The Age of Pax Mongolica

to Power & Legacy

The Mongols: Rise
 An Empire of Change

Perhaps no empire in history has risen so spectacularly as
that of the Mongols. In less than 80 years, a band of warriors
originally comprised of several men grew to an empire that
extended from the Pacific Ocean in eastern Asia to the
borders of eastern Europe.

It is a story of the most dramatic series of conquests in

history and how it was the Mongols themselves who
shattered their own invincibility.

Mongol Empire was the biggest contiguous land empire in history

—almost five times greater than that of Alexander the Great.
 A Century of Dominion
1100 A.D.
 China divided into Northern Sung and Southern Sung.


 Muslim oust the Franks from the Levant.
 Genghis Khan unites Mongols. Expansion of Mongol Empire begins.
 Silk production and weaving established in Italy.
 Paper money, first developed in China.

1200 A.D.
 Death of Genghis Khan.
 Mongols continue their onslaught invading Russia, Poland, and
Hungary.
 The Europe's first envoy to the East, Friar Giovanni Carpini leaves
Rome for Mongol capital at Karakorum.
 Friar William Rubruck sent to Karakorum by the King of France.
 Seventh, and last, Crusade.
 Mongol control central and western Asia.
 Silk road trade prospers again under the “Pax Mongolica.”
 Kublai Khan defeats China and establishes the Yuan dynasty.
 Paper money introduced to Central Asia and Iran by Mongols.
 Marco Polo leaves for the East.
 

Genghis Khan taking oath of unconditional loyalty from his son.

 Power Tactics
 China divided into Northern Sung and Southern Sung.


 Genghis Kahn influenced Mongols in occupying majority of Asia
 Mongols became educated on art of siege warfare, gunpowder in
battles toward Chinese, Turks
 At Genghis Khan’s death, 1227, Mongols monopolized majority
of northern China, Central Asia
 Sons, grandsons took on the very challenging task of the world
conquest
 KHANATES
 Genghis Khan’s empire split up into four distinct khanates, heir
ran each region; new Great Khan monopolized and took over the
whole empire
 Grandsons proceeded in efforts to achieve conquests of China,
Korea, Persia
 1236, Golden Horde, or Tartars, began conquering Russia,
Poland, Hungary
 

Leader and Commanders:

Discussion of battle strategy in an ongoing siege campaign.
 

Mongols clash with European Knights around the Levant region

 

Using captured Chinese technology of Gunpowder and Muslim

technology of making propellant rockets, Mongol warriors built war
machines like this early rocket launcher to blast off any resistance.
 Pax Mongolica
 Pax Mongolica OR The Mongol Peace
 Mongols formed and built an empire with brutality, but
ruled serenely 
 Accepted local belief systems, lifestyle, approved local
rulers to remain in power however they have to always
pay tribute to the Mongols
 Some Mongols took on and adopted elements of more
polished cultures; Mongols in Central Asia, Persia,
adopted Islam
 Stability in Asia
 Mongol Empire instilled peace, and stability across Asia
 Several historians call period Pax Mongolica, “Mongol
Peace”
 Protected trade routes all along Asia, approved trade to
escalate; people, goods, concepts stream across Asia
Eurasia on the eve of Mongol invasion c.
1200



Mongolian Conquests
First Period - 1206


Mongolian Conquests
Second Period 1206 - 1219


Mongolian Conquests
Third Period 1219 - 1223


Mongolian Conquests
Fourth Period 1223 – 1227
Death of Chinggis Khan


Mongolian Conquests
Fifth Period 1227 - 1237


Mongolian Conquests
Sixth Period 1237 - 1259


Mongolian Conquests
Seventh Period 1259 - 1279


Timeline

 Genghis Khan
(1167-1227 A.D.)


 
Birth name Temujin (iron, iron man)
At age 9 engaged to Borte
 Temujin’s father dies on the way back from engagement.
 Temujin and his brothers loose everything and have to
survive on their own.
 1182 Temujin is captured and held by Tayichi’ud (a rival
warlord). He runs away with help of Sorgan-Shire.
 Temujin marries his fiancé Borte.
 In couple month Borte gets kidnapped by Merkit
(another warlord).
 With a help of a few loyal supporters, Temujin
independently launches an attack and rescues his wife
from Merkit against all odds, after almost 8 months of
preparing.
 By 1206 Temujin becomes generalissimos due to his
leadership charisma and skills.
 

The Onon River in present-day Mongolia. Barren steppes where Temujin

was born and raised.
 From Temujin to Genghis Khan
 In 1206 Temujin becomes generalissimos or the
leader of the entire Mongol army.
 The “Kurultai” or the council of regional leaders

“Genghis-Khan” 
unanimously give him the befitting name:

 Genghis is from Tatar, which roughly means

“Universal Ruler”
 He began to unify and organize the scattered
Mongol and other nomadic tribes into a superior
fighting force.
 Genghis Khan was shrewd, ruthless, ambitious,
and a strict disciplinarian. After he became the
undisputed master of Mongolia he set out on a
spectacular career of conquest.
 Genghis Khan aimed to train the best-disciplined
and most effective army of his time.
 As part of his military strategy, he formed an
officer corps from Mongols who were trained in
military tactics. These men were then stationed
with various tribes as a training force. The Mongol
tribes specialized in the art of siege.

 Death & Legacy of Genghis Khan
 In 1226 Genghis Khan falls of the horse


and spends a long time in bed.
 Is treated by a monk names Chang-Chun.
 In 1227 he dies after defeating the Tangut
people.
 His burial place is not historically proven
yet.
 BIGGEST LEGACY:
 Principal laws (Yassa) created by Genghis
Khan
 Everyone in the Empire has to follow Yassa
which makes it very safe/stable.
 Land boundaries are redrawn & dynasties
toppled
 This resulted in the swift unification of
Eurasian lands and people and boosted
traded to new levels of prosperity.
 Silk Road trading reaches Peak success.
 227 Genghis Khan dies after defeating
 The Argument

Was the short-lived but ruthless reign of the
Mongols beneficial or destructive for
Eurasia and its conquered people?

Advantages? vs. Disadvantages?

The Argument
Was the short-lived but ruthless reign of the Mongols beneficial or
destructive for Eurasia and its conquered people?


The Answer:
Few subjects provoke a more heated debate than the impact of the Mongols.
 Were they primarily a destructive force, leaving a swath of ashes and barren earth, or did they
create conditions for the flourishing of cities, trade and cultural exchange across Eurasia?

OR

 Were the atrocities they committed a necessary act for the greater good?

The answer, in fact, is not quite so simple, since it very much depends on when and where we look.
Riazan's tragedy at the hands of the Mongols in 1237 is no more "typical" than is prosperity of Sarai,
the capital of the Golden Horde, at the time of Ibn Battuta's visit nearly a century later.
Too much has been written about the Mongol campaigns and atrocities, but not enough about their
insatiable curiosity and penchant for knowledge. They were not particularly original, but their
effect in broadening and spreading knowledge and skills equaled, or perhaps surpassed, the spread
of Hellenic civilization, which has been attributed to the conqueror, Alexander the Great. SO

For argument’s sake we will look at the “advantages” & “disadvantages” of their
invasions so as to better judge for ourselves.
Disadvantages
 Although the Mongol invasions were
characterized by incurring swift death and
destruction to long established kingdoms, the


carnage & misery was short-lived, since the
tyranny usually subsided as soon as all threat of
resistance, corruption & treason was eliminated.
 This entailed going to any lengths even if it meant
open massacre of common people as a fear factor.
 The Destroyer of Dynasties:
 Biggest loss incurred in the Mid-East: Persian
and Arab Caliphates were brought to ruins.
 Genocides at many of the ancient and
developed centers of human civilization, like
the city of Baghdad & Aleppo, eradicated
entire generations.
 Defeated masses along with
soldiers/politicians were also brutally
slaughtered.
 Destruction of academic, scientific,
philosophical, religious and astronomical
centers resulted in irreparable damages.
Disadvantages
 Invasion of Russia:
 Led by Genghis Khan’s grandson “Batu
Khan.”

 Invasion heralded by the Battle of Kalka
River.
 Later In 1237 with a force of 120,000 men,
crossed a frozen Volga River into Russia.
 Heavy catapult bombardment and intense
siege, resulted in utter destruction of major
cities like Riazan, Kolumna, Moscow,
St. Sophia Cathedral, Kiev
Kolzelsk and Kiev.
 Kiev was considered the golden jewel of
Eastern Europe; Even Mongols wanted to take
it undamaged, but continued resistance
angered them to such an extent that with the
exception of St. Sophia Cathedral and a
fraction of population, everything was
decimated.
 Although Mongols emerged victorious, Batu Khan’s Russian Onslaught

Russian cities laid in ruins never recovering

from the initial attack
 

Mongol siege of the city of Kiev. Pictured: Heavy Artillery and Catapult Battalions wreaking havoc.
Disadvantages
 Invasion of Europe


 Two separate Expeditions led by Batu Khan
(50,000 men) and Subedei Khan (20,000
men) launched two-pronged attack.
 Continuing the winning streak, the larger
armies of Poland and Hungary were
separately defeated merely days apart by
the two Mongolian regiments.
 As was expected, widespread bloodshed
ensued, hereby resulting in massive losses
of both life and property.
 Similar fate followed for Lithuania,
Bulgaria and Serbia, Kingdom of Croatia
and Romania.
 Population of Europe declined steeply.
 Mongols assumed total control of these
regions for sometime.
Mongol clashing with Hungarian
Knights in Europe
Advantages
 Mongol Tribes United
 The comprehensive laws of Yassa brought


sweeping reform and united the variety of
Mongol tribes under one legal system by
eliminating friction and internal wars.
Thanks to the Yassa almost all kinds of
crime was eradicated as well.
 Turkic Nomads are also united with
Mongols in a mutual and strategic alliance.
 Transforms Mongols from barbaric nomads
to ruling elite.
 Brutally conquered lands, BUT mostly
assimilated afterwards absorbing the higher
and more polished cultures for good (in
Persia for instance).
 Effectively administered conquered people
often by importing foreign officials and
scholars.
 Patronized academics, sciences, philosophy
and religion of their choice.
 Advantages
 SECURITY & ADMINISTRATION:
 Unprecedented security as a result of a united Eurasia under
the Mongols.


 Strict enforcement of Yassa code of laws. Maintenance of
the “Fear Factor” by prescribing extreme punishments—
most often beheading.
Exotic Golden Silk:
 Dedicated law enforcement forces. Exclusive Color of the
 Use of advanced weaponry, provided a stronger hold Khan

over their subjects.

 They readily adopted the system of administration of the
conquered states, placing a handful of Mongols in the
top positions but allowing former local officials to run
everyday affairs. This clever system allowed them to
control each city and province but also to be in touch
with the population through their administrators.
 Superb system of levying government taxes on trade and
subjects—allowed for stable economies.
 Flourishing administration and wealth resulted in
undertaking ambitious public projects, like
reconstruction of the Grand Canal under the Yuang
Dynasty. 
 Advantages
 ROADS & COMMUNICATION:
 This is second most important achievement after
security.


 Built a vast array of roads across the empire through
the different Khanates to facilitate official
communications and trade—the like of which that
were never seen before.
 Super-fast Postal Service called “Yam,” was
organized where a messenger would typically travel
25 miles from one station to the next, and he would
Rapid Postal System - Carriers
either receive a fresh, rested horse or relay the mail
to the next rider to ensure the speediest possible
delivery.
 The Mongol riders regularly covered 125 miles per
day, which is faster than the fastest record set by the
Pony Express some 600 years later.
 Legend has it that an unprotected young female
could take a sack of gold safely from the Don River
to Khanbaligh, the city of the Khans.
 A letter sent by the emperor in Beijing and carried
by an envoy wearing his passport, could reach the
Ilkhanid capital Tabriz, some 5,000 miles away, in
about a month –an exceptional feat.
 Advantages
 SILK ROAD REVITALIZED: Boost of Trade & information
 The political unification of Asia under the Mongols resulted in active


trade and the transfer and resettlement of artists and craftsmen along the
main routes. New influences were thus integrated with established local
artistic traditions.

 The Mongols reopened four major trade routes that had been closed, or
disrupted by wars and bandits, for centuries:
1. The old Silk Road, going from West China, through the Tarim Basin,
West Turkestan and on into Iran;
2. an alternate route from the lower Volga River, to west China.
3. a sea route from China to the Persian Gulf; and
4. a Siberian route, that began in the Volga-Kama region, ran through
southern Siberia to Lake Baikal, through Karakorum and on into
Peking

 Merchants dispatched their caravans over these roads carrying new and
useful things to Europe. This relinking of Europe and the Orient resulted
in an increased cultural exchange, and a greater knowledge of world
geography.
 Advantages
 SILK ROAD REVITALIZED: Boost of Trade & information
 Mongol rule in Asia opened that continent to European missionaries and
traders, of whom the best known was Marco Polo.


 Sparked Europe's interest in a water route to China for access to the
enormous trade possibilities, and in an alternate route to replace the
difficult and dangerous overland route. The search for a water route to
China set off a wave of exploration, leading to a sea route to India around
the Cape of Good Hope, and the accidental discovery of the New World.

 Genghis Khan and his successors actively promoted the growth of trade
and travelers by protecting the caravans that made their way across the
ancient Asian silk routes and by establishing rest stations for weary
merchants and fortified outposts for those harassed by bandits.
 Secure trade routes made for prosperous merchants and wealthy,
cosmopolitan cities.
 They also facilitated the spread of foods such as sorghum, sugar, citrus
fruits, and grapes; inventions such as firearms/ballistics, printing, and
windmills; and techniques ranging from those involving papermaking to
those for improving irrigation from one civilization to another.
 IN EFFECT, THE SILK ROAD REACHED A LEVEL OF PORSPERITY
THAT HAD NEVER BEEN SEEN BEFORE.
 FALL OF THE EMPIRE
 The Mongol Empire did not last long, because it was

too big and had lost any remaining unity of culture
or identity.
 Actually, it has begun to disintegrate shortly after it
reached its peak of expansion in the late 1200's.
 The Mongols were dauntless fighters, but had little
experience in administration. They relied upon other
people (foreigners) to look after their affairs.
 They had very much assimilated into their
conquered cultures hence weakening the original
Mongolian connection.
 Mongols: Legacy
 Paradoxically, Mongol expansion, which began as a

"barbarian" mania of violence and destruction, had
become a major force for economic and social
development and the enhancement of civilized life.
 In the end, civilization was rebuilt and benefited
greatly from the newly established global economy.
In any case, the Mongols should be remembered as a
significant player in world history. The significance
of their conquests surpasses what any history article
will ever be able to describe...
 References
http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/index.html
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/

http://www.indiana.edu/~iaunrc/site/our_region/mongolia.html
http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Mongol_Empire
http://history-world.org/mongol_empire.htm
Morgan, David. The Mongols. Basil Blackwell, 1986.
A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Vol 1, (Blackwell Pub.:1998), by David
Christian.
Carboni, Stefano, and Qamar Adamjee. "The Legacy of Genghis Khan". In Heilbrunn
Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/khan1/hd_khan1.htm (October 2003)
Rossabi, Morris. "Genghis Khan." In The Encyclopedia of Asian History, vol. 1, pp. 496–98.
New York: Scribner, 1988
A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Vol 1, (Blackwell Pub.:1998), by David
Christian.