ELEC4307 ALTERNATIVE ENERGY ASSIGNMENT

TABLE OF CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION 2
2. NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES 3
2.1 Fossil Fuel Resources 3
2.2 Nuclear Energy 4
3. ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES 5
3.1 Wind Energy 5
3.2 Hydroelectric Energy 6
3.3 Solar Energy 7
4. WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS 8
4.1 Overview
8
5. WIND TURBINE DESIGN 11
5.1 Turbine size 11
5.2 Tower Height 13
5.3 Number of blades 13
6. SYSTEM CONTROL 14
6.1 Tip speed ratio  14
6.2 Stalling and Furling 16
6.3 General Control Theory 18
7. WIND TURBINE GENERATORS 19
7.1 Induction Generator 19
7.2 Permanent Magnet Alternators 20
8. INTERCONNECTION TO TRASMISSION SYSTEMS 20
8.1 Direct Grid Connection 20
8.2 Indirect Grid Connection 21
8.2.1 AC/DC Layout 21
8.2.2 AC/DC/AC 22
9. CONTROL REQUIREMENTS 23
9.1 Frequency and Active Power Control 23
9.2 Reactive Power Control 24
9.3 Short Circuit Power Level Control 24
9.4 Flicker Control 25
9.5 Harmonics Control 25
9.6 Stability Control 26
9.7 Protection Control 26
10. CONCLUSION 27
11. REFRENCES 28

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1. INTRODUCTION

In this modern day and age, energy is consumed continuously anywhere and

everywhere. It makes the world go round. With the increasing population and

level of activity, the demand for energy has grown tremendously. However,

growth does come at its price. To date, about eighty five percent of the world’s

energy resource is non-renewable. As we all know, non-renewable energy has its

drawbacks such as scarcity and pollution.

Over the years, the future of energy has been debated within the government,

social groups and activists. There have been studies that have been carried out

with realistic assessments of the evolution of the global energy picture that offer

a glimpse into a changed energy future. In this report, I hope to provide a review

of fossil fuel resources, nuclear energy and alternative energy sources. For

alternative energy sources, I would be highlighting and focusing on wind energy

conversion systems for electric energy generation.

Before I begin, I would like to clearly define the word energy. Energy is a

thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the capacity of a physical system to do

work. Energy can be categorized into two main groups; primary and secondary.

Secondary energy is what is more commonly known and consumed by the

general public such as electricity and petrol. It is derived and converted from

raw materials or also known as primary energy resources. Finally, primary

energy resources can be divided into renewable and non-renewable resources.

2. NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

2.1 FOSSIL FUEL RESOURCES

The analysis of our fossil fuel resources starts from the recognition that it is finite,

non-renewable, and subject to effects which will result in a declining production

rate in the near future. Fossil fuel consists of coal, oil and natural gas. These are

the result of the burial of substantial accumulation of organic material for

millions of years.

ADVANTAGES

To date, fossil fuels have been responsible for much of the world’s electric and

power demands. The reason being is that fossil fuels due to its molecular

structure are capable of generating energy by a simple combustion process. It can

then directly heat or generate electricity. [1]

Furthermore, due to its form, fossil fuels such as oil and gas can easily be

distributed through pipelines. Coal is also easy to transport as they are in solid

form and can be done through railway and road networks. This means power

plants that use fossil fuels can easily be constructed anywhere.

DISADVANTAGES

However, despite all the advantages above, the disadvantages of fossil fuels is of

a major concern to everyone. Pollution is the main disadvantage in using fossil

fuels. This is because when combusted, it gives out carbon dioxide which is a

major contributing factor to global warming experienced by the earth today.

The other concern is a situation popularly known as Peak Oil. The key concept of

Peak Oil is that after we have extracted a certain amount of oil, the rate of

extraction will reach an irreversible decline. [2]

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2.2 NUCLEAR ENERGY

Nuclear energy originates from the splitting of uranium atoms in a process called

fission which produces immense amounts of heat. This is simply a clean and

efficient way of boiling water to make steam which drives turbine generators.

Except for the reactor itself, a nuclear power station works like most coal or gas-

fired power stations. Nuclear energy is best applied to medium and large-scale

electricity generation on a continuous basis. In 2009, 13-14% of the world's

electricity came from nuclear power. [3]

ADVANTAGES

As concern about global warming has grown, a number of high-profile

environmentalists have decided that this is a more serious problem than their

previous concerns with nuclear power. Nuclear energy has distinct

environmental advantages over fossil fuels if managed appropriately, in that

virtually all its wastes are contained and managed - nuclear power stations do

not cause any pollution. The fuel for nuclear power is virtually unlimited,

considering both geological and technological aspects. [4]

DISADVANTAGES

Uranium mining and nuclear energy continue to be contentious issues involving

both facts and ideology. One of the main concerns of nuclear energy is its nuclear

waste it produces. The waste is highly radioactive and has to be dealt with

extreme caution and care. There is no method to get rid of the radioactivity of the

waste or speed up the rate of decay. The waste must be sealed and buried in a

safe location to prevent contamination of the environment and other people.

Because of this safety and environmental concern, disposal of nuclear waste can

become quite costly.

3. ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

3.1 WIND ENERGY

Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in moving air into rotational energy,

which in turn is converted to electricity. Wind energy is derived from winds that

are caused by pressure differences across the Earth’s surface due to the uneven

heating of the Earth. The power output is a function of the cube of wind speed,

so wind turbines generally require wind speeds in the range of 20km/h. Places at

high altitudes or offshore can reach such speeds or higher, and are much more

constant, therefore, they are ideal places to construct wind turbines, or wind

farms.[5]

ADVANTAGES

Wind energy is friendly to the surrounding environment, as no fossil fuels are

burnt to generate electricity from wind energy. Furthermore, the cost of

constructing and maintaining wind power generators has declined substantially,

due to its rapid growth over the past few years. At present, wind energy costs

only one-fifth as much as it did in the late 1990s. Newer technologies are making

the extraction of wind energy much more efficient. The wind is free, and

industries are able to cash in on this free source of energy.

DISADVANTAGES

The main disadvantage regarding wind power is due to the winds unreliability

factor. As wind strengths vary, it cannot guarantee continuous power. In many

areas, the winds strength is too low to support a wind turbine or wind farm.
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Another disadvantage is that the commercial wind turbine in operation gives out

noise pollution similar to a small jet engine.

3.2 HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY

This form of energy mainly comes from dammed water that drives a water

turbine and generator. Fast-flowing water released from dams in mountainous

areas can turn water turbines to produce electricity. Energy produced, however,

is dependent on the volume of water as well as on the difference in height

between the source and the outflow of water. Worldwide, an installed capacity of

777 GWe supplied 2998 TWh of hydroelectricity in 2006. [6]

ADVANTAGES

The major advantage of hydroelectricity is elimination of the usage of fuel. A big

advantage of that is the absence of waste products when used in electricity

generation. And since it does not produce harmful elements, it does not cause

pollution in the water and in the air. Hydroelectric plants also tend to have

longer economic lives than fuel-fired generation, with some plants now in service

which were built 50 to 100 years ago. Operating labor cost is also usually low, as

plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation.

[7]

DISADVANTAGES

While it does not cause pollution, there are many other environmental impacts to

consider. For example, hydropower can change the downstream river

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environment. Ecosystems may be destroyed, cultural sites may be flooded and

sometimes people need to be resettled. Water exiting a turbine usually contains

very little suspended sediment, which can lead to scouring of river beds and loss

of riverbanks. There are also impacts on fish breeding, loss of wildlife habitat and

changes in water flow of rivers.

3.3 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is derived from harnessing energy from the sun. The Earth receives

174 PW of incoming solar radiation at the upper atmosphere.[8] Solar

technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active. Active solar

techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into

useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with

favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and

referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies

increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies, while

passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are

generally considered demand side technologies.[9]

ADVANTAGES

The main advantage of solar energy is that it provides cost effective solutions to

energy problems in places where there is no mains electricity and it is silent, non-

polluting, and does not produce any harmful greenhouse gases. It requires little

maintenance, and is available everywhere under the Sun. Moreover, it is free and

immune to rising energy prices. Economically, solar energy is competing with

fossil fuels as fossil fuel prices have risen steeply globally in the last few years.

Furthermore, solar energy technology is becoming increasingly efficient.

DISADVANTAGES
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The main disadvantage of solar energy is the initial cost. Most types of solar cells

require large areas of land to achieve average efficiency. Also, the production of

solar energy is influenced by the presence of clouds or pollution in the air.

Similarly, it is not available during the night which reduces the total production

time to only half a day each day.

4. WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS

4.1 OVERVIEW

Simply stated, a wind turbine works the opposite of a fan. Instead of using

electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity.

The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator and

makes electricity. Utility-scale turbines range in size from 50 to 750 kilowatts.

There are two types of turbines, mainly horizontal axis turbines and vertical axis

turbines.

Horizontal axis wind turbines have their main rotor shaft and generator located

at the top of a tower, and they are pointed into the wind. Wind vane, or wind

sensor coupled with a servomotor, is used to indicate the wind direction, which

then adjusts the blades direction for upwind turbines only, by using a yaw drive,

which is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction

changes.

Vertical axis wind turbines have their main rotor shaft running vertically. This

arrangement allows the generator and gearbox to be placed at the bottom, near to

the ground. There is no need for the tower to support those two components,

and turbine need not be pointed into the wind. However, each revolution

produces a pulsating torque, and the difficulties in mounting vertical axis

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turbines on towers, causes the turbines to be operated in the slower, more

turbulent air flow near the ground, with lower energy extraction efficiency.

A close up view of a common horizontal axis wind turbine can be seen here in

figure 1 below.

Figure 1.

The wind turbine consists of various different components that play very specific

and important roles. The anemometer measures the wind speed and transmits

wind speed data to the controller. Most turbines have either two or three blades.

Wind blowing over the blades causes the blades to "lift" and rotate. The brake is a

disc brake which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to

stop the rotor in emergencies. [21]-[23]

The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per

hour (mph) and shuts off the machine at about 65 mph. Turbines cannot operate
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at wind speeds above about 65 mph because their generators could overheat. The

gear box consists of gears that connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed

shaft and increase the rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute

(rpm) to about 1200 to 1500 rpm, the rotational speed required by most

generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the

wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate

at lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes. The generator is usually an

off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC electricity. The rotor

is made of the blades and the hub together. The high-speed shaft drives the

generator, while the low-speed shaft is being turned by the rotor at about 30 to 60

rotations per minute. [21]- [23]

The rotor attaches to the nacelle, which sits atop the tower and includes the gear

box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake. A cover

protects the components inside the nacelle. Some nacelles are large enough for a

technician to stand inside while working. The blades are turned, or pitched, out

of the wind to keep the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low

to produce electricity. [21]- [23]

Towers are made from tubular steel or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases

with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate

more electricity. An "upwind" turbine operates facing into the wind direction.

Other turbines are designed to run "downwind", facing away from the wind.

The wind vane measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive

to orient the turbine properly with respect to the wind. The yaw drive is only

found in upwind turbines as they face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to

keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind

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turbines don't require a yaw drive, as the wind blows the rotor downwind. The

yaw motor powers the yaw drive. [21]- [23]

5. WIND TURBINE DESIGN

The aerodynamics of a horizontal axis wind turbine is not straight forward. The

air flow at the blades is not the same as the airflow far away from the turbine.

The very nature of the way in which energy is extracted from the air also causes

air to be deflected by the turbine. In addition the aerodynamics of a wind turbine

at the rotor surface exhibit phenomena that are rarely seen in other aerodynamic

fields. [10]

5.1 Turbine size

For a given survivable wind speed, the mass of a turbine is approximately

proportional to the cube of its blade-length. Wind power intercepted by the

turbine is proportional to the square of its blade-length. The maximum blade-

length of a turbine is limited by both the strength and stiffness of its material.

Labor and maintenance costs increase only gradually with increasing turbine

size, so to minimize costs, wind farm turbines are basically limited by the

strength of materials, and sitting requirements. [11]

Typical modern wind turbines have diameters of 40 to 90 meters and are rated

between 500 kW and 2 megawatts. Currently the most powerful turbine is rated

at 6 MW.

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Fig 2: Representative size, height,

and diameter of wind turbines.

Fig 3: Medium-size wind turbines –

the area swept by medium-size wind

turbines has increased steadily since

the 1980s.

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5.2 Tower Height

The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the drag of the surface (sea or land)

and the viscosity of the air. The variation in velocity with altitude, called wind shear is

most dramatic near the surface.

Typically, in daytime the variation follows the 1/7th power law, which predicts that

wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude. Doubling the altitude of

a turbine, then, increases the expected wind speeds by 10% and the expected power by

34%. Doubling the tower height generally requires doubling the diameter as well,

increasing the amount of material by a factor of eight.

During the night, or better: when the atmosphere becomes stable, wind speed close to

the ground usually subsides whereas at turbine hub altitude it does not decrease that

much or may even increase. As a result the wind speed is higher and a turbine will

produce more power than expected from the 1/7th power law: doubling the altitude

may increase wind speed by 20% to 60%. A stable atmosphere is caused by radiative

cooling of the surface and is common in a temperate climate: it usually occurs when

there is a (partly) clear sky at night. When the (high altitude) wind is strong (10 meter

wind speed higher than approximately 6 to 7 m/s) the stable atmosphere is disrupted

because of friction turbulence and the atmosphere will turn neutral. A daytime

atmosphere is either neutral (no net radiation; usually with strong winds and/or heavy

clouding) or unstable (rising air because of ground heating by the sun). Here again the

1/7th power law applies or is at least a good approximation of the wind profile.

5.3 Number of blades

For small (novelty or urban) horizontal axis turbines manufacturers typically ship three-

bladed turbines with three separate blades that must be assembled onsite, into a central

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hub. Without careful assembly ensuring accurate dynamic balance of the blades, the

turbine can shake itself apart.

Most wind turbines have three blades. Very small turbines may use two blades for ease

of construction and installation. Vibration intensity decreases with larger numbers of

blades. Noise and wear are generally lower, and efficiency higher, with three instead of

two blades.

Turbines with larger numbers of smaller blades operate at a lower Reynolds number

and so are less efficient. Small turbines with 4 or more blades suffer further losses as

each blade operates partly in the wake of the other blades. Also, the cost of the turbine

usually increases with the number of blades. [10]

6. SYSTEM CONTROL

6.1 Tip speed ratio 

This is the ratio between the speeds of the wind and tips of the blades. High efficiency

3-blade-turbines have tip speed ratios of 6 to 7.

Modern wind turbines are designed to spin at varying speeds (a consequence of their

generator design, see below). Use of aluminum and composites in their blades has

contributed to low rotational inertia, which means that newer wind turbines can

accelerate quickly if the winds pick up, keeping the tip speed ratio more nearly

constant. Operating closer to their optimal tip speed ratio during energetic gusts of

wind allows wind turbines to improve energy capture from sudden gusts that are

typical in urban settings.

In contrast, older style wind turbines were designed with heavier steel blades, which

have higher inertia, and rotated at speeds governed by the AC frequency of the power

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lines. The high inertia buffered the changes in rotation speed and thus made power

output more stable.

The speed and torque at which a wind turbine rotates must be controlled for several

reasons:

 To optimize the aerodynamic efficiency of the rotor in light winds.

 To keep the generator within its speed and torque limits.

 To keep the rotor and hub within their centripetal force limits. The centripetal

force from the spinning rotors increases as the square of the rotation speed,

which makes this structure sensitive to over speed.

 To keep the rotor and tower within their strength limits. Because the power of

the wind increases as the cube of the wind speed, turbines have to be built to

survive much higher wind loads (such as gusts of wind) than those from which

they can practically generate power. Since the blades generate more downwind

force (and thus put far greater stress on the tower) when they are producing

torque, most wind turbines have ways of reducing torque in high winds.

 To enable maintenance; because it is dangerous to have people working on a

wind turbine while it is active, it is sometimes necessary to bring a turbine to a

full stop.

 To reduce noise; as a rule of thumb, the noise from a wind turbine increases with

the fifth power of the relative wind speed (as seen from the moving tip of the

blades). In noise-sensitive environments, the tip speed can be limited to

approximately 60 m/s.

Over speed control is exerted in two main ways: aerodynamic stalling or furling and

mechanical braking. Furling is the preferred method of slowing wind turbines. [10]

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6.2 Stalling and Furling

Stalling works by increasing the angle at which the relative wind strikes the blades

(angle of attack), and it reduces the induced drag (drag associated with lift). Stalling is

simple because it can be made to happen passively (it increases automatically when the

winds speed up), but it increases the cross-section of the blade face-on to the wind, and

thus the ordinary drag. A fully stalled turbine blade, when stopped, has the flat side of

the blade facing directly into the wind.

Furling works by decreasing the angle of attack, which reduces the induced drag from

the lift of the rotor, as well as the cross-section. One major problem in designing wind

turbines is getting the blades to stall or furl quickly enough should a gust of wind cause

sudden acceleration. A fully furled turbine blade, when stopped, has the edge of the

blade facing into the wind.

A fixed-speed HAWT inherently increases its angle of attack at higher wind speed as

the blades speed up. A natural strategy, then, is to allow the blade to stall when the

wind speed increases. This technique was used on many early HAWTs, until it was

realized that stalled blades generate a large amount of vibration (noise). Standard

modern turbines all furl the blades in high winds. Since furling requires acting against

the torque on the blade, it requires active pitch angle control which is only cost-effective

on very large turbines. Many turbines use hydraulic systems. These systems are usually

spring loaded, so that if hydraulic power fails, the blades automatically furl. Other

turbines use an electric servomotor for every rotor blade. They have a small battery-

reserve in case of an electric-grid breakdown. [10]

As seen in Figure 4, on medium-size wind turbines, the most common mechanism for

protecting the rotor from over speed is pitchable blade tips. Some turbines use spoilers;

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others use tip brakes; a few have used parachutes. Large turbines and some medium-

size designs use full-span pitch control. [11]

Fig 4: Overspeed controls, aerodynamic drag devices.

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6.3 General Control Theory

The figure below describes the general overview of typical control strategies of a

common wind turbine.

Figure 5. Overview of typical control strategies; U, mean wind velocity; U cut-in, U cut-

out, U rated, cut-in, cut-out, and rated wind speed, respectively.

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7. WIND TURBINE GENERATORS

There are many types of generators in practical use for wind energy conversion

systems. Listed here are the common types of generators used in the industry.

7.1 Induction Generator

An induction generator is a type of electrical generator that is mechanically and

electrically similar to an induction motor. Induction generators produce electrical

power when their shaft is rotated faster than the synchronous frequency of the

equivalent induction motor. Induction generators are often used in wind turbines and

some micro hydro installations. Induction generators are mechanically and electrically

simpler than other generator types. They are also more rugged, requiring no brushes or

commutator.

Induction generators are not self-exciting, meaning they require an external supply to

produce a rotating magnetic flux; the power required for this is called reactive current.

The external supply can be supplied from the electrical grid or from the generator itself,

once it starts producing power or can you can use a capacitor bank to supply it. The

rotating magnetic flux from the stator induces currents in the rotor, which also

produces a magnetic field. If the rotor turns slower than the rate of the rotating flux, the

machine acts like an induction motor. If the rotor is turned faster, it acts like a generator,

producing power at the synchronous frequency. In the United States it would be 60 Hz.

The common down side of using an induction generator in a wind turbine is gearing.

Typically you need an induction motors to run 1500+ RPM to meet the synchronous so a

gearing is almost always needed. [12]

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7.2 Permanent Magnet Alternators

Permanent magnets alternators (PMA) have one set of electromagnets and one set of

permanent magnets. Typically the permanent magnets will be mounted on the rotor

with the electromagnets on the stator. Permanent magnet motor and generator

technology has advance greatly in the past few years with the creation of rare earth

magnets (neodymium, samarium-cobalt, and alnico). Generally the coils will be wired

in a standard three phase wye or delta.

Permanent magnet alternators are can be very efficient, in the range of 60%-95%,

typically around 70% though. As a generator they do not require a controller as a

typical three phase motor would need. It is easy to rectify the power from them and

charge a battery bank or use with a grid tie. [12]

8. Interconnection of Wind Energy Sources to Transmission Systems.

overhead lines, for the transmission and distribution of electricity from the power

stations to the users throughout a service area. Each grid are usually operates by an

individual utility company. [13]

There are two main types of connections to the transmission systems; direct and indirect

grid connections.

8.1 Direct Grid Connection

Most wind turbines run at almost constant speed under a direct grid connection. In a

direct grid connected system, turbine generator feeds output straight into the utility

grid (usually 3-phase AC current grids) via a step-up transformer. In this case, only

induction generator is capable of such connection. Power outputs are than available for

all users which are connected to the grid. [13]

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Figure 6-Direct Grid Connection

The large AC wind farm system is a more traditional system, based on the general

system. This system has a local wind farm grid with a lower voltage level (20-30kV)

connected to a transformer and a high voltage transmission system. This system

requires an offshore platform for the transformer and switch gear. [14]

8.2 Indirect Grid Connection

An Indirect grid connected system, turbine generator feeds output into an electrical

distribution system before reaching utility grid. In another word, generated electricity

will goes pass a series of electronic circuit interfaces and be filtered into grid frequency

to suit grids standard before entering main transmission system. There are several

types of power electronic circuit interfaces like PWM converter AC/DC, and AC/DC/AC

converter.

8.2.1 AC/DC Layout

In this system, the AC transmission has been replaced with a DC transmission, this

wind farm will be referred to as the AC/DC wind farm and does not exist today, except

for one or a few small experimental wind farms, but it is frequently proposed when the

distance to the PCC is long, or if the AC grid that the wind farm is connected to is weak.

We have an independent local AC system in which both the voltage and the frequency

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are fully controllable with the offshore converter station. This can be utilized for a

collective variable speed system of all wind turbines in the park. The benefits with this

are that the aerodynamic and electrical efficiency can be increased, depending on the

wind turbine system used. [14]

For all DC solutions throughout this work, only transistor technology is used. The

classical thyristor technology is assumed to be too large in physical size to be an

attractive technology. The transistor technology is also more attractive due to the better

controllability of the reactive power. [14]

Figure 8- Utility backup

8.2.2 AC/DC/AC

To extract the maximum amount of power, let the turbine speed vary over a wide range

to and optimum value dependent on the operating conditions. This would not be

possible if a synchronous generator were directly connected to the utility (60Hz) system

that dictated a constant speed (synchronous speed). The induction generators connected

to the utility system would allow the speed to vary in a very narrow speed range.

Therefore, to allow the generator-turbine speed to vary to optimize efficiency of power

generation, the three-phase generator output is rectified into DC and then interfaced

with the three-phase utility source by means of a switch-mode converter. Since wind

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and small hydro generators is the medium power level, a three phase utility

interconnection is preferable. [15]

From the aspect of AC/DC/AC, it offers huge possibilities in control of active and

reactive power flows, and can manage variable frequency on its outputs.

AC/DC systems have two outputs from the battery bank in this system, the DC output

and the AC output. The AC output is initially a DC output but it is then put through an

inverter to convert it into AC. Ac current with a variable frequency cannot be handled

by the public electrical grid so we convert it into direct current, DC. The conversion

from variable frequency AC to DC can be done using thyristors or large power

transistors. [14]

We then convert the (fluctuating) direct current to an alternating current (using an

inverter) with exactly the same frequency as the public electrical grid. This conversion

to AC in the inverter can also be done using either thyristors or transistors. The

thyristors or power transistors are large semiconductor switches that operate without

mechanical parts.

9. CONTROL REQUIREMENTS

9.1 Frequency and Active Power Control

The electrical supply and distribution system in the modern day are all under an AC

system (50 or 60 Hz). The frequency of a synchronous generator is however depending

on to the rotation speed of the rotor. An increasing electrical load on turbine system will

result in reduction of generated frequency. [16]

The frequency control of the system is to increase or reduce the generated power in

order to maintain generator operation under a specified frequency range. [17] A wind

turbine may have to operate under a lower power level than available power so as to

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increase power output for frequency control. This will mean that a low utilization of

resources. A way to meet this challenge is to use active energy supply, or energy

storage, however, energy storage technologies in this moment are yet to be cost effective

and efficient under such circumstances.

9.2 Reactive Power Control

Reactive power defines the portion of power flow caused by stored energy in

electronics such as capacitive or inductive element in system, which in every cycle

returns to its power sources. It is generated from capacitive element (capacitor etc.) and

di-energized in an inductive element (inductor, transformers etc.). [18]

Induction generator consumes reactive power while a synchronous generator can either

produce or consume reactive power due to its magnetizing level. Reactive power

control is critical as reactive power flow causes system voltage drop, unstable network,

and power losses in system. A method of reactive power control is by installing a

converter to adjust reactive power. For example a controller which switch on and off of

a large number of capacitors or a PWM converter system. [17]

9.3 Short Circuit Power Level Control

The ability of grids to absorb disturbance is closely related to the short circuit power

level in a given point of an electrical system. Short circuit power level control adjusts

the short circuit impedance for its management purpose. Strong and/or weak grids are

terms often used in connection with wind power installations. When the short circuit

impedance is low then the voltage variations in grid will be small which indicate the

grid is strong and consequently, if impedance is high, then the voltage variations will be

large. [17]

Depending on the type of electrical equipment in the turbine, they can sometimes be

operated effectively under weak conditions. [19] Extra precaution should be taken for

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single or few wind turbine system because they are relatively more prone to

disturbances than installations with many units.

9.4 Flicker Control

Wind generated power are frequently fluctuating. Voltage variations due to this matter

may affect the quality of grid voltage. Magnitude and frequency of fluctuation will

result in a perceptible light flicker. Depending on individual utility company, allowable

limits for flickers are different. [17]

There are two type of flicker emission: flicker emission during continuous operation

and emission due to generator and capacitor switching. Often, one or the other will be

predominant. [18] Flickers cannot be avoided. The best way is to manage flicker

emission to be limited within the allowable range according to network standards.

Operation of a generation machine should not cause excessive voltage flicker. Flicker

should constantly measure and closely monitored. A way to measure flicker directly is

by using a flicker meter. [17]

9.5 Harmonics Control

Harmonics are a phenomenon related to the distortion of voltage and current

waveform. Depending on harmonic order, these may cause damage to range of

electrical equipments. For example, overheating in capacitors as frequency increased

(result in increasing impedance). Harmonics can be removed via a filter providing it is

small enough. A way to lower harmonics is by setting a higher frequency in system (e.g.

by using PWM converter). [16] Harmonics distortion is expressed as total harmonic

distortion (THD). THD and individual harmonics should always be limited under the

system requirement.

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9.6 Stability Control

Stability of system is usually result of variety of faults in network, such as tripping of

transmission line (i.e. Overload or component failure), loss of production capacity, and

short circuits.

9.7 Protection Control

One important protection control is the electro-magnetic compatibility of component in

turbine. This is due to the existing of strong magnetic field form and conceal in cables

and the generator of a wind turbine. Hence, precaution needs to be made especially on

selection of electronic components. [20]

System electrical protective functions in a wind turbine have two main requirements:

The need to protect wind turbine and to secure safe operation of network under all

circumstances.

The wind turbine needs to be protected from short circuits, thermal overloads and

faults resulting in high, possibly dangerous, over voltages which are earth-faults and

neutral voltage displacement. [18]

The safe operation of the network can be described as the utility view, with an objective

of disconnecting the turbine when there is a risk to other consumers or to operating

personnel. The faults associated with this line are situations with unacceptable

deviations in voltage and/or frequency and loss of one or more phases in the utility

supply network. [18]

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10. CONCLUSION

Research has shown that conventional methods of providing energy to the world are

not sustainable. Upon reviewing the pros and cons of the various types of energy

production methods, it is clear that that some renewable energy technologies can meet

the needs that conventional methods cannot.

In the second part, wind energy conversion systems including their control were

reviewed. The types of generators in practical use and their main operating

characteristics were also studied. Then, assessment was done on the interconnection of

wind energy sources to transmission systems of power companies. Lastly, a discussion

was written on the control requirements and power electronic circuit interfaces of wind

energy systems.

In conclusion, the challenge is to find a suitable mix of technologies that allows

renewable energy to be introduced where it is nature friendly, makes long term

economic sense and allows societies to benefit from the declining cost curves that

characterizes renewable energy markets in the industry.

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11. REFRENCES

1. http://www.nrel.gov/features/

2. http://www.paulchefurka.ca/WEAP2/WEAP2.html

3. World Nuclear Association. Another drop in nuclear generation World Nuclear

News, 05 May 2010.

4. http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/intro.htm

5. Wind Power: Capacity Factor, Intermittency, and what happens when the wind

doesn’t blow?(2008)

6. Renewable Global Status Report 2006 Update, REN21, published 2007, accessed

2007-05-16

7. Hydropower – A Way of Becoming Independent of Fossil Energy?

8. Natural Forcing of the Climate System. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change.2007-09-29.

9. "The Present and Future use of Solar Thermal Energy as a Primary Source of

Energy" International Energy Agency. 2008-05-05.

10. http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wtrb/comp/index.htm Wind turbine

components. November 8, 2008

11. Paul Gipe, “Wind Power”, Chelsea Green, March 2004

12. “Types of Generators used for Wind Turbines”, C Bracken Meyers. 01 August

2009

13. Electrical and Mechanical Services Department, 2007,

http://re.emsd.gov.hk/english/gen/grid/grid_int.html#1.

14. http://www.elkraft.ntnu.no/norpie/10956873/_Final%20Papers/009%20-%20Eval_

WF_lay_009.pdf

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15. Article of Power Electronic Interface for DER Konrad Mauch, KM Technical

Services Vancouver, Canada http://cetc-

varennes.nrcan.gc.ca/fichier.php/codectec/Fr/2004-164/2004-164e.pdf

16. J.F.Manwell,J.G. McGowan,A.L.Rogers, 2003, Wind Energy Explained – Theory, Design

17. F.Blaabjerg, Zhe Chen, 2006, “Power Electronics for Mordern Wind Turbines”, Morgan
& Claypool, USA

18. Prof. Dr. Manfred Stiebler, 2008, “Wind Energy Systems for Electric Power Generation”,
Green Energy and Technology Series, Springer, Germany.

19. Fritz Santjer, Gerhard J. Gerdes, 2002, “Wind Turbine Grid Connection and Interaction”,
ENERGIE, Germany.

20. M.C. Esteban 1, F. Arteche1 , M. Iglesias1, FJ. Arcega, 2009, “EMC ISSUES FOR WIND
TURBINES”, European Association for the Development of Renewable Energies,

Environment and Power Quality, International Conference on Renewable Energies and

Power Quality, Spain

21. Zigniew Lubosny ,2003, Wind Turbine Operation in Electric Power Systems :

Advanced Modeling (Power Systems), Berlin.

22. http://wind-turbine.co.cc/

23. Johnson, Scott J., 2008, "Active Load Control Techniques for Wind

Turbines",Sandia National Laboratory

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