CH 1
CH 1
CH 1
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.1 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Management System (DBMS)
What is a DBMS?
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Database Management System (DBMS)
DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise
Collection of interrelated data
Set of programs to access the data
An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
Database Applications:
Banking: transactions
Airlines: reservations, schedules
Universities: registration, grades
Sales: customers, products, purchases
Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
Databases touch all aspects of our lives
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
University Database Example
What are some examples of Application program?
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University Database Example
Application program examples
Add new students, instructors, and courses
Register students for courses, and generate class rosters
Assign grades to students, compute grade point averages (GPA)
and generate transcripts
In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of
file systems
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Purpose of Database Systems
Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:
Data redundancy and inconsistency
Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files
Difficulty in accessing data
Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
Data isolation — multiple files and formats
Integrity problems
Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become
“buried” in program code rather than being stated explicitly
Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Purpose of Database Systems (Cont.)
Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)
Atomicity of updates
Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial
updates carried out
Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should
either complete or not happen at all
Concurrent access by multiple users
Concurrent access needed for performance
Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
– Example: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and updating
it by withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time
Security problems
Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data
Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems
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Levels of Abstraction
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Levels of Abstraction
Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored.
Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships
among the data.
type instructor = record
ID : string;
name : string;
dept_name : string;
salary : integer;
end;
View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can
also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security
purposes.
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Instances and Schemas
Similar to types and variables in programming languages
Schema – the logical structure of the database
Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and
accounts and the relationship between them
Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
Physical schema: database design at the physical level
Logical schema: database design at the logical level
Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
Analogous to the value of a variable
Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema without
changing the logical schema
Applications depend on the logical schema
In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should be
well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Data Models
What is a Data Model? And why have these?
Relational model
Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
Semistructured data model (XML)
Other older models:
Network model
Hierarchical model
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Data Models
A collection of tools for describing
Data
Data relationships
Data semantics
Data constraints
Relational model
Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
Semistructured data model (XML)
Other older models:
Network model
Hierarchical model
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Relational Model
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Relational Model
Relational model (Chapter 2)
Columns
Example of tabular data in the relational model
Rows
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A Sample Relational Database
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Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the
appropriate data model
DML also known as query language
Two classes of languages
Procedural – user specifies what data is required and how to get
those data (relational algebra)
Declarative (nonprocedural) – user specifies what data is
required without specifying how to get those data (SQL)
SQL is the most widely used query language
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data dictionary
Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
Database schema
Integrity constraints
Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)
Referential integrity (references constraint in SQL)
– e.g. dept_name value in any instructor tuple must appear in
department relation
Authorization ~ read, insert, update, delete
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
SQL
SQL: widely used non-procedural language
Example: Find the name of the instructor with ID 22222
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Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of the database:
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Design?
Is there any problem with this design?
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Design Approaches
Normalization Theory (Chapter 8)
Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them
Entity Relationship Model (Chapter 7)
Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is
distinguishable from other objects
– Described by a set of attributes
Relationship: an association among several entities
Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The Entity-Relationship Model
Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is distinguishable
from other objects
Described by a set of attributes
Relationship: an association among several entities
Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The Entity-Relationship Model
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Object-Relational Data Models
Relational model: flat, “atomic” values.
Atomic is sometimes hard to understand.
Object Relational Data Models
Extend the relational data model by including object orientation
and constructs to deal with added data types.
Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non-
atomic values such as nested relations.
Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative
access to data, while extending modeling power.
Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
XML: Extensible Markup Language
Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
Originally intended as a document markup language not a
database language
The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures
made XML a great way to exchange data, not just documents
XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange
formats.
A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and
querying XML documents/data
<bank>
<account>
<number> A-101 </number>
<balance> 3000 </balance>
</account>
<account>
<number> A-101 </number>
<balance> 5000 </balance>
</account>
</bank>
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
XML: Extensible Markup Language
<bank>
<account>
<number> A-101 </number>
<balance> 3000 </balance>
</account>
<account>
<number> A-101 </number>
<balance> 5000 </balance>
</account>
<account>
….
</account>
</bank>
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database System Internals
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Storage Management
Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface
between the low-level data stored in the database and the application
programs and queries submitted to the system.
The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
Interaction with the file manager
Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
Issues:
Storage access
File organization
Indexing and hashing
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Query Processing
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Query Processing
Alternate ways of evaluating a given query
Equivalent expressions
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Query Processing
Alternate ways of evaluating a given query
Equivalent expressions
Customer (id, address info); Balance (id, amount)
Print addresses of customers with balance > 2000
Different algorithms for each operation
How many seeks? Get to first block; transfer data. Data not
contiguous? (more seeks).
Using an index? Binary search?
Cost difference between good and bad way of query evaluation
can be enormous
Need to estimate cost of operations
Statistical information about relations which a database
maintains
Estimates for complex expressions
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Transaction Management
What if the system fails?
What if more than one user is concurrently updating the same data?
A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical
function in a database application.
Read (A);
A = A + 50;
Write (A);
Read (B);
B = B - 50;
Write (B);
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Architecture
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Users and Administrators
Database
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
History of Database Systems
1950s and early 1960s:
Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
Tapes provided only sequential access
Punched cards for input
Late 1960s and 1970s:
Hard disks allowed direct access to data
Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
Ted Codd defines the relational data model
Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
IBM Research begins System R prototype
UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
High-performance (for the era) transaction processing
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
History (cont.)
1980s:
Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
SQL becomes industrial standard
Parallel and distributed database systems
Object-oriented database systems
1990s:
Large decision support and data-mining applications
Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
Emergence of Web commerce
Early 2000s:
XML and XQuery standards
Automated database administration
Later 2000s:
Giant data storage systems
Google BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon, ..
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
End of Chapter 1
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Figure 1.02
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Figure 1.04
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Figure 1.06
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan