NATIONAL CURRICULUM

FRAMEWORK
2005
December 2005 ISBN 81-7450-467-2
Agrahayana 1927

PD 5T SU

© National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2005

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 FOREWORD

I have had the privilege of participating in a remarkable process of social deliberation

initiated by NCERT to focus public attention on what should be taught to our children and
how. In the course of this wide-ranging churning of ideas and expectations, I have worked
closely with a large number of very special individuals for the preparation of the National
Curriculum Framework presented in this document. The names of these individuals are
given in this document.
There is much analysis and a lot of advice. All this is accompanied by frequent reminders
that specificities matter, that the mother tongue is a critical conduit, that social, economic
and ethnic backgrounds are important for enabling children to construct their own
knowledge. Media and educational technologies are recognised as significant, but the teacher
remains central. Diversities are emphasised but never viewed as problems. There is a
continuing recognition that societal learning is an asset and that the formal curriculum will be
greatly enriched by integrating with that. There is a celebration of plurality and an
understanding that within a broad framework plural approaches would lead to enhanced
creativity.
The document frequently revolves around the question of curriculum load on children.
In this regard we seem to have fallen into a pit. We have bartered away understanding for
memory-based, short-term information accumulation. This must be reversed, particularly
now that the mass of what could be memorised has begun to explode. We need to give our
children some taste of understanding, following which they would be able to learn and
create their own versions of knowledge as they go out to meet the world of bits, images
and transactions of life. Such a taste would make the present of our children wholesome,
creative and enjoyable; they would not be traumatised by the excessive burden of information
that is required merely for a short time before the hurdle race we call examination. The
document suggests some ways of getting out of this self-imposed adversity. Achieving
some degree of success in this area would also signify that we have learnt to appreciate the
capacity for learning and the futility of filling up children’s memory banks with information
that is best kept as ink marks on paper or bits on a computer disc.
Education is not a physical thing that can be delivered through the post or through a
teacher. Fertile and robust education is always created, rooted in the physical and cultural soil
of the child, and nourished through interaction with parents, teachers, fellow students and
the community. The role and dignity of teachers in this function must be strengthened and
underlined. There is a mutuality to the genuine construction of knowledge. In this
 iv

transaction the teacher also learns if the child is not forced to remain passive. Since children
usually perceive and observe more than grown-ups, their potential role as knowledge
creators needs to be appreciated. From personal experience I can say with assurance that a
lot of my limited understanding is due to my interaction with children. The document does
dwell on this aspect.
The rich and comprehensive nature of this document would not have been achieved
without a special ignition that enveloped all those who got involved. I do not know who
struck the spark — perhaps it was no one in particular. Perhaps the effort happened at a
point in time when a critical mass of discomfort had accumulated. Enough is enough, was
the feeling amongst most of the participants. Perhaps the enthusiasm of a few was
infectious.
It was tempting to assign blame for many things that have not gone as well as we
wished many decades ago. We have tried to avoid playing the blame game – perhaps due to
the fact that we are all responsible in one way or another. Most of us are responsible as
members of a middle class that had begun to emotionally secede from the mass of people
in the country. I was struck by the frequency of words like ‘pluralism’, ‘equity’ and ‘equality’
during our discussions. I do not believe that they are part of a political rhetoric, because we
talked very little politics in our extensive discussions. I believe this came about because we
were led to a conviction that our strength lies in the presently deprived three-fourths of our
people. Marrying their socially acquired competences and skills with academic pursuits in
our educational institutions would lead to a special flowering of talent and skills.
The document suggests ways of moving in that direction. Some of the systemic
changes suggested would definitely help. I hope we can become operational on ideas of a
common school system, work and education, and letting children enter the world of formal
learning through the language of their home and environment.
We do not feel daunted by the task. We feel it is doable. I hope this effort might start
a freedom movement for the education of our young — away from some of the tyrannies
in which we have enveloped ourselves.

Yash Pal
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005 owes its present shape and form to the
flurry of ideas generated through a series of intensive deliberations by eminent scholars
from different disciplines, principals, teachers and parents, representatives of NGOs, NCERT
faculty, and several other stakeholders at various levels. It received significant contributions
from state Secretaries of Education and Directors of SCERTs, and participants of the
regional seminars organised at the RIEs. Experiences shared by principals of private schools
and Kendriya Vidyalayas and by teachers of rural schools across the country helped in
sharpening our ideas. Voices of thousands of people—students, parents, and public at
large—through regular mail and electronic media helped in mapping multiple viewpoints.
The document has benefited immensely from a generous flow of constructive
suggestions and perceptive comments from members of NCERT’s own establishment
and its higher-level committees, i.e. Executive Committee, General Council and Central
Advisory Board of Education. State governments were specifically requested to organise
workshops to discuss the draft NCF during July-August 2005, and we are grateful for the
reports received from several states and the Azim Premji Foundation which organised a
seminar in collaboration with the governments of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, etc. Discussions
were also organised by Kerala Sastra Sahithya Parishad (Trichur) and All India People’s
Science Network (Trichur), Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti (New Delhi), SIEMAT (Patna),
The Concerned for Working Children, Bangalore, Trust for Educational Integrated
Development (Ranchi), Koshish Charitable Trust (Patna), and Digantar (Jaipur). The Council
for Indian School Certificate Examination (New Delhi), Central Board of Secondary
Education (New Delhi), Boards of Secondary Education of States, Council of Boards of
School Education (COBSE) in India (New Delhi) actively helped us in the crystallization
of our ideas. Sincere acknowledgement for hosting meetings is due to the Academic Staff
College of India, Hyderabad; Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, Mumbai;
Jadavpur University, Kolkata; Ali Yavar Jung National Institute of Hearing Handicapped,
Mumbai; National Institute of Mental Health, Secunderabad; M.V. Foundation, Secunderabad;
Sewagram, Wardha; National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development,
Guwahati; State Council of Educational Research and Training, Thiruvananthapuram, Central
Institute of English and Foreign Languages, Hyderabad, Central Institute of Indian
Languages, Mysore; National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad; SMYM Samiti, Lonawala,
Pune; North Eastern Hill University, Shillong; DSERT, Bangalore; IUCAA, Pune; Centre
for Environment Education, Ahmedabad and Vijay Teachers College, Bangalore.
 vi

NCF-2005 has been translated into the languages of VIII Schedule of the Constitution.
Sincere thanks are due to Dr. D. Barkataki (Assamese), Shri Debashish Sengupta (Bangla),
Dr. Anil Bodo (Bodo), Prof. Veena Gupta (Dogri), Shri Kashyap Mankodi (Gujarati),
Ms. Pragathi Saxena and Mr. Prabhat Ranjan (Hindi), Shri S. S. Yadurajan, (Kannada), Dr. Somnath
Raina (Kashmiri), Shri Damodar Ghanekar (Konkani), Dr. Neeta Jha (Maithili), Shri K. K.
Krishna Kumar (Malayalam), Shri T. Surjit Singh Thokchom (Manipuri), Dr. Datta Desai
(Marathi), Dr. Khagen Sarma (Nepali), Dr. Madan Mohan Pradhan (Oriya), Shri Ranjit
Singh Rangila (Punjabi), Shri Dutta Bhushan Polkan (Sanskrit), Shri Subodh Hansda (Santhali),
Dr. K.P. Lekhwani (Sindhi), Mr A. Vallinayagam (Tamil), Shri V Balasubhramanyam
(Telugu) and Dr. Nazir Hussain (Urdu). We place on record our gratitude to Mr Raghavendra,
Ms. Ritu, Dr. Apoorvanand, and Ms. Latika Gupta, Dr. Madhavi Kumar, Dr. Manjula
Mathur and Ms. Indu Kumar for editing the Hindi text; and to Shri Harsh Sethi and
Ms. Malini Sood for a meticulous scrutiny of the manuscript and Shri Nasiruddin Khan
and Dr. Sandhya Sahoo for reading parts of the manuscript and making helpful suggestions.
We also express our gratitude to Ms. Shweta Rao for the design and layout of the document,
Mr. Robin Banerjee for photographs on the cover and page 78 and
Mr. R.C. Dass of CIET for other photographs, our colleagues in DCETA for providing
support in dissemination of NCF through the NCERT website and the Publication
Department for bringing out the NCF in its present form. We are most grateful to
Mr. R. K. Laxman for granting us permission to reprint two cartoons (P. 11 and P. 77)
drawn by him.
The list is by no means exhaustive, and we are grateful to all those who contributed
in the making of the document.
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Executive Committee of NCERT had taken the decision, at its meeting held on 14 and
19 July 2004, to revise the National Curriculum Framework, following the statement made
by the Hon’ble Minister of Human Resource Development in the Lok Sabha that the
Council should take up such a revision. Subsequently, the Education Secretary, Ministry of
HRD communicated to the Director of NCERT the need to review the National
Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCFSE – 2000) in the light of the report,
Learning Without Burden (1993). In the context of these decisions, a National Steering
Committee, chaired by Prof. Yash Pal, and 21 National Focus Groups were set up.
Membership of these committees included representatives of institutions of advanced
learning, NCERT’s own faculty, school teachers and non-governmental organisations.
Consultations were held in all parts of the country, in addition to five major regional
seminars held at the NCERT’s Regional Institute of Education in Mysore, Ajmer, Bhopal,
Bhubaneswar and Shillong. Consultations with state Secretaries, SCERTs and examination
boards were carried out. A national conference of rural teachers was organised to seek their
advice. Advertisements were issued in national and regional newspapers inviting public
opinion, and a large number of responses were received.
The revised National Curriculum Framework (NCF) opens with a quotation from
Rabindranath Tagore’s essay, Civilisation and Progress, in which the poet reminds us that a
‘creative spirit’ and ‘generous joy’ are key in childhood, both of which can be distorted by
an unthinking adult world. The opening chapter discusses curricular reform efforts made
since Independence. The National Policy on Education (NPE, 1986) proposed the National
Curriculum Framework as a means of evolving a national system of education,
recommending a core component derived from the vision of national development
enshrined in the Constitution. The Programme of Action (POA, 1992) elaborated this focus
by emphasising relevance, flexibility and quality.
Seeking guidance from the Constitutional vision of India as a secular, egalitarian and
pluralistic society, founded on the values of social justice and equality, certain broad aims of
education have been identified in this document. These include independence of thought
and action, sensitivity to others’ well-being and feelings, learning to respond to new
situations in a flexible and creative manner, predisposition towards participation in
democratic processes, and the ability to work towards and contribute to economic
processes and social change. For teaching to serve as a means of strengthening our
democratic way of life, it must respond to the presence of first generation school-goers,
whose retention is imperative owing to the Constitutional amendment that has made
 viii

elementary education a fundamental right of every child. Ensuring health, nutrition and an
inclusive school environment empowering all children in their learning, across differences
of caste, religion, gender, disability, is enjoined upon us by the Constitutional amendment.
The fact that learning has become a source of burden and stress on children and their
parents is an evidence of a deep distortion in educational aims and quality. To correct this
distortion, the present NCF proposes five guiding principles for curriculum development:
(i) connecting knowledge to life outside the school; (ii) ensuring that learning shifts away
from rote methods; (iii) enriching the curriculum so that it goes beyond textbooks;
(iv) making examinations more flexible and integrating them with classroom life; and
(v) nurturing an overriding identity informed by caring concerns within the democratic
polity of the country.
All our pedagogic efforts during the primary classes greatly depend on professional
planning and the significant expansion of Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE).
Indeed, the revision of primary school syllabi and textbooks needs to be undertaken in the
light of the well-known principles of ECCE. The nature of knowledge and children’s own
strategies of learning are discussed in Chapter 2, which formulates a theoretical basis for the
recommendations made in Chapter 3 in the different curricular areas. The fact that
knowledge is constructed by the child implies that curricula, syllabi and textbooks should
enable the teacher in organising classroom experiences in consonance with the child’s nature
and environment, and thus providing opportunities for all children. Teaching should aim at
enhancing children’s natural desire and strategies to learn. Knowledge needs to be
distinguished from information, and teaching needs to be seen as a professional activity, not
as coaching for memorisation or as transmission of facts. Activity is the heart of the child’s
attempt to make sense of the world around him/her. Therefore, every resource must be
deployed to enable children to express themselves, handle objects, explore their natural and
social milieu, and to grow up healthy. If children’s classroom experiences are to be organised
in a manner that permits them to construct knowledge, then our school system requires
substantial systemic reforms (Chapter 5) and reconceptualisation of curricular areas or school
subjects (Chapter 3) and resources to improve the quality of the school ethos (Chapter 4).
In all the four familiar areas of the school curriculum, i.e. language, mathematics,
science and social sciences, significant changes are recommended with a view to making
education more relevant to the present day and future needs, and in order to alleviate the
stress with which children are coping today. This NCF recommends the softening of subject
boundaries so that children can get a taste of integrated knowledge and the joy of
understanding. In addition, plurality of textbooks and other material, which could
incorporate local knowledge and traditional skills, and a stimulating school environment
 ix

that responds to the child’s home and community environment, are also suggested. In
language, a renewed attempt to implement the three-language formula is suggested, along
with an emphasis on the recognition of children’s mother tongues, including tribal
languages, as the best medium of education. The multilingual character of Indian society
should be seen as a resource to promote multilingual proficiency in every child, which
includes proficiency in English. This is possible only if learning builds on a sound language
pedagogy in the mother tongue. Reading and writing, listening and speech, contribute to the
child’s progress in all curricular areas and must be the basis for curriculum planning.
Emphasis on reading throughout the primary classes is necessary to give every child a solid
foundation for school learning.
The teaching of mathematics should enhance the child’s resources to think and reason,
to visualise and handle abstractions, to formulate and solve problems. This broad spectrum
of aims can be covered by teaching relevant and important mathematics embedded in the
child’s experience. Succeeding in mathematics should be seen as the right of every child.
For this, widening its scope and relating it to other subjects is essential. The infrastructural
challenge involved in making available computer hardware, and software and connectivity
to every school should be pursued.
The teaching of science should be recast so that it enables children to examine and
analyse everyday experiences. Concerns and issues pertaining to the environment should be
emphasised in every subject and through a wide range of activities involving outdoor project
work. Some of the information and understanding flowing from such projects could
contribute to the elaboration of a publicly accessible, transparent database on India’s
environment, which would in turn become a most valuable educational resource. If well
planned, many of these student projects could lead to knowledge generation. A social
movement along the lines of Children’s Science Congress should be visualised in order to
promote discovery learning across the nation, and eventually throughout South Asia.
In the social sciences, the approach proposed in the NCF recognises disciplinary markers
while emphasising integration on significant themes, such as water. A paradigm shift is
recommended, proposing the study of the social sciences from the perspective of
marginalised groups. Gender justice and a sensitivity towards issues related to SC and ST
communities and minority sensibilities must inform all sectors of the social sciences. Civics
should be recast as political science, and the significance of history as a shaping influence on
the child’s conception of the past and civic identity should be recognised.
This NCF draws attention to four other curricular areas: work, the arts and heritage
crafts, health and physical education, and peace. In the context of work, certain radical
steps to link learning with work from the primary stage upwards are suggested on the
 x

ground that work transforms knowledge into experience and generates

important personal and social values, such as self-reliance, creativity and
cooperation. It also inspires new forms of knowledge and creativity. At the senior level, a
strategy to formally recognise out-of-school resources for work is recommended to benefit
children who opt for livelihood-related education. Such out-of-school agencies need
accreditation so that they can provide ‘work benches’ where children can work with tools
and other resources. Craft mapping is recommended to identify zones where vocational
training in craft forms involving local craftpersons can be made available
to children.
Art as a subject at all stages is recommended, covering all four major spheres, i.e.
music, dance, visual arts and theatre. The emphasis should be on interactive approaches, not
instruction, because the goal of art education is to promote aesthetic and personal
awareness and the ability to express oneself in different forms. The importance of India’s
heritage crafts, both in terms of their economic and aesthetic values, should be recognised
as being relevant to school education.
The child’s success at school depends on nutrition and well-planned physical activity
programmes, hence resources and school time must be deployed for the strengthening of
the midday meal programme. Special efforts are needed to ensure that girls receive as much
attention in health and physical education programmes as boys from the pre-school stage
upwards.
Peace as a precondition for national development and as a social temper is proposed
as a comprehensive value framework that has immense relevance today in view of the
growing tendency across the world towards intolerance and violence as a way of resolving
conflicts. The potential of peace education for socialising children into a democratic and just
culture can be actualised through appropriate activities and a judicious choice of topics in all
subjects and at all stages. Peace education as an area of study is recommended for inclusion
in the curriculum for teacher education.
The school ethos is discussed as a dimension of the curriculum as it predisposes the
child towards the aims of education and strategies of learning necessary for success at
school. As a resource, school time needs to be planned in a flexible manner. Locally planned
and flexible school calendars and time tables which permit time slots of different lengths
required for different kinds of activities, such as project work and outdoor excursions to
natural and heritage sites, are recommended. Efforts are required for preparing more
learning resources for children, especially books and reference materials in regional
languages, for school and teacher reference libraries, and for access to interactive rather than
disseminative technologies. The NCF emphasises the importance of multiplicity and fluidity
 xi

of options at the senior secondary level, discouraging the entrenched tendency to place
children in fixed streams, and limiting opportunities of children, especially from the rural
areas.
In the context of systemic reforms, this document emphasises strengthening Panchayati
Raj institutions by the adoption of a more streamlined approach to encourage community
participation as a means of enhancing quality and accountability. A variety of school-based
projects pertaining to the environment could help create the knowledge base for the Panchayati
Raj institutions to better manage and regenerate local environmental resources. Academic
planning and leadership at the school level is essential for improving quality and strategic
differentiation of roles is necessary at block and cluster levels. In teacher education, radical
steps are required to reverse the recent trend towards the dilution of professional norms as
recommended by the Chattopadhyaya Commission (1984). Pre-service training programmes
need to be more comprehensive and lengthy, incorporating sufficient opportunities for
observation of children and integration of pedagogic theory with practice through school
internship.
Examination reforms constitute the most important systemic measure to be taken for
curricular renewal and to find a remedy for the growing problem of psychological pressure
that children and their parents feel, especially in Classes X and XII. Specific measures include
changing the typology of the question paper so that reasoning and creative abilities replace
memorisation as the basis of evaluation, and integration of examinations with classroom
life by encouraging transparency and internal assessment. The stress on pre-board
examinations must be reversed, and strategies enabling children to opt for different levels
of attainment should be encouraged to overcome the present system of generalised
classification into ‘pass’ and ‘fail’ categories.
Finally, the document recommends partnerships between the school system and other
civil society groups, including non-governmental organisations and teacher organisations.
The innovative experiences already available should be mainstreamed, and awareness of the
challenges implied in the Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) should become
a subject of wide-ranging cooperation between the state and all agencies concerned about
children.
 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL STEERING COMMITTEE

1. Prof. Yash Pal (Chairperson) 6. Ms. Mina Swaminathan

Former Chairman Hony. Director
University Grants Commission Uttara Devi Centre
11B, Super Deluxe Flats for Gender & Development
Sector 15A, NOIDA M.S. Swaminathan Research
Uttar Pradesh Foundation, 3rd Cross Road
Taramani Institutional Area
2. Acharya Ramamurti Chennai 600113
Chairman Tamil Nadu
Shram Bharti, Khadigram
P.O. Khadigram 7 Dr. Padma M. Sarangapani
Dist. Jamui 811313 Associate Fellow
Bihar National Institute of Advanced Studies
Indian Institute of Science Campus
3. Dr. Shailesh A. Shirali Bangalore 560012
Principal Karnataka
Amber Valley Residential School
K.M. Road, Mugthihalli 8. Prof. R. Ramanujam
Chikmagalur 577101 Institute of Mathematical Science
Karnataka 4th Cross, CIT Campus
Tharamani, Chennai 600113
4. Shri Rohit Dhankar Tamil Nadu
Director, Digantar, Todi Ramzanipura
Khonagorian Road, 9. Prof. Anil Sadgopal
P.O. Jagatpura (Department of Education,
Jaipur 302025 Delhi University)
Rajasthan E-8/29 A, Sahkar Nagar
Bhopal 462039
5. Shri Poromesh Acharya Madhya Pradesh
(Former Member, Education
Commission, West Bengal) 10. Prof. G. Ravindra
L/F9, Kusthia Road Principal
Government Housing Estate Regional Institute of
Avantika Avasam Education (NCERT)
Kolkata 700039 Manasgangotri, Mysore 570006
West Bengal Karnataka
 xiii

11. Prof. Damyanti J. Modi 18. Dr. B.A. Dabla

(Former Head, Education Department Professor and Head
Bhavnagar University) Department of Sociology &
2209, A/2, Ananddhara Social Work
Near Vadodaria Park, Hill Drive University of Kashmir
Bhavnagar 364002 Srinagar 190006
Gujarat Jammu & Kashmir

12. Ms. Sunila Masih 19. Shri Ashok Vajpeyi

Teacher, Mitra G.H.S. School (Former Vice Chancellor
Sohagpur, P.O. Mahatma Gandhi International
Dist. Hoshangabad 461 771 Hindi University)
Madhya Pradesh C-60, Anupam Apartments
B-13, Vasundhara Enclave
13. Ms. Harsh Kumari Delhi 110096
Headmistress, CIE
Experimental Basic School 20. Prof. Valson Thampu
Department of Education St. Stephen's Hospital
University of Delhi G-3, Administration Block
Delhi 110007 Tis Hazari, Delhi 110054

14. Shri Trilochan Dass Garg 21. Prof. Shanta Sinha

Principal, Kendriya Vidyalaya No. 1 Director
Bhatinda 151001 M. Venkatarangaiya Foundation
Punjab 201, Narayan Apartments
West Marredpally
15. Prof. Arvind Kumar Secunderabad 500026
Centre Director Andhra Pradesh
Homi Bhabha Centre for
Science Education 22. Dr. Vijaya Mulay
V.N. Purao Marg (Founder Principal, CET
Mankhurd, Mumbai 400088 NCERT)
Maharashtra President, India Documentary
Producers Association
16. Prof. Gopal Guru B-42, Friends Colony (West)
Centre for Political Studies New Delhi 110065
School of Social Science
Jawaharlal Nehru University 23. Prof. Mrinal Miri
New Delhi 110 067 Vice-Chancellor
North Eastern Hill University
17. Dr. Ramachandra Guha P.O. NEHU Campus
22 A, Brunton Road Mawkynroh Umshing
Bangalore 560025 Shillong 793022
Karnataka Meghalaya
 xiv

24. Prof. Talat Aziz 31. Dr. Anita Julka

IASE, Faculty of Education, Reader, DEGSN, NCERT
Jamia Millia Islamia Sri Aurobindo Marg
Jamia Nagar New Delhi 110016
New Delhi 110025
32. Prof. Krishna Kumar
25. Prof. Savita Sinha Director, NCERT
Head, DESSH, NCERT Sri Aurobindo Marg
Sri Aurobindo Marg New Delhi 110016
New Delhi 110016
33 Mrs. Anita Kaul, IAS
26. Prof. K.K. Vasishtha Secretary, NCERT
Head, DEE, NCERT Sri Aurobindo Marg
Sri Aurobindo Marg New Delhi 110016
New Delhi 110016
34. Shri Ashok Ganguly
27. Dr. Sandhya Paranjpe Chairman
Reader, DEE, NCERT Central Board of
Sri Aurobindo Marg Secondary Education (CBSE)
New Delhi 110016 Shiksha Kendra
2, Community Centre
28 Prof. C.S. Nagaraju Preet Vihar, Delhi 110 092
Head, DERPP, NCERT
Sri Aurobindo Marg 35. Prof. M.A. Khader (Member Secretary)
New Delhi 110016 Head, Curriculum Group, NCERT
Sri Aurobindo Marg
29. Dr. Jyotsna Tiwari New Delhi 110016
Lecturer, DESSH, NCERT
Sri Aurobindo Marg
New Delhi 110016 Members of Curriculum Group,
NCERT
30. Prof. M. Chandra
Head, DESM, NCERT Dr. Ranjana Arora
Sri Aurobindo Marg Dr. Amarendra Behera
New Delhi 110016 Mr. R. Meganathan
CONTENTS
FOREWORD iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY vii
MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL STEERING COMMITTEE xii
1. Perspective 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Retrospect 3
1.3 National Curriculum Framework 4
1.4 Guiding Principles 4
1.5 The Quality Dimension 7
1.6 The Social Context of Education 9
1.7 Aims of Education 10
2. Learning and Knowledge 12
2.1 Primacy of the Active Learner 12
2.2 Learners in Context 13
2.3 Development and Learning 14
2.4 Implications for Curriculum and Practice 17
2.4.1 Teaching for Construction of Knowledge
2.4.2 The Value of Interactions
2.4.3 Designing Learning Experiences
2.4.4 Approaches to Planning
2.4.5 Critical Pedagogy
2.5 Knowledge and Understanding 24
2.5.1 Basic Capabilities
2.5.2 KnowledgeinPractice
2.5.3 Forms of Understanding
2.6 Recreating Knowledge 29
2.7 Children’s Knowledge and Local Knowledge 30
2.8 School Knowledge and the Community 32
2.9 Some Developmental Considerations 33
3. Curricular Areas, School Stages and Assessment 35
3.1 Language 36
3.1.1 Language Education
3.1.2 Home/First Language(s) or Mother Tongue Education
3.1.3 Second Language Acquisition
3.1.4 Learning to Read and Write
3.2 Mathematics 42
3.2.1 Vision for School Mathematics
3.2.2 TheCurriculum
3.2.3 ComputerScience
3.3 Science 46
3.3.1 The Curriculum at different Stages
3.3.2 Outlook
 xvi

3.4 Social Sciences 50

3.4.1 The Proposed Epistemological Frame
3.4.2 PlanningtheCurriculum
3.4.3 Approaches to Pedagogy and Resources
3.5 Art Education 54
3.6 Health and Physical Education 56
3.6.1 Strategies
3.7 Work and Education 58
3.8 Education for Peace 61
3.8.1 Strategies
3.9 Habitat and Learning 64
3.10 Schemes of Study and Assessment 65
3.10.1 Early Childhood Education
3.10.2 Elementary School
3.10.3 Secondary School
3.10.4 Higher Secondary School
3.10.5 Open Schooling and Bridge Schooling
3.11 Assessment and Evaluation 71
3.11.1 The Purpose of Assessment
3.11.2 Assessing Learners
3.11.3 Assessment in the Course of Teaching
3.11.4 Curricular Areas that Cannot be ‘Tested for Marks’
3.11.5 Design and Conduct of Assessment
3.11.6 Self-assessment and Feedback
3.11.7 Areas that Require Fresh Thinking
3.11.8 Assessment at Different Stages
4. School and Classroom Environment 78
4.1 The Physical Environment 79
4.2 Nurturing an Enabling Environment 82
4.3 Participation of All Children 83
4.3.1 Children's Rights
4.3.2 Policy of Inclusion
4.4 Discipline and Participatory Management 87
4.5 Space for Parents and the Community 88
4.6 Curriculum Sites and Learning Resources 89
4.6.1 Texts and Books
4.6.2 Libraries
4.6.3 Educational Technology
4.6.4 Tools and Laboratories
4.6.5 Other Sites and Spaces
4.6.6 Need for Plurality and Alternative Materials
4.6.7 Organising and Pooling Resources
4.7 Time 95
4.8 Teacher’s Autonomy and Professional Independence 98
4.8.1 Time for Reflection and Planning
 xvii

5. Systemic Reforms 101

5.1 Concern for Quality 102
5.1.1 Academic Planning and Monitoring for Quality
5.1.2 Academic Leadership in Schools and for
School Monitoring
5.1.3 The Panchayats and Education
5.2 Teacher Education for Curriculum Renewal 107
5.2.1 Present Concerns in Teacher Education
5.2.2 Vision for Teacher Education
5.2.3 Major Shifts in the Teacher Education Programme
5.2.4 In-Service Education and Training of Teachers
5.2.5 Initiatives and Strategies for In-Service Education
5.3 Examination Reforms 114
5.3.1 Paper Setting, Examining and Reporting
5.3.2 Flexibility in Assessment
5.3.3 Board Examinations at Other Levels
5.3.4 Entrance Examinations
5.4 Work-centred Education 116
5.4.1 Vocational Education and Training
5.5 Innovation in Ideas and Practices 119
5.5.1 Plurality of Textbooks
5.5.2 EncouragingInnovations
5.5.3 The Use of Technology
5.6 New Partnerships 121
5.6.1 Role of NGOs, Civil Society Groups
and Teacher Organisations
Epilogue 124
Appendix I 126
Summary
Appendix II 131
Letters from Education Secretary, Government of India, MHRD,
Department of Secondary and Higher Education
Index 134
“When I was a child I had the freedom to make my own toys out of trifles and create my own
games from imagination. In my happiness my playmates had their full share; in fact the complete
enjoyment of my games depended upon their taking part in them. One day, in this paradise of
our childhood, entered a temptation from the market world of the adult. A toy bought from an
English shop was given to one of our companions; it was perfect, big and wonderfully life-like.
He became proud of the toy and less mindful of the game; he kept that expensive thing carefully
away from us, glorying in his exclusive possession of it, feeling himself superior to his playmates
whose toys were cheap. I am sure if he could have used the modern language of history he would
have said that he was more civilised than ourselves to the extent of his owning that ridiculously
perfect toy. One thing he failed to realise in his excitement – a fact which at the moment seemed
to him insignificant – that this temptation obscured something a great deal more perfect than his
toy, the revelation of the perfect child. The toy merely expressed his wealth, but not the child’s
creative spirit, not the child’s generous joy in his play, his open invitation to all who were his
compeers to his play-world”.
From Civilisation and Progress by Rabindranath Tagore
 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

India is a free nation with a rich variegated history, an extraordinarily

complex cultural diversity and a commitment to democratic values
and well-being for all. Ever since 1986 when the National Policy on
Education was approved by Parliament, efforts to redesign the
curriculum have been focused on the creation of a national system
of education. Given the enormity and importance of the task of
educating the country’s children, it is necessary that, from time to
time, we create occasions to collectively sit back and ask ourselves,
“What is it that we are doing in our engagement with this task? Is it
time for us to refresh what we provide to our children in the name
of education?”
If we look at what the system of education has accomplished
since Independence, perhaps we have much to be satisfied with.
Today, our country engages nearly 55 lakh teachers spread over
around 10 lakh schools to educate about 2,025 lakh children. While
82 per cent of habitations have a primary school within a radius of
 2

one kilometre, there is an upper primary school within unreasonable stress on children, and thus distorts
3 kilometres for 75 per cent of habitations. At least 50 values. It also makes learning from each other a matter
per cent of our children who appear at the of little consequence. Education must be able to
school-leaving examinations pass out of the promote values that foster peace, humaneness and
secondary school system. Despite these trends, 37 tolerance in a multicultural society.
per cent people in India lack literacy skills, about 53 This document seeks to provide a framework
per cent children drop out at the elementary stage, and within which teachers and schools can choose and plan
over 75 per cent of our rural schools are multigrade. experiences that they think children should have. In
Further, there is a deep disquiet about several aspects order to realise educational objectives, the curriculum
of our educational practice: (a) the school system is should be conceptualised as a structure that articulates
characterised by an inflexibility that makes it resistant required experiences. For this, it should address some
to change; (b) learning has become an isolated activity, basic questions:
which does not encourage children to link knowledge (a) What educational purposes should the schools
with their lives in any organic or vital way; (c) schools seek to achieve?
promote a regime of thought that discourages creative (b) What educational experiences can be provided
thinking and insights; (d) what is presented and that are likely to achieve these purposes?
transmitted in the name of learning in schools bypasses (c) How can these educational experiences be
vital dimensions of the human capacity to create new meaningfully organised?
knowledge; (e) the “future” of the child has taken (d) How do we ensure that these educational
centre stage to the near exclusion of the child’s purposes are indeed being accomplished?
“present”, which is detrimental to the well-being of The review of the National Curriculum
the child as well as the society and the nation. Framework, 2000 was initiated specifically to address
The basic concerns of education—to enable the problem of curriculum load on children. A
children to make sense of life and develop their committee appointed by the Ministry of Human
potential, to define and pursue a purpose and recognise Resource Development in the early 1990s had analysed
the right of others to do the same—stand uncontested this problem, tracing its roots to the system’s tendency
and valid even today. If anything, we need to reiterate to treat information as knowledge. In its report,
the mutual interdependence of humans, and, as Tagore Learning Without Burden, the committee pointed out
says, we achieve our greatest happiness when we realise that learning at school cannot become a joyful
ourselves through others. Equally, we need to reaffirm experience unless we change our perception of the
our commitment to the concept of equality, within the child as a receiver of knowledge and move beyond
landscape of cultural and socio-economic diversity the convention of using textbooks as the basis for
from which children enter into the portals of the school. examination. The impulse to teach everything arises
Individual aspirations in a competitive economy tend from lack of faith in children’s own creative instinct
to reduce education to being an instrument of and their capacity to construct knowledge out of their
material success. The perception, which places the experience. The size of textbooks has been growing
individual in exclusively competitive relationships, puts over the years, even as the pressure to include new
 3

topics mounts and the effort to synthesise knowledge attention such as the need for plurality of textbooks
and treat it holistically gets weaker. Flabby textbooks, and urgent improvement in the examination system.
and the syllabi they cover, symbolise a systemic failure
to address children in a child-centred manner. Those 1.2 RETROSPECT
who write such encyclopaedic textbooks are guided Mahatma Gandhi had visualised education as a means
by the popular belief that there has been an explosion of awakening the nation’s conscience to injustice,
of knowledge. Therefore, vast amounts of knowledge violence and inequality entrenched in the social order.
should be pushed down the throats of little children in Nai Talim emphasised the self-reliance and dignity of
order to catch up with other countries. Learning the individual, which would form the basis of social
Without Burden recommended a major change in the relations characterised by non-violence within and across
design of syllabi and textbooks, and also a change in society. Gandhiji recommended the use of the
the social ethos, which places stress on children to immediate environment, including the mother tongue
become aggressively competitive and exhibit precocity. and work, as a resource for socialising the child into a
To make teaching a means of harnessing the child’s transformative vision of society. He dreamt of an India
creative nature, the report recommended a fundamental in which every individual discovers and realises her or
change in the matter of organising the school curriculum, his talents and potential by working with others
and also in the system of examination, which forces towards restructuring the world, which continues to
children to memorise information and to reproduce be characterised by conflicts between nations, within
it. Learning for the sake of being examined in a society and between humanity and nature.
mechanical manner takes away the joy of being young, After Independence, the concerns of education
and delinks school knowledge from everyday articulated during the freedom struggle were revisited
experience. To address this deep structural problem, by the National Commissions — the Secondary
the present document draws upon and elaborates on Education Commission (1952 - 53) and the Education
the insights of Learning Without Burden. Commission (1964 - 66). Both Commissions elaborated
Rather than prescribe, this document seeks to on the themes emerging out of Mahatma Gandhi’s
enable teachers and administrators and other agencies educational philosophy in the changed socio-political
involved in the design of syllabi and textbooks and context with a focus on national development.
examination reform make rational choices and Education under the Indian Constitution until
decisions. It will also enable them to develop and 1976 allowed the state governments to take decisions
implement innovative, locale-specific programmes. By on all matters pertaining to school education, including
contextualising the challenges involved in curriculum curriculum, within their jurisdiction. The Centre could
renewal in contemporary social reality, this document only provide guidance to the States on policy issues. It
draws attention to certain specific problems that is under such circumstances that the initial attempts of
demand an imaginative response. We expect that it will the National Education Policy of 1968 and the
strengthen ongoing processes of reform, such as Curriculum Framework designed by NCERT in 1975
devolution of decision making to teachers and elected were formulated. In 1976, the Constitution was
local-level bodies, while it also identifies new areas for amended to include education in the Concurrent List,
 4

and for the first time in 1986 the country as a whole remained unresolved. The current review exercise takes
had a uniform National Policy on Education. The NPE into cognizance both positive and negative
(1986) recommended a common core component in developments in the field, and attempts to address the
the school curriculum throughout the country. The policy future requirements of school education at the turn of
also entrusted NCERT with the responsibility of the century. In this endeavour, several interrelated
developing the National Curriculum Framework, and dimensions have been kept in mind, namely, the aims of
reviewing the framework at frequent intervals. education, the social milieu of children, the nature of
NCERT in continuation of its curriculum-related knowledge in its broader sense, the nature of human
work carried out studies and consultations subsequent development, and the process of human learning.
to 1975, and had drafted a curriculum framework as a The term National Curriculum Framework is
part of its activity in 1984. This exercise aimed at often wrongly construed to mean that an instrument
making school education comparable across the of uniformity is being proposed. The intention as
country in qualitative terms and also at making it a articulated in the NPE, 1986 and the Programme of
means of ensuring national integration without Action (PoA) 1992 was quite the contrary. NPE
compromising on the country’s pluralistic character. proposed a national framework for curriculum as a
Based on such experience, the Council’s work means of evolving a national system of education
culminated in the National Curriculum Framework for capable of responding to India’s diversity of
School Education, 1988. However, the articulation of geographical and cultural milieus while ensuring a
this framework through courses of studies and common core of values along with academic
textbooks in a rapidly changing developmental context
components. “The NPE - PoA envisaged a
resulted in an increase in ‘curricular load’ and made
child-centred approach to promote universal enrolment
learning at school a source of stress for young minds
and universal retention of children up to 14 years of
and bodies during their formative years of childhood
age and substantial improvement in the quality of
and stress for young minds and bodies during their
education in the school” (PoA, P. 77). The PoA further
formative years of childhood and adolescence. This
elaborated on this vision of NPE by emphasising
aspect has been coherently brought out in Learning
relevance, flexibility and quality as characteristics of the
Without Burden, 1993, the report of the Committee
National Curriculum Framework. Thus, both these
under the chairmanship of Professor Yash Pal.
documents envisioned the National Curriculum
1.3 NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK Framework as a means of modernising the system of
education .
In spite of the recommendations of the NPE, 1986 to
identify competencies and values to be nurtured at
1.4 GUIDING PRINCIPLES
different stages, school education came to be driven
more and more by high-stake examinations based on We need to plan and pay attention to systemic matters
information-loaded textbooks. Despite the review of that will enable us to implement many of the good
the Curriculum Framework in 2000, the vexed issues of ideas that have already been articulated in the past.
curriculum load and the tyranny of examinations Paramount among these are :
 5

The National System of Education will be based on a national curricular framework, which contains a common
core along with other components that are flexible. The common core will include the history of India’s freedom
movement, the constitutional obligations and other content essential to nurture national identity. These elements
will cut across subject areas and will be designed to promote values such as India’s common cultural heritage,
egalitarianism, democracy and secularism, equality of sexes, protection of environment, removal of social barriers,
observance of small family norm and inculcation of scientific temper. All educational programmes will be carried
on in strict conformity with secular values. India has always worked for peace and understanding between nations,
treating the whole world as one family. True to this hoary tradition, education has to strengthen this world-view
and motivate the younger generations for international cooperation and peaceful co-existence. This aspect cannot
be neglected. To promote equality, it will be necessary to provide for equal opportunity for all, not only in access but
also in the conditions of success. Besides, awareness of the inherent equality of all will be created through the core
curriculum. The purpose is to remove prejudices and complexes transmitted through the social environment and
the accident of birth.

National Policy on Education, 1986

• connecting knowledge to life outside the school, characteristics are able to learn and achieve success in
• ensuring that learning is shifted away from rote school. In this context, disadvantages in education
methods, arising from inequalities of gender, caste, language,
• enriching the curriculum to provide for overall culture, religion or disabilities need to be addressed
development of children rather than remain directly, not only through policies and schemes but
textbook centric, also through the design and selection of learning tasks
• making examinations more flexible and integrated and pedagogic practices, right from the period of early
into classroom life and, childhood.
• nurturing an over-riding identity informed by UEE makes us aware of the need to broaden
caring concerns within the democratic polity of the scope of the curriculum to include the rich
the country. inheritance of different traditions of knowledge, work
In the present context, there are new and crafts. Some of these traditions today face a serious
developments and concerns to which our curriculum threat from market forces and the commodification
must respond. The foremost among these is the of knowledge in the context of the globalisation of
importance of including and retaining all children in the economy. The development of self-esteem and
school through a programme that reaffirms the value ethics, and the need to cultivate children’s creativity, must
of each child and enables all children to experience receive primacy. In the context of a fast-changing world
dignity and the confidence to learn. Curriculum design and a competitive global context, it is imperative that
must reflect the commitment to Universal Elementary we respect children’s native wisdom and imagination.
Education (UEE), not only in representing cultural Decentralisation and emphasis on the role of
diversity, but also by ensuring that children from Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) are to be viewed as
different social and economic backgrounds with major steps towards systemic reforms. PRIs offer an
variations in physical, psychological and intellectual opportunity to make the system less bureaucratic,
 6

to work, to gain a definite edge and respect among

The formal approach, of equality of treatment, in their peers from privileged sections; and (c) facilitating
terms of equal access or equal representation for
a growing appreciation of cumulative human
girls, is inadequate. Today, there is a need to adopt
a substantive approach, towards equality of outcome, experience, knowledge and theories by building
where diversity, difference and disadvantage are taken rationally upon the contextual experiences.
into account.
Making children sensitive to the environment and
A critical function of education for equality is to the need for its protection is another important curricular
enable all learners to claim their rights as well as to concern. The emergence of new technological choices
contribute to society and the polity. We need to
recognise that rights and choices in themselves and living styles witnessed during the last century has
cannot be exercised until central human capabilities led to environmental degradation and vast imbalances
are fulfilled. Thus, in order to make it possible for
between the advantaged and the disadvantaged. It has
marginalised learners, and especially girls, to claim
their rights as well as play an active role in shaping become imperative now more than ever before to
collective life, education must empower them to nurture and preserve the environment. Education can
overcome the disadvantages of unequal socialisation
and enable them to develop their capabilities of provide the necessary perspective on how human life
becoming autonomous and equal citizens. can be reconciled with the crisis of the environment so
that survival, growth and development remain
possible. The National Policy on Education, 1986
teachers more accountable, and the schools more emphasised the need to create awareness of
autonomous and responsive to the needs of children. environmental concerns by integrating it in the
These steps should also stimulate questions and educational process at all stages of education and for
entanglements with local physical conditions, life and all sections of society.
environment. Children acquire varied skills naturally Living in harmony within oneself and with one’s
while growing up in their environment. They also natural and social environment is a basic human need.
observe life and the world around them. When Sound development of an individual’s personality can
imported into classrooms, their questions and queries take place only in an ethos marked by peace. A disturbed
can enrich the curriculum and make it more creative. natural and psycho-social environment often leads to
Such reforms will also facilitate the practice of the stress in human relations, triggering intolerance and
widely acknowledged curricular principles of moving conflict. We live in an age of unprecedented violence—
from "known to the unknown", from "concrete to local, national, regional and global. Education often
abstract", and from "local to global". For this purpose, plays a passive, or even insidious role, allowing young
the concept of critical pedagogy has to be practised in minds to be indoctrinated into a culture of intolerance,
all dimensions of school education, including teacher which denies the fundamental importance of human
education. It is here that, for instance, productive work sentiments and the noble truths discovered by different
can become an effective pedagogic medium for (a) civilisations. Building a culture of peace is an
connecting classroom knowledge to the life experiences incontestable goal of education. Education to be
of children; (b) allowing children from marginalised meaningful should empower individuals to choose
sections of society, having knowledge and skills related peace as a way of life and enable them to become
 7

managers rather than passive spectators of conflict. • A citizen needs to internalise the principles of
Peace as an integrative perspective of the school equality, justice and liberty to promote fraternity
curriculum has the potential of becoming an among all.
enterprise for healing and revitalising the nation. • India is a secular democratic state, which means
As a nation we have been able to sustain a that all faiths are respected, but at the same time
robust democratic polity. The vision of democracy the Indian state has no preference for any particu
articulated by the Secondary Education Commission lar faith. The felt need, today, is to inculcate among
(1952) is worth recalling: children a respect for all people regardless of their
religious beliefs.
Citizenship in a democracy involves many
intellectual, social and moral qualities…a democratic India is a multicultural society made up of numerous
citizen should have the understanding and the regional and local cultures. People’s religious beliefs, ways
of life and their understanding of social relationships
intellectual integrity to sift truth from falsehood,
are quite distinct from one another. All the groups have
facts from propaganda and to reject the dangerous
equal rights to co-exist and flourish, and the education
appeal of fanaticism and prejudice … should
system needs to respond to the cultural pluralism inherent
neither reject the old because it is old nor accept
in our society. To strengthen our cultural heritage and
the new because it is new, but dispassionately
national identity, the curriculum should enable the younger
examine both and courageously reject what arrests
generation to reinterpret and re-evaluate the past with
the forces of justice and progress…..
reference to new priorities and emerging outlooks of a
For us to foster democracy as a way of life rather changing societal context. Understanding human
than only a system of governance, the values enshrined evolution should make it clear that the existence of
in the Constitution assume paramount significance. distinctness in our country is a tribute to the special spirit
• The Constitution of India guarantees equality of of our country, which allowed it to flourish. The cultural
status and opportunity to all citizens. Continued diversity of this land should continue to be treasured as
exclusion of vast numbers of children from our special attribute. This should not be considered a
education and the disparities caused through result of mere tolerance. Creation of a citizenry conscious
private and public school systems challenge the of their rights and duties, and commitment to the
efforts towards achieving equality. Education principles embodied in our Constitution is a prerequisite
should function as an instrument of social in this context.
transformation and an egalitarian social order.
• Justice—social, economic and political—to all
1.5 THE QUALITY DIMENSION
citizens is integral to strengthening democracy. Even as the system attempts to reach every child, the
• Liberty of thought and action is a fundamental issue of quality presents a new range of challenges.
value embedded in our Constitution. Democracy The belief that quality goes with privilege is clearly
requires as well as creates a kind of citizen who irreconcilable with the vision of participatory
pursues her own autonomously chosen ends and democracy that India upholds and practises in the
respects others’ right to do so as well. political sphere. Its practise in the sphere of education
 8

for constructing knowledge in meaningful ways.

Democracy is based on faith in the dignity and Moreover, the exclusion of the poor from their
worth of every single individual as a human admission process implies the loss of learning
being. … The object of a democratic opportunities that occur in a classroom with children
education is, therefore, the full, all-round from diverse socio-economic and cultural backgrounds.
development of every individual’s personality.
… i.e. an education to initiate the students into Physical resources by themselves cannot be
the many-sided art of living in a community. regarded as an indicator of quality; yet, the extreme
It is obvious, however, that an individual and chronic shortage of physical resources, including
cannot live and develop alone. …. No basic infrastructural amenities, in schools run by the
education is worth the name which does not
inculcate the qualities necessary for living state or local bodies does present a serious quality
graciously, harmoniously and efficiently with constraint. The availability of qualified and motivated
one’s fellow men. (Secondary Education teachers who perceive teaching as a career option
Commission, 1952 - 53, p. 20) applies to all sectors of schools as a necessary
precondition for quality. Recent suggestions for the
dilution of standards in teacher recruitment, training
demands that the education available to all children in and service conditions articulated in the NPE, and,
different regions and sections of society has a before it, by the Chattopadhyaya Commission (1984),
comparable quality. J.P. Naik had described equality, arouse anxiety. No system of education can rise above
quality and quantity as the ‘elusive triangle’ of Indian the quality of its teachers, and the quality of teachers
education. Dealing with this metaphorical triangle greatly depends on the means deployed for selection,
requires a deeper theoretical understanding of quality procedures used for training, and the strategies adopted
than has been available. UNESCO’s recently published for ensuring accountability.
global monitoring report discusses systemic standards The quality dimension also needs to be examined
as the appropriate context of the quality debate. From from the point of view of the experiences designed
this point of view, the child’s performance needs to be for the child in terms of knowledge and skills.
treated as an indicator of systemic quality. In a system Assumptions about the nature of knowledge and the
of education that is divided between a fast-growing child’s own nature shape the school ethos and the
private sector and a larger state sector marked by approaches used by those who prepare the syllabi and
shortages and the uneven spread of resources, the issue textbooks, and by teachers as well. The representation
of quality poses complex conceptual and practical of knowledge in textbooks and other materials needs
questions. The belief that private schools have higher to be viewed from the larger perspective of the
quality treats examination results as the sole criterion challenges facing humanity and the nation today. No
for judging quality. This kind of perception ignores subject in the school curriculum can stay aloof from
the ethos-related limitations of the privileged private these larger concerns, and therefore the selection of
schools. The fact that they often neglect the child’s knowledge proposed to be included in each subject
mother tongue warrants us to wonder about the area requires careful examination in ter ms of
opportunities that they are able to provide to the child socio-economic and cultural conditions and goals. The
 9

greatest national challenge for education is to strengthen the interest of all to liberate human beings from the
our participatory democracy and the values enshrined existing inequalities of gender.
in the Constitution. Meeting this challenge implies that Schools range from the high- cost ‘public’ (private)
we make quality and social justice the central theme of schools, to which the urban elite send their children, to
curricular reform. Citizenship training has been an the ostensibly ‘free’, poorly functioning local- body -
important aspect of formal education. Today, it needs run primary schools where children from hitherto
to be boldly reconceptualised in terms of the discourse educationally deprived communities predominate. A
of universal human rights and the approaches striking recent feature is the growth of multigrade
associated with critical pedagogy. A clear orientation schools in rural areas, based on the mechanical
towards values associated with peace and harmonious application of ‘teacher - pupil ratios’ to the need to
coexistence is called for. Quality in education includes provide a school within 1 km. of each habitation, yet
a concern for quality of life in all its dimensions. This is unsupported by the necessary curricular concepts or
why a concern for peace, protection of the clarity on materials or pedagogy. Such developments
environment and a predisposition towards social change unintentionally reinforce privilege and exclusion in
must be viewed as core components of quality, not education and undermine the constitutional values of
merely as value premises. equality of opportunity and social justice. If ‘free’
education is understood as the ‘removal of constraints’
1.6 THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF EDUCATION to education, then we must realise the importance of
The education system does not function in isolation from other sectors of the state’s social policy for supporting
the society of which it is a part. Hierarchies of caste, and facilitating the achievement of UEE.
economic status and gender relations, cultural diversity Globalisation and the spread of market relations
as well as the uneven economic development that to every sphere of society have important implications
characterise Indian society also deeply influence access for education. On the one hand, we are witnessing
to education and participation of children in school. This the increasing commercialisation of education, and,
is reflected in the sharp disparities between different on the other hand, inadequate public funding for
social and economic groups, which are seen in school education and the official thrust towards ‘alternative’
enrolment and completion rates. Thus, girls belonging schools. These factors indicate a shifting of
to SC and ST communities among the rural and urban responsibility for education from the state to the
poor and the disadvantaged sections of religious and family and the community. We need to be vigilant
other ethnic minorities are educationally most vulnerable. about the pressures to commodify schools and the
In urban locations and many villages, the school system application of market-related concepts to schools
itself is stratified and provides children with strikingly and school quality. The increasingly competitive
different educational experiences. Unequal gender environment into which schools are being drawn and
relations not only perpetuate domination but also create the aspirations of parents place a tremendous burden
anxieties and stunt the freedom of both boys and girls of stress and anxiety on all children, including the
to develop their human capacities to their fullest. It is in very young, to the detriment of their personal growth
 10

and development, and thus hampering the inculcation human ideals. At any given time and place they can be
of the joy of learning. called the contemporary and contextual articulations
The 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendments, of broad and lasting human aspirations and values.
and the institutionalised statutory space they provide Educational aims turn the different activities
for local communities to participate in decision making undertaken in schools and other educational institutions
in education for their children, are important into a creative pattern and give them the distinctive
character of being ‘educational’. An educational aim
developments. However, parental aspirations for
helps the teacher connect her present classroom activity
education are belied by endemic poverty and unequal
to a cherished future outcome without making it
social relations, and by lack of adequate provision of
instrumental, and therefore give it direction without
schooling of equitable quality. The concerns of the
divorcing it from current concerns. Thus, an aim is a
burgeoning population of the urban poor are still not
foreseen end: it is not an idle view of a mere spectator;
reflected in planning. The expectations and aspirations
rather, it influences the steps taken to reach the end. An
of the poor for education cannot be set aside as being
aim must provide foresight. It can do this in three ways:
outside the frame of curricular concerns.
First, it involves careful observation of the given
The social context of education in India thus conditions to see what means are available for reaching
presents a number of challenges, which must be the end, and to discover the hindrances in the way.
addressed by the curriculum framework, both in its This may require a careful study of children, and an
design as well as its implementation. The discussion on understanding of what they are capable of learning at
guiding principles has drawn attention to these challenges different ages. Second, this foresight suggests the proper
as well as some of the ways in which they can be order or sequence that would be effective. Third, it
addressed. Opening the concept of knowledge to makes the choice of alternatives possible. Therefore,
include new areas of knowledge and experience, acting with an aim allows us to act intelligently. The
inclusivity in selecting learning tasks, pedagogic practices school, the classroom, and related learning sites are
that are alert to promoting participation, building spaces where the core of educational activity takes
self-confidence and critical awareness, and an openness place. These must become spaces where learners have
to engaging with the community to explain and share experiences that help them achieve the desired curricular
curricular decisions are among the new ideas discussed objectives. An understanding of learners, educational
in different sections of this document. aims, the nature of knowledge, and the nature of the
school as a social space can help us arrive at principles
1.7 AIMS OF EDUCATION to guide classroom practices.
The aims of education serve as broad guidelines to The guiding principles discussed earlier provide
align educational processes to chosen ideals and the landscape of social values within which we locate
accepted principles. The aims of education our educational aims. The first is a commitment to
simultaneously reflect the current needs and aspirations democracy and the values of equality, justice, freedom,
of a society as well as its lasting values, and the concern for others’ well-being, secularism, respect for
immediate concerns of a community as well as broad human dignity and rights. Education should aim to build
 11

a commitment to these values, which are based on

reason and understanding. The curriculum, therefore,
should provide adequate experience and space for
dialogue and discourse in the school to build such a
commitment in children.
Independence of thought and action points to a
capacity of carefully considered, value-based decision
making, both independently and collectively.
A sensitivity to others’ well-being and feelings,
together with knowledge and understanding of the
world, should form the basis of a rational commitment
to values.
Learning to learn and the willingness to unlearn
and relearn are important as means of responding to
new situations in a flexible and creative manner. The
curriculum needs to emphasise the processes of
constructing knowledge.
Ah, my son is off to school !..... Luckily I managed to
Choices in life and the ability to participate in
get one of these from the airport !
democratic processes depend on the ability to (Courtesy : R. K. Laxman in the Times of India)
contribute to society in various ways. This is why
education must develop the ability to work and Education must provide the means and opportunities
participate in economic processes and social change. to enhance the child’s creative expression and the
This necessitates the integration of work with education. capacity for aesthetic appreciation. Education for
We must ensure that work-related experiences are aesthetic appreciation and creativity is even more
sufficient and broadbased in terms of skills and important today when aesthetic gullibility allows for
attitudes,that they foster an understanding of opinion and taste to be manufactured and manipulated
socio-economic processes, and help inculcate a mental by market forces. The effort should be to enable the
frame that encourages working with others in a spirit learner to appreciate beauty in its several forms.
of cooperation. Work alone can create a social temper. However, we must ensure that we do not promote
Appreciation of beauty and art forms is an stereotypes of beauty and forms of entertainment, that
integral part of human life. Creativity in arts, literature might constitute an affront to women and persons with
and other domains of knowledge is closely linked. disabilities.
12

This chapter establishes the need to recognise the child as a natural

learner, and knowledge as the outcome of the child’s own activity.
In our everyday lives outside the school, we enjoy the curiosity,
inventiveness and constant querying of children. They actively
engage with the world around them, exploring, responding, inventing
and working things out, and making meaning. Childhood is a period
of growth and change, involving developing one’s physical and
mental capacities to the fullest. It involves being socialised into adult
society, into acquiring and creating knowledge of the world and
oneself in relation to others in order to understand, to act, and to
transform. Each new generation inherits the storehouse of culture
and knowledge in society by integrating it into one’s own web of
activities and understanding, and realising its ‘fruitfulness’ in creating
afresh.

2.1 PRIMACY OF THE ACTIVE LEARNER

Informal learning in society builds on the learners’ natural ability to
draw upon and construct their own knowledge, to develop their
 13

capacities, in relating to the environment around them, student’ that are promoted emphasise obedience to
both physical and social, and to the task at hand. For the teacher, moral character, and acceptance of the
this to happen, opportunities to try out, manipulate, teacher’s words as ‘authoritative’ knowledge.
make mistakes and correct oneself are essential. This is
as true of learning language as it is of a craft skill or a
2.2 LEARNERS IN CONTEXT
discipline. Schools as institutions provide new Children’s voices and experiences do not find
opportunities for all learners to learn about themselves, expression in the classroom. Often the only voice heard
others, and society, to access their inheritance and engage
with it irrespective of and outside the access provided Common sources of physical
by one’s birth into a family and a community. The discomfort
formal processes of learning that school makes possible • Long walks to school.
can open up new possibilities of understanding and • Heavy school bags.
relating to the world. • Lack of basic infrastructure, including support
Our current concern in curriculum development books for reading and writing.
and reform is to make it an inclusive and meaningful • Badly designed furniture that gives children
experience for children, alongwith the effort to move inadequate back support and cramps their legs and
knees.
away from a textbook culture. This requires a
• Time tables that do not give young children enough
fundamental change in how we think of learners and breaks to stretch, move and play, and that deprive
the process of learning. Hence the need to engage in olderchildrenofplay/sportstime,and encouragegirls
detail with the underpinnings and implications of ‘child- to opt out.
centred’ education. • Especially for girls, the absence of toilets and
sanitary requirements.
‘Child-centred’ pedagogy means giving primacy
• Corporal punishment—beating, awkward physical
to children’s experiences, their voices, and their active
postures.
participation. This kind of pedagogy requires us to
plan learning in keeping with children’s psychological
development and interests. The learning plans therefore is that of the teacher. When children speak, they are
must respond to physical, cultural and social preferences usually only answering the teacher’s questions or
within the wide diversity of characteristics and needs. repeating the teacher’s words. They rarely do things,
Our school pedagogic practices, learning tasks, and the nor do they have opportunities to take initiative. The
texts we create for learners tend to focus on the curriculum must enable children to find their voices,
socialisation of children and on the ‘receptive’ features nurture their curiosity—to do things, to ask questions
of children’s learning. Instead, we need to nurture and and to pursue investigations, sharing and integrating
build on their active and creative capabilities—their their experiences with school knowledge—rather than
inherent interest in making meaning, in relating to the their ability to reproduce textual knowledge. Reorienting
world in ‘real’ ways through acting on it and creating, the curriculum to this end must be among our highest
and in relating to other humans. Learning is active and priorities, informing the preparation of teachers, the
social in its character. Frequently, the notions of ‘good annual plans of schools, the design of textbooks,
 14

learning materials and teaching plans, and evaluation 2.3.1 The precondition for all development is healthy
and examination patterns. physical growth of all children. This requires that the
Children will learn only in an atmosphere where basic needs in terms of adequate nutrition, physical
they feel they are valued. Our schools still do not convey exercise and other psycho-social needs are addressed.
this to all children. The association of learning with Participation of all children in free play, informal and
fear, discipline and stress, rather than enjoyment and formal games, yoga and sports activities is essential for
satisfaction, is detrimental to learning. Our children need their physical and psycho-social development.The range
to feel that each one of them, their homes, of abilities as a result of games, sports and yoga will
communities, languages and cultures, are valuable as improve stamina, fine and gross motor skills and
dexterities, self-awareness and control, and coordination
resources for experience to be analysed and enquired
in team games. Simple adaptation of playgrounds,
into at school; that their diverse capabilities are accepted;
equipment and rules can make activities and games
that all of them have the ability and the right to learn
accessible to all children in the school. Children can achieve
and to access knowledge and skills; and that adult society
high levels of excellence in sports, athletics, gymnastics,
regards them as capable of the best. We are becoming
yoga and performing arts such as dance. When the
more aware of the importance of these needs as our
emphasis shifts from enjoyment to achievement, such
schools expand and increasingly include children from
training can make demands of discipline and practice
all sections of society. The midday meal and the
that can create stress at this stage. Whereas all students
provisioning of infrastructural support and pedagogic
must be involved in health and physical education
concern for inclusive education are among the most activities, those who choose to excel in games and sports
significant developments in recent times. A strong stand need to be provided adequate opportunities.
must be taken against all forms of corporal punishment. Physical development supports mental and
The boundaries of the school need to become more cognitive development, especially in young children.
porous to the community. At the same time, the The capacity to think, reason and make sense of the
problems of curriculum load and examination-related self and the world, and to use language, is intimately
stress require urgent attention in all their dimensions. connected with acting and interacting—doing things
Physical and emotional security is the cornerstone for by oneself and with others.
all learning, right from the primary to the secondary 2.3.2 Cognition involves the capacity to make sense
school years, and even afterwards. of the self and the world, through action and language.
Meaningful learning is a generative process of
2.3 DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING representing and manipulating concrete things and
The period from infancy to adolescence is one of rapid mental representations, rather than storage and retrieval
growth and change. The curriculum must have a holistic of information. Thinking, language (verbal or sign) and
approach to learning and development that is able to doing things are thus intimately inter-twined. This is a
see the interconnections and transcend divisions between process that begins in infancy, and develops through
physical and mental development, and between independent and mediated activities. Initially, children
individual development and interaction with others. are cognitively oriented to the here and now, able to
 15

development of theories that children have about the

Thereisarangeofschools,bothprivateandgovernment, natural and social worlds, including themselves in
catering to different socio-economic groups. According
relation to others, which provide them with explanations
to the Kothari Commission: “In a situation of the
type we have in India, it is the responsibility of the for why things are the way they are, the relationships
education system to bring the different social classes between causes and effects, and the bases for decisions
and groups together and thus promote the emergence and acting. Attitudes, emotions and morals are thus an
of an egalitarian and integrated society. But at present
integral part of cognitive development, and are linked
instead of doing so, the education system itself is tending
to increase social segregation and to perpetuate and to the development of language, mental representations,
widen class distinctions. …What is worse, this concepts and reasoning. As children’s metacognitive
segregation is increasing and tending to widen the gulf capabilities develop, they become more aware of their
between the classes and the masses…" (1966:18). own beliefs and capable of regulating their own
Are we telling our children that we value them
learning.
differently? If the answer is ‘Yes’, we urgently need to
take steps for realising the goal that the Kothari • All children are naturally motivated to learn and
Commission had placed before us by recommending a are capable of learning.
system of common schools. A common school system
• Making meaning and developing the capacity for
can be defined as a national system of education that
is founded on the ideals and values of the Constitution abstract thinking, reflection and work are the most
of India, and which has the capacity to provide important aspects of learning.
education of a comparable quality to all children in an
• Children learn in a variety of ways—through
equitable manner irrespective of their caste, creed,
gender, class or location. In such a system, all categories experience, making and doing things,
of schools presently in vogue (i.e. government, local experimentation, reading, discussion, asking,
body, or private) have the responsibility of providing listening, thinking and reflecting, and expressing
for basic infrastructural and pedagogic norms and oneself in speech, movement or writing—both
ensuring free education to all children residing in the
individually and with others. They require
vicinity of the school.
opportunities of all these kinds in the course of
their development.

reason and act logically on concrete experiences. As • Teaching something before the child is cognitively
their linguistic capabilities and their ability to work in ready takes away from learning it at a later stage.
the company of others develop, it opens up possibilities Children may ‘remember’ many facts but they
of more complex reasoning in tasks that involve may not understand them or be able to relate
abstraction, planning and dealing with ends that are them to the world around them.
not in view. There is an overall increase in the capability • Learning takes place both within school and out-
of working with the hypothetical, and reasoning in the side school. Learning is enriched if the two arenas
world of the possible. interact with each other. Art and work provide
Conceptual development is thus a continuous opportunities for holistic learning that is rich in
process of deepening and enriching connections and tacit and aesthetic components. Such experiences
acquiring new layers of meaning. Alongside is the are essential for linguistically known things,
 16

especially in moral and ethical matters, to be learnt vulnerable to risky situations like sexually transmitted
through direct experience, and integrated into life. diseases, sexual abuse, HIV/AIDS and drug and
• Learning must be paced so that it allows learners substance abuse.
to engage with concepts and deepen It is a time when the given and internalised norms
understanding, rather than remembering only to and ideas are questioned, while at the same time the
forget after examinations. At the same time opinions of the peer group become very important. It
learning must provide variety and challenge, and is important to recognise that adolescents need social
be interesting and engaging. Boredom is a sign and emotional support that may require reinforcement
that the task may have become mechanically of norms of positive behaviour, acquisition of skills
repetitive for the child and of little cognitive essential to cope with the risky situations that they
value. encounter in their lives, manage peer pressure and deal
• Learning can take place with or without with gender stereotypes. The absence of such support
mediation. In the case of the latter, the social can lead to confusion and misunderstanding about these
context and interactions, especially with those changes, and affect their academic and extracurricular
who are capable, provide avenues for learners to activities.
work at cognitive levels above their own. 2.3.4 It is important to create an inclusive environment
2.3.3 Adolescence is a critical period for the in the classroom for all students, especially those who
development of self-identity. The process of acquiring are at risk of marginalisation, for instance, students with
a sense of self is linked to physiological changes, and disabilities. Labelling an individual student or a group
also learning to negotiate the social and psychological of students as learning disabled etc. creates a sense of
demands of being young adults. Responsible handling helplessness, inferiority and stigmatisation. It tends to
of issues like independence, intimacy, and peer group overshadow difficulties that children may be facing in
dependence are concerns that need to be recognised, schools due to diverse socio-cultural backgrounds and
and appropriate support be given to cope with them. inappropriate pedagogical approaches being used in
The physical space of the outside world, one’s access the classroom. A student with a disability has an equal
to it, and free movement influence construction of the right to membership of the same group as all other
self. This is of special significance in the case of girls, students. Differences between students must be viewed
who are often constrained by social conventions to as resources for supporting learning rather than as a
stay indoors. These very conventions promote the problem. Inclusion in education is one of the
opposite stereotype for boys, which associates them components of inclusion in society.
with the outdoors and physical process. These Schools, therefore, have a responsibility of
stereotypes get especially heightened as a result of providing a flexible curriculum that is accessible to all
biological maturational changes during adolescence. students. This document can form a starting point for
These physiological changes have ramifications in the planning a curriculum that meets the specific needs of
psychological and social aspects of an adolescent's life. individual students or groups of students. The
Most adolescents deal with these changes without full curriculum must provide appropriate challenges and
knowledge and understanding, which could make them create enabling opportunities for students to experience
 17

success in learning and achievement to the best of their that knowledge needed for a complex task can reside
potential. Teaching and learning processes in the in a group situation. In this context, collaborative
classroom should be planned to respond to the diverse learning provides room for negotiation of meaning,
needs of students. Teachers can explore positive sharing of multiple views and changing the internal
strategies for providing education to all children, representation of the external reality. Construction
including those perceived as having disabilities. This can indicates that each learner individually and socially
be achieved in collaboration with fellow teachers or constructs meaning as he/she learns. Constructing
with organisations outside the school. meaning is learning. The constructivist perspective
provides strategies for promoting learning by all.
2.4 I MPLICATIONS FOR C URRICULUM AND
The teacher's own role in children’s cognition
PRACTICE could be enhanced if they assume a more active role in
2.4.1 Teaching for Construction of Knowledge relation to the process of knowledge construction in
In the constructivist perspective, learning is a process which children are engaged. A child constructs her/his
of the construction of knowledge. Learners actively knowledge while engaged in the process of learning.
construct their own knowledge by connecting new ideas Allowing children to ask questions that require them to
to existing ideas on the basis of materials/activities relate what they are learning in school to things
presented to them (experience). For example, using a happening outside, encouraging children to answer in
text or a set of pictures/visuals on a transport system their own words and from their own experiences,
coupled with discussions will allow young learners to rather than simply memorising and getting answers right
be facilitated to construct the idea of a transport system. in just one way — all these are small but important
Initial construction (mental representation) may be steps in helping children develop their understanding.
based on the idea of the road transport system, and a ‘Intelligent guessing’ must be encouraged as a valid
child from a remote rural setting may form the idea pedagogic tool. Quite often, children have an idea
centred around the bullock cart. Learners construct arising from their everyday experiences, or because of
mental representations (images) of external reality their exposure to the media, but they are not quite ready
(transport system) through a given set of activities to articulate it in ways that a teacher might appreciate.
(experiences). The structuring and restructuring of It is in this ‘zone’ between what you know and what
ideas are essential features as the learners progress in you almost know that new knowledge is constructed.
learning. For instance, the initial idea of a transport Such knowledge often takes the form of skills, which
system built around road transport will be reconstructed are cultivated outside the school, at home or in the
to accommodate other types of transport community. All such forms of knowledge and skills
systems—sea and air—using appropriate activities. The must be respected. A sensitive and informed teacher is
engagement of learners, through relevant activities, can aware of this and is able to engage children through
further facilitate in the construction of mental images well-chosen tasks and questions, so that they are able
of the relationships (cause-effect) between a transport to realise their developmental potential.
system and human life/economy. However, there is a Active engagement involves enquiry, exploration,
social aspect in the construction process in the sense questioning, debates, application and reflection, leading
 18

to theory building and the creation of ideas/positions.

Schools must provide opportunities to question, Framing Questions…
enquire, debate, reflect, and arrive at concepts or create
If the answer is ‘5’, what might be the
new ideas. An element of challenge is critical for the
questions? Here are some ‘answers’.
process of active engagement and learning various
What is four and one make?
concepts, skills and positions through the process. What
What is thirty-three take away twenty-seven
is challenging for a particular age group becomes easy
plus one?
and uninteresting for the other age group, and may be How many burfees do you want?
remote and uninteresting at another stage. I reached my grandmother’s house on Sunday
So often, in the name of ‘objectivity’, teachers and I left on Thursday. How many days did I
sacrifice flexibility and creativity. Very often teachers, in spend there?
government as well as private schools, insist that all A, B, C came. Then E, F, G, H joined them.
children must give identical answers to questions. The Then A and G left. Then G came back, and B
argument given for not accepting other answers is that, went away. How many were left finally?
“They cannot give answers that are not there in the If the answer is, ‘It was red’, what might
textbook.” “We discussed it in the staffroom and be the questions?
decided that we will only accept this answer as right!”, What was the colour of the flower?
or that “There will be too many types of answers. Why did you put the letter into that box?
Then should we accept them all?” Such arguments Why did she stop so suddenly at the traffic
make a travesty of the meaning of learning and only light?
serve to convince children and parents that schools are
irrationally rigid. We must ask ourselves why we only
Much of our school learning is still individual
ask children to give answers to questions. Even the
based (although not individualised!). The teacher is seen
ability to make a set of questions for given answers is
as transmitting ‘knowledge’, which is usually confused
a valid test of learning.
with information, to children, and organising
experiences in order to help children learn. But
2.4.2 The Value of Interactions
interaction with teachers, with peers, as well as those
Learning takes place through interactions with the who are older and younger can open up many more
environment around, nature, things and people, both rich learning possibilities. Learning in the company of
through actions and through language. The physical others is a process of interacting with each other and
activity of moving, exploring and doing things, on one's also through the learning task at hand. This kind of
own, with one’s peers or in the company of adults, and learning is enriched when schools enrol children from
using language — to read, to express or ask, to listen different socio-economic backgrounds.
and to interact — are the key processes through which In the early primary school years, a beginning has
learning occurs. The context in which learning takes been made in the area of group work. Projects and
place is thus of direct cognitive significance. activities that can be carried out by groups need to
 19

Constructivist Learning Situation

Process Science Language

Situation Situation
Learners read a text on mammals and view Learners read the story ‘Kabuliwallah’.
a video on the life of mammals in Later, they are given background material
different locales. Such events or activities with illustrations of certain scenes of the
consist of mammals moving in groups on story and brief descriptions. A few
land or in water, grazing, attacking a prey, learners enact one or two scenes depicted
giving birth, flocking together at the time in the illustrations.
of danger and related events.

Observation Learners make note of the key events or Learners watch the scenes enacted.
behaviour or activities of mammals.

Contextualisation They relate their analysis to the text. They relate the story of the text with the
illustrations of the background material.

Cognitive Teacher illustrates how he/she would Using a scene enacted, the teacher models
apprenticeship analyse and interpret such information using how to integrate reading the story and the
the example of mammals. illustrations of the background material.

Collaboration Learners form groups to work on the task Learners work in groups to generate
while the teacher suggests/guides them as interpretations while the teacher suggests/
they proceed. guides them as they proceed.

Interpretation Learners analyse and generate evidence to They analyse and generate their own
construction verify their hypothesis related to mammals interpretations of the story.
living on land or water, etc.

Multiple They provide explanations and defend their Comparing the interpretations within and
interpretations ideas or hypotheses using their analyses and between groups gives the learners the idea
text both within and between groups. that people can have different reactions to
Evidence and arguments along with the text the story, ‘Kabuliwallah’.
expose them to various ways of finding
answers or interpreting data.

Multiple By going back and forth through the process Using the text, background illustrations and
manifestations and relating each contextual background on their own reflections, the learners see how
various events and the behaviour of the same characters and themes can be
mammals, the learners notice that the general manifested in several ways.
principles embedded in what they are doing
become manifested.

Role of the Teacher : In this context, the teacher is a facilitator who encourages learners to reflect, analyse
and interpret in the process of knowledge construction.
 20

become a feature of learning in the middle and high have grown up in this kind of learning environment,
school also. There are ways in which such group lose their self-confidence and their ability to express
learning can be assessed and evaluated. Schools could themselves or make meaning out of their experiences
also consider giving mixed age groups of children in school. They repeatedly resort to mechanical rote
projects to do together. In such mixed groups, there is memorisation to pass examinations.
much that children can learn from each other, such as Instead, tasks that are challenging and allow
team work and social values. In the company of others, independent thinking, and multiple ways of being
one has opportunities of participating in larger tasks solved, encourage independence, creativity and self-
where one may find a niche to contribute to, thus discipline in learners. Instead of a culture of quizzing,
achieving something above one’s own potential, and of answering quickly and always knowing the right
one may be able to try out what one does not fully answer, we need to allow learners to spend time on
know. Group learning tasks, taking responsibility, and deeper, meaningful learning.
contributing to a task at hand are all important facets Learning tasks that are designed to ensure that
of not only acquiring knowledge but also in the learning children will be encouraged to seek out knowledge
of arts and crafts . In a multi-grade class situation, such from sites other than the textbook, in their own
vertical grouping, which cuts across different grades, experience, in the experiences of people at home and
and which allows a single activity to be used across in the community, in libraries and other sites outside
different age groups, could provide a pedagogically the school, communicate the philosophy that learning
feasible and sound curriculum plan. and knowledge are to be sought out, authenticated and
thereby constructed, and that neither the textbook nor
2.4.3 Designing Learning Experiences
the teacher is an authority. In this context, heritage sites
The quality of the learning task influences its assume great significance as sites of learning. Not only
learnability and its value for the learner. Tasks that are the history teacher, but also teachers of all subjects need
too easy or too difficult, that are repetitive and to inculcate in the children under their care a sense of
mechanical, that are based on recalling the text, that do respect for sites of archaeological significance and the
not permit self-expression and questioning by the child desire to explore and understand their importance.
and that depend solely on the teacher for correction, There have been efforts aimed at improving the
make the child assume the passive stance of obedience. classroom environment and curriculum planning for
Learners learn not to value their own ability to think children in Classes I and II in recent years. While these
and reason, that knowledge is created by others and need to be reviewed and strengthened, there is also a
that they must only receive it. The onus falls teacher to need to engage with questions of designing learning
‘motivate’ children who do not seem to be naturally experiences for older children that help them understand
motivated. Learners accept being controlled and learn concepts and create and ‘own’ the knowledge that they
to want to control. These are ultimately detrimental to learn. We are now seeing a small shift away from the
the growth of cognitive self-reflexivity and flexibility focus on ‘factual knowledge’, but teacher preparation,
which are essential if learning is to empower the learner. planning of classroom practice, textbook preparation,
By the time they reach Class VII, many children who and evaluation need to support this shift more decisively.
 21

There is a need for incorporating flexibility in planning

Organising experiences
and adapting textbook content to designing topic
learning, so as to move towards the NPE-86 goal of Observing something happen, say, the process of seed
germination, in a real situation or observing different
breaking out of watertight compartments. For this, it is stages of milk collection, processing and packaging
necessary to build the capabilities and confidence of different kinds of products in a dairy farm.
teachers to autonomously plan their teaching in response Participating in an exercise involving body and mind
to the needs and demands of children’s learning. such as planning a role play around a theme and
presenting it.
Currently, pedagogic reform efforts are still very
centralised. Effective decentralisation would be possible Talking about and reflecting on something the child
has experience of (e.g. dialogue on gender-differentiated
through the greater involvement of Cluster and Block practices in the family and society or participating in a
Resource Centres, the availability of local resource mental game of numbers).
persons, and of resource and reference materials for Making something, say, a system of gear wheels or
the use of teachers. trying out an experiment to lift a load using a system
of pulleys.
2.4.4 Approaches to Planning After the experience, teachers could organise a
discussion,anexerciseinvolving,writing,drawingand
Our educational practice is still based on limited ‘lesson display. She could identify along with the children
plans’ aimed at achieving measurable ‘behaviours’; questions to be thought about and answered.
according to this view, the child is akin to a creature She could connect the experience with textbook
that can be trained, or a computer that can be knowledge and other references and deepen the
programmed. Hence, there is too much focus on experience.
‘outcomes’, and presenting knowledge divided into bits Such experiences and post - experience activities would
be valuable at any level of schooling. Only the nature
of information to be memorised directly from the text and complexity of the experience would need to change
or through activities after ‘motivating’ children, and over the years. Language is key to organising
finally on evaluating to see if children remember what experiences. Hence, there should be a proper
coordination between the kind of experience and the
they have learnt. Instead, we need to view the child as
level of language development.
‘constructing knowledge’ all the time. This is true not
only of ‘cognitive subjects’ such as mathematics and
science, language and social science, but equally of talk of competencies, but these competencies are
values, skills and attitudes. still pegged onto lessons much in the manner of
This perspective on the learner may sound ‘obvious’, ‘outcomes’. Instead, teachers need to develop the
but, in fact, many teachers, evaluators, and textbook writers ability to plan ‘units’ of four or five sessions for
still lack the conviction that this can become a reality. each topic. The development of understanding
• The term ‘activity’ is now a part of the registerof and of competencies is also possible only through
most elementary schoolteachers, but in many repeated opportunities to use the competencies
cases this has just been grafted onto the in different situation, and in a variety of ways.
‘Herbartian’ lesson plan, still driven by ‘outcomes’ While the development of knowledge,
at the end of each lesson. There is now more understanding and skills can be assessed both at
22

the end of a unit, and revisited at a later date, the One concern is that a focus on activities would
assessment cycle for competencies needs to be become too time consuming and make greater
longer. demands on teachers, time. Certainly, doing
• Activities could enable teachers to give activities requires that time be spent in planning
individualised attention to children, and to make and preparing for activities. Initially, teachers
alterations in a task depending on their need to make an effort to establish the classroom
requirements and variations in the level of culture for activities and to establish the rules that
interest. In fact, teachers could also consider will govern the space and use of materials.
involving children and older learners in planning • Planning with the support of appropriate material
the class work, such variety would bring resources for individualised, small group and
tremendous richness to the classroom processes. whole group work is the key to effective
It would also allow teach ers to respond to the management of instruction in a multigrade,
special needs of some children without making multiability or vertically grouped classroom.
it seem as if it is an obvious exception. There is Instead of finding ways of juggling lesson plans
still not enough engagement on the part of the based on mono-grade textbooks, teachers would
teacher with the learning of each child; children need to devise, in advance, thematic topic plans
are treated en masse, and only those who are in order to engage learners with exercises created
regarded as ‘stars’ or ‘problematic’ are noticed. for their level.
All children would benefit from such attention. • The practices of teachers in classrooms, the mate
• A lesson plan or unit plan for an inclusive class rials they use, and the evaluation techniques
should indicate how the teacher alters the ongoing employed must be internally consistent with each
activity to meet the different needs of children. other.
Failure to learn is currently being mechanically
addressed through ‘remediation’, which usually 2.4.5 Critical Pedagogy
means simply repeating lessons. Many teachers Teacher and student engagement is critical in the
are also looking for ‘cures’ to set right the classroom because it has the power to define whose
problems that some children may experience. knowledge will become a part of school-related
They still find it difficult to individualise learning knowledge and whose voices will shape it. Students
for children by building upon the strengths that are not just young people for whom adults should
children may have. devise solutions. They are critical observers of their
• Teachers need to understand how to plan lessons own conditions and needs, and should be participants
so that children are challenged to think and to try in discussions and problem solving related to their
out what they are learning, and not simply repeat education and future opportunities. Hence children need
what is told to them. A new problem is that in to be aware that their experiences and perceptions are
the name of ‘activities’ and ‘play way’ methods, a important and should be encouraged to develop the
lot of learning is being diluted by giving children mental skills needed to think and reason independently
things to do that are far below their capability. and have the courage to dissent. What children learn
 23

out of school — their capacities, learning abilities, and

knowledge base — and bring to school is important Why should stereotypes persist?
A matter of serious concern is the persistence of
to further enhance the learning process. This is all the
stereotypesregardingchildrenfrommarginalisedgroups,
more critical for children from underprivileged including SC and ST, who traditionally have not had
backgrounds, especially girls, as the worlds they inhabit access to schooling or learning. Some learners have
and their realities are underrepresented in school been historically viewed as uneducable, less educable,
knowledge. slow to learn, and even scared of learning. There is a
similar stereotype regarding girls, which encourages the
Participatory learning and teaching, emotion and
belief that they are not interested in playing games, or
experience need to have a definite and valued place in
inmathematicsandscience.Yetanothersetofstereotypes
the classroom. While class participation is a powerful is applied to children with disabilities, perpetuating
strategy, it loses its pedagogic edge when it is ritualised, the notion that they cannot be taught along with other
or merely becomes an instrument to enable teachers to children. These perceptions are grounded in the notion
meet their own ends. True participation starts from the that inferiority and inequality are inherent in gender,
caste and physical and intellectual disability. There
experiences of both students and teachers.
are a few success stories, but much larger are the
numbers of learners who fail and thus internalise a
sense of inadequacy. Realising the constitutional values
Critical pedagogy provides an opportunity to reflect of equality is possible only if we prepare teachers to
critically on issues in terms of their political, social, treat all children equally. We need to train teachers to
economic and moral aspects. It entails the acceptance of help them cultivate an understanding of the cultural
multiple views on social issues and a commitment to and socio-economic diversity that children bring with
democratic forms of interaction. This is important in them to school.
view of the multiple contexts in which our schools Many of our schools now have large numbers of first-
function.Acriticalframeworkhelpschildrentoseesocial generation school goers. Pedagogy must be reoriented
issues from different perspectives and understand how when the child’s home provides any direct support to
such issues are connected to their lives. For instance, formal schooling. First-generation school goers, for
understanding of democracy as a way of life can be example, would be completely dependent on the school
chartered through a path where children reflect on how for inculcating reading and writing skills and fostering
they regard others (e.g. friends, neighbours, the opposite a taste for reading, and for familiarising them with
sex, elders, etc.), how they make choices (e.g. activities, the language and culture of the school, especially when
play, friends, career, etc.), and how they cultivate the the home language is different from the language of
ability to make decisions. Likewise, issues related to school. Indeed they need all the assistance they can get.
human rights, caste, religion and gender can be critically Many such children are also vulnerable to conditions
reflected on by children in order to see how these issues prevailing at home, which might make them prone to
are connected to their everyday experiences, and also lack of punctuality, irregularity and inattentiveness in
how different forms of inequalities become compounded theclassroom.Mobilisingintersectoralsupportforfreeing
and are perpetuated. Critical pedagogy facilitates children from such constraints, and for designing a
collective decision making through open discussion and curriculum sensitive to these circumstances, therefore is
byencouragingandrecognisingmultipleviews. essential.
 24

When children and teachers share and reflect on important for some children, while for others it may
their individual and collective experiences without fear be learning to listen to others.
of judgement, it gives them opportunities to learn The role of teachers is to provide a safe space
about others who may not be a part of their own for children to express themselves, and simultaneously
social reality. This enables them to understand and relate to build in certain forms of interactions. They need to
to differences instead of fearing them. If children’s step out of the role of ‘moral authority’ and learn to
social experiences are to be brought into the classroom, listen with empathy and without judgement, and to
it is inevitable that issues of conflict will need to be enable children to listen to each other. While
addressed. Conflict is an inescapable part of children’s consolidating and constructively stretching the limits
lives. They constantly encounter situations that call for of the learner's understanding, they need to be
moral assessment and action, whether in relation to conscious of how differences are expressed. An
subjective experiences of conflict involving the self, atmosphere of trust would make the classroom a safe
family and society, or in dealing with exposure to violent space, where children can share experiences, where
conflict in the contemporary world. To use conflict as conflict can be acknowledged and constructively
a pedagogic strategy is to enable children to deal with questioned, and where resolutions, however tentative,
conflict and facilitate awareness of its nature and its can be mutually worked out. In particular, for girls
role in their lives. and children from under-privileged social groups,
Learning to question received knowledge critically, schools and classrooms should be spaces for discussing
whether it is found in a ‘biased’ textbook, or other processes of decision making, for questioning the basis
literary sources in their own environments, can be built of their decisions, and for making informed choices.
by encouraging learners to comment, compare and
think about elements that exist in their own 2.5 KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING
environment. Women and dalit activists have used songs The question, ‘What should be taught to the young’?
as a powerful medium for discussion, comment and derives from a deeper question, namely, What aims are
analysis. Repositories of knowledge exist in different worth pursuing in education? The answer is a vision
mediums, hence all these forms, whether television of the capabilities and values that every individual must
programme, advertisements, songs, paintings, etc., need have and a socio-political and cultural vision for society.
to be brought into create a dynamic interaction among This is not a single aim, but a set of aims. So also the
learners themselves. content selected seeks to do justice to the entire set of
A pedagogy that is sensitive to gender, class, caste aims; it has to be comprehensive and balanced. The
and global inequalities is one that does not merely affirm curriculum needs to provide experiences that build the
different individual and collective experiences but also knowledge base through a progressive introduction to
locates these within larger structures of power and raises the capabilities of thinking rationally, to understand the
questions such as, who is allowed to speak for whom? world through various disciplines, foster aesthetic
Whose knowledge is most valued? This requires appreciation and sensitivity towards others, to work
evolving different strategies for different learners. For and to participate in economic processes. This section
example, encouraging speaking up in class may be discusses the nature and forms of knowledge and
 25

Talking Pictures
Show the class a picture of a household with various members of the family performing different tasks. The
difference is that the father is cooking, the mother fixing a light bulb, the daughter returning from school on a bicycle,
and the son milking a cow, the other sister climbing a mango tree, and the other son sweeping the floor. The
grandfather is sewing on a button, and the grandmother is doing the accounts.
Ask the children to talk about the picture.
What are the ‘works’ they can identify?
Do they think that there is any work that these people should not be doing?
Why?
Involve them in a discussion on the dignity of labour, equality and gender.
Discuss the importance of each individual being self - sufficient and complete.

This can be done for other topics such as good and bad work, caste stereotyping and the value - added nature of
work through similar talking pictures.

understanding as necessary elements terrains for making it, and what it is used for. It suggests that in the
informed curricular choices and approaches to content. curriculum, there must be as much focus on the process
Knowledge can be conceived as experience of learning, on how learners engage with and
organised through language into patterns of thought reconstruct knowledge, as on the content of what is
(or structures of concepts), thus creating meaning, which learnt.
in turn helps us understand the world we live in. It can If, on the other hand, knowledge is regarded as a
also be conceived of as patterns of activity, or physical finished product, then it is organised in the form of
dexterity with thought, contributing to acting in the information to be ‘transferred’ to the child’s mind.
world, and the creating and making of things. Human Education would concern itself with maintaining and
beings over time have evolved many bodies of transmitting this store - house of human knowledge.
knowledge, which include a repertoire of ways of thinking, In this view of knowledge, the learner is conceived of
of feeling and of doing things, and constructing more as a passive receiver, while in the former there is a
knowledge. All children have to re-create a significant dynamic engagement with the world through
part of this wealth for themselves, as this constitutes observing, feeling, reflecting, acting, and sharing.
the basis for further thinking and for acting appropriately The curriculum is a plan to develop capabilities
in this world. It is also important to learn to participate that are likely to help achieve the chosen educational
in the very process of knowledge creation, meaning aims. The range of human capabilities is very wide,
making and human action, i.e. work. Conceiving and through education we cannot develop them all.
knowledge in this broad sense directs us to the The concern is therefore with those that are necessary
importance of examining knowledge in terms of not and significant in relation to our aims, which offer
only the ‘product’, but also the underlying principles potential for further development, and for which we
of how it is created, how it is organised, who accesses have some pedagogic knowledge.
 26

2.5.1 Basic Capabilities Many of them involve abilities that are developed.
These include the ability to conceptualise and imagine
Children’s basic capabilities are those that form the
products that are useful or aesthetic, the knowledge of
broad basis for the development of understanding,
and ability to work with materials to fashion a product,
values and skills.
a. Language and other forms of expression provide knowledge of one’s own abilities, appreciation of team
the basis for meaning making, and sharing with others. work, and attitudes of persistence and discipline. This
They create possibilities of development of is true whether it is an object being fashioned or
understanding and knowledge, providing the ability to whether it is a play a to be presented to an audience.
symbolise, codify, and to remember and record. Describing these activities as skills draws attention
Development of language for a child is synonymous to only the dexterities that are involved, but not to the
with development of understanding and identity, and considerable understanding of the social and natural
also the capability of relating with others. It is not only world and the self that each of these forms of practice
verbal languages with scripts, but also languages without involves. Like accepted academic disciplines, these crafts
scripts, sign languages, scripts such as Braille and the and trades too have their traditions and expert
performing arts, that provide the bases for making practitioners. The knowledge relevant to each of these
meaning and the expression. crafts, occupations and art forms is cumulatively
b. Forming and sustaining relationships with the developed and is passed on through experience and
social world, with the natural world, and with one’s
self, with emotional richness, sensitivity and values. This A craft like carpentry involves the ability to
gives meaning to life, providing it with emotional conceptualise and design the object to be made, an
content and purpose. This is also the basis for ethics understanding of its value in the society
(socio-cultural, aesthetic and economic significance),
and morality.
knowledge of materials available and the most
c. Capabilities for work and action involves the suitable in terms of quality and cost for the product
coordination of bodily movement with thought and to be made, knowledge of where to source materials,
volition, drawing on skill and understanding, and the ability to plan and execute the fashioning of the
product from beginning to end, using one’s own
directing oneself to achieve some purpose or create
skills and sourcing relevant skills from others,
something. It also involves handling tools and
maintaining the necessary tools, judging for quality,
technologies, and the ability to manipulate and organise creativity and excellence in craftsmanship.
things and experiences, and to communicate.
A sport like kabaddi involves physical stamina and
2.5.2 Knowledge in Practice endurance, knowledge of rules of the game, skills
A vast array of human activities and practices sustain and physical dexterity, and knowledge of one’s own
social living and culture. Crafts such as weaving, capacities, ability to plan and coordinate as a team, to
assess the other team, and to strategise to win.
carpentry and pottery, and occupations such as farming
and shopkeeping, constitute alongwith and performing
and visual arts and sports a valuable form of reflection to the next generation of practitioners.
knowledge. These forms of knowledge are of a Therefore, each one of them is a discipline of practical
practical nature, tacit and often only partially articulated. knowledge. The Indian heritage of such forms of
 27

function. It also has its own validation procedure,

Oral and Craft Traditions namely, a step-by-step demonstration of the necessity
of what is to be established. The validation procedures
The oral lore and traditions of craft are a unique of mathematics are never empirical, never based on
intellectual property, varied and sophisticated,
preserved by innumerable groups in our society, observation of the world or on experiment, but are
including women, marginalised, and communities, demonstrations internal to the system specified by an
and tribal people. By including these in the curriculum appropriate set of axioms and definitions.
for all children, we could provide them with windows
of understanding and kernels of ideas, skills and The Sciences, like the systems of mathematics, have
capabilities that could be worked into forms and their own concepts, often interconnected through
inventions that could enrich their own lives and theories, and are attempts to describe and explain the
society. School privileges the literate, but cannot afford
to continue to ignore the oral. Sustaining oral skills natural world. Concepts include atom, magnetic field,
of all kinds is important. cell, and neuron. Scientific inquiry involves observation
and experimentation to validate predictions made by
theory (hypotheses), which may be aided by instruments
practical knowledge is vast, varied and rich. As
and controls. Formalisation into theory and model
productive skills, they are an invaluable part of the
building can sometimes involve mathematics, but it is
economy.
only with reference to observations and not to
More reflection and research is needed in order to
mathematical accuracy that truth is tested. The attempt
understand the epistemological structure of these practical
is to furnish a narrative that in some way ‘corresponds’
disciplines. Understanding how they are practised and
to reality.
learnt, and how to formalise their learning, are questions
The Social Sciences and Humanities have their own
of sociological importance as traditional occupations
concepts, for example, community, modernisation,
are linked to caste groups and are gendered. It is necessary
culture, identity, and polity. The Social Sciences aim at
to realise their curricular significance, not only as forms
developing a generalised and critical understanding of
of work but equally as forms of knowledge, and as
human beings and human groups in society. The Social
mediums for other learning. This important area of
Sciences concern themselves with description,
human knowledge needs to become a substantial part
explanation and prediction in the social world. The
of the school curriculum.
Social Sciences deal with hypotheses that are about
human behaviour in collective living, and their validation
2.5.3 Forms of Understanding
finally depends on the observations made in the society.
Knowledge can be categorised based on distinct kinds With regard to the process of knowledge formation,
of concepts and meanings involved and processes of Science and the Social Sciences are almost identical.
validation and justification. Each involves its own kind of But there are two differences that are of great relevance
‘critical thinking’, its own way of verifying and in curriculum planning. First, the Social Sciences study
authenticating knowledge, and its own kind of ‘creativity’. human behaviour which is governed by ‘reasons’, while
Mathematics has its own distinctive concepts, such nature is governed by ‘cause and effect’. Second, the
as prime number, square root, fraction, integer and findings of the Social Sciences often raise issues of
 28

ethics and desirability while natural phenomena can be for anyone; reason, equality and personal autonomy
understood, raising ethical questions only when they are therefore very intimately connected concepts.
enter into the domain of human action. Philosophy involves a concern, on the one hand,
Art and aesthetics have many words in common, with analytical clarification, evaluation and synthetic
such as rhythm, harmony, expression and balance, coordination of the aforementioned forms of
though giving them new senses or new ranges of understanding in relation to life, and, on the other hand,
application. Art productions cannot be judged against with the whole, the ultimate meaning and the
reality or investigated for ‘truth’. Although there is ample transcendent.
scope for subjective judgement in art, it is also possible The basic capabilities, the knowledge of practice
to educate the artistic imagination to critically assess and the forms of understanding are the core ways in
what is good and what is not. which human experience has been elaborated in the
Ethics is concerned with all human values, and course of history. All but the simplest kinds of human
with the rules, principles, standards and ideals which activity draw upon them—the liberal professions,
give them expression. In relation to action and choice, technology, industry and commerce. They are central
therefore, ethics must be conceded primacy over each to human culture. Imagination and critical thinking are
of the forms of understanding. Ethical understanding linked in obvious ways with the development of
involves understanding reasons for judgements—for understanding and reason, and so are the emotions.
what makes some things and some acts right and others Each of these knowledge areas involves a special
wrong—regardless of the authority of the persons vocabulary, concepts, theories, descriptions and
involved. Furthermore, such reasons will be reasons methodologies. Each provides a ‘lens’ through which
to view the world, to understand, to engage, and to
act in it. These areas have developed, and continue to
grow, through the contributions of people in the past.
Layers of understanding
They have also changed in their structure and emphasis.
Comprehension: understanding the language, and
the (linguistic) contents of what is said. A variety of intelligence and forms of knowing come
into play while learning these areas: ‘formal modes’ of
Reference: understanding what is being talked
about—what the terms and concepts refer to. explicit reasoning and articulation; looking for and
evaluating evidence; ‘experiential’ and tacit knowing
Epistemic: understanding what counts as evidence,
what makes a statement true, how to seek evidence
through doing and undergoing the experience;
and judge truth. coordinating and observing; and ‘practical’ engagement,
either by oneself or in coordination with others in
Relational and Significant: understanding through
developing interconnections between different facts making or accomplishing something, in addressing
and concepts and weaving them into an problems and issues while charting a course of action.
interconnected web of ‘known things’,
understanding relationships between different Creativity and excellence are integral to all these forms
things, and the significance of each in relation to the of knowledge and knowing.
other. This accumulation of human culture and
knowledge, and ways of knowing and doing things, is
 29

a valuable part of the inheritance of human society. All part of the curriculum. These rarely receive the attention
our children have a right to access this knowledge, to they deserve in terms of preparation by teachers or
educate and enrich their common sense, to develop school time. Areas of knowledge such as crafts and
and discover themselves and the world of nature and sports, which are rich in potential for the development
people, through these lenses and tools. of skill, aesthetics, creativity, resourcefulness and team
work, also become sidelined. Important areas of
2.6 RECREATING KNOWLEDGE knowledge such as work and associated practical
These capabilities, practices, and skills of understanding intelligences have been completely neglected, and we
are what we seek to develop through the school still do not have an adequate curriculum theory to
curriculum. Some of them readily lend themselves to support the development of knowledge, skills and
being formulated as ‘subjects’ of study such as attitudes in these areas.
mathematics, history, science, and the visual arts. Others, Second, the subject areas tend to become
such as ethical understanding, need to be interwoven watertight compartments. As a result, knowledge seems
into subjects and activities. The basic capabilities of fragmented rather than interrelated and integrated. The
language require both approaches, and aesthetic discipline, rather than the child’s way of viewing the
understanding also readily lends itself to both world, tends to become the starting point, and
approaches. All these areas require opportunities for boundaries get constructed between knowledge in the
project activities, thematic and interdisciplinary courses school and knowledge outside.
of studies, field trips, use of libraries and laboratories. Third, what is already known gets emphasised,
This approach to knowledge necessitates a move subverting children’s own ability to construct knowledge
away from ‘facts’ as ends in themselves, and a move and explore novel ways of knowing. Information takes
towards locating facts in the process through which precedence over knowledge, lending itself to producing
they come to be known, and moving below the surface bulky textbooks, ‘quizzing’ and methods of mechanical
of facts to locate the deeper connections between them retrieval rather than understanding and problem solving.
that give them meaning and significance. This tendency of mistaking information for knowledge
In India, we have traditionally followed a leads to ‘loading’ the curriculum with too many facts
subject-based approach to organising the curriculum, to be memorised.
drawing on only the disciplines. This approach tends Fourth, there is the issue of including ‘new
to present knowledge as ‘packaged’, usually in subjects’. The need for subjects addressing
textbooks, along with associated rituals of examinations contemporary concerns of society is important. But
to assess, knowledge acquisition and marks as a way there has been a misplaced tendency to address these
of judging competence in the subject area. This concerns in the school curriculum by ‘creating’ new
approach has led to several problems in our education subjects, producing related textbooks and devising
system. First, those areas that do not lend themselves methods of evaluation for them. These concerns may
to being organised in textbooks and examined through be far better addressed if they are incorporated in the
marks become sidelined and are then described as curriculum through existing subjects and ongoing
‘extra’ or ‘co-curricular’, instead of being an integral activities. Needless to say, adding new areas as ‘subjects’
 30

only increases the curriculum load, and perpetuates constructs knowledge and derives meaning. This area
undesirable compartmentalisation of knowledge. has generally been neglected both in the
Finally, the principles for selecting knowledge for conceptualisation of textbooks and in pedagogic
inclusion in the curriculum are not well worked out. practices. Hence, in this document, we emphasise the
There is insufficient consideration of developmental significance of contextualising education: of situating
appropriateness, logical sequencing and connection learning in the context of the child's world, and of
between different grades, and overall pacing, with a making the boundary between the school and its natural
few or no opportunities to return to earlier concepts. and social environment porous. This is not only because
Further, concepts that cut across subject areas, such as the local environment and the child’s own experiences
in secondary school mathematics and in physics, are are the best ‘entry points, into the study of disciplines
not placed in relation to one another of knowledge, but more so because the aim of
knowledge is to connect with the world. It is not a means to
2.7 C HILDREN’ S K NOWLEDGE AND L OCAL an end, but both means and end. This does not require
KNOWLEDGE us to reduce knowledge to the functional and
The child’s community and local environment form immediately relevant, but to realise its dynamism by
the primary context in which learning takes place, and connecting with the world through it.
in which knowledge acquires its significance. It is in Unless learners can locate their individual
interaction with the environment that the child standpoints in relation to the concepts represented in
textbooks and relate this knowledge to their own
experiences of society, knowledge is reduced to the
Selecting Knowledge
level of mere information. If we want to examine
Domains of knowledge have grown enormously, how learning relates to future visions of community
so that it is necessary to select what is to be included
life, it is crucial to encourage reflection on what it means
in the curriculum.
to know something, and how to use what we have learnt.
Relevance: This could lead to very functionalist
choices, with mistaken notions relating to usefulness The learner must be recognised as a proactive participant
in later adult life. This may be completely unsuited in his or her own learning.
to children’s engagement in knowledge construction
Day after day children bring to school their
in the present, and hence in no way contributes to
learning for the future. experiences of the world around them the trees that
Interest: A useful measure, but this should not be they have climbed, the fruits they have eaten, the birds
reduced to simplistic notions of what children enjoy, they have admired. All children are alive to the natural
such as ‘cartoon’ figures or games. Rather the measure
cycles of day and night, of the weather, the water, the
should be the ability to engage a child and keep her
interested and self - motivated to engage in the task plants and the animals that surround them. Children,
at hand. when they enter Class I already have a rich language
Meaningful: The most important measure. Only if base of small numbers, and the rudiments of
the child finds the activity or knowledge being learnt
operations are already in place. Yet rarely do we hear
meaningful, will its inclusion in the curriculum be
justified. the knowledge that they already have and which they
bring into the classroom. Rarely do we ask children to
 31

talk about or refer to the world outside the school

during our lessons and teaching. Instead we resort to Participating in the Generation of
the convenience of the printed word and picture, all Knowledge
of which are poor replicas of the natural world. Worse
Given its intrinsic variability, each manifestation of
still, today in the name of computer-aided learning,
the environment tends to be unique. Its
the living world is being turned into animation strips understanding cannot, therefore, be arrived at solely
that children are expected to watch on their computer on the basis of the classical scientific approach of
screens. Before starting a lesson on living and non-living, experimentation, calling for extensive replication.
Instead, an understanding of such complex systems
if a teacher was to take her class out on a walk through requires extensive locale-and time-specific
a field near the school, and on returning asked each observations, careful documentation, and an
child to write the names of ten living things and ten elucidation of the patterns and underlying processes
based on comparisons of systems that differ from
non-living things that she/he saw, the results would be
each other in some specific ways. There is hardly any
amazing. Children in Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu good quality documentation available today of the
may include in their list of things sea shells, pebbles many facets of India's environment, such as the
depth of the underground water table, and it is
and fish, and those in Chhattisgarh near the
feasible to create such documentation on the basis
Dandakaranya forest may include nest, bee hive, and of student projects. It would be possible to upload
anklet. Instead, children are usually required to look at the results of such projects on a publicly accessible
a drawing in the textbook, or a list of words, and sort website, thereby creating a transparent and
comprehensive database on India's environment. By
the things out as living and non-living. During a lesson
inviting not only experts, but also all interested
on water pollution, children could examine the water citizens to assess the quality of such projects and
sources and water bodies and then connect these with augment their results, a self-correcting system could
be set up that would lead to an organic growth of
different types of pollution. This exercise could also
our understanding of the Indian environmental
raise issues regarding how lack of safe water affects scenario and concrete ways of undertaking positive
health. Instead, children are expected to see pictures action. Such information collated annually over the
of polluted water and comment on them. When years, and also shared with and compared with other
regions, and collated centrally would produce a
studying the moon and its phases, how many teachers significant understanding of ecological changes and
actually ask the children to look at the moon at night develop a perspective on what is happening and why
and then talk about it the next day? Instead of asking through comparisons. Including such knowledge-
generation activities as a part of the educational
children the names of local birds and trees, our
process would also greatly enhance the quality of the
textbooks name ‘ubiquitous’ things that seem to belong educational experience.
everywhere and yet belong nowhere. Only if children
in, say Class VIII, can connect the chapter on
photosynthesis with the real plants around would they the school will children become alive to the issues of
think of asking questions such as, ‘How do crotons, the environment and nurture their concern for it.
which have coloured leaves but no green leaves, manage The local environment is thus a natural learning
to manufacture their food?’ Only when the living world resource, which must be privileged when making
around becomes available for critical reflection within choices regarding what should be included, what
 32

concrete examples should be cited in planning for their should also be able to compare life there with life
transaction in the classroom. In the case of content around them in their local community, and ask what
selection for the Social Sciences and language, it is things would happen in the same way, and what things
important to keep in mind the ideals and values would happen differently.
enshrined in the Constitution. Inclusion of the local The local environment consists not only of the
context in classroom transaction would imply a serious physical and natural world but also the socio-cultural
attempt by the teacher to make choices in a manner world. All children have a voice at home, and it is
that is pedagogically imaginative and ethically sound. essential for the school to ensure that their voices
When children living in Kerala are introduced to the continue to be heard in the classroom as well.
habitat of the desert in Rajasthan, the descriptions must Communities also have rich cultural resources: local
be rich and detailed so that they can get a feel of the stories, songs, jokes and riddles, and art, all of which
natural world there, in all its particularities and diversity, can enrich language and knowledge in schools. They
rather than evoking images of the typical sand dune also have rich oral histories. By imposing silence we
and the camel. They should wonder how in a place so stifle children.
hot people wear more rather than fewer clothes. They
2.8 SCHOOL KNOWLEDGE AND THE
COMMUNITY
Local Knowledge Traditions Experiences of the socio-cultural world also need to
Many communities and individuals in India are a become a part of the curriculum. Children need to find
rich storehouse of knowledge about many aspects examples of the plurality of peoples and ways of life
of India's environment, acquired over generations
and handed down as traditional knowledge, as well
represented in the textbooks. These portrayals need to
as through an individual's practical experience. Such ensure that no community is oversimplified, labelled,
knowledge may pertain to: naming and categorising or judged. It may even be better for children to study
plants, or ways of harvesting and storing water, or
of practising sustainable agriculture. Sometimes and generate portrayals of the local social groups as a
these may be different from the ways in which school part of their social science studies. They can then
knowledge approaches the subject. At other times,
directly interact with the gram panchayat representative,
it may not be recognised as something that is
important. In these situations, teachers could help who may be invited to the school to speak about the
children develop projects of study based on local extent to which decentralisation has helped in
traditions and people's practical ecological knowledge;
this may also involve comparing these with the
addressing local civic issues. Local oral history could
school approach. In some cases, as in the case of also be connected with regional history and national
classifying plants, the two traditions may be simply history. But the social context also calls for a much
parallel and be based on different criteria considered
significant. In other cases, for example the greater critical awareness and critical engagement on
classification and diagnosis of illnesses, it may also the part of curriculum developers and teachers.
challenge and contradict local belief systems.
Community-based identities, of gender, caste, class and
However, all forms of local knowledge must be
mediated through Constitutional values and religion are primary identities, but they can also be
principles. oppressive and reaffirm social inequalities and
hierarchies. School knowledge can also provide a lens
 33

through which children can develop a critical

understanding of their social reality. It could also Some principles regarding the approach to
knowledge in the curriculum :
provide them space to talk about their experiences and
anxieties within their homes. √ Acquiring a critical perspective on social reality
Communities may also have questions about the and the natural environment through the
lenses provided by the subject matter.
inclusion or exclusion of particular knowledge and
experiences in the school curriculum. The school must √ Connecting with the local and the
then be prepared to engage with communities to listen contextualised in order to ‘situate’ knowledge
and realising its ‘relevance’ and
to their concerns, and to persuade them to see the ‘meaningfulness’; to reaffirm one’s experiences
educational value of such decisions. For this, teachers outside school; to draw one's learning from
observing, interacting with, classifying,
must know the reasons why something is included while
categorising, questioning, reasoning and
something else is not. They must also be able to win arguing in relation to these experiences.
the trust of parents in matters like allowing children to
√ Making connections across disciplines and
use home language in school, or teaching about sexuality
bringing out the interrelatedness of
and reproduction, or play-way methods in primary knowledge.
school, or encouraging boys to sing and dance. It is
√ Realising the ‘fruitfulness’ and ‘openness’ of
not a good enough explanation to say that the decisions enquiry, and the provisional nature of truth.
were taken at the state level. If we are to ensure
participation of children of all groups in our secular √ Engaging with ‘local knowledge’/indigenous
practices in the local area, and relating these to
education, we will have to discuss our curricular choices school knowledge wherever possible.
with others who are legitimate stakeholders in education.
√ Encouraging questions and leaving space open
for the pursuit of new questions.
2.9 SOME DEVELOPMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Children’s interests, physical skills, linguistic capacity, and √ Being sensitive to the issues of ‘equality’ in
classroom transaction as well as established
ability for abstract thinking and generalisation develop stereotypes and discrimination regarding
over the span of schooling, from the pre-school period learnability of the knowledge area by different
groups (e.g. girls not being given field-based
through higher secondary school. This is a period of
projects, the blind being excluded from the
intensive growth and development, and also of option of learning mathematics, etc.).
fundamental shifts and changes in interests and
√ Developing the imagination, and keeping
capabilities. Hence, it is an important dimension of imagination and fantasy alive.
determining the approach to, and selection and
organisation of the areas of the curriculum.
The creation or recreation of knowledge requires learn later will be in relation to this knowledge that
an experiential base, language abilities, and interaction they bring into the classroom. This knowledge is also
with other humans and the natural world. Children intuitive. School provides opportunities to build on
entering school for the first time have already begun this in a more conscious and engaged manner. At the
constructing knowledge of the world. Everything they early stage of learning, from pre-school to the primary
 34

school years, an important place must be given to categorise, and also analyse the same through certain
language and mathematics in all activities across the knowledge areas such as ethical understanding and
curriculum. The division into subjects is not very critical thinking. The creation of a space for explorations
significant, and the knowledge areas discussed above into social issues and knowledge without boundaries
can be totally integrated and presented to children in could at this stage go a long way in encouraging rational
the form of learning experiences of the environment. thinking.
This should include an enriching interaction with the By the time children reach the secondary stage
natural and social environment, working with one’s of education, they have acquired a sufficient knowledge
hands, and understanding of social interactions, and base, experience, language abilities and maturity to
developing one’s aesthetic abilities. These early integrated engage with different forms of knowledge in the full
experiences of the natural and social environment sense: concepts, structure of body of knowledge,
would later become demarcated into science and the investigation methods and validation procedures.
social sciences in the middle school years. Therefore, the subjects could be more closely linked
The upper primary or middle school period may with the basic forms as listed above and the disciplines
be the place for the emergence of better defined as they are recognised in higher education today.
subject areas, taking into consideration the The issues of adequate representation of all forms
above-mentioned forms of knowledge. At this stage of knowledge, and emphasis on similarities, special
it should be possible to create spaces across subjects in characteristics, and the widest possible interconnections
which children engage in the process of data collection, between them, become important when the subject
natural, social, mathematical or linguistic, to classify and areas are more clearly defined.
 35

The main areas relevant for curricular planning have remained

remarkably stable for a long time, despite major changes in social
expectations and the academic study of different broad disciplines.
It is important that each curricular area is revisited in depth, so that
specific points of entry can be identified in the context of emerging
social needs. In this respect, the status and role of the arts and health
and physical education deserve special attention in view of the
peculiar orbit of the 'extra-curricular' to which they were relegated
almost a century ago. Aesthetic sensibility and experience being the
prime sites of the growing child's creativity, we must bring the arts
squarely into the domain of the curricular, infusing them in all areas
of learning while giving them an identity of their own at relevant
stages. Work, peace, and health and physical education have a similar
case. All three have a fundamental significance for economic, social
and personal development. Schools have a major role to play in
ensuring that children are socialised into a culture of self-reliance,
resourcefulness, peace-oriented values and health.
 36

3.1 LANGUAGE understanding and use of languages(s) enables the child

Language in this document subsumes bi-/ to make connections between ideas, people and things,
multilingualism. And when we talk of home language(s) and to relate to the world around.
or mother tongue(s), it subsumes the languages of If we wish to launch any sound programme for
home, larger kinship group, street and neighbourhood, language teaching in schools, it is important to recognise
i.e. languages(s) that a child acquires naturally from the inbuilt linguistic potential of children as well as to
her/his home and societal environment. Children are remember that languages get socio-culturally
born with an innate language faculty. We know from constructed and change in our day-to-day interactions.
our everyday experiences that most children, even Language(s) in education would ideally build on this
before they start their schooling, internalise an extremely resource, and would strive to enrich it through the
complex and rule-governed system called language, and development of literacy (scripts including Braille) for
possess full linguistic capabilities. In many cases, children the acquisition of academic knowledge. Children with
come to school with two or three languages already in language-related impairments should be introduced to
place at the oral-aural level. They are able to use these
standard sign languages, which can support their
languages not only accurately but also appropriately.
continued growth and development to the fullest. A
Even differently talented children who do not use the
recognition of the linguistic abilities of learners would
spoken languages develop equally complex alternative
encourage them to believe in themselves and their
sign and symbol systems for expression and
cultural moorings.
communication.
Languages also provide a bank of memories and 3.1.1 Language education
symbols inherited from one's fellow speakers and
The linguistic diversity of India poses complex
created in one's own lifetime. They are also the medium
challenges but also a range of opportunities. India is
through which most knowledge is constructed, and
unique not only in that a large number of languages
hence they are closely tied to the thoughts and identity
are spoken here but also in terms of the number and
of the individual. In fact, they are so closely bound
variety of language families that are represented in those
with identity that to deny or wipe out a child's mother
languages. There is no other country in the world in
tongue(s) is to interfere with the sense of self. Effective
which languages from five different language families
exist. Even though they are so distinct structurally as to
Multilingualism, which is constitutive of the
identity of a child and a typical feature of merit classification as different language families, namely,
the Indian linguistic landscape, must be Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman
used as a resource, classroom strategy and
and Andamanese, they constantly interact with each
a goal by a creative language teacher. This
is not only the best use of a resource readily other. There are several linguistic and sociolinguistic
available, but also a way of ensuring that features that are shared across languages that bear
every child feels secure and accepted, and
that no one is left behind on account of witness to the fact that different languages and cultures
his/her linguistic background. have coexisted in India for centuries, enriching each
other. Classical languages such as Latin, Arabic, Persian,
 37

every local authority within the State to provide

Several studies have shown that bilingual
adequate facilities for instruction in the
proficiency raises the levels of cognitive
growth, social tolerance, divergent mother-tongue at the primary stage of education
thinking and scholastic achievement. to children belonging to linguistic minority
Societal or national-level multilingualism groups’.
is a resource that can be favourably
• Children will receive multilingual education from
compared to any other national resource.
the outset. The three-language formula needs to
be implemented in its spirit, promoting
Tamil and Sanskrit are rich in their inflectional
multilingual communicative abilities for a
grammatical structure and aesthetic value, and can
multilingual country.
illuminate our lives, as many languages keep borrowing
• In the non-Hindi-speaking states, children learn
words from them.
Hindi. In the case of Hindi speaking states,
Today, we know for certain that bilingualism or
children learn a language not spoken in their area.
multilingualism confers definite cognitive advantages.
Sanskrit may also be studied as a Modern Indian
The three-language formula is an attempt to address
Language (MIL) in addition to these languages.
the challenges and opportunities of the linguistic
• At later stages, study of classical and foreign
situation in India. It is a strategy that should really
languages may be introduced.
serve as a launching pad for learning more languages.
It needs to be followed both in letter and spirit. Its 3.1.2 Home/First language(s) or Mother-tongue
primary aim is to promote multilingualism and national education
harmony. The following guidelines may help us achieve It is clear that through their innate language faculty and
this aim: interaction with the family and other people around
• Language teaching needs to be multilingual not them, children come to school with full-blown
only in terms of the number of languages offered communicative competence in their language, or, in
to children but also in terms of evolving strategies many cases, languages. They enter the school not only
that would use the multilingual classroom as a with thousands of words but also with a full control
resource. of the rules that govern the complex and rich structure
• Home language(s) of children, as defined above of language at the level of sounds, words, sentences
in 3.1, should be the medium of learning in and discourse. A child knows not only how to
schools. understand and speak correctly but also appropriately
• If a school does not have provisions for teaching in her language(s). She can modulate her behaviour in
in the child's home language(s) at the higherlevels, terms of person, place and topic. She obviously has
primary school education must still be covered the cognitive abilities to abstract extremely complex
through the home language(s). It is imperative systems of language-from the flux of sounds. Honing
that we honour the child's home language(s). these skills by progressively fostering advanced-level
According to Article 350A of our Constitution, communicative and cognitive abilities in the classroom
‘It shall be the endeavour of every State and of is the goal of first-language(s) education. From Class III
 38

Language education is not confined to the language

Literature can also be a spur to children’s classroom. A science, social science or mathematics class
own creativity. After hearing a story, poem is ipso facto a language class. Learning the subject means
or song, children can be encouraged to
learning the terminology, understanding the concepts, and
write something of their own. They can
also be encouraged to integrate various being able to discuss and write about them critically. For
forms of creative expression. some topics, students should be encouraged to consult
books or talk to people in different languages, or gather
material in English from the Internet. Such a policy of
onwards, oracy and literacy will be tools for learning languages across the curriculum will foster a genuine
and for developing higher-order communicative skills multilingualism in the school. At the same time, the language
and critical thinking. At the primary stage, child's class offers some unique opportunities. Stories, poems,
languages must be accepted as they are, with no attempt songs and drama link children to their cultural heritage,
to correct them. By Class IV, if rich and interesting and also give them an opportunity to understand their
exposure is made available, the child will herself acquire own experiences and to develop sensitivity to others. We
the standard variety and the rules of correct
may also point out that children may effortlessly abstract
orthography, but care must be taken to honour and
more grammar from such activities than through explicit
respect the child's home language(s)/mother tongue(s).
and often boring grammar lessons.
It should be accepted that errors are a necessary part
While many of the differently abled learners may
of the process of learning, and that children will correct
pick up basic language skills through normal social
themselves only when they are ready to do so. Instead
interactions, they could additionally be provided with
of focusing attention on errors and 'hard spots', it
especially designed materials that would assist and
would be much better to spend time providing children
enhance their growth and development. Studying sign
comprehensible, interesting and challenging inputs.
language and Braille could be included as options for
It is indeed hard to exaggerate the importance
learners without disabilities.
of teaching home languages at school. Though children
come equipped with basic interpersonal communicative
3.1.3 Second-language Acquisition
skills, they need to acquire at school cognitively
advanced levels of language proficiency. Basic language English in India is a global language in a multilingual
skills are adequate for meeting situations that are country. A variety and range of English-teaching
contextually rich and cognitively undemanding such as situations prevail here owing to the twin factors of
peer-group interaction; advanced-level skills are required teacher proficiency in English and pupils' exposure to
in situations that are contextually poor and cognitively English outside school. The level of introduction of
demanding such as writing an essay on an abstract issue. English is now a matter of political response to people's
It is also now well established that higher-level aspirations rather than an academic or feasibility issue,
proficiency skills easily transfer from one language to and people's choices about the level of its introduction
another. It is thus imperative that we do everything we in the curriculum will have to be respected, with the
can to strengthen the sustained learning of Indian proviso that we do not extend downwards the very
languages at school. system that has failed to deliver.
 39

The goals for a second-language curriculum are is not being taught as language, through exposure in
twofold: attainment of a basic proficiency, such as is meaningful context. Thus English must be seen in
acquired in natural language learning, and the relation to other subjects; a language across the
development of language into an instrument for curriculum is of particular relevance to primary
abstract thought and knowledge acquisition through education, and later all teaching is in a sense language
(for example) literacy. This argues for an teaching. This perspective will bridge the gap between
across-the-curriculum approach that breaks down the "English as subject" and "English as medium". We
barriers between English and other subjects, and English should in this way move towards a common school
and other Indian languages. At the initial stages, English system that does not make a distinction between "
may be one of the languages for learning activities that teaching a language" and "using a language as a medium
create the child's awareness of the world. At later stages, of instruction".
Input-rich communicational environments are a
prerequisite for language learning, whether first or
Within the eight years of education
second. Inputs include textbooks, learner-chosen texts,
constitutionally guaranteed to every child, it
should be possible to achieve basic English- and class libraries, allowing for a variety of genres:
language proficiency in a span of about four print (for example, Big Books for young learners);
years. A multilingual approach to schooling parallel books and materials in more than one language;
from the very outset will counter possible ill
media support (learner magazines/newspaper columns,
effects such as loss of one's own languages
and the burden of sheer incomprehension. radio/audio cassettes); and "authentic" materials. The
language environment of disadvantaged learners needs
to be enriched by developing schools into community
all learning happens through language. Higher-order learning centres. A variety of successful innovations
linguistic skills generalise across languages; reading, (for exists whose generalisability needs exploration and
example) is a transferable skill. Improving it in one encouragement. Approaches and methods need not
language improves it in others, while reading failure in be exclusive but may be mutually supportive within a
one’s own languages adversely affects second-language broad cognitive philosophy (incorporating Vygotskian,
reading. Chomskyan, and Piagetian principles). Higher-order
English does not stand alone. The aim of English skills (including literary appreciation and role of language
teaching is the creation of multilinguals who can enrich in gendering) can be developed once fundamental
all our languages; this has been an abiding national vision. competencies are ensured.
English needs to find its place along with other Indian Teacher education needs to be ongoing and onsite
languages in different states, where children's other (through formal or informal support systems), as well
languages strengthen English teaching and learning; and as preparatory. Proficiency and professional awareness
in "English-medium" schools, where other Indian are equally to be promoted, the latter imparted,
languages need to be valorised to reduce the perceived wherever necessary, through the teachers' own
hegemony of English. The relative success of "English- languages. All teachers who teach English should have
medium" schools shows that language is learnt when it basic proficiency in English. All teachers should have
 40

the skills to teach English in ways appropriate to their while listening to somebody on the phone, several skills
situation and levels based on some knowledge of how may need to be used together. We really wish children
languages are learnt. A variety of materials should be to read and write with understanding. Language – as a
available to provide an input-rich curriculum, which constellation of skills, thought encoders and markers
focuses on meaning. of identity–cuts across school subjects and disciplines.
Language evaluation need not be tied to Speech and listening, reading and writing, are all
"achievement " with respect to particular syllabi, but generalised skills, and children's mastery over them
must be reoriented to the measurement of language becomes the key factor affecting success at school. In
proficiency. Evaluation is to be made an enabling factor many situations, all of these skills need to be used
for learning rather than an impediment. Ongoing together. This is why it is important to view language
assessment could document a learner's progress education as everybody's concern at school, and not as
through the portfolio mode. National benchmarks for a responsibility of the language teacher alone. Also,
language proficiency need to be evolved preliminary the foundational role of the skills associated with
to designing a set of optional English language tests language does not stop with the primary or elementary
that will balance curricular freedom with standardisation classes, but extends all the way up to secondary and
of evaluation that certification requires, and serve to senior secondary classes as new needs arise in the subject
counter the current problem of English (along with areas. Development of life skills such as critical thinking
Mathematics) being a principal reason for failure at the skills, interpersonal communication skills, negotiation/
Class X level. A student may be allowed to "pass refusal skills, decision making/ problem-solving skills,
without English" if an alternative route for English and coping and self-management skills is also very
certification (and therefore instruction) can be provided critical for dealing with the demands and challenges of
outside the regular school curriculum. everyday life.
The conventionally trained language teacher
3.1.4 Learning to Read and Write
associates the training of speech with correctness rather
Though we strongly advocate an integrated approach than with the expressive and participatory functions
to the teaching of different skills of language, the school of language. This is why talking in class has a negative
does need to pay special attention to reading and value in our system, and a great deal of the teacher's
writing in many cases, particularly in the case of home energy goes into keeping children quiet, or getting them
languages. In the case of second and third, or classical to pronounce correctly. If teachers see the child's talk
or foreign languages, all the skills, including as a resource rather than as a nuisance, the vicious cycle
communicative competence, become important. of resistance and control would have a chance to be
Children appear to learn much better in holistic situations turned into a cycle of expression and response. There
that make sense to them rather than in a linear and is a vast body of knowledge available on how talk can
additive way that often has no meaning. Rich and be used as a resource, and pre- and in-service teacher
comprehensible input should constitute the site for education programmes must introduce teachers to this.
acquisition of all the different skills of language. In Designers of textbooks and teacher manuals could also
several communicative situations, such as taking notes plan and provide precise guidance to teachers regarding
 41

ways in which the subject matter can be explored nurturing

Why of school
don’t and community
children libraries. The
learn to read?
further with the help of small group talk among
√ Teachers lack basic pedagogic skills
perception
children, and undertaking activities that nurture the (understanding
that the reading of fiction iswhere theoflearner
a waste is, as a
time acts
abilities to compare and contrast, to wonder and explaining, asking appropriate
remember, to guess and challenge, to judge and questions and, an understanding of the
processes of learning to read, which
evaluate. In the orbit of listening, similar detailed range from bottom-up processes such
planning of activities for incorporation in textbooks as syllable recognition and letter-sound
matching, to top-down processes of
and teacher manuals would go a long way in resurrecting
whole-word recognition and meaning
the significant skill and value area. It covers the ability making from texts. They also often lack
to pay attention, to value the other person's point of class-management skills. They tend to
focus on errors or hard spots rather than
view, to stay in touch with the unfolding utterance, on imaginative input and articulation.
and to make flexible hypotheses about the meaning of √ Pre-service training does not give the
what is being said. Listening, thus, forms as complex teacher adequate preparation in reading
pedagogy, and neither does in-service
a web of skills and values as talking does. Locally training address the issue.
available resources include folklore and storytelling, √ Textbooks are written in an ad-hoc
fashion, with no attempt to follow a
community singing and theatre. Storytelling is
coherent strategy of reading instruction.
appropriate not only for pre-school education, but √ Children from disadvantaged
continues to be significant even later. As a narrative backgrounds, especially first-generation
learners, do not feel accepted by the
discourse, orally told the stories lay the foundations of teacher, and cannot relate to the
logical understanding even as they expand the textbook.
imagination and enhance the capacity to participate
A workable approach to beginning
vicariously in situations distant from one's life. Fantasy reading
and mystery play an important role in child √ The classroom needs to provide a print-
development. As a sector of language learning, listening rich environment, displaying signs,
charts, work-organising notices, etc. that
also needs to be enriched with the help of music, which
promote 'iconic'
includes folk, classical and popular compositions. recognition of the written symbols, in
Folklore and music also deserve a place in the language addition to teaching letter-sound
correspondences.
textbook as discourses capable of being developed √ There is a need for imaginative input
with the help of exercises and activities unique to them. that is read by a competent reader with
While reading is readily accepted as a focus area appropriate gestures, dramatisation, etc.
√ Writing down experiences narrated by
for language education, school syllabi are burdened children, and then having them read the
with information-absorbing and memorising tasks, so written account.
much so that the pleasure of reading for its own sake
√ Reading of additional material: stories,
poems, etc.
is missed out. Opportunities for individualised reading √ First-generation school goers must be
need to be built at all stages in order to promote a given opportunities to construct their
own texts and contribute self-selected
culture of reading, and teachers must set the example texts to the classroom.
of being members of such a culture. This requires the
 42

major means of discouraging reading. The for writing in mechanically correct ways blocks the urge
development and supply of a range of supplementary to use writing to express or to convey one's ideas.
reading material relevant to all school subjects and Teachers need to be persuaded and trained to place
across the grades require urgent attention. A great deal writing in the same domain as artistic expression, and
of such material, though of varying quality, is available to cease perceiving it as an office skill. During the
in the market, and could be utilised in a methodical primary years, writing abilities should be developed
manner to expand the scope of classroom teaching holistically in conjunction with the sensibilities associated
of a subject. Teacher training programmes need to with talking, listening, and reading. At middle and senior
familiarise teachers with such material, and to give them levels of schooling, note making should receive
yardsticks by which to select and use it effectively. attention as a skill-development training exercise. This
The importance of writing is well recognised, will go a long way in discouraging mechanical copying
but the curriculum needs to attend to its innovative from the blackboard, textbooks and guides. It is also
treatments. Teachers insist that children write in a correct necessary to break the routinisation of tasks like letter
way. Whether they express their own thoughts and and essay writing, so that imagination and originality
feelings through writing is not considered too are allowed to play a more prominent role in education.
important. Just as the prematurely imposed discipline
of pronunciation stifles the child's motivation to talk 3.2 MATHEMATICS
freely, in his or her own dialect, for instance, the demand Developing children's abilities for mathematisation is
the main goal of mathematics education. The narrow
aim of school mathematics is to develop 'useful'
Some problems in school Mathematics capabilities, particularly those relating to
education numeracy–numbers, number operations,
measurements, decimals and percentages. The higher
1. A majority of children have a sense of
fear and failure regarding Mathematics. aim is to develop the child's resources to think and
Hence, they give up early on, and drop reason mathematically, to pursue assumptions to their
out of serious mathematical learning. logical conclusion and to handle abstraction. It includes
2. The curriculum is disappointing not only a way of doing things, and the ability and the attitude
to this non-participating majority, but also
to formulate and solve problems.
to the talented minority by offering them
no challenges. This calls for a curriculum that is ambitious,
3. Problems, exercises and methods of coherent and teaches important principles of
evaluation are mechanical and repetitive, mathematics. It should be ambitious in the sense that it
with too much seeks to achieve the higher aim mentioned above, rather
emphasis on computation. Areas of
Mathematics such as spatial thinking are than only the narrower aim. It should be coherent in
not developed enough in the curriculum. the sense that the variety of methods and skills available
4. Teachers lack confidence, preparation and piecemeal (in arithmetic, algebra, geometry) cohere into
support. an ability to address problems that come from other
domains such as science and social studies in high
 43

school. It should be important in the sense that students • Children use abstractions to perceive
feel the need to solve such problems, that teachers and relation-ships, to see structures, to reason out
students find it worth their time and energy to address things, to argue the truth or falsity of statements.
these problems. The twin concerns of the Mathematics • Children understand the basic structure of
curriculum are: what can mathematics education do to Mathematics: Arithmetic, algebra, geometry and
engage the mind of every student, and how can it trigonometry, the basic content areas of school
strengthen the student's resources? Mathematics, all offer a methodology for
As mathematics is a compulsory subject at the abstraction, structuration and generalisation.
secondary stage, access to quality mathematics education • Teachers engage every child in class with the
is the right of every child. In the context of conviction that everyone can learn mathematics.
univeralisation of education, the first question to ask is, Many general tactics of problem solving can be
what mathematics can be offered in eight years of taught progressively during the different stages of
schooling that will stand every child in good stead rather school: abstraction, quantification, analogy, case analysis,
than be a preparation for higher secondary education reduction to simpler situations, even guess-and-verify
alone? Most of the skills taught in primary school exercises, are useful in many problem-solving contexts.
mathematics are useful. However, a reorientation of Moreover, when children learn a variety of approaches
the curriculum towards addressing the 'higher aims' (over time), their toolkit becomes richer, and they also
mentioned above will make better use of the time that learn which approach is the best. Children also need
children spend in school in terms of the problem-solving exposure to the use of heuristics, or rules of thumb,
and analytical skills that it builds, and in preparing children rather than only believing that Mathematics is an 'exact
to better meet a wide variety of problems in life. Also, science'. The estimation of quantities and approximating
the tall shape of mathematics (where mastery of one solutions is also essential skill. When a farmer estimates
topic is a prerequisite for the next) can be de-emphasised
in favour of a broader-based curriculum with more Visualising proof:
Why is 3X5 = 5X3?
topics that starts from the basics. This will serve the needs
of different learners better.

3.2.1 Vision for School Mathematics Three groups of five Five groups of three

• Children learn to enjoy mathematics rather than

fear it. the yield of a particular crop, he uses considerable skills
• Children learn important mathematics: in estimation, approximation and optimisation. School
Mathematics is more than formulas and Mathematics can play a significant role in developing
mechanical procedures. such useful skills.
• Children see mathematics as something to talk Visualisation and representation are skills that
about, to communicate through, to discuss among Mathematics can help to develop. Modelling situations
themselves, to work together on. using quantities, shapes and forms are the best use of
• Children pose and solve meaningful problems. mathematics. Mathematical concepts can be represented
 44

in multiple ways, and these representations can serve a

variety of purposes in different contexts. All of this Problem posing
adds to the power of Mathematics. For example, a
√ If you know that 235 + 367 = 602, how much is
function may be represented in algebraic form or in
234 + 369? How did you find the answer?
the form of a graph. The representation p/q can be √ Change any one digit in 5384. Did the number
used to denote a fraction as a part of the whole, but increase or decrease? By how much?
can also denote the quotient of two numbers, p and q.
Learning this about fractions is as important, if not
more, than learning the arithmetic of fractions. and their use. For instance, this means that setting up
There is also a need to make connections between of equations should get as much coverage as solving
Mathematics and other subjects of study. When children them.
learn to draw graphs, they should also be encouraged In discussing many of these skills and processes,
to think of functional relationships in the sciences, we have referred to a multiplicity of approaches and
including geology. Our children need to appreciate procedures. These are all crucial for liberating school
the fact that Mathematics is an effective instrument in Mathematics from the tyranny of applying them only
the study of science. to those algorithms that are taught.
The importance of systematic reasoning in
Mathematics cannot be overemphasised, and is 3.2.2 The Curriculum
intimately tied to notions of aesthetics and elegance so At the pre-primary stage, all learning occurs through
dear to mathematicians. Proof is important, but in play rather than through didactic communication. Rather
addition to deductive proof, children should also learn than the rote learning of the number sequence, children
when pictures and constructions provide proof. Proof need to learn and understand, in the context of small
is a process that convinces a sceptical adversary; school sets, the connection between word games and counting,
mathematics should encourage proof as a systematic and between counting and quantity. Making simple
way of argumentation. The aim should be to develop comparisons and classifications along one dimension
arguments, evaluate arguments, make and investigate at a time, and identifying shapes and symmetries, are
conjectures, and understand that there are various appropriate skills to acquire at this stage. Encouraging
methods of reasoning. children to use language to freely express one's thoughts
Mathematical communication is precise and and emotions, rather than in predetermined ways, is
employs unambiguous use of language and rigour in extremely important at this and at later stages.
formulation, which are important characteristics of Having children develop a positive attitude
mathematical treatment. The use of jargon in towards, and a liking for, Mathematics at the primary
Mathematics is deliberate, conscious and stylised. stage is as important, if not more than the cognitive
Mathematicians discuss what is appropriate notation skills and concepts that they acquire. Mathematical
since good notation is held in high esteem and believed games, puzzles and stories help in developing a positive
to aid thought. As children grow older, they should be attitude and in making connections between
taught to appreciate the significance of such conventions mathematics and everyday thinking. It is important to
 45

note that mathematics is not just arithmetic. Besides which is important not only in the application of
numbers and number operations, due importance must mathematics, but also within mathematics in providing
be given to shapes, spatial understanding, patterns, justifications and proofs. At this stage, students integrate
measurement and data handling. The curriculum must the many concepts and skills that they have learnt into
explicitly incorporate the progression that learners make a problem-solving ability. Mathematical modelling, data
from the concrete to the abstract while acquiring analysis and interpretation taught at this stage can
concepts. Apart from computational skills, stress must consolidate a high level of mathematical literacy.
be laid on identifying, expressing and explaining Individual and group exploration of connections and
patterns, on estimation and approximation in solving patterns, visualisation and generalisation, and making
problems, on making connections, and on the and proving conjectures are important at this stage,
development of skills of language in communication and can be encouraged through the use of appropriate
and reasoning. tools that include concrete models as in Mathematics
At the upper primary stage, students get the first laboratories and computers.
taste of the power of Mathematics through the The aim of the Mathematics curriculum at the
application of powerful abstract concepts that higher secondary stage is to provide students with an
compress previous learning and experience. This appreciation of the wide variety of the application of
enables them to revisit and consolidate basic concepts Mathematics, and equip them with the basic tools that
and skills learnt at the primary stage, which is essential enable such application. A careful choice between the
from the point of view of achieving universal often conflicting demands of depth versus breadth
mathematical literacy. Students are introduced to needs to be made at this stage. The rapid explosion of
algebraic notation and its use in solving problems and Mathematics as a discipline, and of its range of
in generalisation, to the systematic study of space and application, favours an increase in the breadth of
shapes, and for consolidating their knowledge of coverage. Such increase must be dictated by
measurement. Data handling, representation and mathematical considerations of the importance of
interpretation form a significant part of the ability of topics to be included. Topics that are more naturally
dealing with information in general, which is an essential the province of other disciplines may be left out of
'life skill'. The learning at this stage also offers an the Mathematics curriculum. The treatment of topics
opportunity to enrich students' spatial reasoning and must have an objective, that is, the communication of
visualisation skills. mathematical insights and concepts, which naturally
At the secondary stage, students begin to perceive arouse the interest and curiosity of students.
the structure of Mathematics as a discipline. They
3.2.3 Computer Science
become familiar with the characteristics of mathematical
communication: carefully defined terms and concepts, The tremendous effectiveness of the computer and
the use of symbols to represent them, precisely stated computing technology in shaping modern society has
propositions, and proofs justifying propositions. These created the need for an educated public that can utilise
aspects are developed particularly in the area of such technology most effectively for the betterment
geometry. Students develop their facility with algebra, of society and humankind. There is, therefore, a
 46

growing realisation of the need to have a place for 3.3 SCIENCE

these domains of knowledge in the school curriculum. One important human response to the wonder and
A distinction must be made between the awe of nature from the earliest times has been to
Information Technology (IT) curriculum, which observe the physical and biological environment
involves the use and application of tools of the carefully, look for any meaningful patterns and relations,
information and computer age, and the Computer make and use new tools to interact with nature, and
Science (CS) curriculum, which is concerned with how build conceptual models to understand the world. This
human endeavour has led to modern science. Broadly
these tools are designed and deployed. Both of these
speaking, the scientific method involves several
have their place in school education.
interconnected steps: observation, looking for
While several countries have implemented CS and/
regularities and patterns, making hypotheses, devising
or IT curricula in schools, we need to be aware of the qualitative or mathematical models, deducing their
challenges that Indian school students face. The first consequences, verification or falsification of theories
of these is the paucity of technology resources for through observations and controlled experiments, and
computer science. It is absurd to teach computer science thus arriving at the principles, theories and laws
(let alone computer usage) without access to computing governing the natural world. The laws of science are
resources. Providing computer access and connectivity never viewed as fixed eternal truths. Even the most
for all children is a tremendous technological and established and universal laws of science are always
regarded as provisional, subject to modification in the
economic challenge. However, given the pervasive
light of new observations, experiments and analyses.
impact of computer technologies, we need to address
Science is a dynamic, expanding body of
this infrastructure challenge seriously and explore viable
knowledge, covering ever-new domains of experience.
and innovative alternatives with regard to hardware, In a progressive forward-looking society, science can
software and connectivity technologies appropriate for play a truly liberating role, helping people escape from
rural and urban Indian schools. the vicious cycle of poverty, ignorance and superstition.
We also need to address the issue of the The advances in science and technology have
development of a comprehensive and coherent transformed traditional fields of work such as
curriculum model in computer science and IT, which agriculture and industry, and led to the emergence of
can serve as the basis for the beginning of a discussion wholly new fields of work. People today are faced
with an increasingly fast-changing world where the most
between educators, administrators, and the general
important skills are flexibility, innovation and creativity.
public. Certain core elements are common to several
These different imperatives have to be kept in mind in
CS and IT curricula, and are applicable to Indian shaping science education.
schools as well. These include the concepts of iterative Good science education is true to the child, true
processes and algorithms, general problem-solving to life and true to science. This simple observation
strategies arising from computing, possibilities of leads to the following basic criteria of validity of a
computer usage, the place occupied by computers in science curriculum:
the modern world, and the societal issues that arise 1. Cognitive validity requires that the content,
thereby. process, language and pedagogical practices of
 47

the curriculum are age appropriate, and within

Asking questions the cognitive reach of the child.
2. Content validity requires that the curriculum must
"Air is everywhere" is a statement that every
schoolchild learns. Students may know that the
convey significant and correct scientific
earth's atmosphere consists of several gases, or that information. Simplification of content, which is
there is no air on the moon. We might be happy
that they know some science. But consider this
exchange in a Class IV classroom. What biology do students know?

Teacher: Is there air in this glass? "These students don't understand science. They
come from a deprived background!" We frequently
Students (in chorus): Yes! hear such opinions expressed about children from
rural or tribal backgrounds. Yet consider what these
The teacher was not satisfied with the usual general children know from everyday experience.
statement, "Air is everywhere." She asked the
students to apply the idea in a simple situation, and Janabai lives in a small hamlet in the Sahyadri hills.
found, unexpectedly, that they had formed some She helps her parents in their seasonal work of rice
"alternative conceptions". and tuar farming. She sometimes accompanies her
brother in taking the goats to graze in the bush.
Teacher: Now I turn the glass upside down. Is She has helped in bringing up her younger sister.
there still air in it? Nowadays she walks 8 km. every day to attend the
nearest secondary school.
Some students said "yes", others said "no", still
others were undecided. Janabai maintains intimate links with her natural
environment. She has used different plants as
Student 1: The air came out of the glass!
sources of food, medicine, fuelwood, dyes and
building materials; she has observed parts of
Student 2: There was no air in the glass.
different plants used for household purposes, in
religious rituals and in celebrating festivals. She
In Class II, the teacher put an empty glass over a
recognises minute differences between trees, and
burning candle and the candle went out!
notices seasonal changes based on shape, size,
The students had performed an activity whose distribution of leaves and flowers, smells and
memory had remained vivid even two years later, textures. She can identify about a hundred different
but some of them at least had taken away an types of plants around her — many times more
incorrect conclusion from it. than her Biology teacher can — the same teacher
who believes Janabai is a poor student.
After some explanation, the teacher questioned the
students further. Is there air in this closed cupboard? Can we help Janabai translate her rich understanding
Is there air in the soil? In water? Inside our body? into formal concepts of Biology? Can we convince
Inside our bones? Each of these questions brought her that school Biology is not about some abstract
up new ideas and presented an opportunity to clear world coded in long texts and difficult language.
some misunderstandings. This lesson was also a Rather it is about the farm she works on, the animals
message to the class: do not accept statements she knows and takes care of, the woods that she
uncritically. Ask questions. You may not find all walks through every day. Only then will she truly
the answers but you will learn more. learn science.
 48

necessary for adapting the curriculum to the with it. The objectives at this stage are to nurture the
cognitive level of the learner, must not be so curiosity of the child about the world (natural
trivialised as to convey something basically flawed environment, artifacts and people), to have the child
and/or meaningless. engage in exploratory and hands-on activities for
3. Process validity requires that the curriculum should acquiring the basic cognitive and psychomotor skills
engage the learner in acquiring the methods and through observation, classification, inference, etc.; to
processes that lead to the generation and validation emphasise design and fabrication, estimation and
of scientific knowledge and nurture the natural measurement as a prelude to the development of
curiosity and creativity of the child in science. technological and quantitative skills at later stages; and
Process validity is an important criterion since it to develop basic language skills: speaking, reading and
helps the student in 'learning to learn' science. writing not only for science but also through science.
4. Historical validity requires that the science Science and social science should be integrated as
'environmental studies' as at present, with health as an
curriculum be informed by a historical
important component. Throughout the primary stage,
perspective, enabling the learner to appreciate
there should be no formal periodic tests, no awarding
how the concepts of science evolve over time.
of grades or marks, and no detention.
It also helps the learner to view science as a social
At the upper primary stage, the child should be
enterprise and to understand how social factors
engaged in learning the principles of science through
influence the development of science.
familiar experiences, working with hands to design
5. Environmental validity requires that science
simple technological units and modules (e.g. designing
beplaced in the wider context of the learner's
and making a working model of a windmill to lift
environment, local and global, enabling him/her
weights) and continuing to learn more about the
to appreciate the issues at the interface of science,
environment and health, including reproductive and
technology and society, and equipping him/her
sexual health, through activities and surveys. Scientific
with the requisite knowledge and skills to enter
concepts are to be arrived at mainly from activities
the world of work. and experiments. Science content at this stage is not to
6. Ethical validity requires that the curriculum be regarded as a diluted version of secondary school
promote the values of honesty, objectivity, science. Group activities, discussions with peers and
cooperation, and freedom from fear and teachers, surveys, organisation of data and their display
prejudice, and inculcate in the learner a concern through exhibitions, etc. in schools and the
for life and preservation of the environment. neighbourhood should be important components of
pedagogy. There should be continuous as well as
3.3.1 The Curriculum at different Stages
periodic assessment (unit tests, term-end tests). The
Consistent with the criteria given above, the objectives, system of 'direct' grades should be adopted. There
content, pedagogy and assessment for different stages should be no detention. Every child who attends eight
of the curriculum are summarised below: years of school should be eligible to enter Class IX.
At the primary stage, the child should be engaged At the secondary stage, students should be
in joyfully exploring the world around and harmonising engaged in learning science as a composite discipline,
 49

in working with hands and tools to design more reduce the divide based on economic class, gender,
advanced technological modules than at the upper caste, religion and region. We must use textbooks as
primary stage, and in activities and analyses on issues one of the primary instruments for equity, since for
concerning the environment and health, including a great majority of school-going children, as also
reproductive and sexual health. Systematic for their teachers, it is the only accessible and
experimentation as a tool to discover/verify theoretical affordable resource for education. We must
principles, and working on locally significant projects encourage alternative textbook writing in the country
involving science and technology, are to be important within the broad guidelines laid down by the
parts of the curriculum at this stage. National Curriculum Framework. These textbooks
At the higher secondary stage, science should be should incorporate activities, observation and
introduced as separate disciplines, with emphasis on experimentation, and encourage an active approach
experiments/technology and problem solving. The to science, connecting it with the world around the
current two streams, academic and vocational, being child, rather than information-based learning.
pursued as per NPE-1986, may require a fresh look in Additionally, materials such as workbooks, co-
the present scenario. Students may be given the option curricular and popular science books, and children's
of choosing the subjects of their interest freely, though encyclopaedia would enhance children's access to
it may not be feasible to offer all the different subjects information and ideas that need not go into the
in every school. The curriculum load should be textbook, loading it further, but would enrich
rationalised to avoid the steep gradient between learning that takes place through project work. There
secondary and higher secondary syllabi. At this stage, is a dearth of such materials with rich visuals in
the core topics of a discipline, taking into account recent regional languages.
advances in the field, should be identified carefully and The development of science corners, and
treated with appropriate rigour and depth. The providing access to science experimentation kits and
tendency to cover a large number of topics of the laboratories, in rural areas are also important ways of
discipline superficially should be avoided. equitably provisioning for science learning. Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) is an important
3.3.2 Outlook
tool for bridging social divides. ICT should be used in
Looking at the complex scenario of science education in such a way that it becomes an opportunity equaliser by
India, three issues stand out clearly. First, science education providing information, communication and computing
is still far from achieving the goal of equity enshrined in resources in remote areas. ICT if used for connecting
our Constitution. Second, science education in India, even children and teachers with scientists working in
at its best, develops competence but does not encourage universities and research institutions would also help in
inventiveness and creativity. Third, the overpowering demystifying scientists and their work.
examination system is basic to most, if not all, the For any qualitative change from the present
fundamental problems of science education in India. situation, science education in India must undergo a
The science curriculum must be used as an paradigm shift. Rote learning should be discouraged.
instrument for achieving social change in order to Inquiry skills should be supported and strengthened
 50

by language, design and quantitative skills. Schools science, economics, sociology and anthropology. Social
should place much greater emphasis on co-curricular Science perspectives and knowledge are indispensable
and extra-curricular activities aimed at stimulating to building the knowledge base for a just and peaceful
investigative ability, inventiveness and creativity, even if society. The content should aim at raising students'
these are not part of the external examination system. awareness through critically exploring and questioning
There should be a massive expansion of such activities of familiar social reality.The possibilities of including
along the lines of the Children's Science Congress, being new dimensions and concerns, especially in view of
held successfully at present. A large-scale science and students' own life experiences, are considerable. Selecting
technology fair at the national level (with feeder fairs at and organising material into a meaningful curriculum,
cluster/district/state levels) may be organised to one that will enable students to develop a critical
encourage schools and teachers to participate in this understanding of society, is therefore a challenging task.
movement. Such a movement should gradually spread Because the social sciences tend to be considered
to every corner of India and even across South Asia, non-utility subjects and are given less importance than
unleashing a wave of creativity and scientific temper the natural sciences, it is necessary to emphasise that
among young students and their teachers. they provide the social, cultural, and analytical skills
Examination reform should be initiated as a national required to adjust to an increasingly interdependent
mission, supported by adequate funding and high-quality world, and to deal with political and economic realities.
human resources. The mission should bring teachers, It is believed that the social sciences merely
educationists and scientists on a common platform; transmit information and are text centred. Therefore,
launch new ways of testing students that would reduce the content needs to focus on a conceptual
the high level of examination-related stress; curb the understanding rather lining up facts to be memorised
maddening multiplicity of entrance examinations; and for examinations. Reiterating the recommendations of
undertake research on ways of testing multiple abilities 'Learning Without Burden (1993), emphasis has to be laid
other than formal scholastic competence. on developing concepts and the ability to analyse socio-
These reforms, however, fundamentally need the political realities rather than on the mere retention of
overarching reform of teacher empowerment. No information without comprehension.
reform, however well motivated and well planned, There is also a peception that not many career
can succeed unless a majority of teachers feel options are open to students specialising in the social
empowered to put it in practice. With active teacher sciences. On the contrary, the social sciences are
participation, the reforms suggested above could have becoming increasingly relevant for jobs in the rapidly
a cascading effect on all stages of science teaching in exapanding service sector, and also in developing skills
our schools. of analysis and creativity.
In a pluralistic society like ours, it is important
3.4 SOCIAL SCIENCES that all regions and social groups be able to relate to
The social sciences encompass diverse concerns of the textbooks. Relevant local content should be part
society, and include a wide range of content drawn of the teaching-learning process, ideally transacted
from the disciplines of History, geography, political through activities drawing on local resources.
 51

It is also necessary to recognise that the social 'development' has often been overemphasised. An
sciences lend themselves to scientific inquiry just as much epistemological shift is suggested so as to accommodate
as the natural and physical sciences do, as well as to the multiple ways of imagining the Indian nation. The
indicate ways in which the methods employed by the national perspective needs to be balanced with reference
social sciences are distinct (but in no way inferior to to the local. At the same time, Indian History should
those of the natural and physical sciences). not be taught in isolation, and there should be reference
The social sciences carry a normative to developments in other parts of the world.
responsibility of creating a strong sense of human It is suggested that instead of Civics, the term
values, namely, freedom, trust, mutual respect, and Political Science be used. Civics appeard in the Indian
respect for diversity. Social science teaching should aim school curriculum in the colonial period against the
at generating in students a critical moral and mental background of increasing 'disloyalty' among Indians
energy, making them alert to the social forces that towards the Raj. Emphasis on obedience and loyalty
threaten these values. were the key features of Civics. Political Science treats
The disciplines that make up the social sciences, civil society as the sphere that produces sensitive,
namely, History, geography, political science, and interrogative, deliberative, and transformative citizens.
economics, have distinct methodologies that often justify Gender concerns need to be addressed in terms
the retaining of boundaries. At the same time, cross of making the perspectives of women integral to the
disciplinary approaches that are possible should also be discussion of any historical event and contemporary
indicated. For an enabling curriculum, certain themes that concerns. This requires an epistemic shift from the
facilitate interdisciplinary thinking need to be incorporated. patriarchal preconceptions that inform much of the
social studies at present.
3.4.1 The Proposed Epistemological Frame The concerns related to the health of children,
Based on the above considerations of popular and also those related to social aspects of changes and
perceptions, and the issues to be addressed in the study developments occurring in them during adolescence
of the social sciences, the National Focus Group on like changing relationships with parents, peer group,
the Teaching of the Social Sciences proposes that the the opposite sex and the adult world in general, need
following points be treated as basic for the revised to be addressed appropriately. The responses to the
syllabi. (Textbooks themselves should be seen as health needs of children and adolescents/youth through
opening up avenues for further enquiry, and students policies and programmes at different levels are closely
should be encouraged to go beyond the textbook to related elements of these concerns.
further reading and observaion.) The concept of human rights has a universal frame
As pointed out by the Kothari Commission, the of reference. It is imperative that children are introduced
social science curriculum hitherto emphasised to universal values in a manner appropriate for their
developmental issues. These are important but not age. Reference to day-to-day issues, e.g. the problem
sufficient for understanding the normative dimension, of getting water, can be discussed so that young
like issues of equality, justice, and dignity in society and students become aware of issues related to human
polity. The role of individuals in contributing to this dignity and rights.
 52

3.4.2 Planning the Curriculum For Classes III to V, the subject Environment
For the primary grades, the natural and the social Studies (EVS) will be introduced. In the study of the
environment will be explained as integral parts of natural environment, emphasis will be on its
languages and mathematics. Children should be engaged preservation and the urgency of saving it from
in activities to understand the environment through degradation. Children will also begin to be sensitised
illustrations from the physical, biological, social, and to social issues like poverty, child labour, illiteracy, caste
cultural spheres. The language used should be gender and class inequalities in rural and urban areas. The
sensitive. Teaching methods should be in a participative content should reflect the day-to-day experiences of
and discussion-oriented mode. children and their life worlds.

WATER AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Where does water come from? NATURAL SOURCES OF WATER

How are seas, oceans, rivers formed? Rivers, lakes, seas, underground water

What are our local water resources? WATER RESOURCE MAPPING

Local/regional/national

Why do wells dry up? RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NATURAL AND

MAN-MADE SOURCES OF WATER
How do handpumps work?
Understanding the water table Handpump System of
Are big dams more beneficial than small dams?
irrigation Environmental impact of big dams

WATER IN DIFFERENT ECO-SYSTEMS

How do people in desert areas procure Water sources in desert areas
water? Water sources in mountainous regions
What causes droughts? Droughts and floods

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF WATER

Who controls the village well? CASTE AND CLASS

Purity and pollution control over water resources

Who fetches water? GENDER DIVISION OF LABOUR AND

AVAILABILITY OF WATER

Do we have enough water? Local and regional conflicts over drinking and irrigation
water
Water as a market force

Why is clean water essential? HEALTH

Body's need for water
Right to potable clean water
Water-borne diseases
 53

At the upper primary stage, Social Studies will to inculcate in the child a critical appreciation for
draw its content from History, geography, political conservation and environmental concerns along with
science and economics. History will take into account developmental issues. In Political Science, the focus
developments in different parts of India, with sections should be on discussing the philosophical foundations
on events or developments in other parts of the world. that underlie the value framework of the Indian
Geography can help develop a balanced perspective Constitution, i.e. in-depth discussion of equality, liberty,
related to issues concerning the environment, resources justice, fraternity, secularism, dignity, plurality, and
and development at different levels, from local to global. freedom from exploitation. As the discipline of
In Political Science, students will be introduced to the Economics is being introduced to the child at this level,
formation and functioning of governments at local, it is important that the topics should be discussed from
state, and central levels and the democratic processes the perspective of the people.
of participation. The economics component will enable The higher secondary stage is important as it
students to observe economic institutions like the family, offers a choice of subjects to students. For some
the market and the state. There will also be a section students, this stage may be the end of their formal
that will indicate a multidisciplinary approach to these education, leading to the world of work and
themes. employment; for others, the foundation for higher
At the secondary stage, the Social Sciences education. They may choose either specialised academic
comprise History, geography, sociology, political science courses or job-oriented vocational courses. The
and economics. The focus will be on Contemporary foundation at this stage should equip them with basic
India, and the learner will be initiated into a deeper knowledge and the necessary skills to make a
understanding of the social and economic challenges meaningful contribution in the field they choose. A range
facing the nation. In keeping with the epistemic shift of courses from the social sciences and commerce may
proposed, these will be discussed from multiple be offered, and students may exercise their choice.
perspectives, including those of the SC and ST and Subjects need not be grouped into separate 'streams',
disenfranchised populations. Efforts should be made and students should have the freedom to opt for
to relate the content as much as possible to the subjects or courses according to their need, interest
children's everyday lives. In History, India's freedom and aptitude. The social sciences will include disciplines
movement and other aspects of its modern History like political science, geography, History, economics,
can be studied, as well as significant developments in sociology and psychology. Commerce may include
other parts of the world. History should be taught business studies and accountancy.
with the intent of enabling students better understand
3.4.3 Approaches to Pedagogy and Resources
their own world and their own identities came into
being as shaped by a rich and varied past. History Social science teaching needs to be revitalised for helping
should now help them discover processes of change the learner acquire knowledge and skills in an interactive
and continuity in their world, and to compare ways in environment. The teaching of the social sciences must
which power and control were and are exercised. adopt methods that promote creativity, aesthetics, and
Geography should be taught keeping in mind the need critical perspectives, and enable children to draw
 54

the class, and work towards creating increasing

Theatre in Education self-awareness amongst themselves and the learners.

Theatre is one of the most powerful, yet least utilised 3.5 ART EDUCATION
art forms in education. In the exploration of self in
relation to others, the development of understanding of For decades now, the importance of the arts in the
the self, and of critical empathy, not only for humans education system has been repeatedly debated,
but also towards the natural, physical and social worlds, discussed and recommended, but without much
theatre is a medium par excellence. progress in this direction. The need to integrate art
Dramatising texts is only one small part of theatre. education in the formal schooling of our students now
Much more significant experiences are possible through requires urgent attention if we are to retain our unique
role play, theatre exercises, body and voice control and cultural identity in all its diversity and richness. Far from
movement,andgroupandspontaneousenactments. encouraging the pursuit of the arts, our education
Such experiences are important not only for teachers in system has steadily discouraged young students and
their own development, but also for teachers to provide creative minds from taking to the arts or, at best, permits
to children. them to consider the arts to be 'useful hobbies' and
'leisure activities'. The arts are reduced to tools for
enhancing the prestige of the school on occasions like
relationships between past and present, to understand Independence Day, Founder's Day, Annual Day, or
changes taking place in society. Problem solving, during an inspection of the school's progress and
dramatisation and role play are some hitherto working. Before or after that, the arts are abandoned
underexplored strategies that could be employed. for the better part of a child's school life, and the
Teaching should utilise greater resources of
audio-visual materials, including photographs, charts
On a winter morning, the teacher asked the children
and maps, and replicas of archaeological and material to draw a ‘morning scene’. One child completed
cultures. the drawing and then darkened the background,
almost hiding the sun. “I asked for a morning scene!
In order to make the process of learning The sun should be bright!” the teacher exclaimed.
participative, there is a need to shift from mere imparting She didn’t notice the child’s eyes darting to the
of information to debate and discussion. This approach window; it was still dark today, and the sun was
behind heavy wintry grey clouds.
to learning will keep both the learner and the teacher
alive to social realities.
Concepts should be clarified to students through student is headed towards subjects that are perceived
the lived experiences of individuals and communities. as being more worthy of attention. General awareness
It has often been observed that cultural, social and class of the arts is also ebbing steadily among not just
differences generate their own biases, prejudices and students, but also their guardians, teachers and even
attitudes in classroom contexts. The approach to among policy makers and educationists.
teaching therefore needs to be open-ended. Teachers Schools and school authorities encourage the arts
should discuss different dimensions of social reality in of a superficial and popular nature and take pride in
 55

putting up events that showcase song and dance

performances and plays that may entertain, but have Heritage Craft Traditions
little aesthetic quality. We can no longer afford to ignore Craft is a productive process, a wonderful indigenous
the importance of the arts and must concentrate all technologythatisfarfromoutmoded.Therawmaterials
possible energies and resources towards nurturing are all indigenously available, and environmentally
friendly. There is a rich resource of living craft skills,
artistic capabilities and creating cultural and artistic
techniques, designs and products that would and could
awareness amongst the students of the vast and varied form a rich core resource for the curricular areas of
cultural inheritance we have. The arts in India are living bothartandwork.Workingwithhands,withmaterials
examples of the country's secular fabric and cultural and with techniques helps in understanding processes,
diversity. They include a variety of folk and classical becoming resourceful, taking initiative, and in problem
forms of music and dance, theatre, puppetry, clay work, solving. Such experiences are of irreplaceable value for
all children. This area is also well suited as a meaningful
visual arts, and crafts from every region of India.
site for inclusive education.
Learning any of these arts would enrich the lives of Craft must be taught both as a creative and aesthetic
our young citizens, not only in their school years but activity and as work. It could be integrated into the
also throughout their lives. study of History, social and environmental studies,
The arts, visual and performing, need to become geography and economics. Developing a perspective on
gender,environmentandcommunityshouldalsobean
an important component of learning in the curriculum.
integral part of ‘critical’ craft learning.
Children must develop skills and abilities in these areas,
and not treat these as a mere entertaining fringe. • Crafts could enter into the curriculum as a part
Through the arts curriculum students must be of ‘art’, with an emphasis on creative and
introduced to the rich and varied artistic traditions of aesthetic aspects.
the country. Arts education must become both a tool • Crafts persons themselves should be teachers and
trainers for craft, and ways of enabling them to
and a subject taught in every school as a compulsory
serve schools on a part-time basis need to be
subject (up to Class X), and facilities for the same may evolved.
be provided in every school. All the four main streams • Crafts should be taught as a lively, experiential
covered by the term the arts, i.e. music, dance, visual exercise.
arts and theatre, should be included. Awareness also • Crafts should be taught as projects, and not as
classroom exercises.
needs to be built among parents and guardians, school
• Differentcurriculashouldbeplannedfordifferent
authorities and administrators regarding the importance
crafts; resources such as design books,
of the arts. Emphasis should be given to learning rather samplers,source books, tool guides, and crafts
than teaching, and the approach should be participatory, maps are needed.
interactive, and experiential rather than instructive. • Craft labs equipped with adequate materials
Throughout the years of school, during all stages, and tools need to be developed.
• Craft melas could be organised to expose children
the mediums and forms of art allow children to develop
to crafts persons and craft traditions, and also
both a playful as well as a disciplined exploration of for children to showcase their own creative
themselves and diverse materials, and allows them to endeavours.
experiment with many forms of expression. Music,
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dance and theatre all contribute to the development high or low forms of culture, nor treat classical and
of the self, both cognitive and social. The importance folk art forms differently. It would also prepare those
of such experiences during the pre-primary and who wish to choose an art form for specialised study
primary school years cannot be overemphasised. during the +2 stage, or even consider pursuing a career
Language, exploration of nature, and an in the arts.
understanding of the self and others can all be More resource material on arts education should
experientially learnt and understood by children through be made available for arts education teachers. Teacher
various art forms. By their very nature, the art forms education and orientation must include a significant
allow all children to participate. component that will enable teachers to include arts
Resources for the integration of the arts and education efficiently and creatively. In addition, more
heritage crafts should be available in every school. Thus, Bal Bhavans, which have played an important role in
it is important that the curriculum provide adequate the urbanscape, should be established at district
time for a range of art activities. Block periods of headquarters, and eventually at all block centres as well.
about one hour to one and half hours are necessary, These would facilitate the additional teaching of arts
especially where theatre, dance, and clay work are and crafts activities, and provide opportunities for
involved. The emphasis should not be on attaining children to learn these at first hand.
some adult standards or notions of 'perfect art', but
on supporting the child's own expression and style 3.6 HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION
through exposure to material, skills and technique, but It is widely acknowledged that health is influenced by
without overemphasising them. Over the years, teachers biological, social, economic, cultural and political forces.
would help children to move towards formulating and Access to basic needs like food, safe drinking water
executing their own art projects independently with supply, housing, sanitation and health services influences
dedication and persistence, while cultivating a sense of the health status of a population, and these are reflected
aesthetic quality and excellence. through mortality and nutritional indicators. Health is a
In the secondary and higher secondary school critical input for the overall development of the child,
stages, the art curriculum may allow children to specialise and it influences enrolment, retention and school
in some areas of their interest. Along with learning the completion rates significantly. This curriculum area
skills and practising them, children could also at this adopts a holistic definition of health within which
stage learn about the theory of art and aesthetic physical education and yoga contribute to the physical,
experience, which could deepen their appreciation and social, emotional and mental development of a child.
also help them understand the significance of this area Undernourishment and communicable diseases are
of knowledge. Discussions about popular cultural art the major health problems faced by the majority of
forms, different kinds of art traditions (cultural children in India, from the pre-primary to the higher
differences) and creativity would also provide them secondary school stages. Therefore, the need to address
with a perspective on the variety of forms and the this aspect at all levels of schooling, with special attention
development of 'taste'. It is important, therefore, that to vulnerable social groups and girl children. It is
the curriculum not be biased and judgemental about proposed that the midday meal programme and medical
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check-ups be made a part of the curriculum and integration. Activities such as the National Service
education about health be provided that address the age- Scheme, Bharat Scouts and Guides, and the National
specific concerns at different stages of development. Cadet Corps are some such areas. The sciences provide
The idea of a comprehensive school health programme, opportunities for learning about physiology, health and
conceived in the 1940s, included six major components, disease, and the interdependencies between various
viz., medical care, hygienic school environment, and living organisms and the physical habitat. The social
school lunch, health and physical education. These sciences could provide insights into community health
components are important for the overall development as well as an understanding of the spread, control and
of the child, and hence need to be included in the cure of infectious diseases from a global
curriculum. The more recent addition to the curriculum socio-economic perspective. This subject lends itself
is yoga. The entire group must be taken together as a to applied learning, and innovative approaches can be
comprehensive health and physical education curriculum, adopted for transacting the curriculum.
replacing the fragmentary approach current in schools The importance of this subject to overall
today. As a core part of the curriculum, time allocated development needs to be reinforced at the policy level,
for games and for yoga must not be reduced or taken with participation by administrators, other subject
away under any circumstances. teachers in schools, the Health Department, parents
There is growing realisation that the health needs of and children. Recognising this subject as a core subject
adolescents, particularly their reproductive and sexual health Health and Physical Education must continue to be a
needs, require to be addressed. Since these needs compulsory subject from the primary, to the secondary
predominantly relate to sex and sexuality, which is culturally stages, and as an optional subject at the higher secondary
a very sensitive area, they are deprived of opportunities stage. However, it needs to be given equal status with
to get the appropriate information. As such, their other subjects, a status that is not being given at present.
understanding of reproductive and sexual health and their In order to transact the curriculum effectively, it is
behaviour in this regard are guided predominantly by essential to ensure that the minimum essential physical
myths and misconceptions, making them vulnerable to space and equipment are available in every school, and
risky situations, such as drug/substance abuse and HIV/ that doctors and medical personnel visit school
AIDS transmission. Age- appropriate context-specific regularly. Teacher preparation for this area needs
interventions focused on adolescent reproductive and well-planned and concerted efforts. This subject area,
sexual health concerns, including HIV/AIDS and drug/ consisting of health education, physical education and
substance abuse, therefore, are needed to provide children yoga, must be suitably integrated into the elementary
opportunities to construct knowledge and acquire life skills, and secondary pre-service teacher education courses.
so that they cope with concerns related to the process of The potential of the existing physical education training
growing up. institutes should be reviewed and utilised adequately.
Similarly, their appropriate syllabi and teacher training
3.6.1 Strategies for transaction of yoga in schools need to be reviewed
Given the multidimensional nature of health, there are and reformulated. It is also essential to ensure that these
many opportunities for cross-curricular learning and concerns are integrated into the activities of the National
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Service Scheme, the Scouts and Guides, and the 3.7 WORK AND EDUCATION
National Cadet Corps. Work, understood simply, is an activity directed toward
The 'needs-based approach' could guide the making or doing something. It also means making
dimensions of the physical, psychosocial and mental one’s work or capabilities, or both, available for
aspects that need to be included at different levels of someone else’s purposes for monetary or other forms
schooling. A basic understanding of the concerns is of return. A number of these activities are related to
necessary, but the more important dimension is that producing food, articles of daily use, looking after the
of experience and development of health, skills and physical and mental well-being of people, and other
physical well being through practical engagement with activities related to the administration and organisation
play, exercise, sports, and practices of personal and of society. In any society, in addition to these, two basic
community hygiene. Collective and individual dimensions (producing goods and establishing smooth
responsibilities for health and community living need functioning), various other activities also contribute to
to be emphasised. Several national health programmes human well-being, and in that sense are considered
like Reproductive and Child Health, HIV/AIDS, forms of work.
Tuberculosis and Mental Health have been targeting Understood in this sense, work implies a
children as a focus group with prevention in view. These commitment to other members of the society and/or
demands on children need to be integrated into existing community as one is contributing one’s work and
curricular activities rather than adding these on. capabilities for fulfilling their needs. Second, it implies
Yoga may be introduced from the primary level that one’s contribution made through work will be
onwards in informal ways, but formal introduction submitted to public standards of performance and
of yogic exercises should begin only from Class VI hence will be valued and judged by others. Third, work
onwards. All interventions, including even health and implies contributing to the functioning of social life as
hygiene education, must rely on the practical and it either produces something that makes life possible
experiential dimensions of children's lives. There may or helps in the functioning of society in general. Finally,
be more emphasis on the inclusion of sports and games work enriches human life as it opens up new dimensions
from the local area. of appreciation and enjoyment.
It should be possible to organise the utilisation However, we must not forget that children are
of school space, at the block level at least, for special often socialised into discriminatory practices and
sports programmes both before school hours and after values and that adults socialise children within the
school hours to enable children with special talents for dominant socio-cultural paradigm. It is important
sports to come here for special training and during to recognise that both adults and children are
vacation periods. It should also be possible to develop socialised in the same way. We also have to remember
these sports facilities so that many more children can that work as forced labour is perhaps the most
avail of these for leisure-time sports activities and engage demeaning of all coercions. There have to be adequate
with team games such as basketball, throwball, measures in place to ensure that introduction of work
volleyball, and local forms of sports. as an integral part of the curriculum should never
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lead to a situation where work is thrust on unwilling involvement in productive work in an educational setting
children, or that the ‘work’ itself is a hindrance to the should make one appreciate the worth of social life
child’s education and nor mal growth and and what is valued and appreciated in society. Since
development. Routine and repetitive activity carried work defines some achievable targets and creates a
on for the sake of production or work that is web of interdependence, it entails making efforts in a
associated with the division of labour based on caste disciplined manner, thus creating possibilities for greater
and gender should be strictly avoided. Also, a teacher self-control, focusing mental energies and keeping
making children work without him/herself emotions under check. The value of work, particularly
participating in the work is unlikely to achieve the skills that involve good finish, are undervalued as a
objectives of integrating work with the curriculum. means of achieving excellence and learning
The inclusion of work within the school must also self-discipline. The discipline exercised by the material
never be used as the justification for the exploitation (say, clay or wood) is more effective and qualitatively
of children. different from the discipline exercised by one human
Work is also an arena for learning for children, being over another. Work involves interaction with
whether in the home, the school, the society or the materials or other people (mostly both), thus creating
workplace. Children begin to absorb the concept of a deeper comprehension and increased practical
work as early as the age of two years. Children imitate knowledge of natural substances and social
their elders and like pretending to do work. For relationships. All this is in addition to the usual physical
example, it is not unusual to see very young children skills involved in learning a trade that may be turned
pretending to ‘sweep’ the floor, or ‘hold meetings’, or into a means of earning a livelihood. The aspects of
‘build houses’, or ‘cook’. Work as an educational tool work mentioned here draw attention to the
is used by many pedagogies. For example, the meaning-making and knowledge-construction
Montessori system integrates work concepts and skills dimension of work. This is the pedagogic function
from the very beginning. Cutting vegetables, cleaning that work can play in the curriculum.
the classroom, gardening and washing clothes are all a Benefits of this nature can be drawn from work
part of the learning cycle. Beneficial work that is in only if it becomes an integral part of the school
keeping with the child’s age and ability, and which curriculum. Pursued in an academic setting, work carries
contributes to the child’s normal growth and the remarkable potential of generating new forms of
development, when introduced into children’s lives can creativity and understanding while opening up the
serve to enable children to learn values, basic scientific possibility of transforming the nature of work itself.
concepts, skills and creative expression. Children gain This has become even more essential as in a majority
an identity through work, and feel useful and productive of families in India contributing to household work
as work adds meaning and brings with it membership and family trade is a way of living, but this pattern is
to society and enables children to construct knowledge. changing due to the pressure of school on children’s
Through work one learns to find one’s place in time and the rampant competition in memorisation
society. It is an educational activity with an inherent of information. Academic activity tends to be
potential for inclusion. Therefore, an experience of imprisoned within disciplinary boundaries. When
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academic learning and work are simultaneously learning for other children. This is especially important
collocated, there is a chance of greater creativity in in the context of the growing alienation of the
academic pursuits as also in the methods and tools of middle-upper-class children from their cultural roots
doing work. A synergetic enhancement can take over. and the central role played by the education system in
That is how efficient hand pumps were designed. aggravating and accelerating this process. There is
High-flying polythene balloons used to burst while immense potential for utilising the knowledge base of
going through the extremely cold stratosphere untill a the vast productive sections of society as a powerful
scientifically minded worker suggested that putting a means for transforming the education system. Work
little carbon powder in the fabric would help to keep seen as a form of ‘valid’ knowledge allows one to
it warm by absorbing sunlight. Indeed, all great re-examine the invisibility of the contributions of
inventors were tinkerers who knew a little science. women and non-dominant groups to what is regarded
Edison, Ford and Faraday belonged to this category, as valuable in society. Productive work would need to
so also those who invented the first pair of spectacles find a place at the centre of the curriculum in order to
or the telescope. There is little doubt that much of the act as a powerful corrective to the ‘bookish’,
traditional knowledge of our potters, craftsmen, information-oriented and generally unchallenging
weavers, farmers and medical men has come through character of school education and, in turn, help relate
such pursuits – where these individuals were the latter to the life needs of the child. Pedagogical
simultaneously engaged in physical work and academic experience in using work would become an effective
thinking. We need to infuse such a culture of and critical developmental tool at different stages of
innovation, curiosity and practical experience in our childhood and adolescence. Thus, ‘work-centred
education system. education’ is different from vocational education.
However, schools at present are not geared for The school curriculum from the pre-primary to
work as a part of the curriculum in terms of the senior secondary stages should be reconstructed
infrastructure or learning material. Work is necessarily for realising the pedagogic potential of work as a
an interdisciplinary activity. Therefore, integrating work pedagogic medium in knowledge acquisition,
into the school curriculum would require a substantial developing values and multiple-skill formation. As the
amount of pedagogical understanding of how it would child matures, there is a need for the curriculum to
be integrated with learning and the mechanisms for recognise the child’s need to be prepared for the world
assessment and evaluation. of work, and a work-centred pedagogy can be
Institutionalising work in the school curriculum pursued with increasing complexity while always being
will require creative and bold thinking that breaks out enriched with the required flexibility and contextuality.
of its stereotyped location in periods of Socially Useful A set of work-related generic competencies (basic,
and Productive Work (SUPW), something about which interpersonal and systemic) could be pursued at all
all children and teachers are justifiably sceptical. We need stages of education. This includes critical thinking,
to examine how the rich work knowledge base and transfer of learning, creativity, communication skills,
skills of marginalised children can be turned into a aesthetics, work motivation, work ethic of collaborative
source of their own dignity as well as a source of functioning, and entrepreneurship-cum-social
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accountability. For this evaluation, parameters would

also need to be redesigned. Without an effective and
Activities for Peace Awareness
universal programme of work-centred education, it is
Age 5 + Handle with Care: Let children stand in a
unlikely that UEE (and later Universal Secondary
row. Give them a paper leaf of a teak tree or canna
or banana plant. Let them pass the leaf over their Education too) would ever succeed.
heads in any way they want until it reaches the back
of the row. A child then brings the leaf to the front 3.8 EDUCATION FOR PEACE
and the cycle starts again. Children are then asked to
We live in an age of unprecedented levels of violence,
look at the damage caused to the leaf as it has been
handled. This activity could lead to a discussion with constant threats posed by intolerance, fanaticism,
about leaves and the different trees from which they dispute and discordance. Ethical action, peace and
come from. Damage to a single leaf is representative
welfare are facing new challenges. War and violence
of damaging nature. The leaf stands for the whole
of creation. occur due to unresolved conflicts, though conflicts may
not always lead to violence and war. Violence is one
Age 7+ Sharing Feelings: Let children sit in a circle of the many possible responses to conflict. Non-violent
and ask each other, “Which was the happiest day in
conflict-resolution skills could be nurtured and applied
your life? Why was it so happy?” Let each child
answer the question. Let some of the children role constructively to disputes between the individuals,
play one or more of the experiences. As, children groups and nations. The space for peace education
become more familiar with the idea of sharing their within the framework of National School Curriculum
feelings, ask more difficult questions such as “What
makes you really afraid? Why do you feel that way?
document is compellingly clear in the light of the
How do you feel when you watch someone fighting? escalating trends of, and taste for, violence globally,
Why do you feel that way? What makes you really nationally and locally. Education is a significant
sad? Why?”
dimension of the long-term process of building up
Age 10 + Overcome Injustice with Justice: Explain peace – tolerance, justice, intercultural understanding
that there are many reasons for injustice in this world, and civic responsibility. However, education as practised
that justice is a basic means for creating peace in the in schools often promotes forms of violence, both
world. Give two or three examples of injustice. Ask
real and symbolic. Under these circumstances, the need
the children to give more examples. Then ask the
questions: “What was the cause of the injustice? to reorient education and therefore the school
How would you feel in the same situation?” Have curriculum takes priority. As a value, it cuts across all
some children share their answers with the rest of
other curricular areas, and coincides with and
the class.
complements the values emphasised therein. It is,
Age 12 + Be a Peace Lawyer: Tell the children that therefore, a concern cutting across the curriculum and
they are peace lawyers drawing up peace laws for a is the concern of all teachers.
country. List five of the most important laws that
Education for peace seeks to nurture ethical
they would each suggest? Which of the laws
suggested by others are you prepared to add to development, inclucating the values, attitudes and skills
your list? Which laws are you not prepared to accept? required for living in harmony with oneself and with
Why not? others, including nature. It embodies the joy of living
and personality development with the qualities of love,
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hope and courage. It encompasses respect for human Peace education must be a concern that permeates
rights, justice, tolerance, cooperation, social the entire school life – curriculum, co-curriculum,
responsibility, and respect for cultural diversity, in classroom environment, school management,
addition to a firm commitment to democracy and teacher-pupil relationship, teaching-learning processes,
non-violent conflict resolution. Social justice is an and the entire range of school activities. Hence, it is
important aspect of peace education. The concern for important to examine the curriculum and examination
equality and social justice, which refers to practising system from the point of view of how they may
non-exploitation towards the have-nots, the poor and contribute to children's sense of inadequacy, frustration,
the underprivileged and creating a non-violent social impatience and insecurity. Also, the need to consciously
system, is the hallmark of education for peace. counter the negative influence of the increasing violence
Similarly, human rights are central to the concept of around them, and its representation in the media, on
peace. Peace cannot prevail if the rights of individuals the minds of children, and in its place promote a
are violated. Basic to human rights are the values of reflective engagement with more meaningful aspects
non-discrimination and equality, which contribute to of living an ethical and peaceful life. Education in the
building a culture of peace in society. These issues are true sense should empower individuals to clarify their
inter related. Peace education is thus a host of values; to enable them to take conscious and deliberate
overlapping values. decisions, taking into consideration the consequences
of their actions; to choose the way of peace rather
than violence; to enable them to be makers of peace
Suggestions for Peace Activities rather than only consumers of peace.
√ Set up special clubs and reading rooms in schools
3.8.1 Strategies
thatconcentrateonpeacenewsandeventsthatviolate
the norms of social justice and equality. Ethical development does not mean the imposition
√ Compile a list of films — documentaries and feature of do's and don'ts. Rather it calls for devising means
films— that promote the values of justice and peace. and ways of helping children learn to make choices
Screen them from time to time in schools. and decide what is right, what is kind, and what is best
√ Co-opt the media as a stakeholder in education for for the common good, keeping in view the broader
peace. Invite influential journalists and editors to implications for personal and social values.
address children. Ask for space in news papers Children can understand almost everything they
and journals for children’s views to be published hear and see, but are often not able to reconcile
at least once a month. contradictions between what is said and what is done.
Even a minor disagreement at home can affect children
√ CelebratetheculturalandreligiousdiversityofIndia
in schools. very deeply. A state of permanent disaffection amongst
the elders in the house or a disintegrating relationship
√ Organise programmes to promote an attitude of
between parents creates the kind of incalculable fear
respect and responsibility towards women.
and depression that is often manifested as aggression a
few years later in early youth. There is a need to bring
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parents and teachers together for more than only

academic purposes. The responsibility of development Work done by other living beings
of personal ethics does not rest solely with either parents Ask children to choose an animal or bird they know
or with the school. well and then list the ‘work’ they do, specifying if it
is the male, female or young of the species. Discuss
Ethical development follows different patterns
the reason for such distribution of labour and the
characterising different age groups. During the primary rationale behind this. Ask them to write a poem or
years, children are still exploring their immediate essay on what they have learnt and put these up as
posters in the classroom.
environment and developing a consciousness of their
own self. Their behaviour revolves around avoiding
punishment and seeking rewards. They form notions teaching or social message. Along with this is the universal
of good and bad, right and wrong depending upon fact that every child, no matter how dull or uninspired
what is approved or disapproved by their elders. At his home life, has something to say, some insight to
this stage, what they see in the behaviour and action of contribute to a class discussion. The teacher needs to
adults prompts them to construct their own draw out the children, gain their confidence, and avoid
understanding of ethical behaviour. using threatening language or hostile body language.
As children grow older, their reasoning capabilities Teaching values has often meant exhortations
develop. However, they are still not mature enough to about desirable behaviour. It has also meant the
question assumptions and norms. Inspired by the need suppression and denial of "improper" and
to impress others and validate their self-image as strong "unacceptable" feelings and desires. This often leads
and capable individuals, they tend to violate rules. At children to hide their own real feelings, desires, thoughts
this stage, facilitating reflection on the basis of rules and convictions and simply pay lip service to moral
and norms, restrictions, constraints, duties and values and ideals, without making any commitment.
obligations, etc., through discussion and dialogue, Hence the need to move away from mere talk, to a
produces insights into the linkage between the collective meaningful discussion of experiences and reflections,
good, the value of restraint, sacrifice, compassion, etc., eschewing a simplistic approach to moral behaviour,
which constitute the moral ways of being. and instead exploring and understanding complex
Still later, as abstract thinking is fully developed, motivations and ethical dilemmas associated with human
individuals can make well -reasoned judgements about behaviour and actions.
what constitutes ethical behaviour. This may lead to the Teachers should make deliberate attempts to
acceptance and internalisation of ethical principles, which infuse and reinforce the importance of peace-related
then can be sustained in the long run. Even in the absence values that are commensurate with the textual material
of an external authority, ethically mature individuals taught in school and the developmental stages of
behave in just and appropriate ways, and understand children. For example, teachers can take advantage of
the basis of rules and, norms, and appreciate how these the hidden components in a lesson by using appropriate
contribute to overall peace and order in society. strategies to awaken positive feelings, identifying
Our earliest and best teachers found stories and experiences worth reflecting and, exploring, discovering,
anecdotes the best way to get across an important spiritual constructing understanding peace-related values.
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Strategies like questions, stories, anecdotes, games, as part of different disciplines while ensuring that
experiments, discussions, dialogues, clarification of adequate time is earmarked for pertinent activities. This
values, examples, analogies, metaphors, role playing, approach can be meaningfully employed in the
and simulation are helpful in promoting peace through treatment of content in Physics, Mathematics, chemistry,
teaching-learning. The teaching and practise of ethics Biology, geography, History, political science, health and
go from the personal sphere to social and physical education, art, music etc. Actvities constructed
community-oriented thinking and then link up with for life situations become a meaningful means for the
global perspectives. A teacher who is oriented to the engagement of learners. Rainfall, for instance, exhibits
perspective of peace can introduce such opportunities intricate variations over space and time. Data on such
for reflecting at these scales, and identifying the inter variations are available and can be used to promote
linkages between them. Teacher education programmes many interesting activities in Physics and Mathematics.
should consider introducing peace education as an In Physics, simple experiments may be devised to
optional subject of study. visualise patterns of flow of fluids over uneven terrain,
as well as to demonstrate how the ascent of air leads
3.9 HABITAT AND LEARNING to cooling and precipitation and descent to the opposite
The habitat is where any species finds conditions that effects. In Mathematics, a careful analysis of data for a
permit it to thrive. Learning is a vital faculty of all longer period, say, 50 years, on decline in rainfall
animal species. Animals learn about the features of their provides excellent possibilities for projects relating to
own habitat by picking up clues as to where they may data representation, visualisation and interpretation.
expect to find food or meet social companions or Likewise, effluents from sewage treatment plants can
encounter enemies. For our ancestors, knowledge thus form meaningful raw material for a variety of projects
began with the exploration of their habitat. But as in chemistry. Besides, schools could work with
human beings' control over the environment has panchayats, municipalities and city corporations to
increased, and as people have begun to mould the world document biodiversity resources and associated
more and more to suit their needs, this component of knowledge. Schools can take up projects in Biology
knowledge has diminished so much that today formal addressing specific issues of interest, such as the
education has become largely alienated from the habitat occurrence and utilisation of medicinal plants or the
of the students. But as environmental degradation protection of rare and endangered fish in a body of
proceeds at an uprecedented pace, we are beginning water. People's representations of the environment
to realise the importance of taking good care of our and its specifics (animals, forests, rivers, plants etc.)
habitat. Humankind must, therefore, make an attempt through various forms of art, music, dance and craft
to comprehend its roots, to re-establish links with its illustrate their understanding of biodiversity. Such an
habitat, and to understand and take good care of it. In understanding is also linked to the life of members of
substance and spirit, then the theme ' Habitat and Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe communities as
Learning' is equivalent to environmental education. they often depend on natural biodiversity resources to
These significant concerns are best realised by sustain their livelihoods. Recording such knowledge is
infusing the components of environmental education part of the mandate of preparing of people's
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biodiversity registers, and students can fruitfully be yearly requirements spelt out for each class, in hierarchical
engaged in projects on the preparation of such registers. progression. This would allow more respect for
Projects assessing the nutritional role of wild plants, children's pace of learning. Schemes such as the
which provide important nutritional supplements in Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) reinforced not
the diets of tribal communities, can be worthwhile only the rigid adherence to year-end outcomes, but
components of health education. Likewise, preparation also allowed for these to be further narrowed to lessons.
of maps of the immediate environment, Describing the characteristics and concerns of the
documentation of environmental History, and analysis curriculum, pedagogy and assessment in stages allow
of political issues related to the environment may be syllabi, textbooks and learning resources, and for
made part of projects in geography, History and teachers to plan for children's development and the
political science. Conflicts over water at the local, state, gradual and cumulative deepening of abilities,
national and international levels offer a rich source for competencies and concepts.
designing a variety of activities and projects connecting
3.10.1 Early Childhood Education
these descriptions of knowledge.
The early childhood stage, until the age of 6–8 years, is
3.10 SCHEMES OF STUDY AND ASSESSMENT the most critical period when the foundations are laid
The word 'school' all over the country by and large for life-long development and the realisation of full
refers to Classes I to X, extending to class XII in some potential; research shows that there are 'critical periods'
states, while in other states Classes XI and XII are at this stage for full development of the brain's potential.
regarded as pre-university or junior college. Some The formation of later attitudes and values as well as
schools also include two to three years of pre-school the desire to learn are also influenced at this stage, while
classes. The breaking up of schooling into four 'stages' lack of support or neglect can lead to negative
extends far beyond mere administrative convenience. consequences, sometimes irreversible. Early Childhood
From the point of view of curriculum design and Care and Education (ECCE) requires that young children
teacher preparation, these stages have a developmental be provided care, opportunities and experiences that
validity. Seen from a stage-wise perspective, curriculum lead to their all-round development — physical, mental,
thinking and school organisation can overcome social and emotional, and school readiness. A holistic
problems created by the current preoccupation with and integrated perspective views the health and nutritional
'monograde' classrooms as being the norm, with rigid needs of children as integrally related with their
application of age-based grouping of children, and psychosocial/educational development. The curriculum
class-wise teaching and learning objectives. Single and framework and pedagogy for ECCE must be based
two- teacher primary schools could be reconceptualised on this holistic perspective, taking into account the various
as a learning group with different abilities and learning domains of development, the characteristics of children
needs rather than as 'multigrade' classrooms requiring at each sub-stage, and their learning needs in terms of
time- management techniques. Assessing children for experiences.
what they have learnt could also then take place over a It is well known that children have a natural desire
longer cycle of years spent in school, rather than as to learn and make sense of the world around them.
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Learning in the early years must hence be directed by contextuality and continuity between home and school)
the child's interests and priorities, and should be can inform learning experiences of children throughout
contextualised by her experiences rather than being the childhood stage and lead to a smooth transition
structured formally. An enabling environment for into the elementary school stage.
children would be one that is rich in stimulation and The ECCE programmes present a picture of
experiences, that allows children to explore, experiment plurality, with government, non-government
and freely express themselves, and one that is embedded (voluntary sector) and private agencies providing a
in social relations that give them a sense of warmth, variety of services. However, the coverage of these
security and trust. Playing, music, rhyming, art and other programmes is extremely narrow, and the quality
activities using local materials, along with opportunities of services provided is variable and largely poor.
for speaking, listening and expressing themselves, and A vast majority of children, especially those belonging
informal interaction are essential components of to poor and marginal groups, are not covered by
learning at this stage. It is important that the language early care programmes and are left to fend for
used in early education is one that the child is familiar themselves. Pre-school programmes range from
with in the immediate environment, while an informal those that subject children to a dull and monotonous
multilingual classroom would help children to routine to those where children are exposed to
comfortably adjust to the early introduction of a second structured formal learning, often in English, made
language (English) and the medium of instruction from to do tests and homework, and denied their right to
Class I onwards. As the children who come under the play. These are undesirable and harmful practices
purview of ECCE are a heterogeneous group, ranging that result from misguided parental aspirations and
from infants to pre-schoolers, it is important that the growing commercialisation of pre-schooling,
activities and experiences for them are developmentally and are detrimental to children's development and
appropriate. motivation to learn. Most of these problems derive
Early identification of disabilities assessment and from the still 'unrecognised' status of ECCE as a
the provision of appropriate stimulation would go a part of the mainstream education system. Polarised
long way in preventing the aggravation of disadvantage services both reflect and perpetuate the multiple
on this account. The caution would be against overlapping social divides in our country. The deep
pressurising children into the three R's (reading, writing gender bias and pervasive patriarchal values in Indian
and arithmetic) and the early introduction of formal society are responsible for the failure to recognise
instruction, i.e. against making pre-schools into training the need for cre'ches and day-care facilities, especially
centres for admission to primary schools. In fact, the for children of poor rural and urban working
suggestion is that ECCE cover the age group 0–8 years women; this neglect has also had an adverse impact
(i.e. so as to include the early primary school years). on the education of girls.
This is in order that the holistic perspective of ECCE Good quality ECCE programmes have a positive
and its methodologies (all- round and integrated impact on children's all-round development. This in itself
development, activity-based learning, listening and is reason enough to demand that all children have a right
speaking a language before learning to write it, to ECCE, and it is hence unfortunate that the 0–6 age
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group has been excluded from the purview of Article standards need to become the hallmark of education
21. In addition, ECCE is also seen to have critical linkages for this period. Education during this period must be
with enrolment of children in schools and learning of an integrated character, enabling children to acquire
outcomes. To provide ECCE of equitable quality to all facility in language and expression and to grow in self-
children, it is not only necessary to vastly enhance the confidence as learners, both within and outside school.
funds committed for this purpose, but also to address The first concern of the school is on the
through different strategies the five basic dimensions of development of the child's language competence: issues
quality, namely, developmentally appropriate curriculum, related to articulation and literacy, and the ability to use
trained and adequately rewarded teachers, appropriate language to create, to think and to communicate with
teacher-child ratio and group size, infrastructure others. Special stress is needed to ensure that there are
supportive of children's needs, and an encouraging style maximum opportunities for those who wish to study
of supervision. While there is need for decentralisation, in their mother tongue, including tribal languages and
flexibility and contextuality in these programmes, there linguistic pockets, even if the number of students is
is also an urgent need to evolve appropriate norms and small. The ability of the system to promote and nurture
guidelines and set in place a regulatory framework so these options, along with working out mechanisms to
that children's development is not compromised. ensure that future options remain open, should become
Capacity building at all levels in relation to the plurality a marker of its ability to provide for quality education.
of roles that different functionaries play, as well as fair To achieve this, there must be a creative and concerted
wages, must also be ensured. effort to maintain the multilingual genius of Indians
and implement the three-language formula. While
3.10.2 Elementary School English may be taught during this period, it must not
The period of elementary school (from Class I to be at the expense of learning Indian languages.
Class VIII) is now also recognised as the period of The development of mathematical thinking,
compulsory schooling vide the constitutional beginning with learning numeracy and moving towards
amendment making education a fundamental right. The the enjoyment of and facility with more abstract ideas,
beginning of this period marks the formal introduction needs to be supported with concrete experiences and
of the child to reading, writing and arithmetic, work with manipulations. It is in the early years, up to
culminating in the introduction of the formal disciplines Class IV, that efforts at diagnosing learning difficulties
such as the sciences and the social sciences towards the and addressing remedial work in language and
end of elementary school. This period of eight years mathematics must be directed.
is one of tremendous cognitive development, shaping Such concrete experiences are also essential in the
reason, intellect and social skills, as well as the skills and introduction to the integrated study of the environment
attitudes necessary for entering the work place. through which children's intuitive knowledge of the
As the effort to achieve UEE is stepped up, the world is integrated into school knowledge. Over the
elementary school classes now cater to many children years, this study should move towards a more
of school-going age coming from diverse backgrounds. disciplinary approach, but with integrative themes,
Plurality and flexibility without compromising on within which there are located opportunities to develop
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concepts and learn the vocabulary and methods of the intense vibrancy and energy. The ability for abstract
discipline. reasoning and logical thinking emerges, allowing children
The study of arts and crafts is essential for the possibility of deep engagement with both
developing not only the aesthetic sensibility but also understanding and generating knowledge beyond the
for learning how to manipulate materials and here and now. A critical understanding of the self in
developing attitudes and skills essential for work. The relation to society also emerges during this period.
curriculum must expose children to practical life skills The courses at this level generally aim at creating
and work experiences of varied kinds. Physical an awareness of the various disciplines and introduces
development through sports activities is also a must. A students to the possibilities and scope of study in them.
variety of activities at this stage of schooling should be Through such engagement, they also discover their own
made available, including participating in cultural interests and aptitudes and begin to form ideas on what
programmes, organising events, travelling to places courses of study and related work they might like to
outside the school, providing experiences to develop pursue later. Such needs could be effectively met by
socially and emotionally into creative and confident guidance and counselling interventions of an organised
individuals sensitive to others, and capable of taking nature with the support of trained teachers and
initiative and responsibility. Teachers with a background professional counsellors. For a large number of
in guidance and counselling can design and lead children, this is also a terminal stage, when they leave
activities to meet the developmental needs of children, school and begin acquiring productive work skills.
thus laying the foundation for the necessary attitudes Those for whom this stage becomes terminal on
and perceptions towards the self and the world of account of socio-economic circumstances need
work. They can also provide the needed support and opportunities for learning creative and productive work
guidance to children belonging to various strata of skills while the system as a whole moves towards
society for their sustenance through the elementary universalising secondary education. Providing access to
school years. The approach to the whole curriculum libraries and experience in laboratories is essential, and
should be process oriented rather than outcome hence there must be a concerted effort to ensure that
oriented. All these arenas of development should be all children have access to such facilities.
made available to all children. Care must be taken to These two years are shadowed by the spectre of
ensure that the curriculum does not reinforce achieving respectable 'board examination' marks in this
stereotypes about preferences, choices and capabilities examination since this will determine future options.
of different groups. In this context, the gradual Schools often proudly state that they finish the entire
inclusion of vocationally oriented skills as a part of syllabus for Class X by the end of the first term, and
exposure to work would be an important aspect of spend the rest of the year (two terms) on revision, so
an inclusive curriculum. that students are well prepared for their examination.
Class IX of this stage, and later Class XI, are sacrificed
3.10.3 Secondary School for the same reason. This preoccupation with the
Secondary school is a period of intense physical change examination, and its deleterious effect on learning,
and formation of identity. It is also the period of needs to be reviewed and challenged. Is it worth
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wasting a year of perhaps the most fruitful period of related knowledge and skills. In many cases, these
a child's life in such non-productive engagement? Is it courses have degraded into routine credentialing
not possible that by pacing learning more evenly courses, and make no distinction between learning to
through out the year, we may serve preparation for do a job versus learning to get a job.
the examination itself in a much better way? On
account of the examinations, many other curricular 3.10.4 Higher Secondary School
areas, especially sports and arts, are also compromised. The status of the academic and vocational streams at
It is necessary to ensure that these areas are protected, the higher secondary stage needs to be reviewed in
and also that a serious attempt is made to institute view of the continued preoccupation with and influence
meaningful experiences of work during this period. of the board and entrance examinations, and in view
Most boards in the country offer limited or no of the continued privilege given to the so-called
optional courses in this period; two languages (one of academic stream and the failure of the vocational stream
which is English), Mathematics, science and social to take off. During this period of two years students
sciences are the typical examination subjects. In this make choices based on their interests, aptitudes and
group, the courses of Mathematics and English, which needs regarding their future life.
are responsible for the 'failure' of a large number of The possibilities of choosing optional courses of
students, need to be revisited and redesigned. The study for exploring and understanding different areas
policy of declaring pass–fail in the whole examination, of knowledge, both in relation to one's interest and one's
and the meaning of the 'pass mark', may also need to future career, is integral to this stage. Exploring
be reviewed. Related issues are discussed in disciplines and approaching problems and issues from
Chapter 5, in the section on examination reforms. rich interdisciplinary perspectives are possible at this stage.
A few boards also encourage students to choose There is a need to allow for such investigations to take
an optional course from a range that includes place between and outside the 'subjects' chosen for study.
economics, music and cookery. Such options could be Most boards of study offer a variety of subject
increased, and the possibilities of substituting the more areas in addition to the compulsory language courses.
traditional disciplines with these options could also be There is a concern about the formal or informal
considered. Vocational options could also be restrictions that operate to narrow the choice of subjects
introduced. Many such vocational options may arise of study for students. Several boards restrict the
from the world of productive work in the local combinations in the form of 'the science stream', 'the
community. For example, auto maintenance in garages, arts stream' and 'the commerce stream'. The CBSE does
tailoring and paramedical services offer possibilities for not restrict the possibility of combinations that students
collaboration to create meaningful vocational courses; can choose, but in view of the increasing popularity of
school boards could accredit such learning and thereby some combinations of subjects of study, and also
also recognise the many sites of learning that are situated because of a perception of status of subjects in relation
outside school. In our country, many vocational stream to each other, many such options are now foreclosed to
courses have deteriorated in their quality, and hence are students. Further, universities also need to review their
unable to provide students with meaningful work- admission criteria as they currently restrict admission
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based on the kinds and combinations of courses studied Under pressure to 'cover' vast syllabi, many
at the +2 stage. As a consequence, many significant and important aspects of learning such as practicals and
meaningful combinations of study, such as, for example, field trips, and ways of learning such as reference work,
Physics, Mathematics and Philosophy, or Literature, project work and presentations, are not fully utilised,
Biology and History, are closed to students. to the detriment of overall learning. Well -equipped
Recent trends of schools tailoring their classes to laboratories and libraries, and access to computers, are
medical and engineering courses have led to an artificial essential, and all efforts must be made to ensure that
restriction on the courses they offer in school, arguably schools and junior colleges are well equipped with such
on grounds of popularity and timetabling. In many resources.
parts of the country, students who want to study the The vocational stream originally was meant to
arts and liberal subjects are left with very few options. address the needs of those who would enter the work
Schools also discourage students from opting for force earlier than those who would enter the professions
unconventional combinations, often on account of via the traditional academic streams, or those who
timetabling considerations. We believe it is essential to would pursue study and research. We recommend
keep all options open for students. In case there are infusing productive work as a pedagogic medium for
not enough students in a school opting for a particular knowledge acquisition, developing values and multiple
subject, schools could consider working out skill formation at all stages of education, including the
arrangements with other schools in the neighbourhood +2 stage.
so that they could employ a resource teacher together. Given the developmental nature of this stage,
Such resource teachers could also be employed at the guidance and counselling by trained professionals must
block level to teach such special subjects that would be made available to children. Interventions to enhance
not otherwise be available in a school. School boards self/career awareness, career exploration and planning
may also consider a more active role in promoting are also essential. Besides, this stage coincides with
subjects and streams of study. adolescence, a period in an individual's life that is
The courses offered at the +2 stage need to be marked by personal, social and emotional crises created
alive to recent and current developments in the due to the demands of adjustment required in family,
disciplines, as new knowledge areas are carved out, peer group and school situations. The provision of
disciplinary boundaries shift and multidisciplinary studies these services in schools would help create the support
develop. To allow students to engage with areas of system required to cope with increasing academic and
study that are growing in importance within the social pressures.
disciplines and fields, courses could also be designed
to offer optional modules, rather than trying to cover 3.10.5 Open Schooling and Bridge Schooling
everything and packing courses with too much Beginning with the National Open School, open school
information. For example, History could have an boards, which have begun to function in a few states,
optional module to study either Archaeology or World now are able to provide much more flexibility and
History; similarly, Physics could offer the options of options for students. The range of subjects they offer
Astronomy, Space Science and Rocketry etc. is wide. With more flexibility in examination taking,
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this would exacerbate the deprivation that these children

The purpose of evaluation is not have already suffered, and constitute a flagrant disregard
√ to motivate children to study under threat. of their rights. Rigorous research and development of
the pedagogy and materials required for such
√ to identify or label children as ‘slow learners’, or
programmes to succeed, stringent implementation
‘bright students’, or ‘problem children’. Such
categories segregate children, placing the onus for norms and provisioning of facilities, as well as continued
learning solely on them, and detract from the role academic and social support for these children after they
and purpose of pedagogy. have been placed in school are essential.

√ toidentifychildrenwhoneedremediation(thisneed 3.11 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

not wait for formal assessment; it can be detected by
the teacher in the course of teaching and attended to In the Indian education system, the term evaluation is
as a part of pedagogic planning, through associated with examination, stress and anxiety. All
individualisedattention). efforts at curriculum definition and renewal come to
√ todiagnoselearningdifficultiesandproblemareas— naught if they cannot engage with the bulwark of the
whilebroadindicationsaboutconceptualdifficulties evaluation and examination system embedded in
can be identified via evaluation and formal testing. schooling. We are concerned about the ill effects that
Diagnosis requires special testing instruments and examinations have on efforts to make learning and
training. It is also specific to foundational areas of teaching meaningful and joyous for children. Currently,
literacyandnumeracy,andisnotmeantfor subject
the board examinations negatively influence all testing
areas.
and assessment through out the school years, beginning
with pre-school.
and the possibility of credit transfer from other boards, At the same time, a good evaluation and
open schools have been able to provide a more examination system can become an integral part of
humane approach to the process of certification. the learning process and benefit both the learners
Knowledge about and access to open schools could themselves and the educational system by giving
be more widely disseminated along with efforts to credible feedback. This section addresses evaluation
address misconceptions regarding equivalence with and assessment as they are relevant to the normal course
other board examinations. By scheduling these of teaching-learning in the school, as a part of the
examinations closer to the dates of other board curriculum. Issues relating to the examination system,
examinations, it would also be possible to ensure that and in particular to the board examinations, are
students do not lose a school year. addressed separately in Chapter 5.
Bridge courses are conducted widely in many parts
of the country to enable children who are out of school 3.11.1 The Purpose of Assessment
to study in programmes and become integrated into Education is concerned with preparing citizens for a
classes suitable to their age. In the medium term, it is meaningful and productive life, and evaluation should
essential to have well - conceived programmes that are be a way of providing credible feedback on the extent
able to meet this curricular objective. Anything less than to which we have been successful in imparting such an
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education. Seen from this perspective, current other schools and educational institutions, the
processes of evaluation, which measure and assess a community and prospective employers with
very limited range of faculties, are highly inadequate information regarding the quality and extent of learning.
and do not provide a complete picture of an individual's The popular notion that evaluation can lead to
abilities or progress towards fulfilling the aims of identifying the needs of remediation, to be attended
education. to with remedial teaching, has created many problems
But even this limited purpose of evaluation, of in curriculum planning. The term remediation needs to
providing feedback on scholastic and academic be restricted to specific/special programmes that enable
development, can be achieved only if the teacher is children who are having a problem with literacy/reading
prepared even before the course of teaching begins, (associated with reading failure and later with
armed with not only the techniques of assessment but comprehension) or numeracy (especially the symbolic
also the parameters for evaluation and the various tools aspects of mathematical computation and place value).
that will be employed. In addition to judging the quality Teachers require specific training for effective diagnostic
of the students' achievements, a teacher would also testing that can be of assistance in remediation efforts.
need to collect, analyse and interpret their performances Similarly, remedial work would require specifically
on various measures of the assessment to come to an developed materials and planning so that the teacher is
understanding of the extent and nature of the able to give one-on-one time to work with the child,
students' learning in different domains. The purpose
of assessment is necessarily to improve the
Competencies
teaching-learning process and materials, and to be able
Competencies is an attempt to shift the focus of
to review the objectives that have been identified for
teaching and related assessment away from superficial
different school stages by gauging the extent to which textbook-based factual content. However, in the
the capabilities of learners have been developed. MLL approach, competencies are broken up into
Needless to say, this does not mean that tests and detailed sub-competencies and sub-skills, assuming
that the sum of these sub-skills is the competency.
examinations will have to be conducted frequently. On
Frequently, with the focus on behaviour and
the contrary, routine activities and exercises can be performance concepts may not even feature in the
employed effectively to assess learning. assessment. This logical yet mechanical listing of
Well-designed assessment and regular report cards sub-skills and rigid timetables for their achievement
does not reflect either the concern that learning and
provide learners with feedback, and set standards for use of the competency may itself be more flexible,
them to strive towards. They also serve to inform parents or that the cycle over which competencies are learnt
about the quality of learning and the development and need not follow the timing or pace described, or
that the whole may be greater than the sum of the
progress of their wards. This is not a means of
parts.
encouraging competition; if one is looking for quality in
education, then segregating and ranking children and Designing learning and test items for these detailed
injecting them with feelings of inferiority cannot do it. lists, and teaching to these learning outcomes, is
impractical and pedagogically unsound.
Last, credible assessment provides a report, or
certifies the completion of a course of study, providing
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beginning with what she/he knows and moving to that were informative and brief. He says that he likes
what she/he needs to learn, through a continuous simple and clear language. In noting down facts, he
process of assessment and careful observation. goes for short answers. He says that it helps him
Indiscriminate usage of the term distracts from the understand things easily. He favours a practical
general problems of effective pedagogy, and makes approach." Similarly, keeping samples and notes of
the child solely responsible for her/his learning and the child's work at different stages provides both the
also learning 'failure'. teacher and the learner herself or himself with a
systematic record of his/her learning progress.
3.11.2 Assessing Learners
The belief that assessment must lead to finding
Any meaningful report on the quality and extent of a learning difficulties to then be remediated is often very
child's learning needs to be comprehensive. We need a impractical and not founded on a sound understanding
curriculum whose creativity, innovativeness, and of pedagogic practice. Problems regarding conceptual
development of the whole being, the hallmark of a development cannot and do not wait for formal tests in
good education makes uniform tests that assess order to be detected. A teacher can, in the course of
memorised facts and textbook -based learning obsolete. teaching itself, come to know of such problems by
We need to redefine and seek new parameters for and asking questions that make children think or by giving
ways of evaluation and feedback. In addition to the them small assignments. She can then attend to them in
learner's achievements in specific subject areas that lend the process of teaching–by ensuring that her planning is
themselves to testing easily, assessment would need to flexible and responsive to the learners and their learning.
encompass attitudes to learning, interest, and the ability
to learn independently. 3.11.4 Curricular Areas that cannot be 'Tested
for Marks'
3.11.3 Assessment in the Course of Teaching
Each area of the curriculum may not lend itself to being
Preparing report cards is a way for the teacher to think 'tested'; it may even be antithetical to the nature of
about each individual child and review what she/he learning in the curricular area. This includes areas such as
has learnt during the term, and what she/he needs to work, health, yoga, physical education, music and art.
work on and improve. To be able to write such report While the skill-based component of physical education
cards, teachers would need to think about each and yoga could be tested, the health aspect needs
individual child, and hence pay attention to them during continuous and qualitative assessments. Currently, this
their everyday teaching and interaction. One does not has the effect of making these subjects and activities 'less
need special tests for this; learning activities themselves important' in the curriculum; these areas are inadequately
provide the basis for such ongoing observational and provided for in terms of material resources and curricular
qualitative assessments of children. Maintaining a daily planning, and marked by a lack of seriousness. Further,
diary based on observation helps in continuous and the time allocated for them is also frequently sacrificed
comprehensive evaluation. An extract from the diary to accommodate special classes. This is a serious
of a teacher for a week notes the following: "Kiran compromise with parts of the curriculum that have deep
enjoyed his work. He took an instant liking to the books educational significance and potential.
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Even if 'marks' cannot be given, children can

be assessed for their development in these areas. Posing Questions
Participation, interest, and level of involvement, and State four considerations to be kept in mind while
the extent to which abilities and skills have been setting up an iron-smelting plant.
honed, are some markers that can help teachers to Versus
gauge the benefits of what children learn and gain If an industrialist wanted to establish an iron -
through such activities. Asking children to self- smelting plant, which site should she choose and
why?
report on their learning can also provide teachers
with insight into children's educational progress and How does the shape of a bird’s beak help in
adaptation?
give them feedback on improving curriculum or
Versus
pedagogy.
Draw the beak of a common bird seen in your
neighbourhood. Based on the shape of the beak,
3.11.5 Design and Conduct of Assessment
explain what are likely to be the bird's food habits
Assessments and examinations must be credible, and and where in your neighbourhood it is likely to find
its food.
based on valid ways of gauging learning.
As long as examinations and tests assess children's
ability to remember and recall textbook knowledge,
all attempts to redirect the curriculum towards learning competitions. All question papers must be designed
will be thwarted. First, tests in knowledge-based graded for difficulty in order to permit all children to
subject areas must be able to gauge what children have experience a level of success, and to gain confidence in
learnt, and their ability to use this knowledge for their ability to answer and solve problems.
problem solving and application in the real world. In Trying to devise a good and effective open-book
addition, they must also be able to test the processes examination can be a challenge that we must try to
of thinking to gauge if the learner has also learnt where take up in our curricular efforts at all levels of school.
to find information, how to use new information, and This would require teachers and examination setters to
to analyse and evaluate the same. emphasise the interpretation and application of learning
The types of questions that are set for assessment over the arguments and facts that can be located in the
need to go beyond what is given in the book. Often book. There have been successful demonstrations that
children's learning is restricted as teachers do not accept such examinations can be carried out on a large scale,
their answers if they are different from what is presented and that teachers can themselves be trusted with
in the guidebooks. moderating the results of such examinations. In this
Questions that are open-ended and challenging way, the assessment of projects and lab work can also
could also be used. Designing good test items and be made credible and sound.
questions is an art, and teachers should spend time It is important that after receiving their corrected
thinking about and devising such questions. The interest papers, children rewrite the answers and that these are
and ability of teachers to design good questions can again reviewed by teachers to ensure that children have
be promoted through district- or state-level learnt and gained something out of the ordeal.
 75

Competition is motivating, but it is an extrinsic children about why they answered what they did assists
rather than intrinsic form of motivation. It is, of course, teachers in going beyond the written answer to engage
much easier to establish and to manipulate, and with children's thinking. Such processes also take away
therefore frequently resorted to by teachers and school the frightening judgemental quality of marks obtained
systems as a way creating and nurturing the drive for in a test, and enable children to understand and focus
excellence. Schools begin 'ranking' children as early as on their mistakes and learn through these mistakes.
their pre-primary years as a way of inculcating in them Sometimes head teachers object, claiming that
a competitive spirit. Such a competitive drive has correction in the presence of the child reduces
several negative side effects on learning; often superficial 'objectivity'. This is a misplaced concern for 'objectivity',
learning is sufficient to create and maintain impressions, stemming from a competitive system that believes in
and over time students lose their ability to take initiative judging children. Such a concern for 'objectivity' is
or do things for the fulfilment of one's own interest; misplaced in evaluation, which is consistent with
hence, areas that cannot be 'marked' are neglected. This educational goals.
has unhealthy consequences for classroom culture, Not only learning outcomes but also learning
making children individualistic and unsuited to team experiences themselves must be evaluated. Learners
work. There is an absurd and unnecessary importance happily comment on the totality of their experience.
given to term examinations, often accompanied by Exercises, both individual and collective, can be
extreme arrangements of invigilation and secrecy. While designed to enable them to reflect on and assess their
the physical and psychological effects of this may not learning experiences. Such experiences also provide
be readily visible until middle school, they frequently them with self-regulatory capabilities essential for
lead to high levels of stress in children, and cause early 'learning to learn'. Such information is also valuable
burnout. Schools and teachers need to ask themselves feedback to the teacher, and can be used to modify
whether there is really much to be gained out of such the learning system as a whole.
practices and to what extent learning requires such Every classroom interaction with children
systems of marking and ranking. requires their evaluation of their own work, and a
discussion with them about what should be tested
3.11.6 Self-assessment and Feedback and the ways of finding out whether the competencies
The role of assessment is to gauge the progress that are being developed or not. Even very young children
both learner and teacher have made towards achieving are able to give correct assessments of what they can
the aims that have been set and appraising how this or cannot do well. The role of teaching is to provide
could be done better. Opportunity for feedback, leading an opportunity to each child to learn to the best of
to revision and improvement of performance, should his or her ability and provide learning experiences
constantly be available, without exams and evaluations that develop cognitive qualities, physical well-being
being used as a threat to study. and athletic qualities, as also affective and aesthetic
Grading and correction carried out in the qualities.
presence of students and providing feedback on the Report cards need to present to children and
answers they get right and wrong, and why. Asking parents a comprehensive and holistic view of the child's
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development in many fields. Teachers must be able to their activities into items for assessment, or making them
say things about each child/student, that conveys to them experience the teacher's 'power', then it defeats the
a sense of individualised attention, reaffirms a positive purpose of education. Unless a system is adequately
self-image, and communicates personal goals for them geared for such assessment, it is better for teachers to
to work towards. Whether it is marks or grades that are engage in more limited forms of evaluation, but
reported, a qualitative statement by the teacher is necessary incorporating into them more features that will make
to support the assessment. Only through such a the assessment a meaningful record of learning.
relationship with each child can any teacher succeed in Finally, there is a need to evolve and maintain
influencing him/her, and contributing to his/her learning. credibility in assessment so that they perform their
Along with the teacher assessing each child, each student function of providing feedback in a meaningful way.
could also assess himself or herself and include this self-
assessment in the report card. 3.11.8 Assessment at Different Stages
Currently, many report cards carry information ECCE and Classes I and II of the Elementary Stage : At
on subject areas and have nothing to say about other this stage, assessment must be purely qualitative
aspects of the child's development, including health, judgements of children's activities in various domains
physical fitness and abilities in games, social skills, and and an assessment of the status of their health and
abilities in art and craft. Qualitative statements about physical development, based on observations through
these aspects of children's education and development everyday interactions. On no account should they be
would provide a more holistic assessment of made to take any form of test, oral or written.
educational concerns. Class III to Class VIII of the Elementary Stage : A
variety of methods may be used, including oral and
3.11.7 Areas that Require Fresh Thinking
written tests and observations. Children should be
There are many areas of the curriculum that can be assessed aware that they are being assessed, but this must be
but for which we still do not have reliable and efficient seen by them as a part of the teaching process and not
instruments. This includes assessing learning that is carried as a fearful constant threat. Grades or marks along
out in groups, and learning in areas such as theatre, work with qualitative judgements of achievement and areas
and craft where skills and competencies develop over requiring attention are essential at this stage. Children's
longer time scales and require careful observation. own self-evaluation can also be a part of the report
Continuous and comprehensive evaluation has card from Class V onwards. Rather than examinations,
frequently been cited as the only meaningful kind of there could be short tests from time to time, which are
evaluation. This also requires much more careful criterion based. Term-wise examinations could be
thinking through about when it is to be employed in a commenced from Class VII onwards when children
system effectively. Such evaluation places a lot of are more psychologically ready to study large chunks
demand on teachers' time and ability to maintain of material and, to spend a few hours in an examination
meticulous records if it is to be meaningfully executed room, working at answering questions. Again, the
and if it is to have any reliability as an assessment. If progress card must indicate general observations on
this simply increases stress on children by reducing all health and nutrition, specific observations on the overall
 77

progress of the learner, and information and advice

for the parents.
Class IX to class XII of the Secondary and Higher
Secondary Stages : Assessment may be based more on
tests, examinations and project reports for the
knowledge-based areas of the curriculum, along with
self-assessment. Other areas would be assessed through
observation and also through self-evaluation.
Reports could include much more analysis about
the students, various skill/knowledge areas and
percentiles, etc., This would assist them by pointing
out the areas of study that they need to focus on, and It’s really cruel burdening kids like this. I had to hire that boy to
also help them by providing a basis for further choices help my son !
that they make regarding what to study thereafter. (Courtesy : R. K. Laxman in the Times of India)
78

Learning takes place within a web of social relationships as teachers

and pupils interact both formally and informally. Schools are
institutional spaces for communities of learners, including both
students and teachers. Play and scuffle with one’s friends on the
school grounds, free time to sit on the benches and chat with one’s
friends during breaks, gathering together for morning assembly and
other festive and significant occasions in the school, studies carried
out in the classroom, anxious turning of pages before a class test,
and trips made with one’s classmates and teachers to places outside
the school — all these are activities bringing the community together,
giving it the character of a learning community. Behind the scenes,
but still significant in giving the school its character, are the teachers
and the headmaster, planning and carrying out daily routines,
examinations and special events that mark the school calendar. How
can we organise the environment in the school and classroom so
that such interactions support and enhance both teaching and
learning? How can the space of the school be nurtured as a context
where children feel safe, happy and wanted, and which teachers
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find meaningful and professionally satisfying? The

physical and psychological dimensions of the Learning through the physical space:
environment are important and are interrelated. In this
Children perceive their world through multiple senses,
chapter we examine these environments to understand especially the tactile and visual senses. A three-
how they significantly influence children’s learning. dimensional space can offer a unique setting for a child
to learn because it can introduce a multiple sensory
4.1 THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT experience to accompany the textbook or blackboard.
Children are constantly interacting with the physical Spatial dimensions, textures, shapes, angles, movements
and spatial attributes like inside – outside, symmetry,
environment of their schools during structured or
up – down, can be used to communicate some basic
unstructured time, consciously or unconsciously. Yet
concepts of language, science, mathematics and the
not enough attention is paid to the importance of environment. These concepts can be applied to existing
physical environment for learning. Often classrooms as well as new, to - be - built spaces.
are overcrowded, with no alternative spaces to learn,
√ Classroom space: A window security grill
nor are they attractive, inviting or sensitive towards canbedesignedtohelpchildrenpractisepre-writing
children’s needs. Inappropriate school design may skillsorunderstandfractions;arangeofanglescan
drastically affect the teacher’s productive output and be marked under a door shutter on the floor to
classroom management. In fact, the role of this all - explaintheconceptofangles;oraclassroomcupboard
encompassing, physical environment has been restricted canbemodifiedtobeusedasalibrary;oraceiling
fancanbepaintedwitharangeofcolourwheelsfor
merely to shelter the educational activity.
childrentoenjoytheever-changingformations.
When children are asked about the kinds of spaces
they like, very often they want to be in a place that is √ Semi-open or outdoor space: The
colourful, friendly, and peaceful, with lots of open movingshadowsofaflag-poleactinglikeasundial
to understand the different ways of measuring
space offering with small nooks and corners, animals,
time; planting winter deciduous trees that shed
plants, flowers, trees, and toys. In order to attract and theirleavesinwinterandaregreeninsummerto
retain children, the school environment must have all make a comfortable outdoor learning space; an
these elements in and around them. adventureplaygroundcouldbedevelopedhereusing
Classrooms can be brightened up by first ensuring discarded tyres; a counter space to simulate a
adequate natural light inside and then made lively by bus/train/ post office/shop counter; an activity
displaying children’s work on the classroom walls as spaceforplayingwithmudandsandandmaking
one’s own mountains, rivers, and valleys in an
well as in different parts of the school. Drawings, art
outline map of India; or space exploration and
and craftwork put up on the walls and shelves send
discovery; space to explore three dimensions; or
out a powerful message to children and their parents theoutdoornaturalenvironmentwithplantsand
that their work is appreciated. These must be displayed trees that allow children to explore and create
at locations and heights that are physically and visually theirownlearningmaterials,colours,discovernooks
comfortably accessible to children of various ages. and corners; grow a herbal garden; and actually
Many of our schools continue to function in dilapidated see and practise rainwater harvesting.
and dingy buildings, presenting a dull, drab and
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unstimulating physical setting. This can be changed with

simple innovations, with the combined efforts of ‘Class size’ is an important factor that influences the
schoolteachers, administrators and architects.
choice of desirable methods and practices that the
Buildings are the most expensive physical assets
teacher uses in the process of curriculum transaction.
of a school. Maximum educational value should be
National and international experiences have shown
derived from them. Creative and practical solutions
that a ratio higher than 1:30 is not desirable at any
can be used to maximise this educational value while
repairing or upgrading existing schools or making new stage of school education. Way back in 1966, the
buildings. The enhancement of the physical environment Kothari Commission Report had warned that large
through this can bring about not just a cosmetic change classes would do ‘serious damage to the quality of
but also an inherent transformation in the way that teaching’ and that ‘in crowded classrooms, all talk
physical space connects with the pedagogy and the child. of creative teaching ceases to have any significance’
In many parts of the country, schools and classrooms (1966: p. 413 and 415).
have large permanent displays painted on the walls.
Such visuals are over-stimulating, and with time they
become monotonous and cease to enhance the quality
of the space. Instead, smaller sized, judiciously chosen or sit on their own for carrying out some individual
murals may be a better way of adding colour to the reading or writing tasks, or assemble in a group near
school. Most of the wall display area should be utilised the radio or TV for a broadcast. For this, the
for children’s own work, or charts made by the teacher, arrangement of desks and chairs, benches and daris
and these should be replaced every month. Preparing could be altered. Many schools have begun to acquire
such wall displays, and participating in putting them simple furniture that is suitable for such flexible
up, can be also valuable learning activities for children. organisation. Single small chowkis, or desks and chairs
Many schools lack playgrounds for outdoor for individual or pairs of children, and daris are well
learning activities. This compromises the quality of suited for such classrooms, and could be adapted or
learning provided through the curriculum. altered to suit the needs of children with disabilities.
Ensuring that minimum requirements of But still many schools invest in heavy metal benches
infrastructure and materials are available, and supporting and long desks, which can only be placed in rows, and
flexible planning that will help achieve curricular aims which reinforce the teacher and blackboard-centred
are important features that heads of school, cluster system of learning. Worse still, many of these do not
and block functionaries should focus on in their support have adequate place for children to keep their books
to teachers. This applies to almost all aspects of school and belongings, nor are they wide enough or with back
life. The many new pedagogies that have been support suitable for the physical comfort of the child.
promoted through efforts such as the one suggested Such furniture should be banned from school spaces.
by DPEP — that the physical layout of the classroom The maximum use can be made of available
could be altered so that children can sit together in school and classroom spaces as pedagogic resources.
small groups, or gather in a large circle for story telling, In some areas, the walls of primary school classrooms
 81

till the height of about 4 feet have been painted black In fact, the structuring of infrastructural facilities is
so that they serve as a free slate and drawing board for essential for paving the way for creating a learner - friendly
children. In some schools geometric designs that can and activity-centric context. Setting norms and standards,
be used for activities are painted on the floor. A corner especially relating to space, building and furniture, would
of the room may be used to organise learning materials, help in fostering a discerning sense of quality.
to keep some appropriate story books, puzzle or riddle • Space Norms are related to age, to group
cards, and other self-access learning materials. When size, the teacher – child ratio, and to the nature
some children finish their assigned lessons befor the of activities to be carried out.
allotted time, they should feel free to come and pick • Building Building materials, architectural styles
up something from this corner to occupy themselves. and craftsmanship are also location-specific
Children can be encouraged to participate in and culture-specific in relation to climate,
activities to make the school and classroom attractive ecology, and availability, while safety and
for study, work and play. Most government schools have hygiene are non-negotiable. Low-cost designs
the healthy practice of giving children the charge of for toilets are plentiful, and the same
cleaning, thereby encouraging the inclusion of work into standardised school building need not be
the routine of the school. But it is also distressing to found across India.
note that there are schools where it is the girls or children • Furniture Norms must be related to age and
from the lower the castes who are expected to do this the nature of the activities, with preference
work. In elite schools, children do not take on any such given to the easily relocated, except in case of
responsibilities, and cleaning activities are often meted laboratories and other specialised spaces.
out as ‘punishments’ for misdemeanours. Such practices • Equipment Lists of essential and desirable
stem from and reinforce cultural norms of the division
equipment (including books) should be
of labour, and the association of distasteful jobs with
specified, emphasising the use of local materials
traditional hereditary occupations of lower – caste
and products, which may be culture specific,
groups. As schools are public spaces that must be
low cost, and easily available.
informed by the values of equality as well as respect for
• Time The need for location and age-specific
labour/work of all kinds, it is important that teachers
norms also apply to time tables and seasonal
consciously avoid distributing tasks on the basis of
calendars.
cultural notions. On the other hand, keeping the
classroom clean and putting things in place are important
4.2 NURTURING AN ENABLING ENVIRONMENT
curricular experiences through which children learn to
take individual and collective responsibility and to keep As public spaces, schools must be marked by the values
their classrooms and schools as attractive as possible. of equality, social justice and respect for diversity, as
The understanding of being part of a larger collective, well as of the dignity and rights of children. These
and the abilities needed to work within a collective, can values must be consciously made part of the perspective
be internalised in children in a variety of ways as they of the school and form the foundation of school
interact in groups within the classroom and the school. practice. An enabling learning environment is one where
 82

clarify their doubts and ask questions, they will not

‘On an average, teachers and children spend around engage with learning. If, instead of ignoring children’s
6 hours a day, and over 1,000 hours a year, in comments or sealing their tongues with strict rules of
school. The physical environment in which they go silence and restrictions on the language to be used,
abouttheirtasksmustbecongenial,providingalevel teachers encourage children to talk, they would find
of comfort, and offering a pleasant space to work in. that the classroom is a more lively place and that teaching
is not predictable and boring, but rather an adventure
For this, the school must have minimum facilities
of interacting minds. Such an environment will
thatincludeessentialfurniture,basicamenities(toilets,
facilitate the self-confidence and self-esteem of learners
drinkingwater)andsoon.There arealargenumber
of all ages; it will also go a long way in improving the
of schools in rural areas, especially in SC and tribal
quality of learning itself.
habitations, as well as in poor urban settlements,
Teachers and children are part of the larger society
whichhavenotbeenabletoprovidethesebasicfacilities, where identities based on membership of caste, gender,
although there are official norms for the same. religious and linguistic group, as well as economic status
Teachers, including the headmaster and the Village inform social interaction, though this varies in different
Education Committee or School Development and social, cultural and regional contexts. SC and ST
MonitoringCommittee,needtobeawareoftheofficial communities, members of minority groups, and
norms of the state regarding the essential physical women are usually placed in situations of disadvantage
infrastructure and amenities. In places where they because of their identities, and are denied equal access
are not adequate, efforts need to be made for their to valued resources in society and participation in
provision so that the school routine proceeds with different institutions. Research on school processes
minimum discomfort. If the official response is not suggests that identities of children continue to influence
forthcoming or is delayed, local communities should their treatment within schools, thereby denying them
meaningful and equal opportunities to learn. As part
lobbyforthese.Withtheirinvolvementandwillingness
of the experience of schooling, children also receive
to make this effort fruitful, the school would assist
implicit messages through interpersonal relations,
teachersinconcentratingonacademicwork.
teacher attitudes, and norms and values that are part
of the culture of the school. These often reinforce
children feel secure, where there is absence of fear, notions of purity and pollution in relation to social
and which is governed by relationships of equality and hierarchies, desirable qualities of ‘masculinity’ and
equity. Often this does not require any special effort ‘feminity’, and privilege in certain ways of living, mainly
on the part of the teacher, except to practise equality that of the urban middle class, while rendering all others
and not discriminate among children. Teachers should invisible. Children belonging to SC and ST groups,
also nurture their classroom spaces as places where and other socially discriminated against groups such
children can ask questions freely, engaging in a dialogue as sex workers and parents with HIV, are often
with the teacher as well as their peers, during an ongoing subjected to demeaning treatment in the classroom,
lesson. Unless they can share their related experiences, not only by teachers but also by their peers. Girls are
 83

often subject to stereotypical expectations based on of each thread that is woven into a tapestry, each Indian
notions of their future roles as wives and mothers rather child can be enabled to not only participate in a
than enabling them to develop their capabilities and democracy, but to also learn how to interact and form
claim their rights. Children with disability often confront partnerships with others to preserve and enhance
insensitive environments where their needs are democracy. It is the quality and nature of the
completely ignored. Schools must be conscious of the interrelationships among individuals that determines the
importance of creating equitable classroom socio-political fabric of our nation. However, children
environments in which students are not subjected to are often socialised in to discriminatory practices.
unfair treatment and denied opportunities on the basis Children and adults learn from what they experience
of their sex or membership of a caste, tribe or minority at home, the community and the world around them.
group. On the other hand, the culture of the school It is important to recognise that adults socialise children
must be one that highlights the students, identities as within the dominant socio-cultural paradigm. This
‘learners’ and creates an environment that enhances the paradigm would include the role models that children
potential and interests of each child. see the mass media including television. This experience
conditions their perceptions of caste and class, gender,
4.3 PARTICIPATION OF ALL CHILDREN democracy and justice. These perceptions, if and when
Participation by itself has little meaning. It is the reinforced by repeated experiences of the same kind,
ideological framework surrounding participation that are converted into values. At a community level, when
defines it and gives it a political construct. For example, a group of people have the same experience and
work participation within an authoritarian frame would therefore share the same values, these values get
give participation a very different form from converted into culture, and sometimes even ideology.
participation within a democracy. Today, the This is a spiral, and each time the cycle is repeated the
participation of ‘civil society’ has become part of the values and culture get reinforced unless there is a
rhetoric in developmental circles, but the nature of that variation in the experience. The counter - experience
civil society and the object of that participation have needs to be strong and real enough to transform the
been moulded by a specific interpretation of what it earlier perceptions. Children cannot wake up one fine
means to be a citizen. Today, civil society participation morning when they are 18 and know how to participate
has come to mean NGO participation, and attempts in, preserve and enhance a democracy, especially if they
to enable the participation of individual citizens, for have had no prior personal or even second - hand
example, in local governance is posing a major experience of it, nor any role models to learn from.
challenge. The participation of children is a means to a much
India is one of the largest and oldest democracies larger end, that of preserving and adding a new
in the world; this curriculum framework is built on an vibrancy to our culture of egalitarianism, democracy,
understanding of this foundation. Education defines secularism and equality. These values can be best realised
the fabric of a nation, and has the capacity to provide through an integrated and well-designed curriculum
each child a positive experience of democratic that enables children’s participation. The existing
functioning. Like the texture, colour, strength, and nature environment of unhealthy competition in schools
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promotes values that are the antithesis of the values programmes. Moreover, all the articles of the CRC
enshrined in our Constitution. A positive ‘experience’ have to be seen within the overarching principle, that
of democracy and democratic participation must be
provided both within and outside the school. This
√ Inclusive education is about embracing all.
experience must actively engage children and young
people in ways that encourage values of inclusion, √ Disability is a social responsibility —
eventually leading the way to the realisation of the vision accept it.
of a participatory democracy. √ No selection procedures to be adopted for
Enabling democratic participation is also a means denyingadmissiontolearnerswithdisabilities.
of empowering the weak and the marginalised. If India √ Childrendonotfail,theyonlyindicatefailure
is to realise her dream of a nation based on of the school.
egalitarianism, democracy and secularism, where all her √ Accept difference… celebrate diversity.
citizens enjoy justice, liberty, equality and fraternity,
√ Inclusion is not confined to the disabled. It
enabling the participation of children would be the also means non-exclusion.
most fundamental step in this process. Enabling learning
√ Learn human rights … conquer human
through participation in the life of a community and
wrongs.
the nation at large is crucial to the success of schooling.
√ Handicap is a social construct, deconstruct
The failure to provide this will result in the failure of
handicap.
the system, and hence needs to be treated as the utmost
√ Make provisions — not restrictions; adjust
priority. It is not only as essential as the teaching of
to the needs of the child.
mathematics and science, but takes on even greater
importance as an indispensable component of all √ Remove physical, social and attitudinal
barriers.
disciplines. It is a running theme, and has to be integrated
into all learning processes and arenas, and given top √ Partnership is our strength such as
priority in the development of all curricula and syllabi. school – community; school – teachers;
teachers – teachers; teachers – children;
4.3.1 Children’s Rights children – children; teachers – parents; school
India has signed the Convention on the Rights of the systems and outside systems.
Child (CRC). The three most important principles of √ All good practices of teaching are practices
this Convention are the rights to participation, to of inclusion.
association or the right to organisation, and the right to √ Learning together is beneficial for every child.
information. These are essential rights if children and √ Support services are essential services.
youth are to realise all their other rights. CRC does not
√ If you want to teach, learn from the child.
concern itself only with the protection of children and
Identify strengths not limitations.
the delivery or provision of services and programmes,
√ Inculcatemutualrespectandinter-dependence.
but also ensures that children have the right to determine
the quality and nature of these ser vices and
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of upholding and preserving the best interests of 4.3.2. Policy of Inclusion

children. A policy of inclusion needs to be implemented in all
Although CRC guarantees children the right to schools and throughout our education system. The
express their views freely in all matters affecting them, participation of all children needs to be ensured in all
and to exercise freedom of expression, children are spheres of their life in and outside the school. Schools
frequently denied the opportunity to participate in need to become centres that prepare children for life
decision-making processes and activities that effect their and ensure that all children, especially the differently
lives and futures. The right to participation also depends abled, children from marginalised sections, and children
on the realisation of other primary rights such as access in difficult circumstances get the maximum benefit of
to information, the freedom of association, and the this critical area of education. Opportunities to display
right to formulate opinions free from influence and talents and share these with peers are powerful tools in
coercion. The principle of participation should be nurturing motivation and involvement among children.
integrated into all areas of concern for children. In our schools we tend to select some children over
and over again. While this small group benefits from
In reality, social, political and economic structures
these opportunities, becoming more self - confident
are still very much hierarchical; children and youth are
and visible in the school, other children experience
the most marginalised sections of society; their effective
repeated disappointment and progress through school
participation depends largely on the extent to which
with a constant longing for recognition and peer
they are given the opportunity to organise themselves.
approval. Excellence and ability may be singled out for
Coming together gives them visibility, strength and a
appreciation, but at the same time opportunities need
collective voice. The participation of individual,
to be given to all children and their specific abilities
‘hand-picked’ children or youth is fraught with
need to be recognised and appreciated.
discrimination, and is ineffective because such
This includes children with disabilities, who may
‘representatives’ represent no one but themselves; it
need assistance or more time to complete their assigned
excludes the less vocal and less visible; and it gives more
tasks. It would be even better if, while planning for
room for manipulation.
such activities, the teacher discusses them with all the
On the other hand, the organised participation
children in the class, and ensures that each child is given
of children and youth, especially the more
an opportunity to contribute. When planning, therefore,
disadvantaged children, gives children strength, access
teachers must pay special attention to ensuring the
to more information, confidence, an identity and participation of all. This would become a marker of
ownership. Individual children or youth representing their effectiveness as teachers.
such groups voice the views and aspirations of the Excessive emphasis on competitiveness and
collective. Their coming together also enables them to individual achievement is beginning to mark many
find collective ways to solve problems. However, what of our schools, especially private schools catering
needs to be ensured is that all children and youth have to the urban middle classes. Very often, as soon as
an equal right to participate in the development of this children join, houses are allocated to them.
collective voice. Thereafter, almost every activity in the school is
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counted for marks that go into house points, things arising from the fear of failure, doing less well
adding up to an end-of-the-year prize. Such ‘house in examinations, and of losing their ranks. It is important
loyalties’ seem to have the superficial effect of to allow making errors and mistakes to remain an
getting all children involved and excited about integral part of the learning process and remove the
winning points for their houses, but also distorts fear of not achieving ‘full marks’. The school needs to
educational aims, where excessive competitiveness send out a strong signal to the community, parents who
promotes doing better than someone else as an pressurise children from an early age to be perfectionists.
aim, rather than excelling on one’s own terms and Instead of spending time in tuitions or at home
for the satisfaction of doing something well. Often learning the ‘perfect answers’, parents need to encourage
placed under the monitoring eye of other children, their children to spend their time reading storybooks,
this system distorts social relations within schools, playing and doing a reasonable amount of homework
adversely affecting peer relations and undermining and revision. Instead of looking for courses on stress
values such as cooperation and sensitivity to others. management for their pupils, school heads and school
Teachers need to reflect on the extent to which managements need to de-stress their curricula, and
they want the spirit of competition to enter into advise parents to de-stress children’s life outside the
and permeate every aspect of school life— school.
performing more of a function in regulating and Schools that emphasise intense competitiveness
disciplining than in nurturing learning and interest. must not be treated as examples by others, including
Schools also undermine the diverse capabilities state-run schools. The ideal of common schooling
and talents of children by categorising them very early, advocated by the Kothari Commission four decades
on narrow cognitive criteria. Instead of relating to each ago continues to be valid as it reflects the values
child as an individual, early in their lives children are enshrined in our Constitution. Schools will succeed in
placed on cognitive berths in the classroom: the ‘stars’, inculcating these values only if they create an ethos in
the average, the below - average, and the ‘failures’. Most which every child feels happy and relaxed. This ideal is
often they never have a chance to get off their berth even more relevant now because education has become
by themselves. The demonising effect of such labelling a fundamental right, which implies that millions of
is devastating on children. Schools go to absurd lengths first-generation learners are being enrolled in schools .
to make children internalise these labels, through verbal To retain them, the system — including its private
name calling such as ‘dullard’, segregating them in seating sector — must recognise that there are many children
arrangements, and even creating markers that visually that no single norm of capacity, personality or
divide children into achievers and those who are unable aspiration can serve in the emerging scenario. School
to perform. The fear of not having the right answer administrators and teachers should also realise that
keeps many children silent in the classroom, thus denying when boys and girls from different socio-economic
them an equal opportunity to participate and learn. and cultural backgrounds and different levels of ability
Equally paralysed by the fear of failure are the so- study together, the classroom ethos is enriched and
called achievers, who lose their capacity to try out new becomes more inspiring.
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4.4 DISCIPLINE AND PARTICIPATORY our aims of education. For instance, rules such as the
MANAGEMENT length of socks and the whiteness of sports shoes are
The pupils ‘own’ the school as much as the teachers of no educationally defensible importance. Rules
and headmasters, especially in government schools. regarding maintaining silence in classrooms, answering
There is a relationship of interdependency between ‘one at a time’, and answering only if you know the
the teacher and the pupils, especially in this era where right answer, can undermine the values of equality and
learning transaction is based on access to information, equal opportunity. Such rules may also discourage
and knowledge creation is based on a foundation of processes that are integral to children’s learning, the
resources of which the teacher is the pivot. One cannot development of a sense of community among peers,
function without the other. Educational transaction has though they may make the class ‘easy to manage’ for
to shift from the benefactor (teacher) and the the teacher and facilitate ‘covering the syllabus’.
beneficiary (pupil) to a motivator and facilitator and Inculcating the value/habit of self-discipline is
learner, all of whom have rights and responsibilities in important for the systematic pursuit of learning and
ensuring that educational transaction takes place. the development of the child’s interests and potential.
At present, school rules, norms and conventions Discipline must enable the performance of, and be
define permitted ‘good’ and ‘proper’ behaviour for conducive to, the task at hand. It should enable freedom,
individual and groups of students. Maintaining discipline choice and autonomy for both teacher and child. It is
in schools is usually the prerogative of teachers and necessary to involve children themselves in evolving
adults in positions of authority (often the sports master rules, so that they understand the rationale behind a
and administrators). Frequently, they also induct children rule, and feel a sense of responsibility in ensuring that it
as ‘monitors’ and ‘prefects’ and delegate the is followed. In this way they would also learn the
responsibility of maintaining ‘order’ and ensuring process of setting codes of self-governance and the
control. Punishment and reward play an important role skills required to participate in decision making and
in this. Those who implement rarely question the rules, democratic functioning. Similarly, the children
or the implications that ensuring compliance may have themselves could also evolve mechanisms for conflict
for children’s overall development, self-esteem and also resolution between teachers and students, and among
their interest in learning. Forms of disciplining such as students. The teacher should ensure that there are as
corporal punishment and, verbal and non-verbal abuse few rules as possible, and that only rules that can be
of children, continue to feature in many schools, and reasonably followed are created. It does no one any
are used to humiliate children in front of their peers. good to humiliate children for breaking rules,
Yet many teachers and even parents still believe that particularly when there are good reasons for the rule
such punishment is important, unaware of the being broken. For instance, ‘noisy classrooms’ are
immediate and long-term detrimental effects of these frowned upon by teachers as well as headmasters, but
practices. It is important for teachers to reflect on the it is possible that rather than the noise being evidence
rationale that underlies the rules and conventions that of the teacher not being in control, it may be evidence
govern schools, and whether these are consistent with of a lively and participatory class.
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Similarly, headmasters can be unreasonably strict influencing the curricular process. Parents and
about punctuality. A child who is late for an examination community members could come into the school as
on account of a traffic jam must not be penalised, and resource persons to share their knowledge and
yet we find such rules being imposed in the name of experiences in relation to a particular topic being studied.
higher values. Unreasonableness on the part of For example, for a lesson on machines, local mechanics
authorities in such matters can demoralise children, their could talk about sharing their experiences on repairing
parents, and also teachers. It may help to remember to and also talk about how they learnt to repair vehicles.
first ask a child why he or she broke a rule, to listen to 1. The participation of the community in the child’s
what the child says, and act accordingly. It is befitting a world of education and learning should allow for
school head or teacher to exercise authority rather than the community to:
power. Arbitrariness and unreasonableness are a. Transfer oral history ( dealing with folklore,
characteristics of power, and are feared, not respected. migration, environmental degradation, traders,
Systems for the participatory management of the settlers, etc.) and traditional knowledge (sowing
school by children and schoolteachers and and harvesting, monsoons, processes related
administrators need to be evolved. Children should be to traditional crafts, etc.) to children, while the
encouraged to elect their own representatives to school encourages critical reflection wherever
children’s councils, and similarly the teachers and it is required
administrators of a given school need to be organised b. Influence the content of subjects and add local,
themselves, so also the parents. practical, and appropriate examples
c. Support children in their exploration and
4.5 SPACE FOR PARENTS AND THE COMMUNITY creation of knowledge and information
The school is a structured space for guided learning, but d. Support children in their practise of
the process of constructing knowledge is a continuous democracy through their participation in
one, which goes on even outside the school. If learning information generation, planning, monitoring
is continuous, and takes place in arenas other than the and evaluation with local governments and
school, such as home, the workplace, the community, schools
etc., then school assignments or homework should be e. Monitor the realisation of children’s rights as
planned differently. It need not depend on parents well as violations of these rights
reinforcing what the school has already done. It could f. Participate in addressing the constraints faced
set different kinds of activities for children to do, on by children
their own or with their parents. This could also provide g. Participate in setting criteria for vocational
opportunities for parents to understand a little more training
about what their child is learning in the school and give h. Enable the village to become a learning
children the initial impetus to explore and recognise the environment for children realising the concept
world outside the school as an arena for learning. of the ‘village as a school’.
Schools could also invite the community into their Similarly, while helping children to use their home
premises, and give the larger world outside a role in language and make a transition to the school language,
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teachers may seek inputs from local language speakers not mean the economic burdening of poor families.
to facilitate communication in the mother tongue(s), On the other hand, there can be an understanding that
teaching of languages and creating material. The choice school space can be shared with the community for
would depend upon the particular curricular plan local events and that there will be some collective
adopted and the kinds of expertise that are available responsibility in maintaining its premises.
and accessible. The school must explore opportunities
for active engagement by parents and the community 4.6 C URRICULUM S ITES AND L EARNING
in the process of learning. This relationship will help in
RESOURCES
sharing the content and pedagogy of institutionalised 4.6.1 Texts and Books
learning. Popular perception treats the textbook as the prime
All schools need to look for ways in which site for curriculum designing. Though curriculum
parental participation and involvement can be planning is a much wider process, curriculum reform
encouraged and sustained. Many schools do not treat seldom goes beyond changing the textbook. Improved
parents’ questions and concerns regarding the activities textbooks that are carefully written and designed,
of the school as valid questions. Frequently, private professionally edited and tested, offering not merely
schools turn parents into mere consumers and ask them factual information but also interactive spaces for
to take away their wards if they do not like something children are important. But curricular reform can go
that the school is doing. Others treat poor parents as much farther if textbooks are accompanied by several
not having any legitimate stand when they come to other kinds of materials. Subject dictionaries, for
make enquiries about their wards. Both types of instance, can relieve the main textbook from becoming
attitudes are disrespectful of parents and their legitimate encyclopaedic, burdened by carrying definitions of
concern for their children. technical terms, and instead allow the teacher to focus
Overall, in order to make the school environment on understanding concepts. The triangular relationship
supportive of children, and to strengthen the between high-speed classroom teaching, heavy
relationship of the school with parents and the local homework and private tuition, which is a major source
community, there are institutionalised structures such of stress, can be weakened if textbook writers focus
as parent-teacher associations, local - level committees, on elaboration of concepts, activities, spaces for
and also alumni associations in some schools. In events wondering about problems, exercises encouraging
held to celebrate national festivals and other occasions reflective thinking and small-group work, leaving the
such as cultural day and sports day, most schools invite definition of technical terms to a subject dictionary.
parents to participate. By inviting alumni and local Supplementary books, workbooks, and extra
residents also, the importance of the school as a reading come next. In certain subjects, such as
community site can increase. Community involvement languages, the importance of such material needs no
can also be sought for maintaining the school and its fresh recognition, but the concept of such material does
facilities. There are examples of local contributions for call for fresh thinking. Current textbooks contain
building school boundary walls, augmenting facilities, uninteresting content covering different genres, and
and so on. However, community participation must workbooks simply repeat exercises of the type already
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found in textbooks. In mathematics, and the natural of resource materials, audio and video materials and
and social sciences, such supplementary materials still sites on the Internet. These would provide tips for
need to be developed. Such books could draw teachers, which they could use for lesson planning. Such
children’s attention away from the text to the world source books need to be available during in - service
around them. Indeed, for subjects like art, workbooks training of teachers and during meetings when they
may form the main classroom material. There are plan their teaching units.
fine examples of such materials produced for the study Vertically organised group classrooms (multigrade
of the environment, introducing children to the or multiability) require a shift away from textbooks
observation of trees, birds and the natural habitat. designed for monograde classrooms, which assume
Such resources need to become available to the teacher that all children are being addressed by the teacher
and for use in the classroom. together and that they are all at the same stage and are all
Atlases have a similar role to play in enriching expected to do the same thing. Instead, there is a need
the child’s understanding of the earth, both as a natural for alternative types of materials to be made available
and as a human habitat. Atlases of stars, flora and fauna,
to teachers as a basis of planning lessons and units:
people and life patterns, history and culture, etc. can
• Thematic lesson with a variety of exercises and
greatly enlarge the scope of geography, history and
activities at different levels for different groups.
economics at all levels. Posters on these areas of
• Graded self - access materials that children can
knowledge, as well as other matters of concern on
engage with on their own with minimum
which general awareness needs to be promoted, can
scaffolding from the teacher, allowing them to
also enhance learning. Some of these concerns include
work on their own or with other children.
gender bias, inclusion of children with special needs,
• Whole - group activity plans, say, storytelling or
and Constitutional values. Such material could be
performing a small drama, based on which
available in a resource library and at the cluster level to
be borrowed by schools for use, or they could be children can do different activities. For example,
placed in the school library, or made available by all children from Classes I to V may enact the
teachers. folk story of the rabbit and the lion together,
Manuals and resources for teachers are just as and after this Groups I and II may work with
important as textbooks. Any move to introduce a new flashcards with the names of various animals;
set of textbooks or a new kind of textbook should Group III and IV may make a series of
include the preparation of handbooks for teachers. drawings and then write out the story against
These handbooks should reach principals and teachers each drawing, working in small groups; and
before the new textbooks do. Teachers' handbooks Group V may rewrite the story, suggesting
can be designed in many different ways. They need not alternative endings to it. Without the support
cover the content of the textbook chapter-wise, though of appropriate materials, most teachers find
that can be one of the approaches. Other formats can themselves trying to juggle monograde class
be equally valid: offering a critique of established groups, with the result that for the majority of
methods and suggesting new ones, and including lists children, time on the task becomes very low.
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4.6.2 Libraries
School libraries have been a subject of policy Libraries
recommendations for a long time, but a functioning
One period a week to be devoted to library reading.
library in the school continues to be a rarity. It is During this time, children sit and read silently in the
important that future planning treats the library as an library. They return the books borrowed the previous
essential component of the school at all levels. Both week and borrow new ones.
teachers and children need to be motivated and trained
If there is no library room, the teacher can bring out
to use the library as a resource for learning, pleasure, books appropriate to the age group and allow children
and concentration. The school library should be to choose from the set. It is important to let the child
conceptualised as an intellectual space where teachers, choose rather than having the teacher distribute the
children and members of the community can expect books.
to find the means to deepen their knowledge and
Library books can be brought into the language class.
imagination. A system of cataloguing books and other
materials available in the library needs to be developed For class projects, children can be asked to look up a
so that children can become self-reliant library users. reference in the library.
Apart from books and magazines, a school library Children can be asked to write about the book they
should provide access to the new information have read that week during the language class.
technology to enable children and teachers to connect
Children can be asked to share a story they have read
with the wider world. In the initial stages of planning,
with the other children in class.
block-level or cluster-level libraries can be set up. In
the future, India must move towards equipping every
The school library should be kept open
school, irrespective of its level, with a library. In many during vacations.
parts of the country, community libraries are
functioning in rural areas, and government libraries exist
in many district headquarters. Futuristic planning would Training of teachers in library management and use is
require the amalgamation of such structures in a school required to meet the demands of this situation. Where
library network in order to maximise the use of the size of the school building permits a separate room
resources. The Raja Ram Mohan Roy Library for the library, it is important to pay attention to creating
Foundation can be given additional resources to act as a positive ethos in this space by providing good lighting
a nodal agency for conceptualising a library network and seating arrangements. It should even be possible
for schools and for monitoring it after it has been for a teacher to conduct a class in the library by drawing
created. upon its resources. It could also serve as a place for
In the day-to-day life of a school, the library can holding discussions, watching a craftsman from the
serve many different kinds of purposes. Restricting community giving a demonstration, or listening to a
the use of the library to one period a week seldom storyteller. Creating such resource libraries to support
allows children to cultivate a taste for reading. Facilities teachers at the cluster and block levels will complement
are to be provided to allow children to borrow books. and strengthen curriculum renewal. Each block could
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specialise in a subject area so that together there are way, can lay the foundation for far better utilisation of
adequate resources in the district. the country’s enormous ET facilities. Interactive,
Net - enabled computers, rather than only CD-based
4.6.3 Educational Technology computer usage, would facilitate a meaningful
The significance of Educational Technology (ET) as a integration of computers and enhance the school
site for curriculum planning has been widely recognised, curriculum in rural and remote areas by increasing
but detailed guidelines and strategies for its educationally connectivity and enhancing access to ideas and
optimum use have not yet been worked out. Generally, information. It is such two-way interactivity rather than
technology has been used as a medium to disseminate one-way reception that would make technology
information, and as a way of addressing the scarcity educational.
of good teachers—usually Rather than trying to
the consequence of poor reproduce and mimic
recruitment policies. For primary school children, video simulations and classroom situations, or
demonstrations cannot substitute for hands-on teaching the textbook
ET, which is used to
experiences and learning.
redress the problem content, or animating lab
of quality of teaching, can experiments, ET could
only exacerbate the disillusionment of teachers with realise far better potential if topics are taken up but
teaching. If ET is to become a means of enhancing developed into non-didactic explorations, leaving
curricular reform, it must treat the majority of teachers learners free to relate to the knowledge web
and children not merely as consumers but also as active progressively, and learn at their own levels of interest.
producers. There must be widespread consultation Such access to knowledge in regional languages is still
regarding use during development and implementation. very limited, and is one of the main reasons for the
ET facilities need to be used at all levels of schools — persistent and growing divide between learners from
cluster and block resource centres, district, state and urban and rural schools, and learners from regional -
national level institutions — in order to provide hands- language and English - medium schools. The potential
on experience in using ET. Such experiences provided of such encyclopaedias and documentaries for children
to children, teachers and teacher educators, could is still underdeveloped. Materials such as textbooks,
include something as simple as the audio-recording of workbooks and handbooks for teachers can be
an interview with a village elder, to making a video designed with the awareness of existing stocks of
film or a video game. Providing children more direct good-quality audio or video material and sites where
access to multimedia equipment and Information extra resources are available on the Net. Classics of
Communication Technology (ICT), and allowing them cinema need to be made accessible through such
to mix and make their own productions and to present measures. For instance, a child studying about village
their own experiences, could provide them with new life should have easy access to Satyajit Ray’s classic,
opportunities to explore their own creative imagination. Pather Panchali, either as a CD to be borrowed from
Such an experience of ET production, rather than the CRC or to be viewed on a nationally managed
only watching and listening to programmes in a passive website. Future textbooks need to be conceptualised
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and designed in ways that might integrate knowledge also learning to take care of and maintain them, are
in different subjects and experiences, thus facilitating invaluable experiences for all children. Investment in
the assimilation of knowledge. For instance, a middle training of the child’s senses and faculties with the help
- school textbook that discusses the history of Rajasthan of the arts plays a vital role in strengthening literacy
and mentions Meera should be able to offer the text and developing a culture of peace.
of a bhajan composed by her, and also refer to a Schools, particularly those in rural areas, are poorly
source where that bhajan has been archived, so that equipped with science labs, or equipment for
children can listen to M.S. Subbulakshmi singing it. mathematical activities. The absence of such facilities
Integration of knowledge and experience along drastically narrows subject options for children, denying
these lines would take away the sense of burden and them equal opportunities for learning and future life
boredom that our present-day education induces. In chances. It is hence important that resources are made
science and mathematics, and in teaching children with available for laboratories with adequate facilities in
disabilities, the potential of ET, including IT, is widely schools. While elementary schools can benefit from a
appreciated. It is important to realise this potential in science and mathematics corner, secondary and higher
achieving curricular goals, with more age-specific secondary schools require well-equipped laboratories.
planning on the use of ET. Governments and other
agencies responsible for financial planning need to take 4.6.5 Other Sites and Spaces
this fuller range of ET’s demands and benefits. Sites of curriculum that are physically located outside
the school premises are just as important as the ones
4.6.4 Tools and Laboratories
discussed so far. These are sites like local monuments
Equipping the school with tools that are necessary for and museums, natural physical features such as rivers
art and craft work is an imperative. These curricular and hills, everyday spaces such as marketplaces and
areas can contribute to achieving the aim of making post offices. The teacher’s ability to plan the school
the school space a creative space, only if we can schedule in a manner that permits imaginative use of
mindfully plan for resources. The heritage crafts require, such resources directly affects the quality of education
in their weekly or fortnightly cycles of routine, tools that children might receive at a school. Restriction of
and instruments such as looms, lathes, scissors and classroom activities to what is written in the textbook
embroidery frames, depending on the craft. It is implies a serious impediment to the growth of
important not to let this sector of curricular planning children’s interests and capabilities. Quite a few such
suffer from gender or caste bias, or else one of its key impediments result from the rigid observation of the
promises will be lost, namely, the promise of promoting school’s daily or annual routine. The night sky is not
a culture of active engagement with one’s material and available for the study of stars simply because the school
human environment, with imagination and cooperation. does not open its gates or allow access to its roof at
The same is true for the arts, which in addition to being night. Watching the setting sun or observing the arrival
integrated into other curricular areas would also need of the monsoon in June fall outside the school’s
specialised materials and tools. The opportunity to timetable. Exchange visits between schools in different
handle tools and acquire dexterity in using them, and parts of the country, and even the neighbouring SAARC
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countries, could become important ways of promoting

mutual understanding. Any experience that the teacher regards as necessary
Teachers and educational administrators would for the child’s development is curricular, irrespective of
have to join hands to release the system from such how or whereit is organised. This reconceptualisation
of the curriculum can be accomplished only if it receives
rigidities. In addition, syllabus makers and the writers
the understanding, support and acceptance of official
of textbooks and teachers, handbooks would also authorities.
have to get into the details of the planning of learning
activities, which would widen the scope of the
curriculum. This would require breaking away from
the mindset that excursions and activities related to the been of an ad-hoc character and that the curriculum
arts and crafts are ‘extra-curricular’. is prepared at the state level and prescribed uniformly
for all schools. Such procedures undermine the agency
4.6.6 Need for Plurality and Alternative Materials of teachers and head teachers, and render the spirit
The pluralistic and diverse nature of Indian society of exploration and innovation impossible. The Report
definitely makes a strong case for preparing a variety categorically stated that basic to the success of any
of not only textbooks but also other materials, so as attempt at curriculum improvement is the preparation
to promote children’s creativity, participation and of suitable textbooks, teachers, guides and other kinds
interest, thereby enhancing their learning. No one of learning resources.
textbook can cater to the diverse needs of different
4.6.7 Organising and Pooling Resources
groups of students. Further, the same content/
concept can be taught in different ways. Schools, Teaching aids and other materials, as well as books,
government or private, could have the choice of toys and games, help make school interesting for
textbooks to follow for different subjects. Boards children. In some states of the country, good use has
or textbook bureaus could consider developing more been made of the funding assistance through DPEP
than one series of books, or even endorsing books and other programmes for acquiring and developing
published by other publishers, and allowing schools teaching-learning materials. A lot of ready-made
to choose from a range. As far back as 1953, the materials do exist, and teachers, cluster and
Report of the Secondary Education Commission block - level resource persons need to become better
made a number of recommendations for removing acquainted with the range of materials available and
the defects in textbooks, wherein it was pointed out ways of using them. There are also many new kinds
that: “No single textbook should be prescribed for of printed materials for teachers and children being
any subject of study, but a reasonable number of produced by NGOs and small entrepreneurs. In
books which satisfy the standards laid down should addition, there are locally available materials that cost
be recommended, leaving the choice to the school little but which are very useful for keeping in a
concerned”. In its section on the Essentials for classroom, especially in the primary school grads.
Curricula Development, the Kothari Commission Teachers need to explore various types of raw materials
Report emphasised that the curricular revision had that can be used to make teaching aids that will last
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year after year, so that the precious time they invest in plan if the materials he/she introduces into the
making these things is put to good use. Styrofoam and classroom are for the purpose of demonstration. If
cardboard are neither strong enough nor attractive for an activity is being planned, then there must be enough
this purpose. Other materials such as rexine, rubber sets for everyone in the class to use, individually or in
and cloth are interesting alternatives. small groups. If only one child is able to handle
Other kinds of resource materials, such as maps materials while all the others watch, it is a waste of
and picture folders, and specific equipments could be learning time.
shared among schools if they are placed in the cluster Laboratories have always been talked about as
centre, which can then serve as a resource library so a part of science teaching in middle and high school.
that for the period of teaching the teacher borrows Yet these are still not available on the scale required.
materials from the cluster and thereafter returns them As a part of the effort to provide all children with the
to the cluster to enable some other teachers to borrow necessary hands - on experience of equipment and
them. In this way, the resources gathered by one teacher experiments given in their science curriculum, at least
can also be utilised by others, and it would become at the cluster level, the resource centre may serve as a
possible to have multiple sets necessary for the whole clusterlab. Schools in the cluster could plan their
class to use. timetable so that for half a day, once a week, their
The availability of such resources depends on science lab class is held at the cluster - level lab. Craft
the funds available and the member of schools that labs too could be developed at least at the cluster or
need assistance. How can the school build such block levels in order to facilitate access to better
resources? Some government programmes, for equipment.
instance, Operation Blackboard, have laid down In engendering a culture of learning, not only the
norms for the minimum materials that should be classroom but also in the space of the school itself and
available in each Primary and Upper Primary school. the world outside, the school could become the landscape
Similarly, there are new schemes that allow for cycles in which a range of activities are organised. Teachers can
and toys to be purchased for a cluster of schools. devise activities, projects and studies, both drawing from
Schools could benefit from these opportunities, and textbooks and going beyond them, to encourage children
also explore the possibilities that are available at the to explore, investigate and construct knowledge.
local level for augmenting their teaching-learning and
play material. There is a growing emphasis on
4.7 TIME
Educational Technology for ‘effective’ learning. Some Earlier documents have all included a section on
schools are now being equipped with computers, and recommendations on instructional time. Important
in some areas radio and TV-based instruction is being concerns that we endorse from earlier documents
introduced. include the need for the system to ensure that the total
Ultimately, the use of such materials requires number of instructional days are not compromised,
planning if it is to be effective and become a part of and that the total number of days for the curriculum
the overall plan to enhance participation and should be 200 days as recommended in NCF-1988.
understanding. Teachers would need to prepare and Within this, we suggest ways in which we can work
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out possibilities and methods for enriching the total

time spent by each child in school from the point of The concept of time on task is an essential
view of learning. reckoner for taking stock of the total time that
The school annual calendar is currently decided at childrenspendactively onlearning.Thiswouldinclude
the state level. Several suggestions have been made in time spent on listening, reading, writing, doing
the past that the annual calendar could be planned at a activities, discussing, etc. It would not include waiting
more decentralised level, so that it is closer to the calendar for one’s turn, copying from the board or revising.
of local activities and climate/weather. The plan for Particularly in multigrade classes, planning and
such calendars could be decentralised to the district level, designing of learning activities for children need to
and decided in consultation with the zilla panchayats. ensure that children’s time on task is maximised.
Considerations for making any required
Total study time that is expected from students
changes could be based on local weather conditions.
in both face-to-face and self - study or homework
For example, where monsoons are very heavy and needs to be accounted for while planning the syllabus
areas are prone to flooding, it is better for schools or course of study for students, especially as they go
to remain closed and have a vacation period at that into higher grades.
time. Parents in some areas ask schools to function
during summer months as it is too hot to go out Total homework time
even to play. There are also areas where parents Primary: No homework up to Class II and two
would prefer that the vacation coincides with at the hours a week from Class III.
time of harvest so that children can participate in
Middle school: One hour a day (about five to six
the family occupation. Such adjustments would
hours a week).
permit children to learn from the world in which
they live which by acquiring important lifeskills and Secondary and Higher Secondary: Two hours a day
attitudes, instead of forgoing their lives in the local (about 10 to 12 hours a week). Teachers need to
community and becoming alienated from it for the work together to plan and rationalise the amount of
sake of attending school. Local holidays could be homework that they give children.
decided at the block level. The scheduling of various
school events would need to be planned by all school
faculty together, along with inputs from the village/ cultural practices that are discriminatory or stereotype
school education committee. Thematic learning children along the lines of gender, religion or caste.
across the school grades and excursions would also It also could lend itself to children getting drawn
need to be planned in advance. into child labour. Children have a right to leisure
Needless to say, we need to safeguard against and to play, and have time for themselves. Some
the misuse of such flexibility. Not all communities local traditions and cultures are supportive of such
are benign spaces for children. It would go against a childhood, others less so. Often girls are burdened
the educational aims of the school if the community from an early age with domestic chores. Increasingly
takes advantage of such flexibility to perpetuate children are under great pressure to study, and are
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placed in tuition classes before and after school, and three hours for the ECCE period). Where teachers
hence they get little time to play. Schools must and children travel to school from a far - off place, it
engage with children’s families and their communities would befit the overall societal concern for children if
in a continuous dialogue to argue for and protect bus timings are changed to enable teachers and students
these rights of children. to reach the school and leave at a convenient time,
The timings of the school day could be decided instead of compelling them to routinely come late and
at each school level, in consultation with the gram leave early.
panchayat, keeping in mind issues such as how far The school day, week, month, term and year need
children need to travel to get to school. This flexibility to be planned for as a mixture of routine and
is suggested only in order to facilitate children’s variation, as children need a little of both, and the
participation in school. While saying this, we strongly kinds of learning we would like them to experience
maintain that the time spent in school itself, and on have different requirements. We share some
learning in the school, cannot be in any way organisational ideas that could form the basis for
compromised or reduced below six hours a day (and planning and enriching children’s time spent in school,
and also some aspects that relate to institutional
arrangements for the same.
Morning Assembly In most schools, the day begins with a morning
The day begins with teachers and children getting the assembly, when the entire school gathers to do things
school and class rooms ready for the day ahead. together. This time can be used for reading the
Cleaning the rooms, including the toilets, putting up headlines of the morning newspaper, performing
display boards in the classrooms, organising materials some physical exercises and singing the national
and getting equipment, all these activities conveys a anthem. Other activities could also be added, for
sense of ownership among students and teachers and example, singing together, or listening to a story, or
foster a sense of responsibility towards the material inviting a person from the local community or an
and space they use. This also gives them time to talk outside guest to speak to the children, or hold small
to each other and catch up on the events of the previous events to mark some significant local or national
day. This reduces the need for such talk during class happening. Classes that have undertaken some
time. interesting projects could also use this time to share
During the general assembly, everybody sits together, their work with the whole school. If not everyday,
not according to their classes or in lines, but younger such longer morning assemblies could be planned
once or twice a week. In composite schools,
ones in front and older ones behind. One day a week
depending on the theme, a junior school assembly
they listen to an inspiring story. On another day
and a senior school assembly could be held separately.
they listen to music, a guest talk, or share a moving
News headlines that are significant, for example, the
experience, read out and discuss an interesting report
bus journey to Muzaffarabad, could provide a theme
from the newspaper. Then everyone goes to class.
for a special session on that day, and be woven into
the curriculum.
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In most documents, a period has been presented headmaster and teacher. Even when there is curricular
as a basic unit of 45 minutes of teaching-learning in freedom, teachers do not feel confident that they can
the timetable. Frequently, however, this is compromised exercise it without being taken to task by the
into 30 to 35 minutes, which cannot constitute a administration for doing things differently. It is therefore
meaningful length to engage with learning. A period essential to enable and support them in exercising choice.
can, in general, serve as an organisational unit for many As much as the classroom needs to nurture a
text-based lessons. democratic, flexible and accepting culture, so also the
But there is also a need for the school timetable school institution and the bureaucratic structure need
to allow for other kinds of longer periods lasting an to do the same. Not only should the teacher receive
hour, or one and a half hours (a double period), for orders and information, but equally the voice of the
other kinds of activities such as craft or art work, teacher should be heard by those higher up, who often
projects, and lab work. Such lengths of time are also take decisions that affect the immediate classroom life
essential for undertaking cross-subject integrated and culture in the school. Relationships between teachers
learning, and for effective group work. Needless to and their heads and principals must be informed by
say, in a multigrade class situation, the teacher needs a equality and mutual respect, and decision making must
more flexible way of planning for children’s learning be on the basis of dialogue and discussion. The annual,
time in sessions that are teacher led, those that are monthly and weekly calendars of activities need to
self-directed, those in which two or more grades could provide time for such staff interactions for reviewing
be combined, etc. While certain subject areas such as
and planing. There is a need to encourage an
language and mathematics need learning time everyday,
atmosphere that facilitates collaborative efforts among
others do not. The weekly time table could allow for
teachers. There must also be mechanisms for conflict
variation from the regular routine but should be
resolution.
balanced over the week. It is essential to take stock of
Often technologies such as radio and TV are
the time spent in learning different subject areas and to
introduced into their classrooms without consulting
introduce corrections if the teacher finds that more or
teachers on whether they would like to have these and
less time is being spent or is needed, than originally
what they would like these to do for them. Once
foreseen/planned.
these there in the classroom, teachers are expected to
4.8 TEACHER’S AUTONOMY AND PROFESSIONAL use them, when they have no control over what will be
INDEPENDENCE delivered, or how it will integrate with their own
Teacher autonomy is essential for ensuring a learning teaching plans.
environment that addresses children’s diverse needs.
4.8.1 Time for Reflection and Planning
As much as the learner requires space, freedom,
flexibility, and respect, the teacher also requires the • On a daily basis (at least 45 minutes) to review
same. Currently, the system of administrative hierarchies the day, make notes on children to follow up
and control, examinations, and centralised planning for the next day, and organise materials for the
curriculum reform, all constrain the autonomy of the next day's lessons (this is in addition to the
 99

time that they may need to correct

homework). Topic plan for the week: Machines
• On a weekly basis (at least two/three hours) (middle school, inclusive Classes V-VI)
to take stock of learning, to work out details Class I: Game. When I say the word, write down all
of activities and projects proposed, and to the things that come to your mind. Then (pairs or
groups) discuss the list. Categorise these machines based
plan a group of lessons (unit) for the coming upon some similarities.
week.
Think of some other way of categorising these and
• On a monthly/term basis (minimum of one reclassifying them. Children to volunteer to make charts
day) to review their own work, children’s of machines of different types, to collect pictures and/
or make drawings and paste them.
learning, and map the contours of the learning
activities planned for the groups they teach. Class II: Write down as many questions about
machines as you would like to find answers to. Check
• At the beginning and the end of the year, those to which you already know the answers as well as
two or three days each need to be allocated those that you don’t.

to evolve an annual plan for the school, in Teacher visits each child, and suggests to him/her how
which they locate activities such as local he/she can find answers by referring to particular books
or other sources, including talking to people.
holidays, annual events (national events,
sports days, cultural events) and days for Children think about questions for homework: “Which
is the ‘best’ machine you know? Give reasons why you
parent-teacher meetings that would involve think it is so good.” This question is to be discussed at
the whole school. They would also plan home with parents, siblings and friends.
excursions and field trips for their class Class III: Children discuss their homework question.
groups, and for any projects that two or more They continue to seek answers to the questions from
classes would do together. They would also students in Class III, and show their work to the
teacher. Teacher also asks if anyone knows a poem
be involved in activities of preparing the about a machine, and if not, he/she teaches them
school and class environment, putting up and
( she must come prepared).
changing posters and displays, organising
children’s work, etc. Such planning time is Class IV: Now read the chapter on machines in the
textbook. See what more we can learn about machines
also essential for the school to review its
from it. Answer the questions that follow.
relationship with the community, and identify
Class V: Children make a ‘tipper truck’ toy, following
points of focused action in the year such as
the instructions in a reference book. Materials have
enrolment, retention, school attendance and already been collected and are available in the classroom.
school achievement. Or the teacher can provide a list at the end of Class
IV and ask the children to come prepared.
• Current in-service training-related time
allocation (compulsory 20 days per year) Class VI: Time to catch up and complete the work.
Topic ends with the teacher asking children to put down
could be partly diverted towards making any additional questions that they want to explore for
time available for such reviewing, reflecting themselves after the class.
and planning.
100

• Monthly meetings organised for teachers at

Extending this topic for children in the cluster level could be based on groups
inclusive Classes VII – VIII
of teachers teaching similar subjects and
Science: Can anyone explain what a machine is?
grade levels, so that they can share ideas and
Do not give examples, but an explanation. Let’s now
plan teaching for the forthcoming month
refer to a dictionary, and write the meaning on the
blackboard. Next let’s check a science textbook or together.
science dictionary. Compare the two meanings. Is there
a difference? Which definition is easier to understand,
or which do you think is more precise? Can we now also
differentiate between a tool, an instrument and a
machine?

Social Studies: Who would like to find out when

the first printing press, telephone, bulb, automobile,
radio/television, wheel- chair, hearing aid, cooking gas
and stove, sewing machine, refrigerator, and computer
were made, by whom, and in which country. Let’s try
to imagine, and later find out, how people lived before
the invention of a particular machine or tool or
instrument. What would it mean not to have that
machine in everyday life? What could be used instead?

Discussion topic: Are there mre machines invented

for work used by (i) the privileged sections or the
underprivileged, (ii) women, or (iii) men. Explain why.
Who uses machines more—men or women?

English: Essay topics: A machine that changed my

life (hearing aid, wheel - chair or any other). Or the
machine I would like to buy and why.

Projects: Machines that changed our lives—positive,

negative. Machines that we have/don’t have, and how
they affect our lives in terms of time, ease/convenience,
cost? OR Can you visualise how a machine (pick
any) might be improved in the future? You can draw or
describe, or design a machine for the future.
OR What considerations go into designing a car,
motorcycle, bullock cart, or wheelchair? How can its
efficiency and aesthetic appeal be enhanced?
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The dimensions of the national framework for school curriculum

that have been outlined in the preceding chapters are derived from
related aims of education with a social conscience, focusing on learners
who are actively engaged with constructing rather than only receiving
knowledge through their individual and collective endeavours. Such a
curricular vision needs to be supported and sustained with systemic
reforms of structures and institutions that nurture practices supportive
of children's inclusion in school and their learning. Important among
these are the system for preparing teachers and supporting their
professional practices through monitoring and academic leadership;
the system for producing textbooks and learning materials;
decentralisation and Panchayati Raj Institutions; work-centred
education and Vocational Education and Training (VET) and the
most important structural feature — the examination system. The
curriculum is realised in the activities planned for by the teachers and
experienced by the children. The school ethos and practices of teachers
depend critically on the architecture of the system. The critical areas
that require attention are identified and discussed hereafter.
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5.1 CONCERN FOR QUALITY system's capacity to reform itself for enhancing its ability
to remedy its own weaknesses and to develop new
Curriculum reforms are at the heart of any wide-
capabilities. The key reforms required in our system
ranging initiative that may be taken to improve the
today are those that will enable it to overcome its
quality of educational provision at different stages. The
internal rigidity and its indifference to changing
prevailing curricular reality needs to be addressed in
circumstances. This challenge is identical to what
the following terms:
POA-l992 had stressed in the need to modernise for
• The tendency to confuse knowledge with
greater flexibility. For curricular and training practices
information must be curbed. This tendency
to remain relevant in a decentralised system, it is
encourages the transfer of topics from higher
necessary to articulate the objectives and methods of
to lower levels.
reform with clarity and precision. The following deserve
• Treatment of children's learning as an isolated
priority:
outcome should be replaced by the application
• Equipping the school for taking decisions at
of developmental norms that assume a holistic
its own level in areas such as purchase of
pattern of growth in motivation and capacity.
material, collaboration with local institutions,
• Productive work needs to be viewed as a
and involvement with other schools in the area,
pedagogic medium for knowledge acquisition,
including private schools.
developing values and multiple-skill formation
• Linkages between primary, upper primary and
from the pre-school to the senior secondary
secondary levels in the processes of syllabus
stages.
designing and textbook preparation.
• Curricular choices have to be made with due • Setting up of structures that enable school
regard to the child's context, ensuring the teachers and subject experts drawn from
flexibility and diversity of the approaches institutions of higher learning to work together
emphasised in NPE-l986 and POA-l992. for syllabus and textbook revision.
• Professionalisation of teaching along the lines • Creation of spaces where local-level
recommended by the Chattopadhyaya representative institutions can work closely with
Commission-l984 should be reflected in teachers to enhance efficiency.
policies governing recruitment, pre-service, and • Cooperation between decision-making bodies
in-service training, and working conditions. and NGOs.
• Educational technology should be viewed as • Encouraging greater communication and
a supplement rather than as a substitute for transparency between different structures and
hands-on experience, both for classroom levels of decision making.
teaching and for teacher training. Quality is not merely a measure of efficiency; it
These recommendations should suffice to indicate also has a value dimension. The attempt to improve
our primary concern, that quality is a systemic attribute the quality of education will succeed only if it goes
rather than only a feature of instruction or attainment. hand in hand with steps to promote equality and social
As an overarching characteristic, quality expresses the justice. Multiplicity of subsystems and types of schools
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tend to have a detrimental effect on the overall quality teacher education, curriculum, and in the procedures
of the education system because the attention of the used for syllabus and textbook preparation.
more articulate sections of society gets passed on a Teacher-education programmes, like B.Ed. and
small fraction of the student population. It is desirable M.Ed. in place today, pay inadequate attention to the
to evolve a common school system to ensure responsibility that a teacher has in constructing a
comparable quality in different regions of the country, classroom culture that might provide an inclusive
which is the goal of this National Curriculum environment for children, especially girls from
Framework, and also ensure that when children of oppressed or marginalised social backgrounds. In
different backgrounds study together, it improves the syllabus designing and textbook writing, the items
overall quality of learning and enriches the school ethos.
showing sensitivity to cultural differences often come
If the curricular vision (flexibility, contextuality and
in as afterthoughts rather than as in-built features of
plurality) articulated in this document forms the basis
the process. The case of gender and special needs is
for developing a common school system, then a
similar. One of the many messages received by NCERT
national system of education where no two schools
in the course of deliberations over the National
will be identical becomes a reality. As an objective of
Curriculum Framework review came from a teenage
curriculum planning, social justice has many obvious
girl, who suggested that specific measures are needed
implications, but there are some subtle implications as
well. One obvious implication is that special efforts to inculcate greater self-awareness among boys
will be required to ensure that education promotes an regarding their behaviour towards girls. Such an idea
inclusive identity. Children belonging to religious and could be extended to cover all aspects of a culturally
linguistic minorities need special provision and care in inclusive classroom and school policy.
accordance with the perspective reflected in the
5.1.1 Academic Planning and Monitoring
Constitution. In the case of tribal languages, certain
for Quality
states have taken significant measures to facilitate early
schooling in the child's home language. A more The current practice of academic planning for school
adequate set of measures providing for multilingual education is largely a 'top down' annual exercise. Its
facility on the part of the teacher is needed. Similarly, focus is on how teaching time should be allocated for
policy measures taken to widen the curricular scope teaching of subject content over the year, and
of madrasa education need to be strengthened. stipulating other activities that will be conducted in
The subtler implications of social justice as an schools. Typically, this is done by SCERTs or the
objective of curriculum policy are more challenging. Directorates/Departments of Education, and
These relate to awareness and capacities, flexibility and presecribed uniformly for all schools in the state. The
imaginative coordination, among syllabus designers, importance of school-level planning was emphasised
textbook writers and teachers. by the Kothari Commission when it underscored the
For education to remain a nurturing experience need for each school to prepare an 'institutional plan'
for all children, irrespective of their socio-economic and evolve a 'development programme spread over a
and cultural backgrounds, concrete steps are needed in period of time'.
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To be meaningful, academic planning has to be responsible for them would then become feasible at
done in a participative manner by heads and teachers. all these levels.
One component of planning will include augmentation
and improvement of the physical resources of the 5.1.2 Academic Leadership in Schools and for
School Monitoring
school. The second is to address the diverse needs of
students and to identify the inputs and academic support The potential role of headmasters in providing academic
that the school needs in order to respond to these needs. leadership to their schools has yet to be adequately
The planning exercise is an important process through realised. At present, they are seen largely as the
which schools can enlist the involvement and support administrative authority within the school, though they
lack the necessary control to exercise this authority, or
of the larger community in the education of children.
even to ensure regular school functioning. Often they
This includes village education committees and other
are equipped with neither the capacity nor the the
statutory bodies. Micro planning, which includes
authority to exercise choice and judgement relating to
village-level mapping of school participation
the school curriculum. Headmasters (and teachers) need
(non-enrolled children, attendance patterns, children with to be able to identify the specific supports that they
special needs, etc.), as well as identification of human require for their schools, articulate their expectations
resources, allows the school to plan on a more realistic regarding the content of training and school visits from
basis for every child. In order to have more the cluster and block personnel, and participate in the
independence at the school level, both at the stage of process of monitoring and supervision. Currently, they
planning and at the stage of implementation, it is are not differentiated enough from teachers with regard
necessary that financial allocations permit greater to their academic roles. The role that the headmasters,
flexibility regarding schemes and norms, and also and indeed the community of headmasters, can play
greater transparency and accountability of budget within a cluster of schools must be highlighted.
allocations and expenditure. Capacity building for this must receive attention.
Schools are now the focus of an increasing number
There is a need to prepare the system to engage
of programmes aimed at enhancing quality and
in more extensive and genuine planning from below,
spreading awareness about societal concerns relating to
rather than only applying the arithmetic of unit costs
the environment, health and so on. Headmasters are often
for programmes determined at the state or national
besieged by the numerous programmes they are called
centres. Only then can 'autonomy' and 'choice' of
upon to conduct and participate in. Programmes often
schools and teachers, as well as the responsibility of lack clarity regarding their objectives and methodology,
the school towards the needs of children, become and their activities tend to overlap. It is important that as
substantive. A broad framework for planning part of the process of school-level planning, they should
upwards, beginning with schools identifying focus areas, be able to participate in decisions about the programmes
with subsequent consolidation at the cluster and block they need and how they should be integrated into regular
levels, could create a genuinely decentralised district- school activities. These programmes could then be
level planning. Setting targets, planning for and being coordinated at the cluster and block levels.
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Conventionally, monitoring of schools has been constitutional mandate of decentralised democracy

through the inspectorate system. This system has served and development.
largely to exercise authority and control rather than
provide academic support to teachers. The school Overlaps and Ambiguities in Functions
inspectors perform a number of functions, one of Several states in the country have identified functions
which one is to visit schools under their purview. Their and activities for implementation at different tiers of
visits are usually few and far between, during which panchayat raj functioning. In several states, a vast array
the students and teachers tend to present a positive of functions is assigned to PRIs at every level. In
picture of the school regardless of the ground realities practice, however, PRIs, especially taluk and gram
due to fear of punishment. This reduces monitoring panchayats, discharge few tasks. Barring disbursement
to a 'policing' function. Monitoring for quality must be of salaries in some states, taluk and gram panchayats
seen as a process that enables and provides constructive discharge practically no functions of any significance
feedback in relation to the teaching and learning in the sectors of education, health, women and child
processes within specific classroom contexts. The development, and social welfare. Moreover, there are
monitoring system put in place must be carefully huge ambiguities and overlaps in the functions and tasks
analysed in relation to its objectives, and the norms to be discharged at different levels. These ambiguities
and practices that are to be institutionalised to achieve often result in conflicts between the three-tiers, especially
the objectives. It must provide for sustained interaction with respect to: Who plans? Who decides? Who selects?
with individual schools in terms of teaching-learning Who accords approval? Who implements? Who
processes within the classroom context. releases funds? Who monitors? Indeed, there is no role
clarity between the functions at the different levels.
5.1.3 The Panchayats and Education
Principle of Subsidiarity
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment established the The principle of subsidiarity is the bedrock of panchayat
three-tier panchayati raj system in the country, with raj. The principle of subsidiarity stipulates: 'What can
elected bodies at the gram, taluk and zilla levels to be done best at a particular level should be done at
enable people to think, decide and act for their that level and not at higher levels. All that can be done
collective interest, to provide for greater participation optimally at the lowest level should be done at that
of the people in development, to ensure more level.' This necessitates a rational and realistic analysis
effective implementation of rural development of the functions that are required to be discharged at
programmes in the state, and to plan and implement different levels of PRIs, devolution of those functions
programmes for economic development and social to those levels of panchayati raj, simultaneously ensuring
justice. The 73rd Constitutional Amendment that required funds are devolved to that level for
identified 29 subjects for transfer to the panchayats, discharging that function and transacting the activity.
including primary and secondary education, adult and Strengthening Panchayati Raj : The practice of setting
non-formal education, libraries, technical training and up parallel bodies in the form of autonomous
vocational education. All state governments enacted registered bodies, for example, Zilla Saksharta Samitis,
their state Panchayati Raj Acts in order to realise the DPEP Societies, SSA Societies at the state level, and
 106

similar bodies at the taluk and village level, has severely been set up at the district level. Lack of role clarity and
undermined the powers of PRIs. These parallel bodies overlap of activities afflict the functioning of these
have emerged in large numbers across different sectors. organisations. Quite often, personnel in resource centres
Each village has them; there are village education
are mostly reduced to administrative and data-collection
committees, watershed committees, ryot mitra
functionaries. Given the perspective of decentralised
committees, forest committees, water users associations,
school-level academic planning, and the active and
none of which are answerable to panchayats. These
creative involvement of teachers in defining the nature
committees receive large funds from external donor
agencies, and are dominated largely by the village elite. of curriculum transaction for addressing the needs of
In short, the major problems in Panchayat Raj children, it is urgent that BRCs and CRCs are energised
functioning are that there is: so that they can play a facilitating role. It would be
• No one-to-one correlation between the necessary to define the roles of resource persons in these
functions assigned to the different tiers of centres, to build their capacities by deepening their subject
Panchayat Raj and the funds devolved. knowledge and training competence, and to provide
• The tendency to form parallel committees at them space to function with some autonomy. Rather
the village level marginalise democratically
than routinely conducting workshops designed elsewhere,
elected bodies. These committees undermine
these centres could focus on conducting workshops along
the stature of democratically elected bodies
with follow-up activities based on the needs they identify
and make a mockery of peoples' participation
in local planning. locally. Norms for schools visits, guidelines for systematic
Over the recent past, there has been a growing monitoring, feedback and academic support will also
emphasis on maintaining a large database at the block/ have to be evolved. There is also a need for institutional
district level on indicators such as rates of enrolment, mechanisms that coordinate and build upon the work
drop-out, achievement, etc. These are also used as done by resource centres at different levels in order that
yardsticks for monitoring schools and for larger school synergies can emerge.
management. While official insistence on the regular In order to strengthen school-based academic
maintaining of detailed records in relation to these
support for teachers, it is necessary to identify and create
indicators has burdened schools, it has also led to an
a pool of resource persons at the level of the village,
unnecessary emphasis on quantitative indices of school
cluster and block, and similarly in urban areas, that can
performance (often leading to data of questionable
contribute to the regular inputs that teachers require,
quality) at various levels without adequate steps to link
academic planning and the process of curriculum provide support to new ideas and practices, and help
transaction. work them through. It should be possible to
Block Resource Centres (BRCs) and Cluster institutionalise such support at the level of the cluster/
Resource Centres (CRCs) are now present in almost all block, which can then be integrated into a regular
districts for monitoring schools and teachers through teacher-support programme; funds should be made
follow-up. In order to provide training, DIETs have available for it.
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5.2 TEACHER EDUCATION FOR CURRICULUM education programmes neither accommodate the
RENEWAL emerging ideas in context and pedagogy nor address
Though the professional preparation of teachers has the issue of linkages between school and society.
been recognised as crucially important since the 1960s, There is little space for engagement with innovative
the ground reality remains a matter of great concern. educational experiments.
The Kothari Commission (1964–66) emphasised the Experiences in the practice of teacher education
need for teacher education to be brought into indicate that knowledge is treated as 'given', embedded
mainstream academic life, but teacher education in the curriculum and accepted without question.
institutes continue to exist as insular organisations. Curriculum, syllabi and textbooks are never critically
The Chattopadhyaya Committee (1983–85) examined by the student-teacher or the regular teacher.
recommended that the length of training for a Language proficiency of the teacher needs to be
secondary teacher should be five years following enhanced, and the existing teacher education
completion of Class 12; it also suggested that colleges programmes do not recognise the centrality of
of science and arts introduce an Education language in the curriculum. It is assumed that links
Department to allow students to opt for teacher between instructional models and teaching of specific
education. The Yashpal Committee Report (1993), subjects are automatically formed during the
Learning Without Burden, noted: "The emphasis in programme. Most teacher education programmes
these programmes should be on enabling trainees to provide little scope for student-teachers to reflect on
acquire the ability for self-learning and independent their experiences and thus fail to empower teachers as
thinking." agents of change

5.2.1 Present Concerns in Teacher Education 5.2.2 Vision for Teacher Education

Teacher education programmes today train teachers Teacher education must become more sensitive to the
to adjust to a system in which education is seen as emerging demands from the school system. For this it
the transmission of infor mation. Attempts at must prepare the teacher for the roles of being an:
curricular refor m have not been adequately • encouraging, supportive and humane facilitator
supported by the teacher education. Large-scale in teaching-learning situations to enable learners
recruitment para-teachers has diluted the identity of (students) to discover their talents, realise their
the teacher as a professional. Major initiatives during physical and intellectual potentialities to the
the mid 1990s were focused on in-service training fullest, and to develop character and desirable
of teachers. This has accentuated the divide between social and human values to function as
pre-ser vice and in-ser vice teacher education. responsible citizens; and
Pre-primary, primar y and secondary teachers • active member of a group of persons who
continue to be isolated from centres of higher makes a conscious effort for curricular renewal
learning, and their needs for professional so that it is relevant to changing societal needs
development remain unaddressed. Existing teacher and the personal needs of learners.
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To be able to realise this vision, teacher education

must comprise the following features to enable Teachers need to be prepared to
student-teachers to :
√ care for children, and should love to be with them.
• understand the way learning occurs and to create
plausible situations conducive to learning. √ understand children within social, cultural and
political contexts.
• view knowledge as personal experiences
constructed in the shared context of teaching- √ be receptive and be constantly learning.
learning, rather than embedded in the external √ view learning as a search for meaning out of
reality of textbooks. personal experience, and knowledge generation as
• be sensitive to the social, professional and acontinuouslyevolvingprocessofreflective learning.
administrative contexts in which they need to √ viewknowledgenotasanexternalrealityembedded
operate. in textbooks, but as constructed in the shared
contextofteaching-learningandpersonalexperience.
• develop appropriate competencies to be able
to not only seek the above-mentioned √ own responsibility towards society, and work to
build a better world.
understanding in actual situations, but also be
able to create them. √ appreciate the potential of productive work and
hands-on experience as a pedagogic medium both
• attain a sound knowledge base and proficiency
inside and outside the classroom.
in language.
√ analyse the curricular framework, policy
• identify their own personal expectations,
implications and texts.
perceptions of self, capacities and inclinations.
• consciously attempt to formulate one's own
professional orientation as a teacher in 'helper' of children needing specific kinds of
situation-specific contexts. help in finding solutions for day-to-day
• view appraisal as a continuous educative probelmes related to educational, personal and
process. social situations.
• develop an artistic and aesthetic sense in • learn how to make productive work a
children through art education. pedagogic medium for acquiring knowledgein
• address the learning needs of all children, various subjects, developing values and learning
including those who are marginalised and multiple skills.
disabled.
5.2.3 Major Shifts in Teacher Education
• In the context of change perspective, it is
Programme
imperative to pursue an integrated model of
teacher education for strengthening the • Understanding that the learner needs to be
professionalisation of teachers. given priority. The learner is seen as an active
• develop the needed counselling skills and participant rather than a passive recipient in
competencies to be a 'facilitator' for and the process of leaning, and his/her capabilities
 109

and potential are seen not as fixed but dynamic being a source of knowledge to being a
and capable of development through direct facilitator, of transforming information into
self-experience. The curriculum will be knowledge/ wisdom, as a supporter in
designed so as to provide opportunities to enhancing learning through multiple exposures,
directly observe learners at play and work; encouraging the learner to continuously achieve
assignments to help teachers understand his/her educational goals.
learners' questions and observations about • Another significant shift is in the concept of
natural and social phenomena; insights into knowldege, wherein knowledge is to be taken
children's thinking and learning; and as a continuum, as generated from experiences
opportunities to listen to children with in the actual field through observation,
attention, humour and empathy. verification, and so on. The knowledge
• Learning should be appreciated as a participatory component in teacher education is derived
process that takes place in the shared social from broader areas of the discipline of
context of the learner's immediate peers as well education, and it needs to be represented as
as the wider social community or the nation such. It means that conscious efforts are
as a whole. Ideas expressed by educational needed to represent an explanation from the
thinkers such as Gandhi, Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, perspective of education rather than merely
Gijubhai, J. Krishnamurty, Dewey and others specifying theoretical ideas from related
are often studied in a piecemeal manner, without disciplines with "implications for education".
the necessary context and without concern about • Knowledge in teacher education is
where these ideas emanated from. No wonder multidisciplinary in nature within the context
they are studied and memorised, but seldom of education. In other words, conceptual
applied, by the very same teacher educators who inputs in teacher education need to be
present these ideas to the trainee teachers. The articulated in such a manner that they describe
participatory process is a self-experience-based and explain educational phenomena—actions,
process in which the learner constructs his/her tasks, efforts, processes, concepts and events.
knowledge in his/her own ways through • Such a teacher education programme would
absorption, interaction, observation and provide adequate scope for viewing a
reflection. theoretical understanding and its practical
• The major shift is in the teacher's role where aspects in a more integrated manner rather than
he/she assumes a position centre stage as a as two separate components. It enables the
source of knowledge, as custodian and student-teacher and the teacher in the class
manager of all teaching learning processes, and room to develop a critical sensitivity to field
executor of educational and administrative approaches. Thus, once tried out by self and
mandates given through curricula or circulars. others, it will lead to evolving one's own vision
Now his/her role needs to be shifted from of an ideal setting for learning. Such teachers
 110

would be better equipped for creating a • Different contexts lead to differences in

learning environment, would try to improve learning. Learning in school is influenced and
existing conditions rather than merely adjusting enhanced by the wider social context outside
to them with the necessary technical know- the school.
how and confidence. • Teacher education programmes need to
Another major shift is in understanding the provide the space for engagement with issues
impact of the social context in educative processes. and concerns of contemporary Indian society,
• Learning is greatly influenced by the social its pluralistic nature, and issues of identity,
environment/context from which learners and gender, equity, livelihood and poverty. This can
teachers emerge. The social climate of the help teachers in contextualising education and
school and the classroom exert a deep evolving a deeper understanding of the
influence on the process of learning and purpose of education and its relationship with
education as a whole. Given this, there is a society.
need to undertake a major shift away from an • The shift in performance appraisal in the
overwhelming emphasis on the psychological teacher education programme from an annual
characterisics of the individual learner to his/ affair to a continuous feature needs to be
her social, cultural, economic and political recognised. The teacher-educator evaluates
context. the student-teacher's ability to cooperate and

MAJOR SHIFTS

From To
• Teacher centric, stable designs • Learner centric, flexible process
• Teacher direction and decisions • Learner autonomy
• Teacher guidance and monitoring • Facilitates, supports and encourages
learning
• Passive reception in learning • Active participation in learning
• Learning within the four walls of • Learning in the wider social context
the class room
• Knowledge as "given" and fixed • Knowledge as it evolves and is created
• Disciplinary focus • Multidisciplinary, educational focus
• Linear exposure • Multiple and divergent exposure
• Appraisal, short, few • Multifarious, continuous
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collaborate, investigate and integrate, and also should be based on research inputs; that training
appraises written and oral skills, originality institutions should work on a 12-month basis and
in approach and presentation, and so on. organise programmes like refresher courses, seminars,
• Several kinds of appraisals take place in the workshops and summer institutes. The Report of the
form of self-a ppraisal, peer appraisal, teacher's National Commission on Teachers (1983–85) mooted
feedback, and formal evaluation at the end of the idea of Teachers' Centres that could serve as meeting
the year. All appraisals aim at improvement, places, where talent could be pooled and teaching
understanding one's own strengths and experiences shared. It suggested that teachers could go
weaknesses, understanding what has to be to centres of learning on study leave. The NPE (1986)
strengthened, and identifing the next goals in linked in-service and pre-service teacher education on
the learning process. a continuum; it visualised the establishment of District
• The appraisal mostly will not be given in marks Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) in each
(quantitative), but on a scale (qualitative), where district, upgradation of 250 colleges of education as
the student's achievement is evaluated as a
Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs), and
continuum and he/she is placed according to
establishment of 50 Institutes of Advanced Studies in
his/her performance in various activities.
Education (IASEs), and strengthening of the State
• In brief, the new vision of teacher education
Councils of Educational Research and Training
will be more responsive to changes in the
(SCERTs). The Acharya Ramamurthi Review
school system as it envisages a significant
Committee (1990) recommended that in-service and
paradigm shift. The major shifts have been
refresher courses should be related to the specific needs
stated on the left.
of teachers, and that evaluation and follow-up should
be part of the scheme.
5.2.4 In-Service Education and Training of
In places where multigrade schools have been
Teachers
established in order to facilitate access to primary
In-service education can play a significant role in the
schooling, teachers need special training in managing
professional growth of teachers and function as an
such classrooms, which must be conducted by those
agent for change in school-related practices. It helps
who have experience in classroom management and
teachers gain confidence by engaging with their
practices and reaffirming their experiences. It provides organisation for these classes. Prescriptions on how to
opportunities to engage with other teachers manage, without the support of appropriate materials,
professionally and to update knowledge. The Education or guidance in planning units and topics, does little to
Commission (1964–66) recommended that in-service assist teachers whose experience and imagination is
education for teachers should be organised by completely oriented to the monograde setting. Instead
universities and teacher organisations to enable every of being merely told what to do, detailed unit planning
teacher to receive two or three months of in-service exercises, along with direct practical experiences in
education once in five years; that such programmes places where multigrade class teaching practices have
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become established, and films depicting such situations, programme of in-service education and school-based
need to be used in training and for helping teachers teacher support. In-service education cannot be an
overcome their lack of confidence. event but rather is a process, which includes knowledge,
development and changes in attitudes, skills, disposition
5.2.5 Initiatives and Strategies for In-Service and practice — through interactions both in workshop
Education settings and in the school. It does not consist only of
Following NPE 1986, efforts have been made to receiving knowledge from experts; promotion of
develop institutions like DIETs, IASEs and CTEs for experiential learning, incorporating teachers as active
providing in-service education to primary and learners, and peer group-based review of practice can
secondary schoolteachers; 500 DIETs, 87 CTEs, 38 also become a part of the overall strategy. Self-reflection
IASEs, and 30 SCERTs, have been set up, although needs to be acknowledged as a vital component of
many of them have yet to function as resource centres. such programmes. A training policy needs to be worked
DPEP also brought in the block and cluster resource out, defining parameters such as the periodicity, context
centres and made in-service teacher education and and methodology of programmes. But efforts to
cluster-level schools as the follow-up for the main strengthen quality and ensure vibrant rather than
strategies for pedagogic renewal. In spite of the routinised interactions would require far more
widespread efforts and specific geographical areas decentralised planning with clarity on goals and methods
which have shown improvements, by and large the for training and transfer. 'Mass training using ’ new
in-service inputs have not had any noticeable impact technologies may be of use in some aspects of training,
on teacher practice. but much greater honesty and bold creativity are required
A major indicator of quality of training is its for addressing the concerns of practising teachers
relevance to teachers' needs. But most such programmes directly, including the deprofessionalised environments
are not organised according to actual needs. The in which they work, their lack of agency, and their
approach adopted has remained lecture based, with alienation.
little opportunity for trainees to actively participate. Dissemination technologies can serve to build a
Ironically, concepts such as activity-based teaching, positive ethos for curricular reforms if they are used
classroom management of large classes, multigrade as sites of discussion and debates in which teachers,
teaching, team teaching, and cooperative and training personnel and community members can
collaborative learning, which require active participate. Teachers require first-hand experience of
demonstration, are often taught through lectures. making programmes themselves in order to develop
School follow-up has also failed to take off, and an interest in the new technology. The availability of
cluster-level meetings have not been able to develop computers and linkage facilities remains quite inadequate
into professional fora for teachers to reflect and plan in training institutes. This is one reason why the potential
together. of the new communication technology for changing
Any curriculum renewal effort needs to be the ethos of schools and training institutions has
supported with a well thought-out and systematic remained inadequately tapped.
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Pre-service teacher education

as well as in-service training must Reducing Stress and Enhancing Success in the
build the necessary orientation and X and XII Public Examinations
capacities in teachers so that they Shift from content based testing to problem solving and competency based testing,
can appreciate, understand and content based testing induces bad pedagogy and rote learning, both of which
meet the challenges of the cause stress during examinations. Basic tables and formulae could be provided to
curriculum framework. In-service reduce emphasis on memory and focus on analysis, evaluation and application.
Shift towards examinations of shorter duration with flexible time in which 25 to
training, in particular, must be
40 per cent is for short answer type questions and the remaining for well designed
situated within the context of the multiple choice questions. 90 per cent of all students taking the examination
classroom experiences of teachers. should be able to complete the paper and review/revise the same.
DIETs, which have the √ Betterconductexaminationsinstudent'sownschoolornearby school.
responsibility of organising such Malpracticescouldbeminimizedbyhavinginvigilationteamsfrom
training, should do so in a manner otherschools.
in which both teachers and their √ Postponement of examination should be avoided under all
schools benefit from such training. circumstances.
For instance, instead of the ad hoc √ Permit students to appear in as many subjects as they are prepared
manner in which teacher trainees for and complete the board certification requirements within a
are sent for in-service training by three-year window. The boards could work towards 'on-
demand'examinations, in which students can take as and when
the educational administration, it
they feel prepared.
would be better for a cluster of
√ Eliminate the terminology of ‘pass’-‘fail’; indicate lack of adequate
schools to be identified and a
proficiency through re-examination or reappear or retake
minimum number of trainees (at
recommended’
least two, to enable some peer
√ Board should conduct re-examination immediately after
sharing and reflection) invited
announcement of results to enable students needing retake in one or
from each school to participate in
two subjects to move to the next stage without losing a year.
an in-service training programme.
√ Subjects such as Mathematics and English could be examined at
DIETs, in coordination with
two levels; standard and higher level. In the long term all subjects
BRCs, could identify the schools could be offered at two levels with students doing at least
for this purpose. In order that three/two of the six at standard level and the remaining three/
teaching time is not unduly four at higher level.
affected, and teacher trainees are √ Examination with a 'flexible time limit' can be an effective way to
able to make the link between reduce stress among children.
theory and practice, the mandatory √ Guidance and Counselling be made available in schools to deal
days for training could be split up with stress related problems and to guide students, parents and
over the course of the year to teachers to lessen thestudents stress. Helplines in boards can also
include on-site work in their own help students and parents.
classrooms as well.
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Training could comprise a variety of activities in 5.3.1 Paper Setting, Examining and Reporting
addition to contact lectures and discussions in the teacher In order to improve the validity of current
training institutions and include workshops in schools examinations, the entire process of paper setting needs
in the cluster, projects and other assignments for teachers to be overhauled. The focus should shift to framing
in their classrooms. To link pre-service and in-service good questions rather than mere paper setting. Such
training, the same schools can become sites for pre- questions need not be generated by experts only.
service internship, and student teachers can be asked to Through wide canvassing, good questions can be
observe classroom transaction in these schools. This pooled all year round, from teachers, college professors
could serve not only as feedback to teacher educators in that discipline, educators from other states, and even
for strengthening the training programme but can also students. These questions, after careful vetting by
become the basis of critical reflection by teacher trainees experts, could be categorised according to level of
during the latter part of the training programme. To difficulty, topic/area, concept/competency being
take the process forward, there could be interactive evaluated and time estimated to solve. These could be
sessions with headmasters from the concerned schools maintained along with a record of their usage and testing
so that they can play the role of a facilitator in the record to be drawn upon at the time of generating
changes in classroom practices that the teacher trainees question papers.
may like to make. Systems for monitoring and feedback Compelling teachers to examine without paper
must include SCERTs/DIETs /BRCs and CRCs so offering adequate remuneration makes it difficult to
that academic support can be envisaged in follow ups', motivate them to ensure better quality and consistency
documentation and research. in evaluation. Considering that most boards are in good
financial health, funding issues should not come in the
5.3 EXAMINATION REFORMS way of improving the quality of evaluation. With
The report, Learning without Burden notes that public computerisation, it is much easier to protect the identity
examinations at the end of Class X and XII should of both examinee and examiner. It is also easier to
be reviewed with a view to replacing the prevailing randomise examination scripts given to any particular
text-based and quiz-type questioning, which induces examiner, thus checking malpractices and reducing
an inordinate level of anxiety and stress and promotes inter-examiner variability. Malpractices such as cheating
rote learning. While urban middle-class children are with help from outside the examination hall can be
stressed from the need to perform extremely well, reduced if candidates are not permitted to leave the
rural children are not sure about whether their exam centre in the first half time, and also are not
preparation is adequate even to succeed. The high permitted to carry question papers out with them while
failure rates, especially among the rural, economically the examination is still going on. The question paper
weaker and socially deprived children, forces one to can be made available after the examination is over.
critically review the whole system of evaluation and Computerisation makes it possible to present a
examination. For if the system was fair and working wider range of performance parameters on the
adequately, there is no reason why children should marksheet—absolute marks/grades, percentile rank
not progress and learn. among all candidates taking the examination for that
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subject, and percentile rank among peers (e.g. schools Open-book exams and exams without time limits are
in the same rural or urban block). It would also be worth introducing as small pilot projects across the
possible to analyse the quality and consistency of various country. These innovations would have the added
examiners. The last parameter, in particular, we believe advantage of shifting the focus of exams from testing
to be a crucial test of merit. Making this information memory to testing higher-level competencies such as
public will allow institutions of higher learning to take interpretation, analysis and problem-solving skills. Even
a more complex and relativist view of the notion of conventional exams can be nudged in this direction
merit. Such analysis will promote transparency. Requests through better paper setting and providing standard
for re-checking have declined dramatically in places and desirable information to candidates (such as periodic
where students have access to their answer papers in tables, trigonometric identities, maps and historical dates,
either scanned or xeroxed form, on request, for a formulae, etc.).
nominal fee. Because of the differing nature of learners, and
In the medium term, we need to be able to the widely variable quality of teaching, the expectation
increasingly shift towards school-based assessment, and that all candidates should demonstrate the same level
devise ways in which to make such internal assessment of competence in each subject in order to reach the
more credible. Each school should evolve a flexible next level of education is unreasonable. In the light of
and implementable scheme of Continuous and the urban–rural gap in India, this expectation is also
Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE), primarily for socially regressive. It is well documented, for instance,
diagnosis, remediation and enhancing of learning. The that much of the higher failure and dropout rates in
scheme should take, into account the social environment rural schools can be attributed to poor performance
of and the facilities available in the school. in two subjects — Maths and English. Boards should
Sensitive teachers usually pick up the unique explore the possibility of allowing students to take
strengths and weakness of students. There should be exams in these subjects at one of the two (or even
ways of utilising such insights. At the same time, to three) levels. This need not require that curricula or
prevent abuse by schools (as is currently the case in textbooks will differ for different levels.
practical examinations), they could be graded on a The "one-exam-fits-all" principle, while being
relative, not an absolute, scale and must be moderated organisationally convenient, is not a student-centred one.
and scaled against the marks obtained in the external Nor is it in keeping with the rapidly evolving nature of
examination. More research is required on the Indian job market, with its increasing differentiation.
development, teacher training and relevant institutional The industrial assembly-line model of assessment needs
arrangements. to be replaced by a more humanistic and differentiated
5.3.2 Flexibility in Assessment one. If, as economists predict, four out of every four
A lot of psychological data now suggest that different new jobs in the next decade will be in the services
learners learn (and test) differently. Hence there should sector, a paradigm shift in Indian education is called
be more varied modes of assessment beyond the for. As fewer and fewer Indians make standardised
examination hall paper-pencil test. Oral testing and widgets, and more and more work to solve problems
group work evaluation should be encouraged. for their fellow citizens, the Indian exam system will
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also need to become more open, flexible, creative and forms of work in the school, including social
user friendly. engagement. This pedagogy is expected to facilitate a
child-friendly route to disciplinary knowledge,
5.3.3 Board Examinations at Other Levels development of values primarily drawn from the
Under no circumstances should board - or state-level Constitution and related to social transformation, and
examinations be conducted at other stages of schooling, the formation of multiple skills that are relevant for
such as Class V, VIII or XI. Indeed, boards should facing the complex challenges of a globalised economy.
consider, as a long-term measure, making the Class X It is this educational process that calls for the application
examination optional, thus permitting students of critical pedagogy for linking the experience of
continuing in the same school (and who do not need a productive and other forms of work with global
board certificate) to take an internal school exam instead. knowledge.
The introduction of productive work as a
5.3.4 Entrance Examinations pedagogic medium in the school curriculum will have
There is a need to delink school-leaving board major transformative implications for various
examinations from competitive entrance examinations. dimensions of the education system—philosophical,
These entrance examinations can be made less stressful curricular, structural and organisational. Work-centred
if students had to take fewer of them. A single nodal education will call for the reconceptualisation and
agency could coordinate the conduct of entrance restructuring of specific aspects such as academic
examinations several times a year, at centres located all autonomy and accountability; curriculum planning;
over the country, and monitor and ensure the timely sources of texts; teacher recruitment and teacher
conduct and release of student achievement indicators. education; notions of discipline, attendance and school
The scores obtained by students at such a inspection; knowledge across subject boundaries,
national-level examination could be used by all organisation of the school calendar, classes and periods;
institutions for the purpose of admitting students to creating learning sites outside the school; evaluation
universities and professional courses. The actual design parameters and assessment procedures and public
and test preparations should not fall within the purview examinations. All this implies that curricular reforms
of this nodal agency. and quality improvements are intricately linked to
systemic reforms.
5.4 WORK-CENTRED EDUCATION
5.4.1 Vocational Education and Training
Work-centred education implies that the knowledge
base, social insights and skills of children in relation to At present, Vocational Education is provided only at
their habitat, natural resources and livelihood can be the +2 stage and, even here, it is restricted to a distinct
turned into a source of their dignity and strength in the stream that is parallel to the academic stream. In
school system. It is to be recognised as a meaningful contrast to the NPE 1986 goal of covering 25 per cent
and contextual entry point for organising the curricular of the +2 enrolment in the vocational stream by the
experience in the school. In this sense, the experiential year 2000, less than 5 per cent of students choose this
base can be further developed through more evolved option at present. The programme has been debilitated
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by a range of conceptual, managerial and resource their auxilliary services), engineering, agricultural and
constraints for more than 25 years. Apart from being medical colleges, S & T laboratories, cooperatives and
viewed as an inferior stream, it suffers from poor specialised industrial training in both the private and
infrastructure, obsolete equipment, untrained or under- public sectors. These measures would naturally call for
qualified teachers (often on a part-time basis), outdated shifting and adjusting the resources of the present
and inflexible courses, lack of vertical or lateral mobility, 6,000 - odd senior secondary schools with vocational
absence of linkage with the ‘world of work’, lack of a streams by dovetailing them with the new VET
credible evaluation, accreditation and apprenticeship programme. The vocational education teachers engaged
system, and, finally, low employability (Report of the in these schools at present should have the option of
Working Group for the Revision of the Centrally either being absorbed in to the work-centred education
Sponsored Scheme of Vocationalisation of Secondary programme in the same school or being able join a
Education, NCERT, 1998). Clearly, the gigantic and new VET centre or institution in the region.
urgent task of building an effective and dynamic VET would be designed for all those children
programme of vocational education is long overdue. who wish to acquire additional skills and/or seek
Institutionalisation of work-centred education as an livelihoods through vocational education after either
integral part of the school curriculum from the pre- discontinuing or completing their school education.
primary to the +2 stage is expected to lay the necessary Unlike the present vocational education stream, VET
foundation for reconceptualising and restructuring should provide a ‘preferred and dignified’ choice rather
vocational education to meet the challenges of a than a terminal or ‘last-resort’ option. As with the
globalised economy. school, these VET institutions would also be designed
It is proposed, therefore, that we move in a to be inclusive, providing for skill development of not
phased manner towards a new programme of just those children who have historically suffered due
Vocational Education and Training (VET), which is to their economic, social or cultural backgrounds, but
conceived and implemented in a mission mode, also of the physically and mentally disabled. A
involving the establishment of separate VET centres well-designed provision of career psychology and
and institutions from the level of village clusters and counselling as a critical development tool would enable
blocks to sub-divisional/ district towns and children to systematically plan their movement towards
metropolitan areas. Wherever possible, it would be in their future vocations or livelihoods, and also guide
the national interest to utilise the school infrastructure the institutional leadership in curricular planning and
(often utilised for only a part of the day) for setting up evaluation. The proposed VET shall offer flexible and
this new institutional structure for VET. Such VET modular certificate or diploma courses of varying
centres/ institutions also need to be evolved in durations (including short durations) emerging from
collaboration with the nationwide spectrum of facilities the contextual socio-economic scenario. Decentralised
already existing in this sector. This will imply the planning of these courses at the level of individual VET
expansion of the scope of institutions like ITIs, centres/ institutions and/or clusters thereof would have
polytechnics, technical schools, Krishi Vigyan Kendras, to keep in mind the ongoing rapid changes in
rural development agencies, primary health centres (and technology and patterns of production and services in
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a given area, along with the diminishing access to natural The success of the VET programme is also
resources and livelihoods for the vast majority of the critically dependent upon building up a credible system
people. The courses would provide multiple entry and of evaluation, equivalence, institutional accreditation
exit points with in-built credit accumulation facility. Each (extending to ‘work benches’ and individual expertise)
course will also have an adequate academic component and apprenticeship. Care has to be taken to ensure that
(or a provision for a bridge course or both) in order such standardisation does not become a negative tool
to ensure lateral and vertical linkages with the academic for rejecting/ disqualifying the diverse knowledge and
and professional programmes. The strength of a VET skills that characterise the different regions of India,
centre would lie in its capacity to offer a variety of especially the economically underdeveloped regions like
options depending upon the felt need of the aspirants. the North-east, hilly tracts, the coastal belt and the central
The VET curriculum should be reviewed and Indian tribal region. An appropriate structural space
updated from time to time if the programme is not to and a welcoming environment will have to be created
become moribund and irrelevant to the vocations and in the VET centres and institutions for engaging
livelihoods in a given area or region. The centre farmers, animal husbandry, fishery and horticulture
in-charges or institutional leadership would need to have specialists, artisans, mechanics, technicians, artists, and
access to adequate infrastructure and resources as well other local service providers (including IT) as resource
as be vested with the necessary authority and academic persons or guest faculty.
freedom to establish ‘work benches’ (or ‘work places’ The eligibility for VET courses could be relaxed
or ‘work spots’) in the neighbourhood or regional rural to include a Class V certificate until the year 2010, when
crafts, agricultural or forest-based production systems the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is expected to achieve UEE,
and industries and services, thereby utilising the available but subsequently it must be raised to Class VIII
human and material resources optimally. This certificate and eventually to Class X certificate when
collaborative arrangement has three advantages. First, the target year of universal secondary education is
the VET programme can be set up with minimum reached. In no case, however, would children below
capital investment. Second, the students would have the age of 16 years be eligible for admission to a VET
access to the latest techniques and technology that programme. VET centres could also act as skill and
become available in the area. Third, the students would hobby centres for all children from the primary stage
get on-the-job experience and exposure to real-life onwards, and could be accessed before or after school
problems of designing, production and marketing. For hours. Such centres should also be available for schools
this purpose, it should be made obligatory for all kinds to negotiate a collaborative arrangement for the
of facilities engaged in production and services such work-centred curriculum even during school hours.
as agriculture, forestry, private and public sector In order to translate this vision of VET into
industries (including cottage and small-scale practice, several new support structures and resource
manufacturers) to collaborate with the schools in the institutions will have to be created at various levels,
area by providing the required ‘work benches’ (or including districts, states/ UTs and the centre, besides
‘work places’ or ‘work spots’), in the addition to strengthening and reviving the existing national resource
offering training and monitoring support. institutions like NCERT’s PSSCIVE at Bhopal.
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5.5 INNOVATION IN IDEAS AND PRACTICES the class while also receiving feedback from both
5.5.1 Plurality of Textbooks teacher and students. This is also important when
Given the perspective that curricular content must innovating with textbook content (for instance,
providing space for integrating children's experiences)
meaningfully incorporate experiences of children and
in order to understand and place them within the
their diverse cultural contexts, including languages, it is
realities of the classroom and teacher preparation.
important that textbook writing is decentralised keeping
It follows that we are ideally looking at the
in view the capacities that are required as well as the
availability of multiple textbooks for schools as they
systems that will make this possible. The writing of
widen teachers' choices and also provide for the
textbooks requires a range of capacities that include
incorporation of diversity in relation to children's needs
academic and research inputs, understanding of
and interests. When a number of books and
children's developmental levels, effective skills of
supplementary materials are available, the teacher can
communication and design, etc. While SCERT, which
be encouraged to decide which text lessons are
has been given the task of textbook writing at present,
appropriate for specific themes for her pupils. This
can continue to be the nodal organisation for this
would substantively enhance the teacher's autonomy
purpose, the actual envisioning of the process, selection and choice. Alternatively, they can also provide
and writing of content must be done in a collaborative opportunities to encourage children to explore diverse
manner by teams rather than by individual subject sources and understand how the same content may be
experts. Among the reasons for such a collaborative presented in different ways. This will encourage library
exercise are perspective building, clarification of work. The support system that must be ensured will
assumptions about how children learn, undertaking of include training programmes/workshops to orient and
the required revisiting of subject knowledge and enable teachers to use textbooks and supplementary
research input, understanding of processes of how to materials as resources for curriculum transaction and
communicate with children, providing structured space access to library facilities within the school or in a
for reflection and feedback by peers as an ongoing resource centre for a set of schools. The sharing of
process in the making of textbooks, and so on. libraries between schools must also be consciously
Academic and research support from universities, and planned for, and this can be built into partnerships
the rich experiences of NGOs as well as practitioners, between private and government schools. The setting
must be important inputs in this exercise. up of community libraries can also be explored.
The trial of the textbook is extremely critical given Encouraging the production of multiple
that at present children often find text lessons difficult textbooks that are officially prescribed by schools will
to comprehend, with content that is dense or at times increasingly bring the private sector into the area of
trivial. Lessons are often written without relating them textbook production. In this context, it is important to
to the time that is assigned for the subject to be taught equip state institutions for research and training in
in the school year. It may be a good idea for the initial education (whose responsibilities include textboks
lessons to be piloted, i.e. to be taught on a trial basis, production) to compete with private publishers and
with the textbook writer observing its transaction in capacities built for this purpose. As mentioned earlier,
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if SCERTs can make the production of textbooks a each other. This will also encourage new ideas and
collaborative exercise, it will improve the quality of facilitate innovation and experimentation. How can
their textbooks, build capacities, as well as energise these innovative and creative ways of teaching and learning
institutions. NGOs have also produced excellent be encouraged and supported by the system so that
textbooks and supplementary materials that can be used they can become a body of practice that can be brought
in schools. Some thought must also be given to the to a stage when they can be built back into the system?
regulatory mechanism that must be set in place to ensure For a start, there is a need to create structured spaces
that textbook writers abide by the guiding principles within schools, and at the level of the cluster and block
and values of the Constitution (especially equality, where teachers are encouraged to share and discuss
secularism and democracy), the aims of education, classroom practices and experiences. If seen as
authenticity and developmental appropriateness of worthwhile, some of these ideas and practices can be
content, and so on. In addition, it is essential to see that systematically followed up. It is also important to bring
textbook production does not lend itself to private together groups of teachers within and across schools
profiteering and deny easy access to education. and provide support to them in terms of resources as
Discussion of textbooks by parents, teachers and well as time to work together. There is also, a need for
citizens' groups must be encouraged, and they must be documentation and research of identified 'good
made available in the public domain (the Internet can practices'. At present, there are funds for this purpose
provide space for this purpose, and textbooks can be both with DIETs (part of whose mandate is
made available on the Web) for discussion, feedback, identification and documentation of innovative
critique, etc. Universities can be encouraged to conduct practices). SSA also has funds for school-based
studies of textbooks so that regular research output research. Some of this could be used to document the
on school knowledge is available. diverse practices that teachers use in different classroom
contexts. In addition to providing the necessary funding,
5.5.2 Encouraging Innovations the creation of an enabling environment that nurtures
Individual teachers often explore new ways of and provides support to such initiatives is also important.
transacting the curriculum in addressing the needs of As mentioned earlier, efforts to mainstream innovative
students within their specific classroom context processes and practices will be necessary. One of the
(including constraints of space, large numbers, absence main objectives of creating resource centres at the
of teaching aids, diversity in the student body, the cluster level was to break the isolation of individual
compulsions of examinations, and so on). These efforts, schools and bring teachers together on a regular basis
often pragmatic but also creative and ingenious, by for sharing their experiences and ideas with their peers.
and large remain invisible to the school and the larger This is important if teachers are to develop their own
teaching community, and are usually not valued by professional identities and sense of belonging to a larger
teachers themselves. The sharing of teaching experiences teaching community. It could also be one way of
and diverse classroom practices can provide creating among them a sense of their own agency and
opportunities for an academic discourse to develop fostering a sense of greater involvement and
within schools as teachers interact with and learn from commitment to their work.
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5.5.3 The Use of Technology curriculum development, academic support, as well as

The judicious use of technology can increase the reach monitoring and research. Civil society groups have also
of educational programmes, facilitate management of helped to give education a visible public space, and
the system, as well as help address specific learning facilitated the emergence of a discourse on the child's
needs and requirements. For instance, mass media can right to education. The dissemination of the perspective
be used to support teacher training, facilitate classroom and ideas of the NCF, their translation into creative and
learning, and be used for advocacy. Possibilities of innovative practices within the school and community,
teaching and learning at varied paces, self-learning, dual critical feedback on different aspects of the curriculum,
modes of study, etc. could all benefit from the use of as well as the nurturing of an environment of
technology, particularly ICT. The increasing use of the commitment to the right to education of children, would
Internet has enabled the sharing of information and all need collaboration and sustained involvement of
provided space for debate and dialogue on diverse diverse civil society groups.
issues hitherto unavailable on such a scale. Teachers' associations and organisations can play
Technological innovations are also necessary for a far greater role in strengthening school education than
appropriate equipment and aids for meeting the learning has hitherto been the case. For instance, they can help
requirements of children with special needs. What evolve norms to improve school functioning by using
needs to be underscored is that technology could be their influence over their teacher members to ensure
integrated with the larger goals and processes of that teaching time is not compromised, and help create
educational programmes rather than viewed in isolation a culture of accountability. They can also draw attention
or as an add-on. In this context, technological use that to the inputs and supports that are necessary for
turns teachers and children into mere consumers and effective curriculum transaction, and act as constructive
technology operators needs to be reviewed and pressure groups on issues such as school resources,
discouraged. Interaction and intimacy are key to quality quality of teacher education and professional
education, and this cannot be compromised as a development. These associations can work with
principle in any curricular intervention. local-level organisations as well as with BRCs and CRCs
in defining the nature of academic support required,
5.6 NEW PARTNERSHIPS provide feedback and so on.
5.6.1 Role of NGOs, Civil Society Groups, and The roles and functions of SCERTs need to
Teacher Organisations include providing support not only in purely academic
One of the distinct features of the last decade was the areas but psychological aspects as well. SCERTs must
increasing involvement of non-government organisations take steps to strengthen the guidance bureaus/units
and civil society groups in education. NGOs have played already existing with them by setting them up as
a major role in creating innovative models of schooling, resource centres at the state level for in-service teacher
training of teachers, development of textbooks and training in this area, production of psychological tools/
curricular materials, community mobilisation and tests, career literature, etc. and make counselling services
advocacy. Their formal association with schools and available at district/block and school levels by
resource centres would be extremely important for positioning professionally trained guidance personnel.
 122

Universities have a critical role to play in expertise. Higher education can also provide space for
responding to the wide-ranging aims of the curricular reflection, discussion and debate on educational ideas
framework, especially in emphasising and encouraging and practices as well as facilitate the interface between
pluralism in education, addressing the needs of children, schools and policy makers.
and integrating new curricular areas. There is an urgent There is also need for institutional linkages between
need to expand the knowledge base of education universities and institutions such as SCERTs and DIETs
keeping in view the diverse socio-cultural contexts to to strengthen their academic programmes of teacher
which children belong as well as the complex nature education and in-service training as well to develop
of classroom realities in India. University departments their research capacities. In this context, it would be
of education, social science as well as the sciences should appropriate to explore once again the idea of creating
be urged to include the study of education in their school/educational complexes that would bring
research agenda. Mutlidisciplinary and collaborative together universities, colleges, schools, SCERTs/DIETs
research bringing together scholars from different as well as NGOs within a geographical area to evolve
disciplines would be particularly important in generating networks and mechanisms for providing academic
a research base that is critical for translating the ideas in support and participating in monitoring, and evaluation
the curriculum framework into enabling classroom of programmes.
practices. At the same time, universities need to keep The preparation of curricula, syllabi and
their doors open to children coming from schools with teaching-learning resources, including textbooks, could
unusual and interesting combinations of study. Rather be carried out in a far greater decentralised and
than using admission criteria to eliminate, they should participative manner, increasing the participation of
remain inclusive and encouraging of diversity of teachers, along with representatives and experts from
interests, pursuits and opportunities. Such open and other organisations. This is especially important when
inclusive admission policies are also crucial if children we are exploring the possibility of producing more
are to seriously consider vocational courses of study than one textbook for each grade and subject, so that
as non-terminal options. there is far greater local relevance in materials, and also
Institutions of higher education have an a plurality of materials from which teachers can choose.
important role to play in teacher education and in Such large teams could also produce supplementary
enhancing the professional status not only of secondary materials such as reading cards and small stories based
schoolteachers but also elementary schoolteachers. For on local lore and illustrations, which are often more
the, 'reflective teacher' who possesses the professional interesting to children. Choice and variety, which exist
competence and orientation that the curriculum in more elite schools, can become common features
framework rests on, it will be necessary to review and of all schools.
restructure teacher education programmes. Equally The Department of Woman and Child
important will be the sustained involvement of scholars Development, Department of Health, Department of
in curriculum development, writing and reviewing Youth Affairs and Sports, Department of Science and
textbooks as part of a collaborative exercise, which Technology, Department of Tribal Affairs,
brings together practitioners and academics with diverse Department of Social Justice and Empowerment,
 123

Department of Culture, Department of Tourism, schools, funding special programmes that enrich the
Archeological Survey of India, PRIs, to name a few, curriculum, such as sports clubs and sports equipment
are all stakeholders with an interest in the welfare and along with special instructors, organising visits and
progress of children, school, and curriculum. All these excursions to historical, archeological and natural sites
departments have the ability to contribute to enriching and providing materials about these places, providing
education for children and teachers. For example, health reference materials, photographs and charts (including
and physical education requires synergies across different films and photographs), ensuring regular health check-
departments since the curricular content falls within the ups, and monitoring the quality of the midday meal.
purview of at least five ministeries. In order to ensure These are some of the ways in which these departments
the effective transaction of the curriculum, there must can directly contribute to and enhance the quality of
be some system of coordination across the key the school curriculum. Educationally meaningful
deparments, and it is the school curriculum that must contributions need to be planned in consultation with
lead programmes rather than the stand- alone education departments rather than being conceived
programmes intervening in the school curriculum. They independently and simply delivered. This is necessary
need to explore and discover ways in which they can to ensure that what is being designed is useful and
contribute to children's education, by converging their usable. Similarly, they could respond to requests made
inputs with the efforts of departments of education. by the department of education for specific
They can do so by providing additional facilities to programmes or inputs.
 124

This framework for curriculum presents a vision of Computers, Moral Science etc., etc. recently became hit and
what is desirable for our children. It seeks to enable G.K. was introduced as a new subject because the quiz
those who are involved with children and their show "Kaun Banega Crorepati…
Oursyllabusgetsmoremassiveandmovesbeyondtheteaching
schooling with the bases on which they can make
capacity of the teachers, so they rush through the contents
choices that determine the curriculum. This provides
withtediousmethodology.Studentscannotmeettheattention
an understanding of issues relating to children's span requirement in the classrooms and either fail at
learning, the nature of knowledge and the school as an comprehensionorblankoutintodaydreaming.Newertopics
institution. This approach to the curriculum draws ofmanydifferentsubjectsarecoveredevenbeforetheprevious
attention to the importance of the school ethos and ones have been chewed over. The burden of the syllabus is
culture, the classroom practices of teachers, learning then passed on to the parents or tuition classes. Little children
burdened with loads of education on their shoulders, trip
sites outside the school, and learning resources, as much
from school to tuition classes, bypassing childhood. A section
as to the dimensions of the system that exert direct
of students study harder and harder to beat each other for
and indirect influence. The designing of large-scale the top slot. Majority of the students are hounded by parents
curricular interventions, key activities such as the and teachers to study harder and become stressed, some
preparation of syllabus and textbooks, and examination requiringevenclinicaltreatment.Onlychildrenwhoexcelin
reform must be consistent with each other and with the main subjects are regarded as successful. Children with
educational aims for progress and improvement in the accomplishments in other fields like sports and arts are
quality of education that we provide to our children. underrated. They are earnestly discouraged from pursuing
sports and hobbies as these don't count in the mark list.
Hundreds of parents and teachers sent messages to
The curriculum and success dynamics demand that they
NCERT in response to advertisements inviting public
shut out the real world with real experiences and lock
contributions for the National Curriculum Framework. themselves up in the world of books. Even sixth standard.
One of these messages was from a Mumbai-based students must study four hours in addition to school hours if
mother and teacher, Mrs. Neeta Mohla. She wrote: they want to enter into the race for marks.
When children in their developmental years spend more
Today as students my children face the same learning time in books than in the real world, they have every
experiences as me 20 years ago. Everywhere around the chance of becoming fragmented. Education ventures into a
world new methods of teaching and evaluation are being negative course. It splits a student's mind into two. A
practised but our children continue to just copy exercises bookish worldview that he memorises without proper
from the board, mug them up and reproduce them in the comprehension and the real world that is not in his/her
exam. If there are changes, they are for the worse. Children control due to lack of focus. Take the example of a
now have access to more information channels, yet more and typical fourth standard child; he knows how stopping
more subjects and content are added to the school bag. cattle grazing on hilltops can prevent soil erosion but he
 125

cannot keep track of his/her notebooks and pencils. laid alongside the old academic pillars of
Ultimately he grows into an adult with a lot of knowledge maths, science, history, etc.
sense but no common sense, a "padha likha bevakoof" (an
• Contents must be linked to the challenges of
educated fool). Good characters and personalities develop
life and career at different stages. Students and
through focus on their development. Instead, a lot is taught
which he cannot relate with his/her day-to-day life teachers must be given the requisite time to
experiences and surroundings. For those who blank out focus on them. Acquisition of pure knowledge
into daydreaming education fails to make any impression, should be for the purpose of self-discovery
leaving them vulnerable to other dangerous influences. There of the child's own interest. This should be
is no support system for children in need of it. Parents covered through alternative study
today are just as stressed as their wards. A staggering 75 methodology like project method and
percent children preparing for Board Examinations today alternative evaluation models like open-book
suffer from stress-related disorders. exams. We need only implant the seeds of
every subject. Whole plants do not have to be
Mrs. Neeta Mohla offers several concrete
hammered in. Education should inspire
suggestions, some of which are the following :
children to become learners for life.
• Balance what should be taught in favour of
• We must humanise education and make it
what can possibly be learnt. The structures of
relevant for the pursuit of the wide variety
nature are architectural marvels wherein each
of human aptitudes. Alternative evaluation and
part functions in coordination with the whole.
grading models must be sought to encourage
The real challenge is to plan the curriculum so
the diversity of talents among the learners.
that it has the main elements that work to keep
Achievers in sports, arts and crafts should get
the broad objectives of education on course,
due recognition at par with academic achievers.
and are well grounded in the realities of
Expanding the achievement list would
availabilities and constraints.
definitely de-stress parents and children b y
• Instead of a structure built to promote success spreading them out on to more tracks. The
for a select few, we must adopt a structure change to grading would shift the society's
that engages participation in learning by all. The focus away from the social Darwinian
base should be sturdy so it lasts a whole life. implications of the curriculum.
The pillars should be broadened and redefined. Let us hope that curriculum, syllabi and textbook
New pillars like personality, character, physical designers across the country will pay adequate and
fitness, creative and critical thinking should be urgent attention to this mother's words.
126

APPENDIX – I

CHAPTER 1

• Strengthening a national system of education in a pluralistic society.

• Reducing the curriculum load based on insights provided in 'Learning Without Burden'.
• Systemic changes in tune with curricular reforms.
• Curricular practices based on the values enshrined in the Constitution, such as social justice,
equality, and secularism.
• Ensuring quality education for all children.
• Building a citizenry committed to democratic practices, values, sensitivity towards gender
justice, problems faced by the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, needs of the
disabled, and capacities to participate in economic and political processes.

CHAPTER 2

• Reorientation of our perception of learners and learning.

• Holistic approach in the treatment of learners' development and learning.
• Creating an inclusive environment in the classroom for all students.
• Learner engagement for construction of knowledge and fostering of creativity.
• Active learning through the experiential mode.
• Adequate room for voicing children's thoughts, curiosity, and questions in curricular practices.
• Connecting knowledge across disciplinary boundaries to provide a broader frame work for
insightful construction of knowledge.
• Forms of learner engagement — observing, exploring, discovering, analysing, critical reflection,
etc. — are as important as the content of knowledge.
• Activities for developing critical perspectives on socio-cultural realities need to find space in
curricular practices.
• Local knowledge and children's experiences are essential components of text books and
pedagogic practices.
• Children engaged in undertaking environment-related projects may contribute to generation
of knowledge that could help create a transparent public database on India's environment.
• The school years are a period of rapid development, with changes and shifts in
 127

children's capabilities, attitudes and interests that have implications for choosing
and organising the content and process of knowledge.

CHAPTER 3

Language
• Language skills — speech and listening, reading and writing — cut across school subjects and
disciplines. Their foundational role in children's construction of knowledge right from
elementary classes through senior secondary classes needs to be recognised.
• A renewed effort should be made to implement the three-language formula, emphasising
the recognition of children's home language(s) or mother tongue(s) as the best medium of
instruction. These include tribal languages.
• English needs to find its place along with other Indian languages.
• The multilingual character of Indian society should be seen as a resource for the enrichment
of school life.
Mathematics
• Mathematisation (ability to think logically, formulate and handle abstractions) rather than
'knowledge' of mathematics (formal and mechanical procedures) is the main goal of
teaching mathematics.
• The teaching of mathematics should enhance children's ability to think and reason, to visualise
and handle abstractions, to formulate and solve problems. Access to quality mathematics
education is the right of every child.
Science
• Content, process and language of science teaching must be commensurate with the learner's
age-range and cognitive reach.
• Science teaching should engage the learners in acquiring methods and processes that will
nurture their curiosity and creativity, particularly in relation to the environment.
• Science teaching should be placed in the wider context of children;s environment to equip
them with the requisite knowledge and skills to enter the world of work.
• Awareness of environmental concerns must permeate the entire school curriculum.
Social Sciences
• Social science content needs to focus on conceptual understanding rather than lining up facts
to be memorised for examination, and should equip children with the ability to think
independently and reflect critically on social issues.
• Interdisciplinary approaches, promoting key national concerns such as gender, justice, human
rights, and sensitivity to marginalised groups and minorities.
• Civics should be recast as political science, and the significance of history as a shaping influence
on the children's conception of the past and civic identity should be recognised.
128

Work
• School curricula from the pre-primary stage to the senior secondary stage need to be
reconstructed to realise the pedagogic potential of work as a pedagogic medium in
knowledge acquisition, developing values and multiple-skill formation.
Art
• Arts (folk and classical forms of music and dance, visual arts, puppetry, clay work, theatre,
etc.) and heritage crafts should be recognised as integral components of the school curriculum.
• Awareness of their relevance to personal, social, economic and aesthetic needs should be
built among parents, school authorities and administrators.
• The arts should comprise a subject at every stage of school education.
Peace
• Peace-oriented values should be promoted in all subjects throughout the school years with
the help of relevant activities.
• Peace education should form a component of teacher education.
Health and Physical Education
• Health and physical education are necessary for the overall development of learners. Through
health and physical education programmes (including yoga), it may be possible to handle
successfully the issues of enrolment, retention and completion of school.
Habitat and Learning
• Environmental education may be best pursued by infusing the issues and concerns of the
environment into the teaching of different disciplines at all levels while ensuring that adequate
time is earmarked for pertinent activities.

CHAPTER 4

• Availability of minimum infrastructure and material facilities, and support for planning a
flexible daily schedule, are critical for improved teacher performance.
• A school culture that nurtures children's identities as 'learners' enhances the potential and
interests of each child.
• Specific activities ensuring participation of all children — abled and disabled — are essential
conditions for learning by all.
• The value of self-discipline among learners through democratic functioning is as relevant as
ever.
• Participation of community members in sharing knowledge and experience in a subject area
helps in forging a partnership between school and community.
• Reconceptualisation of learning resources in terms of
- textbooks focused on elaboration of concepts, activities, problems and exercises
encouraging reflective thinking and group work.
- supplementary books, workbooks, teachers' handbooks, etc. based on fresh thinking
and new perspectives.
 129

- multimedia and ICT as sources for two-way interaction rather than one-way reception.
- school library as an intellectual space for teachers, learners and members of the community
to deepen their knowledge and connect with the wider world.

• Decentralised planning of school calendar and daily schedule and autonomy for teacher
professionalism practices are basic to creating a learning environment.

CHAPTER 5

• Quality concern, a key feature of systemic reform, implies the system's capacity to reform
itself by enhancing its ability to remedy its own weaknesses and to develop new capabilities.
• It is desirable to evolve a common school system to ensure comparable quality in different
regions of the country and also to ensure that when children of different backgrounds
study together, it improves the overall quality of learning and enriches the school ethos.
• A broad framework for planning upwards, beginning with schools for identifying focus
areas and subsequent consolidation at the cluster and block levels, could form a decentralised
planning strategy at the district level.
• Meaningful academic planning has to be done in a participatory manner by headmasters
and teachers.
• Monitoring quality must be seen as a process of sustaining interaction with individual
schools in terms of teaching–learning processes.
• Teacher education programmes need to be reformulated and strengthened so that the
teacher can be an :
- encouraging, supportive and humane facilitator in teaching–learning situations to enable
learners (students) to discover their talents, to realise their physical and intellectual
potentialities to the fullest, to develop character and desirable social and human values
to function as responsible citizens; and
- active member of a group of persons who make conscious efforts for curricular renewal
so that it is relevant to changing social needs and the personal needs of learners.
• Reformulated teacher education programmes that place thrust on the active involvement of
learners in the process of knowledge construction, shared context of learning, teacher as a
facilitator of knowledge construction, multidisciplinary nature of knowledge of teacher
education, integration theory and practice dimensions, and engagement with issues and
concerns of contemporary Indian society from a critical perspective.
• Centrality of language proficiency in teacher education and an integrated model of teacher
education for strengthening professionalisation of teachers assume significance.
• In-service education needs to become a catalyst for change in school practices.
• The Panchayati Raj system should be strengthened by evolving a mechanism to regulate the
functioning of parallel bodies at the village level so that democratic participation in
development can be realised.
• Reducing stress and enhancing success in examinations necessitate:
- a shift away from content-based testing to problem solving skills and understanding.
The prevailing typology of questions asked needs a radical change.
- a shift towards shorter examinations.
130

- an examination with a 'flexible time limit'.

- setting up of a single nodal agency for coordinating the design and conduct of entrance
examinations.
• Institutionalisation of work-centred education as an integrated part of the school curriculum
from the pre-primary to the +2 stage is expected to lay the necessary foundation for
reconceptualising and restructuring vocational education to meet the challenges of a globalised
economy.
• Vocational Education and Training (VET) need to be conceived and implemented in a
mission mode, involving the establishment of separate VET centres and institutions from
the level of village clusters and blocks to sub-divisional/district towns and metropolitan
areas in collaboration with the nation wide spectrum of facilities already existing in this
sector.
• Availability of multiple textbooks to widen teachers' choices and provide for the diversity in
children's needs and interests.
• Sharing of teaching experiences and diverse classroom practices to generate new ideas a n d
facilitate innovation and experimentation.
• Development of syllabi, textbooks and teaching-learning resources could be carried out in
a decentralised and participatory manner involving teachers, experts from universities, NGOs
and teachers' organisations.
 131

APPENDIX – II

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Government of India
Ministry of Human Resource Development
HkkjrsUnz flag cloku Department of Secondary & Higher Education
f'k{kk lfpo 128 ‘C’ Wing, Shastri Bhavan, New Delhi- 110001
B.S. BASWAN Tel. : 23386451, 23382698 Fax : 23385807
EDUCATION SECRETARY E-mail: [email protected]
21-7-2004

Dear Professor Dixit,

The National Policy on Education 1986, as modified in 1992, envisages the following:
“11.5 The implementation of the various parameters of the New Policy must be reviewed
every five years. Appraisals at short intervals will also be made to ascertain the progress of
implementation and trends emerging from time to time”.
2. The Programme of Action (POA) 1992, prepared under the National Policy on
Education 1986 lays down some of the concerns to be addressed through the review.
Your attention is drawn to Chapter 8 of the POA.
3. Since the present curriculum framework was released four years ago, it is time to
initiate the process of review and renewal of the curriculum. The NCERT may initiate
action for curriculum renewal.
4. While undertaking the review, you may kindly ensure that the processes as laid down
or that have evolved over a period of time, are not violated. You are aware of the criticism
regarding the short-circuiting and the inadequacies of procedures followed during the
finalisation of the earlier review.
5 The textbooks of the NCERT have drawn serious academic criticism during the last
few years. You are already in the process of handling the controversy regarding the History
books. While understating the present review, you may like to address the question of
how the books emanating from a new curriculum framework could be insulated from
such distortions.
6. While undertaking the review, we are sure you would take into account the Yashpal
Committee report on ‘Learning Without Burden’ and Chapter 8 of the POA.
7. The NCFSE should always be in harmony with the idea of India, as enshrined in its
Constitution. It could be worthwhile to keep reminding everyone associated with the
132

review of the following words in which the noble idea of India has been given in the
Preamble to the Constitution:
“WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to
constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and
integrity of the Nation......”
8. We are confident that the formulation of the new NCFSE will generate enthusiasm
among the academic community and the wider civil society. You may accordingly set in
motion all the attendant activities for this purpose.

With regards and best wishes for this venture.

sd/-
[B.S. Baswan]

Prof. H.P. Dixit

Director
National Council for Educational Research and Training
17-B, Sri Aurobindo Marg
New Delhi- 110016
 133

Hkkjr ljdkj
ekuo lalk/u fodkl ea=kky;
ekè;fed vkSj mPprj f'k{kk foHkkx
ubZ fnYyh&110 001
Government of India
Ministry of Human Resource Development
HkkjrsUnz flag cloku Department of Secondary & Higher Education
f'k{kk lfpo 128 ‘C’ Wing, Shastri Bhavan, New Delhi- 110001
B.S. BASWAN Tel. : 23386451, 23382698 Fax : 23385807
EDUCATION SECRETARY E-mail: [email protected]

D.O.No.11-17/2004-Sch.4 2 May, 2005

Dear Professor Krishna Kumar,

Kindly recollect the discussions we had on the National Curriculum Framework for
School Education (NCFSE). In this regard please refer to my D.O. letter of even number
dated 21.7.2004 regarding initiating the process of review and the renewal of the National
Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCFSE)-2000. I had mentioned in para
6 of this letter to take into account the Yash Pal Committee report on “Learning Without
Burden”, while undertaking the review of NCFSE-2000. Now that the National Curricu-
lum Framework has been prepared by the NCERT, we hope that, while preparing the
textbooks based on the new curriculum, the principles underlined in the ‘Learning Without
Burden’ report will be fully taken into account.

With regards and best wishes.

sd/-
(B.S. BASWAN)

Prof. Krishna Kumar

Director, NCERT
Sri Aurobindo Marg
NEW DELHI-110016
134

INDEX

Activity viii, 2, 4, 10, 12, 21, 22, 26, 29, 34, 46, 55, 58–60, 61, 66, 79, 82,
88, 95, 102, 105, 107, 111, 112, 123.

Adolescent 16, 51, 57.

Adult vii, xviii, 12–14, 105, 124, 125.
Aesthetic x, 11, 16, 29, 31, 35, 37, 55, 56, 68, 75, 100, 108.

Aim viii, 10, 29, 33, 37, 39, 42, 45, 51, 88, 98, 111.
Arts ix, x, 11, 15, 22, 28, 30, 31, 35, 54–56, 69, 70, 99–100.
Assessment xi, xvi, 25, 28, 4,0 48, 60, 65–66, 71–76, 115, 116.

Attitude 42, 44, 62.

Biology 64,70.
Calendar 79, 116.

Capability 12, 26, 30.

Chemistry 64.
Childhood vii, xviii, 4, 5, 12, 60, 65–66, 124.

Citizenship 7, 9.
Classical 31, 36, 37, 40, 41.
Cognitive 37, 39, 44, 47, 48, 75, 88.

Collaborative learning 20.

Commerce 53, 69.
Collaborative learning 112.

Commission 3, 7, 8, 15, 81, 89, 102, 103, 107, 111.

Commitment 1, 2, 5, 7, 11, 23, 58, 62, 63, 121.
Common core 4, 5.

Common School System iv, 15, 103.

Community iii, ix, xi, 8–10, 13, 14, 20, 33, 39, 41, 78, 84–86, 89–93, 95–96,
104, 109, 112, 119, 120, 121.

Computer Science 45, 46.

 135

Concurrent List 3.
Constitution 3, 7, 9, 37, 49, 53, 86, 89.
Construction of knowledge 17.

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) 73, 76, 115.

Corporal punishment 13, 14, 90,
Crafts ix, x, 5, 22, 31, 32, 55, 56, 92, 98, 100, 118, 125.

Creative iii, vii, xi, xviii, 2, 3, 6, 10, 11, 13, 38, 54, 55, 60, 67, 68, 80–81,
97–98, 106, 116, 120, 121, 125.
Cultural 13, 18, 23, 29, 36, 38, 52, 54, 55, 62, 82, 83, 85, 89, 93, 103, 108,
110, 117, 122.
Curriculum load iii, 2, 4, 14, 49.
Dance x, 15, 55, 56, 64.

Decentralisation 5, 24, 67, 101.

Democracy 5, 7, 8, 23, 62, 85, 86, 92, 105, 120.
DIETs 106, 111–114, 120, 122.

Disabilities 5, 11, 18, 23, 38, 66, 84.

Discipline 13–15, 24, 29, 31, 32, 42, 45, 49, 59, 89, 90, 109, 114, 116.
Diversity 1, 4–7, 9, 13, 23, 36, 51, 54, 62, 83, 84, 102, 119, 120, 122, 125.

Drama 38, 95.

Drawing 21, 31, 51, 54, 61, 81, 95–96.
Duties 7, 63.

ECCE viii, 65–67, 76.

Economics 50, 53, 55.
Educational Technology 97, 102.

Egalitarianism 5, 86.
Elementary viii, xi, 2, 5, 25, 40, 57, 66–68, 76, 99, 122.
English v, ix, xviii, 38–40, 66, 67, 69, 98, 100, 113, 115.

Enquiry 51.
136

Environment iv, viii, ix, xi, 3, 5, 6, 9, 13, 17, 21, 23, 24, 28, 31, 52–54, 57, 62–67,
79, 80, 83, 86, 92–94, 99, 103, 104, 110, 115, 118, 120, 121.
Equality vii, 7, 23, 25, 34, 51, 53, 62, 82–83, 86, 90, 102, 120.

Equipment 57, 83, 96–97, 99, 101, 103, 112.

Equity 49, 83.
Ethics 5, 26, 28, 63, 64.

Ethos viii, x, 3, 6, 8, 89, 96, 124.

Evaluation xi, 14, 24, 27, 34, 40, 60, 61, 71–73, 75–77, 92, 111, 113–117,
122, 124–125.

EVS 52.
Facilitator 19, 89, 107, 109, 114.
Faith 7, 8.

Flexibility vii, 4, 21, 23, 24, 46, 60, 67, 75, 102–105, 115.
Fraternity 7, 53, 86.
Freedom iv, xviii, 3, 5, 9, 10, 40, 48, 51, 53, 118.

Furniture 13, 81–83.

Games xviii, 15, 23, 30, 44, 57, 58, 76.
Gender viii, 5, 9,17, 21, 23, 25, 28, 49, 51–53, 59, 66, 83, 85, 94, 99, 103,
110.
Geography 50-51, 53–55.
Globalisation 5, 9.

Grades 22, 42, 48, 52, 76, 97, 122.

Guiding Principles viii, 4, 10, 120.
Habitat 57, 64, 94, 116.

Health and physical education ix, x. 15, 35, 56, 57, 64, 123.
Heritage ix, x, 5, 7, 24, 32, 38, 55–56, 98.
Higher Secondary 43, 45, 57.

HIV/AIDS 17, 57, 58.

 137

Home language 36–38, 92, 103.

Home work 96.
Human Rights 9, 23, 51, 62, 84.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) 49.

Inclusive viii, 13, 14, 17, 26, 55, 68, 84, 99, 100, 103, 117, 122.
Independence vii, 1, 3, 11, 17,24, 54, 104.

In-service 40–41, 102, 107, 111–114, 121–122.

Justice vii, ix, 7, 9, 10, 29, 61, 83, 85, 86, 103, 105, 123.
Kothari Commission 15, 51, 81, 89, 103, 107.

Language Education 36, 38, 40, 41.

Learning Without Burden vii, 2–4.
Liberty 7, 53, 86.

Libraries 39, 41, 70, 90, 91.

Literacy 2, 36-37, 39, 45, 67, 71–72, 99.
Literature 38, 70.

Mariginalisd ix, 6, 60.

Marks iii, 48, 67–68, 75–76, 88, 111, 114, 115, 124.
Material viii, 2, 38, 41,–42, 54, 56, 60, 73, 92, 94, 96, 98, 99, 102, 118.

Mathematics xv, 23, 25, 32, 33, 38, 40, 42, 79, 86, 94, 98, 99, 113.
Mathematics Laboratories 45.
Mental representation 20.

Minority ix, 37, 42, 83–84.

Modern xviii, 37, 45,–46, 53.
Moral 7, 14, 16, 23, 28, 30, 51, 63, 124.

Morning assembly 78, 96.

Mother tongue iii, ix, 3, 8, 36, 37, 67, 92.
Motivation 42, 61, 66, 75, 87, 102.
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Multicultural 2, 7.
Multigrade Class 96, 98.
Multigrade Schools 9.

Multilingualism 36–37.
Music x, 41, 55–56, 64, 66, 73, 96.
Nai Talim 3.

National Identity 5, 7.
National Integration 4.
National policy on education vii, 1, 4, 5.

National System of Education 103.

Native wisdom 5.
National Curriculum Framework for School Education,1988 4.

Norms xi, 17, 62–63, 71, 82–84, 89, 102, 104, 105, 121.
Panchayti Raj 5.

Paradigm ix, 85, 111, 115.

Parents iii, v, vi, xi, 9, 21, 46, 51, 55, 57, 62,–63, 72, 77 113, 120, 124–
125.

Participation vii, xi, 9, 10, 13, 15, 27, 50, 53, 74, 83, 85–88, 92–93, 104, 105,
110, 122.
Peace ix, x, 2, 5, 6, 9, 35, 61–64, 99.

Pedagogy ix, 13, 23, 28, 41, 48, 53, 60, 65, 71, 80, 92, 107, 113, 116.
Physics 64, 70.
Play xviii, 6, 13, 15, 21, 23, 26, 34, 35, 41,–43, 46, 54, 58, 59, 67, 78,
81, 90, 94, 104, 106, 109, 111, 114, 121, 122.
Plurality iii, viii, 3, 53, 66, 67, 100, 103, 122.
Political Science 50–51, 53, 65.

Polity viii, 5, 6, 7, 33, 51.

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Practices 5, 10, 13, 21, 27, 31, 33, 46, 58, 66, 75, 81, 82, 84, 85, 90, 101,
102, 105, 106, 111, 112, 114, 120–122, 124.
Pre-primary 44, 56, 60.

Pre-service 41, 57, 102, 107, 111, 113, 114.

Primary 37, 38, 42–44, 57.
Psychology 53.

Professionalisation 102, 108.

Psychomotor 48, 117.
Quality vii, viii, xi, 7, 9, 22, 26, 31, 42, 43, 55, 56, 66, 67, 69, 72, 73, 75,
80–84, 92, 93, 102–106, 112, 114–116, 120–124.
Question iii, xi, 14, 20, 21, 28, 29, 34, 43, 61, 63, 74, 107, 114.
Religion viii, 23, 49, 96.

Rights 23, 52, 62, 81, 83–85, 87, 88, 97.

Rural v, vii, xi, 20, 46, 49, 53, 66, 83, 91–93, 105, 114, 115, 117, 118,
Sanskrit vi, 36, 37.

SC ix, 23, 53, 82, 83.

Science v, viii, ix, xii, xiii, xv, 19, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 38, 42, 44, 46, 48, 79,
84, 93, 95, 100, 107, 122, 124, 125.

Scientific Temper 50.

Secondary v, xi, xiv, xvi, xvii, 14, 40, 43, 48, 57, 68, 93, 94, 97, 102, 105,
107, 112, 117, 118, 122.

Secondary Education Commission 94.

Secularism 53, 83 84, 120.
Sharing 14, 20, 30, 61, 88, 89, 113, 119–121.

Skills iv, viii, 14, 15, 20, 21, 23, 25, 27, 30–32, 37–41, 44, 48, 50, 56, 59,
67, 72, 76, 79, 87, 108, 111, 112, 115–119.
Social Science viii, ix, xvi, 25, 32, 50, 51, 53, 112.

Sociology xiii, 50, 53.

ST ix, 2, 23, 82.
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Stereotype 17, 23, 96.

Stigmatisation 18.
Syllabi viii, 40, 41, 49, 51, 58, 70, 84, 107, 122, 125.

Teacher Education x, xi, xvii, 6, 39, 40, 56, 57, 64.

Test 21, 72 74, 76, 78, 115, 116.
Textbooks viii, xvii, 2–4, 8, 14, 41, 49, 51, 72–74, 89–90, 92, 94, 95, 102,
103, 119, 120, 122, 124.
Theatre 41, 55, 56.
Time iii, iv, x, xvi, 1, 7, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 24, 25, 26, 29, 31, 32, 35, 38,
41, 43, 44, 51, 55–56, 58, 60, 64–65, 71, 73, 74, 76, 103, 113–
115, 117–122.
Time Table 98.

University v, xii, xiii, 65, 122.

Urban 9, 10, 46, 53, 66, 106.
Values vii, x, 1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 22, 23, 25, 29, 30, 34, 35, 41, 48, 51–52,
60–64, 66, 102, 107, 108, 116, 120.
Vocational Education and Training (VET) xvii, 117.
Work as a Pedagogic Medium 116.

Work–centered education 101, 116, 117.

Yoga 15, 56–58, 73.