O Level Chemistry Notes

Copyrights AF/PS/2009/2010 0
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GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010 Volumes of Gases

CHEMISTRY (5070) Measured with gas syringe, up to 100 cm3
Name: _____________________________________ Date: ____________
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- Temperature
CHAPTER 1 – EXPERIMENTAL CHEMISTRY Measured with thermometer. 2 types are:
1.1 Experimental Design a) Mercury-in-glass
Volumes of Liquids b) Alcohol-in-glass
SI unit: cubic metre (m3) SI Unit: Kelvin (K)
Large volume measurement: decimetres (dm3) Daily life measurement: degree Celcius (oC)
1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3 K = oC + 273
Daily life measurement: millilitres (ml) or litres(l)
1 litre = 1 000 ml Time
Apparatus for measuring liquids depends on: SI Unit: seconds (s)
- The volume being measured Other Units: minutes (min)/hour (h)
- How accurate the measurement needs to be Measured with:
(a) Clock
- Beaker hold approximate volume of 100 cm3 and 250 cm3. (b) Digital stopwatch
- Conical flask hold approximate volume of 100 cm3 and 250 cm3.
- Measuring cylinder has accuracy to 1 cm3. Mass
- Reading to be taken nearer to the meniscus (bottom line). Mass – the measure of amount of matter in a substance
- If reading is 23 cm3, should not write 23.0 cm3 as the ‘0’ means accurate to SI Unit: kilogram (kg)
0.1 cm3. Other Units: grams (g)/milligrams (mg)
- Burette has long scale of 0 – 50 cm3, accurate to 0.1 cm3. Large volume measurements: tonnes (t)
- Liquid level to be measured before and after tap opening. The difference of 1 tonne = 1 000 kg
volume gives the liquid volume poured off. Measured with:
- Bulb pipette measures exact volumes such as 20.0, 25.0 or 50.0 cm3, not odd (a) Electric “top-pan” balance
volumes such as 31.0 cm3. (b) Triple beam balance
1.2 Methods of Purification and Analysis

Pure substance – single substance not mixed with anything else
E.g: white sugar, copper sulfate crystals, distilled water
Mixture – contains two or more substances. Its quantity is more on Earth.

E.g: seawater (salt, water & dissolved solids), milk (fats & dissolved solids)
2.2 Obtaining Pure Substances

Purification – The seperation process of mixtures into pure substances by using
physical methods without chemical reactions.
Why crystallisation occur?
Filtration - Solubility of most solutes decrease as temperature decrease, when
Filtration – separates insoluble solid from a liquid. solution cools, solution can’t hold more solute (saturated) so the extra
- Mixture is poured through a filter with tiny holes made of paper. solute separates as pure crystals.
- Large solid particles cannot pass through the pores and trapped in it as
residue while tiny liquid particles pass through as filtrate. Sublimation
Sublimation – separation of a mixture of solids which one of it sublimes (by heating
the solid mixture to turn one of the substance into vapour without going through
liquid state).
When mixture of iodine and sand is heated, iodine sublimes (turns into vapour
directly) then cools and crystallise when it reaches cold water area
Crystallisation & Evaporation to Dryness Examples of sublimable solids: CO2 (s), dry FeCl3 (s), dry AlCl3 (s)
Crystallisation – separation of dissolved solid from a solution as well-formed
crystals Simple Distillation
Evaporation to Dryness – seperation of dissolved solid from a solution as crystals of Simple Distillation – separation of pure liquid from a solution by condensing
salt by evaporating all the liquid off. vaporised liquid
FULL OVERVIEW PROCESS ON THE RIGHT: Condensed pure liquid – distillate
Diagram and Distillation Graph
Process of Distillation: Uses of fractional distillation:

Solution is heated, and steam (pure vapour) is produced. The steam is cooled in - Separates pure oxygen and pure nitrogen from liquefied air
condenser to form pure liquid. Solute remains in the flask. - Separates substances in petroleum (crude oil) into fractions
- Separates alcohol to produce alcoholic drinks
Fractional Distillation Reverse Osmosis
Fractional Distillation – separates mixture of miscible (soluble) liquids with widely Reverse Osmosis – separates a solution (e.g. seawater) by pressurizing the mixture
differing boiling points. against a membrane which separates the solute and the solvent
Use of fractionationg column separates them
Process of Fractional Distillation: E.g. ethanol and water
Mixture of ethanol and water is placed in flask and heated. Ethanol with lower
boiling point boils and vaporises first and reach fractionating column then cools
and condenses into ethanol as it passes through condenser. Temperature will stay
constant until all ethanol is distilled. Water will distil the same way after all ethanol
is distilled.
- Seawater is pumped under great pressure into a closed container onto a - 2 comparison dyes are of one of the compositions of the
membrane forcing water particles but salt particles to pass through. original dye as the spots are of same colour and distance.
Some salt particles may still pass through. - a comparison dye isn’t part of sample.
Use of Separating Funnel Separating and Identifying Mixtures of Colourless Substances

Separating Funnel is used to separate immiscible liquids To do this a locating agent is to be sprayed on filter paper.
Locating Agent – a substance that reacts with substances (e.g. sugars) on paper to
- two liquids insoluble to each other will create two layers procuce a coloured product.
of overlying liquids of each type. To separate, take the
stopper off and turn the tap on to run the denser liquid Rf Values
at the bottom off the funnel and leave the less dense To identify unknown dye in the diagram at the very top:
liquid in the funnel by turning the tap off and reset the Rf value =
stopper at its original position.
Where x = distance moved by the substance and;
y = distance moved by the solvent
Chromatography
Chromatography – a method of separating and identifying mixtures.
Checking the Purity of Substances
The need for Chromatography
- Pure substances have FIXED MELTING AND BOILING POINTS.
- Separates and identify mixtures of coloured substances in dyes
 Pure water boils at 100oC and melts at 0oC.
- Separates substances in urine, drugs & blood for medicinal uses
- To find out whether athletes have been using banned drugs
- Impure substances have NO FIXED MELTING AND BOILING POINTS. They melt and
boil at a RANGE OF TEMPERATURES
Separating Mixtures of Coloured Substances
 e.g. starts boil at 70oC, completes boil at 78oC
Obtain a dye sample then put a drop of the sample on a pencil line drawn on the
 Also, it can VARY melting and boiling points of pure substances.
filter paper then dip the paper into a solvent with the level below the spot. The dye
 e.g. pure water boil at 100oC, but with salt is at 102oC
will dissolve in solvent and travel up the paper at different speed. Hence they are
separated.
1.3 Identification of Ions and Gases
Refer to Insert 1. Everything lies there.
Identifying Mixturees of Coloured Substances
END OF CHAPTER 1
In the diagram on the right, drop of sample dye is placed on pencil line. The result
shows that:
- The sample dye is made of 3 colours.
CHAPTER 2 – THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER Diffusion of gases

2.1 Kinetic Particle Theory Bromine drops are placed into a jar. Another jar full of air
Matter – anything that has mass and takes up space. Three forms – solids, liquids, is placed on top of jar with bromine, separated with
gas. cover. Cover is removed and bromine evaporates, filling
both jars with dense reddish-brown bromine vapour.
SOLIDS Explanation:
- fixed volume Bromine particles move from lower jar into spaces between air particles in upper
- fixed shape jar. At the same time, air particles move down from upper jar to mix with bromine
- incompressible particles in lower jar. Eventually, bromine and air particles are mixed completely.
- do not flow
Diffusion of liquids
LIQUIDS CuSO4 crystals placed in beaker of water, blue
- fixed volume particles of the crystals is spread throughout
- no fixed shape – takes the shape of container the water to form uniformly blue solution.
- incompressible
- flow easily
GASES Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion

- no fixed volume - Temperature
- no fixed shape The higher the temperature, the more particles of matter absorb energy making
- compressible them move faster, the higher the rate of diffusion; the lower the temperature,
- flow in all direction the slower the rate of diffusion
- Mass of particles
The Kinetic Particle Theory of Matter Greater mass, the slower it diffuses; Smaller mass, the faster it diffuses
- particles are too small to be seen directly
- there are spaces between particles of matter; the amount of space varies
between each states
- the particles are constantly move; each state moves in different speed A cotton soaked in aqueous ammonia and another soaked in hydrochloric acid
are placed on opposite sides of the tube. NH4OH vapor and HCl vapor diffuses in
the tube and a compound is produced inside the tube closer to HCl soaked
DIFFUSION cotton as the particles are heavier. The greater mass, the slower particles diffuse.
Diffusion is the spreading and mixing of particles in gases and liquids. The smaller mass, the faster particles diffuse.
Particulate Models of Matter Freezing

Solid Liquid Gas Freezing is the change of liquid to solid by cooling down of liquid.
Freezing point is the temperature at which liquid freezes.
A-B: liquid temperature decreases to freezing point.
B-C: heat energy is released as particles slow down to
take up fixed and orderly position of a solid. The
Particles in solid: Particles in liquid: Particles in gas:
- Are packed close - Are packed closely but - Are far apart and in temperature remain constant release of energy
together in orderly not orderly arranged random arrangement compensates for loss of heat to surroundings.
arrangement - Have little empty - Are free to move C-D: solid cools to the temperature of surroundings.
- Have little empty space space between them anywhere in the
between them but more than in solids container Boiling
- Can vibrate but cannot - Are not held fixed but
Boiling is the change of liquid to gas by absorbing heat to break the forces holding
move freely about free to move
their fixed position throughout liquid them together.
Boiling point is the temperature at which liquid boils.
Differences between properties of matter and particles in them.
1. Matter can be coloured (e.g. sulphur is yellow) but particles are not. A-B: liquid temperature rises to boiling point.
2. Substances feels hot/cold but particles don’t get hot/cold. The temperature is B-C: heat energy is absorbed by particles to break the
due to speed of movement of particles. If hot, particles move fast. attractive forces so that they move freely and far
3. Matter expands when heated but particles don’t. They increase distance apart as gas particles. That’s why the temperature
between particles during expansion. remain constant
Changes of State
Melting Evaporation
Melting is change from solid to liquid by absorbing heat Evaporation is change of liquid to gas without boiling, occurs below boiling point
to break force of attraction holding particles together. on water surface. It gives cooling effect – heat energy absorbed from surroundings.
The temperature at which solid melts is melting point.
From the graph: Condensation
A-B: the temperature of solid increases to melting point. Condensation is the change of gas to liquid. Heat energy is given out as gas
B-C: the temperature remains constant as heat is particles slow down and move closer to one another to form liquid.
absorbed to break forces of attraction instead for
raising temperature. Solid and liquid are present. Sublimation is the change of solid to gas without melting. Heat is absorbed.
C-D: liquid heats as heat energy increases temperature.
2.2 Atomic Structure ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Atoms contain PROTONS, NEUTRONS, and ELECTRONS Electrons are placed in orbits. First shell contains maximum 2 electrons. Second
Protons have positive charge while neutrons has neutral charge but same mass as shell and so and so for has maximum of 8 electrons.
protons. Since an atom is electrically neutral, electrons has to carry a negative
charge and the amount of electrons is the same as the amount of protons.
Particle Symbol Relative mass Charge
Proton p 1 +1
Neutron n 1 0
To write electronic configuration we write as n.n.n.... where first n denotes the first
Electron e– -1
shell, second the second shell and so and so for.
Protons and neutrons are located in nucleus. These make up nucleon number. E.g. Sulfur has electronic configuration of 2.8.6
Electrons move around nucleus in an orbit called electron shells.
The valence electrons is the number of electrons of the outermost shell. Sulphur
has 6 valence electrons.
Relation with Periodic Table
Elements in same horizontal row: Period
PROTON NUMBER is the number of protons in an atom. Elements in same vertical column: Group
NUCLEON NUMBER is the number of protons and neutrons in nucleus of an atom. Group 1 has 1 valency, Group 2 has 2 valency, Group 3 has 3 valency and so on.
Therefore, to find the number of neutrons, we subtract proton number from Group 0 has full valency which makes it having stable electronic configuration.
nucleon number, i.e.: Nucleon number – Proton number = Neutrons Down the period the number of shells increases.
ELECTRONS have the same number as protons to balance the charges.
ISOTOPES are atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons.
Therefore, their nucleon number is different.
E.g. Hydrogen atoms has 3 isotopes, , and . Structurally, it’s drawn:
2.3 Structure and Properties of Materials e.g. seawater is made up of water and NaCl (salt); oxygen in air varies.
Elements
Element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical nor physical methods.
Classifying Elements
- Classifying by state. E.g. some elements are solids, some liquids, some gases.
- Classifying by metals and non-metals. E.g. most elements are metals, semi-metals
are metalloids (having properties of metals & non-metals), some are non-metals
- Classifying by periodicity.From left-right elements change from metal to non-metal
2.4 Ionic Bonding
COMPOSITION OF ELEMENTS Ionic bonding is the transfer of electrons from one atom to another to become
Elements are made of atoms achieve an inert gas configuration, forming ions.
Atom is smallest unit of an element, having properties of that element. Ionic bonds are formed between METALLIC and NON- METALLIC ATOMS ONLY.
Molecule is group of two or more atoms chemically joined together, e.g. chlorine - Metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations)
molecule has 2 chlorine atoms - Non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions (anions)
Chemical formula shows the number and kinds of atoms in a molecule, e.g. The formation of ions is resulted from transfer of atoms from one atom to another
chlorine molecule has formula Cl2, where Cl is chlorine symbol and the subscript atom(s), which the ions produced are of opposite charges, and unlike charges
number (2) shows that there are 2 atoms in a chlorine gas molecule. attract, causing them to be held together with a strong force.
E.g. Formation of NaCl
Compounds
Compound is substance containing 2 or more elements chemically joined together
e.g. Magnesium is an element; oxygen is an element – they can only be burnt to
form magnesium oxide compound.
COMPOSITION OF COMPOUNDS
Ions or molecules make up compounds Sodium atom loses an electron by transferring the electron to chlorine atom,
Ions are atoms having electrical charge making both stable. The loss of electron forms cation, Na+, and the gain of electron
E.g. NaCl made up of 2 ions; positively charged Na, negatively charged Cl. forms anion, Cl-. The opposite charges acquired by both ions attract to each other,
forming a strong ionic bond of NaCl.
Mixtures
Mixture contains 2 or more substances not chemically joined together.
E.g. Formation of MgF2 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF IONIC BONDS

Structure
Ionic substances appear as giant lattice structures which
the ions are held together by electrostatic force
between oppositely charged ions. To find the formula of
ionic bond, say sodium chloride bond, by looking at
lattice structure, we count the ratio of amount of metal
ions to non-metal ions. E.g. in sodium chloride, the ratio
Na:Cl is 1:1, therefore the ionic formula is NaCl.
Sodium atom loses two electrons by transferring the electrons to fluorine atoms, Properties
one each, making both stable. The loss of electron forms cation, Mg2+, as it loses 2 1. Ionic compounds are hard crystalline solids with flat sides and regular shapes
electrons, and the gain of electron forms anion, F-. The opposite charges acquired because the ions are arrnged in straight rows in strong ionic bonds.
by both ions attract to each other, forming a strong ionic bond of MgF2. 2. Ionic compounds have very high melting points and boiling points.
3. The strong forces holding ionic compounds prevents them to evaporate easily.
Deducing formula ionic compounds Hence, ionic compounds have no smell.
We can know the charge of elements by looking at groups of periodic table. Group 4. Solid ionic compounds don’t conduct electricity but they do when they are
I to group III elements has charge of +1, increasing to +3, going to the right. Group aqueous or molten. This is because in liquid/aqueous state the ions which
V to group VII elements has charge of -3, decreasing to -1, going to the right. conduct electricity are free to move. In solids, these ions are fixed in place.
E.g. Aluminium sulfate 5. Ionic compounds are soluble in water but insoluble in organic compounds. This is
We have to balance the charges to make a stable bond because the ions attract water molecules which distrupts the crystal structure,
Ions present: Al3+ SO42- causing them separate & go into solution. Vice versa is when in organic solvent.
Al3+ SO42-
SO42- 2.5 Covalent Bonding
Total change: 6+ 6- Covalent bonding is the sharing a pair of electrons to gain electronic configuration
Therefore, the formula is Al2(SO4)3 of an inert gas, usually for molecules.
Covalent bonds occur between NON-METALLIC ATOMS ONLY.
1. The symbol of metal ion should always be first, e.g. NaCl
2. Polyatomic ion should be placed in brackets, e.g. Fe(NO3)2 In covalent bond, WE TRY TO SUBTITUTE THE SHORT OF ELECTRONS OF
TWO/MORE ATOMS BETWEEN EACH OTHER TO FORM THE 2 OR 8 VALENCE
ELECTRONS. THE SHARED ELECTRONS APPEAR IN PAIRS!
E.g. H2 molecule E.g. H2O molecule
Hydrogen atom has one valency. To become stable with hydrogen atom, it needs
one more electron, just like helium which has 2 valency. When 2 hydrogen atoms
join, they share their electrons, on which, the share becomes 2 electrons, which is
Apart from oxygen sharing between oxygen atoms, it can have electrons with other
now a noble gas configuration, being shared between these 2 atoms. We write the
atoms. Oxygen needs 2 electrons and when bonded with hydrogen, which need an
bond as H – H single bond, which means they share an electron pair (2 electrons).
atom each, they combine to provide 2 electrons on both sides of oxygen bonded
with hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen with oxygen atom form a single bond: O – H.
E.g. Cl2 molecule
E.g. CO2 molecule
Cl atom has 7 valency and needs one electron, each, to form a noble gas
configuration between two Cl atoms. Hence they share an electron EACH to hence Carbon needs 4, oxygen needs 2. We share two from oxygen part, WHICH HAS THE
share 2 electrons between the atoms. Hence, each Cl atom now has 8 valency SMALLEST NUMBER OF SHORT ELECTRONS, TO SHARE THE AMOUNT OF
which is a noble gas configuration. ELECTRONS THAT ATOM NEEDS, to form 4 shared atoms. Now oxygen is stable but
carbon needs 2 more, which we now know they can get from another oxygen
E.g.O2 molecule atom. The atoms are now stable and since each bond has 2 pairs of electrons, we
call this double bond: C = O.
A pair of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms SINGLE BOND, X – Y.

Two pairs of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms DOUBLE BOND, X = Y.
An O atom has 6 valency and needs 2 electrons, each, to form a noble gas Three pairs of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms TRIPLE BOND, X  Y.
configuration. Hence, EACH SHARE THE AMOUNT OF ELECTRONS EACH SHORT OF,
in this case – 2 electrons, to form stable molecule. The contribution hence now This information is important when you want to know the bond forces between
become 4 electrons and what left on each oxygen atom is 4 electrons. We combine atoms in exothermic/endothermic reactions.
each 4 electrons on oxygen atom with the 4 electrons shared and hence we get 8
valency for each oxygen atom – a noble gas configuration!
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF COVALENT BONDS 2.6 Metallic Bonding

Structure Metallic bonding is bonding within atoms of metals caused by attractive force
Giant Covalent Bond between positively charged metal ions and negatively charged free electrons. The
Diamond atoms are packed closely together in giant lattice structures.
Diamond has carbon atoms bonded with another carbon atoms in a tetrahedral
arrangement which each carbon atom uses all its valence electrons to form 4 single BOND FORMING
covalent bonds with other 4 carbon atoms. Each atom in metal gives up valence electrons to form positive ions. There are free
electrons moving between the spaces and positive metal ions are attracted to the
Silicon Dioxide sea of electrons which hold the atoms together.
Silicon dioxide, SiO2, has silicon atoms bonded with another oxygen atoms in a
tetrahedral arrangement which each silicon atom uses all its valence electrons to STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF METALLIC BONDS
form 4 single covalent bonds with other 4 oxygen atoms. 1. Metals can be bent (ductile) and can be stretched (malleable) because the
layers of atoms in metals slide over each other when force is applied but will
Graphite not break due to attractive force between electrons and metal ions.
Graphite has flat layers of carbon atoms bonded strongly in hexagonal 2. Metals conduct electricity as it has free electrons which carries current.
arrangement in which the layers are bonded to each other weakly. 3. Metals conduct heat as it has free electrons which gains energy when heated
and moves faster to collide with metal atoms, releasing heat in collisions.
4. Metals have high melting and boiling points because the bonds between
metals is very strong. Hence very high heat energy needed to break the bonds.
2.7 Simple Molecular Substances

1. Simple molecular substances are usually liquids/gases at r.t.p. because the
molecules are not tightly bonded like in solids, hence free to move.
2. They have low melting and boiling points because the force of attraction is weak
Properties that they can be easily broken by heat.
1. It is a hard solid because it consists of many strong covalent bonds between 3. Since they have low boiling points, they evaporate easily.
atoms. This property makes it suitable as abrasives. 4. They don’t conduct electricity because they don’t have free electrons/ions which
2. It has very high melting and boiling points. helps to conduct electricity.
3. It does not conduct electricity (except graphite) because there are no free 5. Most of these are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent.
electrons in covalent bonds since they are used to form bonds; hence electrons
are in fixed positions. To conduct electricity, there must be free electrons. END OF CHAPTER 2
4. All covalent structures are insoluble in water.
CHAPTER 3 – FORMULAE, STOICHIOMETRY AND THE MOLE CONCEPT Mr(Fe2O3) = 2(56) + 3(16) = 160
3.1 Relative Atomic Mass Percentage of Fe in Fe2O3 = x 100 %
Comparing Atomic Masses with the Carbon Atom
To compare to a carbon atom, a carbon-12 atom is used. The mass of the isotope is = x 100%
12 times greater than hydrogen atom so of carbon-12 atoms is equivalent to the = 70%
Mr(Fe3O4) = 3(56) + 4(16) = 232
mass of one hydrogen atom.
Relative Atomic Mass - the average mass of one atom of the element (averaging Percentage of Fe in Fe2O3 = x 100 %
isotopes) when compared with mass of a carbon-12 atom. = x 100%
Ar = = 72%
 Fe3O4 has more iron composition than that of Fe2O3.
In short is:
Calculating the Mass of an Element in a Compound
Ar = Use the example of Fe2O3 in the example above. The percentage mass of iron in
iron(III) oxide is 70%. Therefore to calculate mass of iron in a 200g compound of
The Relative Atomic Masses are already stated on the periodic table above each iron(III) oxide is (0.7 x 200)g = 140g
chemical formula. e.g. Determine the mass of iron in 200g of Fe2O3.
Mr(Fe2O3)= 2(56) + 3(16) = 160
3.2 Relative Molecular Mass and Relative Formula Mass
Mass of Fe in Fe2O3 = x 200g
Using Ar, we calculate Relative Masses of molecules and ionic compounds
Relative Molecular Mass = x 200g
Molecules containes atoms joined together, e.g. Cl2 = 140g
Average mass (molecular mass) of Cl2= add relative masses of both atoms. Calculating the Mass of Water in a Compound
Relative Molecular Mass – the average mass of one molecule of substance Compound with water mass is ‘hydrated’ and has H2O in their formula.
(averaging isotopes) when compared with mass of a carbon-12 atom. e.g. Calculate water mass in 12.5g hydrated copper sulfate, CuSO4 5H2O
In short: Mr = Mass of 5H2O in CuSO4 5H2O = x mass of sample
Relative Formula Mass– same as relative molecular mass but for ions only = x 12.5g
Relative Formula Mass– total Ar of all atoms in formula of ionic compound = 4.5g
e.g. Relative formula mass of MgSO4? MOLE
Mr = 24 + 32 + 4(16) = 120 3.4 Counting Particles
3.3 Percentage Composition Unit for particles = mole
e.g. Determine which oxides of iron of Fe2O3 or Fe3O4 has more iron. Symbol = mol
Solution next page 1 mol = 6 x 1023 atoms
3.5 Moles of Particles e.g. Argon Fluorohydride gas, HArF, first known noble gas compound, has molar
Calculating the Number of Moles mass of 60g. Find the number of moles Argon atom in 6.66g of HArF.
n= n (HArF) =
e.g 1: How many molecules in 6 x 1024 molecules of water, H2O? = 0.111 mol
n= n (Ar) = 0.111 mol x 1 Ar atom in HArF
= 0.111 mol
= 5 mol
e.g 2: Calculate the number of molecules in 0.25 mole of CO2. Hence, how many
3.7 Different Kinds of Chemical Formulae
atoms are present?
Ethene formula is C2H6
0.25mol = Molecular Formula – shows the actual formula and kinds of atoms present, e.g.
Number of particles = 0.25 mol x 6 x 1023 C2H6
= 1.5 x 1023 molecules Empirical Formula – shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms present,
Number of atoms = total number of atoms in CO2 x noumber of particles e.g. C2H6, ratio 1:3, therefore C1H3, simply CH3
= 3 x 1.5 x 1023 Structural Formula – shows how atoms are joined in the molecule. It can be
= 4.5 x 1023 atoms represented by ball-and-stick model or diagrammatically.
Ball-and-Stick Diagrammatic
3.6 Molar Mass
Molar mass – the mass of one mole of any substances
For substances consisting of atoms
It is the Ar of the element in grams. Eg. Ar(C) = 12, molar mass = 12g
For substances consisting of molecules
It is the Ar of the substance in grams. Eg. Ar(H2O) = 18, molar mass = 18g Calculating the Empirical Formula of a Compound
For substances consisting of ions Find the empirical formula of an oxide of magnesium consisting of 0.32g of oxygen
It is the Ar of substance in grams. Eg. Ar(NaCl)= 58.5, molar mass= 58.5g and 0.96g of magnesium.
Calculations Using Molar Mass Step 1: find the number of moles of the 2 elements.
n= n(Mg) = n(O) =
= 0.04 mol = 0.02 mol
e.g. Find the mass of 0.4 mol of iron atom. Step 2: Divide the moles by the smallest number.
n= Mg = O=
m = n x Mr =2 =1
m = 0.4 x 56 = 22.4 g Therefore, the empirical formula is Mg2O
Calculating the Empirical Formula from Percentage Composition e.g. What is the number of moles of 240cm3 of Cl2 at r.t.p.?
An oxide of sulphur consists of 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen. n=
Take the total 100% to be 100g.
Step 1: find the number of moles of the 2 elements. = (or using dm3)
n(S) = n(O) = = 0.01 mol

Molar Volume and Molar Mass
= 1.25 mol = 3.75 mol
Gases have same volume but not necessarily same mass
Step 2: Divide the moles by the smallest number.
Example: Hydrogen -> 2g, Carbon Dioxide -> 44g
S= O=
=1 =3 e.g. Find the volume of 7g of N2 at r.t.p.
Therefore, the empirical formula is SO3 Step 1: Find the number of moles from the mass of nitrogen
n= = 0.25 mol
From Empirical formula to Molecular Formula
Step 2: Find the volume of nitrogen, now with formula of gas
Find the molecular formula of propene, CH2, having molecular mass of 42.
Molecular formula will be CnH2n 0.25 mol =
Relative molecular mass = 12n(from carbon Ar) + 2n(2 x hydrogen Ar) = 14n Volume of gas = 0.25 mol x 24
14 n = 42 Therefore, C3H6 = 6 dm3 (or 6000cm3)
n= =3 3.9 Concentration of Solutions
Concentration of solution tells the number of solute in a volume of solution
3.8 Molar Volume of Gases
( ) ( )
The Avogadro’s Law Concentration (C) =
Equal volume of gases at same temperature and volume contain equal number of
Calculating the Amount of Solute
particles or molecules.
Moles of solute (n) = Concentration ( ) x Volume of solution (dm3)
Molar Volume of Gas – volume occupied by one mole of gas
All gases at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.) = 24dm3 e.g. What is the mass of solute in 600cm3 of 1.5 NaOH solution?
1dm3 = 1000cm3 3
Volume of solution in dm = 0.60 dm 3
Formulae: n = 1.5 x 0.60

Number of moles of a gas (n) = = 0.9 mol
Volume of a gas = Number of moles (n) x Molar volume (Mr) Number of moles of NaOH =
0.9 =
m = 0.9 x 40
= 36g
CALCULATIONS USING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 3.11 Calculations from Equations

3.10 Constructing Chemical Equations Reacting Masses
E.g. 1: Reaction Between Hydrogen and Oxygen In every equation, each atom is rational to each other. Suppose we want to find
Word Equation: Oxygen + Hydrogen  Water moles of X atoms that reacted to form 0.25 mole of Y atoms. We always put the
To write the chemical equation, we use symbols of atoms/molecules: atom we want to find as numerator and the denominator being the atom we know.
O2 + H2  H2O E.g. X + 2Z  2Y
BUT THIS IS IMBALANCED! A BALANCED EQUATION MUST HAVE THE SAME Find the ratio first:
NUMBER OF ATOMS OF EACH ELEMENTS ON BOTH SIDES! THEREFORE...
O2 + H2  H2O
O H H Then multiply the ratio by no. of moles of Y to find the reacting mole of X.
O H H x 0.25 = 0.125 mole
O Therefore 0.125 mole of X reacted with 0.25 mole of Y. To find the reacting mass of
From above, we know that H2O is short 1 oxygen atom. Therefore we multiply X, e.g. Y is given as 35g, we just multiply the mole by the mass of Y as they are
product by 2 first. Note: all atoms in molecules are automatically multiplied by 2. always in ratio:
O2 + H2  2H2O 0.125 x 35 = 4.375 g
O H H
O H H Reacting Masses and Volumes
H First, find the ratio of moles and multiply the mole of the gas volume you want to
H find with the volume of gas at room temperature (24dm3)
O Example
O MgCl2 is formed by reacting Mg and HCl according to equation:
Now we can cancel off oxygen atoms. However, hydrogen atoms from reactant is Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(s) + H2(g)
short 2 atoms. Therefore, we multiply the hydrogen molecule by 2 so that the short Find the amount of hydrogen gas, in cm3, formed when 14.6g of HCl is reacted.
is balanced. The equation is fully balanced when we are able to cancel off all atoms Ratio: =
of that element on both sides.
m(HCl) =
O2 + 2H2  2H2O
O H H =0.4 mol
O H H Multiply ratio by mole of HCl = x 0.4 = 0.2 mol
H H Multiply mole by molar volume of gas at r.t.p. = 0.2 x 24 dm3= 4.8 dm3
H H 1dm3 = 1000cm3
O  4.8dm3 x 1000 = 4 800 cm3
O 4 800cm3 of gas is formed
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 3.14 Volumetric Analysis

3.12 Introductory Chemical Analysis Is a measure of concentrations of acids/alkalis in solutions
Analysis is finding out what a substance or product is made of
Chemical analyst is the person who does chemical analysis Acid-alkali Titrations in Volumetric Analysis
It needs: - a standard solution: a solution of known concentration, and
2 kinds of chemical analysis: - a solution of unknown concentration
- Qualitative analysis
is the identification of elements/compounds present in an unknown substance Detecting the End Point
End point is the point at which neutralisation of acid and alkali is complete
- Quantitative analysis - Sharp indicators (phenolphtalein and methyl orange) are used to detect end
Is the meaurement of concentration of elements/compunds in unknown substance point effectively
- Litmus and universal indicators isn’t used as the changes of end point isn’t sharp
3.13 Use of Physical Tests to Identify Substances
- Colour – some substances have distinctive colours. A Typical Acid-alkali Titration
 Ammonium compounds and compounds in Groups I and II are white solids that The diagram shows how titration is used to find concentration of H2SO4 using NaOH
dissolve in water to form colourless solutions
 Copper(II) compounds are blue/green (except CuO is black)
 Iron(II) compounds are pale green, iron (III) compounds are red or yellowish
 Chlorine gas is greenish-yellow. Most other gases are colourless
- Smell
 Gases like oxygen, hydrogen and carbon dioxide are odourless
 Others like chlorine, ammonia and sulphur dioxide have characteristic smells
- Solubility in Water
Some substances like AgCl and CaSO4 are insoluble while other does
- pH
If a substance is pH 1 or 2, all alkaline and weakly acidic substances couldn’t be
the substance. Using above example, to find the concentration of H2SO4 is given on the next page
Example: Example:
30.0 cm3 of 0.100 mol/dm3 NaOH reacted completely with 25.0 cm3 of H2SO4 in a 25.0 cm3 of FeSO4(aq), H2SO4 acidified, needs 27.5 cm3 of 0.020 mol/dm3 KMnO4 for
titration. Calculate the concentration of H2SO4 in mo mol/dm3 mol/dm3 given that: reaction in titration. Calculate the concentration of FeSO4(aq)
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) Step 1: Find the reacting mole of KMnO4
Step 1: Find the reacting mole of NaOH n(KMnO4) = Concentration x Volume in mol/dm3
n(NaOH) = Concentration x Volume in mol/dm3 = 0.020 x mol
= 0.100 x mol Step 2: Write the chemical equation for the reaction
Step 2: Write the chemical equation for the reaction 2KMnO4 + 10FeSO4 + 8H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 5Fe2(SO4)3 + 8H2O
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) Step 3: Find the ratio of number of moles of FeSO4 to number of moles of KMnO4
Step 3: Find the ratio of number of moles of H2SO4 to number of moles of NaOH = =
= Step 4: Use ratio to find number of moles of FeSO4 that reacted
Step 4: Use ratio to find number of moles of H2SO4 that reacted n(FeSO4) = 5 x number of moles of NaOH
n(H2SO4) = x number of moles of NaOH = 5 x 0.020 x mol
= x 0.100 x mol = 0.00275 mol
= 0.0015 mol Step 5: Find the concentration of FeSO4 in mol/dm3
Step 5: Find the concentration of H2SO4 in mol/dm3 Concentration =
Concentration = = 0.00275 mol x
= 0.0015 mol x = 0.11 mol/dm3
= 0.06 mol/dm3
Other Titrations 3.15 Uses of Titrations in Analysis
To find the concentration of a solution of FeSO4 using KMnO4 is as below Identification of Acids and Alkalis
Example:
An acid has formula of H2XO4. One mole of H2XO4 reacts with 2 moles of NaOH. A
solution of the acid contain 5.0 g/dm3 of H2XO4. In titration, 25.0cm3 of acid reacted
with 25.5cm3 of 0.1 mol/dm3 NaOH. Calculate the concentration of acid in mol/dm3
and find X of the acid and its identity
n(NaOH) = Concentration x Volume in mol/dm3
= 0.01 x mol
Ratio of H2XO4 to NaOH:
= Continue on next page
n(H2XO4) = x 0.01 x Formulae of Compounds

Example:
∴ Concentration =
Solution Y contains 30.0 g/dm3of FeSO4 xH2O. In a titration, 25.0 cm3 of Y reacted
= x 0.01 x x with 27.0 cm3 of 0.02 mol/dm3 KMnO4. In the reaction, 5 moles of FeSO4 xH2O react
= 0.051 mol/dm 3 with 1 mole KMnO4. Calculate the concentration of Y in mol/dm3 and the value of x.
Since 1 dm of H2XO4 contains 0.051 mol and 5 g of H2XO4. ∴ 0.051 mol of H2XO4
3 n(KMnO4) = Concentration x Volume in mol/dm3
has a mass of 5g of H2XO4 and 1 mole of H2XO4 has a mass of = 98 g = 0.02 x mol
Hence, Mr of X = 98 – 2(1) – 4(16) = 32. Ratio of FeSO4 xH2O to KMnO4 according to question; find mole according to ratio
=
∴ X is sulphur and H2XO4 is sulphuric acid
n(FeSO4 xH2O) = 5 x 0.02 x
Percentage Purity of Compounds
∴ Concentration =
Percentage purity =
Example: = 5 x 0.02 x x
3
5 g of impure sulphuric acid is dissolved in 1 dm3 of water. 25.0 cm3 of the solution = 0.108 mol/dm
required 23.5 cm3 of 0.1 mol/dm3 NaOH for complete titration reaction. Calculate Hence 0.108 mol FeSO4 xH2O = 30.0 g FeSO4 xH2O
the percentage purity of the acid. Therefore 1 mole FeSO4 xH2O has a mass of g = 278 g
n(NaOH) = Concentration x Volume in mol/dm3
Therefore Mr(FeSO4 xH2O) = 278, Hence x = =7
= 0.1 x mol
Number of Reacting Moles in an Equation
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) Example:
Ratio of H2SO4 to NaOH according to equation, then find mole according to ratio In a titration, 25.0 cm3 of 0.04 mol/dm3 H2O2 reacted with 20.0 cm3 of 0.02
= mol/dm3 KMnO4. Find the values of x and y given the equation:
xH2O2 + yKMnO4 + acid → products
n(H2SO4) = x 0.1 x
n(H2O2) = Concentration x Volume in mol/dm3
∴ Concentration = = 0.04 x mol = 0.001 mol
= x 0.1 x x n(KMnO4) = Concentration x Volume in mol/dm3
= 0.047 mol/ dm3 = 0.02 x mol = 0.0004 mol
Hence mass of H2SO4 in 1 dm3 = 0.047 x Mr(H2SO4) Therefore 1 mole KMnO4 react with = 2.5 moles of H2O2
= 0.047 x 98g
Hence ratio of x:y is 2.5:1 = 5:2 (round off)
= 4.61g
Therefore, x=5 and y=2
Hence percentage purity = x 100 = 92.2% END OF CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4 – ELECTROLYSIS When molten binary compound is electrolysed, metal is formed on cathode while
4.1 Introductory Electrolysis non-metal is formed on anode.
Electrolysis is the decomposition of compound using electricity Electrolysis of Molten PbBr2
To make molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2, we strongly heat the solid until it melts. To
electrolyse it, pass current through the molten PbBr2.
Ions Present
Pb2+ and Br-
Reaction at Anode
Br- loses electrons at anode to become Br atoms. Br
Electrolyte is an ionic compound which conducts electric current in molten or atoms created form bond together to make Br2 gas.
aqueous solution, being decomposed in the process. 2Br-(aq)  Br2(g)+ 2e-
Electrode is a rod or plate where electricity enters or leaves electrolyte during
electrolysis. Reactions occur at electrodes. Reaction at Cathode
Discharge is the removal of elctrons from negative ions to form atoms or the gain Pb2+ gains electrons at cathode to become Pb atoms becoming liquid lead (II).
of electrons of positive ions to become atoms. Pb2+(aq) + 2e-  Pb(l)
Anode is positive electrode connected to positive terminal of d.c. source. Oxidation
occurs here. Anode loses negative charge as electrons flow towards the battery, Overall Equation
leaving anode positively charged. This causes anion to discharge its electrons here PbBr2(l)  Pb(l) + Br2(g)
to replace lost electrons and also, negativecharge are attracted to positive charge.
Cathode is negative electrode connected to negative terminal of d.c. source. Below are other compounds that can be electrolysed. The theory’s same as PbBr2.
Reduction occurs here. Cathode gains negative charge as electrons flow from the Molten electrolyte Cathode product Anode product
battery towards the cathode, making cathode negatively charged. This causes Calcium chloride (CaCl2) Calcium, Ca Chlorine, Cl2
cation to be attracted and gains electrons to be an atom. Sodium chloride (NaCl) Sodium, Na Chlorine, Cl2
Anion is negative ion. It’s attracted to anode. Aluminium(III) oxide (Al2O3) Aluminium, Al Oxygen, O2
Cation is positive ion. It’s attracted to cathode. Sodium Iodide (NaI) Sodium, Na Iodine, I2
4.2 Electrolysis of Molten Compounds 4.3 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution

Molten/aqueous ionic compounds conduct electricity because ions free to move. Aqueous solutions contain additional H+ and OH- ions of water, totalling 4 ions in
In solid state, these ions are held in fixed position within the crystal lattice. Hence the solution – 2 from electrolyte, 2 from water. Only 2 of these are discharged.
solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity.
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions use the theory of selective discharge.
Reaction at Anode
Cl- loses electrons at anode to become Cl atoms, although OH- is easier to
discharge. Cl atoms created form covalent bond together to make Cl2 gas.
2Cl -(aq)  Cl2(g)+ 2e-
Reaction at Cathode
H+ gains electrons at cathode to become H atoms becoming hydrogen gas.
2H+(aq) + 2e-  H2(l)
Overall Equation
At cathode 2HCl(l)  H2(l) + Cl2(g)
- In CONCENTRATED solutions of nickel/lead compound, nickel/lead will be Note: any cation and anion left undischarged in solution forms new bonds between
discharged instead of hydrogen ions of water which is less reactive than them. E.g. in above, leftovers Na+ and OH- combine to form NaOH.
nickel/lead.
- In VERY DILUTE solutions, hydrogen, copper and silver ions are preferrable to be Very Dilute Solutions
discharged, according to its ease to be discharged. Electrolysis of Dilute H2SO4
- Reactive ions (potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium) will NEVER
BE DISCHARGED in either concentrated or dilute condition. Instead, hydrogen Ions Present
ions from water will be discharged at cathode. H+, OH- and SO42-
Reaction at Anode
At anode OH- loses electrons at anode to become O2 and H2O.
- In CONCENTRATED solutions, iodine/chlorine/bromine ions are preferrable to be 4OH -(aq)  O2(g)+ 2H2O(l) +4e-
discharged, although it’s harder to discharged compared to hydroxide ions. Reaction at Cathode
- In VERY DILUTE solutions containing iodide/chloride/bromide ions, hydroxide H+ gains electrons at cathode to become H atoms becoming hydrogen gas.
ions of water will be discharged instead of iodide/chloride/bromide, according to 2H+(aq) + 2e-  H2(g)
ease of discharge. Overall Equation
- Sulphate and nitrate are NEVER DISCHARGED in concentrated/dilute solutions. Both equations must be balanced first. The cathode equation is short 2 electrons.
Hence, we should first even them by multiplying cathode equation by 2.
Concentrated Solutions (2H+(aq) + 2e-  H2(g))x2

Electrolysis of Concentrated NaCl = 4H+(aq) + 4e-  2H2(g)
Ions Present Now we can combine the equations, forming:
Na+, H+, OH- and Cl- 4H+(aq) + 4OH+(aq)  2H2(g) + O2(g)+ 2H2O(l)
4H+ and 4OH+ ions, however, combine to form 4H2O molecules. Hence: Since copper ions in solution are used up, the blue colour fades. Hydrogen and
4H2O(l)  2H2(g) + O2(g)+ 2H2O(l) sulphate ions left forms sulphuric acid.
H2O molecules are formed on both sides. Therefore, they cancel the coefficients:
2H2O(l)  2H2(g) + O2(g) Electrolysis of CuSO4 Using Active Electrodes(e.g. copper)
Ions Present
Since only water is electrolysed, the sulfuric acid now only becomes concentrated. Cu2+, H+, OH- and SO42-
4.4 Electrolysis Using Different Types of Electrodes Reaction at Anode

Inert Electrodes are electrodes which do not react with electrolyte or products Both SO42- and OH- gets attracted here but not discharged. Instead, the copper
during electrolysis. Examples are platinum and graphite. anode discharged by losing electrons to form Cu2+. So, the electrode size decreases.
Active Electrodes are electrodes which react with products of electrolysis, affecting Cu(s)  Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
the course of electrolysis. Example is copper. Reaction at Cathode
Cu2+ produced from anode gains electrons at cathode to become Cu atoms
Electrolysis of CuSO4 Using Inert Electrodes(e.g. carbon) becoming copper. Hence, the copper is deposited here and the electrode grows.
Ions Present Cu2+(aq) + 2e-  Cu(s)
Cu2+, H+, OH- and SO42- Overall Change
There is no change in solution contents as for every lost of Cu2+ ions at cathode is
Reaction at Anode replaced by Cu2+ ions released by dissolving anode. Only the cathode increases size
OH- loses electrons at anode to become O2 and H2O. by gaining copper and anode decreases size by losing copper. We can use this
4OH -(aq)  O2(g)+ 2H2O(l) +4e- method to create pure copper on cathode by using pure copper on cathode and
Reaction at Cathode impure copper on anode. Impurities of anode falls under it.
Cu2+ gains electrons at cathode to become Cu atoms becoming liquid copper.
Hydrogen ions are not discharged because copper is easier to discharge.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e-  Cu(s)
Overall Equation
Both equations must be balanced first. The cathode equation is short 2 electrons.
Hence, we should first even them by multiplying cathode equation by 2.
(Cu2+(aq) + 2e-  Cu(s))x2

= 2Cu2+(aq) + 4e-  2Cu(s) 4.5 Electroplating
Now we can combine the equations, forming: Electroplating is coating an object with thin layer of metal by electrolysis. This
2Cu(OH)2(aq)  2Cu(s) + O2(g)+ 2H2O(l) makes the object protected and more attractive.
Object to be plated is made to be cathode and the plating metal is made as anode. How the Voltage is Produced
The electrolyte MUST contain plating metal cation. Use an example of zinc and copper as electrodes and sodium chloride as electrolyte
Plating Iron object with Nickel As zinc is more reactive, it is cathode while copper is anode.
Reaction at Anode
Ni2+ discharged from anode into solution. So, At cathode, Zn atoms in anode loses electrons to form
the electrode size decreases. Zn2+
Ni(s)  Ni2+(aq) + 2e- Zn(s)  Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Reaction at Cathode Zn2+ goes into solution while the electrons lost makes
Ni2+ produced from anode gains electrons at the zinc negative. The electrons flow against
cathode to become Ni atoms becoming conventional current towards copper anode. Both Na+ &
nickel. Hence, the nickel is deposited here H+ ions in solution are attracted to the copper anode due
and the electrode grows. to electrons in it but only H+ ions discharged, due to
Ni2+(aq) + 2e-  Ni(s) selective discharge, to form hydrogen gas.
Overall Change 2H+(aq) + 2e-  H2(g)
There is no change in solution contents while iron object receives nickel deposit.
Uses of Electroplating Hence the overall ionic equation is:
Plating Metal Uses Zn(s) + 2H+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
Chromium Water taps, motorcar bumpers, bicycle parts which comes from the equation:
Tin Tin cans Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Silver Silver sports trophies, plaques, ornaments, cutleries
Nickel For corrosion-resistant layer
END OF CHAPTER 4
Gold Watches, plaques, cutleries, water taps, ornaments
Rhodium Silverware, jewellery, watches, ornaments
Copper Printed circuit boards, trophies, ornaments
4.6 Creation of Electric Cells by Electrolysis

An electric cell consists of 2 electrodes made of 2 metals
of different reactivity. The cathode is made of more
reactive metal. This is because they have more tendency
of losing electrons. The anode is made of less reactive
metal. The more further apart the metals in reactivity
series, the higher voltage is created.
CHAPTER 5 – ENERGY FROM CHEMICALS 5.2 Endothermic Reaction

5.1 Exothermic Reaction Endothermic change is one which heat energy is absorbed. This is to break bonds
Exothermic change is one which heat energy is given out. This is to form bonds between the reactants which needs more energy in them.
between the reactants which needs less energy in them. Reaction is written as:
Reaction is written as: Reactants + heat → Products
Reactants → Products + heat (or)
(or) Reactants → Products [∆H = + n kJ], where n is amount of heat energy absorbed
Reactants → Products [∆H = – n kJ], where n is amount of heat energy released
Examples of endothermic changes:
Examples of exothermic changes: 1. Changes of states
1. Changes of State When solid melts to water & boils to steam, heat is absorbed to break the bond.
When gas condenses to water or water freezes to solid, heat is given out. Condensation of steam to water
Condensation of steam to water H2O(s) + heat → H2O(l)
H2O(g) → H2O(l) + heat 2. Photolysis
2. Combustion reactions Reaction of light sensitive silver chloride in camera reel in light
All combustion (burning) reactions are exothermic. 2AgBr(s) + heat → 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
Burning of hydrogen in air 3. Dissolving of Ionic Compounds
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l) + heat Ionic compounds such as NH4Cl, KNO3, CaCO3 absorb heat from surroundings.
3. Dissolving of anhydrous salts/acids in water NH4Cl(s) + heat → NH4Cl(aq)
Dissolving solid salt to aqueous solution of the salt gives out heat CuSO4(s) + heat → CuSO4(aq)
Dissolving of Na2CO3 in water (or CuSO4) 4. Photosynthesis
Na2CO3(s) → Na2CO3(l) + heat Light energy is absorbed by plants to produce starch.
5. Decomposition by heat
Dissolving of concentrated acid in water Many compounds require heat for decomposition, e.g. CaCO3 to CO2 + CaO
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → less concentrated HCl(aq) + heat CaCO3(s) + heat → CO2(g) + CaO(s)
4. Neutralization 6. Acid + Bicarbonates (HCO3)
When acid and alkali react it gives out heat due to combining of H+ ions from acid NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) + heat → NaSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
and OH- ions from alkali to form water
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l) + heat Acid Spill Treatment on Body
5. Metal Displacement We don’t neutralize spilled acid on body as it produces heat. Instead we dilute
Magnesium reacting with copper(II) sulphate the solution with water, although it also produces heat, but is less than
Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Mg2+(s) + Cu(s) + heat neutralizing it.
5.3 Heat of Reaction Exothermic ∆H = the bond energy of 2 H – Br bonds

The amount of energy given out or absorbed during a chemical reaction is = 2(366)
enthalpy change. The symbol is ∆H measured in kilojoules(kJ). = – 732 kJ
Examples of reactions from back page: Endothermic ∆H = the bond energy of 1 H – H bond + 1 Br – Br bond
Exothermic reaction: = 436 + 224
Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s) [∆H = –378 kJ] = + 660 kJ
378 kJ of heat energy is given out when 1 mol of Mg react with 1 mol CuSO4 to ∆H = – 732 + 660
produce 1 mol of MgSO4 and 1 mol of Cu. = – 72 kJ
Therefore more heat is given out in making bond than absorbed in breaking bond.
Endothermic reaction: The overall change is to give out heat and it’s exothermic with ∆H negative.
CaCO3(s) → CO2(g) + CaO(s) [∆H = +222 kJ] Exothermic graph:
222 kJ of heat energy is absorbed when 1 mol of CaCO3 decompose to 1 mol of When heat is given out, the solution becomes warm and later the temperature
CO2 and 1 mol of CaO. goes back to room temperature.
5.4 Heat Energy and Enthalpy Change in Reaction

When bonds made, heat energy is given out, it’s exothermic and ∆H is negative
When bonds broken, heat energy is absorbed, it’s endothermic and ∆H is positive Endothermic graph:
When heat is absorbed from the surrounding of reactant, the solution becomes
Question: cooler and later the temperature goes back to room temperature.
Hydrogen bromide is made by reacting H2 gas with Br2 gas. Calculate the heat
change of the reaction given the equation and bond energy table below.
H2(g) + Br2(g) → 2HBr(g)
Covalent Bond Bond energy (kJ/mol) 5.5 Activation Energy
H–H 436 Activation energy is the minimum energy needed to start a reaction.
Br – Br 224 It is the energy needed to break the reactant bonds before new bonds are formed.
H – Br 366
Bonds of H2 and Br2 molecules must be broken first to make HBr. Heat energy is
absorbed to break these bonds by endothermic reaction.
H – H + Br – Br → H H Br Br
Broken bonds are used to make H – Br bonds of HBr. Heat energy is released.
H H Br Br → 2H – Br
Heat change can be calculated by:
∆H = heat released in making bonds + heat absorbed in breaking bonds
Reactions occur because of collision of particles and sufficient kinetic energy is Production of Hydrogen
needed to provide activation energy to break the bonds and start the reaction by Hydrogen is produced either by electrolysis of water or by cracking of hydrocarbon
providing extra energy from a heat source. By cracking of hydrocarbon:
First, methane (hydrocarbon) and steam are passed over a nickel catalyst to form
Exothermic and Endothermic Reaction Graph hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
In exothermic reaction, enough energy given out in the reaction of parcticles to CH4(g) + H2O(g)  CO(g) + 3H2(g)
provide activation energy therefore less energy is needed to form products. The by-product carbon monoxide is not wasted. It is reacted with more steam to
form carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
In endothermic reaction, insufficient energy is given out when bonds are made to CO(g) + H2O(g)  CO2(g) + H2(g)
provide activation energy for reaction to continue. More energy is needed to form Now you get more hydrogen.
products and heat must be continually added to fulfill energy requirement.
By electrolysis:
Water is electrolysed according to equation:
2H2O(l)  2H2(g) + O2(g)
However, electrolysis is costly.
Creation of the Fuel

In Engines:
The hydrogen created is reacted with oxygen to form steam and heat energy
2H2(g) + O2(g)  H2O(g) + heat
This heat is needed to thrust the vehicle forward. However, we don’t use heat
5.6 FUELS energy for our daily appliances. Instead we use electrical energy and to make
The combustion of fuels gives out large amount of energy in industries, transport & electrical energy from hydrogen, we use fuel cell.
homes. These fuel mainly methane from coal, wood, oil, natural gas & hydrogen.
Combustion in air provides energy and gives out heat. Hence, exothermic reaction. A fuel cell converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy.
How Fuel Cells Work
Hydrogen as a Fuel
Hydrogen provides twice as much as heat energy per gram than any other fuel and
burns cleanly in air to form steam. They are mainly used as rocket fuel.
Hydrogen reacts with hydroxide ions into electrolyte on the platinum catalyst on
electrode to make the electrode negatively-charged.
H2 + 2OH-  2H2O + 2e-
Electrons flows past the load and to the other electrode. That negatively-charged
electrode is now anode. Hydroxide ions constantly deposit electrons here to make
water. While then, the other electrode is now cathode.
Oxygen reacts with water created on from hydrogen on the cathode to gain
electrons from it:
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OH-
If we combine the ionic equations, we still get water as product of hydrogen and
oxygen, but the energy produced is now electrical energy:
2H2(g) + O2(g)  H2O(g) + electrical energy Figure 5.13 Fractions and their uses
Advantages of Fuel Cells
- Electrical energy can be generated continuously if there’s continuous fuel supply PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND ENERGY
- The by-product of fuel cells is steam, which do not pollute the environment Plants take in carbon dioxide and water in presence of chlorophyll and synthesize
- Chemical energy is efficiently converted to electrical energy. Hence there is them in the presence of sunlight to produce glucose and release oxygen:
minimal loss of energy. 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Plants get their energy by using the glucose formed. Scientists believe that we can
Disadvantages of Fuel Cells use the stored energy in glucose as combustible fuels.
- Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells are very expensive, hence limiting their use.
First, glucose fermented to make ethanol by microorganisms such as yeast. This is
Our Main Fuel Resource – PETROLEUM fermentation. The glucose is usually derived from corn plant or sugar cane.
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons, which are compounds made up of carbon C6H12O6 → 2C2H6O + 2CO2
and hydrogen only. Then, water is removed from ethanol by fractional distillation by heating it up until
Crude oil, freshly extracted from underground, undergo refining – a process where 78oC (boiling point of ethanol). Some water might still be present as the boiling
oil undergoes fractional distillation to be separated into its fractions. point is close to ethanol. The ethanol produced is then mixed with fuel to be
First, crude oil is heated up to 350oC and the vapours rise up a tower, divided with combusted to produce energy. This is biofuel, and it’s a renewable energy source.
trays on some certain heights for the fractions to be collected. The fractionating
column is cooler on top, hence upper trays collects fractions of low boiling points END OF CHAPTER 5
while the lower ones, being hotter, collect those with higher boiling points.
CHAPTER 6 – CHEMICAL REACTIONS - Gradient largest at start indicating speed at its greatest.
6.1 Speed of Reaction - Gradient decreases with time – speed decreases with time.
Measuring Speed of Reaction - Gradient becomes zero, speed is zero. The reaction has finished.
It is the speed for a reactant to be used up or product to be formed.
- Measuring change in mass of reaction mixture.
2 ways to find out speed of reaction
1. Measuring time for reaction to complete
Speed of reaction is inversely proportional to time taken; the shorter the time
needed for reaction to complete, the faster the speed of reaction is.
Speed of reaction =
Speed of reaction A = = 0.333/s
Speed of reaction B = = 0.667/s
Therefore reaction B is faster than reaction A as time
taken for B is shorter
Number of times B faster than A = = 2 times
Marble is reacted with acid in a flask with cotton wool stucked at top to prevent
2. Measuring the amount of product produced in a period of time or measuring splashing during reaction but it allows gas to be free. The reading on balance is
the amount of reactant remain in a period of time. plotted on a graph on every time interval.
Can be measured by plotting change in volume of gas evolved, mass of reaction
mixture as reaction proceeds and change of pressure of gas formed. Factors Affecting Speed of Reaction
- Measuring the amount of gas evolved. 1. Particle Size of Reactant
Consider reaction of limestone with acid to produce carbon dioxide. A syringe is When large marble is reacted with acid and compared to reaction of fine marble
used to help in measurement of gas produced in volume every time interval. A solids being reacted with acid and the graph of volume of gas against time is
graph of volume of gas against time is plotted. plotted, it’s found that the reaction involving finer marble chips produces gas
faster than the one with larger marble chunk as the graph of finer chips is
steeper. The volume of gas at the end is the same for both reactions. Therefore,
reactions of solids with liquid/gas is faster when the solids are of smaller pieces.
4. Temperature of Reaction
Speed of reaction increases when temperature increases. Particles don’t always
react upon collision but just bounce as they don’t have enough activation energy
to react. With increase in temperature, particles absorb the energy and having
enough activation energy, they move faster and collide more effectively per
second. Therefore, speed of reaction is increased.
Explanation: Usually, speed of reaction doubles for every 10oC rise in temperature.
Reactions occur when particles collide. Small particles creates larger surface area
for more collisions between reacting particles which increases speed of reaction. 5. Effect of Catalyst
Explosions: chemical reactions occuring extremely rapid rate producing heat+gas What are catalysts?
- Coal dust burn faster than large pieces as it has larger surface area. In coal They are chemical substances which alters speed of reaction without itself being
mines, when air contains too much coal dust, explosion can occur from a single used at the end of a reaction. It can be reused and only small amount of catalyst
spark or match. Water is sprayed into the air to remove coal dust. is needed to affect a reaction.
- Flour in mills can ignite easily due to large surface area. - transition metals (e.g. Titanium, Nickel, Iron, Copper) are good catalysts
- most catalyst catalyse one kind of reaction (except titanium)
2. Concentration of Reactant Reaction Catalyst
In the increase of concentration means there are more solute particles per unit Production of sulphur by contact process Vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5
volume of the solution which favours for more effective collision resulting in an Production of ammonia by Haber Process Iron, Fe
increase in speed of reaction. Aluminium oxide, Al2O3
Production of hydrogen by cracking of hydrocarbons
Silicon dioxide, SiO2
Production of margarine by reacting hydrogen with
3. Pressure of Reactant Nickel, Ni
vegetable oil
Production of plastics Titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl4
Titanium, Ti
Converting CO into CO2 in catalytic converters
Rhodium, Rh
Catalysts lower the need of energy to break bonds so activation energy is lower.
Only gaseous reactions are affected as gas is compressible. At higher pressure, Consequently, bond breaking occurs easily and more often when particles collide
molecules are forced to move closely together, hence increasing the particles per Factors Affecting Speed of Catalysed Reactions:
unit volume of gas and effectively increases the collision between reacting Speed of catalysed reactions can be increased by:
molecules so the speed of reaction increases. - increasing temperature
High pressure is used in industrial processes (e.g. Haber Process Plant) so that - increasing concentration of solutions
the reaction goes faster. - increasing pressure of gas reactions
Catalyst provide “alternative path” which results in lower activation energy.
Hydrogen in Reduction-Oxidation reaction

Oxidation is the loss of hydrogen by a substance
Reduction is the gain of hydrogen by a substance
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(g)

H2S is oxidized as it loses hydrogen to Cl2 to form S. Cl2 is oxidizing agent.
Enzymes Cl2 is reduced as it gains hydrogen from H2S to form HCl. H2S is reducing agent.
Enzymes are biological catalysts
Electrons in Reduction-Oxidation reaction
Characteristics of enzymes: Oxidation is the loss of electrons by a substance
- They are very specific. One enzyme catalyse one type of reaction. Reduction is the gain of electrons by a substance
- Enzymes are sensitive to temperature. They work best at 40oC. Too high or too
low temperatures destroy enzymes. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2Na+Cl-(s)
- Enzymes are sensitive to pH. They function within narrow range of pH. Na is oxidized as it loses electron to Cl2 to form Na+ ions. Cl2 is oxidizing agent.
2Na(s)→ 2Na+(s) + 2e-
Industrial uses of enzymes: Cl2 is reduced as it gains electron from Na to form Cl- ions. Na is reducing agent.
- They are added to detergents from bacteria, and also to make tough meat tender. Cl2(g) + 2e+→ 2Cl -(s)
These enzymes can be found in papaya fruit. Redox reactions relating electron transfer:
- Yeast convert sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide by fermentation. Beer, wine 1. Reaction of metal + dilute acid
and soy sauce are made this way. 2. Displacement reactions
- Fungical enzymes can be used to make antibiotics such as penicillin.
Oxidation State in Reduction-Oxidation reaction
6.2 Redox Oxidation State is the charge an atom would have if it existed as an ion
Oxygen in Reduction-Oxidation reaction To work out oxidation state, the rules are:
Oxidation is the gain of oxygen by a substance - Free elements have oxidation state zero, e.g. Cu, Fe, N2
Reduction is the loss of oxygen by a substance - Oxidation of an ion is the charge of the ion, e.g. Na+ = +1, Cu2+=+2, O2- = -2
- The oxidation state of some elements in their compounds is fixed, e.g.
Pb(s) + Ag2O (aq) → PbO(aq) + 2Ag (aq)
Group I Elements = +1
Pb is oxidized as it gains oxygen from Ag2O to form PbO. Ag2O is oxidizing agent. Group II Elements = +2
Ag2O is reduced as it loses oxygen to Pb to form Ag. Pb is reducing agent.
Hydrogen in most compounds = +1
Oxidizing agent is a substance which causes oxidation of another substance
Iron or copper can have either +1, +2, +3, so it’s not fixed
Reducing agent is a substance which causes reducation of another substance
- Oxidation states of the elements in a compound adds up to zero, e.g.
NaCl: (+1) + (-1) = 0 Some compounds with possible variable oxidation states have roman numeral as a
K2O: (+1) x 2 + (-2) = 0 guide about their oxidation state, e.g.
Al2O3: (+3) x 2 + (+2) x 3 = 0 - Iron(II) chloride has formula FeCl2 and iron oxidation state +2
- Sum of oxidation states of elements in an ion is equal to charge on the ion, e.g. - Potassium(VI) dichromate has formula K2Cr2O7 and potassium oxidation state +6
OH-: (-2) + (+1) = -1 - Manganese(IV) oxide has formula MnO2 and manganese oxidation state +4
Examples:
Work out the oxidation states of the underlined elements in these compounds: Oxidation is the increase of oxidation state by a substance
(a) CO2 Reduction is the decrease of oxidation state by a substance
(oxidation state of C) + (-2) x 2 = 0 Note:
(oxidation state of C) + (-4) = 0 - Losing electrons means gain in oxidation state
Oxidation state of C = +4 - Gaining electrons means loss in oxidation state
(b) KMnO4 Examples:

(+1) + (oxidation state of Mn) + (-2) x 4 = 0 Metals with acids
(oxidation state of Mn) + (+1) + (-8) = 0 Cu(s) + HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(oxidation state of Mn) + (-7) =0 Cu is oxidized as it gains oxidation state from 0 to +2. Cu is reducing agent
Oxidation state of Mn = +7 H ions in HCl reduced as it loses oxidation state from +1 to 0. H+ions are oxidising agent
+
(c) Fe(NO3)2 Halide (Halogen) Displacement Reactions

(oxidation state of Fe) + (-1) x 2 = 0 Cl2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
(oxidation state of Fe) + (-2) = 0 I ions in KI oxidized as it gains oxidation state from -1 to 0. I-ions is reducing agent
-
Oxidation state of Fe = +2 Cl2 is reduced as it loses oxidation state from 0 to -1. Cl2 is oxidizing agent
Note: Transition metals and some common elements may have different oxidation
states in different compounds. Test for Oxidising/Reducing Agents
Examples of elements with variable oxidation states Oxidizing agents
Oxidation Name of compound Formula Applications
-2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
state Test for reducing agent; orange K2Cr2O7
Potassium dichromate(VI) K2Cr2O7
Manganese Mn MnCl2 MnO2 KMnO4 reduces to green Cr3+ ions
Chromium Cr CrCl2 CrCl3 K2Cr2O7 Test for reducing agent; purple KMnO4
Potassium manganate(VII) KMnO4
Iron Fe FeCl2 FeCl3 reduces to colourless Mn2+ ions
Sulphur FeS S SO2 H2SO4 Oxidizes Br- to Br2 and I- to I2; green-
Chlorine Cl2
yellow Cl2 reduces to colourless Cl- ions
Carbon C CO CaCO3
Reducing agents Dynamic equilibrium

Name of compound Formula Applications Dynamic Equilibrium is the state when the rate of forward reaction is the same as
Test for oxidizing agent; colourless I- ions the rate of backward reaction. Both reactants are reacted and products decompose
Potassium Iodide KI
oxidizes to brown I2 at the same rate. Hence, there is no overall change in the amounts of reactants and
Carbon monoxide CO Reduces metal oxide to metal in heat products.
Hydrogen H2 Reduces copper(II) oxide to copper
Sulfur dioxide SO4 used as bleach and preservative When we remove the products, it will also encourage forward reaction as the
Metals (highly reactive) Na, Mg, etc. Displaces less reactive metals reaction would try to achieve equilibrium. Similar thing happens when we remove
the reactants, that the decomposition of products is encouraged to reach the point
Not Redox!
- Decomposition of carbonates by heat: CaCO3(s) → CO2(g) + CaO(s) END OF CHAPTER 6
The oxidation state of each element don’t change. This is not a redox reaction.
- Neutralization: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)
The oxidation state of each element don’t change. This is not a redox reaction.
- Precipitaion reactions: Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
The oxidation numbers of silver and chloride ions unchanged. This is not redox.
6.3 Reversible Reactions

Reversible reactions are denoted by the sign “⇌” where the arrow  denotes
forward reaction, where reactants react to form products, and the arrow 
denotes backward reaction where products decompose to reform reactants. The
reactions occur at the same time. E.g. N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
Effect of Temperature on Reversible Reactions

With higher temperature, the condition is now favored to break the bonds of the
product formed (The bonding of products requires low temperatures). Thus, the
products decompose to its constituents, leading to backward reaction.
Effect of Pressure on Reversible Reactions

Increase in pressure encourages forward reaction because the higher pressure the
more reactants collide to react.
CHAPTER 7 - THE CHEMISTRY AND USES OF ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS - Acids react with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates (bicarbonates)
7.1 The Characteristics of Acids and Bases Carbon dioxide is to be formed. To test this, the gas produced is bubbled into
Common Acids limewater which forms a white precipitate.
Acids in daily life: Carbonates:
 Ethanoic acid – found in vinegar and tomato juice MgCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
 Citric acid – found in citrus foods like lemons, oranges and grapefruit Bicarbontes:
 Lactic acid – found in sour milk and yoghurt, and in muscle respiration NaHCO3(s or aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
 Tartaric acid – found in grapes
 Tannic acid – found in tea and ant’s body - Acids react with metal oxides and hydroxides
 Formic acid – found in bee stings Metal oxides & hydroxides react slowly with warm dilute acid to form salt+water
 Hydrochloric acid – found in stomach juices Cu(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
Laboratory acids: 3 common laboratory acids Storage of Acids

 Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Acids are stored in claypots, glass or plastic containers as sand, glass and plastic do
 Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) not react with acids. If it’s stored in metal container, metal would react with acids
 Nitric acid (HNO3)
Uses of Acids
Dilute acids – solution containing small amount of acid dissolved in water
Concentration acids – solution containing large amount of acid dissolved in water  Sulphuric Acid - Used in car batteries
- Manufacture of ammonium sulphate for fertilisers
Properties of Dilute Acids - Manufacture of detergents, paints, dyes, artificial fibres &
- Acids have a sour taste plastics
- Acids are hazardous  Hydrochloric acid can remove rust (iron(III) oxide) which dissolves in acids
acids are irritants (they cause skin to redden and blister)
 Acids are used in preservation of foods (e.g. ethanoic acid)
- Acids change the colour of indicators
Acids turn common indicator litmus – blue litmus to red 7.2 Acids and Hydrogen Ions
The Need for Water in Acids
- Acids react with metals Acids are covalent compounds and do not behave as acids in the absence of water
Acids react with metals to produce hydrogen gas. The gas is tested with a as water reacts with acids to produce H+ ions, responsible for its acidic properties.
burning splint which shows hydrogen burns with a ‘pop’ sound. e.g. Citric acid crystals doesn’t react with metals and doesn’t change colours of
2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g) indicators; citric acid in water reacts with metals and change turns litmus red.
Hydrogen Ions Weak Acids - acids that partially ionise in water. The remaining molecules remain
Hydrogen gas is formed by acids as H+(aq) ions are present in acid solutions unchanged as acids. Their reactions are reversible. E.g. CH3COOH, H2CO3, H3PO4
- This means when a solid/gas acid dissolved in water, they produce H+ ions in it H3PO4(aq) ⇌ 3H+(aq) + PO42-(aq)
Chemical eqation: HCl(s) water HCl(aq) Weak acids react slowly with metals than strong acids – hydrogen gas bubbles are
Ionic Equation: HCl(s) water H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) produced slowly.
*Note that for ionic equation only aqueous solutions are ionised*
- However when dissolved in organic solutions, they don’t show acidic properties Comparing Strong and Weak Acids with Concentrated and Dilute Acids
When metals react with acids, only the hydrogen ions react with metals, e.g.: CONCENTRATION STRENGTH
Chemical equation: 2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g) Is the amount of solute (acids or alkalis) Is how much ions can be disassociated
Ionic equation: 2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + H2(g) dissolved in 1 dm3 of a solution into from acid or alkali
It can be diluted by adding more water
to solution or concentrated by adding The strength cannot be changed
Basicity of an acid is maximum number of H+ ions produced by a molecule of acid
more solute to solution
Some Acids With Their Basicity
Acids Reaction with water Basicity
Comparing 10 mol/dm3 and 0.1 mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acids and 10 mol/dm3 and
Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) monobasic
0.1 mol/dm3 of ethanoic acids
Nitric acid HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) monobasic
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq) monobasic - 10 mol/dm3 of ethanoic acid solution is a concentrated solution of weak acid
Sulphuric acid +
H2SO4(aq) → 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq)2-
dibasic - 0.1 mol/dm3 of ethanoic acid solution is a dilute solution of weak acid
The fizz of drinks - 10 mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acid solution is a concentrated solution of strong acid
Soft drink tablets contains solid acid (e.g. citric acid, C6H8O7) & sodium bicarbonate - 0.1 mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acid solution is a dilute solution of strong acid
- When tablet is added to water, citric acid ionises and the H+ produced reacts with
sodium bicarbonate to produce carbon dioxide gas, making them fizz Bases and Alkalis
Bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals
Strong and Weak Acids Alkalis are bases which are soluble in water
Strong Acid - acid that completely ionises in water. Their reactions are irreversible.
E.g. H2SO4, HNO3, HCl Laboratory Alkalis
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) - Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH
In above H2SO4 has completely been ionized in water, forming 3 kinds of particles: - Aqueous Ammonia, NH4OH
- H+ ions - Calcium Hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
- SO42- ions
- H2O molecules All alkalis produces hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water. Hydroxide ions
Strong acids react more vigorously with metals than weak acids – hydrogen gas give the properties of alkalis. They don’t behave as acids in absence of water.
bubbles are produced rapidly Alkalis are therefore substances that produce hydroxide ions, OH-(aq), in water.
Properties of Alkalis  Floor and oven cleaners contain NaOH (strong alkalis)
- Alkalis have a slippery feel  Ammonia (mild alkalis) is used in liquids to remove dirt and grease from glass
- Alkalis are hazardous Indicators and pH

 Dilute alkalis are irritants Indicators are substances that has different colours in acidic and alkaline solutions
 Concentrated alkalis are corrosive and burn skin (caustic(i.e. burning) alkalis) Common indicators:
Litmus
- Alkalis change the colour of indicators Methyl orange
Alkalis turn common indicator litmus – red litmus to blue Phenolphtalein
The table shows the change of colours made by some indicators
- Alkalis react with acids Indicator Colour in acids colour changes at pH Colour in alkalis
The reaction is called neutralisation Phenolphtalein Colourless 9 Pink
Methyl orange Red 4 Yellow
- Alkalis react with ammonium compounds Litmus Red 7 Blue
Screened methyl orange Red 4 Green
They react with heated solid ammonium compounds to produce ammonia gas
Bromothymol blue Yellow 7 Blue
(NH4)2SO4(s) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l)
The pH Scale
A measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution is known as pH
- Alkalis react with solutions of metal ions
 pH 7 is neutral – in pure water
Barium sulphate, BaSO4(aq), contains Ba2+(aq) ions
 solutions of less than pH 7 are acidic. The solutions contain hydrogen ions. The
Ca(OH)2(aq) + BaSO4(aq) → Ba(OH)2(s) + CaSO4(aq)
smaller pH, the more acidic the solution is and more hydrogen ions it contains.
The solid formed is precipitate – the reaction is called precipitate reaction
 solutions of more than pH 7 are alkaline. The solution contains hydroxide ions.
The biger pH, the more alkaline the solution and more hydroxide ions it contains.
Strong and Weak Alkalis
Strong Alkalis - base that completely ionises in water to form OH-(aq) ions. Their
reactions are irreversible. E.g. NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Weak Alkalis - base that partially ionise in water. The remaining molecules remain
unchanged as base. Their reactions are reversible. E.g. NH3
NH3(g) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Uses of Alkalis
 Alkalis neutralise acids in teeth (toothpaste) and stomach (indigestion)
 Soap and detergents contain weak alkalis to dissolve grease
Measuring pH of a Solution Reaction Between Metals and Acids

1. Universal indicators For example, reaction of sodium with hydrochloric acid
It can be in paper or solution form. Universal paper can be dipped into a solution 2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
then pH found is matched with the colour chart. It gives approximate pH value. Its ionic equation is written as:
2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2(g)
2. pH meter Since 2 Cl-(aq) ions don’t change, they’re not involved in reaction. As ionic equation
A hand-held pH probe is dipped into solution and meter will show the pH digitally is used to show changes in reactions, we omit Cl-(aq) ions. So we’re left with:
or by a scale. Measures pH water in lakes, water, and streams accurately 2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + H2(g)
3. pH sensor and computer Reaction Between Soluble Ionic Compounds and Acids
A probe is dipped into solution and will be sent to computer through interface e.g. Reaction of sodium hydrogencarbonate with hydrochloric acid
used to measure pH of solution. The pH reading is displayed on computer screen. NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
Its ionic equation is:
pH Around Us Na+(aq) + H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
- Substances in body involved in good digestion have different pH values Since Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit them, leaving:
- Blood to heart and lungs contains CO2 making blood slightly acidic H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
- Acids are used in food preservations (ethanoic acid to preserve vegetables; CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
benzoic acid used in fruit juices, jams and oyster sauce)
- pH affects plant growth – some plants grow in acidic soil; some need alkaline soil Reaction Between Insoluble Ionic Compounds and Acids
- When hair is cleaned with shampoo which is alkali to dissolve grease, hair can be e.g. Reaction between iron(II) oxide and sulphuric acid
damaged unless it’s rinsed or acid conditioner is used to neutalise excess alkali FeO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2O(g)
Its ionic equation is:
Ionic Equations FeO(s) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + H2O(g)
Ionic equation is equation involving ions in aqueous solution, showing formation Note: FeO is written in full as it’s solid (although it’s an ionic compound)
and changes of ions during the reaction Since SO42-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit SO42- ions, leaving:
FeO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + H2O(g)
Rule to make ionic equations: E.g. Reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid
- Only formulae of ions that change is included; ions don’t change = omitted CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
- Only aqueous solutions are written as ions; liquids, solids and gases written in full Its ionic equation is:
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Since 2 Cl-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit Cl- ions, leaving:
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Reactions Producing Precipitate OXIDES

E.g. Reaction between calcium hydroxide and barium sulphate Acidic Oxide Basic Oxide Amphoteric Oxide Neutral Oxide
Ca(OH)2(aq) + BaSO4(aq) → Ba(OH)2(s) + CaSO4(aq) Oxides of non-metals, Oxides of metals, Oxides of transition Oxides that don’t
Its ionic equation is written as: usually gases which usually solid which metals, usually solid, react with either
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → Ba(OH)2(s) + Ca2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) reacts with water to reacts with water which reacts with acids/alkalis, hence
produce acids, e.g. to produce alkalis, acids/alkalis to form do not form salts,
Since Ca2+(aq) and SO42-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit them, leaving:
CO2, NO3, P4O10, SO2 e.g. CaO, K2O, BaO salt and water, e.g. e.g. H2O, CO, NO
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) → Ba(OH)2(s) Al2O3, FeO, PbO
Displacement Reactions 7.3 Preparation of Salts

E.g. Reactions between magnesium with zinc sulphate Soluble and Insoluble Salts
Mg(s) + ZnSO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Zn(s) Soluble Insoluble
Its ionic equation is written as: All Nitrates -
Mg(s) + Zn2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + Zn(s) All Supates BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4
Since SO42-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit them, leaving: All Chlorides PbCl, AgCl
Mg(s) + Zn2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Zn(s) Potassium, Sodium, Ammonium salts -
K2CO3, Na2CO3, NH4CO3 All Carbonates
K2O, Na2O All Oxides
Neutralization is the reaction between acid and base to form salt and water only.
Preparation of Insoluble Salts
From ionic equation, we know that the reaction only involves H+ ions from acids
Insoluble salts, e.g. BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4, PbCl, AgCl and most carbonates, can be
with OH- ions from alkali to form water .
prepared by reacting compound containing the wanted cation with another
E.g. NaOH + H2SO4 forms Na2SO4 + H2O
compound containing the wanted anion. This is precipitation reaction.
H2SO4(aq) + NaOH(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(g)
E.g. Preparation of BaSO4
Ionic equation is:
First BaCl, since it contains wanted barium ion, is reacted with H2SO4, since it
H (aq) + OH-(aq)→ H2O(g)
+
contains wanted sulphate ion, to produce solid BaSO4 & aqueous KCl. BaSO4 then
Plants don’t grow well in acidic soil. Quicklime (calcium hydroxide) is added to
separated from KCl by filtration, leaving filtrate KCl & BaSO4 left on filter paper.
neutralise the acidity of soil according to equation:
Salt is washed with water to completely remove KCl & filter paper is squeezed with
Acid(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)  Ca(acid anion)(aq) + H2O(g)
another filter paper to dry BaSO4.
Reaction between Base and Ammonium Salts

E.g. Reaction between NaOH and NH4OH
NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(g)
Ionic equation:
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) → NH3(g) + H2O(g)
Preparation of Soluble Salts Only metals like zinc and magnesium, which moderately react with dilute acids, are
By Neutralization used.
25.0cm3 acid, as standard solution, is placed in conical flask using pipette. Add few E.g. Reacting Zn with H2SO4 to prepare ZnSO4
drops of indicator & titrate with alkali from burette until indicator changes colour, Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
showing all acid has just reacted. Volume of alkali added is measured. Prepare new Zn is added to H2SO4 until in excess to ensure no more H2SO4 is present. Then the
25.0cm3 acid again with pipette & add same volume of alkali as before to prevent mixture is filtered off to separate Zn from ZnSO4. The filtrate (ZnSO4) is then placed
excess alkali/acid because both reactant & product are aqueous. Next, the product in evaporating dish to evaporate most of water then it’s cooled after ZnSO4 crystals
is evaporated to dryness to obtain the salt. are formed. The crystals then filtered and squeezed between filter papers to dry.
By Reacting Insoluble Base with Acid

E.g. Reacting MgO with Acids
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
The same method as reaction of acid with metal is used, so refer to diagram and
above explanation, substituting reactants and products.
By Reacting Carbonate with Acid
E.g. Reacting CaCO3 with Acids
K2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  K2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The same process is used as reaction of acid with metal, just that carbon dioxide is
produced. Carbon dioxide can be tested by bubbling it into limewater which will
By Reacting Metal with Acid turn limewater colourless to milky.
7.4 Properties and Uses of Ammonia

Ammonia and its Uses
Are produced from nitrogen reacted with hydrogen
For producing: fertilisers, nitric acid, nylon, dyes, cleaners and dry cell
The Manufacture of Ammonia: The Haber Process
The Process
Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed together in ratio 1:3, where nitrogen is obtained
from air and hydrogen is obtained from natural gas, and passed over iron catalyst.
Since the reaction is reversible so H2 and O2, reproduced from decomposition of Problems with Ammonia
produced NH3, are passed over the catalyst again to produce ammonia. Eutrophication is the inrease in organic content of water when fertilizers leach into
soil and washed into rivers and streams.
Conditions for Manufacturing Ammonia
Graph shows that to have high yield of ammonia we When excess fertilizers washed away by rain, nitrate ions in it gets into rivers and
should have: helps aquatic plants like algae to grow swiftly. When too much algae, water turns
1. Higher pressure murky and sunlight would not penetrate into water to help their growth which in
2. Lower temperature turn lead to deaths of algae. Decay of this organic matter uses up oxygen, hence
killing aquatic animals. Then even more algae dies and even more animals die
But in practice, we use lower pressure of 200 atm and
higher temperature of 450oC. This is because: Water pollution results from runoff of fertilizer use, leaching from septic tanks,
- Using low temperature is too slow to reach equilibrium sewage and erosion of natural deposits.
- Using high pressure involves safety risk and higher cost
Nitrate ions from nitrogen in soil leaches down the soil into groundwater due to its
solubility. Since groundwater is our drink source, when humans drink this water,
Ammonia as Fertilizers they will get seriously ill and babies may suffer breathlessness to death.
Plants need nitrogen as one of component for growth and ammonium fertilizers
contain Nitrogen for that.
% content of nitrogen in ammonium fertilizers

E.g. Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4, and urea, (NH2)2CO, are 2 kinds of fertilizers.
Deduce, in terms of nitrogen content, which of these fertilizers best for plants.
% mass = x 100
(NH4)2SO4 = x 100 (NH2)2CO = x 100

( ) ( )
= x 100 = x 100
( ) ( )
= x 100 = x 100
= 21.2% of N = 46.7% of N
Therefore, (NH2)2CO is a better fertilizer since it contains more nitrogen
7.4 Sulphuric Acid Uses of Sulphuric Acid

About Sulphuric Acid - Making of fertilizers such as superphosphate and ammonium sulphate
It is a colourless oily liquid with density slightly higher than water and high boiling - Making detergents
point of 338oC. It’s soluble in water and emits heat when dissolved. - Cleaning surfaces of iron and steel surface before galvanization or electroplating
The Contact Process - To manufacture plastics and fibres
- As electrolyte in car batteries
1. Sulphur is reacted with oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide, SO2
- In refining of petroleum
S(g) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
- In production of dyes, drugs, explosives, paints, etc.
2. SO2 gas is purified from impurities by passing it through dust settlers and washed
with water then dried with concentrated H2SO4. If there’s impurities, the catalyst
Uses of Sulphur Dioxide
will be “poisoned” and the reaction will be less effective.
Sulphur dioxide is a colourless, toxic gas with suffocating smell, denser than the air
3. Sulphur dioxide is further reacted with oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide.
and dissolves in water. Sulphur dioxide is emitted from electric power plants and
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
smelting operations to produce copper, zinc, lead and nickel from sulfide ores and
Since this is a reversible reaction, low temperature and high pressure is needed to
it’s a major contributor to acid rain. It is used:
enhance forward reaction.
- In sulfite manufacturing used in digestion & bleaching wood pulp to make paper
According to graph:
- As food preservatives such as dried fruit and fruit juices. It’s not used to preserve
- Low temperatures yields high percentage of sulphur
meat as it destroys vitamin B1
trioxide at equilibrium
- To bleach straw
Dynamic equilibrium is the state when forward and
END OF CHAPTER 7
backward reaction occurs at same speed and the
concentration of reactant and product is equal. The
reactions do not stop and some reactants and products
always remain.
Although lower temperature is required for high yield, 450oC is instead used in the
process as the reaction will be too slow with low temperatures.
Pressure of 2-3 atm is used in practice.
A catalyst vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5, is used to increase the yield of sulphur
trioxide. Platinum can catalyse more efficiently but it is too expensive.
4. Sulphur trioxide is cooled & reacted in concentrated H2SO4 to produce oleum,

H2S2O7. SO3 is not reacted with water right now as mist forms at this temperature.
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7
5. Oleum is diluted with water to produce sulphuric acid.
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4
CHAPTER 8 – THE PERIODIC TABLE 4) Metals and Non-metals

The Progenitor Periodic Table Metals Non-metals
First periodic table made by Dimitri Mendeleev in 1869. On the left side of periodic table On the right side of periodic table
The Modern Periodic Table Have fewer ( 4) valence electrons Have more (>4) valence electrons
Differences to Mendeleev’s: From left to right, elements gradually change from metal to non-metal
- 115 elements while for Mendeleev’s is 69. Elements close to dividing line in periodic table in back part of the note (in bold)
- Mendeleev arranged the elements according to relative atomic mass while are called metalloids having properties of metals and non-metals.
today we arrange according proton number.
Period – horizontal row of elements in periodic table 5) Changes in Group
Group – vertical column of elements in periodic table numbered from I to 0 - Proton number increase going down the group
Elements between Group II and Group III – transition metals - On each sides of periodic table, the change of the proton number small & gradual
- In transition metals, the gradual change is larger
8.1 Patterns in the Periodic Table
1) Electronic Structure Using the Periodic Table
Elements in same group has the same number of valence shell electrons which the Predicting Properties
amount is the same as the group number. 1) Formula and Structures
e.g. Group II has elements with valency of 2 electrons. Given chlorine, iodine and bromine of Group VII forms molecules of Cl2, I2 and
Br2 respectively, predict the molecular formula of Fluorine.
2) Charges on Ions F2
The charges relates to the group number and number of valence electrons. From example, we know elements in same group form same formula.
- Elements on left side periodic table lose ions to form cation.
- Elements on right side periodic table lose ions to form anion. 2) Properties of Elements
- Elements in Group IV can lose or gain electrons depending on reacting Properties of element changes down the group.
element. i.e. given list of Group 7 elements, predict the properties of astatine.
- Transition metals may form variable cation of 2+ or 3+ Element Proton Number Melting Point (oC) Boiling Point (oC)
Group Number I II III IV V VI VII 0 Fluorine 9 -220 -118
Formula of ion +1 +2 +3 varies -3 -2 -1 stable Chlorine 17 -101 -35
Bromine 35 -7 59
Iodine 53 114 184
3) Bonding
Astatine 85 > 114 > 184
Elements in same group form same type and number of bonds due to the same
number of valence electrons.
e.g. Sodium in Group I forms NaCl, so other elements in Group I does the same.
(RbCl, KCl, LiCl, CsCl)
8.2 Group Properties Element Molecular Melting Boiling State at Colour

Group I Elements – The Alkali Metals formula point (oC) point (oC) r.t.p.
These are metals which react with water to form alkaline solutions. The solutions Fluorine F2 -220 -189 gas Pale yellow
turn red litmus paper blue. Chlorine Cl2 -101 -35 gas Greenish yellow
Bromine Br2 -7 59 liquid Reddish brown
- most reactive metals in periodic table
Iodine I2 114 184 solid Shiny black
- have one outer shell electrons
- shiny, silvery solids
Compounds of the Halogens
- soft, easily cut with scalpel
Halogens gives a charge of –1, so they give similar formulae, eg: NaBr, NaI
- low densities & melting points. These increases down the group
- reacts easily in air. So they’re kept in oil
Reactions of the Halogens
- reacts vigorously (may catch fire or explode) with cold water
- reacts vigorously with metals to form ionic salts for the equation:
- they make ionic compounds of +1 charge. They have similar formulae
2K + Br2  2KBr
- they become more reactive down the group
- halogens become less reactive down the group
Name Symbol Density (g/cm3) Melting point
(oC)
Lithium Li 0.53 180 Displacement Reactions
Sodium Na 0.97 98 More reactive halogen displaces less reactive halogen
Potassium K 0.86 64 eg: aqueous fluorine was added into sodium bromide solution. State the chemical
Rubidium Rb 1.5 39 equation of the reaction.
Caesium Cs 1.9 29 F2(aq) + 2NaBr(aq)  2NaF + Br2
Element Chloride Nitrate Sulphate Oxide
Lithium LiCl LiNO3 Li2SO4 Li2O Group 0 Elements – The Noble Gases
Sodium NaCl NaNO3 Na2SO4 Na2O
Are least reactive elements in the state of gas. They do not form bonds
Potassium KCl KNO3 K2SO4 K2O
- have stable electronic configuration with full electrons on their shells
Table 12.1: The physical properties and formulae of Group I metals
- coloured gases consisting of single atoms (monoatomic)
- low melting and boiling points
Group VII Elements – The Halogens
These are elements which reacts with most metals to form salts
Uses of the Noble Gases
- very reactive elements
- argon used in light bulbs as it wouldn’t react with the hot filament
- have seven outer shell electrons
- neon used in neon advertising strip lights
- each molecule in the element is diatomic (contains two atoms, eg F2)
- helium used in small and weather balloons, and airships for less density
- elements become darker and solidify down the group
- they have low melting and boiling points which increases down the group
- all halogens are poisonous
8.3 Transition Elements CHAPTER 9 –METALS

Properties 9.1 Properties of Metals
- First transition series are all metals Physical properties
- Transition elements have high melting points - Ductile (can be stretched to form wires)
- They have high density - Malleable (can be bent and beaten into different shapes)
- They have variable oxidation state, e.g. Iron (Fe) appear as Fe2+ or Fe3+
- Good conductors of electricity and heat
- They form coloured compounds, e.g. CuSO4 is blue, FeSO4 is green
- They form complex ions, e.g. MnO4-, Manganate(VII) ions - Shiny
- They act as catalysts - High melting points and boiling points (except mercury and sodium)
- High density (except sodium)
Uses of Transition Elements - Strong
Most transition elements and their compounds act as catalysts which speed up
chemical reactions ALLOYS
- Iron is used in Haber Process for manufacture of ammonia
Alloy – a mixture of metallic elements or metallic with non-metallic.
- Vanadium(V) oxide is used in contact process to manufacture sulphuric acid
- Nickel is used in hydrogenation of alkenes to form saturated fats (e.g. margarine) Pure metals are weak as the layers of atoms slide over each other easily.
 in alloy of 2 metals, they have different sizes of atoms so this distrupts the
Advantages orderly layer of atoms making it difficult for atoms to slide over.
- Since transition elements speed up chemical processes in industries, they saves
time in manufacture Uses of Alloy:
- Less energy is needed for manufacture in industries, hence lower cost
- Steel (mixture of iron, little carbon and trace elements)
- Since less energy is needed, more energy resources can be conserved, e.g. oil to
generate electricity in producing iron. - Brass (copper and zinc) – tough and corrosive-resistant
- Coin metals (copper with other metals e.g. nickel) – tough, resistant and
END OF CHAPTER 8 stand up to wear
Uses of Stainless Steel
is an alloy of iron containing chromium or nickel. Is the most expensive way
Applications for:
- Cutleries
- Medical instruments for hospital operations
- Kitchen sinks
- Steel objects in chemical factories and oil refineries
9.2 Reactivity Series E.g. Displacement from metal oxides

Reaction of Metals with Water Metal higher in reactivity series displaces oxides of metals lower in reactivity series.
Pottasium, Sodium, and Calcium reacts with cold water to form: When Ca burns with Ag2O, Ca displaces Ag to produce CaO and Ag.
M(s) + 2H2O(l)  MOH(aq) + H2(g) Ca(s) + Ag2O(s)  CaO(s) + 2Ag(s)
Metal + Water  Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen This is called thermit reaction large amount of heat is produced.
Magnesium, Zinc, Iron reacts with steam to form:
M(s) + 2H2O(g)  MO(s) + H2(g) Reaction of Metal Oxides with Carbon
Metal + Water  Metal Oxide + Hydrogen The lower the position of metal in reactivity series, the easier for carbon to remove
Iron does not react with water oxygen from metal oxide by heating. At higher position, stronger heat is needed.
Copper and Gold have no reaction with water and steam E.g. CuO reacts with C can be reduced by bunsen burner flame temperature
CuO(s) + C(s)  Cu(s) + CO2(g)
Reaction of Metals with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid For iron oxide to be reduced, it needs very high temperature.
Pottasium, Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc and Iron reacts with dilute
hydrochloric acid to form: Reaction of Metal Oxides with Hydrogen
M(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MCl2(aq) + H2(g) The lower position of metal in reactivity series, the easier hydrogen remove oxygen
Metal + Acid  Metal Chloride + Hydrogen from metal oxide by heating. At higher position, stronger heat is needed.
Lead reacts with warm hydrochloric acid slowly E.g. PbO reacts with H2 can be reduced by bunsen burner flame temperature
Copper and Gold have no reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid PbO(s) + H2(g)  Pb(s) + H2O(l)
Displacement Reactions Decomposition of Metal Carbonates

Displacement reaction is the displacement of ions of metal from compounds of The lower position of metal in reactivity series, the easier hydrogen remove oxygen
metals lower in reactivity series by metals higher in reactivity series. from metal oxide by heating. At higher position, stronger heat is needed.
E.g. Magnesium displaces copper(II) chloride E.g. CuCO3 reacts decomposes by heat of bunsen burner flame temperature
Mg(s) + CuCl2(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + Cu(s) CuCO3(s)  Cu(s) + CO2(g)
For observation, we’ll see silver magnesium metal coated with brown copper metal
Displacement is due to Mg atoms transfer electrons to Cu2+ ions forming Cu atoms.
Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e-
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
Loss of electrons is due to it’s less reactive as less reactive metal has higher chance
of losing electrons. That’s why when Mg is placed in KCl, no reaction occurs.
Mg(s) + KCl2(aq)  No reaction
9.3 Extraction of Metals The Extraction of Metals

Metals from Rocks
Minerals – elements/compounds that make up rocks
Metal ore – rock containing metal
Least Reactive – easiest to extract; extracted by physical methods
Extracting these metals
- Metal ores are removed from ground. Less Rective – harder to extract than least reactive; by blast furnace; usually occur
- The ores contain useful and unwanted materials. Unwanted materials are as compounds of oxides or sulphides.
separated to obtain concentrated mineral.
- Metal is extracted from the mineral. Most Reactive – hardest to extract – strong bonds in compounds; by electrolysis –
decomposing compounds with electricity.
Occurrence of Metals
Metal ores are compounds, usually as: Uses of Metals
- Metal oxides – metal + oxygen, eg: Al2O3 The choice of metals over another depends on 3 factors:
- Metal sulphides – metal + sulphur, eg: HgS 1. Physical properties (e.g. melting point, strength, density, conductivity)
- Metal carbonates – metal + carbon + oxygen, eg: MgCO3 2. Chemical properties (e.g. resists corrosion)
3. Cost
Some important metal ores: The Uses of Some Metals and Their Reasons
Mineral Metal Name of ore Chemical name Formula Metal Uses Reason for the choice
Sodium Rock salt Sodium chloride NaCl - Drink cans - Low density, non-toxic, cheap
Aluminium
- Window frames - Resists corrosion, strong
Calcium Limestone Calcium carbonate CaCO3
- Electrical wires - Ductile, good conductor of electricity
Magnesium Magnesite Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 Copper
- Water pipes - Strong, malleable, resists corrosion
Aluminium Bauxite Aluminium oxide Al2O3 - Jewellery - Shiny and attractive, very malleable
Zinc Zinc Blende Zinc sulphide ZnS Gold
- Protective coating - Good reflector of heat and light
Haematite Iron(III) oxide Fe2O3 - Supersonic aircraft
Iron Titanium - Light but strong, resists corrosion
Magnetite Iron(II),(III) oxide Fe3O4 - Spacecraft
Tin Cassiterite Tin(IV) oxide SnO2 Recycling of Metals
Lead Galena Lead(II) sulphide PbS How Much is Left?
Copper(II) sulphide + CuFeS2 There are many iron on the surface but copper and tin are seriously reducing.
Copper Chalcopyrite
Iron sulphide (CuS + FeS)
Mercury Cinnabar Mercury(II) sulphide HgS If you say you have only mined the surface, why don’t you mine deeper for more?
High temperatures and pressures and greater depth increases hazards that prevent
mining up to the lower part of crust, although there are more metals further down
Conservation of metals- Recycling - Recycling metals can damage the environment by smelting process which sends a
- Use alternative materials to replace the use of iron (e.g. use of plastic pipes lot of fumes into the air
instead of iron, use of glass bottles for soft drinks instead of aluminium) - Cost to separate metals from waste is high. E.g. separat metals in alloys is hard
- Recycle unused metals by melting them to produce new blocks of clean metal - Transport costs for collecting scrap metal is high, e.g. trucks should be used
How aluminium cans are recycled? - People are not interested in depositing their used materials in recycling bins
9.4 Iron
Iron is extracted from the iron ore haematite, Fe2O3
Iron is extracted from the oxide in a blast furnace (next page)
The Recycling Circle The Blast Furnace
Benefits of Recycling
- Recyling helps conserving metals, especially valuables such as gold and platinum.
E.g. used computer parts processed to extract gold used for electrical contacts of
processors and memory chips
- Recycling saves the cost of extracting new metals
- Recycling benefits environment, e.g. if there is a car wasteland, it causes eyesore 1. Oxygen in the air reacts with coke to give carbon dioxide:
2. Carbon dioxide produced in 1 reacts with more coke to produce carbon monoxide
Problems with Recycling 3. The carbon monoxide reacts with iron(III) oxide to produce molten iron, which runs
- Metals are recycle if the cost is cheaper than extraction. E.g. Iron, a cheap metal, down to the bottom of the furnace
is more expensive to recycle than to extract new iron
4. The limestone decomposed by heat to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
5. Iron ore contains many impurities (silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.) Sand, SiO2, Rusting
reacts with calcium oxide to produce slag (calcium silicate). Slag runs down to the Rusting – corrosion of iron and steel
bottom of the furnace, floating on top of molten iron Rust – brown solid product formed during rusting
Rust is hydrated iron(III) oxide Fe2O3 xH2O where water molecules varies.
6. Molten iron & slag tapped off separately in furnace. Slag is for road construction.
Conditions for Rusting
7. Referring to equation, not all iron(III) oxide reacted with carbon, only small amount
Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO3 (g)
Steel
Iron made from blast furnace is not good as:
- it contains impurities which makes it brittle (can break easily)
- it cannot be bent or stretched Tubes A B C
Most iron is converted into steel which is an alloy of iron and carbon with small After a few days, only nail in tube A rust. This shows that air and water is needed
amounts of other elements. Advantages of steel: for rust. In boiled water, the nail doesn’t rust in B as boiled water removes
- it is strong and tough dissolved air while in C, CaCl keeps air dry so there’s no water.
- it can be bent and stretched without shattering Other factor  dissolved salt
Making Steel: Preventing Rusting

- Impurities of iron is removed by blowing oxygen into molten iron to change the - Surface protection
impurities into oxides. They are then combined with CaO and removed as slag. - Sacrificial protection
- Carbon and other metals are added in certain amount to make steel. - Use of stainless steel
Different Types of Steel: Surface Protection – covers metal with a layer of substance
- Mild steel – is a low carbon steel with 0.25% carbon 1) Paint
 It is strong and quite malleable. It is used for car bodies, ships, railway lines and 2) Grease or oil (also help to lubricate)
steel rods to reinforce concrete 3) Plastic
- Hard steel – is a high-carbon steel with about 1% carbon 4) Metal Plating – covering metal with thin layer of another metal (e.g. tin,
 It is harder than mild steel and less malleable. It is used to make tools chromium, silver)
- Stainless steel – is iron with large amounts of chromium and nickel Advantage – These methods are cheap (except metal plating)
 It is hard, shiny and doesn’t rust. It is used to make cutleries, medical Disadvantage – If the layer is broken, air and water an reach metal to rust
instrument and pipes in chemical industries.
Sacrificial Protection CHAPTER 10 – ATMOSPHERE AND ENVIRONMENT

is to sacrifice more reactive metal to corrode with water and air by layering it over 10.1 Air
less reactive metal (e.g. iron covered by magnesium). If layer is broken, water & air The atmosphere is a layer of air containing mixture of
reach underneath layer, overlying metal still protect it. several gases. This mixture composition varies according to
time and place. The composition of water vapour varies
Applications: from 0-5%, depending on the humidity of air.
1) Galvanised Iron – is steel coated with zinc, usually used on roofs.
2) Protecting ships – blocks of zinc are attached to hulls to corrode instead of
steel which is the ship metal. Percentage Composition of Oxygen in Air
3) Underground steel pipes – these are attached to magnesium block using
insulated copper cables. Magnesium corrodes first than steel.
END OF CHAPTER 9
A known volume of air is passed through tube with burning copper powder and
oxygen in air will react with hot copper powder to produce black copper oxide:
2Cu(s) + O2(g)  2CuO(s)
If oxygen is depleted, the readings on both syringes will be steady and the reaction
has completed. Hence, to find the volume of oxygen in air collected in syringe:
Volume of O2 = Initial volume of air – Final volume of air
For instance, the initial volume of air in one syringe is 80cm3 and the final volume is
64cm3. Hence, the percentage volume of O2 in air is:
% Volume of O2 = x 100%
= x 100%
= 20%
Liquefaction of Air
First, CO2 is removed by passing air through NaOH. Then, the air is cooled to -25oC
to freeze water vapour to be removed and the remaining air is cooled and
compressed to become liquid which is then separated into its singular constituents
by fractional distillation as each constituent has different boiling point.
OXYGEN – THEY’RE AROUND US! The main air pollutants are:

Oxygen Reaction – Combustion 1. Carbon monoxide
MOST substances react with O2 to in exothermic reaction, which is called Where it comes from?
combustion. If flames are produced during combustion, it’s called burning. Unburnt hydrocarbons; exhaust fumes; forest fires
ALL carbon compounds burn in O2 to produce CO2 while ALL hydrogen containing
compounds burn in O2 to produce H2O. What hazard it brings?
When adequate supply of oxygen is available during burning, it will create a Combines with haemoglobin when inhaled, which produces carboxyhaemoglobin
complete combustion. If otherwise, the combustion is incomplete. that reduces efficiency of haemoglobin to transport oxygen. Cells then die.
E.g. CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(g), makes up a complete combustion
How to prevent this?
A Test for Combustion - Install catalytic converters in cars
When air hole is closed, air cannot enter - Reduce number of cars on road
supplying oxygen, and hence soot (unburnt - Create efficient engines in cars to ensure complete hydrocarbon combustion
carbon) and CO is produced from incomplete
hydrocarbon gas combustion. As a result, flame 2. Sulphur dioxide
is yellow due to glowing specks of hot soot in Where it comes from?
heat and the flame is not hot. When air hole is Combustion of fossil fuels containing sulphur impurities; volcanic eruptions
opened, air supplies plenty of oxygen, allowing
complete combustion. What hazard it brings?
Lung irritant, eye irritant, acid rain
Significance of Oxygen
- As rocket fuel How to prevent this?
- In steel making, to burn off impurities - Prevent using fuels containing sulphur impurities, e.g. coal
- In oxy-acetyline cutting and welding - Reduce the sulphur impurities inside fossil fuels
- In oxygen tanks for deep sea divers and mountain climbers to provide oxygen - Spray exhaust gases from factories with water/hydrated CaO/alkalis to absorb
- For respiration for most animals sulphur dioxide before it’s released into the atmosphere
- Used as oxygen tents in hospital to aid patients with respiratory problems - Add CaO to soil and rivers to neutralize acid rain
Air Pollution
Pollutants are substances in atmosphere which are harmful for living things and 3. Oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2, ...)
environment, for contributing to air pollution. Where it comes from?
From nature, pollutant sources are volcanoes, forest fires, decay of dead matter, Lightning activity; forest fires; internal combustion engines (as nitrogen oxides
etc. but from humans, they’re exhaust fumes, power stations, oil and gas, etc. are formed by oxygen and nitrogen under high temperature); power stations
What hazard it brings? 4. Methane

Eutrophication, lung damage, acid rain Where it comes from?
Decomposition of vegetable matter; rice field; cattle ranching; natural gas; mines
How to prevent this?
- Install catalytic converters in cars What hazard it brings?
- Design car engines which run at lower temperatures It is highly flammable, greenhouse gas
Chemistry around us: ACID RAIN How to prevent this?

Acid rain is formed by 2 main constituents – SO2 and NO2 - Cattle and other ruminant animals should be given improved diet
Sulphur dioxide/nitrogen dioxide, both react with oxygen and water to form - Animal manure and rotting vegetation can be used as biomass fuel
sulphuric acid/nitric acid. This is called hydrolysis.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) + H2O(l)  2H2SO4(aq) 5. Unburnt hydrocarbons
4NO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l)  4HNO3(aq) Where it comes from?
Effects of Acid Rain Internal combustion engunes; incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons
- The acid corrodes buildings, CaCO3 materials and metal statues.
- Acid rain damages trees What hazard it brings?
- Acid rain increases acidity of soil, making soil unsuitable for plant growth Carcinogenic, forms photochemical smog
- Fish cannot survive in acidic water
- Aggravates respiratory ailments such as bronchitis and asthma How to prevent this?
- Install catalytic converters in cars
Tackling Acid Rain - Reduce number of cars on road
- Remove sulphur dioxide from flue gases by desulphurization - Create efficient engines in cars to ensure complete hydrocarbon combustion
- Add Ca(OH)2 to soil to neutralize acid from acid rain
- Burn fuels with less sulphur 6. Ozone
Where it comes from?
Desulphurization It is an allotrope (two/three different forms of a pure element) of oxygen having
It is the removal of sulphur dioxide from flue (waste) gases. The product is CO2, structural formula O3 having characteristic odour. It’s created by reaction of
which is non-polluting gas, and calcium sulphite. nitrogen oxides with volatile organic compounds in presence of UV radiation.
CaCO3(s) + SO2(g)  CaSO3(s) + CO2(g)
To increase profit, calcium sulphite further oxidized to produced gypsum to be sold What hazard it brings?
2CaSO3(s) + O2(g) + 4H2O(l) CaSO4.2H2O(g) - It reacts with unburnt hydrocarbons to form photochemical smog that causes
headache, eye, nose and throat irritation.
- It corrodes and kills plants and trees How is it depleted?

Ozone layer absorbs some UV radiation and reflects some back to space. CFCs,
How to prevent this? found in coolants in refrigerator and air conditioners, propellants in aerosols and
- Don’t use CFCs/replace it with HCFCs which destroys faster. blowing agents, are released into the atmosphere. In the presence of light, CFC
Chemistry around us: PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG decompose into Cl2 at the stratosphere where ozone is located.
It is a hazy brown air, which is a mixture of fog and smog,that reduces visibility, CFCl3(g)  CFCl2(g)+ Cl
causes eye irritation and breathing difficulties. It is produced by reaction between CFCl2 further decomposes to produce more chlorine atoms, Cl, and CFCl
NO2 and O2 in the oresence of sunlight to form NO, O and O2. This reaction is called CFCl2(g)  CFCl(g)+ Cl
photochemical reaction. As a result, the Cl atoms produced react with O3 molecules to form chlorine oxide,
NO2(g) + 2O2(g)  NO(g) + O + O2(g) ClO, and oxygen, O2.
The oxygen atom is reacted with the oxygen molecules formed to form ozone, O3. Cl + O3(g)  ClO(g) + O2(g)
O2(g) + O  O3(g) The reaction uses up ozone which covers the earth and hence creating a hole in the
Ozone can react with unburnt hydrocarbons to produce eye-irritating substances. layer. Harmful UV rays from sun can now reach Earth through these holes.
Chemistry around us: DESTRUCTION OF OZONE LAYER
Tackling Depletion of ozone layer:
- Don’t use CFCs/replace it with HCFCs which destroys faster.
Chemistry around us: GLOBAL WARMING
Greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat from sun by greenhouse gases to
regulate Earth temperature so that not all heat is reradiated back to space.
However, increased industrialization releases more greenhouse gases to
atmosphere, contributing to Global Warming (increase in temperature of Earth’s
atmosphere due to trapping of heat by greenhouse gases).
EXAMPLES OF GREENHOUSE GASES ARE:

1. Carbon Dioxide which is naturally occuring or by combustion of hydrocarbons.
2. Methane which occur naturally or emitted during production of fuels or from
decaying vegetable matter.
3. Nitrous Oxide is produced by industrial and agricultural activities,and by
incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons
Hazards of Global Warming
Use of ozone layer in stratosphere:
It melts polar icebergs, floods low lying areas and coastal regions, alter the climatic
It blocks UV rays from sun which causes skin cancer; acts as blanket to block out
conditions of certain places, alter crop yield, and evaporation of water supply.
high sun energy radiation and prevent it from penetrating into Earth’s surface.
TACKLING GLOBAL WARMING Animals:

- Reduce the use of fossil fuels When herbivores and omnivores eat plants, they gain carbon from them to grow
- Use alternative forms of energy such as wind, tidal and hydroelectric power and develop. Carnivores eating these animals also gain the carbon. When animals
- Use more electric vehicles respire, they release carbon dioxide. When they die and decay due to
- Reduce number of cars on road microorganism, they release carbon dioxide which is later taken in by plants.
- Create efficient engines in cars to ensure complete hydrocarbon combustion
Chemistry around us: CARBON CYCLE WHAT NON-LIVING THINGS DID
0.03% of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide and this is kept constant by the process Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are released from electric power plants,
carbon cycle. Carbon cycle is the removal of carbon dioxide by plants by exhaust fumes and factory emissions. Man burns fossil fuels, which needs millions
photosynthesis and the replacement of these carbon molecules by combustion, of years to form, that takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. This makes man
respiration and natural processes. In the past the rate of absorption of carbon depleting natural resource as they use them rapidly than the time needed to
dioxide balances the rate of production of carbon dioxide. Man upset this balance. reform, damages natural environment and upsetting balance of carbon cycle.
Balancing Chemicals in Nature: CATALYTIC CONVERTERS
First, nitrogen oxides reacts with carbon monoxide as they pass a platinum catalyst.
WHAT LIVING THINGS DID
2NO(g) + CO(g)  N2(g) + 2CO2(g)
Plants:
In second half of converter, unburnt hydrocarbons (e.g. octane, C8H18) reacts with
Plants use carbon dioxide from atmosphere, sunlight and chlorophyll for
more air to form CO2 and H2O.
photosynthesis of sugars. Some carbon is used up in plants for growth and
2C8H18(g) + 25O2(g)  16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
development, while some others are released to atmosphere during respiration.
CO2, H2O and N2 are all non-pollutants. These reactions are all redox.
When plants die & decomposed by microorganisms, CO2 released to atmosphere.
7. Lead compounds - Needed for growth of aquatic plants to make food and produce oxygen for
Where it comes from? aquatic organisms.
- Combustion of leaded petrol in car engines
Dissolved oxygen
What hazard it brings? - Needed for respiration and growth of aquatic life. Water without O2 is stagnant.
- Causes lead poisoning which leads to brain damage.
Organic matter
10.2 Water - Needed for growth of aquatic organisms
Water is most available liquid on Earth covering 70% of the planet surface.
We use water at home for: drinking, cooking, washing and bathing Harmful Stuff
While in industries, we use as: heat exchanger, raw material for food and drinks, Acid
as a solvent, cleaning and purification, irrigation, dyeing and bleaching process. - Kills aquatic organisms and plants
Inside that Water - Makes water acidic and corrosive – unsafe to drink
Naturally Occuring Substances
- Mineral salts – aluminium, calcium, potassium, etc. Nitrates
- Dissolved oxygen given out by aquatic animals by photosynthesis - Causes eutrophication which deprives marine organisms of oxygen
- Organic matter (living/dead plants, animals, microorganisms) - Nitrate ions may cause breathlessness or kill babies when consumed
Pollutants
- Metal compounds such as cadmium, iron, manganese, etc. from waste discharge Phosphates
- Phosphates from fertilizers, detergents or sewage treatment plants - Can cause eutrophication as it encourages the growth of algae, hence killing
- Nitrates from fertilizers or sewage treatment plants aquatic organisms when they die and takes away oxygen
- Sewage from sewage treatment plants or septic systems
- Harmful microbes from sewage treatment plants, septic systems, naturally Heavy metal ions
occuring in water or growing in abundance due to pollution - These are carcinogenics that can cause skin cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, etc.
- Acid from industrial discharges
- Oil spills from oil tankers Sewage
- Contains pathogens which when consumed carries diseases such as diarrhoea.
Important or Silent Killer?
Beneficial Stuff Oil
Mineral salts - Traps bird’s feathers and kills them eventually
- Needed for basic functions of human body such as bone growth, fluid regulation, - Depletes oxygen as air cannot mix with water to provide sufficient oxygen
normalize nerve and muscle functionality, metabolism control, growth, etc.
Tackling Water Pollution CHAPTER 11 – ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

- Proper disposal of rubbish to prevent more water pollution Compounds from Living Things
- Prohibit activities potentially causing water pollution near rivers/reservoirs such Organic Compounds – compounds found in living organisms
as camping or swimming. Examples: sugar, fats, plant oils, urea
- Dispatch monitor ships to prevent accidents between ships so oil will not spill
Purification – Taking care of those harmful stuffs Charecteristics of Organic Compounds
- All contain carbon element
- Most come with hydrogen
- Others with oxygen, nitrogen, or a halogen
Uses of Organic Compounds

Fuels, plastic, rubber, detergents, insecticides, most medicines
Classifying Organic Compounds

Homologeous series – a family of organic compounds with a general formula and a
similar chemical properties
All homologous series has:
1. Water from rain and river downstream is collected in reservoir.
2. Water is transported via pipe to a flocculation tank where alum, Al2(SO4)3, and
lime, Ca(OH)2 are added to water so that small solid clay particles join together
into large lumps of solid (coagulation).
3. Water is moved to sedimentation tank where the lumps of solid settles to the
bottom of the tank. This is called sedimentation. Carbon, in form of activated
charcoal, is added to remove the taste and smell of water.
4. Water is filtered off in filtration tank, where there are sand particles filter which
traps the remaining solid particles in water.
5. Chlorine and fluorine are added in chlorination tank. This is called chlorination.
Chlorine is used to kill bacteria while fluorine is used to strengthen teeth.
Desalination Functional Groups
Ocean is vast source of water. Salts in seawater must be removed so it’s drinkable. - Is the special group of atoms available in homologous series compunds which
Desalination is the process where seawater is distilled until it becomes steam (free responsibles for the chemical properties of the compound
of salt) which is then cooled and condensed into drinking water.
END OF CHAPTER 10
 All compounds in homologous series have functional group except alkanes. • example: propane has three carbon atom, thus n=3. Then the formula of
Examples of functional group homologous series: alcohol propane is C3H8
- Ends with suffix –ane
Production of Organic Compounds - Next alkane formula differ by –CH2 atoms. Eg: methane: CH4, ethane: C2H6
From crude oil refinery:
Crude oil is a mixture of complex hydrocarbons with varying boiling points, Structure of Alkanes
depending on the number of carbon atoms and how they are arranged. Fractional Shows how all atoms in a molecule joined together by drawing lines between
distillation uses this property to separate the hydrocarbons in crude oil. atoms to represent the bonds
Example: butane has a formula of C4H10, therefore the structural formula is:
From naphtha:
Naphtha fraction is used for production of petrochemicals, such as medicines,
plastics and synthetic fibres, aside from fuels. When naphtha is treated, not only it
becomes a better fuel, it also contain more aromatic hydrocarbons, alkene and
cyclic hydrocarbons which are important for petrochemical industry. It has 4 carbon atoms bonded together with 10 hydrogen atoms
Crude oil is mostly used as fuel, though some allocated for chemical feedstock. As Organic compound containing only single bond is saturated. Eg: methane
oil reserves deplete, competition between 2 main uses of oil will be more intense. All alkanes are saturated. All alkenes are unsaturated
Saturated or Unsaturated? Physical Properties of Alkanes

Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons which the combining capacity of the
carbon atoms is as fully used as possible in bonding with hydrogen atoms. They
only have single bond (–) only.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons which the combining capacity of the

carbon atoms is not fully used, e.g. only 2 or 3 hydrogen are attached to a carbon
atom. This is usually indicated by double bond (=) or triple bond () with another
carbon atoms.
11.1 Alkanes
- Usually in fuels, examples: natural gas, petrol, diesel
- Are homologous series
- Have a formula of CnH2n+2 From the table,
- Melting points and boiling points increase as the bonds become larger and Substitution reaction – the reaction in which one or more atoms replace other
heavier which increases the forces of attraction between molecules so more atoms in a molecule
energy (from heat) is needed to separate them with the increase of strength of Light is needed to break covalent bond between chlorine moleculeatoms
forces of attraction
- Alkanes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as

tetrachloromethane as alkanes are organic compounds
- Alkane density increases down the series; all alkenes are less than 1g/cm3 11.2 Alkenes
- have general formula CnH2n.
- Alkanes become more viscous (uneasily flow) going down the series as the longer - all alkene names end with –ene.
molecules tangles together when it flows - the formula of one alkene differs from the next by –CH2.
- have similar properties like alkane going down the series.
- Alkanes become less flammable down the series as B.P. becomes larger No. of Condensed
Molecular
C Name Structural formula structural
formula
atoms formula
- Alkanes are unreactive with either metals, water, acids or bases because the C – C
and C – H covalent bonds are harder to break 2 ethene C2H4 CH2 = CH2
Reaction of Alkanes
Have same chemical properties – they don’t react with most chemicals 3 propene C3H6 CH3CH2 = CH2
Combustion
Alkanes burn in air to ALWAYS form carbon dioxide and water. When there is 4 butene C4H8 CH3CH2CH = CH2
insufficient oxygen, the product is ALWAYS carbon monoxide and unburnt carbon.
Example: Butane is commonly used camping gas. State the chemical equation of Table 25.3 First three alkenes; they appear as gas
combustion of butane in air. Structure of Alkenes
2 C4H10(g) + 13 O2(g)  8 CO2(g) +10 H2O (l) Is organic compound containing C = C double bond, said to be unsaturated
Reason: not all C atoms are bonded to the maximum no. of 4 other atoms
High alkanes burn less completely and gives soot (unburnt carbon) and CO
The Importance of Ethene
Reaction with Chlorine/Other Halogens (Alkyl Halides) Ethanol – solvent & fuel Poly(ethene) – PE plastic variations
Chlorine molecule replaces alkane hydrogen atom with chlorine atom Ethanoic acid – vinegar
Reactions of Alkenes - Addition of water

Combustion Alkene reacts with water, in the form of steam, to produce alcohol. Alkene + steam
Burns in air to form carbon dioxide and water is passed over phosphoric acid (H3PO4) catalyst and temperature of 300oC. H2O
Example: Ethene burns in air. Write the balanced equation for the reaction molecule adds to C = C bonds to form alcohol.
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 2H2O (l) C2H4(g) + H2O(g)  C2H5OH or CH3CH2OH (l)
Incomplete combustion forms soot and CO. It’s produced more than alkane
+ H–O–H 
Addition Reaction
Is the reaction of 2 or more molecules to form a single product
Nomenclature
- Addition of hydrogen (alkene name) + (-ol)
Alkenes react with hydrogen to form alkanes, called hydrogenation. Must use E.g. in above, the alkene ethane (C2H4) reacts with steam to form ETHANOL (alkene
nickel as catalyst and heat. name – ETHAN + OL group of alcohol)
C2H4(g) + H2(g)  C2H6(g)
- Polymerization
+ H–H  The joining of several identical alkene molecules to form a big molecule
Eg: Ethene  poly(ethene)
Nomenclature
Product’s an ALKANE with name according to number of carbon atoms it contain. Testing for Unsaturated Compounds
Mix bromine solution with alkene (for liquid alkenes – shake). Reddish-brown
- Addition of bromine colour of bromine disappears. This shows that the compound is an alkene.
Bromine adds to C = C double bond of alkane molecules. Phosphoric acid (H3PO4),
high temperature of 300oC and 60-70 atm pressure are needed as catalyst. Characteristics of a Homologous Series
Eg: ethene to 1,2 – dibromoethene - All members of homologous series have same general formula
C2H4(g) + Br2(g)  C2H4Br2(l) - Formula of each member differs by –CH2 group
- Physical properties changes gradually in the increase of carbon atoms
+ Br – Br  - The members have similar chemical properties
Nomenclature Foods and Unsaturated Compounds

(n) + (bromo) + (alkene name), where n is the number of bromine atoms. The Manufacture of Margarine
E.g. Above, Ethene reacts with 2 bromine atoms producing DI(2)BROMO(Bromine) Polyunsaturated food – food containing C=C bond in their molecules
ETHENE(alkene name). Hence we call the product DIBROMOETHENE. Eg: Vegetable oil
Copyrights AF/PS/2009/2010 59 No, you poser!
Hey, I’m I’M C6H14!
To produce margarine: Isomers C6H14!
Look at the figure above and count the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in
each case. You will end up with the same C6H14. We can’t deny that they have the
same molecular formula. However, their structures are different. Therefore:
Hydrogen is reacted with vegetable oil with presence of nickel catalyst and heat,
which adds to C=C bond, increasing the molecular mass of the compound Isomers are compounds with same molecular formula but different structural
- With increase in mass, the compound has higher boiling point. Therefore, formula. Due to different chain length, they have different physical properties (e.g.
margarine is solid at room temperature. boiling point). Isomerism can occur in both alkanes and alkenes.
- Since only some C=C bonds react with hydrogen, margarine is partially
hydrogenated and each has different hardness, depending on the number of C=C We therefore can’t just say that C6H14 is simply hexane because there are more
bonds. variations of C6H14 and each variation has its own name. The figure below shows
the nomenclature (i.e. how to name) these isomers.
The Cracking of Alkanes
Alkanes can be cracked into shorter chain hydrocarbons because of the higher
value it has that it can create more variety of products in petrochemical industries.
We crack alkane by catalytic cracking, which is, using catalyst to break alkane into
simpler hydrocarbons. We crack alkane to get more valuable hydrocarbons. The
total number of carbon and hydrogen atoms from products should equal to the
total number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in cracked alkane.
E.g. Octane can be cracked into simpler hydrocarbons such as the reaction below.
Suggest the possible identity of product x.
C8H18(l)  C2H4(g) + x + CH4(g)
Number of C atoms in x = 8 – 2 – 1
=5
Number of H atoms in x = 18 – 4 – 4
= 10
 Product x is C5H10
- Note that the second number is 3 while in fact, the position closest to the end of
isomer is 2. This is to avoid confusion that the isomer would be that of figure
12(b)(i) and figure 12(b)(ii). In this case, we put the number as the POSITION THE
SECOND NEAREST TO THE END OF THE ISOMER, that is, 3.
Figure 12(a) is the full long chained isomer of C6H14: hexane. This is so not useful.
Figure 12(b)(i) is another isomer called 2,2-dimethylbutane.

- Note that the first number 2 indicates the position of methyl group (CH3)
attached to a carbon atom from the nearest end. There are 2 possible numbers:
2 or 3. Since 2 is closer, we put 2 in place. The second number 2 indicates the
position of the second methyl group attached to carbon atom. Since it’s attached
to the same carbon atom as the first methyl group, we put the same number 2.
- Also note that the name is now “butane”. This comes from the number of carbon
atoms in the STRAIGHT chain only. The turns leading to methyl is ignored.
- Bear in mind that “di” in “dimethyl” indicates the number of methyl groups in the
isomer (“di” means two). One methyl has no prefix, if it’s three is “tri” and so on.
Figure 12(b)(ii) is another variation of the isomer 2,2-dimethylbutane For isomerism in alkene in Figure 13(c), we apply the same theory as isomerism in
- Students often misinterpret this as 1,2,2-trimethylpropane while in fact, we don’t alkane, and just to only add a double bond indication.
take the last bend in the chain as another methyl group. Instead, we consider it
as PART OF THE STRAIGHT CHAIN. For alkene, double bond position can be changed. In Figure 13(a), it’s hept-1-ene,
can be called heptene, can be changed to hept-2-ene in Figure 13(b), where the
Figure 12(c)(i) and Figure 12(b)(ii) is another isomer called 2,3-dimethylbutane number in between indicates position of double bond from nearest isomer end.
- See that we can flip the positions of methyl group without changing formula
11.3 Alcohols REACTIONS OF ALCOHOL

Are homologous series with general formula CnH2n+1OH Combustion
- They have –OH functional group (hydroxyl group) Alcohols burn in air to produce carbon dioxide and water.
- All alcohols end with suffix -ol E.g. combustion of ethanol
C2H5OH(aq) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
First three members of the series (so that you’d have idea on the next)
 Methanol, CH3OH Oxidation
 Ethanol, C2H5OH or CH3CH2OH 1. Alcohol can be prepared in laboratory by warming alcohol with oxidizing agent
 Propanol, C3H7OH or CH3CH2CH2OH (e.g. acidified potassium chromate(VI)). The product is carboxylic acid and water.
For alcohol, the –OH is not of hydroxide ion, OH-, but is covalent bond between E.g. oxidation of ethanol produces water and ethanoic acid
oxygen and hydrogen, O – H C2H5OH(aq) + 2[O]{from oxidizing agent}  2CH3COOH(g) + 3H2O(l)
Making Ethanol 2. Alcohol can be oxidized when left in air with bacterial enzymes as catalyst. The
- Fermentation of sugars with yeast products are carboxylic acid and water.
- Reacting ethene with steam E.g. ethanol produces water and ethanoic acid when left in air.
C2H5OH(aq) + O2(g)  2CH3COOH(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Fermenting glucose
Fermentation is breakdown of sugars into smaller molecules by microorganisms. Esterification
C6H12O6(aq)  2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g) This will be discussed in Chapter 11.4
Temperature is kept constant at 37oC to prevent destruction of yeast at higher
temperatures. Oxygen is removed by limewater and carbon dioxide is produced 11.4 Carboxylic Acids
during fermentation. Alcohol is separated from solution by fractional distillation. homologous series with general formula CnH2n+1COOH (first serie, n = 0, ascending)
- They have –COOH functional group (carboxyl group)
Reacting Ethene with Steam - All carboxylic acids end with suffix –oic acid
Ethene and steam are passed over phosphoric acid H3PO4 (as a catalyst) under high
temperature of 300oC and pressure of 65 atm. First three members of the series (so that you’d have idea on the next)
C2H4(g) + H2O(g) ⇌ C2H5OH(aq)  Methanoic acid, HCOOH
Since this is reversible reaction, both ethene and water are produced aside from  Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
ethanol. The ethanol is separated by fractional distillation.  Propanoic acid, C2H5COOH
Uses of Alcohol
As organic solvent; alcoholic drink; preservatives; vehicle fuel
PREPARATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

1. From natural gas
Natural gas is passed over air and catalyst to form ethanoic acid and water.
E.g. production of ethanoic acid from methane
2CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CH3COOH(aq) + 2H2O(l)
ESTER NOMENCLATURE:
2. Oxidation (explained in Chapter 11.3) Ester name is [alcohol]yl [carboxylic acid]oate. For instance, example above is butyl
propanoate, where “butyl” is from butanol; “propanoate” is from propanoic acid.
PROPERATIES OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
- Carboxylic acids are weak acids (partially ionises in water) 11.5 Synthetic Macromolecules
- Carboxylic acids react with metals to form metal ethanoate (salt) and hydrogen Macromolecule is a large molecule made by joining together many small molecules
E.g. Reaction between calcium and ethanoic acid forming calcium ethanoate Polymer is a long-chain macromolecule made by joining together many monomers
and hydrogen Polymerisation is the addition of monomers to make one large polymer
Ca(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq)  Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2(g)
ADDITION POLYMERISATION
- Carboxylic acids react with bases to form salt and water (neutralization) Addition polymerisation is which small molecules (monomers) join together to
E.g. Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and form one molecule as the only product.
water.
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq)  CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(g) From monomer to polymer
Example: Formation of poly(ethene) from ethene
- Carboxylic acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates to form salt, carbon Ethene has double bond. Another ethene molecules add to this unsaturated
dioxide and hydrogen. compound during polymerisation to form bigger compound.
E.g. Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate to form sodium ethanoate and
water.
2CH3COOH(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)  2CH3COONa(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
ESTERIFICATION
Ester is organic compound made from carboxylic acid and alcohol with the removal Repeat unit is the simplest part of the polymer which is repeated many times to
of one molecule of water. Sulfuric acid is added as catalyst then heat mixture. form the polymer. We take the repeat unit to write the simplified formula of the
The next page shows the reaction between an alcohol and carboxylic acid. polymer, where n is a large number. From this repeat unit, to find the monomer
The reaction is reversible. We can add sodium hydroxide and heat mixture to formula, we add double bond between C – C and remove the bonds on each of
obtain carboxylic acid and alcohol from ester. This is HYDROLYSIS. their sides.
Some plastic variations and their uses are shown:
The linkage between monomers in nylon is called amide linkage. Therefore we can
also call nylon as polyamide.
Today, we use nylon as:

- a replacement of stockings and manufacture of garments to replace silk
- make tents and parachutes due to strength
- fishing lines
CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION - rugs and carpets
Condensation Polymerisation is the joining of monomers together to form
polymers along with the elimination of water molecules. Terylene
Dicarboxylic acid (acid with 2 –COOH groups) and diol (alcohol with 2 –OH groups)
Nylon undergo condensation polymerisation to form terylene
Dicarboxylic acid and diamine undergo condensation polymerisation to form nylon.
11.6 Natural Macromolecules

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen & oxygen. General formula is Cn(H2O)n.
The simplest carbohydrate is C6H12O6 (glucose).
Glucose polymerise each other to form starch.
The overall reaction is:

nC6H12O6  (C5H10O5)n + nH2O
The linkage between the monomers in terylene is called ester linkage. Therefore Starch can also be broken down into glucose by heating with sulfuric acid. This is
we can call this polymer as polyester. HYDROLYSIS.
Today, we use terylene in fabrics as it’s strong, resists stretching and sinking and PROTEINS
doesn’t crumple when washed. Proteins have similar linkage to that of a nylon. Only that their monomers are only
amino acids joined together. They are formed by condensation polymerisation.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PLASTICS
- Plastics are non-biodegradable – they cannot be decomposed by bacteria. Proteins can be called as polyamide as it has amide linkage. Proteins can also be
Therefore, many plastic waste will pollute the Earth broken down into amino acids by boiling protein with sulfuric acid. This adds
- Plastics produce toxic gas (such as hydrogen chloride) when burnt and this water molecule into the polymer.
contributes to acid rain.
- Plastics produce carbon dioxide when burnt – increases global warming.
- Plastics that require CFC during production may contribute to global warming
when the CFC is allowed to escape.
POLYMERISATION OF FATS
HYDROLYSIS OF FATS
FATS
Fats have similar linkage to that of a terylene (ester linkage). Only that their
monomers consists of glycerol and fatty acids; different from terylene.
END OF SYLLABUS CODE 5070
Fats can also be broken down to sodium salts of fatty acids and glycerol by boiling
it with an acid or alkali. This is HYDROLYSIS. GOOD LUCK IN YOUR EXAMINATIONS!
The reactions are given on the page on the right.

*Periodic table and qualitative analysis notes are reproduced with permission from Cambridge
International Examination Syndicate which itself is a subordinate of University of Cambridge. The
information published should not be reproduced for other intent other than creation of this notes.

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What are the three main types of natural macromolecules mentioned and what are their monomers?

What are the three main types of natural macromolecules mentioned and what are their monomers?

Copyrights AF/PS/2009/2010 0

GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010 Volumes of Gases

1.2 Methods of Purification and Analysis

Mixture – contains two or more substances. Its quantity is more on Earth.

2.2 Obtaining Pure Substances

Diagram and Distillation Graph

Process of Distillation: Uses of fractional distillation:

Use of Separating Funnel Separating and Identifying Mixtures of Colourless Substances

CHAPTER 2 – THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER Diffusion of gases

GASES Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion

Particulate Models of Matter Freezing

2.2 Atomic Structure ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

E.g. Formation of MgF2 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF IONIC BONDS

E.g. H2 molecule E.g. H2O molecule

A pair of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms SINGLE BOND, X – Y.

STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF COVALENT BONDS 2.6 Metallic Bonding

2.7 Simple Molecular Substances

n(S) = n(O) = = 0.01 mol

Formulae: n = 1.5 x 0.60

CALCULATIONS USING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 3.11 Calculations from Equations

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 3.14 Volumetric Analysis

n(H2XO4) = x 0.01 x Formulae of Compounds

4.2 Electrolysis of Molten Compounds 4.3 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution

Concentrated Solutions (2H+(aq) + 2e-  H2(g))x2

4.4 Electrolysis Using Different Types of Electrodes Reaction at Anode

(Cu2+(aq) + 2e-  Cu(s))x2

4.6 Creation of Electric Cells by Electrolysis

CHAPTER 5 – ENERGY FROM CHEMICALS 5.2 Endothermic Reaction

5.3 Heat of Reaction Exothermic ∆H = the bond energy of 2 H – Br bonds

5.4 Heat Energy and Enthalpy Change in Reaction

Creation of the Fuel

Hydrogen in Reduction-Oxidation reaction

H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(g)

(b) KMnO4 Examples:

(c) Fe(NO3)2 Halide (Halogen) Displacement Reactions

Reducing agents Dynamic equilibrium

6.3 Reversible Reactions

Effect of Temperature on Reversible Reactions

Effect of Pressure on Reversible Reactions

Laboratory acids: 3 common laboratory acids Storage of Acids

- Alkalis are hazardous Indicators and pH

Measuring pH of a Solution Reaction Between Metals and Acids

Reactions Producing Precipitate OXIDES

Displacement Reactions 7.3 Preparation of Salts

Reaction between Base and Ammonium Salts

By Reacting Insoluble Base with Acid

7.4 Properties and Uses of Ammonia

% content of nitrogen in ammonium fertilizers

(NH4)2SO4 = x 100 (NH2)2CO = x 100

7.4 Sulphuric Acid Uses of Sulphuric Acid

4. Sulphur trioxide is cooled & reacted in concentrated H2SO4 to produce oleum,

CHAPTER 8 – THE PERIODIC TABLE 4) Metals and Non-metals

8.2 Group Properties Element Molecular Melting Boiling State at Colour

8.3 Transition Elements CHAPTER 9 –METALS

9.2 Reactivity Series E.g. Displacement from metal oxides