Grid-interactive Solar Inverters and

Their Impact on Power System

Safety and Quality

Dr. Anil Tuladhar

Jan 16, 2008
 Objectives
• Introduction to PV Solar Industry.
• Grid Interactive Solar Inverter Design.
• Impact on Grid Safety.
• Impact on Grid Quality.
• Site Installations.
• Challenges.
• Future Developments.
• Conclusions.
 PV Solar Industry
• Why PV Solar?
– Abundantly available.
– Benign in Nature.
– Favorable programs and policies (rebates/tax
credits, RPSs/Renewable goals and NM/IC
guidelines) are being implemented by the states
as well as the federal government.
 Why PV Solar?
• Abundantly Available1
Insolation Level

1kWh = 3412 Btu =

9
3.6MJ = 859.8kcal
8
7 AK Anchorage 61'
kWh/m2/day

6 10" N 150' 1" W

5 AZ Phoenix 33 ' 26"
4 N 112' 1" W
3 MI Detroit 42' 25" N
2 83' 1" W
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month

1Source : http://www.apricus.com/html/insolation_levels_usa.htm
 Why PV Solar?
• Abundantly Available1

– Sunlight striking the earth for 40 minutes

equivalent to global energy consumption for a
year.
– The US has 250,000 square miles of land in
southwest alone that receives 4,500 quadrillion
BTU of solar radiation/year.

1kWh = 3412 Btu =

3.6MJ = 859.8kcal
1Source : Scientific American, Jan 2008 issue
 Why PV Solar?
• Abundantly Available1

– Only some 30,000 square miles of photovoltaic

arrays would have to be erected to generate
3000 GW of power.
– Land required to produce each GW of power
from solar less than that needed for a coal-
powered plant when factoring in land for coal
mining.

1kWh = 3412 Btu =

3.6MJ = 859.8kcal
1Source : Scientific American, Jan 2008 issue
 Why PV Solar?
• Benign in Nature

– Negligible CO2 footprint.

– No moving parts. No noise.
– No water consumption.
– No emissions.
– Less geographical restrictions.
 Why PV Solar?
• Rebates and Incentives.

– California is offering $2.50/W for residential solar

installation upfront. The residential systems also get
30% of the cost or $2000 federal tax credit which ever
is smaller. The governmental installations and non-
profit organizations get $3.25/W upfront. The tax
credit of 30% is NOT limited to $2000 for non-
residential systems. Systems bigger than 100 kW get
performance based rebate.

Please visit: http://www.gosolarcalifornia.ca.gov/csi/performance_based.html for more

details.
DSIRE: www.dsireusa.org
Why PV Solar? September 2007

Renewables Portfolio Standards

MN: 25% by 2025 ME: 30% by 2000
(Xcel: 30% by 2020) VT: RE meets load 10% by 2017 - new RE
*WA: 15% by 2020 growth by 2012
ND: 10% by 2015 ☼ NH: 23.8% in 2025
WI: requirement varies by
MA: 4% by 2009 +
utility; 10% by 2015 goal
MT: 15% by 2015 1% annual increase
OR: 25% by 2025 (large utilities)
5% - 10% by 2025 (smaller utilities) RI: 16% by 2020
CT: 23% by 2020
☼ *NV: 20% by 2015 IA: 105 MW
☼ NY: 24% by 2013
☼ CO: 20% by 2020 (IOUs) IL: 25% by 2025 ☼ NJ: 22.5% by 2021
*10% by 2020 (co-ops & large munis)
CA: 20% by 2010 ☼ PA: 18%¹ by 2020
MO: 11% by 2020
☼ MD: 9.5% in 2022
☼ NC: 12.5% by 2021 (IOUs)
☼ AZ: 15% by 2025 10% by 2018 (co-ops & munis)
☼ *DE: 20% by 2019
☼ DC: 11% by 2022
☼ NM: 20% by 2020 (IOUs)
10% by 2020 (co-ops) *VA: 12% by 2022

TX: 5,880 MW by 2015

HI: 20% by 2020 State RPS
State Goal

Solar water
☼ Minimum solar or customer-sited RE requirement heating eligible
* Increased credit for solar or customer-sited RE
¹PA: 8% Tier I / 10% Tier II (includes non-renewables)
 Why PV Solar?

Source : PV Technology, Performance, and Cost 2007 Update

Produced by Prometheus Institute for Sustainable Development and PV Energy Systems
 Why PV Solar?

Source : PV Technology, Performance, and Cost 2007 Update

Produced by Prometheus Institute for Sustainable Development and PV Energy Systems
 Solar Inverter Design
• Electrical Requirements
– The design of solar inverter starts with specifying the
electrical requirements.
• Thermal Requirements.
– In order to handle the harsh outdoor operating
environment, thermal system shall be designed
properly.
• PV Specific Control and Protection Functions.
– In order to meet the NEC and UL requirements, many
PV related control and protection functions shall be
included in the design.
• Testing
– Elaborate Testing is required to UL list the product.
 Solar Inverter Design
GRID
Fused AC EMC
Disconnect Filter

Filter
Output
Contactor
Output
Contactor
Cooling
System

Inverter Line
Core Filter Efficient Shielded
Isolation Transformer

Inverter
Controller
PV Array
and Combiner
Box
Voltage
DC Sense
Disconnect
 Solar Inverter Design
• Electrical Requirements
– DC input voltage range (e.g. 250V to 600V)
– AC output voltage (e.g. 120V, 208V, or 480V)
– Number of phases (1 ph, split ph or 3 ph)
– Frequency (50Hz or 60Hz)
– Output Power (e.g. 100kW)
– Output current (e.g. 95 A)
– Voltage Total Harmonic Distortion (e.g. < 2%)
– Current Total Demand Distortion (e.g. < 5%)
– Overall efficiency (e.g. > 95%)
 Solar Inverter Design
• Thermal Requirements
– The inverter system and components shall not attain a temperature
at any operating condition so as to result in risk of overheating,
fire, or insulation damage.
– Junction temperature of switching devices shall be maintained
below maximum allowed value (e.g. 120 C).
– Solar inverters are generally installed outdoor so shall handle
extreme temperature conditions like –40 C to 50 C.
– Solar power is not generated uniformly through out the day so the
cooling system does not have to be turned ON all the time. A
power output based cooling system control shall be designed to
improve the efficiency.
 Solar Inverter Design
• PV Specific Performance Requirements
– Auto-Wakeup.
– Maximum Power Point Tracking.
– DC Bus Over Voltage handling
– DC Bus Over Current handling
– Optimum Efficiency operation.
– Outdoor condition design. Wide ambient temperature
range and AC DC surge protection.
– Design to perform well under rapid cloud movement.
– Remote monitoring.
– Monitoring Weather parameters (humidity, wind
velocity, insolation level, and temperature) desirable.
PV Specific Controls/Protections
• Auto wake up

– The PV inverter shall be able to wake up when the

available power is more than the total loss of the
inverter system.
– Pre-mature wake up will cause negative power flow
from the grid thus hampers the energy production.
– Delayed wake up also hampers the energy production.
– Since the available power changes with weather
condition, the wake up algorithm has to be adaptive in
nature.
 PV Specific Controls/Protections
• Maximum Power Point Tracking
• IV / Power characteristics of a 170 W Sharp polycrystalline panel.
PV Specific Controls/Protections
• Maximum Power Point Tracking

– The peculiar IV curve causes the available power to change as a

function of the output voltage/current.
– The tangent on the IV curve represents the power.
– Power curve has a distinct maximum power point for a given IV
curve.
– The IV curve changes as the insolation level changes.
– Temperature of of the PV cell also changes the characteristic curves
(not shown in the previous diagram).
– The maximum available power changes as the day progresses.
– The control algorithm in the inverter shall track the maximum power
point to fully utilize the solar panel capacity.
PV Specific Controls/Protections
• Desired features of an MPPT algorithm

– MPPT shall be fast enough to increase the energy

extraction by following the insolation level closely but not
too fast to cause the instability.
– Tracking along the left slope of the power curve is not
stable so should be avoided.
– MPPT shall take the grid voltage into account while
tracking lower. If DC bus voltage drops too low but grid
voltage is higher, the quality of the current to the grid will
suffer.
– MPPT shall not find and lock to a local maxima. It shall
sweep the whole IV curve and find the global maxima.
PV Specific Controls/Protections

• DC bus Over Voltage Protection

– In very cold condition, failure of grid and solar
enhancement can cause DC Over Voltage condition.
– When DC bus exceeds the designed maximum voltage
(e.g. 600V), the inverter shall shutdown and array shall
be disconnected from the DC bus to protect the DC bus
Capacitors, Disconnects and Wire Insulations.
PV Specific Controls/Protections

• DC Bus Over Current Protection

– Can be caused by too low DC bus voltage, higher AC grid voltage

transient, and enhanced solar condition.
– Or due to some hardware failure/short circuit in DC bus circuitry
or wrong DC bus connection.
– Or due to sudden in-rush current to the DC bus capacitor
(connecting the array already generating the voltage) .

The inverter shall be shutdown and isolated from the grid

as well as the PV array when the over current condition
occurs.
PV Specific Controls/Protections

• Reverse DC Bus Protection

– Inverter shall be able to identify the reverse
polarity of the DC connection and warn the
installer and remain in sleep state.
– Reverse voltage can potentially damage the
capacitors and can also cause excessive current
in the DC circuit.
PV Specific Controls/Protections

• Ground Fault
– For a grounded system, the ground fault occurs when DC
terminal of PV array touches the chassis. Current flows
through the ground to the negative terminal first then goes
to the positive through the PV cells.
– The current sensor on the wire between the negative and
the ground terminal will pick up the fault.
– Inverter shall shutdown and disconnect itself from the grid
as well as the PV array as soon as the ground fault is
detected.
– The ground fault current shall be interrupted.
PV Specific Controls/Protections
• Ground Fault
PV Specific Controls/Protections

• Remote Monitoring

– The PV inverters are generally installed in not-so-

convenient places. It is therefore desirable to have a
capability to find out the status of the unit remotely.
– Monitoring power, power factor, energy, currents, and
voltages over days, weeks, months and years help us
extract useful economic information.
– Remote monitoring also help diagnose the problem by
furnishing the information around the event.
 Impact on Grid Safety
– Possible Islanding Operation.
– Single Phase Open.
– AC Over voltage condition.
– AC Under voltage condition.
– Over frequency condition.
– Under frequency condition.
– AC Over current condition.
– Short circuit condition.
 Impact on Grid Safety
• Anti-Islanding Control and Protection

CB1 CB2

Inverter Grid

Local Load
 Impact on Grid Safety
• Anti-Islanding Control and Protection
– In Grid Link mode of operation, when the output
power of the inverter matches with the total load
on the grid, the failing of grid does not create any
change in voltage or frequency. The inverter
continues to support the load.
– This condition is not safe. It is mandatory for
power exporting inverters to detect grid failure
and stop exporting power to the grid within 2
seconds (UL 1741/IEEE1547).
 Impact on Grid Safety
• Anti-Islanding Control and Protection
– There are two types of anti-islanding control techniques:
• Passive
– The voltage and/or the frequency change during the grid failure is measured
and employs a positive feedback loop to push the voltage and /or the
frequency further away from its nominal value.
– Frequency or voltage may not change if the load matches very well with the
inverter output or the load has a very high quality factor (reactive to real
power ratio).
– So there exists some Non Detection Zone (NDZ).
• Active
– Injects some error in frequency or voltage.
– When grid fails the error accumulates and pushes the voltage and/or
frequency beyond the acceptable range.
– Ballard Power System has developed and patented a couple of active anti-
islanding techniques to overcome the NDZ (See U.S. Patent No. 6,853,940
and 7,106,564 )
 Impact on Grid Safety
• Anti-Islanding Control and Protection
– According to UL1741/IEEE1547, inverters shall
stop exporting power to the grid within 2 seconds
of grid failure.
– The voltage and/or frequency drift cause
over/under voltage/frequency fault and inverter
shuts down.
– UL listing of the product requires an elaborate
test setup to verify the anti-islanding and
abnormal voltage/frequency detection
capabilities.
 Impact on Grid Safety
• Grid Over/Under Voltage/Frequency
Protection
– The following table shows the trip points and trip times as per
IEEE1547:

Over Voltage1 fault > 110% for > 1 second

Over Voltage2 fault > 120% for > 160 ms

Under Voltage1 Fault < 88% for > 2 seconds

Under Voltage2 Fault < 50% for > 160 ms
Over Frequency fault > 60.5 for > 160 ms

Under Frequency fault < 59.3 for > (160 to 300000) ms

Under Frequency fault < 57.0 for > 160 ms

 Impact on Grid Safety
• AC Over Current Detection and Protection
– Grid Transients or grid faults can cause over current
condition.
– Fault in transformer or line filter can also cause over
current condition.
– Faulty switching devices can cause dead short circuit.

Over current fault shall shutdown the unit and

disconnect from the grid.
 Impact on Grid Safety
• Single Phase Open Detection

– Loss of any phase of the grid shall be detected and the

inverter shall be shutdown to avoid possible safety hazard.
– Loss of a phase can be detected by using current sensors
on each phase.
– If the output transformer is external to the inverter, the
single phase open shall be detected on both sides of the
transformer.
– New requirement needs the single phase open to be
detected at 5% of the full load or above the minimum
current level.
 Impact on Grid Quality
• Synchronization (IEEE1547)

Inverter shall not close the contactor if the phase or frequency error
exceeds these limits.
 Impact on Grid Quality
• AC Current Harmonics (IEEE 1547 limits)

• Flicker shall not cause irritation to humans or

cause equipment mis-operations.
 Impact on Grid Quality
• DC injection (IEEE 1547 limits)
– Shall not exceed 0.5% of the full rated output
current at the point of Distributed Resource (DR)
connection.
 UL Listing
• Testing for UL Listing

– Normal Safety Related Tests

– Abnormal Safety Related Tests
– Performance Related Tests
 Testing for UL Listing
• Normal Safety Related Tests
– Hardware
• Dielectric Test.
• Maximum Continuous Rating Test.
• Thermal Stress Test.
• Rain test.
• Over Current Test.
• DC Bus Over Voltage Test.
• EMC Test.
 Testing for UL Listing
• Normal Safety Related Tests
– Software
• Anti_Islanding Test
• Over/Under Voltage/Frequency Test
• Over Current Test
• DC Bus Over Voltage Test
• Ground Fault Test
 Testing for UL Listing
• Abnormal Safety Related Tests
– Output Overloading Test.
– Short Circuit Test.
– Single Phase Open Test.
– DC Reverse Polarity Test.
– Component Short and Open Test.
– Ventilation Test.
 Testing for UL Listing
• Performance Related Tests
– Software
• Voltage and Current Harmonics Test
• Thermal De-rating Test
• Power Limiting Test
• MPPT Tracking Test
– Accuracy
– Response time
• Wakeup Strategy Test
 Site Commissioning
• Grounding shall be done properly.
• AC and DC disconnects shall be placed near
by the inverter.
• PV capacity shall be closely matched with the
inverter capacity.
Site Commissioning
Site Commissioning
Site Commissioning
Site Commissioning
Site Commissioning
Site Commissioning
Site Commissioning
 Challenges

• Thermal Management.
• Robust performance (right wake up voltage
calculation, riding through grid disturbances, finding
the global maximum power point on a shaded or
dirty PV panels).
• Achieving the targeted inverter price of $0.25-$0.3
per W by 2020.
• Achieving an inverter life time > 15 years.
 Future Developments
• AC modules (Micro-inverters).
• Innovative topologies (e.g. multiple inverters in parallel) to get
more power, more reliability and more efficiency.
• Transformer-less design to improve cost, weight, and efficiency.
Regulation has to change in many countries to allow the
transformer-less design.
• Development of Highly Accelerated Life Testing (HALT) and
Highly Accelerated Stress Screening would help improve inverter
quality and reliability.
• Use of new components (e.g. film capacitors instead of electrolytic
capacitors) to prolong the life.
• Reducing the component count to lower the cost and enhance the
reliability.
• Hybrid PV systems with energy storage options (Compressed air or
pumped hydro).
• Micro grids for better grid quality and reliability.
 Conclusions

• Design innovation in inverter topology is imperative to

improve efficiency, cost, reliability and life.

• Innovation in manufacturing and testing side is also needed to

improve the quality of the inverter.

• More research needed to develop advanced robust control

techniques to improve inverter performance, to reduce the
inverter downtime and to eliminate costly sensors.
Q&A