and characterization in
this region, compared for example, to most parts 6
60 6
of sub-Saharan Africa where efforts are restricted 95 71
by a lack of technical and human resources. Asia
also accounts for a high proportion of the world’s
breeds in many species, but the region’s share of
the total population is in most cases even higher 519 1 257
(exceptions are turkeys, and Bactrian camels and
dromedaries). Europe and the Caucasus Latin America and the Caribbean
300 147
FIGURE 9 211
218
866 1
Number of local and transboundary breeds at
global level 91
30
71
World 140
399
430 1 536 398
1,728
Near and Middle East North America
43 26
85 55 1
157 16 62
4
134
4,127
109 18
Mammalian species 194
International transboundary breeds
Regional transboundary breeds
Local breeds
Southwest Pacific
Avian species 34 Mammalian species

International transboundary breeds International transboundary breeds
Regional transboundary breeds Regional transboundary breeds
68
Local breeds Local breeds
166
Avian species
International transboundary breeds
Regional transboundary breeds
Local breeds
114 4
Please note that for these figures international transboundary breeds

are counted once in each region, where they occur. Thus, international
transboundary breeds are counted more than once. Values show the number of breeds belonging to each group
present in the respective region.
32
TABLE 8
Proportion of the world’s population size (2005) and number of local and regional transboundary
breeds (January 2006) of the major livestock species by region
Species Africa Asia Europe & the Caucasus Latin America & the Caribbean
pop. breed pop. breed pop. breed pop. breed

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Buffalo 0 2 97 73 0 9 1 9
Cattle 14 19 32 26 11 31 28 14
Goat 22 18 62 35 4 33 4 5
Sheep 16 12 36 25 18 48 7 4
Pig 2 9 62 41 20 32 8 12
Ass 27 14 38 28 4 28 20 15
Horse 6 7 25 24 13 48 44 11
Bactrian camel & dromedary 40 47 20 24 2 3 0 0
South American camelids 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 100
Rabbit 0 7 74 8 24 76 1 7
Chicken 6 8 48 22 14 58 15 8
Duck & Muscovy duck 1 9 90 38 7 36 2 11
Turkey 3 13 1 13 43 42 18 13
Goose 1 6 90 24 6 65 0 3
Species Near & Middle North America Southwest Pacific World

East
pop. breed pop. breed pop. breed pop. breed
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (million head) number
Buffalo 2 6 0 0 0 2 174 132

Cattle 3 4 8 3 3 3 1 355 990
Goat 8 6 0 1 0 2 808 559
Sheep 9 5 1 3 14 3 1 081 1 129
Pig 0 0 8 3 0 2 960 566
Ass 12 11 0 3 0 2 41 150
Horse 0 2 11 4 1 4 55 633
Bactrian camel & dromedary 38 24 0 0 0 2 19 97
South American camelids 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 13
Rabbit 2 2 0 0 0 0 537 207
Chicken 3 2 13 1 1 2 16 740 1 132

Duck & Muscovy duck 1 2 1 0 0 4 1 046 234
Turkey 1 4 33 13 1 2 280 85
Goose 3 1 0 0 0 1 302 166
33
PART 1
4.2 Local breeds

Tables 9 and 10, respectively, show the number regions that have the highest number of local
of local breeds of mammalian and avian species breeds. The dromedary, with most breeds located
for each region of the world. For most livestock in Africa and the Near and Middle East, is an
species, Europe and the Caucasus or Asia are the exception to this pattern.
TABLE 9
Mammalian species – number of reported local breeds
Species Africa Asia Europe & the Latin America Near & North Southwest World
Caucasus & the Middle East America Pacific
Caribbean
Buffalo 2 88 11 11 8 0 2 122
Cattle 154 239 277 129 43 29 26 897
Yak 0 26 1 0 0 0 0 27
Goat 86 182 170 26 34 3 11 512
Sheep 109 265 458 47 50 31 35 995
Pig 49 229 165 67 1 18 12 541
Ass 17 39 40 21 16 4 3 140
Horse 36 141 269 65 14 23 22 570
Dromedary 44 13 1 0 23 0 2 83
Rabbit 11 16 125 14 5 0 0 171

Total 508 1 246 1 519 380 194 108 113 4 068
Excludes extinct breeds. Not shown: alpaca, deer, dog, dromedary × Bactrian camel, guanaco, guinea pig, llama, vicuña.
TABLE 10
Avian species – number of reported local breeds
Species Africa Asia Europe & the Latin America Near & North Southwest World
Caucasus & the Middle East America Pacific
Caribbean
Chicken 89 243 608 84 24 12 17 1 077

Duck 14 76 62 22 4 1 7 186
Turkey 11 11 29 11 3 11 2 78
Goose 10 39 100 5 2 0 2 158
Muscovy 7 10 10 3 1 0 3 34
duck
Partridge 2 8 3 0 0 0 0 13
Pheasant 0 7 5 6 0 0 0 18
Pigeon 7 12 30 7 8 1 2 67
Ostrich 6 2 4 0 0 0 1 13
Total 146 408 851 138 42 25 34 1 644
Excludes extinct breeds. Not shown: cassowary, duck × Muscovy duck, emu, guinea fowl, ñandu, peacock, quail, swallow.
34
4.3 Regional transboundary breeds

For several species, including sheep, horses, pigs, however, has by far the highest number of regional
and all avian species, Europe and the Caucasus, transboundary breeds among avian species
has the highest number of regional transboundary (Table 12). The existence of significant numbers
breeds. However, as Table 11 shows, a relatively of regional transboundary breeds clearly has
large share of such breeds is also found in Africa. implications for management and conservation of
The latter region is dominant in terms of the AnGR, and highlights the need for cooperation at
numbers of regional transboundary breeds of regional or subregional levels.
cattle, goats and asses. Europe and the Caucasus,
TABLE 11
Mammalian species – number of reported regional transboundary breeds
Species Africa Asia Europe Latin America Near & North Southwest World
& the & the Middle America Pacific
Caucasus Caribbean East
Buffalo 0 8 1 1 0 0 0 10
Cattle 35 19 28 8 0 3 0 93
Goat 15 11 13 2 0 5 1 47
Sheep 27 13 79 2 4 6 3 134
Pig 2 2 17 3 0 1 0 25
Ass 4 3 2 1 0 0 0 10
Horse 7 10 38 5 0 3 0 63
Dromedary 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 3
South 6 6
American
camelids
Deer 1 1 2
Rabbit 3 0 32 1 0 0 0 36
Guinea pig 1 1
Total 95 68 211 30 4 18 4 430
Excluding extinct breeds.
35
PART 1
TABLE 12
Avian species – number of reported regional transboundary breeds
Species Africa Asia Europe & the Caucasus Latin America & North America World
the Caribbean
Chicken 6 2 45 1 1 55
Duck 0 2 12 0 0 14
Turkey 0 0 7 0 0 7
Goose 0 1 7 0 0 8
Quail 0 1 0 0 0 1
Total 6 6 71 1 1 85
4.4 International transboundary

breeds
Cattle, sheep, horses and chickens are the species
that have the highest numbers of international
transboundary breeds (Tables 13 and 14).
TABLE 13 TABLE 14
Mammalian species – number of reported Avian species – number of reported international
international transboundary breeds transboundary breeds
Species Number of breeds Species Number of breeds
Buffalo 5 Chicken 101

Cattle 112 Duck 12
Goat 40 Turkey 16
Sheep 100 Goose 15
Pig 33 Muscovy duck 1
Ass 6 Guinea fowl 5
Horse 66 Pigeon 1
Bactrian camel 2 Cassowary 1
Dromedary 2 Emu, Ñandu, Ostrich 5
Deer 10 Total 157
Rabbit 23
Total 399
36
5 Risk status of animal genetic

resources
A total of 1 491 breeds (or 20 percent) are classified particularly significant in some species – 72 percent
as being “at risk” (Box 6). Figure 11 shows that for rabbit breeds, 66 percent for deer, 59 percent
for mammalian species, the proportion of breeds for asses and 58 percent for dromedaries. This
classified as at risk is lower overall (16 percent) lack of data is a serious constraint to effective
than for avian species (30 percent). However, in prioritization and planning of breed conservation
absolute terms, the number of breeds at risk is measures. Cattle are the species with the highest
higher for mammalian species (881 breeds) than number of breeds (209) reported as extinct. Large
for avian species (610 breeds). numbers of extinct pig, sheep and horse breeds
Figure 12 presents risk status data for are also reported. There is, however, clearly a
mammalian species. It can be seen that cattle are possibility that there were breeds that became
the mammalian species with the highest number extinct before they were documented, and which
of breeds at risk. Horses (23 percent) followed are therefore missing from the analysis.
by rabbits (20 percent) and pigs (18 percent) Among avian species, chickens have by far
are, however, the species that have the highest the highest number of breeds at risk on a world
proportions of at-risk breeds. Figure 12 also scale (Figure 13). This is partly related to the large
indicates the large number of breeds for which number of chicken breeds in the world, but the
no risk status data are available. The problem is proportion of breeds at risk is also high in chickens
Box 6
Glossary: risk status classification
extinct: a breed is categorized as extinct when than 100 and less than or equal to 1 000 or the total
there are no breeding males or breeding females number of breeding males is less than or equal to 20
remaining. Nevertheless, genetic material might have and greater than five; or the overall population size
been cryoconserved which would allow recreation of is greater than 80 and less than 100 and increasing
the breed. In reality, extinction may be realized well and the percentage of females being bred to males
before the loss of the last animal or genetic material. of the same breed is above 80 percent; or the overall
critical: a breed is categorized as critical if the total population size is greater than 1 000 and less than
number of breeding females is less than or equal to or equal to 1 200 and decreasing and the percentage
100 or the total number of breeding males is less of females being bred to males of the same breed
than or equal to five; or the overall population size is below 80 percent, and it is not assigned to any of
is less than or equal to 120 and decreasing and above categories.
the percentage of females being bred to males of endangered-maintained: are those endangered
the same breed is below 80 percent, and it is not populations for which active conservation
classified as extinct. programmes are in place or populations are
critical-maintained: are those critical populations maintained by commercial companies or research
for which active conservation programmes are in institutions.
place or populations are maintained by commercial breed at risk: a breed that has been classified as
companies or research institutions. either critical, critical-maintained, endangered, or
endangered: a breed is categorized as endangered endangered-maintained.
if the total number of breeding females is greater
37
THE STATE OF THE WO RLD' S A N I MAL GENE T I C RESOU RC ES FO r FOOD A ND AG R I CULT U RE
Part 1
(33 percent). Relatively high proportions and Figure 11

numbers of breeds at risk are also found among Proportion of the world’s breeds by risk status
turkeys and geese. As in the case of mammalian category
species, there are a large number of breeds
for which population figures are unavailable.
All species
Extinct breeds have mainly been reported among
chickens. There are also a few cases among ducks, 7%
1%
guinea fowls and turkeys. 9%
Figures 14 and 15 show the distribution of 36% 3%
breeds at risk by region for mammalian and 9%

avian species respectively. The regions with the
highest proportion of their breeds classified as
at risk are Europe and the Caucasus (28 percent 35%
of mammalian breeds and 49 percent of avian
breeds), and North America (20 percent of Mammalian
mammalian breeds and 79 percent of avian
5% 1%
breeds). Europe and the Caucasus, and North 7%
America are the regions that have the most 3%
35%
highly specialized livestock industries, in which 11%
production is dominated by a small number
of breeds. In absolute terms, Europe and the
Caucasus has by far the highest number of at-
risk breeds. Despite the apparent dominance of 38%
these two regions, problems in other regions may
be obscured by the large number of breeds with
Avian
unknown risk status. In Latin America and the
12%
Caribbean, for example, 68 percent and 81 percent 2%
of mammalian and avian breeds, respectively, are
42% 13%
classified as being of unknown risk status, while
the figures for Africa are 59 percent for mammals 3%
and 60 percent for birds. 2%
26%
critical
critical-maintained
endangered
endangered-maintained
extinct
not at risk
unknown
38
FIGURE 12
Risk status of the world’s mammalian breeds in January 2006: absolute (table) and percentage (chart)
figures by species
Percent
100
80
60
40
20
0
Alpaca Ass Bactrian Buffalo Cattle Deer Dromedary Goat Horse Llama Pig Rabbit Sheep Yak Total
Camel
RISK STATUS
unknown 1 95 3 48 393 18 51 209 272 0 225 166 417 9 1 907
critical 0 10 2 3 49 1 2 22 52 0 37 37 40 0 255
critical- 0 2 0 0 26 0 0 5 10 0 11 0 5 0 59
maintained
endangered 0 14 0 5 75 1 2 44 95 0 63 9 98 0 406
endangered- 0 1 0 3 60 0 0 13 24 0 22 1 36 0 160
maintained
not at risk 5 34 7 78 499 7 33 306 246 5 241 17 633 18 2 129
extinct 0 6 0 0 209 0 0 19 87 0 140 2 180 0 643
Total 6 162 12 137 1 311 27 88 618 786 5 739 232 1 409 27 5 559*
*The total number of breeds is actually higher than the number shown, as Bactrian camel × dromedary crosses, guanacos, vicuñas,
guinea pigs and dogs (of which there are a total of 40 reported breeds) are not included.
39
PART 1
FIGURE 13
Risk status of the world’s avian breeds in January 2006: absolute (table) and percentage (chart)
figures by species
Percent
100
80
60
40
20
0
Chicken Duck Goose Guinea Muscovy Ostrich Partridge Pheasant Pigeon Quail Turkey Total
fowl duck
RISK STATUS
unknown 493 96 65 32 14 8 9 10 32 25 41 825
critical 156 32 22 0 1 4 1 1 7 1 20 245
critical- 9 5 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 20
maintained
endangered 212 12 20 5 3 2 0 4 15 0 14 287
endangered- 42 2 10 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 55
maintained
not at risk 321 65 60 15 5 2 3 2 14 9 25 521
extinct 40 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 47
Total 1 273 215 181 54 24 16 13 18 68 35 103 2 000*
*The total number of breeds is actually higher than the number shown, as duck × Muscovy duck crossings, cassowaries, emus, ñandus,
peacocks and swallows (of which there are a total of 17 reported breeds) are not included.
40
FIGURE 14
Risk status of the world’s mammalian breeds in January 2006: absolute (table) and percentage (chart)
figures by region
Percent
100
80
60
40
20
0
Africa Asia Europe & Latin America & Near & North America Southwest International World
the Caucasus the Caribbean Middle East Pacific transboundary
breeds
RISK STATUS
unknown 384 469 459 304 107 79 80 58 1 940
critical 13 23 182 9 0 12 9 7 255
critical- 0 4 51 4 0 0 0 0 59
maintained
endangered 26 50 249 21 6 22 11 22 407

endangered- 4 3 142 9 0 1 1 0 160
maintained
not at risk 187 776 664 81 85 13 17 312 2 135

extinct 35 45 481 21 5 49 6 1* 643
Total 649 1 370 2 228 449 203 176 124 400 5 599
*African Aurochs, which once lived in parts of both the Africa and the Near and Middle East regions.
41
PART 1
FIGURE 15
Risk status of the world’s avian breeds in January 2006: absolute (table) and percentage (chart)
figures by region
Percent
100
80
60
40
20
0
Africa Asia Europe & Latin America & Near & North America Southwest International World
the Caucasus the Caribbean Middle East Pacific transboundary
breeds
RISK STATUS
unknown 113 214 305 120 33 1 23 26 835
critical 7 8 204 1 0 15 0 12 247
critical- 0 6 12 2 0 0 0 19 39
maintained
endangered 10 23 220 5 0 7 4 0 269

endangered- 0 3 45 7 0 0 0 0 55
maintained
not at risk 56 184 151 13 10 4 7 100 525

extinct 2 5 39 0 0 1 0 0 47
Total 188 443 976 148 43 28 34 157 2 017
42
TABLE 15
Number of extinct mammalian breeds
Species Africa Asia Europe & Latin America & Near & North Southwest World
the Caucasus the Caribbean Middle East America Pacific
Cattle 23 18 141 19 1 4 2 209

Goat 0 2 16 0 0 1 0 19
Sheep 5 11 148 0 1 13 2 180
Pig 0 13 101 2 0 23 1 140
Ass 1 0 4 0 1 0 0 6
Horse 6 1 71 0 0 8 1 87
Rabbit 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2
Total 35 45 481 21 5 49 6 643
TABLE 16 TABLE 17
Number of extinct avian breeds Years of extinction
Species Africa Asia Europe North World Year Number of %

& the America breeds
Caucasus
Chicken 0 5 34 1 40 Before 1900 15 2

Duck 0 0 3 0 3 1900–1999 111 16
Turkey 0 0 2 0 2 After 1999 62 9
Guinea 2 0 0 0 2 Unspecified* 502 73
fowl
Total 690 100
Total 2 5 39 1 47
*unspecified = no year of extinction indicated.
Tables 15 and 16 present the number of extinct The year of extinction has been reported for only
mammalian and avian breeds by species and 27 percent (188) of extinct breeds. Fifteen breeds
region. Europe and the Caucasus has by far the became extinct before the year 1900, 111 between
largest number of extinct mammalian and avian 1900 and 1999, and within the last six years another
breeds – 16 percent of all reported breeds are 62 breeds became extinct (Table 17).
extinct. However, it is the North America region
that has the highest proportion of extinct breeds
(25 percent) among its recorded breeds. The
dominance of North America, and Europe and the
Caucasus in terms of the numbers of extinct breeds,
may relate to the greater levels of breed recording
that have taken place in these two regions.
43
THE STATE OF THE WO RLD' S A N I MAL G ENE T I C RESOU RC ES FO R FOOD A ND AG R I CULT U RE
PART 1
6 Trends in breed status
6.1 Changes in the number of breeds to 529 breeds) and local breeds (absolute figures
in the different breed groups grew from 4 013 to 6 536 breeds) (Figure 16).
This subchapter describes the changes in the Had the classification existed in 1999, there
numbers of breeds classified as falling within would have been 369 regional transboundary
each of the breed categories (local, regional breeds and 197 international transboundary
transboundary and international transboundary) breeds at this time. The higher proportion of
over the six years between December 1999 international transboundary breeds in 2006 results
and January 20063. The share of international partly from the fact that 86 breeds that would
transboundary breeds increased from 4 to have been classified as regional transboundary
7 percent of the total during this period (from breeds in 1999 were classified as international
197 to 557 breeds). This was accompanied by a transboundary breeds in 2006 (283 remained
slight decrease in the proportions of regional as regional transboundary breeds) (Table 18).
transboundary (absolute figures grew from 369 The other factor contributing to the increased
proportion of international transboundary breeds
3 is that among newly reported breeds there
Note that in 1999 the breed classification system (transboundary
vs. local) had not been developed, and therefore the analysis were more international transboundary breeds
presented here was carried out by applying the new procedure to (274) than regional transboundary breeds (240)
the data from 1999 to allow comparison. (Table 18). The changes can largely be accounted
for by improved reporting, but also may also reflect
the ongoing spread of breeds into new regions.
FIGURE 16
Local, regional and international breeds in 1999 and 2006
Number of breeds
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1999 2006
local regional international
44
TABLE 18 are presented for breeds that would have been

Reclassification of regional and international classified as local in 1999 and were still classified
transboundary breeds from 1999 to 2006 as local in 2006.
Year Category 2006 Transboundary breeds

Regional International Comparison of the data in 1999 and 2006 shows
a slight reduction in the proportion of breeds
1999 Regional 283 86
assigned to the unknown risk category. This
International 0 197
indicates some improvement in data quality
– about 20 percent of the 68 breeds previously
Newly reported breeds 240 274
classified as being of unknown risk status were
reclassified in 2006 (Figure 17; Table 19). Table 19
6.2 Trends in genetic erosion also shows that more breeds moved from the at
Because of the introduction of the new risk category into the not at risk category (25 out
transboundary breed categories in 2006, a of 80, or 31 percent) than moved in the opposite
straightforward comparison of the total number direction (10 out of 411, or 3 percent). This can
of breeds in each risk status category is not largely be explained by the fact that over the
possible. Thus, the comparison is presented in six years, further countries have reported the
three parts. Trends among transboundary breeds presence of some of the transboundary breeds,
are shown first, followed by trends among breeds which has resulted in the breeds being promoted
that would have been classified as local in 1999 into the not at risk category. The number of new
and (because of new reports) were classified as transboundary breeds reported and their risk
transboundary breeds in 2006. Finally, figures status categories are shown in Table 20.
FIGURE 17
Changes in risk status of transboundary breeds from 1999 to 2006
Number of breeds
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1999 2006
at risk not at risk extinct unknown
45
PART 1
TABLE 19
Changes in risk status of transboundary breeds from 1999 to 2006
Risk status in 1999 Number of breeds Risk status in 2006

in 1999
at risk 80 68% 31% 0% 1%

not at risk 411 3% 97% 0% 0%
extinct 7 0% 0% 100% 0%
unknown 68 6% 15% 0% 79%
TABLE 20
Risk status of transboundary breeds reported after 1999
Risk status in 2006 Total number

Number of breeds 112 274 2 126 514
Local breeds (1999) reclassified as in 1999 were assigned to a known risk status
transboundary breeds (2006) category by 2006.
Had the classification system existed in 1999, 276
breeds classified as local 1999 would have been Local breeds
reclassified as transboundary breeds by 2006. Of Over the 1999 to 2006 period, 20 percent of the
the 87 such breeds that were classified as at risk breeds previously classified as being of unknown
in 1999, 39 (or 45 percent) were by 2006 classified status were assigned to known risk status
as belonging to not at risk transboundary breeds categories (Table 22, Figure 18) – an indication of
(Table 21). This can largely be accounted for by improved reporting. Table 22 also shows that a
the reporting of the breeds in question from slightly larger proportion of breeds moved from
additional countries. Table 21 also shows that the at risk category into the not at risk category
there has been an improvement in data quality (7.4 percent) than vice versa (4.6 percent). The
among this group of breeds – 61 percent (34 out absolute figures are 60 breeds and 59 breeds
of 56) of breeds with an unknown risk status respectively. Of the local breeds at risk in 1999, 1.6
percent had become extinct by 2006, and among
TABLE 21
Changes in risk status of local breeds (1999) reclassified as transboundary breeds (2006)

in 1999
at risk 87 51% 45% 0% 5%

not at risk 124 3% 97% 0% 0%
extinct 9 44% 11% 22% 22%
unknown 56 21% 39% 0% 39%
46
THE STATE OF AG R I CULT U R AL B I OD I VE RSI T Y I N THE L I VESTOC K SEC TO R
FIGURE 18
Changes in risk status of local breeds from 1999 to 2006
Number of breeds
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1999 2006
TABLE 22
Changes in risk status of local breeds from 1999 to 2006

in 1999
at risk 815 91% 7% 2% 0%

not at risk 1 295 5% 93% 0.2% 2%
extinct 623 2% 0% 97% 0%
unknown 999 8% 10% 1% 81%
among the local breeds not at risk in 1999, TABLE 23

0.2 percent had become extinct. Risk status of local breeds reported after 1999
The number of new local breeds reported, Risk status in 2006 Total
and their risk status categories are presented in number
at not extinct unknown
Table 23. The relatively large number of breeds risk at
risk
classified as being of unknown risk status is a
result of the inclusion of breeds mentioned in the Number 414 575 54 1 758 2 801
of
Country Reports, most of which did not include
breeds
population data.
47
PART 1
7 Conclusions
In the period from 1999 to 2006 the coverage international distribution and exchange pattern
of breed diversity in the Global Databank was are not under threat in terms of population size.
further improved. However, breed-related However, in the case of breeds such as the Holstein-
information remains far from complete. For more Friesian, a decline in the within-breed diversity
than one-third of all reported breeds, risk status that underlies efficient selection programmes may
is not known because of missing population data. become a problem. Though regional transboundary
In Africa and the Southwest Pacific, for example, breeds are found in several countries, some may
population size has not been reported for over be kept by marginalized ethnic groups and, thus,
two-thirds of breed populations. may become threatened along with the livelihood
The creation of the new transboundary breeds strategies of their keepers.
category (linking of national breed populations Measuring diversity on the basis of the number
with a common gene pool) has eliminated the of breeds tends to overestimate genetic diversity
unrealistic risk status estimations for these breeds in Europe and the Caucasus, where a long
that occurred because calculations were based tradition of breeders’ associations has led to the
on population data at the level of the individual distinction of breeds that in some cases are very
country. The linking of breeds was based on closely related. The contribution of some breeds
expert knowledge; more objective criteria for to genetic diversity may, therefore, be quite
judging what constitutes a common gene pool small. It should, however, be noted that most
need to be developed and applied in the future. studies of fancy breeds in developed countries
The differentiation of transboundary breeds reveal that these breeds add to overall diversity
as regional or international was carried out in and may have a high conservation potential. The
a formalized way, according to whether the picture of diversity is further confounded by the
respective breed is present in one or more than advanced state of reporting in some regions, such
one SoW-AnGR region. Nonetheless, some breeds as Europe and the Caucasus, and North America,
classified as international (e.g. those present on where an almost complete coverage of existing
both sides of the border between the Africa and breeds has been achieved.
the Near and Middle East regions) have quite a For the identification of trends in erosion,
limited distribution and would be better treated local breeds give a clearer indication than do
as regional transboundary breeds. Furthermore, transboundary breeds (for which movement
in this first attempt to classify breeds according between categories and the higher number of
to their distribution, the population size of national breed populations reported in 2006
transboundary breeds in the respective countries confound the picture). The changes in risk
was not considered, meaning that in some countries status category among the local breeds already
the report of a breed’s presence may represent reported in 1999 were rather small, and do not
a small population that will only be temporarily indicate an improvement in the situation. The
present. A more differentiated distinction needs reasons for the movements between risk status
to be developed, as this classification has proved categories are largely unknown. The question
very useful for identifying patterns of AnGR of whether conservation programmes have
exchange. It will also be useful for identifying contributed to an increase in population size
cases in which regional collaboration in breed can only be answered on a case-by-case basis,
management is needed. as information as to which threatened breeds
The two transboundary breed groups (regional are covered by conservation programmes is
and international) need to be distinguished with incomplete. It is alarming that 45 percent of
respect to their risk status. Breeds with a truly the newly reported local breeds for which
48
population data are available are either at risk

or already extinct.
Besides missing population data, a big
weakness of the current monitoring of breed
erosion is that it does not capture genetic dilution
of local breeds by uncontrolled cross-breeding – a
problem which is considered by many experts to
be a major threat to AnGR diversity. Population
size and structure as sole indicators of risk status
may, therefore, be misleading. To arrive at a
more comprehensive picture, more details of
the geographical location of local breeds would
be required, along with information on the
distribution of imported live animals and genetic
material in the country in question.
49
Section C
Flows of animal genetic

resources
1 Introduction
“Gene flow” (movements and exchange of can be given for livestock breeds due to
animal breeds and germplasm) in livestock the high levels of within-breed genetic
species has been taking place since prehistoric variation.
times, and has been driven by a range of factors. These limitations mean that it is not possible
On a global scale, the most significant gene flows to provide a comprehensive quantitative analysis
have involved the “big five” livestock species: of global exchanges between the North and the
cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and chickens. Focusing South. Despite these limitations, the data do allow
mainly on these five species, this section draws the assessment of trends in, and the approximate
information from FAO’s DAD-IS Global Databank magnitude of, movements and exchange of live
and selected literature to provide a description animals, semen and embryos.
of the provenance and distribution the world’s
major breeds.
The terms “North” and “South” are used here 2 Driving forces and historical
to refer to developed countries and developing phases in gene flows
countries respectively. The information available
is often sketchy and incomplete. Statistics rarely Gene flows have been determined and
specify both the source and the destination influenced by a wide range of factors – cultural,
countries of breeding animals, and often military, organizational, institutional, political,
differentiate data by species rather than breed. market, technological, research, disease and
Other limitations include: regulatory. The relative importance of these
• there are no systematic records of breed factors has changed during the course of history.
population sizes – a breed’s presence in Broadly speaking, three distinct periods can be
many countries does not necessarily mean it distinguished in the pattern of global gene flow.
has a large global population; Prehistory to the eighteenth century. This phase
• breeds from temperate zones are often spanned about 10 000 years, from the early days
better defined and documented than of domestication to the late eighteenth century.
breeds from tropical regions and marginal During this time, genes spread as a result of the
areas; dispersal of domestic animals by means of gradual
• gene flows within large countries do not diffusion, migration, warfare, exploration,
show up in the international statistics, colonization and trade.
unlike flows between small countries – a Nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries. During
breed’s presence in many small countries the period from the beginning of the nineteenth
may exaggerate its actual worldwide century until about the middle of the twentieth
importance; and century, breeding organizations were established
• in contrast to plant genetic resources, no in the North. These organizations formalized
quantitative share of gene introgression the existence of numerous breeds, recorded
51
PART 1
their pedigrees and performance, and facilitated goats, cattle and pigs – were first domesticated
rapid improvements in output. The flow of in this region. Other centres of domestication
genes was mainly among countries in the North were Southeast Asia (pigs, swamp buffaloes and
(North–North flows), and from North to South. possibly chickens), the Indus Valley (chickens
The driving forces behind this movement were and riverine buffaloes), North Africa (cattle and
technological developments, the demand for donkeys), and the Andes of South America (llamas,
higher-producing animals, and the beginning of alpacas and guinea pigs). From these centres,
the commercialization of animal breeding in the domesticated animals spread gradually from
North. neighbour to neighbour, and also as their keepers
Mid-twentieth century to the present. During this migrated to new areas. Livestock husbandry
phase, gene flows have been propelled by the spread fairly rapidly throughout the Old World,
existence of commercial breeding companies in with the exception of sub-Saharan Africa, where
the North, production differentials between North movement was much slower, probably because of
and South, and rapid globalization. Technological endemic diseases (Clutton-Brock, 1999).
advances have made it possible to ship semen and Domestication and dispersal contributed to
embryos instead of live animals. More recently, it increased variability within each species. As animals
has become possible to transfer entire production adapted to new environments and were subjected
systems – to create controlled environments to different selection pressures, populations with
in other parts of the world. Furthermore, it is new characteristics developed. Even in early
becoming feasible to identify and isolate genes. historic times, selection was not only natural, but
Focus is shifting to individual genes, rather than also influenced by cultural preferences. These
traits or entire genotypes. There are emerging processes led to the development of many local
international legal frameworks which regulate breeds (Valle Zárate et al., 2006). Warfare and
exchange mechanisms for genetic material, and trade were important motors for the spread of
intellectual property rights (IPRs) are beginning animals such as horses and camels that are used
to be exerted. for transport and riding. A supply of good horses
These trends are ongoing, and have affected was a vital element of military power, and this
different parts of the world to different degrees. species dominated trade in genetic resources for
For example, in much of the world, breeding centuries.
stock is still traded without any involvement of Colonization of new areas was another
breeding organizations, much less of specialized important vehicle for gene flow. The Romans
breeding companies. Nevertheless, modern invested in livestock breeding, and there is
breeding approaches are increasingly being used archaeological evidence that their improved,
in the South, and are promoting the spread of larger-sized breeds were disseminated to the
specialized breeds and production systems. countries that they occupied. However, with the
decline of the Roman Empire, these improved
2.1 Phase 1: prehistory to animals faded away. Colonization also played an
the eighteenth century important role in later times: when Europeans
In the early phases of stock breeding, domesticated colonized new continents they always brought
animals were dispersed by gradual diffusion from their livestock with them (Box 7). It has been
their centres of domestication (see Section A). observed that Europeans managed to establish
One major centre of domestication was in western a permanent hold and cultural dominance only
Asia and the eastern Mediterranean. During what in temperate climates where European livestock
is now known as the “Neolithic revolution”, the also thrived (North America, southern South
four major mammalian livestock species – sheep, America, Australia, New Zealand and South
52
Africa). These regions now dominate the export From the 1850s onwards, gene flow in the form
of livestock and animal products, although most of registered pedigree animals became more
had no cattle, sheep, pigs or goats 500 years ago commercial (Valle Zárate et al., 2006). Breed
(Crosby, 1986). societies initially focused on setting standards
for external characteristics; performance testing
Box 7 began only in the early twentieth century.
Gene flows resulting from colonization Important prerequisites for selection for
high performance were the intensification of
The main domesticated species reached the New agriculture and the improvement of feeds. The
World and Australia only with the arrival of European exchange of genetic resources was facilitated by
explorers and colonizers. Columbus brought eight pigs the invention of steamships. By the end of the
from the Canary Islands to the West Indies in 1493, nineteenth century, European countries had also
where they multiplied rapidly. Pigs then followed in developed specialized legislation to support and
the footsteps of Pizarro to the Inca Empire. Explorers regulate animal breeding. Much of the gene
and others released pigs on remote islands to ensure flow was between European countries and their
a food supply for the next generation of transient respective colonies, but there was also exchange
Europeans. Populations had often become established within Europe, and from South to South. Because
before the islands were named and documented. European cattle breeds did not do well in the
Columbus also carried cattle, whose descendants humid tropics, Indian Ongole and Gir cattle were
were living as breeding herds in the West Indies brought to Brazil, and Sahiwal cattle from India
(1512), Mexico (1520s), Incan region (1530s) and and Pakistan were introduced to Kenya.
Florida (1565). In humid areas they took many
generations to adapt, but in more favourable 2.3 Phase 3: mid-twentieth century
environments they doubled their populations every 15 to the present
years or so. The majority of cattle in the Americas were Since about the middle of the twentieth
probably feral from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century, a series of technological advances have
centuries. The cattle of Iberian descent had long horns facilitated gene flow. Commercial use of semen
and were more agile than the British and French started in the 1960s, of embryos in the 1980s,
breeds later introduced to North America. and of sexed embryos in the mid-1990s (Valle
Zárate et al., 2006). Lack of artificial insemination
Source: Crosby (1986). (AI) coverage has meant slower gene flow in
developing countries and in remote areas.
Towards the end of the twentieth century,
2.2 Phase 2: nineteenth to gene flows to the South began to be fuelled by
mid-twentieth centuries a growing number of consumers with a taste for,
Until the end of the eighteenth century, and who could afford, meat, milk, cheese and
European farmers did not generally put much eggs – even in countries with no tradition of milk
emphasis on stock breeding. The introduction of consumption. The resulting expansion of intensive
the Arab horse into Britain stimulated livestock livestock production systems in developing
breeders to copy the Arab breeding practices countries has been termed the “livestock
of careful selection and maintaining pure lines. revolution”. Monogastric animals (pigs and
After the pioneering work of Robert Bakewell poultry) are increasing in numerical importance
(1725–1795), British breeders began to apply the because they efficiently convert feed into meat
same principles to their cattle and sheep, leading or eggs. Small ruminants, especially sheep, are
to the establishment of breeding societies and losing ground as grazing resources decline and
herd books in the early nineteenth century. the demand for wool decreases (FAO, 1999).
53
PART 1
Various factors now shape the flow of livestock demand for naturally grown beef has led to the
genes across national borders. These include the importation of British and French beef breeds
following: to Germany. There are predictions that pressure
Demand for optimal performance. Gene flows from the animal welfare lobby will promote the
are driven by the desire of producers and keeping of pigs in more extensive conditions,
breeders to obtain genotypes that perform including in outdoor systems. This would require
optimally in a given production environment the development of new strains that are able
(Peters and Meyn, 2005). Both push and pull to thrive under these conditions (Willis, 1998).
factors are involved. Exports generate profits, Slackening demand for wool is promoting the
which help pay for breeding activities and can spread of hair sheep.
be reinvested in breeding programmes. At the Animal health and hygiene standards. High
receiving end, motives for importing genetics standards of hygiene and disease-free status
can vary. Countries such as China and Brazil are enable a country to participate more easily
in the process of building up their own intensive in the market for genetic material. Australia,
production systems and breeding programmes. for example, is considered disease-free and
Eastern European countries need to raise faces no restrictions on exporting its genetic
the performance of their dairy sectors, while material. At the same time, it imposes strict
Mediterranean, Near and Middle Eastern, and quarantine standards to maintain this status
African countries traditionally import because of and accepts semen and embryo transfers rather
the high costs associated with developing their than live animals. Developing countries are at a
own breeding programmes. disadvantage because they often cannot fulfil
Organization of breeding. The market for livestock required standards. For instance, the Philippines
genetics is highly competitive. Demand is based on imports milk buffalo germplasm from Bulgaria
proven performance – a supplier can sell a bull’s rather than from India – a closer and cheaper
semen only if the bull has been shown to have source – because the latter can not meet
sired superior calves. This means that efficient international sanitary standards.
organization of breeding enterprises is decisive. Government policies. Governments often subsidize
It takes a long time to develop high-performing exports of their national genetics to assist their
strains or hybrids, so a small number of companies farmers, or they support the import of exotic
and countries have established a lead and other genetics to build up national production systems.
actors find it difficult to catch up. Breeding and The latter has often been financed by bilateral
global gene flow in poultry and pigs has become and international aid. Alternatively, governments
dominated by a few large companies that have sometimes restrict export of their genetics in an
been in business since the 1960s. Concentration attempt to monopolize them; examples include
is also increasing in the cattle breeding sector. South American countries that have banned the
In sheep, multi-tiered hybrid production is less export of camelids. History, however, shows that
common at present. An example is Australia’s attempts to limit the spread of genetic resources
Awassi Joint Venture, established to supply live are difficult to maintain. Merino sheep spread
sheep to the Middle East for slaughter (Mathias throughout the world after the fall of the Spanish
and Mundy 2005). In many parts of the South, monopoly, Turkey was unable to prevent the
this pattern of large-scale structured commercial global distribution of its Angora goat, and South
breeding has not yet taken hold. Africa could not prevent the transfer of its ostrich
Changes in consumer preferences. Changing genetic resources to other countries. History is
consumer preferences and newly emerging now repeating itself in the commercial sector, as
market demands influence gene flow. For instance, firms find it impossible to avoid the “leakage”
54
of genes from primary customers to the whole that they occur in more than one country (DAD-
industry, despite contractual arrangements IS, 2006). Some 70 percent of these belong to five
prohibiting pure-breeding with the outsourced species – 205 breeds of cattle, 234 of sheep, 87 of
animals (Schäfer and Valle Zárate, 2006; Alandia goats, 59 of pigs, and 156 of chickens. Exchanges
Robles et al., 2006; Musavaya et al., 2006). of these five species are discussed in detail below.
Ecological services. Use of livestock in landscape A description of their current global distribution
protection and biodiversity conservation – notably can be found in Section B.
in Europe – has led to new demands for climate- Other livestock species (water buffalo, yak,
tolerant, low-input breeds that can be kept horses, asses, camels, llamas, alpacas, reindeers,
outside even in harsh winters. ducks, geese and turkeys) do not have such large
Search for specific characteristics. Scientific populations, but are nevertheless important as
interest in specific genetic traits related to they are crucial to the survival of millions of poor
disease resistance, fertility and product quality, livestock keepers in developing countries and for
also contributes to gene flow, though on a the utilization of marginal areas.
relatively small scale. Fayoumi chickens from Figure 19 shows the number of countries in
Egypt, for example, were brought to the United which individual livestock breeds of the five major
States of America during the 1940s because of species are found. Note that the figure shows the
their resistance to viral diseases, and in 1996 numbers of countries where a breed is found,
the University of Göttingen imported frozen and not the size of the population. It is likely
embryos of Dorper sheep to study their suitability that in some countries an international breed
for meat production in Germany (Mathias and is documented but has a small population. The
Mundy, 2005). Similarly, Boer goats were brought graph shows all breeds reported from five or more
to Gissen University (also in Germany). countries. Each point in the graph corresponds to
a single breed; the top few breeds of each species
are named. For example, the most widespread
3 The big five dairy cattle breed, the Holstein-Friesian, is found
in 128 countries worldwide.
During the past two centuries, global livestock
numbers and the exchange of breeds and animal
genetic material have greatly increased. North–
North exchanges have prevailed. North–South
and South–South exchanges have been more
limited, and South–North flows have been the
least frequent. Movements and exchanges have
been particularly intensive in the dairy cattle, pig
and chicken sectors (Mathias and Mundy, 2005;
Valle Zárate et al., 2006).
Very often, breeds have been developed or
further improved outside their areas of origin,
and then exported to third countries. Examples
are the familiar Holstein-Friesian black and
white dairy cow, the American Brahman and the
Brazilian Nelore.
Nowadays, about 1 080 livestock breeds of all
species are recorded as “transboundary” – meaning
55
PART 1
FIGURE 19
Distribution of transboundary breeds
Number of countries
140
Holstein-Friesian
120
Large White s Cattle
| Sheep
Duroc
100 v Goat
Landrace z Pig
Jersey b Chicken
80
Saanen
Breeds Other Commercial
with Southern breeds breeds
60 ancestry, or (ancestry
Rhode Island Red bred in South not divulged)
Leghorn
40
Suffolk
20
0
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81
Rank order of breeds
3.1 Cattle
Cattle genetics are exchanged in the form of live and Switzerland, with small numbers coming
breeding animals (heifers, pregnant cows and from Canada and elsewhere. Imports from the
bulls), semen and embryos. Large numbers of live United States of America were restricted because
animals are traded each year, but the majority of disease considerations (Mergenthaler et al.,
are intended for fattening and slaughter rather 2006).
than for breeding. The high cost of transport The trade in semen is much larger than the
means that three zonal markets exist for live trade in live animals – semen is easier to transport
breeding animals: Europe, North America and and is not subject to such stringent health and
the Southwest Pacific. From 1993 to 2003, the quarantine restrictions. According to Thibier
15 countries that were then members of the and Wagner (2002), close to 20 million doses of
European Union (EU-15) exported more than semen were traded internationally in 1998. That
150 000 breeding heifers a year. Roughly half was about 8 percent of the total number of deep-
of these stayed within the EU-15; almost all frozen doses produced worldwide. North America
the rest went to North Africa, West Asia and and Europe were the major exporters, and South
Eastern Europe. At the same time, the EU-15 America was the major importer. North America
imported about 15 000 breeding heifers a year produced 70 percent of global semen exports, and
from outside, almost all from Eastern Europe the EU another 26 percent; the remainder came
56
PART 1
In 1991, three-quarters of global semen exports Several important breeds were developed
were of one breed – Holstein-Friesian. Other dairy on small islands (Jersey, Guernsey) or in remote
breeds accounted for another 13 percent, beef mountainous areas (Simmental, Brown Swiss,
breeds for about 10 percent, and tropical breeds, Aberdeen Angus, Piedmont, Galloway, Highland)
mainly Brahman, Red Sindhi and Sahiwal, for – locations which offered both isolation from
about 2 percent (Chupin and Thibier, 1995 cited other breeds and (in the case of mountains) the
in Mergenthaler et al., 2006). environmental stress needed to select for the
Trade in embryos has not reached the hardiness prized in these breeds.
magnitude of trade in semen. Nevertheless, small The spread accelerated in the 1800s. By 1950,
numbers of embryos have sometimes sufficed most European breeds had been exported to other
to build up a large population. Examples are countries in the North. Exchange has continued
France’s upgrading of its black and white cattle right up to the present time: for example, the
to Holstein-Friesian, which was achieved mainly French Maine-Anjou breed was first imported
through the import of fewer than 1 000 embryos into North America in 1969; Blonde d’Aquitaine,
from the United States of America (Meyn 2005 Salers and Tarentaise arrived in 1972. A breeders’
– personal communication cited in Mergenthaler association in the United States of America for
et al., 2006). the Parthenais breed was formed only in 1995.
Particularly in the United States of America
Breeds with European ancestry and Australia, European breeds have been
Breeds of European descent account for eight of further developed, and production of meat and
the top ten breeds, and 49 of the top 82 breeds milk often outstrips that achieved in their home
(those distributed to five or more countries – see areas. They have also been used as the basis of
Figure 19). By far the most widespread breed is new breeds suited to temperate areas. Examples
the Holstein-Friesian, which is reported in at least include Polled Hereford, Red Angus and Milking
128 countries, and in all regions (Figure 20). Next Devon in the United States of America. Indeed,
come Jersey (also a dairy breed, 82 countries), North America has become an important source
Simmental (dual-purpose, 70 countries), Brown of genetic material for European livestock
Swiss (dual-purpose, 68 countries), and Charolais producers.
(beef, 64 countries – see Figure 21). European breeds have also been successful in
Almost all the most successful European temperate areas of South America and in South
cattle breeds stem from northwestern Europe: Africa, as well as in the dry tropics. Numerous
principally the United Kingdom (11 breeds in attempts have been made to introduce them
the top 47), France (six breeds), Switzerland and into the humid tropics, but they have mostly
the Netherlands. Relatively few come from the failed (except in some highland and peri-urban
southern and eastern parts of the continent. Many areas) because the breeds are poorly adapted
of the successful breeds are based on traditional to the heat and low-quality forage, and often
breeds that emerged in the Middle Ages or suffer from parasites and diseases. Nevertheless,
earlier, often under the sponsorship of individual the top five European breeds (Holstein-Friesian,
noblemen, wealthy individuals or monasteries. Jersey, Simmental, Brown Swiss and Charolais)
They were formalized in the nineteenth century are reported in 11 or more countries in Africa,
with the formation of herd books and breeding 16 or more in Latin America and the Caribbean,
societies. This occurred first in the United and five or more in Asia. In Latin America and
Kingdom, and then on the European continent, the Caribbean, European cattle introduced by
in the Americas, and in the rest of the English colonists developed into various breeds, the
speaking world (Valle Zárate et al., 2006). most prominent of which is the Creole. European
58
PART 1
breeds have been crossed with various tropical Southern dairy breed, originates from Pakistan
breeds to create new composite breeds that are and India. It has been introduced to 12 African
more suited to the tropics (see under South Asian countries. Several South Asian breeds have been
and African breeds below). more successful abroad than at home (Box 8;
Figure 22) – presumably because abroad they are
Breeds with South Asian ancestry prized for their meat (unlike in many areas of
The second most successful group of breeds (in India, where cattle are mainly used for milk and
terms of their worldwide distribution) have South draught, and for cultural reasons often cannot be
Asian ancestry. They include the Brahman (ranked sold for slaughter).
ninth overall and found in 45 countries), Sahiwal Pure South Asian breeds have had little influence
(29 countries), Gir, Red Sindhi, Indo-Brazilian, in most developed countries. However, breeds
Guzerat and Nelore. These breeds are all of based on South Asian stock have had a major
the humped Bos indicus type, rather than the impact in the warmer parts of the United States
humpless Bos taurus (Figure 22). of America and in northern Australia, where they
Outside their home area, South Asian breeds have been bred primarily for beef production. From
have been most successful in tropical Latin there, they have been exported to many tropical
America and Africa. The Sahiwal, the best countries. The Brahman, for example (developed
in the United States of America based on stock
originally from India), is found in 18 countries in
Box 8 Latin America and 15 in Africa – figures similar to
Nelore cattle those for the Simmental, the most widely spread
European dual purpose breed in these regions.
The Nelore originates from Indian Zebu-type Ongole South Asian animals have also made a major
cattle which Brazil started to buy from India in the contribution to composite breeds used elsewhere
early 1900s. In Brazil the breed came to be known in the tropics. These include the Santa Gertrudis
as Nelore, after the district of Nellore in present-day (descended from Shorthorn × Brahman crosses,
Andhra Pradesh, India. The breed thrived in South and found in 34 countries around the world),
America, and in the 1950s Argentina started its own Brangus (Angus × Brahman, 16 countries),
breeding programme for the “Nelore Argentino”. Beefmaster (Shorthorn and Hereford × Brahman),
The Nelore was later exported to the United States Simbrah (Simmental × Brahman), Braford
of America and there became one of the progenitors (Brahman × Hereford), Droughtmaster (Shorthorn
of the Brahman. In 1995, the breed made up more × Brahman), Charbray (Charolais × Brahman) and
than 60 percent of Brazil’s 160 million cattle, and in Australian Friesian Sahiwal (Holstein-Friesian ×
2005 some 85 percent of Brazil’s 190 million cattle, Sahiwal). Virtually all this breeding work has been
had Nelore blood. done in the southern United States of America and
Ironically, while the Ongole has been successfully in Australia, beginning in the twentieth century.
established in a number of countries in North and Many of these breeds have been re-exported to
South America, the Caribbean, Southeast Asia and other countries, especially in the tropics, where
Australia, its population has greatly declined in its they generally perform better than the European
original range in coastal Andhra Pradesh, and it is pure-breeds.
qualitatively inferior to the population in Brazil. Other South Asian cattle breeds have not broken
out of their home region. They include the Hariana,
Source: Mathias and Mundy (2005). Siri, Bengali, Bhagnari, Kangayam and Khillari
breeds – which are found in two or more countries
in South Asia – along with numerous local breeds.
60
Breeds with African ancestry sheep than in cattle. It requires capital-intensive

African breeds account for relatively few of the production systems, and is important only where
breeds that have spread outside their home the use of fresh semen is practical, such as breeding
ranges. The N’dama, a trypanotolerant beef programmes for dairy sheep in France, Italy and
breed thought to have been developed in the Spain (Schäfer and Valle Zárate, 2006). Some 59
Fouta-Djallon highlands of Guinea, is reported breeds of sheep are reported from five or more
in 20 countries, all of them in West and Central countries. The most widely distributed breeds are
Africa (Figure 22). It ranks only equal 20th among the Suffolk, Merino and Texel, followed by the
breeds in terms of the number of countries where Corriedale and Barbados Black Belly.
it is reported. The Boran, a breed developed by
Borana pastoralists in Ethiopia and improved Breeds with European ancestry
by ranchers in Kenya (Homann et al., 2006), is European sheep breeds are the most widespread
reported from 11 countries (nine in East, Central in the world, but are not as dominant as European
and Southern Africa, plus Australia and Mexico). cattle breeds. They account for five of the top
The Africander is South Africa’s most popular ten breeds worldwide, and 35 of the 59 breeds
native breed; it is reported from eight other reported from ten or more countries (Figure 19).
countries in Africa, as well as from Australia. The The top three breeds are all European in origin:
Tuli from Zimbabwe is found in eight countries Suffolk (a meat/wool breed from eastern England,
(four in Southern Africa, plus Argentina, Mexico, found in 40 countries in all regions), Texel (a meat
Australia and the United States of America). breed from the Netherlands, 29 countries) and
African breeds have been crossed with Merino (a wool breed from Spain) (Figure 23).
European breeds to produce breeds such as the The Merino would probably rank first if all its
Bonsmara (the result of Africander × Hereford many derivative breeds were counted – it has
and Shorthorn crosses in South Africa – see been widely cross-bred and selected to produce a
Figure 22), Senepol (an N’dama × Red Poll cross, multitude of new breeds.
bred in the US Virgin Islands and then imported
into the United States of America) and Belmont
Red (Africander × Hereford and Shorthorn
crosses, bred in Australia). As the examples show,
this cross-breeding has been carried out both in
Africa (mainly South Africa) and elsewhere.
Breeds from other regions

Very few breeds from other parts of the world
have spread far beyond their original ranges.
Cattle from Central, East and Southeast Asia have
had little impact on the world’s herds.
3.2 Sheep
Sheep are among the most widely distributed
domestic species. They are multifunctional,
adaptable, and there are no religious restrictions
on their use for meat (at least among the
dominant faiths). Breeding sheep are mainly
exchanged as live animals. AI is less successful in
61
Eight of the top European-origin breeds developed during the past three to four centuries
hail from southern and eastern England; three throughout the world (Shrestha, 2005, cited in
originated in France, while others came from Schäfer and Valle Zárate, 2006). Very widespread
Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, the Russian breeds with mixed European–non-European
Federation and Spain. As with cattle, many of ancestry include the Barbados Black Belly and the
these breeds are traditional landraces that were Dorper.
formalized into breeds in the nineteenth century.
European sheep breeds have spread to many African breeds
other countries. They have been most successful African sheep have been relatively successful. They
in the temperate areas of North America and the (or their descendents) account for at least 11 of
Southwest Pacific. Transfers began with the first the 29 breeds found in ten or more countries. The
European settlement of these areas, and have West African Dwarf is found in 24 countries: 17 in
continued up to the present. Canada is a frequent Africa, three in Europe and four in the Caribbean
staging-post for European breeds before they (Figure 23). The Black Headed Persian, which
are imported into the United States of America, comes from Somalia, has spread to 18 countries,
presumably because of the latter country’s including 13 in Africa. From South Africa it was
regulations to prevent the spread of disease. exported to the Caribbean.
The EU-15 countries are net exporters of African breeds have also contributed to new
pure-bred sheep, with Spain playing a dominant breeds developed elsewhere in the world. The
role. Portugal, France and Germany also export most successful is the Barbados Black Belly, a hair
small numbers of breeding sheep (Schäfer and breed that emerged on the Caribbean island of
Valle Zárate, 2006). Exchange takes place mainly Barbados in the mid-1600s and which has now
among the EU-15 countries, with Eastern Europe found its way to 26 countries in the Caribbean
as an important additional destination. and tropical America, and has also been exported
North America, Australia and New Zealand to Europe, Malaysia and the Philippines. The
have active sheep breeding programmes. Three South African Dorper breed is the second most
breeds developed in these areas have spread common breed in South Africa, and has spread to
widely: the Corriedale, which is the fourth most 25 countries, mainly in Africa and Latin America.
widespread breed; the Katahdin (based on a Its history illustrates the complex nature of gene
cross between African and European breeds), and flows (Box 9). The Katahdin was bred in the
the Poll Dorset. All are based at least in part on United States of America from crosses between
European progenitors. West African Hair sheep and the Wiltshire Horn,
European breeds have been exported to only a and has been widely exported to Latin America.
few countries in the South, primarily the Merino The St Croix is descended from West African Hair
(pure-breeds in 11 countries in Africa, six in Asia, sheep (or possibly a Wiltshire Horn × Criollo cross).
and five in Latin America and the Caribbean), It was bred in the US Virgin Islands before being
and the Suffolk (five African countries, four in exported to other countries in the Americas and
Asia and 12 in Latin America and the Caribbean). elsewhere.
Latin America and the Caribbean has been the
destination of more European breeds than have
other parts of the developing world. The Criollo,
descended from early European imports, is
present in nearly every country in Latin America
and the Caribbean (Figure 23).
European breeds have contributed to many of
the 440-plus composite breeds that have been
63
PART 1
Box 9
Continuous repackaging of genes – Dorper sheep
The story of the Dorper sheep demonstrates the property of producing lambs at any time of the year.
complex nature of gene flows, and the continuous These sheep were initially known as Portland sheep,
recomposition of traits which breeders undertake in but were then improved by mating with Southdown
response to changing market conditions. Dorper sheep animals.
were created in the 1930s in South Africa by crossing In 1995 Dorpers were imported to Germany, where
Black Headed Persians with Dorset Horns. they are gaining popularity because they do not
The Black Headed Persian breed actually has require labour-intensive shearing in a situation where
nothing to do with Persia, but was the result of four the market for wool has declined. Australian Dorper
animals from Somalia that reached South Africa in breeding animals are now exported to Viet Nam and
1868 on a ship that had originated in Persia, but India. Furthermore, the Dorper has been crossed
which picked up the sheep in Somalia. One of the four with the Damara, a South African fat-tail breed to
sheep died, but the remaining animals formed the produce the Damper breed. Damper rams are crossed
nucleus for a Black Headed Persian population which with Merino ewes to produce mutton animals which
was registered in the South African stud book in 1906. are shipped from Australia to the Middle East for
The Dorset Horn breed had originated from slaughter.
crossing Spanish sheep with native English stock
during the sixteenth century. It had the unique Source: Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information
System (DAGRIS) http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org/ (2006).
FIGURE 24
Gene flow of improved Awassi and Assaf sheep from Israel
United
Kingdom
Spain Albania
Hungary
Eastern Europe and
Mediterranean Bulgaria Central Asia
Countries
Portugal Romania
Kyrgyzstan
Italy Former Yugoslavia
Cyprus Kazakhstan
Turkey Islamic Republic of Iran
Israel Near and Middle

East
Jordan United Arab Emirates

Peru
Ethiopia
Tropical New
Countries India
Zealand
Southwest Pacific
Myanmar
Australia
Source: Rummel et al. (2006).
64
Other African breeds have remained more or With the exception of the top few widely
less confined to the continent. Examples are the distributed breeds, goat breeds are much less
Fulani from West Africa (ten countries), the Uda widespread than either cattle or sheep. The
from around Lake Chad (nine countries), and the top eight breeds (Saanen, Anglo-Nubian, Boer,
Black Maure from Mauritania (six countries). All Toggenburg, Alpine, West African Dwarf, Angora
these breeds are kept by pastoralists, who migrate and Creole) are all distributed in 24 or more
long distances and trade in livestock – accounting countries and in several regions (Figure 19).
for the widespread distribution of these breeds in However, there is then a sharp drop: the next
contiguous countries. most successful breed is the Sahelian, which is
found in only 14 countries, all but one of which
Breeds from Asia and the Near and are in West Africa. All in all, fewer goat breeds
Middle East have spread outside their home areas. Only three
In contrast to Asian cattle, very few sheep breeds breeds (Saanen, Anglo-Nubian and Toggenburg)
from these regions have spread outside their are reported from all regions of the world. In
home ranges – despite the fact that Asia has developed countries, the number of goat breeds
around 40 percent of the world’s sheep. The fell drastically during the twentieth century as a
exceptions are the Karakul and the Awassi. The result of the increasing importance of cattle.
Karakul, an ancient breed from Turkmenistan
and Uzbekistan, is now found in substantial Breeds with European ancestry
numbers in southern Africa, and has also spread Purely European breeds account for only six of the
to India, Australia, Brazil, Europe and the United top 25 breeds (those distributed in five or more
States of America (Figure 23). The Awassi, a breed countries). Most originate in the Alps, or were
originally from Iraq, was improved in Israel around bred from stock coming from this area (Saanen,
the 1960s, and has since spread to 15 countries Toggenburg and various other Alpine breeds).
in southern and eastern Europe, Central Asia, Also among the top breeds (ranked seventh) is
Australia and the Near and Middle East (Figures the Angora, a mohair breed from the area around
23 and 24). Transfer to tropical countries in Africa Ankara in modern-day Turkey. This ancient breed
and Asia has had only limited success (Rummel et fell out of fashion when Merino sheep became
al., 2006). increasingly available for wool production, but
with the resurgence of interest in mohair in the
3.3 Goats 1970s, several countries started to improve their
Goats are of major economic significance Angora populations (Alandia Robles et al., 2006).
for smallholders in the South, particularly in All the six top European breeds are also found
ecologically marginal areas such as drylands and outside Europe. The Saanen dairy goat is the most
mountains, where other domestic animals cannot widely distributed breed – found in 81 countries
easily be kept. They are of limited importance in and in all regions of the world (Figure 25).
Northern agriculture, though some high-yielding European goats have also provided breeding
dairy breeds have been developed in central material for derivative breeds such as the Anglo-
Europe through upgrading local stock with dairy Nubian, Boer (Figure 26), Creole and Criollo.
breeds of Swiss origin. Rising living standards in
the Near and Middle East, and the migration of African breeds
people who prefer goat meat, have increased the African breeds make up seven of the 25 most
demand for meat goats, furthering the spread widely distributed goat breeds. They fall into two
of the Boer goat during the past few decades groups: composites (usually developed through
(Alandia Robles et al., 2006). crosses with European breeds), which are
65
PART 1
FIGURE 25
Distribution of Saanen goats
Saanen
Present
Not reported
FIGURE 26
Distribution of Boer goats
Boer
Present
Not reported
widespread outside Africa; and breeds that have Indian goats, and now reported from 56 countries
remained largely within Africa. In the former all over the world), the Boer (bred in South Africa
category are the Anglo-Nubian (developed in the from indigenous, European and Indian animals,
United Kingdom by crossing British, African and and now found in 53 countries), and the Criollo
66
(a Caribbean breed with African and European After 1945, national, regional and commercial
forebears). Breeds that have remained largely pig breeding programmes in Europe and North
confined to Africa include the West African Dwarf America began to develop. The primary focus
(25 countries), Sahelian, Small East African and was on home markets, but pure-breeds were also
Tuareg. Where they have been exported to other exported for cross-breeding: Hampshire, Duroc
countries, these breeds are kept in small numbers and Yorkshire from the United States of America
as experimental flocks or by hobby breeders. to Latin America and Southeast Asia; and Large
White (Figure 27) and Swedish Landrace from
Breeds from Asia and the Near and the United Kingdom to Australia, New Zealand,
Middle East South Africa, Kenya and Zimbabwe (Musavaya et
The mountains of Southwest and Central Asia al., 2006).
are the original home of goats. The wild bezoar
and markhor are still found there. Other breeds
from this region include the Cashmere, Damascus,
Syrian Mountain, Russian Central Asian Local Box 10
Coarse-Haired and its derivative the Soviet Mohair. Hybrid pigs
The Damascus has recently been improved in
Cyprus and has gained international recognition Hybrid breeding programmes use crosses between
as an outstanding dairy breed for tropical and specialized sire and dam lines that have been
subtropical regions. While population numbers developed through intense within-line selection of
have remained small, the breed has spread breeds including German Landrace, Piétrain, German
around the Mediterranean basin (Alandia Robles Large White and Leicoma (Mathias and Mundy 2005).
et al., 2006). Whole herds of boars and gilts are exported as
South Asia has over 200 million goats – one- grandparent and great-grandparent stock for breeding
quarter of the world’s population. However, programmes in other countries and regions – a
South Asian breeds are confined largely to process conducted under the supervision and often the
Asia. Only three make it into the top 25 breeds ownership of the exporting company. The firms usually
worldwide – the Jamnapari, Beetal and Barbari. do not sell pure-bred pigs except under contracts that
East Asia has another quarter of the world’s goat prohibit or control pure-breeding. Furthermore, the
population, but none of the world’s top 25 breeds producers have to allow the breeding company to
(unless the Cashmere, whose range includes part examine their record systems and to pay a “genetic
of the subregion, is included). royalty” every time a new breeding animal produced
within the multiplication unit is transferred to the
Other breeds breeding unit (Alandia Robles et al., 2006).
Three breeds developed in the Americas make it The largest commercial suppliers of breeding pigs
into the top 25: the Creole, the Criollo and the are the British firm PIC (now Genus), which dominates
La Mancha. All were developed from animals the market in the United States of America, JSR (also
imported by European colonists. based in the United Kingdom), and Topigs and Hyporc
of the Netherlands.
3.4 Pigs For reasons of biosecurity, some companies sustain
In the eighteenth century, small light-boned pigs nucleus breeding herds in Canada. PIC, for example,
from China and Southeast Asia were brought to has such a herd in Saskatchewan. Many international
Europe. The combination of European and Asian pig transfers originate from this herd, which contains
genetic material laid the foundation for the breeds or lines sourced from all over the world
creation of modern European pig breeds. (Alandia Robles et al., 2006).
67
PART 1
FIGURE 27
Distribution of Large White pigs
Large White
Present
Not reported
In the late 1970s, commercial operations (91 countries), Hampshire (54 countries) and
started producing fattening pigs through hybrid Piétrain (35 countries). Breeds from Europe
breeding programmes (Box 10). and United States of America also completely
There are no public data on the export of dominate the list of 21 pig breeds reported in five
hybrid pigs, but it is likely that they exceed the or more countries – 15 are European breeds, all
trade in pure-bred breeding animals reported in from northwest and central Europe: six from the
export statistics. The transfer of living animals United Kingdom, three from the Netherlands,
dominates. The use of semen, embryos and two each from Belgium and Denmark, one from
other biotechnologies is increasing, but still plays Germany, and one that originated in the former
only a small role. The main source countries of Austro-Hungarian Empire. Four of the remaining
pig breeding material are the United Kingdom, breeds are from the United States of America,
the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Belgium, and one is a commercial strain supplied by PIC, a
Hungary and the United States of America. Strong large British pig breeder (see Box 10).
breeding enterprises also exist in the South, for
example in Thailand, the Philippines and China North American breeds
(Alandia Robles et al., 2006). The most widespread breed from the United States
of America is the Duroc (93 countries, ranked
European breeds second worldwide). The origins of this reddish
The worldwide distribution of pigs is dominated breed are unknown, but may include animals
by just five breeds, all of them from Europe or from Guinea in West Africa, Spain, Portugal and
the United States of America: the Large White the United Kingdom. The other breeds from the
(117 countries), Duroc (93 countries), Landrace United States of America in the top 21 worldwide
68
are the Hampshire (developed in New Hampshire North American breeds

from British stock in the 1800s, 54 countries), the Chickens were introduced to North America
Poland China (from various sources, 13 countries), by the Spanish and then by other Europeans in
and the Chester White (from British stock, six the 1500s. These birds gradually developed into
countries). distinct breeds. North American breeds now
account for three of the top five most widely
Other breeds distributed breeds worldwide, and seven of the
The only other breed in the top 21 is the Pelon, 67 breeds reported in five or more countries. The
a miniature from Central America found in top three are Rhode Island Red, Plymouth Rock
seven countries. Despite the huge numbers of and New Hampshire. All three are dual-purpose
pigs in East Asia (more than half the world’s layers/broilers developed in the northeastern
total population), this region contributes none United States of America.
of the top 21 breeds. Asian pigs have, however,
contributed to the world’s most dominant pig European breeds
breeds, as many European breeds are reputed to Breeds that definitively originated in Europe
have some Chinese ancestry. account for 26 of the 67 chicken breeds reported
in five or more countries. The Leghorn mentioned
3.5 Chickens above is the most widespread; it is found in 51
Chickens are the oldest type of poultry. However, countries, and ranks second overall. It is also an
the most important breeds developed only important contributor to commercial strains.
in the second half of the nineteenth century, The second most common European breed is the
including the White Leghorn, New Hampshire Sussex from the United Kingdom, which is found
and Plymouth Rock. White Leghorns are based on in 17 countries (tenth overall).
Italian country chickens that reached the United
States of America in the 1820s, where they were Commercial strains
selected for egg yield. They were re-imported to Commercial strains dominate the worldwide
Europe after the First World War. distribution of chickens, accounting for 19 of the
Chicken breeds are divided between layers (used top 67 breeds. Because the companies involved
mainly for egg production), broilers (for meat), keep their breeding information secret, there
dual-purpose breeds (meat and eggs), fighting is no information on the provenance of these
breeds and ornamental breeds. In the North, strains. However, most appear to be derived from
commercial strains dominate the production of White Leghorn, Plymouth Rock, New Hampshire
meat and eggs, while local breeds are restricted and White Cornish (Campbell and Lasley, 1985).
to the hobby sector. In the South, however, local Commercial strains are controlled by a small number
breeds continue to play an important role; in of transnational companies based in northwestern
some countries they make up 70–80 percent of Europe and the United States of America. There
the chicken population (Guèye, 2005; FAO, 2006). has been further consolidation in the industry in
Chickens in the hobby sector look very different recent years. Today, only two primary breeding
from each other, but that does not necessarily companies (Erich Wesjohann based in Germany and
mean they are genetically very diverse (Hoffmann Hendrix Genetics from the Netherlands) dominate
et al., 2004). The same may be true for indigenous the international layer market, and three primary
breeds in developing countries (FAO, 2006). breeders (Erich Wesjohann, Hendrix Genetics
and Tyson, a company from the United States of
America) dominate the market for broilers. The
companies maintain many separate breeding lines
69
PART 1
Box 11 The only Australian breed in the top 67 breeds is

The chicken breeding industry the Australorp, derived from the Black Orpington,
a British breed. Reported from 16 countries, this
breed ranks 12th overall in terms of distribution.
Breeding companies have developed a series of Its claim to fame is that it holds the world record
lines, each with a set of desirable characteristics, for egg-laying – a hen once laid 364 eggs in 365
such as egg-laying ability or high growth rate. days.
These lines are then crossed with each other, and
then with still more lines, to produce hybrid birds 3.6 Other species
that lay the eggs or produce the broilers that end Gene flow has also been significant in other
up on consumers’ tables. The companies closely livestock species. Among horses, for example,
guard their pure-line breeding stock. The structure the Arabian breed is the most successful on a
of the industry is illustrated in Figure 48 (in Part 4 world scale. It has had unique influence on horse
– Section D). Developing pure-lines with desirable breeds throughout Europe and has spread to
characteristics is costly and time consuming; new 52 countries. The Pekin Duck breed originated
entrants to the breeding industry would have to in the 1870s in the United States of America,
invest large sums to break into the market, so it is based on a founder population from China. It is
cheaper to rely on existing suppliers of breeding now the most widespread duck breed, reported
stock. The large breeding companies lack the local in 35 countries worldwide. In the nineteenth
presence and expertise to penetrate new markets, century, dromedaries were exported to Australia,
and so often license local companies to act as North America, South Africa, Brazil, and even
distributors of their breeding stock to outgrowers. Java. While they immediately died of disease in
Java, the Australian deserts were such a suitable
Source: Mathias and Mundy (2005). environment that large feral herds established
themselves. From their original home in Asia,
yaks have been introduced to the Caucasus, North
(Box 11), and different units within a company may America (3 000 animals) and many countries in
even compete with one another for market share Europe. They were imported to Europe mainly
(Flock and Preisinger, 2002; company websites). as a curiosity, but have proved to have certain
advantages for mountain husbandry systems
Breeds from other areas as they require next to no inputs. Their meat
The most widespread breed not included in the can be marketed and they have tourist value.
categories above is the Aseel, which hails from From the United States of America they were
India, and is reported from 11 countries, ranking further disseminated to Argentina. Domesticated
only 17th in the world. It is followed by several reindeer from Siberia were brought to Alaska in
Chinese breeds: the Brahma and Cochin (which 1891, and from there were introduced to Canada.
were developed further in the United States of The species was introduced to Iceland between
America) and the Silkie (a breed with fur-like 1771 and 1787, and subsequently turned feral.
feathers). Other Asian breeds are considered In 1952 they were introduced from Norway into
as “ornamental” in the West: Sumatra (from Greenland (Benecke, 1994).
Indonesia, eight countries), Malay Game and
Onagadori (a long-tailed breed from Japan).
Also worth mentioning is the Jungle Fowl (five
countries) from Southeast Asia, which is the
ancestor of modern chickens.
70
4 Impacts of gene flows on

diversity
Gene flow can both enhance and reduce diversity. Portuguese breeds to South America, which
The type of impact depends on a number of factors, eventually resulted in the hardy Criollo
which include the environmental suitability in breeds. Another is the spread of Merino
the receiving country, and the organizational sheep through much of Europe and to many
structures on both the receiving and the providing countries elsewhere in the world.
side (Mathias and Mundy, 2005). Importantly, the • Imported animals or breeds are crossed with
amount of material transferred is not indicative the local livestock, and synthetic breeds
of its impact. There have been cases where the are developed which have characteristics
import of a handful of animals had an enormous of both parent breeds. For example, the
effect on breed development. In other cases, cross-breeding of Chinese and Southeast
large numbers of animals were imported without Asian pigs with European stock led to the
much effect. development of fast-growing, precocious
During the first two phases of gene flow pig breeds in the 1880s. In South America,
described above, which spanned the period from the beef industry developed after breeds
the beginning of animal husbandry in prehistory such as Ongole and Gir were imported and
to the mid-twentieth century, gene flow generally cross-bred with the local Criollo. Structured
enhanced diversity. However, during the past four cross-breeding programmes can also serve
to five decades the development and expansion of to reduce the loss of diversity if they create
intensive livestock production and the export of a justification for the maintenance of pure-
entire production systems have led to a reduction bred populations of local breeds that would
in diversity through the large-scale replacement otherwise decline.
of local breeds with a small number of globally • Selective use of “fresh blood” in herd book
successful breeds. breeds. Judicious infusion of “fresh blood”
This process has already run its course in by discriminate use of sires from different
North America and Europe, where 50 percent breeds has often been used by breeders to
of documented breeds are classified as extinct, maintain the vitality of otherwise closed
critical or endangered. It is now being replicated gene pools. An example is the occasional
in those developing countries, such as China that introduction of English or Arabian
give priority to intensive production systems and thoroughbred sires into local German horse
have the resources to establish them. breeds.
• Targeted transfer of gene(s) for
4.1 Diversity-enhancing gene flow specific characteristics. This has become
Throughout history, gene flow has been crucial possible with advances in statistics
to the development of diversity, which in turn and biotechnology. An example is the
enabled livestock keepers to adapt to new introduction of the Booroola gene encoding
situations and requirements. litter size into improved Awassi sheep in
Gene flow enhances diversity in the following Israel to create the Afec Awassi. The gene
situations: can be traced to a flock of Indian Bengal
• Imported animals or breeds adapt to the sheep imported into Australia at the end
local environment, and a local variety of the eighteenth century. In 1993, the
of the imported breed develops. One discovery of a genetic marker for the
example is the introduction of Spanish and gene made it possible to identify carriers.
71
PART 1
The gene and its marker have since been complete in Europe and North America, but is
patented (Mathias and Mundy, 2005; now being repeated in many developing countries
Rummel et al., 2006). that have so far retained a large number of
The following quotation taken from Cemal and indigenous breeds. It is difficult to quantify this
Karaca (2005) provides several other examples effect, because the necessary data have not been
of such “major genes” (along with relevant compiled, and because other factors have also
references for further reading): contributed to the erosion of diversity. However,
“[in sheep, the] Inverdale gene affecting it is no exaggeration to say that the South will be
ovulation rate (Piper and Bindon, 1982; the hotspot of breed diversity loss in the twenty-
Davis et al., 1988) and the callipyge gene first century (Mathias and Mundy, 2005).
affecting meat production (Cockett et al., v In Viet Nam, the percentage of indigenous
1993); in cattle, the double muscling gene sows declined from 72 percent of the total
affecting meat production (Hanset and population in 1994 to only 26 percent in
Michaux, 1985a,b); in pigs, the halothane 2002. Of its 14 local breeds, five breeds
sensitivity and the RN genes affecting meat are vulnerable, two are in a critical state,
quality (Archibald and Imlah, 1985), and and three are facing extinction (Huyen et
the oestrogen receptor locus affecting litter al., 2006).
size (Rothschild et al., 1996); and in poultry, v In Kenya, introduction of the Dorper sheep
the naked-neck gene affecting heat breed has caused the almost complete
tolerance and the dwarf gene affecting disappearance of pure-bred Red Maasai
body size (Merat, 1990).” sheep (see Box 95 in Part 4 – Section F).
Markers for genes responsible for desirable Dilution and disintegration of local breeds.
traits make it possible to select carriers of the trait Local breeds have often been diluted by
in question and use these animals for breeding indiscriminate cross-breeding with imported stock,
in marker assisted introgression programmes. often without significant gains in production
Experiences from the few existing programmes levels or other desirable characteristics. In India,
indicate that the method could bring economic for example, the government has supported
benefits in developing countries. However, use of cross-breeding with Holstein-Friesian, Danish
this technology should be decided on a case-by-case Red, Jersey and Brown Swiss for many decades.
basis, and will work only against the background This has led to dilution of local breeds, but often
of a sound existing breeding programme and it has not had much effect on production levels.
intensive data recording (FAO, 2007). The increased milk production in India can largely
be attributed to the greater use of buffaloes and
4.2 Diversity-reducing gene flow structural changes in the dairy sector (Mathias
Replacement of local breeds. Gene flow reduces and Mundy, 2005). Indiscriminate promotion of
diversity when high-performance breeds and cross-breeding with exotic breeds can result in the
intensive production systems replace local breeds total disintegration of local breeds. Upgrading of
and production systems. Since the mid-twentieth Bos indicus cattle breeds with Northern Bos taurus
century, a few high-performance breeds, usually breeds often has negative effects on fertility.
of European descent and including Holstein-
Friesian and Jersey cattle, Large White, Duroc 4.3 Diversity-neutral gene flow
and Landrace pigs, Saanen goats, and Rhode The flow of breeds and genes has often had
Island Red and Leghorn chickens, have spread no sustained effect on local biodiversity in the
throughout the world, and have often crowded receiving country. Many efforts to introduce
out the traditional breeds. This process is largely breeds into a new country have failed. This has
72
been most apparent in the case of the import of genetic resources has shown that governments
European breeds into the humid tropics – large rather than farmers benefit from ABS regimes.
sums have been spent on shipping animals Implementation of such concepts would mean
around the globe, but they have failed to become that governments would have to give permission
established in their new homes. for all transfers of genetic material across national
borders and set the conditions under which these
4.4 The future take place. This could reduce the ability to form
How gene flow will affect diversity in the future new breeds and damage the business of livestock
will depend primarily on the policy and legislative breeders, as well as harm agricultural economies.
frameworks that are now in the process of Because of fears of biopiracy, countries might be
being developed. In the context of the ongoing hesitant to give official access to their genetic
“livestock revolution”, it seems likely that the resources.
transfer of pig and cattle breeding systems will The greater use of intellectual property rights
continue and even increase in pace in the rapidly (IPR) regulations also has the potential to restrict
developing countries of the South. The crowding the exchange of AnGR. Trade secrets and licensing
out of local breeds is, thus, set to accelerate agreements are already the rule in commercial
in many developing countries, unless special poultry and pig breeding, leading to control
provisions are made for their in situ conservation over genes within a concentrated private sector.
by providing livestock keepers with appropriate Use of the patent system to obtain control over
support. breeding processes could further concentrate
However, countries are becoming increasingly animal breeding in a few hands.
concerned about the effect of indiscriminate
imports on their indigenous breeds. For example,
Japan recently announced its intention to protect References
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indications” (similar to trademarks) for products
Alandia Robles, E., Gall, C. & Valle Zárate, A. 2006.
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Musavaya & C. Schäfer, eds. Gene flow in animal
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resulting in negative impacts on the livelihoods Archibald, A.L. & Imlah, P. 1985. The halothane
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goats, by J.H.J. van der Werf. In E.P. Guimaraes, J. gallus): autres genes que ceux affectant la taille.
Ruane, B.D. Scherf, A.R. Sonnino & J.D. Dargie, eds. Productions Animales, 3(5): 355–368.
Marker-assisted selection: current status and future
perspectives in crops, livestock, forestry and fish.
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Mergenthaler, M., Momm, H. & Valle Zárate, A. Thibier, M. & Wagner, H.G. 2002. World statistics for
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K. Musavaya & C. Schäfer, eds. Gene flow in animal Science, 74: 203–212.
Valle Zárate, A., Musavaya, K. & Schäfer, C. 2006.
trends, pp. 241–280. GTZ, BMZ.
Gene flow in animal genetic resources: a study on
Musavaya, K., Mergenthaler, M. & Valle Zárate, A. status, impact and trends. GTZ, BMZ.
2006. Global gene flow of pigs. In A.Valle Zárate,
Willis, M. 1998. Dalton’s introduction to practical animal
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breeding. 4th edition. Oxford, UK. Blackwell Science.
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des internationalen Marktes für Tiergenetik.
Züchtungskunde, 77(6): 436–356.
Piper, L.R. & Bindon, B.M. 1982. Genetic segregation

for fecundity in Booroola Merino sheep. In R.A.
Barton & D.W. Robinson, eds. Proceedings of the
World Congress on Sheep and Beef Cattle Breeding,
Volume 1, pp. 395–400. Palmerston North, New
Zealand. The Dunmore Press Ltd.
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C., Wang, L., Short, T., Eckardt, G., Sasaki, S.,
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der Steen, H., Mileham, A. & Plastow, G. 1996.
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75
Section D
Uses and values of

animal genetic resources
1 Introduction
This section presents an overview of the figures are dominated by Australia and New
importance of AnGR to world agriculture, their Zealand). It is, however, interesting to note the
contribution to the livelihoods of farmers and historical trends with regard to the contribution
herders, and their broader social and cultural of livestock to agricultural GDP. As shown in
importance. The first chapter outlines the Figure 28, the trend for the developed regions
significance of livestock production in the various has been slightly downwards over the past 30
regions of the world in terms of economic output, years. Conversely, in most developing regions
land use and employment. Regional differences (Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, and the
in the importance of livestock (overall and by Near and Middle East) there has been a rise in
species) are explored by presenting data on the importance of livestock. The exception is the
patterns of livestock distribution or “density”. This Africa region, where the contribution of livestock
is followed by a discussion of the production of production declined after having reached a peak
food, fibre, hides and skins. Other uses of livestock in the 1980s.
such as the supply of inputs to crop production, The raw figures for livestock production’s
transport, social and cultural roles, and the contribution to the economy do not provide
provision of environmental services are then a complete picture of the socio-economic
considered – these descriptions draw largely on significance of livestock keeping. In many parts
the information provided in the Country Reports. of the world it is an important element in the
Finally, the particular significance of livestock in livelihoods of very large numbers of people, and
the livelihoods of the poor is discussed. contributes more than the marketable products
that are considered in economic statistics. Data
on the total numbers of livestock keepers are not
2 Contribution to national available at global or regional levels. Figures are
economies available at community, district or country levels,
but at a larger scale, gaps in the data mean that
In all regions, livestock contribute significantly accurate estimations are difficult to make – see
to food production and economic output. The Thornton et al. (2002) for a discussion of mapping
relative importance of agriculture in total GDP is livestock and poverty in the developing world.
greatest in developing regions, with the highest The proportion of the population employed in
proportion being in Africa (Figure 29). Within the agriculture, as shown in Table 24, is a means of
agricultural sector, the contribution of livestock indicating the relative importance of farming as a
also varies from region to region, with rather livelihood activity in the different regions of the
higher proportions being found in the developed world. In both Africa and Asia, the majority of
regions (and the Southwest Pacific region where the population continues to make a living from
77
PART 1
agriculture. The livelihoods of a majority of these in agriculture – with Asia being the region where
people will depend to a greater or lesser extent land is most scarce in this respect. The most striking
on livestock. In India for example it has been contrast to the figures for Asia is presented
estimated that at least 70 percent of the rural by Australia – an industrialized country where
population keep livestock of some kind (Arya et climatic conditions result in a low rural population
al., 2002), and in the state of Assam, the figure is density. This country, along with the less extreme
put at almost 90 percent (Sarkar, 2001). case of New Zealand, makes the Southwest Pacific
The farming system and the types of livestock the region with the largest amount of land per
kept are inevitably influenced by the amount of agricultural worker. The second region in this
agricultural land available relative to the size of the respect is North America, where the concentration
agricultural workforce – the latter being strongly process that has taken place in agriculture in
influenced by the degree of industrialization recent decades has resulted in very low levels of
and economic development. As Table 24 shows, employment in farming.
there is considerable variation between regions in Besides its socio-economic importance, livestock
terms of the amount of land per person working production also plays a very significant role in terms
FIGURE 28
Contribution of agriculture and livestock to total GDP by region
Percent
20
18
Agriculture
16
Livestock
14
12
10
0
Africa Asia Europe & Latin America & Near & North America Southwest
the Caucasus the Caribbean Middle East Pacific
Source: World Bank, figures for 2001.

Proportional contribution of agriculture and livestock based on current international dollar (Int.$)4.
4
International dollar (Int.$) is a value which corrects for disparities in purchasing power between national economies. The conversion
factors to achieve purchasing power parity (PPP) take into account differences in the relative prices of goods and services – particularly
non-tradables – and therefore provide a better overall measure of the real value of output produced by an economy compared to other
economies.
78
FIGURE 29
Contribution of livestock to agricultural GDP
Percent
80
1974
1984
60
1994
2004
40
20
0
Source: FAOSTAT.
TABLE 24
Workforce employed in agriculture and land area per agricultural worker
Proportion of workforce Agricultural land area per

employed in agriculture economically active person in
(%) agriculture (ha)
Africa 59 5.1
Asia 56 1.4
Europe & the Caucasus 11 11.8
Latin American & the Caribbean 19 18.0
Near & Middle East 30 16.2
North America 2 143.4
Southwest Pacific 8 456.2
- Southwest Pacific excl. Australia & New Zealand 44 2.6
- Australia and New Zealand 5 761.0
World 42 3.8
Source: FAOSTAT – figures for 2002.
79
PART 1
FIGURE 30
Percentage of permanent pasture in total agricultural land
Percent
100
80
60
40
20
0
Source: FAOSTAT figures for 2002.

The following countries are excluded due to a lack of figures for pasture area: American Samoa, Aruba, Bermuda, Taiwan Province
of China, Cook Islands, Egypt, Faeroe Islands, Kiribati, Malta, Netherlands Antilles, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, San Marino, Seychelles,
Singapore, Turks and Caicos Islands, Wallis and Futuna Islands.
of land use. Vast areas of land in all regions of the significance of livestock and in their potential
world are used for raising animals, particularly impact on natural resources. A fuller picture of the
where natural conditions do not allow crop socio-economic importance of livestock could be
cultivation. This is illustrated by the fact that in provided if more complete data were available on
all regions except Europe and the Caucasus, more patterns of livestock ownership, and the relative
than 50 percent of agricultural land is permanent significance of different livestock species to the
pasture (Figure 30). livelihoods of different sections of the population.
Overall, the global map (Figure 31) shows that
the two American regions and the Southwest
3 Patterns of livestock Pacific have large numbers of livestock units per
distribution person. Conversely, the figures are low in the Near
and Middle East. The situation in the other regions
In this chapter the distribution of livestock biomass is more varied. In Europe and the Caucasus, it is
in tropical livestock units (TLU), and the number of generally the more western countries that have
livestock by species are considered in relation to the highest figures. African and Asian countries
the human populations that they support and the also show a great deal of variation, with large
land area that is available. This provides a rough numbers of animals per person being found
proxy for regional variation in the socio-economic in some countries such as the Central African
80
Republic, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, the Sudan and also exists within countries in the distribution of
Mongolia. livestock. Livestock density varies by agro-ecological
The overall numbers of livestock units per zone, for example; and in many countries there is
hectare to a large extent mirror patterns of land an increasing tendency for livestock populations
use and the productivity of grazing land, but at the to be concentrated close to urban centres. High
national level are also influenced by the growth of livestock densities often present major challenges
intensive and landless production systems and the to the environment and the natural resource base
import of feed. Most regions show large variation (see Part 2 for a further discussion).
from country to country (Figure 32). In the Asia The importance of the various livestock species
region, Japan, most of South Asia and several is far from even across the regions of the world –
countries in Southeast Asia, have high livestock being affected by a range of agro-ecological, socio-
densities compared to Central Asia and China. economic, religious and cultural factors. Some
Africa and the countries of the Near and Middle species are largely restricted to a single region,
East generally have low densities, but Egypt is an while others are found throughout the world (see
exception. In Europe and the Caucasus, the western Section B: 3 for a discussion of species diversity).
countries generally have high densities, but the Sheep and cattle are widely kept in all regions of
figures are low for eastern parts of the region, the world, but the Southwest Pacific far outstrips
particularly the Russian Federation. Latin America other regions in terms of the number of animals
and the Caribbean also shows considerable per person (Table 25). The figures for the region
variation from country to country. The map does are dominated by Australia and New Zealand,
not, of course, reveal the great diversity which with their large areas of grazing land and low
FIGURE 31
Livestock density in relation to human population
All livestock
Livestock units
per 100 agriculture
people in 2004
<8
8 - 14
14 - 17
17 - 24
24 - 30
30 - 45
> 45
Data not available
81
PART 1
FIGURE 32
Livestock density per square kilometre of agricultural land
All livestock
Livestock units per square
kilometre of agriculture
land in 2004
< 12
12 - 25
25 - 35
35 - 50
50 - 75
75 - 130
> 130
Data not available
human population density. In the case of goats, regions, Asia has the highest figures. Other
Table 25 indicates their importance in the Near mammalian species such as buffaloes and camelids
and Middle East region. The species is generally have narrower distributions and are largely
of greater importance in developing regions – the restricted to a few regions. The largest number of
number of goats per person is particularly low in chickens per inhabitant is found in North America,
North America. The ass is another species that is followed by Latin America and the Caribbean, and
of greatest significance to the inhabitants of the the Southwest Pacific.
less-developed regions; the highest numbers per From the perspective of the number of animals
person are, again, found in the Near and Middle per hectare of agricultural land (Table 26), a rather
East, with Africa, and Latin America and the different pattern of species distribution can be
Caribbean also having relatively high numbers. discerned. In the case of cattle, for example, the
The pattern is rather different for horses. North Southwest Pacific has the lowest numbers per
America, the Southwest Pacific, and Europe and hectare – contrasting with its position as the
the Caucasus have more horses per person than do region with the highest numbers of cattle per
most developing regions – horses in the developed person. The arid and semi-arid rangelands of
world are now largely used for leisure activities. Australia are vast, but support a low livestock
However, by far the highest figures are in Latin density. Europe and the Caucasus is the region
America and the Caribbean. In the case of pigs, the with the highest sheep density, while in the case of
developed regions of North America, and Europe goats, chickens and pigs, Asia supports the largest
and the Caucasus (where monogastric production number of animals per hectare of agricultural
is dominated by landless systems) have the highest land. For monogastric species, landless production
densities per inhabitant. Among the developing is increasingly significant in many parts of Asia. The
82
TABLE 25
Number of animals by species/1000 human population
Species Africa Asia Europe & Latin America & Near & Middle North Southwest
the Caucasus the Caribbean East America Pacific
Asses 14 4 2 14 23 0 0
Buffaloes 0 46 1 2 18 0 0
Camels 7 1 0 0 22 0 0
Cattle 251 116 181 693 228 330 1 409
Chickens 1 597 2 115 2 591 4 653 2 425 6 430 4 488
Ducks 9 260 82 29 46 24 32
Geese 4 72 23 1 46 1 3
Goats 231 128 32 60 308 4 32
Horses 5 4 8 44 1 17 14
Mules 1 1 0 12 0 0 0
Other Camelids 0 0 0 12 0 0 0
Other Rodents 0 0 0 30 0 0 0
Pigs 28 159 235 140 0 226 143
Rabbits 4 105 148 9 47 0 0
Sheep 250 98 210 145 456 21 5 195
Turkeys 9 1 144 92 11 282 59
TABLE 26
Number of animals by species/1000 ha agricultural land
Species Africa Asia Europe & Latin America & Near & Middle North Southwest
the Caucasus the Caribbean East America Pacific
Asses 11 11 2 10 13 0 0
Buffaloes 0 121 1 2 10 0 0
Camels 5 2 0 0 12 0 0
Cattle 205 307 276 483 126 229 78
Chickens 1 301 5 597 3 954 3 242 1 342 4 464 250
Ducks 7 688 126 20 26 17 2
Geese 3 191 35 0 25 1 0
Goats 188 339 49 42 170 3 2
Horses 4 10 13 31 0 12 1
Mules 1 3 1 8 0 0 0
Other Camelids 0 0 0 8 0 0 0
Other Rodents 0 0 0 21 0 0 0
Pigs 23 420 359 98 0 157 8
Rabbits 3 277 226 6 26 0 0
Sheep 204 260 320 101 252 15 289
Turkeys 7 3 221 64 6 196 3
Source: FAOSTAT – production figures for 2004, land-use figures for 2002.
83
PART 1
highest densities of cattle and horses are found in other developing regions. Buffaloes make a major
Latin America and the Caribbean. contribution to milk production in the Asia region,
and are also quite significant in the Near and
Middle East. The latter region also has the highest
4 Food production levels of sheep and goat milk production per
inhabitant. Camel milk production is significant on
In terms of the overall economic value of food a regional scale only in the Near and Middle East.
production from livestock, Asia is the leading Even in this region, the production levels are quite
region, reflecting its large livestock population. low relative to production from other species.
However, when considering the importance of North America is second to the Southwest Pacific
livestock to the economy and to the supply of food, in terms of meat production, and is the leader
it is useful to examine production levels relative to in terms of pig and poultry meat. Latin America
the human population of the region (Table 27). In and the Caribbean is also a major producer of
terms of milk and meat per person, the Southwest meat. The livestock sector in this region produces
Pacific region has the highest production figures. slightly more meat per person than does that of
Thanks to the contributions of Australia and New Europe and the Caucasus, although the situation
Zealand, the region has very high production levels is reversed in the case of small ruminant meat.
for sheep and cattle meat, and milk from cows. North America, and Europe and the Caucasus are
Outside the Southwest Pacific, the highest milk the leading regions in terms of the number of eggs
production per person is found in the developed produced per person, followed by Asia, and Latin
countries of Europe and the Caucasus, and North America and the Caribbean.
America; Latin America and the Caribbean has As well as providing for consumption at the
considerably higher levels of production than the national level, livestock products are important
TABLE 27
Production of food of animal origin (kg/person/year)
Food products Africa Asia Europe & Latin America & Near & North Southwest
the Caucasus the Caribbean Middle East America Pacific
Meat, Total 13 28 67 69 21 131 203

Beef and Buffalo 5 4 15 28 5 38 107
Meat
Sheep & Goat Meat 2 2 2 1 4 0 42
Pig Meat 1 16 31 11 0 34 18
Poultry Meat 3 7 17 29 9 58 34
Meat of Camels 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Milk, Total 23 49 279 114 75 258 974
Cow Milk 21 27 271 113 45 258 974
Buffalo Milk 0 20 0 0 13 0 0
Goat Milk 1 2 3 1 8 0 0
Sheep Milk 1 0 5 0 7 0 0
Camel Milk 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Eggs 2 10 13 10 4 17 8
84
FIGURE 33
Net exports – meat
Meat
Net exports in 2003
[million US$]
< -52.0
-52.0 to -18.0
-18.0 to -6.5
-6.5 to -1.3
-1.3 to 0.0
> 0.0 to 20.0
20.0 to 600.0
> 600.0
Data not available
Source: FAOSTAT.
FIGURE 34
Net exports – milk equivalent
Milk equivalent
Net exports in 2003
[million US$]
< -100
-100 to -20
-20 to -8
-8 to -2
-2 to 0
> 0 to 35
35 to 250
> 250
Data not available
Source: FAOSTAT.
85
PART 1
FIGURE 35
Net exports – eggs
Eggs (poultry)
Net exports in 2003
[1 000 US$]
< -4 000
-4 000 to -1 200
-1 200 to -400
-400 to -80
-80 to 0
> 0 to 800
800 to 7 000
> 7 000
Data not available
Source: FAOSTAT.
export commodities in many countries. Trade in net exporter of eggs in the Africa region is
livestock products is growing, but faces a number South Africa, but there are a number of other
of constraints – particularly associated with such countries including Ethiopia, Zambia and
animal health. The countries of the world can be Zimbabwe. In Latin America and the Caribbean,
distinguished according to whether they are net Colombia and Peru have in recent years become
exporters or net importers of particular animal net exporters of eggs, as has Egypt in the Near
products. Figures 33, 34 and 35 show the export/ and Middle East.
import status of countries for meat, milk and eggs
respectively.
Brazil and the southern countries of South 5 Production of fibre, skins, hides
America are net exporters of meat, as are the and pelts
countries of North America; Australia and New
Zealand; a number African countries (most notably Livestock fibres, hides, skins and pelts are also
Botswana and Namibia); China, India and several important products. Although the world’s sheep
other Asian countries; as well as many European industry has over recent years seen a shift in
countries. In the case of milk, long-standing net orientation away from wool production and
exporters such as Argentina, Australia and New towards meat, wool remains an important product
Zealand, have been joined in recent years by new in many countries. The Southwest Pacific is the
exporting countries such as Colombia, India and region of the world that produces the most wool
Kyrgyzstan. Net exporters of eggs can be found (Table 28). China, the Islamic Republic of Iran, the
in all regions of the world. In Asia, for example, United Kingdom and other countries with large
major net exporters include China, India, the sheep populations are also major producers of
Islamic Republic of Iran and Malaysia. The largest wool, but it is often of secondary importance to
86
TABLE 28
Production of fibres, skins and hides (1000 tonnes/year)
Products Africa Asia Europe & the Latin American Near & North Southwest
Caucasus & the Caribbean Middle America Pacific
East
Cattle Hides, Fresh 515.5 2 576.7 1 377.8 1 809.0 119.7 1 157.7 304.1
Goatskins, Fresh 112.2 727.9 30.6 23.2 64.9 0.01 5.4
Sheepskins, Fresh 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Buffalo Hides, Fresh 796.7 0.7 23.3
Wool, Greasy 137.5 663.7 325.8 151.9 118.6 18.6 726.5
Coarse Goat Hair 0 21.6 2.7 0 0
1
Fine Goat Hair 0 56.9 0.3 0 0
Hair Fine Animal2 5.3 25.0 1.6 3.7 0.1
Hair of Horses 0 0.1

1
Hair from Cashmere, Angora (mohair) and similar goats; 2mainly from alpacas, llamas, vicuñas, camels and Angora rabbits.
meat or milk. Demand for wool in China remains increasingly in demand in international markets
high, and the country is the world’s largest because of its unique qualities, and also provides
importer of wool (much of which is used for the inputs to local craft production. Angora rabbits
production of textiles and garments for export). are another source of fine hair; China is by far
In a number of countries, wool has traditionally the world’s largest producer. Hair is also a by-
been the most important product of the sheep product in camel production. The soft undercoat
sector – examples include Lesotho and Uruguay. of Bactrian camels, in particular, is a source of fine
In the latter country, the wool industry has been fibre; China is again the main producer. Hair from
a major source of employment, employing 14 the undercoat of yaks is of very high quality. It is
percent of the labour force in manufacturing (CR used domestically and sold on a small scale by the
Uruguay, 2003). Many sheep breeds have been herders; it has become an increasingly important
developed for their wool. The fine-wool Merino by-product in China where the textile industry
breed from Spain has spread to all regions of the has started to utilize yak fibre (FAO, 2003a). The
world; and in many countries there are indigenous coarse outer hair of yaks is used for a variety of
breeds noted for the particular qualities of their purposes such as rope making. Among avian
wool. In India, for example, the Chokla and species, feathers may be an important by-product
Pattanwadi sheep are known for producing good – used industrially in the manufacture of bedding,
carpet wool, the Magra breed produces lustrous or for small-scale handicrafts.
wool, and the Chanthangi breed is noted for fine Cattle hides and the skins of sheep and goats are
wool (CR India, 2004). produced in all regions of the world, while other
Goats are also important producers of fibre. Fine products such as buffalo hides are more regional.
hair is provided by breeds such as the Cashmere Asia is the region that has the largest production
and Angora. Coarse hair is also a significant by- of cattle hides and goatskins, while Europe and
product of goat keeping. The production of goat the Caucasus produces most sheepskins (Table
hair is concentrated in the Asia region, with 28). Hides and skins provide raw materials to
significant production also in Europe and the local leather and tanning industries, often at
Caucasus. Fibre from South American camelids is the artisanal scale. In a number of countries,
87
PART 1
TABLE 29 tools and household goods, and in the production

Trends in the use of animals for draught power of glue and gelatine. Meat and bone meal was
an important source of feed protein in livestock
Region Year Area cultivated by different
power sources (%) production before the rise of concerns over BSE.
Draught Hand Tractor
animal
6 Agricultural inputs, transport
All developing 1997-99 30 35 35
countries and fuel
2030 20 25 55
Draught power provided by animals contributes
Sub-Saharan Africa 1997-99 25 65 10
greatly to crop production in the developing world.
2030 30 45 25
Animal traction has traditionally been particularly
Near East/North 1997-99 20 20 60
important in Asia (Table 29), and relatively
Africa
unimportant in sub-Saharan Africa where its use
2030 15 10 75
has been restricted by heavy soils and the presence
Latin America & 1997-99 25 25 50
the Caribbean
of tsetse flies. Nonetheless, animal traction is of
great importance in parts of Africa. In the Gambia,
2030 15 15 70
for example, 73.4 percent of crop fields are
South Asia 1997-99 35 30 35
cultivated using animal power (CR Gambia, 2003).
2030 15 15 70
In Latin America and the Caribbean, and in the
East Asia 1997-99 40 40 20 Near and Middle East, animal power is, again, vital
2030 25 25 50 to the livelihoods of many small-scale farmers.
Source: FAO (2003b). In many parts of the world, the use of animal
Note that the regional classifications used in this table do not traction is declining as a result of increased
correspond exactly to the classification used elsewhere in the
report.
mechanization. The trend is most pronounced in
Asia (Table 29). CR Malaysia (2003), for example,
they are also significant export products. At the reports that the country’s agriculture is now highly
subsistence level, skins are used in the production mechanized and that animal power is of little
of clothing, rugs and other household items. significance. The trend, however, is not universal.
In most cases, hides and skins are by-products Some factors continue to favour livestock as a
of livestock production. An exemption is the source of power. Where farmers find fuel prices
Karakul sheep, from which lamb pelts are the unaffordable, the use of draught animals remains
major product. This breed is kept in many Asian popular and may even increase. Table 29 shows
countries, but has also spread to other parts of that animal traction is increasing in importance in
the world such as Australia, Botswana and the sub-Saharan Africa.
United States of America. Other breeds noted Animal power is used for many agricultural
for the quality of their skins include the Jining purposes. CR Ethiopia (2004), for example, notes
Grey goat of China which is famous for the colour that the uses of draught cattle, horses or donkeys
and pattern of its kid skins, the Chèvre Rousse de include weeding, ploughing, threshing, and
Maradi of Niger, the Mubende goat of Uganda levelling fields before and after sowing. Among
and the Black Bengal goat of Bangladesh (CR households that own draught animals, hiring them
Bangladesh, 2004; CR China, 2003; CR Niger, 2003; out is frequently a source of income. Conversely,
CR Uganda, 2004). households lacking draught animals (or mechanized
Other useable livestock by-products include power) tend to be at a marked disadvantage with
horns, hooves and bones – used on a small scale regard to the efficient utilization of their land.
for the production of various decorative items,
88
In addition to working in the fields, livestock animals in the high mountain ranges of Asia,
are often used for transport purposes – pulling where sheep and goats are also sometimes used
carts or serving as pack animals. Several Country for this purpose. CR Nepal (2004), for example,
Reports note that motorized vehicles are mentions transport as a function of the Chyangra
replacing animals as a means of transporting and Sinhal goat breeds, and also the Baruwal
people and goods. However, in parts of the world sheep, which can carry loads of up to 13 kg on
where rural infrastructure is poor and the terrain its back. In China, local horse breeds such as the
is harsh, transport continues to be an important Yuta, Merak Saktenta and Boeta are noted for
role of livestock. Ethiopia, for example, is a their ability to cross rough mountain tracks. It is,
country with a large equine population. It is however, reported that an increasing popularity
estimated that 75 percent of farms in the country of mules has led to a decline among many
are located more than a day and a half’s walk indigenous Chinese horse breeds, which are also
from all-weather roads (ibid.), and animals are threatened by excessive cross-breeding with the
therefore vital for the transportation of farm exotic Haflinger breed (CR China, 2003).
produce to the market. In Latin America and the Caribbean, horses,
A range of livestock species are utilized for donkeys, mules and cattle provide draught
draught purposes. In the above-mentioned case power for cultivation, and are used to transport
of the Gambia, horses are the most significant agricultural products. Buffaloes also contribute
species – being used to cultivate 36 percent of the draught power in some countries of the region (CR
cropland (CR Gambia, 2003). Cattle (33 percent), Brazil, 2003; CR Costa Rica, 2004; CR Cuba, 2003). CR
donkeys (30 percent) and mules (1 percent) are Ecuador (2003) and CR Peru (2004) report the use
the other species used (ibid.). In contrast, CR of llamas for transport purposes at high altitudes.
United Republic of Tanzania (2004) indicates that The merits of the Criollo horse for transport and
70 percent of the country’s animal draught power draught functions at high altitudes are noted in
comes from cattle and 30 percent from donkeys. CR Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (2004). CR
Some livestock breeds are particularly noted for Peru (2004) reports that among Criollo cattle there
their suitability as draught animals. CR Chad are various “ecotypes” specialized for different
(2003), for example, describes the calm and docile roles – the Ancash type being noted as a draught
nature of the Zébu Arabe, which makes it easy to animal. The important role of horses in extensive
train for draught purposes. The results of a survey cattle production systems is noted in CR Bolivarian
presented in CR Gambia (2003) indicate that 97 Republic of Venezuela (2004) and CR Brazil (2003).
percent of farmers interviewed stated that they In the eastern parts of the Europe and the
preferred N’Dama cattle to exotic breeds for Caucasus region, horses are still used for draught
draught purposes. The significance of donkeys by some small-scale farmers. Indeed, in some
as draught animals is reported to be on the places the number of draught horses has increased
increase in some African countries. CR Zimbabwe in recent years as a result of the fragmentation of
(2004), for example, notes that the use of the land holdings (CR Romania, 2003). However, CR
species for draught purposes has increased in the Latvia (2003) notes that the breeding of horses
smallholder sector, particularly in the drier parts for draught has increasingly been replaced by
of the country. breeding for meat. In these circumstances, there
Buffaloes are also important draught animals, is little motivation to conserve draught-related
mainly in Asia, and are particularly suited to genetic traits. CR Albania (2002) reports the risk
working in swampy conditions. In semi-arid of extinction faced by the local buffalo breed,
areas of Africa, Asia, and the Near and Middle formerly used for draught in bog-land areas, which
East, camels are used for ploughing, drawing has lost its role as a result of land reclamation
water and for transport. Yaks are important pack measures. Horses and donkeys continue to serve as
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pack animals in parts of Europe and the Caucasus. ward off insects (CR Sudan, 2005) and as a building
The Bosnian Mountain horse, for example, is still material (CR Ethiopia, 2004).
used to transport fuelwood in the mountains (CR
Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2003).
The supply of agricultural manure is another 7 Other uses and values
important function of livestock. With greater use
of inorganic fertilizers, the importance of manure If it is difficult to fully quantify the value of
has tended to decline in many parts of the world. livestock as a source of agricultural inputs, this is
However, CR Sri Lanka (2003) reports a trend even more clearly the case for intangible benefits
towards the greater use of livestock manure for related to asset, insurance, social and cultural
fertilizer, and notes that the product is traded functions, and for environmental services. These
to supply vegetable farmers who lack their roles are, therefore, illustrated below using
own animals. In parts of Africa, demographic examples from different regions as provided in
pressure and subsequent effects on soil fertility is the Country Reports.
necessitating a greater integration between crop
and animal production, including an increased 7.1 Savings and risk management
use of manure, particularly where inorganic While livestock often provide their owners with a
fertilizers are difficult to obtain (CR Burundi 2003; regular supply of products that can be consumed
CR Rwanda 2004). In other places, crop and or sold to obtain cash income, for many livestock
livestock production is integrated through the keepers functions such as savings, insurance and
grazing of pastoralists’ livestock on crop farmers’ the management of risk are extremely important.
fields after the harvest – the cropland benefiting In many parts of the developing world, and
from the manure and the livestock feeding on particularly for poorer people, the institutions
the crop residues (CR Cameroon, 2003). In some which could otherwise provide these services are
peri-urban areas, manure from pig and poultry largely inaccessible. Conversely, these functions
enterprises facilitates the development of market are of negligible importance in industrialized
gardening (CR Côte d’Ivoire, 2003; CR Democratic regions such as North America, and western parts
Republic of the Congo, 2005). CR Malaysia (2003) of Europe and the Caucasus.
mentions systems that integrate fish farming with Savings and insurance functions are widely
the keeping of livestock such as cattle, buffaloes acknowledged in the Country Reports.
and ducks. The significance of manure as a Livestock keeping offers a means of livelihood
source of fertilizer is not confined to developing diversification, enabling households to cope with
regions – it continues to be an important input fluctuations in income from wage labour or crop
in Europe and the Caucasus (CR Belarus, 2003; CR production, which may be affected by ill-health
Hungary, 2003; CR Romania, 2003; CR Serbia and or unemployment, droughts, floods or pests. For
Montenegro, 2003; CR Slovenia, 2003). It is a key many small-scale farmers and herders, production
element of the organic production systems which is largely for subsistence. However, the need for
are becoming increasingly popular in developed a source of cash to meet expenses arises from
countries. time to time. Livestock sales are frequently a
Dried dung cakes are widely used for fuel in the means of meeting these requirements. The
developing regions of the world, particularly where goods and services in question range from
fuelwood is in short supply (CR Ethiopia,2004). household items such as soap, salt and petrol,
Alternatively, manure can be used in the production to school fees, building materials, agricultural
of biogas (CR Barbados, 2005; CR Jamaica, 2005). inputs, health expenses, taxes, and meeting the
Other uses of livestock dung include burning to costs of marriages, funerals and other cultural
90
Box 12
Linguistic links between cattle and wealth
but it has disappeared in Polish. The change of

The significance of the role of livestock as a form meaning from possession to livestock is typical for
of wealth is highlighted by the fact that in many many Slavic languages.
unrelated languages there are etymological links Da (Welsh) means wealth or goods; good or
between the words for cattle and the words for goodness; as well as cattle or livestock (da byw). In
wealth, capital, money or savings: the same language, cyfalaf the word for capital, is
Cho-Chiku (Japanese: saving money) consists of two related to the word alaf – meaning a herd of cattle.
characters, of which the first Cho means saving. The Vee (Dutch), Vieh (German) meaning livestock are
second word is also used for livestock though the related to fee (English) and originate from fehu (Old
character is (only partly) different, Chiku. The Chinese Saksish) which means both livestock and wealth or
etymology is very similar. money. Compare fia (Old Frisian), faihu (Gothic), fe
Råjåkåyå in Javanese literally means rich king, but it (Norwegian) and fä (Swedish).
has the meaning of wealth and cattle. Cattle is related to capital via caput (Latin: head,
Ente means cattle in Lunyomkole (a Bantu language number of e.g. animals); the word chattel seems to be
from Uganda), and sente means money in the same an intermediate.
language. Ganado (Spanish: livestock) is related to ganar
Mikne (Hebrew) means cows, goats, camels etc. It (Spanish: to earn, to win, to gain).
consists of the root word kne or kana, that means to Pecunia (Latin: wealth, money) is linked with pecu
buy, and an affix mi that makes the root into a noun. (livestock) and also used in the Spanish word for
Byoto (Polish) means cattle and originates from a animal husbandry (pecuaria).
Slavic root-word byd_o which relates to the meanings
of “being, standing, living, the house, possession”. Provided by Hans Schiere.
This root meaning still survives in Czech and Slovakian See also Schiere (1995).
events and ceremonies (CR Madagascar, 2003; the public and private sector often hold their
CR Mozambique, 2004; CR Niger, 2003; CR Sao savings in the form of livestock. These individuals
Tome and Principe, 2003; CR Senegal, 2003; CR are generally absentee owners whose animals
Togo, 2003). Local breeds are well adapted to are kept by paid herders, relatives or other rural
being used as a form of savings because their connections.
hardy characteristics reduce the risk that they die
from disease or lack of feed.
From another perspective, livestock can be
regarded as a means of capital accumulation. CR
Mali (2002) notes that larger herds are often the
result of the capitalization of surplus from crop
production. The use of livestock as a method of
savings or investment is not, however, always
limited to farmers and rural people. CR Congo
(2003) mentions that traders and employees in
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PART 1
7.2 Sociocultural roles Azha festival. CR Sri Lanka (2003) mentions that
In addition to the economic importance of farm cattle and buffaloes intended for slaughter are
animals, most Country Reports, from all regions sometimes released as an appeasement to ensure
of the world, recognize the sociocultural roles the recovery of friends or relatives from illness.
of livestock. Cultural motivations influence the In parts of Bhutan, the first yak calf of the year
utilization of AnGR, and there are often strong is sacrificed, while in other parts of the country
links between communities and their local breeds. yak skulls are inscribed with Buddhist prayers;
This has contributed to the development and a yak may also be released into the wild as an
maintenance of animal genetic diversity in many appeasement to local deities (CR Bhutan, 2002).
parts of the world. In some societies the slaughter In parts of Indonesia it is a traditional practice to
or sale of livestock tends to be associated with slaughter buffalo before work commences on the
social and cultural factors rather than to result construction of a building (CR Indonesia, 2003).
from strictly commercial motivations. In the Specific breeds such as the Kalang and the Spotted
Southwest Pacific region, for example, the buffalo are noted for their uses in traditional
importance of pigs in social obligations and for rituals (ibid.). In India, religious institutions such
consumption at the time of ceremonies and as Gaushalas contribute to the conservation of
feasts is emphasized in the Country Reports (CR indigenous breeds (CR India, 2005).
Palau, 2003; CR Samoa, 2003; CR Tonga, 2005; CR In rural areas of Peru, cattle, horses and
Tuvalu, 2004). CR the Cook Islands (2005) reports donkeys play a part in cultural festivals such as the
that more animals are slaughtered for cultural, Yawar Fiesta and the Jalapato (CR Peru, 2004). CR
religious, recreational or social functions than are Vanuatu (2004) describes the traditional practice
marketed. of breeding pigs in order to increase the incidence
The roles of livestock in religious and cultural of pseudohermaphroditism or “Narave” in males.
life are highly varied, and it is only possible here The intersex pigs were at one time extremely
to give some indication of the diversity mentioned significant to the local culture, and breeding for
in the Country Reports. In Guinea-Bissau, for this purpose is still practised on a very limited
example, small ruminants are important for scale (ibid.).
feeding guests at events such as funerals, baptisms, Livestock by-products also have significance
birthdays, marriages and religious festivals (CR to cultural life. Skins and horns of sheep, goats
Guinea-Bissau, 2002). Similarly, CR Burundi (2003) and cattle as well as poultry feathers have diverse
describes the importance of sheep in ceremonies roles in religious ceremonies and as gifts (CR Togo,
to mark the birth of twins. CR Nigeria (2004) 2003). Similarly in Cameroon, the feathers of
indicates that Muturu cattle and rams play a part guinea fowl are used in the production of artistic
in title-taking and chieftaincy festivals, while in the and ceremonial objects (CR Cameroon, 2003).
north of the country, camels serve as ceremonial In many societies, the exchange of livestock has
animals carrying drums and other regalia at Sallah traditionally played a role in the maintenance of
day processions. Animals with specific colours social ties. CR Congo (2003) notes that loans and
or other characteristics are often favoured for gifts of livestock, inheritance, and the transfer
particular cultural roles. In Chad, for example, of animals at the time of marriage serve to
pure black or white chickens are preferred for maintain networks of obligation and dependence
religious ceremonies (CR Chad, 2004). Similarly, within family and social groups, and can also
in Zimbabwe, black Mashona and red and white be a manifestation of hierarchical relationships
Nguni cattle are preferred for ceremonial purposes between social strata. Similarly, CR Cameroon
(CR Zimbabwe, 2004). (2003) reports that several poultry species are
CR Bangladesh (2004) reports that large numbers important in the maintenance of social ties, and it
of goats and cattle are sacrificed during the Eid-ul- is noted that cultural considerations are important
92
factors influencing breed choice. CR Uganda Many rural people in Romania continue to
(2004) mentions the role of Ankole and Zebu fatten pigs for consumption at Christmas (CR
cattle breeds in traditional obligations associated Romania, 2003).
with marriage. In parts of Malaysia, buffaloes are In many cases, however, rural customs, along
used as dowry (CR Malaysia, 2003). CR Philippines with traditional crafts and farming practices,
(2003) also reports the use of buffaloes as a have lost their role in everyday life and are now
“bride gift”. regarded as “heritage” products to be marketed
Traditional healing practices also sometimes to the tourist or day tripper. There is often a great
involve livestock. CR Uganda (2004) mentions need for new income-generating activities and
the belief that goats’ milk is a cure for measles. livelihood diversification in rural areas, and the
In Zimbabwe, some communities feed donkey potential of traditional livestock breeds to appeal
milk to children, as it is considered to have to the visitor is widely recognized. On the one
therapeutic benefits (CR Zimbabwe, 2004). hand, the rare or traditional breeds may be kept
Traditional ceremonies and healing practices in specific attractions such as farm parks or rural
have some influence on the choice of livestock museums; on the other, they may be an element
breeds or varieties. CR Mozambique (2004), for of a “cultural landscape” which helps attract
example, describes a type of chicken, which has the tourist to a particular area. CR Japan (2003)
curled feathers and is popular with traditional mentions institutions such as the Cattle Museum in
healers. The birds therefore command a higher Maesawa, which contribute to raising awareness
price than the regular chickens. In Uganda, of the history of livestock keeping. CR Serbia and
black and white sheep are particularly prized by Montenegro (2002) notes the re-introduction of
traditional healers (CR Uganda, 2004). In Peru, indigenous breeds in areas surrounding spas and
guinea pigs, particularly those with black coats, monasteries in order to increase the attraction of
are used in traditional medicine (CR Peru, 2004). the landscape to tourists. Such developments are
CR Republic of Korea (2004) reports that native not, however, limited to industrialized countries
goats and Yeonsan Ogol chickens, along with a or more developed regions. CR Nepal (2004), for
number of other species such as deer, are kept to example, mentions the potential of eco-tourism
supply products for use in traditional medicine. and farm parks, and CR China (2003) notes the
Particular breeds of chickens are also valued role of horses in the tourist industry. Similarly in
for medicinal purposes in Viet Nam (Ac and Tre South America, camelids are kept as attractions in
breeds) and in China (Silkies) (CR China, 2003; CR parks and at tourist sites (CR Peru, 2004).
Viet Nam, 2005). CR Sri Lanka (2003) mentions In many countries, the cultural roles of
that some animal products such as ghee, curd, livestock are not merely valued for their potential
whey, dung and urine are used in indigenous and role in income generation, but are regarded as
ayurvedic treatments. an element of the “national heritage”. In the
In many industrialized countries livestock and Republic of Korea, for example, the Jeju horse and
livestock products continue to have a significant the Yeonsan Ogol chicken (noted for the black
cultural role. Numerous traditional religious colour of its beak, claws, skin and internal organs)
events in Japan, for example, involve live farm have been designated national monuments
animals (CR Japan, 2003), but there is no tendency (CR Republic of Korea, 2004). In Japan, several
to use indigenous rather than exotic breeds on varieties of chicken along with Mishima cattle and
these occasions (ibid.). In Latvia, white eggs are the Misaki Horse have been designated “national
in demand at Easter time for egg dying, roasted treasures” and are included in special conservation
geese are traditionally eaten at Martinmass and efforts (CR Japan, 2003). Similar sentiments
roasted cocks at Christmas (CR Latvia, 2003). are expressed in several Country Reports form
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Europe and the Caucasus. CR Hungary (2003), for Livestock raising may, in itself, be a leisure
example, notes that the conservation of AnGR is activity. This function is most prominent in
related to the preservation of other aspects of the developed regions such as Europe and the
country’s culture – ranging from architecture and Caucasus. According to CR Denmark (2003) “beef
clothing to gastronomy and folk songs. cattle, horses, sheep, goats, rabbits, ducks, geese,
In all regions of the world, livestock are used turkeys, ostriches and deer are mainly kept by
in a variety of sports and entertainments. In the part-time, leisure-time and hobby breeders.” As
Near and Middle East, for example, the horse is these livestock keepers are less influenced by
of great cultural importance and there is much commercial motivations, their contribution to the
enthusiasm for horse breeding and racing (CR conservation of less-profitable breeds is important.
Islamic Republic of Iran, 2004; CR Jordan, 2003; CR In the United Kingdom, the conservation of
Kyrgyzstan, 2004). Horses are also used for leisure horse and pony breeds is largely dependent on
riding and feature in various shows, festivals, small-scale and part-time enthusiasts (CR United
circuses and exhibitions (CR Islamic Republic of Kingdom, 2002). Small species such as rabbits,
Iran, 2004; CR Tunisia, 2003). Horses are also and particularly poultry, are often popular among
widely used for sporting purposes in the Europe “hobby” breeders. For example, CR Turkey (2004)
and the Caucasus region. CR Ireland (2003), notes that Denizli and Gerze, native poultry
for example, mentions activities such as point- breeds, are popular with this group of livestock
to-point racing, show jumping and eventing. keepers. Similar motivations operate elsewhere in
Harness racing and trotting are popular in parts the world – CR Sri Lanka (2003) notes that ducks,
of Europe (CR Norway, 2003; CR Slovenia, 2003). turkeys and guinea fowl are kept for leisure
In some cases, sporting roles are recognized as a purposes, and CR Pakistan (2003) mentions that
means of sustaining the use of threatened breeds. peacocks and partridges are kept as pets.
For example, CR Republic of Korea (2004) reports In some places, long standing preferences
that a horse racing track has been built for the for particular breeds also influence the actions
purpose of racing the protected Jeju breed. of traditional small-scale farmers. CR Romania
Several other species are also kept for sporting (2003), for example, reports that the preferences
purposes. On the island of Madura in Indonesia, of the peasants have helped to conserve a
for example, the local cattle breed is used for number of sheep breeds and varieties, such as the
racing and dancing (CR Indonesia, 2003). The CRs Tsurcana, the Blackhead Ruda and the Corkscrew
from the Philippines (2003) and Malaysia (2003) Walachian.
mention buffalo racing. CR Sri Lanka (2003) notes Particular food products are also culturally
that cattle are used in cart racing. The local breeds important in many countries. Examples include
are admired for their running ability in these events the popularity of mutton from Dhamari sheep,
(ibid.). Ducks are another species that is sometimes and cheese from Taez Red goats in Yemen (CR
used for racing (CR Indonesia, 2003). In Bhutan, Yemen, 2002). Meat from the Kampong chicken
yak dancing is of great cultural importance (CR is considered by consumers in Malaysia to be
Bhutan, 2002). In Viet Nam, Ho and Choi (fighting) better tasting than that from commercial breeds
chickens are used for entertainment at religious (CR Malaysia, 2003). Similarly, CR Philippines
festivals (CR Viet Nam, 2005). CR Indonesia (2003) (2003) notes that native pig breeds are favoured,
also mentions cock fighting as a cultural activity, and command a high price, in the country’s
as well as the breeding of the Garut breed as a specialized roast pig or “lechon” market.
fighting sheep. Similarly, bullfighting is popular in Examples from Europe and the Caucasus include
a number of countries (CR Peru, 2004). the preference of local consumers in Albania for
traditionally produced meat and cheese from
94
indigenous sheep and goat breeds such as the Kingdom (2002) notes the role of the New Forest
Dukati; demand for quality halloumi cheese, pony in scrub clearance.
which has led to increased numbers of native Elsewhere in the world, mobile pastoralist
and cross-bred goats in hilly areas of Cyprus; production systems are an efficient means of
and the potential use of two endangered local producing food in a sustainable manner from
Croatian pig breeds, the Black Slavonian and land where grazing resources are meagre and
the Turopolje, in cross-breeding programmes fluctuating (CR Mali, 2002). CR Côte d’Ivoire (2003)
aimed at producing high-quality traditional notes that the use of livestock in crop production
products such as paprika-flavoured sausage and reduces the need for herbicides. Moreover, a
ham (CR Albania, 2002; CR, Croatia, 2003; CR consequence of the use of manure as a source
Cyprus, 2003). of fertilizer is an increase in the diversity of soil
Affluent consumers who are seeking quality microflora and microfauna (CR Mali, 2002). On
and variety in their diets are increasingly a source tree crop plantations, particularly in Asia, cattle
of demand for “niche market” products. Sales have a role in controlling weeds and shrubs,
to tourists are also an important part of the and in facilitating the harvesting of coconuts. In
market for distinctive local food products. The Malaysia, for example, the Kedah-Kelantin cattle
potential importance of local breeds in meeting breed is noted for its suitability for use on tree
this demand is widely recognized, particularly crop plantations (CR Malaysia, 2003). Although
in Europe and the Caucasus. However, in many the breed shows slow growth, it is hardy and
countries, livestock breeds with the potential to well adapted to the challenging environment.
meet the demands of niche markets still show Meeting the demand for this breed has proved
declining populations. In Nepal, for example, the to be a problem, and the gap has had to be filled
Bampudke pig, which is noted for its excellent by imports such as Brahman cattle from Australia
meat is reported to be on the verge of extinction (ibid.).
(CR Nepal, 2004). Similarly, yak cheese is reported From the point of view of conserving rare
to be very popular in Nepal, but yak populations or non-commercial breeds, livestock’s role in
continue to decline (ibid.). environmental management potentially has
positive implications. Two factors can be discerned.
7.3 Environmental services On the one hand, a desire for conservation of
Livestock can make a positive contribution to the environment may go together with a wish
landscape and environmental management. This to preserve other cultural and historic aspects
function is particularly recognized in developed of rural life including traditional livestock. On
regions such as Europe and the Caucasus. Grazing the other hand, breeds adapted to the local
animals such as cattle, horses and small ruminants environment may be particularly suitable for
play a role in the maintenance and regeneration grazing on rough pastures. CR Germany (2004),
of pastures, heaths and moorlands. CR Serbia for example, mentions sheep breeds such as the
and Montenegro (2003), for example, notes Heidschnucken, Skudden and Bergschaf, and
that the biodiversity of pastures is endangered also breeds of cattle such as Hinterwälder and
by the absence of grazing in depopulated Rotvieh Zuchtrichtung Höhenvieh, in this respect.
mountain areas. CR Slovenia (2003) reports However, there is not necessarily a complete
that small ruminants can serve to clear areas overlap between the two objectives in terms of
which have become overgrown with shrubs and, breed choice. The best breeds for environmental
therefore prone to fires. Grazing donkeys can management may not be indigenous to the
play a similar role in landscape management and country in question. In the Netherlands, for
fire prevention (CR Croatia, 2003). CR United example, the animals used for landscape
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management are often Heck or Scottish Highland low external input conditions. The expansion
cattle, and Iceland or Konik ponies rather than of organic production potentially promotes the
local breeds (CR Netherlands, 2004). keeping of well-adapted local livestock breeds
Consumer disquiet regarding environmental – particularly in the case of pigs and poultry kept
impact is a factor that is increasingly motivating under outdoor conditions.
change in livestock production systems. Organic A further characteristic of livestock is their
farming has expanded markedly in countries capacity to convert “waste” (agro-industrial by-
such as Sweden under strong promotion by products, left-over food) into useful products.
government policy (CR Sweden, 2002), and its If such waste would otherwise require costly or
potential is recognized in a number of countries environmentally damaging methods of disposal
where livestock keeping is largely conducted under (e.g. burning or dumping in landfill sites), then
Box 13
The history of Hungarian Grey cattle – changing uses over time
The genetic origin of Hungarian Grey cattle has not In 1931, the Hungarian Grey Cattle Breeders’
been definitively elucidated. Ancestral animals may National Association was founded and breeding
have come from Asia or from Mediterranean areas, activity was stimulated. However the Second World
and a genetic contribution from the wild aurochs has War severely disrupted these endeavours and many
been suggested. The character of the breed developed herds were destroyed. During the post-war period,
slowly under the husbandry of the Hungarian breeders low levels of milk production meant that the breed’s
of the Carpathian Basin. Between the fourteenth and numbers declined rapidly. Official policy favoured
seventeenth centuries cattle were exported on a large cross-breeding with Soviet Kostroma cattle. By the
scale, with herds covering several hundred kilometres early 1960s, the only remaining herds were found on
on foot to Nürnberg, Strasburg or Venice. Demand three state farms, with a total stock of six bulls and
emerged for a “trade-mark” appearance which about 160 cows. However, at about this time, the
guaranteed the quality of Hungarian beef. The long- idea of preserving rare breeds took hold in Hungary,
horn animals with handsome conformation, hardy, and the Directory of State Farms allowed two more
healthy character, and excellent meat quality were herds to be established. Because of a certain patriotic
greatly valued by contemporary buyers. attachment to the breed, and the provision of small
The early eighteenth century began a new period but permanent subsidies by the state, the population
in the breed’s history, as urban populations expanded started to increase. By 2002, the number of cows had
and required supplies of agricultural products. As the reached 4 263.
demand was mainly for cereals, extensive animal Today, functions of the breed include conservation
husbandry declined. During this period, the function grazing in National Parks, hobby breeding and a
of the breed shifted to the production of working role as a tourist attraction. With respect to meat
oxen. Czech sugar factories valued them for their fast production, the breeders and the Hungarian Grey
movement, their simple dietary requirements, and Cattle Breeders’ Association aim to organize meat
their exceptional longevity. With the introduction of processing and develop high-value products such as
tractors after the First World War many farms disposed speciality sausages.
of their Hungarian Greys.
For further information see: Hungarian Grey Workshop
(2000); Bodó (2005).
96
this role is in itself a service additional to the are frequently unaffordable or inaccessible to
other benefits (milk, meat, etc.) that the animals the poor. Livestock, as multifunctional assets,
supply. Livestock’s role as converters of waste may are therefore often important to many aspects
operate at the household level – in the disposal of poor people’s livelihood strategies. Moreover,
of kitchen wastes and crop residues; within a they provide the poor with opportunities to
neighbourhood – for example, the collection benefit from resources that would otherwise be
of leftovers from markets or other businesses difficult to put to productive use, such as crop
by small-scale pig keepers; or involve the large- residues, waste food, and common grazing land.
scale, organized, use of by-products from food Accurate data on the numbers of poor livestock
processing industries. The potential of livestock keepers in the world are hard to come by (and
to utilize a range of “alternative” sources of feed there are of course numerous ways in which
is recognized in a number of Country Reports “poverty” and “livestock keepers” could be
(CR Lao People’s Democratic Republic, 2005; defined). Recent approximations have put the
CR Malaysia, 2003; CR Mauritius, 2004). These figure at around 550 to 600 million (Thornton et
feedstuffs are diverse in their nature, and their al., 2002; IFAD, 2004).
efficient utilization tends to require a degree of Subsistence consumption of home-produced
diversity in the livestock population. CR Mauritius milk, eggs or meat can make a very important
(2004) notes that the local AnGR are able to make contribution to the nutrition of poor households
better use of the by-products that are available in (providing essential vitamins and micronutrients,
the country than are exotic breeds. for example). Livestock manure and animal
In the case of some by-products there are, of traction are vital inputs for many poor farmers
course, alternative uses (e.g. biofuels); and there in mixed farming systems, who would otherwise
may be obstacles to their utilization as livestock have to invest in more expensive alternatives. The
feed. For example, beyond the subsistence level, savings and risk-management functions outlined
the recycling of waste food is greatly restricted above are also frequently of great significance
by hygiene concerns. Other problems include to the poor, reducing their vulnerability to
the difficulty of transporting bulky materials, fluctuations in levels of income from other
the costs of processing, and the seasonal nature activities, and providing a ready source of cash
of supplies (CR Malaysia, 2003). Nonetheless, to meet expenses. For those households that
with improved processing methods and better are able to look beyond mere subsistence,
awareness of the nutritional value of such feeds, expanding their livestock keeping activities and
there is potential to enhance the contribution of engaging in more market-oriented production
livestock to the productive use of the by-products is a potential pathway to increased income and
of other activities (ibid.). improved livelihoods. Moreover, accumulating
capital in the form of livestock may, in time,
provide the opportunity to embark on new
8 Roles of livestock for the poor livelihood activities. The three “strategies” have
been termed “hanging in”, “stepping up” and
As described in the preceding chapters, livestock “stepping out” (Table 30) (Dorward et al., 2004).
have diverse roles and functions, and can As well as their financial roles, and the physical
contribute in many ways to the well-being of inputs that they provide to the livelihoods of
their keepers. Richer sections of the population the poor, livestock also have important social
tend to have access to alternative means of functions. Ownership of livestock may enable
meeting these needs (financial services, motorized participation in the social and cultural life of the
transport, etc.). Goods and services of this kind community, and the exchange of animals through
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TABLE 30 Conversely, other Country Reports describe

Roles of livestock by livelihood strategy the positive role of well-planned cross-breeding
activities. CR Bangladesh (2004), for example,
Livelihood Principle roles of livestock
strategy mentions semi-scavenging poultry production
programmes supported by NGOs and the
“Hanging in” Subsistence
Department of Livestock Services, which provide
Complementary production (inputs to cropping)
a source of income to poor women and youths
Buffering (against income fluctuations) in rural areas. Exotic and cross-bred birds are
Insurance kept and supported with supplementary feeding,
“Stepping up” Accumulation improved management and healthcare (ibid.).
Complementary production (inputs to cropping) Similarly, CR United Republic of Tanzania (2004)
Market production/income
reports the contribution of imported goat breeds
to a gradual increase in milk consumption among
“Stepping out” Accumulation
low-income groups.
Source: adapted from Dorward et al. (2004).
The importance of home consumption of
animal products to nutrition, particularly for
gifts and loans can be a means of reinforcing social children, pregnant women and nursing mothers
networks that can be drawn upon in times of need is also recognized (CR Sri Lanka, 2003). CR Uganda
(FAO, 2002; IFAD, 2004; Riethmuller, 2003). (2004) notes that the milk of the Kigezi goat
A number of Country Reports recognize the breed is used to provide milk to sick children in
potential role of livestock in poverty reduction. very poor households.
It is noted that some classes of livestock tend to Women make up an estimated 70 percent of
be more associated with the poor than others. the world’s poor (UNDP, 1995). Development
CR Botswana (2003), for example, indicates that strategies that contribute to the livelihoods of
the distribution of goats is more equal than that women are, therefore, particularly important
of cattle among the country’s rural households. from the perspective of poverty reduction. A
In some countries, however, cattle and buffaloes number of Country Reports identify particular
are also very important to the livelihoods of the classes of livestock, products or activities where
poor – CR Bangladesh (2004) notes that 62.5 women have particular roles or access to
percent of the large ruminants in the country resources and decision-making. Women tend
are kept by small farmers and the landless. to be associated with smaller species such as
Several Country Reports mention the strong poultry, goats or sheep (CR Botswana, 2003; CR
potential of indigenous livestock breeds for Central African Republic, 2003; CR Comoros,
improving the livelihoods of the poor. The CRs 2005; CR Guinea, 2003; CR Ghana, 2003; CR
from the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (2005) Kenya, 2004; CR Nigeria 2004; CR United Republic
and Indonesia (2003), for example, note the of Tanzania, 2004). CR Mozambique (2004)
significance of indigenous poultry keeping as an reports that women generally keep poultry and
activity for the poor, which should be supported pigs, while men keep cattle and small ruminants.
through development programmes and further Alternatively, women may be closely involved
research. CR Ethiopia (2004) mentions a recent in the care of calves (CR Mali, 2002). In terms
study, which revealed the strong potential of the of breeds, CR Niger (2003) mentions the Chèvre
scavenging Fayoumi chicken as a tool for poverty Rousse de Maradi goat as being particularly
reduction. Similar findings related to scavenging associated with women. In some countries, women
chicken breeds are reported in CR Ghana (2003). have particular roles in the processing and/or
98
sale of milk (CR Guinea, 2003; CR Ghana, 2003; production conditions. There is a need for more
CR Mali, 2002; CR Nigeria, 2004). CR Mauritania complete data to be collected and made available
(2005) mentions that selling hides and skins is an through existing information systems.
important source of income for women from the Multiple roles of livestock and multiple
most deprived sections of society. Gender roles combinations of interdependent roles require
are, however, not necessarily stable. CR Lesotho diversity within the livestock population –
(2005) reports that pig rearing in the country was including both specialized and multifunctional
traditionally practised mainly by women, but an breeds. However, decision-making in the field of
increased demand for pig meat has led to men AnGR management is often characterized by a
involving themselves in keeping the species. lack of attention to multiple functions, particularly
Despite the significant contribution of women non-marketed outputs and benefits that are
to livestock production, as CR Niger (2003) notes, difficult to quantify. In these circumstances there
training and extension activities are often directed is a danger that the value of local multifunctional
towards men. Policies advocated to promote the breeds is underestimated, and that only a partial
role of women in livestock keeping include the picture of livestock’s contribution to human well-
development of relevant technologies such as being is obtained.
labour-saving devices for processing livestock
products (CR Nigeria, 2004), training, organization
and credit provision (CR Guinea, 2003; CR Mali, 2002).
Low levels of literacy are, however, recognized as
a constraint to the promotion of women’s role in
livestock keeping (CR Guinea, 2003).
9 Conclusions
The information provided in the Country Reports

illustrates that the uses of AnGR are very diverse.
This is particularly the case for the smallholder
production systems of the developing world. Many
farmers rely on animals to provide inputs to crop
production, and insurance and asset functions
are of great importance where modern financial
services are unavailable or unstable. In urbanized
societies, livestock functions tend to be reduced
– focusing on market-oriented production of
food, fibre, skins and hides. Nevertheless, some
cultural functions remain important – including
roles in sports and leisure (mainly horses) and the
supply of food products for particular festivals.
New roles are also emerging (often for traditional
breeds) in the heritage and tourism industries
and in the provision of environmental services.
However, there remains a large knowledge gap
regarding the current roles of specific breeds,
and whether they have characteristics that make
them especially suited to particular functions or
99
PART 1
References
Arya, H.P.S., Yadav, M.P. & Tiwari, R. 2002. Livestock IFAD. 2004. Livestock services and the poor. A global
technologies for small farm systems. In P.S. Birthal initiative. Collecting, coordinating and sharing infor-
& P.P. Rao eds. Technology options for sustainable mation. Rome. International Fund for Agricultural
livestock production in India. Proceedings of the Development.
Workshop on Documentation, Adoption, and Impact Riethmuller, P. 2003. The social impact of livestock:
of Livestock Technologies in India, 18–19 Jan 2001, a developing country perspective. Animal Science
ICRISAT-Patancheru, India, pp. 8–89. New Delhi/ Journal, 74(4): 245–253.
Patancheru, India. National Centre for Agricultural
Economics and Policy Research/ International Crops Sarkar, A.B. 2001. Strategies for development of animal
Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. husbandry in Assam. In B.C. Barah, ed. Prioritisation
of strategies for agricultural development in
Bodó, I. 2005. From a bottle neck up to the commercial Northeastern India. Proceedings 9, pp. 29–33.
option. Paper presented at the 4th World Italian Beef New Delhi. National Center for Agricultural
Cattle Congress, Gubbio, Italy, 29 April 29 – 1 May Economics and Policy Research (ICAR).
1, 2005. (available at www.anabic.it/congresso2005/
atti/lavori/023%20def_Bod%C3%B2_st.pdf). Schiere, J.B. 1995. Cattle, straw and system control.
Amsterdam. Koninklijk Institute voor de Tropen.
CR (Country name). Year. Country report on the state of
animal genetic resources. (available in DAD-IS library Thornton, P.K., Kruska, R.L., Henninger, N.,
at www.fao.org/dad-is/). Kristjanson, P.M., Reid, R.S., Atieno, F., Odero,
A.N. & Ndegwa, T. 2002. Mapping poverty
Dorward, A.R., Anderson, S., Paz, R., Pattison, J., and livestock in the developing world. Nairobi.
Sanchez Vera, E., Nava, Y. & Rushton, J. 2004. International Livestock Research Institute. (also avail-
A guide to indicators and methods for assessing the able at www.ilri.cgiar.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/
contribution of livestock keeping to the livelihoods mappingPLDW/index.htm).
of the poor. London. DFID. (also available at www.
ilri.cgiar.org/html/Guide16Dec.pdf). UNDP. 1995. The human development report 1995:
gender and human development. New York, USA.
FAO. 2002. Improved animal health and poverty reduc- United Nations Development Programme.
tion for rural livelihoods. Animal Production and
Health Paper, No. 153. Rome.
FAO. 2003a. The yak. Second edition revised and

enlarged by G. Wiener, H. Jianlin, & L. Ruijun.
Bangkok. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific.
FAO. 2003b. World agriculture towards 2015/2030.

An FAO perspective. Edited by J. Bruinsma. London.
Earthscan.
FAOSTAT. (available at http://faostat.fao.org/).
Hungarian Grey Workshop. 2000. The origins of the

Hungarian Grey cattle. Proceedings of a workshop
held in Bugacpuszta, Hungary, 23–24 November 2000.
100
Section E
Animal genetic resources and

resistance to disease
1 Introduction
Livestock diseases adversely affect animal The distinction can be important. For example,
production throughout the world. Livestock where the objective is to prevent the spread of
keepers and other stakeholders involved in the disease to other populations (as in the case of
promoting animal health can draw on a number zoonotic diseases) disease resistance rather than
of approaches to reducing these negative effects. tolerance is required.
Options at the herd level include chemotherapy, Managing genetic resources in order to
vaccination, the control of disease vectors, and enhance the resistance or tolerance found in
appropriate management methods. However, livestock populations offers an additional tool
there are often constraints to the sustainability of for disease control. A number of advantages
such disease control strategies. Problems include of incorporating genetic elements in disease
the environmental and food safety-related management strategies have been recognized
impacts of chemical treatments; the affordability (FAO, 1999) including:
and accessibility of treatments to poorer livestock • the permanence of genetic change once it is
keepers; and the evolution of parasite resistance established;
to the treatments applied. Examples of the • the consistency of the effect;
latter problem include widespread resistance • the absence of the need for purchased
of nematode parasites to anthelmintic drugs; inputs once the effect is established;
bacterial resistance to antibiotics; resistance to • the effectiveness of other methods is
antiprotozoal drugs such as those used in the prolonged as there is less pressure for the
treatment of trypanosomiasis; the evolution of emergence of resistance;
virus resistance to vaccines for diseases such as • the possibility of broad spectrum effects
Marek’s disease; and acaricide resistance in ticks. (increasing resistance to more than one
In the case of antibiotics, there are also concerns disease);
regarding residues in the food chain, and the • the possibility of having less impact on
implications for human health of the emergence of the evolution of macroparasites such as
antibiotic-resistant micro-organisms (BOA, 1999). helminths, compared to other strategies
For many livestock diseases, evidence has such as chemotherapy or vaccination; and
been found for genetic variation in the extent to • adding to the diversity of disease
which host animals are susceptible. Two distinct management strategies.
phenomena must be distinguished in relation to A number of approaches to the genetic
the genetic management of disease. On the one management of disease can be applied,
hand, “resistance” refers to the ability of the host depending on the nature of the problem and
to resist infection. One the other, “tolerance” the resources available. Strategies may include
refers to a situation where the host is infected choosing the appropriate breed for the production
by the pathogen, but suffers little adverse effect. environment; cross-breeding to introduce genes
101
PART 1
TABLE 31
Selected studies indicating breed difference in resistance or tolerance to specific diseases
Disease/ Breed(s) showing Compared to Experimental Results Reference

Parasite greater resistance which breed(s) conditions
Trypanosoma Djallonke sheep Djallonke × Artificial Infection Lower parasitaemia level, a longer Goosens et al.
congolense Sahelian prepatent period and a higher (1999)
cross-breeds antibody response than the cross-
breeds, but the cross-breeds were still
heavier and grew faster
Ticks (Amblyomma N’Dama cattle N’Dama × Zebu Field conditions in Fewer ticks Mattioli et al. (1993)
variegatum; the Gambia
Hyalomma spp.)
Ticks (various N’Dama cattle Zebu Village herds in the Fewer ticks Claxton and Leperre
species) Gambia (1991)
Theileria annulata Sahiwal cattle Holstein-Friesian Artificial infection Less severe clinical symptoms Glass et al. (2005)
Anaplasma N’Dama cattle Gobra Zebu Field conditions in Lower serological prevalence of Mattioli et al. (1995)
marginale; ticks the Gambia A. marginale; fewer ticks.
(various species)
Haemonchus N’Dama cattle Zebu Village herds in the Fewer abomasal worms, lower FEC*. Claxton and Leperre
contortus Gambia (1991)
Haemonchus Red Masaai sheep Dorper Lambs kept under Lambs showed lower faecal egg count Baker (1998)
contortus field conditions in for H. contortus, higher PCV**, lower
subhumid coastal mortality then Dorper lambs. Estimated
Kenya to be 2 to 3 times as productive as
Dorper flocks under these conditions.
Haemonchus Small East African Galla Kids showed lower faecal egg count
contortus goats for H. contortus, higher PCV, lower Baker (1998)
mortality then Galla kids. Estimated to
be 2 to 3 times as productive as Galla
flocks under these conditions.
Haemonchus Santa Ines sheep Ile de France, Lambs grazed on Lower FEC, higher PCV, lower worm Amarante et al.
contortus Suffolk pastures in São counts (2004)
Paulo State SE
Brazil
Fasciola gigantica Indonesian Thin Tailed Merino Artificial Infection Lower number of flukes recovered Hansen et al. (1999)
sheep from liver; differences in immune
response
Fasciola gigantica Indonesian Thin Tailed St Croix Artificial infection Fewer parasites recovered from liver Roberts et al. (1997)
sheep
Sarcocystis Meishan pigs Piétrain Artificial Infection Less severely affected in terms of Reiner et al. (2002)
miescheriana clinical, serological, haematological
and parasitological indicators.
Ascaridia galli Lohman Brown Danish Landrace Artificial Infection Lower worm burdens and egg Permin and Ranvig
chickens excretion (2001)
Foot rot East Friesian × Awassi Pure-bred Awassi Natural outbreak Lower prevalence. Shimshony (1989)
cross-bred sheep in Israel
Foot rot Romney Marsh, Dorset Peppin Merino, Natural Less serious lesions, faster recovery Emery et al. (1984)
Horn, Border Leicester Saxon Merino transmission on
sheep irrigated pasture in
Australia
Newcastle Disease Mandarah chickens Gimmazah, Sinah, Artificial Infection Lower mortality rate than the other Hassan et al. (2004)
virus, Infectious Dandrawi (native breeds
Bursal Disease Egyptian breeds)
* FEC = faecal egg count.
**PCV = packed cell volume.
102
into breeds that are otherwise well adapted to 2 Disease resistant or tolerant
the required purposes; and the selection for breeds
breeding purposes of individuals that have high
levels of disease resistance or tolerance. The latter There is much anecdotal evidence pointing to
approach can be facilitated if molecular genetic the greater disease resistance of livestock breeds
markers associated with the desired traits have indigenous to environments where they face a heavy
been identified. disease challenge. When countries enter details
The starting point for all these strategies is the of their livestock breeds in FAO’s DAD-IS system,
genetic diversity of the livestock populations. they have the opportunity to indicate whether the
If genetic resources are eroded, potentially breeds have any particularly interesting or valuable
important means of combating disease may be characteristics – including disease resistance. In most
lost. Moreover, there is evidence, from simulation of these cases the claims made for specific breeds
studies, to show that populations that are diverse have not been subject to scientific investigation.
in terms of the number of distinct genotypes However, for many of the diseases in question,
conferring disease resistance are less susceptible evidence is available in the scientific literature for
to catastrophic disease epidemics (Springbett et differential disease resistance or tolerance among
al., 2003). The maintenance of diversity in terms livestock breeds (see examples in Table 31). The
of the genes underlying resistance provides an following discussion highlights the information
important resource for combating the effects of made available in DAD-IS regarding the resistance
possible future pathogen evolution. or tolerance of particular breeds, focusing on the
diseases for which there is also scientific evidence
that there is a genetic component to susceptibility.
Table 32 presents an overview of the entries in
DAD-IS that report disease resistance in mammalian
breeds, and Tables 33 to 39 list the breeds reported
as being resistant or tolerant to specific diseases or
disease types.
TABLE 32
Mammalian breeds reported to DAD-IS as having resistance or tolerance to specific diseases or parasites
Disease Buffalo Cattle Goat Sheep Pig Horse Deer
Trypanosomiasis 17 4 4
Tick infestation/burden 1 17 1 1
Tick-borne diseases (unspecified) 4
Anaplasmosis 2
Piroplasmosis/Babesiosis 4 1
Heartwater/Cowdriosis 1 1
Internal parasites/worms 1 2 1 9 1 2 1
Fascioliasis 2 1
Bovine leukosis 9
Foot rot (Bacteroides nodusos) 1 14
Total* 4 59 6 33 3 5 2
*Total number of entries related to disease resistance or tolerance (some breeds are reported to show resistance or tolerance to more
than one disease).
103
PART 1
2.1 Trypanosomiasis 2.2 Ticks and tick-borne diseases

Trypanosomiasis transmitted by tsetse flies is one Ticks are a widespread problem for livestock
of the most important animal health problems producers, particularly in the tropics. Ticks
in Africa – occurring mainly in West and Central themselves weaken animals by the withdrawal of
Africa, and in parts of East Africa. Other types of blood, cause tick paralysis through the injection of
trypanosomiasis are significant problems both in toxins secreted in their saliva, damage hides, and
Africa and in other regions. Parasite resistance provide sites for secondary infections. Moreover,
associated with control based on trypanocidal they also spread a number of serious diseases,
drugs, and sustainability problems involved in the the most notable being anaplasmosis, babesiosis,
implementation of tsetse control programmes, theileriosis and cowdriosis (heartwater). The
have increased interest in the use of integrated presence of specific tick species varies with agro-
control methods including the utilization of ecological conditions, some being more widely
disease tolerant breeds of livestock (FAO, 2005). distributed than others. Resistance or tolerance to
The most trypanotolerant breeds include N’Dama ticks, and to a lesser extent to tick-borne diseases,
and West African Shorthorn cattle, as well as is well documented. For example, a number of
Djallonke sheep and goats. Despite smaller studies indicate that N’Dama cattle show a higher
size, studies have shown that these breeds are resistance than Zebu animals to ticks (Claxton and
more productive than susceptible animals under Leperre 1991; Mattioli et al., 1993; Mattioli et al.,
moderate to high tsetse challenge (Agyemang 1995). Another example is provided by a study in
et al., 1997). Table 33 shows the breeds reported Australia which found that pure-bred Bos indicus
in DAD-IS as being resistant or tolerant to cattle were less susceptible to babesiosis than
trypanosomiasis. were cross-bred Bos indicus × Bos taurus animals
(Bock et al., 1999). In the case of theileriosis
TABLE 33 caused by Theileria annulata, Sahiwal calves, a
Breeds reported to DAD-IS as showing resistance breed indigenous to India, were found to be less
or tolerance to trypanosomiasis adversely affected than Holstein-Friesian calves
when infected with the disease (Glass et al., 2005).
Species/ Number Most common name of
Subregion of breed Tables 34 and 35, respectively, show the breeds
breeds reported in DAD-IS as showing resistance or
Cattle tolerance to ticks and tick-borne diseases.
North & 15 N’dama (20), Baoulé (4), Lagune
West Africa (Lagoon) (6), Bourgou (2), Muturu 2.3 Internal parasites
(2), Dahomey (Daomé) (2), Somba,
Namchi, Kapsiki. Kuri, Toupouri, Helminthosis has been recognized as one of the
Ghana Shorthorn, Keteku, Somba most serious animal health constraints affecting
East Africa 2 Sheko, Jiddu poor livestock keepers (Perry et al., 2002).
Sheep Resistance or tolerance to Haemonchus contortus,
North & 4 Vogan (2), West African Dwarf (4),
an ubiquitous nematode worm that infests the
West Africa Djallonké (10), Kirdimi stomachs of ruminant animals, has been subject
Goat to many studies (see examples in Table 31). The
North & 4 West African Dwarf (16), Red Maasai sheep breed, for example, is noted for
West Africa Djallonké (2), Kirdimi, Diougry its resistance to gastrointestinal worms. A study
Figures in parenthesis = number of countries reporting if more conducted under field conditions in subhumid
than one. coastal areas of Kenya found that lambs of the
Note that there may be other breeds for which there is evidence
of disease resistance or tolerance but for which this has not been
Red Maasai breed showed lower faecal egg
reported to DAD-IS. counts (FEC) for Haemonchus contortus, and
104
TABLE 34
Breeds reported to DAD-IS as showing resistance or tolerance to tick-burden
Species/Subregion Number Most common name of breed

of breeds
Cattle
Southern Africa 8 Nguni (2), Angoni, Sul Do Save, Pedi, Bonsmara, Shangaan, Kashibi, Tswana
Southeast Asia 4 Pesisir, Limousin, Javanese Zebu, Thai
Europe & the Caucasus 1 Zebu of Azerbaijan
South America 1 Romosinuano
Southwest Pacific 3 Australian Friesian Sahiwal, Australian Milking Zebu, Australian Sahiwal
Sheep
Southern Africa 2 Nguni (3), Landim
Buffalo
Southeast Asia 1 Thai
Deer
Southeast Asia 1 Sambar
Figures in parenthesis = number of countries reporting if more than one.

Note that there may be other breeds for which there is evidence of disease resistance or tolerance but for which this has not been
reported to DAD-IS.
TABLE 35
Breeds reported to DAD-IS as showing resistance or tolerance to tick-borne diseases
Species/Subregion Disease Number Most common name of breed

of breeds
Cattle
North & West Africa Tick-borne diseases (unspecified) 2 Baoulé, Ghana Shorthorn
Southern Africa Tick-borne diseases (unspecified) 1 Angoni (2)
Europe & the Caucasus Anaplasmosis 2 Cinisara, Modicana,
North & West Africa Piroplasmosis 2 N’dama, Noire Pie de Meknès
Europe & the Caucasus Piroplasmosis 1 Modicana
Europe & the Caucasus* Heartwater (Cowdriosis) 1 Creole (also dermatophilosis)
Sheep
Southern Africa Heartwater (Cowdriosis) 1 Damara (2)
Horse
Europe & the Caucasus Piroplasmosis 1 Pottok

reported to DAD-IS.
*Guadeloupe, Martinique.
105
PART 1
TABLE 36
Breeds reported to DAD-IS as showing resistance or tolerance to internal parasites
Species/Subregion Number of Most common name of breed

breeds
Cattle
Southern Africa 1 Madagascar Zebu
Southeast Asia 1 Javanese Zebu
Goat
Near & Middle East 1 Yei goat
Sheep
Southern Africa 2 Madgascar, Kumumawa
Southeast Asia 3 Garut, Malin, Priangan
Europe & the Caucasus 1* Churra Lebrijana (fascioliasis)
Latin America & the 3 Criollo (8), Criollo Mora, Morada Nova
Caribbean
Near & Middle East 1 Rahmani
Buffalo
Southeast Asia 3* Papua New Guinea Buffalo, Kerbau-Kalang (fascioliasis), Kerbau Indonesia (fascioliasis)
Pig
Southeast Asia 1 South China
Deer
Southeast Asia 1 Sambar
Horse
Southeast Asia 2 Kuda Padi , Bajau

reported to DAD-IS.
*Figures include breeds reported to be resistant to fascioliasis.
lower mortality than Dorper lambs (another Indonesian Thin Tailed sheep have been found
breed widely kept in Kenya). The Red Maasai to show greater resistance than sheep of the St.
flocks were estimated to be two to three times Croix and Merino breeds (Roberts et al., 1997).
as productive as the Dorper animals under these One sheep breed and two buffalo breeds are
subhumid conditions favourable to the parasites reported in DAD-IS as showing some resistance or
(Baker, 1998). Similarly, greater resistance and tolerance to fascioliasis (Table 36).
higher productivity was found in Small East
African goats a compared to goats of the Galla 2.4 Foot rot
breed under the same conditions (ibid.). There Foot rot is a contagious bacterial disease of
is also some scientific evidence for resistance or hoofed animals which causes severe lameness.
tolerance to the liver fluke Fasciola gigantica, It is a serious economic problem, particularly
which is a widespread parasite. For example, for sheep producers. It occurs more often in
106
temperate zones. There is evidence that some TABLE 38

breeds are more resistant to foot rot than others. Cattle breeds reported to DAD-IS as showing
A study conducted in Australia revealed that when resistance or tolerance to leukosis
exposed to natural infection on irrigated pastures,
Subregion Number Most common name of breed
the British breeds Romney Marsh, Dorset Horn of
and Border Leicester showed less susceptibility to breeds
foot rot (manifested by relatively benign lesions

Central Asia 1 Bestuzhevskaya
and a more rapid resolution) than did Peppin and
Europe & 7 Krasnaya gorbatovskaya,
Saxon Merinos (Emery et al., 1984). the Caucasus Istobenskaya, Kholmogorskaya,
Similarly, Shimshony (1989) reports that East Suksunskaya skot, Yakutskii Skot,
Yaroslavskaya, Yurinskaya, Sura de
Friesian × Awassi cross-bred sheep showed lower stepa
prevalence of the disease than pure-bred Awassi
during an outbreak of the disease in Israel. It of disease resistance or tolerance but for which this has not been
appears that breeds originating from wetter reported to DAD-IS.
areas where the disease is more common are less

susceptible. Breeds reported in DAD-IS as showing 2.5 Bovine leukosis
resistance or tolerance to foot rot are shown in Bovine leukosis is a blood-borne disease caused by
Table 37. the bovine leukosis virus (BLV). The disease causes
considerable economic losses as a result of trade
restrictions, mortality and lost production, and
TABLE 37 condemnation of carcasses at the slaughterhouse.
Breeds reported to DAD-IS as showing resistance There appears to be a genetic component to
or tolerance to foot rot susceptibility to the disease. Petukhov et al.
(2002), for example, report differences between
Species/Regions Number Most common name
of breeds of breed breeds, families, and bulls’ daughters in terms of
the frequency of BLV infection among cattle in
Cattle
West Siberia. Table 38 shows the breeds reported
Europe & 1 Sayaguesa
the Caucasus
in DAD-IS as showing resistance or tolerance to
bovine leukosis.
Sheep
North & West Africa 1 Beni Ahsen 2.6 Diseases of poultry
East Asia 2 Large Tailed Han, Small Outbreaks of Newcastle disease and gumboro
Tailed Han
(infectious bursal disease) frequently devastate
Europe & 10 Kamieniecka, Leine, village chicken flocks. Both diseases have a
the Caucasus Swiniarka, Polskie Owce
Dlugowelniste, Churra worldwide prevalence. Outbreaks of Newcastle
Lebrijana, Lacha, Bündner disease have been reported for at least a century.
Oberländerschaf, Engadiner
Fuchsschaf, Rauhwolliges Four panzootic waves occurred during the
Pommersches Landschaf, Soay twentieth century. Gumboro was first described in
1962 and epidemic outbreaks have been reported
Southwest Pacific 1 Broomfield Corriedale
since the 1970s.
of disease resistance or tolerance but for which this has not been
reported to DAD-IS.
107
PART 1
TABLE 39
Breeds reported to DAD-IS as showing resistance or tolerance to avian diseases
Species/Subregion Disease Number of Most common name of breed

breeds
Chicken
North & West Africa Newcastle disease 1 Poule De Benna
Southern Africa Newcastle disease 1 Nkhuku
Southeast Asia Newcastle disease 1 Red Jungle Fowl
Central America Newcastle disease 1 Gallina criolla o de rancho
Southeast Asia Marek’s disease 1 Ayam Kampong
Europe & the Caucasus Marek’s disease 4 Borky 117, Scots Dumpy, Hrvatica, Bohemian Fowl
Duck (domestic)
North & West Africa Newcastle disease 2 Local Duck of Moulkou and Bongor, Local Duck of Gredaya and Massakory
Guinea fowl
North & West Africa Newcastle disease 2 Numida Meleagris Galeata Pallas, Djaoulés
Muscovy duck
North & West Africa Newcastle disease 1 Local Muscovy Duck of Karal and Massakory
Turkey
North & West Africa Newcastle disease 1 Moroccoan Beldi
reported to DAD-IS.
A study comparing the effects of infection with

Newcastle disease and infectious bursal disease 3 Opportunities for within-breed
virus on four Egyptian chicken breeds found selection for disease resistance
that Mandarah chickens (a dual purpose breed
developed through cross-breeding) showed less Selective breeding to take advantage of within-
susceptibility than the other breeds to both diseases breed variation in disease resistance is an
– indicated by significantly lower mortality rates important strategy in the control of a number
following artificial infection (Hassan et al., 2004). of diseases. For endemic diseases, which are a
Similarly, there is evidence for genetic resistance continuously present in the relevant production
to Marek’s disease. Lakshmanan et al. (1996), systems (e.g. mastitis, helminthosis) selection
for example, report that a study of Fayoumi and based on phenotypic response to disease challenge
White Leghorn chickens revealed the former to is possible. In the case of mastitis, somatic cell
show greater resistance to the development count in milk (an indicator of bacterial infection)
of tumours (see below for a further discussion or clinical cases of the disease can be used as
of breeding for resistance to Marek’s disease). phenotypic indicators of susceptibility. These
Table 39 shows the avian breeds reported in DAD- indicators are routinely recorded in dairy herds,
IS as showing resistance or tolerance to specific and their variation has been found to have a large
avian diseases. genetic component (Rupp and Boichard, 2003).
The existence of an antagonistic relationship
between genetic merit for production traits and
susceptibility to the disease has promoted interest
108
Box 14
Genetic resistance to African swine fever
African swine fever (ASF) poses a serious threat to Molecular and genomics-based studies have
the global pork industry. ASF is a highly contagious identified key cellular targets of ASFV proteins that
disease causing rapid haemorrhagic death of domestic are essential for virus replication or contribute to virus
pigs. No effective vaccine is available and the only evasion of immune defence mechanisms. Comparative
effective control strategies are strict regulation of the analysis of DNA sequences of these genes from
movement of animals and their products and rapid pig species with varying susceptibilities may reveal
identification, slaughter and disposal of infected mutations (single nucleotide polymorphisms or
animals. Alternative approaches are critically needed. SNPs) that are associated with genetic variation in
In contrast to the severe disease observed in resistance. Transcriptome analysis of ASFV-infected
domestic pigs, African swine fever virus (ASFV) infection macrophages using microarrays will provide new
causes no clinical effects in wild native African pigs, candidate genes that are differentially regulated
the common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and during infection. Such candidate genes could be used
bushpig species (Potamochoerus spp.). Such naturally for development of DNA marker tests for selection of
occurring species-specific genetic resistance is valuable animals with reduced susceptibility to disease.
to the study of molecular mechanisms integral to the Conservation of resistant breeds is critical for
pathogenesis of this disease. progress in genetic resistance to ASFV. Animals,
Breeding for genetic resistance to ASF has been tissues and DNA are vital resources for researchers.
attempted by cross-breeding domestic pigs with Although breeding for increased resistance to
resistant species. Despite anecdotal evidence to ASFV may be possible, there are several factors to be
suggest that this may be possible, interbreeding considered before embarking on such a programme.
has had limited success. Alternatively, it may be One consideration is that resistant pigs that are
possible to breed for ASFV resistance by breeding unable to be infected by ASFV will be difficult to
domestic pigs that have survived natural ASFV achieve. It is more likely that pigs will express a
challenge. Approximately 5–10 percent of domestic phenotype that is “tolerant” to the clinical effects
pigs survive ASFV infection. Unfortunately, survivors of ASFV. While tolerant pigs may not express clinical
usually succumb to eradication measures following disease, they may become infected and could shed
an outbreak. Such an approach would allow study of ASFV into the environment. As such, these pigs
the nature of genetic resistance and could provide could pose a risk to susceptible pigs in the area or
founder animals for resource families that could be undermine control strategies.
used to confirm and quantify genetic variation in
resistance or tolerance to ASFV and for identification Provided by Marnie Mellencamp.
of associated genetic markers or QTL (quantitative
trait loci).
in selection for resistance (ibid.). Many dairy ruminant production. Control strategies based
cattle breeding programmes, therefore, include almost entirely on the frequent use of dewormers
increasing resistance to mastitis as an objective. are increasingly regarded as unsustainable
Parasite resistance to anthelmintic drugs is as given the emergence of multiple drug resistant
a major problem for the livestock sector in many parasites (Kaplan, 2004). The need for alternative
parts of the world, particularly in the case of small methods of control is highlighted by the fact that
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PART 1
no major new class of anthelmintic drug has variation within and between breeds in terms
been launched for around 25 years, and there of susceptibility to many important diseases,
appears to be little immediate prospect for the and in a number of cases this element has been
emergence of new candidates (ibid.). Interest incorporated within breeding programmes.
is growing in integrated parasite management However, research into the genetics of resistance
(IPM) programmes, of which breeding for genetic and tolerance to livestock disease is rather
resistance is a component. Selective breeding of limited in terms of the diseases, breeds and
sheep on the basis of FEC has been shown to species investigated. If breeds become extinct
be an effective means of reducing the need for before their disease resistance qualities have
treatment with anthelmintics and of reducing been identified, genetic resources which could
the contamination of pastures with the eggs of greatly contribute to improving animal health
nematode parasites (Woolaston, 1992; Morris et and productivity are lost for ever.
al., 2000; Woolaston and Windon, 2001; Bishop
et al., 2004).
For epidemic diseases, alternative approaches References
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Agyemang, K., Dwinger, R.H., Little, D.A. &
associated with enhanced disease resistance
Rowlands, G.J. 1997. Village N’Dama cattle pro-
(Bishop and Woolliams, 2004). In the case of
duction in West Africa: six years of research in the
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vaccine use has apparently increased the virulence
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Baker, R.L. 1998. Genetic resistance to endoparasites
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112
Section F
Threats to
livestock genetic diversity
1 Introduction
Genetic diversity is potentially threatened ruminant breeds in West Asia and North Africa.
by a variety of factors, whose effects may be These examples illustrate that there are a number
felt in a number of ways – undermining the of ways in which threats to genetic resources can
production systems of which AnGR form a part; potentially be classified, but for the purposes of
physically destroying livestock populations; or the following discussion, three broad categories
provoking responses that are in themselves a are distinguished: trends in the livestock sector;
threat. Driving forces of genetic erosion are also disasters and emergencies; and animal disease
diverse in terms of the extent to which they are epidemics and control measures.
amenable to influence by policy interventions Driven by economic, social, demographic and
or, if they cannot be prevented, with respect to political factors, the livestock sector is undergoing
whether measures can be put in place to lessen many changes. Trends include quantitative and
their effects on AnGR diversity. In the literature, qualitative changes in demand for livestock
there is broad agreement regarding the general products and services; changes in the availability
trends and factors threatening AnGR. For of natural resources, external inputs or labour;
example, Rege and Gibson (2003) identify the changes affecting livestock trade at national
use of exotic germplasm, changes in production and international levels; and shifts in the policy
systems, changes in producer preference because environment which, directly or indirectly, affect
of socio-economic factors, and a range of disasters the nature of livestock production systems (see
(drought, famine, disease epidemics, civil strife/ Part 2 for a further discussion of trends in livestock
war) as the major causes of genetic erosion. Tisdell production systems). In addition to threats
(2003) mentions development interventions, associated with these general trends affecting
specialization (emphasis on a single productive the sector as a whole, inappropriate policies and
trait), genetic introgression, the development of methods within the more specific field of AnGR
technology and biotechnology, political instability management can have severe consequences for
and natural disasters. Analyses of the specific genetic diversity.
threats faced by particular livestock breeds, and Disasters and emergencies are distinguished
of the reasons for past breed extinctions are, from the more “gradual” trends on the basis of
however, quite rare. For at-risk cattle breeds in several factors. First, disasters and emergencies
Africa, Rege (1999) lists replacement by other involve a distinct precipitating event or set of
breeds, cross-breeding with exotic breeds or with events. The occurrence of such events is relatively
other indigenous breeds, conflict, loss of habitat, unpredictable, at least in terms of the intensity
disease, neglect and lack of sustained breeding of their impact, and the specific locations that
programmes among the threats. Similarly, Iñiguez are affected. Hence, foreseeing their effects
(2005) identifies displacement by other breeds, and on AnGR presents a rather different (arguably
indiscriminate cross-breeding as threats to small more difficult) challenge. Second, disasters and
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emergencies are by their nature undesirable events, negative effects of ongoing or diffuse trends on
which give rise to responses aimed at alleviating the other, is not always clear cut. Similarly, there
their humanitarian, economic and social impacts. may be “higher-level” driving forces which operate
These responses are often hastily organized, through more than one of the mechanisms outlined
have short-term objectives, and are unlikely to be above. A notable example is climate change, which
particularly focused on AnGR. Third, in the context has the potential both to increase the frequency of
of disasters and emergencies, the possibility of weather-related disasters, and gradually to affect
valuable AnGR populations being wiped out in the distribution and characteristics of production
a very short period of time has to be taken into systems (FAO, 2006a).
account. Disasters and emergencies potentially Given the unpredictability and complexity of
affecting AnGR include both the natural (e.g. many of the forces threatening livestock genetic
hurricanes or tsunamis), and the human-induced diversity, assessing their relative significance, and
(e.g. wars) (Goe and Stranzinger, 2002). hence identifying priorities for their alleviation,
Livestock disease epidemics share with disasters presents a great challenge. Impacts are likely to
and emergencies the characteristics of being be affected by the spatial scale of the threat; the
relatively unpredictable, having the potential speed with which the threat arises; for periodic
to devastate livestock populations in a short threats, the frequency with which they occur; the
period of time, and provoking “emergency-type” intensity with which the threat strikes the affected
responses (the specific nature and focus of the populations; and by whether in the future threat
responses are, however, distinct from those that is likely to increase or decrease in magnitude.
are implemented for other types of emergency). Additionally, the significance which should be
Eradication campaigns for endemic diseases fit less attached to a threat relates to the characteristics of
well into the pattern, being driven by a variety of the livestock affected. Concern should be greater
factors – technological developments, marketing if the populations affected contribute greatly to
and trade-related issues, human health concerns the world’s genetic diversity, are particularly well
etc. rather than arising as a rapid response to adapted to local conditions, or include breeds that
an emergency. Nonetheless, in some cases (e.g. are rare or have unique characteristics. Finally, the
scrapie) rigorous efforts to eliminate such diseases significance of a threat is affected by the state of
are a potential threat to AnGR diversity. existing capacity to respond – either by removing
A classification framework of this kind inevitably or alleviating the threat, or by putting measures in
involves some simplification of a complex situation. place to protect the threatened genetic resources.
Different driving forces will interact with each
other. For example, a breed population may only
be vulnerable to an acute disaster because its 2 Livestock sector trends:
numbers and range have declined as the result of economic, social and policy
gradual changes to the production systems in which factors
it is kept. Inappropriate policies and management
approaches may exist under “normal” conditions, The outlook for a breed depends to a great extent
but may be particularly prevalent or damaging in on its present and future role in livestock systems.
the aftermath of an emergency. Similarly, disasters The decline of certain livestock functions as
and emergencies may destroy the infrastructure alternatives become available is often a substantial
and human and technical resources required to threat. Perhaps the most obvious example is
implement or develop appropriate management that throughout much of the world, specialized
approaches. Moreover, the boundary between draught breeds are threatened by the expansion
chronic emergencies on the one hand, and the of mechanization in agriculture (FAO, 1996);
114
see also CR India (2004) and CR Malaysia (2003). it promotes trends towards specialization in
Similarly, breeds developed for wool and fibre a single product at the farm level and, hence,
production may be threatened by the availability may threaten multipurpose breeds; it promotes
of alternative materials. Availability of alternative capacities to control the production environment
sources of fertilizer or financial services also shift and, hence, to utilize a narrower range of breeds;
the objectives of livestock keepers and may affect and it facilitates the transfer of genetic material
their choices regarding breeds. across international boundaries (Tisdell, 2003).
The increased demand for livestock products in The latter factor also promotes the operation of
many parts of the developing world drives efforts the so-called “Swanson dominance-effect”. This
to increase the output of meat, eggs and milk term describes a situation in which choices made
for the market (Delgado et al., 1999). Replacing in the earliest-developing societies strongly affect
local breeds by a narrow range of high-yielding later patterns of development elsewhere. In the
breeds is a very widespread consequence of face of a need to rapidly increase production,
efforts to increase output (in fact, there is also the choice of transboundary breeds which have
a narrowing of within-breed diversity in many already been subjected to many years of intense
popular international transboundary breeds). The genetic improvement, and from which genetic
rapid expansion of industrialized pig and poultry material is readily available, is liable to prove
production systems in a region such as East Asia, attractive to livestock producers and policy-makers
which has a great diversity of indigenous pig and in developing countries, even if the development
chicken breeds, is a concern. Cross-breeding with of local breeds might in the longer term provide
exotic animals is also widely practised as a means better adapted animals (ibid.). Indeed, a similar
of increasing production levels. If, as is often the process can operate to reduce within-breed
case, this takes place in an indiscriminate manner, diversity in high-output transboundary breeds
it can be a major threat to local breeds. Stricter – an example being the very widespread use
requirements for product uniformity and food of North American genetic stock in European
hygiene limit the range of marketable livestock Holstein-Friesian cattle.
products and restrict the production conditions In the context of increased international trade,
under which livestock are kept (FAO, 2006b). the nature of livestock production and the choice
CR Zimbabwe (2004) for example, notes that of breeds may also be influenced by factors
the current carcass grading system discriminates such as market trends in importing countries,
against small animals, and therefore discourages increased competition from imported products,
the production of some indigenous cattle breeds. fluctuations in the prices of imported inputs, and
Other trends in consumer demand can threaten trade restrictions associated with zoosanitary
breeds that do not supply products with the measures. Small-scale livestock keepers will often
desired characteristics. For example, consumer be poorly placed to respond to the challenges
preference for leaner meat has led to the decline and opportunities posed by these developments,
of pig breeds that have carcasses with a higher fat and may, therefore, lose out in competition
content (Tisdell, 2003). with industrial producers (FAO, 2006). Legal
Production systems can be affected not only frameworks affecting international trade in
by demands in local markets, but also by trends livestock and livestock products are discussed in
at the international level (FAO, 2005a). Greater greater detail in Part 3 – Section E.
economic globalization may contribute in several The significance of demand-driven threats to
ways to genetic erosion: it encourages regional livestock genetic diversity varies with location,
specialization and, hence, within a given region, being most significant where access to markets is
may lead to the decline of specialized breeds easier. Here, increased demand and competition
associated with an unfavoured type of production; are highly important drivers of the transformation
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PART 1
Box 15
Mongolian reindeer under threat
For millennia, reindeer have been the basis of the There have also been suggestions that inbreeding
livelihoods and culture of nomadic peoples in the is contributing to the reindeer’s decline, by increasing
taiga and tundras of Eurasia. The Tsataan, or Dukha, vulnerability to diseases such as brucellosis. In
people of Mongolia, for example, rely on their animals 1962, and again in the late 1980s, the Mongolian
for transport – reindeer are ridden and used as pack government brought reindeer from Siberia to
animals, and food – largely in the form of milk. When replenish the herds. Since the end of the Soviet era,
a reindeer is culled, meat, hides and virtually every no such inflows have occurred. Proposals that there
part of its body is utilized. As with many nomadic should be renewed import of reindeer or reindeer
societies, a range of factors threaten the Dhuka’s semen, from Siberia or from more distant places
traditional way of life – including a fall in reindeer such as Scandinavia or Canada, have provoked some
numbers that has occurred during recent decades. debate. Arguments have been put forward that
Several threats to the herds have been identified. cross-breeding has the potential to restore beneficial
The region’s wildlife population is declining due to traits that have declined over time, including disease
commercial hunting. In the absence of wild game resistance, high milk production, and large body and
to hunt, the herders are forced to slaughter their antler size. Conversely, others argue that to introduce
animals at an unsustainable rate. Other economic exotic genetic material may be inappropriate, as local
developments such as mining are a further threat, reindeer have been selected for local requirements, in
as grazing areas are destroyed or migration patterns particular for riding and transporting goods. Molecular
are disrupted. Reduced mobility as herders stay close studies have indicated that the Dhuka’s herds are no
to towns to take advantage of education services more inbred than many other reindeer populations.
and access to consumer goods may negatively Further research is being undertaken by various NGOs,
affect the reindeers’ nutrition, as they are unable to scientists, and Mongolian government authorities
access remote lichen-rich grazing areas. Traditional to explore in greater depth the best approaches to
knowledge regarding breeding and husbandry managing the reindeer genetic resources. Efforts are
may have been lost during the collectivized period, also being made to assess the animal health needs of
meaning that the new private herders are less the Dhuka and to provide improved veterinary care.
adept at reindeer management than were their
predecessors. At the same time, problems related Advice on the preparation of this text box was provided by
Brian Donahoe, Morgan Keay, Kirk Olson and Dan Plumley.
to the health of the reindeer are exacerbated by
For further information see: Donahoe and Plumley (2001
the decline of government veterinary services and and 2003); Haag (2004); Owen (2004); Matalon (2004).
predator control measures.
or marginalization/decline of traditional strategies for managing grazing or soil fertility,

production systems. More remote (inaccessible) can threaten sustainability (FAO, 1996). Lack of
locations may be less affected by threats related access rights to grazing land and water sources
to market demands. However production systems are increasingly threatening the livestock-keeping
in these areas, which are often the home of strategies of pastoralists (Köhler-Rollefson, 2005).
specifically adapted genetic resources, face other Climate change is also a potential contributing
threats. Degradation of the natural resource base, factor. A decline in rainfall predicted to affect the
exacerbated by increasing pressure of population main semi-arid zones of Africa has the potential
and the absence of suitable methods and to adversely affect the livelihoods of pastoralists
116
in these areas (Hiemstra et al., 2006). Apart from vs. a local breed leads to an inappropriate choice
natural resource-related problems, constraints of the exotic; market failures – the presence of
related to production (e.g. endemic diseases), external costs or benefits associated with the
marketing, the availability of external inputs, keeping of a particular breed or the practising
and a lack of the necessary infrastructure and of a particular form of livestock production (e.g.
services for breed improvement, can all decrease environmental damage associated with industrial
the economic viability of these production production systems); and policy distortions which
systems. Migration to urban areas in search of promote inefficient resource allocation in the
employment may result in the loss of the labour livestock sector (FAO, 2002).
force and traditional knowledge associated with Overt or hidden governmental subsidies have
livestock keeping (Daniel, 2000; Farooquee et often promoted the development of industrial
al., 2004). The effects of such constraints on AnGR systems at the expense of the small-scale
tend to be two-edged: while they may hinder producer. In some countries, livestock sector
economic sustainability, they normally promote policy decisions are strongly motivated by a
the retention of indigenous breeds as they are desire to increase the export of animal products
the only ones that can flourish in the difficult (see Box 16). These subsidies can take a variety
production conditions. of forms including grants and loans for capital
It should also be noted that apparently minor investments, subsidization of inputs such as
and innocuous changes to production practices imported feed, provision of free or subsidized
can lead to the decline of breeds or strains livestock services (such as AI), and support prices
adapted to specific systems. Dýrmundsson (2002) for animal products (Drucker et al., 2006).
reports that in Iceland, increased hay and silage More broadly, awareness of the significance
production during the mid-twentieth century of conservation and sustainable use of AnGR
led to a decline in the population of the unique is often limited at the policy level (see Part 3
“leadersheep” strain, which played an important – Section A). This weakness contributes to the
role during winter grazing. current lack adequate characterization of local
The above discussion has indicated that breeds, and to a lack of consideration of AnGR
increased demand and greater globalization in all policy decisions. Moreover, public sector
have tended to favour the industrialization of investment in AnGR development is declining.
production systems and the use of a narrow There is an increased emphasis on biotechnology,
range of genetic resources that are highly and less attention is paid to more holistic breed
productive under these conditions. While this improvement activities involving the design of
process is a threat to the diversity of AnGR, it has breeding programmes, establishment and support
also contributed greatly to increasing the supply of animal recording schemes, testing of alternative
of food of animal origin in the face of rapidly AnGR, and the involvement of local farmers and
growing demand. It might, therefore, be argued traditional breeds (FAO, 2004c). The result is that
that a decline in AnGR diversity seems to be no AnGR development is left to the commercial
great problem. Clearly, this perspective gives little sector, with its focus on the (primarily temperate)
weight to potential future benefits that may be international transboundary breeds. There is also
foregone if a broader range of genetic diversity is a concern that if public sector research is focused
not maintained. However, even from a short-term heavily on expensive biotechnologies, this may
perspective, it is possible to identify a number of reduce the availability of resources for research
factors which may distort breed choice in favour into broader aspects of AnGR management.
of exotic high-producing breeds. These factors At the international scale, regulatory
include: information deficits – a lack of knowledge frameworks for AnGR covering exchange, and
regarding the relative performance of an exotic access and benefit sharing (ABS) have been slow
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Box 16
Policy distortions influencing the erosion of pig genetic resources in Viet Nam
There are around 25 breeds of pig in Viet Nam – 15 by MARD also favour export-oriented pig farming.
local and 10 exotic breeds. The latter are imported These measures have included preferential investment
to ”improve” the performance of the local breeds incentives from the Export Support Fund; loans
through cross-breeding. Of the estimated 21.5 million from the Development Assistance Fund of up to 90
pigs in Viet Nam, about 28 percent are local breeds, percent of the value of investment capital for projects
16 percent are imported breeds, and 56 percent are involving the development of pig production for
various crosses. Among the local breeds, three are export; and incentives of VND (Viet Nam Dong) 280
considered technically extinct, four are classified as (US$0.02) per US$1 export value of suckling pigs, and
critical–declining, two as endangered–declining and VND900 (US$0.06) per US$1 export value of pig meat
four as vulnerable–declining (CR Viet Nam, 2003). (ACI, ASPS, 2002a,b).
In 1994, local breeds comprised around 72 percent A recent study (Drucker et al., 2006) based on
of the sow population in north Viet Nam. By 1997, a case study in Son La province and interviews with
this level had decreased to 45 percent. The decline key-informants at the national and local government
of local breeds stems from both market forces levels assessed the significance of government
and government policies that distort the relative subsidies for “high-quality” pig breeds. The total
profitability of production using local or exotic breeds. subsidy level was estimated to be around US$31/
The government recognizes the importance of sow/year (VND460 000/sow/year). Eleven types of
maintaining local breeds in order to conserve genetic subsidy were identified: more than half of the total
diversity and provide material for cross-breeding (54 percent) came from direct subsidies for the rearing
programmes. Support and credit are provided to of breeding stock. Other significant sources included
breeding stations, organizations and individuals that direct subsidies of the purchase price of breeding
keep local breeds (ACI/ASPS, 2002). However, the level stock (from national and provincial government
of support for local breeds is low compared to the grants) (17 percent); subsidized loans for the purchase
incentives aimed at the export-oriented keepers of of pigs and farm infrastructure (16 percent); and
exotic breeds. subsidized AI services (9 percent). It was estimated
The livestock breeding programme of the Ministry that the subsidy/sow/year would constitute between
of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) is 19 percent and 70 percent of gross margin.
geared towards ensuring the supply of good quality
breeds for domestic production as well as for export. Provided by Achilles Costales.
For further information see: ACI/ASPS (2002); Drucker et al.
Towards this end, two state-run breeding farms are
(2006).
subsidized to provide exotic breeds and crosses
for sale to commercial pig producers (Drucker et
al., 2006). A number of decrees that have been issued
to emerge relative to developments in the plant in this area to impact the utilization of particular
sector (see Part 3 – Section E:1 for a discussion genetic resources or to affect the sustainability
of the main international legal frameworks of particular livestock production systems, but
affecting AnGR). Policy options are, however, there is as yet little concrete evidence as to how
increasingly being discussed (Hiemstra et al., changing regulatory frameworks might increase
2006). Clearly there is potential for developments or diminish threats to AnGR diversity.
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Box 17
Which dairy breeds for tropical smallholders?
Smallholder dairy development in Kenya promotes and a failure to breed a heifer replacement during
the use of exotic dairy cattle. A recent study shows the cow’s productive life, which was shortened to less
that these animals are of higher milk potential than than four years by stress and under nutrition. This
tropical climates and feed resources can support. resulted in a high total cost per litre and a decline in
Models of nutrition and energy balance in herd size. The energy deficit faced by high-yielding
Friesians and their Zebu cross-breeds in zero-grazing Friesians explains why their average annual milk yield
units showed that daily milk yields greater than 18 in smallholder zero-grazing units is only 1 500 litres
litres cannot be supported by the energy density of in the highlands and 1 000 litres at the coast, and
available feed. Improving feed quality would raise the replacement rate is one heifer bred for every two
daily yields above 22 litres, but would generate more cows leaving the herd.
heat than the cow could dissipate, even in the cool The annual milk yields for these Friesian are no
highlands. The cow’s appetite would, therefore, be better than those of dairy Boran, Nandi and Jiddu
depressed and she would draw on her energy reserves cows under improved management 50 years ago, and
to support higher yields. In coastal areas, nutrition is their fecundity and longevity are considerably worse.
worse and cows producing as little as 11 litres per day The performance of indigenous cows was illustrated
suffer continuous, moderate stress in the hot season. by a Zebu cross-bred in the study. Her annual milk
To avoid these adverse effects, daily yield should not yield of 1 570 litres from a maximum daily yield of
exceed 20 litres in the highlands and 14 litres at the 11 litres incurred high direct costs, but these were
coast, giving annual maxima of 4 500 litres and 3 000 offset by the birth of two heifer calves at an interval
litres respectively. of 317 days, to give the lowest total cost per litre. This
The drawback to exceeding these ceilings was not example demonstrates that in a low-output system,
apparent at the start of lactation, when a cow with cow productivity should be redefined as efficient
a daily yield of, for example, 35 litres had the lowest use of low inputs, increased herd life and number of
direct cost per litre, and provided sufficient milk for calves, with less emphasis on maximum daily yield.
sale, home consumption, and reimbursement of family
labour. However, a steep decline in lactation revealed Provided by John Michael King.
For further information see: King et al. (2006).
the energy deficit, which also caused infertility
and extended the calving interval to 460 days. The
outcome of poor reproduction was reduced cull sales
The above-mentioned threat posed by exotic germplasm by breeding companies from

indiscriminate cross-breeding may also be developed countries; in some cases this is supported
exacerbated by policy measures. Food security at by development agencies seeking to promote use
the national level is a strong motivating factor of their national products (Rege and Gibson, 2003).
for livestock development policies in developing In the absence of measures to ensure that the use
countries. The desire to achieve rapid progress has of exotic genetic material is well planned, the
meant that the use of genetic material from high- impacts on local breeds can be serious. Moreover,
producing exotic breeds has often been favoured. indiscriminate cross-breeding with animals not
Policies promoting the use of AI increase the rate adapted to the local environment may not achieve
with which exotic germplasm can be disseminated. the desired effect in terms of increased production,
An exacerbating factor can be the promotion of and may leave the small-scale producer in a more
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PART 1
vulnerable position (for example with regard to 3 Disasters and emergencies5

animal health problems). The problem is succinctly
described in CR Botswana (2003): Disasters such as droughts, floods, hurricanes,
“The Animal Breeding Section of the tsunamis, earthquakes, war and civil unrest have
DAHP [Department of Animal Health and devastating impacts on lives and livelihoods around
Production] facilitates the importation of the world. Moreover, the frequency of many types
cattle semen for farmers that do AI. The of disaster is increasing. Hydrometeorological
semen is also subsidized to help farmers and geophysical disasters became, respectively,
afford improve genetic materials of fast 68 percent and 62 percent more frequent over
growing breeds. There is no monitoring the decade between 1994 and 2003 (IFRCS, 2004).
in terms of how the progeny of AI bulls The numbers of people affected by disasters
do in terms of their survival and growth also shows an upward trend over this period,
rates in communal production system. The with an average of 213 million per year affected
importation of semen and live bulls has during the first five years of the decade and an
resulted in uncontrolled cross breeding of average of 303 million per year during the second
beef cattle and as a result the indigenous five years. During these ten years, drought and
Tswana cattle are under threat.” famine were the most deadly “natural” disasters
As noted above, the livelihoods of pastoralist accounting for at least 275 000 human deaths
livestock keepers in semi-arid areas are (ibid.). Subsequently, the Indian Ocean tsunami
increasingly disrupted, which in turn threatens of December 2004 which killed over 100 000
pastoral livestock breeds. These problems are people showed the massive destructive potential
often exacerbated by policy measures. Access to of geophysical disasters. Figure 36 illustrates the
grazing resources is a key issue. Crop production, frequency of various classes of disaster over three
wildlife parks, and mineral extraction often take decades.
precedence in policy decisions about land use Despite a vast output of literature on disasters,
(FAO, 2001a). Such developments often impede emergencies and recovery efforts, the impact of
traditional grazing strategies, which enabled the such events on the livestock sector has received
pastoralists to make effective use of rangeland relatively little attention. Accurate data are vital
vegetation. Inappropriate water developments for identifying trends in disaster impacts, and for
can also have adverse effects. The mobile nature prioritizing risk reduction strategies (IFRCS, 2005).
of traditional pastoral livestock keeping does not Useful disaster-related data are increasingly
make for easy relationships with the state; the available, but coverage of the livestock sector
focus of development efforts has often been on remains quite limited. Publicly available sources
promoting sedentary livelihoods, and pastoralists of data include the Emergency Disasters Data
are rarely well represented at policy level or well Base (EM-DAT), maintained by the Brussels-based
served by livestock services. Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of
Another area of policy that can have a major Disasters (CRED) (www.em-dat.net/index.htm) and
impact on AnGR is the relief and rehabilitation DesInventar, a database managed by a coalition
measures that are implemented in response to of non-governmental actors, which covers 16
disasters and emergencies. This aspect of policy is countries in Latin America and the Caribbean
discussed in the following chapter. (http://206.191.28.107/DesInventar/index.jsp).
Interestingly, the latter resource includes figures
5
For a more detailed discussion of the impact of disasters and
emergencies on AnGR, see FAO (2006c).
120
for the numbers of livestock dying in disasters. and the consequent state of emergencies which
However, only a limited number of countries are they engender.
covered, and the heavy dependence on media Historically, disasters have been categorized
sources means that details of losses may not be into two types: natural and human-made (ADB,
completely reliable. Figures that break down 2005; Duffield, 1994). Within this typology,
livestock deaths by breed are even more difficult both forms of disasters were largely conceived
to obtain. It is, therefore, rarely possible to assess as distinct and discreet events. In recent years,
in detail the impacts of specific disasters on AnGR. however, the division has been recognized as
Similarly, it is difficult to estimate the overall too rigid. Both natural and human-made events
significance of disasters and emergencies as a can have inter-related impacts. For example,
threat to AnGR diversity on a global scale. severe drought in pastoralist rangelands often
The literature on disasters and emergencies is creates situations of social instability and unrest.
filled with a variety of competing terms: natural Human-driven crises can be exacerbated by
disasters, geophysical hazards, climatic hazards, natural phenomenon. For example, civil unrest
complex emergency, complex political emergency, and the subsequent breakdown of disease
crisis, etc. (Oxfam, 1995; PAHO, 2000; Von Braun control strategies can set up conditions for
et al., 2002; Shaluf et al., 2003). There is, however, livestock epidemics. Moreover, primary events
generally a distinction made between disasters can set up secondary hazards such as fires and
FIGURE 36
Number of disasters by type and year
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Drought Earthquake Flood Slides

Volcano Wild Fires Wind Storm
Source: EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database – www.em-dat.net – Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels,
Belgium. Criteria for the inclusion of a disaster in the EM-DAT database are ten or more people reported killed, 100 or more reported
affected, a call for international assistance OR a declaration of a state of emergency.
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PART 1
pollution. A further important consideration is Conversely, the response to chronic emergencies

that disasters do not exist in isolation from the (such as the effect of HIV/AIDS or intermittent,
conditions under which they occur. For example, low-level drought) tends to be much more
disaster impacts will frequently be more severe sporadic, small-scale, and takes place over a
when they occur against a background of severe longer duration. For example, restocking activities
poverty, environmental degradation and/or weak among subsistence farmers are often designed to
institutional structures. “pass on the gift” i.e. transferring young stock to
In contrast to “disasters” which are defined new beneficiaries (Heffernan et al., 2004). Some
by the inciting event, the term “emergencies” is projects of this nature have been up to a decade
used to describe societal impacts, and in relation or more in length. Hence, the initial impact on
to the need for external intervention. Given this AnGR under such conditions may be lower than
definition, it is clear that an assessment of the in an acute emergency, simply because of the
effects of emergencies on AnGR has to consider smaller numbers of animal involved. However, the
not only the immediate physical impact on long-term effects should not be underestimated.
livestock populations, but also how social changes The introduction of relatively small numbers of
induced by the emergency may affect livestock exotic animals can have a large effect on the
production, and importantly, the effects of the genetic composition of the population over the
interventions which take place in response to the longer term, particularly if they are favoured
emergency. In particular, responses that involve by the livestock keepers. Further, secondary
the provision of livestock to a household or impacts of chronic emergencies such as changes
community by external agents – a process referred to the livestock sector labour force also have
to as “restocking” (Heffernan et al., 2004) have to implications for AnGR and therefore, must be
be carefully assessed. In this context, it is useful to taken into account. HIV/AIDS, for example, can
draw a distinction between “acute” and “chronic” lead to the loss of family labour. The nature and
emergencies. In the following discussion, the extent of the impact of the disease on livestock
importance of the distinction relates to the management and breeding practices in countries
intensity of impacts. For example, following an with high incidence rates is, however, still not
acute emergency, restocking activities tend to be well understood (FAO, 2005b; FAO, 2005c).
large-scale and, in terms of population dynamics, The first question to consider with respect to
the influx of new genetic material into the impacts on AnGR, is the extent to which livestock
livestock population can be viewed as a single, populations are affected by the various types
discreet event, occurring over a limited time of disasters and emergencies. Within the wider
period. Restocking activities after the Balkan wars agricultural sector, there is a notion that geological
of the 1990s were largely concentrated during a natural disasters are of lesser importance
three-year period (Box 18). Similarly, after the than those created by adverse climatic events
super-cyclone that hit coastal Orissa, India in 1999, (ECLAC 2000). However, in the case of livestock
large-scale restocking activities were generally it is important not to dismiss the potential of
completed within a few years. As such, the short- geological events such as earthquakes, volcanic
term impacts of these acute events on AnGR are eruptions and tsunamis to kill large numbers of
high. Longer-term effects are largely dependent animals.
on how well the introduced animals survive in A further issue is whether raw figures for
their new environment and on the breeding livestock mortality can be differentiated in
strategies farmers pursue (whether the restocked any way that is useful with respect to assessing
animals are preferentially selected for breeding). potential impacts on AnGR diversity. There
is little evidence for differential impacts on
122
different breeds or types of animal. Quantitative of damage and/or loss of life. At a later stage,
data for disaster impacts at the breed level are, efforts are made to restore and rebuild damaged
perhaps unsurprisingly, very hard to come by. It is infrastructure and economies. Historically,
possible to speculate that different management preparedness and risk-management activities
practices could differentially expose animals to were often created for the wider agricultural
risks (FAO, 2006a; RamaKumar, 2000), or that sector, but with few specific recommendations
for some types of emergencies animals with for livestock. In recent years, there have been
specific adaptations could have greater survival efforts to redress this deficiency by a variety of
capacities, but drawing any conclusions regarding international agencies (FAO, 2004b; Oxfam, 2005).
the significance of such effects is difficult. Aside However, the influence of this work on policy is not
from any such potential differences in terms of yet clear. Further, emergency response activities
susceptibility, the size and the distribution of in developing countries are generally geared
breed populations is a factor to be considered. toward saving human lives, while animal medical
Small populations, and particularly those emergency teams are restricted to wealthier
concentrated within a limited geographical area, countries. Conversely, rehabilitation activities
would seem to be the most threatened. Further, generally do include livestock-related activities
if the small populations happen to be located – mainly restocking. Historically, therefore, this
in disaster-prone areas, the risk will be greater. has been the phase with the greatest potential
FAO (2006a), for example, notes that Yucatan, impact with respect to AnGR.
Mexico where many backyard pigs were lost as Without external interventions, recovery of
a result of Hurricane Isodara in 2001, is home to the livestock sector is a slow process, with the
the endangered Box Keken pig. While in the case restoration of herds taking place over many
of disease epidemics, there is some evidence of years. Where restocking is undertaken by external
adverse impacts on small breed populations, it agents such as donors and NGOs, recovery of the
is difficult to find comparable accounts for other livestock economy is rapidly accelerated. While
types of disaster. Given that for much of the world, farmers generally cannot obtain animals from
information on the geographical distribution of outside the locality, external agents can and
livestock breeds is limited, assessing the extent of do. Local livestock economies destroyed by the
such risks, and taking any measures to alleviate catastrophe can, thus, be rapidly jump-started.
them is problematic. However, the unintentional consequence may be
Where emergency response interventions are large-scale and irreversible changes to the genetic
concerned, safeguarding AnGR will rarely be a make-up of local livestock populations.
high priority. Nonetheless, it is likely that informed The question of AnGR diversity is not widely
decisions on the part of the livestock practitioners discussed in the literature on restocking. However,
involved in such actions could greatly obviate it is often argued that effects are minimal with
negative effects on AnGR without disrupting regard to the overall size of the local livestock
humanitarian objectives. It is, therefore, important population, as animals used for restocking
that the potential impacts of such actions with are purchased locally (Kelly, 1993; Oxby, 1994;
respect to breed diversity are explored. Toulmin, 1994). If animals are sourced locally, then
Actions to alleviate the effects of disasters impacts on the genetic constitution of the livestock
generally consist of a number of phases. Prior to an population will also be small. However, it is far
emergency, preparedness and risk-management from clear that this is always the case. Restocking
strategies may be implemented. During and projects require large numbers of breeding-age
immediately after the event, the focus is on females, which are often unavailable in a post-
providing relief to the victims and assessing levels disaster situation (Heffernan and Rushton, 1998).
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For example, Hogg (1985) describing a restocking the inputs stop or the economic scenario
project in northern Kenya, notes that there was changes, keeping ‘improved’ animals
an inability to fulfil project quotas using only local is no longer technically feasible and
sources. Livestock traders from nearby districts economically viable.”
were required. In other cases, livestock may be If the introduced animals are unable to survive
imported from neighbouring countries or from or are immediately unpopular with the local
further afield. Restocking projects carried out in livestock keepers, this may reduce the impacts of
the countries of former-Yugoslavia following the the restocking projects in genetic terms. However,
wars of the 1990s relied heavily on Simmental there is a danger that such problems may not be
and other exotic cattle breeds imported from immediately evident, and that indigenous breeds,
other parts of Europe (Box 18). Similarly, Hanks well adapted to the needs of the local population
(1998) describes the use of cattle from Zimbabwe may be lost (ibid.). As such, inappropriate decisions
for restocking projects in Mozambique. regarding the breeds used for restocking can
The next question that has to be considered, is have negative impacts both in terms of genetic
whether the introduction of exotic animals through diversity and on the well-being of the human
restocking projects has an important impact on populations affected.
the genetic composition of the local population. The importance of well-designed measures
Using a simple population model tracing the for the management of AnGR in the context of
progeny of the restocked animals, it can be shown disasters and emergencies is therefore clear. As
that even a relatively small initial population of the previous discussion illustrates, activities are
restocked animals can have a considerable impact required in three phases: preparedness (prior to
on the indigenous gene pool, with the proportion the emergency); salvage operations during the
of pure-bred indigenous animals in the local emergency; and rehabilitation (in the recovery
population declining markedly within a relatively phases).
short period of time (FAO, 2006c). The extent of Disaster preparedness activities can focus on
the effect is heavily dependent on the breeding several areas. First, an appropriate legislative
strategies adopted following the restocking, being environment for saving threatened AnGR under
greater if the restocked animals are favoured by disaster conditions should be fostered. This can
the livestock keepers involved (ibid.). be particularly valuable in the case of disasters
Aside from potential impacts on AnGR diversity, that unfold over an extended period of time such
there can be other reasons why choosing exotic as drought or epidemic diseases (see following
animals for restocking projects may not be chapter) and where there is sufficient time to
appropriate. In the case of the above-mentioned implement conservation measures during the
restocking projects in Mozambique, efforts were emergency. Second, a variety of risk mitigation
seriously disrupted by high mortality rates among strategies can be undertaken such as the creation
the imported animals (Hanks, 1998). Longer- and support of fodder banks in areas affected by
term socio-economic outcomes may also not be climatic hazards such as drought or severe winter
desirable. As Köhler-Rollefson (2000) notes: snows – see, for example, CR Mongolia (2004). A
“There are many cases where the further key activity is the characterization of the
substitution of native breeds through genetic resources in potentially affected areas. In
high-input-dependent exotic breeds or many countries rare or priority AnGR have not
their dilution through cross-breeding has been sufficiently identified – making informed
rendered communities dependent upon choices during the emergency and during any
outside supplies and subsidies, as well as subsequent restocking activities difficult. Finally,
vulnerable to ecological calamities. Once pre-emptive measures can be undertaken to
124
establish ex situ conservation programmes, likely to present many of the restocked households
thereby seeking to ensure that some genetic with considerable problems (Etienne, 2004).
material from the local breeds is maintained Conversely, in a chronic emergency there is
outside the areas affected by the emergency. more leeway for a change in the role of livestock.
During an emergency, genetic salvage Indeed, there have been many cases of restocking
operations may be appropriate if rare AnGR are projects that have introduced dairying to support
affected and there is a continuing threat to the local livelihoods with much success (HPI, 2002).
animals that have survived the initial catastrophe. Nevertheless, insufficient labour and access to
Operations of this kind are, however, likely to be inputs can remain important limitations. Hence,
logistically almost impossible in many countries. decisions regarding the appropriate genetic
The most feasible approach is probably the resources for such projects require careful
collection of genetic material for cryoconservation. consideration of the constraints and potentials of
Effective action at this stage is only possible if the local production environment. Additionally,
accurate information is available regarding the an understanding of farmer perceptions regarding
characteristics of the affected animals and the the breed and/or species to be utilized is required.
extent of the threat faced. In the absence of This is an important consideration not only for the
such information it may still be feasible to collect success of the project in livelihood terms, but also
genetic material for conservation, but measures with respect to the impact of restocking on AnGR,
will be less well targeted, and can be regarded as as the latter will be affected by the breeding
a last-resort attempt to reduce the impact of the strategies that farmers pursue (FAO, 2006c).
emergency on AnGR. An additional issue in an acute emergency is the
The task of repopulating herds post-disaster is quantification of livestock losses. Estimations of
likely to require a commitment of several years losses after disasters are often extrapolated from
on the part of the donor agency to establish a limited field surveys, and the reliability of the
viable support programme for the intended figures is often uncertain. An accurate estimation
beneficiaries. A first step for decision-makers of livestock losses enables the scope of the required
is to consider the role of livestock within the restocking to be determined. Further, the extent
production system in question. In the wake of of the losses will determine whether animals can
an acute emergency it is generally not advisable be sourced locally, or whether regional, national
to initiate a restocking project that changes the or even international populations have to be
production orientation of the livestock keepers tapped. Also important is the identification of a
involved. For example, introducing dairy breeds population base-line against which future changes
in a post-disaster situation among households in the livestock population can be measured.
not previously involved in dairying is not likely Consequently, within the potential project area,
to be successful. Many of the inputs required to the existing breeds should be catalogued and any
support such a change are usually unavailable at-risk breeds identified prior to restocking. These
in a post-disaster situation. Thus, the objective arguments, however, have to be balanced against
of restocking in an acute emergency should, the pressing demands on time and resources
generally, be to restore previous production levels, that prevail in an acute emergency situation.
rather than dramatically to alter the production Information will never be completely accurate,
system or livelihoods of the affected households. and less formal methods of assessing losses will at
This should be done using breeds that are suitable times be the most appropriate.
for the local environment and existing levels of
management. A failure to match the restocked
animals to the prevailing production conditions is
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Box 18
War and rehabilitation in Bosnia and Herzegovina
During the 1992–1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina Semen was also imported. Farmers who had lost
the livestock sector was seriously affected. Cattle over 50 percent of their farms’ production assets
numbers are thought to have declined by 60 percent, and who had sufficient land to keep animals, could
sheep by 75 percent, pigs by 90 percent, poultry by obtain soft loans from the government. In general,
68 percent and horses by 65 percent. A nucleus herd the policy was to supply one cow per family, but
of pure-bred Busa cattle near Sarajevo was destroyed later more commercially oriented units with three
along with the herd book and other documentation. to five cows were preferred. While the imported
The breeding and conservation programme for the breeds clearly have the potential to increase milk and
Bosnian Mountain Horse was also severely disrupted. meat production, insufficient feed resources, poor
Additionally, a number of flocks of pure-bred Sjenicka management practices and a lack of animal health
sheep were completely eradicated. and milk collection services have in some cases
In 1996, a three-year programme for the limited the success of the restocking projects.
rehabilitation of the animal production sector was Numerous organizations have been involved in
adopted. It envisaged the import of 60 000 high- the distribution of animals in Bosnia and Herzegovina
quality cows, 100 000 sheep and 20 000 goats. during the years following the war, and imports by the
During the first year of the programme (1997) private sector have also sought to meet demand. The
around 10 000 heifers were imported, 6 500 of full extent of these imports and the breeds involved
which were financed by the International Fund for is not well recorded. Nonetheless, it is clear that the
Agricultural Development (IFAD) and coordinated war and the subsequent rehabilitation efforts have led
by the Project Implementation Unit of the Federal to considerable changes in to the composition of the
Ministry of Agriculture. The remaining numbers were livestock population over recent years. The population
made up of donations from various governments and of Busa cattle, for example, estimated to be above
humanitarian organizations. Heifers were imported 80 000 in 1991, fell to below 100 by 2003.
from Hungary, Austria, Germany and the Netherlands.
Seventy-five percent were Simmental, 10 percent For further information see: CR Bosnia and Herzegovina
(2003); FAO (2006c); SVABH. (2003).
Holstein-Friesian, 10 percent Montafona (Alpine
Brown) and 5 percent Oberinntal (Grey Tyrolean).
4 Epidemics and disease control

measures
Throughout the world, and in all production terms of livestock deaths in the affected locations.
systems, livestock diseases lead to mortality and Diseases posing a severe threat to the livestock
reduced productivity in farm animals, necessitate economy provoke concerted control efforts, which
expenditures for prevention and control, constrain may include large-scale slaughter programmes, in
the objectives of livestock keepers, limit economic addition to other measures such as surveillance,
development, and threaten human public health. vaccination and controls on the movement of
Animal health constraints greatly influence animals. The diseases in question are, in many
decision-making with respect to livestock keeping cases, transboundary diseases, outbreaks of which
and the utilization of genetic resources. Some have severe consequences for international trade.
disease epidemics have a devastating impact in Serious threats to human health from zoonotic
126
diseases, particularly on an international scale, An outbreak of classical swine fever (CSF) in the
also motivate strong disease control measures. In Netherlands in 1997 resulted in the slaughter of
recent years, numerous economically disastrous almost 7 million pigs (OIE, 2005). The 2001 foot-
livestock disease epidemics, and particularly the and-mouth disease (FMD) epidemic in the United
emergence of highly pathogenic avian influenza Kingdom resulted in the slaughter of around 6.5
(HPAI), have focused attention on the need for million sheep, cattle and pigs (Anderson, 2002).
better control and prevention of transboundary The 1997 outbreak of African swine fever (ASF) in
diseases (FAO/OIE, 2004). Benin resulted in the deaths of 376 000 pigs, with
Epidemics potentially threaten AnGR as a result a further 19 000 slaughtered for disease control
of livestock deaths from disease or slaughter purposes (OIE, 2005) – this in a country where the
policies. Alternatively, the effects of diseases may total pig population at the time was only around
be less direct. Livestock breeds are often adapted 470 000 (FAOSTAT). Other recent epidemics
to providing a particular set of products or services causing high levels of mortality have included an
within a particular production environment. outbreak of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia
If conditions change – for example because of (CBPP) in Angola in 1997; outbreaks of CSF in
emerging animal health problems or the burdens the Dominican Republic in 1998 and in Cuba in
imposed by disease control measures – existing 2001/2002; ASF epidemics in a number of African
livestock keeping practices may be adapted, replaced countries, such as Madagascar in 1998 and Togo
or abandoned, and the associated livestock breeds in 2001; and FMD outbreaks in Ireland and the
may be placed at risk. Additional costs or restrictions Netherlands in 2001, and in the Republic of Korea
related to disease control may arise as a result of in 2002 (OIE, 2005). Table 40 shows the impacts, in
trade or food hygiene-related requirements, in terms of deaths and culls, of recent major disease
addition to the immediate effects of disease on epidemics. Unfortunately, the effects on genetic
livestock productivity. Although the discussion here resources are often difficult to assess, as breed-
focuses on the threat of genetic erosion as a result specific information is unavailable. Other things
of livestock diseases, it should be recognized that being equal, impacts are likely to be high where
in many circumstances, the presence of diseases a large proportion of the animal population dies.
inhibits the introduction of susceptible exotic To give some indication of the relative impact
animals, and thereby necessitates the continued of different epidemics in this respect, Table 40
utilization of locally adapted breeds. presents the figures for deaths and culls as a
Recent years have seen a number of serious proportion of national animal population figures
epidemics, which have led to the death or for the species and year in question in addition to
preventive slaughter of millions of animals. The the raw mortality figures. The most serious recent
HPAI outbreak in 2003/2004 in Thailand resulted outbreaks in terms of number of deaths relative
in the loss of around 30 million birds (Ministry to national population sizes for the affected
of Agriculture and Cooperatives, 2005). Between species are shown.
January and June 2004, 18 million native chickens The impact on genetic resources cannot be
were slaughtered in an effort to control the quantified simply in terms of the numbers of dead
disease, a figure which amounted to approximately animals. The risk of erosion is likely to be greatest
29 percent of the country’s native chicken where rare breeds are confined to areas severely
population (ibid.). Approximately 43 million birds affected by a disease outbreak, or where a disease
were destroyed in Viet Nam in 2003/2004, and 16 disproportionally affects production systems
million in Indonesia – roughly equivalent to 17 where rare genetic resources or those with specific
percent and 6 percent of the respective national adaptations are to be found. The extent to which
populations (Rushton et al., 2005). epidemics have an impact on genetic resources is
also likely to be influenced by the nature of the
127
PART 1
restocking policies implemented in the wake of had a marked adverse impact on specific genetic
the outbreak (see previous section). resources.
The extent to which diseases have affected CR Japan (2003) mentions that in 2000
AnGR is often difficult to assess fully because of approximately two-thirds of the population of the
a lack of data differentiating or characterizing rare Kuchinoshima cattle breed on Kuchinoshima
the animals affected. For example, in Ngamiland, Island died as the result of a disease epidemic.
Botswana more than 340 000 uncharacterized Cattle populations in Zambia, particularly the
cattle were slaughtered in 1995 because of an indigenous Tonga breed, are reported to have
outbreak of CBPP (CR Botswana, 2003). However, been badly affected by corridor disease (a tick-
there are some cases where there is evidence borne disease) during the last ten years, with the
that disease mortality, slaughter programmes number of cattle in Southern Province reduced
and/or subsequent restocking programmes have by 30 percent (Lungu, 2003). Details of the
TABLE 40
Impact of recent disease epidemics
Disease Year Country Number of animals Proportion of the total

[1 000s] population size [%]
Culls Deaths Culls Deaths
African Swine Fever 1997 Benin 18.9 375.9 4 80

African Swine Fever 1998 Madagascar 0 107.3 0 7
African Swine Fever 2001 Togo 2.2 15 1 5
African Swine Fever 2000 Togo 10 0 3 0
Avian Influenza 2003 Netherlands 30 569 76.2 30 0
Avian Influenza 2003/4 Viet Nam 43 000* - 17 -
Avian Influenza 2003/4 Thailand 29 000** 15**
Avian Influenza 2003/4 Indonesia 16 000* - 6 -
Avian Influenza 2000 Italy 11 000 0 9 0
Avian Influenza 2004 Canada 13 700 0 8 0
CBPP (cattle) 1997 Angola 435.2 0.2 12 0
Classical Swine Fever 2002 Luxembourg 16.2 0.04 20 0
Classical Swine Fever 1997 Netherlands 681.8 0 4 0
Classical Swine Fever 2002 Cuba 65.5 0.7 4 0
Classical Swine Fever 2001 Cuba 45.8 1.5 4 0
Classical Swine Fever 1998 Dominican Republic 8.7 13.7 1 1
FMD (cattle) 2001 United Kingdom 758*** 0 7 0
FMD (pigs) 2001 United Kingdom 449*** 0 8 0
FMD (sheep) 2001 United Kingdom 5 249*** 0 14 0
FMD (sheep) 2001 Netherlands 32.6 0 3 0
FMD (cattle) 2002 Republic of Korea 158.7 0 8 0
Sources: OIE (2005) for mortality figures; FAOSTAT for population figures.
*Rushton et al. (2005) – number of culls only, no figures for deaths from the disease.
** FAO (2005d) – figure includes both culls and deaths from the disease.
***Anderson (2002) – figures exclude newborn lambs and calves slaughtered along with the mother, for which accurate figures are
not available (ibid.) so actual number of culls would have been higher.
128
TABLE 41 elimination of the local Creole pigs. The country

Examples of breeds affected by the FMD outbreak was first restocked with Yorkshire, Hampshire
in the United Kingdom in 2001 and Duroc breeds brought in from the United
States of America. Attempts to establish large
Breed Total number Estimated
of breeding reduction peri-urban piggeries proved unsustainable, and
females of breeding the breeds were not suited to the management
in 2002 females in 2001
[%] conditions found in local small-scale production.
Later, Gascon × Chinese × Guadeloupe Creole pigs,
Cattle
more appropriate to the local conditions, were
Belted Galloway 1 400 approx. 30
introduced (CR Haiti, 2004).
Galloway 3 500 25 With respect to the potential for disease
Whitebred Shorthorn 120 21 epidemics to have differential impacts on
Sheep production systems where indigenous breeds
British Milksheep 1 232 < 40 are kept, the case of the HPAI emergency in
Cheviot (South Country) 43 000 39
Southeast Asia may offer an example. Village or
backyard poultry flocks are generally comprised of
Herdwick 45 000 35
indigenous breeds, in contrast to the commercial
Hill Radnor 1 893 23
hybrid birds found in large-scale poultry units.
Rough Fell 12 000 31
Efforts to control the disease could lead to the
Swaledale 750 000 30 establishment of “poultry free zones” around
Whitefaced Woodland 656 23 large-scale production units (FAO, 2004a). The
Source: Roper (2005). sustainability of backyard poultry production may
also be constrained by changes to management
practices and cultural activities enforced with the
impact of disease on genetic resources tend to aim of minimizing the threat of HPAI. For example,
be best recorded in countries such as the United the raising of multiple species, such as keeping
Kingdom where there are well-established ducks or geese alongside chickens has been
NGOs active in the conservation of rare breeds. prohibited in some countries in the wake of HPAI
The slaughter programmes enacted at the time outbreaks. Cultural and social events involving
of the FMD epidemic in the United Kingdom the mixing of birds (for example cock fighting
in 2001, threatened breed populations that were or the exhibition of songbirds) may be banned.
largely confined to the affected areas. Affected Traditional mobile duck keeping on rice paddies,
populations included endangered breeds such as which involve the movement of flocks over
the Whitefaced Woodland sheep and Whitebred considerable distances, is also being discouraged.
Shorthorn cattle (see Table 41). Similarly, during In short, the ongoing threat of HPAI is likely to
the FMD outbreak in the Netherlands, flocks result in a future Southeast Asian poultry sector
of rare breeds such as the Schoonebeker sheep which has “fewer backyard producers … [and] no
were culled in the Veluwe National Park (CR more ranging, herded [duck] flocks” (FAO, 2005d).
Netherlands, 2002). Small-scale commercial poultry producers also
An extreme example is presented by the face great difficulties in responding to the threat
case of the Haitian Creole pig. During the late of HPAI, and their future may also be in doubt.
1970s there were outbreaks of ASF in several However, these producers largely keep imported
Caribbean countries (FAO, 2001b). In Haiti, breeds.
slaughter programmes to eradicate the disease, In the case of ASF, CR Madagascar (2003)
implemented between 1979 and 1982, led to the indicates that the appearance of the disease in
129
PART 1
the country in 1998, and subsequent regulations Following recent severe disease epidemics, the
imposed on pig keeping, has accelerated a trend need to address potential conflicts between
towards more intensive pig production and the veterinary and conservation objectives has begun
disappearance of scavenging systems based to be recognized. For example the EU’s 2003
on indigenous breeds. Similarly, CR Sri Lanka FMD Directive provides for exemptions to the
(2002) mentions that scavenging pig production regulations requiring the immediate slaughter
may be threatened because of concerns about of infected animals, at sites such as laboratories,
outbreaks of Japanese encephalitis in humans. A zoos, wildlife parks or other fenced areas, which
contrasting example of how the threat of disease have been identified in advance as the location of
may influence the nature of production systems, a breeding nucleus indispensable to the survival of
and hence the utilization of genetic resources, is a breed (EU, 2003b). During the 2001 epidemic in
an increase in the population of general-purpose the United Kingdom measures were introduced to
sheep breeds in the United Kingdom, as a result allow the owners of flocks of rare sheep or goats to
of an increased number of self-contained flocks apply for exemption to the slaughter programmes
following the 2001 FMD epidemic (CR United affecting animals on farms within 3 km of a site
Kingdom, 2002). of infection, provided strict biosecurity measures
Genetic resources may also be threatened by were observed (MAFF, 2001). With regard to the
efforts undertaken to eradicate diseases that avian influenza situation in Asia, the protection
have a genetic dimension to their causation. of valuable genetic material is regarded as a
For example, the EU’s regulations (EU, 2003a) possible justification for pre-emptive vaccination
related to the elimination of scrapie have raised of poultry populations against HPAI (FAO, 2004a).
concerns regarding rare breeds that lack or In the case of scrapie control programmes,
have low frequency of the resistant genotypes. further research is being undertaken to assess the
Having been present in European flocks for at probable impacts on specific rare breeds, in order
least 250 years, scrapie is a rather different case to devise appropriate conservation strategies in
to the acute epidemics described elsewhere the context of efforts to eradicate the disease
in this chapter. However, because of concerns (Townsend et al., 2005).
about human health, there is a strong motivation A number of precautionary measures aimed at
to act rapidly to introduce rigorous control minimizing the risks to valuable livestock genetic
measures. Participation in breeding schemes will resources in the event of disease epidemics have
be compulsory for all flocks of “high genetic been advocated. For example, the prospect of rare
merit”. In the United Kingdom, for example, the breed populations being wiped out by an epidemic
regulations will apply to “all purebred breeding can be seen as a justification for cryoconservation
flocks and, in addition, any other flock that programmes. Further preventive actions could
produces and sells homebred rams for breeding.” include ensuring that sites conserving important
(DEFRA, 2005). Slaughter or castration of rams genetic resources are established in more than
and ram lambs found to be carrying the scrapie- one location and preferably in regions with low
susceptible VRQ allele will be compulsory. The livestock density; in the case of farms keeping
immediate removal of these genotypes would be multiple breeds, ensuring the isolation of rare
likely to present problems for the conservation of breeds from other livestock; and maintaining
a number of rare British sheep breeds (Townsend up-to-date lists of sites keeping rare breeds (CR
et al., 2005). Germany, 2003).
Although the picture is far from complete, the It is important to note that all such measures
evidence indicates that in many cases it is the are to a very large extent dependent on the
control measures rather than the disease itself availability of accurate information regarding the
which pose the greatest threat to AnGR diversity. characteristics, and risk status of the threatened
130
breeds and, importantly, of their distribution it is clear that large numbers of animals can be
by geographical location and/or production lost, and that it is often culling rather than the
system within the affected countries. This, again, disease itself that accounts for the largest number
underlines the need for effective characterization of deaths. It is only recently that threats to AnGR
of AnGR if conservation goals are to be achieved. have been given any consideration in the planning
A further point to highlight is the need for of disease control measures, and they continue to
advanced planning of any conservation actions to be largely ignored. The FMD epidemics of 2001
be implemented in the event of livestock disease showed that even in European countries with a
epidemics. Trying to formulate and implement strong tradition of breed conservation activities,
responses once an outbreak has started is far steps to protect AnGR had to be taken on an ad
more difficult. hoc basis, and that several rare breeds were quite
seriously threatened by the culling campaign.
Disease control often operates within legal
5 Conclusions frameworks that reduce the scope for flexibility
in emergency response measures to account for
Many of the underlying factors threatening threats to AnGR. Limited steps to address this issue
AnGR cannot easily be influenced. Change is an have been taken in Europe (see Part 3 – Section E:
inevitable feature of livestock production systems, 3), but the potential for conflict between animal
and “catastrophic” events will never be fully health and breed conservation objectives remains
preventable or even predictable. Moreover, it is considerable. Preparedness is essential if rare
neither possible nor desirable that the conservation breeds are to be protected. Drawing up effective
of AnGR per se should take precedence over other plans is, however, again hampered by a lack of
objectives such as food security, humanitarian relevant information regarding what breeds to
response to disasters, or the control of serious prioritize and how to target them.
animal diseases. Nonetheless, there are a number The impact of disasters and emergencies on
of measures that could be put in place to alleviate AnGR is also not well documented. In the initial
the effects of these threatening forces. Too aftermath of a disaster collecting data on losses
often, however, threats to AnGR, as well as the and protecting local AnGR will never be of high
potential contribution of local breeds to wider priority. Nevertheless, experience shows that post-
development objectives, are overlooked at the disaster restocking activities need to be carefully
policy level. This tends to translate into policies considered if they are not to have an adverse
that promote the increased use of a limited range effect on AnGR diversity, and to ensure that the
of AnGR, and that fail to put measures in place to breeds used are appropriate to the needs of the
protect threatened breeds. intended beneficiaries.
In many cases, a fundamental problem is a lack of To conclude, it is clear that the management of
sufficient knowledge regarding the characteristics threats to AnGR, needs to be better integrated
of AnGR; their distribution geographically and by into many aspects of livestock sector development.
production system; their roles in the livelihoods of Concrete steps towards meeting this objective
their keepers; and the ways in which their utilization include:
is affected by changing management practices and • better characterization of AnGR and their
broader trends in the livestock sector. This often locations;
means that emerging threats are not identified or • providing tools for the ex ante assessment
that their significance is not appreciated. of the genetic impact of development
It is generally difficult to quantify the impact of interventions, including post-emergency
disease epidemics on AnGR diversity – mortality restocking measures; and
data are rarely broken down by breed. However, • the elaboration, in advance, of plans to
131
PART 1
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135
Part 2
LIVESTOCK SECTOR
TRENDS
PART 2
Introduction
In the context of pre-industrial agriculture, livestock breeds had to be adapted to local

environments, and fulfilled multiple functions, they were thus very diverse. However,
driven by a growing demand for animal products, the livestock sector is rapidly moving
towards intensive and specialized systems, in which the production environment is
controlled and production traits are central criteria for the selection of species and
breeds. The industrialized sector’s demands for animal genetic resources (AnGR) have
been met by a limited number of high-output breeds, and this has tended to narrow
genetic diversity between and within breeds.
Despite the economic importance and rapid growth of intensive production systems,
the world’s livestock sector continues to be characterized by a high degree of diversity.
Intensive and industrialized production systems contribute to meeting most of the
growing demand for livestock-derived food. However, livestock keeping is also an
important element in the livelihoods of many small-scale producers. Enabling poorer
livestock keepers to improve their livelihoods remains an important objective. Achieving
these food security and livelihood-related goals while also preserving natural resources,
such as water, soil fertility and biodiversity, and addressing problems such as the
emission of greenhouse gases, is a major challenge. This challenge demands a critical
review of the current choice and use of AnGR, which may not always be optimal for
the production conditions, and in which information deficits hinder the emergence of
rational management strategies.
This section reviews drivers of change in the livestock sector and corresponding
trends in production systems. It also introduces some of the most significant interactions
between livestock keeping and the environment. Finally it highlights implications for the
use of AnGR.
PART 2
Box 19
The concept of productivity
When discussing the relative merits of particular 23 percent in the case of cattle production in upland
breeds or production systems, the use of the term mixed farming systems Indonesia (Ifar, 1996), and
“productivity” can be misleading if it is not carefully 11 percent in smallholder dairy goat production
defined. A distinction must be drawn between high in the Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia (Ayalew et
productivity and high levels of production or output. al., 2002). Manure is another important product in
Strictly speaking, “productivity” or “efficiency” is a mixed farming systems that is often not accounted
measure of the output obtained per unit of input. For for in calculations of the total benefits derived from
example, it can be defined in terms of the ratio of livestock. The Ethiopia study showed that manure
the output of a product such as milk relative to costs production accounted for 39 percent of gross benefits
in monetary terms. Animals fed on crop residues like derived from goat keeping in this system (ibid.). The
straws produce little, but as they do so at little cost, significance of manure production is also highlighted
their productivity, so defined, is not necessarily low. by the findings of Abegaz (2005) which show that in
A broader view of the costs of production can mixed farming communities in the Northern Highlands
yield very different results in terms of productivity of Ethiopia, animal manure and draught power are
estimates. For example, if environmental costs are the major production targets, and account for the high
counted, then the productivity of high-yielding livestock densities observed.
animals kept under industrial production systems may It is important to emphasize that it is not only in
not be as impressive as it otherwise appears. tropical and/or poorer societies that livestock have
A more comprehensive consideration of the multiple values and costs. The arguments about
outputs of livestock production is also relevant. productivity are also valid in wealthier societies
Frequently overlooked functions of livestock include (Van De Ven, 1996; Schiere et al., 2006a). The fact
their role in the provision of financing and insurance. that they are overlooked is the very reason for the
This is particularly important to livestock keepers environmental problems often encountered. This again
who are unable to access these services from underlines the need to assess the value of biodiversity
other sources. Several attempts have been made in broader terms and not only with respect to
to quantify the value of financing and insurance potential milk or meat yield.
functions and include them in calculations of the net
benefits of livestock production. For example, studies Provided by Hans Schiere.
have indicated that these functions account for 81
percent of net benefits from meat goat production
in southwestern Nigeria (Bosman et al., 1997),
140
L I VESTOC K SEC TO R T RENDS
Section A
Drivers of change in
the livestock sector
1 Changes in demand
Consumption of meat and milk worldwide has In 1980, the human population of developing
been rapidly growing since the early 1980s. countries made up three-quarters of the world’s
Developing countries have accounted for a population, and consumed one-third of the
large share of this increase (Figure 37); growth world’s meat and milk (Tables 42 and 43). It is
in poultry and pork consumption in developing estimated that by 2030, developing countries may
countries has been particularly striking. Between account for 85 percent of the world’s population,
the early 1980s and the late 1990s, total meat and and two-thirds of direct consumption of meat
milk consumption in the developing world grew and milk. Increasing demand strongly stimulates
at 6 and 4 percent per annum, respectively.1 production. For the 1999-2001 to 2030 period, FAO
(2006a) estimates that production growth rates of
1
Compound annual growth rates were estimated between 1983
meat and milk will be 2.4 percent per annum and
and 1997.
Figure 37
Changes in the meat consumption of developing and developed countries
kg/person/year
100
Developing
Developed
80
60
40
20
0
1980 1990 2000 2015 2030
Sources: 1980, 1990 and 2000 figures from FAOSTAT; 2015 and 2030 figures from FAO (2002a).
141
PART 2
2.5 percent per annum, respectively, in developing the world as a whole, poultry consumption is
countries; while the growth rates for the whole projected to grow at 2.5 percent per annum to
world will be 1.7 percent for meat and 1.4 percent 2030, with other meats growing at 1.7 percent
for milk. Growth of per capita consumption is, or less. Growth rates have been particularly high
however, predicted to be weaker, especially in in China, India and Brazil, and the sheer size
sub-Saharan Africa, the Near and Middle East and and vigour of these countries will mean that
North Africa, and in places where consumption is they will continue to increase their dominance
already high, such as developed countries or Latin of world markets for livestock products. High
America (particularly for meat). Except for Africa, growth in consumption is spread throughout the
consumption per capita is projected to grow at a developing world, but it is important to consider
lower pace after 2030, with consumers achieving regional and between-country differences in
better-balanced diets. This, in turn, may reduce the extent of the “livestock revolution”. For
production growth: over the 2030 to 2050 period, example, consumption levels for meat, milk and
meat and milk production in developing countries eggs in sub-Saharan Africa have remained static
are expected to develop at 1.3 percent per annum over the last decade (FAO, 2006f). Furthermore,
and 1.4 percent per annum respectively. trends in demand for individual commodities will
In developing countries, 70 percent of the vary widely in different parts of the developing
additional meat consumption is of pork and world, with China leading the way in meat, with
poultry; in developed countries, the comparable a near doubling of the total quantity consumed
figure is 81 percent. Poultry consumption in – the increase being primarily in poultry and pork
developing countries is projected to grow at consumption. India and the other countries of
3.4 percent per annum to 2030, followed by beef South Asia will drive a large increase in total milk
at 2.2 percent and ovine meat at 2.1 percent. In consumption.
TABLE 42
Projected trends in meat consumption from 2000 to 2050
Region Production Consumption per capita

1999-2001 Growth rate Growth rate 1999-2001 Growth rate Growth rate
1999-2001 to 2030 1999-2001 to 2030
2030 to 2050 2030 to 2050
[1 000 tonnes [% p.a.] [% p.a.] [kg p.a.] [% p.a.] [% p.a.]

p.a.]
Sub-Saharan Africa 5 564 3.3 2.8 9.5 1.2 1.4

Near East/North Africa 7 382 3.3 2.1 21.9 1.6 1.1
Latin America & 31 608 2.2 1.1 59.5 0.9 0.7

the Caribbean
South Asia 7 662 3.9 2.5 5.5 2.7 1.9
East Asia 73 251 2.1 0.9 39.8 1.5 0.9
Developing world 125 466 2.4 1.3 26.7 1.2 0.7
World 229 713 1.7 1.0 37.6 0.7 0.5
Source: FAO (2006a).
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TABLE 43
Projected trends in milk consumption from 2000 to 2050
Region Production Consumption per capita

1999-2001 Growth rate Growth rate 1999-2001 Growth rate Growth rate
1999-2001 to 2030 1999-2001 to 2030
2030 to 2050 2030 to 2050
[1 000 tonnes [% p.a.] [% p.a.] [kg p.a.] [% p.a.] [% p.a.]

p.a.]
Sub-Saharan Africa 16 722 2.6 2.1 30.6 0.5 0.6

Near East/North Africa 29 278 2.3 1.5 88.5 0.6 0.6
Latin America & 58 203 1.9 1 122.4 0.7 0.5

the Caribbean
South Asia 109 533 2.8 1.5 82.3 1.5 0.9
East Asia 17 652 3.0 0.6 13.1 2.1 0.7
Developing world 231 385 2.5 1.4 53.1 1.3 0.7
World 577 494 1.4 0.9 94.2 0.4 0.4
The rationale on the basis of which people select the globe – the former are concentrated in OECD
their food is complex: it is multi-objective, and countries, while the latter are mostly found in
decisions are influenced by individual and societal locations that have rapidly growing economies,
capacity and preferences. Food preference is also such as Southeast Asia, costal provinces of China,
changing rapidly. The pace of dietary change, the states of Kerala and Gujarat in India, and São
both qualitative and quantitative, accelerates as Paolo State in Brazil. The two groups coincide in
countries become richer and populations become the urban centres of rapidly growing economies.
more urbanized.
1.2 Urbanization
1.1 Purchasing power Urbanization is recognized to be the second
Among the various drivers of change in animal main factor influencing per capita consumption
production, the literature concurs in identifying of animal products (Rae, 1998; Delgado et al.,
purchasing power as the most influential 1999). Urbanization is accompanied by changes in
(Delgado et al., 1999; Zhou et al., 2003). Animal habitual food consumption patterns and dramatic
product consumption rises with purchasing lifestyle changes – including a marked reduction in
power. However, the effect of increased income levels of physical activity. In developing countries
on diets is greatest among lower and middle- that are urbanizing, quantitative changes in
income populations (Delgado et al. 2002). dietary intake have been accompanied by
This observation is true at individual level as qualitative changes in the diet. Changes include
well as at national level (Devine, 2003). Per shifts from cereal-based diets to energy-dense
capita consumption of animal-derived foods is, diets with high animal protein and fat contents,
therefore, generally greatest among high-income as well as increased consumption of sugars and
groups, and most dynamic among lower and sugar-based products. Explanation for this trend
middle-income groups under conditions of strong may lie in the wider food choices and dietary
economic growth. It goes without saying, that influences found in urban centres, as well as a
these groups are not evenly distributed across preference for convenience and taste (Delgado
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PART 2
Box 20
Sustainable utilization of the Iberian pig in Spain – a success story
The Iberian pig was once the most widely kept lack of demand, but the limited range of the breed’s
pig breed in Spain. The breed’s hardiness, foraging traditional habitat.
abilities, capacity to endure periods without much Technological innovations have also been
food, and its tolerance of extreme temperatures, introduced to the traditional production systems
make it ideal for extensive production under local – improvements to the quality of the pasture, and the
conditions. Traditional pig keeping contributes to the more efficient use of crop residues. Many studies have
maintenance of the dehesa, a wooded pastureland been undertaken to increase knowledge of the breed’s
ecosystem recognized as a Natural Habitat of nutrition, handling, behaviour, morphology, genetic
Community Interest by the EU, part of which has been characteristics and meat quality.
declared a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO. Keeping By 2002 the number of sows had reached
the Iberian pig has long been of great economic and approximately 193 000. Most of this population
social importance in these areas. increase has taken place under more intensive
However, from the 1960s onwards, the large-scale production conditions outside the breed’s traditional
introduction of exotic breeds contributed to the home areas. However, 16.3 percent of the population
decline of many Spanish livestock breeds including is still being raised under the extensive system.
the Iberian pig. Traditional pig production systems
declined as a result of low levels of yield, and Provided by Manuel Luque Cuesta and Vicente Rodríguez-
Estévez.
problems related to disease control. By 1982, the
number of sows of the Iberian breed had fallen to
around 66 000.
Since that time, a very successful marketing
infrastructure has been developed, focusing on
the quality of meat from pigs fattened under
the traditional system where the animals are
free to forage for grass and acorns without any
additional feeding. The resulting products are high
in unsaturated fatty acids and are of excellent
eating quality. The meat is in great demand: pigs
fattened under the traditional system fetch prices
up to 160 percent higher than conventionally raised
animals, and dry cured hams fetch between 350 and
500 percent higher. Indeed, the main constraint to
further increasing the output of these products is not Photo credit: Vicente Rodríguez-Estévez
et al., 1999). The organization of food markets Rae (1998) shows that in China, for a given
and the opportunity cost of the time of the main level of expenditure, urbanization has a positive
food preparers in the household both point to the effect on per capita consumption levels, and
consumption of more processed and pre-prepared also on the magnitude of the consumption
foods, including street foods. Pre-packaged, pre- response to a marginal increase in expenditure.
seasoned cooked meats, for example, tend to be Urbanization and income-increase effects
appealing to urban consumers (King et al., 2000). coincide in the urban centres of rapidly growing
144
economies, creating hotspots of demand for or to opt for certified products, such a free range
animal products. or organic meat, milk or eggs (Krystallis and
Arvanitoyannis, 2006). Government promotion
1.3 Consumer taste and preference campaigns are also identified as potential drivers
If purchasing power and urbanization are the most of change in consumption patterns (Morrison et
important factors contributing to patterns of per al., 2003).
capita consumption, other factors are significant
and can have great influence locally. For example,
Brazil has a slightly higher income per capita 2 Trade and retailing
than Thailand, and Thailand has a higher level
of urbanization than Brazil, but animal product Increasing international trade as well as the rise
consumption in Brazil is roughly twice as high of large retailers and integrated food chains are
as it is in Thailand. Conversely, countries with other important drivers of change in the livestock
contrasting per capita incomes can have similar sector. More precisely, they influence the relative
levels of animal-derived food consumption (e.g. competitiveness of producers and production
the Russian Federation and Japan). systems in supplying the rising demand for
A number of factors are at play, including natural animal-derived foods.
endowment. Access to marine resources on the
one hand, and to natural resources for livestock 2.1 Flows of livestock and their
production on the other, have drawn consumption products
trends in opposite directions. Lactose-intolerance, Livestock production traded across international
found particularly in East Asia, has limited milk borders has increased from 4 percent in the
consumption. Cultural reasons, including religion, early 1980s to approximately 10 percent at the
have further influenced consumption habits present time. A number of developing countries
(Harris, 1985). This is, for example the case in are among the top 20 exporters and importers
South Asia, where meat consumption per capita in value terms (FAOSTAT). The main developing-
is lower than income alone would predict. This country export products are live animals and the
influence is also seen in preferences for certain meat of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, chickens
species and types of product. Examples include and ducks, fresh and condensed cow milk, as well
the exclusion of pork by Muslims, and the high as pig and cattle feed. Products imported in large
preference for red meat among the Maasai. These quantities include the meat of cattle, sheep,
various factors have given rise to a rich pattern of chickens and ducks, fresh and dried cow milk,
consumer preference, and also influence the way ghee, animal feeds, and live cattle, goats, sheep,
consumers assess the quality of animal products buffaloes and chickens.
(Krystallis and Arvanitoyannis, 2006). Four structural developments in livestock
More recently, other institutional factors have markets can be discerned (FAO, 2005b):
influenced consumption trends. An example is v International market chains: supplying
the emergence of the “concerned consumer” livestock products from one country to
(Harrington, 1994) in OECD countries. The retailers and consumers in another country.
consumption patterns of these consumers are These chains are either controlled by
influenced not only by market and taste factors, large retailers, such as supermarkets, or
but by concerns about health, environmental, by importing firms dealing with particular
ethical, animal welfare and development issues. commodities.
These consumers tend to reduce or even stop v Chains created by foreign direct investment:
their consumption of particular animal products vertically integrated market chains
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PART 2
supplying a domestic, mainly urban market. chains and restaurants have developed,
Typically, they are controlled by large and increased the diversity of products on
retailers such as international or national the market, but are not part of vertically
supermarkets or fast food companies. integrated chains.
v Domestic markets affected by globalization: v Increasing local markets: geographical
effects of globalization on consumer concentration and intracountry
demand and behaviour have led to specialization (see below) on the one
responses in domestic market chains hand, and urbanization on the other, lead
other than vertically integrated chains. to increasing livestock product (and feed
For example, dairy processors, fast food resource) transfers at national level.
Box 21
Overcoming constraints to the development of small-scale market-oriented
dairying
Demand for milk in developing countries is expected technologies. Clearly, there are instances when
to increase by 25 percent by 2025 (Delgado et al., the costs of milk production and the poor state of
1999). Mobilizing the small-scale dairy sector to infrastructure render dairying uncompetitive for the
increase production has the potential to provide small producer. However, a number of factors that
benefits such as increased incomes and food security enhance the prospects for successful small-scale dairy
for small-scale producers. Lack of regular income is a development can be identified.
major problem for poor households. Both crop farming The Market Oriented Dairy Enterprise (MODE)
and meat production yield only periodic returns. approach has been suggested as a template for
Conversely, dairying, even on a very small scale, can development. Milk or producer groups are the
provide modest but regular income. essential entry point, and developments should
One challenge to small-scale dairy development be risk based, and move progressively to a market
is posed by competition from rapidly increasing dairy orientation, as group members become empowered
imports to developing countries, which grew by 43 to make well-informed decisions. The MODE approach
percent between 1998 and 2001, and is predicted consists of three steps: 1) groups are set up and
to continue rising. However, there are some market operational; 2) a low level of activities is recorded
developments that favour local producers. The with limited returns; and 3) a market-oriented
National Dairy Development Board of India recently approach is adopted. Other important considerations
reported an increase of production in response include the significance of local markets, which
to market demand for indigenous fermented milk are often overlooked while export potential is
products from 26 623 tonnes in 1999/2000 to 65 118 overemphasized; the need for appropriate institutional
tonnes in 2003/2004, and a rise in the production development to ensure that milk collection,
of paneer from 2008 tonnes in 1999/2000 to 4496 processing and marketing systems do not exclude the
tonnes in 2003/2004 (NDDB, 2005). small producer; and a facilitative policy environment
The entry of small-scale producers into the dairy linking dairy development to national livestock
sector is often constrained by a lack of capital to development policy.
invest in animals, feed and equipment; a lack of
water and power; a lack of knowledge regarding Provided by Tony Bennett.
For further information on the MODE approach see: FAO
dairy husbandry and the requirements of the market;
(2006e).
a lack of access to support services (health and AI);
and a lack of access to production and processing
146
With globalization, international and domestic 2.2 The rise of large retailers and
markets can become connected. Within poultry vertical coordination along
markets, for example, not all cuts are exported; the food chain
those not required for export are sold in the The rapid expansion in supermarket penetration
domestic market. Pig producers in some Southeast in developing countries is a fairly recent
Asian countries switch from national to regional phenomenon. It has become significant only
markets depending on relative prices at different over the last five to ten years, and has proceeded
times of year. Although these markets are not at different rates in the various regions of
identical, there are some common features in the developing world. Reardon and Timmer
their requirements and their impacts. (2005) describe the diffusion of supermarkets
Increased and long-distance trade requires in developing countries as having occurred in
standards and regulation to ensure safety and three successive waves. The first, in the early
reduce transaction costs. Food control and 1990s, covered much of Latin America and East
certification systems must be of a high standard. Asia (except China), north-central Europe, and
In addition to the health and safety standards and South Africa, with supermarkets accounting for
regulations agreed by international bodies (such only 5 to 10 percent of agrifood retail sales on
as the World Organisation for animal Health (OIE) average these areas at that time. The second
and Codex Alimentarius), technical requirements wave of supermarket diffusion took place in the
may be imposed by retailers. These may include mid-1990s, covering parts of Central America
demands for particular meat cuts, carcass size and and Mexico, Southeast Asia, and south-central
weight, leanness of meat, fat levels in milk, egg Europe, with the share of supermarkets in total
colour, or labelling with particular information food retail reaching about 30 to 50 percent by
or in specified languages. There may be demands the early 2000s. The take-off of supermarkets in
for organic production or high animal welfare the third wave of diffusion started only in the late
standards. In interconnected markets, the 1990s. Countries affected included China, India,
standards of the higher-value market may be the Russian Federation, and some countries in
adopted by the lower-value market, although in Central and South America, Southeast Asia and
general they will be less strictly monitored. Africa. By the mid-2000s, supermarkets’ share of
Globalized markets have the potential to food retail had already reached 10 to 20 percent
increase national income and create employment. in the countries included in the third wave.
For producers and traders, developing domestic The entry of transnationals into the agrifood
markets can offer flexibility and a greater diversity chain in developing countries, particularly in the
of livelihood options. However, globalized retail and processing sectors, has transformed the
markets are exclusive. Only some producers manner in which agrifood products are purchased
meet the requirements necessary to access them, from suppliers, processed into differentiated
and small producers can find it hard to acquire products, and distributed to consumers. As these
knowledge of these requirements or make large new distribution and retail units have to
the necessary investments. For example, many compete for market share, between themselves,
African-produced food products fail to meet and even with traditional suppliers and
international food safety and quality standards. wholesalers in the domestic market, they must
This hampers the continent’s efforts to increase offer competitive prices. They can only maintain
agricultural trade both intraregionally and or expand market share by cutting costs. At the
internationally, and locks many farmers out of a same time, they must compete in delivering the
chance to improve their economic well-being (De consistent product quality that is demanded by
Haen, 2005). their main market. The concept of “quality” from
the producers’ perspective is complex, and its
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PART 2
TABLE 44
Standards in the livestock market and implications for small-scale producers
Positive factors Negative factors
Process standards
UHT treatment of milk, government Clearly specified process. Administration costs of inspection. Investment
requirement. in equipment and training may exclude
smallholders.
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point in abattoir, Clearly specified process. Probably neutral for small producers.
required by importers and supermarkets.
Organic produce, standards set by certifying Premium price. Can be carried out on a small Certifying bodies, harder to establish in
bodies. scale. Favours labour-intensive systems. developing countries. High costs of certification.
Difficult to achieve by unorganized smallholders.
Performance standards
Salmonella levels in meat, with financial penalty Standards usually set to stringent developed-
for poor performance. country consumer requirements. No guaranteed
method to meet required standards. Cost of
tests may be prohibitive unless subsidized.
Combined standards
Contract farming requirements for timing of Premium price. Support with investment and Risk of total market loss if there is failure to
activities and quality of product. cash flow. May be assisted to overcome risk, produce the required quality. Not all producers
e.g. restocking after HPAI outbreaks. Technical meet requirements. Social stigma if there is
support. failure to “make the grade”.
Source: adapted from FAO (2006d).
attributes evolve over time. Its definition varies higher prices for quality products, but with
according to retailers’ strategies on the one hand, increased risk if contracts are not met or the
and to cultural influences on the other. It includes retailer closes down. This applies particularly
food safety, nutrition, and attributes related to the where the farmer must specialize to satisfy volume,
commercial differentiation of the products (Farina safety and quality requirements (Table 44).
et al., 2005), as well as characteristics related to the Typically, smallholders use enterprise diversity
mode of production (e.g. niche products). Large to hedge against risk, and make relatively small
retailers require a reliable supply of agricultural investments in several enterprises. This becomes
products from their suppliers (producers) with harder if they are required to invest more heavily
consistency in volume and in quality. in one enterprise to meet the needs of a retailer.
In vertically integrated chains controlled by Globalized markets, with higher safety and
large retailers, procurement processes tend to quality requirements, are typically riskier, as the
shift towards centralized procurement systems, entire market can close down with the outbreak
including the use of wholesalers specialized in of a disease or the discovery of a quality problem.
a product category or dedicated to the market Smallholder producers and small traders have
chain. Large supermarket chains may use limited scope and ability to insure themselves
preferred-supplier systems to select producers against loss.
who meet quality and safety standards, and to
reduce transaction costs.
Producers who become part of an integrated
chain may face a change in contractual
arrangements (e.g. becoming dedicated contract
farmers) with increased levels of assistance and
148
3 Changing natural environment will vary considerably. The livestock sector will
also be affected. Livestock products will become
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment2 costlier if agricultural disruption leads to higher
concludes that the degradation of ecosystems grain prices. In general, it seems that intensively
could become significantly worse during the managed livestock systems will more easily adapt
first half of this century, and be a barrier to to climate change than crop systems. This may not
achieving the Millennium Development Goals. be the case for pastoral systems where livestock
Recent changes in climate, especially warmer depend to a greater extent on the productivity and
regional temperatures, have already affected quality of the rangelands – which are predicted
biodiversity and ecosystems, particularly in to decline and become more erratic. Extensive
dryland environments such as the African Sahel. systems are also more susceptible to changes in
Global climate change is likely to have significant the severity and distribution of livestock diseases
impact on the world’s environment. In general, and parasites. Negative effects of climate change
the faster the changes, the greater will be the on extensive systems in the drylands are therefore
risk of adverse effects. Mean sea level is expected predicted to be substantial.
to rise by 9 to 88 cm by the year 2100, causing The effectiveness of adaptation to climate
flooding of low-lying areas, and other damage. change will depend critically on regional resource
Climatic zones could shift towards the poles, and endowments (IPCC, 2001). This has significant
vertically – affecting forests, deserts, rangelands implications for the distribution of impacts within
and other ecosystems. Many habitats will decline developing countries, as well as between more and
or become fragmented, and individual species less-developed countries. Developed countries will
could become extinct (IPCC, 2001). Climate probably be more effective in adapting to climate
change is taking place against the background change than developing countries and countries in
of a natural environment that is already stressed transition, especially in the tropics and subtropics.
by resource degradation – often exacerbated by Climate change is likely to have its greatest adverse
existing agricultural practices. effects on areas where resource endowments are
Societies will face new risks and pressures. Food poorest and the ability of farmers to respond and
security is unlikely to be threatened at the global adapt is most limited (ibid.).
level, but some regions are likely to experience
food shortages and hunger. Water resources will be
affected as precipitation and evaporation patterns 4 Advances in technology
change around the world. Physical infrastructure
will be damaged, particularly by rising sea levels Technological developments are another driver of
and by extreme weather events. There will be many change. Advances in transport and communication
direct and indirect effects on economic activities, have promoted the expansion of global markets,
human settlements and human health. The poor and have facilitated the spread of production
and disadvantaged are the most vulnerable to the systems in which livestock are kept at a distance
negative consequences of climate change. from sources of feed. Technological advances have
A warming of more than 2.5°C could reduce also enabled increasing levels of control over the
global food supplies and contribute to higher production environments in which animals are
food prices. Some agricultural regions will be kept. Examples include improvements in building
threatened by climate change, while others may technology and cooling systems, but progress
benefit. The impact on crop yields and productivity in breeding and nutrition have played the most
2
critical roles.
http://www.maweb.org/en/index.aspx
149
PART 2
Feed most countries. The main question to be addressed

Advances in feed technology allowing the is not what is technically possible, but where and
preparation of “near ideal” rations to match the how life sciences and biotechnology can contribute
nutritional demands of pigs, poultry and dairy to achieving a more sustainable agriculture.
cows at different stages in their lives/production
cycles, have had an important effect on livestock
production. In addition to technological 5 Policy environment
developments, declining grain prices, a trend that
has prevailed since the 1950s, has been one of Public policies can be seen as forces that add
the factors driving changes in livestock feeding to the drivers described above, and influence
practices. Despite growing demand over this changes in the sector with the aim of achieving
period, supply has not lagged behind. The total a particular set of societal objectives. Policies
supply of cereals increased by 46 percent over are designed and adjusted, taking into account
the 24 years from 1980 to 2004. In real terms the state of markets, available technologies
(constant US$) international prices for grains have and natural resources (the drivers previously
halved since 1961. Expanding supply at declining described), and the current status of the sector.
prices has been brought about predominantly Experience in both developed and developing
by intensification of the existing cropped area, countries confirms that a laissez-faire approach,
and to a lesser extent by area expansion in some simply standing back and allowing market forces
regions (globally, the areas of cereal harvested to play out, is not a viable option3. In the absence
shrank by 5.2 percent over the same period). of effective policies, many of the hidden costs of
expanding livestock production – environmental
Genetics and reproductive and degradation, disruption of the livelihoods of
biotechnologies poor traditional livestock keepers, and threats
New biotechnologies in combination with increased to veterinary and human public health, are
computing capacity enable rapid genetic advances, eventually borne by governments and the public.
especially in the commercial pig and poultry sectors It is important that the attention of policy-makers
where AnGR are tailored to achieve high efficiency is not exclusively focused on the role of large-scale
of feed conversion. Reproductive biotechnologies production. Some systems remain little affected
such as artificial insemination (AI) and embryo by trends towards industrialization. These systems
transfer (ET) greatly facilitate the dissemination do not account for the bulk of production growth.
of genetic material. These technologies are widely They do, however, affect the livelihoods of many
used in the developed world, and to a lesser extent people, and involve a wide range economic
in developing countries. Advances in molecular objectives and production practices. They are
genetics have given rise to new techniques in mostly oriented towards household consumption,
animal breeding such as gene-based selection local markets, niche markets or the delivery of
(mainly against diseases and genetic defects), and environmental services.
marker assisted selection and introgression of Public policies are both drivers of, and
genes. Newer biotechnologies including cloning, responses to, changes in the livestock sector. At
transgenesis and transfer of somatic material any point in time, policies that are in existence
may have significant impacts in the future. With
regard to the application of biotechnologies, the 3
The following paragraphs of this section draw on the FAO
scientific, political, economic and institutional basis Livestock Policy Brief Responding to the livestock revolution –
to provide adequate safeguards and to ensure that the case for livestock public policies.
http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/resources/en/pubs_sap.html
potential benefits are realized is not yet in place in
150
and enforced are drivers of change, while policies Box 22

in preparations are part of the public response to Facts and trends in the emerging
changes. This subchapter summarizes the broad world food economy
policies that have affected the livestock sector.
Policies for institutional and technological Slowdown in population growth: The growth
change are initiated at both national and local rate of 1.35 percent per annum in the second half
levels, and not only by national governments. of the 1990s is expected to decline to 1.1 percent in
Other stakeholders, including farmer associations, 2010–2015 and to 0.5 percent by 2045–2050 (UN
Habitat, 2001).
development agencies and non-governmental
organizations have often played an important Income growth and reductions in poverty*:
role in strengthening institutions and promoting Per capita income growth in developing countries
technologies that increase productivity, is predicted to increase from 2.4 percent per annum
compliance with standards, or market access for for the period from 2001 to 2005 to 3.5 percent for
small producers. the period between 2006 and 2015. The incidence of
Policy-makers have generally utilized three poverty is predicted to fall from 23.2 percent in 1999
main instruments to influence change in the to 13.3 percent in 2015.
sector: prices, institutions and promotion of Average food intake will increase but hunger will
technological change. Environmental objectives remain widespread: Daily per capita calorific intake
may be pursued using a combination of measures in developing countries will increase from an average
such as regulations, public support to extension of 2 681 kcal in 1997-1999 to 2 850 in 2015. Under
and research, incentives or taxation, so as to “business as usual”, undernourishment will decline
make prices reflect real costs and encourage from 20 percent in 1992 to 11 percent in 2015, but
compliance with standards. In the absence of reductions in absolute numbers of undernourished
policy interventions and other measures, inputs people will be modest – from 776 million in 1990-1992
such as land and water are often underpriced to 610 million in 2015 – far from meeting the World
Food Summit target.
and the prices of livestock products often fail to
reflect the cost of environmental damage. Slower rate of agricultural production growth:
The main regulatory and policy frameworks Growth of demand for agricultural products, and
that have influenced the sector include: therefore of production, will slow as a result of
v market regulation, regulation of foreign slower population growth and reduced scope
direct investment, regulation of property for consumption increases in places where food
rights (including intellectual property), consumption is already high. For developing countries,
and regulations on credit that shape the production growth will decline from an average of
3.9 percent per annum between 1989 and 1999
“investment climate” in a country;
to 2.0 percent per annum between 1997-1999 and
v institutional and regulatory frameworks
2015 (FAO, 2002a).
affecting ownership and access to land and
water resources;
v labour policy, including regulations
affecting the cost of labour, the * These figures are for developing countries as a whole.
employment of migrant labourers, and It should be acknowledged that reductions in the incidence
working conditions; of poverty will be geographically uneven with the greatest
progress being made in East Asia and the least progress in
v mobility, security and migration policies,
sub-Saharan Africa (FAO, 2002b).
which particularly affect mobile forms of • continues
livestock production such as pastoralism;
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PART 2
Box 22 cont.
Facts and trends in the emerging world food economy
Changes in product composition: Between 1997 Diet transitions: The pace of dietary change, both
and 2015, wheat and rice production in developing qualitative and quantitative, accelerates as countries
countries will grow modestly (by 28 and 21 percent become richer and populations become increasingly
respectively). However, significant increases are urbanized, with a shift in diet structure towards a
expected in coarse grains (45 percent), vegetable oils higher energy density diet in developing countries,
and oilseeds (61 percent), beef and veal (47 percent), and a dramatic increase in the contribution to food
mutton and lamb (51 percent), pig meat (41 percent), calories from livestock products (meat, milk and eggs),
poultry meat (88 percent), and milk and dairy vegetable oils, and, to a lesser extent, sugar. Average
production (58 percent) (FAO, 2002a). developing-country per capita meat consumption
Production growth based mostly on yield increased from 11 kg per annum in the mid-1970s
growth: Yield improvements will account for about 70 to around 26 kg in 2003, and oil-crop products from
percent of production growth, land expansion for 20 5.3 kg to 9.9 kg. Increases in saturated fat intake from
percent, and increased cropping intensity for the rest. animal sources, a greater amount of added sugar
Nevertheless, FAO projections show that the arable in foods, reduced intakes of complex carbohydrates
area in developing countries will increase by almost and fibre, and reduced fruit and vegetable intakes
13 percent (120 million ha) and water withdrawals have been shown to be responsible for an increased
for irrigation by 14 percent by 2030. One in five incidence of non-communicable diseases (e.g.
developing countries will face water shortages cardiovascular diseases and diabetes).
(FAO 2002a). Market structures: Agrifood systems are evolving
Growing agricultural trade deficits: Agricultural from an industry dominated by family-based farms
trade surpluses in developing countries are shrinking and small-scale, relatively independent firms, to one
and by 2030 will have become a deficit of about of larger firms that are more tightly aligned across
US$31 billion, with a rapid rise in imports of cereals the production and distribution chain. Food retailing
and livestock products, and a decline in surpluses in is increasingly customer responsive, more service
vegetable oils and sugar. focused and more global in ownership; in parallel,
the input supply and product processing sectors are
Urbanization: Virtually all of the world’s anticipated
becoming more consolidated, more concentrated,
population growth between 2000 and 2030 will be
and more integrated. Tangible evidence of this is the
concentrated in urban areas (UN Habitat, 2001). At
rise of supermarkets and changing patterns of food
the present rate of urbanization, the urban population
procurement in urban areas in many parts of the
will equal the rural population as early as 2007 and
world, especially in Latin America (see Reardon and
will exceed it from that point on.
Berdegué, 2002).
Source: FAO (2005c).
v incentive frameworks, which shape relative and access to national and international
competitiveness and production levels and markets; and
practices – farm subsidies in OECD countries v environmental policies, which have affected
(US$257 billion in 2003) have, for example, farm practices and, to a limited extend,
substantially contributed to increased increased the relative competitiveness
production levels; of production in countries where
v sanitary standards and trade policies, which environmental regulations are less stringent
have direct impacts on competitiveness or not enforced.
152
Section B
Livestock
sector’s response
The livestock sector is responding to the above- on the motivations of the individuals involved
described drivers by undergoing a series of regarding their future lives. It is beyond the
changes, which are described below, production scope of this section to consider all these factors
system by production system. While there is a and how they influence specific development
broad trend towards industrialization of the strategies. A generalized discussion of responses
sector, the importance of the driving forces to the driving factors is, therefore, presented at
and the pace of particular developments differ the level of livestock production systems.
between countries and regions. Furthermore, The grouping of livestock production units
the development pathway of a given production on the basis of shared characteristics is a means
system is influenced by the interaction of many of understanding common elements within
factors, both external and internal to the system. the overall variety. Approaches to classifying
There are five broad farm or farm-household livestock production systems vary according to
strategies that livestock producers may adopt in the purpose of the classification, the scale, and
response to changing conditions: the availability of relevant data. An important
v expansion of farm or herd size; criterion is the dependence on, and linkage to,
v diversification of production or processing; the natural resource base. This criterion leads
v intensification of existing production to an initial distinction between land-based and
patterns; landless systems (Ruthenberg, 1980; Jahnke, 1982;
v increasing the proportion of off-farm FAO, 1996a). The latter term describes situations
income, both agricultural and non- where livestock feed is obtained neither from
agricultural; or within the farm nor from grazing pastures, but
v exit from the agricultural sector within a is purchased or otherwise obtained from external
particular farming system (FAO, 2001a). sources. Land-based systems are often further
Which strategy or combination of strategies distinguished based on land use, into grassland-
livestock producers have taken in the past or will based and crop-based systems. This distinction
take in the future depends on the circumstances is also closely linked to the relative economic
in which they seek to make a living. These importance of livestock within the system. Within
circumstances vary in terms of agro-ecological these categories, further distinctions may be
environment, socio-economic conditions, the drawn on the basis of characteristics such as agro-
state of infrastructure and services, cultural and ecological zone, scale of production, mobility,
religious practices, political and institutional location in relation to markets, or subsistence
environment, and development policies. Even versus commercial orientation. Classification
where external circumstances are similar, the systems may vary considerably depending on
development options of individual farms/ the purpose and the angle of perception of the
households differ depending on the assets and originator. For example, the more economically
capacities that they have at their disposal, and oriented classification developed by Doppler
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PART 2
(1991) distinguishes systems first by market the emergence of mixed (= diverse) production
versus subsistence orientation, and at the next systems (Schiere et al., 2006a).
level on the basis of the scarcity of production The livestock production system classification
factors (Doppler, 1991). Schiere and De Wit (1995) developed by Seré and Steinfeld (FAO, 1996a),
proposed a classification of farming systems on the which is largely followed in this section, initially
basis of a two dimensional matrix. One dimension distinguishes two broad categories: solely
relates to the relative importance of livestock and livestock systems and mixed farming systems.
crops, and distinguishes predominately livestock, Solely livestock systems are differentiated from
mixed, and predominately crop-based systems. mixed farming systems in that more than 90
The second dimension is defined by the mode of percent of the total value of production comes
farming, and distinguishes between expansion from livestock farming activities and that less
of the farm area, LEIA (low external input than 10 percent of the dry matter fed to animals
agriculture), new conservation (organic farming, is obtained from crop residues or stubbles. Within
etc.) and HEIA (high external input agriculture). the solely livestock systems, landless livestock
This classification eventually evolved into a more production systems are distinguished from
elaborate understanding of the interaction grassland-based systems on the basis of having a
between drivers and people’s preferences in stocking rate above ten livestock units (LU) per
FIGURE 38
Distribution of livestock production systems
Livestock production systems

Mixed, irrigated Grazing Area dominated by landless production National boundaries
Mixed, rainfed Other type Boreal and arctic climates
Source: Steinfeld et al. (2006).
154
hectare of agricultural land and obtaining less are described in a separate chapter. Where
than 10 percent of the dry matter fed to animals relevant, differences between the three agro-
from within the farm. The mixed system is further ecological zones as defined above are highlighted
differentiated into mixed rainfed and mixed for land-based systems. Environmental impacts
irrigated systems. In mixed irrigated systems more of the different systems are presented, with a
than 10 percent of the value of non-livestock view to understanding potential implications
farm production comes from irrigated land. The for longer-term sustainability. Negative
land-based systems (the grassland-based and environmental impacts can be considered as
mixed systems) are further defined on the basis longer-term internal drivers as they reinforce or
of agro-ecological zone (arid/semi-arid, humid/ counteract the dynamics in the systems.
subhumid and temperate/tropical highland).
Figure 38 illustrates the spatial distribution of
the three major land-based systems and indicates 1 Landless industrialized
areas that have a high concentration of landless production systems
production.
The following chapters describe the three
main livestock production system categories 1.1 Overview and trends
– landless, grassland-based and mixed farming, A description of industrialized production
focusing on their characteristics, trends and their systems inevitably involves a discussion of the
requirements for AnGR. Within landless systems, strong trend towards this type of livestock
industrialized production systems, and small- production. Industrialization of the livestock
scale peri-urban/urban and rural landless systems sector in response to the growing demands
are distinguished4. Within mixed farming systems for animal products – the so-called “livestock
special characteristics of mixed irrigated systems revolution” – has received great public and
scientific attention and is, in economic terms,
4
This distinction is not in line with the FAO (1996a) classification, the most important current development within
in which landless monogastric and ruminant systems are the livestock sector and within agriculture as a
differentiated within landless livestock production systems. It whole. The industrialization of farming has been
should also be noted that some small scale peri-urban and urban
ongoing in developed countries since the 1960s.
livestock keepers are actually mixed farmers as they also cultivate
crops and more than 10 percent of the total value of their In the mid-1980s, the trend started to affect
production comes from non-livestock farming activities. developing countries, and it has accelerated in
TABLE 45
Trends in production of meat and milk in developing and developed countries
Production Developing countries Developed countries

1970 1980 1990 2000 2002 1970 1980 1990 2000 2002
Annual per capita meat production (kg) 12 14 19 27 28 28 40 60 99 105

Annual per capita milk production (kg) 31 34 40 49 51 65 77 83 80 82
Total meat production (million tonnes) 31 47 75 130 139 70 90 105 105 108
Total milk production (million tonnes) 80 112 160 232 249 311 353 383 346 353
Shares of meat production 31 34 42 55 56 69 66 58 45 44
Shares of milk production 21 24 29 40 41 79 76 71 60 59
Source: FAOSTAT.
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PART 2
FIGURE 39
Meat production from ruminants versus monogastrics in developing and developed countries
Million tonnes
200
175
Ruminants
150
Monogastrics
125
100
75
50
25
0
1988 1998 2015 2030 1988 1998 2015 2030
Developing Countries Developed Countries

Note: Ruminant meat = bovine and ovine meat production; monogastric meat = pig and poultry meat production.
the last decade (Table 45). The trend has been technological advances in animal husbandry, food
particularly significant in monogastric meat processing and transport. The development of
production (Figure 39). poultry production, in particular, is “discontinuous”,
On a global scale, industrial production i.e. there is typically no “organic” growth through
systems now account for an estimated 67 percent which small poultry farmers gradually expand and
of poultry meat production, 42 percent of pig intensify their production. Rather, as soon as urban
meat production, 50 percent of egg production, markets, transport infrastructure and services
7 percent of beef and veal production, and develop, investors, often having no previous
1 percent of sheep and goat meat production association with livestock production, step in
(Table 46). and establish large-scale industrial-type units,
In countries undergoing rapid economic integrated with modern processing and marketing
development and demographic changes, new methods (FAO, 2006f).
markets for animal products emerge. Supplying The emergence of industrial livestock production
vertically integrated food chains and large is dependent on the availability of a ready market
retailers requires meeting certain food quality and for animal products, and the availability of the
safety standards. The demands of these emerging required inputs, in particular feed, at relatively low
markets favour industrial production, which can cost. A favourable policy environment, including
take full advantage of economies of scale and for example, public investment in the livestock
156
TABLE 46
Livestock numbers and production of the world’s livestock production systems – averages for 2001-2003
Livestock production system Total

grazing rainfed irrigated industrial
mixed mixed
Livestock numbers (million head)

cattle 406.0 618.0 305.4 29.1 1 358.5
dairy cows 53.2 118.7 59.7 - 231.6
buffaloes 0 22.7 144.4 - 167.1
sheep and goats 589.5 631.6 546 9.2 1 776.3
Production (million tonnes) 0

total beef and veal 14.6 29 10.1 3.9 57.6
total sheep and goat meat 3.8 4.0 4.0 0.09 11.8
total pork 0.9 12.5 42.1 39.8 95.3
total poultry meat 1.2 8.1 14.9 49.7 73.9
total eggs 0.5 5.6 23.3 29.5 58.9
total milk 71.6 319.2 203.7 - 594.5
Source: FAO (1996a) updated by FAO (2004).
sector, trade liberalization, and the imposition of and more than half of the milk (Table 47). They
higher food safety standards, contributes to the also account for almost three-quarters of the
speed of this development. China, India and Brazil production growth in developing countries for
– three very large developing countries which both commodity groups (FAO, 2006f). Landless
play a leading role of in their respective regions, industrialized systems in these countries mainly
but which have different economic structures and contribute to the production of meat from poultry
livestock sectors, are the largest contributors to and pigs, while beef, mutton and milk production
the trend towards industrialization. These three are mainly concentrated in grassland-based and
countries now account for almost two-thirds of mixed systems.
total meat production in developing countries
TABLE 47
The developing countries with the highest meat and milk production (2004)
Country Group/Country Meat Milk Meat Milk

[million tonnes] [%]
Developing Countries 148.2 262.7 100 100

China 70.8 22.5 47.8 8.6
India 6.0 90.4 4.0 34.4
Brazil 19.9 23.5 13.4 8.9
“Big three” 96.7 136.4 65.2 51.9
Source: FAO (2006f).
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PART 2
The process of industrialization can be food. Concentrate feeds, which are traded both
characterized as a combination of three major domestically and internationally, are increasingly
trends: intensification, scaling up, and regional important. In 2004, a total of 690 million tonnes
concentration. of cereals were fed to livestock (34 percent of
the global cereal harvest) and another 18 million
Intensification tonnes of oilseeds (mainly soya). These figures
Intensification of livestock production is taking are projected to increase further (see Figure 40
place with respect to most inputs. In particular, for cereals). In addition, 295 million tonnes of
feed efficiency has been greatly improved over protein-rich agricultural or food processing by-
recent decades. Traditional fibrous and energy-rich products were used as feed (mainly bran, oilcakes
feed stuffs are in relative decline, and protein-rich and fishmeal). Pigs and poultry make the most
feeds and sophisticated additives which enhance efficient use of these concentrate feeds. The
feed conversion are on the rise. As livestock most favourable feed conversion rates have been
production intensifies, it depends less and less achieved in the poultry sector. Ruminants are only
on locally available feed resources, such as local fed with concentrates in countries with low grain/
fodder, crop residues and unconsumed household meat price ratios. Where these ratios are high,
FIGURE 40
Changes in the quantity of cereals used as feed (1992-1994 and 2020)
Million tonnes
1 000
1992-94
800 2001-03
2020
600
400
200
0
Developed Countries Developing Countries China World
Sources: FAOSTAT for the1992-1994 and 2001-2003 figures; and FAO (2002a) for the 2020 figures.
158
FIGURE 41
Changes in the distribution of the size of pig farms in Brazil (1985 to 1996)
Share
50
1985
40
1996
30
20
10
0
<10 10-19 20-49 50-99 100-199 >200
Scale of operation (number of sows)
Source: De Camargo Barros et al. (2003).
typically in grain or cereal-deficit developing specialization of production. This is accompanied

countries, feeding grain to ruminants is not by a substantial shift from backyard and mixed
profitable. systems to commercial, single-product operations.
Intensification also draws on technical As a result, natural resource-use efficiency and
improvements in other fields, such as genetics, output per animal has increased substantially.
animal health and farm management. The Over the 24 years between 1980 and 2004,
use of high levels of external inputs to alter offtake of pig meat, chicken meat and milk per
the production environment, including the unit of stock increased by 61 percent, 32 percent
control of pathogens, feed quantity and quality, and 21 percent respectively (FAO, 2006d).
temperature, humidity, light, and the amount Intensification of production may, however,
of space available, creates conditions where the make use of the full set of available technologies
genetic potential of high-output livestock breeds for improvement without necessarily leading
can be fully realized. A narrow range of breeds to industrialization. It can also be an effective
are used, and the focus is on maximizing the strategy for smallholders to improve their
production of a single product. Technical advances livelihoods, if supported by favourable policies
are being diffused as a result of increasing and infrastructure. For example, milk production
support from external service providers and the in India continues to be largely smallholder
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PART 2
based. Cooperative movements, supported by countries. In the case of pig production in Asia, the
the National Dairy Development Board have potentials for economies of scale are greater in
successfully linked smallholders to the growing finished-pig production than in piglet production
urban markets, and have supplied the feed (Poapongsakorn et al., 2003). Dairy production
and animal health inputs, and basic knowledge continues to be dominated by family-based
needed for intensification (FAO, 2006f). These production because of high labour requirements,
developments can be contrasted to the situation usually met by the use of family labour below the
in Brazil, for example, where the number of small- level of minimum wages. However, the expansion
scale dairy producers has decreased as national of smallholder production beyond a semi-
production has increased (FAO, 2006e). subsistence level is constrained by a number of
barriers, lack of competitiveness and risk factors.
Scaling up
Besides intensification, the industrialization process Geographical concentration
is accompanied by a scaling up of production. The geographical distribution of livestock
Economies of scale – cost reductions realized production shows a common pattern in most
through expanding the scale of operations – at developing countries. Traditionally, livestock
various stages of the production process trigger production is based on locally available feed
the creation of large production units. As a result, resources, particularly those of limited or no other
the number of producers rapidly diminishes even value, such as natural pasture and crop residues.
though the sector as a whole may expand. In The distribution of ruminant livestock can be
many fast-growing economies, the average size of explained by the availability of such resources,
operations is rapidly increasing and the number of while the distribution of pigs and poultry follows
livestock producers is in sharp decline. For example, closely that of humans, because of their role as
Figure 41 shows that in Brazil, between 1985 and converters of waste.
1996, there was a large increase in the proportion When urbanization and economic growth give
of pig farms keeping more than 200 sows. rise to “bulk” demand for animal food products,
Where alternative employment opportunities large-scale operators emerge which, at the initial
are limited, the opportunity cost of family stage, are located close to towns and cities.
labour is low, and livestock keeping is likely to Livestock products are highly perishable, and
remain an economically attractive option for their preservation without chilling and processing
poorer households. However, where employment poses serious problems. In order to reduce
opportunities in other sectors improve, the transport costs, animals are therefore raised close
opportunity cost of labour rises, and small family to centres of demand. Livestock production is,
farm operations become increasingly unprofitable. thus, physically separated from the production
Tenant farmers and landless livestock keepers will of the feed resources. In a subsequent phase,
gradually find other employment, often in urban infrastructure and technology develop sufficiently
areas. Small landowners will, likewise, find it more to make it possible to keep livestock further away
profitable to sell or lease their holdings rather from the markets where the products are sold.
than to cultivate them. Livestock production moves away from urban
Different commodities and different stages in centres, driven by a series of factors such as lower
the production process show different potential land and labour prices, easier access to feed,
for economies of scale. They tend to be high in lower environmental standards, tax incentives
post-harvest sectors (e.g. slaughterhouse, dairy and fewer disease problems.
plants). Poultry production is the most easily
mechanized sector, and shows a trend towards
industrial forms even in the least-developed
160
FIGURE 42
Estimated contribution of livestock to total phosphate supply on agricultural land in areas presenting
a phosphate mass balance of more than 10 kg per hectare in selected Asian countries (1998 to 2000)
Percentage
0 to 20
21 to 40
41 to 60
61 to 80
81 to 100
No overload Kilometers
0 500 1,000 2,000
Source: Gerber et al. (2005).
1.2 Environmental issues The decoupling of crop and livestock production

In many respects, large-scale industrial systems through the geographical concentration of
are the main focus of concerns with regard to the livestock in areas with little or no agricultural
environmental impacts of livestock production. This land leads to high levels of environmental
is particularly the case where development occurs impact – mainly related to manure and waste-
very rapidly, without an appropriate regulatory water mismanagement (Naylor et al., 2005).
framework. Although, as the following discussion Nutrient overloads can arise from several sources
will outline, there are numerous problems with including over-fertilization of crops, over-feeding
this type of farming, industrial production can of fish ponds, and improper waste disposal of
have certain advantages from the environmental agricultural or industrial wastes. In the case of
perspective. Intensive production methods are at a livestock production, nutrient overloads mainly
particular advantage with regards to the efficiency occur when the nutrients present in manure are
of feed conversion (FAO, 2005a). Commercial not properly removed or recycled, which is often
livestock producers will tend to favour efficient the case close to urban centres (Figure 42).
use of priced resources. However, the potential of Heavy application of manure to fields can
this motivation to promote more environmentally result in nitrates and phosphates leaching
friendly intensive production is hampered by into waterways. Excessive nutrient loading of
inadequate pricing of natural resources. waterways leads to the phenomenon known as
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PART 2
eutrophication – the build up of algal growths if they enter the food chain. Copper and zinc
which deny oxygen to other forms of aquatic are nutrients that are added to concentrate
life. In parts of the world, fragile ecosystems, feed, while cadmium enters livestock feed as
important reservoirs of biodiversity, such as a contaminant. Inappropriate management of
wetlands, mangrove swamps and coral reefs are manure can also lead to the pollution of soil and
threatened. In the South China Sea, pollution water resources with pathogens (ibid).
from livestock production has been identified Another way in which industrial livestock
as a major cause of massive algal “blooms”, production contributes to the production of
including one in 1998 which killed more than 80 greenhouse gases (in this case carbon dioxide)
percent of the fish in a 100 km2 area of coastal is through the associated transportation of feed
water (FAO, 2005a). Industrial production systems over long distances, which requires the use of
often necessitate the storing of manure. At this fossil fuels. In the case of methane, however,
stage, nitrogen loss is mainly in the form of emissions arising from ruminant digestion are
ammonia emitted from the surface of the manure greater where the feed energy supplied to the
(FAO, 1996b). The volatilization of ammonia can animals takes the form of low-quality forages. As
lead to the acidification and eutrophication of the such, industrial production, with its greater use
local environment and damage fragile ecosystems of concentrate feed, and breeds that are more
such as forests. Nitrous oxide, a particularly efficient converters of feed, has advantages with
active greenhouse, gas is also produced from respect to the amount of methane produced
livestock manure (17 percent of global emissions relative to the output of livestock products.
are estimated to come from livestock including The environmental effects of feed production
manure applied to farmland) (Table 48). Another also need to be considered. Thirty-three percent
problem associated with the spreading of manure of arable land is used for the production of animal
derived from industrial livestock production is feeds, mostly concentrates (FAO, 2006c). Much
the contamination of pastures and cropland with of this production takes place under conditions
heavy metals, which can cause health problems of high pesticide and fertilizer use. Expansion
TABLE 48
Agriculture’s contribution to global greenhouse gas and other emissions
Carbon dioxide Methane Nitrous oxide Nitric oxides Ammonia
Main effects Climate change Climate change Climate change Acidification Acidification and
eutrophication
Agricultural source Land use change, Ruminants (15) Livestock (including Biomass burning (13) Livestock (including
(estimated % especially manure applied to manure applied to
contribution to deforestation farmland) (17) farmland (44)
total global emissions)
Rice production (11) Mineral fertilizers (8) Manure and Mineral Mineral fertilizers (17)
fertilizers (2)
Biomass burning (7) Biomass burning (3) Biomass burning (11)
Agricultural emissions
as % of total
15 49 66 27 93
anthropogenic
sources
Expected changes in Stable or declining From rice: stable 35–60% increase From livestock: rising
agricultural emissions or declining by 60%
to 2030
From livestock: rising
by 60%
162
of the land area used for crop production can This lack of knowledge is even greater in the case
threaten biodiversity. In parts of Latin America, of rural landless livestock production.
for example, large areas of rainforest are being Small-scale landless livestock keepers are
destroyed as land is given over to the production characterized by having no croplands of their
of livestock feed (particularly soybeans). Increased own, and no access to large communal grazing
demand has driven increased exports of feed areas. Often poor, these livestock keepers are
from countries such as Brazil for use in intensive found both in urban and peri-urban zones, and in
livestock production in countries where land is rural areas dominated by mixed farming systems,
scarcer (FAO, 2006g). particularly where population density is high or
A further feature of industrial production units the distribution of land ownership is unequal.
is the concentration of large numbers of animals Rural landless livestock keepers are often
within confined spaces. Crowded conditions highly dependent on off-farm employment,
provide an environment in which disease can easily frequently in the form of casual labour. Feed for
spread unless preventive measures are taken. the livestock is obtained from a variety of sources
Industrial units, therefore tend to be heavy users including scavenging, grazing on marginal lands,
of livestock drugs, which if not used appropriately utilization of waste food and by-products, cutting
can enter the food chain and have adverse effects and carrying, and purchasing. Compared to their
on human health. Similarly, hygiene requirements land-owning neighbours, rural landless livestock
in large livestock units demand the heavy use of keepers tend to face greater problems providing
chemical cleaning agents, and other inputs such feed for their animals. Their production objectives
as fungicides, which if not carefully managed for livestock may also differ, given their reduced
are a further potential source of pollution in ability to make immediate use of some products
neighbouring environments. such as manure and draught power. In general,
small-scale rural landless farmers keep the local
breeds or cross-breeds common in the area.
2 Small-scale landless systems However, if they engage in more commercial
activities, higher-output breeds may be kept.
The most distinctive feature of urban
2.1 Overview production systems is the close vicinity of large
In economic terms, the contribution to food numbers of consumers, which reduces the
production of small-scale landless systems is necessity of transporting perishable products over
nowhere near as significant as that of the long distances. To benefit from this advantage,
industrialized systems. In fact, their contribution livestock keeping in and around towns and cities
has never been evaluated at a global scale. has been practised since ancient times. Reasons
However, small-scale peri-urban/urban livestock for engaging in urban livestock keeping are
keeping is now being (re)discovered by officials, diverse and include, gaining income through
and research and development workers in many sales; the pleasure of keeping livestock and the
poor and wealthy countries. Surveys in some opportunity to continue practising a traditional
African, Asian and Latin American cities have livelihood activity; the accumulation of capital
revealed surprisingly large number of urban embodied in livestock as a form of insurance or to
livestock keepers, even including some better-off finance future projects; dietary supplementation
citizens (Waters-Bayer, 1996; FAO 2001b). Overall, with home-produced milk, eggs or meat; and the
neither the scale of economic benefits which opportunity to make use of available resources
urban livestock provide for their keepers nor their such as waste food. Animals can also provide
contribution to wider food security is well known. inputs such as manure and draught power for
urban crop production. However, the urban
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environment presents livestock keepers with a As in urban environments, some rural landless
number of constraints. Particularly if larger animals livestock keepers may also face health problems
are involved, limited space can be a problem, as arising from the need to keep the animals close
can obtaining sufficient feed at a cost that is not to (or in) human dwellings, and limited access to
prohibitive. Urban production systems often have veterinary inputs. Given the proximity of cropland
multiple connections to the surrounding rural the disposal of manure is likely to be less of a
areas, whether in the form of feed provision, the problem. Indeed, manure may be a product that
supply of animals, or the flow of traditions and can be sold. Increasing livestock numbers may put
knowledge related to livestock keeping. Relatives pressure on the marginal grazing areas utilized
or paid herders in rural areas may take care of by landless livestock keepers and contribute to
part of the herd owned by urban residents. the degradation of these resources, although the
Animals such as dairy cows or buffaloes may be areas involved are, by definition, limited in scale.
transferred to rural areas during unproductive
phases of their production cycle in order to take 2.3 Trends
advantage of cheaper feed (Schiere et al., 2006b). In general, small-scale landless production offers
The type of livestock breeds kept in these systems relatively limited options for development.
depends on the species, the marketed product, However, the numbers of urban poor are still
and the strength of rural-urban linkages. expanding as result of ongoing rural–urban
migration in search of work. As employment
2.2 Environmental issues opportunities are often limited and insecure, the
Small-scale livestock production in peri-urban potential numbers engaging in small-scale urban
or urban areas faces some of the same basic livestock keeping or agriculture will tend to
environmental problems as industrialized systems increase. Close rural–urban linkages are important
(e.g. problems of waste disposal and contamination to overcome constraints of feed scarcity, and to
of water sources). The scale of the problems may be use the comparative advantages of each location.
as significant as for large-scale operations if a large Poor urban livestock keepers are generally not
number of small production units are concentrated well served by veterinary and other services,
within a limited area. In addition, the operation of and in many towns and cities livestock keeping
environmental control regulations may be weak, activities run into conflict with the law. Access
and infrastructure for waste management poorly to formal markets may be limited by quality or
developed. Another feature of these systems tends hygiene-related issues. There is, however, an
to be that humans and animals live in close vicinity to increasing recognition of the significance of small-
each other. This poses hazards related to the spread scale urban production and the need to develop
of zoonoses such as avian influenza. Problems are appropriate policies to minimize adverse effects
often exacerbated by poor standards of animal and to support the livestock keepers’ livelihoods.
health control and the absence of management The growing demand for animal products seems
skills adapted to the urban environment. Livestock to offer opportunities for some smaller-scale urban
can also cause nuisance problems such as noise, or peri-urban livestock keepers to intensify their
dirt, clogged sewage systems, traffic congestion production. India, for example, has been successful
and damage to property. The problems of urban in integrating small-scale landless buffalo and
livestock keeping tend to be greatest close to the cattle keepers into milk collection schemes around
centre of the city, as concentrations of animals and urban centres. Other instances of intensification
people are high, possibilities to use wasteland for outside the large-scale industrial system are found
grazing are low, and the distance to surrounding in poultry production. For example, in Burkina
croplands or pastures is high (Schiere et al., 2006b). Faso, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic,
Myanmar and Cambodia, poultry meat production
164
increased by 169 percent, 84 percent, 1530 percent have to be well adapted to the environment and
and 106 percent, respectively, over the period the objectives and management practices of the
from 1984 to 2004; this corresponded to 17, 8, 153 livestock keepers. Harsh environments mean that
and 17 thousand tonnes, respectively (FAOSTAT). livelihoods are often precarious, and livestock
The growth took place in small-scale intensified management practices have to be adapted to
systems in peri-urban settings utilizing improved cope with climatic extremes, and limited or erratic
feed, genetics and management practices. It is, availability of feed resources.
however, probable that intensification of this kind One-third of the world’s small ruminants,
is transitory. As soon as the volume of demand is nearly one-third of the cattle population and 22
sufficiently large and concentrated to allow for percent of the dairy cows are found in grassland-
substantial economies of scale, scaling-up occurs based systems (Table 46). These animals produce
with the arrival of large companies. The latter 25 percent of global beef and veal, 12 percent of
trend is now observed, for example, in Cambodia. total milk production, and 32 percent of sheep
In the already densely populated rural areas and goat meat. While small ruminant production
of Asia, the population continues to increase is proportional to the numbers, the figures for
while the land area used for agriculture cannot cattle are lower than in the other systems.
be further expanded. Where there are limited Grazing systems found in arid and semi-arid
alternative livelihood options outside agriculture, zones include both the pastoralist systems of sub-
livestock keeping is likely to remain an important Saharan Africa, North Africa, the Near and Middle
activity for the landless rural poor. Where markets East, and South Asia (Table 49), and the ranch-
are accessible, there may be some opportunity for type systems found in the drier parts of Australia,
engaging in more commercially oriented activities the United States of America, and in parts of
such as dairying. This has happened in the case of Southern Africa. Ranching is characterized by
the dairy cooperative movements in India, where private ownership of rangeland (individual,
a considerable proportion of the milk delivered to commercial organization or in some cases
dairy plants is produced by rural landless buffalo group ranches). Production is market-oriented
or cattle keepers who often participate in related – usually of cattle, which are sold for fattening
genetic improvement programmes. However, in other systems. Sheep and goats are kept for
landless livestock keepers face severe constraints fibres or pelts in subtropical zones. In contrast,
to expanding the output of their herds or flocks, traditional pastoralism is largely a subsistence-
particularly with regard to the supply of feed. oriented activity based on the keeping of cattle,
camels and/or small ruminants. One objective is
to ensure a year-round production of milk for
3 Grassland-based systems consumption. Another objective is the production
of live animals for sale. This is probably becoming
more important as a result of growing demand
3.1 Overview for livestock products. The mobility of pastoral
Grassland-based or grazing production systems herds and flocks allows for efficient use of feed
are largely found in locations that are unsuitable resources, the availability of which is dependent
or marginal for growing crops, as a result of low on unpredictable rainfall patterns. Traditionally,
rainfall, cold, or rough terrain, or where degraded indigenous institutions have regulated access to
cropland has been converted into pasture. Grazing common grazing and water resources.
systems are found in temperate, subhumid Grazing systems are also found in some
and humid climatic zones, but are particularly subhumid or humid zones, mostly in South
abundant in arid and semi-arid locations. America, but also in Australia and to a limited
Livestock breeds kept under grazing systems extent in Africa. Extensive cattle production
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TABLE 49
Estimated number of pastoralists in different geographic regions
Proportion of total
Number of pastoralists Proportion of rural population
Region population
[million] [%]
[%]
Sub-Saharan Africa 50 12 8
West Asia & North Africa 31 18 8
East Asia 20 3 2
Newly Independent States 5 12 7
South Asia 10 1 0.7
Central & South America 5 4 1
Total 120
Source: FAO (2006h).

Calculations based on Thornton et al. (2002).
mostly for beef is the most frequent activity, but relative to the levels of production obtained.
buffalo ranching occurs in very humid areas, and However, it is probably the issues of overgrazing
wool sheep are kept in subtropical areas of South and the destruction of tropical rainforests to
America, Australia and South Africa (FAO, 1996a). make way for cattle ranching that have raised the
The system tends to be concentrated in locations greatest concerns in grazing systems.
where crop production is restricted because of It is certainly the case that prolonged heavy
biophysical reasons or lack of market access. grazing can lead to changes in the composition
In the grazing systems of temperate zones, of vegetation, with palatable species becoming
highly selected animals are utilized along with a less common. The removal of plant cover through
range of technologies to maximize production. heavy grazing and trampling can lead to erosion
Breeds from temperate countries are also suited to and the loss of fertile soils. Recent years have,
many tropical highland locations. However, where however, seen something of a change in the
more subsistence-oriented production is practised, way in which grazing systems in arid zones are
or at very high altitudes, locally adapted breeds understood. Arid rangelands have come to be
and species are important. In the Andes of South viewed as non-equilibrium systems in which
America, for example, camelid species adapted to abiotic factors (most notably rainfall), rather
the high altitudes are important. Similarly, the yak than livestock density, are the driving forces
is of great significance to the livelihoods of local influencing patterns of vegetation cover (Behnke
people in the mountain ranges of Asia. et al., 1993). Livestock numbers in turn respond
to the availability of grazing. As such, traditional
3.2 Environmental issues mobile opportunistic systems are often considered
Grazing livestock often have a poor reputation to be the most appropriate form of livestock
with respect to environmental impacts. As in all management from the point of view of efficiently
production systems, the ruminants kept under utilizing grazing resources under arid conditions.
grazing systems are a source of methane, and In less arid areas, the availability of grazing is
hence contribute to global warming. Indeed, less variable, population density is higher, and
the low-quality forage resources on which the cropping is more widespread. Livestock keeping
livestock in these systems often rely, means that tends to be more sedentary. Grazing pressure
the animals produce large quantities of methane is more likely to be the factor influencing the
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extent of vegetation cover. In these circumstances, Central America and tropical South America that
overgrazing, along with cropping in fragile areas was forest in 2000 will be used for grazing by 2010
and excessive collection of fuelwood, can lead – meaning that two-thirds of land deforested in
to serious problems of soil erosion and loss of these areas is expected to be converted to pasture
biodiversity (FAO, 1996b). (ibid.). Further policy measures are required to
Problems are increasingly exacerbated by trends slow the expansion of the agricultural frontier
that restrict the mobility of pastoralists (see next and to promote more sustainable use of land that
subchapter). Inappropriate water developments is already being grazed. Packages of technologies
or the availability of subsidized grains for feeding (combining improved grazing management,
animals can also lead to situations in which genetics, animal health, etc.) need to be developed
livestock are retained for too long in a particular and promoted in order to enable livestock keepers
area, thereby preventing the normal regeneration to make productive use of their existing grazing
of the pasture. Another factor is the breakdown land. There is a growing interest in silvopastoral
of traditional arrangements for the management production, and in schemes that provide farmers
of access to common grazing lands. This can with payments for the provision of ecosystem
lead to a situation in which the contradiction services such as carbon sequestration, biodiversity
between private ownership of livestock and open conservation and watershed management
access to grazing land means that individual (FAO, 2006b).
livestock keepers will be motivated to graze extra The effects of inappropriate grazing can also
animals even though the combined outcome of be a concern in temperate countries – for example
their actions is the degradation of the pastures in dwarf shrub and woodland habitats. However,
(FAO, 1996a). managed grazing is increasingly viewed as an
Particularly in Latin America, the expansion of important tool for conservation. In the United
cattle ranching on planted pastures in humid areas Kingdom, for example, grazing is utilized to
has been an important driver of the destruction promote the biodiversity of species-rich grassland,
of rainforests, the most biodiverse ecosystems heath and wetland habitats (Harris, 2002). Some
on earth. In addition to the sheer scale of plant species thrive under grazing pressure, others
habitat loss, the fragmentation of the remaining are unable to survive in grazed habitats, while
forested areas also has serious consequences for others are able to thrive if grazing is avoided
biodiversity. Deforestation also releases billions during growing periods. As such, it is possible to
of tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere use managed grazing to control the distribution of
each year. plants in accordance with conservation objectives.
The problem has often been exacerbated by Patterns of livestock trampling and dunging also
policies, including: inappropriate road building affect the vegetation, and have to be considered
schemes in forest areas; tax policies and subsidies for conservation management. Unfortunately,
designed to promote beef production and the plants that the conservation manager wishes
exports; migration and colonization projects to control are not always the most palatable to
that shift poor populations to areas with low livestock. This problem can to some extent be
population density; and land titling schemes that overcome by utilizing the differential feeding
lead to the spread of livestock grazing as a cheap habits of different species and breeds. It is in this
and easy means of establishing ownership rights context that there is potentially an important
(ibid.). In many countries, subsidies promoting role for breeds that are not economically viable
the expansion of ranching have now been in conventional production. These breeds are
discontinued, but livestock production continues often well adapted to grazing and browsing poor
to be an important driver of deforestation. It is quality vegetation, and are able to thrive under
estimated that 24 million hectares of land in harsh environmental conditions and with low
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levels of management intervention. Conservation to the number of animals they keep on the
sites are diverse, and are often managed to communal land. Lack of infrastructure in these
provide a mosaic of habitats for wildlife. Grazing remote areas further contributes to the difficulty
requirements can, therefore, be very specific and of improving productivity through individual
benefits can be maximized if breed characteristics investments. Globally, these limitations are
are closely matched to these requirements. An reflected in the slow growth of meat production
interesting development in this respect is the from grassland systems compared, particularly, to
Grazing Animals Project5 in the United Kingdom, industrial systems (FAO, 1996a).
which provides breed-specific information on Though often remote, pastoralist production
grazing preferences along with other breed systems are not unaffected by macroscale economic,
characteristics relevant to conservation grazing political and social changes, and by technological
such as hardiness, husbandry requirements, and infrastructural developments. The increasing
interactions with the public, and marketability. globalization of trade, for example, may mean that
the marketing of products from pastoral systems is
3.3 Trends affected by competition from imported meat, or
As discussed in the previous subchapter, the by increasingly stringent hygiene requirements
sustainability of many grazing systems is (FAO, 2001c). Modern armed conflict, endemic in
threatened by pressure on natural resources, and many pastoral zones, disrupts herding activities
the disruption or abandonment of well-adapted and displaces populations. Motorized transport
traditional management practices. At the same enables those with the necessary resources to
time, large populations traditionally reliant rapidly move animals in search of grazing or to the
on subsistence-oriented livestock production, market, a situation which is increasingly common
continue to seek a livelihood from the rangelands. in the Near and Middle East region for example
In general, pastureland productivity has lagged (FAO, 1996b). As well as potentially disrupting
far behind that of cultivated areas, although traditional regimes for grazing management,
detailed estimates are difficult to make. A this development can affect demands for genetic
number of factors contribute to this trend. First, resources, reducing the desirability of traits such
intensification of pastures is often technically as walking ability, and promoting more market-
difficult and unprofitable. Constraints commonly oriented production objectives. Motorization
relate, to climatic conditions, topography, also means that the role of pack animals such as
shallow soils, acidity and disease pressure. The camels or donkeys declines in importance. The
difficult conditions that characterize pasturelands introduction of modern veterinary medicines
are exemplified by the pastoralist and agro- can promote the enlargement of herd sizes
pastoralist systems of the arid and semi-arid lands (FAO, 2001c), and may facilitate the introduction
of sub-Saharan Africa. These constraints could of exotic genetic resources less adapted to local
only be overcome by massive investments on disease challenges.
various fronts; piecemeal interventions will have A number of factors threaten the sustainability
no effect. Additionally, in much of Africa and Asia, of mobile pastoralist systems. The expansion of
most pastures are under common ownership, crop production into former grazing lands is one
which further complicates their intensification. threat – often driven by population growth in
Without firm institutional arrangements, private crop-producing systems (FAO, 1996b). Particularly
investments in these areas are difficult to organize disruptive is the spread of cropping into dry-
as returns accrue to individuals, in proportion season grazing areas, which form a key element
of mobile pastoralists’ grazing strategies. In
5
http://www.grazinganimalsproject.info/pilot1024. places, the development of irrigation schemes
php?detect=true
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also promotes the expansion of the cropped area or camels. Trends towards social differentiation
(FAO, 2001c). Moreover, among some pastoralist are also widespread – promoted by differential
communities the uptake of crop production is capacity to respond to the disruption of pastoral
increasingly common, as a response the growing systems, and to take advantage of policy and
insecurity of livestock-based livelihoods, and as a technological developments. Large-scale, often
by-product of sedentarization (Morris, 1988). absentee livestock owners on the one hand, and
There is, thus, a general shift away from destitute populations increasingly sedentarized
pastoralism towards agropastoralism (a rather around urban settlements, on the other, may no
ill-defined term describing production systems longer be able or willing to continue traditional
in semi-arid environments that combine crop pastoral livelihoods. Given that the livestock
and livestock production, but where livestock breeds of pastoral zones are not only adapted
are highly dependent on rangeland grazing). In to the natural environment, but have been
sub-Saharan Africa, for example, Thornton et al. developed to meet the needs and preferences of
(2002) predict a substantial shift from pastoral the local livestock keepers, such changes may have
to agropastoral systems over the next 50 years. substantial effects on the utilization of AnGR.
In mountainous areas of Asia, transhumant Having outlined trends towards the disappearance
migration routes are also increasingly disrupted of traditional mobile livestock production systems,
by the expansion of cropping (FAO, 2003). The some countervailing factors must be noted. It is
fencing of traditional grazing areas is also a increasingly recognized that “pastoralists remain
problem for livestock keepers in parts of the a resource, a system of producing meat and milk
Andes (see Box 102 in Part 4 – Section: F 6). cheaply in land that is otherwise hard to exploit”
Policies promoting sedentarization, the (FAO, 2001c). It is also recognized that appropriate
regularization of stocking rates or the development policies for the rangelands are
development of individual ranch-type farms also required if such systems are to survive or flourish
play a role (FAO, 1996b). Particularly in Africa, the (ibid.). Similarly, in many remote locations
establishment of wildlife reserves, motivated both prospects for the emergence of alternative sources
by conservation objectives and by the potential of income are limited, and seeking to scrape a
economic benefits from tourism, can exclude living from livestock keeping is likely to remain
pastoralists from their traditional grazing lands one of the few livelihood options available to local
(FAO, 2001c). School attendance and alternative populations (FAO, 2003). The expansion of crop
employment (e.g. involving migration to urban production may not always be sustainable in the
areas) may restrict the availability of labour long term, particularly where inappropriate water
for herding and increase the trend towards develoments have been implemented, and a swing
sedentarization (ibid.). back towards pastoral livestock keeping cannot be
While the significance of different driving ruled out in some places (FAO, 2001c). One part of
forces varies from place to place, the broad trend the world which has seen some recent return to
is towards greater numbers of people seeking more traditional grazing systems has been Central
to make a living from more restricted and often Asia, following the decline of collectivized farming
less well-managed grazing land. Under severe and the infrastructure established during the Soviet
pressure, herders may be forced to abandon era (ibid.).
pastoral livelihoods. There may be shifts in breed The extensive ranching systems of the Latin
or species utilization, as livestock keepers adapt America and the Caribbean region are also
to difficult circumstances. For example, as pasture facing changes. The subsidies which promoted
resources are depleted, herders may adapt, by the expansion of livestock ranching (often at
abandoning cattle in favour of small ruminants the expense of rainforests) have largely been
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discontinued (FAO, 2006b). Urban demand for threatened by the poor profitability of livestock
crop staples and an improved road infrastructure production in remote areas, lower-output breeds
promotes the expansion of mixed farming into are often well suited to alternative roles such as
grazing areas (FAO, 1996a). At the same time, conservation grazing, the production of speciality
increasing numbers of incentive measures are products, or forming part of an appealing rural
being put in place to promote the conservation landscape to attract the tourist.
of natural resources and the provision of
environmental services (FAO, 2006b). One
reflection of these developments is a growing 4 Mixed farming systems
interest in silvopastoral systems (ibid.).
Over the coming decades, grazing systems are
also likely to be affected by changing temperature 4.1 Overview
and rainfall patterns associated with global Crop–livestock production systems dominate
climate change. It is, of course, difficult to predict smallholder production throughout the
with great accuracy the impacts of climate change developing world. The system is particularly
on livestock production. However, changes to the dominant in the subhumid and humid tropics,
length of the growing period are expected to shift but mixed farming is also widespread in semi-
the boundaries of zones suitable for cropping. In arid, highland and temperate areas. The use of
sub-Saharan Africa, Thornton et al. (2002) predict land for mixed farming depends on the feasibility
that current mixed farming areas that will be more of rainfed crop production (Table 50) or, where
suitable for pastoral production by 2050 include quantity and distribution of rainfall does not
zones stretching in bands across the Sahel and the allow rainfed production, on the possibility of
Sudan, and across southern Angola and central irrigation.
Zimbabwe, as well as transition zones to lower The majority of the world’s ruminants are
elevations in Ethiopia. Conversely, some pastoral kept within crop–livestock systems: 68 percent of
lands, mainly in Kenya, the United Republic of the world’s cattle population, 66 percent of the
Tanzania and Ethiopia, are predicted to become sheep and goat population, and 100 percent of
suitable for mixed farming. Taken as a whole, the buffalo population. This translates into 68
however, the area of land in sub-Saharan African percent of beef and veal production, 100 percent
with a climate suitable for crop production is of buffalo meat production, 67 percent of sheep
predicted to decline (ibid.). Central parts of Asia and goat meat production, and 88 percent of
and North America, both areas where grazing milk production. Mixed systems also produce 57
systems are of major importance, are also predicted percent of pig meat production, 31 percent of
to be seriously affected by climate change poultry meat production, and 49 percent of egg
(Phillips, 2002). Increased frequency and severity production (Table 46).
of droughts is predicted to exacerbate pressures Many crop–livestock farming systems in
on dryland production systems (FAO, 2001c). developing countries are characterized by
In the temperate zones of developed countries, relatively low levels of external inputs, with
the functions of grazing systems are also changing. the products of one component of the system
Demands placed on the system increasingly relate being used as inputs for the other (Table 51).
to the provision of environmental services, and the Crop residues provide a source of feed for the
relative significance of animal production per se is animals, while the use of livestock manure helps
often in decline (FAO, 1996a). Policy concerns also to maintain soil fertility (Savadogo, 2000), and
relate to the provision of employment in remote, draught animals often provide a source of power.
often relatively poor, rural areas. While in some Livestock offer a means of intensifying crop
cases locally adapted livestock breeds may be production systems based on limited additional
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TABLE 50
Land with rainfed crop production potential
Land surface Land suitable for rainfed production
Total Proportion Total Proportion marginally

suitable for rainfed suitable
production
[million ha] [%] [million ha] [%]
Developing countries 7 302 38 2 782 10
Sub-Saharan Africa 2 287 45 1 031 10
Near East/North Africa 1 158 9 99 32
Latin America & the Caribbean 2 035 52 1 066 8
South Asia 421 52 220 5
East Asia 1 401 26 366 13
Industrial countries 3 248 27 874 20
Transition countries 2 305 22 497 18
World 13 400 31 4 188 13
Source: adapted from FAO (2002a).
TABLE 51
Main crop–animal interactions in crop-based livestock systems
Crop production Animal production
Crops provide a range of residues and by-products that can be utilized by Large ruminants provide power for operations such as land preparation
ruminants and non-ruminants. and for soil conservation practices.
Cropland left fallow or improved fallows (ley) and cover-crops growing Both ruminants and non-ruminants provide manure for the maintenance
under perennial tree crops can provide grazing for ruminants. and improvement of soil fertility. In many farming systems it is the only
source of nutrients for cropping. Manure can be applied to the land or,
as in Southeast Asia, to the water which is applied to vegetables whose
residues are used by non-ruminants.
Cropping systems such as alley-cropping can provide tree forage for The sale of animal products and the hiring out of draught animals can
ruminants. provide cash for the purchase of fertilizers and pesticides used in crop
production.
Animals grazing vegetation under tree crops can control weeds and
reduce the use of herbicides in farming systems.
Animals provide entry-points for the introduction of improved forages

into cropping systems as part of soil conservation strategies. Herbaceous
forages can be undersown in annual and perennial crops, and shrubs or
trees established as hedgerows in agroforestry-based cropping systems.
Source: adapted from Devendra et al. (1997).
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requirements for labour or expensive inputs. that grazing land becomes more important as a
The cycling of nutrients and limited use of non- source of feed. Animal traction is again common,
renewable resources results in a relatively benign and livestock contribute to enhancing the
impact on the environment. productivity of cropland by transferring nutrients
The traditional mixed farming systems of from rangelands in the form of manure. Fuel in
developing countries are home to many of the form of dung cakes is an important livestock
the world’s poor (Thornton et al. 2002). For product, particularly where fuelwood is scarce as
poor households, livestock provide a means of a result of deforestation. Under these conditions,
diversifying livelihood activities, are an asset to agropastoralist systems, which may involve
be sold to raise cash in times of need, and provide migration with the livestock away from croplands
a range of products for home consumption, as for parts of the year, are prevalent (Devendra et
well as the above-mentioned contributions to al., 2005). In some places agropastoral production
crop production. Purchased inputs in terms of is a long-standing traditional system. In other
veterinary care, feed or housing are limited. cases, however, agropastoralism has emerged
There is, however, great diversity in the world’s as pastoralists or settled farmers adapt their
mixed farming systems. In the temperate zones of livelihood activities in the face of changing
developed countries more intensive production circumstances (ibid.).
practices involving greater use of external inputs
and high-output livestock breeds have emerged. 4.2 Environmental issues
Production objectives largely focus on a single Mixed farming systems, if they are well managed,
product. Feeding livestock during the cold months are generally regarded as relatively benign in
of the year presents a challenge, and given high environmental terms. The use of draught animals
levels of demand for livestock products and the rather than mechanized cultivation, and limited
availability of high-yielding animals, cropland is use of external inputs reduces the need for the
often devoted to the production of specialized use of fossil fuels. The waste products of crop and
forage crops which are conserved for winter animal production are recycled through the other
feeding (FAO, 1996a). Conversely, in the mixed components of the system. The fertility of cropland
systems of the tropical highlands, livestock tend is maintained, and nutrients do not escape into
to have multiple functions, with the provision of ecosystems where they can act as pollutants. In
support services to cropping being very significant terms of biodiversity, smallholder mixed farming
(Abegaz, 2005). systems often support a greater diversity of trees
The humid and subhumid zones of the tropics and birds than are found in grazing systems. The
are demanding environments for livestock addition of manure to the soil also increases the
production. In addition to high temperatures and diversity of soil microflora and fauna. On the
humidity, the challenge presented by livestock other hand, heavy grazing pressure on areas
disease is often severe. In these environments, the adjacent to cropland can reduce biodiversity. The
dominant function of livestock is, again, often the development of cultivation can also lead to the
provision of inputs to crop production. fragmentation of wildlife habitats.
In drier environments, crop production Sustainable mixed farming systems are often
becomes increasingly difficult and risk-prone. under threat – leading to greater environmental
Livestock acquire a more significant role relative concerns. The system is affected both by changes
to cropping in the provision of products for sale in demand, and by interactions with the natural
or home consumption, and offer a means of resource base on which livestock production
diversifying livelihoods against the risk of crop depends. The key issue is often one of nutrient
failure. Limited availability of crop residues means balance (FAO, 1996b). At one end of the spectrum,
172
high levels of demand for livestock products can such as meat or milk. Moreover, there is a trend
outstrip the productive capacity of traditional towards separation of crop production and
mixed agriculture, and lead to a shift towards animal production, with monogastric animals in
specialized production. Artificial fertilizers come particular increasingly concentrated in landless
to replace manure, tractors replace animal power, systems. In this context, traditional livestock
and high-yielding crop varieties produce less breeds, adapted to harsh conditions or to
residue with which to feed livestock. Livestock multiple purposes, decline in popularity and may
and crop production become increasingly become threatened with extinction. There are,
separated. In such circumstances, the cycling of however, some factors that indicate the continued
nutrients between crops and animals becomes relevance of crop–livestock farming in resource-
problematic, and excess nutrients may escape rich conditions. In the Netherlands, for example,
into neighbouring ecosystems. mixed farming is being “rediscovered” as a way
In contrast, in more isolated areas, mixed to better recycle nutrients (Bos, 2002; Van Keulen
farming systems can enter a downwards spiral of and Schiere, 2005). In other areas, such as in the
fertility decline. As population density increases, central plains of the United States of America,
the ratio of grazing to cropland decreases, keeping livestock within the cropping system
thereby decreasing the availability of nutrients is typically a means to mitigate risk (Schiere et
transferred from pastureland. Crop yields tend to al., 2004).
decline, leading to further expansion of cropping As described above, many parts of the
and greater competition for land. The use of developing world are experiencing very rapid
draught animals may facilitate the expansion of increases in demand for livestock products.
cropping, thus exacerbating the problems. Larger Pressure to meet this demand leads to the
numbers of livestock grazing a more restricted growth of landless systems at the expense of
area of pastureland leads to further losses of traditional mixed farming. In areas of rapid
fertility and soil erosion. In the absence of income economic growth, the creation of alternative
sources to support conservation practices and employment opportunities may also contribute
maintain soil fertility, a negative cycle can ensue to a departure from traditional labour-intensive
– a situation referred to as the “involution” of the forms of agriculture. Rising demand for milk
farming system (FAO, 1998). products in many developing countries has led
to the development of a commercially oriented
4.3 Trends smallholder dairy sector focused on urban
Among the factors which influence the markets. These systems tend to require higher
development of mixed farming systems are levels of external inputs than traditional mixed
demand for livestock products and the availability farming systems, and often involve the use of
and costs of inputs. Economic growth in developed exotic breeds or cross-bred animals.
countries has led to high levels of demand for However, in locations where access to expanding
meat and dairy products and has made available markets is limited, notably in parts of sub-Saharan
a range of inputs which increase yields from Africa, impacts associated with the “livestock
livestock production. This has resulted in a revolution” are far less marked. As well as an
trend in the temperate mixed farming systems, absence of market demand for livestock products,
particularly of Europe and North America, remote areas often face limited access to inputs
towards larger-scale more mechanized agriculture and services. Moreover, requirements for multiple
with greater use of purchased feed, veterinary livestock functions remain strong, and restrict the
inputs and housing. Livestock production tends development of more commercialized production.
increasingly to be specialized in a single product
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PART 2
In addition to shifts in demand, changes in shifts in the distribution of mixed farming systems.
mixed farming systems are brought about by Climate change along with associated changes
pressures on resources. This pressure can result in in the distribution of pests and disease may also
changes to feed management practices and the lead to changes within mixed production systems,
relationship between animal and crop production. associated with shifts in the types of crops grown
Population growth in areas where alternative or livestock kept.
employment opportunities are few tends to lead
to the expansion of croplands and a restriction
in the amount of communal pastureland 5 Issues in mixed irrigated
available for grazing animals. Restrictions on systems
the availability of grazing often mean increased
dependence on on-farm crop residues as livestock Although the immediate impact of irrigation
feed. As landholdings decrease in size, livestock is on the crop component of the system, the
are increasingly confined, and there is greater use conditions for livestock production also tend to
of external sources of feed such as cut-and-carried be different in a number of respects from those
fodder. Combined with the increased levels of in rainfed areas. Irrigation reduces the variation
demand described above, these developments in the output obtained from crop farming, and
can lead to increasing reliance on purchased extends the cropping season in areas where the
feed inputs including concentrates in the form growing period is otherwise limited by a lack
of grains or agro-industrial by-products. In these of rainfall. Both land use and the economics
circumstances the mixed system evolves towards of crop production are affected. In turn, the
landless production. inputs (particularly feed) available for animal
Increasing availability of alternatives to replace production, as well as the roles of livestock within
the traditional functions of livestock within mixed the production system are affected, and this has
farming systems has significant implications for a knock-on effect on all aspects of production
AnGR diversity. Mechanized power is expanding including the management of AnGR.
and in many places is leading to a decline in the Irrigated mixed farming systems are not
importance of draught animals. This development widespread in temperate zones or in the tropical
tends to affect the choice of cattle breeds, and highlands, but are found in Mediterranean
reduces the role of species kept largely for countries and in some temperate zones in East
draught purposes such as horses and donkeys. Asia (FAO, 1996a). Irrigated rice production is
The trend is mediated by factors such as fuel widespread in the densely populated mixed
prices, and the decline in the role of draught farming areas of humid/subhumid Asia. Draught
animals is far from universal. Animal traction is power is of particular importance in these systems
increasing in importance in parts of Africa where as there is a need to rapidly prepare land for the
it has been previously restricted by heavy soils next cropping cycle. In Southeast and East Asia, the
and the presence of tsetse flies. Increasing use of swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalus carabanesis) has
inorganic fertilizer also reduces the importance traditionally been the main draught animal, but its
of livestock as a source of manure. Other livestock role is increasingly threatened by mechanization.
functions such as savings and transport also Limited opportunities for grazing on crop stubble
decline in significance where alternatives such as means that buffaloes and cattle are normally
financial services and motorized vehicles become fed on cut-and-carried fodder, particularly straw.
widely available. The contribution of crop residues as a source of
As noted in the discussion of trends in grazing fodder may, however, be threatened by the use
systems, climate change is likely to result in some of crops that emphasize grain production over
174
straw, such as the high-yielding rice varieties with the disposal of surplus water which may be
widely used in these systems. Pigs and poultry contaminated with excess nutrients or pesticides
are often kept under scavenging conditions with (FAO, 1997). Paddy fields are also a source of
some supplementary feeding (FAO, 2001a), and methane emissions (FAO, 1996a). However, these
provide a means of utilizing waste food and problems are not specifically related to the
agricultural by-products. Free ranging ducks may livestock components of the system.
be kept on paddy fields where they feed on left- At present in developing countries, irrigated
over rice, insects and other invertebrates. agriculture, which takes up about a fifth of all
The availability of irrigation makes year-round arable land, accounts for 40 percent of all crop
cropping possible in arid/semi-arid zones. In some production and almost 60 percent of cereal
dry areas (in Israel for example) very high levels of production (Table 52). Projections for crop
output are obtained from dairy cows kept under production in the period up to 2030 suggest an
intensive management in mixed irrigated systems increasing importance for irrigated agriculture. It
(FAO, 1996a). Elsewhere, notably in India, mixed is predicted that it will account for a third of the
irrigated systems (often in semi-arid zones) support total projected increase in arable land, and for
large numbers of commercially oriented dairy over 70 percent of the projected increase in cereal
smallholders, often keeping buffaloes or cross- production.
bred cows. Nutritional demands are high in these In the densely populated rice systems of
systems and there is often a shortage of quality Asia, there is little scope for expansion of the
feed. Irrigated fodder production has, therefore, area used for irrigated cultivation. Farm sizes
become increasingly significant. For the small-scale are becoming smaller, and even intensified
farmer, the less variable crop production made rice production is often insufficient to ensure a
possible by irrigation may reduce the significance livelihood from the land (FAO, 2001a). In these
of livestock’s role as a buffer against crop failure circumstances, diversification into activities such
(Shah, 2005). Areas dominated by large-scale as fish farming or intensive livestock production
irrigated production of cash crops (e.g. in parts may be the only alternatives to greater reliance
of the Near and Middle East) also often support on off-farm employment or migration to urban
substantial populations of cattle, buffaloes and areas (ibid.). Integrated systems such as the rice/
small ruminants (FAO, 2001a). vegetables/pigs/ducks/fish systems of Thailand
Mixed irrigated systems have some specific (Devendra et al., 2005) may offer scope for
environmental problems – related, for example, intensification.
to waterlogging or salinization of soils, the In some other parts of the world, there are
effects of dam building, and problems associated greater opportunities for the expansion of
TABLE 52
Share of irrigated production in total crop production of developing countries
Share % All crops Cereals

Arable land Harvested land Production Harvested land Production
Share in 1997-1999 21 29 40 39 59
Share in 2030 22 32 47 44 64
Share in increment 33 47 57 75 73
1997-1999–2030

Note: Apart from some major crops in some countries, there are only very limited data on irrigated land by crops and the results
presented in the table are almost entirely based on expert judgment.
175
PART 2
irrigation. However, the sustainability of expanded

irrigation may be threatened by inappropriate
use of water resources. As described above, there
can be adverse environmental effects if irrigation
is not carefully managed. Moreover, water use
has been growing at more than twice the rate of
population increase during the past century, and
chronic water shortages affect many parts of the
world including much of the Near and Middle
East, Mexico, Pakistan and large parts of India
and China (UN Water, 2006). Irrigated agriculture
is usually the first sector to be affected by water
shortages. It is increasingly recognized that the
large-scale “mining” of ground water which
occurs in many countries is not sustainable in the
long term (ibid.). Conflicts over access to water
can arise both at the local level, and between
countries, for example where rivers flow across
international borders.
176
Section C
Implications of
the changes in the livestock
sector for genetic diversity
In land-based livestock production systems, in turn, is the most industrialized of all forms of
livestock species and breeds have been selected livestock production, and large-scale production
for a wide range of criteria including adaptive is now widespread in many developing countries.
traits related to a variety of environmental Dairy production is also increasingly reliant on
challenges. By removing environmental stresses, a limited number of breeds. The trend is most
industrial systems allow a focus on a narrower advanced in developed countries. In most parts
range of selection criteria. Industrial systems are of the developing world, dairying is dominated
characterized by the standardization of production by small-scale producers, but in peri-urban areas
and by a high degree of control over production the use of exotic or cross-bred animals to supply
conditions. These systems are also highly expanding urban markets is increasing. As well as
specialized: they optimize production parameters being driven by demand, such changes may also
with regard to a single or reduced number of be promoted by improvements in the availability
outputs. The animal genetic requirements of of animal health provision and other services and
industrial systems are thus characterized by: technologies, which allow the keeping of animals
• less demand for species and breeds adapted less adapted to local production conditions.
to local environments; Industrial systems and the associated private
• less demand for disease resistance or breeding companies have the resources to develop
tolerance as animal are raised in closed breeds that match their requirements. They have
systems and farmers rely on intensive use of developed highly specialized breeds, which enable
veterinary inputs; them to maximize productivity in the context of
• more demand for efficiency, and especially current consumer requirements and resource costs.
feed conversion ratio, to maximize benefit As a consequence, substantial erosion of breeds has
per animal place (in industrial systems, feed already occurred in developed countries, where
typically represents 60 to 80 percent of livestock production has been industrialized for
production costs); and three or four decades (see Part1 – Section B).
• more demand for quality traits due However, in the medium or long term, breed
to consumer demand and technical selection criteria in industrial systems may have
requirements related to standardization, to be revised. At present, industrial production
size, fat content, colour, flavour, etc. takes place in a context that is characterized by
The industrialization of livestock production low input prices (e.g. grain, energy and water);
is most advanced in the pig and poultry sectors. locally deficient environmental and public health
Particularly in Europe, North America and policies; and in developing countries, a generally
Australia, pork production is highly industrialized, low level of public concern about the conditions
and a few transnational breeding companies in which animals are reared. As public policies are
dominate production chains. The poultry sector, put in place to adjust the price of resources to
177
PART 2
reflect their social costs, and consumers become If wider markets are to be accessed, meat and
more interested in agro-ecological and welfare milk production from these systems will have
aspects of animal production, the economic to meet the quality standards required by the
context may change. consumers. Achieving these objectives while
In parallel to the development of industrial improving productivity traits, and maintaining
systems, low to medium external input production multifunctionality and adaptation to local
systems persist, particularly where there is no environments, is a challenge. In this context,
strong economic growth, or where the resources local livestock genetic diversity is likely to be
and support services required for industrialization a key resource to be drawn upon. The basis for
are lacking. These conditions are found in areas evaluating individual animal performance should
with harsher environmental conditions (e.g. include criteria such as lifetime productivity
drylands, mountains or cold areas), or in rural (e.g. number of offspring per female), economic
areas with poor connection to centres of demand. returns from the herd or flock (as opposed to
In these circumstances, production systems individual performance), and biological efficiency
continue to deliver a wide range of outputs to (output/input). In essence, recommendations for
local communities, and livestock usually have breed development will be of little value if they
multiple purposes (see Part 1 – Section D). Livestock do not take account of the specific environment
keeping is often intimately linked to traditional in which the animals are expected to perform.
ways of life and culture, particularly in pastoral The specific environment is a combination of
systems. As such, low to medium external input climate, availability of feed resources, and disease
production systems have specific requirements challenge on the one hand, and the degree of
for AnGR. They rely on native breeds, or in some management control of these conditions on the
cases, on cross-breeds or composite breeds that other. Moreover, socio-economic and cultural
contain genetic material from local breeds. factors also affect choices regarding species,
Despite their adaptation to the production breeds, products and product quality. The
environment, the AnGR associated with resulting variety of situations gives rise to the
grazing and mixed farming systems face need for a large range of breeds.
substantial threats. Problems are often driven Even in developed countries, or developing
by inappropriate livestock development policies. countries with strong economic growth and a well-
Moreover, in a context of population growth and developed infrastructure, traditional, extensive
climate change, small-scale grassland-based and production continues to supply informal markets and
mixed production systems face increasing pressure niche markets, such as local food specialities, high-
on resources, which may threaten the associated quality products and organic food. An example of the
AnGR. For example, shortages of feed resources persistence of a local informal market can be found
may lead to a shift towards keeping sheep and in Thailand, where it is estimated that 20 percent
goats rather than large ruminants, or to the use of poultry production will remain independent
of donkeys rather than oxen for draught power. of large operators. Organic farms in Europe and
To make the systems sustainable, their efficiency other parts of the world are characterized by a high
needs to be improved, especially with regard to integration between crops and animals, the use of
the use of land and water resources. Moreover, limited chemical inputs, and often by the use of
efforts are likely to be necessary to enhance the typical native breeds. The production philosophy
production of marketable livestock products as a generally does not allow for scaling-up, which
source of income, which in turn may facilitate the is also constrained by the low volumes – in 2003,
investments needed to improve the productivity organic milk and eggs represented only 1.5 percent
and sustainability of the systems (e.g. soil and 1.3 percent respectively of overall production
conservation measures). in the European Union.
178
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& D. Lloyd, eds. New directions for a diverse planet.
implications for crop management and genetic im-
Proceedings for the 4th International Crop Science
provement strategies, a review paper. Experimental
Congress, Brisbane, Australia, 26 September –
Agriculture, 40: 277– 94.
1 October 2004.
Schiere, J.B., Thys, E., Matthys, F., Rischkowsky, B. &
Waters-Bayer, A. 1996. Animal farming in African cities.
Schiere, J.J. 2006b. Chapter 12: Livestock keeping
African Urban Quarterly, 11: 218–226.
in urbanised areas, does history repeat itself? In R.
Van Veenhuizen, ed. Cities farming for the future: Zhou, Z.Y., Wu, Y.R. & Tian, W.M. 2003. Food con-
urban agriculture for green and productive cities, pp. sumption in rural China: Preliminary results from
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182
Part 3
THE STATE OF
CAPACITIES IN ANIMAL
GENETIC RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT
PART 3
Introduction
This part of the Report analyses countries’ capacities in the management of animal
genetic resources for food and agriculture (AnGR), based on the information provided in
the Country Reports. The analysis highlights regional differences, and identifies specific
weaknesses; thus informing the identification of strategic priorities for action. The
analytical approach varies from section to section according to the nature and the depth
of the information provided in the Country Reports. It is important to recognize that the
analysis presented here is based on Country Reports that were received by FAO between
2002 and 2005 (the majority being submitted in 2003 and 2004) and may, therefore not
present a full picture of the state of capacity in 2007.
The first section presents an analysis the state of human and institutional capacity
for AnGR management. This is followed by sections describing the state of structured
breeding programmes, conservation programmes, and the use of reproductive and
molecular biotechnologies. The final section covers the regulatory framework affecting
AnGR. Legal frameworks at the country level need to be considered in the context
of international and regional frameworks. Thus, the analysis of legislation and policy
measures at the national level is preceded by an overview of relevant international
legal instruments; and a discussion of regional-level legislation (mainly focusing on the
European Union). Because of the increasing attention given to patenting in the discussion
of policies for AnGR management this issue is introduced separately.
THE STATE OF C A PAC I T I ES I N A N I MAL GENE T I C RESOU RC ES MA N AGEMEN T
Section A
Institutions and stakeholders
1 Introduction
The implementation of measures to enhance the identification and empowering of National

the conservation and sustainable use of AnGR is Coordinators (NCs) and National Consultative
highly dependent on the existence of a sound Committees (NCCs) for AnGR. The preparatory
institutional framework. Strong human capacity meetings which took place as part of the SoW-
is also essential. A prerequisite for institutional AnGR process also provided a forum for discussion
development and capacity-building in the field among stakeholders at the regional level.
of AnGR management is, however, recognition of The following chapters summarize the state of
the importance of the issue. A further challenge capacities, institutions and institutional networks
is posed by the fact that the diverse stakeholders in the field of AnGR. The analysis is primarily based
involved in the field have many different on countries’ own assessments of the situation
backgrounds and motivations, and may have as provided in the Country Reports. A brief
conflicting interests. description of the methodology used to analyse
Institutional roles and capacities have to be the Country Reports and the other sources used is
considered in the context of the driving forces first presented. Assessments of various aspects of
that influence their development. In broad terms, institutional capacity to manage AnGR are then
the institutions involved in the management of set out. The section ends with a discussion of the
AnGR are shaped by the evolving requirements main potentials and constraints identified.
of the livestock sector and changing policy
concerns. In addition to these general trends,
a number of specific influences have affected 2 Analytical framework
the development of institutional capacity over
the last decade. These include the Convention The aim of the analysis was to provide an inventory
on Biological Diversity (CBD), which provides and assessment of human and institutional
the main international legal framework for the capacities for the management of AnGR at the
management of biodiversity. The significance of national, subregional, regional and international
the World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements levels.
was also mentioned in many Country Reports. At the country level, the following factors were
Furthermore, the State of the World’s Animal considered:
Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture • Stakeholders’ involvement in the
(SoW-AnGR) reporting process has affected preparation of the Country Report, along
institutional development at the country level with their involvement in the field of AnGR,
through the preparation of Country Reports and their background/history and their group
187
PART 3
membership. The following categories 2.2 Assessment of institutional

were used to classify group membership: capacities at country level
governmental organization; farmer/ The institutional assessment was entirely based
herder association; interest organization on the information provided in the Country
(conservation); commerce/private company; Reports. The Guidelines for the Development
research/science; development organization; of Country Reports suggested that one chapter
donors; breeding association; extension should provide information on “Country capacity
service; insemination organization/ to manage AnGR”. This section was intended to
association; international organization include institutional infrastructures and human
(governmental); international organization resources. To facilitate consistent reporting, a
(non-governmental). number of predefined tables were provided:
• Institutional assessment – including the • Table 4.6 – detailing the role of stakeholders
following thematic areas: infrastructure/ (national government, regional/local
capacities for the management of AnGR; government, breeders’ organizations,
participation of stakeholders at local private companies, research organizations,
level; research capacities; (indigenous) NGOs) in the implementation of tools for
knowledge of AnGR; level of awareness of the development of AnGR (setting breeding
AnGR management; existing or proposed goals, individual animal identification,
laws and programmes; and the degree of recording, artificial insemination (AI),
implementation of development policy for genetic evaluation);
AnGR. • Table 4.7 – detailing the involvement of
At the subregional, regional and international the various stakeholders in thematic areas
levels, organizations and networks were related to the development of AnGR
identified. (legislation, breeding/genetic improvement,
infrastructure, human resources and
2.1 Stakeholders’ involvement and producers’ organizations);
background at country level • Table 4.8 – detailing the preferences of
For the purposes of the analysis, stakeholder the various stakeholders with respect to
participation in the SoW-AnGR process at the different types of AnGR (locally adapted
country level was taken as a proxy for the breeds, breeds imported from within the
existence of established relationships between region, imported exotic breeds);
stakeholders and the officially appointed national • Table 4.9 – detailing priority needs
institutions for AnGR management. Besides (knowledge, training, financial resources,
the information given in the Country Reports breeding organizations) for the use of
(e.g. on NCC membership and composition, and technologies (recording, genetic evaluation,
on actors involved in the preparation of the AI/embryo transfer (ET), molecular
Country Report or in activities related to AnGR), techniques).
additional information on stakeholders and their Where available, the information provided in
backgrounds was obtained from FAO’s DAD-IS these tables was used for the analysis presented
information system and through additional Web- here. However, only 38 percent of countries
based research. utilized the tables. For this reason, an analytical
framework which also drew on other sections of
the Country Reports was developed. The variation
in the level of detail presented in the reports was
high, and placed some limitation on the scope for
188
TABLE 53
Sources of information (Country Report sections) for the national-level assessments
Thematic area Part I: Part II: Part III: Part IV: Part V: Part VI: Annex:
Overview Changing State of Identifying International How the Predefined
demands, national national cooperation Country tables
policies, capacities, priorities Report was prepared for
strategies, assessing future prepared stakeholder
programmes capacity involvement,
building priorities, etc.
requirements
Infrastructure/
capacities
• • • • • •
Participation of
stakeholders at
• • • •
local/regional level
Research
• • •
Knowledge
• • •
Awareness of topic
• • • • •
Laws, political
programmes
• • • • •
Degree of
implementation
• • • •
See the Annex to this section for explanation.
quantitative analysis. The sections of the Country “+++” for the category in question) is equal to
Reports that were used as sources of information 1 (or 100 percent) and the minimum score (if all
for each thematic area assessed are shown in the countries in a subregion or region scored
Table 53. “0” for the category in question) is equal to 0.
For each thematic area in the institutional The average scores the regions achieved in the
assessment, a score was awarded according institutional assessments are shown in Figure 43
to the level of activity/capacity in the country (the scores for the subregions are shown in
in question. Countries were scored 0 (none), the tables in the Annex to this section). The
+ (little), ++ (medium) or +++ (high). Scores for different thematic areas were arranged on a scale
each thematic area were assigned subjectively ranging from basic/organizational capacities
taking into account criteria such as Country to strategic capacities for AnGR management.
Report descriptions of the state of capacity, For example, low scores in the assessment of
tabulated information (if available), and reported infrastructure indicate a need for action at a basic
priority needs (see details in the Notes to Annex or organizational level, while a high score for
Table 53). The proportion of countries scoring at implementation of laws and political programmes
0, +, and ++/+++ in the institutional assessments is indicates existing activities at a strategic level. This
presented for each subregion. aggregation allows the identification of specific
The individual country scores in each thematic weaknesses of subregions or regions with respect
area of the institutional assessment were to their institutional capacities. Comparison with
aggregated to characterize the subregional/ the country assessments allows the identification
regional situation. The maximum score (achieved of countries with the potential to play a leading
if all the countries in a subregion or region scored role in the respective regions or subregions.
189
PART 3
2.3 Organizations and networks with involved. Institutions of the National Agricultural
a potential role in regional and Research Systems (NARS) played a leading role in
international collaboration the process, and were actively involved in nearly all
In most Country Reports, some information on NCCs and Country Report preparation processes.
cooperation was presented. Additional Web-based In 44 percent of countries, the host institution of
research was used to obtain further information the NC was a national research institute. However,
on stakeholders and their backgrounds at many Country Reports note with regret that these
subregional, regional and international levels. institutes are rarely involved in AnGR-related
Further sources of information used for the analysis studies, and interest in this topic is often limited to
of institutional structures, and the identification isolated departments which lack adequate financial
of stakeholders and networks at these levels, were resources. Moreover, where research institutions
reports from international (governmental and do pay more attention to AnGR, the work is usually
non-governmental) organizations received as part rather narrow in focus, concentrating on high-
of the SoW-AnGR process, and information from output breeds or advanced technical matters.
the regional and subregional e-mail consultations In 37 percent of countries NGOs (mostly
organized by FAO in late 2005. breeders’ associations) participated in the NCC. The
involvement of NGOs was more prominent in South
America and western Europe. This is in accordance
3 Stakeholders, institutions, with the high number of such organizations existing
capacities and structures in these parts of the world. In other regions and
countries, conditions for the involvement of these
stakeholders were less favourable. In some cases,
3.1 Stakeholder involvement in the individual farmers or herders were members of
State of the World process at the NCC, but information on their organizational
country level backgrounds is not available.
The results presented in this subchapter are The commercial sector was rarely included. It
intended to indicate the extent to which established is noted in the Country Reports that commercial
relationships exist between the officially appointed operators are highly active in the use of AnGR, and
country-level institutions for AnGR management are often well organized even at the international
and the various stakeholders involved in the field. level – most notably in the poultry and pig sectors.
Stakeholder participation in the SoW-AnGR process However, many Country Reports from all regions
is used as a proxy measure of such involvement. For indicate that the involvement of these stakeholders
the preparation of the Country Reports, countries in national programmes for the conservation
were encouraged to involve all stakeholders of AnGR is difficult, as their interest is limited to
– governmental and non-governmental (e.g. breeding programmes relevant to the breeds used
breeders’ associations), as well as the commercial in commercial production. Central Asia and the
sector. In addition to the nomination of an NC, eastern part of the Europe and the Caucasus region
the establishment of a supporting structure, were exceptions to this pattern. Here, stakeholders
such as a National Consultative Committee (NCC) from the commercial sector were more often
representing all stakeholders was recommended, involved in the NCCs. This may be because of the
and was implemented in most countries. transitional state of many countries in this part
The pattern of participation by various of the world – recent privatization means that
stakeholder groups in the process varied little from stronger links remain between governmental and
country to country. Individuals from governmental quasi-commercial stakeholders.
and scientific backgrounds were the most often
190
3.2 Assessment of institutional from the countries of the former Soviet Union,
capacities at country and regional southeastern Europe, and CR Cuba (2003). Table
level 54 shows the state of country-level infrastructure
and participation based on the Country Report
Participation, infrastructure and capacities analysis. Particularly in the North and West
As the utilization and in situ conservation of Africa subregion, in the Southwest Pacific, and
AnGR usually takes place at the local level, in Central Asia, the Country Reports indicate
considerable participation by non-governmental that the present state of infrastructure and
stakeholders, such as breeding organizations or capacities is very low or non-existent (+ or 0).
the private sector in general, in policy processes For example, 33 percent of countries in Central
relating to AnGR might be expected. However, Asia scored 0 for the state of infrastructure
this is not borne out by the majority of the and capacities. However, countries with more
Country Reports analysed. Such organizations favourable conditions (++/+++), such as Australia
have the potential to compensate for weak in the Southwest Pacific, can be identified.
state structures (such as exist, for example, in These countries have the potential to take on a
many countries in Africa and the former Soviet facilitating role in their respective regions.
Union), and to take over key roles in activities NGOs’ limited integration in the policy arena
such as inventory and in situ conservation. CR and in the preparation of the Country Reports can
Czech Republic (2003), CR Spain (2004) and CR be interpreted as a sign of limited organizational
Germany (2003), for example, refer to the role capacity at the country level (NGOs simply do
of so-called “neo-rurales” or “hobby farmers” in not exist), or as a sign of a lack of mechanisms
AnGR management. to involve NGOs in such processes. In nearly all
A strong local-level capacity (e.g. clearly countries (87 percent), no institutional structures
defined and well monitored responsibilities for apart from the NCC, exist for the comprehensive
local stakeholders, and the integration of local coordination of activities related to AnGR. The
organizations in the national policy arena) could importance of the NCC is emphasized by the
be identified mostly in western and northern countries as well as by the Intergovernmental
Europe and, to a lesser extent, in Central and Technical Working Group on AnGR (ITWG–
South America. Reports from transition countries AnGR) and other stakeholders involved in policy
emphasize a need for stronger integration of processes. Nonetheless, the operation of the NCCs
the private sector in order to take advantage of has not in all cases been sustainable. A survey
the above-mentioned potential to compensate in 2004 (FAO, 2004) found that 65 percent of
for the weakness of the state sector in the fields NCCs were active at the time. The results of the
of inventory and monitoring. However, in many FAO regional e-mail consultations held in late
countries an established infrastructure exists 2005 (and also the low level of participation in
in the shape of governmental structures such these activities) suggested that this figure had
as extension services, which extend down to further decreased. In some countries, even the NC
the local level. This infrastructure and capacity is no longer active. This is frequently the result
may offer opportunities for better inventory of a lack of resources, which in turn often results
and monitoring, and for further integration from a lack of awareness of the subject.
and support of AnGR-related activities at the
local level. Some Country Reports remark that
infrastructure at a high technical level exists,
but is not used because of a shortage of trained
personnel, financial difficulties or political
crises – see for example the Country Reports
191
PART 3
TABLE 54
Institutional assessment – infrastructure, capacities and participation
Region Infrastructure/capacities Participation of local/regional level

[% of countries] [% of countries]
n* 0** + ++/+++ 0 + ++/+++
Africa
North & West Africa 24 29 63 8 71 25 4
East Africa 7 14 57 29 29 71 0
Southern Africa 11 18 64 18 46 36 18
Asia
Central Asia 6 33 67 0 83 17 0
East Asia 4 0 50 50 25 25 50
South Asia 7 0 43 57 14 57 29
Southeast Asia 8 13 63 25 38 63 0
Southwest Pacific 11 27 64 9 73 18 9
Europe & the Caucasus 39 10 21 69 13 18 69
Latin America & the Caribbean
Caribbean 3 0 33 67 0 67 33
Central America 9 11 67 22 44 33 22
South America 10 0 30 70 0 70 30
North America 2 0 0 100 0 0 100
Near & Middle East 7 0 86 14 43 57 0
* n = number of Country Reports included in the analysis; ** 0 = none, + = little, ++/+++ = middle/high.
Research and knowledge policy level, where further awareness-building

In many countries, capacity is lacking not only in is required to generate higher levels of support
organizational terms, but also at technical and to the field of AnGR management (including in
educational levels. Capacity-building is prioritized financial terms). The state and accessibility of
in most Country Reports. In many countries, there knowledge regarding the value and utilization of
are national research institutions for the livestock AnGR is also often described as very weak.
sector in general, but there is little specialization Table 55 shows the state of research and
in the field of AnGR use and conservation. This is knowledge in the countries analysed. Some
reflected by the fact that many of those working countries have the potential to play an initiating
in the field were trained in other fields (e.g. as or supporting role within a subregion or region
veterinarians) and had to go abroad for further (e.g. Japan and China in Asia). To realize these
education or specialization in AnGR. University potential benefits, more cooperation among
livestock departments rarely offer specialized the NARS and other research institutions is
training in the management of AnGR. necessary. The need for increased cooperation is
Even where advanced technologies are particularly recognized in Country Reports from
available, research often remains isolated Latin American countries (e.g. CR Argentina
or remote from local needs and indigenous 2003; CR Colombia, 2003; CR Costa Rica, 2004;
knowledge. It is also not well linked to the CR El Salvador; 2003 and CR Uruguay, 2003) and
192
TABLE 55
Institutional assessment – research and knowledge
Region Research Knowledge

[% of countries] [% of countries]
n* 0** + ++/+++ 0 + ++/+++
Africa
North & West Africa 24 46 42 13 42 46 13
East Africa 7 29 43 29 29 57 14
Southern Africa 11 27 73 0 46 55 0
Asia
Central Asia 6 17 83 0 33 67 0
East Asia 4 0 25 75 0 25 75
South Asia 7 14 29 57 14 71 14
Southeast Asia 8 25 50 25 50 25 25
Southwest Pacific 11 36 55 9 55 36 9
Europe & the Caucasus 39 5 31 64 5 28 67
Caribbean 3 33 0 67 0 33 67
Central America 9 0 78 22 22 56 22
South America 10 0 30 70 0 50 50
North America 2 0 0 100 0 0 100
Near & Middle East 7 14 71 14 14 71 14
* n = number of Country Reports included in the analysis; ** 0 = none, +=little, ++/+++ = middle/high.
many express a willingness to engage to a greater that many Country Reports describe the degree
extent in coordinated activities. of awareness as very low. This is mirrored by the
Developing countries in particular express an state of policies and programmes, and by their
urgent need for technical assistance. This is most degree of implementation. Although awareness
often expressed in the context of the need for an is growing among some stakeholders, this has
increase in livestock production by means such as rarely filtered through to the policy level, as can
the use of imported high-output breeds. be seen from the very low numbers of policies that
have been implemented to date. Most laws that
State of policy development: awareness, laws have been implemented are in the field of animal
and political programmes and their degree of health, and only a few are related to breeding
implementation programmes or policies for the conservation of
Awareness of the value of animal genetic diversity AnGR.
is essential to raising the political profile of the
topic, and bringing about appropriate institutional
change. In most countries, much remains to
be done if these goals are to be achieved. The
situation is illustrated in Table 56, which shows
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PART 3
TABLE 56
Institutional assessment – state of policy development
Region Awareness of topic Laws, political Degree of implementation

[% of countries] programmes [% of countries]
[% of countries]
n* 0** + ++/+++ 0 + ++/+++ 0 + ++/+++
Africa
North & West Africa 24 33 54 13 71 25 4 83 13 4
East Africa 7 14 57 29 71 14 14 100 0 0
Southern Africa 11 36 55 9 55 36 9 55 46 0
Asia
Central Asia 6 33 67 0 50 50 0 83 17 0
East Asia 4 0 50 50 0 50 50 25 25 50
South Asia 7 14 29 57 14 57 29 43 43 14
Southeast Asia 8 50 25 25 50 25 25 50 25 25
Southwest Pacific 11 73 18 9 55 36 9 73 18 9
Europe & the Caucasus 39 8 23 69 10 26 64 13 33 54
Caribbean 3 0 33 67 33 33 33 67 0 33
Central America 9 22 56 22 33 44 22 67 11 22
South America 10 0 50 50 10 50 40 30 20 50
North America 2 0 0 100 0 50 50 0 0 100
Near & Middle East 7 14 71 14 14 86 0 29 71 0
* n = number of Country Reports included in the analysis; ** 0 = none, + = little, ++/+++ = middle/high.
As, in many regions, institutional and to overcome structural or financial obstacles at

organizational structures remain poorly national level was often expressed.
developed, further awareness building at national
and regional levels will depend on the personal Regional aggregation of institutional
engagement and networking of individuals or assessments
isolated departments. Furthermore, to create Figure 43 presents a regional comparison of the
more awareness of the subject at the policy level, state of institutions related to the management
a crucial challenge is to highlight the need for an of AnGR. The country scores are aggregated at
appropriate balance between immediate demands regional (Figure 43) and subregional levels (Annex
for high-output breeds and the need to conserve Figures 44 to 46) to identify regions and subregions
genetic diversity. Many Country Reports, as well with more or less favourable conditions. The
as the results of the regional e-mail consultations, figures also allow the identification of specific
indicate the difficulties that stakeholders face in thematic areas where further support is needed
overcoming their isolation and in communicating in each region.
arguments in favour of conservation in the policy
arena, as these arguments relate to a long-term
perspective. The need for international assistance
194
FIGURE 43
State of institutions – regional comparison
0.9
0.8
0.7
Scores (aggregated)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Infrastructure/ Participation Research Knowledge Awareness Laws, political Degree of
capacities of local/regional of topic programmes implementation
level
Africa Europe & the Caucasus North America Southwest Pacific

Asia Latin America & the Caribbean Near & Middle East
basic / organizational / operational level strategic level
As the figure shows, only in North America, which also stress the regional character of these
Europe and the Caucasus, and to some extent resources. However much remains to be done
Latin America and the Caribbean, is there a in these countries, as illustrated by the scores of
sound base for strategic action. Particularly in 0.38 and 0.27 achieved by the region for the state
North America and western Europe, much action of laws and programmes, and the state of their
has already been undertaken with regard to implementation, respectively.
policy formulation and implementation (for more Some differences within regions should also
details of European Union (EU) legislation see be noted. In Europe and the Caucasus, many
Section E: 3.2). In contrast, in Africa, the Near and countries from the eastern part of the region are
Middle East, and the Southwest Pacific weaknesses relatively weak at the strategic level, and also
are evident not only at the strategic level, but also with respect to the basic, organizational and
at the basic, operational and organizational levels. operational levels. The subregions of Asia are also
Awareness of the value of AnGR and biological quite heterogeneous, with East Asia achieving
diversity in general is expressed strongly in many higher scores in all thematic areas than the other
reports from Latin America and the Caribbean, Asian subregions. Country Reports from the East
195
PART 3
Africa subregion indicate that awareness of the 2003). Networks with a focus on AnGR exist in and
topic is growing – which should provide a base for between East and Southern Africa. However, no
future action at the strategic level. concrete networks are mentioned for North and
Comparing the status of individual countries West Africa, which is a heterogeneous subregion
(Annex Table 58) with the averages for the regions with a long history of conflicts. In South and
and subregions may help to identify countries with Central America, there is a basic network structure
potential to play a facilitating role at regional or which also involves Spain. The two North American
subregional level. Such suggestions on the basis of countries report cooperation with Latin America
Country Reports written over a period of several and the Caribbean, but no specific networks are
years (the first being received by FAO in 2002) mentioned.
have to be considered with care, as circumstances The basis of many networks is research – one
may have changed and new opportunities or new element of which is research related to AnGR.
constraints may have arisen. Nevertheless, it is This is reflected in the few concrete proposals
evident that some countries are in a favourable for further international networking given in
position to play a facilitating role. For example, the Country Reports. Where such proposals
Australia offered, during the e-mail consultation, are put forward, (e.g. CR Argentina, 2003; CR
to support the implementation of regional Uruguay, 2003; and CR Japan, 2003), they mainly
cooperation networks. South Africa has offered relate to the establishment of subregional “centres
laboratory capacity for the Southern Africa of expertise” covering fields such as research or
subregion, as has Malawi. Similarly, there may be training on specific breeds or methodologies.
potential for North African countries to assist with Networks that are exclusively built for AnGR
AnGR-related research in West African countries. management are rare. Moreover, there are only a
Japan has played a leading role – financing a limited number of networks and organizations that
cooperative project in Asia. focus on the subject or that have related activities
and programmes. Examples include the European
3.3 Organizations and networks with Association for Animal Production (EAAP), the
a potential role in subregional, SAVE Foundation (Safeguard for Agricultural
regional and international Varieties in Europe), the Inter-Governmental
collaboration Authority on Development (IGAD), the Southern
African Development Community (SADC) and
Subregional and regional organizations and the Southern African Centre for Cooperation
networks in Agriculture and Natural Resources Research
This subchapter gives an overview of networks and and Training (SACCAR). However, some other
organizations at subregional and regional levels networks are mentioned in the Country Reports
mentioned in the Country Reports and during the as being relevant to livestock development. Most
regional e-mail consultations (Table 57). The current frequently these are economic networks1. Such
state of networks for the management of AnGR is organizations provide a platform for networking
varied across the regions and subregions. In Europe in the field of AnGR.
and the Caucasus, networks at governmental and
1
non-governmental level exist, but in other regions For example: the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR)
the situation is less favourable. In Central Asia, in Latin America; the Economic and Monetary Community of
Central Africa (CEMAC) in Africa; the Caribbean Community and
no networks are mentioned. This is explained in
Common Market (CARICOM) in the Caribbean; D-8 as a body for
the Country Reports from this subregion by the development cooperation among Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia,
breakdown of structures following the collapse of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan and
the Soviet Union (see, for example, CR Kyrgyzstan, Turkey; and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) with its
Agricultural Technical Cooperation Working Group (ATCWG).
196
TABLE 57
Organizations and networks that play or may play a role in animal genetic resources management at
regional/subregional level
Networks/Organizations
Region Name Description
Africa ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute) Research and training, CGIAR centre
North & West Africa IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, ex- Research projects and scientific programmes on relations
OSTROM) between humans and environment in the tropics
CIRDES (Centre International de Recherche-Développement Regional research centre, focusing on epidemiological
sur l’Elevage en Zone Subhumide) research and the application of new biotechnologies
CIRAD (Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche French research institute for agricultural research in the
Agronomique pour le Développement) service of developing countries and French overseas
departments
ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in Research and training, CGIAR centre
the Dry Areas)
ACSAD (The Arab Center for Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Centre for agricultural research and development, within
Lands) the frame of the League of Arab States
East Africa ASARECA (The Association for Strengthening Agricultural Agricultural research network
Research in Eastern and Central Africa)
IGAD (Intergovernmental Authority on Development) Regional cooperation for overall development, was created
as the Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and
Development (IGADD)
Southern Africa SADC (Southern African Development Community) Development community, was a party to a UNDP/FAO
project on AnGR management
SACCAR (Southern African Center for Cooperation in Agricultural research and training network, active at the
Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Training) policy level
Asia
Central Asia
East Asia
South Asia SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) Subregional cooperation platform to enhance economic
growth, social progress and cultural development
Southeast Asia ASEAN(Association of Southeast Asian Nations) Subregional cooperation platform to enhance economic
growth, social progress and cultural development
ARCBC (ASEAN Regional Center for Biodiversity Centre for exchange of knowledge, an intergovernmental
Conservation) organization of ASEAN
ILRI Research and training, CGIAR centre
Europe & EAAP (European Association for Animal Production) Organization for animal production
the Caucasus
DAGENE (Danubian Alliance for Gene Conservation in NGO active in AnGR conservation
Animal Species)
Nordic Genebank Genebank
SAVE (Safeguard for Agricultural Varieties in Europe) Umbrella organization for NGOs working on conservation
of biodiversity in agriculture
• continues
197
PART 3
TABLE 57 cont.
Organizations and networks that play or may play a role in animal genetic resources management at
regional/subregional level
Networks/Organizations
Region Name Description
Latin America & IICA (Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Regional cooperation for rural development
the Caribbean Agriculture)
ILRI, CIAT (International Center for Tropical Agriculture) Research and training, CGIAR centres
ALPA (Latin-American Association for Animal Production) Professional organization
FIRC (International Federation of Creole Breeds) or Ibero-American Federation of Criollo Breeds

IberoAmerican Federation of Autochthonous and Creole
Breeds
CYTED (Red XII-H: Ibero-American Network) Network for AnGR, research and training
Caribbean CARDI (Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Subregional agricultural research and development institute
Institute)
South America
Central America
Near & Middle East ACSAD (Arab Center for Studies of the Arid Zones and Dry Centre for agricultural research and development, within
Lands) the frame of the League of Arab States
AOAD (Arab Organization for Agricultural Development) Development, research, training and reporting in food and
agriculture in Arab states
ICARDA Research and training, CGIAR centre
Southwest Pacific SPC (Secretariat of the Pacific Community) Regional cooperation for development
Asia/North America/ ATCWG (Agriculture Technical Cooperation Working Group) Forum for exchange of information between technical
Southwest Pacific Part of APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) and scientific experts, e.g. on biotechnology, conservation
of genetic resources, pest management and sustainable
agriculture
Source: Country Reports and e-mail consultations.
It should be noted that there is a growing different organizations/networks play in AnGR

awareness of the value of AnGR arising from management or of their concrete activities.
the globalization process, international trade in Furthermore, other networks exist that are not
animals and animal products, and the world trade mentioned in the Country Reports2. Thus, the
agreements (see for, example, CR Cuba, 2003; CR available information only provides a starting
India 2004; CR Malaysia, 2003; CR Switzerland,
2002; CR Tonga, 2005 and CR Zambia, 2003). These 2
For example in Africa the two agricultural research and
developments, as the Country Reports indicate, development networks: FARA (Forum for Agricultural Research
in Africa) and CORAF/WECARD (Conseil Ouest et Centre
have increased motivation to build networks
Africain pour la Recherche et le Développement Agricole/ West
related to animal production, but have not yet and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and
led to concrete action specifically for AnGR. Development), were not mentioned by any African Country
Another point to be stressed is the varying Report. Another example of an institution not mentioned in the
Country Reports is the Centre International de Hautes Etudes
degree of activity of the few networks that
Agronomiques Méditerranéennes (CIHEAM), which conducted an
do exist. The Country Reports do not give advanced training course on conservation and management of
much indication of the actual role which the AnGR in 2003.
198
point for identifying organizations and networks Committee for Animal Recording (ICAR) or the
that have potential for coordinating future International Bull Evaluation Service (INTERBULL)
actions. are also named as global players in the Country
Cooperation should be a logical consequence Reports. NGOs such as Rare Breeds International
of shared resources. The Country Reports often (RBI) and the League for Pastoral People (LPP)
mention regional cooperation as a necessity and can play an important role in awareness-
express a willingness to participate. However, building at local, national and international
there are few examples of concrete activities. A levels. However, their impact (including that of
variety of historical factors probably contribute their training activities) is limited as a result of
to the lack of cooperation in certain subregions. a lack of financial and human resources. As part
The Country Reports from some southeast of the SoW-AnGR process, intergovernmental
European countries provide examples of the and non-governmental organizations were
problems faced. International organizations and asked to indicate their involvement in the field
networks can play a facilitating or mediating role of AnGR. However, response to the invitation
in cases where bilateral or regional cooperation is was limited. Reports were received from four
hindered by such factors. international non-governmental organizations,
Nearly all regions lack key stakeholders with the three intergovernmental organizations, and
capacity to host a Regional Focal Point (RFP) for two research organizations. A further three
AnGR management. Currently, only the European organizations stated that, as yet, they were not
Regional Focal Point is functioning. The former undertaking any activities related to AnGR. A
RFP in the Asia region is no longer active. A few summary table showing the responses received
potential host organizations are mentioned in the from these organizations is included in the
Country Reports or were mentioned during the Annex to this section (Table 61), and the reports
regional e-mail consultations. For example, in the are available in the Annex to the SoW-AnGR
East Africa subregion, ASARECA (Association for (attached CD-ROM). This low level of response
Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern may indicate that awareness of AnGR is lacking
and Central Africa) and IGAD are mentioned, not only in national agendas, but also at the
while SADC and SACCAR are mentioned in the international level.
Southern Africa subregion. The institutions of the Consultative Group
on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)
International organizations and networks play a central role in research and training
Besides FAO’s global network of NCs and other activities at the international level. The centres
stakeholders (along with the discussion forum with programmes of research on AnGR are the
DAD-Net3), no international networks specialized International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)
in AnGR management exist. However, some and the International Center for Agricultural
organizations dealing with livestock development Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). The System-
have incorporated some aspects of AnGR wide Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP), based
management into their agendas. The World at the International Plant Genetic Resources
Association of Animal Production (WAAP) and its Institute (IPGRI), links the genetic resources
various member organizations is an example of an programmes and activities of all the centres of the
existing international network, although it has not CGIAR – covering the crop, livestock, forest and
yet achieved worldwide coverage. Organizations aquatic sectors. Surprisingly, the CGIAR centres do
covering specific aspects of AnGR management not feature prominently in the Country Reports.
(e.g. animal recording), such as the International They are mentioned as strategic players, but a lack
of connection to national needs and structures is
3
E-mail: [email protected] mentioned by some countries.
199
PART 3
In nearly all Country Reports from developing System (DAD-IS) and ILRI’s Domestic Animal
countries or countries in transition, a strong Genetic Resource Information System (DAGRIS) are
demand for a genebank for ex situ conservation is highlighted in nearly half of the Country Reports
expressed. The CGIAR centres, under the auspices as useful tools for information management,
of FAO, maintain the “International Network even though they still need further improvement
of Ex situ Collections” together with the CGIAR (cf. Australian contribution in regional e-mail
System-wide Information Network for Genetic consultation; CR Malaysia, 2003). For a system
Resources (SINGER), which has focused to date like DAD-IS, the interactivity of the database4
on plant genetic resources. It is mentioned in the is of great importance, as it gives ownership to
report contributed by the CGIAR to the SoW-AnGR the data contributors. The significance of such
process that: “ILRI in collaboration with relevant interactive systems, therefore, relates not only
international and national agencies is developing to the management of data, but also to the
an active programme aiming to conserve AnGR, process of motivation and awareness-building.
with a focus on in situ conservation, but also Efforts have been made to achieve harmonization
looking into the role of other approaches to between European and FAO-managed global
conservation, such as ex situ in vivo and in vitro.” databases (see Box 69). Another existing resource
Advances in technology, reductions in costs and is the Agro Web, an Internet portal with more
changing pressures on diversity mean that a than 25 participating countries in Europe and the
reassessment is needed of the role of in vitro Caucasus. However, at the time of this analysis,
technology as a means of conserving AnGR. not all member countries had updated their
It can be argued that even though the pages, and this portal is not mentioned in any
international research and development Country Report.
institutions are active in the field of AnGR, there
is urgent need for further investment. This is
underlined by a report prepared for the Science
Council of the CGIAR:
“The needs for future CGIAR activities in FanGR
[farm animal genetic resources] identified
throughout this report focus more on filling
particular urgent needs rather than obtaining
a better balance of activities across the broad
spectrum of characterisation, conservation and
utilisation. Examples, ... include: a substantial
commitment and clear role in development
of policy and regulatory frameworks for
management of farm animal genetic resources; 4
DAD-IS:3 is part of a global network of stand alone information
a detailed assessment and possible active role systems. The network allows FAO’s DAD-IS to be linked to regional
in in vitro conservation of farm animal genetic databases – such as EFABIS (European Farm Animal Biodiversity
resources; a clear and focused program on Information System), successor to EAAP–AGDB (European
Association of Animal Production – Animal Genetic Data Bank)
sustainable methods of genetic improvement
at http://efabis.tzv.fal.de/ – and in turn to national databases in
of farm animal genetic resources” (Gibson and individual countries. The global network enables the automatic
Pullin, 2005, p. 37). propagation of public data to all databases in the network
Additionally, a strong demand for regional – enhancing communication and the availability of information
at all levels. Individual countries have the option to establish their
and international information networks and
own national Web-based information systems, into which the
databases is expressed in the Country Reports. country’s AnGR related information can be entered. Alternatively,
FAO’s Domestic Animal Diversity Information countries can make use of the global or regional systems.
200
4 Conclusions
The analysis, which was primarily based on the for investment in AnGR management in the policy
countries’ own assessments, shows that in most arena. The commercial sector, which would often
parts of the world the institutional and structural have the financial means to support conservation
situation at national, regional and international activities, is difficult to integrate into programmes
levels is not always supportive for the sustainable for the management of AnGR. For example, few
use and conservation of AnGR. AnGR are not a countries achieved the inclusion of commercial
priority topic in most national, regional and stakeholders in NCCs or in the preparation of
international policy arenas. The relevance of AnGR the Country Reports. This does not seem to be a
to food security and poverty alleviation is not fully case of conflicting interests, but simply of a lack
recognized, and this is reflected in the low level of of shared interests. The objectives of commercial
awareness of the subject in many countries, and operators tend to be short-term profitability,
by its limited presence on international agendas and their interests centre on the limited range
and in the work of international organizations. of livestock breeds that can achieve high levels
Opportunities to specialize in conservation or of output in large-scale production units. If
utilization of AnGR have been limited, and the greater integration of the commercial sector is
prominence of the topic is only slowly increasing to be achieved, there is a need to demonstrate
in the curricula of universities and research the relevance of publicly sponsored conservation
centres. This is reflected in the backgrounds of activities in terms of enhancing profitability and
many of those working in the field. Adequate providing insurance in the longer term. A potential
infrastructure and technical resources are also area of cooperation could be for private sector AI
needed for effective management of AnGR, but companies to share “low-value” cryoconserved
are often lacking or not used. Research seems genetic material that they have in their keeping
sporadic and isolated from policy processes. with national programmes.
Legal structures, policies and development In many countries there also seems to be a lack
programmes with a focus on AnGR are of national NGOs interested and active in AnGR
often lacking, as are basic institutions for management. Where such organizations exist, for
characterization, inventory and monitoring, example in India5, they were often not present in
and structures for national and international the NCCs or involved in the preparation of Country
cooperation. Even where networks for cooperation Reports, and are not involved in reporting on the
exist, there is frequently a need for further efforts state of AnGR diversity. Only in Europe, North
to vitalize them or to establish new structures for America, South America and Australia is the
cooperation. involvement of NGOs more prominent. In some
The reasons for this situation are manifold. The countries, national rare breed societies make an
Country Reports and the results of the regional important contribution to conservation efforts.
e-mail consultations indicate that an emphasis However, it is clear that further efforts need to
on technical education, and the short-term be undertaken, both at the country level and
perspective of livestock sector policies focused by the international community, to strengthen
on the immediate need to increase output, are stakeholder involvement in AnGR management.
contributing factors. The benefits accruing from
investment in AnGR conservation and utilization
are often only to be achieved in the long term, 5
In India there are several NGOs such as ANTHRA (a trust of
and are associated with a degree of uncertainty. women veterinary scientists), LPPS (Lokhit Pashu-Palak Sansthan)
It is, therefore, difficult to communicate the need and SEVA.
201
PART 3
Ex situ conservation is cost-intensive, and in

Box 23
most countries cannot be undertaken without
Suggestions for strengthening
international support. The central problem for in
national structures
situ conservation is the heterogeneity of the users
of AnGR and the fragile state of the production Where possible, National Coordinators (NCs)
systems under which many threatened breeds should be made full-time professionals dedicated
are managed. For example, CR Czech Republic to the management of AnGR. They would, thus, be
(2003)6 and CR Bulgaria (2004) report that local able to allocate sufficient time to the coordination
breeds considered to be of low productivity are of activities at the country level, and to close
increasingly kept only by older farmers. When the cooperation with relevant stakeholders. Adequate
working lives of these farmers end, the keeping of financial resources should be provided for the work
these breeds will also end unless steps are taken of the NCs. Experience in some countries indicates
to promote their continued use. In countries that funding is improved when AnGR management is
where cattle are largely kept by herders practising mainstreamed within the hosting institution’s annual
mobile husbandry, changing economic, ecological work plans and agendas. Other key stakeholders,
and political conditions threaten the herders’ such as breeding companies, research and training
livelihoods and, thereby, restrict opportunities organizations, NGOs and representatives of
for the implementation of in situ conservation community organizations, are also potential sources
measures. Establishing an institutional of funds. Such opportunities will, of course, differ
environment able to respond to such problems is from country to country.
difficult even at the national level, and presents As well as financial support, NCs need to be
a greater challenge at international level. These supported by well-organized national structures with
arguments underline the need for international clearly defined functions and roles. The necessary
cooperation to overcome structural or financial technical expertise to implement these functions
obstacles at the national level. Consequently, needs be in place. The regional and the global
there is an urgent need for functioning national focal points may provide support in this respect,
and regional structures to support sustainable use but training to strengthen human resources at the
and conservation of AnGR. country level is frequently an important priority.
The NCCs, which were established during the Efforts should be made to increase awareness of
preparation process of Country Reports, are a the importance of AnGR at government level. The
means of supporting the work of the NCs. The inclusion of priority actions for AnGR management
committees should be maintained and/or further within governments’ action plans for poverty
developed as a mechanism for the involvement alleviation and food security is a means to facilitate
of all stakeholders and the organization of closer cooperation between NCs and other ministries.
coordinated action. The establishment of focal
points in the regions and subregions is a further Source: extracted from S. Moyo (2004). Strengthening
national structures for the management of farm animal
important step in coordinating cross-border
genetic resources – (contributions from a National
activities. Strong regional and subregional Coordinator). Working Document written for FAO.
networks supported by development partners
are important to ensure ongoing improvements
in capacities and institutions for AnGR
6
Following the development of the Country Report, the Czech
Republic amended its Breeding Act to reflect AnGR issues
particularly to implement a monitoring system and reaction
mechanism which is based on a subsidy system.
202
management. However, such networks are still References

not well developed, and cooperation is hindered
not only by a lack of awareness of the subject, but
also by a lack of settled relations between some
countries.
In the field of research and knowledge, the
NARS are key players at the country level. The FAO. 2004. Strengthening national structures for the
Country Reports note a lack of links between the management of farm animal genetic resources
NARS and the CGIAR centres, which is a further – results of a questionnaire survey. Commission on
important structural gap. Moreover, AnGR is Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Tenth
still not prioritized in the activities of the NARS Session, Rome, 8–12 November 2004.
or the CGIAR, and further awareness-building is Gibson, J. & Pullin, R. 2005. Conservation of Livestock
needed. The same is true for the international and Fish Genetic Resources: joint report of two
donor community. As, particularly in developing studies commissioned by the CGIAR Science Council.
countries, the infrastructure (e.g. for inventory Rome. CGIAR Science Council Secretariat. (Available
and monitoring of AnGR) is weak, further at www.sciencecouncil.cgiar.org/activities/spps/pubs/
engagement of the donor community is needed. AnFiGR%20study%20report.pdf).
The Country Reports and the regional e-mail
consultations, however, indicate that the SoW-
AnGR preparation process has given rise to
developments in the field of AnGR management.
Awareness, the key to policy and institutional
change, is growing in most countries, and new
networks are being created.
203
PART 3
Annex
Notes to Table 53
List of criteria taken into account to assign scores to each thematic are:
Infrastructure and capacities Knowledge

• State as described in the Country Reports. • State and efficiency of AnGR-related
• State as detailed in Table 4.7 of the Country extension services as described in the
Reports (see Section A: 2 for description of Country Reports.
the contents of this table). • State and accessibility of (indigenous)
knowledge as described in the Country
Participation of stakeholders at local/regional Reports.
level • Priority needs as described in Table 4.9 of
• State as described in the Country Reports. the Country Reports (see Section A: 2 for
• Existing mechanisms for participation and description of the contents of these tables).
integration of stakeholders; participation
in the preparation of the Country Reports, Awareness
in the NCC or other structures (who has • State as described in the Country Reports
which role and what authority), degree (priorities, policy focus).
of organization, and influence in policy • Role of various stakeholders with respect to
setting. legislation (Table 4.7 of the Country Reports
• Existence of decentralized or centralized – see Section A: 2 for details of this table).
structures (as mentioned in the Country
Reports). Laws and political programmes
• Number and state of laws, programmes
Research as described in the Country Reports
• State of research as described in the Country (chapter on legal situation, institutions and
Reports (capacities, number of institutions, programmes).
grade of specialization in AnGR, priorities,
research focus in the country). Degree of implementation
• Role/relevance of research related to • Degree of implementation of laws and
varying aspects of AnGR as described in programmes as described in the Country
Tables 4.6 – 4.9 of the Country Reports (see Reports (chapter on legal situation,
Section A: 2 for description of the contents institutions, and programmes).
of these tables).
• Participation of research institutions in the
NCC, in report writing, and in other existing
national/international structures.
204
FIGURE 44
State of institutions – subregional comparison within Africa
0.9
North & West Africa
0.8 East Africa
Southern Africa
0.7
Scores (aggregated)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
level
FIGURE 45
State of institutions – subregional comparison within Asia
0.9
Central Asia
0.8
East Asia
0.7 South Asia

Southeast Asia
Scores (aggregated)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
level
205
PART 3
FIGURE 46
State of institutions – subregional comparisons within Latin America and the Caribbean
0.9
0.8 Caribbean
Central America
0.7 South America
0.6
Scores (aggregated)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Infrastructure/ Participation of Research Knowledge Awareness of Laws, political Degree of
capacities local/regional topic programmes implementation
level
206
TABLE 58
Institutional assessment at country level
Subregion/ Research Knowledge Awareness Infrastructure/ Participation Laws, Degree of

Country of topic capacities of local / political implementation
regional level programmes
North & West Africa
Algeria + ++ + + 0 0 0
Benin 0 0 0 + + 0 0
Burkina Faso + + 0 + 0 0 0
Cameroon + + ++ + 0 0 +
Cape Verde 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Central African 0 0 + + + + 0
Republic
Chad 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Congo + + + + 0 0 0
Côte d’Ivoire + + ++ + + ++ ++
Democratic Republic 0 0 0 ++ 0 0 0
of the Congo
Equatorial Guinea 0 0 + 0 0 0 0
Gabon 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gambia 0 + + + 0 0 0
Ghana + + + + ++ + 0
Guinea + + + + 0 0 0
Guinea-Bissau 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mali + + + + 0 + 0
Mauritania 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Niger ++ ++ ++ + + +
Nigeria + + + 0 + +
Sao Tome and 0 0 + 0 0 0 0

Principe
Senegal + + + + + + 0
Togo + + + + + 0 0
Tunisia ++ + + 0 0 0
207
PART 3
TABLE 58 cont.

regional programmes
level
East Africa
Burundi 0* 0* + 0* 0* 0* 0
Eritrea 0 + 0 + + 0 0
Ethiopia + + +++ + + 0 0
Kenya ++ ++ + +++ + + 0
Rwanda + 0 + + 0 0 0
Uganda + + ++ + + ++ 0
United Republic ++ + + ++ + 0 0
of Tanzania
Southern Africa
Angola + 0 0 + 0 0 0
Comoros 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Botswana + + ++ ++ ++ + +
Lesotho 0 0 + + ++ + +
Madagascar + + + + 0 ++ +
Malawi + + + + + + +
Mauritius + 0 0 + + + +
Mozambique + + + + + 0 0
Swaziland + + + ++ + 0 0
Zambia + + + 0 0 0 0
Zimbabwe 0 0 0 + 0 0 0
*The figures presented in this table are based on analysis of the information presented in Country Reports received by FAO between
2002 and 2005. The situation in some countries may have changed subsequent to the submission of the Country Report. After countries
were given the opportunity to review the first draft SoW-AnGR in December 2006/January 2007, Burundi indicated that the current
situation in the country would be better represented if 0 were replaced by + in these columns.
208
TABLE 58 cont.
regional programmes
level
Central Asia
Iran (Islamic + + + 0 0 + 0
Republic of)
Kazakhstan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kyrgyzstan + + + + 0 + 0
Tajikistan + + + + + 0 0
Turkmenistan + 0 + + 0 0 0
Uzbekistan + + 0 + 0 + +
East Asia
China +++ +++ +++ +++ 0 +++ +++
Japan +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++
Mongolia ++ ++ + + ++ + +
Republic of Korea + + + + + + 0
South Asia
Bangladesh ++ ++ ++ + + + +
Bhutan ++ + ++ ++ ++ ++ +
India ++ + ++ +++ + ++ ++
Maldives 0 0 0 + 0 0 0
Nepal + + ++ + + + 0
Pakistan ++ + + ++ + + 0
Southeast Asia
Cambodia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Indonesia + + + + + + +
Lao People’s + 0 0 + + 0 0
Democratic
Republic
Malaysia ++ ++ ++ ++ + ++ ++
Myanmar + 0 0 + 0 0 0
Papua New 0 0 0 + 0 0 0
Guinea
Philippines + + + + + + +
Viet Nam ++ ++ +++ ++ + ++ ++
209
PART 3
TABLE 58 cont.
Region/Country Research Knowledge Awareness Infrastructure/ Participation Laws, Degree of

of topic capacities of local / political implementation
Europe & the Caucasus
Albania + + + + 0 + +
Armenia + + + + + + +
Azerbaijan 0 + ++ + + + +
Bulgaria ++ ++ ++ ++ + ++ +
Belgium +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++
Belarus + ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Bosnia and 0 0 0 + + 0 0
Herzegovina
Croatia ++ ++ +* +* +* +* +
Cyprus + + 0 0 0 0 0
Czech Republic ++ ++ +++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Denmark ++ ++ +++ +++ ++ ++ ++
Estonia ++ ++ + ++ ++ ++ +
Finland +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++
France +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++
Georgia + + 0 0 0 0 0
Germany +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
Greece ++ + ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Hungary ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Iceland + + ++ ++ ++ ++ +
Ireland ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
*The figures presented in this table are based on analysis of the information presented in Country Reports received by FAO
between 2002 and 2005. The situation in some countries may have changed subsequent to the submission of the Country Report.
After countries were given the opportunity to review the first draft SoW-AnGR in December 2006/January 2007, Croatia indicated that
the current situation in the country would be better represented if + were replaced by ++ in these columns.
210
TABLE 58 cont.
Region/Country Research Knowledge Awareness Infrastructure/ Participation Laws, Degree of

of topic capacities of local / political implementation
Europe & the Caucasus
Latvia + + ++ ++ ++ + +
Lithuania ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ +
Moldova + 0 + 0 0 + 0
Netherlands +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +++
Norway +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
Portugal +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++
Poland + ++ + ++ ++ + +
Romania + + + + ++ + +
Russian ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Federation
Serbia and + + + + + + +
Montenegro
Slovakia ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Slovenia +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++ ++
Spain +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++
Sweden +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
Switzerland +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
The former + + + 0 0 0 0
Yugoslav Republic
of Macedonia
Turkey ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Ukraine ++ ++ ++ + + + +
United Kingdom ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
211
PART 3
TABLE 58 cont.

regional programmes
level
Caribbean
Barbados 0 + + + + + 0
Jamaica ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ ++ ++
Trinidad and ++ ++ ++ ++ + 0 0
Tobago
Central America
Costa Rica ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ + ++
Cuba + + + + + ++ +
Dominican + + + + 0 + 0
Republic
El Salvador + 0 + + 0 0 0
Guatemala + + + + + + 0
Haiti + 0 0 0 0 0 0
Honduras + + 0 + 0 0 0
Mexico ++ ++ +++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Nicaragua + + + + + + 0
South America
Argentina ++ + + ++ + + +
Bolivia + + + + + 0 0
Brazil +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++
Chile ++ ++ ++ +++ + ++ ++
Peru ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Colombia ++ ++ + ++ + + ++
Ecuador + + + + ++ + 0
Paraguay + + + + + + 0
Uruguay ++ ++ ++ ++ + ++ ++
Venezuela ++ + ++ ++ + + +
(Bolivarian
Republic of)
212
TABLE 58 cont.
Region/ Research Knowledge Awareness of Infrastructure/ Participation Laws, Degree of

Country topic capacities of local / political implementation
North America
Canada ++* ++ ++ ++* ++ + ++*
United States +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ +++

of America
Near & Middle East
Egypt +++ ++ ++ ++ + + +
Iraq + + + + 0 + +
Jordan + + + + + + +
Lebanon
Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya
Oman 0 0 0 + 0 0 0
Sudan + + + + 0 + 0
Syrian Arab + + + + + + +
Republic
Southwest Pacific
Australia +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++
Cook Islands + + 0 + 0 + 0
Fiji + + 0 + 0 + +
Kiribati + 0 0 + 0 + +
Northern 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mariana
Islands
Palau 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Samoa + + + + + + 0
Solomon + + 0 + + 0 0
Tuvalu + 0 0 + 0 0 0
Tonga 0 0 + 0 0 0 0
Vanuatu 0 0 0 + 0 0 0
*The figures presented in this table are based on analysis of the information presented in Country Reports received by FAO
between 2002 and 2005. The situation in some countries may have changed subsequent to the submission of the Country Report.
After countries were given the opportunity to review the first draft SoW-AnGR in December 2006/January 2007, Canada indicated that
the current situation in the country would be better represented if ++ were replaced by +++ in these columns.
213
PART 3
TABLE 59
List of international organizations and reports on their activities
Organizations Type of response
International Society for Animal Genetics (ISAG)/FAO advisory group on Report on Activities, March 2005.
animal genetic diversity
Safeguard for Agricultural Varieties in Europe (SAVE) Foundation Brief Portrait, April 2004.
League for Pastoral Peoples Report on Activities, November 2004.
The Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Zaragoza (IAMZ) Report on Training Activities, January 2005.
World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) Presentation to the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture, 10th Session, November 2004.
European Association for Animal Production (EAAP) Report of the Working Group on Animal Genetic Resources (EAAP-WG-
AGR), February 2005.
D8 Countries Report on Animal Genetic Resources in the D-8 Countries – Strategic

Priorities for Action;
and Reports on Seminars on Conservation of Farm Animal Genetic
Resources.
Arab Center for the Studies of Arid zones and Dry lands (ACSAD) Report on Activities, December 2004.
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Report, Section I: Description of the CGIAR Institutes and Programmes,
Centres May 2004.
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Indicated that they had some activities, but did not send a report.
International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation (CIC) Indicated that they had some activities, but did not send a report.
Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel (Sahara and Sahel Observatory OSS) Indicated that they had no activities in the field of AnGR management.
Commonwealth Secretariat, Special Advisory Services Division Indicated that they had no activities in the field of AnGR management.
Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES) of the European Indicated that they had no activities in the field of AnGR management.
Commission’s Joint Research Centre
214
Section B
Structured breeding
programmes
1 Introduction
This section presents a review and analysis of breeds under conservation programmes than
breeding programmes based on the information to the main breeding programmes. The quality
provided in the Country Reports. Country priorities of the information and the degree of detail
with respect to species and breeding objectives presented are, thus, very variable. Information
are first set out, followed by details of the about objectives and the scale of the active
organizational structures and tools used. Regional breeding population is not provided in many
descriptions of the state of breeding programmes Country Reports, and in several cases it is difficult
for the various species are then presented. The to conclude whether the reported breeding
review ends with some general conclusions programmes are actually being implemented, are
about the state of breeding programmes in the planned, or are historical events. Collecting more
countries considered. detailed information through further requests
Breeding programmes are here defined to the countries concerned was not considered
as systematic and structured programmes to feasible in the time available.
change the genetic composition of a population About 70 countries submitted information
based on objective performance criteria. Pure- about breeding activities utilizing pre-defined
breeding is defined as breeding activities within tables. In the following discussion these countries
a specified breed, and cross-breeding as the are referred to as the “subsample countries” (see
systematic or unsystematic combination of two Annex Table 67). These countries provided data
or more breeds. Breeding activities conducted by on the total number of breeds, and the number
individuals or small informal groups of breeders of breeds for which there are specified breeding
are not considered. goals and breeding strategies, and for which
The analysis is based on the 148 Country Reports individual identification, performance recording,
that were submitted by July 2005. For some genetic evaluation procedures and AI are
countries, additional sources would have been implemented. The data are analysed and reported
available, but a common basis for the analysis was on a regional basis. However, when interpreting
considered preferable, and only the information the results, it is important to consider that the
provided in the Country Reports was, therefore, extent to which breeds are actually exposed to
utilized. Although most Country Reports have a the reported tools/technologies may vary greatly
common structure, the way in which breeding across a region.
activities and breeding programmes are reported For the major species – cattle, buffaloes, sheep,
is very variable. The information is presented in goats, pigs and chickens – countries are classified
different chapters, and is discussed in relation according to whether they regard breeding
to different topics. Countries with active programmes as a priority, and whether they
conservation programmes gave more emphasis actually have breeding programmes. The existence
to the reporting of breeding activities involving of breeding programmes was also recorded for
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PART 3
horses, camels, rabbits, turkeys, ducks and geese. Finding the right balance between the
Countries are considered to regard breeding different demands is a continuous process, and
programmes for a given species as a priority if they requires anticipation of future conditions and
are specifically mentioned as such in the Country careful planning of breeding programmes.
Report, or if activities of breeding associations In a multifactorial environment, and among
for the species are reported. The number of increasingly heterogeneous consumers, it is a
countries which consider breeding programmes challenge to predict changes in consumption
as a priority is, thus, larger than those which patterns and to arrange breeding programmes
have existing programmes. If the priority and and livestock production activities accordingly.
existence of breeding programmes could not be The priority attached to these processes by
clearly established from the Country Report it was governments or public institutions also varies
classified as “not mentioned”. Information about considerably between countries and regions, and
breeding programmes is presented on the basis between species.
of the regions Africa, Asia, the Near and Middle
East, Europe and the Caucasus, the Caribbean and 2.1 Cattle
Central America, South America, North America, Breeding programmes for cattle have the highest
and the Southwest Pacific. priority and are implemented in the largest
For the classification of animals into breeds, this number of countries. Ninety-four countries (65
review follows the usage in the Country Reports. percent) of the 144 countries keeping cattle
Where information is presented regarding the indicate that they see cattle breeding as a priority
numbers of breeds in the different regions, (Table 60), while 68 (47 percent) implement such
transboundary breeds are counted more than programmes (Table 61). Countries from Africa,
once – regional totals are therefore the sum of the Caribbean and Central America express the
the number of breeds in each country lowest priority for cattle breeding (excluding
the Southwest Pacific). The greatest discrepancy
between priority and actual implementation of
2 Species priorities and breeding breeding programmes is found in the countries
objectives of the Near and Middle East.
Among the 70 subsample countries, breeding
Breeding objectives are influenced by a wide range goals have been specified for 22 percent of
of factors, and have to consider the needs and cattle breeds, and definitive strategies are being
priorities of the animal owners or producers, the implemented for 19 percent of breeds (Table 62).
consumers of animal products, the food industry, Breeding strategies are less clearly specified in
and increasingly also the general public. The the countries of the Near and Middle East, and
relative importance of the different factors varies Latin America. Improvement of quantitative
depending on the species, and the priorities and traits and increased production are mentioned
development-stage of the country. It also changes by a large number of countries as the main
over time. The more important functions and breeding objectives for both dairy and beef
requirements of breeding programmes are to: cattle. Improved milk quality, efficiency of
v increase production and product quality; production, fertility and conformation traits are
• increase productivity and cost efficiency; gaining an increasing importance in breeding
• maintain genetic diversity; programmes in Europe and the Caucasus. In
• support the conservation and use of specific Scandinavian countries, breeding for health
breeds; and traits has a high priority, and is achieved with
• consider animal welfare and sustainable the help of extensive recording programmes.
systems. Increasing product uniformity and consistency is
216
TABLE 60
Countries prioritizing breeding activities (by species)
Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Pig Chicken

[percentage of countries]
Africa 52 0 19 19 17 14
Asia 71 44 30 40 24 20
Near & Middle East 71 67 71 43 0 14
Europe & the Caucasus 90 18 67 54 69 23
Caribbean & Central America 42 0 17 8 8 8
South America 70 50 30 10 10 20
North America 100 0 50 50 100 50
Southwest Pacific 13 0 40 0 18 9
World 65 29 39 31 33 18
Based on information in the Country Reports.

Percentage of the countries that keep the respective species.
TABLE 61
Structured breeding activities for the main livestock species
Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Pig Chicken

[percentage of countries]
Africa 31 0 10 10 6 2
Asia 58 38 30 32 19 16
South America 60 50 30 10 10 20
North America 100 0 50 50 100 50
World 47 22 33 27 27 14
As mentioned in the Country Reports.

Percentage of the countries that keep the respective species.
an important objective for dairy cattle in North 2.2 Buffaloes

America, but more recently functional traits have Only 41 Country Reports indicate that buffaloes
been integrated into the selection index. are kept. Of these countries, 29 percent mention
buffalo breeding as a priority (Table 60) and
22 percent have breeding programmes (Table 61).
In Asia, the main buffalo rearing region, the
217
PART 3
TABLE 62
Strategies and tools used in cattle breeding
World Africa Asia Near & Europe LAC* Southwest

Middle & the Pacific
East Caucasus
n 67 24 8 3 21 10 1
Total number of breeds

Local 505 143 71 12 112 166 1
Exotic 476 143 34 10 159 125 5
Breeds with
Breeding Goal 22% 18% 28% 14% 44% 4% 0%
Strategy Implemented 19% 13% 24% 9% 44% 1% 0%
Individual Identification 34% 11% 12% 9% 44% 58% 0%
Performance Recording 31% 12% 16% 9% 42% 45% 0%
Artificial Insemination 42% 23% 12% 23% 48% 69% 0%
Genetic Evaluation 22% 9% 12% 5% 38% 24% 0%
Breeds with system of use 544 113 24 5 151 246 5

specified
Pure-breeding 27% 33% 42% 60% 44% 11% 20%
Cross-breeding 25% 36% 17% 20% 16% 26% 0%
Both 49% 31% 42% 20% 40% 63% 80%
Regional averages calculated on the basis of information from the subsample countries.
*Latin America and the Caribbean.
n = number of countries providing information.
figures are 44 percent and 38 percent, respectively. The interest in breeding programmes for small
The main countries with breeding programmes ruminants in African countries is low, and only
for buffaloes are India, Pakistan, China, Egypt and four countries have such programmes. Interest
Bulgaria, with milk yield being the main breeding and implementation is also low in the countries
objective. of Latin America and the Caribbean. Information
from the 70 subsample countries indicates that
2.3 Sheep and goats breeding goals and breeding strategies are
Breeding programmes for sheep and goats are developed for a larger proportion of sheep than
much less frequently seen as a priority than goat breeds (see Annex Tables 68 and 69 for data
programmes for cattle. Breeding activities for from the different regions). Few countries report
sheep and goats are considered important by 39 specific breeding objectives for small ruminants,
percent and 31 percent, of countries respectively but growth traits appear to have the greatest
(Table 60). Thirty-three percent and 27 percent importance. Wool quality and production traits
of countries actually have such programmes are decreasing in importance even in countries
(Table 61). After Europe and the Caucasus, the with sheep specialized for wool production.
largest number of countries with breeding Improving dairy characters is the main breeding
programmes for small ruminants is found in Asia. objective for goats in European countries.
218
2.4 Pigs breeding companies, which market their products

Pig breeding is considered a priority in 44 worldwide. Very few countries report structured
countries (33 percent, Table 60), but only 36 breeding activities for other poultry species such
countries (27 percent) report the existence of as turkeys (five countries), ducks (eight countries)
structured breeding programmes (Table 61), and and geese (four countries). The low importance of
only ten of these countries are outside Europe and chicken breeding programmes in most countries
the Caucasus or North America. The discrepancy is reflected by a low proportion of breeds with a
between the expression of priority and the actual specific breeding goal (13 percent) and breeding
existence of breeding programmes is, thus, much strategy (11 percent). The proportion of breeds
smaller than for cattle, but similar to that for small with breeding strategies is larger in Europe and
ruminants. Several Country Reports from Latin the Caucasus than in the other regions (Annex
America and the Southwest Pacific indicate that Table 71). The Country Reports provide no
genetic improvement of pig populations largely specific information about breeding objectives
depends on the import of animals or semen. for poultry.
Systematic cross-breeding programmes, mainly
involving three-breed crosses, have become the 2.6 Other species
standard in nearly all countries with advanced Systematic breeding programmes for horses
pig production – 34 Country Reports indicate are mentioned in 31 Country Reports (Annex
the existence of such systems. Among the 70 Table 72). This may not reflect the full extent of
subsample countries, the number of pig breeds planned breeding activities for horses, especially
reported is much smaller than the number of those that are maintained for sports and racing.
cattle or small ruminant breeds (Annex Table 70). Horse breeding is characterized by a significant
Breeding goals and breeding strategies have been international exchange of breeding material. In
specified for 35 percent and 30 percent of the most European countries, the majority of horses
breeds, respectively, but the proportion is more are now bred for the leisure activities of amateur
than twice as high in Europe and the Caucasus riders. Other reasons for keeping horses are meat
as in the other regions. The number of specific production and work – especially cattle herding
local breeds reported is much smaller than for in South America which utilizes large numbers
ruminants, while a few international breeds, such of horses. Among the 44 countries that report
as Landrace, Large White, Duroc, Hampshire and the keeping of camelids, two countries in Asia
Yorkshire, have a very wide distribution. Important have breeding programmes for dromedaries, and
objectives of the reported breeding programmes Argentina has a programme for llamas. Among
include fertility, feed conversion rate, and 108 countries that mention rabbit production
proportion of lean meat production. According in their Country Reports, 26 have significant
to many Country Reports, pigs of the lard type production, but only five mention systematic
have largely lost their former importance. breeding programmes. This figure does not
include the large number of organized hobby
2.5 Poultry breeders of rabbits, found particularly in Europe
Of all the major livestock species, chickens have and the Caucasus.
the lowest number of countries indicating that It is reasonable to assume that the majority of
breeding programmes are a priority (Table 60), countries that do not report the importance or
and the lowest number of countries having existence of breeding programmes for a given
such programmes (Table 61). Chicken breeding species in their Country Reports do not have such
activities, both for layer and broiler breeds, programmes. Moreover, there are also many
are largely carried out by a few transnational indications that the population involved in most
219
PART 3
existing breeding programmes in African and The majority of systematic breeding activities
Asian countries is rather small. The results of for cattle and small ruminants in the countries
the review, thus, indicate that except for cattle, of Africa, Asia, and the Near and Middle East
the majority of countries do not have their own are implemented by government institutions,
structured breeding programmes and do not yet while in western Europe, breeding organizations
consider them a priority. have the greatest importance (for details see
Annex Tables 73 to 76). Most of the government
breeding programmes in Africa, Asia, and the
3 Organizational structures Near and Middle East are carried out through
nucleus herds/flocks on state farms. The animals
Structured breeding programmes require and semen produced are then distributed to the
organization to enable systematic performance general population. There is, therefore, no active
recording, planned mating and genetic participation by the livestock keepers in the
evaluation. These activities are carried out breeding process. These programmes are often
through government and non-governmental implemented with no monitoring of the influence
structures or a combination of the two. Breeding of the breeding activities on the general livestock
programmes that are directly implemented by population. Only a few countries in these regions
government institutions include those carried out have government breeding programmes that
on state breeding farms and at research institutes involve the direct participation of the breeders.
and universities. Non-governmental stakeholders Examples include buffalo breeding programmes
that implement breeding programmes include in India and Pakistan, and sheep breeding
breeding organizations and private companies. programmes in Tunisia and Côte d’Ivoire.
TABLE 63
Training, research and farmers’ organizations in current policies
Africa Asia Near & Middle Europe & Total

East the Caucasus
n Score n Score n Score n Score n Score
Training & Research

Cattle 21 3.4 7 3.6 3 2.7 15 3.5 46 3.4
Sheep 21 3.2 7 2.3 4 2.8 16 3.3 48 3.1
Goats 20 3.1 7 2.4 4 2.3 16 2.5 47 2.7
Pigs 19 3.0 5 2.6 14 3.3 38 3.1
Chickens 21 3.2 7 2.7 5 2.4 15 3.0 48 3.0
Organizing Farmers
Cattle 21 3.1 7 3.4 3 2.3 15 3.2 46 3.1
Sheep 21 2.8 6 1.8 4 2.5 16 3.2 48 2.8
Goats 20 2.7 6 2.0 4 2.0 16 2.7 46 2.5
Pigs 19 3.0 4 2.8 14 3.1 37 3.0
Chickens 21 3.1 6 3.0 5 3.2 14 3.1 46 3.1
Information from the subsample countries (excluding Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Southwest Pacific).
Scores (1 = none, 2 = little, 3 = regular, 4 = more, 5 = high) indicate the importance given to the activity in current policies. Average
scores for each region are shown, with highest scores for each region in bold.
220
Joint implementation of breeding programmes the Caribbean, or the Southwest Pacific, as no

by the governmental and non-governmental countries from these regions utilized the relevant
sectors often indicates a transitional phase predefined tables). In all regions except western
from government breeding programmes to parts of Europe and the Caucasus, breeding goals
an increased involvement of private breeders are largely determined by research institutions
and breeding organizations. The Country and their staff, to a lesser extent by government
Reports show that efforts to establish breeding institutions, and only marginally by the breeders
organizations for cattle are considered important themselves. Similar circumstances are reported
in many countries, but other species are given for other aspects of breed development such as
less priority (Table 63). Such developments individual identification, recording and genetic
are taking place in a few African and Asian evaluation (Table 64). In particular, breeders in
countries, and particularly in the former the countries of Africa and the Near and Middle
centrally planned countries of eastern Europe. East appear to have a limited role in influencing
It seems likely that in countries whose reports breeding activities organized and implemented
do not indicate the organizational structures by government institutions. In combination
of their breeding programmes, governmental with a lack of follow-up activities, this lack of
and non-governmental institutions have shared participation by the livestock keepers means that
responsibilities. Direct involvement of government there is considerable risk that breeding efforts
institutions in breeding programmes has been will have limited success or even fail.
systematically reduced in most western European For all species, but most frequently for small
countries, and no longer exists in North America. ruminants and poultry, breeding activities are also
Active participation of individual breeders is an implemented by national and international NGOs.
important characteristic of the programmes in These activities often consist of the distribution
these regions. Private breeding programmes (both of small numbers of breeding stock, frequently of
through breeding organizations and companies) exotic breeds to “upgrade” the local population.
are highly developed for pigs. In poultry, a few No systematic information is provided in most
transnational companies have a dominating role. County Reports about the impacts of these
Breeding programmes in South America are initiatives, but there are indications that they
largely implemented by breeding organizations, are not significant. Exceptions are probably the
but are supported in several countries by large-scale implementation of AI programmes for
government agencies or research institutes. cattle and buffaloes by NGOs in the countries of
In addition to breeding organizations that South Asia.
implement systematic breeding programmes, In countries with active breeding programmes,
most South and Central American countries have international competition is leading to
a large number of breeders’ organizations. These concentration in fewer, bigger schemes, with
breeders’ organizations, especially for cattle and fewer breeding organizations. This process is
horses, register pedigree information for animals most advanced for the poultry industry, but is
of specific breeds, but systematic performance also occurring in dairy cattle and pig breeding. To
recording and genetic evaluation are rare. compete in the international market, Scandinavian
The involvement of the different stakeholders countries have developed joint breeding activities,
(government, breeders and research) in breeding and Germany and Austria jointly implement the
activities is an important indicator for the estimation of breeding values for dairy cattle.
characterization of breeding programmes. Table The standardization of international genetic
64 summarizes information provided by the evaluations for cattle through the International
subsample countries (note that Tables 63 and Bull Evaluation Service (INTERBULL) is also
64 do not include data from Latin America and promoting the implementation of breeding
221
PART 3
TABLE 64
Stakeholder involvement in the development of animal genetic resources
Total Africa Asia Near & Europe &

Middle East the Caucasus
Breeding Goals 48 21 7 4 16
Governments 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.0 2.8
Breeders 2.4 1.9 2.4 1.5 3.2
Research 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.0 3.6
NGOs 2.2 1.9 1.8 3.0 2.6
Individual Identification 45 19 6 4 16
Governments 2.7 2.2 3.0 1.8 3.4
Breeders 2.4 1. 9 2.3 1.3 3.4
Research 2.8 3.1 3.0 1.8 2.8
NGOs 1.8 1.7 1.4 1. 7 2.0
Recording 48 21 6 4 17
Governments 2.5 2.3 2.8 1.8 2.9
Breeders 2.6 2.0 2.8 1.5 3.5
Research 3.0 3.4 2.7 1.5 2.8
NGOs 2.0 2.1 1.6 2.3 2.0
Genetic Evaluation 45 17 7 4 17
Governments 2.1 1.8 2.6 1.3 2.4
Breeders 1.8 1.4 1.4 1.0 2.5
Research 3.1 2.7 3.1 2.0 3.8
NGOs 1.6 1.3 1.8 1.3 1.9
Number of countries providing information and average scores for stakeholder involvement for each region.
Scores (1 = none, 2 = little, 3 = regular, 4 = more, 5 = high) based on thorough analyses of data available, to indicate the role of
involvement of each stakeholder in the implementation of tools that support the development of AnGR. Highest scores for each region
are shown in bold.
programmes beyond national borders. Genetic

improvement of pigs and Holstein-Friesian dairy 4 Tools and implementation
cattle in South and Central America is largely
achieved through imports of semen from North Collection of performance data, analysis of the
America, or Europe and the Caucasus. There data for the identification of superior animals,
are concerns expressed in the Country Reports and use of these superior animals to produce
that the increased internationalization of dairy the next generation, are the main components
cattle breeding may lead to negative effects with of structured breeding programmes. Among the
regard to the adaptation of the cattle population countries with structured breeding programmes,
to specific local conditions. and among the different species, the scale and
use of these tools varies significantly. With the
exception of a few Latin American countries
222
(Argentina, Brazil, the Bolivarian Republic of fourteen countries (77 percent) reported the use
Venezuela and Mexico) and India, the large-scale of AI in cattle, 18 percent in sheep, 7 percent in
collection of performance data from individual goats and 32 percent in pigs. Use of AI in cattle is
livestock owners for breeding purposes is largely common in all regions, for the other species it is
restricted to Europe, North America and Australia.7 more common in Europe and the Caucasus, and
On a smaller scale, collection of performance data the Americas (Table 65). The greater importance
from individual small ruminant flocks is carried of AI for cattle is also reflected by a higher
out in some North and West African countries. proportion of breeds included in the programmes
Most Country Reports from Africa and Asia (Table 62, Annex Tables 68–71) and the number
provide very limited information about the active of inseminations performed. By all these criteria,
breeding population. However, in addition to AI for pigs has the second highest importance.
the small proportion of breeds included (Table Both locally produced and imported semen is
62, Annex Tables 68–71), the active breeding used for AI. The high proportion of cattle breeds
population is probably very small. The other used in cross-breeding schemes (Table 62) may
extreme is represented by a country such as indicate that a considerable amount of the semen
Norway, where more than 95 percent of all dairy used in countries without advanced breeding
cows are covered by a recording scheme. programmes is imported or from exotic breeds.
While best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) In Latin America, AI of pigs also relies largely on
programmes for the estimation of breeding imported semen.
values are the standard for all countries with Locally adapted and exotic breeds are used
advanced breeding programmes, no information in both pure-breeding and cross-breeding
is provided in the Country Reports about selection systems. The information in Table 62 and Annex
methods used in the nucleus herds/flocks kept Tables 68– 71 shows the relative importance of
on governmental farms. Selection of animals by these two breeding systems for the different
phenotypic characteristics probably still has an species, based on the data provided by the 70
important role on these farms. Extensive datasets subsample countries. Pure-breeding is the most
with BLUP “test day” models allow increasingly common breeding system in sheep only, while for
good prediction of breeding values in intensive the other species, cross-breeding or a combination
dairy cattle breeding programmes. of both are more frequent. The tables also show
Planned breeding requires controlled mating. that exotic breeds play a significant role in many
As a large proportion of the grazing livestock in countries. Systematic cross-breeding programmes
low and medium-input production systems are are common in advanced production systems for
kept under conditions of uncontrolled mating, pigs and for beef cattle. A very large proportion
planned breeding for these animals is difficult. of cross-breeding activities for all species in
Such systems are very common in African and African, Asian and South American countries
Latin American countries. CR Ecuador (2003), are, however, undertaken without a systematic
for example, reports 49 percent uncontrolled programme.
mating for cattle, 81 percent for sheep, and 61 The information in Table 66, based on the data
percent even for pigs. In addition to the use of provided by the subsample countries (excluding
improved males, AI is used in many countries as those from Latin America and the Caribbean and
a tool for controlled mating. One-hundred and the Southwest Pacific which did not utilize the
relevant predefined tables), indicates that current
7
New Zealand, another country with an important livestock government policies favour the use of locally
industry and breeding programmes, did not submit a Country adapted breeds of cattle and small ruminants,
Report and is, thus, not included in the analysis. but exotic breeds of pigs and poultry. This
223
PART 3
TABLE 65
Number of countries reporting the use of artificial insemination
Regions Cattle Sheep Goat Pig
Africa 31 2 1 1
Asia 17 4 2 8
Near & Middle East 4 0 0 0
Europe & the Caucasus 38 16 8 23
Latin America & the Caribbean 21 8 8 13
Caribbean & Central America 11 2 4 7
South America 10 6 4 6
North America 2 0 1 1
Southwest Pacific 5 1 1 4
World 118 31 21 50
TABLE 66
Importance of species and locally adapted versus exotic breeds in current policies
Africa Asia Near & Middle Europe & Total

East the Caucasus
n Score n Score n Score n Score n Score
Cattle
Locally adapted breeds 21 3.9 7 3.1 3 2.0 14 3.5 45 3.5
Exotic breeds 21 3.1 7 3.7 3 3.0 15 2.4 46 3.0
Sheep
Exotic breeds 21 1.9 6 2.2 4 2.5 16 1.8 47 2.0
Goat
Exotic breeds 19 2.0 5 2.2 4 2.0 15 1.6 43 1.9
Pig
Locally adapted breeds 19 3.4 5 2.2 13 2.8 37 3.0
Exotic breeds 18 3.2 4 4.3 14 2.9 36 3.2
Chicken
Exotic breeds 21 3.4 6 4.0 5 3.6 15 2.9 47 3.3
n = number of countries providing information; score = average score for region.
Scores (1 = none, 2 = little, 3 = regular, 4 = more, 5 = high) indicate the extent to which current policies support the use and development
of the respective AnGR.
224
situation clearly reflects the efforts to intensify 5.1 Africa

pig and poultry production and the need for Cattle are the most important livestock species in
breeds with higher productive capacity. Efforts to Africa, and 45 percent of countries expressed the
increase dairy production make exotic cattle more need for intensification as their priority policy. To
popular in Asian countries than in Africa. The achieve this target, 26 percent of countries favour
information provided by the subsample countries breed improvements for local breeds, 55 percent
also shows that exotic breeds of sheep and goats favour cross-breeding with exotic cattle, and 17
are not considered a priority by most countries percent favour direct introduction of exotic cattle.
(Table 68). These figures are also an indication of the nature
While several countries encourage the use of of past and ongoing breeding efforts.
certain species and breeds through support and Development of local breeds is mentioned as
development efforts, direct influence on the a priority only by West African countries, while
choice of breed or breeding system used by the introduction of exotic cattle is mentioned by
livestock owners is rare. In most countries, there North African countries. The popularity of local
are government regulations that control the breeds in West Africa is largely influenced by
import of semen and animals, including breeding efforts to breed, improve, and in several countries
stock, for animal health reasons. Requirements to introduce, the trypanotolerant N’Dama breed.
for direct approval by the authorities and specific In order to improve production, however, farmers
quality criteria for male breeding stock exist only increasingly cross N’Dama with Zebu breeds or even
in a few European countries. In order to conserve with Holstein-Friesians. The establishment of peri-
and protect specific local dairy breeds, regulations urban dairy production has led to the introduction
were issued in India and Pakistan which should of Holstein-Friesian cattle or their cross-breeds in
have prevented cross-breeding with exotic cattle many African countries. Several other exotic breeds
breeds. However, in practice these regulations have been tried in Africa, but among these only
could not be enforced. the Brown Swiss (in North Africa) has remained
of any significance. In a large number of African
countries, local cattle are kept on government
5 Overview of breeding stations, and breeding stock distributed to livestock
programmes by region owners. The Country Reports indicate that the
number of breeding stock distributed is probably
In most countries, production conditions and small and without significant effect on the general
demands for livestock products have changed population. Government cross-breeding efforts in
considerably during recent decades – accelerated the countries surveyed have had almost no success
by increasing urbanization. Depending on the in the development of specific new breeds. Lack
type of country, these developments comprise of organizational structures and the nature of the
increased demand, changing demands with production and breeding systems, have favoured
respect to product quality, and shifts in demand unsystematic cross-breeding as the most common
between different livestock products. In different means of genetic improvement.
countries, government authorities, breeding Intensification of sheep production is seen as a
organizations and livestock owners have reacted priority by only 19 percent of African countries.
in different ways to these changes and challenges. The figure for goat production is even lower, at
The ways in which breeding interventions have 10 percent. Improvement of local sheep breeds is
contributed to the change also show considerable considered as important by 10 percent of countries
variation between countries, regions and species. and of local goat breeds by 5 percent. Seventeen
This variation is highlighted in the following percent of countries favour cross-breeding for
regional reviews. both species. Successful breed developments
225
PART 3
among farmers’ flocks have been implemented in has been a government priority in Lesotho, but
some countries of North Africa. enforcement of this policy has been weak. Dorper
An open nucleus breeding scheme with Djallonké sheep have been introduced for cross-breeding
sheep in Côte d’Ivoire has encouraged several with local sheep in several countries, but cross-
similar schemes in other West African countries, breeding for sheep has not, overall, achieved the
but most have not been realized. Maintaining a same importance as for cattle. The same applies
relatively pure Merino breed for wool production in the case of goats, in which cross-breeding with
European dairy breeds has not proved successful,
Box 24 and has recently been replaced by cross-breeding
Research and breed development in with the Boer breed for meat production. Some
Africa African countries keep local breeds of small
ruminants on government stations, but as in
In Nigeria, a lot of investment was, in the past, the case of cattle, there is little influence on the
made in the import and use of exotic AnGR for general livestock population.
research purposes and for breed improvement, Intensification of chicken production is considered
especially on government farms. The results of these a priority by 36 percent of African countries and
initiatives have been mixed. In terms of research, intensification of pig production by 17 percent. No
the results have been positive but in terms of breed recent breeding efforts for chickens are reported,
improvement there have been no significant gains. and in most countries intensification relies on
Similarly in Ghana, exotic cattle such as Friesians, imported commercial hybrids. Intensification of pig
and Sahiwal were imported from Europe and India, production is largely done through cross-breeding
respectively; and breeds such as N’Dama, White
Fulani and Adamawa Gudali were imported from Box 25
within the West Africa subregion. Various crosses Sheep breeding in Tunisia
were made with the West African Shorthorn. The
Ghana Sanga is the only successful breed developed
from the programme. The University of Ghana In Tunisia, a national programme for the genetic
undertook cross-breeding of Sokoto Gudali and improvement of sheep is implemented through 236
Ghana Shorthorn with Jersey and later with Friesian selected flocks. The growth performance of lambs is
cattle to develop a milking animal. Most of the monitored through a process of six weighings, which
breeding programmes were hampered by lack of form the basis for the selection of future breeding
human resource, finance, disease outbreaks and other stock. This programme is entirely financed by the
logistical problems. state, but proposals have been made to reduce costs
In Côte d’Ivoire, cross-breeding between N’dama and increase the involvement of the sheep owners
and Jersey started at the Centre de Recherches through the establishment of breeders’ associations.
Zootechniques de Bingerville in 1962 and continued The present model of genetic evaluation is uniform
for 15 years. The objective of the work was to create and offers no choice to the stockbreeders – although
a dairy breed adapted to the climatic conditions and they operate under varying production conditions and
husbandry in Côte d’Ivoire. No testing of the cross- have varying production objectives. The large number
breeding concept under farm conditions had been of weighings is also a burden for the breeders. More
initiated when the programme was terminated due to flexibility and cooperation with the breeders has the
financial problems in 1977. potential to reduce costs, and increase the capacity
and efficiency of the programme.
Sources: CR Côte d’Ivoire (2003); CR Ghana (2003);
CR Nigeria (2004).
Source: CR Tunisia (2003).
226
with exotic breeds, or through direct use of these important in many Asian countries. Examples of
breeds in more intensive production systems. No systematic efforts to develop composite breeds
breeding programmes for local pigs are reported include the Sunandini in India and the Mafriwal
from African countries. in Malaysia. Active promotion of the general
infrastructure for cattle development, including
5.2 Asia marketing facilities, has had a positive effect on
In Asia, 56 percent of countries express the breed development efforts.
need for intensification of cattle production as The importance of sheep and goat production
their priority policy, with the same percentage varies greatly between the different parts of the
favouring cross-breeding with exotic breeds, and region. Sheep production is important in some
20 favouring direct introduction of exotic cattle. countries of Central and South Asia, but overall
In fact, both approaches have been followed on more countries consider intensification important
a large scale. Extensive cross-breeding with exotic for goat production (12 percent) than for sheep
breeds, primarily Holstein-Friesians, has occurred
in the Islamic Republic of Iran and the countries of
South Asia, while the direct introduction of large Box 26
numbers of exotic cattle has been the chosen Buffalo breeding in India
approach in countries with newly developing dairy
industries in Southeast and East Asia. CR Islamic In India, buffaloes are becoming the species of choice
Republic of Iran (2004) reflects these changes, among large ruminants, favoured by price incentives
and indicates an increase in the proportion of for milk with higher fat content. The recommended
cross-bred cattle in the country from 11 percent state development policy was laid down in the mid-
to 35 percent during the period from 1995 to 1960s and envisaged selective breeding of Murrah
2003. In Central Asian countries, the change of buffaloes, and the use of Murrah to grade up non-
ownership from government and cooperative descript buffaloes. Central and state governments
farms to individual owners has caused a reduction and the private sector have established 33 breeding
in animal numbers, and has prevented systematic farms in different parts of the country, which follow
breeding efforts. a scientific breeding policy and act as multiplication
The development of local breeds through pure- centres for production and dissemination of
breeding is considered important for buffaloes, superior bulls. Progeny testing schemes have been
but not for cattle. Both cattle and buffaloes initiated in institutional herds and among farmers
are still important for draught purposes, for to test superior Murrah and Surti bulls on the basis
which local breeds are utilized. In most Asian of the performance of their progeny rather than
countries, dairy production is developing as only on the basis of the dam’s yield. Field progeny
the main purpose of cattle production. Cross- testing programmes supported by the government,
breeding with specialized beef cattle breeds has cooperative dairies, research institutes and NGOs,
been carried out in Southeast Asian countries, however, lack the necessary performance recording.
especially for plantation grazing systems. Several Most ongoing progeny testing programmes
Asian countries have established systematic are, therefore, dependent on institutional herds,
breeding programmes either on government and exclude good animals kept by the farming
farms, or directly with livestock owners, both for community. The number of bulls tested and selected
introduced specialized dairy breeds and for new is also too small to make any appreciable impact on
composite dairy breeds. However, the number of genetic improvement.
bulls selected through progeny testing is often
small, and the import of semen is, therefore, Source: CR India (2004).
227
PART 3
production (4 percent). Substantial efforts were Box 28

made to develop fine wool production by crossing Duck breeding in Viet Nam
local breeds with Merino-type sheep in Central
Asian countries, India and Pakistan. However, Viet Nam has the second largest duck population in
poor demand for wool and the problems the world. There are eight local duck breeds and an
involved in producing sufficient quantities of equal number of breeds have been introduced from
good quality wool contributed to the limited other countries for pure-breeding and cross-breeding.
success of these efforts and the return of livestock Duck breeding is organized by the National Institute
owners to their traditional breeds. In other Asian for Animal Husbandry through two duck breeding
countries, breeding efforts for sheep production centres, which keep and develop grand-parent and
have also lacked success, which may explain the parent stocks, and distribute breeding material to
low priority given to future intensification of local producers. This pyramid breeding structure has
sheep production. Indian and European goat significantly improved duck breeding in Viet Nam,
breeds have been utilized in East and Southeast and is considered as a model that can be applied to
Asian countries for cross-breeding with the local other livestock breeding systems in the country.
population and new composite breeds have been
established in Malaysia and the Republic of Korea. Source: CR Viet Nam (2003).
In the latter country, extensive cross-breeding
work was done with Boer and Australian Feral
goats for increased meat production. Although
Box 27 local goat breeds are maintained in various Asian
Goat breeding in the Republic countries on government farms, no specific breed
of Korea development activities are mentioned in the
Country Reports.
Goats have been well adapted to the Korean Pigs are the most important livestock species in
Peninsula for more than 700 years. In addition to Southeast and East Asia, and poultry, especially
normal consumption, goat meat has long been chickens, are important throughout Asia.
regarded as a health or medicinal food. With Intensification of chicken production is considered
increasing demand for goat meat in the early 1990s, a priority by 48 percent of Asian countries, and of
Boer and Australian Feral goats were imported, and pig production by 29 percent. Breeding activities
widely used for cross-breeding with the native Black are largely focused on intensive production
Goats. Even though the Boer cross-breeds had a conditions, and include systematic cross-breeding
better growth rate than the native goats, they were programmes and the use of hybrids produced and
not popular with the farmers because they did not marketed by commercial companies. The use of
have the same black coat colour as the local goats. imported breeding stock is mentioned by all Asian
This prompted the importation of goats from the countries that are interested in intensification as
Black Australian Feral breed, which has the same priority, and 14 percent mention cross-breeding as
colour as the native animals. Saanen goats were also the preferred approach. In China and Viet Nam,
imported and widely distributed as a dairy breed, but the biggest pig producers, breeding activities
competition from cow milk caused a drastic reduction are carried out through governmental nucleus
of numbers. Recently, however, growing demand breeding programmes, but both countries also
for goat milk has again led to the import of new import exotic breeding stock. While local pig
breeding stock. breeds are still popular in Viet Nam, more than
50 percent of the population is already cross-
Source: CR Republic of Korea (2004). bred, and the government is further promoting a
“leanization programme” with exotic breeds. In
228
India, China and Viet Nam, breeding stock for the significant genetic progress, but also risk increased
intensive broiler and layer industry, and for duck inbreeding and a reduction in genetic diversity in
production systems, is produced by government the main cattle breeds. Regular monitoring of
institutions and independent private companies. the degree of inbreeding has, therefore, been
However, the countries’ markets are also supplied included in the breeding programmes of several
by a small number of international breeding countries. Difficulties in controlling the degree of
companies, which in other Asian countries have inbreeding also exist in the case of rare breeds
become the exclusive suppliers. with small population sizes.
The number of breeding organizations is
5.3 Europe and the Caucasus decreasing, while the average population size of
Development of livestock production and the remaining ones increases. Governed by market
breeding activities in western European countries forces, livestock breeding is undergoing a shift from
is largely influenced by the Common Agricultural national cooperatives to international companies.
Policy (CAP) of the EU, which also determines the Livestock farmers choose breeding stock from
structure of breeding activities. These structures these breeding programmes for the superior
are also adopted by the new EU members economic qualities of their products, leaving less
in central Europe, and influence the non-EU opportunity for local breeding programmes. In
countries in western Europe. Breeding structures addition to production characteristics, selection is
in eastern European countries still largely reflect now focusing on a wider range of attributes, with
the state structures that existed under centrally health, well-being and life expectancy increasingly
planned economies – and in some cases reflect included in the breeding objectives. In the Nordic
the collapse of these structures. In most western countries, specific importance is given to fertility
European countries, governments have withdrawn traits, calving and disease resistance, with the
from active involvement in breeding activities Norwegian Red (NRF)8 and the Swedish Red and
and their role is now limited to the supervision White breeds as particular examples. The specific
of breeding organizations and companies. In breeding objectives implemented in the NRF have
eastern European countries, breeding activities meant that breeders see semen from this breed as
are carried out through licensed “pedigree a viable alternative to that produced by the large,
farms” – large state or former state farms, which international breeding companies.
are under the control of research or university In Europe and the Caucasus, the breeding of
institutes. A common market for semen and small ruminants is generally less organized than
breeding stock leads to extensive trade and that of cattle. The collapse of the wool market
international competition between national has redirected breeding objectives in all countries
breeding companies and breeding organizations. towards meat production through cross-breeding
In addition to utilizing their own breeding stock, and breed substitution. Dairy performance
eastern European countries increasingly import is an important breeding objective for goats
semen and breeding stock. and some sheep in southern Europe. In many
Cattle breeding has come to focus on single- European countries sheep and goats are still kept
purpose breeds, with the Holstein-Friesian being by traditional farmers who do not participate in
the dominant breed in most European countries. structured breeding activities.
In parallel, beef production from suckler cows The breeding of pigs and poultry in Europe
has developed, either utilizing specialized beef and the Caucasus is dominated by the production
breeds or commercial cross-breeds from out of of hybrids through systematic cross-breeding
the dairy herds. Intensive breeding programmes schemes.
using the BLUP procedure, and the wide use of
8
Norsk Rødt Fe
a small number of elite dairy sires, have achieved
229
PART 3
Box 29 While in the pig sector, breeding organizations

Pig breeding in Hungary and commercial companies continue to compete,
and have different market shares in different
In Hungary, pig breeding is the most important countries, poultry breeding (with the exception
branch of livestock breeding. Based on the local of some east European countries) is dominated by
Hungarian Large White and Landrace breeds, transnational companies.
together with some other imported breeds, Hungary
was among the first countries in Europe to start 5.4 Latin America and the Caribbean
the breeding of hybrids in the 1970s. Today, three As a result of the varying ecological conditions, the
Hungarian hybrids are recognized, have the highest livestock production systems in the countries of
share of the local market, and can compete with South and Central America and the Caribbean are
the best foreign hybrids. The old lard-type pig has very diverse. Cattle have the greatest importance
been almost completely replaced – except for the in most countries, but development efforts during
Mangalitsa breed which has gained popularity and the last decade have concentrated more on pig and
increased numbers because of the unsaturated fatty poultry production, and the relative importance
acids in its fat. of cattle has declined in some countries. Brazil is
by far the most important country for livestock
Source: CR Hungary (2003). development in the region, not only as the country
with the biggest commercial cattle population,
but also having several advanced breeding
programmes that cover a large population.
Box 30 Breeding efforts for cattle are focused on beef
Horse breeding – tradition and new production traits such as reproductive efficiency
requirements and growth rate – especially for the Nelore which
is the dominant breed in the country. There are
In the Czech Republic, the Old-Kladruby horse is a also efforts to improve dairy characteristics for
warm-blood breed, based on old-Spanish and old- some composite breeds and for Holstein-Friesians.
Italian blood, which has been bred in the country Semen and breeding animals from the Brazilian
continuously for more than 400 years. In 1995 this programme are also utilized in other South and
breed was recognized as part of the Czech Republic’s Central American countries, but it is reported that
national cultural heritage. intensive use of a limited number of elite sires risks
In Poland, the horse population is gradually a considerable reduction in genetic variability.
decreasing and their importance as a source of Active breeding programmes using BLUP animal
draught power in the fields has been substantially models exist for Zebu cattle in the Bolivarian
reduced. With the increased opportunities to export Republic of Venezuela, and for Holstein-Friesians
horses for slaughter, some farmers are changing to in Argentina and Mexico. However, as most
the heavy built, cold-blooded type. However, there is countries do not have their own breeding
also a growing interest in horses of various breeds programme and semen production, imported
and types for recreational uses such as agro-tourism, semen from Holstein-Friesians and other European
cross-country rallies, riding holidays and “hippo dairy and beef breeds is widely used in the region.
therapy”. In many countries, extensive cross-breeding with
Zebu cattle is reducing the population of the local
Sources: CR Czech Republic (2003); CR Poland (2002). Criollo breeds. Unsystematic rotational crossing
involving Zebu breeds such as the Brahman, and
European beef breeds or Criollos, is also widely
practised. Several composite dairy breeds have
230
been developed in Brazil, Cuba and Jamaica. Box 31

Many separate breeders’ associations exist for all Beef cattle breeding in Brazil
important breeds in most countries of the region.
These associations keep pedigree registers often
with a long tradition. Their involvement in modern Brazil at present has the largest commercial cattle
breeding practices based on performance records population in the world. There are approximately
is, however, less common. 16 breeding programmes for the beef sector, of which
Utilizing genetic material from Australia all but one are for Zebu cattle. Thirteen programmes
and New Zealand, Argentina has a large wool for different breeds and groups of breeds have the
breeding programme for Merino and Corriedale objective of increasing reproductive efficiency and
sheep, which is implemented by breeding growth rate in beef herds using classical breeding
organizations. In other countries of the region, techniques allied with modern biotechnologies.
structured breeding of sheep and goats largely The top 20 percent of the animals receive a Special
consists of cross-breeding programmes with the Certificate of Identification and Production (CEIP).
introduction of various exotic breeds. The exotic The Breeding Programme for Zebu Cattle (PMGZ), run
sheep breeds being used are numerous and range, by the Brazilian Association of Zebu Breeders (ABCZ)
depending on the ecological conditions, from the identifies superior animals by calculating expected
Corriedale and Rambouillet breeds for the High progeny differences (EPDs) for weight and weight
Andes, to British meat breeds in Chile, and hair gain at different ages, as well as fertility traits and
sheep such as Barbados Black Belly and Pelibüey in reproductive efficiency. With a database of more than
the tropical costal regions. Breeding programmes 1.5 million animals and 65 000 new animals entering
for the latter two breeds are reported from their each year, this is a national programme for all Zebu
original locations in Barbados and Cuba. Cross- breeds. Another breeding programme for Zebu cattle
breeding programmes for sheep have largely been is GENEPLUS, which has a database of more than
implemented by government or international 700 000 animals and provides breeders with EPDs
development programmes. However, countries do for age at first calving, calving interval, gestation
not have planned breeding activities for Criollo period, service period and scrotal circumference, as
sheep. Genetic development of goats through well as weights and weight gains at different ages.
cross-breeding programmes is carried out with a PROMEBO operates a programme for beef cattle of
variety of European dairy goat breeds (Saanen, taurine breeds. With the aim of improving Zebu cattle,
Toggenburg, Alpine, Anglo Nubian) and Boer the ABCZ also collaborates with various research
goats, and is frequently implemented by NGOs. societies as well a dozen universities, offering them
Breeding of goats for dairy performance utilizing production and genealogy data.
BLUP procedures has been carried out for a few
years in one Mexican state. Source: CR Brazil (2003).
Breeding development for pigs and poultry
in Latin America and the Caribbean is mainly
carried out by companies that produce hybrids. are provided in the Country Reports about their
Use of imported semen and breeding stock activities. Unique to the region are government
from outside the region is widespread. In pigs, breeding programmes for llamas in Argentina, and
three-breed crosses are common under intensive guinea pigs in Peru. Several countries expressed
production conditions. Cuba is an exception, and interest in promoting planned breed activities
has government breeding programmes for both for fibre characteristics and meat production in
species. The region has large numbers of horses, South American camelids, but these have yet to
and there are breeders’ organizations for specific materialize.
breeds in many countries. However, no details
231
PART 3
Box 32 poultry breed development in the region, and the

Breeding llamas in Argentina poultry industry depends exclusively on material
from transnational companies. Although their
In Argentina there are approximately 200 000 llamas. role is decreasing, camels are still important
Systematic breeding of llamas is carried out at the livestock in several countries of the Near and
INTA (Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria) Middle East. Reference is made in the Country
research station at Abra Pampa which keeps an elite Reports to government breeding stations for
flock of about 600 animals divided into of three camels, but no details about breeding objectives
groups having white, brown and mixed coat colours or the impact of these activities on the general
respectively. Selection of the white group is for fibre population are provided.
production and quality, of the brown group for meat
and fibre production, and of the mixed group for 5.6 North America and Southwest
meat production only. Improved breeding stock has Pacific
been distributed from the institute to approximately Among the countries of the Southwest Pacific
2 700 breeders. region that submitted Country Reports, only
Australia has structured breeding activities. In the
Source: CR Argentina (2003). majority of the small island states of the region,
pigs and poultry are the most important livestock
species; genetic improvement is exclusively based
5.5 Near and Middle East on imports.
For the Near and Middle East, 43 percent of the In Australia, Canada and the United States of
countries submitting a Country Report indicate America, breeding programmes are implemented
intensification of cattle and poultry production for all species of livestock, and have gained
as their priority. Although an important worldwide importance through extensive
sheep rearing region, no countries mention exchange of semen and breeding stock. The
intensification of the species as a priority, and programmes in these countries are implemented
only 14 percent mention intensification of goat by breeding organizations and large companies,
production as a priority. Cross-breeding of cattle while government retains only a minor role. The
and the use of exotic poultry are a priority for animal breeding sectors in all three countries
all intensification efforts, and 29 percent of have responded very effectively to demands
countries regard the direct introduction of exotic for increased production by applying selection
cattle as a priority. pressure to certain high-yielding breeds. Pure-
Large numbers of Holstein-Friesian cattle for breeding for dairy cattle, and structured cross-
dairy production have already been imported to breeding schemes for beef cattle, sheep and pigs,
the region and this process may continue. The applied through highly effective programmes,
further genetic development of these populations are the most common breeding methods.
depends exclusively on the import of semen. In the United States of America, selection
Cross-breeding of local cattle using exotic semen is for increased milk production is a priority for
widespread, and is planned to continue, while no the dairy industry, but there is also a growing
genetic improvement programmes are envisaged interest in multiple-trait selection for characters
for the local cattle breeds. Genetic development such as disease resistance or structural soundness.
of buffaloes is a priority for Egypt. Breeding Intensive recording programmes and selection
activities for sheep and goats are reported from have been used to choose animals that produce
research institutes and government stations, but the standard commodity in the most efficient
with limited impact on the general population. manner in a largely controlled industrial
There are no ongoing or planned activities for environment. Selection intensity and reproductive
232
Box 33 Box 34
Influence of market forces on Sheep breeding in Australia
livestock breeding in the United
States of America In Australia, conventional non-quantitative
techniques for sheep selection have been practised
In the United States of America, market forces are a widely in the sheep industry since its inception. They
major influence on the utilization and conservation of include visual and tactile appraisal by professional
AnGR. In the industry, there is a continuing drive for sheep classers and “biological” selection approaches
product uniformity and production efficiency. As the such as “Elite” and “Soft Rolling Skin”. Systematic
sector has become more industrialized, there have cross-breeding, based on recognizable breed
been greater efforts to increase the uniformity and populations, is normal in the meat sheep industry
consistency of the products. Part of this process is the and includes a range of rotational and terminal cross-
identification of breeds, lines and stocks that meet breeding strategies. There is extensive performance
a pre-specified set of product quality and biological recording and selection for those animals that most
performance standards, which enable the industry efficiently meet current market needs for carcasses
to meet consumer demands and control production and wool type. LAMBPLAN is Australia’s major
costs. This type of specialization has taken place system for genetic evaluation in the sheep meat
most clearly in the poultry, pig and dairy industries. industry. The system is based on estimated breeding
However, similar consolidation exists among sheep values calculated from performance and pedigree
(the use of Suffolk and Rambouillet breeds) and beef information collected from breeders’ flocks. In the
cattle (Angus). wool sheep industry implementation of genetic
evaluation programmes is not as widespread,
Source: CR United States of America (2003). reflecting a range of sociological and political
characteristics of the industry.
technology have reduced genetic variation in Source: CR Australia (2004).

the commercially viable breeds, and this has led
to inbreeding problems. There is, therefore, an
increasing interest in cross-breeding to alleviate
inbreeding depression, and in ensuring a better create selected lines, either pure or composite.
match between genotypes and production Corporate breeding also dominates poultry
systems, by using European breeds such as breeding in Australia, Canada and the United
Montbeliarde and Scandinavian Red. Among States of America.
beef cattle in the United States of America, there
is increased use of composite bulls that fit well
into structured cross-breeding programmes. 6 Conclusions and future priorities
Market pig production in the United States
of America has moved from pure-bred systems, Although livestock owners practise breeding
to rotational cross-breeding programmes, and interventions in most production systems,
now to terminal crossing programmes utilizing there is considerable variation in the extent
specialized maternal and paternal lines or of control over this process and the degree to
crosses. Compounding the shift away from which genetic change takes place in a planned
pure-bred animals has been the rapid adoption direction. Structured breeding interventions
of AI in commercial pig production. In Canada, have contributed greatly to the development of
corporate control of pig breeding is increasing livestock production systems and their adaptation
and breed populations are used extensively to to changing conditions. However, standardized
233
PART 3
production conditions have also increasingly led emergence of successful breeding programmes
to the worldwide spread of a few specialized implemented through the involvement of
breeds, especially for poultry, pig and dairy cow individual breeders in Europe and the Americas
production, rather than the development of a was possible because of:
broad range of genetic material. In addition to • appropriate organizational structures and
their actual or assumed quality, the spread of the the direct involvement of the livestock
popular breeds and their use worldwide for cross- owners;
breeding is favoured by the easy availability and • interest in improving the traits under
marketing of semen and breeding animals. While selection and real benefits for breeders and
some countries, especially in Africa, consider this the general population;
as threat to their local breeds, many regard it as a • government support and the existence of
means of enriching their livestock population. scientific tools and qualified staff; and
The review of the Country Reports reveals • the existence or development of markets
large differences between countries and species for products (including processing and
with respect to planned breeding activities and innovative products) and input supply.
their support with public funding. It is possible to The opportunity which now exists to
differentiate the following three broad groups: implement breeding programmes through
• countries that have a tradition of effective private organizations is a consequence of the
breeding programmes for several species structures that were developed earlier. Breeding
and which increasingly transfer these is a complex “package” technology. Although it
activities to the private sector; may not be necessary in other countries to repeat
• countries that are in the process of the long evolutionary process which led to the
establishing national breeding programmes development of these breeding programmes, the
for one or more species; and above-mentioned components are still essential
• countries that largely rely on the import of for success. Efforts to establish new breeding
semen and animals for the improvement of programmes have to consider these requirements
their genetic resources. and should include them. For the breeding
While the reproductive capacity of pigs and of ruminants in particular, there is a need for
poultry allows the effective implementation of organized involvement of the livestock owners in
planned breeding programmes under controlled close collaboration with cooperative and private
conditions by a small number of breeders or breeding organizations. As the genetic variation
breeding companies within a short period of within livestock species is partly accounted for
time, this is more difficult for cattle and small by differences between breeds and partly by
ruminants. In order to achieve a sufficient differences among individuals within breeds,
population size, effective breeding programmes selection both between and within breeds has
for ruminants have, been based either on larger potential to contribute to development.
numbers of individual breeders or on large, often The full information needed to implement
government-owned, nucleus farms. Restructuring optimum procedures is unlikely to be available at
in formerly centrally planned economies has the outset in most medium and low-input systems.
reduced the opportunity for breeding based on This need not be a serious obstacle at the start of
large government farms. In many developing a development programme, but it is important
countries, limited interaction between breeders to understand the development objectives, and
and ordinary livestock owners, and the priority from these to specify the correct breeding goals.
given to research objectives, have reduced the Increased research to support breeding activities is
efficiency and impact of the planned breeding required for many production situations, especially
programmes conducted on these farms. The in developing countries. Close cooperation with
234
development efforts is necessary to ensure that the share costs and make breeding programmes more
use of the scarce resources available for research sustainable.
is clearly focused on the needs of the breeders,
and that results are utilized for action. Moreover, References
no genetic improvement programme should be
established in isolation from a broader attempt CR (Country name). year. Country report on the state of
to improve other aspects of the production and animal genetic resources. (available in DAD-IS library
marketing system. at http://www.fao.org/dad-is/).
Livestock enterprises are continuously
developing, particularly towards increased scale
and greater specialization. These developments
will demand different breeds and crosses.
Particularly in developed countries, consumer
priorities and choices may have an important
influence on future breeding goals. Genetic
improvement efforts must constantly bear these
possibilities in mind and not concentrate solely on
breeding objectives focused on today’s problems.
The cost of breeding activities, competition,
and the international availability of suitable
breeding material, are important criteria to be
considered when taking decisions regarding
support and public funding for national breeding
programmes. These decisions are not easy, as
a logical and comprehensive approach to the
economic evaluation of breeding programmes
is still unavailable. Many governments have
decided to rely on international genetic material
for breed development, especially in poultry and
pigs. The information in the Country Reports
clearly indicates that countries face problems
in the organization and implementation of
effective and efficient breeding programmes.
This is particularly true for low and medium
external input production systems, which are
in most cases associated with locally adapted
breeds with limited production output. It is
unlikely that the private sector will contribute
significantly to the cost of new national ruminant
breeding programmes in developing countries, in
particular for systems with limited potential for
increased production. Such costs would have to
be borne by national institutions. Cooperation in
breeding activities between countries with similar
production conditions, such as already happens in
Europe and the Caucasus, is an opportunity to
235
PART 3
8 Annex
TABLE 67
List of subsample countries that provided
information in predefined tables
Africa Asia Europe &

the Caucasus
Benin Bangladesh Albania

Botswana Bhutan Armenia
Burkina Faso India Azerbaijan
Burundi Iran (Islamic Bulgaria
Republic of)
Cameroon Kyrgyzstan Croatia
Cape Verde Malaysia Cyprus
Chad Nepal Czech Republic
Congo Republic of Korea Greece
Côte d’Ivoire Uzbekistan Iceland
Democratic Republic Latvia
of the Congo
Equatorial Guinea Near & Moldova
Middle East
Ethiopia Egypt Norway
Gabon Iraq Romania
Gambia Jordan Serbia and
Montenegro
Ghana Slovakia
Lesotho Latin America & Slovenia
the Caribbean*
Madagascar Argentina Sweden
Mali Brazil Switzerland
Niger El Salvador The former Yugoslav
Republic of
Macedonia
Nigeria Guatemala Turkey
Sao Tome and Honduras Ukraine
Principe
Senegal Mexico
Swaziland Paraguay Southwest Pacific*
Togo Trinidad and Tobago Fiji
United Republic of Uruguay Kiribati
Tanzania
Venezuela (Bolivarian
Republic of)
*No countries from Latin America and the Southwest Pacific

completed the predefined tables that were used in
the preparation of tables 63, 64 and 66.
236
TABLE 68
Strategies and tools used in sheep breeding
World Africa Asia Europe Latin Near & Southwest

& the America Middle Pacific
Caucasus & the East
Caribbean
n 64 24 8 21 7 3 1

Local 419 85 81 186 49 17 1
Exotic 214 31 16 105 53 8 1
Breeds with
Breeding Goal 33% 14% 33% 52% 5% 16% 0%

Breeds with system of 297 34 33 137 87 4 2

use specified
Pure-breeding 57% 65% 91% 64% 29% 75% 100%

Cross-breeding 16% 15% 0% 7% 36% 25% 0%
Both 27% 21% 9% 29% 36% 0% 0%
Regional averages calculated on the basis of information from the subsample countries. n = number of countries providing information.
TABLE 69
Strategies and tools used in goat breeding

Caucasus & the East
Caribbean
n 64 24 8 20 8 3 1

Local 219 62 42 57 46 11 1
Exotic 118 34 17 40 21 5 1
Breeds with
Breeding Goal 19% 21% 12% 28% 12% 13% 0%

n = number of countries providing information. • continues
237
PART 3
TABLE 69 cont.
Strategies and tools used in goat breeding

Caucasus & the East
Caribbean
Breeds with

use specified
Pure-breeding 36% 30% 64% 54% 13% 50% 50%

Cross-breeding 30% 39% 21% 23% 29% 25% 0%
Both 35% 30% 14% 23% 58% 25% 50%
TABLE 70
Strategies and tools used in pig breeding

Caucasus & the East
Caribbean
n 59 23 7 19 7 1 2
Local 161 39 17 61 40 1 3
Exotic 170 41 14 73 30 0 12
Breeds with
Breeding Goal 35% 18% 26% 66% 7% 0% 0%
Breeds with system of use 245 40 9 121 61 0 14

specified
Pure-breeding 18% 18% 67% 22% 8% 0%
Cross-breeding 34% 65% 33% 21% 36% 43%
Both 49% 18% 0% 58% 56% 57%
238
TABLE 71
Strategies and tools used in chicken breeding

& the America Middle East Pacific
Caucasus & the
Caribbean
n 58 24 8 16 6 2 2

Local 360 68 56 139 73 21 3
Exotic 532 146 33 249 83 9 12
Breeds with
Breeding Goal 13% 2% 20% 22% 0% 13% 0%

Individual 7% 1% 6% 15% 0% 0% 0%
Identification
Performance 7% 1% 6% 14% 0% 0% 0%
Recording

use specified
Pure-breeding 51% 24% 76% 39% 67% 85% 50%

Cross-breeding 21% 47% 14% 20% 26% 8% 0%
Both 27% 29% 10% 41% 8% 8% 50%
Regional averages calculated on the basis of information of the subsample countries.

TABLE 72
Countries reporting structured breeding activities in minor species
Regions Horse Camel Turkey Duck Goose Rabbit
Africa 1 0 0 0 0 0
Asia 3 2 0 4 0 0
South America 2 1 0 0 0 0
North America 0 0 1 0 0 0
World 31 3 5 8 4 5
Percentage (among countries keeping 25% 7% 5% 7% 5% 5%
the respective species)
239
PART 3
TABLE 73
Stakeholder involvement in structured cattle breeding activities
Regions Government Private Both Research Unspecified
Africa 9 0 4 0 0
Asia 5 2 4 2 3
Near & Middle East 1 0 0 0 0
Europe & the Caucasus 3 16 9 1 2
Caribbean & Central America 1 1 0 0 0
South America 0 2 2 1 2
North America 0 2 0 0 0
Southwest Pacific 0 1 0 0 0
World 19 24 19 4 7
Percentage (among countries reporting 26% 33% 26% 6% 10%

structured activities)
TABLE 74
Stakeholder involvement in structured sheep breeding activities
Africa 3 0 1 0 0
Asia 6 0 0 0 1
World 18 14 7 5 6

240
TABLE 75
Stakeholder involvement in structured goat breeding activities
Africa 2 0 0 1 1
Asia 4 2 0 0 3
World 9 15 5 4 9

TABLE 76
Stakeholder involvement in structured pig breeding activities
Africa 1 0 0 0 1
Asia 1 0 1 0 2
World 5 21 5 0 5

241
Section C
Conservation
programmes
1 Introduction
The SoW-AnGR reporting process has significantly governments lack awareness of the threats and
contributed to increasing the awareness of their potential effects.
threats to the diversity of AnGR and the need The prospects for a breed depend to a great
for their conservation. In many countries, it extent on its present and future function in
resulted in the approval of national strategies livestock systems. As circumstances change,
for the management of AnGR conservation certain breeds are set aside and are faced with the
programmes, and better coordination of the danger of extinction unless action is taken. There
existing often scattered activities. In countries are several reasons why the implementation of
with weak involvement of the state, it led to conservation measures for a particular breed might
the establishment of national bodies for AnGR be considered important: genetic uniqueness; a
conservation. The rationale for conservation high degree of endangerment; traits of economic
varies among countries and regions. In some or scientific importance (unique functional
cases, commitment to the principles of the CBD traits); and ecological, historical or cultural value
represents the major driving force, while in other (Oldenbroek, 1999). The reason for conservation
cases the prevailing motivation is awareness of will, to some extent, determine the effectiveness
the potential importance that breeds currently of the conservation measures. This section
at risk may have for future production. In some discusses conservation from the perspective of
countries, conservation of AnGR is carried out ensuring that between and within-breed diversity
within broader programmes of rural development is maintained for future functional use.
and environmental management. In the majority
of European and in some Asian countries,
conservation of AnGR is regarded as an aspect of
safeguarding cultural heritage.
The significance of threats to AnGR, particularly
of the pressure towards the intensification of
livestock production, varies from region to region,
as does the current state of genetic diversity,
and the economic and social importance of
livestock. From a global perspective, a lack of
adequate conservation measures is generally
of greatest concern when it occurs in situations
where the threats of genetic erosion are great
and where losses, if they occur, will have large
impacts on the diversity of the world’s AnGR
and on the future socio-economic functions of
livestock. Unfortunately, in many such locations,
243
PART 3
The section9 draws on the information provided can be rather vague. In the Country Reports, the
in the 148 Country Reports available by July 2005, distinction is often not clear. Therefore, for the
in order to describe the state of conservation purposes of the quantitative analysis presented
around the world. The analysis is presented on below, only two types of conservation are
the basis of seven regions and six species. Where distinguished: in vivo (including both in situ and
relevant, differences between subregions are ex situ in vivo) and in vitro (ex situ) conservation.
presented, and the roles of different stakeholders Another problem relates to the difficulty
are discussed. of distinguishing in situ conservation from
Only a very few Country Reports provide “sustainable utilization” (see Part 4 – Section 1 for
information on the specific values of breeds a discussion of this issue). It is therefore possible
included in conservation programmes, or present that some of the examples of in situ conservation
information on the pedigree of animals under mentioned in the Country Reports would in fact
conservation programmes, the number of males be better described as instances of sustainable
and females per generation, or on mating utilization of the breeds in question.
schemes at the species or breed levels. Thus, the
status of conservation is presented here mainly
by showing the number of breeds and species 2 Global status
indicated by the Country Reports to be included
in conservation programmes. Fifty-two percent of Country Reports indicate the
Theoretically, three types of conservation presence of in vivo conservation measures, while
measures can be implemented: in situ only 37 percent indicate the presence of in vitro
conservation, ex situ in vivo conservation and ex conservation (Table 77).
situ in vitro conservation (see Box 94 in Part 4 – For in vitro conservation well-established
Section F). In practice, the distinction between in genebanks are present in Japan, India, the
situ conservation and ex situ in vivo conservation Nordic countries, France, the Netherlands,
Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary. In
9
Notes on the analysis. some countries, the establishment of genebanks
The quantification and assessment of conservation programmes
is planned: the United States of America, China,
is hampered by the following factors, which make it difficult to
formulate strong conclusions. the Republic of Korea and Viet Nam. Semen
Not all countries use the same definition for local breeds (e.g. all is preserved from all the main species, and
breeds present, breeds originating from the country, or breeds embryos of cattle, sheep and goats are also
adapted to the local conditions). Thus, the numbers presented for
stored. Only a few genebanks store poultry
local breeds in conservation programmes have to be treated with
caution, and this is the reason why the proportion of local breeds and horse semen. Sometimes tissue DNA
conserved was not calculated. samples are also collected in the main species.
There is some inconsistency in the Country Reports regarding the Genebanks have been initiated by governments
definition of in vivo conservation programmes. Some countries
or NGOs supported by universities and research
consider that a breed is being conserved in vivo when it is kept
by small holders or hobbyists, whereas other countries do not centres. In a number of countries the SoW-
consider this type of activity to be a conservation programme. AnGR reporting process accelerated measures
Some countries classify the storage of semen stock at an AI centre aimed at ensuring coordination among
as an in vitro conservation programme, while others consider
genebanks and the establishment of national
that an in vitro conservation programme exists only if there is a
separate genebank facility. databases. In developed countries, there is
The data are extracted from individual Country Reports written strong collaboration between genebanks and
between 2002 and 2005. In this period conservation programmes the animal breeding industry and breeders’
were under development in many countries. So, for some
associations with respect to the collection of
regions the state of conservation programmes will already have
progressed since the analysis was carried out. genetic material. In developing countries that
244
TABLE 77
Number of countries with conservation programmes
Region Subregion Number of Country Number of countries with Number of countries with
Reports analysed in vivo conservation in vitro conservation
Africa East 7 2 1
North & West 24 10 4
Southern 11 6 4
Subtotal 42 18 9
Asia Central 6 2 2
East 4 3 3
South 7 4 3
Southeast 8 4 4
Subtotal 25 13 12
Europe & the Caucasus 39 33 25
Latin America & Caribbean 3 0 0
the Caribbean
South America 10 5 5
Central America 9 3 1
Subtotal 22 8 6
Near & Middle East 7 1 0
North America 2 2 2
Southwest Pacific 11 2 1
World 148 77 55
implement in vitro conservation measures, 3.1 National governments

activities are limited to storage of semen from In countries where conservation programmes for
some local cattle and sheep breeds at private or AnGR are established, it is national governments
governmental institutions. that play the crucial initiating role. They provide
the legal base for conservation programmes
either under legislation relating to the protection
3 Stakeholders of biodiversity or under legislation regulating the
management of AnGR, livestock production and
The Country Reports indicate that many breeding. They are partners in the development
stakeholders are involved in conservation: of national strategies for the management
national governments, institutes for research of AnGR, and they also provide funding for
and education such as universities, NGOs and implementing institutions, including partial
breeders’ associations, farmers and pastoralists, funding of conservation activities carried out by
part-time farmers and hobbyists, and breeding NGOs.
companies. This chapter provides a brief overview In some African and Asian countries, national
of the roles of the various stakeholders. governments are involved in breeding activities,
often with the aim of increasing national self-
sufficiency in food of animal origin. In most cases
245
PART 3
they own nucleus farms, where local or exotic 3.2 Universities and research
cattle are kept. These nucleus farms sell breeding institutes
stock (males) to improve populations owned Farms linked to universities and research institutes
by (often small) farmers. The system plays an are often involved in selling breeding animals
important role in the conservation of the breeds or conserving local breeds. They combine these
in question. The farmers keep a large number of activities with their primary tasks of educating
animals, and the nucleus farms take care of the students and carrying out research. Many
genetic diversity of the populations. universities and research institutes try to conserve
In a number of European countries, government locally developed breeds, which are no longer
policies are increasingly focused on conservation used by the industry. They pay a lot of attention to
and landscape enhancement in rural areas where the maintenance of genetic diversity within these
the economic viability of farming is limited. These populations. However, their role is threatened by
policies are supported by state funds and, in cuts in public funding.
case of the EU, by communitary funds (see the
discussion of Council Regulation (EC) No. 870/2004 3.3 Civil society organizations and
in Section E: 3.2). breeders’ associations
Grazing animals, particularly well-adapted In many developed countries, NGOs conserve and
breeds of sheep, cattle and horses play an important stimulate the keeping of local breeds by (often
role in nature management. This role offers an part-time) farmers and hobbyists. These NGOs
excellent opportunity for the conservation of these and their members play an important role in the
species as large numbers of animals are potentially conservation of local breeds of chickens, horses,
involved. In parts of Europe, governments are also sheep, goats and cattle. One of their objectives is
motivated to maintain livestock breeds for socio- to demonstrate the cultural and historic aspects
economic or cultural and historic reasons. There are of breeds for the purpose of education and
many types of governmental institutions, including recreation; another is to produce special products
therapeutic farms, prisons, demonstration farms, for niche markets. In general, their knowledge
farm parks and museums, at which local breeds of conservation genetics is limited, and the
may be kept. The number of animals conserved in participation of individual breeders in breeding
such locations is generally low, leading to risks of and conservation programmes is often on a
inbreeding and random loss of alleles that have a voluntary basis. As such, the activities of these
low frequency in the population. organizations do not guarantee the conservation
of genetic diversity for future commercial/
productive use. However, in many countries (e.g.
the Czech Republic) research institutions and
Box 35 universities provide expertise and professional
Mali – role of the government support for conservation activities carried out
by breed associations. In addition, national
In Mali, conservation activities have been initiated coordinating bodies, governmental inspections,
by the government on research stations and and control of state subventions ensure adherence
experimental farms. These actions have mainly to national conservation plans.
involved Maure, Peul Soudanais, Peul Toronké and
N’dama cattle breeds. 3.4 Farmers
In Europe and in North America, some farmers
Source: CR Mali (2002). target niche markets where they can sell
speciality products from local breeds, often
246
kept without heavy use of external inputs. In 3.6 Breeding companies

these circumstances, the local breeds are often In Europe, North America and Australia, pork
an integral part of the brand – this provides an production is highly industrialized and a few
opportunity for profitable production utilizing transnational breeding companies dominate
breeds that would otherwise be uneconomic. Strict production chains. These companies develop a
regulation of food production and the associated few lines from a limited number of breeds which
high levels of investment required can, however, are then used globally. Frozen semen is used for
present hurdles to the profitable exploitation the dissemination of genetic progress, and frozen
of niche markets. In many countries, farmers or semen and frozen embryos are used to transfer
farmers’ organizations have become involved in genetic material on an international scale. In
organic production. In some cases, traditional the poultry industry, only three transnational
breeds are favoured in organic systems because companies are actively selling highly specialized
of their good adaptation to the management hybrid layers and broilers at the global level. The
conditions, and for marketing reasons. Potential number of these specialized chickens is increasing
opportunities to export organic products are very quickly, mainly as the result of intensive
increasingly recognized in many eastern European marketing by the layer and broiler industries.
countries. These developments stimulate interest Specialized dairy and beef breeding is also a
in a range of traditional or locally adapted transnational activity in which frozen semen and
breeds, and create a base for breeding and in vivo embryos are used to disseminate the genetic
conservation programmes. progress achieved in the countries and herds of
In a number of African countries, the continued origin. In the pig and poultry sectors, the top-
use of local AnGR within traditional low external ranking animals in the breeding populations
input production systems is considered to be the are owned by the large breeding companies. In
form of conservation that best suits the local genetic improvement programmes for the pure
conditions, and avoids problems related to the lines, attention is paid to the effective population
lack of financial resources for other forms of size in order to avoid inbreeding. The companies
conservation. Uncontrolled mating, changes to do not want to limit their future scope for
traditional production systems and indiscriminate selective breeding. Genetic diversity within the
cross-breeding are, however, among the breeds kept is therefore conserved within these
significant risks in this form of conservation. programmes.
3.5 Part-time or hobby farmers

The number of part-time farmers and hobbyists 4 Conservation at species level
keeping farm animals is increasing in the Europe – status and opportunities
and the Caucasus, North America and Southwest
Pacific regions. Most livestock species except the Table 78 gives the number of breeds per species
pig are kept for hobby purposes. These hobbyists conserved in vivo and in vitro at the global level.
play an important role in the conservation of
local breeds. However, conservation is not their 4.1 Cattle
major goal, and their knowledge of the genetic For high-input systems, specialized breeds of dairy
management of populations is rather limited. or beef cattle are developed through intense
Conservation programmes performed by hobbyists selection, and their genetic material is widely
require special attention from the responsible disseminated. Nucleus breeding has started in dairy
authorities to make them effective. cattle, but there are still a lot of dairy farmers who
participate in breeding activities. On a global level,
intense selection for a few production traits, and
247
PART 3
TABLE 78
Conservation activities at the global level
Breeds Cattle Sheep Goat Pig Chicken Horse
Local 897 995 512 541 1 077 570

Regional transboundary 93 134 47 25 55 63
Conserved in vivo 324 261 109 120 194 149

Conserved in vitro 225 111 44 140 87 33
Regional transboundary breeds are defined as breeds that occur in more than one country but only within one region (see Part 1
– Section B). The countries will probably consider most of these breeds to be local breeds with regard to their origin, as they have
a limited regional distribution and have been developed under specific environmental conditions. The number of conserved local
breeds stated in the Country Reports, may therefore include regional transboundary breeds. More than one country within a region
may conserve the same “local” breed. Thus, the number of distinct breeds conserved may be lower than the number given in the
table, which was obtained by summing the number of local breeds conserved in each country. In some countries, even international
transboundary breeds (see Part 1 – Section B) might have been counted as locals if they have been in the country for a long time and
have adapted to the local conditions. For example, some West African countries consider their Jersey cattle introduced 100 years ago as
adapted local breeds.
a large exchange of semen from the best bulls has combination with cryostorage play an important
led to low effective population sizes in the most role. The availability of this technology has
popular dairy breeds – with a real risk of losing created the option of cryoconservation, which
genetic diversity in these breeds. The problem can has been widely used in the case of semen, and
be avoided by better genetic management at the to a lesser extent in the case of embryos and
global level, or by the use of breeding goals with oocytes. Relatively large numbers of cattle breeds
multiple objectives, such as are utilized in some are involved in in vitro conservation programmes.
Nordic dairy cattle populations – best illustrated However, in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the
and documented in the Norwegian Red Cattle Caribbean, the Near and Middle East and the
(Box 83 in Part 4 – Section D). Southwest Pacific, the development of cattle
In the dairy sector, the Holstein-Friesian breed conservation programmes should be further
dominates, and in the beef sector, French beef encouraged, particularly in view of the high
breeds are likely to obtain a similar position in adaptation of local breeds to the low to medium
the future. In many countries, these specialized external input production systems which prevail
breeds are used for upgrading to improve the in these regions.
performance of local breeds. Only in a few
situations are stable cross-breeding systems 4.2 Sheep
developed, in which populations of the local In regions and countries with high external input
breeds are used and conserved. In some countries, livestock systems, such as Europe and the Caucasus,
dual-purpose cattle breeds are used for organic North America and Australia, the number of
farming, for emerging functions such as landscape sheep has declined in recent years. Sheep wool
and nature management, or are kept as suckler now has a low economic value, and this is a threat
cows by hobbyists. In all regions, conservation to some breeds. In Europe, nature management
programmes need to be developed for local cattle is emerging as an important function for this
breeds and for multipurpose breeds that will no species. This role offers an excellent opportunity
longer be used for their original functions (e.g. for in vivo conservation, because of the large
traction). flocks required for these purposes.
In the development and use of specialized In small-scale farming systems in Africa, Asia
breeds, artificial reproduction techniques in and the Near and Middle East, as well as in eastern
248
parts of the Europe and the Caucasus region, sheep there are many local pig breeds. The latter need
are still important for meat or milk production, careful monitoring, and may require additional
and in some religions have a ceremonial function. attention in future conservation programmes
These roles guarantee continued utilization of because of the threat posed by the increased use
the species. Nonetheless, in vivo conservation of exotic breeds.
programmes need to be developed in regions The speed of industrialization and specialization,
such as the Southwest Pacific and Central Asia, in combination with the lack of opportunities for
where there are major declines in sheep numbers, the in vivo conservation of pigs means that this
and in regions or subregions with a high diversity species requires special attention in conservation
in their sheep populations, such as the Near and programmes. Frozen semen is used for the
Middle East. dissemination of genetic progress, and frozen semen
AI and freezing techniques for sheep genetic and frozen embryos are used for intercompany
material are well developed, but are not widely exchange of genetic material between populations
used. Semen is stored only in the genebanks of present in different countries. These activities have
developed countries as a means to protect AnGR created a base for in vitro conservation in pigs.
against disasters such as major disease epidemics. In Europe and Asia, many of the lines and breeds
In vitro conservation programmes with similar that are set aside in breeding and cross-breeding
objectives should be established in developing programmes, are conserved in vitro. However,
countries. the status of conservation measures should be
monitored in order to identify additional activities
4.3 Goats that may be required.
The goat’s importance in small-scale farming
systems for milk and meat production, and the 4.5 Chickens
wide variety of conditions under which it can be In Europe and North America many universities
kept, guarantee continued utilization. In general, and research institutes try to conserve locally
this species is not faced with very significant developed (dual-purpose) breeds of chicken
threats. As such, in vivo conservation activities that are no longer used by the industry. Many
targeting goats do not generally seem to be a universities have developed experimental
particularly high priority. AI is only practised in lines for a variety of purposes. In many cases,
a limited number of breeds, almost exclusively in the birds are now scheduled to be culled for
developed countries. This is the reason why only budgetary reasons. In eastern Europe, many
a few breeds are preserved by in vitro methods. highly selected lines, bred in the period of the
As a precautionary measure, in vitro conservation “cold war”, are still in existence and should be
of goat genetic material should be given more considered for conservation. In some European
attention globally. countries, some small companies remain involved
in the production of layers and broilers, but
4.4 Pigs their number is rapidly declining. In developing
As discussed above, in Europe, North America countries, the role of chickens in small-scale
and Australia pork production is dominated by farming, and the preference of local people for
a few transnational companies. As the breeding meat from local birds will promote the continued
industry becomes more concentrated, many use of many local breeds. In the developed world,
breeds and lines are taken out of production. In many people keep chickens as a hobby, and this
a number of regions including Europe and the provides an opportunity for in vivo conservation.
Caucasus, Africa and North America, relatively For chickens, in vitro conservation of semen is
few local pig breeds exist. Conversely, in East Asia a recent development. Frozen semen from local
249
PART 3
breeds is stored only in a few Asian and European 5 In vivo and in vitro conservation
countries. In vitro conservation of local breeds, programmes – regional analysis
recently developed dual-purpose breeds, and lines
which are set aside, should get a high priority at
the global level. The spread of highly pathogenic 5.1 Africa
avian influenza (HPAI) in 2005/2006 illustrates the A large part of the human population of Africa
risks for a species kept at high densities all over is poorly nourished, and self-sufficiency in
the world. food production is a major objective for many
governments. Policies aimed at increasing
4.6 Horses food production, have encouraged local
In the past, horses were mainly used for breeders to use exotic germplasm to replace
draught and transport. The mechanization of local breeds (chickens), or for cross-breeding/
transportation, and later of agriculture, has upgrading (cattle and sheep). These activities
meant that in many parts of the world horses are not accompanied by adequate breeding and
are now bred almost entirely for leisure purposes conservation programmes, and threaten many
and are mainly kept by hobbyists. Many breeds local breeds. The expansion of high external
are used in several countries, but international input livestock systems using exotic breeds,
breeding management is rarely reported. The along with the threats to local breeds posed
only exceptions are the Icelandic Horse and by droughts, disease epidemics and political
the Friesian Horse, for which the Icelandic and instability reinforce the need to implement in
the Dutch herd books, respectively, coordinate vivo and in vitro conservation on a wide scale as
breeding activities and keep control of genetic soon as possible. Achieving this, however, will
diversity within the breeds. require a greater awareness of the issue.
The existence of a wide variety of leisure Eighteen out of the 42 Country Reports from
activities involving horses may stimulate the Africa describe in vivo activities. In nearly all these
maintenance of genetic diversity within the countries the conservation activities are restricted
species. In general, however, the genetic diversity to a few breeds in each species. The number of
within local horse populations is threatened by breeds conserved in goats, pigs, chickens and
the wide use of a few popular stallions. “Heavy” horses is very low (Table 79).
(cold blood) breeds, originally bred for draught In comparison to other species, phenotypic
purposes, are often threatened; in some countries and genetic characterization in cattle and sheep
they are now kept only for meat production. is relatively well documented in past and recent
For horses, in vitro conservation of semen literature. For the other species, some phenotypic
is a recent development. In a few countries, characterization of local breeds can be found in
frozen semen from local breeds is stored. In vitro (historic) handbooks and in recently developed
conservation of local “heavy” breeds should be databases. Breeding theory is well developed
treated as a priority. in various institutes and universities. However,
breeding and conservation programmes are
difficult to perform, because of a lack of data
on population sizes, identification systems and
pedigree recording. The knowledge and skills
required to implement such programmes are
scarce, and the necessary infrastructure is not
available. Some countries mention that in vivo
conservation is performed by pastoralists and
small-scale farmers who keep the breeds. However,
250
TABLE 79
Conservation activities in Africa
Cattle Sheep Goat Pig Chicken Horse
East Africa
Local breeds 59 30 35 2 14 4
North & West Africa

Local breeds 44 49 29 25 49 24
Southern Africa
Local breeds 51 30 22 22 26 8
Africa
Local breeds 154 109 86 49 89 36
Regional transboundary breeds 35 27 15 2 6 7
Refer to footnote under Table 78.
it is doubtful whether it is really appropriate sell breeding material and are used to educate
to describe these activities as conservation local farmers. None of the Country Reports
programmes. document a well-established conservation plan.
Most of the programmes described in the The analysis reveals major differences with
Country Reports, include an important role respect to conservation activities between the
for nucleus herds of local animals kept at three African subregions. Only 9 of the 42 Country
governmental or institutional farms. These farms Reports indicate the presence of in vitro activities
(Table 77). In nearly all these countries the
conservation activities are restricted to a few
Box 36 cattle breeds (Table 79). The knowledge necessary
Ethiopia – in situ conservation to implement such programmes is scarce, and
the required infrastructure (e.g. liquid nitrogen
In Ethiopia, four cattle ranches and one sheep facilities) is not available, or cannot be adequately
ranch are operating in situ conservation measures. maintained. In vitro activities are limited to the
The overall objectives of these ranches are the storage of semen from some local cattle breeds
multiplication and cross-breeding of Boran, Horo, at private or governmental institutions. Some
Fogera and Arsi cattle, and Menz sheep. countries also mention the storage of semen from
imported exotic breeds as a strategic activity.
Source: CR Ethiopia (2004). Tissue DNA of individuals from local breeds is
preserved at a few research stations.
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PART 3
Box 37
Morocco’s Plan Moutonnier – designated breeding areas to sustain
local sheep breeds
Morocco has made great efforts to establish on cross-breeding, the impact of exotic breeds on
sustainable management of its sheep genetic the indigenous sheep population has been limited.
resources. An important development was the Indigenous breeds accounted for 53 percent of the
establishment in 1980 of a programme known as total population in 1996/97 (the most recent census in
the Plan Moutonnier. The main element of the plan Morocco categorizing sheep by breed). Since 1970, the
has been the partitioning of the country into zones Sardi population has increased, Timahdite and D’man
according to the genetic resources present and the have stabilized, and Béni Guil has decreased only
nature of the agricultural systems. Each zone has its slightly. However, the Béni Ahsen breed population
own set of rules regarding sheep breeding. In the decreased tremendously following the introduction of
“breeding zones” (zones berceaux de race) only the irrigation in its home zone, which caused a shift to the
breed that has existed in the local area for many years growing of fruit trees and the keeping of dairy cattle.
is allowed to be kept. In the “cross-breeding zones” The latter example illustrates that even if protective
(zones de croisement) cross-breeding is permitted measures are in place, a major re-orientation of the
without restriction on the choice of breeds. Elsewhere, farming system is liable to threaten the continued
in the “traditional sheep breeding zones” (zones existence of traditional breeds.
d’élevage traditionel), several varieties of sheep are
permitted with no specific breed predominating. Provided by Ismaïl Boujenane.
For further information see: Boujenane (1999 and 2005).
The breeding zones are established in well-
delineated geographical areas where a homogenous
type of animal has been raised for a long period
of time. The zones cover about 54 percent of the Distribution of breeding zones for local sheep breeds
country’s territory (see map). The breeds for
-15 ° -10 ° -5 ° 0°
which breeding zones have been established Sheep breeding areas
in Morocco
Spain
include the main local breeds – Timahdite, Breed name

Mediterranean Sea
Tanger
Tetouan
35 °
Melilla
Sardi, Béni Guil, D’man, Béni Ahsen and
35 °
Beni Ahsen
Beni Guil Oujda
Boujaâd. Some mountain breeds (Atlas D’Man Rabat

Fes
Mountain or Berber breeds) are also included, Sardi Casablanca Meknes
Timahdite
but the programme is mainly focused on the Boujaâd
Settat
aforementioned six breeds. Province boundary

The plan has also included selection Marrakech
ATLANTIC OCEAN
programmes for the improvement of local Agadir
30 °
30 °
breeds in their home areas; the organization of Tiznit
farmers’ associations; and encouragement for Algeria
farmers to improve their local breeds. The plan

has met with success thanks to the dynamic Western Sahara
0 200 km
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection.
role of the sheep keepers’ organizations and -15 ° -10 °Mauritania -5 °

Standard Parallels 31.5° and -7.0°
the support of the state. Largely as a result Source: adapted from Boujenane (2005).
Note that D’Man are only present in the oases and valleys of the
of the plan and the geographical restrictions
depicted zone, and that the delimitations of areas for Boujaâd have
been estimated.
252
5.2 Asia systems and the more widespread use of exotic

In this region, approximately 50 percent of breeds. Pigs and chickens play a major role in
countries have in vivo conservation programmes. meat production in Asia. A rich diversity of breeds
In the developing countries of the region, exists. The conservation of these two species gets
identification of animals and the recording of a lot of attention in a small number of countries:
pedigree and performance are lacking. Therefore, China, Japan and Viet Nam (Table 80). Many
for many local breeds the basic information Country Reports indicate the preference of local
required to improve conservation measures is people for the meat of local pig and poultry
absent. In vivo conservation is restricted to state breeds. This preference facilitates their future use
farms or university and institutional experimental and conservation. The speed of industrialization
farms. Within these programmes, phenotypic and and specialization in the pig sector, however,
genetic characterization has commenced. gives rise to a need for special attention to be
Urbanization, the growth of the human paid to the establishment of local and regional
population and increased income levels are in vitro conservation programmes. This need is
leading to greater demand for animal products, emphasized by the lack of opportunities for in
and result in the intensification of production vivo conservation of the species.
TABLE 80
Conservation activities in Asia
Central Asia
Local breeds 29 74 28 3 12 32
East Asia
Local breeds 74 72 71 156 125 57
South Asia
Local breeds 86 106 64 18 45 20
Southeast Asia
Local breeds 50 13 19 52 61 32
Asia
Local breeds 239 265 182 229 243 141
253
PART 3
Box 38
Conservation strategies in China
The People’s Republic of China has more than The direct result of the funding is 83 projects
1.2 billion people – about 22 percent of the world’s – most are concerned with breed conservation; about
population, but only around 10 percent of global 10 percent are linked to cryoconservation schemes.
farmland. The need to feed a growing population has Genebanks have been established, with the main
resulted over the last 25 years in emphasis being placed mammalian bank located in Beijing, and the poultry
on farm output. This resulted in a major importation work being carried out in Jiangsu province. Sampling
of exotic breeds and considerable unplanned cross- of breeds for cryoconservation started in the mid-
breeding. However, the government realised that there 1990s and the procedures have been improved
was potential for a serious loss of livestock genetic over time as a result of experience and scientific
diversity and, in 1994/1995, made several crucial advice. The requirement is now that 250 embryos
decisions. In 1994, after drawing up a list of 576 farm and 1 600 doses of semen are stored for each breed
animal breeds, the government issued the Regulations kept. Seventeen endangered breeds have had semen
on Breeding Livestock Administration. Special funds stored, and embryos are stored from 16 different
were allocated to maintain indigenous breeds on breeds. This exemplifies the dilemma of whether to
state farms. The government established a National sample a limited number of breeds fully, or to sample
Commission for Domestic Animal Genetic Resources more breeds, but in a limited manner. In the long
Administration, which hosts the National Focal Point for term, there is a need to cover all breeds with both
AnGR. A list of conservation areas for farm breeds was techniques.
also produced, and state farms were linked with local China has strengthened its basic research,
farms. In 1999, a major survey was initiated in North although comprehensive breed comparisons between
Western and South Western Provinces, which identified local and exotic breeds remain rare. The proposal is
79 previously unknown breeds. The government also to fully characterize and evaluate breeds in a Test
recognized the extinction of seven breeds to add to the Centre located in Beijing. However, the replication of
ten lost up to 1983. As a result, there are around 600 the proper environments for each breed involved is
recognized breeds in China. problematic.
Financial support was initiated in the Eighth Five- The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) has nominated
Year Plan (1991–1996), during which the government 78 breeds at national level as Key Farm Animal Breeds.
recognized 83 state-level key breeding farms and For poultry, some 40 breeds are proposed for ex situ
undertook the provision of infrastructure for several in vivo flocks in Jiangsu province, with each breed
farms and conservation areas as well as some new having at least 300 hens and the relevant number of
AI stations. This support (legal and financial) has males. The recent avian influenza outbreak has raised
enabled Provinces, Prefectures and Counties to questions about security and the need for in vitro
establish conservation areas and farms for their local conservation alongside in vivo work.
breeds. In addition, pedigree (herd book) registration The development and industrialization of China
schemes and breed improvement schemes have been has meant that the MOA is aware of the need to
established. At present, the government is drafting ensure public awareness of conservation and the
an “Animal Husbandry Law”, which integrates AnGR importance of livestock genetic diversity. To mark the
activities into mainstream animal production. It tenth anniversary of the China National Commission
requires conservation activities and prescribes legal for Management of Farm Animal Genetic Resources,
requirements. The proper study of local and exotic the government released a stamp collection of the
breed performance is also a requirement.
• continues
254
identification and pedigree recording are well

Box 38 cont.
established.
Conservation strategies in China
In all important species many in vivo
78 key breeds. Future plans include the “China Farm conservation programmes have been established
Animal Diversity Network”. Personnel training will for local breeds (Table 81). However, substantial
be maintained to continually improve the expertise differences exist between western and central
available to ensure the appropriate management of Europe, and the countries of the eastern parts
AnGR. Improved liaison between all those involved of the region. In western and central Europe 27
is required to achieve the most cost-effective means countries have in vivo conservation programmes
of maintaining China’s rich store of animal genetic (Table 77). A few countries (e.g. Ireland, Finland
diversity. and Germany) base their conservation policy
heavily on the number of males and females in
Provided by Hongjie Yang and David Steane. the population (effective population size). Some
reports mention the low effective population
size of popular cattle breeds such as the Holstein-
The conservation of cattle, sheep, goats and Friesian and the Belgian Blue because of the use
horses requires more attention in Asia, particularly of a limited number of sires. Some countries (in
in the western part of the region, where a western, northern and central Europe) have a
rich diversity exists, without any significant history of AnGR conservation, and some have
conservation activities. joined forces for reasons of efficiency (Nordic
Fifty percent of countries in Asia have an in vitro countries). In some countries, in vivo conservation
conservation programme. The state of in vitro is limited to a few species. It is performed in
conservation at the national level is very variable. number of different ways. Animals are kept at a
Well-established genebanks exist in Japan and variety of farms (research farms, education farms,
India, and genebanks are under establishment museums, prison farms), or are kept for nature
in China, the Republic of Korea and Viet Nam. management or as hobby animals. Part-time
Semen is preserved from all the main species, and farming is increasing. Many of these small-scale
embryos from cattle, sheep and goats are also farmers keep local breeds and try to sell regional
stored. In a few countries (e.g. Japan) tissue DNA is products under quality labels in niche markets.
collected from all the main species. Governments In many Country Reports organic farming is
undertake these in vitro activities in collaboration mentioned as an opportunity for the use of local
with industry. In some other countries, there is breeds. Many private organizations (NGOs) play a
limited storage of semen at AI stations, while decisive role in in vivo conservation. However, the
elsewhere, particularly in the western part of the genetic management of the populations under
region, no in vitro activities exist. programmes run by these organizations needs to
be improved.
5.3 Europe and the Caucasus Political instability in the eastern part of the
Throughout the Europe and the Caucasus region region and the dissolution of the Soviet Union
there is considerable awareness of conservation, had a serious impact on livestock systems and
and many breeding and conservation plans have animal numbers. Many existing breeding and
been developed. Phenotypic characterization conservation programmes and the institutions
is carried out and several molecular genetic involved were destroyed. Many competitive
characterization studies have been undertaken. breeds and lines of cattle, pigs and chicken were
With the exception of the southeastern part of developed in the Soviet Union, and were bred
the region, recording of population sizes, animal entirely separately from the breeds and lines of
255
PART 3
the main species. In some cases, embryos of cattle,

Box 39
sheep and pigs are also preserved, and in a few
Denmark – opportunities for in vivo
countries, cattle oocytes or tissue DNA are stored.
conservation
These banks are recently founded or are under
construction. A strong collaboration with the
In Denmark, beef cattle, horses, sheep, goats, rabbits, animal breeding industry exists in most countries.
ducks, geese, turkeys, ostriches and deer are mainly The genebanks need to be further developed
kept by part-time, leisure-time and hobby breeders. – with respect, for example, to ownership and
There are a number of industrialized production access, information and documentation, and
enterprises, especially among beef cattle, turkeys and optimization of the core collection and the ratio
ducks, but most herds are small with medium or low between gametes and embryos. Despite the
levels of investment. The part-time, leisure-time and presence of a rich AnGR diversity in combination
hobby breeders keep many different breeds. They with real threats (such as political instability)
constitute an important target group with respect to in vitro conservation programmes are largely
conservation and utilization of AnGR. Leisure-related absent in the eastern parts of the region, with the
aspects of livestock keeping are of considerable exception of Ukraine.
significance in Denmark. Keeping farm animals is an
important recreational activity for many people, and 5.4 Latin America and the Caribbean
many others appreciate the effects that, grazing cattle, In this region, the number of countries with active
horses, sheep and goats have on the landscape and conservation programmes is low, although many
environment. countries report a very rich national biodiversity.
Most of the species and breeds present in this
Source: CR Denmark (2003). region were imported from other regions
hundreds of years ago. Some breeds were further
developed in straight-breeding programmes.
the Western World. These breeds and lines still New composite breeds adapted to the specific
exist, but are threatened by the introduction of and often extreme local conditions were also
Western genetics. developed. In other cases, continuous cross-
Most in vitro conservation programmes are breeding takes place. As straight-breeding plays
found in western and central Europe. In many a less significant role than in Europe, conserving
cases this is restricted to the storage of semen (pure) breeds is often not regarded as such a high
from a limited number of cattle and sheep breeds. priority. This does not apply to South America’s
A few countries (the Nordic countries, France, unique domesticated species (e.g. llamas, alpacas
the Netherlands, Poland, the Czech Republic and and guinea pigs).
Hungary) have genebanks preserving semen from
TABLE 81
Conservation activities in Europe and the Caucasus
Local breeds 277 458 170 165 608 269


256
TABLE 82
Conservation activities in Latin America and the Caribbean
Caribbean
Local breeds 19 5 3 11 7 1
South America
Local breeds 74 36 20 35 43 39
Central America
Local breeds 36 6 3 21 34 25

Local breeds 129 47 26 67 84 65
The quality of in vivo conservation activities is support conservation decisions. In the counties
highly variable. Brazil has an intensive programme which do have conservation activities, initiatives
of in vivo conservation, while some countries are taken by governments, universities and
lack any activity. In much of the Caribbean and institutes.
Central America, animal identification and In vitro conservation is limited to the storage
registration, performance recording and breeding of semen and sometimes also of embryos from
are not developed, and this creates a weak a few breeds. The initiatives for establishing
base for conservation activities. In many South cryobanks are mainly taken by governments with
American countries, the export market makes it help from universities and institutes. Brazil is the
attractive to invest in animal identification and first country in this region to have established a
performance recording, and this contributes genebank.
to the establishment of active breeding and
conservation programmes.
In vivo conservation is mainly limited to cattle
and horses kept at university and institutional
farms (Table 82), which often function as nucleus
breeding herds. In a few countries, molecular
characterization activities have been initiated to
257
PART 3
Box 40 5.5 Near and Middle East

Brazil – implementation of The primary aim of the governments of the
a genebank countries in this region is to increase animal
production to decrease imports of food of animal
To minimize the threat of extinction faced by locally origin. Thus, there is a focus on high-input systems.
adapted breeds, the National Research Centre for High-output exotic cattle and chicken breeds are
Genetic Resources and Biotechnology – Cenargen, imported. There is very little drive to improve or
of the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation to conserve the local animals despite a rich breed
(Embrapa), included, from 1983, the conservation diversity (Table 83).
of AnGR in its conservation programme, which CR Iraq (2003) mentions some in vivo
up to that date had included only plants. From conservation activities in the main species – cattle,
that time, the conservation of AnGR began to be sheep and goats, but details are not provided.
carried out, under the coordination of Cenargen, by In other countries, there is generally a lack of
various Embrapa research centres, universities, state awareness of the value of the local breeds and
research corporations and private farmers. The animal the possibilities to improve and conserve them.
conservation programme includes the following Throughout most of the region, no identification,
stages: (a) identification of populations in an registration or performance recording exist.
advanced state of genetic dilution; (b) phenotypic and Characterization activity is extremely limited. No
genetic characterization; and (c) evaluation of their in vitro conservation programmes exist in this
production potential. Conservation is being carried region.
out in conservation nuclei, maintained in the habitats
where the animals were naturally selected (in situ). 5.6 North America
At the same time, embryos and semen are stored (ex The United States of America and Canada have a
situ) at the Animal Germplasm Bank (AGB) in Brasilia. close inter-relationship with respect to livestock.
It is important that economic use for each one of the Canada provides a lot of livestock and livestock
breeds being conserved is identified. Research alone products to the United States of America. The
is not able to conserve the endangered breeds, and a latter is the base for breeding stock used in
partnership with private breeders is of fundamental Canada.
importance to the success of the programme. Both countries have very active NGOs playing
an important role in the in vivo conservation of
Source: CR Brazil (2003). the many local breeds. Support from scientists
for these organizations in terms of their genetic
management activities could, however, be
improved. Universities and institutional farms
TABLE 83
Conservation activities in the Near and Middle East
Local breeds 43 50 34 1 24 14
258
TABLE 84
Conservation activities in North America
Local breeds 29 35 3 18 12 23
Regional transboundary 3 6 5 1 1 3
breeds
take care of the conservation of dual-purpose

Box 41 breeds and experimental selection lines of
United States of America – priorities chickens. However, many of them are threatened
in conservation programmes by limited budgets for these activities. A lot of
work on breed characterization is carried out by
Priorities are subdivided into biological issues universities and research institutes.
and physical capacity issues. From the biological In the United States of America and Canada,
perspective, priorities include: AnGR are seen as a strategic resource for
• completing breed-level collections of national food security, which may be threatened
cryopreserved germplasm and tissue; by bioterrorism. This is one of the reasons
• increasing levels of in situ conservation why the United States of America invested in
by private and public entities; the establishment of an in vitro conservation
• creating a more thorough understanding of programme and a genebank (Table 84).
within and between-breed genetic diversity; and Collections are being built up very quickly, in
• developing more efficient and reliable close collaboration with the industry. Breeding
cryoconservation protocols for semen, embryos companies use the genebank as a back up of their
and oocytes. breeding work. In Canada, a programme for in
Physical capacity priorities include: vitro conservation has been developed and will
• continuing the development of NAGP (National be implemented in the near future. There will be
Animal Germplasm Program) infrastructure and close collaboration between the United States
staffing; of America and Canada in genebank activities.
• increasing awareness and support for university They share information and documentation
conservation efforts; programmes, and are discussing taking care of
• leveraging the complementarities of different each other’s back-up in vitro collections.
federal agency programmes; and
• increasing industry awareness of, and 5.7 Southwest Pacific
involvement in, various aspects of managing In general, governments in this region show little
animal genetic diversity. awareness of the strategic value of the genetic
diversity of livestock. In Australia, private farmers
Source: CR United States of America (2003). and NGOs are active in the conservation of small
populations of threatened cattle breeds, and
private breeding companies and NGOs store
cattle semen and embryos.
259
PART 3
TABLE 85
Conservation activities in the Southwest Pacific
Local breeds 26 35 11 12 17 22
Box 42
6 Opportunities for improving
Australia – involvement of diverse
conservation programmes
stakeholders
The effectiveness of the conservation of genetic
In Australia, mainstream breeding of livestock has diversity can be measured utilizing criteria such
focused on achieving sustainable industries through as the effective population size, the number of
adapted and productive livestock. Genetic inputs sires and dams used in each generation, and
from many continents have been used to achieve this the mating schemes practised. Unfortunately,
goal, and conservation of adaptive genotypes has information on the number of animals conserved
been achieved by making the animals desirable for in in vivo programmes and the number of sires and
production purposes and ensuring their presence in dams from which genetic material is conserved in
sufficient numbers to provide responses to selection vitro is available only in a few countries. Thus, it
over the long term. Conservation of rare breeds in is difficult to assess the effectiveness of existing
Australia is largely in the hands of private breeders activities. Some of the improvements required to
and breed societies, or NGOs such as the Australian establish sound conservation programmes can,
Rare Breeds Trust. These special interest groups however, be identified and are discussed below.
support the in situ and on-farm conservation of The intensification of animal production
breeds through breeding plans and genetic advice. results, in some countries, in large areas of land
Ex situ conservation is effected through genebanks being given over to nature conservation. Nature
maintained by breeding companies and conservation management facilitates in vivo conservation of
NGOs. herbivore species, but in some cases, the animals
are kept outside their original environment
Source: CR Australia (2004). and are not used for the type of production for
which they were developed. Large populations
of animals are needed for these activities, which,
if managed properly (in genetic terms), offer a
great opportunity to conserve genetic variation
for future use.
While at a global level, food of animal origin will
to a large extent be produced in high-input high-
output systems with highly specialized breeds or
cross-breeds, small-scale farming continues to be
important, and the significance of organic farming
is increasing. These systems require well-adapted
260
dual-purpose or multipurpose breeds. These might be wise to use breeding stock from related
breeds are better fitted to the production goals populations to enlarge the effective population
of less-intensive farming systems than are highly size. Another alternative is to select the semen of
specialized breeds or cross-breeds. However, “lost” founders from genebanks, and use these
transnational breeding organizations rarely sires again.
invest in these breeds because of the limited size Cryoconservation is a proven technology and
of the markets. More emphasis should be given is an important complement to in vivo breed
to the development of these breeds and to the conservation. Up to the present time, it has been
conservation of their genetic diversity. used mainly to conserve genetic diversity within
The development of special products for breeds; it is attractive to the breeding industry
niche markets offers the possibility to use local as a back up for their breeding material. The
breeds and to make them profitable again. management of genebanks has to be further
This strategy can be enhanced by fostering the developed, with respect, for example, to
notion of “terroir” or the use of labels of origin. ownership and access, storing back-up collections,
Conservation on a small scale on farms oriented information and documentation, optimization
towards producing for niche markets can lead to a of the core collection, and the ratio between
profitable use of local breeds, but often results in gametes and embryos.
a loss of genetic variation within the population.
This can also be the case in small populations kept
by hobby farmers if inbreeding is not properly 7 Conclusions and priorities
controlled. However, small farmers and hobbyists
play a very important role in the conservation In many countries in Africa, eastern parts of the
of between-breed variation in chickens, horses, Europe and the Caucasus region, the Near and
sheep, goats and cattle. The education of these Middle East, Central and South Asia, and the
livestock keepers in the genetic management of Caribbean, conservation programmes need to
small populations should be improved, as should be developed. These regions and subregions
professional support from governmental and have a rich diversity of AnGR, but its value is
academic institutions. Proper breeding strategies not sufficiently recognized by the national
coupled with AI and ET could effectively be used authorities. In most countries, awareness has to
to maintain if not increase genetic diversity under be increased in order to obtain financial resources
the conditions of small-farm conservation or for the improvement and conservation of local
niche-market production. breeds. Capacity to develop animal breeding
In modern breeding schemes carried out by and production, and to implement the genetic
breeding organizations, the conservation of management of local populations should be a high
within-breed genetic diversity is often taken priority. In many developing countries, multilateral
into account. Optimization techniques are well or bilateral aid programmes for conservation
developed and effective. When, for example in are necessary. Intercountry, subregional and
cattle breeding, these techniques are introduced regional programmes should be encouraged
in the mating schemes used by farmers, and supported through external technical and
inbreeding problems at the production level can financial assistance. The establishment of regional
be minimized. At present, there is a tendency to conservation programmes and genebanks for
broaden breeding goals to include fitness traits as regional transboundary breeds should be a high
well as production traits. This will have a positive priority particularly in developing countries.
influence on the effective population size and The number of breeds that are potential
on the maintenance of the genetic diversity candidates for conservation is large, and
within the breeds in question. For some breeds, it conservation programmes for animals are
261
PART 3
expensive. Thus, in national conservation For local and recently developed breeds and
programmes, careful attention should be paid lines that will not be used extensively in the
to the selection of breeds and methods for future, opportunities for in vivo conservation
conservation. Effective prioritization of breeds should be further explored: nature management,
for conservation programmes is facilitated by organic farming, participatory breeding, niche
phenotypic and genetic characterization, and markets and hobby farming. In sheep and in
by knowledge of the size and structure of the horses, production and breeding objectives have
population. Obtaining information on population changed dramatically in recent years, with major
structure and effective population size is a great consequences for the use and conservation of
challenge and requires cooperation with breeders genetic resources. These developments illustrate
and their registries. the importance of maintaining the genetic
To implement an adequate breed conservation diversity necessary to meet new objectives. In
programme (in which the conservation of the sheep, between-breed diversity is threatened by
diversity within the breed is very important), the a sharp decease in the size of the population in
pedigree of the individual animals must be known, many regions.
a required minimum number of males and females Education programmes on genetic management
per generation must be kept to avoid random should have a high priority. In all regions, farmers
drift, and a mating scheme should be introduced and their organizations and advisors, require
to avoid inbreeding. In vivo conservation instruction on sustainable use, development and
programmes must include identification and conservation of AnGR. Support for hobbyists and
registration of animals, performance recording, NGOs to improve their genetic management is
and monitoring of populations and population also required. In many universities in developed
sizes. Regional cooperation in the establishment countries these topics are increasingly integrated
of intercountry or regional genebanks for in the curricula for agricultural students. However,
cryoconservation is of particular importance. the number of these students is decreasing.
In poultry, pigs and (beef and dairy) cattle, To safeguard genetic diversity, all countries
transnational companies develop only a limited should have their own or shared genebanks
number of breeds and lines. The breeding and that contain cryopreserved material of their
production activities of these companies are locally developed breeds and lines, to protect
spreading in Asia and Africa. Improved, highly them against unpredictable threats. Because
selected breeds and lines will be used to meet many transboundary breeds exist, coordination
the growing demand for meat, milk and eggs between countries is required. Cooperation would
in the coming years. In these circumstances, be facilitated if national and regional genebanks
many recently developed (dual-purpose) and operated under internationally agreed protocols.
local breeds of cattle, pigs and poultry have These should include zoosanitary requirements for
to be considered for conservation. The high cryoconserved material, in addition to phenotypic
speed of industrialization and specialization in description and genetic characterization. However,
pig breeding, in combination with a lack of in in some circumstances, it may be appropriate for
vivo conservation opportunities for this species countries to decide to immediately commence
requires that special attention should be paid the establishment of a national gene bank, and
to the in vitro conservation of pig populations tackle sanitary requirements and characterization
(local breeds and recently developed lines). For at a later stage.
all species, breeding programmes to improve The operation of genebanks would also be
and conserve local breeds and to enhance their improved by the regulation of ownership, access
performance in cross-breeding systems with and documentation, and by the optimization of
exotics should be developed. the contents of the collection. To facilitate the
262
establishment of genebanks, training facilities References

are needed for cryoconservation techniques
such as the sampling of breeds and individuals
Boujenane, I. 1999. Les ressources génétiques ovines au
within breeds, and freezing and maintenance
Maroc. Rabat. Actes Éditions.
of semen, oocytes and embryos. In vivo and in
vitro conservation sites and collections should be Boujenane, I. 2005. Small ruminant breeds of Morocco.
protected against human-induced and natural In L. Iniguez, ed. Characterization of small ruminant
calamities by variety of measures, including the breeds in West Asia and North Africa. Volume 2:
use of widely separated locations at both national North Africa, pp. 4–54. Aleppo, Syria. International
and international levels. Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
(ICARDA).

Oldenbroek, J.K. 1999. Genebanks and the conserva-

tion of farm animal genetic resources. Lelystad, the
Netherlands. DLO Institute for Animal Science and
Health.
263
Section D
Reproductive and molecular

biotechnology
1 Introduction
The development of biotechnologies in the an overview of the information presented

fields of breeding, reproduction and molecular in the Country Reports on the utilization of
genetics has advanced considerably in recent biotechnologies.
years. Among reproductive technologies, AI and
multiple ovulation followed by embryo transfer
(MOET) have already had a major impact on 2 Global overview
livestock improvement programmes in developed
countries. These technologies speed up genetic Table 86 presents a region-by-region overview
progress, reduce the risk of disease transmission, of the proportion of countries reporting the
and expand the number of animals that can use of different classes of biotechnology. It can
be bred from a superior parent. The field of be seen that AI is by far the most widely used
molecular genetics is also rapidly developing; biotechnology. Nonetheless, particularly in the
characterization based on molecular markers, and Africa and Southwest Pacific regions, there are
marker assisted selection offer new opportunities many countries where it remains unavailable. In
in AnGR management (FAO, 2004). However, the the case of ET and molecular techniques, the gap
extent to which the technologies are utilized between the developed and developing regions
varies greatly from country to country and is even greater. As Table 87 illustrates, the use
between regions. The following chapters present of biotechnologies tends to be biased towards
TABLE 86
Use of biotechnologies by region
Artificial Insemination Embryo Transfer Molecular Genetic

Technologies
Region Number of Number Reporting Number Reporting Number Reporting
CRs providing use of providing use of providing use of
information technology information technology information technology
Europe & 39 39 97% 25 64% 29 83%

the Caucasus
Africa 42 42 74% 30 17% 29 14%

Asia 25 22 86% 17 47% 16 50%
Latin America & 22 22 95% 14 86% 15 73%
the Caribbean
Southwest Pacific 11 11 55% 10 10% 9 11%
North America 2 2 100% 2 100% 2 100%
Near & Middle East 7 6 100% 3 33% 5 40%
265
PART 3
TABLE 87
Use of biotechnologies by species
Artificial Insemination Embryo Transfer Molecular Genetic Technologies

CRs with Reporting use of CRs with Reporting use of CRs with Reporting use of
information technology: information technology: information technology:
on species on species on species
Cattle Other Cattle Other Cattle Other
Region species species species
Europe & 38 100% 66% 11 100% 36% 18 89% 100%

the Caucasus
Africa 31 100% 10% 4 100% 0% 3 100% 33%
Asia 18 94% 56% 6 100% 50% 7 86% 100%
Latin America & 21 100% 71% 12 100% 33% 9 78% 89%

the Caribbean
Southwest 5 100% 80% 2 100% 0% 0 - -
Pacific
North America 2 100% 50% 0 - - 1 100% 100%
Near & 6 100% 33% 1 0% 100% 2 0% 100%

Middle East
cattle. The table shows that this bias is greatest

with respect to ET, but it can also be seen that in 3 Africa
most regions the use of AI is also dominated by
the cattle sector. In the Africa region in particular, The Country Reports indicate that AI is the
few countries have extended the use of AI to reproductive biotechnology most commonly
other species. The evidence for this species used in the management of AnGR in Africa.
bias is rather less clear in the case of molecular The reports generally express an aspiration for
genetic technologies. The number of countries greater use of the technology, mainly to facilitate
reporting the use of these technologies is quite breeding programmes and the introduction of
low. However, among these countries, a relatively exotic germplasm. This aspiration corresponds to
high number report studies of molecular the overall objective expressed in most African
characteristics in at least one species other than Country Reports of promoting food security
cattle. Nonetheless, cattle remain the single through increased output of livestock products.
dominant species in most regions, particularly In many cases, the desire for more widespread
where commercial applications of the molecular use of AI is tempered by concern regarding
technologies are concerned. Further details of the implications for genetic diversity of its
the distribution of biotechnology use, and of the inappropriate or uncontrolled use. A number of
species to which the technologies are applied are Country Reports from the region also mention the
included in the following regional descriptions. potential use of AI facilities for cryoconservation
purposes.
Thirty-one out of 42 countries report the use of
AI. A few other countries report that AI has been
carried out experimentally in the past, but never
applied routinely, or that former AI programmes
266
have been abandoned through lack of financial of AI programmes, in terms of the availability
resources or other constraints. AI use in Africa is of services to the farmer, and in terms of the
predominantly focused on cattle. All 31 Country providers involved in service delivery. The public
Reports indicating the use of AI mentioned that sector is the most frequently reported provider
the technology is used in cattle. Two countries of AI services in the region. Among the 27
report the use of AI in sheep, one in goats, one Country Reports providing information on service
in horses and one in pigs. The semen used for AI providers, 26 mention the public sector and 12
tends to be from exotic breeds rather than local mention private companies. NGOs are mentioned
breeds. Nineteen countries indicate that AI is as providers of AI services in eight Country Reports,
performed using semen from exotic cattle breeds, while breeders’ organizations are mentioned in
two report using semen from local breeds, and six two Country Reports (CR Burkina Faso, 2003; CR
report use of both local and exotic semen. Where Madagascar, 2003). CR Niger (2003) mentions
details of programmes are provided, the objective collaboration between two Italian universities,
is often the upgrading of indigenous livestock a local university and a local research station
using semen from exotic breeds, most frequently in establishing an AI programme for cattle. CR
of dairy cattle. Exotic beef cattle semen is also Zambia (2003) indicates that individual private
utilized in a number of countries. farmers have imported exotic semen for the
Some Country Reports from West Africa purposes of improving their cattle herds. A few
mention the use of exotic semen for cross- countries have quite extensive AI programmes
breeding with trypanotolerant cattle breeds in place. Botswana, for example, in the context
(CR Guinea, 2003; CR Côte d’Ivoire, 2003). A of its policy to improve the national herd, has
limited number of AI programmes utilizing a number of AI camps throughout the country
semen from indigenous animals are reported, and subsidizes the supply of semen to traditional
including in one country the use of semen farmers (CR Botswana, 2003).
from trypanotolerant cattle (CR Côte d’Ivoire, Several countries report that problems with the
2003). CR Madagascar (2003) notes the use of financing of government services are a constraint
AI in in situ conservation programmes for the to the provision of AI. Increased involvement
endangered Renitelo cattle breed. However, by the private sector is noted as an objective in
even in countries where indigenous breeds are several Country Reports. A few countries are able
included in AI programmes, the balance appears to report significant progress in this direction (for
to favour exotics. CR Botswana (2003) indicates example CR Kenya, 2004 and CR Zambia, 2003).
that 94.1 percent of AI services performed CR Zambia (2003) notes that the private sector
during the 1987 to 1995 period were carried has taken the lead in providing imported semen,
out using the semen of exotic breeds. The use while the government trains and supervises
of AI by smallholders is largely restricted to AI technicians. However, as the figures above
dairy producers, and is concentrated in peri- indicate the role of the private sector appears to be
urban areas. A small number of Country Reports limited or absent in most countries. Few Country
mention efforts to promote a wider diffusion of Reports discuss constraints to the involvement of
the technology, including in less easily accessible the private sector in any detail. However, CR Côte
areas. CR Senegal (2003) notes considerable use d’Ivoire (2003) mentions that the single private
of AI to introduce exotic germplasm for the operator in the country had ceased activities as a
breeding of race horses. result of financial difficulties.
There is substantial variation from country to Five countries (CR Côte d’Ivoire, 2003;
country in terms of the development of facilities CR Kenya, 2004; CR Madagascar, 2003; CR
and human resources for the implementation Zambia, 2003; and CR Zimbabwe, 2004) report
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the use of ET technologies. Use of the technology herds and 97.8 percent in beef herds) is carried
appears to be limited. In one country, the out using AI (CR Japan, 2003). In most other
technology is reported only to have been used Asian countries, services are much more limited
on Holstein-Friesian cattle on a single private and tend to be focused on the dairy sector and
farm (CR Madagascar, 2003). CR Côte d’Ivoire peri-urban production systems. Several Country
(2003) notes that some individual cattle owners Reports indicate that service coverage is limited
have introduced Brazilian Zebu genetic material by financial and technical constraints. Indeed, a
through the import of frozen embryos. In few Country Reports indicate a decline in the use
Zimbabwe, the technology is reported to be of the technology.
available through two private breeding companies The desire to establish or to increase the
(CR Zimbabwe, 2004). Several Country Reports availability of AI services is expressed as an
state that the introduction of ET is an objective. objective in many Country Reports. In a number
However, the specific role that the technology of countries AI has served as a means of
could be expected to play in the management introducing exotic germplasm for the purposes
of AnGR in the local production systems is rarely of cross-breeding with local breeds. The
elucidated. There is a lack of discussion of how technology has been used in the development
it could be integrated within organized breeding of synthetic breeds incorporating both exotic
programmes. The potential use of the technology and indigenous genes – an example being the
for purposes of cryoconservation is, however, Jermasia goat (CR Malaysia, 2003). In some
noted in several Country Reports. Studies based cases, AI has also been used to upgrade cross-
on the use of molecular markers are mentioned in breeds back to indigenous breeds through back-
only four Country Reports from Africa. crossing to promote hardiness. This approach
has been applied, for example, using Kedah-
Kelantan semen in cattle herds introduced to
4 Asia tree plantations (ibid.). In some cases AI services
supply semen from indigenous breeds. CR
Among the Asian Country Reports, 19 out of 22 Pakistan (2003) for example reports the use of
countries providing information indicate the use semen from Sahiwal cattle. However, the same
of AI. From 18 countries providing details of the Country Report indicates that the collection of
species inseminated, 17 mention cattle, eight semen from some other indigenous cattle breeds
pigs, five buffaloes, four sheep, three chickens, was discontinued because of a lack of demand.
two goats, two horses, one camels and one ducks. Eight out of 17 Asian countries providing
Details of the breeds used as the source of semen information on the matter indicate some use
are limited. However, in the case of cattle eight of ET technology. Among the six countries
Country Reports indicate the use of semen from providing details of the species in which the
both local and exotic breeds, four mention only technology is implemented, six mention cattle,
exotic breeds, and two mention only local breeds. two buffaloes, one horses and one goats. The
Provision of AI services appears to be dominated breeds involved are rarely detailed, but one
by the public sector. Of 17 Country Reports giving Country Report mentions the transfer of embryos
details of service providers, all 17 mention the from indigenous cattle breeds and one mentions
public sector, with 6 mentioning the private exotic breeds. In most countries, ET is used on a
sector, five breeders’ organizations, four NGOs very limited scale and is often largely confined
and one universities. There is much variation from to research. CR Myanmar (2004) notes that an ET
country to country in the extent to which AI is project initiated in the country met with some
used. In an industrialized country such as Japan, success at first, but soon declined because of a
almost all cattle breeding (99.4 percent in dairy lack of funding. CR Malaysia (2003) mentions that
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ET technology was used in the development of 5 Europe and the Caucasus

the Mafriwal cattle breed. The potential role of
the technology in cryoconservation programmes Thirty-eight of 39 countries in the region report
is, again, noted in several Country Reports. the use of AI. All 38 mention the use of the
Eight out of 16 Asian countries providing technology in cattle, 23 in pigs, 16 in sheep, nine
information on the matter report the use of in horses, eight in goats, two in rabbits, and one
molecular techniques. Among these countries, in chickens. Most countries which give details
six specify genetic distancing studies, and two report using semen from both local and imported
mention marker assisted selection. Among the breeds of cattle, pigs and sheep. While almost
seven countries providing details of the species all countries are able to report the existence of
involved in molecular characterization studies, some AI provision, there is great variation in the
six mention cattle, five chickens, four sheep, four extent to which the technology is utilized. In
goats, four pigs, three buffaloes, two ducks, two many countries, particularly in western Europe,
horses, one camels, one deer, one quails and one AI is widely available and used throughout
guinea fowl. In the case of distancing studies, the livestock sector, particularly in dairy cattle.
among the five countries providing details of the However, a number of Country Reports from the
species involved, four mention chickens, three eastern parts of the region, where the livestock
cattle, three sheep, three goats, two pigs, two sector has often faced substantial problems,
buffaloes, two horses, one ducks and one deer. indicate that capacity to provide AI services is
With regard to the breeds involved, systemized severely limited as a result of the disintegration
studies on Asian breeds are being conducted by the of formerly existing infrastructure.
Society for Research on Native Livestock in Japan A range of providers are involved in the delivery
including analysis based of genetic relationships of AI services. Of the 32 countries giving details
based on mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms of providers, 24 mention the private sector, 20
and other DNA markers (CR Japan, 2003). Native the public sector, 19 breeders’ organizations and
Japanese breeds covered by the studies include three universities. In the countries of the eastern
Mishima cattle and Kuchinoshima feral cattle part of the region, services are more likely to
(ibid.). be provided by the public sector. Conversely,
Other biotechnologies are very largely restricted elsewhere in the region, the private sector and
to the most industrialized countries in the region. farmers’ organizations are the most frequently
The use of in vitro fertilization is mentioned in mentioned service providers, although in many
CR Japan (2003) and CR Malaysia (2003). CR countries there is still considerable involvement or
Japan (2003) indicates that a number of other support from the public sector. CR Turkey (2004),
reproductive biotechnologies with potential for for example, mentions the provision of subsidies to
use in the propagation of rare breeds, as well as private sector providers of AI. Transfer of services
commercial applications, have been utilized at to the private sector has not always been without
an experimental level. The technologies include problems. For example, CR Romania (2003) notes
sperm micro-injection to fertilize eggs – applied that reorganization and greater independence
in pigs; primordial germ cell (PGC) and chimera of AI institutes, along with the introduction of
germline techniques – applied in chickens; and service charges, led to a decline in the uptake of
cloning technologies – used in cattle, pigs and the technology.
goats (ibid.). In some countries, AI using imported semen
has been widely used to increase the production
levels obtained from local breeds. However,
some concerns are raised in the Country Reports.
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Attempts to upgrade local livestock using exotic molecular biological methods will facilitate the
semen have sometimes failed because the resulting discovery of genes for economically important
cross-bred animals have proved to be poorly traits in locally adapted breeds, thereby
adapted to the local conditions. There is also a enhancing their value in breeding programmes
potential threat to genetic resource diversity. (CR Germany, 2003). However, the same Country
According to CR Greece (2004), inappropriate and Report raises the concern that the use of molecular
unplanned use of AI contributed markedly to the technologies in the context of market-driven
loss of some indigenous breeds. attempts to increase production could exacerbate
Sixteen of the 25 countries providing a trend towards inbreeding and loss of genetic
information on the matter report the use of diversity within livestock populations. Similar
ET. Of the 11 countries providing details of the apprehensions are expressed in a small number
species involved, all 11 mention cattle, three of other Country Reports. Genetic distancing
sheep, two goats, one pigs, one horses and one studies are considered important from the point
rabbits. Where specified, ET is carried out using of view of planning and prioritizing conservation
embryos from both imported and local breeds of efforts. One Country Report, however, notes that
cattle. Again, it is the dairy industry that is the progress to this end has been limited as interest in
main user of ET. The technology has contributed the subject is largely restricted to universities, and
significantly to increasing the rate at which funding is limited (CR Belgium, 2005). Another
selective breeding has contributed to raising the Country Report puts forward a potential role for
output of livestock products. However, as a result such techniques in relation to the niche marketing
of the costs involved in applying the technology of livestock breeds on the grounds of their close
it is less widely used than AI, and in some association with a particular geographical location
countries, ET programmes have ceased as a result (CR France, 2004).
of the high costs. In the case of ET, out of eight Among the Country Reports providing
countries providing details of service providers, details of the use of molecular technologies,
four mention the private sector, four the public 11 specify the implementation of molecular
sector, four breeders’ organizations and three genetic distancing studies and seven mention
universities. Other reproductive technologies the use of marker assisted selection. Out of 17
such as embryo sexing, cloning and transgenetics countries providing information on the species
are mentioned in a very few Country Reports as involved in molecular characterization studies,
subjects for research. 14 mention cattle, 13 sheep, 11 pigs, eight
Twenty-four out of 29 Country Reports horses, five goats, three chickens, one donkeys,
providing information on the matter indicate one turkeys, one deer and one geese. Out of 12
the use of molecular techniques. Marker assisted countries providing information on the species
selection is used in commercial animal production involved in distancing studies, 11 mention
in a number of European countries. The sheep, nine cattle, five horses, four pigs, three
technology can be applied to eliminate a number chickens, three goats, two geese, one ducks, one
of undesirable traits related to health or fertility donkeys, one rabbits, and one deer. Out of four
from livestock populations, and to assist selective countries providing information on the species
breeding for greater productivity. in which marker assisted selection is practised,
The importance of ensuring that information four mention cattle, four pigs, one chickens
on molecular biotechnologies, including their and one horses. Details of the specific breeds to
economic benefits, are made available to farmers which technologies have been applied are quite
and breeders’ organizations is noted in one limited in the Country Reports. Among the local
Country Report (CR Hungary, 2003). Another breeds for which molecular characterization or
Country Report highlights the prospect that distancing studies are mentioned in the Country
270
Reports are the Turoplje and Black Slavonian region. Of 17 Country Reports giving details of
pigs, Ruda sheep and sheep of the islands of Rab, service providers, 11 mention the public sector,
Pag and KrK (CR Croatia, 2003); Wallachian and nine mention the private sector, and five breeders’
Sumava sheep, Brown goats and White goats (CR organizations. CR Barbados (2005) mentions the
Czech Republic, 2003); and the Karakachanska provision of subsidies to farmers’ organizations
sheep (CR The former Yugoslav Republic of for the purchase of semen for AI.
Macedonia, 2003). ET technology is increasingly being used
by commercial livestock producers in several
countries of the region. Twelve Country Reports,
6 Latin America and out of 14 providing information, report the use
the Caribbean of ET. All 12 mention the use of the technology in
cattle, three in horses, two in goats, two in sheep,
AI is widely practised in the countries of this region. one in llamas, one in alpacas and one in donkeys.
Twenty-one out of 22 Country Reports indicate the Transplanted embryos largely come from exotic
use of the technology. All 21 countries report the breeds – the six countries that provided details
use of AI in cattle, 13 mention pigs, eight sheep, of the cattle breeds involved indicate the use of
eight goats, five horses, one rabbits, one buffaloes, embryos only from exotic breeds. As in the case
one donkeys, one llamas, one alpacas and one of AI, though on a more limited scale, use of ET
turkeys. With regard to the cattle breeds providing technology is dominated by the dairy industry,
the semen used for AI, 13 Country Reports mention with restricted use in other types of commercial
only exotic breeds, while four mention both livestock production. Some Country Reports
indigenous and exotic. In the cases of sheep, five indicate the importation of embryos from overseas.
Country Reports mention exotic breeds and one Information on the providers of ET services is
mentions both exotic and local. In the case of pigs, limited. However, the CR Brazil (2004) and CR
nine Country Reports mention only exotic breeds Chile (2003) mention private sector organizations
while one mentions both local and exotic. involved in the provision of the technology.
It is clear that the predominant objective Additionally, two Country Reports indicate some
is to increase the genetic merit of livestock commercial use of in vitro fertilization, while one
populations using semen from exotic breeds. mentions the development of embryo sexing and
In many countries, semen is imported from cloning technologies.
overseas. Use of the technology is most common Eleven countries, out of 15 providing
in the dairy sector. In some countries it is also information, indicate some use of molecular
quite widely used by commercial producers of techniques. With regard to molecular
beef cattle, pigs and small ruminants. However, characterization studies, out of nine countries
there is marked variation between countries providing information on the breeds involved,
and between production systems in terms of the seven mention cattle, three sheep, three pigs,
extent to which AI is used. In many small-scale or two chickens, two horses, one goats, one
low external input systems, use of the technology buffaloes, one llamas, one alpacas, one vicuñas,
is very limited. A number of countries indicate one guanacos and two unspecified camelids.
that improving the provision of AI services is an Several countries indicate that locally adapted
important objective. A small number of Country breeds have been included in such studies. CR
Reports, however, mention concerns regarding Peru (2004) mentions molecular investigations of
the decrease of genetic diversity arising as a result the genetic distances between South American
of the inappropriate use of AI. With regard to the camelid species. Few Country Reports, however,
providers involved in the delivery of AI services, indicate that molecular technologies have been
the private sector plays an important role in this incorporated in breeding programmes. CR
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Colombia (2003) notes the potential significance 8 North America

of marker assisted selection programmes utilizing
the genes of the Blanco Orejinegro cattle breed, In the United States of America and Canada
which is reported to show resistance to brucellosis, reproductive biotechnologies are readily available.
and which has been the object of molecular AI is widespread in the dairy and pig industries,
characterization studies. and is used to a lesser extent in other sectors such
as beef cattle and small ruminants. Concern is
expressed at the role of AI in contributing to a
7 Near and Middle East reduction in the effective population size of some
dairy cattle breeds. Details of the utilization of
In this region all six countries providing information other biotechnologies are limited in the Country
on the matter report the use of AI. With regard Reports from this region. In the United States of
to the species involved, all six mention cattle, one America, molecular characterization studies have
camels and one rabbits. One Country Report (CR been carried out, by industry and public sector
Oman, 2004) mentions the use of ET in camels. The institutions, for the most widely kept breeds of
semen used in AI programmes is largely obtained dairy cattle and pigs, and also in a number of beef
from exotic breeds, either from local populations cattle breeds (CR United States of America, 2003).
or imported. A number of Country Reports note Molecular markers are particularly used for the
that the use of AI has had an adverse effect on identification of recessive defects in bulls used
genetic diversity and contributed to the decline for AI. Molecular studies, providing measures of
of local livestock breeds. One Country Report (CR within and between-breed genetic diversity are
Syrian Arab Republic, 2003) mentions some use also used by the National Animal Germplasm
of semen from a local cattle breed (Shami). Some Program (NAGP) in the planning of conservation
Country Reports indicate that the development programmes for AnGR (ibid.).
of AI programmes for local breeds of sheep, goats
and/or buffaloes is a priority. CR Syrian Arab
Republic (2003), for example, notes that the local 9 Southwest Pacific
Awassi sheep and Shami goats are much sought
after in neighbouring countries for breeding, Biotechnologies are not widely used in this region.
and that plans are in hand to develop AI and ET Six of the 11 Country Reports indicate the use of
programmes to meet the demand. Among six AI. Out of five countries indicating the species
countries giving information on service providers, involved in AI programmes, five mention cattle,
five mention the public sector, four the private four pigs, one sheep and one goats. With regard
sector and two breeders’ organizations. Some to AI service providers, two Country Reports
Country Reports, however, indicate constraints mention the public sector, two the private sector,
to the provision of AI, such as a lack of trained and one mentions an individual volunteer from
personnel. Several Country Reports note the a developed country. Several Country Reports
potential use of AI and ET technologies in from small island states note the potential of AI
cryoconservation. The use of other biotechnologies as a means of introducing exotic germplasm, but
is limited. One Country Report (CR Jordan, 2003) the use of the technology appears to be limited.
indicates molecular characterization and genetic In some countries a small number of private
distancing studies in indigenous goats, while livestock producers are involved in the import
another (CR Egypt, 2003) notes that molecular of semen for the purposes of AI in their herds.
genetic studies of buffalo, sheep and goats have Two Country Reports (CR Australia, 2004; CR
recently been initiated with the aid of regional Vanuatu, 2003) indicate the use of ET technology,
and international organizations. both reports referring to cattle. Additionally, CR
272
Samoa (2004) notes the use of the technology for are also some concerns regarding a narrowing
the introduction of Piedmontese cattle during of within-breed genetic diversity. The successful
the 1980s. Capacity for the use of biotechnologies application of technologies such as marker assisted
is well developed in Australia, which is the only selection necessitates high levels of inputs in terms
country from the region reporting the use of of financial, human and technical resources. As
molecular techniques to underpin characterization such, the cost-effectiveness of strategies based on
and selection efforts10. the use of such technologies has to be carefully
evaluated. Implications for genetic diversity
should also be considered. Successful introduction
10 Conclusions of marker assisted selection will tend favour the
utilization of a limited number of breeds at the
The information provided by the Country Reports expense of others, and will also pose a threat to
unsurprisingly indicates that there is a large gap within-breed diversity.
between developed and developing countries
in terms of capacity to utilize biotechnologies
in the management and development of AnGR. 36 References
The focus, particularly in the case of reproductive
biotechnologies, is on cattle, and the application
CR (Country name). Year. Country report on the state of
of biotechnologies in the use, development
or conservation of locally adapted breeds is
generally limited. Provision is constrained by a
lack of financial, human and technical resources, FAO. 2004. The State of Food and Agriculture 2003–04.
and problems related to access, affordability Agricultural Biotechnology – meeting the needs of
and acceptability within diverse local production the poor? Rome.
systems.
In a number of regions, there is increasing
diversity in terms of the stakeholders providing
services, with greater involvement of the
private sector and breeders’ organizations. Such
developments may have a role in overcoming
constraints to the utilization of biotechnologies
in developing countries, but it is evident from the
Country Reports that progress in this respect is
often very limited.
A further concern noted in many Country
Reports is the inappropriate use of AI. Concerns
largely relate to the unplanned use of the
technology to introduce exotic germplasm, which
may threaten the existence of indigenous genetic
resources. With regard to high-output breeds
kept under high external input conditions, there
10
New Zealand, a country with a well-developed biotechnology
sector, did not submit a Country Report and is, therefore, not
included in the analysis.
273
Section E
Legislation and regulation
1 International legal framework

– major instruments
1.1 Introduction
A number of international legal frameworks, Agenda 21, “Promoting Sustainable Agriculture
relevant to the current and future management and Rural Development”, addresses the question
of AnGR are described in this section. The of increasing food production in a sustainable
frameworks include both legally binding and non- way and enhancing food security. Among the
binding instruments. The term “soft law” is used programme areas included in Chapter 14, is
here to refer to non-binding legal instruments, programme area (h) on the conservation and
which are utilized for a variety of reasons, sustainable utilization of AnGR. The management-
including strengthening member commitment related activities specified in this programme
to agreements at the policy level, reaffirming stipulate that governments should:
international norms, and establishing informal “a) draw up breed conservation plans for
precedents for subsequent treaties. endangered populations, including semen/
embryo collection and storage, farm-based
1.2 Legal framework for the conservation of indigenous stock and
management of biodiversity in situ conservation, b) plan and initiate
This subchapter describes international-level breed development strategies, and c) select
legally binding instruments and soft laws by which indigenous populations on the basis of regional
national governments undertake to address the importance and genetic uniqueness, for a
management and conservation of biodiversity, to ten-year programme, followed by selection of
develop policies on the issue, and to implement an additional cohort of indigenous breeds for
relevant actions. development.”
Adopted in 1992, Agenda 21 is a plan of action Subsequently, at the World Summit on
to be undertaken at the global, national and local Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg
levels by governments, the organizations of the in 2002, sustainable agriculture and rural
United Nations System and other stakeholders, development was one of the issues considered in
to address all areas of human impact on the the Plan of Implementation. Paragraphs 6(i) and
environment11. The Agenda was prepared to 38 of the Final Declaration stress the importance
coincide with the 1992 United Nations Conference of sustainable agriculture and rural development
on Environment and Development (Earth to the implementation of an integrated approach
Summit) held in Rio de Janeiro, and was adopted to increasing food production and enhancing food
at the time by 179 governments. Chapter 14 of security and food safety in an environmentally
sustainable way.
11
www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/
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The The Convention on Biological Diversity preparatory process for the first Report on the
(CBD)12, a legally binding international framework State of World’s Animal Genetic Resources, and
for the management of biodiversity, was signed implement follow-up actions identified through
by 150 governments at the Rio Earth Summit. By the process.”
2005 it had 188 parties. The three objectives of the The Commission on Genetic Resources for
CBD, as set out in Article 1, are: the conservation Food and Agriculture (CGRFA) was the first
of biological diversity, the sustainable use of permanent intergovernmental forum dealing
components of biological diversity, and the fair with agricultural genetic resources. At present,
and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from 167 Governments and the European Community
the utilization of genetic resources. Conservation are members. Its statutes provide that it shall:
of animal and plant genetic resources required “have a coordinating role and shall deal with
for food and agriculture is addressed by its policy, sectorial and cross-sectorial matters
programme of work on agrobiodiversity. The CBD related to the conservation and sustainable use
states that, while states have the sovereign right of genetic resources of relevance to food and
to exploit their own resources (Article 3), they also agriculture …
have the duty to conserve them and to facilitate “provide an intergovernmental forum for
access for sound uses to other contracting parties negotiations and … oversee the development,
(Article 15). The need for policy development upon the request of the FAO Governing
and integration is acknowledged in the CBD, and Bodies, of other international agreements,
governments are requested to develop national undertakings, codes of conduct or other
strategies on biodiversity (Article 6a), and to instruments relating to genetic resources of
integrate “the conservation and sustainable use relevance to food and agriculture, and …
of biological diversity into relevant sectoral and monitor the operation of such instruments …
cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies” “facilitate and oversee cooperation between
(Article 6b). In 2000, the CBD was supplemented FAO and other international governmental and
by the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, which is non-governmental bodies dealing with the
considered in greater detail below. conservation and sustainable use of genetic
The special nature of agricultural biodiversity has resources, in particular with the Conference of
been consistently recognized by the Conference Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity
of the Parties (COP) to the CBD. Decisions V/5 and and the UN Commission on Sustainable
II/15 specifically mention “the special nature of Development, and … seek to develop
agricultural biodiversity, its distinctive features, appropriate mechanisms for cooperation and
and problems needing distinctive solutions.” coordination in consultation with such bodies.”
Decision V/5 supports FAO’s work on AnGR, and The Commission was established in 1983, as
states that: the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources.
“Country-driven assessments of genetic In 1995, its mandate was extended to cover
resources of importance for food and all components of biodiversity of relevance to
agriculture ... shall be implemented, including food and agriculture. This mandate is being
through programmes of FAO.” Moreover, the implemented through a step-by-step approach,
COP’s Decision VI/5, “Invite[d] Parties, other and work has so far focused largely on plant and
Governments, the financial mechanism and animal genetic resources for food and agriculture.
funding organizations to provide ... support to Major achievements of the Commission include:
enable countries ... to participate fully in the v the adoption, in 1983, of the International
Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources,
a voluntary instrument that was the first
12
www.biodiv.org international agreement dealing with the
276
conservation and sustainable use of any Further:

component of genetic resources. Farmers’ “These objectives will be attained by closely
Rights were first recognized, in 1989, in the linking this Treaty to the Food and Agriculture
context of the International Undertaking; Organization of the United Nations and to the
v the establishment, in 1994, of the Convention on Biological Diversity.”
International Network of Ex situ Collections
of Plant Genetic Resources for Food 1.3 Access and benefit-sharing
and Agriculture under the auspices of In the context of AnGR management, it is often
FAO. This currently provides the legal the case that livestock breeds or varieties, and the
framework under which the most important knowledge associated with their management
collections for food security and sustainable have been developed by local or indigenous
development are held, in trust for the communities. Scientific institutions and
international community, and under the commercial enterprises may further develop such
Commission’s policy guidance; materials in the same country or elsewhere. In
v the adoption, in 1996, of the first report such circumstances, controversies may arise over
on the State of the World’s Plant Genetic access to genetic material and the distribution of
Resources for Food and Agriculture13 benefits deriving from its utilization. A number
and of the Global Plan of Action for the of international frameworks attempt to address
Conservation and Sustainable Utilization the issue.
of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and The CBD recognizes the importance of
Agriculture14; ensuring “the fair and equitable sharing of the
v the adoption, in 2001, of the legally binding benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
International Treaty on Plant Genetic resources”. With regard to access, Article 15 of
Resources for Food and Agriculture15 (IT- the CBD acknowledges the sovereign rights of
PGRFA); states over their natural resources, and states
v the launch of the preparation process for that access is subject to national legislation
the State of the World’s Animal Genetic (Article 15.1). Access is to be granted on mutually
Resources for Food and Agriculture agreed terms (Article. 15.4) through bilateral
including the Strategic Priorities for Action, agreements. Prior informed consent of the
to be finalized in 2007. party providing the genetic resources is required
The IT-PGRFA came into force on 29 June 2004, (Article 15.5). The provisions can be taken to
90 days after 40 governments had ratified it. mean that the provider of genetic resources
Article 1 of the Treaty states that: must be fully informed in advance by the access-
“The objectives of this Treaty are the seeking party about the objectives, as well as
conservation and sustainable use of plant the economic and environmental implications
genetic resources for food and agriculture of such access. The CBD foresees the necessity of
and the fair and equitable sharing of the legislative, administrative or policy measures to
benefits arising out of their use, in harmony provide for fair and equitable sharing, with the
with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for party that provided the resources, the results of
sustainable agriculture and food security.” research and development and benefits arising
from the commercial and other utilization
of genetic resources (Article 15.7). A benefit-
13 sharing component is also found in Article 8(j),
http://www.fao.org/ag/agP/AGPS/Pgrfa/pdf/swrfull.pdf
14 which contains provisions to encourage the
http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPS/GpaEN/gpatoc.htm
15
http://www.fao.org/AG/cgrfa/itpgr.htm
equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the
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utilization of knowledge, innovations and practices or when negotiating contractual arrangements

of indigenous and local communities, embodying for access and benefit sharing.
traditional lifestyles relevant for conservation and The Bonn Guidelines state that before collecting
sustainable use of biological diversity. any genetic resources, a collector should have a
Under the IT-PGRFA, countries agree to establish written agreement that includes: prior informed
a multilateral system of access and benefit sharing consent of the national government of the
to facilitate access to plant genetic resources for country of origin; prior informed consent of the
food and agriculture, and to share the benefits in indigenous community or communities whose
a fair and equitable way (Article 10). In the case “traditional knowledge” is being accessed; details
of commercial products that may not be used of the non-monetary and/or monetary benefits
without restriction by others for further research the collector will provide; and information
and breeding, the Treaty provides for a mandatory on whether, and under what conditions, the
payment of an equitable share of the resulting collector may transfer the collected genetic
benefits. It also identified capacity building, resources to another party. The development of
exchange of information and technology transfer mutually agreed terms should be based on the
as relevant mechanisms for non-monetary benefit principles of legal certainty and minimization
sharing. The Treaty recognizes the enormous of costs. The Bonn Guidelines set out a detailed
contribution that farmers and their communities description of the type of provisions that could
have made and continue to make to the form part of a contractual arrangement. Some of
conservation and development of plant genetic the proposed elements are quite innovative and
resources. “Farmers’ Rights” under the Treaty, include specification of the uses for which consent
include the protection of traditional knowledge, has been granted; the regulation of these uses
and the rights to participate equitably in benefit in light of the ethical concerns of the parties to
sharing and in national decision-making about the agreement; provisions for the continuation
plant genetic resources. The Treaty makes national of customary uses of genetic resources; possible
governments responsible for implementing joint ownership of intellectual property rights
these rights. The Treaty also foresees a funding according to contributions; confidentiality clauses;
strategy to mobilize funds for activities, plans and the sharing of benefits from commercial and
and programmes particularly aimed at helping other utilization of genetic resources including
small farmers in developing countries. This derivatives.
funding strategy also includes the voluntary and
mandatory sharing of the monetary benefits paid 1.4 Legal framework for international
under the Multilateral System (Article 13) and trade
voluntary payments by Contracting Parties and The main legal framework regulating international
other stakeholders (Article 18). No similar treaty trade in livestock and livestock products is the
exists in the case of AnGR. WTO Agreement on Agriculture adopted in 1994.
Falling within the category of “soft laws” are the The basic principles of the WTO16 agreements
Bonn Guidelines, which were developed by the CBD include:
and adopted under Decision VI/24. It is, however, • Trade without discrimination – this principle
evident from the wording of the guidelines that was one of the foundations of the General
they were drawn up with attention being paid to Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
wild biodiversity rather than AnGR. The guidelines In the WTO Agreement, this principle
provide a set of voluntary rules which will assist is effected through the operation of
parties, governments and other stakeholders
when establishing legislative, administrative or 16
http://www.wto.org
policy measures on access and benefit sharing and/
278
various clauses included in the Multilateral country, “customs duties other than ad valorem
Agreements on Trade in Goods, the General duties applicable to beef and veal … shall be
Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), reduced by 92 percent.” While arrangements of
and the Trade-Related Intellectual Property this nature, can serve to promote export-oriented
Rights Agreement (TRIPS). The main livestock production in developing countries,
elements include: trade in animals and animal products is also greatly
o Most favoured nation (MFN) clause affected by the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and
– requires WTO members to grant to the Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement), which
products of other contracting parties is discussed in greater detail below.
treatment no less favourable than that
accorded to products of any other country. 1.5 Intellectual property rights
o National treatment principle – condemns Rapid developments in the field of biotechnology
discrimination between foreign and have increasingly drawn attention to the issue of
national goods or services and service intellectual property rights in relation to AnGR.
suppliers or between foreign and national The prospect of patents being applied to livestock
holders of intellectual property rights. genes, genetic markers or methods for genetic
v Transparency – provisions on notification improvement has given rise to much controversy.
requirements and the Trade Policy The issue potentially has substantial implications
Review Mechanism are set out in the for the management of AnGR and access to the
WTO Agreement and its annexes, with benefits arising therefrom (see Section E: 2.1 for
the objective of guaranteeing the fullest further discussion of this issue).
transparency possible in the trade policies The TRIPS agreement has been in force since
of its members in goods, services and the January 1995. TRIPS requires WTO members to
protection of intellectual property rights. establish minimum standards for the protection of
Further details relating to the TRIPS Agreement various forms of intellectual property. The scope
of the WTO are provided below in the discussion of the agreement is broad, applying to copyright
of international legal frameworks for intellectual and related rights, trademarks, geographical
property rights. indications, industrial design, patents, the layout
Of potential relevance to trade in animal designs of integrated circuits, and undisclosed
products, and hence to the development of information such as trade secrets and test
the livestock sector in developing countries, data. TRIPS requires members to make patents
are preferential access regimes to important available for any inventions, whether products
markets. Such access regimes are permitted, or processes, in all fields of technology without
but not required, to be granted to developing discrimination, subject to the normal tests of
countries. An example is the Cotonou Agreement novelty, inventiveness and industrial applicability.
between the African–Caribbean–Pacific (ACP) Several elements covered by the agreement
states and the EU and its Member States. The EU potentially affect the management of AnGR.
and the ACP States have agreed on a process to While it appears that no patents covering types
establish new trading arrangements to promote or breeds of livestock used for food production
trade liberalization between the parties and have been granted, an increasing number of
formulate provisions in trade-related matters. patents relating to genes have been issued.
The agreement’s Protocol 4 applies to several In the event of the introduction of transgenic
African countries (Botswana, Kenya, Madagascar, technologies in animals used for agricultural
Namibia, Swaziland and Zimbabwe) which are production, the issue of animal patenting may
traditional exporters of beef and veal. Within become more prominent. Article 27.3(b) of TRIPS
defined quantities of meat per year, set for each provides member countries with the option of
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excluding “plants and animals other than micro- traditional knowledge and genetic resources;
organisms, and essentially biological processes for a survey of intellectual property protection
the production of plants or animals other than of traditional knowledge; and a database of
non-biological and microbiological processes” intellectual property clauses in bilateral access
from the basic rule on patentability. There is, agreements. WIPO’s General Assembly authorized
therefore, no all-embracing framework covering “the possible development of an international
the issue of patentability with respect to AnGR, instrument or instruments.” However the matter
and approaches vary from country to country. remained contentious, with some South American
Some other elements covered by the TRIPS and African countries favouring swift movement
agreement may have an influence on the towards an international treaty, and developed
management of AnGR. For example, rules related countries favouring a more gradual approach.
to indications of geographical origin may have an Another significant development in this field is
important influence on the ability to market the the Substantive Patent Law Treaty (SPLT), which
products obtained from local livestock breeds. at the time of writing was under negotiation
The World Intellectual Property Organization in the WIPO Standing Committee on the Law
(WIPO)17 is an intergovernmental organization of Patents, in Geneva. The draft SPLT covers a
whose mandate is to ensure that the rights of number of basic legal principles underpinning the
creators and owners of intellectual property granting of patents in different countries, such
are protected worldwide, and that inventors as the definition of prior art, novelty, inventive
and authors are recognized and rewarded for step (non-obviousness), industrial applicability
their creativity. In a number of policy areas, (utility), sufficiency of disclosure, and the
including agriculture and genetic resources, structure and interpretation of claims. The trend
concerns related to the exploitation of traditional is towards upward harmonization of patent law,
knowledge systems have emerged. In an attempt raising standards much further with little space
to address the issue, WIPO’s Intergovernmental for national adaptation.
Committee (IGC) on Intellectual Property and
Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and 1.6 Legal framework for biosecurity
Folklore was established in 2000. The committee FAO uses the term “biosecurity” to describe
provides “a forum for international policy the “the management of biological risks in a
debate about the interplay between intellectual comprehensive manner to achieve food safety,
property and traditional knowledge, genetic protect animal and plant life and health,
resources and traditional cultural expressions protect the environment and contribute to its
(folklore)”. Key questions being addressed by sustainable use” (FAO, 2003). Within the field
the committee at the time of writing were a of biosecurity, a range of laws and regulations
possible International Instrument on Intellectual have been put in place relating to plant and
Property in Relation to Genetic Resources and animal life and health, associated environmental
on the Protection of Traditional Knowledge and risks, food safety, invasion by alien species, and
Folklore, and a possible requirement that patent some aspects of biosafety (Stannard et al., 2004).
applications include a disclosure of the source of Several international legal frameworks which
the genetic material used. The committee has affect the management of AnGR focus on issues
accomplished substantial work on traditional of biosecurity, and are discussed in the following
knowledge including a “toolkit” for managing subchapters. The importance of information
intellectual property when documenting exchange at the international level and the
establishment of international standards (agreed
guidelines, recommendations and procedures)
17
http://www.wipo.int
is recognized to be important in facilitating
280
the implementation by developing countries of of the risks involved. If requested, counties must
biosecurity measures (ibid.). FAO has launched make known the factors that were taken into
an Internet-based International Portal for Food consideration, the assessment procedures used,
Safety and Animal and Plant Health18, which and the level of risk which was determined to
serves as a single access point for authorized be acceptable. Governments are required to
official international and national information notify other countries of any new or changed
related to biosecurity. SPS requirements that affect trade, and to set up
offices (called “Enquiry Points”) to respond to
Animal health and food safety requests for more information on new or existing
Matters related to animal health are of major SPS measures. Governments must also open to
international concern, particularly in the context of scrutiny their methods of applying food safety
increasing levels of trade in livestock and livestock and animal and plant health regulations. As far as
products. Governments are keen to ensure that animals are concerned, the relevant international
national livestock industries are protected from the standards under the SPS Agreement are those
potentially devastating effects of transboundary set by the World Organisation for Animal Health
livestock diseases. Serious threats to human health (OIE)19 and the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius
on an international scale, notably outbreaks of Commission20.
HPAI, intensify the need for effective measures The OIE is recognized as the standard-setting
at the global level. Marked differences between body for animal health under the SPS agreement.
countries, in terms of their animal health status and Health measures contained in the organization’s
standards for food safety, increase the potential for Terrestrial Animal Health Code (in the form of
disputes related to international trade. Developing standards, guidelines and recommendations)
countries in particular tend to be affected by animal have been formally adopted by the OIE
health-related trade restrictions. These restrictions International Committee. The Terrestrial Animal
can have major impacts on the movement of AnGR Health Code is a reference document for use by
(Box 43). veterinary authorities, import/export services,
The SPS Agreement of the WTO encourages epidemiologists and all those involved in
governments to establish national sanitary international trade. Because of the relationship
and phytosanitary measures consistent with between animal health and animal welfare, the
international standards, guidelines and representatives of the OIE’s member countries
recommendations. International standards are have asked the OIE to take the lead role in the
often higher than the national requirements of setting of international standards for animal
many countries, including developed countries. welfare. A Permanent Working Group on Animal
The SPS Agreement explicitly permits governments Welfare was established and held its first meeting
to choose not to use the international standards. in October 2002. In 2005, the International
However, if the national requirement that differs Committee of OIE Member Countries adopted a
from the international standards results in a set of animal welfare standards to be included
greater restriction of trade, the country imposing in the Terrestrial Animal Health Code. The
the different standard may be asked to provide standards cover the transport of animals by land,
scientific justification, demonstrating the need the transport of animals by sea, the slaughter of
for the stricter measure. Countries must establish animals, and the killing of animals for disease
SPS measures on the basis of a realistic assessment control purposes.
18 19
http://www.ipfsaph.org/En/default.jsp http://www.oie.int
20
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/web/index_en.jsp
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Box 43
Impact of international zoosanitary regulations on animal genetic resources
management – the example of FMD
On a global scale, perhaps the most significant To meet these requirements, disease-free countries,
transboundary disease in terms of its impacts on or those aiming to achieving disease-free status,
trade is foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Even a limited often combat disease outbreaks with stamping-out
outbreak of FMD can be devastating for a country’s or slaughter policies. The mass culling of animals
livestock trade. The ability or failure to maintain following an outbreak potentially threatens rare-
FMD-free status is likely to have a marked effect breed populations found in a restricted geographical
on a country’s patterns of livestock development. area. Disease-free countries may also face problems
International trade-related rules associated with if they require the import of genetic material from
FMD control may affect the management of AnGR in countries where FMD is endemic. This can particularly
several ways. be a problem for tropical countries, as many countries
According to OIE rules, a distinction is drawn with similar production conditions will be affected by
between disease-free countries where vaccination the disease. This point is raised in the Country Report
is practised, and those where vaccination is not from Trinidad and Tobago (2005). Less direct impacts
practised. To achieve the latter status, and the may relate to differences in the utilization of AnGR
resulting benefits associated with livestock exports, a between disease-free and disease-endemic countries.
country must: have a good record of disease reporting; Export-oriented producers in the former countries
declare to the OIE that during the past 12 months may adapt their production objectives to meet the
there has been no outbreak of FMD, no evidence of demands of external markets, and adopt management
FMD virus infection, and no vaccination against FMD; practices associated with a more commercial outlook.
have maintained required levels of surveillance; and These changes may result in shifts in the balance of
not have imported any vaccinated animals since the breed utilization.
cessation of vaccination.
The Codex Alimentarius Commission was food-producing animals. A further objective is to

created in 1963 by FAO and WHO to develop encourage good feeding practices on the farm.
food standards, guidelines and related texts such In recent years, both the Codex Alimentarius and
as codes of practice under the Joint FAO/WHO the OIE have also addressed issues related to the
Food Standards Programme. In addition to food safety of genetically modified organisms. These
standards, the Codex has also addressed safety matters will be considered further in the following
issues related to animal feed. One of its projects subchapter on international legal frameworks for
is the preparation of a Code of Practice for Good biosafety.
Animal Feeding, undertaken in response to food
trade and health problems arising from animal Biosafety
feed. The Code applies to feed manufacturing Potential for increased output and novel
and to the use of all feeds, other than those taken livestock products has stimulated interest in
while grazing free-range. The primary objective the development of transgenic livestock. The
of the Code is to encourage adherence to good widespread introduction of these technologies
manufacturing practices during the production, would clearly have considerable implications
harvesting, handling, storage, processing for the management of AnGR. Recombinant
(however minimal) and distribution of feed for DNA technologies are at present applied in the
282
field of veterinary pharmaceuticals. Transgenic Force on Foods Derived from Biotechnology to

crops such as maize are used for animal feed consider the health and nutritional implications
in some countries. A number of environmental of such foods. In particular, the objectives of the
and health-related concerns have, however, Task Force are to develop standards, guidelines
been raised with regard to genetic modification. or recommendations, as appropriate, for foods
Several international frameworks seek to address derived from biotechnology or traits introduced
issues related to the safety of genetically modified into foods by biotechnology. This is to be done
organisms (GMOs) or living modified organisms on the basis of scientific evidence, risk analysis
(LMOs) and products derived therefrom. and having regard, where appropriate, to
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was other legitimate factors relevant to the health
adopted in January 2000 by the Conference of consumers and the promotion of fair trade
of the Parties to the CBD as a supplementary practices. An expert consultation on the “Safety
agreement to the CBD, and entered into force Assessment of Foods Derived from Genetically
on 11 September 2003. The Protocol seeks to Modified Animals including Fish” was held in
protect biological diversity from the potential November 2003, continuing the work of FAO
risks posed by LMOs. The Protocol applies to the and WHO on the safety assessment of genetically
transboundary movement, transit, handling and modified (GM) foods, and focused on GM animals,
use of all LMOs that may have adverse effects on including fish, and the foods derived therefrom.
the conservation and sustainable use of biological The main purpose of this consultation was to
diversity, as well as risks to human health. discuss and describe ways to assess the safety
However, LMOs that are pharmaceuticals for and risk of GM animals. A working paper on
human consumption are excluded from the scope the state of the art related to GM farm animals
of the Protocol if they are covered by another was produced (WHO/FAO, 2003). Environmental
international agreement or arrangement. and ethical matters related to the production
The Cartagena Protocol establishes an of GM animals (including fish) were discussed as
Advanced Informed Agreement (AIA) procedure additional issues.
in order to ensure that countries are provided In May 2005, the OIE International Committee
with the information necessary to make informed adopted resolutions on genetic engineering
decisions before agreeing to the import of such applications for livestock and biotechnology
organisms into their territory (Article 7). However, products, and the implementation of standards in
a number of LMOs are excluded from the AIA the framework of the SPS Agreement. Members
procedure because of the specific activity or the requested the development of standards and
intended use of the LMO. The LMOs that may guidelines relating to animal vaccines produced
be excluded from the AIA procedure are: LMOs through biotechnology, animal health risks linked
in transit, LMOs destined for contained use, and to cloning, the exclusion of unapproved animals
LMOs intended for direct use as food or feed or and products from the livestock population, and
for processing. The Protocol reserves the right of genetically engineered animals.
countries to take decisions on imports on the basis
of the precautionary principle in relation to both 1.7 Conclusions
LMOs to be introduced into the environment and Animal health-related trade regulations are
LMOs to be used for food, feed or processing. probably the aspect of international legal
Socio-economic considerations arising from the frameworks that have the greatest impact on
impact of LMOs on biodiversity may also be taken AnGR management at present – affecting both
into account in import decisions. the exchange of genetic material, and the
In 1999, the Codex Alimentarius Commission nature of production systems and disease control
established an Ad Hoc Intergovernmental Task measures at the national level. The growth of
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trade in livestock and livestock products, and the for example, may well be issues of increasing
associated need to maintain strict animal health significance in coming years; and transboundary
standards without imposing unjustified restrictions livestock diseases are a constant concern. It is vital
on trade, has required the establishment of to ensure that as international law develops, the
binding international regulations in this field. need for effective and equitable frameworks for
The increasing significance of international the utilization and conservation of AnGR is not
trade has also driven the establishment of overlooked.
international regimes to regulate other aspects of
commerce. One area of potential importance to
the management of AnGR is that of intellectual References
property rights. The TRIPS agreement of the
WTO, however, allows for the exemption of
FAO. 2003. Technical consultation on biological risk man-
animals from patenting, and it is national-level
agement in food and agriculture. Bangkok, Thailand,
legislation, along with regional or bilateral trade
13–17 January 2003. Report of the technical
agreements which, at present, have the greatest
consultation. Rome. (also available at ftp://ftp.fao.
influence in this field.
org/es/esn/food/tc_bangkok/tc_brm_report_en.pdf).
The recognition that biological diversity is an
important resource and aspect of the world’s Stannard, C., van der Graaff, N., Randell, A., Lallas, P.
heritage has also motivated the development of & Kenmore, P. 2003. Agricultural biological diversity
legal measures on an international scale – the for food security: shaping international initiatives to
main instrument being the CBD. Although the help agriculture and the environment. Howard Law
distinctive nature of agricultural biodiversity Journal, 48(1): 397–430.
is recognized by the COP of the CBD, the main WHO/FAO. 2003. Generation and use of genetically
focus of the Convention’s provisions is on modified farm animals, by M-L. Houdebine. Rome.
wild biodiversity. There is a concern that legal
instruments developed in accordance with the
provisions of the CBD, for example in the field
of access and benefit sharing, may fail to take
sufficient account of the specific problems of
AnGR management, and place unnecessary
restrictions on exchange and utilization. The IT-
PGRFA, established a legally binding international
framework specifically for the crop sector,
with the objective of ensuring conservation,
sustainable use, and equitable sharing of the
benefits of genetic resources. There is a need to
clarify whether a similar instrument is required
for AnGR.
Although many international instruments
affect AnGR management, to date, most have
paid little or no attention to the topic. Moreover,
a number of ongoing and emerging forces are
likely to drive further developments in the field
of international legislation. Intellectual property
rights and issues of access and benefit sharing,
284
2 Emerging legal issues are rights to geographical appellations of origin,

which indicate that a product was produced
This section introduces two policy issues in the in a particular geographical area where the
field of AnGR management that are increasingly production conditions are associated with distinct
being discussed by stakeholders – patenting and characteristics. These rights are of considerable
Livestock Keepers’ Rights. relevance to niche markets, and hence potentially
to the utilization of local livestock breeds. In the
2.1 Patenting EU, rules for the use of “geographical indications
and designations of origin” are set out in Council
General principles and mechanisms Regulation (EEC) No 2081/92.
Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are granted Trade secrets relate to the protection from
in order to provide innovators with a greater misappropriation of any commercially sensitive
opportunity to capture the benefits arising from information (and materials) that the holder takes
the products of their inventiveness. The need reasonable precautions to conceal. Crop breeders
for IPRs can be justified in economic terms as a have for many years used this approach to protect
means of overcoming a characteristic of market the parent lines and related information used
economies which tends to reduce the rate of in the production of hybrid seed for sale, and
innovation below the social optimum when similar approaches are adopted in the poultry
innovations can be copied freely. This “market and pig industries (Lesser, 2002). Plant breeders’
failure” arises as a result of the “public goods” rights (PBRs) (an example of so-called sui generis
nature of knowledge; the costs of research systems) have been developed to protect the IPRs
and development are borne by the innovator, of plant breeders. PBRs offer a protection that is
but the benefits accrue to the wider society adapted to the agricultural sector, and include
(Lesser, 2002). Moral arguments in favour of IPRs certain levels of exemption for further breeding
can also be put forward, related to the justice and for farmers to retain seed from the crop. An
of rewarding those whose work results in useful internationally harmonized framework for the
innovations (Evans, 2002). However, these two management of PBRs is established under the
general justifications are seldom tested with auspices of UPOV, the International Union for the
empirical data to find whether there is actually a Protection of New Varieties of Plants. This body
need for stronger IPRs to stimulate research and was established by the International Convention
development in a particular field of innovation. for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants,
The discussion below focuses largely on the signed in 1961, which came into force in 1968
issue of patents. However, it should be noted that and was subsequently revised in 1972, 1978 and
other forms of IPR are of potential relevance to the 1991; the latter revision coming into force in 1998
management of AnGR, particularly trademarks, (UPOV, 2005).
trade secrets and geographic indications. The In the case of patents, the holder is given
holder of a trademark is given exclusive rights exclusive rights over the commercial use of an
to use a name or symbol associated with a innovation for a set period of time, often 20 years,
product. The goodwill that the holder has built in the country in which the patent is granted. This
up while providing the product under a given competitive advantage serves to counteract the
name cannot then be expropriated by others effects of the above-mentioned market failure. In
or dissipated through the supply of inferior order to obtain a patent, the innovation must be
products under the same name (Lesser, 2002). inventive or not obvious; and it must be novel, in
A relevant example would be Certified Angus the sense of not being previously known through
Beef ® protected by federal trademark law in the public use or publication (Lesser, 2002). A further
United States of America. Similar to trademarks formal criterion is that the invention must have
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a practical use; in Europe, the term “industrial While patents may serve to promote
application” is used in this context, while in innovations, it must be recognized that once a
the United States of America, “usefulness” new product has been developed, the existence of
or “utility” is a requirement. A patent can be a patent inhibits competition and thereby reduces
obtained to cover, a product per se (in itself), a the availability of the product. The balance
process, or a product derived through a process; between the two effects, and hence the outcome
it may be dependent on previous patents. The in terms of the economic benefits to society as
requirement for a description of the invention to a whole, is a matter of complex interactions
accompany the application, in such a way that a between the length and scope of the patent and
person “skilled in the art” is able to reproduce it, the nature of demand for the product (Langinier
promotes the dissemination of information and and Moschini, 2002). Moreover, the propensity
may stimulate research in related fields (ibid.). of patents to promote innovation has sometimes
been challenged. Criticisms are advanced on the
Box 44
The first patented animal
While patenting has a long history, the inclusion of Diamond vs. Chakrabarty established the precedent
living things under patent laws is a relatively recent that micro-organisms were patentable in the United
phenomenon. This text box focuses on historical States of America. The case related to a bacterium
developments in the United States of America related engineered to consume oil slicks. Some years later,
to the applicability of patents to living things and in 1987, the question of the patentability of higher
leading to the first case of a patent on a higher organisms also came to court. This time, the organism
animal. in question was an oyster manipulated to make it
Patent law in the United States of America dates more edible. While the application was rejected, the
back to 1793, but the original statute makes no ruling in the case of Ex Parte Allen established that
reference to living things. Indeed, a ruling of 1889 there was no legal restriction to the patenting of
established a precedent indicating that “products oysters on the grounds that they are higher animals.
of nature” could not be patented. The first provision In the wake of this ruling the world’s first patent on
specifically related to the patenting of living organisms an animal was soon issued. In this case, the animal
was the Plant Patent Act of 1930, which introduced was a type of mouse developed at Harvard University
a specially designed form of protection for asexually for use in the study of disease. The mouse had been
reproducing plants (except edible roots and tubers). genetically engineered to make it highly susceptible
European countries followed in the next decade with to cancer. Subsequently, in 1992 the “oncomouse”
the introduction of their own “sui generis” Plant became the first patented animal in Europe. Not
Breeders’ Rights laws. surprisingly, the production of animals deliberately
The 1970s and 1980s saw the emergence of rendered susceptible to a distressing disease provoked
technologies that enabled scientists to manipulate widespread public unease, and has served to fuel the
the genomes of living organisms. Individuals or controversy surrounding animal patenting.
organizations undertaking these activities were in a
position to claim that the resulting organisms were For further reading see: Kevles (2002); Thomas and Richards
(2004).
the products of their own inventiveness rather than
simply products of nature. It was not long before the
issue was tested in the courts, and in 1980 the case of
286
grounds that access to inputs, or procedures, vital Both the 1973 European Patent Convention
to further innovation may be restricted through (EPC), under Article 53(a), and EU Council Directive
the exercise of patents, or that overly broad (98/44/EC) (Article 6), allow for patent applications
patents stifle further research in related fields to be refused if their exploitation is contrary to
(Evans, 2002; Lesser, 2005). “ordre public” or “morality”. This exemption has
been carried over into the TRIPS agreement of the
Patents and living organisms WTO. Unsurprisingly, definitions of “ordre public”
The extension of patent law to cover plants and or “morality” have not been easy to establish,
animals, or processes related to the production or and the patenting in Europe of the “Harvard
genetic manipulation of living organisms, gives oncomouse” (Box 44) has been subject to ongoing
rise to additional concerns. The idea of asserting legal challenges on the basis of the EPC’s “morality
ownership over biological processes offends exemption” (Thomas and Richards, 2004). More
many people’s religious or spiritual sensibilities. generally, the TRIPS agreement allows countries
In this respect, misgivings about patenting to exclude plants and animals from patent
are to some extent tied to its association with protection (although there is a requirement for
technologies such as genetic modification. Such the protection of plant varieties by an effective
concerns are reinforced by fears about the health sui generis system). Notwithstanding these
or environmental impacts of these technologies exemptions, there is a concern that developing
(Evans, 2002). Other objections to patents on countries’ scope to exclude living things from
living organisms relate to the belief that natural patenting may increasingly be limited by bilateral
processes are part of the common heritage of and regional trade agreements (Correa, 2004).
humankind, which should not be alienated for For futher discussion of TRIPS and developments
private profit. Similarly, concerns relate to the at WIPO, see subchapter 1.5.
expropriation of the genetic material developed It was in the fields of medical research and
by local communities, or the associated knowledge pharmaceuticals that the first legal battles related
of crop/animal breeding activities, through the to granting patents on higher animals were fought
granting of patents to outside interests (ibid.). out (Box 44). The emergence of animal patenting
Moreover, in the context of food and agriculture, in the field of food and agriculture has lagged
the impacts on food security and social justice someway behind. Patents on transgenic salmon
of restricting access to animal or plant genetic have been granted in the United States of America
resources are further causes for concern. (US Patent Number 5,545,808, August 13, 1996)
Many of the world’s countries do not permit and in the EU (EP 0578 635 B1, July 18, 2001).
the patenting of plants and animals. However, However, among the species covered by this
prominent exceptions include the United States of Report, no examples of patents granted on any
America and Japan (Blattman et al., 2002). While breeds or types of animal intended for food
the EU does not permit the patenting of plant or production could be found at the time of writing.
animal varieties, under Council Directive 98/44/EC Nonetheless, animal patenting is emerging as
of 6 July 1998, it allows patents for inventions significant issue in the livestock sector, driven
concerning animals or plants the feasibility of in part by technological developments such as
which “is not confined to a particular plant or cloning and transgenetics, and the desire to profit
animal variety”. Moreover, the fact that the from or promote such developments. Once again,
term “variety” is not well-defined in the context ethical objections are raised both regarding
of animal breeding means that the scope of patenting as such, and regarding some of the
the exemption is far from clear (see below for a biotechnologies to which it might be applied. It
further discussion of the EU Patent Directive). is, however, also important to note that there are
numerous practical legal issues that also need to
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be addressed – particularly related to the scope of With regard to the scope of patents on
patent protection. biological materials within the EU, Article 8(1) of
Among the factors complicating the application the Patent Directive states that:
of patenting to farm animals is the tendency of “The protection conferred by a patent on
livestock to reproduce, which complicates the a biological material possessing specific
process of identifying the animals to which patent characteristics as a result of the invention shall
rights should apply (e.g. if patented animals were extend to any biological material derived from
to be bred with non-patented) (Lesser, 2002). that biological material through propagation or
Similarly, long production cycles, particularly in multiplication in an identical or divergent form
the case of cattle, complicate decisions regarding and possessing those same characteristics.”
when in the production cycle patent-related Similar rules apply to “patent on a process
payments should apply (ibid.). The significance that enables a biological material to be produced
of these issues is to an extent dependent on possessing specific characteristics” (Article 8(2)).
species and production system. The problems are Thus, under EU legislation patent protection is
rather less significant in the case of commercial not necessarily limited to an initial process or to
poultry and pig industries, where hybrid lines are the material directly obtained therefrom. Articles
provided by large breeding companies, animals 10 and 11 of the Directive place some restrictions
are confined, and breeding management is highly on the protection conferred by such patents. In
controlled. However, even under these production particular, Article 11 indicates that even if breeding
systems, the legal basis for patent claims is stock or genetic material is subject to a patent,
debatable. It is not clear that the animals or their a farmer who purchases the material is allowed
breeding methods can be considered non-obvious, to use the “animal or other animal reproductive
or whether the requirement for a description that material ... for the purposes of pursuing his
allows the reproduction of the innovation can agricultural activity” without infringing the
be met. A parallel with plant breeders’ rights is patent. However, this does not include sale of the
also difficult to implement in the case of animals, genetic material for the purposes of “commercial
partly because the concepts of plant variety and reproduction activity”. These provisions limit to
animal breed differ significantly. some extent the potential impact of patenting
on AnGR management. However, the border
Patent claims related to livestock between “agricultural activity” and “commercial
Notwithstanding the absence of patents on reproduction” is not easy to establish. The precise
types of livestock per se, patents have been implications of these rules, thus, remain to be
granted on a number of innovations in the field tested in practice.
of livestock breeding and genetics. For example, Patents covering genes and markers associated
the patenting of biotechnological processes with a range of economically important traits have
and biological materials derived through such been granted in several livestock species (Rothschild
processes is permitted under EU legislation et al., 2004). There are also patents covering
(Council Directive 98/44/EC), even if the material several methods for breeding management
has previously occurred in nature. “Essentially and breeding-related computer applications
biological processes” consisting “entirely of (Schaeffer, 2002). In some cases, the technologies
natural phenomena such as crossing or selection” have been successfully commercialized based on
are exempted (ibid.). However, it is debatable these patent rights (Barendse, 2002; Rothschild
whether any modern breeding technologies et al., 2004; Rothschild and Plastow, 2002).
involve only “natural phenomena”, and the scope Among the patents granted on breeding-
of the exemption may therefore be limited. related technologies, it has often been those
288
covering genes or genetic markers (normally patenting on investment, while they may be
as a part of a patented method to enhance the relevant, are unlikely to answer the concerns of
efficiency of selective breeding) that have proved the critics, and it is safe to say that controversy
to be controversial. Patenting naturally occurring over the issue is unlikely to go away.
sequences of genetic material provokes those
who are concerned about the implications of Concluding remarks
patenting “life”. Moreover, the granting of a To conclude, the extension of patenting into
patent which is in some way related to a breed the fields of livestock genetics and breeding is
from another country or a breed which has been rife with controversy and practical difficulties.
developed by local communities, may give rise Factors influencing future trends will include
to accusations of “biopiracy”. Additionally, the developments in biotechnology, and the political
owners of animals naturally carrying the genes in debate regarding the ethics and socio-economic
question, or those wishing to utilize the offspring implications of applying patenting to farm
of animals produced by the patented method, animals. As in the medical field, the introduction
may be alarmed about the implications of the of GM technologies is potentially a driving force
patent. The latter issue gave rise to some initial promoting the wider use of patenting in animal
objections within the livestock breeding industry breeding. The extension of cloning technology
and the research community to the patenting of to commercial livestock production could be a
genetic markers (Rothschild and Plastow, 2002). further factor encouraging patent applications.
However, objections from this quarter declined as However, the use of these biotechnologies in the
it became clear that the patents in question did livestock sector is, in itself, highly controversial.
not restrict the utilization of the genes or animals Patents for breeding-related technologies have
as such, but applied to the methods or processes already been granted in a number of countries,
involving the genes (ibid.). Applications placed and the commercialization of these technologies
at WIPO by the Monsanto Company for patents will have had some impact upon the management
on a breeding method and gene sequence in of AnGR, mainly in commercial production
pigs, however, provoked a storm of controversy systems. Successful applications for broader-
in 2005. If granted, these patents would include scope patents related to breeding methods, or
rights over the pigs produced by the patented patents which cover the animals per se or their
method and their offspring (WO 2005/017204; offspring, could have considerable implications
WO 2005/015989), and the broad scope of the for commercial producers. Such technologies are
patent applications has raised fears that the of little direct significance in the lower external
activity of many pig breeders could be affected. input production systems where much of the
In contrast to the criticisms outlined above, world’s livestock genetic diversity is to be found.
an alternative view is that the extension of However, developments in large-scale commercial
patenting offers a feasible means of facilitating production systems are not isolated. If wider use
beneficial scientific developments. Modern of patenting reinforces trends towards greater
biotechnological innovations generally require concentration within, and dominance by, the
considerable investments. In the absence of commercial sector, this would have consequences
large amounts of public funding for research for the structure of the livestock industry more
and development, it can be argued that the broadly. Moreover, if the critics’ fears are realized,
availability of patents serves to stimulate and gene-related patents become widely
the investments required to enhance the used to restrict access or demand payments,
efficiency of livestock breeding (Rothschild and implications for the utilization of AnGR would be
Plastow, 2002; Rothschild et al., 2004). General considerable.
arguments of this kind related to the impact of
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References
Barendse, W. 2002. Development and commercializa- Rothschild, M.F. & Plastow, G.S. 2002. Development
tion of a genetic marker for marbling of beef in of a genetic marker for litter size in the pig: a
cattle: a case study. In M. Rothschild & S. Newman, case study. In M. Rothschild & S. Newman, eds.
eds. Intellectual property rights in animal breeding Intellectual property rights in animal breeding
and genetics, pp. 197–212. Wallingford, UK. CAB and genetics, pp. 179–196. Wallingford, UK. CAB
International. International.
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UK. CAB International. Wageningen, the Netherlands. Wageningen
Academic Publishers.
Correa, C.M. 2004. Bilateral investment agreements:
Agents of new global standards for the protection Schaeffer, L.R. 2002. Dairy test day models: a case
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able at www.grain.org/briefings/?id=186#ten). Intellectual property rights in animal breeding
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and genetics, pp. 31–50. Wallingford, UK. CAB Legislation cited
International. COUNCIL REGULATION (EEC) No 2081/92 of 14 July
1992 on the protection of geographical indications
Lesser, W. 2002. Patents, trade secrets and other forms
and designations of origin for agricultural products
of intellectual property rights. In M. Rothschild & S.
and foodstuff.
Newman, eds. Intellectual property rights in animal
http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!c
breeding and genetics, pp. 1–15. Wallingford, UK.
elexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=31992
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ing political environment: perspectives on the types DIRECTIVE 98/44/EC of the European Parliament and
and administration of protection. Agbioforum, of the Council of 6 July 1998 on the legal protection
8(2-3): 64–72. of biotechnological inventions .
http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!c
elexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=31998
L0044&model=guichett
290
Patent applications at WIPO livestock keepers. Moreover, it is argued that

(WO 2005/015989) Method for genetic improvement there is an inherent injustice in the fact that
of terminal boars. the traditional knowledge that has gone into
the development of many local and indigenous
(WO 2005/017204) Use of single nucleotide breeds, and often forms the foundation and
polymorphism in the coding region of the porcine prerequisite for the scientific improvement of
leptin receptor genet to enhance pork production. breeds, remains unrecognized and unprotected.
The objective of any such arrangements should
2.2 Livestock Keepers’ Rights be to ensure rights for those that maintain AnGR,
The prospect of increased exertion of IPRs in without discouraging further characterization,
the field of animal breeding (see above) is development and utilization.
raising concerns about the continued freedom
of livestock keepers to use and develop their
own breeding stock and breeding practices. In 3 Regulatory frameworks
response to these developments there have been at regional level
calls by Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) for
the establishment of “Livestock Keepers Rights”
– initially in allusion to the “Farmers’ Rights” that 3.1 Introduction
have been enshrined in the International Treaty on Legal frameworks are frequently negotiated
Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture in political and regional country groupings to
(IT-PGRFA). In light of intense global exchange of improve cooperation, coordinate activities, and
PGR, a legal instrument was considered necessary minimize duplication of work. In the field of AnGR
to facilitate access and ensure benefit sharing. The management, the EU is the regional grouping
IT-PGRFA relies strongly on the institutions of the with by far the most comprehensive body of
seed sector, which were already heavily involved legislation, and is the focus of the following
in the international movement of germplasm. discussion. Examining these frameworks gives an
The situation of exchange in the livestock indication of how the objectives of the CBD are
sector is different from that in PGR. The global interpreted and further developed at the regional
movement of live animals is limited by strict level, and how different areas of regulation, and
sanitary regulations designed to protect the their interactions, affect AnGR management. In
health of national herds, and by the high costs addition to binding legal frameworks, groups
involved. The movement of germplasm is based of countries have the option of establishing so-
on commercial agreements and mainly involves called “soft laws,” which may serve to strengthen
international transboundary breeds. Collection member country commitment to agreed goals, or
and testing of AnGR from the developing world act as a model for national-level legislation. One
rarely occur, and it is therefore essential that such example is the Model Law drawn up by the
potential regulations governing access and benefit African Union (Box 45).
sharing do not further limit these activities.
The development of legal agreements to
define Livestock Keepers’ Rights with regard to
AnGR and to address international transfers of
AnGR was proposed by some NGOs during the
World Food Summit in 2002. It is feared that
the increased use of IPRs could have negative
impacts for both within and between-breed
diversity, as well as on the livelihoods of poor
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Box 45
The African Union Model Law
The African Model Law for the Protection of the Rights such consent has been granted. This is considered to
of Local Communities, Farmers and Breeders and be the case even when permission has been granted
for the Regulation of Access to Biological Resources but consultation has not taken place, is incomplete,
was adopted in 1998 by the Ministerial Session of or does not comply with the criteria for genuine and
the African Union. The Model Law was developed to equitable participation. Countries must designate
assist Member States deliberate on, formulate, and a competent authority to act as the focal point for
implement national policies and legal instruments receiving and processing applications for access. The
compatible with their national goals and political Model Law recognizes benefit-sharing as a right of
aspirations, while at the same time satisfying their local communities; the state must guarantee that
international obligations. So far, the Model Law has a specific percentage (minimum 50 percent) of any
not been adopted by any country. financial benefit accruing from the utilization of the
The Model Law provides a legal framework for resources returns to the local community.
the conservation, evaluation and sustainable use of With regard to farming communities, this right
biological resources, and associated knowledge and is reiterated in the section of the Model Law that
technologies. In particular, it provides for the rights deals with farmers’ rights. Non-financial benefits may
of local communities, farmers and breeders, over include participation in research and development, in
these resources. Although the framework includes order to build capacity; the repatriation of information
agricultural genetic resources, it was developed on the biological resources accessed; and access
mainly for plant genetic resources and does not to the technologies used to study and develop the
address specific issues related to AnGR in great depth. biological resources. One of the proposed mechanisms
The Model Law is clear with respect to patents related for financial benefit-sharing by communities in the
to forms of life and biological processes, in that such Model Law is the establishment of a Community
patents are not recognized and cannot be applied for. Gene Fund. The fund would be established as an
Under the Model Law, access to biological autonomous trust and used to finance projects
resources, community knowledge and technologies, developed by the farming communities.
will be subject to the prior informed consent of the
state and the affected local communities. Access to For further information see:
http://www.grain.org/brl_files/oau-model-law-en.pdf
biological resources is considered invalid when no
3.2 European Union legislation: an

example of a comprehensive
regional legal framework
The EU regional framework has been established and automatically enter into force on a set
in the context of economic and political date in all Member States. The EU has built up
integration among Member States. EU legislation a significant body of legislative texts relevant to
consists of Directives and Regulations, which AnGR management in fields such as conservation,
must be implemented at the Member State level. zootechnics (animal breeding), food hygiene,
Directives define the outcomes to be achieved, animal health, trade in animals and animal
but leave Member States to decide on the means products, organic agriculture, animal feed safety
by which the Directive is transposed into national and GMOs.
laws. Regulations are binding in their entirety,
292
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is will provide the framework for the work of
comprised of a set of rules and mechanisms the new European Agricultural Fund for Rural
which regulate the production, trade and Development (EAFRD) from 2007 onwards.
processing of agricultural products in the EU. More broadly, EU policy aims to promote
The CAP’s objectives, as set out in Article 33 of sustainable and integrated rural development,
the EC Treaty, are: and to encourage the participation of local
• to increase agricultural productivity by stakeholders in the development process. To
promoting technical progress and by this end, Council Regulation (EC) No. 1257/1999
ensuring the rational development of “on support for rural development from the
agricultural production and the optimum European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee
utilization of the factors of production – Fund (EAGGF)” established the framework for
in particular labour; support for sustainable rural development,
• to ensure a fair standard of living for including protection of the environment. The
the agricultural community, in particular CAP also seeks to promote economic and social
by increasing the individual earnings of cohesion, by encouraging the development of
persons engaged in agriculture; new activities and sources of employment. In
• to stabilize markets; this context, the LEADER+ initiative (described
• to ensure the availability of supplies; and in Commission Notice 2000/C 139/05) has been
• to ensure that supplies reach consumers at established to encourage rural stakeholders to
reasonable prices. consider the longer-term potential of their area,
Recent years have seen various moves to and to develop new ways of enhancing its natural
reform the CAP. These changes have been partly and cultural heritage. This is intended to reinforce
driven by developments at the international economic development and job creation, and to
level, notably by agricultural negotiations within improve the organizational capabilities of rural
the WTO framework. Substantial changes began communities.
in 1992; further changes were introduced under
the Agenda 2000 policy agreed in 1999. The Management of genetic resources
CAP reform adopted by the Council in June 2003 This subchapter discusses legislation directly
means that the vast majority of agricultural related to the management of AnGR – the
subsidies will be paid in the form of single farm legal framework for conservation and animal
payments, and are, thus, independent of the breeding. In the field of conservation, Commission
volume of production. The new payments are Regulation (EC) No. 817/2004 provides for
linked to environmental, food safety and animal financial support to be given to farmers rearing
welfare standards. This shift in policy objectives farm animals of “local breeds indigenous
potentially has significant implications for the to the area and in danger of being lost to
utilization of AnGR. Relevant EU legislation in farming” under the framework of Regulation
this context included Council Regulation (EEC) 1257/1999 (see above). The breeds in question
No. 2078/92, one of the so-called “accompanying must contribute to the maintenance of the
measures” to the 1992 reforms of the CAP, which local environment. Threshold population sizes,
introduced agri-environment measures intended determining the eligibility of local breeds (of
to promote environmental protection and the cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, equines or poultry) for
conservation of the countryside. This Regulation inclusion in the scheme are set out in Commission
was subsequently replaced by Council Regulation Regulation (EC) No. 817/2004. Population
(EC) No. 1257/99, which in turn is replaced by thresholds (number of breeding females) below
Council Regulation (EC) No. 1698/2005, which which a breed is considered to be endangered
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for the purposes of incentive payments are The EU is a party to the CBD and, as a
specified. The figures are based on the number, consequence, all EU countries are obliged to
summed across all Member States, of breeding develop national biodiversity strategies which, in
females available for pure-bred reproduction, the context of agricultural biodiversity, address
included in a register (e.g. herd book or flock conservation of AnGR. In situ conservation
book) recognized by a Member State. The is regarded as the preferable approach, as it
thresholds are 7 500 for cattle, 10 000 for sheep, enables utilization and further characterization
10 000 for goats, 5 000 for equidae, 15 000 for of AnGR. At the regional level, the Biodiversity
pigs and 25 000 for avian species. Opportunities Action Plan for Agriculture22 was adopted in
to support conservation measures are to be 2001. The CAP instruments, as shaped by Agenda
further strengthened from 2007 onwards under 2000 and subsequent reforms, provide the
Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1698/2005. The framework for integrating biodiversity concerns
objective is to compensate farmers who provide into EU agricultural policy. The priorities of the
environmental services for the “additional costs Action Plan are: the promotion and support of
and income foregone … [and where necessary] environmentally friendly farming practices and
... may cover also transaction cost” (Article 39:4). systems that benefit biodiversity; the support of
The Regulation specifies that payments can be sustainable farming activities in biodiversity-rich
made for the “conservation of genetic resources areas; the maintenance and enhancement of good
in agriculture” (Article 39:5). The Regulation ecological infrastructures; and the promotion of
provides for the adoption of strategic guidelines actions to conserve local or threatened livestock
for rural development at the Community level breeds or plant varieties. All these priorities are
for the period 2007 to 20013, and requires that supported by research, training and education.
Member Countries establish national strategy Biodiversity conservation greatly depends on
plans setting out details of agri-environmental the appropriate application of measures within
payments. A further Regulation, intended to the CAP, notably compensatory allowances for
replace Commission Regulation (EC) No. 817/2004, less favoured areas, and agri-environmental
was in preparation at the time of writing. measures.
Some concerns have been raised regarding A Regulation, related to the implementation
the effectiveness of incentive payment schemes of the Action Plan, is Council Regulation (EC)
under Regulations 1257/1999 and 817/2004, as No. 870/2004. This Regulation explicitly aims
payments to farmers did not take into account to increase the emphasis on the conservation
differences between breeds in terms of their of AnGR. There was a concern that under
extinction probabilities, and subsidy payments previous legislation in the field, such as Council
were frequently insufficient to compensate Regulation (EC) No. 1467/94, livestock received
farmers for the losses involved in keeping the less attention than crops. “Targeted actions”,
local breeds (Signorello and Pappalardo, 200321). under Article 5, of Regulation 870/2004 include:
Only around 40 percent of breeds classified as at the promotion of characterization, collection,
risk by FAO were covered by the payment schemes utilization and ex situ and in situ conservation of
established under these Regulations, and in some genetic resources; the establishment of a Web-
countries no schemes existed (ibid.). based inventory of genetic resources included in
conservation programmes, and of in situ and ex
21 22
Signorello, G. & Pappalardo, G. 2003. Domestic animal Communication from the Commission to the Council and the
biodiversity conservation: a case study of rural development plans European Parliament Biodiversity Action Plan for Agriculture.
in the European Union. Ecological Economics, 45(3): 487–499. Commission of the European Communities, Brussels, 27.3.2001.
http://europa.eu.int/comm/agriculture/envir/biodiv/162_en.pdf
294
situ conservation facilities; and the promotion Commission Regulation (EC) 1698/2005 will be an
of the exchange of relevant scientific and improvement in this respect.
technical information. For AnGR kept on farms, A further body of EU legislation relates to the
the focus is to be on a network of inventories of management of livestock breeding. The efficient
administrative aspects (funding, endangerment management of AnGR is dependent on the
status of breeds, location of herd books, etc.). availability of trustworthy information relating
Transnational “concerted actions”, under Article to animals’ pedigrees and performance data.
6, will promote information exchange to improve Reliable mechanisms must be in place for animal
the coordination of actions and programmes identification, recording, and the definition of
for the management of genetic resources in breeding objectives. An effective legal framework
Community agriculture. “Accompanying actions”, covering livestock breeding activities is, therefore,
under Article 7, will cover the dissemination of required. A number of laws have been put in place
information and advice to stakeholders such as to regulate intra-Community trade of pure-bred
NGOs; the provision of training courses; and the breeding animals. The legislation covers bovine,
preparation of technical reports. Proposals for porcine, ovine, caprine and equine animals.
actions may be put forward by stakeholders such Poultry and rabbits, although they are important
as genebanks, NGOs, breeders, technical institutes commercial species, are not covered. For bovine
and experimental farms. animals, Council Directives 77/504/EEC and 87/328/
Areas related to AnGR eligible for funding EEC require that Member States do not allow
under the Regulation include: the development restriction, on zootechnical grounds, of trade
of standardized criteria to identify priorities in with other Member States in pure-bred breeding
the field AnGR management; the establishment animals, semen, ova or embryos. Countries must
of European genebanks based on national or enable the establishment of herd books and
institutional genebanks; the characterization breeders’ organizations, and not prevent the
and evaluation of AnGR; the establishment of entry in their herd books of pure-bred animals
a standardized performance testing regime for from other Member States. EU legislation defines
AnGR, and documentation of characteristics a pure-bred animal as an “animal the parents and
of endangered breeds; the establishment and grandparents of which are entered or registered
coordination of a European-wide network of “Ark in a herd-book of the same breed, and which is
farms”, rescue stations and parks for endangered itself either entered or registered and eligible for
breeds; the development of cross-national entry in such a herd-book.”
breeding programmes for endangered breeds Detailed rules are set out for bovine animals
and the establishment of rules for the exchange in Commission Decision 84/247/EEC, covering
of information, genetic material and breeding the recognition of breeders’ organizations;
animals; the development of strategies to promote Commission Decision 84/419/EEC, covering the
linkages between local breeds and niche markets, keeping of herd books; Commission Decision
environmental management and tourism; and 2005/379/EC, covering pedigree certificates;
the development of strategies which promote the Commission Decision 86/130/EEC, covering
use and development of underutilized AnGR that performance testing and genetic evaluation; and
could be of interest on a European level. It should, Council Directive 87/328/EEC, covering acceptance
however, be noted that Council Regulation (EC) of animals for breeding. The latter Directive is of
No. 870/2004 only allows for joint actions involving considerable importance in terms of liberalization
several countries, and, therefore, its value to and reducing trade barriers in cattle breeding.
the implementation of national measures, as Similar sets of rules are in place for other species/
part of national action plans, is limited. The new classes of livestock. In the case of hybrid pigs (but
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not breeding programmes for pure-bred animals), of these schemes relates to the association of
private undertakings can be approved to maintain a product with a distinct geographical area.
breed registers (Commission Decision 89/504 EEC). Council Regulation (EEC) No. 2081/92 states that
With regard to bovines, Council Decision 96/463/ to qualify for a protected “designation of origin”
EC establishes the INTERBULL Centre in Uppsala a foodstuff must have
Sweden as the reference body for uniform testing “quality or characteristics ... which are
and genetic evaluation for pure-bred animals. In essentially or exclusively due to a particular
the case of equidae, Commission Decision 93/623/ geographical environment with its inherent
EEC sets out provisions relating to identification natural and human factors, and the production,
documents (passports) for animals registered processing and preparation of which take place
in stud books (legislation related to animal in the defined geographical area”.
identification is discussed further in the subchapter Similar, but less narrowly defined, criteria are
on animal health below). set out for the registration of a “geographical
Several points arise from this body of breeding- indication”. Under Article 4 of the Regulation,
related legislation: breeders’ associations are requirements for product specification are
state-approved, and as such are mandated to keep outlined. Among the requirements are a name
herd books for pure-bred animals, and to perform and description of the product; definition of the
breeding programmes including conservation geographical area involved; evidence regarding
breeding programmes. Provided certain the origin of the product and its links to the local
conditions related to the organization’s capacities area; an outline of methods used to obtain the
and its rules are met, breeders’ associations have product; a description of inspection structures; and
to be approved. Any group of breeders can set details of labelling. Although not always the case,
up a new breeding organization for an existing some product specifications prepared under these
breed, unless it is considered that a partition of rules indicate that products or the raw materials
the population would endanger the conservation used in their manufacture are to be sourced from
of the breed or jeopardize the zootechnical specific livestock breeds. Even where a breed is
programme of an existing organization. As not specified, the marketing of specialized local
such, an existing breeding organization has products may promote the survival of traditional
no property right on the basis of which it can management systems in the specified locations
exclusively breed the breed in question. In the and thereby support the continued utilization of
case of equines, some additional legal privilege is well-adapted local breeds.
given to breeders’ organizations which maintain In a similar manner, Council Regulation (EC) No.
the “stud-book of the origin of the breed”, as 2082/92 sets out the rules whereby a “certificate
it can set rules that must be followed by newly of specific character” can be obtained for a
established “filial stud-books”. foodstuff or product. The Regulation allows for
the registration of distinguishing features that are
Specialized food products and organic not a matter of provenance or geographical origin
agriculture and that do not relate solely to the application of
Niche markets for distinctive livestock products a technological innovation. In order to appear in
are recognized as being potentially important the register of certificates of specific character set
to the economic viability of many local breeds. up by the Commission a product or foodstuff
EU legislation provides for a number of schemes “must either be produced using traditional raw
under which distinctive products can be registered materials or be characterized by a traditional
so that producers are protected against imitation composition or a mode of production and/or
and can take advantage of the higher prices processing reflecting a traditional type of
that consumers are willing to pay. One aspect production and/or processing”.
296
Once again, the promotion of diverse products The rules further specify that the first principle
of this kind potentially has positive implications to be applied in the prevention and control of
for the genetic diversity of livestock populations. disease is the choice of appropriate livestock
Some EU countries actively promote and provide breeds; the use of veterinary pharmaceuticals is
support for a wider use of “certificates of specific highly restricted. As such, adaptations required
character” as a means to valorize, and thereby of livestock kept under organic systems are
protect, rare breeds. often quite different to those required under
The management of AnGR may also be affected non-organic systems, most notably in terms of
by EU legislation related to organic agriculture. animal health and housing conditions. While
This legislation aims to establish a harmonized much organic livestock production makes use
framework for the production, labelling and of conventional high-output breeds, there is
inspection of products, in order to increase considerable potential for the utilization of rarer,
consumer confidence and ensure fair competition locally adapted breeds.
between producers. Council Regulation (EEC) No. In 2004 the European Action Plan for Organic
2092/91 establishes a framework for the labelling, Food and Farming23 was adopted with a view
production and control of agricultural products to ensuring further development of the organic
bearing or intended to bear indications referring sector in the coming years and to providing an
to organic production methods. Regulation overall strategic vision for organic farming’s
(EEC) No. 2092/91, however, did not include contribution to the CAP. One of the actions was
any standards for livestock and was, therefore, to render the public benefits of organic farming
supplemented by Regulation (EC) No. 1804/1999. explicit by defining its objectives and basic
The latter Regulation sets out detailed rules principles. To this end EU Member States were,
covering conversion to organic farming, the at the time of writing, negotiating a proposal
origin of the animals, feed, disease prevention for a new legal framework which will eventually
and veterinary treatment, husbandry practices, replace Council Regulation (EEC) No. 2092/91.
transport, identification of livestock products, With regard to biodiversity, the proposed
utilization of manure, free range areas and objectives state that:
housing (animals must, providing conditions “The organic production system shall maintain
allow, have access to open-air grazing or exercise and enhance a high level of biological diversity
areas), stocking densities, and overgrazing. The on farms and their surrounding areas.”24
Regulations cover bovine, porcine, ovine, caprine,
equine and poultry species. Separate rules are Animal health
set out for bees. With regard to the origin of the The EU has a body of legislation aimed at
animals, the rules state that: improving animal health within the Community,
“In the choice of breeds or strains, account while permitting intra-Community trade and
must be taken of the capacity of animals to imports of animals and animal products in
adapt to local conditions; their vitality, and accordance with health standards and obligations
their resistance to disease. In addition, breeds under international law. Specific sets of laws apply
or strains of animals shall be selected to avoid
23
Communication from the Commission to the Council and the
specific diseases or health problems associated
European Parliament European Action Plan for Organic Food and
with some breeds or strains used in intensive Farming. Commission of the European Communities, Brussels,
production (e.g. porcine stress syndrome, 10.06.2004 COM(2004)415 final. http://europa.eu.int/comm/
PSE syndrome, sudden death, spontaneous agriculture/qual/organic/plan/comm_en.pdf
24
abortion, difficult births requiring caesarean Proposal for a Council Regulation amending Regulation (EEC)
No 2092/91 on organic production of agricultural products
operations, etc.). Preference is to be given to and indications referring thereto in agricultural products and
indigenous breeds and strains.” foodstuffs.
297
PART 3
to bovines, ovines and caprines, equines, porcines, authorize imports. Rules covering certification for
poultry and hatching eggs, as well as aquaculture, import, and veterinary border inspection posts
pets and non-commercial animals, and other live for live animals are set out in Council Decision
animals. A distinction is drawn between imports 79/542/EEC and Council Directive 91/496/EEC,
and intra-Community trade – in many respects, respectively. Similar legislation is in place covering
separate legal frameworks apply to each. other animal species.
Preventive health measures cover live animals, Intra-Community trade and imports of bovine
semen and embryos, and animal products. semen and embryos are regulated by Council
Restrictions on the movement of genetic Directive 88/407/EEC and Council Directive
material have the potential to constrain the 89/556/EEC, respectively. The Directives set out
activities of livestock breeders in EU Member health standards that semen and embryos must
States. Moreover, animal health-related meet in order to be imported or traded within
restrictions on imports of animals, germplasm the EU, and conditions required for the approval
and animal products to the markets of the EU of semen collection and storage centres. Lists of
will, in some cases, limit the development of approved countries for the importation of semen
export-oriented livestock production in countries and embryos and approved centres are drawn
which are not members of the EU, and hence up. Rules are also set out covering the health
affect decisions regarding the utilization of AnGR certification of traded semen and embryos. Similar
in these countries. rules are in place for other livestock species.
For intra-Community trade in bovines and Council Directive 88/407/EEC was subsequently
porcines, rules are set out in Council Directive amended by Council Directive 2003/43/EC, which
64/432/EEC and subsequent amendments. Rules allows semen storage centres in addition to
are laid down relating to measures required to semen collection centres (having their own bulls)
prevent the spread of disease during the transport to engage in trade in bovine semen between
of animals; diagnostic tests for specific diseases; Member States – a significant step towards the
animal identification to ensure traceability; liberalization of this market.
and the harmonization of veterinary health The objectives of these Directives are to regulate
certification. With regard to imports, bovines and animal health-related aspects of intra-Community
porcines imported from non-member countries trade and import of semen, rather than to facilitate
must comply with the standards stipulated in the cryoconservation of genetic material. Indeed,
Council Directive 72/462/EEC. Standards which the legislation may present problems with regard
must be met by the exporting country are set to obtaining semen from endangered breeds for
out, covering the state of legislation; the health conservation purposes. Collecting semen at an AI
status of livestock and other animals; the state centre is costly compared to on-farm collection,
of disease reporting to the OIE; standards for and collecting semen from rare breeds is usually
the production, processing and transit of animal not of commercial interest to the AI industry. A
products; disease control measures, and the state further issue relates to the long-term storage
of national veterinary services. Conditions also of genetic material for conservation purposes.
stipulate that the exporting country must be Material collected in the past inevitably fails to
free of specific livestock diseases. Standards must conform to current standards. The dissemination
be verified by the European Commission’s Food of the material to breeders, therefore, becomes
and Veterinary Office. Once this verification is legally problematic. This is particularly the
completed the exporting country can be included, case for exchange of genetic material between
under Council Decision 79/542/EEC, in a list of Member States. However, in some countries, the
third countries from which the Member States rules set out in the Directives, when incorporated
298
into national legislation, are applied not only to which have to be met in their preparation. Disease
semen destined for intra-Community exchange, control measures may specify restrictions on
but also to semen used at the national level. livestock movement in the case of an outbreak,
Trade in fresh meat is regulated by Council requirements for vaccination or vector control, or
Directive 2002/99/EC. The objective is to ensure in the case of certain serious diseases, require the
harmonization of health-related requirements culling of infected and in-contact herd/flocks. The
across all Member States, and to prevent the latter action potentially has serious consequences
entry into the EU of products that may be for rare-breed populations located in the affected
carrying infectious diseases dangerous to animals areas.
or humans. Conditions relating to animal health In recognition of the threat posed by culling
status are set out for importing countries. The measures, provisions for the exemption of rare
conditions are similar to those for live animals, breeds are included in Directives related to several
but include the requirement that meat comes diseases. For example, Council Directive 2003/85/
from an approved establishment (slaughterhouse, EC, which relates to FMD, allows (under
etc.). Additional guarantees may be required in Article 15) for the derogation of the requirement
response to specific disease problems, such as the for immediate slaughter of affected herds/flocks
deboning and maturation of meat from animals in the case of “a laboratory, zoo, wildlife park,
vaccinated against FMD. It is also possible that a and fenced area or in bodies, institutes or centres
third country may only be permitted to export approved in accordance with Article 13(2) of
meat from certain categories of animals to the Council Directive 92/65/EEC and where animals
EU. Further rules relate to chemical residues, are kept for scientific purposes or purposes
BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy) and related to conservation of species or farm animal
animal welfare at the time of slaughter. Separate genetic resources” becoming infected with the
legislative frameworks are in place for meat disease. A list of premises that are identified as
products, poultry, milk and milk products, and for a “breeding nucleus of animals of susceptible
other categories such as game meat. species indispensable for the survival of a breed”
In addition to the trade-related laws outlined must be established in advance (Article 77). The
above, the EU has a body of laws dealing with the Commission must be notified in the event of a
prevention, control, monitoring and eradication of Member State deciding to derogate slaughter
specific diseases. Separate Directives cover African measures, and it must be ensured that “the
horse sickness (Council Directive 92/35/EEC), African animal health status of other Member States, are
swine fever (ASF) (Council Directive 2002/60/EC), not endangered and that all necessary measures
FMD (Council Directive 2003/85/EC), avian influenza are in place to prevent any risk of spreading foot-
(Council Directive 2005/94/EC), bluetongue and-mouth disease virus.”
(Council Directive 2000/75/EC), classical swine fever Similarly, Directive 2005/94/EC relating to avian
(CSF) (Council Directive 2001/89/EEC), Newcastle influenza, allows for derogation of slaughter
disease (Council Directive 92/66/EEC), and certain measures the case of “an outbreak of HPAI in a
diseases of fish and molluscs. A further Directive non-commercial holding, a circus, a zoo, a pet
(Council Directive 92/119/EEC) covers a number bird shop, a wild life park, a fenced area where
of other exotic livestock diseases. Eradication and poultry or other captive birds are kept for scientific
monitoring programmes aim to progressively purposes or purposes related to the conservation
eliminate diseases that are endemic in parts of of endangered species or officially registered rare
the EU. Council Decision 90/424/EEC relates to breeds of poultry or other captive birds, provided
the provision of funding for such programmes, that such derogations do not endanger disease
and Council Decision 90/638/EEC sets out criteria control” (Article 13). Requirements relating to the
299
PART 3
confinement and restrictions on the movement Commission Regulation (EC) No. 644/2005 for
of birds covered by such derogations are set out alternative means of identification. There are
in Article 14. The Directives relating to CSF and also separate rules for bulls kept for sporting or
ASF also allow for exemptions for rare-breed cultural purposes (Commission Regulation (EC)
populations if specified conditions are met. It No. 2680/1999); and in the case of cattle kept on
should, however, be noted that similar provisions, nature reserves in the Netherlands for landscape
designed to protect rare genetic resources, are and conservation purposes, the maximum period
not included under older Directives relating to for the application of ear tags (normally 20 days
other serious livestock diseases (e.g. Newcastle after birth) can be extended up to 12 months
disease and African horse sickness). (Commission Decision 2004/764/EC). Similarly
As discussed in Part 1 – Section F: 4, measures in Spain, an extension of up to six months was
outlined in Commission Decision 2003/100/EC permitted, under Commission Decision 98/589/EC,
on breeding programmes for the elimination of for animals of certain breeds, kept under extensive
scrapie have also raised concerns. Rare sheep breeds conditions in specified geographical regions. The
that lack or have low frequency of the resistant specific provisions for Spain were subsequently
genotypes may be threatened. Participation in repealed when a more general provision was
breeding schemes will be compulsory for flocks introduced (Commission Decision 2006/28/EC)
of “high genetic merit”, and will result in the covering all Member States. The rules allow
castration or slaughter of rams carrying the “VRQ” extensions of up to six months for holdings where
allele associated with susceptibility to the disease. cattle are kept under extensive conditions, where
The Decision does, however, allow for derogations ear tagging presents practical problems because
of these requirements in the case of breeds which of geographical conditions and the animals are
have low frequencies of the resistant ARR allele unused to handling, and provided the calves can
and which are in danger of being lost to farming. be clearly assigned to their mothers at the time of
The implementation of animal health-related tagging.
rules is backed up by a body of legislation on
animal identification. These laws are also relevant Animal welfare
to food safety and traceability, management and Council Directive 98/58/EC sets out rules protecting
supervision of livestock premiums, and to the the welfare of farmed animals. Further Directives
certification of animals for breeding purposes. deal specifically with laying hens, calves and pigs.
In the case of bovine animals, for example, rules The legislation outlines standards for veterinary
are set out in Regulation (EC) 1760/2000. The care; freedom of movement for animals
identification system for bovines comprises ear tags in accordance with their physiological and
for individual animals, computerized databases, behavioural needs; shelter, cleanliness, ventilation
animal passports and individual registers kept on and lighting in buildings and accommodation;
each holding. provision of feed and water; mutilations and
The identification requirements (specifically ear breeding procedures; as well as staffing levels,
tagging) present practical problems with respect to inspection of animals, and record keeping. With
the keeping of animals for certain specific purposes specific regard to animal breeding, the Directive
or under some management conditions. There states that:
could, thus, be implications for particular AnGR “natural or artificial breeding procedures
normally kept in such circumstances. Some steps which cause, or are likely to cause, suffering
have been taken to adapt legal measures in order or injury to any of the animals concerned shall
to address these problems. In the case of bovine not be practised”,
animals kept for cultural and historical purposes and that:
on approved premises, provisions are made under “no animal shall be kept for farming purposes
300
unless it can reasonably be expected, on the rare breeds of sheep. A further outcome is that
basis of their genotype or phenotype, that they many developing countries are concerned that
can be kept without detrimental effect on their they are unable meet increasingly complex and
health and welfare.” burdensome EU standards and regulations. Indeed,
Council Regulation (EC) No. 1/2005 provides for environmental, and SPS measures are considered by
the protection of animals during transport. The a number of countries to be a greater constraint to
Regulation radically overhauls existing EU rules exports to the EU than are tariffs and quantitative
on animal transport. Salient features include new restrictions. The EU legislative framework for
rules to cover the treatment of animals before food safety, thus, affects livestock production and
and after transportation at locations such as marketing, and, hence, the utilization of AnGR,
farms, markets, slaughterhouses and harbours; both within the EU and elsewhere in the world.
training and certification of drivers; improved The production, marketing and utilization of
enforcement, including tracking of vehicles by livestock feed is also covered by EU legislation.
satellite navigation systems; stricter standards for Developments in this field are increasingly driven
journeys over eight hours – including improved by concerns about human and animal health.
standards for lorries; and stricter standards for These laws do not directly impact the management
the movement of young and pregnant animals. of AnGR, but form a part of the framework within
Council Directive 93/119/EEC relates to the which livestock producers have to operate and take
minimizing the pain and suffering undergone by decisions regarding their management practices.
animals at the time of slaughter. The regulations Regulation (EC) No. 882/2004 sets out rules
cover the equipping of slaughterhouses; the designed to ensure that impacts on feed and food
competence of slaughterhouse staff; and specify safety are considered at all stages in the process
that animals must be stunned before slaughter or of feed production and utilization. With regard to
killed instantaneously. the inclusion of GMOs in livestock feed, Regulation
(EC) No. 1829/2003 covers applications for the
Food safety placing on the market of GMOs, and products
EU legislation related to food safety has in recent containing or derived from GMOs. The labelling
years undergone significant reform. Legislative and traceability of such products is covered by
and other actions have been developed, to ensure Regulation (EC) No. 1830/2003.
compliance with EU food safety standards in
Member States; to manage international relations 3.3 Conclusions
with non-member countries and international Many regulatory aspects of AnGR management
organizations concerning food safety; to would benefit from regional or subregional
manage relations with the European Food Safety coordination. Regional transboundary breeds
Authority (EFSA); and to ensure science-based risk are found in substantial numbers in most regions
management. The central element of legislation in of the world, and thus conservation measures
this field is Regulation (EC) No. 178/2002. should be planned at subregional or regional
Food safety measures may have negative level. Trade in livestock products can be promoted
implications for the production of specialized by common standards guaranteeing quality and
foodstuffs such as cheeses made with raw milk safety. Breed improvement is facilitated if a
from local breeds, and thereby undermine the common framework for registration and genetic
potential contribution of niche markets to breed evaluation is put in place.
conservation. Concerns about food safety are also The EU provides an example of a comprehensive
a driving force behind legislation aimed at the set of regional regulations affecting AnGR
eradication of scrapie. As described above and Part management. Legislation promoting conservation
1 – Section F: 4, these measures pose a threat some measures has been in place for some years, and has
301
PART 3
recently been strengthened. Incentive payments COMMISSION DECISION 89/504/EEC of 18 July

for breed conservation appear to fit well with the 1989 laying down the criteria for approval and
need to find alternatives to production-related supervision of breeders’ associations, breeding
subsidies. However, the evidence suggests that organizations and private undertakings which
schemes have not always been sufficiently well establish or maintain registers for hybrid breeding
targeted to effectively promote the conservation pigs. http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?s
of some of the most endangered breeds. The martapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&nu
overall focus of the EU legislative framework is less mdoc=31989D0504&model=guichett
on conservation than on providing an enabling
environment for breed improvement, promoting COMMISSION DECISION 93/623/EEC of 20 October
free trade in breeding material among Member 1993 establishing the identification document
States, and ensuring an effective regime for the (passport) accompanying registered equidae.
control of livestock diseases. Unsurprisingly, http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/consleg/pdf/1993/
regulations promoting these objectives have en_1993D0623_do_001.pdf
at times clashed with conservation goals. It is,
however, interesting to note that in some such COMMISSION DECISION 98/589/EC of 12 October
cases the problems have been recognized, and 1998 concerning an extension of the maximum
relevant adaptations to the legislative framework period laid down for the application of eartags to
have been implemented. certain bovine animals belonging to the Spanish
herd. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_d
oc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN
Legislation cited &numdoc=31998D0589&model=guichett
COMMISSION DECISION 84/247/EEC of 27 April COMMISSION DECISION 2003/100/EC of 13

1984 laying down the criteria for the recognition February 2003 laying down minimum requirements
of breeders’ organizations and associations which for the establishment of breeding programmes
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europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!cel smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CEL
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4D0247&model=guichett =guichett
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1984 laying down the criteria for entering cattle October 2004 concerning an extension of the
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COMMISSION DECISION 2005/379/EC of 17 May COUNCIL DECISION 90/424/EEC of 26 June 1990 on

2005 on pedigree certificates and particulars for expenditure in the veterinary field. http://europa.
pure-bred breeding animals of the bovine species, eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!pr
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eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!pr
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of 29 April 2004 laying down detailed rules for on animal health problems affecting intra-
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PART 3
COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 87/328/EEC of 18 June 1987 COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 92/65/EEC of 13 July 1992
on the acceptance for breeding purposes of pure- laying down animal health requirements governing
bred breeding animals of the bovine species. trade in and imports into the Community of
http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smarta animals, semen, ova and embryos not subject to
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1989 on animal health conditions governing intra- 1992 introducing general Community measures
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laying down specific provisions for the control June 1991 on organic production of agricultural
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COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 2002/99/EC of 16 COUNCIL REGULATION (EEC) No 2078/92

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rules governing the production, processing, methods compatible with the requirements
distribution and introduction of products of of the protection of the environment and the
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COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 2003/85/EC of
29 September 2003 on Community measures for COUNCIL REGULATION (EEC) No 2081/92 of 14
the control of foot-and-mouth disease repealing July 1992 on the protection of geographical
Directive 85/511/EEC and Decisions 89/531/EEC indications and designations of origin for
and 91/665/EEC and amending Directive 92/46/ agricultural products and foodstuffs. http://
EEC. http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?s europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!cel
martapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&nu exapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=3199
mdoc=32003L0085&model=guichett 2R2081&model=guichett
COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 2003/43/EC of 26 May 2003 COUNCIL REGULATION (EEC) No 2082/92 of 14

amending Directive 88/407/EEC laying down the July 1992 on certificates of specific character
animal health requirements applicable to intra- for agricultural products and foodstuffs. http://
Community trade in and imports of semen of europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!cel
domestic animals of the bovine species. http:// exapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=3199
europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!cel 2R2082&model=guichett
exapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=3200
3L0043&model=guichett COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) No 1467/94 of 20
June 1994 on the conservation, characterization,
COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 2005/94/EC of 20 December collection and utilization of genetic resources
2005 on Community measures for the control of in agriculture. http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/
avian influenza and repealing Directive 92/40/EEC. sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ. lg=EN&numdoc=31994R1467&model=guichett
do?uri=CELEX:32005L0094:EN:NOT
COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) No 1257/1999 of
17 May 1999 on support for rural development
from the European Agricultural Guidance and
Guarantee Fund (EAGGF) and amending and
repealing certain Regulations. http://europa.
e u . i n t / e u r- l e x / p r i / e n / o j / d a t / 1 9 9 9 / l _ 1 6 0 / l _
16019990626en00800102.pdf
305
PART 3
COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) No 1804/1999 of 19 July REGULATION (EC) No 882/2004 OF THE EUROPEAN
1999 supplementing Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 29 April
on organic production of agricultural products 2004 on official controls performed to ensure the
and indications referring thereto on agricultural verification of compliance with feed and food
products and foodstuffs to include livestock law, animal health and animal welfare rules.
production. http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/ http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/refdoc/L_165/L_
dat/1999/l_222/l_22219990824en00010028.pdf 2004165EN_1.pdf
REGULATION (EC) No 1760/2000 of the European COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) No 870/2004 of 24

Parliament and of the Council of 17 July 2000 April 2004 establishing a Community programme
establishing a system for the identification and on the conservation, characterisation, collection
registration of bovine animals and regarding the and utilisation of genetic resources in agriculture
labelling of beef and beef products and repealing and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1467/94. http://
Council Regulation (EC) No 820/97. http://europa. europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2004/l_162/l_
eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!pr 16220040430en00180028.pdf
od!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=32000R1760
&model=guichett COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) No 1/2005 of 22
December 2004 on the protection of animals
REGULATION (EC) No 178/2002 OF THE EUROPEAN during transport and related operations and
PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 28 amending Directives 64/432/EEC and 93/119/EC
January 2002 laying down the general principles and Regulation (EC) No 1255/97. http://europa.
and requirements of food law, establishing the eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2005/l_
European Food Safety Authority and laying down 003/l_00320050105en00010044.pdf
procedures in matters of food safety. http://
europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/l_031/l_ COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) 1698/2005 of 20
03120020201en00010024.pdf September 2005 on support for rural development
by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural
REGULATION (EC) No 1829/2003 OF THE Development (EAFRD). http://europa.eu.int/
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2005/l_277/l_
of 22 September 2003 on genetically modified 27720051021en00010040.pdf
food and feed. http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/
oj/dat/2003/l_268/l_26820031018en00010023.pdf COMMISSION NOTICE TO THE MEMBER STATES
2000/C 139/05of 14 April 2000 laying down
REGULATION (EC) No 1830/2003 OF THE guidelines for the Community initiative for
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL rural development (Leader+). http://europa.
of 22 September 2003 concerning the traceability e u . i n t / e u r- l e x / p r i / e n / o j / d a t / 2 0 0 0 / c _ 1 3 9 / c _
and labelling of genetically modified organisms 13920000518en00050013.pdf
and the traceability of food and feed products
produced from genetically modified organisms
and amending Directive 2001/18/EC. http://
europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2003/l_268/l_
26820031018en00240028.pdf
306
4 National legislation and policy
4.1 Introduction
Functioning legal frameworks, or at minimum, The starting point for the analysis was a broad
clear policies and programmes, are prerequisites for definition of both “management of AnGR”
effective management of AnGR. Clear legislation, and “legal framework”. The former term was
and the security which it provides, is important taken to encompass conservation of AnGR
both for economic activities such as international (including the indirect effects of sustaining the
and domestic trade, and for the definition of the production systems where the genetic resources
competences, rights and duties of the stakeholders are utilized); genetic improvement (including
involved in AnGR management. regulation of specific techniques and the
From a country-level perspective, the effectiveness associated infrastructure); and animal health
of a legal framework can be assessed on the basis (including provisions related to trade, breeding
of the extent to which it promotes or hinders and transport). Supporting factors, such as
the achievement of the country’s agricultural institutional structures and incentive measures
development goals. These goals are manifold were also considered.
and trade-offs between them are often necessary. For the purposes of the analysis, “legal
National-level goals may include ensuring food framework” was taken to include all types of
security and food safety, promoting national legislation reported as being relevant to AnGR
economic growth, enhancing the income and management. Additionally, as many countries
livelihoods of the rural population, preventing mentioned policies and strategies or similar
the degradation of the natural environment, or instruments for the management of AnGR, these
maintaining biological diversity. Countries are also instruments were taken into consideration, even
very diverse in terms of their ecological, cultural if in many instances the legal basis for their
and political environments. This section describes implementation was not clear.
both general frameworks and specific solutions The descriptions provided by the Country
that have been developed in the field of legislation Reports present a differentiated picture, which
and policy. It aims to highlight difficulties and cannot be fully represented here. The objective of
gaps in existing provisions, and to facilitate the the following discussion is, therefore, to offer an
exchange of ideas, solutions and experiences. overview of the subject and to describe general
patterns and models. Examples drawn from the
4.2 Methods Country Reports are included to illustrate typical
The analysis draws on information from the cases or those that are particularly useful or
following sources: creative. Region-specific statistical overviews are
• the Country Reports submitted as part presented where this illustrates particular points
of the SoW-AnGR preparation process, of interest. However, it should be noted that not
supplemented in some cases by e-mail all Country Reports present the same degree of
correspondence with the NCs; detail in their discussion of legal frameworks.
• an earlier survey carried in 2003 by out by The statistics presented should not, therefore, be
FAO’s Development Law Service; and taken to represent a complete picture of the state
• additional information found in FAO’s legal of legal provision, but rather as broad indicators
data bank (FAOLEX25). of regional capacities with respect to AnGR-
related laws and policies.
25
http://faolex.fao.org/faolex
307
PART 3
4.3 Implementation of AnGR-related Box 46

legislation and programmes Malawi’s Environmental
Management, sustainable use and conservation Management Act
of AnGR may involve the mandates of different
public agencies, and involve a great variety of Articles 35 and 36 of the Environmental Management
private actors – from farmers and breeders, to food Act contain provisions on the conservation of
processing and marketing enterprises. It entails biodiversity and on access to genetic resources.
a great amount of knowledge (both traditional The Minister may assess and identify Malawi’s
and related to modern biotechnologies). The biological resources before formulating and
creation and implementation of legislation is implementing policies and frameworks for their
a multifaceted task, requiring a high degree of protection. The Act also contains suggested actions
coordination and organization. that the Minister may undertake for the conservation
Legal frameworks are, clearly, not the only option of biological resources. The Minister may also restrict
for achieving policy goals. An important question access to Malawi’s genetic resources, or impose fees
to be considered is the relative efficiency of legal or benefit sharing measures involving the owner of
means (often requiring expensive control measures) the technology and the government.
as compared to other policy measures (creating
incentives and supporting mechanisms of various Source: Legal Questionnaire (2003).
kinds, and removing distortions or disincentives).
Thus, the following thematic sections describe
examples of both legislative and policy measures. the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture;
health-related issues may be the responsibility of
Institutional Framework the Ministry of Health, other Ministries such as
Institutions that have a clear mandate and Trade or Environment may also play a role. The
that function well are the backbone of the discussion presented below focuses only on the
implementation of laws and policies. A basic specific institutions involved (i.e. not the “basic”
institutional structure is essential for the ministries). These may include government
coordination of strategies for AnGR management. agencies, private organizations to which tasks
Clear legal definitions of institutional roles are are delegated, or mixed public–private ventures.
important. Complicated or unclear arrangements Competences and duties of such institutions (or at
may cause problems for coordination and least of higher-level bodies) ought to be defined
communication between stakeholders. by law. The legal mechanisms involved are, not
Institutional mechanisms for the implementation always clear from the information contained in
of AnGR-related laws are diverse. Frameworks the Country Reports. However, wherever possible
vary between countries according to the an analysis of the legal basis for the roles of
characteristics of national administrative systems, institutions is included in the following discussion.
the availability of financial resources, and the
overall economic and social conditions. Two main Economic Instruments
approaches to institutional development can be Because the management of AnGR is a complex
discerned: 1) the establishment of ad hoc bodies task, which involves a variety of stakeholders,
to meet particular needs; and 2) the optimal use implementation of legal measures may be
of existing institutions with possible adjustment difficult and costly. As noted above, it may be
of their mandates or structures (FAO, 2005). more cost-effective to use other mechanisms to
A great variety of institutions are reported to achieve the desired objectives. Measures might
have a role in AnGR management. However, as a include subsidies of various kinds – this of course is
rule, AnGR management at the national level is dependent on the economic means of the country
308
and on compliance with international trade instruments of this type, varying according to
regulations. Measures to support the marketing the specificities of the production systems, and
of livestock products may be another means to the objectives and challenges associated with the
foster and maintain AnGR diversity. country in question.
4.4 Country Report analysis Instruments related to agricultural

In the following subchapters, legislative measures, development and land use
institutional frameworks and other mechanisms Included under this heading are instruments that
for the management of AnGR at the country level aim to promote the development of rural areas and
are discussed. rural communities. These instruments may take the
form of policy measures – see for example CR United
Biodiversity-related legislation Republic of Tanzania (2004) and CR Lesotho (2005);
Several countries report that they have legislation or be defined in legislative acts – such cases are
in place to implement the provisions of the reported from the Republic of Korea29, Viet Nam30
CBD (see Section E: 1). Some countries mention and Slovakia31. They may form part of a country’s
having instruments related to the conservation strategy for poverty reduction and food security
of biodiversity in general, without specifying (Box 49). Some explicitly regulate the development
whether AnGR is included. With respect to access and modernization of agriculture (Honduras32,
issues, some countries report laws regulating Ecuador33), or the use of agricultural or arable land
access to genetic resources in general – examples (Bosnia and Herzegovina34, Georgia35, Mexico36).
include Malawi26, the Bolivarian Republic of Measures may also be put in place to address
Venezuela27 and Colombia28. Others explicitly the problems of specific production systems.
indicate that laws are in place to regulate access Mongolia for instance has created the legal
to AnGR. One example is India’s Biodiversity basis for support of, and incentives for, grassland
Act (2002) which regulates access to plant and systems affected by severe weather conditions. Its
animal genetic resources by foreigners (Legal National Program on Protecting Livestock from
Questionnaire, 2003). CR Sri Lanka (2002) reports Natural Disaster, Dzud and Drought, approved
the preparation of a Biodiversity Act which covers under Resolution 144, of 2001 aims to strengthen
access and benefit-sharing for genetic resources damage relief systems – creating aid distribution
including domestic animals. networks, and enhancing the involvement of
livestock keepers and administrative institutions
Instruments related to supporting livestock (CR Mongolia, 2004).
production systems
This subchapter analyses legal instruments
29
that create a facilitating environment for the Rural Development Law and Rural Community General Law
(CR Republic of Korea, 2004).
management of AnGR. The link to AnGR is indirect 30
Resolution No. 06 of Central Government (10/11/1998) (CR
– by sustaining specific production systems, these
Viet Nam, 2003).
measures also sustain the associated AnGR. The 31
Act No. 240 of 1998 (on Agriculture); Rural Development Plan
Country Reports describe quite a diverse set of of the SR 2004–2006 (E-mail Consultation Slovakia, 2005).
32
Decree No. 31/92 – Law for the Modernization and
26
Environmental Management Act (Legal Questionnaire, 2003). Development of the Agricultural Sector (CR Honduras, undated).
27 33
Law of Seeds, Material for Animal Reproduction and Biological Law of Agricultural Development, Official Register No.55 of 30
Inputs. Official Gazette of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela April 1997 (Legal Questionnaire, 2003).
Number 37.552 of 18/10/2002 (CR Bolivarian Republic of 34
Law on Arable Land, 1998 (CR Bosnia and Herzogovina, 2003).
Venezuela, 2003). 35
Agricultural Land Act (CR Georgia, 2004).
28
Article 81 of the Political Constitution of Colombia, 1991 (CR 36
Agricultural Law, 1992 (Legal Questionnaire, 2003).
Colombia, 2003).
309
PART 3
Instruments related to pasture and rangeland Box 47

management Turkey’s Law on Pastures No. 4342
In countries with large areas of rangeland and (1998)
scarce water resources, a variety of measures are
put in place to regulate access and management. This law sets out basic procedures and rules for the
These measures may fall under general legislation allocation of pastures to villages and municipalities.
related to pastures and rangelands or be included The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs is
in specific acts. authorized to determine the boundaries of pastures,
Legislation in the area of general pasture and and their allocation to relevant entities. The finalized
rangeland management is reported by countries boundaries are recorded in corresponding title deeds.
including Kyrgyzstan37 and Oman38. Measures The allocation process is renewed every five years.
may also be integrated into other legislation. CR Areas that can only be used after improvement
Yemen (2003) reports that measures related to measures can be leased to individuals and companies
rangeland management are included under the who undertake the improvement. Areas that are
country’s environmental law, and Australia has a allocated under this law cannot be used for any other
range of legal instruments at the Commonwealth purposes unless written consent is obtained from the
and State Government levels that deal with Ministry of Agriculture. This consent can only be given
biodiversity conservation and rangelands under specific conditions that are set out in the law.
management. Other countries report having The law also has provisions to prevent overgrazing
corresponding policies in place (examples include in these areas. A “Pasture Fund” will be established
Uganda39, Lesotho40, Algeria41 and Bhutan42), but under the direct management of the Ministry of
the legal basis for these is not always clear. Agriculture for financing the activities set out in this
The instruments may be directed specifically law.
at the maintenance and/or improvement of
pastures – examples include the laws reported by Source: Legal Questionnaire (2003).
Uzbekistan43, Pakistan44, the Republic of Korea45
and China46. Iraq’s Government Law number 2,
1983 contains measures to improve natural
pastures, to provide for rotational grazing, and to A number of countries indicate regulations
control toxic plants (CR Iraq, 2003). Turkey includes relating to the prevention of pollution by manure
integrated measures on pasture improvement in run-off. Examples include the Republic of Korea’s
its leasing regulation (Box 47). Sewage, Faeces and Urine, Waste and Water
Treatment Law (CR Republic of Korea, 2004).
37
The impact of laws regulating the run-off of
Law “on pastures” (CR Kyrgyzstan, 2003).
manure is also mentioned in CR United States
38
Royal Decree No. 8 of 2003 issuing Law on Pasture and Animal of America (2003) and CR United Kingdom
Resources Management, 21 January 2003 (FAOLEX).
39 (2002). CR Cook Islands (2003) indicates that the
Pasture and Rangelands Policy (CR Uganda, 2004).
40
Livestock and Range Management Policy, 1994 (CR Lesotho,
country’s Environmental Law has had some effect
2005). on the size and distribution of livestock holdings,
41 particularly pig farms. Similarly, CR Kiribati (2003)
National Agricultural Development Plan (CR Algeria, 2003).
42
National Pasture Policy (CR Bhutan, 2002). mentions that under the Environmental Act
43
Law No 543-1 of 1997 on protection and usage of vegetation of 1999, livestock development is a prescribed
(FAOLEX).
44
activity, and that new livestock farms require
Punjab Frontier Grazing Regulation (E-mail Consultation
ministerial approval.
Pakistan, 2005).
45
Grassland Law (CR Republic of Korea, 2004).
46
Grassland Law (CR China, 2003).
310
Norway promotes the organized use of pastures

Box 48
by grazing associations – the Decree Relative to
Slovenia’s Livestock Breeding Act (2002)
Incentives for Organized Use of Pastures regulates
the efficient use of pastures in outlying lands The principal objective of this act is to harmonize
(FAOLEX). Incentives are provided for organized Slovenia’s livestock breeding legislation with the
grazing under the control of registered grazing “acquis communautaire” of the EU, and to adapt
associations which meet set criteria (ibid.). to the CAP. It also sets out principles in accordance
Pakistan also has a substantial set of measures47 with the goals of agricultural policy, and outlines the
to regulate pasture use. economic, spatial, ecological and social roles of animal
In extensive grassland systems, access to husbandry and sustainable agricultural development.
grazing land and water sources is crucial. This is The more specific objectives of the act are:
especially true in the case of mobile pastoralism. • regulating the field of animal husbandry, with
Regulations covering the access of transhumant the aim of promoting stable production of
pastoralists to pastures are included in the quality food and ensuring food safety;
pastoral codes and similar legislation, which exist • conserving settlements in rural areas, and the
in a number of African countries such as Benin48, cultivated landscape;
Botswana49, Guinea50, Mali51 and Mauritania52. • utilizing natural resources for food production
Guinea’s Pastoral Code, for example, regulates in such a way as to maintain the productive
pastoral land-use rights and provides for conflict capacity and fertility of the land;
resolution. It regulates the use of pastures, use of
• managing the operation of recognized breeding
water resources, transhumance and protection of
organizations and the implementation of
the environment (CR Guinea, 2003). Botswana’s
breeding programmes;
Tribal Land Act restricts the granting of land-use
• providing a higher level of education in the
rights in land specified to be for grazing; grazing
field of animal husbandry;
land may be set aside for commonage (FAOLEX).
Access to pastures may also be important for • maintaining biodiversity in animal husbandry
sedentary livestock keeping communities. Laws and protecting the environment; and
relating to the allocation of pastures at the • providing a suitable income for those involved
community level are found for instance in Turkey in agriculture.
(Box 47) and Albania53.
Source: CR Slovenia (2003).
47
Punjab Frontier Grazing Regulation, 1874; Grazing of Cattle
in Protected Forests (Range Lands) Rules, 1978; By-laws for
Several countries report laws regulating access
Regulating Grazing of Animals, 1981; Pasturage of Animal Rules, to water. Examples include Chad’s Order on
1900 (Email Consultation Pakistan, 2005). Pastoral and Village Hydrology54, and Mongolia’s
48
Law No. 87 of 21 September 1987 on the regulation of Resolution on the National Program on Protecting
the animal guard, common grazing (la vaine pâture) and
Livestock from Natural Disaster, Dzud and Drought
transhumance (Legal Questionnaire, 2003).
49
Tribal Lands Act (FAOLEX).
(see above). Access to water may be included in
50
Pastoral Code (CR Guinea, 2003). other regulations, such as the above-mentioned
51
Law No. 01-004 on the Pastoral Charter in the Republic of Mali pastoral codes. It is integrated, for example,
(Legal Questionnaire, 2003). under Australia’s Land Protection Act55.
52
Law No. 44-2000 on the Pastoral Code in Mauritania (CR
54
Mauritania, 2004). Ordinance No. 2/PR/MEHP/93, on the creation of the Office of
53
Instructions No. 1 of the General Directorate of Forests and Pastoral and Village Hydrology (CR Chad, 2003).
55
Pastures on technical criteria for leases of pastures and meadows, Land Protection (Pest and Stock Route Management) Act 2002
23 May 1996, implementing Law No. 7917 on protecting – reprinted on 19 May 2005; Rural Lands Protection (General)
pastures and meadows, 13 April 1995 (FAOLEX). Regulation, 2001 (FAOLEX).
311
PART 3
TABLE 88
Instruments for sustaining livestock production systems
Types of instruments Africa Near & Southwest Europe Asia Latin America North
Middle Pacific & the & the America
East Caucasus Caribbean
Agricultural development [3] 3 2 2
Pasture and rangeland 3 [3] 3 [1] 3 4 5 1

management
Access to pastures and 6 1 2 2
water
Conservation of rural 10 1 1
environments, ecological/
organic farming
Number of CRs 42 7 11 39 25 22 2
[n] = policies/strategies.
Note that inclusion of instruments under two categories is possible.
and Bosnia and Herzegovina56. Legal measures

Box 49 may be used to promote desirable changes in
Mozambique’s Livestock Development agriculture, and may support specific production
Policy and Strategies methods such as ecological/organic farming.
A number of European countries report such
A new document on Livestock Development Policy legislation. CR United States of America (2003)
and Strategies is presently submitted for approval. also mentions its National Organic Standards, and
Its objectives are to contribute to poverty reduction CR Brazil (2004) mentions programmes furthering
and food security in rural areas, stimulating the role organic meat production. In the case of organic
of livestock in families’ socio-economic growth, and production in particular, a clear legal framework
contributing to satisfying the needs of the national is necessary to ensure consumer confidence
market. This policy has a lifespan of ten years. (rules for production standards, labelling, etc.).
Industrialized countries may also have legislation
Source: CR Mozambique (2004). supporting the maintenance of agricultural
production in unfavoured areas. Examples
include Switzerland’s Agricultural Law (CR
Conservation of rural areas and organic/ Switzerland, 2002). Slovenia’s Livestock Breeding
ecological agriculture Act follows an integrated approach, outlining the
In industrialized countries, measures tend to economic, spatial, ecological and social roles of
be focused on conservation of the natural animal husbandry (Box 48).
environment or maintaining rural areas rather Some countries, particularly in Africa, mention
than being aimed primarily at assuring food that they have policies and strategies in place for
security. Such measures may indirectly foster agriculture, rangeland management or livestock
the use of traditional, locally adapted breeds of production. However, from the information in the
livestock. Country Reports it is difficult to know the legal basis
Legislation promoting the conservation of of these measures – for example, whether they are
rural areas is particularly reported by European
countries. Examples include Slovenia (Box 48) 56
Law on Arable Land, 1998 (CR Bosnia and Herzogivina, 2003).
312
based on a general legal frameworks relating to in the Land Boards, which determine and grant
agriculture and land use, or on legislation relating customary forms of land tenure (FAOLEX).
to the competences and duties of a government Some countries in Latin America (e.g. Mexico62)
agency. Similarly, it is often unclear whether they and Europe (e.g. Poland63 and Bosnia and
have to be approved by a legislative body. The Herzegovina64) report legislation regulating
example from Mozambique presented in Box 49 farmers’ and breeders’ organizations. These
illustrates a strategy that is explicitly integrated groups are conceived as professional associations,
in the context of the country’s policies promoting and represent the (economic) interests of the
poverty reduction and food security. producers. Malaysia65 and Pakistan66 also report
legislation on farmers’ organizations and
Institutions supporting livestock development agricultural cooperative societies respectively.
This subchapter discusses regulations related to
institutions that have specific functions in AnGR Access to Credit
management. Such institutions may be organized Access to credit provision tailored to the specific
in a centralized or in a decentralized way. Several needs of livestock keepers is an important
countries mention specialized central institutions institutional requirement. This is a particular issue
involved in the management of livestock. in countries with a poorly developed banking
Examples include Cape Verde’s National Institute infrastructure. In some countries, especially in
of Agriculture and Livestock57. Africa, the state has taken initiatives in this
The role of decentralized organizations such field. Examples include the creation of the
as cooperatives, community groups and farmers’ Caisse de Développement de l’Elevage du Nord
associations varies from region to region. in Cameroon67; the Mutualité Agricole in the
Organizations of this type are usually involved in a Central African Republic68, the projected law on
variety of activities related to AnGR management. an agricultural fund in the Congo69; Senegal’s
Several African countries report legislation credit fund for crop and animal production70, and
regulating local-level rural cooperative groups. Mozambique’s Livestock Development Fund71.
CR Chad (2003), for example, mentions a decree58 Another example of legislation in this field is
related to the recognition and functioning of Pakistan’s Cooperative Societies and Cooperative
rural groups, and an order59 regulating the status Banks (Repayments of Loans) Ordinance of 1966
of cooperative groups. Regulations affecting rural (E-mail Consultation Pakistan, 2005).
community organizations are reported in the 62
Law of Agricultural Associations, 1932 and Law of Livestock
Central African Republic60, and have also been Organizations, 1999 (Legal Questionnaire, 2003).
put in place in Equatorial Guinea61. Botswana 63
Act on Social and Professional Agricultrual Organizations, 1982
has instituted tribal Land Boards as corporate (Legal Questionnaire, 2003).
64
bodies – tilling rights and titles to land are vested Law on Farmers’s Associations (CR Bosnia and Herzogovina,
2003).
57 65
Regulation No. 125/92 approving the constitution of the Farmers’ Organization Act, 1973 (CR Malaysia, 2003).
National Institute of Agriculture and Livestock, 1992 (FAOLEX). 66
Punjab Livestock Associations and Livestock Associations Unions
58
Decree No. 137 /P.R./MA/93 determining the modalities for (Registration and Control) Ordinance, 1979 (E-mail Consultation
the recognition and the functioning of rural groups and to allow Pakistan, 2005).
67
women and men to be given responsibility in the development of Decree No. 81/395 of 9 September 1981 modifiying and
the livestock sector. completing Decree No. 75/182 of 8 March 1976 (Legal
59
Order No. 25/PR/92, regulating the status of cooperative Questionnaire, 2003).
68
groups and cooperatives. Decree No. 61.215 of 30 September 1961 (Legal Questionnaire,
60
Decree No. 61/215 of 30 September 1961 regulating 2003).
69
agriculutral cooperatives and mutual plans in the Central African Projected law on the creation of the Agricultural Fund (Legal
Republic (CR Central African Republic, 2003). Questionnaire, 2003).
61 70
Law of Cooperatives, Ministry of Labour, Malabo (Legal Decree No. 99–733 (Legal Questionnaire, 2003).
71
Questionnaire, 2003). No legal basis indicated.
313
PART 3
Instruments related to conservation Peru, 2004), and legal measures72 have been put
This subchapter covers legislative measures, in place to protect them. In the case of Japan,
policies and strategies for the conservation of scientific value is also mentioned as a criterion
AnGR (for definitions of the different types of – the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties
conservation referred to in this subchapter, see (1950) designates autochthonous species,
Box 94 in Part 4 – Section F). A first step for the including livestock that have high scientific value,
conservation of AnGR diversity is to identify as “natural treasures” (CR Japan, 2003). In other
and designate the breeds to be conserved. cases, the motivation for legislative measures
Conservation may have various motivations, is more related to broader concerns about
including economic, sociocultural and scientific biodiversity (see for example Box 50 describing
objectives. It may be aimed at conserving specific Slovenia’s Regulation on Conservation of Farm
endangered breeds, or at maintaining AnGR Animal Genetic Resources of 2004).
diversity more generally. In some cases, strategies may be directed at the
Several examples of legislation relating to AnGR conservation of particular species, – for example
conservation are clearly culturally motivated. The Peru’s in situ and ex situ measures to conserve
Republic of Korea, for example, protects specific alpacas and vicuñas (CR Peru, 2004). In other
breeds as “national monuments” under the cases, conservation measures are integrated
Cultural Properties Protection Law (CR Republic within broad programmes for the management
of Korea 2004). Some Canadian Provinces have of AnGR such as Mongolia’s programme on
designated “heritage breeds” or “heritage “Improving Livestock Quality and Breeding
animals” in their legislation – the Canadienne cow, Services”73. Programmes may be supported
Canadien horse and Chantecler chicken in Quebec, by additional measures such as promoting
and the Newfoundland Pony in Newfoundland scientific research (CR Kazakhstan 2003; E-mail
and Labrador (CR Canada, 2003). In Peru, the Consultation the Netherlands, 2005; CR Ukraine
Peruano de Paso horse, along with alpacas and 2004), or awareness building among farmers (CR
llamas are regarded as national symbols (CR India, 2004). If programmes are to be properly
targeted, measures for the characterization and
inventory of AnGR are required, along with the
establishment of procedures for the identification
Box 50 and registration of the breeds and animals to be
Slovenia’s regulation on covered by the programmes (Box 50).
Conservation of Farm Animal Genetic
Resources In situ in vivo conservation
In contrast to the above-mentioned measures
This regulation establishes systematic procedures for providing general support to livestock production
monitoring and analysing the state of AnGR diversity, systems, the measures analysed in this subchapter
and defines means and instruments for in situ and relate directly to the conservation of AnGR. Only
ex situ conservation. It establishes a register which a small minority of countries (mostly from the
includes a zootechnical assessment of breeds and Europe and the Caucasus region) report legislation
species. It also provides definitions of degrees of
breed endangerment and criteria for the estimation
of genetic variability within breeds. 72
Decree No. 25.919 – declaring the De Paso horse as a native
species of Peru, 1992.
Source: E-mail Consultation Slovenia (2005). 73
Based on the law on Livestock Gene-pool Protection and Health
(CR Mongolia, 2004).
314
TABLE 89
Instruments in the field of conservation
Type of Conservation Africa Near & Southwest Europe Asia Latin North
Middle Pacific & the America America
East Caucasus & the
Caribbean
In situ 8 3 1 1
Ex situ in vivo 2 4
Ex situ in vitro 1 6 3 2 1
Number of CRs 42 7 11 39 25 22 2
Note that a measure may be included under more than one category. Details of conservation programmes are reported in Section C.
covering in situ conservation of AnGR (Table 89). not provide information on the legal framework
Various strategies and mechanisms to support this for these measures. Another type of programme
type of conservation can be implemented. Some is reported in CR Peru (2004) – involving the
countries grant financial support to breeders, designation of specific zones for the rearing of
breeders’ organizations, or other institutions vicuñas in semi-liberty to reclaim their wool.
that maintain traditional breeds (e.g. Japan74 and
Greece75); or to NGOs that promote and manage Ex situ in vivo conservation
in situ conservation (e.g. Switzerland76). Again, only a limited number of countries indicate
Few such measures are reported from that they have instruments in place related to
developing countries. CR Ghana (2003) mentions Ex situ in vivo conservation (Table 89). Examples
efforts by the Animal Research Institute to include Slovenia and Ukraine (Boxes 50 and 52).
support five communities in the Northern Region
keeping Ghana Shorthorn cattle. However, the
exact mechanisms involved are unclear. In India,
conservation programmes under the National Box 51
Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources include the Uganda’s National Animal Genetic
establishment of in situ conservation units in the Resources Programme
native tract of the breed, performance recording,
selection and registration of genetically superior The main objectives of the National Animal
animals, and the provision of incentives to the Genetic Resources Programme are to ensure the
owners of the animals to retain them for breeding. conservation and sustainable full use of AnGR
These measures are combined with Ex situ in vivo diversity. The programme is charged with developing
and in vitro conservation for specific breeds (CR a national AnGR conservation policy including
India, 2004). However the Country Report does in situ and ex situ measures; establishing an
appropriate institutional framework for coordinating,
74 regulating and monitoring conservation activities;
Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties – grants provided
to municipalities affected by measures (CR Japan, 2003). creating awareness among the population of
75
Presidential Decree No. 434/95; Decision current initiatives related to AnGR management;
280/343571/4969/8.9.97 of the Ministers of Agriculture and characterizing and documenting the country’s
Economy; 167/08.03.95 Decision of the Minister of Agriculture livestock breeds; and promoting research.
(CR Greece, 2004).
76
Subsidy based on the Law of Agriculture (CR Switzerland,
2002). Source: CR Uganda (2004).
315
PART 3
Box 52 Box 53
Ukraine’s Law on Animal Breeding Turkey’s Regulation on Protection of
Animal Genetic Resources (2002)
In Ukraine, the conservation of threatened breeds of This regulation, based on the Livestock Improvement
all species is an integral part of the Law on Animal Act No. 4631, sets forth procedures and principles
Breeding. Conservation work is implemented by a regarding all activities related to the protection and
specially created centralized body with executive registration of AnGR in Turkey.
authority financed from the state budget. The A National Committee on Protection of AnGR is
programme involves a range of activities, including established, composed of representatives of: (a) the
preserving frozen semen from high-output breeds, General Directorate of Agricultural Research; (b) the
strains and breeding groups that are at risk of General Directorate of Agricultural Enterprises; (c)
extinction; the use of reproductive biotechnologies in the Faculty of Veterinary Sciences; (d) the Faculty
breeding and selection work; and the organization of of Agriculture; (e) the Ministry of Environment; (f)
exhibitions and auctions of breeding animals. the Ministry of Forestry; (g) the Central Council of
the Union of Turkish Veterinarians; (h) the Society
Source: CR Ukraine (2004). for Protecting Wildlife; (i) the Society for Protecting
Turkish Habitat; and (j) the Anatolian Horse Breed
Development Society. The functions of this Committee
In Indonesia, the Law on Animal Husbandry and include: determining activities regarding the
Health77 requires that conservation programmes protection of AnGR; reviewing past activities and
are conducted in well-managed areas such as on planning future actions; specifying breeds under
smaller islands, in Village Breeding Centres, or threat of extinction; formulating policies for the
on private and government farms (CR Indonesia, protection of AnGR; and taking decisions regarding
2003). Malaysia78, and India (CR India, 2004) have the import and export of AnGR.
networks of conservation farms, and Sri Lanka’s
Zoological Garden Act covers zoo farms (E-mail Source: Legal Questionnaire (2003).
Consultation Sri Lanka, 2005).
In vitro conservation (cryoconservation)

Several countries report legislation relating to was initiated in 1999, and is developing a
conservation in in vitro facilities. One example comprehensive management strategy for AnGR,
is Uganda, which has comprehensive legislation including the establishment of cryoconservation
in the field AnGR management (Box 59). In the measures. Measures regulating procedures for
United States of America, the Food, Agriculture, access to genebanks and transfer of genetic
Conservation and Trade Act (1990) established material are reported only by the Czech Republic.
the conservation of AnGR as a national priority Its Breeding Act Amendment79 and the associated
(CR United States of America, 2003). As a result, implementing regulation and programme also
the National Animal Germplasm Program include a model “genetic material provision and
transfer agreement”.
77
No. 6 of 1967, Article 13 (CR Indonesia, 2003).
78
Based on Animals Ordinance of 1953 and the National Policy
on Biological Diversity, launched by the Ministry of Science, 79
Breeding Act Amendment 154/2000 (E-mail Consultation
Technology and Environment (CR Malaysia, 2003; Legal Czech Republic, 2005).
Questionnaire, 2003).
316
TABLE 90
Instruments in the field of genetic improvement
Type of measure Africa Near & Southwest Europe Asia Latin North
East Caucasus & the
Caribbean
Definition of breeding 6 0 2 17 11 4 0
strategies, genetic
improvement and selection
Registration, branding 5 1 1 21 5 10 0
Laws for reproductive 2 1 18 5 5 1
biotechnology
Number of CRs 42 7 11 39 25 22 2
Details of genetic improvement programmes are reported in Section B.
Institutions involved in the conservation of genetic material. Many countries have legal
AnGR measures in place to regulate some or all of
A number of countries report measures to these activities. Legislation may also cover the
establish institutions responsible for conservation. exchange of breeding stock, both within and
For example, Uganda’s Animal Breeding Act between countries. The following aspects of legal
(2001) established the National Animal Genetic frameworks are discussed in this subchapter:
Resources Center and Databank, which is • the definition of breeding strategies and
responsible for overseeing conservation measures programmes;
(Box 51). • animal identification and registration
Other examples include Ukraine (Box 52), systems;
Kazakhstan80 and the above-mentioned National • infrastructure and institutional issues
Animal Germplasm Program in the United States related to AI and natural service – including
of America. sanitary control measures.
CR Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (2003) Table 90 shows that Europe and Asia have the
reports a National Center for the Conservation of greatest density of legal regulations in the field
Genetic Resources (animal and plant species) under of genetic improvement. Conversely, in African
the Ministry of Environment, created by the Law countries, policies are less likely to be backed up by
on Biological Diversity. Turkey has established an legal frameworks. In some countries, legislation is
interministerial and multistakeholder committee currently being developed and has not yet been
for AnGR (Box 53). implemented. A number of developing countries
report difficulties in implementing their policies
Instruments related to genetic improvement and programmes in this field.
Genetic improvement encompasses a broad
range of activities related to the breeding The definition of breeding strategies
process, including animal identification and herd The goals of breeding strategies differ from country
book keeping, performance recording, genetic to country. Several countries mention breeding
evaluation, and the dissemination of improved policies directed at optimizing the utilization of
indigenous breeds, either by straight-breeding or
80 focused cross-breeding. In Nigeria, for example,
Law of Pedigree Animal Breeding, and respective sublegislative
acts (CR Kazakhstan, 2003). breeding and selection of indigenous breeds
317
PART 3
the ecological zones to which they are adapted

Box 54
is encouraged; but there is also promotion of
Lesotho’s Importation and
controlled cross-breeding of indigenous dairy
Exportation of Livestock and
cattle to a level not exceeding 50 percent exotic
Livestock Products Proclamation
blood (E-mail Consultation Nigeria, 2005). Other
The Importation and Exportation of Livestock examples include India, which has a strategy
and Livestock Products Proclamation 57 of 1952 promoting genetic improvement in indigenous
amended in 1953, 1954, 1965 and 1984 dictates: (a) cattle and buffalo breeds, but also promotes the
that livestock should not be imported or exported cross-breeding of local animals with Jerseys or
without permit; (b) that no permit shall be granted Holstein-Friesians (CR India, 2004), and Trinidad
for importation of “undesirable livestock”, including and Tobago which promotes genetic improvement
but not limited to bastard sheep and goats; (c) of the local Criollo goat breed (CR Trinidad and
that conditions for importation should include the Tobago, 2005). Serbia and Montenegro81 and
desirability of the animals including their ability to China82 have measures in place promoting the
improve the standard of livestock in the country. use of both, indigenous and exotic cattle breeds.
These legal instruments influence breed utilization. Some countries have laws relating to specific
Merino sheep and Angora goats are being reared species or breeds. Examples include Argentina’s
in larger numbers than any other breeds. The laws recovery programme for sheep83. Lesotho has
also encourage use of Merino sheep in mountain legislation limiting the import of livestock to
zones, and higher concentrations of the breeds are, those meeting the requirements of the national
therefore, found in these areas. The import controls breeding objectives (Box 54).
have allowed improvement of the country’s livestock, Another example of laws regulating the use
as imports are restricted to superior Merino rams, of animals for breeding is Malaysia’s Animals
Angora bucks, and beef and dairy bulls. Ordinance (Box 55).
Source: CR Lesotho (2005). Animal registration and identification

Various aspects of AnGR management require
systems for animal identification and registration
if they are to be effective. Examples include the
Box 55 implementation of veterinary control measures
Malaysia’s Animals Ordinance or traceability rules related to food safety, the
prevention of theft, monitoring the status of
This ordinance prohibits the possession of a breed populations, and the implementation of
bull, older than 15 months, that is not sterilized. breeding and conservation programmes. A clear
Exceptions can be granted for bulls suitable for and enforceable legal basis for registration and
reproduction. These bulls are tested (health and identification is likely to be particularly necessary
breeding criteria) and registered by an official agency. where public goods such as food safety or the
Breeding is only allowed utilizing registered stud prevention of epidemic livestock diseases are
bulls. the main objectives. For targeted breeding,
81
Source: CR Malaysia (2003). The law on Measures for Livestock Improvement regulates
the sustainable management of both locally adapted breeds and
imported foreign breeds (FAO, 2005).
82
CR China (2003); Legal Questionnaire (2003).
83
Law for the Revival of Sheep Keeping No. 25422, 27 April 2002
(Legal Questionnaire, 2003).
318
more elaborate recording methods (e.g. herd Box 56

books) are required and normally encompass the Hungary’s Decree No. 39
documentation of the genealogy of pedigree
animals and the performance of the offspring. Decree 39 of 1994 of the Ministry of Agriculture
Systems of this type necessitate regulation to regarding artificial insemination (AI), embryo
ensure uniform standards. transfer (ET) and the production, supply, marketing
Identification and registration may be and utilization of breeding materials, applies to
organized in different ways depending on the cattle, sheep, goats, horses, pigs and red deer.
objectives and the availability of resources. Tasks Articles 2 to 6 deal with AI centres. Such centres
may be implemented by a central state agency, require authorization for their operation, issued by
or be delegated to decentralized institutions, the National Agricultural Classification Institute
such as breeders’ organizations or state breeding (NACI). Authorization depends on certain conditions
farms. Elaborate registration systems require a specified in Article 2. Centres shall contract with
high degree of organization and cooperation. In interested breeding organizations, to perform the
some countries registration is, therefore, limited duties listed in Article 5. Semen may be collected only
to specialized breeding herds or breeding farms from animals authorized for AI. Provisions regarding
(E-mail Consultation Nepal, 2005), to species authorization for AI are laid down in Articles 7 and 8.
of particular importance, or to commercially Article 9 deals with the supply of semen, which may
oriented farms and enterprises. be produced only by AI centres. The marketing of
Europe, with its highly organized breeding semen is regulated by Article 10. Special regulations
systems (breeders’ organizations in western regarding the marketing of imported semen are
Europe and state agencies in eastern Europe), has set out in Article 11. Inspection of AI centres is
the highest density of measures related to animal performed annually by NACI, which may prolong
registration (Table 90). Elsewhere in the world, authorization, specify conditions, or withdraw
some countries mention animal identification and authorization if standards are not met (Article 14).
registration as a “big goal” or “urgent need”, that ET is regulated in Articles 15 to 24, and centres again
they would like to review or improve their current require authorization to operate. Standards related
practices, or that they are at present developing a to all these activities are controlled by NACI. A list of
policy. Some also indicate that at present they are authorized centres, prohibited reproductive material
unable to monitor the population status of their in the case of cattle, and the list of male animals
breeds, and that a lack of registration measures authorized for AI are published in the official gazette
for pure-bred traditional breeds hinders their of the Ministry.
further development.
Source: Legal Questionnaire (2003).
Reproductive biotechnology
In this subchapter, an overview of regulations and
policies related to the utilization of biotechnology means of improving productivity, particularly
(principally AI and ET) for genetic improvement is in dairy production. Examples include the AI
presented. Table 90 gives a regional breakdown programme in Sri Lanka, which aims to upgrade
of the instruments in place. In parallel with the cattle, buffalo, goat and pigs in order to promote
greater use of reproductive biotechnologies in commercial production systems; cattle semen
developing countries, Europe and the Caucasus used in the country is mostly of the Bos taurus
has the highest density of legislation in this field. type imported from the EU, North America or
Many developing countries regard the use of Australia (E-mail Consultation Sri Lanka, 2005).
reproductive biotechnologies as an important Legislation related to technical requirements such
319
PART 3
Box 57 Box 58
Botswana’s Stock Diseases (Semen) Barbados’s incentive programme
Regulations
Because of high prices for fresh pork offered by
According to these regulations, a permit is required supermarkets and other wholesale buyers, many
for introducing semen into the country (to prevent producers have been selling underweight animals,
the introduction and spread of disease); for disposing including gilts, for slaughter. This could undermine
of semen (sale, gift, exchange, or in any other the genetic base of the national pig herd. In response,
manner); and for using any such semen for artificial the government has proposed offering producers an
insemination of any stock that are not the property of incentive of BDS$500 (approximately US$250) not to
the owner of the semen. slaughter, or sell for slaughter, any gilt deemed by the
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development to be
Source: Legal Questionnaire (2003). suitable for breeding. The programme is to be carried
out in collaboration with the Barbados Agricultural
as the production and transportation of semen, Society and the Barbados Pig Farmers’ Cooperative
health controls, and the organization of AI centres Society Limited.
and semen banks, is reported by a number of
countries. Hungary’s Decree No 39 of 1994 serves Source: CR Barbados (2005).
as an example of such legislation (Box 56).
Control of the health of breeding stock and Incentives for genetic improvement
of genetic material Many countries report incentives that in one
Several countries, particularly in Europe, indicate way or another influence breeders’ activities and
that they have regulations related to the health may indirectly promote genetic improvement –
of breeding animals (either in the context of the examples include subsidies for capital investments
production of semen for AI or covering animals or subsidized provision of inputs of various
used for natural service). kinds. In this subchapter, only subsidies directly
Other examples include Malaysia’s Animals connected with livestock breeding are discussed.
Ordinance (Box 55), and Japan’s requirement84 for There are various types of subsidies which may
all breeding animals (cattle, horses and pigs) to be granted. Viet Nam86, for example, reports
have a breeding stock certificate. The certificate a subsidy fund for maintaining and improving
is issued after annual inspection, which includes livestock and poultry breeding herds/flocks.
inspection for infectious diseases and genetic Kazakhstan subsidizes measures that enhance
disorders. Some countries have rules in place availability of pedigree breeding materials
related to the prevention of specific livestock to farmers (CR Kazakhstan, 2003). Several
diseases. For example, Norway’s BSE-related countries report subsidies supporting breeding
restrictions85 on imports of cattle and beef from infrastructure and technology. In many countries,
the United Kingdom include restrictions on the the public sector is involved in the provision of
import of embryos. services such as AI at subsidized rates, or may
subsidize private sector providers (see Section D).
Other measures may include enhancing access
to credit, granting tax advantages, providing loans
84
Law for Improvement and Increased Production of Livestock at preferential terms, or providing emergency
(E-mail Consultation Japan, 2005).
85
Decree No. 548 of 2000 relative to protection measures
against BSE in relation with importation from the United Kingdom
86
(FAOLEX). Decision 125/CT dated 18/4/1991 (CR Viet Nam, 2003).
320
funding for breeding activities. Examples include may be delegated to private or public–private
measures put in place in Mexico, which allow a bodies.
tax break for those involved in raising cattle87 and Specialized governmental institutions for
Argentina, which has created a sheep bank and research, extension and the elaboration of
emergency fund88. development programmes have been created
in Uganda – National Animal Genetic Resources
Institutions dedicated to genetic improvement Steering Committee under the Ministry of
This subchapter discusses the various institutions Agriculture95, Costa Rica – Istituto Nacional de
described in the Country Reports that facilitate Innovación Tecnológica Agropecuaria (INTA)96,
planned and structured genetic improvement Chile – Comision Nacional para el Desarrollo de la
programmes. Biotecnologia97, and Bolivia – Centro Nacional de
A number of countries report specialized Mejoramiento Genético de Ganado Bovino98.
institutions dedicated to AnGR development. Private organizations and mixed public–
Such institutions may be mandated to perform private institutions may also be involved in
activities in various areas of AnGR management, the management of AnGR. Such organizations
including: the elaboration of programmes and are reported from Cameroon – Société de
strategies (e.g. Uganda89); management of Développement et d’Exploitation des Productions
a specific branch of AnGR development and Animales (SODEPA)99; and Moldova – scientific
production (e.g. AVICOLA in Mozambique90 production institutions for pigs and for poultry
and Moldova’s institutions for pigs and poultry (“Progress” and “Moldptitseprom”) (CR Moldova,
production – see below); research and extension 2004). Another example is the United Kingdom’s
(e.g. Costa Rica91 and Mauritius92); and research on Milk Council100.
breed improvement (e.g. Bolivia93 and Canada94). As mentioned above, registration of breeding
The institutions may be specialized governmental livestock or breeds can either be organized by
agencies, possibly combining experts from central or decentralized governmental agencies,
different departments (CR Costa Rica, 2004), or be delegated to private stakeholder groups,
or consultative groups of experts such as the frequently to recognized breeders’ organizations.
Commission on Biotechnology in the Netherlands Legislation on centralized breeding registers
(E-mail Consultation the Netherlands, 2005). Tasks is reported by Uganda (combined with the
National Genetic Resources Databank), Cuba101,
87
Decree (tax benefits) n 6/2/94, 02 June 1994 (Legal the Russian Federation102, Ukraine103 and
88
Resolution (Sheep Bank for Agriculture and Livestock
95
Emergency) No. 143, 25 July 2002 (Legal Questionnaire, 2003). Animal Breeding Act, 2001 (CR Uganda, 2003).
96
89
The National Animal Genetic Resources Databank, under the Organic Law of the Ministry of Livestock Law No. 8149, of 5
Animal Breeding Act (CR Uganda, 2004). November 2001 (CR Costa Rica, 2004.
97
90
Decree No. 5/78 creating the National Institution of Poultry Decree (Comision Nacional para el Desarrollo de la
Breeding (AVICOLA) under the Ministry of Agriculture. Its range Biotecnologia) no. 164, 21 June 2002 (Legal Questionnaire, 2003).
98
of action covers all types of poultry production (industrial or Ministerial Resolution 080/01 (CR Bolivia, 2004).
99
traditional) (Legal Questionnaire, 2003). Decree No. 81/395 of 9 September 1981 modifiying and
91 completing Decree No. 75/182 of 8 March 1975 on the creation
INTA (Istituto Nacional de Innovación Tecnológica
Agropecuaria), (Law No 8149, 5 November 2001) (CR Costa Rica, of SODEPA (Société de Développement et d’Exploitation des
2004). Productions Animales) (Legal Questionnaire, 2003).
92 100
AREU (Agricultural Research and Extension Unit) (CR Mauritius, Milk Development Council (Amendment) Order 2004
2004). (FAOLEX).
93 101
Centro Nacional de Mejoramiento Genético de Ganado Bovino Law No. 1.279 – Law of Livestock Registration, 1974 (Legal
created under Ministerial Resolution 080/01 of MACA (CR Bolivia, Questionnaire, 2003).
102
2004). CR Russian Federation (2003).
94 103
Experimental Farm Stations Act (CR Canada, 2004). Law “About Animal Breeding” (CR Ukraine, 2004).
321
PART 3
TABLE 91
Instruments related to institutions active in genetic improvement
Institutions Africa Near & Southwest Europe & Asia Latin North
Middle Pacific the Caucasus America America
East & the
Caribbean
Research & development institutions

incl. scientific councils:
Government 5 3 (+1 mixed) 3 2

Stakeholder 4
Breeding infrastructure 2 1 2 [2] 1 1
Registration by government 2 4 3 1 1
Stakeholder associations
Registration 6? 4 2 1
Improvement 2
Number of CRs 42 7 11 39 25 22 2
[n] = created by policies.
Estonia104. Decentralized institutions are reported regulating pedigree certificates, the keeping of
by Jamaica105, Guatemala106, and Canada107. Nepal herd books, genetic evaluation and performance
has registration schemes for organized farms testing (see Section E: 3.2). Examples of measures
and governmental farms (E-mail Consultation for the registration of specific breeds include
Nepal, 2005). The EU has a body of legislation Slovenia’s Law on Conservation of Farm Animal
Genetic Resources, which establishes a register of
104
breeds including a zootechnical estimation (see
Animal Breeding Act (CR Estonia, 2004).
105 above), and the provisions for breed registration
Recording by breed societies (CR Jamaica, undated).
106 mentioned in CR Russian Federation (2003). In
Governmental Accord 843-92 (CR Guatemala, 2004).
107
Animal Pedigree Act, 1985 (CR Canada, 2004). China, the Stockbreeding Law of 2005 provides for
the establishment of a national protection list of
livestock and poultry genetic resources (FAOLEX).
Box 59 In some countries, in particular where there
Uganda’s Animal Breeding Act (2001) is a lack of strong, decentralized breeding
organizations, specific institutions, such as
The government has taken steps to support governmental farms and controlled nucleus
the breeding structure by identifying National herds play the dominant role in developing and
Animal Genetic Resources Centre farms and producing breeding material. These institutions
ranches where specific breeding activities can be may also be involved in conservation programmes.
undertaken. However, securing sufficient funding for Examples include Indonesia’s policy for
operationalizing the infrastructure remains a problem. conservation and utilization of AnGR108. Mongolia
Source: CR Uganda (2004). 108

Law on Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Act No. 6/1967,
Article 13 (CR Indonesia, 2003).
322
has a programme on “improving livestock quality the process of genetic improvement. Breeders’
and breeding services109.” Its major objective is associations often take responsibility for herd
to improve yield and product quality by creating book keeping. Their duties and competences are
nucleus herds and corresponding livestock usually defined in livestock breeding acts. The role
breeding services (CR Mongolia, 2004). of breeders’ associations is particularly prominent
Breeders’ associations and, in some cases, private in Europe. The EU has a body of legislation in
companies may be delegated various functions in place covering the recognition of breeders’
organizations and regulating their activities (see
109
Based on the Act on Livestock Gene-Pool and Health Section E: 3.2). Few African countries report the
Protection 1993; amended 2001 and approved by Resolution 105,
1997.
existence of breeders’ associations. The fostering
of such societies is, however, one of the objectives
of Uganda’s National Animal Genetic Resources
Box 60 Centre and Databank established under the
Guatemala – decentralization of the Animal Breeding Act of 2001 (CR Uganda, 2004).
registration of pure-bred animals
Instruments related to marketing and trade
Guatemala initially established a centralized register This subchapter discusses instruments put in place
in 1915. A regulation in this field was introduced to promote and regulate the marketing and trade
in 1933. It defined the criteria for inclusion in the of livestock and livestock products. Such measures
register of pure-bred animals. Its goal was to resolve include those related to the setting of standards
the problem of registering the many pure-bred for marketed products, those that promote trade
animals that at the time did not have pedigree or establish institutions in this field, and those that
documentation. This situation prevented an “open- regulate the movement and exchange of animals
book” strategy at this time. In 1965, the regulation both internationally and within countries.
was adopted by all Central American countries as a
basis for registration procedures. In 1992, a law for Standard setting
the decentralization of registration was adopted, and There are two main objectives of legislation
in the following years, the herd books of breeders’ related to standard setting: 1) to ensure food
associations were officially recognized in several safety and to address food-related aspects of
livestock species. human health through setting minimum quality
standards; and 2) to provide for the identification
Source: CR Guatemala (2004). of quality products by the consumer in the
marketplace.
TABLE 92
Instruments in the field of standard setting
Instruments in place for Africa Near & Southwest Europe Asia Latin North
standard setting Middle Pacific & the America America
East Caucasus & the
Caribbean
Food safety 4 [1] 0 1 3 [1] 4 3 0

Consumer information 0 0 0 6 0 1 1
Number of CRs 42 7 11 39 25 22 2
[n] = policies or legal basis unclear.
323
PART 3
Various types of instruments related to Authority110 or the establishment of the

ensuring food safety are reported. Examples Animal, Animal Products and By-products
include the Comoros’s Decree No 87-019/PR, which Marketing Development Authority in
relates to the production, storage, distribution Ethiopia111;
and inspection of food products (CR Comoros, • the creation of governmental institutions
2005). Other countries report regulations on to foster specific products – such as
grading of various animal products. Pakistan, Nicaragua’s Corporación Nicaragüense de
for example, has rules related to the grading la Agroindustria Láctea112 and Sri Lanka’s
of agricultural products in general, and specific National Livestock Development Board113;
rules for milk, animal hair, eggs, ghee and • the creation of public–private partnerships
creamy butter (E-mail Consultation Pakistan, – this occurs mainly in the dairy sector;
2005). Other regulations cover the production of • the implementation of policies, strategies
specific food products, such as meat (including
measures related to slaughtering), eggs and milk 110
Federal Agricultural Marketing Authority Act, 1965 – revised
products (including the sale of raw milk). These 1974 (CR Malaysia, 2003 ).
various types of measure may be integrated into 111
Animal, Animal Products and By-products Marketing
a general regulatory framework – as is the case Development Authority Establishment Proclamation (No. 117/1998
in Pakistan (ibid.). (FAOLEX).
112
Decree 364. Law of the Corporación Nicaragüense de la
Instruments aimed at providing information
Agroindustria Láctea 31/05/88 (CR Nicaragua, 2004).
for the consumer may have various goals: 113
State Agriculture Cooperation Act. No. 11 of 1972 by a
assurance of quality standards; identification gazette order dated 4th May 1972 (Legal Questionnaire, 2003).
of geographical provenance or a specific
production method (e.g. organic); or indicating
the source of the raw materials to provide
Box 61
reassurance regarding food safety. The most
Mongolia’s White Revolution
frequently mentioned instruments are those Programme
related to organic production. The EU has a
body of legislation in this field, covering the The “White Revolution” Programme, which has been
production, labelling and inspection of organic in place since the adoption of Government Resolution
products, and establishing rules for the use of 105 of 1999, aims to mobilize local resources in the
geographical indications and similar designations livestock sector; improve the supply of dairy products,
(see Section E: 3.2). and increase the incomes of herders and rural people
by reviving traditional processing of dairy products,
Instruments to foster trade in livestock developing small and medium-scale enterprises, and
products creating favourable conditions for marketing.
Marketing measures can be used for a variety The Cashmere Programme was adopted by
of purposes. The objective may be to support Government Resolution 114 of 2000 with the
the incomes of livestock keepers or to promote objectives of improving the competitiveness of
exports. Measures of this kind may also serve cashmere products through improving the processing
to foster AnGR diversity by helping to make facilities. The Wool Sub-Programme was approved by
production from a broader range of breeds Government Resolution 26 of 2001. Its objective is to
economically viable. Various instruments can be enhance the capacity of factories involved in wool,
used to promote trade and marketing, including: skin and hide processing.
• the establishment of governmental
institutions to further marketing in general, Source: CR Mongolia (2004).
such as Malaysia’s Federal Marketing
324
Box 62 for Chicken Meat114, and several regulations

The Philippine’s White Revolution by which Egypt banned the importation of
fertilized eggs and chicken meat in order
to foster the development of its poultry
The approach to dairy development has involved industry (CR Dominican Republic, 2004;
both smallholders and commercial producers. CR Egypt, 2003) (in recent years there has
The Philippine Dairy Corporation was created in been a tendency to replace these types of
1979 to spearhead the development of the dairy measures with other means of supporting
industry based on small-scale production to increase local farmers);
rural income. Import of 2 400 head of Holstein- • the regulation of specific marketing
Friesian-Sahiwal cattle started in 1984 under an methods (such as the regulation of public
ADB–IFAD project. These animals were dispersed to auctions of alpacas and llamas in Peru115):
various farmers’ cooperatives. The National Dairy and
Authority (NDA) was created under the National • the establishment of networking
Dairy Development Act RA 7884 to accelerate the opportunities for stakeholders in the food-
development of the country’s dairy industry. processing and marketing sectors such as
The “White Revolution” was launched in 1999 Mongolia’s Wholesale Network Programme
under the leadership of the NDA and the Philippine (CR Mongolia, 2004).
Carabao Center. It aimed to drum up support from
all sectors of society – farmers and rural families, the Institutional aspects of marketing
government extension and financing organizations, Institutions for the marketing of AnGR products,
legislators, private investors, consumers, children and sometimes as public–private partnerships, exist in
commercial processors. a number of countries. These measures can either
be focused on livestock products in general, as
Source: CR Philippines (2003). in case of the Livestock Development Council in
the Philippines, which has the task of increasing
and programmes, either to support animal the supply of livestock and livestock products
product marketing in general or the to attain self-sufficiency (CR Philippines, 2004).
marketing of specific products – such as Alternatively, they target specific markets such
Mongolia’s programmes for milk and wool as dairy products116, meat117 or poultry118. Several
products (Box 61) and the Philippines’ examples of this second type of institution
“White Revolution” programme (Box 62); are reported. For instance, Mozambique has
• development of niche markets – reported established AVICOLA, the National Institution
examples include efforts in Botswana to for Poultry Breeding, under the Ministry of
promote exports of donkey meat, and
ostrich meat and skin, and in Eritrea to
114
Decree Number 505-99, November 1999.
market products from rare breeds (CR 115
RM Number 0424-AG (regulation of public auction of alpacas
Botswana, 2003; CR Eritrea, 2003);
and llamas) (CR Peru, 2004).
• supporting and regulating specific 116
Jamaica’s Dairy Board; Nepal’s National Dairy Development
production methods (e.g. by legislation on Board Act, the Milk Development Council in the United Kingdom;
organic agriculture or labelling); and Nicaragua’s of the Dairy Agroindustry Corporation (CR Jamaica,
2002; CR Nepal, 2004; CR Nicaragua, 2004; FAOLEX).
• the implementation of measures to protect 117
Sri Lanka’s National Livestock Development Board
local producers from competition by imports
(CR Sri Lanka, 2002).
(importation quota, taxes) – examples 118
Punjab Livestock, Dairy and Poultry Development Board
mentioned in the Country Reports include (CR Pakistan, 2003).
the Dominican Republic’s Tariff Protection
325
PART 3
Agriculture119. Egypt has a General Union of associations in various production areas – the dairy
Poultry Producers120. Cameroon mentions its agro-industry122, bird raising123, and meat124.
Société du Développement et de l’Exploitation
des Productions Animales121. Nicaragua reports
119 122
Decree No. 5/78 creating the National Institution of Poultry Decree 364. Law of the Corporación Nicaragüense de la
Breeding (AVICOLA), 1978 (Legal Questionnaire, 2003). Agroindustria Láctea, 31/05/88; Decree No. 82. Creating a
120
Ministerial Resolution No. 97 implementing Law No. 96 of Development Fund for the Dairy Industry, 23/07/66
1998 regarding the creation of the General Union of Poultry (CR Nicaragua, 2004).
123
Producers (FAOLEX). Decree 357, Law creating the Corporación Avícola
121
Decree No. 81/395 of 9 September 1981, modifying and Nicaragüense, 31/05/88 (CR Nicaragua, 2004).
124
completing Decree No. 75 of 8 March 1976 Decree 360, Law creating the Corporación Nicaragüense de la
(CR Cameroon, 2003). Carne, 31/05/88 (CR Nicaragua, 2004).
TABLE 93
Instruments for promoting trade in livestock products
Instruments Africa Near & Southwest Europe Asia Latin North

East Caucasus & the
Caribbean
Legislation to foster trade in AnGR products

Marketing in general 2 [1] 2 [1] [2] 1
Specific products 1 [1] 3 [1] 1
Organic/niche [2] 3 [3] 1 1
Institutions 3 [1] 1 3 3
Protective measures, and subsidies 2 1 2 1
Number of CRs 42 7 11 39 25 22 2

Note that institutions may promote specific products or marketing of products in general. These cases are indicated under both,
“institutions” and “laws to foster trade”.
TABLE 94
Instruments regulating import and export of genetic material
Regulations relating to Africa Near & Southwest Europe Asia Latin North
East Caucasus & the
Caribbean
Import 7 3 3 26 6 5
Export 4 2 0 23 1 0
CBD implementation 1 1 1
Number of CRs 42 7 11 39 25 22 2
326
Box 63 Regulations on import and export of genetic

Russian Federation – Veterinary and material are motivated by a variety of objectives,
Sanitary Requirements No. 13-8-01/1-8 which vary from country to country. Preventing the
(1999) introduction of livestock disease is an important
motivation. Other objectives may include ensuring
For boar semen to be admitted to the territory of the that the imported genetic material is adapted
Russian Federation, it must have been collected at AI to local ecosystems, or increasing the output of
centres that are kept under permanent supervision by national livestock production. There may also be
the state veterinary service of the exporting country. legislation in place implementing the provisions of
Animals must be kept, and semen must be collected, the CBD related to the need to obtain governments’
in compliance with the veterinary and sanitary prior informed consent for the export of genetic
requirements currently in force. Boars supplying resources.
sperm for export must not be vaccinated against In Europe in particular, there is a high density
classical swine fever. Boars must be kept at the AI of regulation related to the import and export
centres for six months before collection of sperm, and of genetic material. Box 63, which describes
must not be used for natural insemination during this regulations controlling semen imports to the
period. Boars must not have been fed on feedstuffs Russian Federation, provides an illustrative
produced using genetically modified additives or example.
other genetically modified products. Semen must Some Country Reports mention the possibility
be free of pathogenic and toxic micro-organisms. of preventing the import of semen for ecological
Compliance with these veterinary and sanitary reasons. CR Algeria (2003) indicates that in
requirements must be certified by a veterinary certain cases the government can exercise its
certificate, signed by the state veterinary inspector of regulatory powers to ensure that inappropriate
the exporting country, and drawn up in the language exotic semen is not imported or promoted to the
of the country of origin and in Russian. The veterinary detriment of local breeds that are better adapted
certificate must contain the date and the results of to local conditions and the production objectives
diagnostic examinations. Semen destined for export of small producers. CR Ecuador (2003) mentions
must be packed and transported in special containers that improved seeds, animals, technologies and
(vessels) filled with liquid nitrogen. Dispatch of equipment can be freely imported if they are not
semen to the Russian Federation is possible only after deemed harmful to local ecosystems125. Colombia
authorization issued to the importer by the Veterinary has a constitutional regulation126 stating that “the
Department of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food. state will regulate the entry and exit of genetic
resources from the country, and their utilization,
Source: Legal Questionnaire (2003). in accordance with national interests”.
CR Burkina Faso (2003) mentions the country’s
participation in a number of regional agreements
Import and export of genetic material relating to the management, utilization and
Under this heading, legislation on the import and exchange of genetic material, but indicates that
export of genetic material in the narrow sense these have not yet been implemented.
(semen and embryos) is presented. Import and
export of live animals is discussed below under
livestock movement and trade. In several cases it is
not clear from the information available whether 125
Law of Agricultural Development the codification of which
import/export of semen and embryos is included was published in the Official Register No. 55 of 30 April 1997.
under regulations covering livestock trade, or 126
Political Constitution of Colombia, 1991, Article 81
on the import/export of livestock products. (CR Colombia, 2003).
327
PART 3
Box 64 barriers to the international exchange of AnGR.

India – rules for transportation Instruments mentioned in the Country Reports
include the definition of health standards for the
import of live animals, requirements related to the
The rules provide for the transportation of poultry animal health status of exporting countries, and
and pigs by rail, road or plane. Containers must be quarantine requirements for imported animals.
properly fitted for transportation – providing shelter Some countries indicate zoosanitary
from sun, heat, rain or cold, and allowing poultry regulations for both import and export of live
and pigs to be comfortable during the journey. A animals in general – for example, Mali127, or for
table details the rules regarding the containers and specific species – for example, Myanmar128 (pigs,
the timing of journeys according to the size and age horses, sheep, goats, and cattle and buffaloes).
group of the animals. Vaccination and other health Conversely, some countries indicate zoosanitary
requisites are listed. requirements and control for the import of live
animals only129. See Section E: 3.2 for a discussion
Source: FAOLEX. of EU laws covering health-related restrictions on
trade in livestock and livestock products.
Quarantine measures are mentioned by many
Box 65 countries. Provisions for further quarantine
West Africa – pastoralists crossing measures to be applied in the case of disease
borders epidemics are also often mentioned (see below).
Some countries have instruments in place related
Decision A/DEC.5/10/98, taken in Abuja in 1998 by to the import of animals from countries of regions
the heads of state and government of the Economic particularly affected by animal health problems.
Community of West African States (ECOWAS) relates Botswana’s, Diseases of Animals Act 1977, for
to the use of transhumance certificates by mobile example, allows the prohibition of the import
pastoralists within Member States. In Nigeria, efforts of animals from areas that are known to be
have been made to, inter alia, stipulate conditions for affected by major diseases (CR Botswana, 2003).
movement of nomadic livestock, i.e. their arrival to Other examples include El Salvador’s legislation
and departure from Nigeria. prohibiting the import of animals from countries
affected by FMD130 and Cape Verde’s legislation
Source: E-mail Consultation Nigeria (2005). prohibiting bovine imports from areas infected
by BSE131.
Import and export of live animals

Controls on the international exchange of livestock
127
are of great importance for the control of livestock Decree 372/P-RM regulating sanitary control of animals on the
territory of the Republic of Mali (Legal Questionnaire, 2003).
disease. The introduction of diseases across a 128
In the case of pigs: Regulation for importation and exportation
country’s borders can have severe consequences of breeding swine into Myanmar, 2003; similar laws for the other
for the livestock sector. CR Kenya (2004) for species were also passed in 2002 (FAOLEX).
129
example, mentions that cross-border movement Kiribati’s Importation of Animals Regulation, 1965 (FAOLEX);
of livestock has caused the re-introduction of Palau’s Plant and Animal Control – Chapter 20 of Title 25 of the
Palau National Code, 1966 (FAOLEX).
some previously eradicated notifiable diseases, 130
Accord No. 54 – 2001. Prohibiting the import of bovine, ovine,
which has led to the loss of disease-free zones caprine and porcine livestock and other cloven-hoofed species
in the country and the loss of external markets. from countries affected by foot-and-mouth disease (FAOLEX).
131
Zoosanitary regulations are, however, significant Order No. 10/2001 (FAOLEX).
328
TABLE 95
Instruments regulating livestock movements and import and export of live animals and livestock
products
Legislation on trade Africa Near & Southwest Europe Asia Latin North
East Caucasus & the
Caribbean
Import (health standards) 2 2 (1) 4 (3) 8 (5) 5 6 (4) (1)

Export 3 1 3 3
Products 4 2 1
Number of CRs 42 7 11 39 25 22 2
There are countries that have regulations to transportation to and from cattle shows.
regarding import and export of breeding animals. Similarly, in the United Kingdom, the Animal
Chad, for example, prohibits the export for Gatherings (England) Order of 2003 specifies the
slaughter of female animals of breeding age132. zoosanitary measures that have to be included
CR China (2003) notes that the country’s Ministry when organizing events such as shows or markets
of Agriculture formulated an Administrative (Legal Questionnaire, 2003). In Japan, a health
Regulation on Exportation of Breeding Animals certificate is required for livestock to cross the
during the 1980s, which was updated and adjusted border of a province (E-mail Consultation Japan,
in 1993. Examples from Europe include Hungary, 2005). In the event of a disease epidemic, stricter
which reports regulations covering exports and regulations are implemented. Several countries
imports (E-mail Consultation Hungary, 2005), and have regulations regarding the welfare of
Germany133 which reports legislation regulating transported live animals. One example is India
the import of breeding animals. Ecuador’s Law (Box 64).
on Agricultural Development (1997) enables the African countries where pastoralist production
import of breeding animals deemed unsuitable systems are widespread have adopted the use of
for local ecosystems to be restricted (CR transhumance certificates at both national and
Ecuador, 2003). regional levels.
Livestock movement internal and regional Instruments related to animal health

Livestock movement is one issue usually covered by The number of countries that have developed and
legislation related to animal health. In countries implemented legislation related to animal health
where risks of disease outbreaks are high, separate is larger than in any other field (see previous
laws tend to be adopted setting out strict rules on subchapter for further discussion of measures
stock movement within the country and measures related to animal movement and trade). Animals’
to enforce their observation (FAO, 2005). health status has enormous impact on individual
Several countries indicate specific requirements performance, on the production output and
related to livestock shows. CR Mozambique efficiency of the livestock sector, and on trade
(2005), for example, reports provisions related in products of animal origin. Most countries
132
report some regulation (or at least institutions or
Decree No. 138 bis /PR/MEHP/88 regulating the unlimited
export of and livestock products with the exception of
programmes) related to animal health. However,
reproductive females (CR Chad, 2003). some countries explicitly state that they do not
133 yet have adequate regulation in place. Some of
Animal Breeding Import Ordinance (Legal
329
PART 3
TABLE 96
Regulations in the field of animal health
Types of measures Africa Near & Southwest Europe Asia Latin North
East Caucasus & the
Caribbean
Legislation or policy in place 23 [2] 4 [2] 10 32 [1] 18 [4] 13 [1] 1

Veterinary Services 8 [4] 2 0 10 [9] 7 [6] 0
Epidemics general 0 1 3 5 3 1
Epidemics specific 5 0 1 9 5 7
Number of CRs 42 7 11 39 25 22 2
[n] = policies
these countries mention the difficulties that they

Box 66
face in generating the necessary political will to The Islamic Republic of Iran’s Act of
ensure adequate regulation. Specific reference to National Veterinary System (1971)
the management of AnGR within national-level
animal health legislation is rare in most parts of The act encompasses overall sanitary regulations, and
the world. regulates quarantine measures and transboundary
Legislation in this field may address disease movement of animals. The act also covers the
surveillance and reporting, vaccination or vector following measures:
control programmes, emergency measures to be • prevention and control of animal diseases;
taken in the event of epidemics, food hygiene • hygiene certificates for animals and animal
and traceability of livestock products, inspection products for export;
of livestock holdings and food processing • hygienic supervision of pastures, watering
establishments, production of livestock feed places, stables and other breeding
and veterinary products, and regulation of the establishments;
qualifications, competences and duties of the • monitoring of feed plants, slaughterhouses and
veterinary profession. A country may have broad processing units; and
laws that regulate many aspects of animal health • control of the production, import, export and
(Box 66), or there may be specific legislation marketing of various biological materials
related to a particular aspect of animal health or (e.g. drugs, vaccines and serums).
to a specific disease.
It can probably be assumed that nearly Source: CR Islamic Republic of Iran (2004).
every country has some laws on animal health
in place. Differences exist with regard to the
comprehensiveness of the legal provision, and
whether the issue is handled within a regional- Act134 (Legal Questionnaire, 2003). Legislation
level framework. of this type may specify a list of notifiable
diseases. Responses to epidemics may include
Measures to be implemented in the event of the declaration and designation of epidemic-
epidemics
A number of countries report general legislation 134
Other reported examples include Australia, China, Costa Rica,
outlining response measures to be taken in Ecuador, El Salvador, Estonia, Fiji, Germany, Guatemala, Honduras,
the event of an epidemic. One such example is Iraq, Ireland, Jamaica,the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Serbia
Denmark’s Infectious Animal Diseases Control and Montenegro, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and Vanuatu.
330
free zones and establishments – countries eradication measures are rare, but have begun to
reporting such legislation include Viet Nam135 be put in place in Europe for some diseases (see
and Zambia136. Eradication and control zones Section E: 3.2).
may be declared – countries reporting such
legislation include El Salvador137, Australia138 and Regional cooperation
the United Kingdom139. Uruguay, in its efforts There tends to be a greater amount of regional or
to combat scabies in sheep obliges farmers to bilateral cooperation in the field of animal health
declare outbreaks or even the suspicion of an than in other areas of AnGR-related legislation.
outbreak, and to contribute to the control of the Reported examples of cooperation agreements
disease140. between neighbouring states, include those
Measures may include quarantine – examples existing between Egypt and Algeria147, Turkey and
include Zambia’s Livestock Diseases Act (Legal Kazakhstan148, members of the Commonwealth of
Questionnaire, 2003). There may also be Independent States149, and Lusophone countries
regulations regarding the disposal of infected in Africa150. There are also examples of bilateral
animals – countries reporting such measures international cooperation agreements between
include Malawi141, Zambia142, the Netherlands143 more distant countries – for example between
and Chile144. There may be payment of Argentina and Hungary151.
compensation for losses – reported, for example,
by Estonia145 and Switzerland146. Strategies Institutions and animal health services
to safeguard valuable AnGR in the event of A number of countries report legislation related to
institutional aspects of the delivery of veterinary
services. These measures may include licensing
135
Regulation on animal epidemic-free zones and establishments requirements for veterinary practice – an example
2002 (FAOLEX). being reported by Kazakhstan152, or define the
136
Cattle Cleansing Act of 1930 amended 1994 (Legal duties and powers153, or responsibilities and
137
obligations of veterinarians154. CR India (2004)
Accord 194, declaring the geographical areas of the
departments Usulután, San Miguel, Morazán and La Unión reports the existence of veterinary councils
as control and erradication zones for bovine tuberculosis and
brucellosis (CR El Salvador, 2003).
138 147
Animal Health Act, 1995 (Legal Questionnaire, 2003). Algeria: Official Gazette No. 14, 5 April 2001 (FAOLEX).
139 148
Diseases of Poultry (England) Order, 2003 (S.I. No. 1078 of Agreement between the Government of Kazakhstan and the
2003); Disease Control (England) Order, 2003 (S.I. No. 1729 of Government of Turkey on cooperation in the sphere of animal
2003) (Legal Questionnaire, 2003). health, 1995 (FAOLEX).
140 149
Law No. 16.339 – declaring sheep scab a plague and making Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russian
efforts to erradicate it compulsory (FAOLEX). Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan;
141
Control and Diseases of Animals Act 2000 (Legal Agreement on cooperation of CIS member-states in the veterinary
Questionnaire, 2003). sphere (FAOLEX).
142 150
Stock Diseases Act 1963 (amended 1994) (Legal Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Sao Tome
Questionnaire, 2003). and Principe; Guinea-Bissau’s Decree No 351/73, Boletin Official
143 No. 89 (FAOLEX).
Decree No. 403 of 2001 to amend the Decree implementing
151
provisions of the Animal Destruction Act, 16 July 2001 (Legal Governmental Decree No. 4 of 2002 ratifying and publishing
Questionnaire, 2003). the Agreement stipulated on 10 December 1999 in Budapest
144 between Hungary and Argentina on animal health (FAOLEX).
Law No. 18.617 – norms for compensation for the slaughter
152
of animals for the control of foot-and-mouth disease (Legal Ministerial Decree No. 1972 of 1997 regarding the validation
Questionnaire, 2003). for the regulation on licensing of veterinary practice,
145 20 August 1997 (Legal Questionnaire, 2003).
Infectious Animal Disease Control Act, 16 June 1999 (Legal
153
Questionnaire, 2003). Georgia’s Veterinary Act (CR Georgia, 2004).
146 154
Law on Epizootics, 1966 (amended 2002) (Legal Estonia’s Veterinary Activities Organization Act, 1999 (Legal
Questionnaire, 2003). Questionnaire, 2003).
331
PART 3
established by a Veterinary Council Act; similar and poverty alleviation are key objectives.
measures are reported from Nepal155. Although there is often considerable focus on
A number of countries report legislation promoting intensive production, a number of
defining their animal health systems. Examples countries, particularly in Africa, report measures
include the Act of Veterinary System mentioned to regulate and support the sustainability of
in CR Islamic Republic of Iran (2004), and the extensive grazing systems. Given the unique
Russian Federation’s Federal Law on Veterinary adaptive traits of many dryland breeds and the
Service, which involves a scheme for state many pressures faced by these production systems,
veterinary inspection of collective farms, state effective policy and legislation in this field are of
agricultural enterprises, and big livestock farms great importance. Nonetheless, devising measures
and complexes (Legal Questionnaire, 2003). that are appropriate to the needs of pastoral
Some countries have decentralized institutions groups, who are often politically marginalized,
– Peru, for example, reports local committees remains a major challenge. Other reported
for animal health (CR Peru, 2004). Brazil reports legislative measures that have been put in place
regional Animal Health Inspectorates156 within to support small-scale livestock production
the Ministry of Agriculture to carry out control include those related to the provision of credit
of animal health at regional level. and the establishment of producer organizations
and cooperative groups.
4.5 Conclusions The implementation of specific measures
The analysis presented above clearly indicates aimed at the conservation of AnGR is greatly
that AnGR management is a complex matter, dependent on the economic means of the country
comprising a wide range of technical, policy in question, and this is reflected in the greater
and logistical operations. Many policy areas density of legislation and policy in the more
are involved – including agricultural and rural developed areas of the world. However, it is also
development, animal health, environmental and clear that the importance of sustainable use and
landscape conservation, culture, trade, research conservation of AnGR has in many cases not been
and education. Cooperation between many adequately accommodated in the development of
diverse stakeholders is required. legal and policy frameworks at the national level.
The decline of traditional livestock production Inventory and registration systems, for example,
systems is significant threat to many livestock are of great importance for the planning and
breeds. Legislative and policy measures that, for implementation of conservation measures, but
whatever motivation, seek to support this type many countries report that policy and legislation
of production are potentially of importance to in this field remains weak. A further step that
the maintenance of AnGR diversity. Countries in can facilitate the administration of conservation
industrialized parts of the world are increasingly schemes is the legal definition of criteria for the
concerned about the conservation of rural inclusion of breeds in such programmes, but
environments and landscapes. There is a trend measures of this type remain rare.
towards the introduction of regulations and Where regulations related to conservation
policies aimed at the promotion of extensive exist, they are often isolated, and not integrated
farming practices – which tend to require into a strategy which takes account of the cross-
breeds that are well adapted to local conditions. cutting character of the issue. For example,
Conversely, in developing countries, food security measures aimed at increasing food security often
focus almost exclusively on high-output breeds,
155
Nepal’s Veterinary Council Act, 2055 (1999) (FAOLEX).
without an adequate assessment of the potential
156
Law No. 1.052 creating the Animal Health Inspectorate within contribution of local breeds, and without a
the Ministry of Agriculture (1950) (Legal Questionnaire, 2003). strategy for their conservation. Another example
332
is the field of animal health, which is the most policy decisions and strategies, complemented
highly regulated aspect of livestock management by a clear legal definition of the competences
on a global scale. While effective disease control and duties of institutions, and a well-organized
is essential for the use and development of AnGR, monitoring and evaluation system, might be more
restrictions on movement and trade can present effective than an elaborate legal framework.
problems for AnGR management. Slaughter
policies implemented in the event of epidemics
pose a potential threat to rare breed populations. References
It is a matter of concern that throughout most
of the world, very little attention has been
paid to this threat in the development of legal
frameworks and policies for disease control.
at http://www.fao.org/dad-is/).
The extent to which legal frameworks for the
management of AnGR have been put in place at E-mail Consultation (Country name). 2005. E-mail
the national level varies greatly. Many countries consultation with National Coordinators during the
in Europe have extensive legislation. Conversely, preparation of this chapter. (unpublished).
in other regions, in particular in Africa, countries
FAO. 2005, The legal framework for the management
generally seem to rely on policy measures, of animal genetic resources, by A. Ingrassia, D.
which may be backed by legal mandates for the Manzella & E. Martynuik, for the Development Law
implementing institutions. This contrast raises Service, FAO Legal Office. FAO Legislative study
the question of whether the establishment of No 89. Rome.
elaborate legislative instruments regulating AnGR
management is the most appropriate objective FAOLEX. (available at http://faolex.fao.org/faolex/index.
in developing countries. In some cases, countries htm).
clearly indicate that improved legislation is Legal Questionnaire. 2003. Questionnaire survey con-
considered necessary. CR Kenya (2004), for ducted by FAO in 2003, (see FAO, 2005 for details).
example, states that:
“a suitable legal framework is ... required for
operationalization of the [existing] policies.
Once the right policies and legislation have
been formulated, it will be necessary to review
and revise them regularly to make them
respond to the changes that occur with time.”
Some countries are increasingly relying on
market mechanisms or on private institutions
for specific aspects of AnGR management, but
have only limited legislation in place to regulate
the field. It is possible that this could give rise to
problems with regards to public goods aspects
of AnGR management, and a close evaluation
of the need for improved regulation is likely to
be necessary. The decision, as to the appropriate
solution for a given situation will depend on the
political and legislative culture of the country
in question, and on the structures available for
implementation. In some circumstances, sound
333
Part 4
STATE OF THE ART IN
THE MANAGEMENT
OF ANIMAL GENETIC
RESOURCES
PART 4
Introduction
This part of the report gives an overview of the state of the art in methodologies and
techniques for the management of animal genetic resources for food and agriculture
(AnGR). As AnGR management is not an established scientific discipline, Section A
outlines basic concepts that underlie FAO’s understanding of the term. These concepts
are the outcome of a series of expert meetings. Methodological developments in relevant
fields of research are then highlighted, and important findings are illustrated through
case studies. Finally, gaps in current knowledge are identified, and priorities for future
research are proposed.
STATE OF THE A R T I N THE MA N AGEMEN T OF A N I MAL GENE T I C RESOU RC ES
Section A
Basic concepts
In developed countries, breeds are relatively

1 Animal genetic resources and clearly delineated. The role of breed societies,
breeds normally voluntary organizations, which supervise
breeding standards, provide for the registration
AnGR are here defined as those animal species of animals, and promote the utilization of the
that are used, or may be used, for food production breed, is important in this respect. A pattern of
and agriculture1, and the populations within each. breed development based on recorded breeding
Distinct populations within species are usually and shared pedigrees emerged in western
referred to as breeds. The broad definition of the Europe during the late eighteenth century, with
term “breed” used by FAO (Box 67) is a reflection the first breed societies being established in
of the difficulties involved in establishing a strict England during the nineteenth century. Under
definition of the term. the auspices of such organizations, a breed has
come to be distinguished as a population sharing
common ancestry, which has been subjected to
similar selection objectives, and which conforms
Box 67
to certain established “breed standards”.
Definition of breed adopted by FAO
Breeds are generally not completely isolated
in genetic terms. They are constantly required
Either a subspecific group of domestic livestock with to change in response to changes in market
definable and identifiable external characteristics demand, and will at times be supplemented
that enable it to be separated by visual appraisal with bloodlines from other breeds (FAO, 2003).
from other similarly defined groups within the same Moreover, despite the existence of societies
species or a group for which geographical and/or ostensibly associated with specific breeds, the
cultural separation from phenotypically similar groups precepts to be followed when establishing criteria
has led to acceptance of its separate identity. for the delineation of a breed remain vague.
Definitions of breeds within a developed-country
Source: FAO (1999). context have included “animals which share a
common pattern of use in agriculture, a degree
of uniformity of phenotype, and a common gene
pool” (FAO, 1995) and “distinct intraspecific
1
Fish are excluded as management requirements and breeding groups, the members of which share particular
techniques are very different. The term “farm animal genetic
characteristics that distinguish them from other
resources”, which had been used by FAO in relation to the Global
Strategy for the Management of Farm Animal Genetic Resources, such groups” (FAO, 2003). Discussing the situation
has been criticized on the grounds that it appeared to exclude in the United States of America, Hammak (2003)
animals not kept on farms, but in mobile systems. notes that all that is required to start a breed
339
THE STATE OF THE WO RLD' S AN IMAL GENE T I C RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AG RICULTURE
PART 4
registry is “to adopt specific requirements as a means of identifying populations that merit
for eligibility and start to record ancestry.” being treated as separate breeds. The following
Similarly, under European Union (EU) legislation, definition is an example of such an approach:
there is no definition of a “breed” beyond the “A domestic animal population may be
requirement that in order to be registered as a regarded as a breed, if the animals fulfil the
pure-bred animal, an animal’s pedigree should be criteria of (i) being subjected to a common
traceable to “parents and grandparents ... which utilization pattern, (ii) sharing a common
are entered or registered in a herd-book of the habitat/distribution area, (iii) representing
same breed ... [and the animal itself should be] ... largely a closed gene pool, and (iv) being
either entered or registered and eligible for entry regarded as distinct by their breeders”
in such a herd-book” (the quotation, from Council (Köhler-Rollefson, 1997).
Directive 77/504/EEC, relates to bovine animals, Thus, in the absence of breed association records
but similar rules apply to other species). or molecular studies, the views of the livestock
There may, indeed, be little benefit in seeking keepers themselves perhaps provide the best
a perfect definition. In the words of Jay Lush, a indicator of breed identity. It may be possible to
prominent figure in the field of animal breeding identify groups of farmers who claim to be raising
and genetics, an animal of a distinct type; can reliably recognize
“A breed is a group of domestic animals, termed the type; exchange germplasm only with other
such by common consent of the breeders, ... a breeders dedicated to holding the same type; and
term which arose among breeders of livestock, indicate that such breeding practices have been
created one might say, for their own use, and ongoing for many generations (FAO, 2003).
no one is warranted in assigning to this word a Within a breed there may be “stocks”, “strains”,
scientific definition and in calling the breeders “varieties”, or “lines”; these terms which are often
wrong when they deviate from the formulated used interchangeably describe populations within
definition. It is their word and the breeders’ breeds that are phenotypically distinct as a result
common usage is what we must accept as the of human selection. The term “ecotype” refers to
correct definition” (Lush, 1994). a population within a breed that is genetically
In the developing regions of the world, the adapted to a specific habitat.
situation is even more complex, and the term
“breed” often has little meaning. Populations
that are isolated from others, whether on 2 Management of animal genetic
geographical, ecological or cultural grounds, will resources
tend to become distinct as a result of natural and
artificial selection, and genetic drift (FAO, 2003). Management of AnGR focuses on maintaining
However, the names used to distinguish livestock genetic diversity. However, most scientific methods
populations do not necessarily correspond to and techniques within the animal sciences (e.g.
the underlying genetic diversity. In many cases, animal husbandry, animal breeding or genetics)
animals will not correspond to any recognized have not been developed with this focus. Thus,
breed, although there may be local terms there is no well-defined set of methodologies
referring to different populations. encompassed by the phrase “management of
Where distinguishing genetically diverse AnGR”. The overview presented here, therefore,
populations is difficult, molecular studies may selects the methodologies most relevant to the
contribute to the delineation of separate breeds topic, guided by FAO’s definition:
and breed groups. Studying the cultural and “AnGR management encompasses all
ecological aspects of livestock keeping also serves technical, policy, and logistical operations
340
involved in understanding (characterization), – AnGR are dynamic resources, changing with

using and developing (utilization), each generation in interaction with the physical
maintaining (conservation), accessing, environment and according to the selection criteria
and sharing the benefits of animal genetic of their keepers. The proposed approach for
resources” (FAO, 2001). genetic improvement is to base breeding efforts
As such, this part of the report includes on locally adapted genetic resources. This will help
descriptions of methodologies for characterization to avoid the loss of breeds with unique attributes.
and conservation (Sections B and F); because Existing genetic variation in animals’ ability to use
of their increasing importance, methods for locally available resources, survive, produce and
molecular characterization are presented reproduce under the conditions of medium-to-
separately from other aspects of characterization low input farming should be exploited by well-
(Section C). However, when it comes to utilization designed breeding programmes. Complementary
– using and developing AnGR for agriculture measures such as improvement in the provision
and food production – no clear concept has of feed and water, treatment of diseases and
emerged. It is, therefore, not possible to present parasites, and the management of reproduction
a comprehensive description of the state of the will also need to be considered in strategies to
art in utilization. Nonetheless, FAO has started improve the performance of these breeds.
to identify key elements of such a concept, using Thus, genetic improvement methods are central
as a starting point the definition of sustainable to the development of breeds. Scientific methods
use proposed by the Convention on Biological for breeding programmes have, however, been
Diversity (CBD): developed mainly in higher-input production
“Sustainable use is the use of components systems, and under favourable infrastructural
of biological diversity in a way and at a rate conditions. Breeding programmes do not usually
that does not lead to the long-term decline include maintaining genetic diversity within and
of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its between breeds as an explicit goal. The state of
potential to meet the needs and aspirations of knowledge in the field of genetic improvement is
present and future generations” (Article 2 of described in Section D.
the CBD). Ideally, breeding programmes should be part
To meet this objective FAO has proposed that: of a holistic strategy with the goal of sustainably
• wise use of AnGR is possible without intensifying production systems to improve
depleting domestic animal diversity; the livelihoods of the producers. Sustainable
• AnGR with high levels of adaptive fitness to intensification has been put forward as the ideal
the environment concerned should be used, way of improving production systems, and is
and sound genetic principles deployed; and defined as follows:
• development of AnGR includes a broad “Sustainable intensification of production
mix of ongoing activities that must be well systems is the manipulation of inputs to, and
planned and executed for success, and outputs from, livestock production systems
compounded over time. aimed at increasing production and/or
Thus, an important element of (sustainable) use productivity and/or changing product quality,
of AnGR is to ensure that locally adapted breeds while maintaining the long-term integrity of the
remain a functional part of production systems. systems and their surrounding environment,
Adaptive fitness traits, some of which may not yet so as to meet the needs of both present
have been discovered, are of particular importance, and future human generations. Sustainable
as they are genetically complex and cannot easily agricultural intensification respects the needs
be achieved by selection over a short period of and aspirations of local and indigenous people,
time. Use of AnGR inevitably includes development takes into account the roles and values of their
341
PART 4
locally adapted genetic resources, and considers development. Interdependencies among regions
the need to achieve long-term environmental in terms of access to AnGR, and past and present
sustainability within and beyond the agro- patterns of exchange are described in Part 1
ecosystem” (FAO, 2001). – Section C. Developments in biotechnology
Addressing these general principles for the use (described in Sections C and F) have facilitated
and development of AnGR is not merely a matter exchange and use of genetic resources, have
of scientific methodology, but requires an effective begun to detect genes regulating functional
combination of methodologies and techniques traits, and present new opportunities for the
with appropriate development policies. To support use of genetic material. Thus, they will play an
policy development, economic analyses are needed important role in future patterns of access and
to describe the economic importance of locally benefit sharing (ABS). The contribution that
adapted breeds, in particular from the perspective methodologies developed in the social and
of the smallholder; to define the value of livestock political sciences can make to the formulation of
genetic diversity; and to compare different adequate policies for ABS is, however, beyond the
management strategies. An overview of economic scope of this discussion.
valuation methods is presented in Section E.
Another difficulty related to the concept of
utilization, is that of clearly distinguishing it from 3 Risk status classification
in vivo conservation. This problem arises due to
the fact that sustainable use is considered the An assessment of the risk status of livestock breeds
preferred method of maintaining AnGR. Thus, or populations is an important element in the
when conservation is defined in the broad sense planning of AnGR management. The risk status
of ensuring maintenance of all relevant AnGR, of a breed informs stakeholders whether, and
it includes sustainable use. However, a more how urgently, actions need to be taken. Gandini
operational definition, which allows a clearer et al. (2004) define “degree of endangerment” as
delineation of the subject, and which is used in “a measure of the likelihood that, under current
Section F on methods for conservation, is that circumstances and expectations, the breed will
conservation comprises actions that are required become extinct.” Accurately estimating degrees
because the continued use of a particular genetic of risk is a difficult undertaking and incorporates
resource is threatened. The role of conservation both demographic and genetic factors.
is to ensure that unique genetic resources are Clearly, current population size is an important
available to farmers and breeders in the future, factor in determining risk status. A small
and consequently, conservation can be considered population is at greater risk of being wiped out
as part of an overall strategy to use AnGR in a by natural disasters, disease or inappropriate
sustainable manner to meet current and future management. However, a mere headcount of
human needs. To inform decisions regarding animals, or even of animals of breeding age, does
conservation strategies, it is important to have an not give the whole picture with regard to risk
estimate of current risk status (see below), and also status.
to identify threats likely to affect the breed in the Breeding between individuals sharing common
near future. The latter allows interventions, such as ancestors tends to reduce the rate of allelic
any breed development necessary to maintain the variation in the next generation. The genetic
breed, to take place at a sufficiently early stage. diversity of the population is, thus, reduced.
Accessing and sharing the benefits of The accumulation of deleterious recessive alleles
AnGR (also components of FAO’s definition of may threaten the fitness of the population and
AnGR management) are key areas for policy negatively affect reproductive rates, thereby
342
increasing the risk of extinction (Gandini et and 500, respectively (ibid.). Additionally, it can
al., 2004; Woolliams, 2004). The extent of the be seen from the above equation that the value
risk is commonly expressed in terms of the rate of Ne is far more readily influenced by changes
of inbreeding (ΔF) in the population, which affecting the male (smaller) breeding population
is a measure of the expected changes in gene than the female. This underlines the importance
frequencies in the population due to genetic drift of considering the number of breeding males in
(Woolliams, 2004). The rate of inbreeding is often any assessment of risk status.
inferred from the effective population size (Ne). In addition to the current effective population
As Ne goes up ΔF decreases, or more formally, size, degree of risk is related to population growth
Ne = 1/(2 ΔF). trends. As noted above, where populations are
The value of Ne in a population is often small there is a greater likelihood that adverse
approximated on the basis of the equation events or trends will lead rapidly to extinction.
Ne = 4MF/(M+F) where M and F are number of Above a certain population size the risk of such
reproducing males and females. The method is an outcome can be regarded as small (see below
based on the assumption that matings between for discussion of the thresholds used in various
these breeding animals are random. However, risk status classifications). The more rapidly a
this assumption is rarely applicable in livestock population builds up to reach the critical size,
populations, as some individuals contribute the less it is exposed to the risk of extinction.
disproportionate numbers of progeny to the Obviously, if population figures are low and the
next generation. The way in which breeding is growth trend is negative, the prospects for the
managed, for example the implementation of breed are not good. A complicating factor is
selective breeding programmes, influences the that breed population growth rates often show
effective population size. Various techniques considerable fluctuations over time, particularly
for adjusting the calculation to account for such where production conditions cannot be strictly
factors have been developed, but require further controlled (Gandini et al., 2004). Factors which may
data inputs (Gandini et al., 2004). Collecting influence the variance of the population growth
the demographic data needed to calculate Ne is rate include the variability of market demand,
often problematic: there may be inconsistencies patterns of disease, the existence of programmes
in census data and registration of females and for and awareness of AnGR conservation, the
offspring, some females may be used in crossing general economic stability of the agricultural
programmes, and not all females may be bred each sector, and the spatial distribution and density of
year (Alderson, 2003). Another element that can the population (ibid.). Calculating the probability
influence the outcome of risk status estimations that the population size will lie within a given
is the time interval over which risk is calculated. range at a given time in the future is, thus, fraught
Because of the different generation intervals in with theoretical and data-related difficulties.
different livestock species, calculations performed Despite such problems, current population trends
on the basis of the number of generations will are clearly a factor to be considered in assessing
produce different priorities from those calculated risk status. In addition to overall population size
on the basis of years (ibid.). and growth rates, the risk status of a population
Some implications of changes to the effective is affected by other factors such as the number of
population size are important to note. At low herds, and the geographical concentration of the
levels of Ne, particularly below 100, the rate of loss population, which influence exposure to threats
of genetic diversity increases dramatically (FAO, such as disease epidemics; and by sociological
1992a). For example, approximately 18, 10, 4, 1.6 factors such as the age of the farmers keeping the
and 0.8 percent of genetic diversity is lost in ten breed (Woolliams, 2004).
generations, when Ne is equal to 25, 50, 125, 250
343
PART 4
In 1992, FAO convened an Expert Consultation breed. Extinction is absolute when there
to develop recommendations for the assessment are no breeding males (semen), breeding
of risk status. The preference was for a breed risk females (oocytes), nor embryos remaining.
status classification based on the concept of Ne, • Critical breed: A breed where the total
adjusted by trends in population size, extent of number of breeding females is less than
cross-breeding, extent of cryoconservation, and 100 or the total number of breeding
variability of family size. It was also suggested that males is less than or equal to five; or the
the number of herds and trends in the number of overall population size is close to, but
herds should be included (FAO, 1992a). However, slightly above 100 and decreasing, and the
data limitations and the necessity of a consistent percentage of pure-bred females is below
approach on a global scale meant that a simpler 80 percent.
approach was adopted, based on the number • Endangered breed: A breed where the total
of breeding females and males, and trends in number of breeding females is between 100
population size (see below for details). In the and 1000 or the total number of breeding
future, as more complete data become available it males is less than or equal to 20 and greater
may be possible to refine the method of calculation than five; or the overall population size
to account for the above factors, and also to adapt is close to, but slightly above 100 and
it to account for the different generation intervals increasing and the percentage of pure-
of different species. bred females is above 80 percent; or the
For planning and prioritization purposes, it is overall population size is close to, but
useful to classify breeds into risk status categories. slightly above 1 000 and decreasing and the
The numerical boundaries between the different percentage of pure-bred females is below
risk status categories used by FAO are intended to 80 percent.
be indicators of the need to take action. A paper • Critical–maintained breed and endangered–
presented at the Expert Consultation in 1992 maintained breed: Critical or endangered
argued that a population size between 100 and breeds that are being maintained by an
1 000 breeding females “implies that the breed is active public conservation programme or
in danger of extinction. Without action its effective within a commercial or research facility.
population size is inadequate in most cases to prevent • Breed not at risk: A breed where the total
continuing genetic loss in future generations. An number of breeding females and males is
increase in the degree of inbreeding is unavoidable greater than 1 000 and 20 respectively; or
and threatens the vitality of animals. There is a real the population size approaches 1 000 and
danger either of spontaneous loss for example by the percentage of pure-bred females is close
sudden disease, or due to neglect by man” (FAO to 100 percent, and the overall population
1992b). Further, a population size of less than 100 size is increasing.
breeding females indicates that “The population The FAO system outlined above is not the
is close to extinction. The first action must be to only existing classification of risk status. Another
increase the population size. At this level of threat, classification was developed for the European
the genetic variability is often already reduced so Association of Animal Production–Animal Genetic
that the population cannot be considered the same Data Bank (EAAP–AGDB), and is now used by the
as the ancient breed” (ibid.). European Farm Animal Biodiversity Information
As such, the following classification is used System (EFABIS) (http://efabis.tzv.fal.de/). It covers
by FAO to describe the degrees of risk faced by breeds of buffalo, cattle, goat, sheep, horse,
livestock breeds: donkey, pig and rabbit in 46 European countries,
• Extinct breed: The case when it is no longer and is based on genetic risk – as represented
possible to recreate a population of the by expected cumulative rates of inbreeding in
344
50 years (ΔF–50). Calculations are based on the References

familiar equation Ne = 4MF/(M+F) (see above) with
its inherent assumptions (EAAP–AGDB, 2005).
Alderson, L. 2003. Criteria for the recognition and pri-
Breeds are classified into one of five categories
oritisation of breeds of special genetic importance.
according to ΔF–50: not endangered, <5 percent;
Animal Genetic Resources Information, 33: 1–9.
potentially endangered, 5–15 percent; minimally
endangered, 16–25 percent; endangered, 26–40 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Convention
percent; and critically endangered, >40 percent. Text. Article 2. Use of Terms. Concluded at Rio de
Breeds may be shifted to a higher risk class based Janeiro, 5 June 1992. (available at www.biodiv.
on a set of additional risk factors: a high rate of org/convention/convention.shtml).
incrossing with other breeds; a downward trend EAAP–AGDB. 2005. Factors used for assessing the
in the number of breeding females; or a low status of endangerment of a breed. European
number of breeding herds (ibid.). Association of Animal Production – Animal Genetic
The EU, under Commission Regulation (EC) Data Bank. (available at www.tiho-hannover.
No. 817/2004, sets out risk status thresholds for de/einricht/zucht/eaap/).
the purposes of providing incentive payments to
farmers keeping threatened breeds. Calculations FAO. 1992a. Monitoring animal genetic resources and
are based on the number of breeding females criteria for prioritization of breeds, by K. Maijala. In
J. Hodges, ed. The management of global animal
summed across all EU countries. Separate
genetic resources, Proceedings of an FAO Expert
thresholds are established for each species: cattle
Consultation, Rome, Italy, April 1992, Animal
– 7 500, sheep – 10 000, goats – 10 000, equidae
Production and Health Paper No. 104. Rome.
– 5 000, pigs – 15 000 and avian species – 25 000.
Some arguments can be put forward in support FAO. 1992b. The minimum number of preserved popula-
of these rather high thresholds. Gandini et al. tions, by I. Bodó, In J. Hodges, ed. The management
(2004) note that while in the European context of global animal genetic resources. Proceedings of
a breed with 1 000 or more breeding females can an FAO Expert Consultation, Rome, Italy, April 1992,
generally be self-sustainable, this is not always the Animal Production and Health Paper No. 104. Rome.
case, and that it is easier to prevent a population
FAO. 1995. Global impact domain – animal genetic
from losing self-sustainability than to restore it.
resources, by E.P. Cunningham. Rome.
The NGO Rare Breeds International has also
developed a system based on the number of FAO. 1999. The global strategy for the management
registered pure-bred breeding females, which of farm animal genetic resources. Executive Brief.
classifies priority breeds into four categories: Rome.
critical, endangered, vulnerable and at risk
FAO. 2001. Preparation of the first report on the state of
(Alderson, 2003). Other factors (number of the world’s animal genetic resources. Guidelines for
breeding units, number of unrelated sire lines, the development of country reports. Rome.
population trends, distance between major
breeding units), which would ideally be included FAO. 2003. Defining livestock breeds in the context of
in an estimation of risk status, are disregarded in community-based management of farm animal ge-
the interests of avoiding excessive complexity in netic resources, by J.E.O. Rege. In Community-based
the calculations (ibid.). management of farm animal genetic resources.
Proceedings of the workshop held in Mbabane,
Swaziland, 7–11 May 2001. Rome.
345
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Gandini, G.C., Ollivier, L., Danell, B., Distl, O.,

Georgoudis, A., Groeneveld, E., Martyniuk, E.,
van Arendonk, J.A.M. & Woolliams, J.A. 2004.
Criteria to assess the degree of endangerment of
livestock breeds in Europe. Livestock Production
Science, 91(1-2): 173–182.
Hammak, S.P. 2003. Creating cattle breeds and com-

posites. College Station Texas. Texas Cooperative
Extension, Texas A & M University.
Köhler-Rollefson, I. 1997. Indigenous practices of

animal genetic resource management and their
relevance for the conservation of domestic animal
diversity in developing countries. Journal of Animal
Breeding and Genetics, 114: 231–238.
Lush, J.L. 1994. The genetics of populations. Iowa

Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment
Station. Special Report 94. Ames, Iowa, USA. Iowa
State University.
Woolliams, J.A. 2004. Managing populations at risk. In

G. Simm, B. Villanueva, K.D. Sinclair & S. Townsend,
eds. Farm animal genetic resources, pp. 85–106.
British Society for Animal Science, Publication 30.
Nottingham, UK. Nottingham University Press.
European legislation cited
COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 817/2004 of 29

April 2004 laying down detailed rules for the ap-
plication of Council Regulation (EC) No 1257/1999
on support for rural development from the European
Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF).
http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2004/l_153/
l_15320040430en00300081.pdf
COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 77/504/EEC of 25 July 1977 on

pure- bred breeding animals of the bovine species.
http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!
celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=319
77L0504&model=guichett
346
Section B
Methods for characterization
1 Introduction 2 Characterization – as the basis

for decision-making
Characterization of AnGR encompasses all
activities associated with the identification, A key consideration for the management of AnGR
quantitative and qualitative description, and at the national level is whether, at a given point
documentation of breed populations and the in time, a particular breed population is self-
natural habitats and production systems to which sustainable or whether it is at risk. This primary
they are or are not adapted. The aim is to obtain assessment (baseline survey2) of breed/population
better knowledge of AnGR, of their present and status is based on information on:
potential future uses for food and agriculture in • population size and structure;
defined environments, and their current state • geographical distribution;
as distinct breed populations (FAO, 1984; Rege, • within-breed genetic diversity; and
1992). National-level characterization comprises • the genetic connectedness of breeds when
the identification of the country’s AnGR and the populations are found in more than one
surveying of these resources. The process also country (e.g. the Djallonke sheep of West
includes the systematic documentation of the Africa).
information gathered so as to allow easy access. If a breed/population is not as risk, no immediate
Characterization activities should contribute steps to implement conservation measures are
to objective and reliable prediction of animal necessary. Nevertheless, as part of national
performance in defined environments, so as to livestock development plans, decisions have to
allow a comparison of potential performance be taken as to whether a genetic improvement
within the various major production systems programme is needed – in response, for example,
found in a country or region. It is, therefore, more to changing market conditions. Decisions
than the mere accumulation of existing reports. regarding such improvement programmes are
The information provided through the mainly guided by information on long-term
characterization process enables a range of benefits to livestock keepers and society.
interest groups, including farmers, national
2
governments and regional as well as global Baseline information is related to a particular target animal
bodies to make informed decisions on priorities population at a given time and within a given production
environment. Depending on the degree of change, these
for the management of AnGR (FAO, 1992; FAO/
descriptions may need to be updated about once a generation.
UNEP, 1998). Such policy decisions aim to promote The baseline study should characterize phenotypic and molecular
further development of AnGR while ensuring attributes of the breeding females and males in the population.
that these resources are conserved for the needs About 100 adult females and about 30 adult males are needed for
phenotypic characterization, but about a third of this size may be
of present and future generations. sufficient for molecular diversity estimation.
347
PART 4
When a breed/population is found to be to be conserved are found in more than one

at risk, active conservation strategies have to country, decisions should be taken at the regional
be implemented or the potential loss of the level. Thus, regional coordinating institutions/
breed must be accepted. To allocate the limited organizations, and supporting national policies,
resources that are available for conservation are required to facilitate such decisions and to
programmes, breeds need to be prioritized. implement actions. To date, only a few examples
These decisions may be based on the genetic of multi-country actions in AnGR management
distinctiveness, adaptive traits, relative value for have been reported.
food and agriculture, or historical and cultural
values of the breeds in question. This information
is also needed to decide, whether in vivo or in
vitro strategies or a combination of both appears
to be the most promising approach. If the breeds
FIGURE 47
Information required to design management strategies
Breed population within a country
Status of the breed:

• population size and structure
• geographical distribution within the country
• populations of same breed in other countries
Breeds at risk Breeds potentially at risk Breeds not at risk
“Value” of the breed: Potential for improvement:

• genetic distinctiveness • target traits (genetic diversity within
• adaptive traits population)
• relative utility value for food and agriculture • preference of market and society
• historical or cultural use
Genetic No planned
No conservation Conservation improvement genetic
programme programme programme changes
High risk In vitro In vivo Pure/straight

Cross-breeding
of extinction conservation conservation breeding
Risk Elements of
Criteria action plans
status
348
For decisions on conservation strategies and genetic diversity among the breeds under
on development programmes for self-sustainable consideration (in order to maximize the
breeds, comprehensive information is needed, diversity conserved for the benefit of future
and should include: human generations);
• description of the typical phenotypic • origin and development of the breeds; and
characteristics of the breed population, • unique genetic (or phenotypic if genetic
including physical features and attributes are not known) characteristics
appearance, economic traits (e.g. growth, and their significance in current or
reproduction and product yield/quality) anticipated production settings.
and some measures (e.g. range) of National decision-makers need to identify
variation in these traits – the focus is the breeds in which genetic improvement
generally on the productive and adaptive programmes would be most beneficial. Such
attributes of the breed; programmes could include breeds classified as at
• description of the production environments risk, and form part of a conservation programme.
(Box 68), both the original habitat and the Investments in breed improvement should be
current production system in which the justified by adequate returns to investment.
population is kept – some breeds are kept These are determined by performance levels,
in more than one production environment, special adaptive characteristics and/or specific uses
in a number of countries, and sometimes and values of the breeds in a given production
outside their original geographical area; environment or in relation to anticipated changes
• documentation of any special characteristics in the production environment (including market
(unique features) of the population in terms conditions). Thus, performance data, description
of adaptation and production – including of particularly useful attributes and values, and
responses to environmental stressors a detailed description of the general production
(disease and parasite challenge, extremes of environment are essential to guide decisions on
climate, poor feed quality, etc.); breed development programmes.
• images of typical adult males and females in The set of information needed for the
their typical production environment; development of appropriate breeding
• relevant indigenous knowledge (including programmes also allows the choice of breed to
but not limited to gender-specific be reconsidered as the production environment
knowledge) of traditional management evolves, whether through changes to husbandry
strategies used by communities to utilize practices, market conditions, cultural preferences,
the genetic diversity of their livestock; or biophysical (e.g. climatic stress or disease
• description of ongoing management challenge) factors. Similarly, this information is
(utilization and conservation) actions and needed in the design of AnGR restocking schemes
the stakeholders involved; and undertaken following natural disasters (drought,
• description of any known genetic floods, etc.), disease outbreaks or civil unrest.
relationships between breeds within or Restocking may be based on AnGR available
outside the country. within the country, from other countries in the
In addition to the information listed for both region, or from another region of the world.
pathways (conservation and development), the In all cases, restocking schemes should seek to
following supplementary information is useful to obtain the animals that are best adapted to the
guide the choice of priority breeds and geographic production environment into which they will be
areas for conservation programmes: introduced.
• genetic distinctiveness of the breeds and Management decisions may differ in type and
their significance with respect to the total scope at subnational, national, regional and
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PART 4
Box 68
Production environment descriptors for animal genetic resources
A comprehensive description of the production indicator. The workshop noted that many developing
environment is essential to make use of performance countries had very little capacity to collect and
data and to understand the special adaptations of analyse production environment variables, and that,
breeds/populations. Adaptive fitness of breeds is a less complex descriptive system would, therefore,
complex and difficult to measure directly, but can be preferable as it would be more likely to be used.
be characterized indirectly by describing the primary Despite these concerns, the system proposed required
variables (criteria) which have affected an animal very detailed information. A less detailed and more
gene pool (breed) over time, and have probably pragmatic approach to describing production systems
maximized its adaptive fitness for that environment. would probably facilitate efforts to begin to fill the
Thus, an (improved) description of production current large gaps in breed documentation. However,
environments would be extremely valuable, in order a detailed approach should be encouraged whenever
to better understand the comparative adaptive fitness this is possible.
of specific AnGR. The system devised at the meeting in Armidale
In January 1998, an expert group met in Armidale, appears to be the first attempt to develop a structured
Australia, and devised a very detailed and well- set of production environment descriptors (PEDs)
structured approach, using five main criteria to for use in the characterization of livestock breeds.
characterize most, if not all, production environments, The Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information
for all animal species used for food and agriculture. System (DAGRIS) database, developed by the
The five criteria were: climate; terrain; disease, disease International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)
complexes and parasites; resource availability; and includes a field devoted to the “habitat” of each
management interventions (FAO, 1998). At a second breed, but there is no set structure to the entries,
level of hierarchy, three to seven indicators for and the information provided to date is quite limited.
each criterion were formulated to characterize (i.e. Oklahoma State University’s “Breeds of Livestock”
describe and measure variables in) the production database provides some information on production
environments. For each indicator two or more environments, but this is again not based on a
verifiers were identified to specify or measure each systematic set of descriptors.
international levels. It is, therefore, important 3 Tools for characterization

that relevant information on breed characteristics
is made accessible to decision-makers at all levels.
For example, it may happen that a country decides 3.1 Surveying
not to invest in the conservation of a specific local Surveys are undertaken to systematically collect
breed, but a regional or international organization data needed to identify breed populations
decides that the breed is a unique genetic resource, and describe their observable characteristics,
and that it is in the global interest to conserve it. geographical distribution, uses and general
husbandry, as well as their production
environments. Full baseline surveys need to be
undertaken once; some elements of the survey
may be repeated when significant changes are
observed in the livestock sector.
As part of the effort to develop global
databanks for the management of AnGR, FAO
350
developed a comprehensive list of animal and first computer-based information system known
environment descriptors to serve as a guide as EAAP–AGDB. ILRI, in collaboration with FAO
for standardized characterization activities at (Rowlands et al., 2003) has developed and tested
various levels (FAO, 1986a,b,c). However, these an approach for collecting and analysing on-
descriptors were far too complex for universal farm breed-level information in Zimbabwe. The
application. In recognition of this fact, FAO same approach has been applied in Ethiopia.
developed simplified formats for data collection A key lesson from this work was that logistic
for mammalian and avian species (see summary and time requirements for extensive livestock
of data items in Tables 97 and 98). This was based surveys, data management and analysis, can be
on the experience of the EAAP, which started grossly underestimated. It was also found that
collecting data in the 1980s and later built the the outcomes of multivariate survey techniques
TABLE 97
Information recorded for mammalian species in the Global Databank for Animal Genetic Resources
• GENERAL INFORMATION • SPECIAL QUALITIES

Species Specific quality of products
Breed name (most common name and other local names) Specific health characteristics
Distribution Adaptability to specific environment
Special reproductive characteristics
• POPULATION DATA Other special qualities
Basic Population Information:
Year of data collection • MANAGEMENT CONDITIONS
Total population size (range or exact figure) Management system
Reliability of population data Mobility
Population trend (increasing, stable, decreasing) Feeding of adults
Population figures based on (census/survey at species/breed level Housing period
or estimate) Specific management conditions
Advanced Population Information: • IN SITU CONSERVATION

Number of breeding females and males Description of in situ conservation programmes
Percentage of females bred to males of the same breed and
percentage of males used for breeding
• EX SITU CONSERVATION
Number of females registered in herd book/register Semen stored and number of sires represented
Artificial Insemination usage and storage of semen and embryos Embryos stored and number of dams and sires represented in embryos
Number of herds and average herd size Description of ex situ conservation programmes
• MAIN USES • PERFORMANCE

Listed in order of importance Birth weight
Age at sexual maturity
• ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT Average age of breeding males
Current domestication status (domestic/wild/feral) Age at first parturition and parturition interval
Taxonomic classification (breed/variety/strain/line) Length of productive life
Origin (description and year) Milk yield and lactation length (mammals)
Import Milk fat
Year of herd book establishment Lean meat
Organization monitoring breed (address) Daily gain
Carcass Weight
• MORPHOLOGY Dressing percentage
Adult height and weight Management conditions under which performance was measured
Number and shape/size of horns
Colour
Specific visible traits
Hair and/or wool type Source: FAO/UNEP (2000).
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PART 4
TABLE 98
Information recorded for avian species in the Global Databank for Animal Genetic Resources
• GENERAL INFORMATION • SPECIAL QUALITIES

Species Specific quality of products
Breed name (most common name and other local names) Specific health characteristics
Distribution Adaptability to specific environment
Special reproductive characteristics
• POPULATION DATA Other special qualities
Basic Population Information:
Year of data collection • MANAGEMENT CONDITIONS
Total population size (range or exact figure) Management system
Reliability of population data Mobility
Population trend (increasing, stable, decreasing) Feeding of adults
Population figures based on (census/survey at species/breed level or Housing period
estimate) Specific management conditions
Advanced Population Information: • IN SITU CONSERVATION

Number of breeding females and males Description of in situ conservation programmes
Percentage of females bred to males of the same breed and
percentage of males used for breeding. • EX SITU CONSERVATION
Number of females registered in herd book/register Semen stored and number of sires represented
Artificial Insemination usage and storage of semen and embryos Description of ex situ conservation programmes
Number of herds and average herd size
• PERFORMANCE
• MAIN USES
Age at sexual maturity
Listed in order of importance Age at first egg and clutch interval
Length of productive life
• ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
Number of eggs per year
Current domestication status (domestic/wild/feral) Daily gain
Taxonomic classification (breed/variety/strain/line) Carcass Weight
Origin (description and year) Dressing percentage
Import Management conditions under which performance was measured
Year of herd book establishment
Organization monitoring breed (address)
Source: FAO/UNEP (2000).
• MORPHOLOGY
Adult live weight
Patterns within feathers
Plumage pattern
Skin colour
Shank and foot colour
Comb type
Egg shell colour
Specific visible traits
need to be verified by complementary molecular the breed, typical morphological features, average
genetic studies (Ayalew et al., 2004). performance levels, special characteristics, and
Based on the Global Strategy for the ongoing conservation activities.
Management of AnGR, ten categories of variables
are covered in AnGR surveys, including basic and 3.2 Monitoring
advanced breed population information, main uses Changes in population size and structure need
of the breed, origin and development/evolution of to be documented regularly for all breeds. This
352
should be carried out on a yearly or biennial and reporting of actual population sizes by those
basis, as the application of modern reproductive directly involved may be adequate and achievable.
technologies, global trade, market demands, and Large and widely dispersed populations may
policies favouring particular breeds, can lead to require the establishment of stratified samples,
rapid changes in the size and structure of breed where a portion of the population in each major
populations. geographical region of the country is monitored.
Monitoring should be conducted at least once Lack of easy-to-apply tools for collecting such
per generation of the species, particularly for data, general lack of trained persons to undertake
breeds classified as at risk or potentially at risk. assessments, and lack of awareness on the part
This requires surveys at intervals of about eight of policy-makers and implementers regarding
years for horses and donkeys, five years for cattle, the importance of such information, represent
buffalo, sheep and goats, three years for pigs and important challenges.
two years for poultry species. In every country there may be opportunities to
At present, most national livestock censuses monitor AnGR by taking advantage of existing
do not contain breed-level data, and so regular activities, and thereby avoiding significant
reporting of breed population numbers does not additional costs. National livestock censuses offer
take place. Species and breeds that have been good opportunities. It may also be possible to
classified as at risk should be monitored on a set up effective monitoring stations in locations
regular basis. This monitoring should serve as the where livestock are sold or traded, such as
basis for national early warning. auctions and local markets. This approach can
Information collected during monitoring greatly reduce costs by bringing the livestock to
activities enables adjustments to be made the monitors. However, a focus on traded animals
to management plans for AnGR. Monitoring may not accurately reflect the structure of the
programmes need to be carefully designed so target populations on the farms. In countries
that they provide feedback to farmers, managers where farmer groups, breed societies, or herd
and other stakeholders. Monitoring approaches or stud books exist, tracking registrations can
need to be flexible, and activities by different be a very effective means to monitor particular
players need to be well coordinated, as different breeds. There may also be opportunities to
groups will monitor different parameters. combine monitoring activities with the tasks
For example, farmers may wish to monitor of existing government offices. For example,
production parameters; resource managers may wildlife biologists could assist in monitoring
wish to monitor completion of breed inventories; livestock populations as part of wildlife surveys.
and administrators may wish to monitor the cost- Health officials could record livestock population
effectiveness of various programmes. Monitoring numbers by breed when conducting food-
is also necessary to evaluate progress in the processing inspections or delivering veterinary
implementation of action plans, and to identify services. All these options, however, have to be
new priorities, issues and opportunities. treated with caution and potential biases need
Monitoring can be an extremely expensive to be considered. The value of the information
aspect of AnGR management. However, if countries obtainable on the basis of existing activities has to
are strategic in their approaches to monitoring, be weighed against the additional information,
and take advantage of existing resources, it can but also greater costs, associated with surveys
be cost effective. For managing genetic resources specifically designed and conducted to monitor
at high risk, data on current population size AnGR.
and geographic location are required. For such As a step towards the inclusion of breed-level
populations, regular and simple quantification data in national livestock censuses, the next World
353
PART 4
Programme for Census of Agriculture (produced • identify parentage and genetic relationships
by FAO every ten years to guide countries (e.g. DNA fingerprinting) within populations;
in conducting of their agricultural census) • support marker assisted genetic
(FAO, 2006) encourages countries to collect and improvement of animal populations; and
report livestock data at breed level. • develop DNA repositories for research and
development (FAO, 2005).
3.3 Molecular genetic characterization • In populations with limited or no
Molecular genetic characterization explores information on pedigrees and population
polymorphism in selected protein molecules structure, molecular markers can also be used
and DNA markers in order to measure genetic to estimate the effective population size (Ne).
variation at the population level. Because of the In the absence of comprehensive breed
low level of polymorphism observed in proteins, characterization data and documentation of
and hence limited applicability in diversity studies, the origin of breeding populations, molecular
DNA-level polymorphisms are the markers of marker information may provide the most easily
choice for molecular genetic characterization (see obtainable estimates of genetic diversity within
Section C). and between a given set of populations.
The process of molecular genetic characterization
comprises field sampling of biological material 3.4 Information systems
(often blood or hair root samples), laboratory Information systems or databases can serve a
extraction of DNA from the samples, DNA variety of different purposes, but collectively
storage, laboratory assaying (e.g. genotyping or they contain important information for
sequencing), data analysis, report writing, and decision-making, research, training, planning
maintenance of a molecular genetic information and evaluation of programmes, progress
database. Sampling for molecular analysis may be reporting and public awareness. An information
combined with surveying and/or monitoring, as system normally includes hardware, software
molecular information on its own cannot be used (applications), organized data (information) and
for utilization and conservation decisions. facilities for communication. It can be operated
Characterization at the molecular genetic level either manually, electronically using computers, or
is undertaken mainly to explore genetic diversity through a combination of both. The information
within and between animal populations, and may be on a single desktop machine, or a network
to determine genetic relationships among such of computers. Alternatively, it may be on the
populations. More specifically, the results from Internet, allowing external access to view or, in
the laboratory work are used to: case of interactive dynamic systems, update the
• determine within and between-breed information.
diversity parameters; The overall purpose of information systems is
• identify the geographical locations of to enable and support decision-making regarding
particular populations, and/or of admixture the present value and potential future uses of
among populations of different genetic AnGR, by a range of stakeholders, including
origins; policy-makers, development practitioners, farmers
• provide information on evolutionary and researchers. Thus, they need to incorporate
relationships (phylogenetic trees) and clarify essential decision-support tools to meet the
centres of origin and migration routes; needs of stakeholders at subnational, national,
• implement gene mapping activities, subregional, regional and global levels. However,
including identification of carriers of known users operating at these different hierarchies or
genes; levels will each have different objectives, and
354
be interested in different aspects of the data State University’s Breeds of Livestock information
contained within the information system. For system provides brief summaries of breed origins,
instance, users operating at regional or global characteristics and uses. The content of these
levels will be more interested in the cross-border information systems is described in Box 69.
distribution of breeds, cross-border livestock Currently, the information resources have
markets, transboundary disease risks, and facilities for simple searches by country or breed
germplasm exchange across borders. Conversely, only. Ideally, they should have as much research
more relevant issues for users at national and information as is available, and enable users to
subnational (local) levels are breed population make informed judgements about the value
size, herd/flock structures, production levels, of each item of information. If researchers and
and stressors associated with local environments. decision-makers are to have the information
Linkages and information exchange between the they require, the functionality of the existing
hierarchies, as well as with external information information systems will need to be greatly
sources can add value to information systems. increased, to allow extraction and customized
Complementary databases may exchange analysis of various categories of information
information through a system of data transfer, or within and between data sources. The scope of
can serve as “gateways” to each other through data acquisition also needs to be expanded so that
electronic links via the Internet. For instance, breed information can be linked to geographical
national and subnational AnGR databases could information system (GIS)-based environment and
be linked to geophysical databases (climate, soils, production system mapping. This will allow poorly
water or landscape). Functional linkages between documented adaptation traits such as disease
these sets of data could lead to the generation resistance to be predicted from past and current
of animal disease risk maps, and information breed distribution and use (Gibson et al., 2007).
on specific adaptations of particular breeds to Information systems for AnGR have been
stressful environments. developed and administered as global public
National databases of domestic animal diversity goods, and have limited ability to attract
are essential planning tools. They present investment from the private sector or major
the current state of knowledge on the size, funding agencies. This explains the very limited
distribution, status, and utility value of AnGR. information that the systems contain compared to
They allow access to information on planned and that which is potentially possible and which would
ongoing management activities. Moreover, they be necessary for them to effectively achieve their
facilitate the identification of gaps in existing stated purposes. One possibility to circumvent
information. such limitations is to establish functionalities for
At present, a number of public-domain electronic interconnectivity and interoperability between
information systems for animal genetic diversity information systems. This has been achieved
are globally accessible and contain data from more with FABISnet (a distributed information system
than one country. Two of these – the Domestic for AnGR) which enables countries to set up
Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS) and national Web-based information systems that can
the European Farm Animal Biodiversity Information exchange core data with the higher levels of the
System (EFABIS) (previously EAAP–AGDB) – are network – regional systems (such as EFABIS) and
related to the FAO global information system for the global system (DAD-IS).
AnGR. The Domestic Animal Genetic Resources
Information System (DAGRIS), managed by ILRI is
a database of synthesized research information
from published and grey literature. Oklahoma
355
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Box 69
Information systems at global level
DAD-IS [http://www.fao.org/dad-is] synchronization. Countries and regions are provided

The Domestic Animal Diversity Information System with tools to set up their own Web-based information
(DAD-IS) developed by FAO is the first globally systems. Information content and interface can be
accessible dynamic multilingual database of translated to any local language. The appearance of
AnGR. It was initiated as a key communication the interface can be adapted to reflect local flavours.
and information tool for implementing the Global Outside the core data structure, countries and regions
Strategy for the Management of AnGR, to assist may further define data structures that specifically
countries and country networks in their respective reflect their needs. These specificities would not
programmes (FAO, 1999). Apart from country-level be synchronized with the higher-level information
breed information and images, DAD-IS provides a systems. Poland set up the first national information
virtual library containing a large number of selected system under this new framework (http://efabis.
technical and policy documents, including tools and izoo.krakow.pl), and defined additional structures to
guidelines for research related to AnGR. It offers Web- accommodate data on farmed fish and bees. NCs can
links to relevant electronic information resources. It enter breed information, images, publications, links to
also has a facility for the exchange of views and for external Web sites, contact addresses and news into
addressing specific information requests, by linking a the system.
range of stakeholders: farmers, scientists, researchers,
development practitioners and policy-makers. DAGRIS [http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org/]
DAD-IS provides a summary of national breed-level The Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information
information on the origin, population, risk status, System (DAGRIS) is developed and managed by the
special characteristics, morphology and performance International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). It
of breeds, as provided by FAO member countries. was initiated in 1999 as a tool to collate research
Currently, the database contains more than 14 000 information available on global AnGR. In addition to
national breed populations from 35 species and containing information, obtained from a synthesis
181 countries. A key feature of DAD-IS is that it of the literature on the origin, distribution, diversity,
provides a country-secure information storage and characteristics, present uses and status of indigenous
communication tool. Each country decides when and breeds. DAGRIS is unique in that it includes complete
what breed data are released through their officially references and abstracts of published or unpublished
designated contact person (the National Coordinator scientific literature pertaining to the breeds in the
(NC) for the Management of AnGR). See Tables 97 system. DAGRIS is designed to support research,
and 98 for a summary of information recorded, stored training, public awareness, genetic improvement and
and disseminated in the global breeds database conservation. Version I of the database was released
contained in DAD-IS. on the Web in April 2003, and is also available on
DAD-IS:3 has been rebuilt based on the same CD-ROM. Currently, the database contains over
software and functionality as EFABIS (European 19 200 trait records on 154 cattle, 98 sheep, and 62
Farm Animal Biodiversity Information System goat breeds of Africa, plus 129 chicken ecotypes/
– http://efabis-eaap.tzv.fal.de), and with a similar breeds and 165 pig breeds of Africa and some Asian
interface. The software was developed within a countries. The breed information pages in DAGRIS
European Union project in order to overcome the provide a Web link to the page for the corresponding
problem of incompatibility between EAAP–AGDB breed in the FAO’s DAD-IS system and vice versa.
(an earlier European system) and DAD-IS. The new
• continues
system allows for the creation of a network of
distributed information systems with automatic data
356
Box 69 cont. 4 Conclusions

Information systems at global level
Adequate characterization of AnGR is a
The scope of DAGRIS is being expanded so that it prerequisite for successful management
will, in the near future, cover more species (turkeys, programmes and for informed decision-making
geese and ducks) and countries in Asia (Ayalew et al., in national livestock development. Tools
2003). The priority next-steps for DAGRIS are: developed in the field of characterization should
1. development of a new module to allow all users allow a strategic and coherent approach to
to upload relevant research information into identification, description and documentation
the database so that database administrators of breed populations. Interest in such an
can capture and collate otherwise unavailable approach is slowly emerging. Some aspects
breed-level information; of characterization are increasingly being
2. development of GIS linkages in the database to addressed. Molecular characterization has
allow georeferencing of as much of the breed- received particular attention. However, there is
level information as possible; and still a need for methods and tools to organize
3. development of a template for a country surveying and monitoring.
module of DAGRIS to assist interested countries An important missing element in breed
to further develop and customize the database. descriptions in many countries/regions, is a
clear definition of the respective breeds to give
Breeds of Livestock – Oklahoma State University them unique identity, and a description of the
[http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds] production environments to which they are
The Department of Animal Science of Oklahoma State adapted. A basic structure for the definition of
University, in the United States of America, manages production environments has been proposed,
this information resource which was established but needs to be reviewed and implemented.
in 1995. It provides a brief description of breeds in The existing breed-related information systems
terms of origin, distribution, typical features, uses, need to be further developed to allow easy
and population status, along with photographs/ information capture, processing, accessibility
images and key references for breed information. It and interconnectivity.
presents a list of breeds from all over the world, with Ideally, tools and methods for decision-
options to sort by region. As of January 2006, the making on AnGR management, as well as early
database displayed a total of 1 063 breeds including warning and response tools, would be based on
280 sheep, 262 cattle, 217 horse, 100 goat, 72 pig, comprehensive information obtained using the
8 donkey, 8 buffalo, 6 camel, 4 reindeer, 1 llama, methods described above. However, given that
1 yak, 64 chicken, 10 duck, 7 turkey, 7 goose, 1 immediate action is required, there is a need for
guinea fowl and 1 black swan breeds. It also provides tools and methods that make effective use of
links to relevant information in its virtual livestock incomplete information.
library. The aim is to expand the scope of the system,
in terms of the number of breeds and the educational
and scientific information it contains, through
collaboration with individuals and universities from
around the world. The submission of information
(written material or images) on breeds not included
in the list, or additional information on those already
included, is welcome.
357
PART 4
References
Ayalew, W., Rege, J.E.O., Getahun, E., Tibbo, M. & FAO. 2005. Genetic characterization of livestock popula-
Mamo, Y. 2003. Delivering systematic information tions and its use in conservation decision making, by
on indigenous animal genetic resources – the devel- O. Hannotte & H. Jianlin. In J. Ruane & A. Sonnino,
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Development, held 8–10 October 2003. Göttingen, a0399e/a0399e00.htm).
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W. Ayalew & E. Getahun, eds. Addis Ababa. diversity, 3rd edition. Edited by B.D. Scherf. Rome.
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management, databanks and training. Animal servation of livestock genetic resources. In D.I. Jarvis,
Production and Health Paper No. 44/1. Rome. C. Padoch & D. Cooper, eds. Managing biodiversity
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358
Section C
Molecular markers – a tool for

exploring genetic diversity
1 Introduction
DNA markers are useful in both basic (e.g. selection, paternity testing and food traceability).
phylogenetic analysis and search for useful This section focuses mainly on their application
genes) and applied research (e.g. marker assisted in characterization of AnGR diversity, and in the
Box 70
DNA, RNA and protein
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is organized in pairs of polypeptide (an entire protein or one of the chains
chromosomes, each inherited from one of the parents. of a protein complex). The mRNA molecule is read
Each gene in an individual, therefore, has two copies, or translated three nucleotides (a codon) at a time.
called alleles, one on each chromosome of a pair. In Complementarity between the mRNA codon and the
mammals, genes are scattered along chromosomes, anti-codon of a transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule which
separated by long, mainly repetitive, DNA sequences. carries the corresponding amino acid to the ribosome
Genes are formed by coding sequences (exons) ensures that the newly formed polypeptide contains
separated by introns. The latter carry no protein- the specific sequence of amino acids required.
coding information, but sometimes play a role in the Not all genes are translated into proteins; some
regulation of gene expression. The instruction encoded express their function as RNA molecules (such as the
by genes is put into action through two processes. rRNA and tRNA involved in translation). Recently,
The first is transcription (copy) of genetic information new roles of RNA in the process of mRNA editing
into another type of nucleic acid, RNA (ribonucleic and in the regulation of gene expression have been
acid). Both exons and introns are transcribed into discovered (Storz et al., 2005; Aravin and Tuschl, 2005;
a primary messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. This Wienholds and Plasterk 2005). Indeed, non-coding
molecule is then edited, a process which involves RNAs appear to be key players in various regulatory
removing the introns, joining the exons together, and processes (Bertone et al., 2004; Clop et al., 2006).
adding unique features to each end of the mRNA. A Thus, three types of molecules are available for
mature mRNA molecule is, thereby, created, which is investigating genetic characteristics at cellular, tissue
then transported to structures known as ribosomes and whole organism levels: the DNA which contains
located in the cell cytoplasm. Ribosomes are made of the encoded instruction; the RNA which transfers the
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins, and provide sites instructions to the cell “factory”; and the proteins
for the second process – translation of the genetic which are built according to the instructions, and
information, previously copied to the mRNA, into a make functioning cells and organisms.
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PART 4
search for functional variants of relevant genes. expressing proteins in specific tissues at different
It is important to note that RNA and proteins development or physiological stages.
also contain key information, and therefore Although analysis of single types of biomolecules
deserve parallel study; their role in the search for has proven extremely useful in understanding
functional variants is also explored below. biological phenomena, the parallel large-scale
Diversity among organisms is a result of investigation of DNA, RNA and proteins opens
variations in DNA sequences and of environmental up new perspectives in the interpretation and
effects. Genetic variation is substantial, and modelling of the complexity of living organisms.
each individual of a species, with the exception New scientific disciplines with the suffix “–omics”
of monozygotic twins, possesses a unique DNA are coming into existence. In these fields, recent
sequence. DNA variations are mutations resulting advances in the preparation, identification and
from substitution of single nucleotides (single sequencing of DNA, RNA and proteins, and in
nucleotide polymorphisms – SNPs), insertion or large-scale data storage and analysis, are bringing
deletion of DNA fragments of various lengths about a revolution in our understanding. A global,
(from a single to several thousand nucleotides), integrated view of an entire set of biological
or duplication or inversion of DNA fragments. molecules involved in complex biological processes
DNA variations are classified as “neutral” when
they cause no change in metabolic or phenotypic Box 72
traits, and hence are not subjected to positive, Recent developments in molecular
negative, or balancing selection; otherwise, they biology
are referred to as “functional”. Mutations in key
nucleotides of a coding sequence may change the Current revolutionary developments in molecular
amino acid composition of a protein, and lead to biological research relevant to livestock breeding
new functional variants. Such variants may have and genetic diversity conservation include:
an increased or decreased metabolic efficiency 1. establishment of the entire genome sequence
compared to the original “wild type”, may lose of the most important livestock species;
their functionality completely, or even gain a 2. development of technology to measure
novel function. Mutations in regulatory regions polymorphisms at loci spread all over the genome
may affect levels and patterns of gene expression; (e.g. methods to detect SNPs); and
for example, turning genes on/off or under/over- 3. development of microarray technology to
measure gene transcription at a large scale.
Information obtained through the sequencing
Box 71 of the entire genome (achieved for chickens and
The new “–omics” scientific disciplines almost complete for pigs and cattle), integrated
with SNP technology, will speed up the search
Genomics charts genes and the genetic variations for genes. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping
among individuals and groups. It provides an to identify chromosome regions influencing a
insight into the translation of genetic information target trait, the presence of candidate genes
to metabolic functions and phenotypic traits. It located in the same region, and investigation of
unveils biological processes and their interactions their patterns of expression (e.g. by microarray
with environmental factors. Genomics involves and proteomic analyses) and their function across
the combination of a set of high-throughput species, will come together to identify key genes
technologies, such as proteomics and metabolomics, and to unravel the complexity of physiological
with the bioinformatic techniques that enable regulation for target traits.
the processing, analysis and integration of large
amounts of data. See below for further discussion of these developments.
360
is emerging. Structural genomics, transcriptomics of functional variations. Molecular techniques

and proteomics are followed by metabolomics, have also proved useful in the investigation
and interactomics among others, and at a still of the origin and domestication of livestock
higher level of complexity, systems biology (Hood species, and their subsequent migrations, as
et al., 2004; Box 71). well as providing information on evolutionary
Investigation of biological complexity is a new relationships (phylogenetic trees), and
frontier which requires high-throughput molecular identifying geographical areas of admixture
technology, high computer speed and memory, among populations of different genetic origins.
new approaches to data analysis, and integration Subchapter 3.1 presents an outline of molecular
of interdisciplinary expertise (Box 72). techniques for the assessment of genetic diversity
within and between breeds.
Second role. Effective population size (Ne) is
2 The roles of molecular an index that estimates the effective number
technologies in characterization of animals in a population that reproduce and
contribute genes to the next generation. Ne is
Information on genetic diversity is essential in closely linked to the level of inbreeding and
optimizing both conservation and utilization genetic drift in a population, and therefore is
strategies for AnGR. As resources for conservation a critical indicator for assessing the degree of
are limited, prioritization is often necessary. New endangerment of populations (see Sections
molecular tools hold the promise of allowing the A and F). Traditional approaches to obtaining
identification of genes involved in a number of reliable estimates of Ne for breeding populations
traits, including adaptive traits, and polymorphisms are based on pedigree data or censuses. The
causing functional genetic variation (QTN necessary data on variability of reproductive
– Quantitative Trait Nucleotides). However, we success and generation intervals are often not
do not have sufficient knowledge to prioritize reliably available for populations in developing
conservation choices on the basis of functional countries. Molecular approaches may, therefore,
molecular diversity, and alternative measures be a promising alternative (see subchapter 3.2 for
are still needed. Phenotypic characterization further details).
provides a crude estimate of the average of the Third role. A top priority in the management
functional variants of genes carried by a given of AnGR is the conservation of breeds that have
individual or population. However, the majority unique traits. Among these, the ability to live and
of phenotypes of the majority of livestock species produce in challenging conditions, and to resist
are not recorded. infectious diseases are of major importance,
First role. In the absence of reliable phenotype particularly for developing countries. Complex
and QTN data, or to complement the existing traits, such as adaptation and disease resistance,
data, the most rapid and cost-effective measures are not visible or easily measurable. They can be
of genetic diversity are obtained from the assay investigated in experiments in which the animals
of polymorphisms using anonymous molecular are submitted to the specific environmental
genetic markers. Anonymous markers are likely conditions or are infected with the relevant
to provide indirect information on functional agent. However, such experiments are difficult
genes for important traits, assuming that and expensive to perform, and raise concerns
unique populations that have had a particular about animal welfare. This is the reason why
evolutionary history at the neutral markers (e.g. researchers are extremely interested in identifying
because of ancient isolation or independent genes controlling complex traits. Such genes can
domestication) are likely to carry unique variants be sought by a number of different approaches.
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PART 4
Tools being developed to target functional Box 73

variation are described in subchapter 3.3. Extraction and multiplication of DNA
and RNA
3 Overview of molecular The first step in DNA, RNA and protein analysis is
techniques extraction and purification from biological specimens.
Several protocols and commercial kits are available.
This section describes the most important The strategies applied depend on the source material
molecular techniques currently being utilized and and the target molecule. For example, DNA extraction
developed for the assessment of genetic diversity, from whole blood or white cells is relatively easy,
and for targeting functional variation. Box 73 while its extraction from processed food is rather
describes how DNA and RNA are extracted from difficult. RNA extraction from pancreatic tissue
biological material and prepared for analysis. The is difficult because of very rapid post-mortem
attributes of commonly used molecular markers degradation in this organ. Purity of DNA, RNA and
are outlined in Box 74, and sampling (a very proteins is often a key neglected factor in obtaining
important aspect of molecular studies) is discussed reliable results.
in Box 75. After isolating DNA (or RNA) from cells, the next
Protein polymorphisms were the first markers step is to obtain thousands or millions of copies of
used for genetic studies in livestock. However, the a particular gene or piece of DNA. DNA fragment
number of polymorphic loci that can be assayed, multiplication can be delegated to micro-organisms,
and the level of polymorphisms observed at typically E. coli, or accomplished in vitro using a
the loci are often low, which greatly limits their polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This technique,
application in genetic diversity studies. With which won the Nobel Prize for its inventor, Cary
the development of new technologies, DNA Mullis, exponentially amplifies any DNA segment
polymorphisms have become the markers of of known sequence. The key component in a PCR
choice for molecular-based surveys of genetic reaction is the DNA polymerase isolated from
variation (Box 74). Thermus aquaticus, a micro-organism adapted
to live and multiply at very high temperature.
3.1 Techniques using DNA markers to This thermostable Taq- (after Thermus aquaticus)
assess genetic diversity polymerase permits chain replication in cycles
and produces a geometric growth in the number
Nuclear DNA markers of copies of the target DNA. A PCR cycle includes
A number of markers are now available to detect three steps: i) DNA denaturation at 90–95 oC to
polymorphisms in nuclear DNA. In genetic diversity separate the DNA into two single strands to serve
studies, the most frequently used markers are as a template; ii) annealing of a pair of short single-
microsatellites. strand oligonucleotides (primers) complementary
to the target regions flanking the fragment of
Microsatellites interest, at 45–65 oC; iii) extension or elongation of
Currently, microsatellites (Box 74) are the newly synthesized DNA strands led by primers and
most popular markers in livestock genetic facilitated by the Taq-polymerase, at 72 oC. This cycle
characterization studies (Sunnucks, 2001). Their can be repeated, normally 25 to 45 times, to enable
high mutation rate and codominant nature amplification of enough amplicons (a fragment of a
permit the estimation of within and between- gene or DNA synthesized using PCR) to be detected.
breed genetic diversity, and genetic admixture
among breeds even if they are closely related.
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Box 74
Commonly used DNA markers
Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) recommendations for sets of microsatellite loci to be
are identified using restriction enzymes that cleave used for diversity studies for major livestock species,
the DNA only at precise “restriction sites” (e.g. which were developed by the ISAG–FAO Advisory
EcoRI cleaves at the site defined by the palindrome Group on Animal Genetic Diversity (see DAD-IS library
sequence GAATTC). At present, the most frequent use http://www.fao.org/dad-is/).
of RFLPs is downstream of PCR (PCR–RFLP), to detect Minisatellites share the same characteristics as
alleles that differ in sequence at a given restriction microsatellites, but the repeats are ten to a few
site. A gene fragment is first amplified using PCR, and hundreds bp long. Micro and minisatellites are
then exposed to a specific restriction enzyme that also known as VNTRs (Variable Number of Tandem
cleaves only one of the allelic forms. The digested Repeats) polymorphisms.
amplicons are generally resolved by electrophoresis. Amplified fragment length polymorphisms
Microsatellites or SSR (Simple Sequence Repeats) (AFLPs) are a DNA fingerprinting technique which
or STR (Simple Tandem Repeats) consist of a stretch detects DNA restriction fragments by means of PCR
of DNA a few nucleotides long – 2 to 6 base pairs amplification.
(bp) – repeated several times in tandem (e.g. STS (Sequence Tagged Site) are DNA sequences
CACACACACACACACA). They are spread over a that occur only once in a genome, in a known
eukaryote genome. Microsatellites are of relatively position. They needn’t be polymorphic and are used to
small size, and can, therefore, be easily amplified build physical maps.
using PCR from DNA extracted from a variety of SNPs are variations at single nucleotides which do
sources including blood, hair, skin or even faeces. not change the overall length of the DNA sequence in
Polymorphisms can be visualized on a sequencing the region. SNPs occur throughout the genome. They
gel, and the availability of automatic DNA sequencers are highly abundant and are present at one SNP in
allows high-throughput analysis of a large number of every 1000 bp in the human genome (Sachinandam
samples (Goldstein and Schlötterer, 1999; Jarne and et al., 2001). Most SNPs are located in non-coding
Lagoda, 1996). Microsatellites are hypervariable; they regions, and have no direct impact on the phenotype
often show tens of alleles at a locus that differ from of an individual. However, some introduce mutations
each other in the numbers of the repeats. They are in expressed sequences or regions influencing gene
still the markers of choice for diversity studies as well expression (promoters, enhancers), and may induce
as for parentage analysis and Quantitative Trait Loci changes in protein structure or regulation. These
(QTL) mapping, although this might be challenged SNPs have the potential to detect functional genetic
in the near future with the development of cheap variation.
methods for the assay of SNPs. FAO has published
Some controversy has surrounded the choice The mean number of alleles (MNA) per
of a mutation model – infinite allele or step- population, and observed and expected
wise mutation model (Goldstein et al, 1995) – for heterozygosity (Ho and He), are the most common
microsatellite data analysis. However, simulation parameters for assessing within-breed diversity.
studies have shown that the infinite allele mutation The simplest parameters for assessing diversity
model is generally valid for assessment of within- among breeds are the genetic differentiation
species diversity (Takezaki and Nei, 1996). or fixation indices. Several estimators have been
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Box 75 be calculated for the FST values between pairs

Sampling genetic material of populations (Weir and Cockerham, 1984)
to test the null hypothesis of a lack of genetic
Sample collection is the first and the most important differentiation between populations and,
step in any diversity study. Ideally, samples should therefore, the partitioning of genetic diversity
be unrelated and representative of the populations (e.g. Mburu et al., 2003). Hierarchical analysis
under investigation. Generally, the sampling of of molecular variance (AMOVA) (Excoffier
30 to 50 well-chosen individuals per breed is et al., 1992) can be performed to assess the
considered sufficient to provide a first clue as to distribution of diversity within and among groups
breed distinctiveness and within-breed diversity, if a of breeds.
sufficient number of independent markers is assayed Microsatellite data are also commonly used to
(e.g. 20–30 microsatellites; Nei and Roychoudhury, assess genetic relationships between populations
1974; Nei, 1978). However, the actual numbers and individuals through the estimation of genetic
required may vary from case to case, and may be distances (e.g. Beja-Pereira et al., 2003; Ibeagha-
even lower in the case of a highly inbred local Awemu et al., 2004; Joshi et al., 2004; Sodhi et
population, and higher in a widely spread population al., 2005; Tapio et al., 2005). The most commonly
divided into different ecotypes. used measure of genetic distances is Nei’s standard
The choice of unrelated samples is quite genetic distance (DS) (Nei, 1972). However, for
straightforward in a well-defined breed, where it closely related populations, where genetic drift
can be based on the herd book or pedigree record. is the main factor of genetic differentiation, as
Conversely, it can be rather difficult in a semi-feral is often the case in livestock breeds, particularly
population for which no written record is available. in the developing world, the modified Cavalli-
In this case, the use of a geographic criterion is highly Sforza distance (DA) is recommended (Nei et
recommendable, i.e. to collect a single or very few al., 1983). Genetic relationship between breeds
(unrelated) animals per flock from a number of flocks is often visualized through the reconstruction of
spread over a wide geographic area. The record of a phylogeny, most often using the neighbour-
geographical coordinates, and photo-documentation joining (N-J) method (Saitou and Nei, 1987).
of sampling sites, animals and flocks is extremely However, a major drawback of phylogenetic tree
valuable – to check for cross-breeding in the case reconstruction is that the evolution of lineages
of unexpected outliers, or for identifying interesting is assumed to be non-reticulate, i.e. lineages can
geographic patterns of genetic diversity. A well-chosen diverge, but can never result from crosses between
set of samples is a long-lasting valuable resource, lineages. This assumption will rarely hold for
which can be used to produce meaningful results even livestock, where new breeds often originate from
with poor technology. Conversely, a biased sample cross-breeding between two or more ancestral
will produce results that are distorted or difficult to breeds. The visualization of the evolution of
understand even if the most advanced molecular tools breeds provided by phylogenetic reconstruction
are applied. must, therefore, be interpreted cautiously.
Multivariate analysis, and more recently
Bayesian clustering approaches, have been
proposed (e.g. FST and GST), the most widely suggested for admixture analysis of microsatellite
used being FST (Weir and Basten, 1990), which data from different populations (Pritchard et
measure the degree of genetic differentiation al., 2000). Probably the most comprehensive study
of subpopulations through calculation of the of this type in livestock is a continent-wide study
standardized variances in allele frequencies of African cattle (Hanotte et al., 2002), which
among populations. Statistical significance can reveals the genetic signatures of the origins,
364
secondary movements, and differentiation of (2006a) investigated, respectively, chicken and

African cattle pastoralism. pig diversity throughout Europe; Hanotte et al.
Molecular genetic data, in conjunction with, (2002) obtained data on cattle at the scale of
and complemented by, other sources such as almost the entire African continent; Tapio et al.
archaeological evidence and written records, (2005) assessed sheep diversity at a large regional
provide useful information on the origins and scale in northern European countries; and Cañon
subsequent movements and developments of et al. (2006) studied goat diversity in Europe and
genetic diversity in livestock species. Mapping the Near and Middle East. However, for most
the origin of current genetic diversity potentially species, a comprehensive review is still lacking.
allows inferences to be made about where Ongoing close coordination between large-scale
functional genetic variation might be found projects promises the delivery of a global estimate
within a species for which only limited data on of genetic diversity in the near future for some
phenotypic variation exist. species such as sheep and goats. In the meantime,
Combined analysis of microsatellite data new methods of data analysis are being developed
obtained in separate studies is highly desirable, to permit the meta-analysis of datasets that have
but has rarely been possible. This is because most only a few breeds and no, or only a few, markers
population genetic studies using DNA markers in common (Freeman et al., 2006). This global
are limited to small numbers of breeds, often perspective on livestock diversity will be extremely
from a single country (Baumung et al., 2004). valuable to reconstruct the origin and history of
Often, different subsets of the FAO-recommended domestic animal populations and, indirectly, of
markers are used, and no standard samples are human populations. It will also highlight regional
genotyped across projects. The application of and local hotspots of genetic diversity which may
different microsatellite genotyping systems causes be targeted by conservation efforts.
variation between studies in the estimated size
of alleles at the same loci. To promote the use SNPs
of common markers, FAO is now proposing an SNPs (Box 74) are used as an alternative to
updated, ranked list of microsatellite loci for the microsatellites in genetic diversity studies. Several
major livestock species3. FAO recommends the technologies are available to detect and type
use of the markers in the order of ranking, to SNP markers (see Syvänen, 2001, for a review).
maximize the number of markers overlapping Being biallelic markers, SNPs have rather low
among independent investigations. For some information content, and larger numbers have to
species, DNA from standard animals is available. be used to reach the level of information obtained
For example, aliquots of sheep and goat standard from a standard panel of 30 microsatellite loci.
DNA used in the European Union (EU) Econogene However, ever-evolving molecular technologies
project have been distributed to other large-scale are increasing automation and decreasing the
projects in Asia and Africa, and can be requested cost of SNP typing. This is likely, in the near
through the Econogene Website (http://www. future, to permit the parallel analysis of a large
econogene.eu). number of markers at a lower cost. With this
There are only a few examples of large-scale perspective, large-scale projects are ongoing in
analyses of the genetic diversity of livestock several livestock species to identify millions (e.g.
species. Hillel et al. (2003) and SanCristobal et al. Wong et al., 2004) and validate several thousands
of SNPs, and identify haplotype blocks in the
3
Lists and guidelines can be found in the DAD-IS library at genome. Like sequence information, SNPs permit
http://www.fao.org/dad-is.
a direct comparison and joint analysis of different
experiments.
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SNPs seem to be appealing markers to apply in Mitochondrial DNA markers

the future for genetic diversity studies because they Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymorphisms
can easily be used in assessing either functional or have been extensively used in phylogenetic and
neutral variation. However, the preliminary phase genetic diversity analyses. The haploid mtDNA,
of SNP discovery or SNP selection from databases carried by the mitochondria in the cell cytoplasm,
is critical. SNPs can be generated through various has a maternal mode of inheritance (individuals
experimental protocols, such as sequencing, inherit the mtDNA from their dams and not from
single-stranded conformational polymorphism their sires) and a high mutation rate; it does not
(SSCP) or denaturing high-performance liquid recombine. These characteristics enable biologists
chromatography (DHPLC), or in silico, aligning to reconstruct evolutionary relationships between
and comparing multiple sequences of the same and within species by assessing the patterns of
region from public genome and expressed mutations in mtDNA. MtDNA markers may also
sequence (EST) databases. When data have not provide a rapid way of detecting hybridization
been obtained randomly, standard estimators between livestock species or subspecies (e.g.
of population genetic parameters cannot be Nijman et al., 2003).
applied. A frequent example is when SNPs The polymorphisms in the sequence of the
initially identified in a small sample (panel) of hypervariable region of the D-loop or control
individuals are then typed in a larger sample of region of mtDNA have contributed greatly to the
chromosomes. By preferentially sampling SNPs at identification of the wild progenitors of domestic
intermediate frequencies, such a protocol will bias species, the establishment of geographic patterns
the distribution of allelic frequencies compared of genetic diversity, and the understanding of
to the expectation for a random sample. SNPs do livestock domestication (see Bruford et al., 2003,
hold promise for future application in population for a review). For example, the Middle Eastern
genetic analyses; however, statistical methods origin of modern European cattle was recently
that can explicitly take into account each method demonstrated by Troy et al. (2001). The study
of SNP discovery have to be developed (Nielsen identified four maternal lineages in Bos taurus
and Signorovitch, 2003; Clark et al., 2005). and also demonstrated the loss of bovine genetic
variability during the human Neolithic migration
AFLPs out of the Fertile Crescent. In the same way,
AFLPs are dominant biallelic markers (Vos et multiple maternal origins with three mtDNA
al., 1995). Variations at many loci can be arrayed lineages were highlighted in goats (Luikart et
simultaneously to detect single nucleotide al., 2001), with Asia and the Fertile Crescent as
variations of unknown genomic regions, in which possible centres of origin. Recently, a third mtDNA
a given mutation may be frequently present lineage was discovered in native Chinese sheep
in undetermined functional genes. However, (Guo et al., 2005), a fourth in native Chinese goats
a disadvantage is that they show a dominant (Chen et al., 2005), and a fifth in Chinese cattle
mode of inheritance; this reduces their power (Lai et al., 2006). In Asian chickens, nine different
in population genetic analyses of within-breed mtDNA clades have been found (Liu et al., 2006),
diversity and inbreeding. Nevertheless, AFLP suggesting multiple origins in South and Southeast
profiles are highly informative in assessing the Asia. All these results indicate that our current
relationship between breeds (Ajmone-Marsan knowledge of livestock domestication and genetic
et al., 2002; Negrini et al., 2006; De Marchi et diversity remains far from complete. For further
al., 2006; SanCristobal et al., 2006b) and related discussion of the origins of domestic livestock
species (Buntjer et al., 2002). species see Part 1 – Section A.
366
3.2 Using markers to estimate Mapping exercises are generally accomplished

effective population size following the co-segregation of polymorphic
Hill (1981) suggested using gametic phase markers in structured experimental populations
disequilibrium of DNA polymorphisms to estimate (e.g. F2 or backcross) or existing populations
effective population size (Ne). This estimation
can be based on genotypes for linked markers Box 76
(microsatellites or SNPs). The expected correlation QTL mapping
of allele frequencies at linked loci is a function of
Ne and the recombination rate. Ne can, therefore, If a QTL for a target trait exists, the plus- and minus-
be estimated from the observed disequilibrium. variant allele of the unknown responsible gene (Q and
Hayes et al. (2003) suggested a similar approach q) will co-segregate with the alleles at a nearby M1
based on chromosome segment homozygosity, marker (M1 and m1) that we are able to genotype
which, in addition, has the potential to estimate in the laboratory. Let us hypothesize that M1 co-
Ne for earlier generations, and therefore allows segregates with Q and m1 with q, that is M1 and Q
a judgement of whether an existing population are nearby on a same chromosome and m1 and q on
was of increasing or decreasing size in the past. the homologous chromosome (M1Q and m1q).
The study demonstrated, with example data sets, Let us also assume that an F2 population derived
that the Holstein-Friesian cattle breed underwent by the mating of heterozygous F1 individuals is
a substantial reduction of Ne in the past, while genotyped. Following the genotyping, F2 progenies are
the effective population size of the human grouped on the base of their marker genotype (M1M1
population is increasing, which is in agreement and m1m1; M2M2 and m2m2; ... MnMn and mnmn),
with both census and pedigree studies. and afterwards the average phenotype of the groups
is compared. If no QTL is linked to a given marker (e.g.
3.3 Molecular tools for targeting M2), then no significant difference will be detected
functional variation between the average phenotypic value of the M2M2
and m2m2 progenies for the target trait. Conversely,
Approaches based on map position: when progenies are grouped by their genotype at the
quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping marker M1, then the group M1M1 will mostly be QQ
Genetic markers behave as Mendelian traits; in at the QTL, and the group m1m1 will mostly be qq. In
other words, they follow the laws of segregation this case, a significant difference is observed between
and independent assortment first described by progeny averages, and therefore the presence of a
Mendel. Two genes that are located on the same QTL is detected. In species, such as poultry and pigs,
chromosome are physically linked and tend to be where lines and breeds are commonly interbred
inherited together. During meiosis, recombination commercially, this exercise can be accomplished in
between homologous chromosomes may break experimental populations (F2, BC) while in ruminants
this linkage. The frequency of recombination two (daughter design – DD) or three (grand-daughter
between two genes located on the same design – GDD) generation pedigrees are generally
chromosome depends of the distance between used. In DD the segregation of markers heterozygous
them. Recombination rate between markers in a sire (generation I) is followed in the daughters
is, therefore, an indication of their degree of (generation II) on which phenotypic data are collected.
linkage: the lower the recombination rate, the In GDD, the segregation of markers heterozygous in
closer the markers. The construction of genetic a grand-sire (generation I) are followed in his half-sib
maps exploits this characteristic to infer the sons (generation II), whose phenotype is inferred from
likely order of markers and the distance between those of the grand-daughters (generation III).
them.
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under selection programmes (families of full regions of a model organism for which complete
siblings or half siblings). Medium to high density genome information is available.
genetic maps of a few hundred to a few thousand Occasionally, key information on gene function
markers are available for most livestock species. arrives from an unexpected source. This was the
To identify a QTL for a given trait, a family case with the myostatin gene, the function of
segregating for the trait is genotyped with which was first discovered in mice and then found
a set of mapped molecular markers evenly to be located in cattle in the chromosomal region
spread over the genome (Box 76). A number of where the double-muscling gene had previously
statistical methods exist to infer the presence of a been mapped (McPherron and Lee, 1997).
significant QTL at a given marker interval, but all It is clear that identifying the responsible
rely on the fact that families possess a high level gene (quantitative trait genes – QTG) and the
of linkage disequilibrium, i.e. large segments functional mutation (QTN) of a complex trait is
of chromosomes are transmitted without still a substantial task, and several approaches
recombination from parents to progeny. are needed to decrease the number of positional
The result of a QTL mapping experiment is the candidate genes. Information on gene function
identification of a chromosome region, often is fundamental in this respect. However, we are
spanning half of a chromosome, in which a still ignorant about the possible function(s) of the
significant effect is detected for the target trait. majority of genes identified by genome and cDNA
Modern research is actively using mapping to (complementary DNA) sequencing. This is why the
identify QTL influencing adaptive traits. Examples investigation of patterns of gene expression may
of such traits include, in chickens, increased provide useful information, in combination with
resistance to Salmonella colonization and the positional approach previously described, to
excretion (Tilquin et al., 2005), and susceptibility identify candidate genes for complex traits. This
to develop pulmonary hypertension syndrome combined approach is referred to as genetical
(Rabie et al., 2005); and in cattle, trypanotolerance genomics (Haley and de Koning, 2006). New
(Hanotte et al., 2002). advances in the investigation of patterns of gene
The QTL mapping phase is generally followed by expression are described in the next section.
the refinement of the map position of the QTL (QTL Alternative approaches are presently being
fine mapping). To accomplish this task, additional investigated to detect adaptive genes using
markers, and above all additional recombination genetic markers (Box 77). They are now at the
events in the target area, are analysed. A clever experimental stage, and only further research will
approach has recently been designed and applied permit an evaluation of their efficacy.
to the fine mapping of a chromosome region The ultimate goal of QTL mapping is to identify
on BTA14 carrying a significant QTL for milk fat the QTG, and eventually the QTN. Although only
percentage and other traits (Farnir et al., 2002). a few examples exist to date in livestock, these
This approach exploits historical recombination in are the kind of mutations that could have a
past generations to restrict the map position to direct impact on marker assisted breeding and on
a relatively small 3.8 cM (centimorgan) region, a conservation decision-making. Conservation models
size that has permitted the positional cloning of considering functional traits and mutation need to
the gene (DGAT1) (Grisart et al., 2002). be developed, as an increasing number of QTG and
Following fine mapping, the genes determining QTN will be uncovered in the near future.
the performance trait can be sought among the
genes that are located in the regions identified. Investigating patterns of gene expression
Candidate genes may be sought in the same species In the past, the expression of specific traits,
(e.g. when a rich EST map is available or when such as adaptation and resistance, could only be
the genome is fully sequenced) or in orthologous measured at the phenotypic level. Nowadays, the
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Box 77
The population genomics approach
An alternative approach to the identification of particular, genes involved in adaptation to extreme

genome regions carrying relevant genes has recently environments, disease resistance, etc. Many of
been proposed. It consists of the detection of these traits, which are of great importance to the
“selection signatures” via a “population genomics” sustainability of animal breeding, are difficult or
approach (Black et al., 2001; Luikart et al., 2003). impossible to investigate by classic QTL mapping
Three main principles of the population genomics or association study approaches. The potential of
approach to QTL mapping are that: population genomics has recently been investigated
1. neutral loci across the genome will be similarly from a theoretical point of view (Beaumont and
affected by genetic drift, demography, and Balding, 2004; Bamshad and Wooding, 2003), and
evolutionary history of populations; through experimental work with different types of
2. loci under selection will often behave differently markers in natural populations (AFLPs: Campbell
and, therefore, reveal “outlier” patterns of and Bernatchez, 2004; microsatellites: Kayser et al.,
variation, loss of diversity (increase of diversity 2003; SNPs: Akey et al., 2002). The approach has
if the loci were under a balanced selection), recently been applied within the Econogene project
linkage disequilibrium, and increased/decreased (http://lasig.epfl.ch/projets/econogene). In preliminary
Gst/Fst indices; and analyses, three SNPs in MYH1 (myosin 1), MEG3
3. through hitchhiking effects, selection will also (callypige), and CTSB (cathepsin B) genes in sheep
influence linked markers, allowing the detection have shown significant outlier behaviour (Pariset
of a “selection signature” (outlier effects), et al., 2006).
which can often be detected by genotyping a Within the same project, a novel approach based
large number of markers along a chromosome on Spatial Analysis Method (SAM) has been designed
and identifying clusters of outliers. This to detect signatures of natural selection within the
approach utilizes phenotypic data at the breed genome of domestic and wild animals (Joost, 2006).
level (or subpopulations within a breed), rather Preliminary results obtained with this method are in
than at the individual level, and thereby nicely agreement with those obtained by the application
complements classical QTL mapping approaches of theoretical models in population genetics, such as
within pedigrees. those developed by Beaumont and Balding (2004).
The population genomics approach can also SAM goes a step further compared to classical
identify genes subjected to strong selection approaches, as it is designed to identify environmental
pressure and eventually fixed within breeds, and in parameters associated with selected markers.
transcriptome (the ensemble of all transcripts in genes expressed in a tissue at a given time. Thus,
a cell or tissue), and the proteome (the ensemble the techniques contribute to the decoding of
of all proteins) can be directly investigated by the networks that are likely to underlie many
high-throughput techniques, such as differential complex traits.
display (DD) (Liang and Pardee, 1992), cDNA- -Omics technologies are often compared to
AFLP (Bachem et al., 1996), serial analysis of gene turning on the light in front of a Michelangelo
expression (SAGE) (Velculescu et al., 1995; 2000), fresco rather than using a torch that permits a
mass spectrometry, and protein and DNA view only of parts of the whole. The overall view
microarrays. These techniques represent a allows the meaning of the representation to be
breakthrough in RNA and protein analysis, understood and its beauty to be appreciated. In
permitting the parallel analysis of virtually all reality, the power of these techniques is paralleled
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PART 4
at present by the difficulty and cost involved in and sequenced – sequencing of the concatemer
applying them and in analyzing the data produced. clones results in the quick identification of
The isolation of homogeneous cell samples is numerous individual tags; (iii) the expression level
rather difficult, and is an important prerequisite in of the transcript is quantified by the number of
many gene expression profiling studies. The large times a particular tag is observed.
number of parallel assays results in low cost per Microarrays can be used to compare, in a single
assay, but at a high cost per experiment. Equipment experiment, the mRNA expression levels of several
is expensive, and high technical skill is needed in thousands of genes between two biological
all experimental phases. This is in addition to the systems, for example, between animals in a
general difficulty in analysing RNA compared to normal environment and animals in a challenging
DNA. RNA is very sensitive to degradation, and environment. Microarray technology can also
particular care has to be taken while extracting it provide an understanding of the temporal and
from tissues that have a very active metabolism. spatial patterns of expression of genes in response
Indeed, sample conservation and manipulation to a vast range of factors to which the organism
is one of the keys to success in RNA analysis is exposed.
experiments. The application of nanotechnologies Very small volumes of DNA solution are printed
to the analysis of biological molecules is opening on a slide made of a non-porous material such
up very promising perspectives in solving these as glass, creating spots that range from 100 to
problems (Sauer et al., 2005). 150 μm in diameter. Currently, about 50 000
Data handling is a further problem. Molecular complementary DNAs (cDNAs) can be robotically
datasets such as gene expression profiles spotted onto a microscope slide. DNA microarrays
can be produced in a relatively short time. contain several hundreds of known genes, and a
However, the standardization of data between few thousands of unknown genes. The microarray
laboratories is needed for consistent analysis is spotted with cDNA fragments or with
of different biological datasets. Agreements prefabricated oligonucleotides. The latter option
on standardization, as well as the creation of has the advantage of a higher specificity and
interconnected databases, are essential for the reproducibility, but can be designed only when
efficient analysis of molecular networks. the sequence is known. Microarray use is based on
the principle of “hybridization”, i.e. the exposure
Transcript profiling of two single-stranded DNA, or one DNA and one
This section briefly describes SAGE and microarray RNA, sequences to each other, followed by the
techniques. Descriptions of other techniques measurement of the amount of double-stranded
may be found in a number of recent reviews molecule formed. The expression of mRNA can
(e.g. Donson et al., 2002). SAGE generates be measured qualitatively and quantitatively. It
complete expression profiles of tissues or cell indicates gene activity in a tissue, and is usually
lines. It involves the construction of total mRNA directly related to the protein production induced
libraries which enable a quantitative analysis of by this mRNA.
the whole transcripts expressed or inactivated at Gene expression profiling contributes to the
particular steps of a cellular activation. It is based understanding of biological mechanisms, and
on three principles: (i) a short sequence tag (9–14 hence facilitates the identification of candidate
bp) obtained from a defined region within each genes. The pool of genes involved in the expression
mRNA transcript contains sufficient information of trypanotolerance in cattle, for example, has
to uniquely identify one specific transcript; (ii) been characterized by SAGE (Berthier et al., 2003),
sequence tags can be linked together to form long and by cDNA microarray analysis (Hill et al., 2005).
DNA molecules (concatemers) which can be cloned The parallel investigation of the expression of
370
many genes may permit the identification of Mass spectrometry (an analytical technique
master genes responsible for phenotypic traits for the determination of molecular mass)
that remain undetected by differential expression in combination with chromatographic or
analysis. These master genes may, for instance, electrophoretic separation techniques, is
possess different alleles all expressed at the same currently the method of choice for identifying
level, which promote the expression of downstream endogenous proteins in cells, characterizing
genes with different efficiency. In this case, the post-translational modifications and determining
master gene can be sought either by exploiting protein abundance (Zhu et al., 2003). Two-
current knowledge of metabolic pathways, or dimensional gel electrophoresis is unique
via an expression QTL (eQTL) approach (Lan et with respect to the large number of proteins
al., 2006). In this approach, the level of expression (>10 000) that can be separated and visualized
of the downstream genes is measured in a in a single experiment. Protein spots are cut
segregating population. The amount of transcript from the gel, followed by proteolytic digestion,
of each gene is treated as a phenotypic trait, and and proteins are then identified using mass
QTL that influence the gene expression can be spectrometry (Aebersold and Mann, 2003).
sought using methodologies described above. It is However, standardization and automation of
worth noting that data analysis for the detection two-dimensional gel electrophoresis has proved
of QTL is still quite difficult to master. This is also difficult, and the use of the resulting protein
true for transcript profiling techniques because of patterns as proteomic reference maps has only
the many false signals that occur. been successful in a few cases. A complementary
technique, liquid chromatography, is easier to
Protein profiling automate, and it can be directly coupled to mass
The systematic study of protein structures, post- spectrometry. Affinity-based proteomic methods
translational modifications, protein profiles, that are based on microarrays are an alternative
protein–protein, protein–nucleic acid, and approach to protein profiling (Lueking et al.,
protein–small molecule interactions, and the 2003), and can also be used to detect protein–
spatial and temporal expression of proteins in protein interactions. Such information is essential
eukaryotic cells, are crucial to understanding for algorithmic modelling of biological pathways.
complex biological phenomena. Proteins are However, binding specificity remains a problem
essential to the structure of living cells and their in the application of protein microarrays,
functions. because cross-reactivity cannot accurately be
The structure of a protein can be revealed by predicted. Alternative approaches exist for
the diffraction of x-rays or by nuclear magnetic detecting protein–protein interactions such as
resonance spectroscopy. The first requires a the two hybrid system (Fields and Song, 1989).
large amount of crystalline protein, and this is However, none of the currently used methods
often restrictive. In order to understand protein allow the quantitative detection of binding
function and protein–protein interactions at the proteins, and it remains unclear to what extent
molecular level, it would be useful to determine the observed interactions are likely to represent
the structure of all the proteins in a cell or the physiological protein–protein interactions.
organism. At present, however, this has not been Array-based methods have also been developed
achieved. Interestingly, the number of different for detecting DNA–protein interaction in vitro
protein variants arising from protein synthesis and in vivo (see Sauer et al., 2005, for a review),
(alternative splicing and/or post-translational and identifying unknown proteins binding to
modifications) is significantly greater than the gene regulatory sequences. DNA microarrays
number of genes in a genome. are employed effectively for screening nuclear
extracts for DNA-binding complexes, whereas
371
PART 4
protein microarrays are mainly used for identifying Box 78

unknown DNA-binding proteins at proteome- Databases of biological molecules
wide level. In the future, these two techniques
will reveal detailed insights into transcriptional A number of databases exist which collect information
regulatory networks. on biological molecules:
Many methods of predicting the function of DNA sequence databases:
a protein are based on its homology to other • European Molecular Biology Lab (EMBL): http://
proteins and its location inside the cell. Predictions www.ebi.ac.uk/embl/index.html
of protein functions are rather complicated, and • GenBank: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
also require techniques to detect protein–protein • DNA Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ): http://www.
interactions, and to detect the binding of proteins ddbj.nig.ac.jp
to other molecules, because proteins fulfil their Protein databases:
functions in these binding processes. • SWISS-PROT: http://www.expasy.ch/sprot/sprot-
top.html
• Protein Information Resource (PIR): http://pir.
4 The role of bioinformatics georgetown.edu/pirwww/
• Protein Data Bank (PDB): http://www.rcsb.org/
Developing high-throughput technologies would pdb/
be useless without the capacity to analyse the
Gene identification utility sites Bio-Portal
exponentially growing amount of biological data. • GenomeWeb: http://www.hgmp.mrc.ac.uk/
These need to be stored in electronic databases GenomeWeb/nuc-geneid.html
(Box 78) associated with specific software • BCM Search Launcher: http://searchlauncher.
designed to permit data update, interrogation bcm.tmc.edu/
and retrieval. Information must be easily accessible • MOLBIOL: http://www.molbiol.net/
and interrogation-flexible, to allow the retrieval • Pedro’s BioMolecular Research tools: http://
of information, that can be analysed to unravel www.biophys.uni-duesseldorf.de/BioNet/Pedro/
metabolic pathways and the role of the proteins research_tools.html
and genes involved. • ExPASy Molecular Biology Server: http://www.
Bioinformatics is crucial to combine information expasy.ch/
from different sources and generate new Databases of particular interest for
knowledge from existing data. It also has the domestic animals:
potential to simulate the structure, function and http://locus.jouy.inra.fr/cgi-bin/bovmap/intro.pl
dynamics of molecular systems, and is therefore http://www.cgd.csiro.au/cgd.html
helpful in formulating hypotheses and driving http://www.ri.bbsrc.ac.uk/cgi-bin/arkdb/browsers/
experimental work. http://www.marc.usda.gov/genome/genome.html
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/guide/pig/
http://www.ensembl.org/index.html
5 Conclusions http://www.tigr.org/
http://omia.angis.org.au/
Molecular characterization can play a role in http://www.livestockgenomics.csiro.au/ibiss/
uncovering the history, and estimating the http://www.thearkdb.org/
diversity, distinctiveness and population structure http://www.hgsc.bcm.tmc.edu/projects/bovine/
of AnGR. It can also serve as an aid in the genetic
management of small populations, to avoid
excessive inbreeding. A number of investigations
372
have described within and between-population high-throughput –omics technologies are

diversity – some at quite a large scale. However, used to this end. The identification of QTN
these studies are fragmented and difficult offers new opportunities and challenges for
to compare and integrate. Moreover, a AnGR management. Information on adaptive
comprehensive worldwide survey of relevant diversity complements that on phenotypic and
species has not been carried out. As such, it is neutral genetic diversity, and can be integrated
of strategic importance to develop methods into AnGR management and conservation
for combining existing, partially overlapping decision-tools. The identification of unique
datasets, and to ensure the provision of standard alleles or combinations of alleles for adaptive
samples and markers for future use as worldwide traits in specific populations may reinforce the
references. A network of facilities collecting justification for their conservation and targeted
samples of autochthonous germplasm, to be utilization. Gene assisted selection also has the
made available to the scientific community under potential to decrease the selection efficiency gap
appropriate regulation, would facilitate the currently existing between large populations
implementation of a global survey. raised in industrial production systems, and small
Marker technologies are evolving, and it is local populations, where population genetic
likely that microsatellites will increasingly be evaluation systems and breeding schemes cannot
complemented by SNPs. These markers hold great be effectively applied. Marker and gene assisted
promise because of their large numbers in the selection may not, however, always represent
genome, and their suitability for automation in the best solution. These options need to be
production and scoring. However, the efficiency evaluated and optimized on a case-by-case basis,
of SNPs for the investigation of diversity in animal taking into account short and long-term effects
species remains to be thoroughly explored. The on population structure and rates of inbreeding,
subject should be approached with sufficient and cost and benefits in environmental and
critical detachment to avoid the production of socio-economic terms – in particular impacts on
biased results. people’s livelihoods.
Methods of data analysis are also evolving. New As in the case of other advanced technologies,
methods allow the study of diversity without a it is highly desirable that benefits of scientific
priori assumptions regarding the structure of the advances in the field of molecular characterization
populations under investigation; the exploration are shared across the globe, thereby contributing
of diversity to identify adaptive genes (e.g. to an improved understanding, utilization and
using population genomics, see Box 77); and the conservation of the world’s AnGR for the good of
integration of information from different sources, present and future human generations.
including socio-economic and environmental
parameters, for setting conservation priorities
(see Section F). The adoption of a correct
sampling strategy and the systematic collection
of phenotypic and environmental data, remain
key requirements for exploiting the full potential
of new technologies and approaches.
In addition to neutral variation, research is
actively seeking genes that influence key traits.
Disease resistance, production efficiency, and
product quality are among the traits having
high priority. A number of strategies and new
373
PART 4
Box 79
Glossary: molecular markers
For the purpose of this section the following With this knowledge, it is thought that the
definitions are used: identification of a few alleles of a haplotype block can
Candidate gene: any gene that could plausibly unambiguously identify all other polymorphic sites
cause differences in the observable characteristics in this region. Such information is very valuable for
of an animal (e.g. in disease resistance, milk protein investigating the genetics behind complex traits.
production or growth). The gene may be a candidate Linkage: The association of genes and/or markers
because it is located in a particular chromosome that lie near each other on a chromosome. Linked
region suspected of being involved in the control of genes and markers tend to be inherited together.
the trait, or its protein product may suggest that it Linkage disequilibrium (LD): is a term used
could be involved in controlling the trait (e.g. milk in the study of population genetics for the non-
protein genes in milk protein production). random association of alleles at two or more loci,
DNA: the genetic information in a genome is not necessarily on the same chromosome. It is not
encoded in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is the same as linkage, which describes the association
stored in the nucleus of a cell. DNA has two strands of two or more loci on a chromosome with limited
structured in a double helix, which is made of a sugar recombination between them. LD describes a situation
(deoxiribose), phosphate, and four chemical bases in which some combinations of alleles or genetic
– the nucleotides: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine markers occur more or less frequently in a population
(C) and thymine (T). An A on one strand always than would be expected from a random formation of
pairs with a T on the other through two hydrogen haplotypes from alleles based on their frequencies.
bonds, while a C always pairs with a G through three Linkage disequilibrium is caused by fitness
hydrogen bonds. The two strands are, therefore, interactions between genes or by such non-adaptive
complementary to each other. processes as population structure, inbreeding, and
Complementary DNA (cDNA): DNA sequences stochastic effects. In population genetics, linkage
generated from the reverse transcription of mRNA disequilibrium is said to characterize the haplotype
sequences. This type of DNA includes exons and distribution at two or more loci.
untranslated regions at the 5’ and 3’ ends of genes, Microarray technology: a new way of studying
but does not include intron DNA. how large numbers of genes interact with each other
Genetic marker: a DNA polymorphism that can be and how a cell’s regulatory networks control vast
easily detected by molecular or phenotypic analysis. The batteries of genes simultaneously. The method uses
marker can be within a gene or in DNA with no known a robot to precisely apply tiny droplets containing
function. Because DNA segments that lie near each functional DNA to glass slides. Researchers then
other on a chromosome tend to be inherited together, attach fluorescent labels to mRNA or cDNA from the
markers are often used as indirect ways of tracking the cell they are studying. The labelled probes are allowed
inheritance pattern of a gene that has not yet been to bind to cDNA strands on the slides. The slides are
identified, but whose approximate location is known. put into a scanning microscope that can measure the
brightness of each fluorescent dot; brightness reveals
Haplotype: a contraction of the phrase “haploid
how much of a specific mRNA is present, an indicator
genotype”, is the genetic constitution of an individual
of how active it is.
chromosome. In the case of diploid organisms, the
haplotype will contain one member of the pair of Primer: a short (single strand) oligonucleotide
alleles for each site. It may refer to a set of markers sequence used in a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
(e.g. single nucleotide polymorphisms – SNPs) found RNA: Ribonucleic acid is a single stranded nucleic
to be statistically associated on a single chromosome. acid consisting of three of the four bases present in
DNA (A, C and G). T is, however, replaced by uracil (U).
374
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379
Section D
Genetic improvement methods

to support sustainable utilization
1 Introduction
This section gives an overview of genetic to the owners of the animals in question or to
improvement methods for sustainable use of the owners’ community. Moreover, to be an
AnGR. The first chapter describes the contexts improvement, the effects of the change should
for genetic improvement. As social and economic bring positive benefits in both the short and the
contexts are discussed extensively in other parts long term, or at minimum a short-term benefit
of the Report, they are only briefly described should not result in long-term harm. As such, it
here. The scientific and technology-related is vital that the planning of genetic improvement
context is described in greater detail. The second programmes takes careful account of the social,
chapter discusses breeding strategies for genetic economic and environmental context in which
improvement, along with the elements of a they will operate. This can best be achieved by
straight-breeding programme. These elements making these programmes an integral part of
involve planning, implementation and evaluation, national livestock development plans, which
and constitute a continuous and interactive should establish broad development objectives
process. Breeding programmes for the main for each production environment.
livestock species in high-input systems are then
reviewed. This includes a description not only 2.1 Changing demand
of the breeding goals and the traits making up Traditionally, livestock breeding has been of
the selection criteria, but also the organization interest only to a small number of professionals:
and the evolution of the breeding sector. This is breeding company employees, farmers, and some
followed by a description of breeding strategies animal scientists. However, food production is
for low-input systems, and those utilized in the changing from being producer driven to consumer
context of breed conservation. This distinction driven. Consumer confidence in the livestock
is somewhat artificial as the situations and industry has broken down in many countries
strategies sometimes overlap. Finally, some (Lamb, 2001). Fears about the quality and safety,
general conclusions are drawn. of animal products have been heightened in
recent years by various crises: bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE), dioxin, and more recently,
2 The context for genetic highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI).
improvement Welfare has also become an important element
in consumers’ perception of product quality
Genetic improvement implies change. For a especially in Europe (organic products and free-
change to be an improvement, the overall effects range animals). At the same time, the majority
of the change must bring positive benefits of consumers have become less connected to the
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countryside, and know less about farming. There 2.4 Scientific and technological
is a growing demand for “natural” production, advances
but often without a clear understanding of what
this should encompass. Developments in genetic improvement
methods
2.2 Diverse production environments
Sustainable production systems need to be Quantitative genetics
tailored to account for physical, social and market A breeding scheme aims to achieve genetic
conditions. For breeding organizations this raises improvement in the breeding goal through the
the question of whether they should diversify selection of the animals that will produce the
their breeding objectives, or whether they should next generation. The breeding goal reflects the
breed an animal that can do well under a wide traits that the breeder aims to improve through
range of environments (physical environment, selection. The rate of genetic improvement
management system and market conditions). ($G) with respect to the breeding goal (and the
To date, however, only limited insights into the underlying traits) depends on the amount of
underlying genetics of phenotypic adaptation to genetic variability in the population, the accuracy
the environment have been achieved. of the selection criteria, the intensity of selection,
and the generation interval.
2.3 Increasing recognition of the Maintenance of genetic variation is a condition
importance of genetic diversity for continuous genetic improvement. Genetic
Livestock breeding requires variability within and variation is lost by genetic drift and gained by
between populations if it is to improve the traits mutation. Therefore, the minimum population
of interest. Genetic diversity is important to meet size to maintain genetic variation is a function
present requirements, but is especially important of the mutation rate (Hill, 2000). Selection
to meet future requirements. For example, a experiments in laboratory animals have shown
change of emphasis from high-input to low-input that substantial progress can be maintained for
production systems will favour different breeds many generations, even in populations with an
and different characteristics within breeds. More effective size well under 100, but that responses
generally, the increasing importance given to increase with population size (ibid.).
factors such as animal welfare, environmental The loss of genetic variation within a breed
protection, distinctive product quality, human is related to the rate of inbreeding (ΔF). In the
health and climate change, will require a wider absence of selection, ΔF is related directly to
range of criteria to be included in breeding the number of sires and dams. In populations
programmes. These criteria are often met by undergoing selection, this assumption is no longer
local breeds. Thus, it is possible that the most valid because parents contribute unequally to
appropriate strategies for managing these breeds the next generation. A general theory to predict
may involve only limited genetic change. For rates of inbreeding in populations undergoing
example, it may be wise to maintain adaptation selection has recently been developed (Woolliams
to the local environment and disease challenges et al., 1999; Woolliams and Bijma, 2000). This
– and even to maintain the level of a production approach facilitates a deterministic optimization
trait, such as body size or milk production, if this of short and long-term response in breeding
is currently at or near an optimum level. schemes.
Research on the optimization of breeding
schemes initially focused on genetic gain, while
little attention was paid to inbreeding. It is now
well accepted that constraining inbreeding is
382
an important element of breeding schemes. BLUP is optimum only when the true genetic
Meuwissen (1997) developed a dynamic selection parameters are known. Methods for unbiased
tool which maximizes genetic gain while restricting estimation of (heterogeneous) variance
the rate of inbreeding. From a given set of selection components with large data sets have been
candidates, the method allows the selection of developed. Restricted Maximum Likelihood
a group of parents in which the genetic merit is (REML) applied to animal models is the method of
maximized while the average coefficient of co- preference. Quite a few important traits are not
ancestry is constrained. Implementation of this correctly described by linear models (e.g. traits
method results in a dynamic breeding programme, based on scoring and survival). A wide variety of
in which the number of parents and the number of nonlinear mixed models have, therefore, been
offspring per parent may vary, depending on the proposed: threshold models, survival models,
candidates available in a particular generation. models based on ranks, Poisson models, etc.
The accuracy of selection depends largely on However, the benefits of using these nonlinear
the quality and the quantity of the performance models remain to be proven.
records that are available. Genetic improvement The selection intensity reflects the proportion
can only be made if performance and pedigree of animals that are needed as parents for the next
are recorded. Based on these observations, the generation. Reproductive capacity and techniques
genetic merit of an individual is predicted and the have an important influence on the number of
animals with the highest predicted merit can be parents that are needed for the production of
selected as parents. the next generation, and thereby on the rate of
It is well established that the method of choice genetic improvement. In poultry, high reproductive
for the genetic evaluation of linear traits (e.g. capacity means that about 2 and 10 percent of
milk and egg production, body size and feed the male and female candidates, respectively, are
efficiency) is best linear unbiased prediction based retained as parents. In cattle, the introduction
on an animal model (BLUP-AM) (Simianer, 1994). of AI has resulted in an enormous reduction in
The development of algorithms and software the number of sires. In dairy and beef cattle, the
has meant that by today, in most countries and bulls used for AI and the cows with high genetic
for most species, BLUP-AM is routinely used by merit are the nucleus animals, and form less than
breeding companies or in national-level breeding 1 percent of the entire population.
programmes. The limitations associated with The generation interval is the average time
applying simplistic single-trait models has led between two generations. In most populations,
to the development of multiple-trait BLUP- a number of age classes can be distinguished.
AM evaluations based on sophisticated models The amount of information available differs
(including, for example, maternal effects, herd between classes. In general, there is less
× sire interactions or dominance genetic effects). information about the younger age classes
This has been greatly facilitated by the increasing than about older age classes. Consequently,
power of computers, and major advances in the accuracy of estimates of breeding value is
computational methods. The tendency now is to use lower in the younger generations. However,
all available information, including single test day the mean level of the estimated breeding
records, records from cross-bred animals, and a wide value (EBV) of young age classes is higher than
geographical range (across countries). Significant that of older age classes because of continuous
difficulties associated with the use of increasingly genetic improvement in the population.
complex models are a lack of robustness (especially Selection across age classes to obtain the
when population size is limited) and computational highest selection differential is recommended
problems. The challenge today is to develop tools (James, 1972). The fraction of animals selected
to systematically validate the models used. from each age class depends on the differences
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in accuracy of the EBV between the age classes Scrapie, the prion disease of sheep, is the most
(Ducrocq and Quaas, 1988; Bijma et al., 2001). The common natural form of transmissible spongiform
use of reproductive technologies may increase the encephalopathy (TSE), a group of diseases which
amount of sib information available, and thereby also include Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans
increase the accuracy of the EBV of younger age and BSE in cattle. Genetic susceptibility to scrapie
classes (van Arendonk and Bijma, 2003). This is strongly modulated by allelic variations at
will change the proportion of parents selected three different codons in the sheep PrP gene
from the younger age classes, and therefore (Hunter, 1997). Breeding for scrapie resistance
also influence the average generation interval. has, therefore, been considered an attractive
Thus, generation interval is primarily a result of option for the control of this disease (Dawson
selection among the available age classes. et al., 1998; Smits et al., 2000). This can be done
by selecting for the allele that is associated with
Molecular genetics the greatest degree of resistance to scrapie (the
Molecular genetics in livestock has been subject ARR allele). As described in Part 1 – Section F: 4,
to extensive study during the last two decades. breeding programmes to eliminate scrapie can
These studies are related to gene-based pose a threat to rare breeds that have a low
selection of Mendelian traits (mainly diseases frequency of the resistant genotype.
and genetic defects), marker assisted selection Marker assisted selection. Most economically
and introgression. Furthermore, molecular important traits in animal production are of a
information is increasingly used to assist breed quantitative nature and are affected by a large
conservation programmes and to improve number of genes (loci), a few of which have major
understanding of the origin and domestication effects, while the majority have small effects (Le
of livestock. Roy et al., 1990; Andersson et al., 1994). If a gene
Gene-based selection. Increasing knowledge of (locus) with a major effect can be identified, and
the animals’ genome increases the prospects for if a molecular test can be designed, animals’
applying this technology and provides new tools genotypes at the locus can be used for selection.
with which to select for healthy animals. Initial In other cases, a chromosomal region close to the
applications are related to Mendelian traits. In gene of interest may be identified and used as a
cattle for example, DNA diagnosis is routinely marker.
utilized to eliminate genetic disorders such as Mixed models of inheritance, which assume
bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency (BLAD), one or several identified segregating loci, and
deficiency of uridine monophosphate synthase an additional polygenic component, have been
(DUMPS) and complex vertebral malformation developed. When genotypes at each identified
(CVM), as well as in selection for traits such as locus are known, they can be treated as fixed
milk kappa-casein and double muscling. effects in standard mixed-model techniques
In pigs, the best-known gene which has so (Kennedy et al., 1992). When only genotypes
far been used in commercial breeding is the at linked markers are known, the uncertainty
“halothane” gene. It was known that a number resulting from unknown haplotypes and
of pigs could not handle stressful situations recombination events has to be taken into
(e.g. transportation to the slaughterhouse). A account (Fernando and Grossman, 1989).
(recessive) gene – a natural mutation, called the Extra genetic gain is usually to be expected
“halothane” gene – was found to be responsible if information on genes with medium to large
for this defect. Using a DNA test that detects effects is included in the genetic evaluation
whether a pig has the “defective form” of the process. Numerous studies have investigated this
gene, it has been possible to eliminate this gene problem in recent years. Results are not always
completely from several breeds (Fuji et al., 1991). comparable, because selection criteria differed
384
between studies (i.e. from an index based on that carries the resistance gene is considered
individual information to animal models), but the donor breed, introgression of the desirable
they all indicate that knowledge of genotypes gene from the donor breed to the recipient
at quantitative trait loci generally improves breed is accomplished by multiple backcrosses
short-term response to selection (Larzul et al., to the recipient breed, followed by one or more
1997). Conversely, some discrepancies have been generations of intercrossing. The aim of the
obtained for long-term response to selection – see backcross generations is to generate individuals
Larzul et al. (1997). In less favourable situations that carry one copy of the donor gene, but that
where only genotypes at linked markers are are similar to the recipient breed for the rest of the
known, results largely depend on the particular genome. The aim of the intercrossing phase is to fix
circumstances. Large gains can be expected when the donor gene. Marker information can enhance
linkage disequilibrium exists at the population the effectiveness of the backcrossing phase of
level (Lande and Thompson, 1990), and when traits gene introgression strategies by identifying
are difficult to measure (e.g. disease resistance), carriers of the target gene (foreground selection),
sex limited (e.g. traits related to egg or milk and by enhancing recovery of the recipient genetic
production), expressed late in the lifespan of the background (background selection). Generally, it
animals (e.g. longevity and persistency in litter is more feasible and economically sound to mate,
size), or measured after slaughtering (e.g. meat in successive generations, pure-bred females of
quality traits). In other cases, the advantage of the recipient breed to cross-bred males that carry
marker assisted selection may be questionable. the desired gene, than to carry out the reverse
Genes at the same or at different loci interact process.
with each other in producing a phenotypic effect. If the gene for resistance is dominant, its
It is seldom known how this occurs. When, by using introgression into a population may be effective
statistical models, an apparent effect is assigned even without a molecular marker for the gene.
to a particular gene, such interaction is not If the gene for resistance is recessive (or co-
taken into account. This explains, at least partly, dominant), markers are necessary. In cases where
why even when genes with major effects are resistance is polygenic, introgression without
identified, incorporating them (or their markers) genetic markers is not likely to be effective; by the
into a selection programme may not achieve the time the genetic influence of the donor breed is
desired results. Because of such interactions, there high enough to give high levels of resistance, the
is often an apparent lack of consistency between desired characteristics of the recipient breed will
different studies related to the use of genetic probably have been lost. In fact, the development
markers (Rocha et al., 1998). To correctly assess of a composite breed would be easier than the
the effect of a gene, the average effect over the introgression of numerous genes into a recipient
possible genotypes in the population where the breed by backcrossing, even when genetic markers
information is to be applied (weighted according are available. Hanotte et al. (2003) mapped QTLs
to their frequencies) has to be considered. affecting trypanotolerance in a cross between the
Introgression is advocated mainly to improve “tolerant” N’Dama and “non-tolerant” Boran
disease resistance in a given population. If cattle breeds. Results showed that at some of the
markers for the resistance gene(s) (or probe putative QTLs associated with trypanotolerance,
for the gene) are available, marker assisted the allele associated with tolerance came from
selection may be used to simplify the process of the non-tolerant cattle. It was concluded that
introgression. Dekkers and Hospital (2002) discuss “selection for trypanotolerance within an F2 cross
the use of repeated backcrosses to introgress a between N’Dama and Boran cattle could produce
gene into a population. If the non-resistant breed a synthetic breed with higher trypanotolerance
is considered the recipient breed, and the breed levels than currently exist in the parental breeds.”
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Conceptually, introgression through marker functional traits. AI allows faster dissemination of

assisted selection could be accomplished even genetic superiority to the commercial population.
without exposure to the disease agent. It is, Sixty to eighty percent of all the AI performed is
however, wise to test the resistance of animals carried out in cattle. A male identified as superior
with the desired genotype. can leave thousands of progeny in different
Molecular characterization of genetic diversity populations all over the world.
is helpful in the planning of conservation AI requires technical skills both at the AI
programmes and to develop understanding of centre and on the farm, as well as effective lines
the origin and domestication of livestock species. of communication between the two. However,
Better knowledge of genomic variation, together in many countries, the majority of producers
with the development of new quantitative genetic are smallholder farmers, and existing skills and
methods, may provide the means to link marker infrastructure may be insufficient to allow the
information to functional variation. For example, successful operation of AI services. The farmer
combination of molecular methods and pedigree has to be able to detect heat and have a means
analysis has been used to estimate the degree to contact the semen distribution centre, which
of genetic diversity in founder populations in then has to be able to serve within few hours.
thoroughbred horses (Cunningham et al., 2001). For extensive production systems, this is a labour-
intensive process. Consequently, AI is unlikely to
Developments in reproductive technologies be used in extensive grazing systems for beef
Reproductive technology has a direct effect on production. Similarly, AI is difficult to perform in
the rate of genetic improvement. For a given sheep, and natural mating using superior males
population size, a higher reproduction rate is still the dominant means of diffusing genetic
implies a lower number of breeding animals and, improvement.
therefore, a higher intensity of selection. More Use of AI affects the ownership structure of the
offspring per breeding animal also allows more breeding sector. Where AI is used, the ownership
accurate estimation of breeding values. Another of the breeding animals is usually transferred to
advantage of increasing reproductive rates is to larger breeding organizations, such as cooperatives
disseminate superior genetic stock more quickly. or private breeding companies. For the last twenty
As reproductive technologies are extensively years in the developed world, AI centres have
discussed elsewhere in the report, this chapter been responsible for the identification of young
focuses only on the use of AI and multiple bulls for progeny testing, and for the marketing
ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) in of semen from proven sires.
breeding programmes. For other techniques, only Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer.
a brief description is provided here. Increasing the reproductive rate of females
Artificial insemination. The use of AI results in by MOET is mainly useful in species with low
higher selection intensity, more accurate selection reproductive rates such as cattle. The benefits are
of males based on progeny testing and more higher selection intensity on the female side, and
accurate estimation of breeding value across more accurate estimation of breeding values. As
herds. The latter is a result of exchange of semen family sizes are larger, there is more information
between different nucleus herds, which facilitates available on animals’ sibs. This allows reasonably
the establishment of genetic links between them. reliable breeding values to be obtained at a
AI is used by breeding organizations for most younger age, particularly when the traits are only
species. For species such as cattle that have low recorded for one sex (female). In practice, this
reproductive rates, progeny testing based on AI means that there is no need to wait for a progeny
is a prerequisite for an accurate estimation of test to select males – they can be selected at
breeding values for traits of low heritability such as younger age based on information on their
386
half-sib sisters. The gain in generation interval is possible to identify male and female embryos by
large, and compensates for the loss of selection various methods. However, with a few exceptions,
accuracy that results from replacing a progeny this technology has not yet been widely used by
test by a sib test. The ability to select at a young breeders or farmers. Various attempts have been
age, even among embryos, is the main reason of made to separate sperm based on their sex-
the application of MOET in pig breeding. Embryo determining characteristics. However, further
transfer is also used to disseminate desirable advances are required before the technology can
genes from superior female animals with be applied on a large scale.
minimum disease risks, as animals do not need to The use of the above-described reproductive
be transported. and conservation techniques means that there
The use of MOET is costly and requires highly is less need for the transportation of breeding
developed technical skills. The logistical challenge animals. Furthermore, these technologies offer
is that at the time of embryo transfer, a group an opportunity to safeguard the health status of
of recipient cows needs to be available and flocks and herds even when embryos originate
synchronized. This can be done only in large from countries with a radically different health
centralized nucleus herds. In many cases, it status.
may be better to invest resources in more basic
prerequisites – performance and trait recording, 2.5 Economic considerations
extension and dissemination. This is all the Any economic evaluation should consider both
more true as MOET seems less efficient than AI returns and costs. As animal breeding is a long-
in enhancing genetic progress. In all cases, the term process, returns on breeding decisions may
introduction of AI and/or MOET has to be cost be realized many years later. This is the case in
effective and accepted by the local farmers. dairy cattle for example. Furthermore, different
Semen and embryo freezing gives breeding costs and returns are realized at different times
organizations the opportunity to create genebanks with different probabilities, and a number of
as a back-up store of genetic diversity in breeding considerations that may not be important for
programmes. Moreover, cryopreservation of relatively short-term processes are sometimes of
gametes and embryos facilitates international major importance in the longer term.
exchange and transport of genetic material in Until the advent of reproductive
ruminants, and is a prerequisite for routine use of biotechnologies, the main cost elements of
AI and ET on a world scale. breeding programmes were trait measurement
Cloning (somatic cells) is a new technology and recording, progeny testing and maintaining
which is currently not being used commercially. the breeding stock. Although the main objective
This is partly for technical and economic reasons, of most recording systems is breeding, it should
and partly because there is no public desire be noted that once available, the information is
for such developments at present. Cloning has useful for other farm management decisions such
potential application in the field of conservation, as culling and predicting future production.
as other tissues may be easier to preserve than Animal breeding in the developed world
embryos. has become more and more sophisticated and
Sexing of embryos or semen enables the professionalized, and hence costly. Economic
production of larger numbers of animals of considerations are, therefore, driving most if
a particular sex. For example, preferences for not all breeding-related activities, and economic
male or female offspring are obvious in cattle theory has been incorporated into this area.
– females for milk production, and males for beef The bases for economic evaluation are profit,
production. Numerous attempts have been made economic efficiency, or return on investment.
to develop a reliable technology. Currently, it is When breeding goals have been developed by
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and for (groups of) producers, emphasis is put selection within breeds or lines, or cross-breeding
on profit maximization. In developing countries, (Simm, 1998).
markets are generally more local, but the same • Selection between breeds, the most radical
mechanism will apply. It is, therefore, advisable to option, is the substitution of a genetically
opt for profit maximization, unless there are clear inferior breed by a superior one. This can be
reasons to deviate from this strategy. done at once (when as in poultry the cost
A critical economic consideration is: who will is not prohibitive) or gradually by repeated
pay for the genetic improvement? This question is backcrossing with the superior breed (in
not particularly important when breeding nuclei, large animals).
multipliers and commercial herds/flocks are fully • Cross-breeding, the second fastest
integrated. However, in all other situations, method, capitalizes on heterosis and
where vertical integration does not exist, it is complementarity between breeds’
not unusual that those who invested in breeding characteristics. Conventional cross-breeding
activities are unable to adequately recoup their systems (rotational systems and terminal
investment. This commonly provides justification sire-based systems) have been widely
for public sector involvement in one or more discussed (e.g. Gregory and Cundiff, 1980).
facets of genetic improvement. The inter se mating of animals of newly
Under a free market system, breeding developed composites has been suggested
organizations have to adapt to the demands of as an alternative form of cross-breeding
their customers – the commercial producers, who (Dickerson, 1969; 1972).
are normally only prepared to pay for improved • The third method, within-breed selection,
breeding animals or semen if this will enhance gives the slowest genetic improvement,
their profits. However, it is interesting to note especially if the generation interval is long.
that even if a trend in breeding does not appear However, this improvement is permanent
to be economically justified, it may continue for and cumulative, which is not the case for
an extended period of time (Box 80). Under a cross-breeding programmes.
government subsidized system, all or part of the Gradual genetic improvement is the most
costs of genetic efforts are paid for by taxpayers. In sustainable form of improvement, as it gives
this case, breeding programmes should be subject the stakeholders time to adapt the production
to scrutiny to ensure that they truly produce some system to the intended change. When the traits
social benefits. Such benefits could include, for of interest are numerous and/or some of them
example, providing safer, more nutritious or less are antagonistic, different lines may be created,
expensive products for the consumer, or reducing and maintained by within-line selection. These
the negative environmental impacts of livestock lines can then be crossed to produce commercial
production. animals. This strategy is used in pig and poultry
breeding.
Setting up a breeding programme involves
3 Elements of a breeding the definition of a breeding goal (Groen, 2000)
programme and the design of a scheme that is able to
deliver genetic progress in line with this goal. In
The elements required in a breeding programme practice, it involves the management of people
depend on the choice of the general breeding and resources as well as the application of the
strategy. Thus, the first decision is which of the principles of genetics and animal breeding
three main genetic improvement strategies (Falconer and Mackay, 1996). Each aspect of the
should be applied: selection between breeds, breeding programme involves many processes,
individuals and sometimes institutions. Success
388
depends on how well the available resources are when the number of nucleus animals is insufficient
harnessed and managed to achieve the goals of to satisfy the demands of commercial farmers. The
the stakeholders. bottom tier comprises the commercial units where
The stakeholders of a breeding programme are the final product is disseminated. The pyramidal
all those who are affected, in one way or another, structure of the poultry breeding industry is
by its success. These include the end users of illustrated in Figure 48.
the products of the programme (i.e. livestock The activities that constitute a breeding
producers), commercial companies and others programme can be summarized in eight major
who directly or indirectly invest in the scheme, steps (Simm, 1998):
government departments, breed societies, and • choice of breeding goal;
those employed to implement the programme. • choice of selection criteria;
Other stakeholders include ancillary beneficiaries • design of the breeding scheme;
such as suppliers, distributors, and sellers of by- • recording of the animals;
products of the scheme. • genetic evaluation of the animals;
Most programmes have a pyramidal structure • selection and breeding;
(Simm, 1998), with varying number of tiers • progress monitoring; and
depending on the sophistication of the programme. • dissemination of genetic improvement.
At the apex of the pyramid is the nucleus where These steps will be described in the following
selection and breeding of the elite pedigree subchapters. However, the reader should be aware
animals is concentrated. The multiplication of that planning, implementation and evaluation
stock happens in the middle tiers. This is required form a continuous process – the elements should
FIGURE 48
Structure of the poultry breeding industry
PRIMARY
BREEDERS
generating genetic progress Grand parents /
parents
MULTIPLIERS
producing egg-type or meat type
day-old chicks
Final product
(pullet / broiler)
EGG PRODUCER / BROILER GROWER
EGG PROCESSING PLANT – SLAUGHTER HOUSE
DISTRIBUTION
CONSUMER
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be approached interactively rather than step- An example of the latter is egg weight in laying
by-step. A further critical element is the need to hens. The market values eggs within a particular
document in detail all areas of the breeding plan range of weights – for example, between 55 and
and its execution over time. 70 grams. Smaller eggs are not saleable and there
is no premium for bigger ones. Given that egg
3.1 Breeding goals size is correlated negatively to egg number, shell
The breeding goal is a list of traits to be improved strength and hatchability, selecting for bigger eggs
genetically. It should be in line with national is not only a waste of selection intensity, it is also
agricultural development objectives, and counter productive. Another example is body size.
appropriate for the production system for which it For meat animals, size at slaughter is an important
is defined and the breeds suited to the production determinant of value. Body size has a major effect
system. A country’s development objectives for on nutritional requirements, through its effect
agricultural production traditionally include on maintenance requirements. It may also affect
economic variables, but should be extended to fertility. The latter (net fertility such as calf crop
accommodate ethics, and other social aspects of or lamb crop weaned) is a major determinant of
human well-being. These objectives are used to biological efficiency and profitability. Since body
formulate the breeding goals. Different tools are size is associated with both costs and benefits,
available to achieve this. The most common is it is difficult to determine an optimum value,
the profit function. In theory, setting up a profit especially under grazing systems, because of
function is straightforward, especially in the case the difficulty involved in adequately describing
of within-breed selection programmes, as it is a forage intake. Another consideration is that most
linear function of the relative economic values of slaughter markets discriminate against animals
the traits to be improved. In practice, however, that fall outside a desired range of carcass (or
it is not easy to obtain these economic values, live) weights. For example, the European market
partly because they may vary in time and in space, requires a minimum carcass weight, which cannot
and partly because of a lack of time, expertise, be met by some breeds (e.g. Sanga breeds from
knowledge, resources, etc. Thus, breeders Namibia). Even if the current body size of these
manipulate the direction of change through trial cattle is optimum with regard to biological
and error based on perceived market demand efficiency, larger cattle may be more profitable.
and preference. Amer (2006) discusses other tools The choice of the breeding goal may be a one-
for formulating breeding goals such as the bio- off activity, or one that is revised from time to
economic model and the geneflow model. time. The decision is taken by the breeders, with
Livestock improvement is measured relative to feedback from all tiers of the breeding pyramid.
a given set of traits, generally referred to as “traits In poultry and pig breeding, this decision is
of economic importance”. In reality, the traits and taken by the top management of the breeding
their economic importance vary as widely as the companies (research and development managers
breeding programmes. For many livestock species, in agreement with technical and marketing or
the traits of economic importance are those that sales managers). In cattle breeding, the decision
affect the productivity, longevity, health and is taken at the apex nucleus, but usually in
reproductive ability of the animals. consultation with people in all other tiers including
For most of the traits, the objective is a the commercial tier, in a way that reflects the
continuous improvement, but for some traits the ownership pattern of the programme.
goal is to reach intermediate values. Pharo and The outcome of breeding programmes,
Pharo (2005) term these alternatives, respectively, particularly in dairy and beef cattle, is realized
breeding for a “direction” and for a “destination”. many years after selection decisions are made.
390
Even in poultry, where the generation interval 3.2 Selection criteria

is shorter, a genetic change implemented in the The breeding goal is distinct from the selection
nucleus will not be noticed at the commercial criteria that are used to take the decision as
level in less than three years, at the earliest. This to which animals are to become the parents
underlines the need to anticipate future demands of the next generation. Usually, the decision
when defining breeding goals. involves the construction of a “selection index”.
In a competitive market like the poultry Measurements are taken in the candidate animals
breeding industry, the identification of traits of and their relatives, and are weighted according
interest and the focus of selection efforts is not to index coefficients calculated to maximize the
only highly dependent on signals from the market correlation between the selection index and the
place (i.e. the commercial producers), but also on breeding goal. It should be emphasized that
the performance of the products of competing some of the breeding goal traits may differ from
programmes. those used to construct the selection index. For
example, pigs are selected for the fatness of their
carcass – this is a breeding goal trait. However,
it cannot be observed in selection candidates,
Box 80
Changing body size of beef cattle in the United States of America
In 1900 the vast majority of beef cattle in the United period (four or five months) without getting too fat.
States of America were Shorthorn, Hereford, or Angus. The small early fattening cattle which had previously
The cattle at the time were fairly large. Bulls of been popular were not acceptable to the feedlot
1 100 kg and cows of 730 kg were common. Cattle industry. Charolais and other continental European
were finished (fattened) primarily on grass, and there breeds became popular, and cattle of the British beef
was some interest in producing cattle that would breeds were selected for increased size and growth.
finish at a younger age and lighter weight. A trend From the mid-1950s to the late 1960s, larger cattle
developed for selecting for smaller-framed cattle were favoured as long as they were fairly compact in
that had greater apparent ability to fatten. Much of their conformation. However, by the late 1960s, larger
the selection was actually based on attempts to win cattle were favoured, even if they were taller and
in the show ring. Selection was effective, and major very different in their conformation from the popular
changes were achieved in the cattle population. After cattle of the earlier period. Within a few years, cattle
a few generations (the late 1920s and early 1930s) were being selected for larger frame size, even in the
the cattle were probably of a more appropriate size continental European breeds. This selection was also
for the production conditions under which they quite effective, and extremely large animals were
were kept. However, selection continued in the same produced.
direction, and by the 1950s the cattle in most highly In the mid to late 1980s, several of the major
regarded herds were much too small and predisposed breeding organizations realized that the trend had
to fattening to be profitable under any commercial gone too far, and moves were made to produce more
management programme. moderate sized animals. In the last ten years, more
A major change in the United States beef industry breeders have recognized that intermediate size is
began in the mid-1950s, with the development preferable to extremes in any direction. However, they
of large feedlots in the Great Plains states. To be continue to be in the minority, and extremely large
profitable in these new feedlots, cattle had to be cattle have continued to be favoured in many major
able to grow at a fairly high rate for a long feeding herds.
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as this would mean that they would have to be such as heritability and phenotypic variation of
slaughtered. A predictor trait, the subcutaneous the traits are needed to build up the selection
fat thickness measured ultrasonically, is therefore index (reasonable assumptions can also be made)
recorded. Where it is difficult or expensive to (Jiang et al., 1999). A suitable mating plan is then
acquire information on the relationships between outlined. It must allow sufficient records to be
animals, and the traits are sufficiently heritable, obtained for genetic evaluation, and sufficient
selection can be based on individual performance elite animals to be produced for the nucleus
(mass selection). The construction of the selection and for multiplication in the lower levels of
index is a technical issue, and requires personnel the breeding pyramid. Note that in performing
with the necessary expertise. these activities, the designer of the programme is
There are numerous circumstances in which at already in the optimization phase.
the moment of selection many traits that are not When designing the breeding programme, it
relevant to breeding goal trait list are considered. should not be forgotten that most aspects are
This can seriously decrease the actual selection directly influenced by the reproductive rate of
intensity and, therefore, limit the genetic the breeding animals. A higher reproductive rate
improvement. Sometimes this is acceptable (e.g. means that fewer breeding animals are needed.
a genetic defect is a valid reason for culling). In More offspring per breeding animal allows more
other cases such criteria are doubtful (e.g. “body accurate estimation of breeding value.
volume” as an indicator of productivity) or not
recommendable (e.g. frame size or “dairyness”). 3.4 Data recording and management
Recording of performance data and pedigrees is
3.3 Design of breeding scheme the main driving force for genetic improvement.
Designing a breeding programme requires Abundant and accurate measurements lead to
taking a range of decisions in a logical order. efficient selection. In practice, however, resources
The designer of the programme should be aware are limited. The question then is: which traits
that such a process evolves over time – from the should be measured and on which animals?
simple to increasing levels of sophistication as Preferably, the traits included in the breeding
organization and capacity develop. Most of the objective should be measured, but this will
decisions involve determining how best to utilize depend on the ease and cost of measurement.
present population structure to reliably generate The nucleus animals, at least, should be measured
the improvement and/or restructuring that is for performance and pedigree.
needed. Economic evaluation is an integral part The collection of performance data on which
of this process, and should be carried out both for to base selection decisions is a vital component
the pre-implementation phase and for evaluating of any breeding programme, and it should be
the change being realized when the programme regarded as such, rather than as a by-product
is underway. of recording systems primarily designed to assist
Investment decisions in the breeding short-term management (Bichard, 2002). The task
programme should be assessed with respect to of collecting, collating and using data in genetic
the three components contributing to the rate evaluation requires good organization and
of genetic change: selection intensity, selection considerable resources (Wickham, 2005; Olori et
accuracy and generation interval. Based on these al., 2005). In many instances, special schemes may
components, alternative scenarios are assessed. need to be put in place to generate and record
Theoretical knowledge of quantitative genetics the required data. The cost and complexity of
is used to predict the gains to be expected from these schemes vary depending on the type of
different scenarios (Falconer and Mackay, 1996). breeding organization, the type of traits, and the
For this purpose, population genetic parameters method of testing.
392
Type of breeding organization. pig and poultry accuracy for species with low reproductive rates,
breeding companies have in-house facilities for and to test genotype–environment interactions.
the collection and storage of all required data, For many ruminant species, the cost of a central
whereas other breeding organizations may rely on progeny testing facility may be prohibitive. It is,
resources owned by more than one stakeholder. therefore, a common practice to involve as many
For example, this is the case in a typical dairy farmers or commercial producers as possible. The
cattle breeding programme (see subchapter 4.1). farmers are encouraged to accept semen from a
Type of trait. When body weight of live group of young sires to be used on a proportion
animals is the trait of interest, all that is needed of their female animals. Because the young sires
is a weighing scale. However, to measure feed are not of proven genetic merit, farmers involved
efficiency in individual animals, more sophisticated in progeny testing often require good incentives
equipment may be needed to allow the recording to participate (Olori et al., 2005). In these
of individual feed intake. circumstances, the total costs (several hundred
Performance versus progeny or sib testing. thousand US Dollars) are often borne by the
In a performance-testing scheme, the traits of owners of the young sire under test.
interest are recorded directly in every individual. Pedigree information. In addition to
For example, body weight and growth are often performance records, genetic evaluation in
recorded over a fixed period during the lifespan a breeding programme requires pedigree
of beef cattle, pigs, broiler chickens or turkeys. information. The quality of pedigree information
Basically, a cohort of animals is managed together depends on its depth and completeness.
under similar conditions over a period of time Whether the breeding objective involves genetic
during which individual performance is measured. improvement or the prevention of extinction
This can be done on the farm, or at a performance resulting from a loss of genetic variation, the
test station where cattle or pigs from different pedigree of all breeding animals must be recorded
herds or farms are brought together for a direct and maintained.
comparison under the same conditions. Information systems. When the resources are
Sometimes, the information of interest may not available, a centralized database with shared
be measurable directly in the selection candidate, access has been shown to be beneficial and cost
either because the expression of the trait is sex- effective (Wickham, 2005; Olori et al., 2005). The
limited as in the case of milk and egg production, provision of comprehensive management-related
or because the traits can only be recorded after information from such a system often serves
the death of the animal (e.g. carcass composition). as a stimulus for further participation in data
In these circumstances, indirect recording by recording schemes. The requirement for small
progeny and/or sib testing is required. This is also breeding programmes may simply be a single
useful for traits with low heritability, which may personal computer with adequate spreadsheet,
require several records to accurately evaluate an data management and reporting software,
individual. Progeny testing refers to a scheme in while national-level programmes may require
which an individual is evaluated on the basis of a specialized department utilizing modern
performance records obtained from its progeny. information technology (Grogan, 2005; Olori et
It is mainly associated with males (Willis, 1991), as al., 2005).
it is easier to generate large numbers of progeny
from a single male than from a single female. 3.5 Genetic evaluation
Typically, not all males are progeny tested, Progress in a breeding programme requires that
but only the males born from “elite matings”. animals of superior genotypes for the traits of
Progeny testing is very useful to increase selection interest are identified and selected to breed
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the next generation. Identifying these animals animals’ registration certificates. It is common
requires disentangling the environmental to print PBVs in sale and semen catalogues.
contribution from the phenotypic observation. This means that the end users (farmers) have
This is accomplished by breeding value prediction to understand and accept the EBVs that are
or genetic evaluation. This is a core activity in produced, and know how to use them. There is
every breeding programme. no sense in running a genetic evaluation if the
The genetic evaluation should be reliable. BLUP results are left untouched by the end users.
methodology, applied to a variety of models A typical genetic evaluation unit requires
depending on the traits and data available, both qualified staff, and adequate material
has become the standard method for nearly all resources to carry out data analysis and produce
species. The evaluation should also be available suitable reports to facilitate selection decisions.
in time to make the best use of the investment Many large-scale breeding programmes have
in data collection and database management. A a dedicated genetic evaluation unit in-house.
genetic evaluation system using BLUP relies on However, it is also easy to contract this evaluation
good data measurement and structure. If these out to an external institution. Many universities
prerequisites are in place, investment in BLUP is and research centres provide a genetic evaluation
usually highly cost effective. service for national and non-national breeding
Across-herd evaluation has the advantage of programmes. Such services can cover several
allowing fair comparisons of predicted breeding different breeds or species, as the principle of
values (PBVs) of animals in different herds, which genetic evaluation and the software involved will
leads to selection of more animals from the be similar in each case. Perhaps, the most popular
genetically superior herds. To do this, genetic genetic evaluation unit with international repute
links (usage of animals across herds and across is the International Bull Evaluation Service
years) are critical. In order to use the information (INTERBULL). The centre, which is based at the
from different herds, an adequate organizational Swedish Agricultural University in Uppsala, was
structure is needed. This can be achieved through set up as a permanent subcommittee of the
close collaboration between breeders, their International Committee for Animal Recording
associations, and universities or research centres. (ICAR), and provides international genetic
Unique identification for all animals that supply evaluation to facilitate the comparison and
data for the breeding scheme is essential. The selection of dairy bulls on an international scale.
data analysts, with guidance and assistance from Another example is BREEDPLAN, a commercial
breed association personnel, assign animals to beef cattle genetic evaluation service with an
contemporary groups (groups of animals of about operational base in Australia, which has clients in
the same age that are raised together with the many countries.
same treatment). This assignment may be critical
for accurate genetic evaluation. The breeders 3.6 Selection and mating
submit data to the association, and after checking Selection should predominantly be based on the
for obvious errors, the information is forwarded selection criterion. From each sex, as few breeding
to the evaluation team for analysis. For ruminants, animals as possible should be selected to maximize
the evaluations are performed once or twice a selection intensity, with the only restrictions being
year, but for pig and poultry meat programmes, the number of animals required for a minimum
where the selection is performed on a monthly, population size, and the number needed for
weekly or bi-weekly basis, evaluations are run reproductive purposes. As reproductive rates of
continuously. males are generally much higher than those of
The results of the genetic predictions (PBV and females, far fewer breeding males than females
aggregate indices) are typically printed on the are normally selected.
394
Selection candidates may be of different ages, have to be put together in the same paddock,
and thus unequal amounts of information may be but separated from other animals of reproductive
available about them. For example, older males age. AI can be used, but also requires a range
may have a progeny test, while for younger ones, of resources and expertise (semen collection,
their own performance, or that of their dam or freezing and/or storing, and insemination).
sibs, will be the only information available. If BLUP
is used, such candidates can be easily and fairly 3.7 Progress monitoring
compared. Selecting more animals with accurate This involves the periodic evaluation of the
EBVs, and only the very best animals with less programme with respect to progress towards
accurate EBVs, is probably the best approach. the desired goal. If necessary, it leads to a
It is widely accepted that the use of family reassessment of the goal and/or the breeding
information, as occurs in BLUP, increases the strategy. Monitoring is also important to ensure
probability of co-selection of close relatives, early detection of undesired effects of the
which in turn leads to increased inbreeding. selection process, such as increased susceptibility
Various methods are used to reduce inbreeding to diseases or a reduction in genetic variation.
while maintaining high rates of genetic gain. All To assess progress, phenotypic and genetic
these methods are based on the same principle trends are usually obtained by regressing average
– reducing the average relationship between annual phenotypic and breeding values on year
the individuals selected. Computer programmes of birth. In addition to this information, breeders
have been developed to optimize selection run regular internal and external performance
decisions for a given list of candidates for which testing. An external testing scheme needs to
pedigree information and EBVs are available. cover a wide range of production environments
Ad hoc methods to control inbreeding include to ensure that selected animals can perform well
selecting a sufficient number of males, as the rate under a wide range of conditions. Other sources
of inbreeding depends on effective population of information, and probably the most important,
size; not overusing the males within the nucleus; are field results and feedback from customers.
restricting the number of close relatives selected, Ultimately, the customer is the best judge of the
especially the number of males selected per work done.
family; limiting the number of females mated
to each male; and avoiding mating between full 3.8 Dissemination of genetic progress
and half sibs. These simple rules have been quite The value of superior individuals is limited if they
effective in maintaining a low level of inbreeding do not efficiently contribute to the improvement
in commercial poultry and pig breeding. of the gene pool of the whole target population.
Mating of selected animals may or may not be The wide impact of genetic improvement
at random. In the latter case, the very best of the depends on the dissemination of genetic material.
selected males are mated to the very best of the Reproductive technologies, especially AI, are
selected females – this is known as assortative very important in this respect. However, their
mating. The average genetic value of the progeny impact varies between species. In sheep and goat
born in the next generation does not change, but breeding, the exchange of genetic material largely
there will be more variance among the progeny. depends on trade in live animals. In the case of
When multiple traits are included in the breeding cattle, AI allows bulls selected in the nucleus to
objective, assortative mating may be useful be used across the whole population. In principle,
– matching qualities in different parents for there is no problem in allowing an exceptional
different traits. bull to have many progeny throughout the
Any mating strategy will require sufficient population. However, performing AI using semen
facilities. For natural mating, animals to be mated
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from bulls from the same family very intensively widespread use of breeds such as the Holstein-
will ultimately lead to inbreeding. Friesian and intensive within-breed selection.
It should be possible to apply the elements This increase is also a reflection of the fact that
described above even under basic conditions. productivity has for many years been an important
Breeding structures do not necessarily require selection objective, with selection mainly being
sophisticated systems of data recording and genetic based on production and morphological traits.
evaluation, nor do they initially require use of Recent years have seen a growing concern
reproductive technologies. The breeding structure on the part of consumers about animal welfare
should be determined in accordance with what is issues, and about the use of antibiotics in livestock
possible and what is optimum. Environmental or production. Breeding organizations have also
infrastructure restrictions, traditions and socio- realized that selecting solely for product output
economic conditions have to be considered when per animal leads to a deterioration of animals’
planning breeding programmes. health and reproductive performance, increased
metabolic stress and reduced longevity (Rauw
et al., 1998). As a result, emphasis on functional
4 Breeding programmes in high- traits has increased, and less attention is paid to
input systems product output. Selection for functional traits
is now based on direct recording of these traits
In high-input systems, continuous genetic rather than through type traits. Breeding values
improvement is generated mainly by straight- for a wide range of functional traits have been
breeding within a breed or line. In the case of developed and applied in most countries. This
ruminants, this is largely a result of the strong enables breeding organizations and farmers
position and active work of breeding associations, to pay direct attention to these traits in their
and of the spectacular results obtained by selection decisions.
this method. Cross-breeding is used to realize
the benefits of hybrid vigour (heterosis) and
complementarity. In poultry and pigs, breeders
concentrate their efforts on within-breed or line
Box 81
selection, and use cross-breeding to capitalize on
Calving problems in Belgian White
heterosis for fitness traits and on complementarity
Blue cattle
for other traits.
The number of livestock breeding companies in In beef cattle, the demand for high-quality meat
the world is relatively low, but they are of great has led to the use of breeds, such as the Belgian
economic significance. They increasingly operate White Blue, that have extreme phenotypes. However,
on a global scale. As the following subchapters this breed has an extremely high rate of caesarean
will illustrate, the structure, including the sections (Lips et al., 2001). In the short term, this
ownership, of breeding organizations differs rate cannot be significantly reduced. The extreme
greatly between species. muscularity of the Belgian White Blue is mainly
caused by the myostatin gene, a single autosomal
4.1 Dairy and beef cattle breeding recessive gene which is located on chromosome 2.
It is, therefore, questionable whether a reduction in
Selection criteria calving difficulties can be realized while maintaining
In dairy cattle, the average milk, fat and protein the extreme muscularity. Because of this, as well as
production per cow per year has increased the obvious animal welfare concerns, the future of
enormously in the past decades as a result of the the breed is questionable.
396
Box 82
Cross-breeding to address inbreeding-related problems in Holstein cattle
The Holstein breed, which is composed almost scale, have resulted in tremendous interest in cross-
completely of American Holstein genes, has largely breeding among commercial dairy producers. Pure-
replaced other breeds of dairy cattle throughout much bred sires will continue to be sought to breed almost
of the world. Production and conformation traits have all dairy heifers and cows for cross-breeding. Most
been emphasized in the breeding of Holsteins because cross-breeding systems with dairy cattle will make
of moderately high heritability and ease of data use of three breeds to optimize the average level of
collection. However, female fertility, calving ease, calf heterosis across generations.
mortality, health and survival have been ignored until
very recently. Problems related to functional traits, For further information see: Hansen (2006).
coupled with increased inbreeding on an international
TABLE 99
Breeding objectives in ruminants
Objectives/product Criteria Further specification
Production traits
Milk Quantity Milk carrier production

Contents/quality Fat percentage, protein percentage, somatic cell
count, milk coagulation
Beef Growth rate At different ages
Carcass quality Fat content, bone/meat ratio
Meat quality Tenderness, juiciness
Wool Quantity
Fibre quality Length, diameter
Functional traits
Health and welfare Genetic defects BLAD, mule foot and CVM
Mastitis incidence
Udder conformation Udder attachment, udder depth and teat traits
Feet and leg problems
Locomotion Indicator of hoof disorders
Reproduction efficiency Female fertility Showing heat, pregnancy rate
Male fertility Non-return rate
Calving ease Direct and maternal effects, still births
Number of live offspring
Feed Efficiency Feed conversion efficiency
Milk production persistency
Workability Milkability Milking speed
Behaviour
Longevity Functional herd life
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PART 4
Breeders face difficulties in two areas – breeding Organization and evolution of the breeding
(including recording) and marketing. With regard sector
to breeding, there are problems associated with Because of the low reproductive rate, the long
correlated responses to selection. In most cattle generation interval and the large amount of space
breeding programmes, an aggregate index is required to house each animal, cattle breeding has
constructed that includes traits such as growth, a more complex and more open organizational
milk yield, fertility, conformation, number of structure than poultry or pig breeding. Gene
somatic cells in the milk, calving ease and duration flow can occur both from the breeder to the
of productive lifespan (for more details see Table producer and vice versa. Information resources
99). In dairy cattle, the main focus has been (and are shared between players at different levels.
is still) put on milk yield, despite the negative In a typical dairy cattle breeding programme,
genetic correlations between milk yield and pedigree information is often recorded, owned
reproduction and health-related traits. Undesired and managed by breed societies, while milk
side-effects have, therefore, been observed – production records are owned by farmers,
including lower fertility, and greater susceptibility but collected and managed by milk recording
to mastitis, leg problems and ketosis. organizations. Information on fertility and
In beef cattle and in sheep, selection for reproductive performance are kept by companies
growth has led to higher birth weights and that provide AI services, while health information
increasing risk of birth problems. Higher growth generally resides with veterinarians. Often, these
rates can also be expected to increase the mature organizations are in decentralized locations and
size of breeding females. This may result in lower may store information in different systems.
reproductive rates if larger animals are unable Because cattle production is a major traditional
to meet their nutritional requirements because agricultural enterprise and because breeding has
of limitations in the quantity or quality of the a major impact on this enterprise, cattle breeding
available forage. These undesired effects can programmes have more input from government
be avoided, or at least reduced, by increasing agencies than do poultry or pig breeding, and
the weight of functional traits within selection therefore have a country-specific outlook. Most
indices. This supposes that these traits can be programmes were either initiated or sustained
directly measured. Recording of functional with support or grants from national government
traits often remains an important bottleneck agencies (Wickham, 2005). Organizations such as
hindering their inclusion in breeding schemes. the Animal Improvement Programs Laboratory
This is illustrated by the example of efficiency (AIPL) of the United States Department of
of feed utilization. Recording feed intake in a Agriculture (USDA), Canadian Dairy Network
large number of animals is currently impossible (CDN), Cr-Delta in the Netherlands, and l’Institut
– preventing efficient selection for this trait. de l’Elevage (IE) in France, play major roles in
There are also problems related to marketing. cattle breeding programmes in their respective
For milk, good management practices have been countries, especially in data management and
in place in many countries for a long time, and genetic evaluation. This is also the case for breed
product quality has a direct impact on the price societies, which have played a major role in
paid to producers. In the case of meat, however, maintaining and enhancing the integrity of their
traceability and organization in the production respective breeds. The success of the Holstein-
chain has traditionally been poor. This limits Friesian, which is by far the dominant sire breed
opportunities to improve quality. In general, in most dairy herds in the Western world, is
farmers are not rewarded for meat quality, and testimony to the activities of the World Holstein-
often only poorly rewarded for carcass quality. Friesian Federation (WHFF). The formation of
398
Box 83
Norwegian Red Cattle – selection for functional traits
The Norwegian Red (NRF) is a high-producing dairy respect to fertility – the average 60 day non-return rate
cattle breed in which fertility and health have been in the population is 73.4 percent. Between 1999 and
included in a selection index (known as the Total 2005 incidence of mastitis in NRF cows was reduced
Merit Index) which has been in operation since from 28 percent to 21 percent, and it is estimated that
the 1970s. The case of the NRF provides a practical of this reduction 0.35 percent per year was the result
illustration that production and functional traits can of genetic improvement. Major calving difficulties are
be successfully balanced in a sustainable breeding reported in less than 2 percent of calvings, and less
programme. This achievement has been based on than 3 percent of calves are stillborn.
an effective recording system and a willingness to The sustainability of the breeding programme is
place sufficient weight on the functional traits. The promoted by a number of factors:
programme is run by GENO, a cooperative owned • Both production and function are expressed
and managed by Norwegian dairy farmers. Currently, by many traits, and they are both strongly
ten traits are included in the Total Merit Index. The weighted in the breeding strategy.
following list shows the relative weight given to each: • Many different combinations can result in a
Milk index 0.24 high total breeding value. This allows for the
Mastitis resistance 0.22 selection of animals from different breeding
Fertility 0.15 lines and, thus, automatically reduces the risk of
Udder 0.15 inbreeding.
Beef (growth rate) 0.09 • The breeding work is based on data from
Legs 0.06 ordinary dairy herds, which guarantees that the
Temperament 0.04 breeding programme produces animals that are
Other diseases 0.03 well adapted to normal production conditions.
Stillbirths 0.01
Calving ease 0.01 Provided by Erling Fimland.
For further information see: http://www.geno.no/genonett/
Key features of the programme include the fact
presentasjonsdel/engelsk/default.asp?menyvalg_id=418
that more than 95 percent of herds participate in the
recording system and are on a computerized mating
plan, 90 percent of matings are carried out using AI,
and there is 40 percent use of test bulls. All diagnosis
and health registration is carried out by veterinarians,
and databases are maintained for pedigree and
AI-related information. About 120 young bulls are
tested annually with progeny groups of 250 to 300
daughters – thus enabling the inclusion of traits with
low heritability (such as mastitis with a heritability
of 0.03 and other diseases with 0.01) while still
providing a selection index with high accuracy.
Milk production per lactation in the best herds Photo credit: Erling Fimland
exceeds 10 000 kg, with the top cows producing more

than 16 000 kg. The genetic trend is positive with
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PART 4
herd books with dedicated members and the Cross-breeding studies with dairy cattle have
importance of show ring performance (which are consistently found significant levels of heterosis
strictly within-breed affairs) have helped sustain between dairy breeds for milk production, fertility
pure-breed development and the maintenance of and survival traits. However, successful long-term
all major breeds of dairy and beef cattle. selection for high levels of milk production in the
The selection programmes conducted by AI Holstein-Friesian has led to the widespread use
centres have developed from local to national of straight-bred animals of this breed. However,
schemes, and are increasingly operating increasing pressure from commercial producers,
internationally. The dissemination of genetic who are suffering losses related to poor fertility
material from “superior” animals is now global. and longevity, and the need for flexibility in
It is predicted that within the next ten to 15 product development is likely in the future to
years AI centres will become unified into a few lead to increased development of hybrid cattle at
worldwide breeding companies, such as now exist the breeding programme level.
in the pig and poultry sectors. For example, in the Cross-breeding applied to beef cattle is often
early 1990s the “Genus” breeding programme undertaken without a well-designed programme.
was the major cattle programme in the United In beef cattle, cross-breeding programmes are
Kingdom. Over the years, Genus has merged with difficult to implement in herds that use fewer
ABS genetics from the United States of America than four bulls. Even for larger operations,
to form a global company, which now supplies managing the herds separately, as is required in
bovine genetics from a variety of dairy and beef organized cross-breeding programmes, can be
cattle breeds to over 70 countries. More recently, difficult (Gregory et al., 1999).
Genus bought Sygen, a biotech company. In cattle, the introduction of AI has resulted in
Breeding programmes in cattle rely on an enormous reduction of the number of sires and
commercial producers to generate sufficient data contributed to the exchange of genetic material
for genetic evaluation. Data recording, therefore, between regions and countries. Through AI, bulls
takes place in all tiers of the breeding pyramid. selected in the nucleus are used in the general
This requirement is greatest in the case of dairy population. As a result of the high reproductive
programmes, which require large progeny groups rate of sires, the selection of bulls contributes 70
for the accurate evaluation of bulls (especially for percent to total genetic change in dairy and beef
traits with low heritability), or in beef cattle to cattle populations.
be able to estimate direct and maternal effects.
The use of AI to disseminate semen across many 4.2 Sheep and goat breeding
herds is prevalent, and this helps to facilitate
the comparison of animals raised in different Selection criteria
environments. AI also enables higher intensity in Sheep and goats are kept for meat, milk, and wool
the selection of males. or fibre (see Table 99 for corresponding breeding
Successful selection within dairy cattle breeds is goals). Sheep milk is an important product in
the result of well-organized programmes for the Mediterranean countries. It is mainly transformed
measurement of production, testing of young into a variety of cheeses (e.g. Roquefort,
bulls and effective genetic evaluation. The high Fiore Sardo, Pecorino Romano and Feta). Milk
level of feeding in commercial dairy production production and quality are important breeding
allows a high proportion of a cow’s genetic criteria. Milk sheep may also be bred for growth
potential to be expressed, which in turn allows rate, reproductive traits such as twinning rate,
selection to be particularly effective. and type traits such as udder shape (Mavrogenis,
2000). Conversely, in northwestern Europe, meat
400
is the most significant product obtained from operations where a significant part of the income
sheep. Specific breeding objectives will depend is from lambs (for slaughter), self-contained F1
on the production environment (e.g. mountain production has been used. Under this type of
vs. lowland), and may include growth rates, programme, all ewes are straight-bred for fine
carcass quality, reproductive performance and wool. A large fraction of the selected ewes are
maternal abilities. Commercial wool production mated to fine-wool rams to produce replacement
is dominated by Australia and New Zealand with females. The remaining ewes are mated to
their specialized flocks of straight-bred fine-wool terminal sires and all the lambs are sold.
sheep of the Merino type. Although the animals In the case of meat sheep breeding, the average
all descend from the Merino sheep of Spain, size of flocks is generally too small to allow
different strains have been developed over the intensive within-flock selection. This problem has
years. The need for animals adapted to specific been overcome through cooperative breeding
environmental conditions has shaped breed schemes. Nucleus breeding schemes are well
development. In Australia, for example, different established (e.g. James, 1977), but sire-referencing
strains of Merino have been bred for their schemes (SRS) have recently gained popularity.
adaptation to the environment in different parts In SRS, genetic links are created between flocks
of the country. With respect to wool production, by mutual use of specific rams (reference sires).
criteria for selection normally include clean fleece These connections allow comparable across-
weight and fibre diameter. Increasing economic flock genetic evaluation, offering a larger pool
importance of meat relative to wool has led to of candidates for selection for collective goals.
a shifting of breeding objectives towards criteria About two-thirds of performance-recorded sheep
such as reproduction rate and sale weight. in the United Kingdom, including all of the major
In Mediterranean countries, in South Asia, specialized meat breeds, now belong to these
and in parts of Latin America and Africa, goats schemes (Lewis and Simm, 2002).
are mainly kept for their milk. In Mediterranean Cross-breeding is the basis of the stratified sheep
countries and in Latin America, goat milk is often industry of the United Kingdom (Simm, 1998). The
used for cheese production, whereas in Africa system functions on the basis of a loose structure
and South Asia, it is consumed raw or acidified. involving several breed societies, government
In other parts of Asia and Africa, goats are kept agencies and other institutions. Traditional hill
mainly for meat production. In these regions breeds such as the Scottish Blackface are straight-
very little supplemental feeding is provided, bred under the harsh production conditions of
and browse provides a significant amount of the hills. Ewes from these pure breeds are sold to
the nutritional requirements. The animals are of farmers in “upland” areas (where the climate is
moderate to small size, and of moderate to light less harsh and there is better grazing). Here, they
muscling. An exception is the development of the are crossed with rams from intermediate crossing
Boer goat for meat production in South Africa. breeds such the Blueface Leicester. F1 Females are
The breed has been introduced to other countries sold for breeding in lowland flocks where they are
in Africa and to other parts of the world such as mated to terminal-sire breeds such as the Suffolk
Australia. and the Texel. Most data recording and genetic
evaluation aim at improving the terminal-sire
Organization of the breeding sector breeds to produce rams of superior genetic quality.
Major breeding programmes for fine-wool sheep Data recording and genetic evaluations are carried
are based in the southern hemisphere (Australia out by commercial operations such as Signet or by
and New Zealand). These programmes are based research institutions supported by public funds.
on straight-breeding. However, in fine-wool sheep
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PART 4
Most dairy goats are in developing countries. 4.3 Pig and poultry breeding
However, breeding programmes are concentrated
mainly in Europe and North America. The French Selection criteria in pigs
selection programme, based on AI with frozen As in the case of ruminants, pig breeding
semen and oestrus synchronization (60 000 goats programmes have been very successful in
inseminated/year), and the Norwegian achieving genetic improvement of economically
programme, based on rotation of sires in several important traits, especially daily gain, backfat
herds (buck circles), are examples of organized thickness, feed efficiency and, during the last
progeny testing programmes. They include a decade, litter size (for more details see Table 100).
formal definition of selection objectives and At present, the goal is to breed for more
organized mating to produce young sires and robust and efficient animals to meet different
their progeny. Probably, the best example of a environmental conditions. This implies finding
structured meat goat breeding programme is an adequate strategy to deal with genotype ×
that run by the Boer Goat Breeders’ Association environment interaction, and the placing of more
of Australia. Cashmere and mohair production emphasis on secondary traits which have up to the
is based on straight-breeding of the respective present been of negligible economic importance.
breeds. There is almost no cross-breeding Secondary traits include piglet survival, interval
involving Angoras. between weaning and first oestrus, longevity
of sows, conformation (especially legs), vitality
of pigs until slaughter weight, meat colour and
TABLE 100
Breeding objectives in pigs
Objectives Criteria Further specification
Production traits
Growth rate At different ages
Carcass weight
Carcass quality Uniformity, leanness of carcass
Meat quality Water holding capacity, colour, flavour
Functional traits
Health and welfare General resistance Robustness

Vital piglets Maternal ability, teat number
Survival of pigs
Stress Elimination of stress (halothane) gene in dam

lines, and where possible, in male lines
Congenital effects Examples: atresia ani, cryptorchism, splay leg,

hermaphrodism and hernia
Leg problems Leg weakness and lameness.
Efficiency Litter size Number of slaughter pigs per sow per year
Feed conversion efficiency
Longevity Functional herd life Lifetime production with minimal health

problems
402
TABLE 101
Breeding objectives in poultry
Objectives/product Criteria Further specification
Production traits
Egg Egg number Number of saleable eggs per hen
External egg quality Average egg weight, shell strength and colour
Internal egg quality Egg composition (yolk/albumen ratio), firmness

of albumen and freedom from inclusions (blood
and meat spots)
Meat Growth rate Weight gain; age at market weight
Carcass quality “Yield” in terms of valuable parts, especially
breast meat; select against breast blisters and
other defects to reduce condemnation rate
Functional traits
Health and welfare Disease resistance Not routinely used
Monofactorial genetic defects
Leg problems in broilers and turkeys
Osteoporosis in laying hens
Heart and lung insufficiency Incidence of “sudden death syndrome” and
ascites in broilers and “round heart” in turkeys
Cannibalism, feather pecking
Feed efficiency Feed consumption per:

• kg egg mass in laying hens,
• kg weight gain in broilers and turkeys
Residual feed consumption
Longevity Length of productive life
drip loss. The health of the pigs is becoming stress-indicating parameters, determination of
more important. This means not only improving catecholamine levels, and heart-rate recording
the sanitary status in breeding farms, but also on under-skin chips. Improved knowledge of the
selecting for general disease resistance under cognitive abilities and coping strategies of pigs
commercial conditions. might enable individual characteristics to become
As in the case of ruminants, there are some indicative of ability to adapt to various housing
difficulties involved in implementing efficient conditions and social challenges, and could be
selection for “functional” traits. There are still no included in selection criteria. Additionally, there
appropriate tools to select for better resistance is a need for further assessment of the impact
to diseases or to reduce metabolic disorders. of selection for specific disease resistance and
Sufficient knowledge of the genetic aspects of welfare objectives.
welfare is lacking. Stress recording methods
need to be improved – for example, through
the use of non-invasive methods for measuring
403
PART 4
Selection criteria in poultry ascites) and leg problems in broilers and turkeys.
Laying hens have been selected mainly for However, the causes of these problems are
productivity. Over several decades, breeding probably multifactorial, and further research is
programmes were refined, and more and more required.
traits were included in the selection objectives.
Today, the main selection objectives are: the Organization and evolution of pig and
number of saleable eggs per hen housed per year, poultry breeding sectors
efficiency of converting feed into eggs, external The modern poultry industry has a typical
and internal egg quality, and adaptability to hierarchical structure with several distinct tiers.
different environments (for more details see Breeding companies based mainly in Europe
Table 101). and North America, with subsidiaries in major
For poultry meat, substantial genetic production regions, own the pure lines. They
improvements in terms of market weight at have to keep the whole production chain
a younger age and correlated feed efficiency in mind – hatcheries, egg and meat poultry
have been achieved by simple mass selection growers, processing plants, retailers and
for juvenile growth rate and “conformation”. consumers. Hatcheries (multipliers) are located
During the 1970s, direct selection for efficient near population centres around the world. They
feed conversion was introduced. During the receive either parents or grandparents from
last two decades, the emphasis of selection has the breeders as day-old chicks, and produce
shifted increasingly to traits that are of primary the final crosses for egg producers and broiler,
importance to processing plants – breast meat turkey or duck growers. Today, egg processing
yield, total carcass value, efficiency of lean plants, slaughterhouses and feed suppliers have
meat production, uniformity of product, and developed contractual relationships with egg
low mortality and condemnation rates. The producers and poultry growers, which provide
development of specialized male and female the latter with better financial security, but at the
lines, and the introduction of controlled feeding cost of reduced initiative and freedom.
of parents, are effective tools to overcome the The pig sector has a similar pyramidal structure,
negative correlation between juvenile growth which is largely the result of the introduction of
rate and reproductive traits. cross-breeding, AI and specialized breeding farms.
The most obvious challenges for the poultry However, some differences exist between the
industry are related to diseases. Primary breeding pig and the poultry sectors. For example, a pig
companies have eliminated egg-transmitted producer will typically obtain the “commercial”
disease agents such as leucosis virus, mycoplasms animals by mating sows from a specialized dam
and Salmonella from their elite stock, and line and boars from a specialized sire line – both
continue to monitor freedom from these genders being bought from the breeding company
problems. Other diseases such as Marek’s disease, (and not from a multiplier as in poultry).
E. coli, Campylobacter coli, and highly pathogenic In contrast to poultry, there are still breeding
avian influenza are more difficult to control. associations for pigs, and national genetic
In the field of animal welfare, the main evaluation is performed. While genetic
challenges for breeders are to adapt laying hens evaluations for the large breeding companies
to alternative management systems – for example, may be performed in-house, genetic evaluations
to reduce feather pecking and cannibalism in at the pure-breed level are conducted by
non-cage systems (pecking and cannibalism are governmental institutions (e.g. by the National
also serious problems for turkeys and waterfowl), Swine Registry in the United States of America) or
and to reduce the incidence of cardio-vascular breed associations.
insufficiencies (sudden death syndrome and
404
Pig and poultry breeding schemes are three) breeding goals, which vary depending
sometimes referred to as “commercial” breeding on the extent of their global market share
programmes because of the corporate ownership and the degree of variation in the production
structure of these companies. Over the years, environments in which the clients operate. For
these programmes have amalgamated to become example, a breeder may develop a high-yielding,
large corporations. In poultry, for example, only fast-growing line for use under high-input
two to three groups of primary breeders account conditions where superior-quality feed allows the
for about 90 percent of the layers, broilers and expression of the animals’ full genetic potential,
turkeys produced annually. Furthermore, some of and a line for more challenging environments
these companies are owned by the same group. that is more “robust”, but has lower performance
The pig breeding industry has more breeding for production traits.
companies and fewer large ones (such as PIC
and Monsanto), but is following the same trend.
The recent entry of the giant Monsanto into 5 Breeding programmes in low-
this sector is a clear indication of this tendency. input systems
Because of the competitive nature of the business
and the high level of investment, “commercial”
breeding companies are usually at the forefront 5.1 Description of low-input systems
in the application of technologies. These leading Many of the world’s livestock will continue to
companies are on the verge of incorporating be kept by smallholders and pastoralists. These
genomic information in their breeding producers often have limited access to external
programmes, at a time when many breeders are inputs and to commodity markets. Even if external
merely discussing the feasibility of the approach. inputs are locally available, there is usually little
The activities of these commercial breeding cash available for their purchase. To quote LPPS
companies are characterized by the following and Köhler-Rollefson (2005):
features: “Cash products are often of secondary
• Pedigree selection occurs in the nucleus importance, especially in marginal and remote
only. areas. Traditional breeds generate an array of
• Selection is strictly within specialized lines benefits that are more difficult to grasp and
(or breeds). These lines are designated as to quantify than outputs of meat, milk, eggs
sire and dam lines and are selected with or wool. These include their contribution to
different intensities. In poultry bred for social cohesion and identity, their fulfilment of
meat and in pigs, male lines are selected for ritual and religious needs, their role in nutrient
growth and lean meat production, while recycling and as providers of energy, and their
female lines are selected for reproduction. capacity to serve as savings bank and insurance
New lines are constantly developed either against droughts and other natural calamities.”
by crossing between existing lines or by The livestock owned by smallholders and
further selection in a given direction. pastoralists may be autochthonous or originate
• The final product is a cross between two or from early introductions of exotic breeds to
more pure-bred lines. the area. Traditional livestock keepers have
For economic reasons, each breeding company no technical training in genetics and many are
will sell under several trademarks (accumulated illiterate. However, they possess valuable local
through acquisitions and fusions), but will in fact knowledge about breeds and their management.
only have a limited number of differentiated They have breeding goals and strategies even if
products. Indeed, pig or poultry breeding they are not “formalized” or written down. For
companies develop lines to meet few (two or example, they may share breeding males (they
405
PART 4
Box 84
Community-based sheep management in the Peruvian Andes
Agriculture in the central Andes of Peru is severely In this part of Peru, peasant communities have
limited by low temperatures and drought, and organized themselves independently to improve the
most rural households depend on livestock for their management of their sheep, with little support from
income. Rangeland sheep are economically the most the government. Multicommunal and communal
important species, and are used as a source of food, enterprises, cooperatives, as well as family and
as a means of obtaining goods through exchange, individual farms, are common. Farmers exchange
and to generate cash through the sale of live animals genetic material, experiences and technologies.
or wool. To a lesser extent they are also used for Multicommunal and communal enterprises have
cultural activities, recreation and tourism. Criollo far higher production rates than individual farmers.
sheep represent 60 percent of the Peruvian sheep They have successfully set up participatory breed
population. They are mainly raised on family farms improvement programmes based on open-nucleus
and by individual farmers, who value the local breed schemes, are technically efficient, keep their pastures
highly. A dual-purpose breed, developed from a cross in good condition, and use some of their profits to
between Criollo sheep and Corriedale sheep imported improve the social well-being of their members – for
from Argentina, Australia, Chile, New Zealand and example, by buying school materials, selling milk and
Uruguay between 1935 and 1954, is also available. meat at reduced prices, and providing assistance to
Peasant farmers maintain both the Criollo and the the elderly.
composite breed.
Provided by Kim-Anh Tempelman.
For further information see: FAO (2007).
seldom have more than one of a given species) area, it is necessary to ensure that the progeny of
with their neighbours or the entire community. cross-bred animals are viable in these conditions.
In conclusion, formalizing genetic improvement The programme should be as simple as possible.
in these conditions is a challenging, but definitely In some cases it may be feasible to cross-breed
not an impossible or inappropriate, task. individual females to males from other breeds that
are available in the vicinity, but programmes that
5.2 Breeding strategies require continuous use of males of more than one
It is important to keep in mind that whatever breed are not feasible under low-input systems.
strategy is considered, it will be successful only
if certain conditions are met. Meeting these Breeding strategies
conditions does not guarantee success, but Determining the breeding objectives is the
neglecting them will certainly lead to failure. most important and difficult task in any genetic
The owners of the livestock should be involved improvement programme, and there is even
as much as possible, and preferably from the very less margin for error in low-input systems. The
beginning of the programme. The social structure questions that need to be considered under these
of the region and the objectives of the producers conditions include: what (if anything) should
should be carefully taken into consideration. be changed, and what would actually be an
The whole system, and not only one element of improvement in these conditions?
it, needs to be considered. For example, when A low-input system is also a low-output system,
considering a cross-breeding scheme in a remote but this does not necessarily mean low productivity.
406
Box 85
Genetic improvement of an indigenous livestock breed – Boran cattle in Kenya
The Boran, a medium-sized cattle breed of East These traits include sale weight for steers and heifers,
African origin, is the breed most widely kept primarily dressing percentage, consumable meat percentage,
for beef production in the semi-arid zones of Kenya. milk yield in dual purpose production systems, cow
Commercial ranchers prefer the Boran to Bos taurus weight, cow weaning rate, cow survival rate, post-
breeds because of their relative adaptability to the weaning survival rate, and feed intake of steers,
local environment – achieved through generations heifers and cows.
of natural and artificial selection in conditions of Genetic improvement of the Boran in Kenya is
high ambient temperature, poor feed quality, and facilitated by the Boran Cattle Breeders’ Society
high disease and parasite challenge. Boran genetic (BCBS). Membership of the society is restricted to
material is recommended as a means of improving farmers keeping Boran cattle, and other interested
beef production in other indigenous and exotic breeds stakeholders. At present, the activities of the society
in the tropics. Genetic exports to Zambia, the United focus on administration, maintaining breed standards,
Republic of Tanzania, Uganda, Australia and the and searching for new markets for both beef and
United States of America occurred from the 1970s to genetic material. Farmers are still independent
the 1990s. Export of Boran embryos to Zimbabwe and with respect to selection and genetic improvement.
South Africa took place during 1994 and 2000. Occasional exchange of genetic material between
This market potential has been an incentive for herds as a means of preventing inbreeding is probably
farmers to improve the breed. By the 1970s, the Boran the only form of interaction between farms. On most
had undergone cross-breeding with B. taurus types, farms, selection focuses largely on weaning weights
backcrossing, and within-breed selection (which and calving interval. To evaluate their animals,
was mainly based on visual appraisal guided by some farmers have purchased various computer
experience). During the 1970s a recording scheme programmes to enable them to re-orientate on-farm
was initiated. Producers sent animal performance performance recording to suit their management
records routinely to the Livestock Recording Centre purposes.
(LRC) for genetic evaluation. However, because of The BCBS is among the most active breeders’
inconsistency and delays in the release of evaluation associations in Kenya. It is not at present subsidized
results, and the expenses associated with recording, financially, but is involved in strategic cooperation
most producers opted out of the scheme. In 1998, a with the LRC which stores and evaluates performance
bull performance testing project was implemented records for those producers still participating in the
by the National Beef Research Centre in an attempt recording scheme. The BCBS also cooperates with
to evaluate bulls across various herds. However, the the National Agricultural Research System in the
performance testing could not be sustained because exchange of information – especially on nutrition and
of a lack of funds. breeding. Research aimed at developing appropriate
Recently, breeding objectives for Boran production genetic improvement programmes for the Boran and
systems have been developed. Systems are classified updating the current ones is ongoing.
according to the sale age of the animals (24 or 36
months), levels of input (low, medium or high), and Provided by Alexander Kahi.
For more information on Boran cattle and BCBS see:
final goal (beef or dual purpose). Traits of economic
www.borankenya.org
importance have been identified, and genetic
parameters have been estimated for some of them.
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PART 4
Box 86
A llama breeding programme in Ayopaya, Bolivia
In the high Andes of Bolivia, llama keeping is an Restraining llamas for transport
important and integral part of the mixed farming
practised by rural households. Llamas provide
smallholders with dung, meat and fibre; they are used
as pack animals and also play an important social
role. Llamas, as an autochthonous species, contribute
to maintaining the ecological balance of the fragile
local ecosystem. There are two main types of llama
– the “Kh’ara” type, and the wool type known as
“Th’ampulli”.
The region of Ayopaya (department of
Cochabamba) where the breeding programme takes
Photo credit: Michaela Nürnberg
place is situated at 4 000 to 5 000 metres above
sea level in the eastern Cordillera of the Andes.
Because of the geographical conditions and very basic
infrastructure, the region is difficult to access. As a first step, the production system was
In 1998, a breeding programme for llamas was studied by participative observation and the use
jointly initiated by the 120-member local producers of questionnaires. The phenotype of 2 183 llamas
association ORPACA (Organización de Productores of the Th’ampulli type was also characterized. The
Agropecuarios de Calientes), the NGO ASAR process revealed that the llamas possess fibre of
(Asociación de Servicios Rurales y Artesanales) and extraordinarily high quality – 91.7 percent fine fibres
two universities (University Mayor de San Simon, and a fibre diameter averaging 21.08 μm. This fibre
Cochabamba, and University of Hohenheim, Germany). quality is unmatched by other llama populations in
Initial funding was assured by the above-mentioned Bolivia. The animals, therefore, constitute a unique
institutions. Continuation of the programme critically genetic resource. Interviews with representatives of
depends on securing external funding. the textile industry and traders provided information
on the economic potential of the fleece. The
Llamas in Ayopaya region performance of identified llamas was recorded and
breeding parameters estimated. A mating centre run
by ASAR to which members of ORPACA bring their
females for service was established in Calientes in
1999. Selected males are kept at the centre during
the mating season. The phenotypic evaluation of the
males aims to identify animals with uniform fleece
colour; a straight back, legs and neck; testicles that
are of equal size and not too small; and no congenital
defects. Six communities within a radius of about 15
km are served by the mating centre. Performance data
for the offspring are recorded by trained farmers.
Photo credit: Michaela Nürnberg
• continues
408
Box 86 cont.
A llama breeding programme in Ayopaya, Bolivia
Functions of llamas and breeding objectives are Linear measurements on llamas

being recorded, ranked and valued jointly with the
llama keepers. In a stepwise procedure, the breeding
programme is being adapted to meet the breeders’
preferences, the market conditions, and the biological
constraints. Genetic progress has not yet been
evaluated because of the llama’s long generation
interval.
Provided by: Angelika Stemmer, André Markemann,

Marianna Siegmund-Schultze, Anne Valle Zárate.
Further information can be obtained from the following

sources: Alandia (2003); Delgado Santivañez (2003);
Markemann (forthcoming): Nürnberg (2005); Wurzinger Photo credit: Javier Delgado
(2005), or from: Prof. Dr Anne Valle Zárate, Institute of
Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of
Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany.
E-mail: [email protected]
Llama herd (of Emeterio Campos) in Ayopaya region Deworming during sire selection at Milluni
Photo credit: André Markemann Photo credit: André Markemann
409
PART 4
Box 87
Pastoralists’ breeding criteria – insights from a community member
Criteria for breeding decisions (in order of

4
The East African pastoralists of the Karamoja cluster importance)
keep a range of livestock including Zebu cattle, Small A breeding bull should:
East African goats, Persian Black Head sheep, grey • be active and agile – so as to serve all the
donkeys and light brown dromedaries. Some also keep females in the herd in a given breeding period
indigenous chickens. Uses of livestock are diverse, (it is considered that such bulls are tolerant of
and include food; a store of wealth, and a currency diseases and parasites, and that diseases in
against which other commodities can be valued; a them are easily detected);
source of recreation and prestige; a means for the • produce offspring that can maintain their body
payment of debts, fines and compensations; a means weight (and milk yield in the case of females)
of transport and agricultural traction; a source of skins even during periods of feed shortage;
and fibres; and a source of dung for fuel, fertilizer • have large body size and weight – important for
or building. Livestock also have many cultural roles marketability and status, but be not too heavy
such as being given to the bride’s family at the time to perform its breeding functions;
of marriage. They are also slaughtered at the time
• be tall, with a wide chest and straight back
of rituals associated with births; funerals; the onset
– again to meet breeding functions;
of transhumance; rain-making; averting bad omens,
• have the coat colour or horn configuration
epidemics or enemy attack; cleansing ceremonies;
identified with the owner5 or the community;
or curing an ailment on the prescription of a village
herbalist. • have a coat colour and quality suitable for
Criteria for breeding decisions are multifaceted, marketing or other uses;
and reflect the interaction of social, economic and • have good temperament – aggressive6 towards
ecological factors. They include not only productivity, predators, but not towards other livestock or
but also the taste of meat, blood, and milk; agreeable humans;
temperament; coat colour; religious requirements; • bulls kept to breed offspring for draught
disease and parasite resistance; mothering instincts; purposes should have large body weight, and
walking ability; tolerance of droughts; survival be strong and tractable;
on meagre feed; and tolerance of extremes of • breeding bulls should stay in the owner’s herd,
temperature or precipitation. graze well, and not be fond of roaming or
fighting other bulls.
• continues
4“ 5
Karamoja Cluster”: The entire Ateker people in Uganda, Pastoralists also base their own name on the colour or horn
Kenya, Ethiopia and the Sudan who generally share a common configuration of their favorite bulls. This is typical in the Karamoja
livelihood. “Ateker” people: (variously called “Ngitunga/Itunga” Cluster. Such names have the prefix Apa- which means “the
= the people). The people with a common origin living in Uganda owner of the bull with a ... coat colour/horn configuration”. For
(NgiKarimojong including Pokot, Iteso), Kenya (NgiTurukana; instance, the name “ApaLongor” means “the man with a bull
Itesio, Pokot); Ethiopia (NgiNyangatom/NgiDongiro) and in the with a brownish coat colour”. The favourite breeding bull receives
Sudan (NgiToposa) and their neighbours; who speak similar many privileges from the owner such as being adorned with a
languages and refer to their clans as Ateker (pl. Ngatekerin/ bell, or prompt treatment when ill.
Atekerin). Some clans of Ateker people are spread all over 6
Indiscriminate aggression is unacceptable in livestock, even if
Karamoja cluster. other traits are favourable.
410
Box 87 cont.
Pastoralists’ breeding criteria – insights from a community member
Female breeding animals should: The world should appreciate the role pastoralists
• have a stable high milk yield that is not only play in sustainably utilizing their uniquely adapted
tasty and has ample butterfat content, but is breeds. Not only do these animals provide food
also able to maintain healthy and quick growth and income security for their keepers, but they also
of the offspring; contribute to the maintenance of genetic diversity,
• be able to calve regularly and produce quick- thereby providing a resource for future genetic
growing offspring; improvement programmes. In this regard, pastoralists
• be tolerant of disease, heat, cold and long need appropriate support from livestock services
droughts; provided by national governments, civil society
organizations and the international community.
• survive on little feed and maintain high milk
yield, particularly in the dry season when the
Provided by Thomas Loquang (member of the Karimojong
feed quantity and quality is low; pastoralist community).
• the udder should be wide and the teats always For further information see: Loquang (2003); Loquang
(2006a); Loquang (2006b); Loquang and Köhler-Rollefson
complete; (2005).
• cows should be docile to humans and other
livestock, but aggressive towards predators;
• small stock (goats, sheep) should regularly give
birth to twins7.
For the low-input system, it is inadequate to think higher proportion is used for production. This
of genetic improvement only in terms of increases does not mean that the animal needs less feed to
in output traits, such as body weight, milk or achieve a given level of performance.
egg production, or fleece weight. Efficiency is Selection based on residual feed intake (RFI)
also a key criterion. Unfortunately, very little has been proposed as a means of improving
is known about the genetic improvement of intrinsic efficiency. This is an important criterion
intrinsic efficiency. Increased efficiency is usually for all species and all production systems. Genetic
measured in terms of increased gross efficiency. selection to reduce RFI can result in animals that
The increased gross efficiency observed in high- eat less without sacrificing growth or production
producing animals results from the fact that a performance (Herd et al., 1997; Richardson et al.,
lower proportion of the animals’ nutrient intake 1998). For example, in contrast to the ratio of weight
is used for maintenance, and a correspondingly gain/feed intake, residual feed consumption is
relatively independent of growth. RFI is therefore
7
Please note that it is a taboo for small ruminants to deliver twins a more sensitive and precise measurement of feed
at the first delivery. It is allowed only in the subsequent births. utilization (Sainz and Paulino, 2004).
Similarly, it is a taboo for cattle to deliver twins whether at the first
or subsequent delivery. Any such situations (births of twins) would
lead to the animals concerned being slaughtered by stoning or
beating. An animal in this situation is said to have become a witch
and as such should be promptly eliminated!
411
PART 4
Box 88
The Bororo Zebu of the WoDaaBe in Niger – selection for reliability in an extreme
environment
This example refers to cattle breeding in a specialized

pastoral system in Niger. The WoDaaBe are full-time
cattle keepers. Marketing livestock is the cornerstone
of their livelihood strategy. Their herds contribute
a substantial proportion of national cattle exports,
particularly to the large markets of Nigeria where
Bororo animals sell at a premium.
“Extreme environment” here refers to a
combination of a harsh ecosystem characterized by
stochastic events, and comparatively poor access to
both primary resources and external inputs. WoDaaBe
herders exploit a semi-arid territory characterized
by erratic and unpredictable rainfall. In an ordinary
year, fresh grass is available for only two to three
months at any given location. Access to forage, water
and services requires a degree of purchasing power
and negotiation with neighbouring economic actors
competing for these resources. The WoDaaBe are
usually on the weaker side in these transactions.
It has been proposed that the concept of
“reliability” is key to understanding the management
strategies of pastoralists under such conditions (Roe
et al., 1998). “High-reliability” pastoral systems are
geared to the active management of hazards rather
than their avoidance, with the aim of ensuring a
steady flow of livestock production. In these systems,
breeding has to be closely interconnected with the
environment and the production strategy. The main
goal of the WoDaaBe is to maximize the health and
reproductive capacity of the herd throughout the year.
Their management system aims to ensure that the
animals eat the highest possible amount of the richest
possible diet all year round (FAO, 2003). This involves
specialized labour, focusing on managing the diversity Photos credit: Saverio Krätli
and variability of both grazing resources and livestock
capabilities.
• continues
412
Box 88 cont.
The Bororo Zebu of the WoDaaBe in Niger – selection for reliability in an extreme
environment
The nutritional value of the range is maximized lineages have proved capable of prospering under the
by moving the herd across zones that show spatially WoDaaBe’s herd management system, and over a long
and temporally heterogeneous distribution of fodder. enough period to have included episodes of severe
Additionally, the animals’ capacity as feeders is stress. The breeding strategy focuses on ensuring the
stretched beyond the natural level. While feeding reliability of the herd’s reproductive performance,
capacity has in part a genetic base (for example more than on maximizing individual performance in
the enzymatic system or the size and conformation specific traits.
of the mouth), it can also be greatly affected by Breeding involves selective mating of cows with
learning, based on individual experience and imitation matched sires, and a marketing policy that targets
between social partners (for example efficient unproductive cows. Less than 2 percent of the males
trekking and grazing behaviour and diet preferences). are used for reproduction. Close monitoring of the
Animals’ feeding motivation is manipulated through herd allows early detection of oestrus and ensures
optimizing their digestive feedback, and ensuring that more than 95 percent of births result from match-
best fodder quality and preferred foraging conditions. making with selected males. A different sire is used
A carefully diversified diet of grasses and browse is for almost every oestrus of a particular cow, with
favoured, in order to correct nutritional imbalances an overall ratio of about one sire every four births.
which, particularly during the dry season, could Pedigree sires are borrowed across large networks
keep feeding motivation low by triggering negative of (often related) breeders. Sire borrowing remains
digestive feedback. The dry-season watering regime frequent (affecting about half the births) even when
is also tailored in order to hone cattle’s digestive a breeder owns pedigree sires of his own. Match-
performance to meet the herders’ long-term strategic making with non-pedigree sires, owned or borrowed,
goal of maximizing reproduction. affects about 12 percent of births. Both practices are
The production strategy is very demanding on maintained explicitly in order to preserve variability.
both people and the herd. With the onset of the dry Matrilineal genealogies and the sire of each animal
season, while other pastoral groups sharing the same in the herd are usually remembered, together with
ecosystem move closer to water points, where water pedigrees of special sires, and the identity and owner
is more accessible but pasture is poor, the WoDaaBe of all borrowed sires.
move in the opposite direction, trying to keep their A cow’s productivity depends heavily on how well
camps close to prime fodder. This results in long- the animal responds to the management system. By
distance mobility and a watering regime which, at adopting a production strategy that manipulates the
the peak of the hot season, often involves journeys animals’ experience of the ecosystem, the herder
of 25–30 kilometres to reach the well, with the herd exposes his animals to diverse natural environments
drinking every third day. involving particular combinations of favourable and
It is, therefore, essential to the WoDaaBe’s unfavourable foraging and watering conditions.
production strategy that functional behavioural Over the years, some cows prosper and produce a
patterns are maintained within the herd. numerous progeny while others die or struggle and
Consequently, their breeding system focuses on are sold. In this way, the WoDaaBe are able to harness
fostering social organization and interaction within natural selection pressure for their breeding purposes.
the herd. It encourages sharing of animals’ feeding
competence across the breeding network, and tries Provided by Saverio Krätli.
For more information see: Krätli (2007).
to guarantee the genetic and “cultural” continuity of
successful cattle lineages within the network. These
413
PART 4
Box 89
Community-driven breeding programmes for local pig breeds in north Viet Nam
In the mountainous areas of Northwest Viet Nam, extension services will be strengthened in the
livestock breeding and management programmes, current project phase. In earlier phases, the service’s
can contribute to improving rural livelihoods if they strong orientation towards intensive management in
respect the production objectives, intensity and favoured regions meant that exchanges were limited.
resource-availability of the area’s resource-poor Financial support for the future of the project seems
smallholder mixed farming systems. The local Ban pig to be available thanks to NIAH’s official mandate to
which shows considerable hardiness, but has a low carry out projects on AnGR conservation. Moreover,
reproductive and growth performance is increasingly the marketing element of the current project is aimed
being replaced by higher-yielding Vietnamese Mong at ensuring long-term economic viability.
Cai sows from the Red River Delta. Initial performance testing results indicate that
In a collaborative project between the National Mong Cai and their cross-bred offspring (sired by exotic
Institute of Animal Husbandry (NIAH) Hanoi and the boars) are more suited to semi-intensive, market-
University of Hohenheim, Germany8, community- oriented production conditions, where the higher
based pig breeding programmes have been levels of inputs needed to achieve higher production
established in seven villages, differing in terms of their can be provided. They seem to be less robust in the
remoteness and market access. harsh upland climates and under conditions of low and
A total of 176 households currently participate varying input intensity. Ban pigs are only suited for the
in the programmes. On-farm performance testing extensive conditions of subsistence-oriented resource-
schemes have been developed. Farmers are poor farming. As the project continues, efforts are being
provided with data sheets on which they record the made to further develop breeding goals, to optimize
performance of their pigs (mainly date of farrowing stratified breeding programmes, and to implement
and number of piglets). Vietnamese and German marketing programmes. Close to town, lean meat is
researchers cross-check data and collect additional produced from the cross-bred offspring of Mong Cai
data by weighing and identifying animals when they sows. Production of Ban pigs continues in remote
visit the villages. Specially trained farmers enter the locations with pure or cross-bred animals marketed as
data into the project databank using the PigChamp® a branded speciality – contributing to the “conservation
software and researchers analyse the data. through use” of this local breed.
Farmers in Viet Nam often receive money for
their participation in projects; in the case of this
project, compensations are gradually being reduced. Provided by Ute Lemke and Anne Valle Zárate.
Further information can be obtained from the following
Results are fed back to farmers at seminars/training
sources: Huyen, et al. (2005); Lemke, (2006); Rößler. (2005),
modules, and are further used to optimize breeding or from: Prof Dr Anne Valle Zárate, Institute of Animal
(gilt selection and optimization of mating plans). In Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of
Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany.
order to ensure long-term sustainability, local partners E-mail: [email protected]
such as the province Department of Agriculture and
Rural Development (DARD) and the sub-Department
of Animal Health of Son La province, are actively • continues
involved and trained. Cooperation with provincial
8
Funded by the German Research Association (DFG) in the frame of
the Thai-Vietnamese-German collaborative research programme SFB
564 and by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Viet Nam.
414
Box 89 cont.
BẢN ÐỒ
HÀNH CHÍNH GIAO THÔNG
TỈNH SƠN LA
Mong Cai sow Ban fatteners
Photos provided by Ute Lemke
Compensation
Farmers Researchers (German, Vietnamese)

Data sheets Additional data recording
Information
Feedback of results Centrally managed project data bank

Training, advice Software: PigChamp ®
Controlled mating (Vietpignew software) Data entry: farmers
Management: researchers
Breeding
Optimize Answer
management,
pig management research question
controlled mating
• continues
415
PART 4
Box 89 cont.
Pigs in Song Ma district Weighing pigs in Pa Dong, Mai Son district
Photo credit: Pham Thi Thanh Hoa Photo credit: Regina Rößler
Data recording in low-input systems Breeding schemes

The absence of a credible recording scheme If genetic change is justified, how can it be
and resources for adequate data storage and achieved? The choice is between straight or cross-
management hinder the development of breeding, but choosing the appropriate option is
sustainable breeding programmes in low-input far from simple.
systems. Running a computerized database can be In low-input systems, adaptation to the
expensive and may require specialized skills. The environment is a prerequisite for improved
absence of technical skills and financial resources efficiency. This is a matter of great importance,
has been identified as the main obstacle to the as intervention to reduce environmental stresses
establishment of sustainable animal recording (supplementary feeding, parasite treatments or
systems in many African countries (Djemali, 2005). other management inputs) is often unaffordable.
Continuous advances in information technology In these circumstances, straight-breeding to
mean that data recording devices are becoming improve well-adapted indigenous breeds may
cheaper and offer greater potential for recording be an option. Implementing a straight-breeding
in low-input systems. The use of hand-held programme is a long-term undertaking, requiring
devices, laptops and the Internet could make considerable resources, good organization, and
it easier for small numbers of people to gather (most of all) commitment of all stakeholders.
and transmit large amounts of data from remote These requirements tend to be lacking under
locations to a central database. Such a database low-input systems in the developing world, and
could be based in a university or a government programmes that do exist are only of a very
department. Provision of facilities of this type is limited scope. For example, most controlled
one way in which governments or donor agencies breeding of the West African Dwarf Goat has
could facilitate the development of breeding been in research institutions (especially in those
programmes for low-input systems in developing in Nigeria) (Odubote, 1992).
countries. Cross-breeding with an exotic breed may appear
to be a more rapid means to improve performance
416
with a minimal increase in inputs. However, the higher often result in a reduced reproductive life. Even
performance of the cross-breeds is accompanied by if the male of the exotic breed can be successfully
higher nutritional and management requirements maintained, the backcross resulting from mating
(disease control, housing, etc.). Therefore, any F1 females with the exotic males will almost
system that incorporates higher-performing cross- always lack adequate adaptation to the area.
bred animals will require (among other needs) Therefore, the F1 females should preferably be
more feed resources – which in many cases can only mated to adapted-breed sires.
be achieved by maintaining a smaller number of One option under these conditions is to use F1
animals. males, generation after generation. Under such
If, after careful analysis, cross-breeding is a system, the original local females are mated
considered to be a better option than straight- to F1 males, resulting in offspring that are 1/4
breeding the local breed, the programme should exotic. These quarter-blood females are, in turn,
be developed in a way that can be sustained with mated to F1 males, resulting in females that are
locally available inputs. Cross-breeding with an 3/8 exotic. After a few generations the animals
exotic (non-adapted) breed presents particular would be very close to half exotic. This system
difficulties. Even if the F1 animals are sufficiently introduces exotic influence into the population,
adapted, the pure-bred exotic males will usually but never uses or produces any animals that are
be under environmental stress, and this will more than half exotic.
Another option for cross-breeding under low-
input systems is to cross different breeds that are
Box 90 well adapted to the production conditions. The
The cost of heterosis obvious advantage of such programmes is the
ability to maintain and produce the breeding
Heterosis has sometimes been referred to as a free stock in the area without additional inputs. It
opportunity for increased profitability. Although it
may be worth more than it costs, heterosis is not free. Box 91
It involves at least two types of costs. Nigeria’s Village Poultry Improvement
First, there is the cost involved in meeting Scheme
the nutritional requirement for the additional
performance. The higher performance of the cross- A Village Poultry Improvement Scheme aimed at
bred animal tends to reduce the cost per unit of upgrading the indigenous breed of chicken with
production, because the cost for maintenance improved exotic breeds (Rhode Island Red, Light
becomes a smaller fraction of the total requirement, Sussex and Australorp) was initiated in Nigeria
but there is a cost for the extra production. around 1950 (Anwo, 1989). The strategy was to
A second type of cost is associated with cull all indigenous males and replace them with
potential changes in population structure. These improved imported breeds in a “cockerel exchange
costs may include (1) reductions in the size (and a programme” (Bessei, 1987). This scheme failed
corresponding increase in the level of inbreeding) because the cross-bred chicks, though better in
of an original pure-bred population which occurs performance, could not survive in the semi-wild
because of the need to accommodate the cross-bred extensive backyard production system under which
population, and (2) a reduced opportunity to select the indigenous chickens were raised. Another major
for female productivity in a population where some drawback was that breed replacement resulted in a
of the cross-bred females are not considered to be rapid loss in genetic variation and narrowing of the
candidates for selection (as in any terminal-sire available AnGR.
system).
417
PART 4
Box 92
A community-based and participatory dairy goat cross-breeding programme in
a low-input smallholder system in the eastern highlands of Kenya
FARM Africa’s Meru project in Kenya provides an

example of a comprehensive and flexible cross- Farmer groups initially comprised 20 to 25
breeding programme. Improved goat genotypes members, but some lost members over time while
accompanied by improved husbandry practices have others grew. Four such groups were linked in a unit
been adopted by very poor farmers with incomes well (mainly for administrative and monitoring purposes),
below US$1 per person per day. The local goats (Galla with representatives being elected to a larger body
and East African) were proving difficult to maintain on the Meru Goat Breeders’ Association (MGBA). Small
small and declining farm sizes (0.25 to 1.5 acres), and (one buck and four does) breeder units were provided
the farmers had started to abandon goat production. (as a loan to be paid back in kind) to one group
Consequently, the cross-breeding programme aimed member, who produced the Toggenburgs (T) needed
to provide more docile and productive animals. Sixty- for breeding stock. One pure-bred Toggenburg buck
eight female and 62 male British Toggenburg goats was provided to each farmer group and kept in a buck
were imported from the United Kingdom and crossed station, maintained by another group member. Local
with indigenous goats: the Toggenburgs providing does were brought to the buck station for service. The
the dairy potential and the local goats providing resulting F1 female cross-breeds were backcrossed to
adaptability. Previous introductions and trials had unrelated Toggenburg bucks to produce ¾ Toggenburg
indicated that Toggenburgs were better adapted than and ¼ Local (L) animals. These were evaluated, and
other exotic dairy breeds such as Saanens or Anglo- superior males selected to start new buck stations,
Nubians. where they were used to serve unrelated females
The project adopted a group and community- of similar genetic composition (¾ T and ¼ L). Initial
based approach. The farmers established the project’s trials had shown that such does produced adequate
rules, by-laws and mechanisms. It was linked to amounts of both milk and meat, and were reasonably
the government, NARS, and international research adapted to the local conditions. Through the MGBA,
institutes, which provided training in husbandry which also registered the cross-breeds with the
(housing, nutrition, fodder production, record keeping Kenya Stud Book, groups rotated the bucks every 1 to
and healthcare), group dynamics, marketing and 1.5 years to avoid inbreeding. Farmers who wished
entrepreneurship. to further upgrade towards the Toggenburg had the
Project statistics 1996 to 2004
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
New farmer groups 10 34 20 6 12 10 7 18 8

New buck stations 10 34 10 11 6 16 14 3 22
New breeders units 5 20 25 10 12 6 2 4 7
Buck services 809 1 994 3 376 3 936 3 892 3 253 5 660 6 500
Families participating 250 1 100 1 125 1 400 1 550 1 700 2 050 2 050 2 650
Cross-breeds produced 990 2 894 3 241 3 817 3 736 4 187 5 865 7 200
Source: FARM-Africa Dairy Goat and Animal Healthcare Project; six-monthly reports January 1996–June 2004.
• continues
418
Box 92 cont.
A community-based and participatory dairy goat cross-breeding programme in
a low-input smallholder system in the eastern highlands of Kenya
opportunity to do so by further backcrossing the ¾ T The features that made the scheme successful
females to unrelated pure T bucks. include:
Two years after FARM Africa’s pull-out the number • a farmer-based approach since its inception;
of operating groups has continued to increase. In • an emphasis on capacity building so that
2006 the MGBA has 3 450 members, all of whom farmers can manage the programme;
keep improved goats which produce between 1.5 and • availability of locally produced breeding
3.5 litres of milk per day. The group produces about material;
3 500 litres of milk daily, some of which is processed • a group approach – farmers train each other
and packaged for sale. Member families own more and share experiences;
than 35 000 improved goats of which 30 percent • capacity building for extension staff, farmer-
have reliable pedigree and performance records. centred extension messages, and participatory
The performance records are used for calculating approaches; and
growth rates and milk yields. These data were • the community-based establishment of breeder
formerly processed by FARM-Africa. After the phasing units and buck stations.
out of the project, MGBA has been encouraged to The scheme has ensured that after the end of
establish collaboration with universities and research “the project”, farmers are not reliant on government
institutions to support them in data processing. Most services. Breeding stock is supplied by farmers
of the owners of the improved goats are no longer themselves, and a parallel animal healthcare service
“poor”. Some have used profits from goat production has also been established by training community-
to purchase one or two dairy cows, build better based animal health workers, with links to more
houses and educate their children. Production of qualified paraveterinarians and veterinarians. An
yoghurt and fresh pasteurized milk (adding value) is integrated fodder and reforestation programme was
indicative of scope for further developments.. also established.
Provided by Okeyo Mwai and Camillus O. Ahuya.

For further reading see: Ahuya et al. (2004); Ahuya et al.
(2005); Okeyo (1997).
would be logical to assume that such crosses With any cross-breeding scheme it is important
would produce less-productive animals and/or to consider the whole system and all outputs
exhibit less heterosis than crosses between a produced. Commenting the value of the European
local and an exotic breed. However, Gregory et dairy x Zebu F1 cow for milk production in the
al. (1985) report estimates of heterosis for weight tropics, LPPS and Köhler-Rollefson (2005) write
of calf weaned per cow of 24 percent between “in India, many owners of cross-bred cows cannot
Boran and Ankole cattle, and 25 percent between see a use for male calves, so let them die.”
Boran and Small East African Zebu.
419
PART 4
6 Breeding in the context of If the number of breeding males is the same

conservation as the number of breeding females, the effective
population size is the same as the actual
Conservation programmes for AnGR are discussed population size; if the numbers of males and
in greater detail elsewhere in this report. The females are different, the effective population
following discussion, therefore, focuses on size is less than the actual population size. If the
aspects of breeding that need to be considered number of breeding females is much larger than
when implementing conservation measures. the number of males, the effective population size
A conservation programme may simply aim at will be slightly less than four times the number of
ensuring the survival of a population through males.
monitoring and maintaining its integrity, or A decrease in effective population size in
a programme may also have the objective of livestock populations can be observed in two
improving the performance of the population. situations. The first and most obvious case is
when the actual population size decreases. This
6.1 Methods for monitoring small can result from the replacement of a significant
populations proportion of a breed with breeding animals
FAO has produced several publications on the of another breed, or from cross-breeding a
management of at-risk small populations – see for significant fraction of the breed.
example FAO (1998). These documents provide a The second situation is when a particularly
more extensive review of the subject. Where the popular sire and his sons and other descendants
Where the objective is merely to ensure the survival are heavily used. From the time of the first
of the population and the maintenance of its establishment of breed societies up to the mid-
integrity (as a pure population), the conservation 1900s, much of the popularity of particular sires
strategy is limited to monitoring the population, came about as a result of success in the show ring.
and ensuring that inbreeding and effective In more recent times, predicted genetic value for
population size are within acceptable limits. particular traits has been the decisive factor. In
Inbreeding is the result of mating related dairy cattle, selection was for many years almost
animals. In a small population, all animals in entirely focused on milk yield. Hansen (2001)
future generations will come to be related to each reports that although over 300 000 head were
other, and mating among these animals will result registered by the Holstein Association USA Inc. in
in inbreeding. The genetic effect of inbreeding is 2000, the effective population size was only 37
increased homozygosity – the animal receives the head. Using pedigree records of cattle born in
same alleles from both its parents. The degree of 2001, Cleveland et al. (2005) report an estimated
inbreeding and homozygosity in future generations effective population size in the American Hereford
can be predicted from the population size. of 85 head. The American Hereford Association
As there is almost always a much smaller registered over 75 000 head in 2001.
number of breeding males than breeding The level of inbreeding in a given population
females, the number of breeding males is the is dependent on effective population size rather
more important factor determining the amount than actual population size. The increase in the
of inbreeding. The effective population size (Ne) is level of inbreeding per generation is expected
a function of the number of breeding males and to be 1/2Ne. This is the increase expected per
breeding females. If Nm represents the number of generation if each animal produces an equal
breeding males and Nf represents the number of number of offspring, and the animals in the
breeding females, effective population size can initial population are not related to each other.
be calculated as: If these assumptions are not met, the degree
Ne = (4NmNf) / (Nm + Nf) of inbreeding will be higher. Based on this
420
relationship, Gregory et al. (1999) recommend the amount of reproductive surplus in females.
that at least 20 to 25 sires be used per generation. This can be measured in terms of the fraction of
This would also be a reasonable number to be young females that are available for slaughter or
used in the conservation of a breed. The use of for sale out of the programme (or region). As an
25 sires per generation would result in a rate of example, for fairly well-managed beef herds in
increase in inbreeding of about 0.5 percent per temperate areas, about 40 percent of the heifer
generation. calves are needed for replacements in order to
While the loss of effective population size is an maintain the size of the herd.
important issue in the conservation of AnGR, it is With knowledge of the reproductive surplus
interesting to note that successful breeders have of females, and knowledge of the fraction of
always accepted some level of inbreeding in their the total population that is currently made up
programmes. These breeders established herds of cross-breeds, the fraction of pure-breeds that
or flocks that met their standards – the animals can be utilized to produce F1s without further
produced in these closed herds or flocks inevitably decreasing the population size of the pure breed
came to be closely related, and inbreeding can be calculated. As an example, if there is a 20
resulted (Hazelton, 1939). percent reproductive surplus of females and the
current population is composed of 50 percent
6.2 Conservation through breeding pure-breeds and 50 percent cross-breeds (includes
The objectives of a conservation programme any pure-bred females that are currently being
may include not only ensuring the survival and used for cross-breeding), the population could
integrity of the target population, but also move towards a composition of slightly more
improving its reproductive rate and performance than 50 percent pure-breeds producing pure-
while maintaining its specific adaptive features. breeds, slightly more than 20 percent pure-breeds
Much of the above discussion of breeding strategy producing F1s, and slightly less than 30 percent
for low-input systems is likely to be applicable in F1 females, without any further reduction in
these circumstances. This subchapter focuses on the size of the pure-bred population that is
the potential risks associated with cross-breeding producing pure-breeds. These values assume that
in the context of breed conservation. none of the females produced by the F1 females
One option to safeguard a breed is to use it are retained as breeding females; in reality, this
as one of the components of a cross-breeding would probably never occur.
programme. However, any use of pure-bred
females to produce cross-breeds will reduce the
population size unless there is a reproductive surplus 7 Conclusions
of females. In many cases, the environmental and
management conditions do not allow for much Breeding methods and organization vary greatly
reproductive surplus – especially in cattle, which between industrialized commercial production
have low reproductive rates. As such, most of systems and subsistence-oriented low external
the females that are raised must be retained as input systems. The current organization of the
breeding animals in order to maintain the size of breeding sector is a result of a long evolutionary
the population. In fact, the largest effect comes process. The latest development is the spread of
from the requirement for a smaller number of the industrialized breeding model, characteristic
indigenous breeding males, brought about by of the poultry sector, to other species.
the smaller number of indigenous females that The industrialized breeding model uses state
are being used to produce pure-bred offspring. A of the art techniques for genetic improvement.
logical starting point for consideration of a cross- Breeding programmes are based mainly on
breeding programme is, therefore, to estimate straight-breeding and vary according to the
421
PART 4
characteristics of the species. Breeding companies milkability. Generally, considered as secondary

market their animals worldwide. This tendency, traits in high-input systems, functional traits
which is well established among “commercial” are of great importance in low-input systems.
pig and poultry breeders, is increasingly the Recording of functional traits, however, still
case for beef and dairy cattle. To select for remains an important bottleneck which hinders
robust animals that are able to cope with their inclusion in breeding schemes. Information is
different environments, breeders run selection lacking on the genetic basis of disease resistance,
programmes across different environments and welfare, robustness and adaptation to different
management systems. However, it is not possible environments. Nevertheless, the dairy cattle and
to have animals that produce well everywhere pig industries have started to use DNA typing
and under all conditions. As such, different breeds of single genes and genomics (SNPs) to screen
or lines may be developed to meet demands in breeding animals. This will support the expected
high-input systems. To date, little is known about shift towards breeding for functional and lifetime
the genetic aspects of adaptation. Scientists and productivity traits.
breeding companies are expected to explore Because of the tendency for reduced use of
these matters further in their research and their chemical medications in the developed world,
breeding programmes in the coming years. animals are required to have better resistance,
In low external input production systems, or at least tolerance, to particular diseases and
animals kept by smallholders represent an parasites. However, for economic and animal
important element of household food security welfare reasons, it is very difficult to select for
and of the social fabric of village communities. such animals using classical quantitative genetic
To a large extent, smallholders and pastoralists approaches. High expectations are therefore
keep local breeds. Genetic improvement in these placed on genomics. Some applications are
conditions is a challenging, but not impossible, already in use to eliminate genetic disorders
task. Detailed guidelines for the design and with Mendelian inheritance. In the case of the
execution of sustainable breed utilization and more complex resistance traits for which genetic
improvement programmes for low external input markers have been identified, such as Marek’s
systems are being developed and validated. disease in poultry and E. coli in pigs, few if any
Straight-breeding to adjust a local breed to the breeding companies have implemented DNA-
changing needs of producers is the most viable based selection.
option not only to keep it in production and hence Welfare has become an important element
safeguard it, but also to improve food security in consumers’ perception of product quality,
and alleviate poverty. Another option is to use it especially in Europe. The main challenges for
as a component of a well-planned cross-breeding breeders are to select for better temperament,
programme. In conjunction with the introduction and reduce foot and leg problems and the
of a breeding programme, attention should incidence of cardio-vascular problems (in poultry
be given to the improvement of management kept for meat production). The causes of these
conditions and husbandry practices. problems are multifactorial.
A common tendency in research related The increasing importance of functional traits
to breeding programmes for all species is an will require inclusion of a wider range of criteria
increasing focus on functional traits – in response in breeding programmes. Some of these criteria
to the growing importance given to factors such may be best met by local breeds. Characterization
as animal welfare, environmental protection, (phenotypic and molecular) and assessment of
distinctive product qualities and human health. these breeds for important traits may allow the
Examples of functional traits include robustness, detection of some that have unique features.
disease resistance and behavioural traits, fertility, Their further development through breeding
efficiency of feed utilization, calving ease and programmes would ensure that they remain
422
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Section E
Methods for
economic valuation
1 Introduction
The large number of AnGR at risk in developing context of the evolution of production systems
countries, together with the limited financial (including biophysical, socio-economic and markets
resources available for conservation and changes). See Part 2 for a further discussion of
sustainable use, means that economic analysis can trends in livestock production systems.
play an important role in ensuring an appropriate From an economic point of view, AnGR erosion
focus for conservation and genetic improvement can be seen as a result of drivers generating a
efforts. In this regard, important tasks include, bias towards investment in specialized genotypes,
inter alia: which in turn results in under-investment in a more
• determining the economic contribution that diverse set of breeds. Economic rationality suggests
AnGR make to various sectors of society; that investment decisions will be determined
• supporting the assessment of priorities by the relative profitability of the two options
through the identification of cost-effective (assuming risk neutrality and well-functioning
measures which might be taken to conserve markets). However, from a farmer’s perspective,
livestock diversity; and the relevant rates of return are those that accrue
• assisting in the design of economic to him/her rather than to society or the world as a
incentives and institutional arrangements whole. To the farmer, the loss of a local breed will
for the promotion of AnGR conservation by appear to be economically rational in a situation
individual farmers or communities. where the returns from the activities that lead
Swanson (1997) notes that human societies to the loss are higher than those from activities
have been expanding and developing over time compatible with genetic resource conservation –
through a process involving biodiversity depletion. especially as returns from the latter may consist of
This process can be understood in terms of a trade- non-market benefits that accrue to people other
off between maintaining the stock of diverse than the farmer. This divergence will be further
biological resources, and the benefits to human compounded by the existence of distortions in the
society derived from the depletion of this stock. values of inputs and outputs such that they do not
AnGR erosion can, thus, be seen in terms of the reflect their economic scarcity.
replacement of the existing slate of livestock The above-described divergence between
with a small range of specialized “improved” private and public returns is important. As Pearce
breeds. Such replacement occurs not only through and Moran (1994) note, the recognition of the
substitution, but also through cross-breeding and broader total economic value (TEV – see Box
the elimination of livestock because of production 93) of natural assets can be instrumental in
system changes. Genotype choices and threats to altering decisions about their use, particularly in
AnGR, therefore, need to be understood in the investment decisions that present a clear choice
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PART 4
Box 93
Economic values
Livestock keepers benefit from the conservation of Direct Use Values (DUV) are the benefits resulting
livestock diversity because of their need for animals from, inter alia, actual uses, such as for food, fertilizer
that are able to produce in diverse agro-ecosystems, and hides, as well as cultural/ritual uses.
and fulfil a range of functions. In addition to supplying Indirect Use Values (IUV) are the benefits deriving
products for sale or home consumption, livestock from ecosystem functions. For example, some animals
provide input functions related to other farm/ play a key role in the dispersion of certain plant
household activities. Livestock provide manure to species.
enhance crop yields, transport for inputs and products, Option Values (OV) are derived from the value
and also serve for traction. Where rural financial given to safeguarding an asset for the option of using
and insurance markets are not well developed, they it at a future date. It is a kind of insurance value
enable farm families to smooth variation in income (given uncertainty about the future and risk aversion)
and consumption levels over time. Livestock constitute against the occurrence of, for example, a new animal
savings and insurance, buffering against crop failure disease or drought/climate change. Subtly different
and cyclical patterns in crop-related income. They from, but related to, option values are quasi-option
enable families to accumulate capital and diversify, values. The latter relates to the extra value attached
and serve a range of sociocultural roles related to the to future information made available through the
status and the obligations of their owners (Jahnke, preservation of a resource. Quasi-option values arise
1982; Anderson, 2003). Livestock also play a role from the irreversible nature of breed loss (after which
in the maintenance of ecosystems; for example, no further learning can take place); they are not
managed grazing is increasingly viewed as an related to the risk aversion of the decision makers.
important tool for conservation. Bequest Values (BV) measure the benefit accruing
The values mentioned in the above paragraph to any individual from the knowledge that others
are components of direct or indirect use value. might benefit from a resource in the future; and
Other values are not related to use, but simply to Existence Values (XV) are derived simply from the
the existence of the breeds (existence and bequest satisfaction of knowing that a particular asset exists
values). Another type of value arises from the notion (e.g. blue whales, capybaras or N´Dama cattle).
of uncertainty about the future. The latter result from Some asset values may overlap between these
the motivation to avert risk (option value), and from categories, and double counting has to be avoided.
the irreversibility of the loss of a breed and the related Attempts to isolate option, bequest and existence
loss of information. values can be problematic. Underlying principles and
The “Total Economic Value” (TEV) is formally equal procedures for such valuation are still debated.
to the sum of all direct and indirect use values plus
non-use and option values: Sources: adapted from Arrow and Fisher (1974); Jahnke,
(1982); Pearce and Moran, (1994); Anderson, (2003); Roosen
TEV = DUV + IUV + OV + BV + XV where:
et al., (2005).
between erosion/destruction or conservation. are against genetic resource conservation, and in

When the activity of biodiversity (and genetic favour of the economic activities that erode such
resource) conservation generates economic values resources. Such outcomes are, from an economic
that are not captured in the market place, the result viewpoint, associated with market failure (i.e.
of this “failure” is a distortion in which the incentives distortions arising from the “missing markets” in
430
the external benefits generated by biodiversity subsequent initiatives by ILRI (Economics of AnGR
conservation); intervention failure (i.e. distortions Conservation and Sustainable Use Programme)
caused by government actions in intervening in and its partners to test these methodologies,
the workings of the market place, even where that significant research into the matter has been
those appear to serve some social purpose); and/or carried out.
global appropriation failures (i.e. the absence of Such tools and their findings have, as yet,
markets/mechanisms to capture globally important rarely been put to use in situations that influence
external values). Note that global missing markets policy-making and farmer livelihoods. Further
can co-exist with local market failure and research is urgently needed to better understand
intervention failure. The loss of biodiversity and implications for genotype preferences of an
genetic resources is a case in point. increasingly dynamic context characterized by,
It is apparent from the above typology of values inter alia:
that current economic decisions are largely based • globalization of markets;
on the first category, direct use values, although • climate change and environmental
the other categories may be of equal or greater degradation;
importance. For example, it has been estimated • the occurrence of new epidemic animal
that approximately 80 percent of the value of diseases;
livestock in low-input developing-country systems • developments in the field of biotechnology;
can be attributed to non-market roles, while only and
20 percent is attributable to direct production • policy developments related to the CBD.
outputs. By contrast, over 90 percent of the value Global efforts to eradicate poverty, as
of livestock in high-input developed-country embodied in the Millennium Development Goals,
production systems is attributable to the latter also require an improved understanding of the
(Gibson and Pullin, 2005). By focusing exclusively potential contributions of alternative genotypes
on direct use values, biodiversity and genetic to poverty alleviation, in order to improve
resource conservation are likely to be consistently pro-poor targeting of AnGR programmes. In
undervalued, resulting in a bias towards activities this context, research supporting institutional
that are incompatible with their conservation. innovations and technology-adoption also play
an important role. Such areas are critical for the
management of AnGR and have important socio-
2 Development of methodologies economic dimensions.
for economic analysis There are a number of reasons for the relatively
slow development of the economics of AnGR,
Although there is a large body of literature on including: the fact that the measurement of
the economic benefits of improved breeds in the benefits of germplasm diversity to livestock
intensive (largely developed-country) commercial development is difficult; the limited availability
agriculture, the importance of indigenous breeds of the data required to carry out economic
and trait values in the subsistence production analysis; and the importance of considering
systems typical of developing countries have been non-market values of livestock – obtaining such
much less studied. There is an extensive amount of data frequently requires the modification of
conceptual and theoretical literature concerning economic techniques for use in conjunction with
sources of value arising from genetic resources participatory and rapid rural appraisal methods.
and biodiversity in general (usually referring Despite the difficulties, there are a range
to plants and wild animals). However, it is only of analytical techniques from other areas of
since an FAO/ILRI workshop (ILRI, 1999) identified economics that can be adapted for carrying out
potential AnGR valuation methodologies, and such analyses. These methodologies are reviewed
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PART 4
TABLE 102
Overview of valuation methodologies
Valuation methodology Purpose Contribution to conservation and

sustainable use of AnGR
Group 1: Methodologies for determining the actual economic importance of the breed (mostly of interest to policy makers and breeders,
as well as some farmers)
Aggregate Demand & Supply Identify value of breed to society. Value potential losses associated with AnGR loss.
Cross-sectional Farm and Household Identify value of breed to society. Value potential losses associated with AnGR loss.
Aggregated Productivity Model Determine farmer net returns by breed. Justify economic importance of given breed in the
context of multiple limiting inputs.
IPR and Contracts Market creation and support for “fair and Generate funds and incentives for AnGR
equitable” sharing of AnGR benefits. conservation.
Contingent Valuation Methodologies I (e.g. Determine farmer trait value preferences and Justify economic importance of given breed.
dichotomous choice, contingent ranking, choice net returns by breed.
experiments)
Market Share I Indicate current market value of a given breed. Justify economic importance of given breed.
Group 2: Methodologies for determining the costs and benefits of AnGR conservation programmes and for targeting farmers for
participation (mostly of interest to policy makers and farmers)
Contingent Valuation Methodologies II (e.g. Identify society’s willingness to pay (WTP) for Define maximum economically justified
dichotomous choice, contingent ranking, choice the conservation of AnGR. conservation costs.
experiments) Identify farmer willingness to accept (WTA)
compensation for raising indigenous AnGR
instead of exotics.
Production Loss Averted Indicate magnitude of potential production Justify conservation programme costs of at least
losses in the absence of AnGR conservation. this magnitude.
Opportunity Cost Identify cost of maintaining AnGR diversity. Define opportunity cost of AnGR conservation
programme.
Market Share II Indication of current market value of a given Justify conservation programme costs.
breed.
Least Cost Identify cost-efficient programme for the Define minimum cost of conservation
conservation of AnGR. programme.
Safe Minimum Standard Assess trade-offs involved in maintaining a Define opportunity cost of AnGR conservation
minimum viable population. programme.
Group 3: Methodologies for priority setting in AnGR breeding programmes (mostly of interest to farmers and breeders)
Evaluation of Breeding Programme Identify net economic benefits of stock Maximize economic benefits of conserved AnGR.
improvements.
Genetic Production Function Identify net economic benefits of stock Maximize expected economic benefits of
improvements. conserved AnGR.
Hedonic Identify trait values. Value potential losses associated with AnGR loss.
Understand breed preferences.
Farm Simulation Model Model improved animal characteristics on farm Maximize economic benefits of conserved AnGR.
economics.
Source: adapted from Drucker et al. (2001).
432
by Drucker et al. (2001) who broadly categorize 3 Application of economic

them into three (non-mutually exclusive) groups methodologies in animal
on the basis of the practical purpose for which genetic resources management
they may be used (see Table 102):
v group 1) determining the actual economic The following examples are presented in
importance of the breed at risk; the context of the classification presented in
v group 2) determining the costs and benefits Table 102.
of AnGR conservation programmes, and
targeting farmers for participation; and 3.1 Value of animal genetic resources
v group 3) priority setting in AnGR breeding to farmers9
programmes. • Adaptive traits and non-income functions
A number of these methodologies have form important components of the total
significant conceptual shortcomings and intensive value of indigenous-breed animals to
data requirements (see Drucker et al., 2001 for a livestock keepers.
detailed description). However, they have been • Conventional productivity evaluation
shown to produce useful estimates of the values criteria are inadequate to evaluate
that are placed on market, non-market and subsistence livestock production and have
potential breed attributes of the type useful for tended to overestimate the benefits of
designing breeding and conservation strategies. breed substitution.
The following section presents an overview of Tano et al. (2003) and Scarpa et al. (2003a;
the methodologies. The objective is both to show 2003b) used stated preference choice experiments
the potential usefulness of the methodologies, (CE) to value the phenotypic traits expressed in
as well as to provide information (inevitably indigenous breeds of livestock. Adaptive traits
location-specific) on the economic importance of and non-income functions are shown to form
indigenous AnGR. To this end, a number of specific important components of the total value of the
studies are presented as illustrative examples of animals to livestock keepers. In the study carried
the application of the various tools. Many of the out by Tano et al. (2003) in West Africa, for example,
findings give useful insights into the value of the most important traits for incorporation into
particular indigenous livestock breeds within the the goals of breed improvement programme
production systems studied. Salient conclusions are were found to be disease resistance, fitness for
highlighted at the start of each subsection. A more traction, and reproductive performance. Beef and
detailed overview can be found in Drucker et al. milk production were less important. The results
(2005), and an annotated bibliography of literature of these studies also show that it is possible to
in this field is provided by Zambrano et al. (2005). investigate values of genetically determined
traits that are currently not widely recognized in
livestock populations, but are desirable candidates
for breeding or conservation programmes (e.g.
disease resistance).
Karugia et al. (2001) used an aggregate
demand and supply approach covering both
national and farm levels. They argue that
conventional economic evaluations of cross-
breeding programmes have overestimated their
benefits by ignoring subsidies, the increased
9
Using Group 1 valuation methodologies (see Table 102).
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PART 4
costs of management such as veterinary support 3.2 Costs and benefits of

services, and the higher levels of risk and socio- conservation10
environmental costs associated with the loss of the • The costs of implementing an in situ breed
indigenous genotypes. Applied to dairy farming conservation programme may be relatively
in Kenya, the results suggest that at the national- small, both when compared to the size of
level, cross-breeding has had an overall positive subsidies currently being provided to the
impact on society’s welfare (based on a consumer/ commercial livestock sector, and with regard
producer surplus measure), although taking to the benefits of conservation. However,
important social cost components into account few such conservation initiatives exist,
substantially lowers the net benefits. Farm-level and even where the value of indigenous
performance is, however, little improved under breeds has been recognized and support
“traditional” production systems by replacing the mechanisms implemented, significant
indigenous Zebu with exotic breeds. shortcomings can be identified.
Comparing the performance of different • Similar work regarding the costs and
genotypes (indigenous goats vs. exotic crosses), benefits of the ex situ (cryo)conservation of
Ayalew et al. (2003) come to a similar conclusion. livestock remains limited. However, under
The secondary importance of meat and milk the assumption that technical feasibility
production traits in many production systems brings the cost of cryoconservation and
leads these authors to argue that conventional regeneration of livestock species to within
criteria for the evaluation of productivity are the same level of magnitude as that of
inadequate for subsistence livestock production plants, extensive conservation efforts would
systems, because: be justified on economic grounds.
• they fail to capture non-marketable benefits
of the livestock; and In situ conservation
• the core concept of a single limiting input Cicia et al. (2003) show that a dichotomous
is inappropriate to subsistence production, choice stated preference approach can be
as multiple limiting inputs (livestock, labour, used to estimate the benefits of establishing a
land) are involved in the production process. conservation programme for the threatened Italian
The study involved the use of an aggregated Pentro horse. A bio-economic model was used to
productivity model to evaluate subsistence goat estimate the costs associated with conservation,
production in the eastern Ethiopian highlands. and a cost–benefit analysis was subsequently
The results show that indigenous goat flocks realized. Benefit estimates were based on
generated significantly higher net benefits under society’s willingness to pay for conservation and,
improved than under traditional management, therefore, may be associated, in this particular
which challenges the prevailing notion that case, with an existence value. The results not only
indigenous livestock do not adequately respond show a large positive net present value associated
to improvements in the level of management. with the proposed conservation activity (benefit/
Furthermore, it is shown that under the subsistence cost ratio > 2.9), but also show that this approach
mode of production considered, the premise is a useful decision-support tool for policy-makers
that cross-bred goats are more productive and involved in allocating scarce funds to a growing
beneficial than the indigenous goats is wrong. number of animal breeds facing extinction.
The model, thus, not only underlines the value A case study of the endangered Box Keken pig
of indigenous AnGR to farmers, but also provides breed in Yucatan, Mexico revealed large net present
a more realistic platform upon which to propose values associated with conservation (Drucker and
sound improvement interventions.
10
434
TABLE 103
Conservation benefits and costs under a range of valuation methodologies –
the case of the Box Keken pig (Yucatan, Mexico)
Valuation methodologies* Measure of conservation Measure of conservation

and sustainable use costs US$ per annum
benefits
US$ per annum
Market share US$490 000

Production loss averted (Yucatan State only) US$1.1 million
Contingent valuation (consumer taste test) US$1.3 million
Contingent valuation (producer choice experiment) and least cost/ US$2 500–3 500
opportunity cost approach
Source: Drucker and Anderson (2004).

*See Table 102.
Anderson, 2004). Three methodologies for valuing breeds. Moreover, payment levels are inadequate,
the benefits of conservation and sustainable use meaning that it can still remain unprofitable to
of the breed – market share, production loss rear indigenous breeds. Ideally, support payments
averted and contingent valuation (consumer should be set at a level that reflects society’s
taste test) – were tested and critically assessed. willingness to pay for conservation, but this is not
The costs of conservation were estimated with usually the case and may not always be necessary
the use of contingent valuation (producer to ensure profitability.
choice experiment) and least cost/opportunity The lack of adequate incentives for the
cost approaches. A shortcoming of the first two conservation of indigenous breeds is despite the
techniques for valuing the benefits is that they fact that conservation costs have been shown, in
are not based on consumer surplus measures, i.e. a number of case studies described by Drucker
do not account for price changes and substitution (2006), to be relatively small. Drawing on the
possibilities should breed loss occur. Despite the safe minimum standards (SMS) literature, the
identified shortcomings, and the fact that values framework used in this study assumes that the
can only be approximated, the study indicates benefits of indigenous livestock breed conservation
that the benefits of conservation clearly outweigh can be maintained, as long as a minimum viable
the costs in this case (Table 103). population of the breed is maintained. In
Even where the value of indigenous breeds general, the costs of implementing an SMS are
has been recognized and support mechanisms made up of the opportunity cost differential (if
implemented, significant failings can be any exists) of maintaining the indigenous breed
identified. Signorello and Pappalardo (2003), rather than an exotic or cross-breed. In addition,
in an examination of livestock biodiversity the administrative and technical support costs
conservation measures and their potential costs of the conservation programme also need to
in the EU, report that many breeds at risk of be accounted for. Empirical cost estimates were
extinction according to the FAO World Watch obtained using data from economic case studies
List are not covered by support payments as they (Italy and Mexico), based on an SMS that is
do not appear in countries’ Rural Development equivalent to the FAO measure of “not at risk”,
Plans. Furthermore, the results show that where i.e. approximately 1 000 breeding animals. The
payments are made, they do not take into account results support the hypothesis that the costs of
the different extinction risks faced by the different implementing an SMS are low (depending on the
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PART 4
species/breed and location, these ranged from 3.3 Targeting of farmers for
between approximately Euro 3 000 and 425 000 participation in in situ breed
per annum), both when compared with the size of conservation programmes11
subsidies currently being provided to the livestock v In situ conservation programmes play a
sector (less than 1 percent of the total subsidy) crucial role in the context of AnGR.
and with regard to the benefits of conservation v Household characteristics play an important
(benefit/cost ratio greater than 2.9). The costs role in determining differences in farmers’
proved to be lowest in the developing country, breed preferences. This additional
which is encouraging given that an estimated 70 information can be of use in designing cost-
percent of the livestock breeds existing today are effective conservation programmes.
in developing countries, and that this is where the Wollny (2003) argues that community-based
risk of loss is highest (Rege and Gibson, 2003). management approaches are likely to be
More extensive quantification of the required to play an increasingly important role in
components required to determine SMS costs strategies that aim to improve food security and
nevertheless needs to be undertaken before to alleviate poverty through the conservation
it can be applied in practice. Such economic of AnGR. This is because the utilization of
valuation needs to cover both the full range of indigenous livestock populations depends, in
breeds/species being considered, and ensure that large part, on the ability of communities to
as many as possible of the elements making up decide on and implement appropriate breeding
their total economic value are accounted for. strategies. The community-based management
of AnGR is also considered to play a critical role
Ex situ conservation in poverty alleviation (FAO, 2003).
Similar work regarding the costs and benefits In the context of crops (Meng 1997), proposed
of the ex situ (cryo)conservation of livestock that conservation programmes should target
remains limited. Cryopreservation technologies those households that are the most likely to
for livestock, although advancing rapidly, are continue to maintain local varieties. As these
still well-developed only for a handful of species. households will be the least costly to incorporate
Nevertheless, Gollin and Evenson (2003) argue into a conservation programme, a “least cost”
that assuming that technical feasibility brings programme can be identified. The cost of an in situ
the cost of cryoconservation and regeneration conservation programme can, thus, be expressed
of livestock species to within the same level of as the cost necessary to raise the comparative
magnitude as that of plants, “there cannot be advantage of such breeds above that of competing
much doubt that the economics would justify breeds, species, or off-farm activities. A relatively
extensive conservation efforts” (i.e. option values small investment may suffice to maintain their
are likely to be much higher than conservation advantage in a particular farming system.
costs). This conceptual approach to identifying low-
cost conservation strategies has recently been
applied to estimate conservation costs for creole
pigs in Mexico (Scarpa et al., 2003b; Drucker and
Anderson, 2004) and Boran cattle in Ethiopia
(Zander et al., forthcoming).
11
436
Scarpa et al. (2003b) show that for creole Simianer et al. (2003) and Reist-Marti et al.
pigs in Mexico, the respondent’s age, years (2003) provide one of the few examples of the
of schooling, size of the household, and the conceptual development of a decision-support
number of economically active members of the tool in the field of AnGR. Recognizing the large
household, were important factors in explaining number of indigenous livestock breeds that are
breed trait preferences. Younger, less-educated, currently threatened, and the fact that not all
and lower-income households placed relatively can be saved given limited conservation budgets,
higher values on the attributes of indigenous a framework is elaborated for the allocation of a
piglets compared to exotics and their crosses given budget among a set of breeds so that the
(Drucker and Anderson, 2004). Pattison’s (2002) expected amount of between-breed diversity
findings further corroborate these results. In the conserved is maximized. Drawing on Weitzman
context of a ten-year conservation programme (1993) it is argued that the optimum criterion for
that would bring the creole pig population a conservation scheme is to maximize the expected
to a sustainable size considered “not at risk” total utility of the set of breeds, which is a weighted
under the FAO classification system; the findings sum of diversity, extinction probabilities and breed
indicate that small, less well-off households conservation costs (see Section F: 8.2 for further
would require lower levels of compensation, or discussion of this approach). Drawing on Group 2
even (in 65 percent of cases) no compensation valuation methodologies (see Table 102) is currently
at all. The premise of this set of studies is that postulated as a means of estimating conservation
continued conservation of genetic resource costs. However, Group 1 methodologies could be
diversity on-farm makes most economic sense used should a livelihoods rather than a conservation
in those locations where both society and the cost approach be adopted. Both this, and the
farmers who maintain it benefit the most. original Weitzman study, used measures of diversity
Mendelsohn (2003) argues that where there based on genetic distances. Note, however, that
is a divergence between private (farmer) and alternative measures of diversity could also be used
public values, conservationists must first make – for example, measures that include both between
the case for why society should be willing to pay and within-breed diversity (Ollivier and Foully, 2005)
to protect apparently “unprofitable” AnGR, and or those drawing on functional diversity, based
then must design conservation programmes that on the existence of unique attributes in certain
will effectively protect what society treasures. breeds (see Brock and Xepapadeas (2003) for a
plant genetic resource illustration). Implications for
3.4 Priority setting in livestock the choice of breeds for inclusion in conservation
conservation programmes12 programmes may well differ depending on how
• Conservation policy needs to promote the diversity index is constructed and the overall
cost-efficient strategies, and this can be goal of the conservation programme (conservation
achieved through the development of of genetic diversity per se, maximizing the number
“Weitzman-type” decision-support tools. of unique traits conserved, or maximizing the
Such tools permit the allocation of a given livelihood contribution of the livestock diversity
budget among a set of breeds such that conserved). Where such models are sufficiently
the expected amount of between-breed specified and essential data on key parameters
diversity conserved is maximized. are available (currently lacking for conservation
costs and benefits or contribution to livelihoods),
the framework can be used for rational decision-
12
Using Group 2 valuation methodologies (see Table 102). making on a global scale. See section F:8 for
further discussion of methods for priority setting in
conservation.
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PART 4
3.5 Priority setting in livestock- context. Instead, given uncertainty about future
breeding strategies13 needs, selection should be “directed to cater for
• Economic analysis has demonstrated the foreseeable and even unpredictable futures”
magnitude of the contribution of genetic (Smith, 1985, p. 411). In particular, Smith (1984)
selection, for example using selection advocates the storage of stocks with traits that
indices, to increased production. are currently not economically desirable because
• Methods are needed not only to account of temporary market demands and/or production
for the current set of economic objectives, conditions (e.g. market or grading requirements,
but also to include foreseeable and even carcass or product composition, or special
unpredictable future needs. behavioural adaptations to current husbandry
• Hedonic approaches14 are useful to evaluate conditions).
the importance of certain attributes or Using hedonic approaches, Jabbar et al. (1998)
characteristics to the value of animals or show that in Nigeria, although there were some
animal products including their influence on differences in prices that were solely because of
selection strategies. breed, most variation in prices was because of such
Breeding programmes have long used a variables as wither height and girth circumference
selection index as a device for multiple-trait that vary from animal to animal within breeds.
selection in livestock. For example, Mitchell Variation because of type of animal or month of
et al. (1982) measured the value of genetic transaction was also greater than that because
contributions to pig improvement in the United of breed. Jabbar and Diedhiou (2003) show that
Kingdom by determining the heritability of a hedonic approach used to determine livestock
important characteristics, and isolating the keepers’ breeding practices and breed preferences
genetic contributions to improved performance. in southwest Nigeria, confirms a strong trend away
Using linear regression techniques to compare from trypanotolerant breeds. Richards and Jeffrey
control and improved groups over time, they (1995) identified the value of relevant production
found that the returns were substantial, with costs and type traits for dairy bulls in Alberta, Canada.
in the region of £2 million per annum relative A hedonic valuation model was estimated, which
to benefits of £100 million per annum. The use modelled semen price as a function of individual
of cross-breeding in commercial production was production and longevity characteristics for a
estimated to contribute approximately £16 million sample of Holstein-Friesian bulls.
per annum. Farm-level simulation models have
been built for several species under high-input
management, and have also focused on valuing 3.6 General policy analysis15
heritable trait gain. The current rapid rate of loss of AnGR diversity
Smith (1985), in the context of the importance is the result of a number of underlying factors.
of accounting for option values in genetic While, in some cases, changes in production
production function models, argues that genetic systems and consumer preferences reflect the
selection based on the current set of economic natural evolution of developing economies and
objectives is suboptimal in an intertemporal markets, in other cases, production systems, breed
13 15
Using Group 3 valuation methodologies (see Table 102). Potentially using Group 2, as well as Group 1 valuation
14
Hedonic approaches are based on the idea that the total value methodologies (see Table 102).
of an animal can be decomposed into the values of individual
characteristics. Statistical methods are used to estimate the
contribution of each characteristic to the total value based on
the market prices paid for animals with different combinations of
characteristics.
438
choice and consumer preferences have been (including eliciting the values that farmers
distorted by local, national and international place on specific market/non-market traits
policy. Such distortions may arise from and the trade-offs they are willing to make
macroeconomic interventions (e.g. exchange between traits) for local breeds under
and interest rates); regulatory and pricing policy different production systems, as well as the
(e.g. taxation, price controls, market and trade forces influencing such factors and the use
regulations); investment policy (e.g. infrastructure of alternative breeds;
development); and institutional policy (e.g. land • identify factors affecting livestock demand
ownership and genetic resource property rights). and prices, including the impact of policy-
While the impact of policy factors on AnGR is induced changes in agricultural commodity
readily discernable in broad terms, little is known (e.g. forage/crop) prices and external (e.g.
about their relative importance. veterinary) input costs in the context of
different breed use;
• carry out ex ante analysis of the effects
4 Implications for policies and on livelihoods of using alternative breeds,
future research together with constraints to adoption and
potential access/dissemination mechanisms;
The above studies reveal not only that there • consider the role of such factors as land
are a range of methodologies that can be tenure, agricultural potential, population
used to value livestock keeper breed/trait density, market access and integration,
preferences, but that they can be of use in licensing requirements, tax regimes, credit
designing policies that counter the present trend and extension programmes and education;
towards marginalization of indigenous breeds. and
In particular, it becomes possible to, inter alia • improve understanding of the importance
(Drucker and Anderson, 2004): of continued access and trade in livestock
• recognize the importance that livestock germplasm for research and development
keepers place on adaptive traits and non- purposes, together with the nature of
income functions, and the need to consider the costs and benefits arising from AnGR
these in breeding programme design; research.
• identify those breeds that are a priority Despite a wealth of livestock production data
for participation in cost-efficient diversity- at the national level, such information tends to be
maximizing conservation programmes; and limited to the principal breeds and largely ignores
• contrast the costs involved with the large important non-market contributions. Information
benefits non-livestock keepers place on on local breeds in developing countries is
breed conservation. extremely limited. Initiatives such as FAO’s DAD-IS
Nevertheless, as recent advances in economic and ILRI’s DAGRIS systems are supporting national-
valuation for livestock genetic resources have level programmes.
eased some (but by no means all) methodological/ The challenge is now to raise awareness
analytical constraints, the issue of data availability regarding the important role of economic analysis
has become relatively more critical. Data in improving farm AnGR conservation and
requirements imply the need to inter alia: sustainable use. National capacities must also be
• measure breed performance parameters; strengthened in order to enable the application
• characterize actual and potential breeding of the relevant methodologies/decision-support
systems; tools, and to integrate them into the wider
• identify uses and farmers’ trait preferences national livestock development process. In this
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PART 4
way, further work on the economics of AnGR References16

(including in dynamic systems evolution contexts
and integrated with other components of
Anderson, S. 2003. Animal genetic resources and sus-
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442
Section F
Methods for
conservation
1 Introduction Box 94
Glossary: conservation
Breed development is a dynamic process of genetic
For the purpose of this report, the following
change driven by environmental conditions and
definitions are used:
selection by humans, the latter being shaped by
Conservation of animal genetic resources:
the culture and the economic situation. The fact
refers to all human activities including strategies,
that ecosystems are dynamic and complex and
plans, policies and actions undertaken to ensure
that human preferences change, has resulted
that the diversity of animal genetic resources being
in the evolution of breeds and, until recently, a
maintained to contribute to food and agricultural
net increase in diversity over time. However, in
production and productivity, or to maintain other
the past 100 years there has been a net loss of
values of these resources (ecological, cultural) now
diversity resulting from an increase in the rate
and in the future.
of extinction of breeds and varieties. In Europe
In situ conservation: refers to conservation of
and the Caucasus alone, 481 mammalian and
livestock through continued use by livestock keepers
39 avian breeds have already become extinct, and
in the production system in which the livestock
another 624 mammalian and 481 avian breeds
evolved or are now normally found and bred.
are at risk. Losses have been accelerated by rapid
intensification of livestock production, a failure Ex situ in vivo conservation: refers to conservation
to evaluate local breeds, and inappropriate breed through maintenance of live animal populations
replacement or cross-breeding facilitated by not kept under normal management conditions (e.g.
the availability of high-performing breeds and zoological parks and in some cases governmental
farms) and/or outside of the area in which they
reproductive biotechnologies (Box 95).
evolved or are now normally found.
There is often no clear boundary between in situ and
ex situ in vivo conservation and care must be taken to
describe the conservation objectives and the nature
of the conservation in each case.
Ex situ in vitro conservation: refers to
conservation external to the living animal in an
artificial environment, under cryogenic conditions
including, inter alia, the cryoconservation of
embryos, semen, oocytes, somatic cells or tissues
having the potential to reconstitute live animals
(including animals for gene introgression and
synthetic breeds) at a later date.
443
PART 4
Box 95 countries is made available to the public in the

Red Maasai sheep – accelerating DAD-IS database. Although a specific call for
threats information on extinct breeds was made in
1999 before compiling the third edition of the
The Red Maasai, renowned for its hardiness and World Watch List (FAO/UNEP, 2000), the lists
disease resistance, especially its resistance to of extinct breeds are probably not complete
gastrointestinal parasites, is predominantly kept by – uncharacterized local populations in rapidly
Maasai pastoralists, as well as by the neighbouring developing regions of the world may have
tribes in the semi-arid regions of Kenya and the disappeared without being recorded. Reasons
United Republic of Tanzania. A number of research for extinction are either not documented or not
projects have demonstrated the breed’s resistance readily accessible, and therefore have not been
to diseases, and high productivity under extremely thoroughly analysed. The risk status of many
challenging environments, where other breeds, breeds can only be estimated, as breed population
such as the introduced Dorper perform very poorly. census data are often missing or unreliable. The
Until the mid-1970s, pure-bred Red Maasai were lack of knowledge hinders concerted actions and
ubiquitous throughout the pastoral lands of Kenya, the setting of conservation priorities.
probably numbering several million head. In the mid-
1970s, a subsidized dissemination programme for
Dorper rams was established in Kenya. Widespread 2 Arguments for conservation
indiscriminate cross-breeding followed. No instruction
was provided to farmers about how to maintain a The ratification of the CBD by 188 states
continuous cross-breeding programme and many indicates a growing international commitment
farmers continued crossing their flocks to Dorpers, to sustain and protect biodiversity. The CBD
which subsequently proved unsuitable in many calls for conservation and sustainable use of all
production areas. In 1992, and again more recently, components of biological diversity including those
the International Livestock Research Institute used for agriculture and forestry. Recognizing
undertook an extensive search in Kenya and northern the importance of genetic level diversity it
parts of the United Republic of Tanzania, but was provides a mandate to conserve genetic resources
only able to locate a very small number of pure- for food and agriculture. Article 2 specifically
bred animals. The Institute was able to establish a recognizes “domesticated and cultivated species”
small “pure-bred” flock, but this flock later showed as an important component of global biological
some levels of genetic contamination. The Red diversity.
Maasai breed is clearly threatened, but the livestock However, it has been noted that
databases DAD-IS and DAGRIS do not identify the “while a significant international consensus
breed as threatened, and the breed does not appear regarding policy has apparently emerged, this
in the World Watch List (FAO/UNEP 2000). This is consensus is not grounded in a consensually
related to the current inability of the systems to accepted value theory to explain why
document the dilution of breeds. biodiversity protection, however strongly
supported, should be a top priority of
Provided by John Gibson. environmental policy” (Norton, 2000 in FAO,
2003, p. 105).
For example, the argument for maintaining
While the loss of livestock genetic diversity has biological diversity for its own sake can be
greatly increased in recent decades, the extent contrasted with the view that in the absence of a
of the problem has still not been fully evaluated. clear case for the utility of a breed, its loss should
Information on AnGR provided by FAO member not be of much concern. This chapter presents an
444
overview of the different lines of argument put about the loss of AnGR diversity can be put
forward in favour of conservation. The rationale forward:
of a conservation programme may include a “From a long-term point of view, it is
combination of the following arguments: possible that concentration on high yielding
environmentally sensitive breeds will create
2.1 Arguments related to the past a serious problem for the sustainability of
Livestock breeds reflect the cultural and historical livestock production ... it is possible that
identity of the communities that developed them, farmers will lose their ability to manipulate
and have been an integral part of the livelihood natural environmental conditions. If all
and traditions of many societies. Loss of typical environmentally tolerant breeds are lost in the
breeds, therefore, means a loss of cultural identity interim, the level of livestock production could
for the communities concerned, and the loss of collapse.” (Tisdell, 2003, p. 373).
part of the heritage of humanity. Unforeseen developments may be brought
A further argument relates to the fact that about by changes in the ecosystem, in market
breed development, especially in species with demands and associated regulations, by changes
longer generation intervals, will often have in the availability of external inputs, by emerging
involved considerable investments in terms of disease challenges, or by a combination of these
time, financial expenditure and/or institutional factors. Global climate change and the evolution
resources. Moreover, historical processes may of resistance in pathogens and parasites to
have given rise to unique outputs that could chemical control are almost certain to affect
not easily be recreated. According to this point future livestock production systems, though the
of view, the decision to abandon such breeds nature of the changes remains unclear (FAO,
should, therefore, not be taken lightly. There is 1992). The possibility of catastrophic losses of
also a historical dimension to the development of AnGR resulting from major disease epidemics,
adaptive traits – the longer an animal population war, bioterrorism or civil unrest, indicates a need
has been exposed to an environmental challenge, to have a secure reserve, such as a genebank, for
the greater the possibility that specific adaptive breeds that are of great economic importance
traits have evolved. Areas with climatic extremes at present. The uncertainty of future needs, in
or particular disease conditions have given combination with the irreversible nature of events
rise to genetically adapted and unique local such as species or breed extinction, highlights the
stocks. These breeds have co-evolved with a need to safeguard the option value17 of diversity.
particular environment and farming system, and Examples of previously unforeseen needs
represent an accumulation of both genetic stock, include the trend among developed-world animal
and associated husbandry practices and local breeders away from production-oriented genetic
knowledge. improvement to focus more on adaptation, disease
resistance and feed efficiency. In some developed
2.2 Safeguarding for future needs countries, the importance of conservation
“Predicting the future is a risky business at grazing has reached an extent that few would
best, particularly where human activities are have foreseen forty years ago when rare breeds
involved” (Clark, 1995 in Tisdell, 2003, p. 369). began to be used for this purpose. In the United
It is notoriously difficult to predict the future,
and people’s expectations are highly diverse. 17
The option value of diversity is the value given to safeguarding
Very negative expectations may at times be more
an asset for the option of using it at a future date.
related to unsubstantiated fears than to rational
arguments. However, a strong case for concern
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PART 4
Box 96
Lleyn sheep of Wales – revival in fortunes in tune with modern demands
In the course of the last half century the Lleyn sheep fostered by the support of the Breed Society. This
breed of northwest Wales has progressed from the involved shrewd marketing, with well-organized breed
brink of extinction to a breed of widespread national sales and information provision for prospective buyers
importance in the British sheep industry. Following and member breeders.
the Second World War, the breed retreated from Another important element, as the breed rapidly
the considerable local importance that it had in extended its geographical coverage, was the
the first half of the century, and by the 1960s there encouragement given to local devolution. Groups
were a mere seven pure-bred flocks and 500 ewes. or clubs have been formed on a countrywide basis,
In contrast, by 2006 the number of pure breeders currently seven clubs in all, although the parent breed
exceeds 1 000 spread throughout the United society has maintained its coordinating role and its
Kingdom, and regional Society sales involve the link with the home base in northwest Wales.
annual trading of many thousands of Lleyn sheep.
This revival was achieved through the
determination and enthusiasm of an initially small Provided by J B Owen.
For further information on the breed see:
group of twelve local breeders and supportive
http://www.lleynsheep.com
advisers. They set up a breed society in 1970 to
coordinate breeding policy, register pure-bred
flocks and grade up cross-bred sheep (by repeated
backcrossing using Lleyn rams). The chief attributes
of the breed from the start were its medium size,
mothering ability (in its hey-day it was milked after
weaning the lamb) and prolificacy, as well as meat
and wool quality. An added attraction for flock
biosecurity was the suitability of the Lleyn for “closed
flock” operations in which the only animals purchased
are top-quality rams.
These attributes were intensified by organized
breeding, partly through the operation of a New
Zealand-type nucleus group breeding scheme,
involving objective recording (Meat and Livestock
Commission) and fast generation turnover. The
resulting wide appeal of easily handled ewes,
convenient for large and small flock owners, coupled Photo credit: David Cragg
with efficient utilization of expensive land, was
Kingdom, over 600 conservation sites are grazed a large number of commercial cross-breeding
(although not all with rare or traditional breeds) programmes, was hardly known outside the
and as many as 1 000 sites would benefit from Brabant province of Belgium prior to 1950. It
such grazing (Small, 2004). Specific breeds which almost became extinct during the Second World
were once under threat but have now proved to War when fat animals were in demand (Vergotte
be of economic importance include the Piétrain de Lantsheere et al., 1974). Another example
pig. This very lean breed, which is now used in is the Lleyn sheep breed from Wales, which
446
during the 1960s was in serious decline and had within a particular production environment
a population size of only 500 pure-bred ewes where its introduction is being considered, and
(Box 96). The breed has become increasingly hence an inappropriate decision regarding its
popular among sheep farmers in the United adoption. It is, of course, also possible that
Kingdom in recent years and its population imperfect information could lead to farmers
has grown to over 230 000. The Wiltshire Horn, unnecessarily retaining their indigenous breed
another British breed that was once in decline, and not adopting alternative breeds that would
is also attracting interest because of changing improve their livelihoods.
market conditions. The breed sheds its wool – a Policy distortions can put less intensive
desirable characteristic when shearing costs can production systems at a disadvantage and
exceed the price obtained for the fleece. provide disincentives for efficient resource
Opportunities provided by future developments allocation. A narrow focus on high-output breeds
in biotechnology also need to be considered. may be favoured by policies such as subsidized
Emerging reproductive and genetic technologies grain imports, free or subsidized support services
already provide greatly increased opportunities (e.g. AI) or support prices for livestock products,
to identify and utilize the genetic variation of which stimulate the intensification processes. For
AnGR, and such technologies are expected to example, in some rapidly industrializing Asian
show major advances in future. If diverse AnGR countries important capital subsidies have clearly
remain available, such technologies should make favoured an industrial mode of development;
it possible for developing countries to close cheap capital has led to investments in large
the productivity gap with developed countries commercial units associated with high input use
by selectively combining the best features of and uniform products. Furthermore, development
different breeds. or emergency programmes sometimes promote
It is widely accepted that the future option exotic breeds from donor countries. Finally,
value of AnGR provides a strong reason for political instability and policies unfavourable to
conserving AnGR. It is reasonable to assume that vulnerable livestock keeping populations may
changing circumstances and rapidly advancing inhibit the efficient use of AnGR (Tisdell, 2003).
technologies will require the use of conserved Markets may not accurately represent external
AnGR in the future. costs or benefits. Examples of external costs include
negative environmental impacts, and undesirable
2.3 Arguments related to the present effects on income distribution and equity. External
situation benefits associated with certain breeds may, for
The importance of maintaining threatened AnGR example, include their contribution to landscape
does not necessarily relate only to their potential management. Mendelsohn (2003, p. 10) suggests
future use under changed circumstances. There that:
are a number of reasons why the use of these “Conservationists must focus on what the
resources may be sub-optimal at present. These market will not do. They must identify and
reasons fall into three main categories: deficits quantify the potential social benefits of AnGR
in information, market failures and policy that have been abandoned by the market.”
distortions (Mendelsohn, 2003). There are large The preservation of diversity, including within-
gaps in knowledge regarding the characteristics breed diversity, serves to maintain stability in
of local breeds and their traits or genes that may production systems. Diverse populations show
be important for production, research purposes greater ability to survive, produce and reproduce
or to meet other human needs (Oldenbroek, under conditions of fluctuating feed resources
1999). Imperfect information may lead to the and water supply; extremes of temperature,
overestimation of the performance of a breed humidity and other climatic factors; and low levels
447
PART 4
of management (FAO, 1992). There is evidence of economic evolution, and their economies can
that they are also less susceptible to catastrophic be expected to become sufficiently developed to
epidemics (Springbett et al., 2003). In general, support conservation based on cultural heritage
genetically uniform populations are less able to and other such drivers at some point in the future.
respond to strong selection pressures resulting There is a need to ensure that AnGR are not lost
from environmental changes. Maintaining before this self-supporting stage is reached.
breed diversity enables people to exploit diverse
ecological or economic niches. This is particularly
the case in marginal and environmentally fragile 3 The unit of conservation
areas, such as drylands, where most livestock
kept by poor farmers are located, and which are A critical first step in the design of AnGR
characterized by great diversity and high levels conservation programmes is to decide what is to
of risk. be conserved. At the molecular genetic level, the
Arguments for existence and bequest values genetic diversity present within a livestock species
for AnGR,18 remove the need to identify tangible is a reflection of allelic diversity (i.e. differences
or non-tangible benefits as a justification for in DNA sequences) across the 25 000 or so genes
conservation. (i.e. functional DNA regions) affecting animal
“Biological diversity has intrinsic value and development and performance. Conceptually,
should be conserved for its own sake to therefore, the most basic unit of conservation
the maximum extent possible, regardless of is the allele. An objective might be to design
whether any given component can be shown conservation programmes that will both allow
to produce tangible economic benefits” (FAO, maintenance of a preponderance of the alleles
2003, p. 104). that are currently present within a species, as well
However, the development of breeds within as providing for the normal accumulation and
domesticated species is primarily the product of potential retention of the newly arising mutant
human intervention to meet human objectives alleles which are the fuel for continued animal
and values. The argument that the current evolution and improvement. Allelic diversity
diversity should be preserved on the grounds could, in theory, be quantified by enumeration of
of its existence value is, therefore, perhaps the number and frequencies of the various alleles,
more difficult to defend than in the case of the but for the moment this is an impossible task. In
biodiversity of natural ecosystems. defining the unit of conservation, it must further
Arguments and capacities for conservation be recognized that alleles do not act in isolation,
vary from region to region. In Western societies, and that animal performance in most cases is
traditions and cultural values are important properly viewed as a result of the interactions
driving forces, which ensure the development of alleles present across the genome. Thus,
of conservation measures for rare breeds and the process of genetic resource development
promote the emergence of niche markets for involves the creation of allelic combinations
livestock products. By contrast, in the developing that support specific desired levels of animal
world, the immediate concerns are for food performance and adaptation. Efficient genetic
security and economic development. However, resource conservation, therefore, involves the
most developing countries are already in a process creation of structures that allow for maintenance
of existing genetic combinations of known
18
The existence value is derived from the satisfaction of knowing adaptive or productive value, and for easy access
that a particular asset exists; a bequest value is the benefit to these combinations to support future animal
accruing to any individual from the knowledge that others might
production needs.
benefit from the resource in the future.
448
Existing livestock breeds are less genetically than professional plant and animal breeders.
uniform than most varieties of crop plants, However, intensification of agriculture has
but nonetheless represent the realization of a resulted in important changes in patterns of
diverse set of adaptive processes. The population genetic resource utilization and development.
structure of the major livestock species up to In plants, intensification of crop production
the mid-twentieth century conformed closely to has generally been accompanied by emergence
the population structure predicted to maximize of a strongly institutionalized and centralized
evolutionary potential. There were many partially seed production sector dominated by publicly
isolated subpopulations (the breeds), maintained funded national and international centres, and
under diverse conditions, but with periodic private firms. In contrast, the intensification
exchange of animals among populations and of the livestock sector is currently much less
periodic recombination of breeds to yield new advanced, and has been a result of, rather than
genetic combinations. Thus, adoption of the a prerequisite for, economic development. The
breed as the unit of conservation is expected animal breeding sector is far less centralized
to maximize the maintenance of evolutionary and institutionalized than the plant seed sector,
potential within livestock species, and likewise although there has been substantial movement
to maximize access to a broad array of allelic towards centralization in the poultry, pig and,
combinations. to a more limited extent, dairy cattle sectors.
Direct involvement of farmers in animal breeding
remains substantial for the other livestock
4 Conservation of plant versus sectors, and AnGR utilization and further
animal genetic resources development remains strongly “participatory” in
certain production environments. The different
Organization and implementation of the SoW- structures of the seed and seedstock sectors in
AnGR assessment process was based on the plants and animals have important implications
lessons learnt from the global assessment of for the conservation of global genetic resources.
plant genetic resources (PGR) and the resulting Table 104 compares a number of biological,
Report on the State of the World’s Plant Genetic operational, and institutional factors that
Resources (FAO, 1998a). Accordingly, the SoW- influence conservation activities in plants and
AnGR process focused on both the preparation animals. Biological differences clearly require
of the first Report, and the initiation of actions different approaches to conservation, but perhaps
at national level arising from the process of the most significant difference between the
Country Report preparation. Nevertheless, crop and livestock sectors involves institutional
approaches for conservation of PGR cannot be capacity for genetic resource management.
directly applied to AnGR. Many of the institutions of the seed sector
In traditional production systems, plant and already maintain extensive collections of PGR,
animal genetic resources are used in comparable and actively contribute to the development and
ways. Locally adapted breeds and varieties release of plant varieties. The databases of the
predominate; seed for planting, and breeding World Information and Early Warning System
animals are drawn from the farmers’ fields, herds on Plant Genetic Resources (WIEWS) record the
and flocks, and genetic diversity within resulting location of over 5.5 million PGR accessions, in
landraces is substantial. Most breeding and some 1 410 ex situ collections around the world
development activities are “participatory” (FAO, (FAO, 2004).
1998a) in the sense that decisions regarding the Establishing a genebank for animals involves
seeds to save for planting and the animals to long-term storage of gametes, embryos or somatic
retain for breeding are made by farmers rather cells in liquid nitrogen. Technical aspects of such
449
PART 4
in vitro conservation in animals are discussed in sector. A substantial enhancement of global

detail below, but costs to collect, cryoconserve capacity for conservation and better use of AnGR,
and subsequently reconstitute animal germplasm with new institutional models and collaboration
are many times greater per preserved genome among public institutions and between public
than costs to collect, store and subsequently institutions and private farmers, may therefore
utilize seeds. Moreover, funding to support the be required if the recommendations of the SoW-
conservation of animal germplasm has been AnGR process are to be implemented.
insufficient. As a result, AnGR conservation
has much more heavily emphasized in situ
approaches. However, with the exception of a 5 Information for conservation
small number of developed countries, there has decisions
been little action to establish in situ conservation
programmes, and the long-term sustainability of Setting priorities for AnGR conservation requires
such schemes remains uncertain. a process that enables the identification of breeds
DAD-IS lists 4 956 extant mammalian breeds that contribute most to global genetic diversity
and 1 970 extant avian breeds. Few of these are and have the greatest potential to contribute
well represented in in vitro collections and almost to efficient future utilization and further
none have been sampled at levels consistent with development of that diversity. Additional criteria,
FAO (1998b) guidelines for in vitro sampling. such as cultural or heritage values of a breed, will
Very substantial resources would be required also affect priorities for conservation.
to develop in vitro collections of even the most Assessing the likely genetic diversity present
endangered of these nearly 7 000 livestock in a set of breeds may be based on a variety of
breeds. For example, the FAO (1998b) Guidelines criteria, including:
for Management of Small Populations at Risk • trait diversity, which is diversity in the
recommend collection of frozen semen from at recognizable combinations of phenotypic
least 25 males per breed, and use of semen from characteristics that define breed identity;
these males on an additional 25 females per breed • molecular genetic diversity, based on
to produce frozen embryos. For cattle, with 300 objective measurements of genetic
endangered breeds, cryoconservation of semen relationships among breeds at the DNA
from 7 500 males and approximately 100 000 level; and
embryos would be required. Policy guidelines • evidence for past genetic isolation as a
for ownership, use and management of in vitro result of either geographical isolation or of
collections are yet to be developed. breeding policies and cultural preferences
Institutional capacity for AnGR conservation is applied in the communities where the
limited, with only a few national ex situ collections breeds were developed.
existing, mainly in developed countries. Among Trait diversity is based on heritable phenotypic
the institutions of the Consultative Group on differences among breeds. When breeds are
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), only compared under comparable environmental
the International Livestock Research Institute conditions, trait diversity is necessarily indicative
(ILRI) and the International Center for Agricultural of underlying functional genetic diversity.
Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) actively For this reason, breeds that possess unique or
address issues of better management of AnGR, distinctive trait combinations should be given
and neither institution has an active programme high priority for conservation, because their
for long-term storage of germplasm. Ownership unique phenotypic characteristics necessarily
of AnGR resides almost exclusively in the private reflect unique underlying genetic combinations.
450
TABLE 104
Comparisons of biological, operational and institutional factors influencing plant and animal genetic
resources conservation
Factor Plants Animals
Economic value of production per individual Low to very low Moderate to high
Reproductive rate (number of progeny per High to very high (1000s) Very low (<10) to moderate (<200) except
individual per generation) for males of species (mainly cattle) where
widespread use of artificial insemination is
feasible (10 000s)
Generation interval 0.25 to 1 year 1 to 8 years
Within-line genetic diversity Very limited in most plant varieties Very substantial in most livestock breeds
Cost to record performance of an individual Very low to low High to very high
or family
Cost to assess adaptation or disease resistance Very low to moderate Very high
for an individual or family
Ability to conserve diversity of wild relatives Common for plants Rare in animal species
under natural conditions
Ability to self-fertilize and develop inbred lines Possible and routine in many species Self-fertilization is not possible; due to
depression, high levels of inbreeding have to be
avoided; in specific cases inbred lines are used
for crossing
Clonal propagation Possible and routine for many species Technically feasible but too inefficient even for
most research purposes
Ability to collect germplasm Simple in most cases Technically feasible but requires facilities and
trained personal
Ability to store germplasm in vitro Seed storage in cool conditions is feasible Feasible for male gametes of most species
for most species; a few species require tissue and female gametes of some species; storage
culture; in some cases cultures can be stored in of embryos is feasible for most mammalian
liquid nitrogen species, but at much greater cost compared to
spermatozoa; material from all species must be
stored in liquid nitrogen
Requirements for regeneration of stored Most require periodic restoration to replenish Essentially permanent storage
material stored material and maintain viability
Cost of extracting, regenerating, and testing Relatively easy and with relatively low cost; tens Both regeneration and testing are difficult and
material from a genebank of thousands of accessions are extracted and time consuming; there has been little experience
tested annually with the extraction and use of stored material
Status and scope of genebanks Extensive collections at several locations Restricted to a small number of developed
globally include millions of accessions for countries, mainly involving frozen semen
hundreds of species mainly involving seed
storage with relatively low collection and
storage costs
Ongoing collection of wild and indigenous Lower levels than in past years, but still a Very little activity, especially in the developing
germplasm significant effort, especially for neglected world
species
Institutional support for conservation Substantial, well-organized, and stable Limited, often poorly organized, some exception
in developed countries
In the table, “plants” refers specifically to the annual plants that dominate food and agricultural production, but it is recognized that
long-lived perennial plants such as trees have significant elements in common with animals. Similarly, “animals” include both relatively
fecund species such as chickens, which have some elements in common with plants (e.g. the potential for annual replacement of
commercial flocks), and very extensively managed, long-lived species such as the dromedary.
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PART 4
Trait diversity expressed at the level of complex Direct measures of molecular genetic
quantitative traits such as disease resistance, milk relationships among breeds are increasingly
production or growth rate is generally given becoming available and also provide an indication
higher priority in conservation decisions than of genetic diversity. These measurements are
trait diversity associated with simply inherited based on variation in DNA sequences, usually in
traits such as coat or plumage colour, horn shape neutral regions of the DNA that are not thought
or body type. These simply inherited traits can be to influence animal performance or phenotype.
changed rapidly in response to owner preferences, For this reason, molecular measures of genetic
whereas differences in complex quantitative traits diversity reflect differences in evolutionary history,
generally involve larger numbers of genes, take but provide only indirect indications of genetic
longer to change, and therefore have greater diversity in functional or potentially functional
potential to reflect underlying genetic diversity. regions of the DNA. Breeds that appear closely
related based on allelic frequencies at neutral loci
Box 97 may nonetheless differ importantly at functional
Decision-making in conservation and loci as a result of divergent selection histories. For
utilization – use of genetic diversity example, genetic distance information, derived
data using few randomly selected genetic markers
does not provide information on specific genetic
It is only recently that the value of genetic diversity variations such as the double-muscling allele
data in conservation and utilization of AnGR has in Belgian Blue cattle, or the dwarf gene in the
been recognized and applied. The Global Environment Dexter (Williams, 2004). For this reason, trait
Facility (GEF) is supporting a project on conservation diversity generally warrants first consideration in
of trypanotolerant cattle, sheep and goats in four choosing candidates for conservation. However,
West African countries, which started in 2005. In much phenotypically similar breeds may evolve as
of the region, the purity of trypanotolerant breeds a result of different genetic mechanisms, and
has been diluted by past cross-breeding with non- measures of molecular genetic diversity can aid
trypanotolerant breeds. However, this lack of purity the identification of breeds that are superficially
is not immediately obvious in the appearance of the similar but genetically distinct. Conservation of
animals. Molecular genetic markers are being used genetically unique breeds is, likewise, justified
to map the diversity of these breeds and identify the because these breeds are more likely to exhibit
most pure populations, which will then be the focus functional genetic diversity for traits previously
of conservation and further development. Meanwhile, unmeasured or unexpressed, but that may be of
an ongoing International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) future importance in new markets, with exposure
programme is mapping molecular genetic diversity to new diseases, or under different production
among Asian sheep and goat breeds. The genetic conditions.
diversity data will then be combined with phenotype Measures of molecular genetic diversity are
data to identify breeds in which different mechanisms attractive as a basis for conservation decisions
of resistance to the same disease have evolved. These because they yield quantitative measures of
breeds will then be crossed, and molecular genetic relatedness which can, in turn, be used to
markers used to map the genes controlling resistance assess genetic diversity within a set of breeds.
in order to confirm that different breeds have evolved In contrast, trait diversity is more difficult to
different mechanisms of resistance. If this is confirmed, quantify objectively, especially for quantitative
these different mechanisms can be used in further traits and for small groups of breeds. Past efforts
genetic improvement programmes. to quantify phenotypic differences have focused
mainly on morphological measures at species or
Provided by John Gibson.
452
Box 98
Spatial analysis of genetic diversity
The mapping of molecular genetic information in a with selected environmental variables was tested.
Geographic Information System (GIS) allows spatial The testing included a set of AFLP molecular markers,
analysis of the genetic information. GIS can be used which were not related to any specific trait, and a
to study spatial structures, distribution and distance variety of environmental variables (mean temperature,
of genetic data; to simulate animal population diurnal temperature range, relative humidity, sunshine,
migrations in the landscape; to visualize and analyse ground frost frequency, wet day frequency, wind
geographic population structures; to define diversity speed and precipitation). Three AFLP markers were
zones; to detect areas of genetic differentiation; and found to be significantly associated with one or
to examine the interaction between environment and more variables, probably pointing to adaptation to
genetic variants. a humid environment (e.g. coefficient of variation of
The Econogene project (http://lasig.epfl.ch/projets/ precipitation, number of wet days, relative humidity,
econogene/) was designed to combine molecular sunshine and mean diurnal temperature range).
genetics with spatial analysis to document the spatial The results were compared with those obtained
distribution and environmental correlates of genetic with the application of a completely independent
diversity among small ruminants in Europe. DNA population genetics method. Two genetic markers
was sampled from over 3 000 animals spread from were indicated to be under selection by both
Portugal to eastern Turkey. A set of 30 microsatellites, approaches, validating 31 percent of the significant
100 AFLPs and 30 SNPs were assayed in these animals associations identified by the spatial analysis. These
and more than 100 environmental variables were results are particularly encouraging as they seem
recorded. Geovisualization (GVIS) tools were then to validate an approach which is independent of
used to observe the patterns of physical association any population genetics model (see Joost (2005) for
between various components of genetic variation further details).
and spatially varying environmental factors. Such
visualizations led to the development of hypotheses Provided by Paolo Ajmone Marsan and the ECONOGENE
Consortium.
for causative associations between environmental and
anthropic factors and genetic variation. For example,
the association of alleles of several molecular markers
subspecies levels in natural populations. In the Historical information or evidence of long-

absence of widespread access to molecular genetic term genetic isolation can be used in the absence
information, results had value as indicators of information on trait or molecular genetic
of evolutionary distance, but are less useful diversity, but can also be misleading. Population
in domestic animals where artificial selection genetics theory shows that very low levels
can lead to rapid morphological changes, such of movement of animals between seemingly
as those observed in domestic dogs or fancy isolated populations can effectively prevent
poultry. Objective assessment of genetic diversity meaningful genetic differentiation. Thus, breeds
at functional or potentially functional sites will, with a history of genetic isolation are important
thus, require further development of objective candidates for careful trait and molecular genetic
methods to combine information on trait and characterization, but final decisions on genetic
molecular genetic diversity (see Section F: 8). uniqueness are better made using more objective
tools. It should be recognized, however, that
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livestock breeds developed as a result of cultural potential conservation measures, it is sometimes

preferences in isolated rural communities may difficult to make a clear distinction between in
be an important part of community identity and situ and ex situ in vivo approaches. For instance,
heritage. Conservation of such breeds may merit governmental stations can be considered as
consideration as part of broader community applying in situ or ex situ in vivo conservation
development efforts, regardless of their predicted methods depending on location and husbandry
value as a unique global genetic resource. practices.
There is no single prescription for a successful
conservation programme. Numerous breed
6 In vivo conservation conservation activities have been undertaken,
particularly since the 1980s. However, almost
The term “in vivo conservation” describes no attempts have been undertaken to analyse
conservation of live animals and encompasses in adequately the factors underlying the success
situ and ex situ in vivo conservation methods. or failure of in vivo conservation programmes.
Such analyses are also constrained by the limited
6.1 Background availability of data.
Conservation of AnGR takes place in a wide
variety of contexts, varying in terms of species, 6.2 Genetic management of
breed, geographic region, and farming, social populations
and economic systems. Conservation can also Detailed discussions of many of the requirements
have a wide variety of objectives. Emphasis for genetic management of populations can be
may be placed on the conservation of genetic found in Oldenbroek (1999).
resources or diversity per se; on the environmental
services through which livestock contribute to Small populations and genetic variation
the conservation of the wider ecosystem; on the Whenever breeds are conserved in vivo, whether
socio-economic consequences of conservation; in situ or ex situ, they should be managed in ways
or on the cultural significance of maintaining that maintain their genetic variation in the long
particular livestock breeds. Approaches to the term. It is well known that a small population size
conservation of AnGR can differ significantly in may lead to loss of allelic diversity and an increase
their capacity to achieve the various conservation in inbreeding. Maintaining sufficient effective
objectives, and in terms of their applicability in population sizes to preserve genetic variation is a
different contexts. central theme of long-term breed management.
It is possible to view in vivo conservation Apart from increasing the number of animals
techniques as a spectrum of different approaches: in the population, management techniques to
at the in situ end of the spectrum is the maintain genetic diversity include maintaining
maintenance of breeds within their original a narrow sex-ratio. This is because even if the
production systems, while the extreme ex number of females in the population is large,
situ in vivo approach is to keep the breeds in high-intensity selection schemes can reduce the
zoos. Ranged between the two extremes are: number of breeding males considerably, and
maintaining the species under farm conditions result in a small effective population size and
but outside the environment in which they consequent high inbreeding increments. Another
evolved; the maintenance of limited numbers of method is to minimize variance in the numbers
animals in special-purpose conservation farms, in of progeny produced by individual breeding
experimental or educational herds; and keeping animals, which reduces the average relationship
breeds for pasture or landscape management among the animals available for breeding in the
within protected areas. Faced with the diversity of next generation.
454
The population should also be large enough genetic variation within the breed and the risks
to allow natural selection to purge deleterious associated with high rates of inbreeding. Traits
mutations which could otherwise accumulate in under selection need to be accurately recorded,
the population as a result of genetic drift. It is and the highest responses to selection result
significant for the management of small breeding from the use of statistical genetic estimates of
populations that there is a threshold effective breeding value. Controlled breeding, based on
population size below which the fitness of the estimates of breeding value, result in inbreeding
population decreases steadily. Based on the most rates two to four times higher than those that
recent estimates of mutation rates, this threshold result from random selection of parents. However,
of effective population size is considered to be techniques have been developed to optimize
between 50 and 100. The minimum population selection so that a suitable balance between
size required will therefore be above 50. inbreeding and genetic improvement can be
Another possible management technique is the achieved. Such methods should be of particular
use of cryoconserved genetic material in in vivo advantage in small populations, but there has
conservation schemes in order to increase the been little work on how they should best be
effective population size. The combined use of applied in developing-country situations. As a
molecular genetic and pedigree information has broad generalization, genetic improvement in
also been proposed. Such techniques, however, local breeds will often involve a greater emphasis
require substantial expertise and expense, and on characteristics19 contributing to low production
may be too costly for many countries. Most of costs, and the environmental and cultural values
the theoretical and implementation models of the associated farming systems. Traits proposed
that have been developed refer to pedigree for selection will need to be accurately evaluated
populations with a high degree of herd and for their genetic relationships with traits that
animal management. Such models are likely only determine the conservation value of the breed, so
to be relevant for a limited number of species that possible negative effects on key adaptation
in a limited number of countries. Management traits are avoided.
schemes that can be implemented in populations
with limited genealogical information have been 6.3 Self-sustaining strategies for local
developed (Raoul et al., 2004). However, field breeds
testing and further methodological development The sustainability of a given breed is affected
is needed to adapt them to situations with limited by many factors including: cultural, social and
organizational capacity and funding. food demand changes; transformation of the
food production chain; changes to policies and
Selection in local breeds national and international legal frameworks
Breeds are dynamic, undergoing continuous affecting the importation of germplasm and
genetic change in response to environmental livestock products; economic development;
factors and active selection by livestock keepers. and technological changes. In most cases, it is a
The indigenous breeds of the developing world combination of changes in production systems
are rarely subject to modern breeding techniques.
However, selection programmes can increase the 19
A greater focus on disease resistance, feed efficiency and
frequency of genes desirable for the productivity general adaptation is also being applied to genetic improvement
and profitability of local breeds. Such measures of more commercially oriented breeds, driven by concerns about
will undoubtedly be required if local breeds possible failure of existing disease control measures, legislated
reduction or elimination of the use of antibiotics, and concerns
are to remain a viable livelihood option for the about the costs of external inputs, particularly related to the use
farmers who maintain them. Selection schemes of fossil fuels.
need to take into account the maintenance of
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PART 4
and lack of current economic profitability that Identification and promotion of quality
plays the major role in the decline of a breed. products
The question arises: what options are available Many local breeds are able to provide unique
to halt and reverse the process of breed decline? products that may be of a higher quality than
Possible options for achieving self-sustainability those obtained from high-output commercial
are described below. breeds. Local breeds and their products may also
be valued as a characteristic part of traditional
farming systems. Moreover, many local breeds
Box 99
In situ conservation of the Norwegian Feral Sheep
The Norwegian Feral Sheep is a remnant of the sheep Feral Sheep has been welcomed by consumers. The
populations kept in Norway during the days of the characterful, tasty meat is regarded as a fashionable
Vikings. In 1995, it was confirmed that the breed was niche product. Another important aim of the breeding
threatened with extinction. There were an estimated association is to maintain the coastal heathlands
2 000 animals in the country at that time, mostly kept and other cultural landscapes. These landscapes,
in western Norway. with grazing Feral Sheep, are increasingly popular
A few committed individuals, centred on an active attractions for tourists.
and long-established sheep breeding community in In 2003, only eight years after the first
Austevoll in the county of Hordaland, decided to try conservation measures were introduced, the Feral
to save the Feral Sheep and develop a niche industry Sheep population exceeded 20 000 animals. Most
based on the breed. In June 1995, the Norwegian Feral Sheep are still found in western Norway, but
Feral Sheep Association was established. The there are initiatives to introduce this special form of
association is a nationwide, cooperatively managed sheep farming in the coastal regions of central and
society with about 300 members. The objectives of the northern Norway, as part of the development of rural
association are to conserve the breed and improve industries in these areas.
its profitability, by adapting production methods and
products to market demands, and by raising public Provided by Erling Fimland.
awareness.
The association quickly established a set of
production standards which had to be met if products
were to be certified under the “Feral Sheep” label.
These standards include both a breed description,
and certain requirements regarding production
methods. An important aspect of the association’s
producer standards is also to safeguard traditional
farming methods, which are a continuation of
the way in which Feral Sheep have been kept in
Norway for centuries. Requirements specify that
the sheep are kept outdoors all year round, and
that they have access to a protective shed if there
is no natural shelter available. As a rule, the use of
Photo credit: Erling Fimland
feed concentrates is also prohibited. Meat from the
456
have long played a central role in the social growth, fire or avalanche control, and keeping
and cultural life of rural populations – including power line and wildlife corridors free of brush
religious and civic traditions, folklore, gastronomy, (thereby reducing herbicide use). There may be
specialized products and handicrafts (Gandini and opportunities even in less-developed economies
Villa, 2003). to sustain a variety of culturally important breeds
These characteristics can potentially be a basis through ecological and cultural tourism, or other
for diversified livestock production, and increased novel approaches to income generation for
profitability for local breeds. Conservation livestock keepers. An example might be the use
objectives have been promoted both through
direct subsidy (see below), and through the
promotion of high-value specialized products. The
Box 100
Examples of incentive payment
latter approach has been particularly successful in
schemes at the national level
Mediterranean areas, where the diversity of breeds
and production systems is still associated with a
variety of animal products, food preferences and In the United Kingdom, the Traditional Breeds
cultural traditions. Unfortunately, even in this Incentive scheme run by English Nature (a
part of the world, it is probable that the majority government nature conservation agency) covers
of such relationships that were present in the mid- livestock kept at, or adjacent to, sites of special
nineteenth century have been lost. The strategy scientific interest (English Nature, 2004). The premise
is supported by current European certification is that traditional breeds are often better adapted
systems for agricultural products, such as the PDO to grazing the herbage found at these sites, and
(Protected Designation of Origin) and the PGI thus do a better job where grazing is required for
(Protected Geographical Indication), and also by conservation purposes. Here, the objective is broader
the development of specific commercial brands. than simply preserving the breeds per se, and the
In case of Europe, these conservation efforts are incentive payments to the farmers can be regarded,
implemented within a highly developed economy in part, as payments for the broader environmental
that can support diverse high-value products, and services provided.
actions to support cultural and environmental In Croatia registered breeders of locally adapted
goals. Opportunities to apply such approaches endangered breeds receive state subsidies totalling
are likely to be more limited in less-developed around US$650 000 per annum (CR Croatia, 2003).
economies; but examples do exist, such as the Fourteen breeds including Istrian cattle, Slavonian-
higher price achieved for meat from native Creole Podolian cattle, Posavina horse, Murinsulaner horse,
pigs in Yucatan, Mexico, and for native chicken Turopolje pig, Black Slavonian pig, Istrian sheep,
meat in several Asian and African countries. As Ruda sheep, Zagorje turkey and some donkey breeds
economies develop, the cultural identity of breeds are covered by the scheme. Similarly, in Serbia and
is likely to become more important as an aspect Montenegro, the Department for Animal and Plant
of marketing and as a policy goal, and hence Genetic Resources of the Ministry of Agriculture
offer greater opportunities for the achievement operates a payment scheme for supporting the on-
of breed self-sustainability. farm conservation of locally adapted breeds of horses,
cattle, pigs and sheep (Marczin, 2005).
Ecological services In Myanmar, population numbers of Shwe Ni
Breeds adapted to local production conditions are Gyi cattle were increased through the provision
often the best suited to provide environmental of subsidized semen, and the payment of a small
services such as landscape management, including amount (equivalent to US$1) to owners when they
the stimulation of desired types of vegetation registered a pure-bred animal (Steane et al., 2002).
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PART 4
of local cattle to maintain healthy ecosystems that Box 101

promote increased animal density and diversity in An index of economic development
large wildlife parks. The challenge is to translate potential for targeting in situ
such breed services into economic rewards for the conservation investments
livestock keepers.
The Econogene project combines molecular
Incentive measures analysis of biodiversity, with socio-economics and
A lack of profitability relative to other breeds, geostatistics in order to address the conservation
and hence a lack of popularity with farmers, is of sheep and goat genetic resources and rural
frequently a reason for the decline of a breed’s development in marginal agrosystems across
population numbers. One potential approach Europe. Samples of genetic material were collected
to conservation is to offer farmers financial in seventeen countries in Europe and the Near and
incentives to compensate them for income that Middle East. (http://lasig.epfl.ch/projets/econogene/)
they forgo by keeping the less profitable breed. One of the objectives was to help make
This approach is only feasible where resources expenditure of funds more effective. The project
are sufficient and there is political will to expend developed an index of development potential,
public funds to meet conservation objectives; provided as a simple tool that can be used to
where breed characterization is sufficient to determine where public money can best be spent
allow breed populations to be identified and to maximize response. Application is possible at
classified according to their risk status; and where different levels: from a single farm up to a region.
the institutional capacity is in place to allow The index is a weighted sum of three sub-indexes
eligible farmers to be identified, to monitor that evaluate, (1) the economic characteristics of
their activities, and to administer payments. It is the firm/farm (single or average from a region),
perhaps not surprising that incentive schemes for (2) the social characteristics of the firm/farm, (3)
breed conservation have largely been restricted marketing strategies. Each sub-index is based on a
to Europe. Schemes have been in place in the variety of inputs. In the case of the Econogene study
EU since 1992 (for a further discussion of EU of EU sheep and goat breeds, the relative weights in
legislation covering incentive payments see the economic development index were 50 percent
Part 3 – Section E: 3). Such incentives have halted for the economic dimension, 30 percent for the
the decline of some, but not all local breeds. A social dimension, and the remaining 20 percent for
number of national-level schemes have also been marketing strategies. The index does not include
put in place, again mostly in Europe (see Box 100 environmental factors, such as climatic conditions,
for examples). Even where successful, the longer- availability of agricultural land or pasture, or public
term sustainability of such incentive systems is administration factors. These factors can affect
questionable. It seems worthwhile to investigate outcomes when the policy tools are applied, but the
the use of more specific incentives; in Europe index evaluates only the economic potential resulting
for example, the elimination of milk production from the characteristics and behaviour of the private
quotas for endangered breeds might promote sector.
their wider use. In general, economic incentives
should be designed to accelerate the achievement Provided by Paolo Ajmone Marsan and the ECONOGENE
Consortium.
of breed self-sustainability rather than merely to
provide temporary economic support.
458
Box 102
Community-based in situ conservation programme – a case from Patagonia
Neuquén criollo goats are the main source of income

and animal protein for many households in the
north of Neuquén province in Argentine Patagonia.
The goats are well adapted to the transhumant
movements which have traditionally shaped the lives
of the goat keepers or crianceros. The sustainability
of the system is, however, threatened by changes
restricting livestock movements, notably the fencing
of traditional grazing areas. Prospects of education,
employment and better housing offered by more
urbanized lives also promote sedenterization.
Attempts during the 1980s to introduce Angora and
Anglo-Nubian goats for fibre and milk production
proved unsuccessful because of the harsh Photo credit: María Rosa Lanari
environment. Nonetheless, indiscriminate cross-
breeding poses a threat to the local genetic resources.
A programme for the conservation and improvement
of the Neuquén criollo goat was established in 2001 coloured coats are considered easier to manage in
under the auspices of the Instituto Nacional de snow-covered pastures. This preference is strongest in
Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA) and the provincial areas where snow lies longest. Further developments
Agricultural Bureau. Organizational and technological include measures to increase the value of goat
innovations which promote the continuance of the products. Kid meat is now sold under a distinct
traditional system under changed circumstances have “geographical indication”. This commercial–legal
been introduced. The goat keepers have been involved innovation enhances the profitability of the traditional
in the programme since its inception through the product of the system. A newer undertaking for the
establishment of producers’ associations which play a goat keepers is the harvesting of cashmere. Recent
leading role in the development and diffusion of new studies of the fibre from the breed have revealed the
technologies. potential of this product. The crianceros have been
Genetic improvement work is oriented towards provided with combs and trained to harvest and
conserving the breed’s genetic variability, hardiness classify the fibre.
and productive efficiency within the framework of The aim is, thus, to forestall the breed’s genetic
the traditional system. The programme is developing dilution as part of integrated efforts to preserve
a system for providing improved strains of local the underlying production system. The goat breed,
ecotypes based on selection criteria proposed by the the local environment, the culture and traditional
crianceros themselves. Preferences are for large but practices of the crianceros are regarded as valuable
compact animals that provide good meat yield and assets that can be used to enhance the development
can withstand extreme environments. The crianceros of this rural area.
also pay attention to does’ suitability for breeding
and kidding. A preference for white goats is related Provided by María Rosa Lanari.
For further information see: FAO (2007a).
to the marketing of the hair. Conversely, goats with
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PART 4
Utilization in production systems Box 103

Higher productivity resulting from genetic Changes in production systems leading
improvement of local breeds can imply higher to replacement of local buffaloes –
intensity of management and the need a case from Nepal
for supporting infrastructure. Conversely,
improvement in production systems and Parcelling out of available grazing land as a result
infrastructure can stimulate improvement of the of population growth has had a large impact on
local breed and/or the importation of new breeds. traditional livestock farming systems in the Mid-Hills of
Nepal. Rural households with access to growing urban
Such development can be both an opportunity
markets have replaced low-yielding local cattle and
and threat to the maintenance of local breeds.
buffaloes with high-yielding dairy buffaloes that can be
For example, indiscriminate cross-breeding can be
stall-fed. In less than 30 years, more than 95 percent of
a major threat. However, if properly structured,
farm households in the area covered by this case study
cross-breeding can lead to maintenance of the
have replaced their local cattle and Lime buffaloes with
local breed, for example, as a highly adapted and
one to three high-yielding Murah milk buffaloes from
efficient dam breed in a recurrent cross-breeding
the Indian lowlands. About 65 percent of households
programme. Unfortunately, little is known
buy new animals in lactation each year, selling the dry
about how to improve production systems and
ones for rebreeding or meat. The imported buffaloes
infrastructure such that the livelihoods of local are bred in the Indian lowlands, and selected by Indian
people are improved and food security is achieved traders, who transport them to the highlands of Nepal
while also conserving indigenous AnGR. and purchase the dry animals. These private traders
have played a much more important part than the
6.4 In situ versus ex situ approaches government in promoting the utilization of higher-
to in vivo conservation yielding animals. The local buffalo and cattle breeds
Given the intimate and complex relationships will remain important in more remote rural areas
between indigenous communities, environments where they continue to provide draft power and give
and livestock, and a widespread lack of breeding enough milk for family subsistence.
services and infrastructure, community-based Initial obstacles to managing the newly introduced
management of AnGR is often seen as a solution breed have been overcome, and farmers no longer wish
(Köhler-Rollefson, 2004), and is widely promoted to return to using the local animals. Farmers have kept
by NGOs. Certainly, such community-based improved buffaloes successfully on a prolonged basis,
approaches to conservation seem the preferable and have been rewarded with an improved standard of
option if they support further development of the living. Their priority now is to further develop breeding
breed and its ability to enhance livelihoods. Many strategies for the Murah buffaloes to achieve even
of the conservation strategies based on high- better productivity. This requires collaboration between
value products or production services, discussed the breeders of Nepal and India.
above, have been built around community-based, Socio-economic changes led farmers to abandon
in situ conservation. It has to be ensured that traditional farming practices and to seek alternatives.
maintaining local breeds will enhance the short The new management strategies have provided higher
and long-term livelihoods of the communities that economic returns, and farmers have come to favour
keep them. If this is not the case, such strategies an introduced breed over their local animals. This case
study shows that as production conditions change,
will prove unsustainable as the communities
new breeds with different characteristics sometimes
will eventually switch to alternative breeds that
provide farmers with a better livelihood option than
provide better livelihoods.
local breeds.
Community-based management approaches
do exist in the developing world. The example Provided by Kim-Anh Tempelman.
described in Box 102 illustrates that even where For further information see: FAO (2007b).
460
traditional production systems are threatened, institutions. The evidence provided by the
progress can be made towards the achievement of Country Reports suggests that there is insufficient
goals such as, managing communal grazing areas, information to determine how sustainable such
improving genetic resources and strengthening conservation programmes will be. It seems that
social development. However, the example virtually all ex situ in vivo conservation in the
from Nepal (Box 103) shows that as production developing world is used to support ongoing use
conditions change, the introduction of imported of the AnGR by farmers – raising the question of
genetic resources can sometimes be a viable whether ex situ in vivo conservation is likely to be
option for small-scale livestock keepers. While in a viable approach to conservation of AnGR that
this case the livelihoods of the farmers have been are no longer in current use. There is very clearly
improved, the local buffalo genetic resources are a need to develop a far greater understanding of
no longer being utilized. The example illustrates how to design and implement sustainable in vivo
that achieving strategies that simultaneously conservation, particularly in the developing world.
improve livelihoods and achieve conservation
objectives will often be a challenge.
Although in situ conservation is the most 7 Current status and future
frequently adopted conservation method in prospects for cryoconservation
Europe, there are also several examples of ex situ
in vivo conservation programmes, in farm parks From the early development of AI in the mid-
and in a few cases in zoos. In the United Kingdom 1940s to the most recent potential offered
there are currently 17 Rare Breeds Survival Trust by DNA storage and transfer, reproductive
Approved Centres20. One such farm, the Cotswold biotechnologies have been instrumental in the
Farm Park21, attracts over 100 000 visitors transfer of genetic material in vivo and in vitro.
annually. In Germany, Falge (1996) reported 124 The techniques that are currently accessible and
institutions maintaining animals of 187 breeds economically feasible for in vitro conservation
and nine livestock species. Similar institutions of AnGR are those for cryoconservation
exist in many other parts of Europe, for example, of reproductive cells, embryos and tissues.
in Italy, France and Spain, and also in North Materials conserved using these techniques may
America. A particularly valuable role of farm preserve their liveability and functional state for
parks is that they contribute to public awareness decades or even centuries. However, because
of AnGR conservation. For some species, such as of the relatively short period during which the
poultry, enthusiastic hobby-breeder organizations technologies have been in existence, a precise
play a role in conserving local breeds. The first evaluation of this putative longevity remains to
example of a protected area focused on rare be established. More recent biotechnologies,
domestic breeds was in Hungary, where native including cloning, transgenesis and transfer
breeds are conserved on the Puszta (an area of of somatic material, have great potential for
grassy wetlands and plains in eastern part of the future applications in AnGR conservation, but
country). Such schemes are now found in other at present they are only accessible to a few
parts of Europe and elsewhere. laboratories. The low reliability and extremely
In the developing world, the most commonly high costs of these technologies are two factors
observed ex situ in vivo conservation activities likely to limit their use in AnGR conservation in
are in herds or flocks maintained by state-owned the coming years. This chapter, therefore, focuses
primarily on current state-of-the-art reproductive
20
http://www.rbst.org.uk/html/approved_centres.html biotechnologies that are economically and
21
http://www.cotswoldfarmpark.co.uk
technically accessible in most geographical areas.
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PART 4
Previously published documents such as the communication, 2005). Results in chickens reveal
“Guidelines for development of national farm large between and within-breed variability
animal genetic resources management plans” in the range of 10–90 percent (Brillard and
(FAO, 1998c) and “Guidelines for the constitution Blesbois, 2003).
of national cryoconservation programmes for The number of semen doses that need to
farm animals” (ERFP, 2003) provide more details be stored is a function of the number of doses
about applications. required per parturition or hatching, the expected
lifetime production of fertile refounder females,
7.1 Gametes and the number of males and females desired
in the reconstructed population. Where semen
Semen is used to reconstruct breeds by backcrossing,
Semen from all mammalian livestock species has some percentage of the genes from the female
been successfully frozen in past years, as has semen population used in the backcross will remain
from some poultry species (chickens, geese). in the reconstructed breed. For example, five
Freezing procedures for semen cryoconservation generations of backcrossing are needed to obtain
are species-specific, but the general procedures animals carrying over 95 percent of the genotype
are as follows: of the breed restored from the frozen semen.
• following collection, semen is diluted in Sufficient semen must be stored to produce
a suitable ionic (salt) or non-ionic (sugar) the number of backcross generations required.
solution adjusted to near physiological In avian species in which females bear ZW
osmolarity; heterochromosomes (males are ZZ), genes carried
• suitable cryoprotectant is added – glycerol by the W chromosome cannot be transferred
is most commonly used, but dimethyl through standard semen cryoconservation.
sulfoxide (DMSO), dimethylacetamide Moreover, in all species, some cytoplasmic effects
(DMA) or dimethylformamide (DMF) are, of the donor breed may be lost or altered.
depending on the species, of high practical Notwithstanding these limitations, this technique
interest; should be seen as playing a predominant role in
• diluted semen is cooled, sampled and then the ex situ in vitro conservation of AnGR, because
frozen in liquid nitrogen (-196 °C); of the availability of advanced and reliable
• individual semen doses are generally frozen technology and the ease of application. However,
in straws rather than pellets to guarantee if the number of doses available per male is low
optimal sanitary conditions and permanent or if the number of females that can be obtained
identification of each dose. per dam is low, then the re-establishment of the
Following AI with frozen and thawed semen, breed via embryo transfer is, where possible, more
global conception rates average 50–65 percent desirable as a means of ensuring full recovery of
in more than 110 million yearly first-service the initial genes.
inseminations in cattle; 70–80 percent in more
than 40 million inseminations in pigs; 50–80 Oocytes
percent (intrauterine) or 55–65 percent (cervical) In the case of birds, despite interesting technical
in more than 120 000 inseminations in goats; developments, hatched chicks have not yet been
50–80 percent (intrauterine) or 55–60 percent successfully obtained from eggs that have been
(cervical) in more than 50 000 inseminations frozen and thawed. This is, in part, because of
in sheep; and 35–40 percent in more than the huge amount of lipid present in the vitellus.
5 000 inseminations in horses (Ericksson et In contrast, embryos from some mammalian
al., 2002; Thibier, 2005; G. Decuadro, personal livestock species can be produced in vitro from
462
matured oocytes collected at slaughter or from major categories based on the rapidity of freezing
live females by ovum pick-up. Such oocytes can procedures.
be frozen for prolonged periods prior to in In slow freezing approaches, equilibration
vitro fertilization (IVF) to produce embryos. Two of cryoprotectants and solutes between the
methods of freezing can be distinguished based medium surrounding the embryo and its
on the rapidity of the freezing procedures. Slow- intracellular compartments occurs slowly, thus
freezing procedures are currently feasible in cattle limiting the risks of membrane rupture due
and potentially applicable in sheep and goats, to intracellular ice formation. Upon thawing,
but success rates in obtaining progeny remain embryos are transferred into recipient females
extremely low (less than 10 percent). In part, this with or without removal of the cryoprotectant.
is a result of the limited success rate of embryo Internationally, such techniques are at present
transfer, and high embryo mortality following the most commonly used in cattle, sheep and
fertilization. Moreover, such techniques, which goats. Success rates at parturition vary depending
require oocyte maturation prior to IVF, must be on the species, genetic origin, source (in vivo or in
performed by highly qualified technicians. Ultra- vitro), and stage of development of the embryos.
rapid freezing procedures, also called vitrification, Embryos cryoconserved at an early stage of their
are currently developed experimentally to limit development result in lower parturition rates
damage to the oocyte resulting from chilling than embryos cryoconserved at a more advanced
injuries or the toxicity of cryoprotectants. stage (Massip, 2001).
Most protocols use high concentrations of Fast freezing (vitrification) techniques involve
cryoprotectants and sugars to remove water from ultra-rapid cooling and freezing of embryos in
the cells. This limits intracellular ice formation a very small amount of suspending medium in
and, therefore prevents ice injuries to the oocyte. which cryoprotectant and other solutes (sugars)
Promising results have been obtained in cattle. are generally at high concentrations. Embryos
However, working procedures which would make from several mammalian species (cattle, sheep
the cryoconservation of oocytes useful for the and goats) have been successfully vitrified and
preservation of AnGR remain to be validated on transferred. Survival rates of 59 and 64 percent
a large scale. have been observed in sheep and goat embryos,
respectively, using the so-called pulled-straw
7.2 Embryos vitrification technique (Cognié et al., 2003).
In contrast to avian species, embryos of virtually Embryo preservation techniques are
all mammals can be successfully frozen, thawed of particular interest with respect to the
and then transferred into recipient females to cryoconservation of AnGR because they allow
produce progeny. Currently, however, widespread full recovery of the initial genome. Slow freezing
use of embryo cryoconservation is limited to rates require expensive programmable freezers,
cattle, sheep and goats. Embryo collection in but offer more flexibility to untrained technicians
pigs requires the sacrifice of the female, and because of the relatively long intervals between
the procedure remains experimental in equine the two steps of the procedure. In contrast,
species. A number of factors including the method vitrification requires only limited equipment, but
of embryo collection (biopsied, produced in vitro, highly trained technicians.
or cloned), and stage of maturation, greatly
affect the probability of obtaining live progeny. A 7.3 Cryoconservation of somatic cells
variety of protocols to freeze and thaw embryos and somatic cell cloning
from livestock have been proposed, and as in the Since the creation of Dolly the sheep, the first
case of oocytes, they can be classified into two animal created by cloning of somatic cells, the
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PART 4
technology has been shown to work for most possible to choose exactly which animals to
mammals in which it has been tested, However, conserve, and later to reconstitute a population
it has not been applied successfully in birds. The of clones of these animals. Unlike in the case
current state of the technology is costly, with of preserved embryos, the cytoplasmic DNA is
extremely low success rates. If reconstitution of not preserved in animals derived from somatic
live animals from somatic cells is developed to the cells. Collection of somatic cells is, however, far
point where it becomes both reliable and cheap, simpler than collection of embryos, and it would
preservation of somatic cells would become an be feasible to collect samples extensively from
attractive option for cryoconservation of AnGR. field populations. The current costs of developing
Its main advantage would be that it would be somatic cell cultures, and uncertainty about
TABLE 105
Current status of cryoconservation techniques by species
Species Semen Oocytes Embryos Somatic Cells
Cattle + + + +
Sheep + 0* + 0
Goat + 0 + 0
Horse + 0 0 0
Pig + 0 0 0
Rabbit + 0 + 0
Chicken + - - -
+ routine techniques available; 0 positive research results; - not feasible in the current state of art; * cryoconservation of the whole ovary.
Box 104
Revival of the native Red and White Friesian cattle in the Netherlands
In 1800, the cattle population in the province Foundation for Native Red and White Friesian Cattle.
of Friesland consisted mainly of Red Pied cattle. In collaboration with the newly created Genebank
Many red ancestors were imported from Denmark for Animals, a breeding programme was developed.
and Germany after widespread losses caused by Semen from sires preserved in the genebank in
rinderpest. Since 1879, the Friesian Cattle herd book the 1970s and 1980s was used to breed females
had registered a Red and White phenotype, but under a contract system. Male progeny were raised
pushed by export markets, black and white animals by breeders, who were granted a subsidy from the
progressively became more popular than the original genebank. Semen from these males was collected,
red and white. In 1970, only 50 farmers owning a frozen and later used under new contracts. The breed
total of 2 500 cattle joined the Association of Red increased in number, reaching 256 registered living
and White Friesian Cattle Breeders. Within a short females and 12 living males in 2004. Currently, a total
period, the sustained import of Holstein-Friesians from of 11 780 semen doses from 43 bulls are stored in the
United States of America and Canada resulted in a genebank and kept available for AI. The majority of
further decline of the population, so that only 21 Red cows are raised by hobbyists for milk production.
and White individuals (4 males and 17 females) were
remaining in 1993. A group of owners started the Provided by Kor Oldenbroek.
464
Box 105
Revival of the Enderby cattle in New Zealand
The case of the Enderby Island cattle illustrates that it were captured by helicopter and shipped to New
is possible to resurrect breeds from extremely limited Zealand. The subsequent death of the calf meant
genetic material. However, it also shows that the that “Lady”, as the cow became known, was the last
process is complicated and requires a lot of time and of the Enderby cattle. Attempts to produce a calf,
resources. through artificial insemination and MOET, using the
Enderby is a small island situated 320 kilometres cryoconserved semen taken from the bulls killed on
to the south of New Zealand. Cattle were first the island, did not prove successful. Again it appeared
brought to the island in 1894, when one W.J. Moffett that the breed faced extinction. However, in 1997
of Invercargill took up a pastoral lease and landed NZRBCS in collaboration with AgResearch successfully
nine shorthorns. By the 1930s, farming on the island produced a calf, Elsie, cloned from a sample of Lady’s
had been abandoned, but the cattle remained as a somatic cells. Four more cloned heifers were born
feral herd. After 100 years surviving Enderby’s harsh the following year. Meanwhile, efforts to produce an
climate and a diet of scrub and seaweed, the cattle Enderby bull through in vitro fertilization using the
were hardy, small, stocky and well adapted. In 1991, cryoconserved semen and oocytes taken from Lady
to help preserve the local wildlife, the Enderby cattle had also proved successful, with the birth of “Derby”.
were shot. Sperm and oocytes from the dead animals Two of the clones later died, but in 2002 two more
were collected for cryoconservation, but attempts to Enderby calves were born through natural mating of
fertilize the oocytes failed and it appeared that the the cloned heifers and Derby.
Enderby breed had been wiped out forever.
The following year, members of the New Zealand For more details see: Historical Timeline of the Auckland
Islands; NZRBCS, (2002); Wells, (2004).
Rare Breeds Conservation Society (NZRBCS),
discovered a cow and a calf on the island. The animals
future prospects for producing live animals management, one major issue is to store sufficient
from the preserved cells, mean that somatic-cell biological material to allow the reconstruction
conservation is unlikely to be a priority in species of individual animals or populations bearing
where cryoconservation of gametes and embryos the desired traits. The choice of donor origin,
is well developed. However, cryoconservation of number of donor individuals and type of material
somatic cells would be a prudent back up where to be cryoconserved are, therefore, crucial if
cryoconservation of gametes and embryos is not investments are to be of long-term benefit.
feasible or has low success rates. Useful recommendations regarding these
Table 105 provides an overview of the feasibility matters are available from the following sources:
of the above-discussed techniques in the major Blackburn (2004), ERFP (2003) and Danchin-Burge
livestock species. et al. (2002).
7.4 Choice of genetic material 7.5 Security in genebanks

Techniques to cryoconserve gametes and embryos Genebanks for AnGR germplasm must provide
are, extensively used for commercial purposes in technically secure storage and meet strict
most domesticated mammals; there are a few zoosanitary requirements.
exceptions such as transfer of frozen embryos in
equines and pigs (Thibier, 2004). In the case of
cryoconservation programmes devoted to AnGR
465
PART 4
Technical security have to be taken into account. The objective

Loss of liquid nitrogen for any period of time is, therefore, to maximize the utility of a set of
(literally minutes) can lead to complete loss of the breeds, where utility is a weighted combination
cryoconserved material. Storage of cryoconserved of measures of diversity and other traits/values.
materials in two separate containers, and Definition of weights requires the valuation of
preferably two separate locations, limits the diversity relative to the other criteria considered.
risk of losses resulting from accidental failure to Another important consideration is the
maintain liquid nitrogen. degree of endangerment of the breeds in
question. This can be quantified in the form
Biosecurity of an extinction probability. The parameter is
Materials of animal origin including fluids, mainly determined by the effective population
gametes and embryos may carry pathogens size, and the demographic trend (i.e. whether
capable of surviving cryoconservation. While the population size is increasing or decreasing),
additional research is needed to further assess but should also take into account other factors
risks of transmission through genebanking, such as geographic distribution, implementation
biosecurity recommendations provided by the of breeding programmes, specific ecological,
Terrestrial Animal Health Code of the World cultural or religious functions, and risk from
Organization for Animal Health (OIE) are external threats (Reist-Marti et al., 2003).
universally applicable. Meeting the requirements Various methods for combining different criteria
of the code presents severe difficulties for many have been proposed for prioritizing breeds to be
countries. It makes movement of germplasm from targeted by conservation programmes. Ruane
disease-affected to disease-free areas extremely (2000), for example, proposed a method to be
difficult. It can also mean that samples that do followed by a group of experts identifying breed
not meet the code’s requirements cannot be priorities at the national level. The following
stored in the same facility as samples that do. seven criteria are included in the framework:
Such issues could provide a substantial obstacle • species (i.e. breeds from which species are to
to the establishment of national, regional and be included in the priority setting exercise?);
international cryoconservation banks. Special • degree of endangerment;
structures and possibly some special exemptions • traits of current economic value;
to existing codes will be required. • special landscape values;
• traits of current scientific value;
• cultural and historic value; and
8 Resource allocation strategies • genetic uniqueness.
in conservation It is suggested that breeds with high degrees
of endangerment should be given priority. If it is
necessary to prioritize among highly endangered
8.1 Methods for setting priorities breeds, it is then suggested that the extent to
A clear definition of objectives is crucial for all which the breeds meet the other listed criteria
conservation activities. One criterion that will should be taken into account. It may be necessary
often be considered important is the preservation to assign weights to the various criteria in order
of genetic diversity. However, conserving as to allow further differentiation of priority ranks.
much diversity as possible will rarely be the sole The relative importance to be given to each
objective. Other factors such as conservation criterion would be decided by the expert group.
of certain special traits (e.g. disease tolerance), Hall (2004) put forward a framework based
and ecological or cultural values of breeds, also on both genetic and functional diversity, using
466
British and Irish breeds of sheep and cattle as as possible, then the following method may be
an example. Each breed under consideration used to identify priority breeds (Simianer, 2002).
was compared to every other breed in terms The total diversity of an existing set of breeds
of functional and genetic distinctiveness. The can be calculated, as can the contribution of
genetic component was assessed on the basis each breed to the total diversity. Extinction
of the history of the breed and the likelihood probabilities and the diversity of different subsets
of significant gene flow within the last 200 of breeds are used to calculate what is referred
years. The functional component related to the to as the “expected diversity” (Box 106). This is
economic, social and cultural functions of the the diversity expected at the end of the planning
breed. In cattle, functional distinctiveness was horizon assuming that no conservation activities
assessed subjectively, but this was more difficult are undertaken. It may happen that at the
to do in the case of sheep. As such, mean fibre end of the planning horizon some of the most
fineness, almost the only parameter that had endangered breeds will have become extinct. If,
been measured in a comparable way across the however, conservation efforts are undertaken,
breeds in the study, was used as an indicator of the extinction probability of breeds will be
functional distinctiveness in sheep breeds. Breeds reduced and the expected diversity will increase.
that scored highly both for functional and genetic The amount of change in the expected diversity
distinctiveness were considered to be the most as a function of the change in the extinction
appropriate for inclusion in a list of priorities. probability of a particular breed is referred to as
The Rare Breeds Survival Trust in the United the breed’s “marginal diversity”. This marginal
Kingdom has also established a set of criteria diversity reflects the breed’s phylogenetic position.
for recognition of “rare breeds” which require It also indicates whether closely related breeds
special attention in terms of conservation are safe from extinction, but is independent of
measures (Mansbridge, 2004). The length of the breed’s own extinction probability.
time for which a breed has existed, the number The conservation priority of a breed has
of female animals, and the breed’s geographical been shown to be proportional to its “diversity
distribution are taken into account. conservation potential” (Box 106) – a measure
which reflects the additional amount of diversity
8.2 Optimization strategies that would be conserved if a breed were
for planning conservation made completely safe from extinction. A high
programmes conservation potential can either result from a
Efficient conservation programmes should use high degree of endangerment, or from a high
available monetary or non-monetary resources marginal diversity.
in such a way that the conservation objective is The parameters discussed here (marginal
maximized. The questions to be answered are: diversity, conservation potential, etc.) are
• For which breeds within the species elements of the general diversity theory put
under consideration should conservation forward by Weitzman (1992; 1993), which has
programmes be implemented? attracted considerable interest as a framework
• What share of the total conservation for decision-making in livestock conservation.
budget should be allocated to each of the The approach does not require that Weitzman’s
chosen breeds? diversity metric, which is diversity between breeds,
• Which conservation programmes should be is the quantity maximized. The methodology can
implemented for any chosen breed? be applied to any objective function, including
If it is assumed that the objective of the more comprehensive diversity metrics or utilities
conservation measures being considered is to (in the sense of a weighted sum of a diversity
conserve as much genetic diversity between breeds component and other values).
467
PART 4
Box 107 describes an example in which an Box 106

optimum allocation of conservation funds Glossary: objective decision aids
could increase cost efficiency by almost
60 percent compared to that achieved using
simplistic approaches. Diversity: numeric quantification of the amount of
Defining conservation priorities by ranking genetic variability in a set of breeds, ideally covering
breeds according to their conservation potential both the diversity within and between breeds.
assumes that conservation costs are roughly Utility: numeric quantification of the total value of
identical between breeds. More precisely, the a set of breeds, e.g. a weighted sum of diversity and
assumption is that opportunity costs for the various economic value components.
reduction of the extinction probability by one
Diversity contribution: the amount that the
unit are uniform across breeds. This of course existence of a breed contributes to the diversity of
is not true: reducing the extinction probability the whole set of breeds.
from, say, 0.8 to 0.7 (i.e. by 12.5 percent) can be
Extinction probability: the probability that a
achieved by relatively simple means and is much
breed becomes extinct within a defined planning
cheaper than reducing the extinction probability
horizon (often 50 to 100 years). The extinction
from 0.2 to 0.1 (i.e. by 50 percent).
probability can take values between 0 (breed is
For a more detailed and realistic analysis
completely safe) and 1 (extinction is certain).
it is necessary to define the cost of particular
Expected diversity: the projection of the actual
conservation activities (e.g. establishing
diversity to the end of a planning horizon, combining
cryoconservation, or giving subsidies to farmers to
the actual diversity with extinction probabilities. The
maintain an in situ population of a breed at risk),
expected diversity reflects the amount of diversity to
and also to assess the effect of such activities in
be expected if no conservation efforts are made.
terms of a reduction in the extinction probability
of the respective breed. If allocation of resources is Marginal diversity: reflects the change of
undertaken in an international context, different expected diversity of the total set of breeds if the
cost levels, technical standards, and currency extinction probability of a breed is modified (e.g.
exchange rates need to be taken into account: through conservation measures).
it may well be the case that cryoconservation Diversity conservation potential: a quantity
is established as a routine application in one proportional to the product of the marginal diversity
country, while in another country, the required and the extinction probability. This parameter
infrastructure would first have to be developed. approximately reflects how much the expected
Another consideration is that labour costs for in diversity can be increased if a breed is made
vivo conservation schemes may differ substantially completely safe. Weitzman (1993) suggested that
between countries. this measure is the “single most useful [breed] alert
A conservation scheme always has a number indicator”.
of costs, which will vary markedly between If utility rather than diversity is to be maximized,
species and countries. The fixed costs are those “utility contribution”, “expected utility”, “marginal
required to establish and run the scheme as such utility” and “utility conservation potential” are the
(e.g. establishing a cryoconservation centre), relevant terms, and the word “diversity” in the above
while variable costs depend on the number of definitions should be replaced by “utility.”
animals included and the type of genetic material
(semen, oocytes or embryos) conserved in the Source: adapted from Simianer (2005).
scheme. Different conservation schemes vary
in terms of the level of the fixed cost and the
variable cost per genetic unit conserved. If this
468
Box 107
Optimum allocation of conservation funds – an example featuring African cattle
breeds
Simianer (2002) illustrated the application of an based on Weitzman’s diversity concept, 10 of the
optimum allocation scheme to a set of 26 African 26 breeds receive funds, with 34 percent of the funds
taurine and Sanga cattle breeds for which estimates being used for Muturu and only 2 percent for Kuri
of genetic distances (based on 15 microsatellites) and (see figure).
extinction probabilities had been calculated. Using the With the optimum allocation strategy, the expected
extinction probabilities, the expected loss of diversity loss of diversity is reduced by 15.7 per cent. This
in the absence of conservation over the assumed is 57 percent more efficient than allocating funds
planning horizon of 50 years was estimated to be 43.6 equally across breeds. The same impact on diversity
percent of the current diversity. It was assumed that a as the uniform allocation strategy could be achieved
conservation budget was available which, if allocated with an optimum allocation of only 52 percent of the
equally across all breeds, would prevent 10 percent of available funds. The example illustrates that optimum
the expected loss of diversity. If this same total budget allocation can substantially increase the efficiency of
is allocated to the conservation of only the three most use of conservation funds.
endangered breeds, the diversity conserved decreases
slightly to 9 percent of the expected loss, and so is
Provided by Henner Simianer.
10 percent less efficient than allocating funds equally
across breeds. With an optimum allocation scheme
MUTURU
ANKOLE
AFAR
SHEKO
ABIGA R
DANAKIL
RA YAAZEBO
BA LADI
PEDI
NKONE
TULI
MASHONA
TONGA
BAROTSE
NGUNI
AFRIKANER
KAOKOLA ND
KURI
KAVANGO
WATUSI
BLONDE
BAOULE
SOM BA
NDAMA
KAPSIKI
NAMCHI
0 10 20 30 40
percent allocation of funds
469
PART 4
cost structure can be modelled with sufficient of what are the most appropriate factors to
accuracy, optimum allocation schemes will not be optimized in conservation efforts, because
only assign a share of the conservation budget use of different factors may lead to different
to a certain breed, but will also indicate which conservation decisions. Substantial further work
of the available conservation techniques will be is also required to develop tools that will assist
most cost effective for this breed. the maximization of a diverse range of measures
Since optimum allocation procedures are based of diversity and utility.
on mathematical optimization, it is relatively Final decisions on investments in conservation
simple to include certain restrictions or side will be driven by many economic, social and
conditions. This could relate to geographic political factors. Thus, the decision-aids described
balance, i.e. require that conservation activities above should be regarded as tools to allow
are implemented in all parts of the target region. decision-makers a better understanding of the
It could also force the optimum solution to avoid consequences of alternative investment strategies
the loss of certain special traits by putting a high for conservation.
penalty on solutions in which, for example, all
trypanotolerant cattle breeds become extinct.
Other strategies to find the optimum pattern 9 Conclusions
of resource allocation are restricted to more
specific decision-making problems. Eding et al. Traditions and cultural values are important
(2002) suggested the selection of a so-called driving forces for conservation in Western societies,
core set of breeds based on marker estimated and are also becoming increasingly important
kinships. A core set can be thought of as a live in some developing countries. Another strong
or cryoconserved mixed population, which is motivation that is shared by many stakeholders is
constituted of various proportions of different safeguarding as much diversity as possible for an
breeds. The breed contributions to the core set are unpredictable future.
derived in such a way, that the expected diversity Conceptually, the most basic unit of diversity is
of the total core set is maximized. The advantage the allele, and thus, from a scientific point of view,
of this approach is that it combines between and one definition of maintaining genetic diversity
within-breed diversity. However, it does not take could be considered to be maintaining high allelic
into account the degree of risk faced by particular diversity. This would avoid the problems associated
breeds, which limits its usefulness to special cases with scientifically defining a breed. At present,
of decision-making, such as finding the optimum however, molecular measures of genetic diversity
design for a cryoconservation programme with provide only indirect indications of genetic diversity
limited storage capacity. in functional or potentially functional regions
Resource allocation for the efficient of the DNA. Thus, the best proxy for functional
conservation of AnGR diversity requires good diversity remains the diversity of breeds or distinct
information on the phylogenetic substructure populations that have developed in distinct
of a species, on factors affecting the degree of environments, and possess different production
threat faced by the breeds considered, and on and functional traits. Furthermore, cultural
any special values that the breeds may have. A arguments for conservation are linked to breeds not
substantial knowledge of potential conservation to genes. Nevertheless, there is a need to develop
programmes, including their costs, is also objective criteria to decide whether a certain
required. The more complete and reliable this breed is of unique scientific value, or whether, for
information, the more cost effective the design example, it could be substituted by a neighbouring
of the optimum conservation programme will be. population. This requires the combination of all
Further work is required to resolve the question available information on breed characteristics,
470
origin and geographical distribution. Wherever The analysis of in vivo conservation methods
possible, additional information, including results indicates that the distinction between in situ and
from molecular characterization, should be also ex situ in vivo conservation methods is not clear
considered. cut. It may, therefore, be appropriate to consider
In vivo and in vitro conservation methods are in vivo conservation methods as a continuum:
clearly distinct in terms of what they can achieve. ranging from conserving animals in their original
Preserving live animals allows further evolution of production environment, (in situ conservation as
the breeds in interaction with the environment, defined above), to the extreme ex situ situation of
while in vitro conservation preserves the conserving livestock breeds in zoos. While there
current genetic status. In vitro methods provide is clearly a preference for maintaining livestock
an important back-up strategy when in vivo breeds in the production environments, in which
conservation cannot be established or cannot they were developed, it is important to carefully
conserve the necessary population size. It may evaluate whether conservation objectives might
also be the only option in the case of emergencies also be achieved in an ex situ context. This will
such as disease outbreaks or wars. The past focus clearly depend on the species and on the specific
on cryoconservation as a supporting tool for ex situ conditions. In the developing world,
breeding programmes has led to technically sound most reported examples of ex situ conservation
solutions for the main livestock species. However, are linked to in situ populations, and it appears
there is an urgent need to develop standard doubtful whether they are independently viable.
procedures for all livestock species. Freezing tissue While methodologies to maintain maximum
samples seems an appealing method, because of diversity in small populations have been developed,
the ease with which the genetic material can be implementation strategies for maintaining at-
sampled. However, the difficulty of reproducing risk breeds in traditional production systems
living animals from these samples suggests that it are rare. Various successful examples have
should be regarded as a method of last resort. been reported from developed countries and
It is interesting to note that it has long been from some developing countries. In developed
accepted that international genebanks financed countries, several possibilities, such as niche
by the international community should preserve markets, conservation grazing or subsidies, have
plant genetic diversity. The Global Trust Fund been employed to increase the economic viability
Initiative aims to create the framework for long- of endangered breeds. Conversely, in developing
term financial support for these genebanks countries the only successful examples reported
to make them independent of the short-term are linked to consumer or market demands for
financial priorities of the host institutions. specific or traditional products. However, these
Furthermore, the Norwegian government has practical examples of what has been achieved
offered to provide a last resort for PGR, which will have not yet led to (scientific) concepts or models
be put in place in 2007 (Box 108). for implementation strategies. Furthermore, no
In general, it takes much longer to create a reliable estimates of the costs and benefits of
livestock breed than to create a plant variety – for conservation strategies are available. Attempts
some breeds it has taken centuries. However, the to optimize the allocation of conservation funds
global community seems to be much less prepared are based on crude assumptions on the cost side,
to invest the necessary time, energy and money in and use rather simplistic objective functions. The
safeguarding this heritage. Nonetheless, it is a global development of more complex objective functions
responsibility to ensure that valuable resources is constrained by the difficulties of quantifying
are maintained – a responsibility that includes all desirable functional traits to be included.
genetic resources for food and agriculture.
471
PART 4
Box 108
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault: an international seed depository in the Arctic
The Government of Norway recently initiated planning depository, stored in “black-box” conditions, would
for the construction of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault be available only when all other copies had been lost,
to serve as an ultimate “fail-safe” back-up facility for in keeping with the intention of providing a safe and
genebanks. The facility will be established near the secure facility that could provide protection for plant
town of Longyearbyen, on Svalbard, at 78 degrees genetic resources for food and agriculture in the case
North and will open in the spring of 2008. of large-scale catastrophes such as nuclear war, or
The depository will be large enough to conserve a major acts of terrorism.
copy of all distinct accessions now held in genebanks Participation in the scheme will be purely voluntary.
around the world, with additional space available Management will be “passive” the depository will not
for new collections. It will be located in a “vault”, engage in characterization, evaluation, regeneration
carved out of solid rock inside a mountain, and lined or other similar activities. The Nordic Gene Bank will
with reinforced concrete. There will be an air-lock be responsible for placing materials in the depository
door for moisture control, and a number of robust and retrieving them as necessary. It already has its
security devices. The remote location, the presence back-up collection in another facility at Svalbard, and
of Norwegian authorities, and the occasional duplicate collections from SADC are also currently
wandering polar bear, will combine to make this stored there. Due to the necessity of keeping
facility the most secure and reliable in the world. management operations and costs at a minimum,
Under normal conditions, collections will be housed and in keeping with the intention of constructing a
at approximately -18 °C. However, as the vault will facility that will function without day-to-day human
be located in permafrost, long-term electricity failures involvement, the depository will only be in the
would only result in the temperature gradually rising position to accept properly packaged orthodox seed.
to -3.5 °C. As the facility will be designed for the international
The town of Longyearbyen, a dropping-off point community, Norway will not claim any ownership over
for expeditions to the North Pole, is served by daily the seeds stored there.
flights, and has excellent infrastructure and power The FAO Commission on Genetic Resources has
supplies utilizing locally procured coal. warmly welcomed the Norwegian initiative, and
The seed depository will not be a “genebank” many countries, as well as centres of the CGIAR,
in the normal sense of the term. Instead, it will have already signalled their desire to make use of the
be intended to house distinct accessions that are depository.
already conserved and duplicated in two traditional
genebanks that would serve as the source of seed for Provided by Cary Fowler.
plant breeders and researchers. Materials from the
The scientific concepts which are available

for certain aspects of conservation have been
developed mainly in the context of breeding
programmes. Genuine research in the field
of conservation of livestock genetic diversity
(probably with the exception of molecular
methods) is still in its early stages.
472
Ericksson, B.M., Petersson, H. & Rodriguez-Martinez,

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475
Section G
Research priorities
In this section, priorities for research and environment to which particular breeds are
development are identified based on the suited, and as a proxy for adaptation traits.
expert analysis of the state of the art in AnGR • Improved methods of risk definition
management. The priorities have been identified and monitoring: methods for estimating
in order to fill gaps in knowledge and provide probability of extinction are poorly
the tools required to develop and implement developed and need substantial further
management programmes more effectively, research. Improved monitoring methods
efficiently and sustainably. The rationale for the have to be linked to regular entry of data
research and development priorities has been set on population size and structure into
out in the earlier sections, and only the briefest information systems to ensure that they
description is presented here. remain up to date and relevant.
1 Information for effective 2 Information systems

utilization and conservation
Existing information systems have relatively little
A major obstacle to decision-making in utilization functionality beyond simple searches by country
and conservation of AnGR is the shortage of or breed. The functionality needs to be extended
information on key traits and performance of to provide stakeholders with the information they
local or indigenous AnGR, and the lack of reliable require in a more aggregated and user friendly
data on population size and structure. The way.
following research tasks have to be completed so • Regular updating and correction of existing
that researchers, policy-makers, decision-makers data, and completion of missing data:
and advisors to farming communities have the should be facilitated by system routines.
information they require to make appropriate • Information system functionality: needs
recommendations and take appropriate decisions to be improved and expanded to allow
for the conservation and utilization of AnGR. extraction and customized analysis of
• Improved methods and greater use of phenotype and molecular genetic data
phenotypic characterization: is required in within and between data sources. To supply
order to assign livestock populations to the such functionality will require development
appropriate breeds, and to overcome a lack of improved methods of analyzing and
of information regarding key adaptation interpreting diverse forms of genetic
traits of indigenous AnGR. diversity data (molecular and phenotype).
• Production environment descriptors: need • Georeferencing of AnGR information
to be refined and implemented in existing systems: to allow access to multilayered
AnGR information systems to indicate the geophysical information linked to
477
PART 4
attributes of AnGR (specific adaptation), 4 Characterization

and to provide precise information about
current and past geographic location and The increasing importance given to animal
distribution of AnGR. welfare, distinctive product qualities, human
• Interconnectivity and interoperability health concerns, improving the efficiency of
between information resources/databases: resource utilization, and reducing environmental
options and modalities need to be further impact will require a wider range of selection
developed. criteria in future breeding programmes. To date,
little is known about the genetic aspects of
adaptation.
3 Molecular methods v Development and application of
methods for molecular and phenotypic
Opportunities for utilizing molecular techniques characterization and for the capture of
in the management of AnGR are going to increase knowledge associated with the breed and
in the near future. However, the costs and benefits its management. Additionally, methods to
of applying these technologies, and, hence, assess the extent of genetic dilution of a
appropriate strategies for their utilization, will breed need to be well developed. Linking
vary depending on local conditions. the outcome of such research to regular
• Improved understanding of genetic diversity inventories will inform decision-making
in the main livestock species: comprehensive about risk status and measures to be taken
assessments of genetic diversity using to halt the decline of genetic diversity.
molecular genetic markers are required. This v Understanding robustness: the value of
needs to be achieved in ways that maximize different breeds with respect to robustness,
the value of the large amount of data which as measured by reduction in genotype–
exist at present but are in fragmented form. environment interactions, needs to be
Improved sampling methods will be needed, determined; genes that explain variation
along with the development and supply in robustness and factors contributing
of international reference samples. Results to homeostatic imbalance under a given
need to be entered into publicly accessible husbandry system or management practice
information systems. need to be defined.
• Worldwide identification of variants in genes v Improved understanding of disease
for key traits. resistance: infection mechanisms and host–
• Enhanced understanding of the genetic basis pathogen interactions need to be studied.
of adaptive traits: explore the potential of
new and emerging technologies to reveal
the genetic basis of disease resistance, 5 Genetic improvement methods
adaptation to difficult environments and
production efficiency. Such understanding There is little information on how to adapt breeding
may provide new routes for conventional strategies to low external input environments
and transformative genetic improvement. with little or no organizational infrastructure. In
• Development of methods for the integration this regard, selection for functional traits such as
of molecular information into conservation robustness, disease resistance, behavioural traits,
and breeding programmes: methods have and efficiency of feed utilization are particularly
to be adapted to different environmental, relevant. Guidance is also needed for the initial
agricultural and socio-economic decision as to whether to implement genetic
circumstances. improvement programmes.
478
• Detailed guidelines for the design of understand the socio-economic, infrastructural,

genetic improvement programmes in technical and policy constraints to the
low external input systems: need to be establishment and sustaining of conservation
developed and validated. These should programmes.
include the development of breeding and v In situ in vivo conservation methods:
production objectives in relation to national research and development is required to
goals and policies and the role of adaptive understand how to implement in situ in vivo
traits. conservation in ways that are sustainable,
• Development of stable cross-breeding maximize livestock keepers’ livelihoods and
systems with a role for native breeds. support development objectives.
• Simulation tools to predict the v Ex situ in vivo conservation methods: there
consequences of introducing exotic breeds is a need to identify approaches to ex situ in
into local populations should be developed vivo conservation in the developing world
(part of genetic impact assessment). that are closer to being self-sustaining, and
• Selection for disease resistance, where thereby less vulnerable to collapse than are
determining genes have been identified: approaches that are heavily dependent on
strategies of how to implement DNA-based state support.
selection without compromising production v Sampling and storage for genetic material
traits should be developed. for backup systems related to breeding
• Selection for welfare traits: a clear programmes: methods are required to
definition of welfare traits is needed optimize ongoing sampling and storage
for each species; methods for the in systems where the primary objective is
measurement of stress and psychological to provide a backup to ongoing genetic
status (aggression, discomfort and improvement programmes.
frustration) need to be improved; and v Cryoconservation and reproduction
selection methods for more appropriate techniques: improved effectiveness and
temperament, reduction of foot and leg expanded access to cryopreservation and
problems, and incidence of cardio-vascular reproductive techniques for gametes
problems (in poultry raised for meat) need and embryos are required in species for
to be developed. which the technologies already exist. The
• Selection for increased efficiency of feed technologies also need to be extended to
utilization: better knowledge of nutrient other species. Cheap and effective somatic
(e.g. amino acid) requirements under cloning would substantially improve the
different conditions and genetic variation safety and cost-effectiveness of in vitro
in digestion of specific amino acids and conservation.
phosphorus is needed. v Policy, legislative and zoosanitary
frameworks for in vitro conservation:
research and development is required
6 Conservation methods to identify the policy, legislative and
zoosanitary frameworks that will permit
There is little experience in establishing storage and promote access to AnGR held in
conservation programmes that will be sustainable national and multinational genebanks.
in less developed countries, or in how to operate
conservation programmes that operate across
a number of countries, or regionally rather
than nationally. Research is required better to
479
PART 4
7 Decision-support tools for conservation and sustainable use. A detailed

conservation costing of conservation alternatives across a
wide spectrum of situations is needed to assist
Tools to analyse complex data and optimize countries and other agencies to make decisions
resource use, and to design programmes that assist on cost-effective conservation programmes.
researchers, policy makers and advisors better to Analytical methods are required to define the
understand the consequences of decisions, as global benefits of AnGR conservation. This will
well as to optimize such decisions are required. require:
As conservation will often involve utilization • Identifying uses and farmers’ trait
and improvement of the genetic resources, such preferences for local breeds under different
decision-aids need to include aids to the design production systems: this analysis should
and operation of breeding programmes. The include a systems evolution perspective as
following are the key areas for research and well as the forces influencing such factors
development: and the use of alternative breeds. This
v Methods for resource optimization: will necessarily include measuring breed
research is required into how to combine performance parameters, in addition
information of varying degrees of to characterizing actual and potential
uncertainty to optimize the choice of AnGR breeding systems.
for conservation, and the allocation of • Carrying out market analysis for livestock
resources for conservation. breeds and their products, and cost–benefit
v Optimization tools: user friendly tools analysis of breeding programmes: this will
for optimization of resource allocation in guide decision-making whether to embark
conservation need to be developed, and on structured breeding programmes with
these tools need to be included within the local breeds.
next generation of information systems. • Carrying out ex ante analyses of the effects
v Early warning and response mechanisms: on livelihoods of using alternative breeds:
with defined triggers and actions need to this will support pro-poor targeting of
be developed for use at country level. interventions, together with constraints
to adoption, and potential access/
dissemination mechanisms.
8 Economic analysis • Estimation of the costs of alternative
conservation strategies: choice of the
In relation to individual conservation and appropriate balance of conservation
utilization decisions, improved methods that strategies will depend on the costs of
can be used in a wide range of situations to alternative approaches. The costs of a given
accurately value individual AnGR and the conservation approach will vary markedly
various characteristics of AnGR which might between countries and regions, depending
be conserved or improved are required. It is not just on local costs for various inputs, but
important to continue to field-test promising also on the levels of existing infrastructure
valuation methods, and to systematically apply and accessible expertise.
proven ones to different traits, breeds and species • Developing and applying decision-support
across diverse production systems. In addition, tools for prioritization of breeds: these
it will be necessary to facilitate application of tools should identify best options for cost-
the methodologies and results at regional and efficient diversity-maximizing conservation
national levels, thereby providing opportunities programmes.
for influencing policy decisions related to
480
9 Access and benefit-sharing
Access and benefit sharing in the field of the

exchange and use of AnGR is a matter of
increasing international debate, the outcomes of
which will have a large impact on the willingness
of various states, agencies, institutions and
companies to invest in the conservation and
further development of AnGR. It is necessary to
ensure that the anticipated international debates
on the subject are well informed, and that
effective decisions can be taken. Detailed analyses
are required to improve understanding of the
relationship between access and trade in livestock
germplasm, and research and development, along
with an assessment of the costs and benefits
arising from such research. The need for, and
the potential impacts of, frameworks for access
and benefit sharing of conserved AnGR need
to be assessed. Better information on the costs
and benefits of past movements of AnGR would
provide a valuable background to such analysis.
This requires:
• Assessment of how to improve public
and community use of biodiversity (e.g.
improved community-based management of
AnGR), including through the enhancement
of existing benefit-sharing at local level.
• Improved understanding of the significance
of national regulatory interventions (i.e.
macroeconomic interventions, regulatory
and pricing policy, investment policy,
institutional policy and animal disease
control protocols).
• Ensuring current and future benefits from
global flows of livestock germplasm: design
of mechanisms at national and international
levels to protect and enhance existing forms
of benefit-sharing, and assessment of needs
in relation to future scenarios which might
affect or change flows and the share of
benefits.
• Exploring the legal and technical framework
for the setting up of a genebank of AnGR,
including wild relatives, to be used for
research purposes.
481
Part 5
NEEDS AND
CHALLENGES IN ANIMAL
GENETIC RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT
PART 5
Introduction
This final part of the report draws together the evidence presented in the other four
parts to provide an assessment of needs and challenges in the management of animal
genetic resources for food and agriculture (AnGR). The analysis relates the current state
of genetic erosion and threats to AnGR to current capacities in AnGR management and
the state of knowledge regarding methodologies and their application.
NEEDS A ND C HALLENGES I N A N I MAL GENE T I C RESOU RC ES MA N AGEMEN T
Section A
Knowledge of animal genetic

diversity: concepts, methods and
technologies
Only few mammalian and avian species have been Originally, the concept of the breed was closely
domesticated. Some additional species such as linked to the existence of breeders’ organizations.
capybara and giant African snails are utilized for Where the traditions of formalized breeding
food and agriculture, but have not undergone organizations do not exist, as is the case in many
the same long process of development as the 40 developing countries, it is more difficult to identify
or so domesticated species. Most of the genetic breeds. A broad definition of breed, such as that used
diversity in AnGR is therefore inherent in the by FAO, accounts for social, cultural and economic
various populations developed over time by differences and is, therefore, globally applicable. It
livestock keepers to fulfil diverse needs in diverse also implies that as long as breeds fulfil the diverse
terrestrial ecosystems all around the world. livelihood functions required by their keepers, the
These subpopulations (the breeds) were partially breeds and their inherent genetic diversity will be
isolated, but periodic exchanges of animals maintained. There are, however, cases in which the
yielded new genetic combinations. This situation concept of the socioculturally defined breed and
was ideal to maintain the evolutionary potential the breed as unit of genetic diversity dissociate, for
of the species. example when indiscriminate cross-breeding leads
Information on current patterns of genetic to dilution of the genetic make-up of local breeds
resource exchange is sketchy. Nonetheless, the without this being reflected in national inventories.
distributional pattern of breeds and information In other instances, local breeds become threatened
on trade in genetic material provide evidence when, for various reasons, the livelihood strategies
for an intense exchange between developed of their keepers change, in which case both the
countries, and a steady flow of AnGR from genetic and the cultural aspects of the breeds are
developed to developing countries. There is at risk.
also an exchange of genetic material between In the last few decades, use of reproductive
developing countries, and a much smaller flow technologies and standardized production
from developing to developed countries. conditions have led to the worldwide spread of
Genetic variation within livestock species is a few specialized breeds, especially for poultry,
partly attributed to differences between breeds pig and dairy cattle production, rather than the
and partly to differences among individuals within development of a broad range of genetic material.
breeds. Selection both between and within breeds While this exchange of genetic material from high-
has potential to contribute to development. Given output breeds – the international transboundary
that AnGR are human-made or influenced, a breed breeds – has resulted in impressive production
population is the usual unit for genetic improvement increases, and many countries regard it as a means
measures and the associated knowledge. This is of enriching their livestock population, it is also
true for both local and commercial breeds, and for threatening the existence of some local breed
traditional and scientific knowledge. populations.
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If a breed or population becomes extinct, this descriptions, specific breed characteristics and
means the loss of its unique adaptive attributes, uses, and breed origin. Furthermore, member
which are often under the control of many countries have long requested FAO to develop
interacting genes, and are the result of complex early warning and response mechanisms. Such
interactions between the genotype and the systems would need to be combined with breed
environment. It is increasingly being recognized prioritization and the georeferencing of breed
that in addition to the many benefits animal distribution, but information necessary to achieve
breeds provide for their keepers, livestock genetic these steps is lacking.
diversity is a public good. For more than one-third of all reported breeds,
The coverage of breed diversity in the Global risk status is not known because of missing
Databank for Animal Genetic Resources was population data. Besides the missing population
substantially improved during the State of the data, a major weakness of the current monitoring
World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food of breed erosion is that it does not capture genetic
and Agriculture (SoW-AnGR) preparation dilution of local breeds by indiscriminate cross-
process. Twenty percent of breeds are classified breeding – a problem that is considered by many
as being “at risk”, and a total of 690 breeds experts to be a major threat to AnGR diversity.
have been reported as extinct. However, At the same time, there are many nondescript
breed-related information remains far from local breeds for which it is unclear whether they
complete, particularly in developing countries. A form (relatively) homogenous groups that can be
fundamental problem is the lack of knowledge distinguished from neighbouring populations.
regarding the characteristics of AnGR; their Molecular characterization studies help to unravel
distribution geographically and by production the existing relationships, but need to be better
system; the role that their special characteristics coordinated and the results better combined.
play in meeting the livelihood needs of their The reasons for breed extinctions have not been
keepers; and the ways in which their utilization is well studied, and in many cases the endangerment
affected by changing management practices and of a breed cannot be related to a concrete cause.
broader trends in the livestock sector. Methods Case studies give indications of the mechanisms
for breed characterization and valuation need involved, but not a global picture. The majority
to be further developed to include the various of reported breed extinctions have occurred
products and services that livestock supply. in Europe and the Caucasus, and in North
The description of livestock diversity needs to America. In these regions it can be assumed that
be refined. To improve the understanding of a multipurpose breeds kept by small-scale farmers
breed’s contribution to diversity and to further have been replaced by high-output breeds kept in
explore exchange patterns, it is necessary to define large-scale farm enterprises, and that local breeds
objective (scientific) criteria for deciding whether are now largely maintained in marginal areas or
breed populations that occur in different countries in low external input systems, such as organic
belong to a common gene pool and should be farming. The decline of traditional livestock
linked. Improved methods for characterization production systems and the replacement of local
are needed to facilitate prioritization in AnGR genetic resources by exotic high-performing
development and conservation. Given that in breeds are also a reason for endangerment or
some cases immediate decisions are required, extinction in developing countries. Unplanned
there is a need for methods that make effective cross-breeding and gradual replacement of local
use of information that may be incomplete and breeds is reported by many developing countries.
consider material drawn from different sources Some native breeds may not appear to be at risk
such as molecular characterization, phenotypic if their status is measured in terms of population
488
size, but are gradually losing their specific traits. to be interpreted and specified for use in the
It is a major challenge to find a way of assessing context of agricultural biodiversity, and concrete
and reacting to this type of risk. management strategies based on the principles
The erosion of AnGR needs to be understood in need to be developed for AnGR.
the context of environmental, socio-economic and The interpretation of the relationship between
cultural drivers of change at global, national and sustainable use and conservation differs between
local levels. Policies and legal measures, including the field of AnGR management and that of general
those addressing access to natural resources, the biodiversity management. In the latter field,
environment, economic development, zoosanitary conservation tends to be interpreted as ensuring
issues, infrastructure and services, markets, the long-term maintenance of biodiversity.
and research, affect the capacity of livestock Sustainable use is seen as an option that can be
keepers and other stakeholders to maintain and used to achieve conservation. However, in AnGR
develop AnGR. Developments at global, regional, management, the term conservation is used in a
national and local scales interact more strongly narrower sense – to describe activities that need
today than ever before. A better understanding to be implemented when ongoing utilization
of the various factors that drive the erosion of of particular breeds is threatened. Understood
AnGR is required in order to develop strategic in this sense, sustainable use of AnGR renders
and effective measures for conservation and conservation measures superfluous.
sustainable utilization. Genetic improvement is an important element
The creation of the “transboundary breeds” in sustainable use of AnGR as it allows livestock
category (linking of national breed populations keepers to adapt their animals to changing
with a common gene pool) in distinction from conditions. Scientific principles and methods for
“local breeds” has proved useful for identifying genetic improvement are well developed, but
patterns of AnGR exchange, and has improved have not been adapted to the requirements of
breed risk assessment. However, these categories lower external input environments: for example,
need to be further refined. The classification may defining breeding goals for multiple purpose
be useful for identifying cases in which regional breeds or implementing programmes under
collaboration in breed management is needed. unfavourable infrastructural and institutional
Breeds with a truly international distribution and conditions. Viable organizational structures
exchange pattern are not under threat in terms for breeding and also for in situ conservation
of population size. However, in the case of some programmes under such conditions still have to
international transboundary breeds, a decline in be elaborated. It would be useful to develop
the within-breed diversity that underlies efficient economic methods for ex ante assessment of the
selection programmes may become a problem. livelihood implications of genetic improvement
Although there is widespread agreement programmes in comparison to the effects of
that sustainable use of breeds is the preferred other livestock development interventions.
approach for maintaining animal genetic The analysis of risk status reveals gaps
diversity, a conceptual outline of the principles in information, but also shows that a high
and elements that constitute sustainable use of proportion of breeds with a known population
AnGR are only slowly emerging. Some progress size are threatened to various degrees. Only for
towards defining the concept of sustainable use some of the breeds at risk is it known whether
was achieved through the development of the they are being effectively “maintained” by
Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for the national conservation programmes, because
Sustainable Use of Biodiversity. These guidelines even where programmes are reported, the data
focus on biodiversity in general and on general that would allow a judgement to be made as to
principles and policies. Thus, the principles need the programmes’ quality are not available. The
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analysis of countries’ capacities in conservation a wide distribution, high within-breed diversity,

suggests that only very few threatened indigenous and may well include distinct subtypes that need
breeds are covered – with the exception of those to be identified.
from western Europe and North America. In view Given the drawbacks in the breed concept,
of the ongoing loss of genetic diversity, both a picture of diversity based on the number of
between and within breeds, and given that this breeds is necessarily incomplete. Nonetheless,
diversity can be considered to be a public good, when combined with other available information
stronger action to safeguard these resources such as the history of domestication, it indicates
needs to be taken. The question then becomes: hotspots of diversity for the various livestock
how can this most effectively be done? species, and helps to direct further research.
While conceptually the most basic unit of To date, it is mainly between regions that
diversity, and thus of conservation, is the allele, it comparisons of genetic diversity can be made,
is recognized that alleles do not act in isolation, but it would be very useful to link diversity to
and that animal performance is affected by production systems. Furthermore, contribution
the interaction of alleles present across the to allelic diversity should not be assessed only by
genome. The process of breed development has genetic distances measured on neutral gene loci,
involved the creation of allelic combinations but also needs to be combined with information
that are associated with specific levels of animal on functional traits.
performance and adaptation. The orientation The analysis of risk status, along with evidence
of conservation towards conserving individual from case studies shows that it is neither possible
alleles would ensure the maintenance of the nor appropriate to wait for perfect information
individual building blocks of diversity, but as before starting conservation measures, as unique
the combinations needed to reproduce specific resources may be lost in the interim. In these
traits are not well known, this seems to be a risky circumstances it is necessary to combine all
approach. sources of information to inform decisions on
At present, adoption of the breed as the unit the allocation of scarce resources to conservation
of conservation is expected to maximize the programmes. This would be greatly facilitated
maintenance of evolutionary potential within if AnGR were geographically mapped so that
livestock species, and likewise to maximize information related to breeds and to potential
access to a broad array of allelic combinations, threats could be linked in spatial terms. AnGR
which represent the outcome of a diverse set of could then be more easily linked to production
adaptive processes. The broad definition of breed systems or particular agro-ecological conditions
used by FAO encompasses the social significance (e.g. drylands), and emergency interventions
of breeds, but complicates the use of the breed as (e.g. precautionary cryoconservation of genetic
a unit for assessing allelic diversity. This is because material or compartmentalization in disease
the contribution of breeds to genetic diversity outbreaks) would be facilitated. Understanding
may vary greatly. Existing livestock breeds are less the diversity and status of AnGR provides the
genetically uniform than most varieties of crop basis for raising awareness, and for management
plants. Measuring diversity on the basis of the actions. However, raising awareness without
number of breeds tends to overestimate genetic ensuring capacities to realize actions will not lead
diversity in regions where a long tradition of very far.
breeders’ associations has led to the distinction The surprisingly large gaps in knowledge in
of breeds that are, in some cases, closely related. the field of AnGR management, and the resulting
Conversely, breeds in regions where structured need for basic and adaptive research are indicative
breeding is less developed (e.g. the Awassi) have of the much smaller pool of human resources
490
working in this field (and in animal science in

general) as compared to plant genetic resources
(PGR) and crop science. This is exacerbated by
the greater complexity of the issues involved in
AnGR than in PGR management. It is, therefore,
important to reverse the decline in public funding
for agricultural research, and the low level of
funding for AnGR research in particular should be
addressed. Privately funded research inevitably
focuses on the needs of the industrial livestock
sector. Restoring public funding for research
and participatory extension services is essential
to give small producers access to the technology
and knowledge they need. This includes the
adaptation of new technologies for small-scale
use in order to make their adoption more likely.
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Section B
Capacity in animal genetic

resources management
producers are scattered and lack the knowledge,

1 Capacity in characterization, capital, extension services and market access
sustainable use and needed to establish breed development schemes.
conservation of animal genetic In this context, the question is whether there
resources are technical solutions and business models that
can enable the engagement of these marginal
Big knowledge gaps exist in many countries as a groups.
result of a lack of capacity in AnGR characterization, The reproductive capacity of pigs and poultry
inventory and monitoring. This means that allows the implementation of planned breeding
changes in the status of animal populations at the programmes by a small number of breeders
country level cannot be adequately identified. within a short period of time. Thus, the breeding
Moreover, as characterization and inventory of chickens, and to a lesser extent of pigs, is
of AnGR is the basis for planning livestock increasingly in the hands of commercial breeding
development programmes, very few national companies. However, the characteristics of cattle
breeding and conservation programmes for local and small ruminants make this more difficult to
breeds have been implemented. achieve. Given the limited potential for increased
Although livestock owners in most production production, it is unlikely that the private sector
systems practise breeding interventions, will invest significantly in new national ruminant
the review of the Country Reports reveals breeding programmes in developing countries.
considerable variation in the extent of control Costs would, therefore, have to be borne by
over the selection process and the degree to national institutions.
which genetic change takes place in a planned The cost of breeding activities, market
direction. There are large differences between competition, and the international availability
regions and species with respect to formalized of suitable breeding material are important
breeding activities and their support with public considerations in decisions regarding public
funding. The opportunities which exist in the funding for national breeding programmes.
developed world to implement formal breeding At present, many governments choose to
programmes through farmer organizations are the rely on international genetic material for the
consequence of structures that had a long process improvement of their national herds and flocks
of development during which they received public – especially in the case of poultry and pigs.
and research support. Many developing countries Collaboration in breeding activities between
where such structures do not exist face problems countries with similar production conditions (as
in implementing formal breeding programmes. already occurs in Europe) is an opportunity to
This is particularly true for the low and medium share costs and make breeding programmes more
external input production systems where many sustainable.
locally adapted breeds are kept and where the
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When changing economic, ecological and the breeding industry to maintain genetic diversity
political conditions threaten the viability of within breeds and as a back up for their breeding
production systems (e.g. pastoral systems) and material. In most countries, cryoconservation
the associated breeds, opportunities for in vivo facilities are lacking and cannot be established
conservation, including in situ and ex situ in vivo without international support. However, to
conservation, need to be explored. Examples safeguard genetic diversity against unpredictable
of in situ conservation strategies are mainly threats, it is necessary that countries have their
reported from developed countries. However, own or shared genebanks containing material
these examples have rarely been examined from their locally developed breeds and lines.
from a theoretical or conceptual standpoint to Coordination between countries is required to
assess reasons for their success or failure. Even organize conservation of transboundary breeds.
less is known about which models could work in The available cryoconservation methods do not
developing countries. at present cover the full range of domesticated
Conservation measures should aim to ensure species. In addition to the technical problems
the survival of the targeted breeds, but also, associated with freezing avian oocytes, the
where possible, seek to facilitate a transition to development of methods for cryoconservation
new forms of sustainable utilization. There is a has focused on species that have been included
need to explore the full range of potential means in planned breeding programmes. With regard
to promote these objectives. Financial incentives to genebanks, biosecurity issues can present
will often be needed, at least to maintain breeds problems for the inclusion of genetic material
through the transition period. However, public from local breeds. Minimum requirements and
sector support is dependent on the availability of safe options for the parallel storage of material
resources and on political willingness to support meeting different biosecurity standards need
AnGR conservation. Even where incentive to be identified. To allow informed decision-
measures to promote the keeping of rare breeds making, cost estimates and optimization methods
have been put in place (e.g. in the European for different conservation strategies need to be
Union), there is evidence that they have not developed.
always been sufficiently well targeted.
Nature management, organic farming,
participatory breeding, production for niche 2 Capacity in institutions and
markets and hobby farming all have potential policy-making
to enhance conservation efforts and promote
sustainable utilization. Environmental services In most parts of the world, public policies
provide roles mainly for ruminants, while for are needed to improve institutional and
pigs and chickens, niche markets offer the main organizational structures for the sustainable use
opportunity for continued use. Judging from the and conservation of AnGR at all levels. The limited
available evidence, success seems to depend to a recognition of the relevance of AnGR is reflected
large extent on the presence of customers with in the low level of awareness of the subject at
sufficient purchasing power to pay higher prices governmental level in many countries, and by its
for speciality products, or on society’s willingness limited presence on international agendas and
to pay for environmental services. in the work of international organizations. As a
In vitro conservation can be an important result, legal structures, policies and development
supplement to in vivo conservation, or in some programmes with a focus on AnGR are often
cases, may be the only option for conserving a lacking at country level, as are institutions for
breed. Up to the present, cryoconservation has characterization, inventory and monitoring, and
been used mainly by breeding organizations and structures for national, regional and international
494
cooperation. Even where networks for cooperation policies on the management of AnGR. Moreover,
exist, further efforts to strengthen them or to aspects of livestock sector development may be
establish new structures are often required. In the responsibilities of many different government
many countries there seem to be few national ministries, including those responsible for
non-governmental organizations interested and agriculture, economic development, international
active in AnGR management. trade, the environment, public health, land-use
The National Agricultural Research Systems, planning and research. It is clear that trade-offs
key players in research and knowledge at the between different policy goals have to taken into
country level, have often not prioritized AnGR account.
management in their activities. The same has The effectiveness of public policies is often
been true for the international research and determined as much by the process through which
donor community. However, during the last 15 they are formulated and implemented as by the
years, more activities have been undertaken characteristics of the instruments themselves. The
and capacities for AnGR management are being formulation process requires the involvement
developed in Europe and the Caucasus, North not only of many different government agencies,
America, South America, the Caribbean and East but also of representatives of all stakeholders
Asia. The Consultative Group on International and their organizations along the production
Agricultural Research (CGIAR) has identified chain. Policies are far more likely to address local
conservation of indigenous livestock as one of 20 conditions, be accepted and win broad compliance
priorities for its research from 2005 to 2015. Some if all major stakeholders have an opportunity
Country Reports indicate that the SoW-AnGR to participate in shaping them. Mechanisms to
preparation process has further induced changes ensure stakeholder participation in formulation
in the field of AnGR management. of AnGR policies need to be improved.
Opportunities for training in utilization or The Country Reports clearly document
conservation of AnGR need to be established and deficiencies in management capacities and the
enhanced. The increasing prominence of the topic need for capacity building in many fields of policy-
in the curricula of universities and research centres making, but many also indicate the pressing need
is a step towards achieving these objectives, but to meet shorter-term objectives such as increased
progress has only been very gradual. The national food production in general, increased supply of
and regional structures established as a part of food of animal origin in particular, and poverty
the reporting process should receive continued alleviation. Livestock sector development takes
support. Awareness, the key to policy and place in an unplanned way in many countries,
institutional change, is growing in most countries, as coherent development plans are lacking or
and new networks are being developed. Further have only been drawn up for the major livestock
efforts are needed, both at the country level and species. The replacement or crossing of local
by the international community, to strengthen genetic resources with exotic breeds is often seen
the involvement of all stakeholders in AnGR as an easy and rapid approach to achieve the
management. desired increase in livestock production.
Formulating and implementing effective Another reason for the deficiency in capacities
livestock development policies is complicated may be that the relevance of AnGR diversity to
by the fact that the sector is affected by policy food security is not yet fully recognized – which
developments in many fields (e.g. environment, indicates that the case has not been convincingly
economic development, access to natural made. It is comparatively easy to show a direct
resources, and gender and social development) link between keeping livestock and food security
both at national and international levels. There is at the household level, or to demonstrate the role
a need to review the influence of these broader of livestock in enabling their keepers to step out
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PART 5
of poverty. It is more difficult to convince policy- policies that promote the availability of credit,
makers that a broad range of AnGR diversity will livestock services and improved genetic material
be needed in the future. A clearer description of to keepers of local breeds to enable them to take
the portfolio of future options provided by current advantage of rising demand. In the more specific
breed diversity, and of the range of situations for field of AnGR management, policies that favour
which livestock are required at all spatial scales, is indiscriminate cross-breeding are a particular
needed if a better case is to be made. threat to some local breeds.
Policies should ensure that genetic resources The analysis of the legal framework provided
remain available to allow the re-orientation of in this report is largely limited to an inventory
breed development in response to changes in of legal instruments that have been established
resource availability over the long term. They at national, regional and international level.
should provide an enabling environment for This analysis provides limited information
farmers’ organizations and NGOs to enhance on the effectiveness of existing regulations
breed development in low external input aimed at promoting AnGR improvement or
environments. Based on such organizational conservation. The implications of the many other
structures, advances in terms of resource- aspects of legislation that potentially affect
use efficiency may be achieved through the AnGR management are only identified in broad
development of species and breeds that are well terms. It is clear that zoosanitary regulations
adapted to marginal areas. However, tools to have to be examined closely at country and
support rational decision-making and balancing international levels, as they have a strong effect
of policy objectives still need to be developed. on the movement and trade of live animals
The rapid growth and transformation of the and genetic material, and can act as a barrier
livestock sector can offer substantial economic to exchange. It is also clear that specific legal
benefits. In the case of breeds adapted to industrial regulations have to be designed to address
systems, public policies to support development questions of ownership, access, information and
(including research) are not required. For these documentation in genebanks. Some examples of
systems, regulatory frameworks are needed to such regulations exist, and could form a template
address public health, ethical, equity and long- for the regulation of new genebanks. The issue
term environmental sustainability implications. of intellectual property rights may become more
Policy and market mechanisms that facilitate significant in the livestock sector, and recent
the supply of cheap animal products to urban patent applications have highlighted potential
populations may disadvantage small-scale rural effects on AnGR management.
producers and contribute to the decline of the The international debate on access and benefit
associated AnGR. sharing needs to be informed by analysis of
The effect of livestock sector policies on potential regulatory instruments in this field.
smallholders who keep local breeds requires This analysis must consider the differences and
further attention. For example, there is a need similarities between the exchange of AnGR and
to clarify the effects of food safety regulations the exchange of plant genetic resources for food
on market access for smallholders. In turn, the and agriculture. Understanding of the relationship
implications of these policies for the use of between access and trade in livestock germplasm,
locally adapted AnGR need to be elaborated. and research and development needs to be
Legislative and policy measures that, for improved. The need for, and the potential impacts
whatever motivation, seek to support smallholder of, frameworks for access and benefit sharing of
production are potentially of importance to the AnGR, particularly from genebanks, need to be
maintenance of AnGR diversity. There needs assessed. An analysis of the costs and benefits
to be further development and assessment of of past movements of AnGR would provide
496
a valuable background to such analysis. The

outcome of the debate over these issues will have
a large effect on the willingness of various states,
agencies, institutions and companies to invest
in the conservation and further development of
AnGR.
Relatively little is known about the regulatory
frameworks needed to ensure that genetic
diversity is maintained and that exchange of
AnGR is not hindered; this field will require more
extensive research and further analysis. For many
keepers of local breeds, for example, establishing
secure land tenure rights and regulating access to
communal grazing lands is essential.
497
Section C
Major challenges for livestock

development and animal genetic
resources management
The past decades have seen a rapid change in have to be revised, and more research is needed
the structure of the livestock sector and in the on the inclusion of functional traits.
demands placed on the world’s AnGR. The roles In parallel to the development of industrial
of livestock in the fulfilment of human needs systems, low to medium external input production
are constantly evolving. The industrialization of systems persist, particularly in marginal areas
livestock production has been driven particularly where there is no strong economic growth, or
by increasing purchasing power and urbanization. where the resources and support services required
Changes to consumer preferences, trade flows, for industrialization are lacking. Such production
the organization of market chains, and the systems have specific requirements for AnGR.
development of new production technologies They rely on local breeds selected for a wider
also promote the spread of industrial systems. The set of characteristics, or in some cases, on cross-
evolution of food chains led by the private sector breeds or composite breeds that contain genetic
has provided benefits in terms of food safety material from local breeds. Scarcity of natural
and price reductions. It is clear that the drivers of resources is a growing concern, which should be
change and the resulting threats to AnGR diversity increasingly factored into selection processes for
differ between production systems. However, a local breeds.
lack of data makes it impossible to conclusively The biggest challenge for the livestock sector
establish causal linkages between drivers, threats is to balance different policy objectives such
and the risk status of specific breeds. Analysis of as maintaining animal genetic diversity and
threats is, therefore, to a large extent based on environmental integrity, meeting the increasing
assessment of changes at the production system demand for livestock products, responding to
level, and of the linkages between production changing consumer requirements, ensuring food
systems and breed categories (e.g. international safety, and contributing to rural development
transboundary breeds in intensive systems). and the alleviation of hunger and poverty. This
Industrial production systems and the associated will require choices to be made and careful
private breeding companies have effectively consideration of unintended side-effects. The
developed highly specialized breeds, which serve complex data needed for such decision-making
the purpose of maximizing productivity in the are missing in many countries.
context of current consumer requirements and A range of policy options are available to
resource costs. These developments have been reduce the adverse environmental effects of
particularly marked in poultry and pig production, livestock production. Price policies including
but are also seen in dairy cattle. The process taxation can be used to ensure that the bill for
has encompassed international transboundary intensive livestock production comes with the
breeds kept in favourable environments close to price of water usage, services and responsible
markets. However, in the medium or long term, waste management included. Taxes and levies,
breed selection criteria in industrial systems may or codes of conduct for livestock operations,
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backed by price and market-access incentives and production units may lead to policy responses
technical support services, can be used to support that reduce incentives to adopt high external
land-use planning and zoning regulations to input production methods. The result may be a
make it more expensive for producers to situate requirement for more diverse livestock genetic
their operations in unsuitable locations. Land-use resources. Payments for ecosystem services can
planning and geospatial information would in be used to encourage livestock producers to
turn facilitate the emergency management of adopt more environmentally friendly forms of
valuable genetic stock, for example in the event production, and could favour local breeds.
of disease outbreaks. New tools that include Another challenge ahead is climate change.
data relevant to AnGR management would need Scenarios predicting the effects of climate change
to be developed. vary, but changes in temperature and precipitation,
Where control measures are inadequate, the rising sea levels and increased frequency of
concentration of intensive livestock production in extreme weather events are expected. Some
and around urban areas heightens risks to public dry areas are predicted to experience lower and
health from contaminated food, pollution and more erratic rainfall. Recent increases in regional
diseases. Zoonoses such as brucellosis, tuberculosis temperatures have already had significant
and various parasitic diseases are also a threat to effects on biodiversity and ecosystems in dryland
human health in traditional production systems. environments such as the African Sahel.
Steps need to be taken to establish and enforce The environmental impacts of climate change
food safety standards and veterinary public that are likely to affect livestock development
health regulations that neither exclude small include changes in disease challenge, changes
producers nor compromise consumer safety or in fodder and water availability, and land
disease control. Measures need to be put in place degradation. The specific direction of change
for keepers of local breeds to prevent a decline – whether demand for AnGR suited to extensive
in the quality and accessibility of veterinary or to intensive systems will increase – is difficult
health services as they become increasingly to predict. Livestock products from intensively
privatized. Disease control strategies should be managed livestock systems will tend to become
based on analysis that takes account not only costlier if agricultural disruption leads to higher
of clinical effectiveness, but also of biodiversity, grain prices. However, intensively managed
and economic and social impact. Surveillance for livestock systems will probably adapt more easily
infectious diseases and response management to climate change than crop systems. This will not
in the event of outbreaks remain public sector be the case for pastoral and crop–livestock systems,
responsibility, and require improved coordination where livestock depend on the productivity and
among institutions at the local, national and quality of the local feed resources. Extensive
international levels. systems are also more susceptible to changes in the
Negative environmental effects of livestock severity and distribution of livestock diseases and
production need to be minimized. The desire parasites. Negative effects of climate change on
to reduce the emission of methane per animal extensive systems in the drylands are, therefore,
and to efficiently convert feed into meat, milk expected to be substantial. Climate change is
and eggs promotes the use of a limited number likely to have its greatest adverse impacts in areas
of high-output breeds. However, the efficient where resource endowments are poorest and the
conversion achieved by chickens and pigs is based ability of farmers to respond and adapt is most
on protein-rich, energy-dense diets that compete, limited.
at least partly, with direct human consumption. The predicted effects of climatic change will
Changes in price ratios, or the environmental require farming systems to adapt relatively
impacts of poorly controlled industrial livestock rapidly. The fact that the speed of climate change
500
will be faster than the speed of evolutionary offs with productivity. It will probably not be easy
adaptation of livestock and forage means that in to recombine genes for both high performance
some areas a complete reassessment of farming and robustness.
systems may be necessary. The effectiveness of Another challenge is the field of animal health,
adaptation to the effects of climate change will which is the most regulated aspect of livestock
depend critically on the availability of both plant management on a global scale. While effective
and animal genetic resources suited to the new disease control is essential for the utilization and
conditions. development of AnGR, restrictions on movement
Well-adapted, in particular disease-tolerant or and trade potentially present challenges for
resistant, breeds may become more important AnGR management. Culling policies implemented
in the future if pathogen resistance to drugs in the event of epidemics can pose a threat to
increases further. Animal welfare also requires rare breed populations. It is a matter of concern
that non-adapted animals are not introduced into that throughout most of the world, very little
difficult production environments. Exposure to attention has been paid to this threat in the
heat stress, for example, is a problem that cannot development of legal frameworks and policies
easily be alleviated through better management. for disease control.
Again, characterization of breeds needs to be
improved as a prerequisite for decision-making
regarding the most appropriate breeds for
specific production environments.
Sustainable livestock development in the face
of these challenges will involve mixing species,
breeds and individual animals with the qualities
needed to meet the specific demands of particular
production conditions. Consequently, defining
livestock development objectives and the
characteristics of the AnGR required to achieve
them is essential. Sustainable development
also has important socio-cultural aspects. It is
important to determine how best to involve
farmers in activities such as breeding programmes
and ensure their continuity.
New technologies – powerful tools for statistical
analyses and emerging biotechnological methods
– will increase the ease and speed with which
AnGR can be further developed. The extent
to which new biotechnologies such as cloning
and in particular transgenesis will affect the
development of AnGR is difficult to foresee.
Major genes have been found, and more will be
discovered. However, it is likely that the genetic
control of heat resistance or tolerance to internal
parasites is the result of complex interaction
among the genes controlling the animal’s
metabolism. It is also likely that there are trade-
501
Section D
Accepting
global responsibility
Livestock development and the management a need to reinforce the capacity of developing
of AnGR need to account for the dynamic countries and countries with economies in
nature of production systems and to respond to transition to characterize their AnGR and to
changing circumstances. Further losses of local implement measures for their sustainable use
breeds are probably inevitable. However, some and conservation. There is increasing awareness
indigenous breeds have unique traits and are within the international community that genetic
specifically adapted to particular combinations resources for food and agriculture are a common
of environmental factors. They are not easy to concern of all countries, as all depend to a great
replace. Breed extinction should, therefore, not extent on resources that originated elsewhere.
occur without awareness of what is being lost There is a need for further analysis and debate
– and the loss of unique resources or important as to the best means of ensuring equitable
components of our future food security and international exchange of AnGR.
cultural heritage should certainly be avoided. Assessing the global state of AnGR – the main
If maintaining livestock diversity is accepted as objective of this report – enabled a gap analysis
an important policy objective, and the complexity in a broad sense. However, this is only one part
of production systems is well understood, more of the reporting process. A second important
differentiated livestock sector policies will be the element has been the development of Strategic
consequence. Their ultimate aim should be to use Priorities for Action – a global synthesis in which
the world’s wealth of AnGR in the best possible countries identified strategic priorities in the field
way to meet the current and future needs of of AnGR management as a basis for concrete
the human population. The industrialization actions. The Strategic Priorities for Action will
process which has allowed the livestock sector be reviewed in an intergovernmental process
to respond efficiently to a surge in demand will to ensure that they reflect a global consensus
continue. However, it should also be recognized on future actions. Attention has to be given to
that marginal and niche production systems will addressing global responsibilities and formulating
endure, and that policies to address their needs a global programme, and to providing the
must be put in place. Most policies which sustain institutional capacities and resources needed
small-scale low external input production systems for its implementation at national and regional
will, in general, favour maintaining a greater levels.
diversity of AnGR.
National sovereignty over genetic resources
is understood by the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) to include both rights and duties.
These can only be met if adequate human and
technical capacities are in place. There may be
503
Abbreviations and acronyms
A Adenine
ABCZ Associação Brasileira dos Criadores de Zebu (Brazilian Association of Zebu
Breeders) (http://www.abcz.org.br)
ABS Access and Benefit Sharing
ACP Asia-Caribbean-Pacific
ACSAD Arab Center for Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (http://www.acsad.org)
AD Anno Domini
ADB Asian Development Bank (http://www.adb.org)
AFLP Amplified Frequency Length Polymorphism
AGB Animal Germplasm Bank
AI Artificial Insemination
AIA Advanced Informed Agreement
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
AIPL Animal Improvement Programs Laboratory (http://www.aipl.arsusda.gov)
ALPA Asociación Latinoamericana de Produción Animale (http://www.alpa.org.ve)
AMOVA Analysis of Molecular Variance
AnGR Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
ANTHRA a trust of women veterinary scientists (http://www.anthra.org)
AOAD Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (http://www.aoad.org)
APEC Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (http://www.apec.org)
ARCBC Association of South East Asian Nations Regional Center for Biodiversity
Conservation (http://www.arcbc.org)
ARR Alanine-Arginine-Argenine amino acids – one of five variant alleles affecting
susceptibility to scrapie
ASAR Asociación de Servicios Rurales y Artesanales
ASARECA Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central
Africa (http://www.asareca.org)
ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations (http://www.aseansec.org)
ASF African Swine Fever
ATCWG Agricultural Technical Cooperation Working Group
BC Before Christ
BCBS Boran Cattle Breeders’ Society (http://www.borankenya.org)
BLAD Bovine Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency
BLUP Best Linear Unbiased Prediction
BLUP-AM Best Linear Unbiased Prediction – Animal Model
BLV Bovine Leukosis Virus
bp base pair
BP Before Present
BSE Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
BV Bequest Values
C Cytosine
CAP Common Agricultural Policy of the EU
CARDI Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute
(http://www.cardi.org)
CARICOM Caribbean Community and Common Market (http://www.caricom.org)
505
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CBPP Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia
CDN Canadian Dairy Network (http://www.cdn.ca)
cDNA Complementary Deoxyribonucleic Acid
CE Choice Experiment
CEIP Special Certificate of Identification and Production
CEMAC Communaute Economique et Monetaire de l’Afrique Centrale
(http://www.cemac.cf)
CENARGEN National Research Centre for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology
(http://www.cenargen.embrapa.br)
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
(http://www.cgiar.org)
CGRFA Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
CIAT International Center for Tropical Agriculture (http://www.ciat.cgiar.org)
CIC International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation
(http://www.cic-wildlife.org)
CIHEAM Centre International de Hautes Etudes Agronomiques Méditerranéennes
(http://www.ciheam.org)
CIRAD Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le
Développement (http://www.cirad.fr/fr/index.php)
CIRDES Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l’Élevage en Zone
Subhumide (http://www.cidres.org)
COP Conference of the Parties
CORAF Conseil Ouest et Centre Africain pour la Recherche et le Développement
Agricole (http://www.coraf.org)
CR Country Report
CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (http://www.cred.be)
CSF Classical Swine Fever
CTSB Cathepsin B
CVM Complex Vertebral Malformation
CYTED Ciencia y Tecnología para el Desarrollo (http://www.cyted.org)
D8 Developing Eight - Consists of Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, the Islamic
Republic of Iran, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan and Turkey
DA Cavalli-Sforza distance
DAD-IS Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (http://www.fao.org/dad-is)
DAHP Department of Animal Health and Production
DAGENE Danubian Alliance for Gene Conservation in Animal Species
DAGRIS Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information System
(http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org)
DARD Department of Agriculture and Rural Development
DD Daughter Design
DD Differential Display
DDBJ DNA Data Bank of Japan (http://www.cib.nig.ac.jp)
DHPLC Denaturing High-performance Liquid Chromatography
DMA Dimethylacetamide
506
DMF Dimethylformamide
DMSO Dimethyl Sulfoxide
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DS Nei’s Standard Genetic Distance
DUMPS Deficiency of Uridine Monophosphate Synthase
DUV Direct Use Values
EAAP European Association for Animal Production (http://www.eaap.org)
EAAP-AGDB European Association for Animal Production – Animal Genetic Data Bank
(now EFABIS)
EAFRD European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development
EAGGF European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund
EBV Estimated Breeding Value
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States (http://www.ecowas.int)
EFABIS European Farm Animal Biodiversity Information System (http://efabis.tzv.fal.de)
EFSA European Food Safety Authority (http://www.efsa.europa.eu)
EMBL European Molecular Biology Lab (http://www.embl.org)
EMBRAPA Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (http://www.embrapa.br)
EM-DAT Emergency Disasters Data Base (http://www.em-dat.net)
EPC European Patent Convention
EPD Expected Progeny Difference
eQTL Expression Quantitative Trait Locus
EST Expressed Sequence Tag
ET Embryo Transfer
EU European Union (http://europa.eu)
EU-15 15 countries that were then members of the European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(http://www.fao.org)
FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Statisitcal
Databases (http://faostat.fao.org)
FARA Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (http://www.fara-africa.org)
FEC Faecal Egg Count
FIRC Federacion Iberoamericana de Razas Criollas
(http://www.feagas.es/firc/firc.htm)
FMD Foot-and-Mouth Disease
G Guanine
GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDD Grand Daughter Design
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEF Global Environment Facility (http://www.gefweb.org)
GIS Geographic Information System
GM Genetically Modified
GMO Genetically Modified Organism
GVIS Geographic Visualization
He Expected Homozygosity
507
HEIA High External Input Agriculture
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Ho Observed Homozygosity
HPAI Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency (http://www.iaea.org)
IAMZ Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Zaragoza
(http://www.iamz.ciheam.org)
ICAR International Committee for Animal Recording (http://www.icar.org)
ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
(http://www.icarda.org)
IE Institut de l’Élevage (http://www.inst-elevage.asso.fr)
IES Institute for Environment and Sustainability (http://ies.jrc.cec.eu.int)
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development (http://www.ifad.org)
IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development (http://www.igad.org)
IGADD Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development
IGC Intergovernmental Committee
IICA Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (http://www.iica.int)
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute (http://www.ilri.org)
INTA Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (http://www.inta.gov.ar)
INTERBULL International Bull Evaluation Service (http://www-interbull.slu.se)
IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org)
IPM Integrated Parasite Management
IPR Intellectual Property Rights
IRD Institute de Recherche pour le Développement (http://www.ird.fr)
ISAG International Society of Animal Genetics (http://www.isag.org.uk)
IT-PGRFA International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
ITWG-AnGR Intergovernmental Technical Working Group on Animal Genetic Resources
IUV Indirect Use Values
IVF In Vitro Fertilization
LAC Latin America and the Caribbean
LD Linkage Disequilibrium
LEIA Low External Input Agriculture
LMO Living Modified Organism
LPP League for Pastoral Peoples (http://www.pastoralpeoples.org)
LPPS Lokhit Pashu Palak Sansthan (http://www.lpps.org)
LRC Livestock Recording Centre
LU Livestock Units
MARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
MEG3 Callypige
MERCOSUR Mercado Común del Sur
MFN Most Favoured Nation
MGBA Meru Goat Breeders’ Association
MHC Major Histocompatability Complex
MNA Mean Number of Alleles
MOA Ministry of Agriculture
508
MoDAD Measurement of Domestic Animal Diversity
MODE Market Oriented Dairy Enterprise
MOET Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer
mRNA Messenger Ribonucleic Acid
mtDNA Mitochondrial Deoxyribonucleic Acid
MYH1 Myosin 1
NACI National Agricultural Classification Institute
NAGP National Animal Germplasm Program
NARS National Agricultural Research Systems
NC National Coordinator for the Management of Animal Genetic Resources
NCC National Consultative Committee for the Management of Animal Genetic
Resources
NDA National Dairy Authority
Ne Effective Population Size
NIAH National Institute of Animal Husbandry
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
N-J Neighbour-Joining
NRF Norsk Rødt Fe (Norwegian Red)
NZRBCS New Zealand Rare Breeds Conservation Society
(http://www.rarebreeds.co.nz)
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(http://www.oecd.org)
OIE Office International des Epizooties (World Organisation for Animal Health)
(http://www.oie.int)
ORPACA Organización de Productores Agropecuarios de Calientes
OSS Obervatoire du Sahara et du Sahel (http://www.unesco.org/oss)
OSTROM Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer (now IRD)
OV Option Values
p.a. per annum
PBR Plant Breeders’ Rights
PBV Predicted Breeding Value
PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction
PCV Packed Cell Volume
PDB Protein Data Bank
PDO Protected Designation of Origin
PED Production Environment Descriptor
PGC Primordial Germ Cell
PGI Protected Geographical Indication
PGR Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
PIR Protein Information Resource
PMGZ Breeding Programme for Zebu Cattle
PPP Purchasing Power Parity
PROMEBO Breeding Programme for Meat Cattle
PSE Pale Soft Exudative
QTG Quantitative Trait Gene
509
QTL Quantitative Trait Locus
QTN Quantitative Trait Nucleotide
RBI Rare Breeds International (http://www.rbi.it)
Red XII-H Red Iberoamericana sobre la consevación de la biodiversidad de animales
domésticos locales para le desarollo rural sostenible (http://www.cyted.org)
REML Restricted Maximum Likelihood
RFI Residual Feed Intake
RFLP Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
RFP Regional Focal Point
RNA Ribonucleic Acid
rRNA Ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (http://www.saarc-sec.org)
SACCAR Southern African Center for Cooperation in Agricultural Research and
Training (http://www.info.bw/~saccar/sacca.htm)
SADC Southern African Development Community (http://www.sadc.int)
SAGE Serial Analysis of Gene Expression
SAM Spatial Analysis Method
SAVE Safeguard for Agricultural Varieties in Europe
(http://www.save-foundation.net)
SEVA Sustainable-Agriculture and Environmental Voluntary Action
SGRP System-wide Genetic Resources Programme (http://www.sgrp.cgiar.org)
SINGER System-wide Information Network for Genetic Resources
(http://www.singer.cgiar.org)
SMS Safe Minimum Standard
SNP Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
SODEPA Société de Développement et d’Exploitation des Productions Animales
SoW-AnGR State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community (http://www.spc.int)
SPLT Substantive Patent Law Treaty
SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary
SRS Sire Referencing Scheme
SSCP Sequencing Single-stranded Conformational Polymorphism
SSR Simple Sequence Repeats
STR Simple Tandem Repeats
STS Sequence Tagged Site
T Thymine
Taq Thermus aquaticus
TEV Total Economic Value
TLU Tropical Livestock Units
TRIPS Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
tRNA Transfer Ribonucleic Acid
TSE Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies
U Uracil
UHT Ultra High Temperature
UNDP United Nations Development Programme (http://www.undp.org)
510
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(www.unesco.org)
UPOV International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants
(http://www.upov.int)
USDA United States Department of Agriculture (http://www.usda.gov)
VND Viet Nam Dong
VNTR Variable Number of Tandem Repeats
VRQ Valine-Arginine-Glutamine amino acids – one of five variant alleles affecting
susceptibility to scrapie
WAAP World Association for Animal Production (http://www.waap.it)
WECARD West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and
Development (http://www.coraf.org)
WHFF World Holstein-Friesian Federation (http://www.whff.info)
WHO World Health Organization (http://www.who.int)
WIEWS World Information and Early Warning System on Plant Genetic Resources
(http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/wiews.jsp)
WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization (http://www.wipo.int)
WTA Willingness to Accept
WTO World Trade Organization (http://www.wto.org)
WTP Willingness to Pay
WWL–DAD:3 World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity, 3rd edition
XV Existence Values
511
Sustainable management of the world’s livestock genetic diversity is of vital
importance to agriculture, food production, rural development and the environment.
The State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture is
the first global assessment of these resources. Drawing on 169 Country Reports,
contributions from a number of international organizations and 12 specially
commissioned thematic studies, it presents an analysis of the state of agricultural
biodiversity in the livestock sector – origins and development, uses and values,
distribution and exchange, risk status and threats – and of capacity to manage these
resources – institutions, policies and legal frameworks, structured breeding activities
and conservation programmes. Needs and challenges are assessed in the context of
the forces driving change in livestock production systems. Tools and methods to
enhance the use and development of animal genetic resources are explored in
sections on the state of the art in characterization, genetic improvement, economic
evaluation and conservation.
The main findings of the report are summarized in The State of the World’s Animal
Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture – in brief. Arabic, Chinese, English,
French, Russian and Spanish versions can be found on the attached CD-ROM and
are also available separately in printed form.
As well providing a technical reference document, the country-based preparation of

The State of the World has led to a process of policy development and a Global Plan
of Action for Animal Genetic Resources, which once adopted, will provide an agenda
for action by the international community.

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THE STATE

COMMISSION ON GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material

Part 1 The state of agricultural biodiversity in the livestock sector

SECTION B: STATUS OF ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES 23

SECTION C: FLOWS OF ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES 51

SECTION D: USES AND VALUES OF ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES 77

SECTION E: ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES AND RESISTANCE TO DISEASE 101

Part 2 Livestock sector trends

SECTION B: LIVESTOCK SECTOR’S RESPONSE 153

Part 3 The state of capacities in animal genetic resources management

SECTION B: STRUCTURED BREEDING PROGRAMMES 215

SECTION D: REPRODUCTIVE AND MOLECULAR BIOTECHNOLOGY 265

Part 4 State of the art in the management of animal genetic resources

SECTION B: METHODS FOR CHARACTERIZATION 347

SECTION D: GENETIC IMPROVEMENT METHODS TO SUPPORT

SECTION F: METHODS FOR CONSERVATION 443

Part 5 Needs and challenges in animal genetic resources management

SECTION B: CAPACITY IN ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 493

1 Capacity in characterization, sustainable use and conservation

SECTION C: MAJOR CHALLENGES FOR LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT

SECTION D: ACCEPTING GLOBAL RESPONSIBILITY 503

Abbreviations and acronyms 505

Annexes (on CD-ROM)

1 The domestication process 6

1 Regional overview of Country Reports xxviii

1 Assignment of countries to regions and subregions in this report xxxiii

PART 1: The state of agricultural biodiversity in the livestock sector

Origin and history of livestock diversity Olivier Hanotte Ilse Koehler-Rollefson

PART 2: Livestock sector trends

Conservation programmes Kor Oldenbroek

Reproductive and molecular Dafydd Pilling Salah Galal

Legislation and regulation

Patenting – an emerging legal issue Dafydd Pilling Niels Louwaars,

PART 4: The state of the art in animal genetic resources management

Basic concepts Barbara Rischkowsky, Beate Scherf,

Barbara Rischkowsky, Animal Genetic Resources

The international agenda

Inputs to the State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources

Reports received by 31 December 2005.

Asia (26) Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia,

North America (2) Canada, United States of America

Reports received by 31 December 2005.

Reports from international organizations

Regional classiﬁcation of countries

State of the World : regions and subregions

Origin and history of

Approximate limits of prehistoric agriculture

Map drawn by Clive Hilliker and provided by Peter Bellwood.

Domestic species Wild Ancestor MtDNA Domestication Time Location

clades events* B.P.

Cattle Aurochs (3 subspecies) (extinct)

B. p. opisthonomous 2 1 ~ 9500 northeast Africa

Bos taurus indicus B. p. nomadicus 2 1 ~ 7000 northern Indian subcontinent

Yak Wild yak

Poephagus grunniens P. mutus 3 1 ~ 4500 Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

Sheep Asian mouﬂon

Ovis aries Ovis orientalis 4 2 ~ 8500 Near and Middle East/Turkey

Water buffalo Asian wild buffalo

Riverine B. bubalus bubalus ND 1 ~ 5000 Islamic Republic of Iran/Iraq,