2 Environmental Geotechnics
2 Environmental Geotechnics
2 Environmental Geotechnics
Environmental Geotechnics
lG h i
Marolo C. Alfaro, Ph.D., P.Eng.
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Manitoba
University of Manitoba
Sponsors
Department of Science and Technology
f d h l
Republic of the Philippines
Department of Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Manitoba, Canada
1
Host institutions
Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines
Angeles University Foundations, Angeles City
De La Salle University, Metro Manila
University of the Philippines, Metro Manila
University of San Jose Recoletos, Cebu City
University of Mindanao, Davao City
University of Southeastern Philippines, Davao City
Environmental geotechnics
Definition
• A sub‐discipline within geotechnical engineering which is
pp g p p p
the application of geotechnical principles, processes and
techniques in situations where there is a major
environmental component.
Scope
• Waste disposal and safe containment of waste
• Isolation of contaminated sites
• Remediation of contaminated ground and derelict lands
→ Soil properties and their behavior over a range of
conditions are of major importance.
→ It is also important to understand how environmental
processes influence soil properties and their behavior.
2
Waste disposal and safe containment of waste
Municipal waste landfills
Isolation of contaminated sites
Hazco
Petro Canada
Compacted clay liners for
containment can be affected
by chemical waste
3
Remediation of contaminated ground
Nuclear waste repositories ‐ AECL
Isolation of contaminated sites
Permeable reactive barrier
Engineered clay barrier
4
Remediation of contaminated ground
Remove and treat
In‐situ treatment
Remediation of contaminated ground
Ground contamination from
gasoline spillage
Biological remediation
5
Physico‐chemical effects on soil properties
• Attention is focused on the solid phase in most
geotechnical studies.
• However, properties of pore fluid (pore water) and
the influences of system chemistry must be taken into
account.
• Fine‐grained soils (e.g. clays) are more sensitive to
environment
• Interactions of the pore fluid and solid phases of a soil
are important in the overall physical and chemical
behavior
Geotechnical engineers discover chemistry
6
Elements of earth
8‐35 km crust
% by weight in crust
y g
O = 49.2
Si = 25.7 82.4%
Al = 7.5
Fe = 4.7
Ca = 3.4
Na = 2.6
K = 2.4
Mg =19
= 1.9
other = 2.6
Clay minerals
CLAYS are composed of clay minerals.
Clay minerals are made of two distinct structural units:
1) Silicon tetrahedron 2) Aluminum Octahedron
Silica (+charges) surrounded Aluminum (+charges) surrounded
by four oxygen (‐charged) by six oxygen (‐charged)
7
Clay minerals
Joined by strong H
Joined by strong H‐bond
bond Joined by K+ ions
Joined by K Joined by weak
y van der Waals
∴ No easy separation K+ fit into the hexagonal bond
holes in Si‐sheet ∴ Easily separated by water
• Monmorillonite structure swells on contact with water. Often called expansive clays.
• Bentonite clay belongs to montmorillonite family. Used as drilling mud, in slurry walls,
and in stopping leaks.
Soil fabric of clays
Close up view photo of
clay particles from SEM
Clay particle:
Plate‐like or flaky shape
• Flocculated structure has edge to face
contacts of clay particles
• Dispersed structure has face to face
Di d h f f Flocculated Structure
Flocculated Structure
contacts of clay particles
• Electrochemical environment during time
sedimentation influences clay fabric
• Clay particles tend to align perpendicular
to load applied on them Dispersed Structure
8
Soil fabric of clays and sands
Close up view photos
of clay particles from
SEM
Loose State
Flocculated Structure
Flocculated Structure
Dense State
Dispersed Structure
Isomorphous substitution
• Substitution of Si4+ and Al3+ by other lower valence
(e.g., Mg2+) cations
Results in charge imbalance (net negative)
• Results in charge imbalance (net negative)
• Cations ‐ positively charged ions; anions ‐ negatively charged
• The replacement power is greater for higher valence and larger cations.
Al3+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ >> NH4+ > K+ > H+ > Na+ > Li+
positively charged edges
+ + + + _
+ _ negatively charged faces
_ _ _
+ _ _ _ __
+ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
Clay particle with net negative charge
9
Cation concentration in water
• Negative surface charges attract cations and positively charge water
molecules
• Cation concentration is high at the clay surface and decreases with distance
Diffuse double
layer
Free water
Adsorbed water
• Thin layer of water, called adsorbed water, is bonded to the negatively
charged surface
• The adsorbed water is more viscous than free water
Diffuse double
layer
Free water
10
Diffuse double layer
• Negatively charged clay surface and the positively charged cations near
the particle form two distinct layers, known as diffuse double layer (DDL)
• The thickness of DDL depends on pore fluid chemistry and temperature,
The thickness of DDL depends on pore fluid chemistry and temperature,
etc.
Double layer interactions
R
‘Effective stress’ contains
both ‘contact’ and ‘electro‐
b th ‘ t t’ d ‘ l t
chemical’ unit forces:
A {σ′} = {σ* + |R‐A|}
Practical Implications:
• Changes in pore fluid chemistry change DDL thickness (extent of
potential fields)
potential fields)
• When potential fields interact, changes in DDL thickness result in
changes in repulsion between two particles
• Changes in repulsive force, R affects:
deformation, strength, and hydraulic conductivity
11
Double layer interactions
R
‘Effective stress’ contains
both ‘contact’
both contact and
and ‘electro‐
electro
chemical’ unit forces:
A {σ′} = {σ* + |R‐A|}
Thick DDL:
• High repulsion (R↑)
• Swelling of expansive clays or increase swelling pressure (confined)
g p y gp ( )
• Soil strength is decreased
Thin DDL:
• Low repulsion (R ↓)
• Expansive clays consolidate (if drained condition)
• Soil strength is increased
Example 1: Leaching of bonds on clay foundations
Seven Sisters generating Station, Manitoba, Canada
Garinger, B., Alfaro, M.C., Graham, J., Dubois, D. and Man, A. (2004). Instability of dykes at
Seven Sisters generating station. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 41:5, 959‐971.
12
Typical dyke section
4.3 m
c ~ 8 m d Water
d
e ~ 6 m
f
c Impervious Clay Core e Upper Foundation
d Rip‐Rap Shell f Lower Foundation
Problem
• Dike instability has occurred irregularly at Seven Sisters for 50
years
• It is unclear why some sections have become unstable while
others have remained stable
1.011
277
275
Elevation ((m)
273
271
269
267
265
263
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64
Distance (m)
13
Triaxial test results
SS‐036 – unstable
SS‐040 – stable
Triaxial test results
SS‐036 ‐ unstable
SS‐040 ‐ stable
14
Stability analysis results
0.974
277
275
Elevattion (m)
273
271
269
267
265
263 Foundation
012345678910 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64
Case Unstable Stable
Distance (m) Strength
(a) Section SS‐036 (unstable section)
Critical
1 1.15 1.21
State
1.011
277
275 2 Residual 0 97
0.97 1 01
1.01
Elevation (m))
273
271
269
267
265
263
012345678910 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64
Distance (m)
(b) Section SS‐040 (stable section)
Pore fluid chemistry analysis
Analysis done at three sections:
Removal of CaSO4
• Background section
by leaching
• Unstable section beneath dike
Unstable section beneath dike
• Stable section beneath dike
Tested for concentration of Na+, Ca2+,
Mg2+, Cl‐, SO42‐, and bicarbonate
Background
Soil
15
Pore fluid chemistry analysis result
Pore fluid chemistry analysis result
Red => out of background range
16
Pore fluid chemistry analysis result summary
• Significant differences found between background section
and sections beneath the dike
• Beneath dikes there is a loss of dissolved ions and increase
in Na/Ca ratio
• Ca2+ and SO42‐ depletion probably as a result of gypsum
dissolution
Soil structure after deposition
Edge to face flocculated
aggregates with cementation
at contacts
17
Pore fluid chemistry changes
• Leaching of CaSO4 increased Na/Ca ratio (i.e. decreased
valence), which increases interparticle repulsion (R↑, σ’↓)
• Less cementation at contacts with increased degree of
leaching
• Quasi‐stable edge to face flocculated structure maintained
until destroyed by straining (increased strain softening)
Concluding remarks
• The thickness of adsorbed water is much greater than
clay particles, and therefore has significant implications
to clay behaviour.
• Clays, particularly those with montmorillonite minerals,
rely heavily on the DDL for a portion of load carrying capacity
• Changes in pore fluid chemistry (and temperature) affects:
→ Compressibility
→ Strength
→ Hydraulic conductivity
• Design considerations of foundations and earth structures
→ Mechanical load/resistance
→ Environmental load/resistance
18
Example 2: Clean‐up of contaminated ground
Oil Storage Facility, Alberta, Canada
Wong, R.C.K. and Alfaro, M.C. (2001). Fracturing in low‐permeability soils for remediation of
contaminated ground. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 38:2, 306‐327.
Alfaro, M.C. and Wong, R.C.K. (2001). Laboratory Studies on Fracturing of Low‐Permeability Soils.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal 38:2, 303‐315.
Alfaro, M.C. and Wong, R.C.K. (2003). Correlation between Air Permeability and Biodegradation in
Hydrocarbon‐Contaminated Soil Columns by X‐Ray Computerized Tomography (CT). Proc. of the
International Workshop on X‐Ray CT for Geomaterials, Kumamoto, Japan, 165‐171.
Background
• Large costs of removal and off‐site treatment
• Site methods available: bioventing, vapor extraction,
bioremediation, soil flushing, and pump and treat
• They involved promoting liquid or vapor flow through the
contaminated site
• Limiting factor is soil permeability
• Hydraulic fracturing used to enhance in‐situ remediation in
low‐permeable
low permeable soils such as clays and silts
soils such as clays and silts
19
Fracture mechanism
A A
Fracture sample
Section A‐A
Laboratory fracturing tool
20
Fracture geometry
σ’v > σ’h → Ko = σ’h/σ’v < 1.0
Fracture geometry
σ’v > σ’h → Ko = σ’h/σ’v < 1.0
21
Fracture geometry
OCR = 3 → Ko = σ’h/σ’v = 0.8 OCR = 6 → Ko = σ’h/σ’v = 1.2
Fracture geometry
22
Bioventing test setup
• Determine the rate of biodegradation
of hydrocarbon in the soil
• Off‐gas samples for each column were
Off l f h l
analyzed using gas chromatograph
(GC) in order to determine CO2
production rates
• Nutrients were also injected
• After a series of calculations, this data
was converted into air permeability
Air permeability and biodegradation results
• No clear correlation
exists between the
biodegradation rate
biodegradation rate
and air permeability
• To assist in interpreting
the results of air
permeability and
biodegradation
measurements, it was
measurements, it was
decided to use CT scan
data
23
Air permeability and biodegradation results
Air permeability and biodegradation results
• The CT images of two of the soil columns show that there
could be channeling inside the columns due to cracks.
• However, the presence of fractures alone did not necessarily
However the presence of fractures alone did not necessarily
resulted to higher air permeability.
• Higher percentage of pore volume above the average pore
volume of the entire column resulted in higher permeability.
• It was also found that the more uniform soil columns have
higher permeability compared to the less uniform soil
columns.
• The amount of bioremediation is inversely proportional to the
air permeability, such that low biodegradation in the
hydrocarbon‐contaminated soil columns is associated with
high air permeability.
24
Field fracturing
Mapping of fractures by excavation
25
Mapping of fractures
Mapping of fractures by tiltmeters
26
Concluding remarks
• Initial fracture slots did not necessarily define orientation
of propagating fracture
• Fracture orientation is perpendicular to the minimum
Fracture orientation is perpendicular to the minimum
compressive stress (importance of determining OCR)
• Smaller contrast of major and minor principal stresses
favors multiple deviated fractures, larger favors distinct
fractures
• Field fractures were found to be nearly horizontal indicating
overconsolidated subsoil conditions
• Tiltmeter data analysis of the orientation and extent of
fractures seemed to conform closely with actual fracture
placements
Thank you
27