Animal Health at the Crossroads

Preventing, Detecting, and Diagnosing

Animal Diseases
The confirmed case of “mad cow” disease (BSE)
in June 2005 illustrates the economic impact of disease
outbreaks, as additional countries closed their markets
to U.S. beef and beef products. Emerging diseases also
threaten public health—11 out of 12 of the major global
disease outbreaks over the last decade were from zoonotic
agents (that spread from animals to humans). In general,
the U.S. animal health framework has been slow to take
advantage of state-of-the-art technologies being used now to
protect public health; better diagnostic tests for identifying
all animal diseases should be made a priority. The report
also recommends that a coordinating mechanism be
established to enhance partnerships among local, state,
and federal agencies, and the private sector.

S
Photo courtesy U.S. Department of Agriculture
afeguarding animal health is of paramount
importance to the U.S. economy, public Coordination of Framework Components
health, and food supply. There are a number The animal health framework is large; it
of animal diseases of concern that affect the adequacy includes people who handle animals on a daily basis,
of the food supply for a growing world population and veterinarians and other animal health professionals,
have huge implications for global trade and commerce numerous offices in more than 10 federal agencies,
(see Box 1, p. 2). Since many animal disease agents several international organizations, and many
are zoonotic, they carry the potential to affect public supporting institutions. Because of the very large
health on a global scale. Additionally, the impact of an number of actors responsible in some way for
intentional use of animal disease agents to cause illness, safeguarding animal health, it is not surprising that
loss of life, and economic damage could be enormous. effective coordination is a major challenge.
In recognition of the changing influences on animal There are both overlaps and gaps in current
health, the National Academies developed a concept for programs that point to a need for a strategic focal
a three-phase analysis of the U.S. system for dealing with point to enhance partnerships and to integrate all
animal diseases. This report, which embodies the first phase stakeholders into a cohesive whole. While there are
of the study, presents an overview of the animal health several possible models for improved coordination,
framework and examines its overall role in the prevention, the report does not recommend options for a specific
detection, and diagnosis of animal diseases. It examines system-wide mechanism, in part because it has only
how well the current framework has responded to different examined the animal health framework from the
animal disease scenarios and how the framework could partial perspective of prevention, detection, and
be improved. A proposed second phase of the study will diagnosis.
focus on surveillance and monitoring capabilities, and a
third phase will focus on response and recovery from an Recommendation: The nation should establish a
animal disease epidemic. high-level, centralized, authoritative, and accountable
coordinating mechanism or focal point for engaging and associated economies should encourage and
and enhancing partnerships among local, state, and support rapid development, validation, and adoption of
federal agencies as well as the private sector. new technologies and scientific tools for the detection,
diagnosis, and prevention of animal diseases and
Technological Tools for Preventing, Detecting, zoonoses.
and Diagnosing Animal Diseases
Scientific Preparedness for Diagnostics
The current U.S. animal health framework
Laboratory diagnosis of animal diseases in the
has been slow to evaluate, validate, and implement
United States involves federal, state, university, and
new scientific tools and technologies that could
commercial entities. However, the current network
significantly enhance animal disease prevention,
lacks surge capacity and is not prepared for disease
detection, and diagnostic capabilities for the United
agents and toxins outside a relatively narrow list of
States. Technological advances that are now available
diseases. The system also needs better integration with
to the framework include immune system modulators;
the public health diagnostic and surveillance system
animal-embedded chips to monitor temperature and
to strengthen the ability to diagnose and rapidly detect
other physiological indices; vaccines as prevention
most zoonotic and bioterrorism agents. Currently,
strategies, and a range of rapid, automated, sensitive,
there are not enough strategically located facilities in
and portable sampling and assay systems for early
the United States to do research on agents that require
warning and diagnosis.
high levels of containment (containment levels are
Recommendation: Agencies and institutions— classified as Biosafety Levels 1 through 4, with 4 being
including the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) the most restrictive). Additional Biosafety Level 3
and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS)— facilities are needed for research and surge capacity in
responsible for protecting animal industries, wildlife, case of outbreaks.

Box 1. Animal Diseases of Concern

Exotic Newcastle Disease—Most infectious and fatal disease of poultry worldwide. In California in 1971, 11.9
million commercial birds were destroyed to stop the disease. In 2002-2003, outbreak in California, Nevada,
Arizona, Texas, led to destruction of 3.21 million poultry, at a cost of $160 million in federal control efforts.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease—Contagious disease of cattle, swine, and cloven-hoofed species such as deer, sheep
and goats. No incursions in the U.S. since 1929. In the U.K. in 2001, an epidemic that lasted 214 days led to the
destruction of 6.5 million animals.
Monkeypox—A rare viral disease affecting monkeys, rats, mice, and rabbits, and causing a rash and fever in
humans. In 2003, 70 human cases found in six states; the source of infection was traced to prairie dogs kept as pets
that had been in contact with rats shipped into the U.S. from Ghana.
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) –The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that a total of
8,098 people worldwide became sick, and 774 died, when infected with a novel, contagious coronavirus (similar to
a virus found in civets, a type of cat) in 2003.
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE or Mad Cow disease)—Disease affecting the nervous system of
cattle. Not contagious, but is transmitted through ingestion of feed contaminated by an aberrant protein called a
prion. In 2003 a single case was found in Washington State, leading other countries to stop imports of U.S. beef. A
second case was found in Texas in 2005. BSE is linked to variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) known to have
caused 147 human deaths in the United Kingdom as of December 2004.
Avian Influenza—As of January 2005, the H5N1 avian influenza virus killed 34 of 47 infected humans and
resulted in the death and depopulation of over 100 million birds, primarily commercial poultry, as well as
uncounted numbers of wild birds.
Chronic Wasting Disease—A prion disease affecting cervids (deer, elk) is a major problem in some U.S. western
and midwestern states where farmed and wild cervids are infected. There is no conclusive evidence to date that a
CWD prion has caused disease in domestic animals or people.
West Nile Virus—Poorly understood disease affecting birds, horses, and humans. In 2002 and 2003, WNV
infected 15,300 and 5,200 horses in North America, respectively. Human cases lead to flu-like signs or no
symptoms; rare instances of encephalitis and death.
Recommendation: The animal health laboratory regulatory mechanisms that minimize the threat of
network should be expanded and strengthened to introducing emerging infectious agents into the United
ensure sufficient capability and capacity for both States or other unaffected countries. The current system
routine and emergency diagnostic needs, and to ensure has been more ad hoc than strategic.
a robust linkage of all components (federal, state, Recommendation: The United States should commit
university, and commercial laboratories) involved in resources and develop new shared leadership roles
the diagnosis of animal and zoonotic diseases. with other countries and international organizations
Recommendation: To strengthen the animal health in creating global systems for preventing, detecting,
and zoonotic disease research infrastructure, the report and diagnosing known and emerging diseases, disease
recommends that competitive grants be made available agents, and disease threats as they relate to animal and
to scientists to upgrade equipment for animal disease public health.
research and that the nation construct and maintain
government and university Biosafety Level 3 (BSL-3 Importation, Sale, and Transport of
and BSL-3 Ag) facilities for livestock (including large Animals
animals), poultry, and wildlife. The monkeypox outbreak of 2003 revealed a lack
of coordinated federal oversight of the animal-centered
Animal Health Research aspects of diseases transmitted by exotic animals.
Early recognition of emerging diseases requires Import and movement of exotic animals was, and still
a fundamental knowledge of the epidemiology of is, largely uncontrolled. Tracking of these animals in
the disease, which includes an understanding of the the United States is inconsistent and ineffective, and
agents and hosts in their natural environment. Many there is a disturbing lack of standardized testing of the
individual researchers address various diseases relatively health status of exotic animals at the point of origin
independently and usually with a focus on a single host and in companion animal shops, trade fairs, and other
species or mouse model. As a result, medical scientists venues. Considering that the emergence of new disease
may be unaware of key research done in other species agents occurs most frequently at species interfaces,
by veterinary scientists studying a similar, closely monkeypox is not likely to be the last zoonotic agent to
related or even unique animal pathogen. For example, emerge from an exotic animal in the United States.
the animal reservoir and susceptible species for SARS Recommendation: Integrated and standardized
remain undefined and integrated, and collaborative regulations should be developed and implemented
research efforts to study the responses to SARS in nationally to address the import, sale, movement, and
infected humans and diverse animal hosts have not been health of exotic, non-domesticated, and wild-caught
instituted in the United States. animals.
Recommendation: Federal agencies involved in
biomedical research (both human and veterinary) should Addressing Future Animal Disease Risks
establish a method to jointly fund new, competitive, There has been increased recognition and use of
comprehensive, and integrated animal health research well-structured and scientifically based mathematical,
programs; ensure that veterinary and medical scientists epidemiological, and risk analysis models and tools
can work as collaborators; and enhance research, both to define acceptable risks and mitigation strategies
domestically and internationally, on the detection, that can assist in policy and science-based decision-
diagnosis, and prevention of animal and zoonotic making. Efforts to develop scientific data on disease
disease encompassing both animal and human hosts. transmission, effectiveness of control programs,
economic evaluation, and quantitative assessment of
International Interdependence and all factors involved in making policies and regulations
Collaboration should be a priority of the animal health infrastructure,
Globalization, population growth, and expansion working in collaboration with academia, industry, and
of human activity into previously unoccupied global trade partners.
habitats have essentially connected the United States Recommendation: The USDA, DHS, Department
to potential zoonotic and non-zoonotic pathogens of Health and Human Services, and state animal and
residing throughout the world. This necessitates public health agencies and laboratories should improve,
coordinated international collaboration efforts directed expand, and formalize the use of predictive, risk-based
at identifying potential risks worldwide, including tools and models to develop prevention, detection,
diagnostic, and biosecurity systems and strategies for research, diagnostic laboratory investigation, pathology,
indigenous, exotic, and emerging animal diseases. epidemiology, ecosystem health, and food animal
practice.
Education and Training
Recommendation: The USDA, state animal health
There are insufficient graduates to meet the needs agencies, the AVMA, and colleges and schools of
in a number of major and distinct fields of veterinary veterinary medicine and departments of animal science
medicine dealing with various species of food-animals, should develop a national animal health education plan
rural practice (mixed domestic animals), ecosystem focusing on education and training of individuals from
health (including wildlife disease and conservation all sectors involved in disease prevention and early
biology), public health, the many dimensions of detection through day-to-day oversight of animals.
the food system, and biomedical science. Too few
veterinary students are choosing to specialize in basic Public Awareness
biomedical science or pathology.
Increased public awareness is critical in supporting and
Strong and well-functioning front-line detection implementing transformations needed to strengthen the
is provided by animal handlers and personnel working framework against animal disease risks. The lack of
with animals on a day-to-day basis who need education cohesive national advocacy for animal health issues
and training that includes awareness and recognition of generally creates a much more difficult environment
clinical signs, as well as an elementary understanding in which to increase attention and investment in the
of disease transmission and prevention. Responsibility framework for preventing, detecting, and diagnosing
for implementing the educational plan would fall on animal diseases, which may directly impact human
those at the local level. health.
Recommendation: Industry, producers, the American Recommendation: The government, private sector,
Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), government and professional and industry associations should
agencies, and colleges of veterinary medicine should collectively educate and raise the level of awareness
build veterinary capacity through both recruitment of the general public about the importance of public
and preparation of additional veterinary graduates and private investment to strengthen the animal health
into careers in public health, food systems, biomedical framework.

Committee on Assessing the Nation’s Framework for Addressing Animal Diseases: Lonnie J. King (Chair),
Michigan State University, East Lansing; Margaret A. Hamburg (Vice Chair), Nuclear Threat Initiative, Washington,
DC; Sharon Anderson, North Dakota State University (Emeritus), Fargo; Alfonza Atkinson (deceased), Tuskegee
University, Tuskegee, Alabama; Corrie Brown, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens;
Timothy J. Herrman, Kansas State University, Manhattan; Sharon K. Hietala, University of California, Davis;
Helen H. Jensen, Iowa State University, Ames; Carol A. Keiser, C-BAR Cattle Company, Inc., Champaign, Illinois;
Scott R. Lillibridge, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston; Terry F. McElwain, Washington State
University, Pullman; N. Ole Nielsen, University of Guelph (Emeritus), Spruce Grove, Alberta, Canada; Robert A.
Norton, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama; Michael T. Osterholm, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis; M.
Patricia Quinlisk, Iowa Department of Public Health, Des Moines Linda J. Saif, The Ohio State University, Wooster;
Mark C. Thurmond, University of California, Davis; Kevin D. Walker, Inter-American Institute for Cooperation
in Agriculture, Coronado, Costa Rica; Robin Schoen (Director), Elisabeth Reese (Study Director, June-Dec. 2004)
Tina Rouse (Study Director through June 2004), Peggy Tsai (Research Associate), the National Research Council of
the National Academies.
This brief was prepared by the National Research Council based on the committee’s report. For
more information, contact the Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources at http://dels.nas.edu/banr or
202-334-3062. Copies of Animal Health at the Crossroads are available from the National Academies
Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Washington, DC 20001; 800-624-6242; www.nap.edu.
Permission granted to reproduce this brief in its entirety with no additions or alterations.
Copyright 2005 The National Academy of Sciences