Lee 1955 Electronic Transformers and Circuits

ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS AND CIRCUITS
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS AND CIRCUITS
Reuben Lee
Advisory Engineer Westinghouse Electric Corporation
SECOND EDITION
NEW YORK LONDON
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED
COPYRIGHT JOHN WILF;Y
©
BY
1947, 1955
SONS, INC.
&
All Rights Reserved

This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 55-10001

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
PREFACE
TO SECOND
EDITION
In the years since the first edition of this book was published, several new developments have taken place. This second edition encompasses such new material as will afford acquaintance with advances in the art. Some old topics which were inadequately presented have received fuller treatment. Several sections, especially those on electronic amplifiers and wave filters, have been deleted because more thorough treatments of these subjects are available in current literature. Thus the original objectives of a useful book on electronic transformers and related devices, with a minimum of unnecessary material, have been pursued in the second edition. Wherever the old material appeared adequate, it has been left unchanged, and the general arrangement is still the same, except for the addition of new Chapters 9 and 11. More information in chart form, but few mathematical proofs, are included. In a book of general coverage, there is room only for a brief treatment of any phase of the subject. Thus the new chapter on magnetic amplifiers is a condensed outline of the more common components and circuits of this rapidly growing field. It is hoped that this chapter will be helpful as a general introduction to circuit and transformer designers alike. Recent circuit developments are reported in the AlEE Transactions. In response to inquiry it should be stated that, where a mathematical basis is given, graphical performance is always calculated. There has been good general correspondence between the graphs and experimental tests. This correspondence is quite close in all cases except pulse transformers; for these, the graphs presented in this book predict wave shape with fair accuracy, but to predict exactly all the superposed ripples would be impracticable. This is pointed out in Chapter 10. Although technical words usually have the same meaning as in the first edition, there are several new magnetic terms in the second edition. These terms conform with ASTM Standard A127-48. Pascal said that an author should always use the word "our" rather than "my" in referring to his work, because there is in it usually more of other people's than his own. Never was this more true than of the present volume. Acknowledgment is due many Westinghouse engineers, especially R. M. Baker, L. F. Deise, H. L. Jessup, J. W. Ogden, G. F. Pittman, R. A. Ramey, T. F. Saffold, and D. S. Stephens, all of whom
v
vi
PREFACE
TO SECOND EDITION
assisted immeasurably by their constructive comments on the manuscript. D. G. Little's continued interest was most encouraging. Helpful comment has been received from men outside Westinghouse. Mr. P. Fenoglio of the General Electric Co. kindly pointed out an omission in the first edition. Output wave shapes given for the front or leading edge of a pulse transformer were accurate for a hard-tube modulator, but not for a line-type modulator. The missing information is included in the second edition. Finally, to my wife Margaret, my heartfelt thanks not only for her understanding of the long disruption of normal social life but also for her patience in checking proofs.
REUBEN LEE
Baltimore, Maryland August, 1955
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Figures 23 and 24 were furnished through the courtesy of the Armco Steel Corp. Figures 50, 51, 52, 53, and 86 first appeared in a paper by O. H. Schade, Proc. I.R.E., July, 1943, p. 341. Figure 150 is reprinted from Proc. I.R.E., April, 1945. Figure 63 first appeared in the I.R.E. Transactions on Component Parts, April, 1955. Figure 71 is reprinted from Electronics, March, 1955. Figures 89, 90, and 91 are reprinted from, and Section 52 (p. 123) is based on, "Solving a Rectifier Problem," Electronics, April, 1938. Figures 100 and 101 are reprinted from Electronics for September, 1949. Figure 180 and Section 97 (p. 232) are based on "A Study of R-F Chokes," which appeared in Electronics in April, 1934. Sections 123, 124, 125, and 127 (p. 294 et seq) are based on "Iron-Core Components in Pulse Amplifiers," Electronics, August, 1943. Figures 73, 258, and 259 are reprinted from this article. Figure 88 is reprinted from Tele-Tech and Electronic Industries, October, 1953 (copyright Caldwell-Clements, 480 Lexington Avenue, New York). Figures 107 and 110, and part of Section 67 (p. 153), first appeared in Radio Engineering, June, 1937. Figure 142 is reprinted from the General Radio Experimenter, 1'\ ovember, 1936. Figures 163, 164, and 165 are reprinted from "Magnetic FerritesCore Materials for High Frequencies," by C. L. Snyder, E. AlbersSchoenberg, and H. A. Goldsmith, Electrical Manufacturing, December, 1949. Figure 191 is reprinted from Electrical Manufacturing for September, 1954. The magnetic amplifier analysis on p. 276 is based on an unpublished paper by D. Lebell and B. Bussell, presented at the I.R.E. Convention, New York, March, 1952. Figures 235, 252, 254, and 255, and Table XVII, are reprinted from Proc. I.R.E., August, 1954.
vii
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

The purpose of this book is twofold: first, to provide a reference book on the design of transformers for electronic apparatus and, second, to furnish electronic equipment engineers with an understanding of the effects of transformer characteristics on electronic circuits. Familiarity with basic circuit theory and transformer principles is assumed. Conventional transformer design is treated adequately in existing books, so only such phases of it as are pertinent to electronic transformers are included here. The same can be said of circuit theory; only that which is necessary to an understanding of transformer operation is given. It is intended that in this way the book will be encumbered with a minimum of unnecessary material. Mathematical proofs as such are kept to a minimum, but the bases for quantitative results are indicated. The A.I.E.E. "American Standard Definitions of Electrical Terms" gives the meaning of technical words used. Circuit symbols conform to A.S.A. Standards Z32.5~1944 and Z32.1O~1944. Chapter headings, except for the first two, are related to general types of apparatus. This arrangement should make the book more useful. Design data are included which would make tedious reading if grouped together. For instance, the design of an inductor depends on whether it is for power or wave filter work, and the factors peculiar to each are best studied in connection with their respective apparatus. Parts of the book are based on material already published in the Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, Electronics, and Communications. Much of it leans heavily upon work done by fellow engineers of the Westinghouse Electric Corporation, the warmth of whose friendship I am privileged to enjoy. To list all their names would be a difficult and inadequate expression of gratitude, but I should be guilty of a gross omission if I did not mention the encouragement given me by Mr. D. G. Little, at whose suggestion this book was written.
R. L.
July 1947
lX
CONTENTS
List of Symbols 1. Introduction 2. Transformer Construction, Materials, and Ratings
Xlll
1 17 61 111
140
178
3. Rectifier Transformers 4. Rectifier Performance 5. Amplifier Transformers 6. Amplifier Circuits 7. Higher-Frequency .
and Reactors
Transformers
214 237 259 292 329 347 351
8. Electronic Control Transformers 9. Magnetic Amplifiers 10. Pulse and Video Transformers 11. Pulse Circuits Bibliography Index xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Page numbers are those on which the corresponding symbol first appears. A symbol formed from one of the tabulated letters, with a subscript or prime added, is not listed unless it is frequently and prominently used in the book. Sometimes the same symbol denotes more than one property; the meaning is then determined by the context. Units are given wherever symbols are used. Small letters indicate instantaneous or varying electrical quantities, and capital letters indicate steady, effective, or scalar values.
a a a
A
Ac An b B
B Bm, Bmax Br
C C
Gl, Cg Cw
d d
G2, G.
c.
C.
D D
e
Coil radius, 228 Coil winding height, 75 N2/Nb 147 Area, 172 Core area, 10 Ripple amplitude, 114 Winding traverse, 76 at frequency ir, 150 Core flux density, 10 Maximum operating flux density, 23, 97 Residual flux density, 23 Insulation thickness, 75 Specific heat, 57 Capacitance, 64 Primary capacitance, 147 Secondary capacitance, 147 Effective capacitance, 172 Capacitance of winding to ground, 245 Capacitance across winding, 245 Core tongue width, 38 Toroid diameter, 288 Winding height, 38 XC/R2 at frequency I-, 159 Voltage (instantaneous value), 5 Alternating grid voltage, 141 Alternating plate voltage, 141
x.r«,
xiii
xiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Emissivity, 57 Voltage (effective value), 6 Plate voltage, 141 Output voltage, 178 Primary voltage, 7 El Secondary voltage, 7 E2 Secondary no-load voltage, 7 Es Secondary full-loadvoltage, 7 EL Peak value of alternating voltage, 111 Epk D-c voltage, 111 Ede Voltage at top of pulse, 295 Ea Frequency, 6 f Midband frequency, 190 fm Resonance frequency, 150 fr Cut-off frequency, 185 fe Function of, 114 f( ) F Factor, 230 Mutual conductance, 144 Ym G Gap loss constant, 191 H Magnetizing force, 10 Coercive force, 23 He 1, Current (instantaneous value), 10 I, III, i.: Current (effective value), 6, 15 Direct component of current, 16 Ide I,Ipk Peak value of current, 16, 66 Average value of current, 15, 66 t.t ; Ip,IB Plate current (d-c), 142 i, Load current, 7 Loss component of exciting current, 10 IE Magnetizing current, 9 1M Exciting current, 9 IN Grid current (d-e), 142 IG j vI=I (vector operator), 146 Low-frequency permeability/pulse permeability, 335 J k Thermal conductivity, 57 k Coefficient of coupling, 225 k 72 ratio of impedance/circuit resistance = VLlC /2R, 104 Constant, 82 K Mean length of core (or magnetic path), 10 i; Air gap, 88 19 L Inductance, 90 Open-circuit inductance (OCL), 26 L.
E E EB Eo
LIST OF SY~1BOLS
xv
m m n
L. Lm
M MT
p p p
N Nl N2 NL OCL
Pa Pc PA PR PFN PRF
Q
T Te Tp
S S t t
R Rl R2 RL Re
T T
V V
w
Wg We
Short-circuit inductance, 76 11utualinductance, 224 Decrement, 104 Order of harmonic, 114 Modulation factor, 16 Mean turn length, 38 Number (e.g., of anodes), 76 Turns, 5 Primary turns, 5 Secondary turns, 5 Number of layers (of wire in coil), 173 Open-circuit inductance, 106 Density, 26 Ratio of voltages (in autotransformer), 250 Rectifier ripple frequency/line frequency (number of phases), 113 Volt-amperes per pound, 26 Core loss, 26 Ripple amplitude/Ez, (in rectifier), 114 Ripple arnplitude/E'j, (across load), 114 Pulse forming network, 332 Pulse repetition frequency, 338 wL/R = coil reactance/coil a-c resistance, 106 Radius, 38 Equivalent radius, 57 Plate resistance, 144 Resistance, 6 Source resistance, 146 Load resistance, 146 Load resistance, 8 Equivalent core-loss (shunt) resistance, 8 Secondary winding, 71 Core window width, 102 Time (independent variable), 5 Thickness of insulation, 172 Period of a wave, 15 27rVLsC2 (undamped period of oscillatory wave), 295 Commutation voltage, 120 Volume (of core), 91 Core-stacking dimension, 38 Gap loss, 191 Core loss, 82
XVI
LIST OF SYMBOLS
WS
X
XN
Xc XL
ZG
ZL
Zo
a a a {3 {3
Copper loss, 82 Reactance, 6 Open-circuit reactance = 27rfLe, 9 Capacitive reactance = 1/(27rjC), 112 Inductive reactance = 27rjL, 112 Impedance, 8 Source impedance, 141 Load impedance, 141 Characteristic impedance, 145 Amplifier gain, 174
~Cg/Cw,
245
Ll Ll
E E
71
()
J,L J,L J,Lt:. 7r
cp cp
<Pmax
~
T
Damping factor, 319 Feedback constant, 178 Natural angular frequency, 304 Small interval of time, 15 Increment (e.g., of flux), 25 Exciting current/load current, 299 Base of natural logarithms (= 2.718), 57 Dielectric constant of insulation, 172 Efficiency, 14 Temperature, 57 Phase angle, 120 Amplification factor, 141 Permeability, 24 Incremental permeability, 25 3.1416, 6 Phase angle, 195 Flux (varying), 6 Peak value of flux, 6 Summation (of a series of elements), 38 Pulse duration, 298 27rf (angular frequency), 6
1.
INTRODUCTION
1. What Is a Transformer? In its most elementary form, a transformer consists of two coils wound of wire and inductively coupled to each other. When alternating current at a given frequency flows in either coil, an alternating voltage of the same frequency is induced in the other coil. The value of this voltage depends on the degree of coupling and the flux linkages in the two coils. The coil connected to a source of alternating voltage is usually called the primary coil, and the voltage across this coil is the primary voltage. Voltage induced in the secondary coil may be greater than or less than the primary voltage, depending on the ratio of primary to secondary turns. A transformer is termed a step-up or a step-down transformer accordingly. Most transformers have stationary iron cores, around which the primary and secondary coils are placed. Because of the high permeability of iron, most of the flux is confined to the core, and a greater degree of coupling between the coils is thereby obtained. So tight is the coupling between the coils in some transformers that the primary and secondary voltages bear almost exactly the same ratio to each other as the turns in the respective coils or windings. Thus the turns ratio of a transformer is a common index of its function in raising or lowering voltage. This function makes the transformer an important adjunct of modern electrical power systems. Raising the voltage makes possible the economical transmission of power over long distances; lowering the voltage again makes this power available in useful form. It is safe to say that, without transformers, modern industry could not have reached its present state of development. 2. Electronic Transformers. Although no exact line of demarcation can be drawn between power transformers and electronic transformers, in general electronic transformers are smaller. The source of power on a 50-cycle network is extremely large and may be the combined generating capacity of half a continent. Power in electronic equipment is limited to the capabilities of electron tubes, of which even the largest is small compared to a power station generator.
1
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
Transformers are needed in electronic apparatus to provide the different values of plate, filament, and bias voltage required for proper tube operation, to insulate circuits from each other, to furnish high impedance to alternating but low impedance to direct current, and to maintain or modify wave shape and frequency response at different potentials. The very concept of impedance, so characteristic of electronics, almost necessarily presupposes a means of changing from one impedance level to another, and that means is commonly a transformer. Impedance levels are usually higher in electronic, as compared with power, equipment. Consider the connected kva on an 11,OOO-volt ower p line; it may easily total 1,000,000. Compare this with a large broadcast transmitter operating at the same voltage and drawing 70 kva. The currents in the two cases are 90,000 amp and 6 amp, respectively. For the power line, the load impedance is 11,000/90,000, or slightly more than 0.1 ohm; for the transmitter it is 11,000/6, or nearly 2,000 ohms. Source impedances are approximately proportional to these load impedances. In low-power electronic circuits the source impedance often exceeds the load impedance and influences the transformer performance even further. Weight and space are usually at a premium in electronic equipment, and reliability is of paramount importance. Transformers account for a considerable portion of the weight and space, and form a prime component of the reliability. These and other differences of application render many power transformers unsuitable for electronic circuit use. The design, construction, and testing of electronic transformers have become separate arts, directed toward the most effective use of materials for electronic applications. 3. New Materials. Like all electronic apparatus, transformers are subject to continual change. This is especially so since the introduction of new materials such as
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d) (e) (f)
Grain-oriented core steel. Solventless impregnating varnish. Inorganic insulating tape. Improved wire enamel. Low-loss, powdered iron cores. Ferrite cores.
Through the application of these materials, it has been possible to
INTRODUCTION
(a) Reduce the size of audio and power transformers and reactors. (b) Increase the usefulness of saturable reactors as magnetic ampli-
fiers.
(c) Reduce the size of high-voltage units. (d) Design filters and reactors having sharper cut-off and higher Q than previously was thought possible. (e) Make efficient transformers for the non-sinusoidal wave shapes
such as are encountered in pulse, video, and sweep amplifiers. (f) Extend the upper operating frequency of transformers into the high-frequency r-f range. Occasionally someone asks why electronic transformers cannot be designed according to curves or charts showing the relation between volts, turns, wire size, and power rating. Such curves are very useful in designing the simpler transformers. However, this idea has not been found universally practicable for the following reasons: (a) Regulation. This property is rarely negligible in electronic circuits. It often requires care and thought to use the most advantageous winding arrangement in order to obtain the proper IX and IR voltage drops. Sometimes the size is dictated by such considerations. (b) Frequency Range. The low-frequency end of a wideband transformer operating range in a given circuit is determined by the transformer open-circuit inductance. The high-frequency end is governed by the leakage inductance and distributed capacitance. Juggling the various factors, such as core size, number of turns, interleaving, and insulation, in order to obtain the optimum design constitutes a technical problem too complex to solve on charts. (c) V oltaqe. It would be exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to reduce to chart form the use of high voltages in the restricted space of a transformer. Circuit considerations are very important here, and the transformer designer must be thoroughly familiar with the functioning of the transformer to insure reliable operation, low cost, and small dimensions. (d) Size. Much electronic equipment is cramped for space, and, since transformers often constitute the largest items in the equipment, it is imperative that they, too, be of small size. An open-minded attitude toward this condition and good judgment may make it possible to meet the requirements which otherwise might not be fulfilled. New materials, too, can be instrumental in reducing size, sometimes down to a small fraction of former size. In succeeding chapters the foregoing considerations will be applied
ELECTRONIC TRANSFORMERS AND CIRCUITS
to the performance and design of several general types of electronic transformers. The remainder of this chapter is a brief review of fundamental transformer principles. Only iron-core transformers with closed magnetic paths are considered in this introduction. Air-core transformers, with or without slugs of powdered iron, are discussed in a later chapter on high-frequency transformers. Most transformers operate at power frequencies; it is therefore logical to begin with lowfrequency principles. These principles are modified for other conditions in later chapters.
COIL FORM
SECONDARY WINDING
CORE LAMINATIONS
COIL
FIG. 1. Transformer
coil and core.
A simple transformer coil and core arrangement is shown in Fig. l. The primary and secondary coils are wound one over the other on an insulating coil tube or form. The core is laminated to reduce losses. Flux flows in the core along the path indicated, so that all the core flux threads through or links both windings. In a circuit diagram the transformer is represented by the circuit symbol of Fig. 2. SECONDARY 4. Transformer Fundamentals. The PRI;:---j WINDING WIN::___3 simple transformer of Fig. 2 has two windings. The left-hand winding is assumed to be connected to a voltage FIG. 2. Simple transformer. source and is called the primary winding. The right-hand winding is connected to a load and is called the secondary. The transformer merely delivers to the load a voltage similar to that impressed across its primary, except that it may be smaller or greater in amplitude. In order for a transformer to perform this function, the voltage across it must vary with respect to time. A d-e voltage such as that of a storage battery produces no voltage in the secondary winding or power
II
INTRODUCTION
in the load. If both varying and d-e voltages are impressed across the primary, only the varying part is delivered to the load. This comes about because the voltage e in the secondary is induced in that winding by the core flux cf> according to the law Ndcp e = - -X 10-8 (1) dt This law may be stated in words as follows: The voltage induced in a coil is proportional to the number of turns and to the time rate of change of magnetic flux in the coil. This rate of change of flux may be large or small. For a given voltage, if the rate of change of flux is small, many turns must be used. Conversely, if a small number of turns is used, a large rate of change of flux is necessary to produce a given voltage. The rate of change of flux can be made large in two ways, by increasing the maximum value of flux and by decreasing the period of time over which the flux change takes place. At low frequencies, the flux changes over a relatively large interval of time, and therefore a large number of turns is required for a given voltage, even though moderately large fluxes are used. As the frequency increases, the time interval between voltage changes is decreased, and for a given flux fewer turns are needed to produce a given voltage. And so it is that low-frequency transformers are characterized by the use of a large number of turns, whereas high-frequency transformers have but few turns. If the flux cf> did not vary with time, the induced voltage would be zero. Equation 1 is thus the fundamental transformer equation. The voltage variation with time may be of any kind: sinusoidal, exponential, sawtooth, or impulse. The essential condition for inducing a voltage in the secondary is that there be a flux variation. Only that part of the flux which links both coils induces a secondary voltage. In equation 1, if cf> denotes maxwells of flux and t time in seconds, e denotes volts induced. If all the flux links both windings, equation 1 shows that equal volts per turn are induced in the primary and secondary, or
el
Nl
(2)
where
el = e2 = N1 =
primary voltage secondary voltage primary turns N2 = secondary turns.
5. Sinusoidal Voltage.
If the flux variation is sinusoidal,
cp = max sin wt
where max is the peak value of flux, time. Equation 1 becomes e
=
is angular frequency, and t is

(3)
-NmaxW
cos wt X 10-8
or the induced voltage also is sinusoidal. This voltage has an effective value E = 0.707 X 211'fNmax X 10-8
= 4.44fNmax
X 10-8
(4)
where f is the frequency of the sine wave. Equation 4 is the relation between voltage and flux for sinusoidal voltage. Sufficient current is drawn by the primary winding to produce the flux required to maintain the winding voltage. The primary induced voltage in an unloaded transformer is just enough lower than the impressed voltage to allow this current to flow into the primary winding. If a load is connected across the secondary terminals, the primary induced voltage decreases further, to allow more current to flow into the winding in order that there may be a load current. Thus the primary of a loaded transformer carries both an exciting current and a load current, but only the load part is transformed into secondary load current. Primary induced voltage would exactly equal primary impressed voltage if there were no resistance and reactance in the winding. Primary current flowing through the winding causes a voltage drop IR, the product of primary current I and winding resistance R. The winding also presents a reactance X which causes an IX drop. Reactance X is caused by the leakage flux or flux which does not link both primary and secondary windings. There is at least a small percentage of the flux which is not common to both windings. Leakage flux flows in the air spaces adjacent to the windings. Because the primary turns link leakage flux an inductance is thereby introduced into the winding, producing leakage reactance X at the line frequency. The larger the primary current, the greater the leakage flux, and the greater the reactance drop IX. Thus the leakage reactance drop is a series effect, proportional to primary current. 6. Equivalent Circuit and Vector Diagram. For purposes of analysis the transformer may be represented by a 1: 1 turns-ratio equivalent circuit. This circuit is based on the following assumptions:
INTRODUCTION
(a) Primary and secondary turns are equal in number. One winding is chosen as the reference winding; the other is the referred winding. The voltage in the referred winding is multiplied by the actual turns ratio after it is computed from the equivalent circuit. The choice between primary and secondary for the reference winding is a matter of convenience. (b) Core loss may be represented by a resistance across the terminals of the reference winding. (c) Core flux reactance may be represented by a reactance across the terminals of the reference winding. (d) Primary and secondary IR and IX voltage drops may be lumped together; the voltage drops in the referred winding are multiplied by a factor derived at the end of this section, to give them the correct equivalent value. (e) Equivalent reactances and resistances are linear.
As will be shown later, some of these assumptions are approximate, and the analysis based on them is only accurate so far as the assumptions are justified. With proper attention to this fact, practical use can be made of the equivalent circuit. With many sine-wave electronic transformers, the transformer load is resistive. A tube filament heating load, for example, has 100 per cent power factor. Under this condition the relations between voltages and currents become appreciably simplified in comparison with the same relations for reactive loads. In what follows, the secondary winding will be chosen as the reference winding. At low frequencies such a transformer may be represented by Fig. 3 (a). The transformer equivalent circuit is approximated by Fig. 3 (b), and its vector diagram for 100 per cent p-f load by Fig. 3(c). Secondary load voltage EL and load current h are in phase. Secondary induced voltage Es is greater than EL because it must compensate for the winding resistances and leakage reactances. The winding resistance and leakage reactance voltage drops are shown in Fig. 3 (c) as IR and IX, which are respectively in phase and in quadrature with hand EL• These voltage drops are the sum of secondary and primary winding voltage drops, but the primary values are multiplied by a factor to be derived later. If voltage drops and losses are temporarily forgotten, the same power is delivered to the load as is taken from the line. Let subscripts 1 and 2 denote the respective primary and secondary quantities.
(5)
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
IL-
AND CIRCUITS
3D_~J
(a)
(b) FIG. 3.
(a)
(c) with resistive load; diagram.

(b)
Transformer
equivalent
circuit;
(c)
vector
or
E2
s, -=-
12 II
(6)
so that the voltages are inversely proportional to the currents. Also, from equation 2, they are directly proportional to their respective turns.
s,
E2
n,
N2
(2a)
Now the transformer may be replaced by an impedance same current from the line, so that Likewise
ZI
drawing the
where Z2 is the secondary load impedance, in this case RL. expressions for current are substituted in equation 6,
If these
Z2
ZI = (El)2
E2
(Nl)2
N2
(7)
Equation 7 is strictly true only for negligible voltage drops and losses. It is approximately true for voltage drops up to about 10 per cent of the winding voltage or for losses less than 20 per cent of the power delivered, but it is not true when the voltage drops approach in value the winding voltage or when the losses constitute most of the primary load. Not only does the load impedance bear the relation of equation 7
INTRODUCTION
to the equivalent primary load impedance; the winding reactance and resistance may also be referred from one winding to the other by the same ratio. This can be seen if the secondary winding resistance and reactance are considered part of the load, across which the secondary induced voltage Es appears. Thus the factor by which the primary reactance and resistance are multiplied, to refer them to the secondary for addition to the secondary drops, is (NdNd2• If the primary had been the reference winding, the secondary reactance and resistance would have been multiplied by (Nl/N2) 2. In Fig. 3 (c) the IR voltage drop subtracts directly from the terminal voltage across the resistive load, but the IX drop makes virtually no difference. How much the IX drop may be before it becomes appreciable is shown in Fig. 4. If the IX drop is 30 per cent of the induced voltage, 4 per cent reduction in load 1.0 voltage results; 15 per cent IX drop ........ .9 causes but 1 per cent reduction. -, .8 7. Magnetizing Current. In addi<, .7 tion to the current entering the pri1".6 mary because of the secondary load, ~5 r'\. . there is the core exciting current IN E 5,4 1\ which flows in the primary whether .3 \ the secondary load is connected or .2 not. This current is drawn by the .I primary core reactance XN and 1.0 equivalent core-loss resistance RE and is multiplied by Nl/N2 when it is referred to the secondary side. It FIG. 4. Relation between reactive has two components: 1M, the magvoltage drop and load voltage. netizing component which flows 90° lagging behind induced voltage Es; and IE, the core-loss current which is in phase with Es. Ordinarily this current is small and produces negligible voltage drop in the winding. Core-loss current is often divided into two components: eddy current and hysteresis. Eddy-current loss is caused by current circulating in the core laminations. Hysteresis loss is the power required to magnetize the core first in one direction and then in the other on alternating half-cycles. Hysteresis loss and magnetization are intimately connected, as can be seen from Fig. 5. Here induced voltage e is plotted against time, and core flux cf> lags e by 90°, in accordance with equation 3. This flux is also plotted against magnetizing current in the loop at the right. This loop has the same shape as the B-H loop
10
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
FIG. 5. Transformer voltage, flux, and exciting current.
for the grade of iron used in the core, but the scales are changed so that
q, = BAc
i
=
Hlc/O.47rN
(8)
where B = core flux density in gauss Ac = core cross-sectional area in cm2 H = core magnetizing force in oersteds lc = core flux path length in cm. Current is projected from the q,-i loop to obtain the alternating current i at the bottom of Fig. 5. This current contains both the magnetizing and the hysteresis loss components of current. In core-material research it is important to separate these components, for it is mainly through reduction of the B-H loop area (and hence hysteresis loss) that core materials have been improved. Techniques have been developed to separate the exciting current components, but it is evident that these components cannot be separated by current measurement only. It is nevertheless convenient for analysis of measurements to add the loss components and call their sum Iph and to regard the magnetizing component 1M as a separate lagging current, as in Fig. 3. As long as the core reactance is large, the vector sum IN of 1M and IFJ is
INTRODUCTION
11
small, and the non-sinusoidal shape of IN does not seriously affect the accuracy of Fig. 3. Core flux reactance may be found by measuring the magnetizing current, i.e., the current component which lags the applied voltage 90° with the secondary circuit open. Because of the method of measurement, this is often called the open-circuit reactance, and this reactance divided by the angular frequency is called the open-circuit inductance. The secondary and primary winding leakage reactances are found by short-circuiting the secondary winding and measuring the primary voltage with rated current flowing. The component of primary voltage which leads the current by 90° is divided by the current; this is the sum of the leakage reactances, the secondary reactance being multiplied by the (turns ratio)", and is called the shortcircuit reactance. Practical cases sometimes arise where the magnetizing component becomes of the same order of magnitude as h. Because current 1M flows only in the primary, a different equivalent circuit and vector diagram are necessary, as shown in Fig. 6. Note that the leakage react-
__ ,::::=;:::::::::-1'.i~d'~-W X, I,
E,
I,
(b)
FIG. 6.
(a) Equivalent
circuit and (b) vector diagram for transformer with high magnetizing current.
ance voltage drop has a marked effect upon the load voltage, and this effect is larger as 1M increases relative to h. Therefore, the statement that IX voltage drop causes negligible difference between secondary induced and terminal voltages in transformers with resistive loads is true only for small values of exciting current. Moreover, the total primary current II has a largely distorted shape, so that treating the IR and IX voltage drops as vectors is a rough approximation. For
12
accurate calculation of load voltage with large core exciting current, a point-by-point analysis would be necessary. 8. Flux and Average Voltage. If the variables are separated in equation 1, thus edt = -N X lO-s dcjJ an expression for flux may be found:
N ow if we consider the time interval
0 to
7r /
w, we have
7rIWe dt
-N
X lO-sf+max dq
-CPmax
-2N<pmax
X lO-s
(9)
Equation 9 gives the relation between maximum flux and the time integral of voltage. The left side of the equation is the area under the voltage-time wave. For a given frequency, it is proportional to the average voltage value. This is perfectly general and holds true regardless of wave form. If the voltage wave form is alternating, the average value of the time integral over a long period of time is zero. If the voltage wave form is sinusoidal, the flux wave form is also sinusoidal but is displaced 90° as in Fig. 5, and the integral over a halfcycle is -1.41E whence 1.41 X lOsE
<Prnax COS [
--
wtJ7rIW
= --
2.82E
wow
= ----
wN
(10)
Equation 10 is the relation between maximum flux, effective voltage, frequency, and turns. It is a transposed form of equation 4. 9. Ideal Transformer. The use of equivalent circuits enables an engineer to calculate many transformer problems with comparative ease. It is always necessary to multiply properties in the referred winding by the proper ratio. This has led to the interposition of a transformer of the right turns ratio somewhere in the equivalent circuit, usually across the load. The transformer thus used must introduce no additional losses or voltage drops in the circuit. It is called an
INTRODUCTION
13
and it has negligibly small winding resistances, leakage flux, core loss, magnetizing current, and winding capacitances. Some power and audio transformers very nearly approach the ideal transformer at some frequencies. For example, in a typical 50-kva plate transformer, the winding resistance IR drops total 1 per cent and the leakage reactance IX drops 3 per cent of rated voltage, the core loss 0.6 per cent of output power and magnetizing current 2 per cent of rated primary current. When the term ideal transformer is used, it should be borne in mind that negligibly small is not zero. Particularly in electronic work, where frequency may vary, a limiting frequency may be reached at which the transformer is no longer ideal. Moreover, even if the limiting frequency is very low, it is never zero. There must be voltage variation if transformation is to take place. The assumptions of equations 5 to 7 were the same as for an ideal transformer. 10. Polarity. Let turns from equation 2a be substituted in equation 5. Then we have
(11)
ideal transformer/
or the primary and secondary ampere-turns are equal and opposite. This equality holds for only the load component of 11; that is, exciting current has been regarded as negligibly small. If there is a direct current in the load, but not in the primary, or vice versa, equation 11 is true for only the a-c components. AI: 1 turns-ratio transformer is shown diagramatically in Fig. 7. Impressed voltage is E1, and primary current is 11• Induced voltage Ei is slightly less than El, and is the same in magnitude and direction for both windings. Secondary current 12 flows in the opposite direction to II. Instantaneous polarities are indicated by and - signs. That is, when El reaches positive maximum so do E; and E2. Dots are conventionally used to indicate terminals of the same polarity; dots in the circuit symbol at the right of Fig. 7 are used to indicate the same winding directions as in the left-hand figure. 11. Regulation, Efficiency, and Power Factor. Transformer regulation is the difference in the secondary terminal voltage at full load and at no load, expressed as a percentage of the full-load voltage. For the resistive load of Fig. 3(a), (b), and (c),
Per cent regulation
= 100
(Es -EL) EL
(12)
1 See Magnetic Circuits and Transformers, M.I.T. Electrical Engineering Staff, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1943, p. 269.
14
('
t
CORE FLUX
+~
PRI.
erer-
O~
....I
r-
p tEL
ORE
_12.
SEC.
e~
'-
~tEi
FIG. 7. Transformer polarity.
Since with low values of leakage reactance Es - EL = IR, Per cent regulation = 100IR/EL
(13)
provided that R includes the primary winding resistance multiplied by the factor (N2/N1)2 as well as the secondary winding resistance. If leakage reactance is not negligibly small, approximately 1Per cent regulation = 100 [IR + - (IX)2] EL 2 EL Efficiency is the ratio Output power Output power plus losses where losses include both core and winding losses. A convenient way of expressing power factor is Output power plus losses Power factor = -------------------Input volt-amperes (16)
(14)
~ = --------------------
(15)
Equation 16 gives the power factor of a transformer plus its load. One of the problems of transformer design is the proper choice of induction to obtain low values of exciting current and high power factor. Low power factor may cause excessive primary winding copper loss, low efficiency, and overheating. 12. Wave Shapes. Transformers in electronic circuits may be subjected to alternating and direct currents simultaneously, to modified sine waves, or to other non-sinusoidal waves. Although there is a relation between current and voltage wave shapes in a transformer, the two are frequently not the same, as has already been seen in Fig.
INTRODUCTION
15
5. D-c components of primary voltage are not transformed; only the varying a-c component is transformed. Secondary current may be determined by the connection of the load. For example: if the load is a rectifier, the current will be some form of rectified wave; if the load is a modulator, the secondary current may be the superposition of two waves. If the primary voltage is non-sinusoidal, then the secondary current almost certainly will be non-sinusoidal. If the primary voltage comes from an alternating source only, and the load is a half-wave rectifier, the secondary current has a d-e component, but the primary current has no d-e component except under changing conditions. That is to say, in the steady state there is no primary d-e component resulting from secondary d-e component alone. This is true, because any direct current in the primary requires a d-c source. But by the initial assumption there is no direct current present in the primary. Under these conditions, the core flux may be very much distorted because the flux excursions go into saturation in one direction only. In succeeding chapters, two values of current will be of interest in circuits with non-sinusoidal 'waves, the average and the rms. Average current causes core saturation unless there is an air gap. Rms current determines the heating of the windings and is limited by the permissible temperature rise. Voltage wave form will be dealt with in subsequent chapters. Common current wave forms are tabulated here for convenience. (See Table I.) Root-mean-square or rms current values are based upon the equation
(17)
where i = current at any instant f = frequency of repetition of current waves per second T = duration of current waves in seconds t = time in seconds. Average current values are
t;
=f
i dt
(18)
In the first wave shape, T the current wave duration.
11f. In the fifth wave shape, T
+ 28 is
16
ELECTRONIC TABLE 1. Current Wave Shape
TRANSFORMERS
AND
CIRCUITS
NON-SINUSOIDAL CURRENT WAVE FORMS Description
Mldc '-.!,_...../I
&
•
Direct current with superposed sine de wave Half-sine loops of T duration and f repetition rate Square waves of T duration and f repetition frequeney Sawtooth wave of T duration and f repetition frequeney Trapezoidal wave of f repetition frequeney
Ide
IV\__J\_
-i
T i--II
Ipk
1___.,j
s.: .:
"
r-;
t;
Ide
2lpkfT
~-11"
t.;
VfT
IpkfT
--hI---I/1
--i
----.j
1---111--oj
Ipk
ff
3
; 31')
IpkJT 2
.---1 '
P.~S~T~6j.-11f
-
-...j
lpk ~f(20
il'kf(o+T)
In both equations 17 and 18, T refers to a full period. This is in contrast to steady-state sinusoidal alternating currents, the rms and average values of which are developed over a half-period because of the symmetry of such currents about the zero axis.
2.
TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION, AND RATINGS
MATERIALS,
13. Construction. Most electronic transformers are small, and for small transformers the shell-type core is usually most suitable because only one coil is required. Figure 8 shows shell-type transformer assemblies.
FIG. 8. Transformers
with shell-type core.
The magnetic path is divided, half the flux enclosing one side of the coil and half the other. The coil opening is called the window. Between the windows is the core tongue, which is twice as wide as the
,....0-----,-'
,.-----1,
_ _J
I
I
j-+-WINDOW
_-+I-TONGUE ____ _J
______
F
I I I
E-I
E-E
FIG. 9. Shell-type laminations.
iron around the rest of the window. The core is built up of thin laminations to reduce eddy-current losses; typical shapes are shown in Fig. 9. Alternate stacking of the lamination pairs may be used to reduce magnetic reluctance and keep magnetizing current small. To reduce assembly cost, this alternate stacking is sometimes done in groups of
17
18
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
FIG. 10. Core-type transformer.
two or more laminations, with some increase in magnetizing current. A wide range of sizes of shell-type laminations is available. At 60 cycles, common thicknesses are 0.014 in., 0.019 in., and 0.025 in. Shell-type laminations are made with proportions to suit the transformer. In the E-I shape a scrapless lamination is widely used. Two E's facing each other are first punched, and the punched-out strips are of the right dimensions to form two I's. Then the E's are cut apart. This economy of material is not justified in transformers in which turns per layer, and hence window width, must be reduced relative to window height. For some applications, the core-type transformer is preferable. In these there is only one magnetic path, but there are two coils, one on each leg of the core. A core-type transformer is shown in Fig. 10, and some core-type laminations in Fig. 11. Cores wound from continuous steel strip are widely used. One common shape is illustrated in Fig. 12; it is known as the type C core. Steel strip is first wound to the proper build-up on a mandrel. The
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
19
wound core is then annealed, impregnated with a bond, and cut in two to permit assembly with the coil. After assembly with the coil, the core is held together with a steel band as in Fig. 10. Several ,-------,- ....., advantages accrue from this conI I struction, which will be discussed II in Section 15. II Typical assemblies using two II I I type C cores are shown in Figs. 13 --' I and 14; they correspond to shell____ J type laminations. Because it is simpler to assemble a single-core L u -r loop, a single core is often used, FIG. 11. Core-type laminations. especially in small sizes. See Fig. 15. In 60-cycle service the laminations are usually stacked alternately to produce an overlapping joint. This is approximated in the type C cores with ground gap surfaces which fit closely together. Either type of core can be used with core gaps; laminations are stacked butting, with no overlap. The desired amount of gap material, such as fishpaper, is inserted between the gap surfaces.
FIG. 12. Type C cores.
20
FIG. 13. Partly assembled transformer.
FIG. 14. Assembled type C cores and coil.
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
21
FIG. 15. Single-coil, single-core assemblies.
FIG. 16. Transformers
mounted on amplifier chassis.
22
14. Mountings. Both types of cores may be built into neat assemblies with the laminations exposed, and the coils covered by end cases, such as those in the amplifier of Fig. 16. When complete enclosure is desired, assemblies like those in Fig. 17 are used.
FIG. 17. Fully enclosed transformers.
The degree of enclosure depends on many conditions, among them the following: (a) Climate. In a humid climate, especially in the tropics, copper corrodes readily. Transformers containing fine wire may have open circuits soon after exposure to tropical conditions, and it is preferable to seal them against the entry of moisture. (b) Temperature Rise. Transformers handling large amounts of power may become hot because of the electrical losses. To seal them in containers imposes additional obstacles to the dissipation of this heat. Fortunately the wire size is large enough to withstand corrosion without developing open circuits. Such units may be of the open type. (c) Space. Sealing a transformer usually requires more space than mounting the core and coil directly on the chassis or panel. End cases like those in Fig. 16 do not require much space but do reduce cooling by convection. When air is used to cool other apparatus, power tubes for instance, it is very often circulated near or through the transformer to prevent the coils from overheating. (d) Voltage. In high-voltage dry-type transformers, enclosure in a metal case may add to the difficulties of insulating the windings. In oil-filled transformers, a tank is required for the oil and enclosure is thereby provided.
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
23
(e) Appearance. Generally speaking, enclosed transformers are neater than the open type. This fact is given consideration where space is available, especially in broadcast apparatus. 15. Core Materials. Electronic transformers make use of a large variety of core materials. In this chapter, the more useful magnetic properties of several grades of core materials are presented for reference and comparison. To guard against possible ambiguity, definitions of magnetic terms are first reviewed. Referring to the typical hysteresis loop of Fig. 18, curve OBm is the manner in which completely unmagnetized steel becomes magnetized by a magnetizing force H gradually increasing up to value Hm. Flux density or induction is not proportional to H but rises more gradually as it approaches Hm, Bm. Once the material reaches this state, it does not retrace curve OBm if H is reduced. Instead, it follows the left side of the solid-line loop in the direction of the arrow until, with negative Hm, it reaches the maximum negative induction -Bm. If H is now reversed, the induction increases as indicated by the right side of the loop, which is symmetrical in that the upper and lower halves are equal in area and have the same shape. In laboratory tests of magnetic material, the changes in H are made slowly by means of a permeameter. The solid curve of Fig. 18 is then called the d-c hysteresis loop. If the changes are made more rapidly, for example at a 50-cycle rate, the loop is wider, as shown by the dotted lines. If a higher frequency is used, the loop becomes still wider, as shown by the dot-dash lines. At any frequency, energy is expended in changing induction from Bm to -Bm and back to Bm; this energy is called the hysteresis loss and is proportional to the area of the B-H loop. Increase in loop width with frequency is usually attributed to eddy currents which flow, even in laminated cores, to some degree. If a closed magnetic core is magnetized to induction B m and then the magnetizing force completely removed, induction decreases to residual induction B, and remains at this value in the absence of magnetizing force, or for H = O. The value of H required to reduce B to zero is called the coercive force (He). From Fig. 18 it is evident that B; and He may change with frequency for the same Bm and grade of core material, and the design of transformers and reactors may be affected by the influence of frequency on core steel properties. According to equation 10, p. 12, the core flux is proportional to effective alternating voltage for a given frequency and number of turns, and so is flux density in a given core. Therefore the largest loop of
24
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
I
AND CIRCUITS
I I
I
Bm
I
I
I I I
-Hm
: I I I I I
Hm
I -Bm"~---
FIG. 18. A-c and d-e hysteresis loops.
FIG. 19. Normal induction.
Fig. 19 corresponds to a definite effective voltage and frequency, applied across a coil linking a definite core, and magnetizing it to maximum flux density Bm. If effective voltage is reduced 20 per cent a smaller B-H loop results, with lower maximum flux density B'm. If effective voltage is reduced further, still lower maximum flux density B" m is reached. The locus of points Bm, B'm, B" m, etc., is drawn in Fig. 19, and is called the normal induction curve. It is similar in shape to, but not identical with, the virgin curve OBm of Fig. 18. Each time the maximum flux density is lowered, a short time elapses before the new loop is traced each cycle. Thus the loops of Fig. 19 represent symmetrical steady-state or cyclic magnetization at different levels of maximum induction. A normal induction curve is drawn in Fig. 20. The ratio of B to H at any point on the curve is the normal permeability for that value of B. For the maximum flux density Bm, the normal permeability is (19) A similar line drawn tangent to the curve at its "knee" is called the maximum permeability and is the ratio p-m = B'/H'. The slope Bo/Ho of normal induction at the origin (enlarged in Fig. 20) is the permeability for very low induction Bo; it is called initial permeability and is usually much less than p-m. Maximum permeability as here defined is really the average slope of the normal induction curve up to induction B'. Actual slope from
It is the slope of a straight line drawn through the origin and Bm.
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
25
90
FIG.
20. Normal permeabilities.
FIG.
21. Incremental permeability.
B' is greater at some points than maximum permeability, because the curve is steepest below B'. The slope at any induction is called differential permeability. From inspection of Fig. 19 it will be noticed that, for H = 0, the sides of the B-H loop are steeper than any part of the normal induction curve and hence the slopes exceed p.m. This fact has practical significance in the design of magnetic amplifiers. In the foregoing, symmetrical magnetization has been assumed. If a core is magnetized with d-e magnetizing force HdC as in Fig. 21, and a-c magnetization t>.H is superimposed, the cyclic magnetization follows a minor loop ABm. Decreasing induction follows the left side of a major loop whose maximum induction is Bm, down to induction A = Bm - t>.B. Increasing induction follows a line which joins the right side of the major loop. The area of this loop is small, but so is the average slope, or incremental permeability. This permeability is important in reactor design. It is defined by
/J.!J..
o to
= t>.B/D.H
(20)
and is generally smaller than p.m. The dotted line in Fig. 21 is the normal induction curve, the locus of the tops of minor loops as H de is decreased. Returning now to Fig. 19, if Hm is increased, an induction is finally reached at which unit increase of H produces only unit increase in Bm. This is known as saturation induction Bi. The value of H at which Bs is first reached is very large compared to H; for most core materials.
26
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
A striking development has been the production of core materials with rectangular hysteresis loops. In such materials B. is reached at small values of H, as shown in Fig. 22. Core B material having a rectangular hysteresis Bs loop is especially useful in magnetic amplifiers, and is discussed in Chapter 9. The volt-amperes per pound or apparent core loss (Pa) of a magnetic material is the product of rms induced voltage and H He rms exciting current drawn from the source when a pound of the material is subjected to sinusoidally varying induction of a specified maximum value Bm and of a specified frequency f. Exciting cur-Bs rent is non-sinusoidal, as can be seen from FIG. 22 . R ect angu1ar h yst er- Fig. 5, Chapter 1. The power component esis loop. of Pa is the core loss P'; The reactive component is usually the larger and is called VARS per pound. It is related to permeability in the following way:
Let it be assumed that for conditions Bm, Hm in a core the magnetizing current is approximately sinusoidal, of effective value 1M, drawn from a supply of frequency f and effective voltage E. If we combine
1. Open-circuit inductance L; = E/27fJIM
(21) (22)
BmAcN y2IM .. 2. Magnetizing force Hm 3. VARS/lb

=
X 108
0.41TNIMV2 lc
(23)
(24
EIMP Aclc
=
convert to inches, and put density P

fJ. =
0.27 lb/in.", then

(25
152fBm2
VARS/lb X 108 Because of the non-linearity of

Lu,
At 60 cycles, fJ.
11,000~~RS/lb·
this
equation is approximate.
Moreover, there is no allowance for core gap.
In usual electronic transformer practice, it is necessary to avoid reaching saturation flux densities, because high exciting currents pro-
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
27
duce high winding IR drops, high losses, low efficiency, and large size. Curves of induction and core loss are available from manufacturers of laminations. Grades and thickness are designated by numbers such as Armco Trancor M15 and Allegheny Transformer A. A wide choice of silicon-steel laminations is available in 0.014-in., 0.019-in., and 0.025-in. thicknesses, with silicon content of approximately 3 to 4%,
16
14 ~ -----
TESTS MADE ON EPSTEI"I SAMPLES, AS SHEARED SAMPLE CUT PARALLEL TO ROLLING DIflECTION SAMPLE CUT HALF PARALLEL, HALF TRANSVERSE 60 CYCLES
I II
12
.. s ...
<0
r;
I
,'(7
/1
10
0 ..J
8o :>
0
;;; , z 0 ;::
2 0.01
FIG.
,~
E.7
,/
,1
I
II
CORE LOSS - WATTS PER POUND
0.1
1.0
10
23. Core loss at high induction.
Armco Trancor MI5 grade, 29 gage.
and with core losses ranging from 0.6 to 1.2 watts per pound at 10,000 gauss, 60 cycles (64,500 lines per square inch). Figures 23 and 24 are core-loss and exciting vay'lb for a widely used grade of electronic transformer core steel at 60 cycles. Much work has been done in developing grain-oriented core materials. These materials have a composition similar to that of older, non-oriented core material, but grains in the material are oriented by cold-rolling in the direction illustrated by Fig. 25. Magnified sections of laminations are shown in this figure; (a) shows the random directions of "easy" magnetization in grains of non-oriented silicon steel. When magnetic flux is established in the lamination, the grains must be aligned in the same direction, as in Fig. 25 (b) . If the grains are already oriented in this direction during the rolling process, much
28
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
smaller magnetizing force is required to produce the desired flux. Coercive force and hysteresis loss are smaller than in non-oriented steel; permeability is greater, and so is Br, so that the rectangular loop of Fig. 22 is approached in grain-oriented steel.
'16
14
_1, ,.1,1L.. ..J

----SAMPLE SAMPLE CUT CUT PARALLEL TO ROLLING HALF PARALLEL. HALF JOINT CYCLES EFFECTS 60 DIRECTION TRANSVERSE , NEGLIGIBLE
~ J...- ~
12
« "'10 o ..J ;;: z o ;:: 8
'" :> '"
o ::> c
~
6
..
~
// 717'
~ , /I
,7
/v
1.0
~ ~ ,
b/
»"
..
" ""~
::/.-
2 0.1
10
R.M.S. VOLT-AMPERES PER. POUND
100
EXCITING
FIG. 24.
Exciting rms volt-amperes
per pound, Armco Trancor MI5 grade, 29 gage.
Grain-oriented core materials are of two major types: silicon-steel and nickel-iron alloy. Electronic power transformers (i.e., plate and filament supply transformers) formerly comprised only hot-rolled silicon-steel cores. The development of grain-oriented silicon steel has had a marked effect on size and performance of such transformers. To
STEEL ROLLED
IN THIS
DIRECTION
(a)
(b)
FIG. 25
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
29
illustrate this effect, a comparison is made below between the older non-oriented steel (termed, for simplicity, silicon steel) and Hipersil, a cold-rolled steel in which grain orientation is carried out to a high degree. If core flux flows in the grain-oriented direction, high core inductions may be realized. Type C cores fulfill this requirement, because the strip is wound in the same direction as the flux path.
Ul W Ul Ul
'" , '" >t)(
~ ..
v
r--
o/ ...J
--
HIPERSI1L
-siGcON
Y -I
z ~ o
n.
II:
STEEL
c,
Ul lI-
iii z w o
...J IL
.. ~
Ul Ul
tv/
~ ~v_ ec
.I / /
I- -
o
...J W II:
~
MAGNETIZING FOROE-OERSTEDS
..... ~
l.0
/' ~ /
FLUX DENSITY-KILOGAUSSES
FIG. 26. Induction and core-loss curves of silicon steel and Hipersil at 60 cycles.
The material is rolled in three major thicknesses: No. 29 gage (about 12 to 14 mils thick) for frequencies up to 400 cycles. 5 mils thick for frequencies 400 cycles and higher. 2 mils thick for frequencies in the low and medium r-f bands. Probably the most remarkable property of this material is its high saturation point. In Fig. 26 the comparison is given in terms of a hypothetical 60-cycle working induction using high-grade, conventional silicon steel. If this value is assumed to be 100 per cent, the induction obtained with grain-oriented steel is 130 to 150 per cent, with no increase in magnetizing force. Another way of expressing this improvement is shown in Fig. 27 as a comparison of the permeability of the two steels. The permeability of grain-oriented steel is much higher at the maximum point, and has the same percentage increase as in Fig. 26 for normal working inductions. Iron loss in Hipersil is less than in silicon steel, as Fig. 26 shows. The decrease in iron loss is chiefly due to a reduction in hysteresis loss; the eddy-current loss is less affected by grain orientation. Future comparisons may widen these differences.
30
The increase in induction is beneficial in several ways. First, it permits a reduction of core area for the same magnetizing current. Second, it results in a smaller mean length of turn and thus in a reduction in the amount of copper needed. In distribution and power transformers, for maximum benefit the iron and copper losses are reproportioned. In small electronic transformers, the iron loss is usually a small part of the total loss, and the reduction in copper loss is of greater significance. Within certain limits, the sum of the two losses determines the size of a transformer, and here the usefulness of grainoriented steel becomes most apparent.
50
X 10
GRAIN ORIENTED
..,.Y
-, Y
STEEL
S1 EEL
./
'\. \ \
-- :;;---
---100 MAXIMUM
!--
FLUX
-siliCON
1,000 DENSITY
,,
20.000
"
10,000
ALTERNATING
B IN GAUSSES
FIG. 27. Permeability
of silicon and grain-oriented silicon steel.
The foregoing was written with 50-cycle applications particularly in mind. At higher power supply frequencies, such as the 400- and 800cycle supplies encountered in aircraft and portable equipment, the results are somewhat different. The decrease in iron loss is not so marked, because the eddy current loss forms a larger proportion of the total iron loss. However, it is usual practice to use thin-gage laminations at these frequencies, and much better space factor can be obtained in wound cores than in stacked cores. The increase in permeability is just as effective in these higher frequency applications as at 50 cycles. The net result is a smaller transformer than was formerly possible, though for different reasons and in different proportions. Reactors which carry direct current are usually smaller when made with grain-oriented than with ordinary silicon steel. At low voltages, where low inductions are involved, grain-oriented steel has greater incremental permeability, and maintains it at high flux densities also. Consequently, a reduction of 50 per cent in weight is often feasible. Grain-oriented silicon steel does not replace high nickel-iron alloys for audio transformers, when they work at low inductions, and with little or no direct current. Some nickel-iron alloys have higher permea-
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS, RATINGS
31
bility at low flux densities, and their use for this purpose continues. But at high inductions, or where considerable amounts of direct current are involved, grain-oriented silicon steel is used. Lower distortion, extended frequency range, or small size is the result, and sometimes a combination of all three occurs.
Fro, 28. Use of Hipersil in various frequency zones.
Hipersil can be used for transformers in various applications in the low and medium r-f bands, at power levels ranging up to hundreds of kilowatts. The same is true of video and pulse transformers, which may be regarded as covering an extended frequency range down into the audio range and up into the medium r-f range. Such transformers are grouped rather loosely together as r-f transformers in the diagram shown in Fig. 28. In this figure the several classifications, r-f, audio, and power transformers, are shown with respect to their frequency ranges and the approximate gage of the material used for these ranges. The gage is indicated by the symbol number in Table II.
TABLE
II.
RIPERSIL
CORE DATA
Hipersil C-97 C-95 C-91
Thickness 0.013 in. 0.005 in. 0.002 in.
Typical Ripersil Space Factor * 95% 90% 85%
Typical Space Factor for Silicon Steel * 90% 80% 70%
* Refers to percentage of core volume occupied by metal. The Hipersil figure is for type C cores, and the silicon steel figure is for punched laminations. Core-loss and exciting va/Ib for 29-gage Hipersil are plotted in Figs. 29 and 30. Joint reluctance is neglected in Fig. 30. An example of specialized core materials is the development of a new grain-oriented silicon steel especially for weight reduction in com-
32
ELECTROXIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
10000
./
'" a: '" '" o ,_

0..
(/)
z o
o '4-~
(").
-:
./
,,/
(/) 1000
V
~./
.;:,,,,'"
,,/
:::'1- <'\':/\0'1:'
"S> '4-(")(")
(")
'Z.
...J
y ,_
~
:::>
'" a a: '" ...
100
-:
I
i.> V
./
V
./
.,2::
.r•.
,0'1:'
P
,1
~~~oro~ '4-'\.; :/:::
/. 'l,
10 0.01 0.1
FIG.
10 1.0 WATTS PER POUND
100
1000
29. Core loss in C-97 Hipersil cores (29 gage).
10000
z o
Vl
, I
~V
'" '"
,_ , ,_
~
'" 1000 a: '"

0.. ...J U U
V
100
L
---
V
f-+
-
'" ...
a:
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--
~oc,~~
V_~
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./
>~;
00
...~
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c,~
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.;:,'"
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./
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.,o~//
fo',\Fz..9riX"/
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FIG.
I
0.1 1.0 APPARENT
I
10 WATTS PER POUND 100 1000
30. A-c excitation curve, typical data.
C-97 Hipersil cores (29 gage).
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
33
ponents for 400-cycle applications. By means of large reduction in core loss at 400 cycles and still larger increase in permeability at high induction, a 0.004-in.-thick core material was developed which operates satisfactorily in many instances at 17,000 gauss, 400 cycles. As a result, 40 per cent of the weight was eliminated in transformers designed to take advantage of the 0.004-in-thick core material. At lower inductions the core loss of this material tends to be larger than in the older 0.005-in.-thick material. Hence it is only where 17,000 gauss is a practicable working induction that the weight reduction is possible. Grain-oriented steel alloys of approximately 500/0 nickel content are extensively used in saturable reactors. Electrical properties of cores wound from these materials are spoiled if the strip is bent or constrained mechanically. Usually the nickel-alloy strip is wound into cores in the form of a toroid, annealed, and enclosed in an insulating box to protect it from damage. Special machinery is then used to wind turns of wire around the core. With the proper precautions, it is possible to realize the advantages of a very rectangular, narrow hysteresis loop in the finished reactor. These properties have been found useful also in pulse transformers, and are discussed in Chapters 9 and 10 in detail. In audio- or higher-frequency low-loss reactors or transformers, it may be desirable to use powdered iron or nickel-alloy cores. These cores are made of finely divided particles, coated with insulating compound, which separates them and introduces many fine air gaps in the magnetic path. The cores are molded into various shapes suitable for the application. Effective permeability of such cores is reduced to a figure much lower than that of laminations made from the same material. Magnetic ferrites likewise are used at higher frequencies. These substances are characterized by high resistivity so that neither laminations nor powder particles are necessary to reduce eddy-current loss. Cores are molded and sintered at high temperature. After sintering they have ceramic hardness but relatively low Curie temperature.' Ferrites are useful at very high frequencies. Some of the principal core materials are listed in Table III. 16. Windings. Current density in the winding copper is sometimes estimated for design purposes by rules such as 1,000 cir mils per amp. These rules are useful in picking out a first choice of wire size for a given current requirement but should not be regarded as final. In1
The temperature at which a ferric substance loses its intrinsic permeability.
34
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS III.
AND CIRCUITS
TABLE
CORE MATERIALS Maximum Operating Flux Density Bm (gauss) 12,000 Coercive Force D-C Loop (oersteds) 0.5
Approximate Description
Silicon steel
Typical Maximum Permeability

Trade Names I'm
Chief Uses
Small power and voice frequency au-
Transformer Trancor MI5 Power 58 Hipersil

Traneor 3X
8,500
dio transformers
Grain-oriented
silicon steel
30,000
17,000
0.4
Larger sizes of power and wide-range audio transformers; low-frequency r-f transformers; saturable reactors
Small, wide-range audio transform-
50% nickel steel
Hipernik Allegheny Eleetric Metal Nicaloi Conpernik
50,000
10,000
0.06
ers and reactors
(may have small
d-e induction)
50% nickel steel, special heat treatment Grain-oriented 50% nickel steel
1,400
Extremely
linear and low-loss
trans-
formers
Hipernik V Orthonol Orthonik Deltamax Permenorm Permalloy Mumetal Hymu Supermalloy
50,000
14,500
0.15
Saturable reactors
80% nickel steel
100,000
6,000
0.05
Small or wide-range audio transformers (no doc induction)
80% nickel steel, special heat

treatment
200,000
6,000
0.01
Very small or wide-range transformers (no d-e induction)
Powdered iron
Crolite Polyiron Ceramag Ferramic Ferroxcube
125 1,000
Wave filter reactors; low and medium r-f transformers 2,000 0.2 Sweep circuit transformers; r-f transformers and reactors
Ferrite
* These materials are used for low flux density, low-loss applications.
stead, the temperature rise, regulation, or other performance criterion should govern the final choice of wire size. Regulation is calculated as in Section 11, and temperature rise as in Sections 22 and 23. In Fig. 31 the circular mils .per ampere are plotted for small enclosed dry-type transformers with Hipersil cores and a winding temperature rise of 55 centigrade degrees; it can be seen to vary appreciably over this range of sizes. Space occupied by the wire depends on the wire insulation as well as on the copper section. This is especially noticeable in small wire sizes. Table IV gives the bare and insulation diameters for several common kinds of wire and Table V the turns per square inch of wind-
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
35
ing space. Space usually can be saved by avoiding cotton or silk wire covering, and instead using enameled wire with paper layer insulation as in Fig. 32. Thickness of layer paper may be governed by layer voltage; it is good practice to use 50 volts per mil of paper. In coils where layer voltage is low, the paper thickness is determined by the mechanical strength necessary to produce even layers and a tightly
800
700
v
l/V'
0:
UJ D..
UJ
600
V ./
~
UJ D..
./
<t 500
0:
(J)
./
I-'
./
/'"
:E
0:
...J
...J
400
./
<t 300
"
:::> 0 0: (3 200
./
100
10 VOLT AMPERES
100
FIG. 31. Wire size in windings of small enclosed 60-cycle transformers.
wound coil. Table VI gives the minimum paper thickness based on this consideration. Space factor may refer to linear spacing as across a layer, or to the total coil section area. It is more convenient to use linear space factor in designing layer-wound coils and arca space factor in random-wound coils. The values in each case depend largely on the method of winding. For example, it is possible to wind No. 30 enameled wire with 97 per cent linear space factor by hand, but with only 89 per cent on an automatic multiple-coil winding machine. (See Fig. 33.) Moreover, values of space factor vary from plant to plant. An average for multiple-coil machines is given in Table VI.
36
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
TABLE IV.
INSULATED WIRE SIZES
DIAMETER
OF INSUL_\'TED
WIRE
B& Bare DiarnS Gage eter
Single
Enamel
Double
Enamel
Single Cotton
Enamel
Single Silk
Enamel
-----
Single Cotton --
-44 43 42 41
-.0020 .0022 .0025 .0028
--.0023 .0025 .0029 .0032 -.0036 .0040 .0046 .0051 .0057 .0064 .0072 .0080 .0090 .0100 .0111 .0125 .0139 .0155 .0172
---
---
--_ --
Double Single Cotton Silk
Area in CirouDouble lar Silk Mils
OhlIlB per 1000 Feet at 25°C
Feet per Ohm at 25°C
Pounds per 1000 Feet --.012 .015 .019 .024 .030 .038 .048 .060 .076 .096 .120 .152 .19 .24 .31 .38 .48 .61 .77
--
--
-- ---
-- -40 39 38 37 36 -35 34 33 32 31 -30 29 28 27 26 -25 24 23 22 21
.0031 .0035 .0040 .0045 .0050 .0056 .0063 .0071 .0080 .0089 .0100 .0113 .0126 .0142 .0159
-.0039 .0044 .0050 .0055 .0061 .0067 .0077 .0085 .0095 .0104 .0117 .0130 .0145 .0161 .0178
--
---
--
---
--
.00951__:.0075 .0102 .0109 .0117 .0127 .0137 .0148 .0162 .0175 .0192 .0210 .0082 .0089 .0097 .0107 .0117
.0090
.0130
.0070
I 4.00 2.700 .3850 4.84 2.150 .4670 6.25 1.700 .6050 7.84 1,350 .7630 - ----9.61 1,103 .9550 12.25 864 1. 204 16.00 659 1.519 20.30 522 1. 915 .0090 25.00 424 2.414
..
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-20 19 18 17 16
-_
.0320 .0359 .0403 .0453 .0508 -.0571 .0641 .0719 .0808 .0907 .1019 .1144 .1285
.0179 .0201 .0226 .0253 .0285
.15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
.0193 .0216 .0242 .0271 .0302 -.034 .038 .042 .047 .053 --.059 .066
--
.0200 .0222 .0247 .0278 .0310
-_
-.0385 .0425 .0469 .0521 .0576 .0640 .0711
.0234 .0256 .0282 .0310 .0344
.0345 .0387 .0431 .0481 .0536 -.0605 .0675
.0128 .0142 .0155 .0172 .0190 -.0211 .0233 .0259 .0287 .0319 -.0355 .0395 .0439 .0491 .0546 -_.
--
.0136 .0076 .0096 .0143 .0103 .0083 .0151 .0111 .0091 .0160 .0100 .0120 .0169 ,0109 .0129 -----.0180 .0120 .0140 .0153 .0193 .0133 .0166 .0206 .0146 .0222 .0162 .0182 .0239 .0179 .0199 --- -.0262 .0199 .0222 .0284 .0221 .0244 .0309 .0269 .0246 .0336 .0296 .0273 .0370 .0305 .0330
--- -.0140 .0153 .0166 .0182 .0199 .0219 .0241 .0266 .0293 .0325
.0096 .0103 .0111 .0120 .0129
31.40 39.70 50.40 64.00 79.20 100 128 159 202 253
-- -106 83.1 66.4 52.5 41.7 -33.0 26.2 20.7 16.4 13.0
338 266 210 165 134
3.045 3.839 4.841 6.105 7.698 9.707 12.24 15.43 19.46 24.54
---
--
-_
320 404 511 645 812 1,020 1,300 1,600 2,030 2,600 3.250 4.100 5,180 6,530 8,235
--
--
--
--
-- --
--
.0360 .0410 .0340 .0449 .0379 .0399 .0493 .0423 .0443 .0493 .0543 .0473 .0608 .0528 .0548 --- --- -.0671 .0591 .0611 .0610 .0621 .0741 .0661 .0681 .0681 .0691 .0370 .0409 .0453 .0503 .0558
--
--
10.3 8.14 6.59 5.22 4.07
-- --
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
3.26 2.58 2.00 1.59 1.26 -- -10,380 1.00 13,090 .792 16,510 .628
--
30.95 .97 39.02 1. 23 49.21 1.54 62.05 1. 95 78.25 2.45 ---98.66 3.09 124.4 3.89 156.9 4.9 197.8 6.2 249.4 7.8 --314.5 9.9 396.6 12.4 499.3 15.7 19.8 629.6 794.0 24.9
--
1,001 1,262 1,592
31.4 40.0 50.0
TRANSFORMER
TABLE
COXSTRUCTIOX, V,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
37
TURNS PER SQUARE INCH OF INSULATED WIRE
~ ~
ia
Single Enamel Wire
Double Enamel Wire
Single Cotton Enamel Wire
Single Silk Enamel Wire
Single Double Single Double Cotton- CottonSilkSilkCovered Covered Covered Covered Wire Wire Wire Wire
42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
119,000 96,000 77,000 62,400 47,300 38,400 30,900 24,500 19,300 15,600 12,350 10,000 8,180 6,430 5,200 4,170 3,380 2,690 2,150 1,710 1,370 1,100 860 693 568 455 357 288 230 179 143 114 90 72 57 66,200 51,800 40,000 33,100 26,900 22,300 16,900 13,900 11,100 9,260 7,300 5,920 4,770 3,880 3,160 2,500 2,030 1,650 1,300 1,045 850 668 540 432 350 273 220 176 141 113 90 72 57
11,100 9,600 8,430 7,280 6,210 5,330 4,580 3,810 3,280 2,720 2,270 1,820 1,530 1,260 1,045 846 675 555 455 368 303 244 198
17,900 14,900 12,700 10,650 8,740 7,300 6,100 4,950 4,170 3,390 2,780 2,240 1,850 1,490 1,220 925 793 640 518 417 338 270 216
12,350 10,900 9,430 8,130 6,940 5,900 5,100 4,270 3,640 3,030 2,520 2,080 1,690 1,380 1,140 915 730 I 597 I 490 I 395 320
1
5,920 5,430 4,900 4,380 3,900 3,510 3,090 2,760 2,360 2,080 1,940 1,460 1,230 1,050 883 729 595 495 412 340 270 222 182
20,400 17,200 14,500 12,100 10,000 7,780 6,940 5,670 4,690 3,810 3,120 2,530 2,050 1,650 1,345 1,075 862 700 563 450 360
12,350 10,900 9,430 8,130 6,940 5,900 5,100 4,270 3,640 3,030 2,520 2,080 1,720 1,420 1,160 943 836 628 510 412 335
----
260 210
287 229
268 222
----
----
--
38
Mean length of turn must be calculated for a coil in order to find its resistance in ohms. This may be found by referring to the side view of Fig. 32. Note that there is a small clearance space between core
= TONGUE
WIDTH
RADIUS
W= STACK r" COIL TUBE
A -MARGINS B - WINDING TRAVERSE C - OVERALL LENGTH -BUILD UP
E -INSIDE DIMENSION Of TUBE F - OUTSIDE DIMENSION OF COIL G - TUBE THICKNESS
FIG. 32. Paper-insulated
coil.
and coil form or tube. Let d be the core tongue and w the stack. Suppose there are several concentric windings. The length of mean turn of a winding Vat distance r from the core and having height D, is
MT
= 2w = 2(w
+ 2d + 211"
(r + ~)
(26)
+ d) + 1I"(2~D + D)
where ~D is the sum of all winding heights and insulation thicknesses between winding V and the core. The mean turn of the winding U just below V ordinarily is calculated before that of winding V. This fact simplifies the calculation of winding V, the mean turn of which is
MTv
= MTu
+ 1I"(Du + Dv + 2c)
(27)
where c is the thickness of insulation between U and V. Allowance must be made, with many coil leads, for bulging of the coil at the ends and consequent increase of mean turn length. The placement, insulation, and soldering of leads constitute perhaps the most important steps in the manufacture of a coil. When coils
TRANSFORMER
COKSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
39
TABLE VI.
PAPER-INSULATEDCOIL DATA Copper Products Corp.) Turns per Inch 369 340 304 265 239 215 193 170 155 140 124 110 98 88 80 71 64 57 52 47 42 37 33 30 Space Factor 85% 85% 85% 85% 86% 86% 87% 87% 87% 88% 88% 88% 88% 88% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
(Courtesy Phelps-Dodge B&S Gage 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 Layer Insulation .0005" .0005" .0005" .0007" .0007" .0007" .001" .001" .001" .001" .001" .0013" .0013" .0015" .0015" .0015" .0015" .0022" .0022" .0022" .0022" .005" .005" .005" .005" .007" .007" .007" .010" .010" .010" .010" .010" .010" .010"
26
23 21 19 17 15 13 12 10 9 8
40
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
are wound one at a time, the leads can be placed in the coil while it is being wound. The start lead may be placed on the coil form, suitable insulation may be placed over it, and coil turns may be wound over the insulation. Tap leads can be arranged in the same way. Finish leads must be anchored by means of tape, string, or yarn, because
FIG. 33. Winding 20 coils in multiple machine: layer paper at right.
there are no turns of wire to wind over them. Typical lead anchoring is shown in Fig. 34. In multiple-wound coils, the leads must be attached after the coils are wound. Extra wire on the start turn is pulled out of the coil and run up the side as shown in Fig. 35, with separator insulation between wire extension and coil. Outer insulation covers the wire extension up to the lead joint. A pad of insulation is placed under the joint, and one or more layers of insulation, which insulate and anchor the joint, are wound over the entire coil and the lead insulation. Electrical-grade
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
41
scotch tape is widely used for anchoring leads. It is important to avoid corrosive adhesives. Leads should be large enough to introduce only a small amount of voltage drop and should have insulation clearances adequate for the test voltage. These clearances can be found as explained in Section 19.
TREATED FISHPAPER TREATED FISHPAPER SOLDERED
CLOTH
CLOTH
JOINT
WHEN FIRST
PLACED
ON TUBING
JOINT INSULATION
AFTER
FIG.
FIRST
LAYER
IS WOUND
34. Start-lead insulation in hand-wound coils.
In high-voltage transformers it would often be possible to seal the windings if there were no leads; hence lead placement calls for much care and skill. Leads and joints should also be mechanically strong enough to withstand winding, impregnating, and handling stresses without breakage. 17. Insulation. Three classes of insulation are used in dry-type transformers. Class A insulation is organic material such as paper, cotton, silk, varnish, or wire enamel. Class B insulation is mica, asbestos, glass, porcelain, or other inorganic material with organic binders such as varnish for embedding the insulation. A small amount of
42
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
other class A material is permissible in a class B coil "for structural reasons," but it should be kept to a minimum. In general, the vital difference between these classes of insulation is one of operating temperature. Glass-covered wire is preferable to asbestos for space reasons; it is available in approximately the same dimensions as cotton-covered wire. Built-up mica is the usual insulation wrapper material. With special bonds it is flexible enough to
TAPE OUTER WRAP ANCHOR
SEPARATOR
INSULATION
FIG.
35. Start-lead insulation in multiple-wound coils.
wind over coils or layers of wire. Stiff mica plate for lead insulation and mica tubing for coil forms are usually bonded with heat-resistant varnish. Class B insulating material is more expensive than class A and is used only when other advantages outweigh the cost. The necessity for small size in aircraft or mobile apparatus is continually increasing the tendency to use materials at their fullest capabilities. As size decreases, the ability of a transformer to radiate a given number of watts loss also decreases. Hence, it operates at higher temperature. Transformers for 400- and 800-cycle power supplies can be made in smaller overall dimensions by using class B insulation (see Section 20). As a result, from 30 to 50 per cent decrease in size (as compared with class A insulation), in addition to increased ability to withstand extremes of ambient temperature, humidity, and altitude, is obtained. Class B insulation is thus of special importance in
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
43
aircraft apparatus. Usually at 60 cycles enough room is available to use class A insulation, but mica may be used to reduce the size of highvoltage units. A third class of insulation is the silicones, organic silicates with remarkable thermal and mechanical properties. These materials are coming into use at operating temperatures approaching 200°C. Silicone-treated cloth, silicone rubber, and silicone varnish are already in use. Under development are silicone wire enamel and silicone-bonded mica. They are generally designated as class H insulation. For apparatus having long service life, AlEE Standard 1 limits the "hottest spot" temperature of impregnated 1 coils as follows:
Class A insulation Class B insulation Class H insulation
Life test data are plotted in Fig. 36 for class A and class B insulation. The temperature scale is special, based on T. W. Dakin's data," showing that insulation life is proportional to the reciprocal of absolute temperature. The two lines indicate how operating temperature may be increased for a given life when class B insulation is used. Equal life is obtained when class A insulation is operated at 105°C maximum (40°C ambient, 55°C rise, 10°C hottest spot gradient), and when class B insulation is operated at 130°C maximum (40°C ambient, 80°C rise, 10°C hottest spot gradient). Intermittent load temperatures may be high for short periods. These periods are additive. For example, class A insulation has approximately the same life whether it is operated at 115°C continuously or half the time at 123°C and half the time at 25°C. Figure 36 shows only the influence of temperature on insulation life. Life is further reduced by moisture, vibration, and corona. It is therefore important that insulation be protected against damage caused by all these factors. Such protection is discussed in Section 20. 18. Dielectric Strength. The usual figure given for dielectric strength is the breakdown value in rms volts at 60 cycles in a I-minute test. It is not possible to operate class A insulation anywhere near this value because of the cellular structure of all organic materials. Even after these materials are treated with varnish, many small holes exist throughout a coil structure which ionize and form corona at voltage
For the definition of impregnation, see Section 20. See "Electrical Insulation Deterioration Treated as a Chemical Rate Phenomenon," by T. W. Dakin, Trans. AlEE, 67, 113 (1948).
1 2
44
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
far below breakdown. With class A insulation (organic materials), the designer must be governed more by resistance of the insulation to corona over a long period than by breakdown strength of the insulation in a I-minute test. For example, a 20-mil thickness of treated cloth will withstand 10,000 volts for 1 minute. However,
260 240 220 U

VI
r-,
<,
<,
<, I'
W It: C> W 0
200
r-,
~(
-,
~
w
I-
180
"r-...
<,
~ ~~
~1-~u
~4l"
..
It:
r-,
:::>
I'r-.,
C'(4~~ 1"...4/
/01-
It: W
Q.
160
<,
~
(4l"
::E
<,
I-
140
/01-
<,
"
"-
<,
<,
<, r-..
<,
120
'......... ......
t-,
10,000
10
100
LIFE IN DAYS
1,000
FIG. 36. Approximate life expectancy of electrical insulation.
corona starts at 1,250 volts, and operation at any higher voltage would puncture the insulation in a few weeks. It is much wiser to keep a reasonable margin, say 20 to 30 per cent, below the corona limit than to use a fraction of the I-minute breakdown test. Approximate voltages at which corona is audible are plotted in Fig. 37 as a function of insulation thickness. Differences in hearing ability between persons make a corona measurement desirable. This is done by means of the standard NEMA circuit of Fig. 38.1 With the transformer connected as shown, receiver
1 See "Radio Influence Characteristics of Electrical Apparatus," by P. L. Bellaschi and C. V. Aggers, Trans. AlEE, 57,626 (November, 1938).
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
45
output meter is adjusted to half-scale by a volume control potentiometer in the receiver. N ext, the transformer is replaced by a modulated 1-mc signal generator, the output of which is varied until the noise meter output is again half-scale. The signal generator output in microvolts is read on an attenuator; this is then a measurement of the corona present.
20,000
10,000
r-W
r:...l
i=!
> <t z
o
W
...J
_0:
0 0
1,000
-~
-I/)
_;(
II)
./
,,/
-:
./
./'
/'
::E
a:
100 .01
.02
.04 .06 .08 .1 TOTAL INSULATION
.2 THICKNESS
.4.6.8 IN INCHES
I.
FIG. 37. Corona limit for treated cloth and paper.
Class B insulation can be worked much closer to the ultimate dielectric strength, but the latter is less a factor in determining size than creepage distance to the core. For mica an approximate working voltage rule is 100 volts rms per mil thickness. Insulated coils in air are subject to a two-dielectric effect that is peculiarly troublesome. If the path of electric stress is partly through solid material and partly through air, the air may be overstressed because it has the lower dielectric constant (unity, compared with 3 to 5 for most coil materials). If this condition exists, it is usually imprac-
46
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
ticable to increase the air distance and so reduce the volts per inch to a value below the corona limit. The addition of more solid insulation over the whole coil may make it too large. Often the only feasible remedy is to fill the air space with more solid material, either in the form of filling compound or strips of insulation like micarta or pressboard. It is important, when dealing with insulation voltage, to make a
NM
T, T2 C
TESTING TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMERUNDER TEST COUPLING CAPACITOR
R NM RFC
INPUT RESISTOR (600 OHMS) NOISE METER (RECEIVER WITH METER OUTPUT) RADIO FREQUENCYCHOKE
FIG. 38. Standard NEMA radio-influence measuring circuit.
distinction between test voltage and operating voltage. Of the two, operating voltage is the better value to specify. 19. Creepage Distance. Although solid insulation dielectric strength is important, the usual bottleneck for high voltage is creepage distance, such as margins between wire and core along the layers of insulation, or margins between lead joints and frame along the leads and coil sides. A common way of increasing the direct creepage distance across the margins is to use an insulating channel as in Fig. 39 (a). This is especially helpful when the part of the coil adjacent to the core tongue is at low potential and the upper part is at high potential, as in some plate transformers. When the whole coil is at high potential it may be insulated by taping the coil, but taping is expensive and is avoided wherever creepage safely provides the necessary insulation strength. Creepage distances over treated cloth or other organic material in air are shown in Fig. 40 for breakdown voltages up to 100 kv. The primary purpose of these curves is to find the proper margins for coils adjacent to the core.
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
47
Insulation between the start (or finish) turn of the first layer and the core consists of creepage along the margin plus the thickness of the coil form. This is not a relevant distance, however, if the coil lead
0 0
!!
~ ~
CORE TONGUE COIL
.----- -
INSULATING CHANNEL
MARGIN
VBrr=
0 0
COIL FORM
(a)
TAPE
(b)
FIG. 39.
(a)
Use of insulating
channel;
(b) taped coil.
is brought across the margin and up the side of the coil. In such a case, the only creepage distance is the thickness of the coil form. In low-voltage coils this may be enough; in higher-voltage coils, a barrier of insulating material is needed between the coil form and the core, under the spot where the lead is brought out of the coil. Such a
48
barrier is provided by outer insulation in Fig. 35. insulating barrier should be such that a distance the coil margin should intervene between the start in all directions and the thickness may be the same
Dimensions of the at least equal to lead and the core as the coil form.
12
10 THICKNESS
20 X 10-
40 INCHES
60
80 100
150
FIG. 40. Creepage curves in air over smooth organic insulation.
In any coil where the finish lead is at the top of the coil, there is less difficulty in insulating the finish lead. The finish lead has a longer creepage distance to the core if the height of the coil is a greater distance than the margin. It is necessary to avoid using materials on the sides of the coil which would result in any decrease of dielectric strength. In this respect, the creepage strength of some materials with high puncture strength is not good. The last layer of wire may be insulated from the core with a channel as in Fig. 39 (a) . When practical coil margins, even with barriers, are insufficient to
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
4!l
support the induced or applied voltage, coils are taped as in Fig. 39 (b). Taping is the most time-consuming but the safest method of insulation. Separate secondaries may be taped and then assembled over the primary. If the whole transformer winding is taped, the coil form must be large enough to allow room for the taping between the core and coil form. It is also important that the leads be taped, to prevent breakdown from joints to ground. Ordinarily, a winding is separated from the winding under it by wraps of Kraft paper or other insulation. In the coil of Fig. 41 the insulation thickness between winding 1 and winding 2 is shown divided
----t---.LINES OF ELECTRICAL
-I
INSULATION THICKNESS
STRESS INSULATION
:FIG.41. Adaptation
of Fig. 40 for insulation between coils.
by an imaginary center line. With equal margins in the two windings, the voltage stress is symmetrical about this center line. Margins should be such that there is sufficient creepage distance, in conjunction with one-half the insulation thickness, to withstand one-half the test voltage between these adjacent windings. That is, when full test voltage is applied between the windings, only half of it appears between the first layer of winding 1 and the center line of the insulation between the windings. If the margins are unequal, the sum of the two margins, in conjunction with the total insulation thickness, should be large enough to withstand the full test voltage, in accordance with Fig. 40. Coils may be divided into "part coils" or sections, to reduce insulation stresses, but such coils should be closely integrated with the circuit. For this reason, part coils are discussed in later chapters. 20. Impregnation. After a coil is wound the best practice is to impregnate it in some sort of insulating liquid which hardens after filling. This is done for several reasons. First, it protects the wire from movement and possible mechanical damage. Second, it prevents the entrance of moisture and foreign matter which might corrode the wire or cause insulation deterioration. Third, it increases the dielectric
50
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
strength of fibrous insulating materials. Fourth, it assists in heat dissipation from the coil. Single-layer coils may be dipped in the liquid, drained, and dried, but deeper, thicker coils require the use of vacuum to remove air from the coil and admit the liquid to all parts of the interior. The best mechanical result is obtained when coils are assembled with cores before treatment. Insulation is considered to be impregnated when a suitable substance replaces the air between its fibers, even if this substance does not completely fill the spaces between the insulated conductors. Coils having little or no temperature rise in normal use are impregnated with chemically neutral mineral wax. The wax is melted in a sealed tank and is drawn into another tank in which preheated coils have been placed, and a vacuum is maintained. Coils are removed from the tank, drained, and allowed to cool. Wax treatment provides good dielectric qualities and moisture protection. It is a quick, simple process. Transformers having operating temperatures of 65°C or higher are impregnated with varnish. Varnish of good grade and close control is essential to achieve thorough filling and dry coils after impregnation. Oleoresinous varnishes, which polymerize to a hard state by baking, are notably useful for the purpose. A high degree of vacuum, fresh varnish, and accurate baking temperature control are necessary for good results. Plasticizers are sometimes added to the varnish to prevent brittleness in finished coils. Varnish may attack wire enamel (which itself is a kind of varnish), and so the soaking and baking time periods must be regulated carefully. Varnishes for impregnation of electrical coils have until lately been diluted by solvents to lower the viscosity so as to permit full penetration of the windings. When the coils are baked, the varnish dries and the solvent is driven off. The drying leaves very small holes through which moisture can penetrate and in which corona may form. Eventually, the insulation deteriorates. It is, therefore, necessary to allow large clearances for high voltages or to immerse the coils in oil. Either of these alternatives increases the size of a high-voltage transformer in relation to that of a low-voltage transformer. For this reason, solventless resins have come into use as filling compounds for drytype coils. They are known by trade names such as Fosterite, Paraplex, and Stypol. These resins have the advantage of changing from a liquid to a solid state by heat polymerization, so that small holes formed by drying of the solvent are eliminated. Filling of the coil
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
51
may be accomplished by casting the transformer in a mold, or by encapsulation. Encapsulation is readily adapted to irregular coil surfaces and is accomplished by a leak-proof coat before filling. In either process, a good vacuum is necessary to insure complete filling. Silicone materials are moisture-resistant. Basic insulation should be inorganic, or silicone-treated cloth, tape, laminated sheets, and tubes. Through the use of silicones, some transformers may be designed to have very small dimensions for their ratings. This may be achieved most successfully if the coil insulation comprises only silicone or inorganic materials, including impregnation with silicone varnish. Dielectric strength of silicones is about the same as class A materials. Hence the thickness of silicone coil insulation is similar to that for organic materials. Continual development improves all classes of insulation; present A, B, and H insulation classes may be superseded eventually by new classes based entirely on functional evaluation. Life tests have been proposed 1 which classify a transformer according to its ability to withstand the effects of voltage, moisture, and vibration, as well as temperature. In encased high-voltage units, air around the coils, bushings, and leads is especially subject to the formation of corona. To reduce this tendency, the containers are filled with asphaltic compound which replaces the air with solid, non-ionizing material. A similar compound is often used to fill containers of low-voltage transformers to avoid the need for mechanically fastening the core to the case. This is a permissible practice if the melting point of the compound is higher than the highest operating temperature and if its cracking point is below the lowest operating temperature. 21. Oil Insulation. Although, in electronic apparatus, there is a tendency toward the use of dry-type transformers, frequently voltages are so high that air clearances are impracticable and oil-filled containers must be used. In Fig. 42 the curves show rms breakdown voltage versus creepage distance under oil. An example will show the advantage of oil filling. From Figs. 40 and 42 it will be seen that 10-in. creepage distance is required in air to withstand a I-minute breakdown test of 60 kv on insulation 0.5 in. thick, whereas in oil only 2-in. creepage distance is required.
1 See "Functional Evaluation of Insulation for Small Dry-Type Transformers Used in Electronic Equipment," by R. L. Hamilton and H. B. Harms, AlEE Tech. Paper 54--121.
52
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
Curves of Fig. 42 are for pressboard or Micarta under oil. Some kinds of porcelain have less creepage strength than these materials. On the other hand, some grades of glass and polystyrene are much better and withstand 150 kv for 1 minute with 2 in. of creepage path.
INCHES THICKNESS 1,000;'"
.....:;.2 __;3;:.....~.....:;:........:;:.......;....:;....,;;....;.::___,_.....;::,.....__;;;.......,.:,;;...,.;::r-.. _
BOO~------+---~--+-~-b4-~~
.3
.4.5.6.7
.8 .9 I
INCHES THICKNESS
FIG. 42. Creepage curves of solid insulation under oil.
In high-voltage low-current power supplies, these special materials are used to save weight and space. At 50 kv or more, sharp edges and points should be avoided by the use of round terminals, leads, and coils. Only high grades of insulating oil are used for this purpose. Tests are run continually to check condition of the oil. Oil is stored in such a manner as to keep out moisture and dirt and avoid extremes of
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
53
temperature. Where very high voltages are used, as in X-ray apparatus, oil filling is done under vacuum to remove air bubbles, and containers are sealed afterwards to prevent moisture from entering. Mica insulation is not used in oil because oil dissolves flexible bonds. Often a high-voltage transformer can be integrated with some other component, such as a tube socket, capacitor, or another transformer. This is desirable from the standpoint of space conservation, provided that adequate clearances to the case are maintained. "Packaged" power supplies are sometimes made in this fashion to facilitate assembly and repair. 22. Size versus Rating. Core area depends upon voltage, induction, frequency, and turns. For a given frequency and grade of core material, core area depends upon the applied voltage. Window area depends upon coil size, or for a given voltage upon the current drawn. Since window area and core area determine size, there is a relation between size and v-a rating. With other factors, such as frequency and grade of iron, constant, the larger transformers dissipate less heat per unit volume than the smaller ones. This is true because dissipation area increases as the square of the equivalent spherical radius, whereas volume increases as its cube. Therefore larger units are more commonly of the open type, whereas smaller units are totally enclosed. Where enclosure is feasible, it tends to eause size increase by limiting the heat dissipation. Figure 43 shows the relation between size and rating for small, enclosed, low-voltage, two-winding, 50-cycle transformers having Hipersil cores and class A insulation and operating continuously in a 40°C ambient. The size increases for the same volt-amperes over that in Fig. 43 for any of the following reasons: High voltage High ambient temperature Lower frequency The size decreases for Higher frequencies Class B insulation Open-type units Intermittent operation Silicon-steel cores Low regulation More windings
If low-voltage insulation is assumed, two secondary windings reduce the rating of a typical size by 10 per cent; six secondaries by 50 per cent. The decreased rating is due partly to space occupied by insulation and partly to poorer space factor. The effects of voltage, temperature, and core steel on size have been discussed in preceding sec-
54
tions. Frequency and regulation will be considered separately in succeeding chapters. Open-type transformers like those in Fig. 8 have better heat dissipation than enclosed units. The lamination-stacking dimension can
VOLlME 140
120 > u z w 100 u
12
u:
l.L.
10
w
cO
en
_J
ID
:i 80
:j U
z8
fJ:
./
V~
!:
w
_J
~
60
/
I '/
w ~6
:::;;; ::>
/ 1/
/V / I V/
WE~GHT
/
ftFFICltNCY
>
40
20
If
J ~
V/
I o
VA 40 80 120 160 200
FIG. 43. Size of enclosed 60-cycle transformers.
be made to suit the rating, so that one size of lamination may cover a range of v-a ratings. Heat dissipation from the end cases is independent of the stacking dimension, but that from the laminations is directly proportional to it. This is shown in Fig. 44 for several lamination sizes. For each size the horizontal line represents heat dissipation from the end cases; the sloping line represents dissipation from end cases, plus that from the lamination edges which is proportional to the stacking dimension. At ordinary working temperature, heat is dis-
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
55
sipated at the rate of 0,008 watt per square inch per centigrade degree rise, In Fig, 44 the watts per centigrade degree of temperature rise are given as a function of lamination stack This refers to temperature rise at the core surface only, In addition, there is a temperature
LAMINATION A B C D
DIMENSIONS - INCHES W H 4,63 3.75 5,00 7.00 6,88 7.50 7.50 11.50
r--~w~
I-z o w en o I-3
c=J
cr
<,
~ 2
-:./
,//
1 -:
/' /'
V
/
-: /"
/'
/'
_.........-
»>
/'
.c::V
....-.....
....-o o
-- - - ..»>
_r-I--'
2:3 4 5 LAMINATION
--
»>
»>
--- - --8 9
---
»>
--
»>
---12
A D C B A
10
II
STACK - INCHES
FIG. 44.
Heat dissipation from open-type transformers with end cases.
gradient between coil and core which is given in similar manner III Fig. 45. To find the average coil temperature rise, divide the copper loss by the watts per centigrade degree from the sloping line of Fig. 45. To this add the total of copper and iron losses divided by the appropriate ordinate from Fig. 44. That is, the total coil temperature rise is equal to the sum of the temperature drop across the insulation (marked CuFe gradient in Fig. 45) and the temperature drop from the core to the ambient air. Data like those in Figs. 44 and 45 can be established for any lamination by making a heat run on two transformers, one having a core stack near the minimum and one near the maximum that is likely to be used. Usually stacking dimensions lie between the ex-
56
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
tremes of Y:? to 3 times the lamination tongue width, and poor use of space results from stacking outside these limits. If end cases are omitted, coil dissipation is improved as much as 50 per cent. The same method can be used for figuring type C Hipersil core designs; here the strip width takes the place of the stacking dimension of punched laminations, and the build-up corresponds to the tongue
5
4 I--
LAMINATION WINDOW ASSUMED TO BE FILLED
(i
Cl
is 3
~ p
<..)
u,
./ 2
V
/
-:
V
-: -:
-:
/
./
-:
/D
/'/
a:: w a..
~ ~
If)
-:
o
-:
/'
/'
./
/ .---o
....-
v::::
-:
....V
4
V~
__.. ----:: ::::-
i.---"
-:
I..--- A
D C B A
....---B
10
12
LAMINATION
STACK-INCHES
FIG. 45.
Winding-to-core gradient for open-type transformers For lamination sizes, see Fig. 44.
with end eases.
width. When two cores are used, as in Fig. 14, the heating can be approximated by using data for the nearest punching. For irregular or unknown heat dissipation surfaces, an approximation to the temperature rise can be found from the transformer weight, as derived in the next section. 23. Intermittent Ratings. It often happens that electronic equipment is operated for repeated short lengths of time, between which the power is off. In such cases the average power determines the heating and size. Transformers operating intermittently can be built smaller than if they were operated continuously at full rating. Intermittent operation affects size only if the "on" periods are short compared to the thermal time constant of the transformer; that is, small transformers have less heat storage capacity and hence rise to final
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
57
temperature more quickly than do large ones. It is important, therefore, to know the relation between size and thermal time constant, or the time that would be required to bring a transformer to 63 per cent of the temperature to which it would finally rise if the power were applied continuously. The exact determination of temperature rise time in objects such as transformers, having irregular shapes and non-homogeneous materials, has not yet been attempted. Even in simple shapes of homogeneous material, and after further simplifying assumptions have been made, the solution is too complicated 1 for rapid calculation. However, under certain conditions, a spherical object can be shown to cool according to the simple law: 2
3Et
8 = 80f
per
(28)
where 8 = temperature above ambient at any instant t 80 = initial temperature above ambient E = emissivity in calories per second per centigrade square centimeter p = density of material c = specific heat of material r = radius of sphere f = 2.718.
degree per
The conditions involved in this formula are that the sphere is so small or the cooling so slow that the temperature at any time is sensibly uniform throughout the whole volume. Mathematically, this is fulfilled when the expression Er /k (where k is the thermal conductivity of the material) is small compared to unity. Knowing the various properties of the transformer material, we can tell (1) whether the required conditions are met, and (2) what the thermal time constant is. The latter is arrived at by the relation
t, = pcre/3E
(29)
where r; is the radius of the equivalent sphere. In order to convert the non-homogeneous transformer into a homogeneous sphere the average product of density and specific heat pc is
1 See The Jv[ athcmat icol Theory of Heat Conduction, O. J. Zobel. Ginn and Co., Boston, 1913, p. 142. 2 Ingersoll and Zobel, op . cit., p. 143.
by L. R. Ingersoll and
58
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
found. Figures on widely different transformers show a variation from 0.862 to 0.879 in this product; hence an average value of 0.87 can be taken, with only 1 per cent deviation in any individual case. Since the densities of iron and copper do not differ greatly, and insulation brings the coil density closer to that of iron, it may be further assumed that the transformer has material of uniform density 7.8 throughout. The equivalent spherical radius can then be found from re = (Weightjl.073)Y:l where re is in inches and weight is in pounds. The time constant plotted from equations 29 and 30 in terms of weight in Fig. 46.
4.0 3.0
(30)
IS
2.0
a:
=>
I
(f)
~
1.0 O.B 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3
...... V
.........
.>
......... V
~~
I(f)
'-' ............ w
::;:
...J
~ ~
..............
......... V
i=
« ::;: a:
w
0.2
~ I-
TrNSro1Mr j jTrAL WrGHTtBS.

0.1 2 4 6 B 10 20 40 60 BO 100
FIG. 46. Transformer time constant, or time required to reach 63 per cent of final temperature.
The condition that Erjk be small compared to unity is approximated by assuming that k is the conductivity of iron-a safe assumption, because the conductivity of copper is 7 to 10 times that of iron. A transformer weighing as much as 60 lb has re = 5.45 in., E = 0.00028 cal per sec per sq cm/oC, and k = 0.11. Changing re to metric units
TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION,
MATERIALS,
RATINGS
59
gives Er jk = (0.00028 X 5.45 X 2.54) /0.11 = 0.34, which is small enough to meet the necessary condition of equation 28. It will be noticed that equation 28 is a law for cooling, not temperature rise. But if the source of heat is steady (as it nearly is) the equation can be inverted to the form (}o - () for temperature rise, and (}o becomes the final temperature. Temperature rise of a typical transformer is shown in Fig. 47, to1.0 0.' 0.8 0.7 0.6 EXplONENTIAL TEMPERATURE RISE"",,:: ~
f--
--~~~'!.~
.g
Q)
0.5 0 .• 03 0.2 0.1
IV
II II II
/j-
~
TEMPERATURE RISE IN TRANSFORMER
ACTUAL
1 TIME
IN MULTIPLES
2 OF THERMAL
3 TIME CONSTANT Te
FIG. 47. Transformer temperature
rise time.
gether with the exponential law which is (}o - (), where () is the temperature of equation 28. The actual rise is less at first than that of the foregoing simplified theory, then more rapid, and with a more pronounced "knee." The 63 per cent of final temperature is reached in about 70 per cent of the theoretical time constant t; for transformers weighing between 5 and 200 lb. This average correction factor is included in Fig. 46 also. If a transformer is operated for a short time and then allowed to cool to room temperature before operating again, the temperature rise can be found from Figs. 46 and 47. As an example, suppose that the continuously operated final coil temperature rise is 100 centigrade degrees, the total weight is 5 lb, and operating duty is infrequent periods of 2 hr. From Fig. 46, the transformer has a thermal time constant of 0.85 hr. This corresponds to te = 1 in Fig. 47. Two hours are therefore 2 -7- 0.85 = 2.35 times te, and the transformer rises to 90 per cent of final temperature, or a coil temperature rise of 90 centigrade degrees, in 2 hr. If, on the other hand, the transformer has regular off and on intervals, the average watts dissipated over a long period of time govern the
60
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
temperature risco A transformer is never so small that it heats up more in the first operating interval than at the end of many intervals. From equation 30 can be found a relation between weight, losses, and final temperature rise. For, since heat is dissipated at O.OOS watt per sq in.jOC rise, and the area As of the equivalent sphere is 47rre2, 80 Total watts loss
=-------
Total watts loss 0.1 ( Total weight in POUndS)% 1.073
O.OOSAs
(31)
where 80 is the final temperature rise in centigrade degrees. This equation is subject to the same approximations as equation 2S; test results show that it is most reliable for transformers weighing 20 lb or more, with 55°C temperature rise at 40°C ambient.
3.
RECTIFIER TRANSFORMERS
AND REACTORS
Rectifiers are used to convert alternating into direct current. The tubes generally have two electrodes, the cathode and the anode. Both high vacuum and gas-filled tubes are used. Sometimes for control purposes the gas-filled tubes have grids, which are discussed in Chapter 8. A high-vacuum rectifier tube characteristic voltage-current curve is shown in Fig. 48. Current flows only when the anode is positive with respect to the cathode. The voltage on this curve is the internal potential drop in the tube when current is drawn through it. This voltage divided by the current gives effective tube resistance at any point. Tube resistance decreases as current increases, up to the emission limit, where all the e electrons available from the cathode are used. Filament voltage governs the emission limit and FIG.48. High-vacuum rectifier voltmust be closely controlled. If the filament voltage age-current curve. is too high, the tube life is shortened; if too low, the tube will not deliver rated current at the proper voltage. Gas-filled rectifier tubes have internal voltage drop which is virtually constant and independent of current. Usually this voltage drop is much lower than that of high vacuum tubes. Consequently, gasfilled tubes are used in high power rectifiers, where high efficiency and low regulation are important. In some rectifiers, silicon or germanium crystals or selenium disks are used as the rectifying elements. In this chapter, the rectifier circuits are summarized and then rectifier transformers and reactors are discussed. 24. Rectifiers with Reactor-Input Filters. Table VII gives COlIlmonly used rectifier circuits, together with current and voltage relations in the associated transformers. This table is based on the use of a reactor-input filter to reduce ripple. The inductance of the choke is assumed to be great enough to keep the output direct current constant. With any finite inductance there is always some superposed
61
62
.~
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS
AND REACTORS
63
ripple current which is neglected in the table, and which is considered further in Chapter 4. The single-phase half-wave rectifier ordinarily has discontinuous output current, and its output voltage is therefore highly dependent upon the inductance of the input filter choke. For this reason, the currents and voltages are given for this rectifier without a filter. The difference between primary and secondary v-a ratings in several of these rectifiers does not mean that instantaneous v-a values are different; it means that because of differences in current wave form the rms values of current may be different for primary and secondary. Unbalanced direct current in the half-wave rectifiers requires larger transformers than in the full-wave rectifiers. This is partly overcome in three-phase transformers by the use of zigzag connections. The three-phase full-wave rectifier can be delta-connected on both primary and secondary if desired; the secondary current is multiplied by 0.577 and the secondary voltage by 1.732. Anode windings have more turns of smaller wire in the delta connection. Single-phase bridge and threephase full-wave rectifiers require notably low a-c voltage for a given d-e output, low inverse peak voltage on the tubes, and small transformers. 25. Rectifiers with Capacitor-Input Filters. When the filter has no reactor intervening between rectifier and first capacitor, rectifier current is not continuous throughout each cycle and the rectified wave form changes. During the voltage peaks of each cycle, the capacitor charges and draws current from the rectifier. During the rest of the time, no current is drawn from the rectifier, and the capacitor discharges into the load.
rVVV\
~
(a)
sc:»:
~ I'
~At ... \1
I\ I 'I
'I
IINPUT
CURRENT
(b)
FIG. 49. Voltage and current comparisons in reactor-input circuits.
and capacitor-input
Comparison between the rectified voltage of reactor-input and capacitor-input filters in a single-phase full-wave rectifier may be seen in Figs. 49(a) and (b), respectively. The two tube currents 11 and 12 in (a) add to a constant d-e output, whereas in (b) the high-peaked tube currents flow only while the rectified voltage is higher than the
64
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
average d-e voltage. Average current per tube in both cases is half the rectifier output. With large values of capacitance, the rectified voltage
-l
0
"
:I'
u
WO
en
eo
l'-
0
<!)
'"
0
<T
'"
0
N
in Fig. 49 (b) increases to within a few per cent of the peak voltage. Ripple, average rectified voltage output, and rectifier current are dependent on the capacitance, the supply line frequency, and the load resistance. They are dependent also on rectifier internal resistance because it affects the peak value of current which the filter capacitor can draw during the charging interval M.
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS
AND REACTORS
65
Analysis of this charge-discharge action involves Fourier series which require a long time to calculate.'
0
complicated Satisfactory
o tt+"'-+--tt-N-t-t_"'-t-+-"'-t-CDH--l ~~
'"
Ht-+-It--t-t-++-+-Hr---H-t--tt--1tf--+-r+-it--; _.+1r---+--t-1t-i--l--1 "'1-' ~ ~rH-t-tt-~-++-+~-~r---H-t--tt--1tf--+-r+-it-t-~+--t-;-~+-r---I ~ ~rTH--H-+r~~t-H-t-+--1tf-~f-+-it-t-~+--t-;-~+-+--;

-
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,\,\ I.'\' \
\
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o en
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..
o
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o
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.,
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voltage and current values have been obtained from experimental measurements by Schade 2 and are shown in Figs. 50, 51, and 52 for
1 See "Diode Rectifying Circuits with Capacitance Filters," by D. L. Waidelich, Trans. AlEE, 61, 1161 (December, 1941). 2 "Analysis of Rectifier Operation," by O. H. Schade, Proc. I.R.E., 31, 341 (July, 1943).
66
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
single-phase half-wave and full-wave rectifiers. In these figures Rs is the rectifier series resistance, including the transformer resistance.
II ~%I I~ 0
N
I'~ I I
0
10 0 0
N
I",
0
"
on
on '"
~0
I~
~%I I I
SH
o
on
0
N
II "' I~
~
-~
"
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0 0 0
2 .;:;
_.
'"
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Q) h
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\
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~~-
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r
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CJ
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~ ;.a
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bJ)
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u u
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--~
i
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~\
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gegC;:~ __ o0::
_.
www »'" ««« ~!l:~
'" z"'w ~~~

....
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0:1
:>
.... 0
Q
0:1 III
P<
.~
a3
0:1
~~g~
~::>a::<:l00
~~~~~
II.. LL.N
:~:u3
ccc !
&I.. ••
N
"
0 0 (31Vld 3NO)
., "' .1N3H~nJ J.N3HHn:>
I
!
C'i It:)
i
~
J
ci
9~
31Vld 3.lVld
I
::>
e
a
SWH
"';1
31'111d
=Idji
dl
(31Vld
3NO)
J.N3~HJn:> IN3~H~n::>
31'O'ld )lV3d
=d;
dI
Results accurate to within 5 per cent are sistance corresponding to peak current ip process is cut-and-try, because ip depends two trials usually suffice. Resistance is
obtained if the rectifier reis used in finding Rs. The on Rs, and vice versa, but in ohms, capacitance is in
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS AND REACTORS
67
farads, and w is 27T times the supply frequency. Three-phase rectifiers are rarely capacitor-input because of their larger power. In Fig. 52 the peak current indicates whether the peak current of a given tube is exceeded, and the rms current determines the transformer secondary heating. The v-a ratings are greater, but ratios of primary to secondary v-a ratings given in Table VII hold for capacitor-input transformers also. 26. Voltage Doublers. To obtain more d-e output voltage from a rectifier tube, the circuit of Fig. 53 is often used. With proper values of circuit elements the output is nearly double the a-c peak voltage. Tube inverse peak voltage is little more than the d-e output voltage, and no d-e unbalance exists in the anode transformer. Current output available from this circuit is less than from the single-phase full-wave circuit for a given rectifier tube. Current relations are given in Fig. 52. Voltage tripling and quadrupling circuits also are used, either to increase the d-e voltage or to avoid the use of a transformer.' 27. Filament Transformers. Low-voltage filament transformers are used for heating tube filaments at or near ground potential. Often the filament windings of several tubes are combined into one transformer. Sometimes this requires several secondary windings. In terms of a single secondary transformer a 5 or 6 secondary unit requires about 50 per cent greater size and weight. But these multiwinding transformers are smaller than five or six separate units; this warrants designing them specially in many instances. Rectifier tube filaments often operate at high d-c voltages and require windings with high voltage insulation. It is usually not feasible to combine high-voltage windings with low-voltage windings when the high voltage is more than 3,000 volts direct current because of insulation difficulties, particularly in the leads. Large rectifier filaments are usually heated by separate transformers; in polyphase rectifiers, all tube filaments are at high voltage, and some secondary windings may be combined. See the three-phase full-wave rectifier in Table VII, where the +HV lead connects to a winding which heats the filaments of three tubes. Low capacitance filament windings are sometimes required for highfrequency circuits. The problem is not particularly difficult in small v-a ratings and at moderate voltages. Here air occupies most of the space between windings. In larger ratings the problem is more difficult, because the capacitance increases directly as the coil mean turn
1 See "Analyses of Voltage Tripling and Quadrupling Circuits," by D. L. Waidelich and H. A. Taskin, Proc, I.R.E., 33, 449 (July, 1945).
68
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
length for a given spacing between windings. As voltage to ground increases, there comes a point beyond which creepage effects necessitate
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oil-insulated windings, whereupon the capacitance jumps 2 to 1 for a given size and spacing. There is a value of capacitance below which it is impossible to go because of space limitations in the transformer. What this value is in any given case may be estimated from the fact
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS
AKD REACTORS
69
that the capacitance in ",,,,f of a body in free space is roughly equal to one-half its largest dimension in centimeters. Except for the differences just mentioned, the design of filament transformers does not differ much from that of small 60-cycle power
FIG. 54. 15 kv filament transformer enclosed in insulating case.
transformers. The load is constant and of unity power factor. Leakage reactance plays practically no part, because of its quadrature relationship to the load. Output voltage may therefore be figured as in Fig. 3 (c) (p. 8). It should be accurately calculated, however, to maintain the proper filament emission and life. When a tube filament is cold, the filament resistance is a small fraction of its operating value. In large tubes it is often necessary to protect the tube filaments against the high initial current they would draw at rated filament voltage. This is done by automatically reducing the starting voltage through the use of a current-limiting trans-
70
former having magnetic shunts between primary and secondary windings. The design of these transformers is somewhat special, and is included in Chapter 8. High-voltage filament'transformers are sometimes mounted in an insulating case, as in Fig. 54, with the tube socket on top. This arrangement eliminates the need for high-voltage wiring between the transformer and the tube, and provides the insulation for the socket. The problem of air pockets at the base of high-voltage bushings is also eliminated. It is still necessary to insulate well between windings and to fill the case fully with insulating compound in order to eliminate corona. 28. Filament Transformer Design. It is important that design work be done systematically to save the designer's time and to afford a ready means of finding calculations at a later date. To attain these ends a calculation form, such as that in Fig. 55, is used. The form is usually made to cover several kinds of transformers, and only the spaces applicable to a filament transformer are used. Suppose that a transformer is required to supply filament power for four single-phase full-wave rectifiers having output voltages of 2,000, 500,250, and 250 volts, respectively, with choke-input filters, as follows:
Primary voltage 100 Frequency 60 cycles Four secondaries for the following tube filaments: 2-872 tubes: 2-866 tubes: 1-5U4G tube: 1-5Y3GT tube: 5 2.5 5 5 volts volts volts volts 13.5 10 3 2 amp amp amp amp Insulated Insulated Insulated Insulated for for for for +2000 v + 500 v + 250 v + 250 v d-e d-e d-e d-e
Ambient temperature: 40°C
First comes the choice of a core. Data such as those in Fig. 43 are helpful in this, and so is design experience in the modification of such data by the specified requirements. The core used here is a 2-in. stack of laminations A, Fig. 44, which is described more fully in Fig. 56, and has enough heat dissipation surface for this rating. For silicon steel, an induction of 70,000 lines per square inch is practical. The primary turns can be figured from equation 4 by making the substitution cp = BAa and transposing to (32)
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS
AND REACTORS
71
where Ac is the core cross-sectional area, or product of the core tongue width and stack dimension, and B is the core induction. In this transformer, with 90 per cent stacking factor, Ac = 2 X 0.9 X 1.375 = 2.48 sq in., and the primary turns are found to be 216.
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transformer
design calculations.
Below this calculation are set down the primary voltage and frequency, and the voltage, current, volt-amperes, and insulation voltage for all secondary windings. These are designated Sl to S4 for identification. From the sum of the individual v-a figures, the transformer
72
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
rating is found. To it is added an estimate of losses to obtain the input volt-amperes, and the primary current. Next an estimate of the regulation is made (10 per cent) and added to unity to obtain the multiplier 1.1 in the estimate of secondary turns near the top of the calculation form. From the currents listed, the wire size for each winding is chosen. Round enameled wire is used for
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FIG. 56. Dimensions and coil section of filament transformer.
each winding except 81, and for it No. 12 square wire is used to save space. The largest wire is placed next to the coil form to prevent damage in winding to the smaller wires. The next task is to find out whether the wire chosen will fit in the core window space. Winding height D is entered for each winding. For each secondary this is the wire diameter, because the wire is wound in a single layer. D for 81 is slightly larger than the wire dimension to allow for the bulge that occurs when square wire is wound. The twelve turns of 81 occupy about 1'l.4 in. of horizontal winding space. The core window is 214 in. wide. From this is subtracted % in. for clearance, leaving 2% in. total coil width. Margins on each side of 81 are therefore )~ (2% - 1'l.4) = Yt 6 in. According to Fig. 40 (p. 48) this provides over 8 kv breakdown strength, which is well above the 5-kv test voltage for 81. Other secondary windings have lower test voltages and wider margins, and hence have more than adequate creepage distances.
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS
AND REACTORS
73
The 'li6-in.-thick Micarta rectangular tube used for the coil form has a corona voltage of 2,700 rms, which affords about 23 per cent safety factor over the normal operating voltage at the tube filaments. Over Sl are wound six wraps of 0.010-in.-thick treated cloth, which has 2,600-volt corona limit. Winding S2 supplies a filament at 500 volts of the same polarity as SI. Hence only 1,500 volts direct current or 1,660 volts alternating current occur across this insulation. At the right of the small sketch in Fig. 55 are listed the number of wraps of 0.010-in.thick treated cloth over each section of winding. These are added together to give the columnar figure of 0.150 for 'I'C. The primary winding is wound without layer insulation and with an area space factor of 70 per cent. Cotton is wound in with the wire to form walls % 6 in. thick on either side of the primary; this accounts for the low space factor and for the 1 % -in. winding traverse. The coil is finished with two layers of treated cloth, a layer of O.OlO-in. fish paper for mechanical protection, and a 0.025-in. serving of untreated cotton yarn or tape to hold it together. The total winding adds up to 0.751 in., leaving 0.124 in. clearance, about the right allowance for winding slack for four secondaries. Mean turns are figured from equations 26 and 27, with 5 per cent incremental increase in S2, S3, and S4 for leads. With the mean turn values the winding resistances, weights of copper, and IR and J2R for each winding can be found. To SI, S2, and S3 winding resistance is added lead resistance, and the lower figure is the sum of the two in each case. Total copper loss is multiplied by 1.3 to correct for 75°C operating temperature. The core weight is 6.8 lb, and the grade of steel used has 1.17 watts per pound at 70,000 lines per square inch. This gives a core loss of 8 watts, and a total of copper and core loss of 20 watts. After these losses are divided by the appropriate ordinates from Figs. 44 and 45 (pp. 55 and 56) the coil temperature rise is figured at 48 centigrade degrees, which is safe for class A insulation. We know by now that the design is safe, but secondary voltages still must be checked. The method of equation 13 is used. Output voltages on first trial range from 0 to 4 per cent high. 82 voltage is correct but out of line with the rest. Changing 82 leads to a larger size makes the per cent voltage drops more nearly alike, and increasing the primary turns to 223 brings all output voltages to correct value within 1.2 per cent. Filament voltage should be kept within 2 per cent for these tubes, to allow for meter error. Primary voltage per layer is checked at the lower left; this is equivalent to 22.7 volts per mil of wire enamel, which is safe practice.
74
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
If the design were deficient in any respect, even down to the last things figured, some change would have to be made which would require recalculation of all or part of the transformer; hence the importance of good estimating all the way along. The filament transformer outlined above had a center tap (C.T.) in each filament winding. Such taps are used with directly heated cathodes, especially when plate current is large, to prevent uneven distribution of filament emission. In windings for supplying filaments of small tubes, center taps are sometimes omitted. Ripple in the rectified output then increases, and transformer core flux density becomes asymmetrical. Whether these effects are permissible depends on operating conditions. Usually plate current is much smaller than filament current, so that center-tap leads may be smaller in copper section than start and finish leads. A certain amount of space is required for these leads; rectifier wiring is also more time-consuming when there are center taps. Nevertheless, the extra work and size may be justified by improved performance. An even number of turns, such as were used in the transformer windings described in this section, results in center-tap placement on the same coil end as the start and finish leads; if there were an odd number of turns, the tap lead would be at the opposite end. In a single-core, single-coil design, an odd number of turns cannot be centertapped exactly. Usually the unbalance caused by the tap being a halfturn off center is not serious, but it should not be disregarded without calculation. 29. Anode Transformers. Anode transformers differ from filament transformers in several respects. (a) Currents are non-sinusoidal. In a single-phase full-wave rectifier, for instance, current flows through one half of the secondary during each positive voltage excursion and through the other half during each negative excursion. For half of the time each half-secondary winding is idle. (b) Leakage inductance not only determines output voltage but also affects rectifier regulation in an entirely different manner than with a straight a-c load. This is discussed in Chapter 4. (c) Half-wave rectifiers carry unbalanced direct current; this may necessitate less a-c flux density, hence larger transformers, than fullwave rectifiers. Unbalance in the three-phase half-wave type can be avoided by the use of zigzag connections, but an increase in size over full-wave results because of the out-of-phase voltages. These connec-
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS
AND REACTORS
75
tions are desirable in full-wave rectifiers when half voltage is obtained from a center tap. See Table VII. (d) Single-phase full-wave rectifiers with two anodes have higher secondary volt-amperes for a given primary v-a rating than a filament transformer. Bridge-type (four-anode) rectifiers have equal primary and secondary volt-amperes, as well as balanced direct current, and plate transformers for these rectifiers are smaller than for other types. Three-phase rectifier transformers are smaller in total size but require more coils. The three-phase full-wave type has equal primary and secondary v-a ratings. (e) Induced secondary voltage is much higher. Filament transformers are insulated for this voltage but have a few secondary turns
FIG. 57. Dimensions and coil section of anode transformer. Construction is for shell-type transformer with 2 Hipersil Gores.
shown
of large wire, whereas anode transformers have many turns of small wire. For this reason the volts per layer are higher in anode transformers, and core windows having proportionately greater height and less width than those in Fig. 56 are often preferable. This trend runs counter to the conditions for low leakage inductance and makes it necessary to interleave the windings. Figure 57 shows the windings of a single-phase full-wave rectifier transformer with the primary interleaved between halves of the secondary. This arrangement is especially adaptable to transformers with grounded center tap. The primary-secondary insulation can be reduced to the amount suitable for primary to ground. This is called graded insulation. In large power rectifiers of the gas-filled or pool types, anode current under short-circuit conditions may be very great, and anode transformer windings must be braced to prevent damage. If the conductors
76
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
are small, solventless varnish is useful for solidly embedding the conductors. 30. Leakage Inductance. Flux set up by the primary winding which does not link the secondary, or vice versa, gives rise to leakage or selfinductance in each winding without contributing to the mutual flux. The greater this leakage flux, the greater the leakage inductance, because the inductance of a winding equals the flux linkages with unit current in the winding. In Fig. 57, all flux which follows the core path l.; is mutual flux. Leakage flux is the relatively small flux which threads the secondary winding sections, enters the core, and returns to the other side of the secondaries, without linking the primary. The same is true of flux linking only the primary winding. But it is almost impossible for flux to leave the primary winding, enter the core, and re-enter the primary without linking part of the secondary also. The more the primary and secondary windings are interleaved, the less leakage flux there is, up to the limit imposed by flux in the spaces c between sections. These spaces contain leakage flux also; indeed, if there is much interleaving or if the spaces c are large, most of the leakage flux flows in them. Large coil mean turn length, short winding traverse b, and tall window height a all increase leakage flux. Several formulas have been derived for the calculation of leakage inductance. That originated by Fortescue 1 is generally accurate, and errs, if at all, on the conservative side:
Ls = ------1-O~9-n~2b------
1O.6N2"~fT(2nc + a)
(33)
where Ls = leakage inductance of both windings in henrys, referred to the winding having N turns MT = mean length of turn for whole coil in inches n = number of dielectrics between windings (n = 2 in Fig .. 57) c = thickness of dielectric between windings in inches a = winding height in inches b = winding traverse in inches. The greatest gain from interleaving comes when the dielectric thickness c is small compared to the window height; when nc is comparable to the window height, the leakage inductance does not decrease much as n is increased. It is often difficult to reduce the leakage inductance which occurs in high-voltage transformers because of leakage flux in
1 See Standard Handbook for Electrical New York, 1922, 5th ed., p. 413.
Engineers,
McGraw-Hill
Book Co.,
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS
AND REACTORS
77
spaces c. A small number of turns, short mean turn, and low, wide core windows all contribute to a low value of leakage inductance. 31. Anode Transformer Design. Let the requirements of a rectifier be 1,200 volts 115 ma rectifier d-c output Single-phase full-wave circuit with 866 tubes Primary 115 volts 60 cycles Rectifier regulation 5 per cent maximum Ambient 55°C To fulfill these requirements, a reactor-input filter must be used. If 1 per cent is allowed for reactor IR drop, a maximum of 4 per cent regulation is left in the anode transformer. The approximate secondary output voltage is 1,200 X 2.22 = 2,660, say 2,700 volts. The center tap may be grounded. Suppose that a transformer like the one in Fig. 57 is used. The calculations are given in Fig. 58. The various steps are performed in the same order as in filament transformers. The grainoriented type C core is worked at 38 per cent higher induction, with but 60 per cent of the core loss of Fig. 55; its strip width is 21;.1 in., build-up % in., and window 1 in. by 3 in. for each core loop. Note the difference in primary and secondary volt-amperes and winding heights. Since the primary and secondary are symmetrical about the primary horizontal center line, they have the same mean turn length. Losses and temperature rise are low. Regulation governs size. Secondary layer voltage is high enough to require unusually thick layer paper. This coil is wound on a multiple-coil machine. Winding height is figured on the basis of layer paper adequate for the voltage instead of from Table VI (p. 39), but turns per layer are taken from this table. Since adjacent layers are wound with opposite directions of traverse, the highest voltage across the layer insulation is twice the volts per layer. Layer insulation is used at 46 volts per mil in the secondary; this counts the 1.7 mils of double enamel, which must withstand impregnation without damage. Anode leads and margins withstand 5 kv rms test voltage. Since the secondary center tap is grounded, two thicknesses of 0.010-in. insulation between windings are sufficient. Clearance of 0.2.53 in. allows room for in-and-out coil taping. Secondary leakage inductance, from equation 33, is 10.6 X 4,2002 X 10.2(4 X 0.020 4 X 2.375 X 10
9
+ 0.747)
= 0.166
henry
78
At 60 cycles this is 6.28 X 60 X 0.166 = 63 ohms, which would be 240 ohms if the secondary were a single section, and which would increase regulation as set forth in Chapter 4. The regulation calcu-
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lated in Fig. 58 is that due to primary IR calculated in the normal manner, plus lao times one-half the secondary winding resistance. When high voltage is induced in a winding, the layer insulation and coil size may often be reduced by using the scheme shown in Fig. 59. This is applicable to a plate transformer of the single-phase full-wave
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS
AKD REACTORS
79
type with center tap grounded. It then becomes practical to make the secondary in two separately wound vertical halves or part coils. One of the part coils is assembled with the turns PRESSBOARD SPACER in the same direction as those of the primary, ~F USED) and the other part coil is reversed so that the FI N. ~~ FIN. SI S2 turns are in the opposite direction. The two ST. ST. start leads are connected together and to P ground as in Fig. 59. It is necessary then to provide only sufficient insulation between ",-,COIL FORM windings to withstand the primary test voltFIG. 59. Anode transformer age. Channels may be used to insulate the with C.T. grounded. secondaries from the core. With higher voltages, it may be necessary to provide pressboard spacers between the secondary part coils, or to tape the secondary coils separately, but margins must be provided sufficient to prevent creepage across the edges of the spacers. 32. Combined Anode and Filament Transformers. Anode and filament windings are combined into a single transformer mainly in lowpower ratings such as those in receivers and grid bias power supplies.
0
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FIG. 60. Power supply transformer.
One widely used combination includes the anode and filament windings for a rectifier and a filament winding for the amplifier tubes. Figures 60 and 61 show how winding insulation sometimes may be graded to require a minimum of insulation and space. The high-voltage filament winding 81 is placed over the coil form to take advantage of its thick insulation. Layer insulation is sufficient between 81 and 82, and between 82 and 83• Over and under the primary winding is 115-volt
80
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
A:\D CIRCUITS
insulation. Thus Fig. 61 is a high-voltage transformer with no highvoltage insulation in it except what is incidental to the coil form. Combined anode and filament transformers are difficult to test for regulation or output voltage aside from operation in the rectifier circuit itself, because a-c loads do not - r- p - f-- 2 duplicate rectifier action. Most trans- f-- 3 53 formers of this kind are used in recti52 fiers with capacitor-input filters or 51 with fixed loads in which regulation is COIL FORM not important. Ratings are easier to predict. 6 51 5 r-- 52 Anode secondary v-a rating is the 4 53 product of rms voltage and current, P but the corresponding portion of primary v-a rating depends on the rectiFIG. 61. Winding arrangement to fier and is found as mentioned in save insulation. Sections 24 and 25. To this is added the sum of filament winding v-a ratings, and the primary current can then be calculated from the total volt-amperes. 33. Power Supply Frequency. Foregoing examples were based on a 60-cycle supply. Twenty-five-cyele transformer losses are lower for a given induction. It follows that induction can be increased somewhat over the 60-cycle value, but saturation currents prevent a decided increase. Larger size results, nearly 2: 1 in volume. Otherwise 25cycle transformers are not appreciably different from 60-cycle transformers. Power supply frequencies of 400 and 800 cycles are used mainly in aircraft and portable equipment to save weight and space. Siliconsteel core materials 0.005 in. thick arc principally used at these frequencies to reduce eddy currents. Losses at 400 and 800 cycles for three core materials are shown in Fig. 62. These losses can be the controlling factors in determining transformer size, because a given material saturates at nearly the same induction whether the frequency is 60 cycles or 800 cycles, but the core loss is so high at 800 cycles that the core material cannot be used near the saturation density. The higher the induction the higher the core heating. For this reason, class B insulation can be used in many 400- and 800-cycle designs to reduce size still further. If advantage is taken of both the core material and insulation, 800-cycle transformers can be reduced to 10 per cent of the size of 60-cycle transformers of the same rating. Typical
_._
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RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS
AXD REACTORS
81
5 6 INDUCTION-
8 9 KILOGAUSS
10
II
12
13
14
FIG. 62. Silicon-steel core loss at 400 and 800 cycles.
combinations follows:
of grain-oriented
core material
and insulation
are as
Frequency 60 400 800
Strip Thickness 0.014 0.005 0.005
B-Gauss 15,000 12,500 8,500
Operating Class of Insulation Temperature 95°C A 140°C B B 140eC
In very small units, these flux densities may be used at lower temperatures and with class A insulation because of regulation. Thc special 4-mil steel developed for 400 cycles makes possible size reduction comparable to that for 800 cycles. The necessity for small dimensions, especially in aircraft apparatus, continually increases the tendency to use materials at their fullest capabilities. Many small 50-cycle transformers have core loss which is small compared to winding or copper loss. This condition occurs because inductance is limited by exciting current rather than by core loss. As size or frequency increases, this limitation disappears, and core loss is limited only by design considerations. Under such circumstances, the ratio of core to copper loss for maximum rating in a given size may be found as follows. Let
82
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
AND CIRCUITS
TVe = core loss

K1, K2, W8 etc.
=
copper loss
= constants E = secondary voltage I = secondary current
For a transformer with a given core, winding, volt-ampere rating, and frequency, We ~ KIE2. For a given winding, W8 = K212. Also, for a given size, We + W8 = K3, a quantity determined by the permissible temperature rise. Hence the transformer volt-ampere rating is approximately
For a maximum, the rating may be differentiated and the derivative equated to zero: 0= K3 - 2We whence
with respect to We,
so that W8 = Kg/2, or copper and core losses are equal for maximum rating. Although this equality is not critical, and is subject to many limitations such as core shape, voltage rating, and method of cooling, it does serve as a guidepost to the designer. If a transformer design is such that a large disparity exists between core and copper losses, size or temperature rise often may be reduced by a redesign in the direction of equal losses. 34. An 800-Cycle Transformer Design. Primary 120 volts 800 cycles Rectifier to deliver 0.2 amp at +450 volts using 5U4G in singlephase full-wave circuit with 0.5-,ufd capacitor input filter. Figures 51 and 52 tell whether the product wCRL will produce the necessary d-e output without exceeding the rectifier tube peak inverse voltage rating and peak current rating.
wCRL = 6.28 X 800 X 0.5 X 10-6 X (450/0.2) = 5.65

For Rs assume a peak current of 0.5 amp. Average anode character-
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS
AND REACTORS
83
istics show 97 volts tube drop, or 97 -;- 0.5 = 194 ohms at peak current. Rs/RL = 194/2,250 = 0.086. Add 5 per cent for transformer windings; estimated Rs/RL = 13.6 per cent.
Check on Peak Current from Fig. 52. nwCRL = 11.3
i, = 5Ip
5 X 0.1
0.5 amp
the peak value assumed. Rms current in tube plates and secondary windings is 2 X 0.1 = 0.2 amp. Output voltage, from Fig. 51, is 0.69 peak a-c voltage per side. Hence secondary rms voltage per side is 450 X 0.707 -;- 0.69 = 460 volts, and secondary volt-amperes = 2 X 460 X 0.2 = 184. The anode transformer must deliver 2 X 460 = 920 volts at 0.2 amp rms. Primary volt-amperes = 0.707 X 184 = 130. Inverse peak voltage is the peak value of this voltage plus the d-c output, because the tube filament is at d-e value, plus a small amount of ripple, while one anode has a maximum of peak negative voltage, during the non-conducting interval. Thus peak inverse voltage is 460 X 1.41 + 450 = 1,100 volts, which is within the tube rating. Choice of core for this transformer is governed by size and cost considerations. Assume that the core works at 8,500 gauss. The loss per pound for 0.005-in. silicon steel and grain-oriented steel is 12.2 and 6.6, respectively. (See Fig. 62.) But punchings have 80 per cent stacking factor, whereas the type C core has 90 per cent. In this thickness O.005-in.grain-oriented steel compares still better with ordinary silicon steel than Fig. 62 would indicate and so will be used for the core. Let two type C cores be used with the following dimensions:
Strip width Build Total net core area
% in. % in.
0.506 sq in.
Window height Window width Core weight
in. 1~ in. 0.751b
Turns could be figured from equation 32, except that the induction is in gauss. Since many core data are given in gauss, equation 32 is changed for convenience to (34) where dimensions are in inches and B is in gauss. Primary turns are then
84
ELECTRONIC
TRANSFORMERS
6
AND CIRCUITS
------Final design figures are: Primary 122 turns Secondary 900 turns
3.49 X 120 X 10
800 X 0.506 X 8,500
= 122
No. 26 glass-covered wire No. 29 glass-covered wire
d-e resistance 1.8 ohms d-e resistance 38 ohms 3.35 watts
Primary copper loss at 100°C Secondary copper loss at 100°C Core loss 6.6 X 0.75 Total losses
= 2.04 watts
4.95 watts 10.34 watts
With an open-type mounting and mica insulation this transformer has a temperature rise of 75 centigrade degrees. 35. Polyphase Transformers. In large power rectifiers three-phase supplies are generally used. Accurate phase voltages must be maintained to avoid supply frequency ripple in the output. Delta-connected primaries are shown in Table VII for the various rectifiers; these are preferable to open-delta because phase balance is better, and to Y -connections because of possibly high third harmonics. Opendelta connections require only two single-phase transformers instead of three, but a similar saving may be had by using a single core-type three-phase unit which retains the phase-balance advantage. The main drawback to a three-phase core is its special dimensions. Often, to use standard parts, three single-phase units are employed in the smaller power ratings. But if the power is hundreds or thousands of kilowatts, the cores are built to order, and the weight saving in a threephase core is significant. Two- and three-phase filament transformers are used with output tubes for large broadcast stations to heat filaments uniformly and reduce hum in the r-f output. 36. Design Chart. In preceding sections, it has been stated that special conditions require tailored designs. Windings for simple lowvoltage 60-cycle transformers may be chosen from the chart of Fig. 63. This chart is based upon the following conditions: Two untapped concentric windings; primary wound first. Operating voltage in both windings less than 1,000 volts. (c) Power supply frequency 60 cycles. (d) Maximum temperature rise 40°C in 65°C ambient. ( e) Resistive loads.
(a)
(b)

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ELECTRONIC

TRANSFORMERS AND CIRCUITS

NEW YORK LONDON

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED

COPYRIGHT JOHN WILF;Y

All Rights Reserved

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 55-10001

Baltimore, Maryland August, 1955

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

3. Rectifier Transformers 4. Rectifier Performance 5. Amplifier Transformers 6. Amplifier Circuits 7. Higher-Frequency .

214 237 259 292 329 347 351

J,L J,L J,Lt:. 7r

(d) (e) (f)

Through the application of these materials, it has been possible to

ELECTRONIC TRANSFORMERS AND CIRCUITS

coil and core.

primary voltage secondary voltage primary turns N2 = secondary turns.

ELECTRONIC TRANSFORMERS AND CIRCUITS

If the flux variation is sinusoidal,

is angular frequency, and t is

(c) with resistive load; diagram.

FIG. 5. Transformer voltage, flux, and exciting current.

ELECTRONIC TRANSFORMERS AND CIRCUITS

N ow if we consider the time interval

Per cent regulation

ELECTRONIC TRANSFORMERS AND CIRCUITS

FIG. 7. Transformer polarity.

In the first wave shape, T the current wave duration.

11f. In the fifth wave shape, T

ELECTRONIC TABLE 1. Current Wave Shape

NON-SINUSOIDAL CURRENT WAVE FORMS Description

TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION, AND RATINGS

with shell-type core.

FIG. 9. Shell-type laminations.

FIG. 10. Core-type transformer.

FIG. 12. Type C cores.

ELECTRONIC TRANSFORMERS AND CIRCUITS

FIG. 13. Partly assembled transformer.

FIG. 14. Assembled type C cores and coil.

FIG. 15. Single-coil, single-core assemblies.

FIG. 16. Transformers

mounted on amplifier chassis.

ELECTRONIC TRANSFORMERS AND CIRCUITS

FIG. 17. Fully enclosed transformers.

FIG. 18. A-c and d-e hysteresis loops.

FIG. 19. Normal induction.

20. Normal permeabilities.

21. Incremental permeability.

BmAcN y2IM .. 2. Magnetizing force Hm 3. VARS/lb

convert to inches, and put density P

0.27 lb/in.", then

VARS/lb X 108 Because of the non-linearity of

Moreover, there is no allowance for core gap.

CORE LOSS - WATTS PER POUND

23. Core loss at high induction.

Armco Trancor MI5 grade, 29 gage.

_1, ,.1,1L.. ..J

« "'10 o ..J ;;: z o ;:: 8

'" :> '"