Biohazards

Biohazards are one of the environmental stressors whose sources can be:

Plants

Animals

Animal products

Animal products may be:

Infectious

Toxic

Allergenic

Biohazard agents are:

Bacteria

Viruses

Fungi

Parasites

Bacteria:

Bacteria are simple, one-celled organisms. They are not visible to the eye. Some
bacteria are useful and some are harmful.

Examples for bacterial hazards are tuberculosis, tetanus, salmonellosis. 

Tuberculosis (TB): Tuberculosis, is a disease caused by a bacteria called

Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria can attack any part of the body, but
they usually attack the lungs.TB disease was once the leading cause of death in
this country. Fortunately, in the 1940's,scientists discovered the first of several
drugs now used to treat TB. As a result, TB slowly began to disappear in the
United States. But TB has come back. After 1984, the number of TB cases
reported in the United States began to increase.

People of all ages, all nationalities and all incomes can get tuberculosis. In 1994,
more than 25,000 people in this country got TB disease. About 3,000 of these
people live in New York City. TB is spread through the air from one person to
another. The bacteria get into the air when a person with TB disease of the lungs
or throat coughs or sneezes. People nearby may breathe in the bacteria and
become infected.

Tetanus: Tetanus is an acute, often fatal, disease caused by the toxin of the

tetanus bacterium, which usually enters the body through an open wound. It is
characterized by generalized increased rigidity and convulsive spasms of skeletal
muscles. The muscle stiffness usually first involves the jaw (lockjaw) and neck,
and may spread throughout the body. Although about 60 percent of all cases are
fatal, active immunization with tetanus toxoid before an injury, with periodic
reimmunization is extremely effective. Tetanus rarely occurs in immunized
people.

Salmonellosis: Salmonellosis is caused by a bacteria called salmonella which can

be found in raw meats, poultry, eggs, milk and dairy products. It is estimated
that from 2 to 4 million cases of salmonellosis occur in the U.S. annually. In 1985,
a salmonellosis outbreak involving 16,000 confirmed cases in 6 states was caused
by low fat and whole milk from one Chicago dairy. This was the largest outbreak
of foodborne salmonellosis in the U.S. FDA inspectors discovered that the
pasteurization equipment had been modified to facilitate the running off of raw
milk, resulting in the pasteurized milk being contaminated with raw milk under
certain conditions. The dairy has subsequently disconnected the cross-linking
line.

Virus:

A virus is an organism that depends on a host cell for growth and reproduction
and it is parasitic in nature. Hepatitis, HIV, Rabies are examples for viruses.

 A virus is not a bacterium, nor an independently-living organism. A virus

cannot survive in the absence of a living cell within which to synthesize copies of
itself (replicate). A virus is not strictly alive.. nor is it strictly dead... A virus has
some fundamental information (genes made of DNA or RNA) which allows it to
make copies of itself. However, the virus must be inside a living cell of some kind
before the information can be used. In fact, the information won't be made
available unless the virus enters a living cell. It is this entrance of a virus into a
cell which is called a viral infection. The virus is very small relative to the size of
a living cell. Therefore, the information the virus can carry is actually not
enough to allow it to make copies (replicate). The virus uses the cell's machinery
and some of the cell's enzymes to generate virus parts which are later assembled
into thousands of new, mature, infectious virus which can leave the cell to infect
other cells.

All viruses only exist to make more viruses. And with the possible exception of
bacterial viruses which kill harmful bacteria, all viruses appear to be harmful
because their replication leads to the death of the cell which the virus entered. A
virus enters a cell by first attaching to a specific structure on the cell's surface via
a specific structure on the virus surface. Depending on the virus, either the entire
virus enters the cell, or perhaps only the genetic material of the virus is injected
into the cell. In either case however, the ultimate result of viral infection is the
exposure of virus genetic material inside the entered cell. Then, the virus
material essentially "takes over" the cell and nothing but viral parts are made,
which assemble into many complete viruses.

There is not a living thing identified that doesn't have some sort of susceptibility
to a particular virus. Plants, animals, bacteria, whether multicellular or single-
celled, can be infected with a virus specific for the organism. And, within a
species, there may be 100 or more different viruses which can infect that species
alone. So, whenever viruses are discussed, they are discussed as being either
plant, animal or bacterial viruses - which means that an animal virus only infects
a certain animal, and a plant virus only infects a particular plant. A virus
is specific for a particular host if the virus infects only that host. So, there are
viruses which infect only humans (smallpox), some which infect humans and one
or two additional kinds of animals (influenza), some which infect only a
particular kind of plant (tobacco mosaic virus), and some which infect only a
particular species of bacteria (lambda bacteriophage which infects E. coli).

Humans are protected in a couple of ways. First, if a particular virus infects one
or more cells of a given tissue in our body, the infection leads to the synthesis and
secretion of substances calledinterferons. Interferons are proteins and may be
designated as alpha, beta, or gamma interferon. These proteins interact with
adjacent cells which help adjacent cells become more resistant to infection by the
virus. Sometimes, this resistance isn't quite good enough to prevent the spread of
the virus to more and more cells, and we begin to feel sick (viral infection). Then,
the body's immune system takes over and begins to fight the infection by killing
the virus on the outside of the cells, and kills the infected cells, too. The killing of
the infected cells prevents the spread of the virus, since a virus requires a living
cell in order for the virus to be able to replicate. Eventually, the virus will be
completely removed, and we'll get over the illness. HIV is an exception to this
situation because HIV infects cells of the immune system which are necessary to
kill the infected cells.

Figure 1 . Electron micrograph of rabies virus

in brain cells at 64,000 x magnification.
Courtesy of Dr. F.A. Murphy, UC Davis.

Rabies: Rabies is a disease caused by a virus found in the saliva of infected

animals and is transmitted to pets and humans by bites, or possibly by
contamination of an open cut. Treatment of an infected person as critical.
Untreated, rabies causes a painful death.

Most animals can be infected by the virus and can transmit the disease to man.
Infected bats, raccoons, foxes, skunks, dogs or cats provide the greatest risk to
humans.

The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): HIV is the virus that leads to AIDS.
HIV belongs to a subset of retroviruses called lentiviruses (or slow viruses),
which means that there is an interval -- sometimes years -- between the initial
infection and the onset of symptoms. Upon entering the bloodstream -- through
mucous membranes or blood-to-blood contact -- HIV infects the CD4+T cells and
begins to replicate rapidly.

Scientists believe that when the virus enters the body, HIV begins to disable the
body's immune system by using the body's aggressive immune responses to the
virus to infect, replicate and kill immune system cells. Gradual deterioration of
immune function and eventual destruction of lymphoid and immunologic organs
is central to triggering the immunosuppression that leads to AIDS.

Hepatitis A: Hepatitis A is found in the stool of persons with hepatitis A. The

virus is usually spread through person-to-person contact or through
contaminated food and water. For example, you can get hepatitis A from an
infected child if you don't wash your hands after changing a diaper or from an
infected person if they don't wash their hands after going to the bathroom. If a
contaminated cook handles food in a restaurant - the disease can spread quickly.
A person can also get hepatitis A by drinking water that is contaminated with the
virus or by eating food washed in contaminated water, such as raw or
undercooked shellfish, salads, or unpeeled fruits.

Hepatitis A is a highly contagious and sometimes fatal liver disease. Historically,

it was called infectious hepatitis. Today, the disease is more commonly known as
hepatitis A, named after the virus that causes it. Each year, approximately 1.4
million people worldwide and 143,000 people in the United States become
infected with hepatitis A, costing patients and employers millions of dollars in
lost wages and lost productivity.

Hepatitis B: Hepatitis B is a viral infection that infects the liver and causes
inflammation. It is one of the fastest spreading sexually transmitted diseases in
the U.S., infecting 300,000 Americans each year. Most individuals infected with
the virus are adolescents and young adults.

Ninety percent of people with hepatitis B recover. In up to 10 percent of cases

people infected with hepatitis B develop chronic hepatitis B and are infected for
life. Chronic hepatitis can be fairly harmless, or it may be progressive and lead to
cirrhosis, liver cancer, and death. Chances of developing liver cancer are 200
times higher if you are a chronic carrier. Damage to the liver cannot be reversed.
People who are chronic carriers of the virus can transmit it to others. There is no
cure for Hepatitis B but a vaccine is available to prevent infection.

Hepatitis C: Hepatitis C is a disease of the liver caused by a virus that was first
discovered in 1989. Unlike hepatitis A which is caused by fecal contamination of
food and water; or hepatitis B which is spread through contact with infected
blood or other body fluids; hepatitis C is spread by direct contact with the blood
of an infected person.

Prior to the discovery of the virus, it was known that some agent caused hepatitis
or inflammation of the liver in people who had been given blood, and it was
known that the agent could be transmitted to patients and to experimental
animals in blood. In most cases, the disease is asymptomatic for years, even
decades, before progressing to chronic liver disease.

It is estimated that around 4.5 million people in the United States are infected
with hepatitis C, and over 200 million around the world. Hepatitis C, in
combination with the less common hepatitis B, now accounts for 75% of all cases
of liver disease around the world. Liver failure due to hepatitis C is the leading
cause of liver transplants in the United States.

Visit the Gallery of Viruses

How does a virus infect its host?

Fungi:

Fungi are parasitic in nature. They grow in a living host or on a dead animal.
Example for fungi hazard is Histoplasmosis (Roof demolition workers and
workers in barns and poultry houses are exposed to this fungus which enters the
body by inhalation or ingestion)

Fungi that grow in ventilation systems may contaminate indoor environments

and cause a variety of problems. Some fungi can cause lung infections. Many
fungi can cause allergic reactions in susceptible people and respiratory irritation
in non-allergic people. Inhalation of fungal spores by highly susceptible people
can have fatal consequences. Some environmental bacteria can grow in
ventilation systems, but these are rarely a threat to healthy people.

Low levels of airborne fungi can be a primary or contributing cause of Sick

Building Syndrome (SBS) and poor Indoor Air Quality (IAQ).

Fungi differ significantly, in certain respects, from most other airborne

pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Fungi do not cause secondary
contagious infections; only the person inhaling the fungi is at risk. Fungi can
exist outdoors and enter the building through the air intakes. No other
respiratory pathogens can exist outdoors -- viruses and bacteria are carried and
transmitted indoors by human or animal hosts, with anthrax being the one
exception. Fungi are normally harmless and non-parasitic. Fungal infections
inevitably result from fungi being in the wrong place, often as the result of poor
cleanliness or improper design of ventilation system components.

Fungi produce spores, in much the same way as bacteria do, and this enables
them to survive harsh conditions while they travel or lie dormant. Spores are
usually what enter the building air intakes and what can travel through the
ventilation air stream. Fungal spores are smaller than fungal cells and can vary
in size from 1 micron to 100 microns. A well-maintained HEPA filter should be
capable of intercepting the vast majority of fungal spores.

Filtration provides the primary defense against fungal spores entering a building
ventilation system. Pre-filters can be effective against most fungi, even when in
the spore form. If a higher degree of protection is required, HEPA filters can be
very effective, provided they are tightly installed, and well maintained.

Fungus can grow on HEPA filters as well as other ventilation components and, if
unchecked, can actually contribute to the problem.. If the fungus is already
growing inside the building or ventilation system, the problem becomes
somewhat more difficult. Fungi require moisture for growth. The source of the
moisture must be identified and then controlled.

Cooling coils, drains pans, and water pans for humidifiers are likely locations for
fungal growth, especially when there is standing water. These components should
be disassembled and cleaned with a strong disinfectant, such as chlorine, when
fungal or bacterial growth is found. Clogged drains are often a cause for
standing water.

Condensation on ductwork or other components is another likely source of

moisture. The ductwork must be inspected for fungal growth and cleaned with a
disinfectant. The cause of the condensation must be identified. Often, it results
from inadequate insulation, or leakage into, or out of, the ductwork. Sometimes
return air can leak into the supply air duct and result in localized condensation.
Sometimes the insulation itself can absorb and hold moisture, resulting in fungus
growth that may then directly or indirectly produce contamination of the
building air. Smoke tests, or airflow measurements, and/or pressure tests can
determine duct leakage.

Most airborne fungi cause respiratory irritation and allergic reactions.

 Figure 2. Photomicrograph of an air Figure 3. Photomicrograph of a fungus
-borne fungus that travels through the that infects the lung tissue.
HVAC system in the form of small
spores.

 Parasites:

They live in other animals (sometimes plants) and transmitted to humans by

eating the meat or plants that are not well cooked (sushi). Examples for parasites
are tape worms, liver flukes, hook worms.

Sources of Biohazards:

Diseases transmitted from animals to humans

Work in hospitals, other medical facilities, research laboratories

Biohazards enter the body by:

Ingestion

Skin contact

Puncture wounds

Inhalation

Biohazard classification:

Class I- No hazard or minimal hazard

Class II- Ordinary potential hazards

Class III -Special hazards (require USDA permit for importation)

Class IV -Extremely hazardous to personnel or can cause serious epidemic

disease

Class V -Foreign animal pathogens that are excluded from USA by law or whose
entry is restricted by USDA.

General Controls:

US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service develop

guidelines for preventing laboratory infections. 

Containment:

Preventing the escape of potentially hazardous agents outside the laboratory to

persons such as visitors, family members of laboratory workers, worker's who do
the laundering of the laboratory clothing. 

Three elements of Containment:

(1) Laboratory practice and technique

(2) Safety equipment

(3) Facility design

Laboratory practice and technique:

Inform lab workers on biohazards and offer training.

Prepare manuals on operations and biosafety .

Prepare a risk assessment plan before each type of job is

implemented.

Safety equipment:

Enclosed containers (prevent release of unsafe substances)

 Biological safety cabinets

Personal protective equipment (PPE)

Biological safety cabinets:

Class I ( open front, vertical air movement of 75 fpm inward)

Class II ( open front, vertical air movement of 75 fpm inward,

must meet National Sanitation Foundation Standards and used for
more contaminant materials than those used in Class I)

Class III ( Totally enclosed , it has its own exhaust fan and
independent from other ventilation systems. Class III cabinets
operate under negative pressures to keep the contaminant in the
enclosed space)

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):

Generally one piece, positive pressure, full body protective suits are required.
Workers must pass through a chemical shower to decontaminate the suit before
leaving the work area.

Facility Design:

There are three classes of facility design:

Basic ( The facility where the work with agents is not associated
with diseases)

Containment (Facility that uses controlled access zone, where

specialized ventilation systems are used. In some cases it can be a
separate building)

Maximum containment laboratories (Facility where the work with

extremely hazardous agents is performed. Usually these agents may
cause epidemics. These facilities may require separate buildings,
separate ventilation systems, sealed openings, airlocks, liquid
disinfectant barriers)

 Robotics:
Robotics is used in an enclosure to perform processes and analysis of the
biological samples which are extremely hazardous.