Business Law, Ethics and Communication
Business Law, Ethics and Communication
Business Law, Ethics and Communication
PROFESSIONAL
INTEGRATED
Study Material
Business Laws,
Ethics and
Communication
BOARD OF STUDIES
THE INSTITUTE OF CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS OF INDIA
This study material has been prepared by the faculty of the Board of Studies. The
objective of the study material is to provide teaching material to the students to enable
them to obtain knowledge and skills in the subject. Students should also supplement their
study by reference to the recommended text books. In case students need any
clarifications or have any suggestions to make for further improvement of the material
contained herein, they may write to the Director of Studies.
All care has been taken to provide interpretations and discussions in a manner useful for
the students. However, the study material has not been specifically discussed by the
Council of the Institute or any of its Committees and the views expressed herein may not
be taken to necessarily represent the views of the Council or any of its Committees.
Permission of the Institute is essential for reproduction of any portion of this material.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
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recording, or otherwise, without prior permission, in writing, from the publisher.
Website : www.icai.org
E-mail : [email protected]
ii
Developments in the Companies Act, 1956
The Companies Act has undergone drastic changes recently in tune with the international
developments and reforms in the corporate law regime. Many of the relevant corporate
laws witnessed several changes to bring more transparency, disciplined governance,
simplification and rationalization of laws and procedure.
Concept Paper on Company Law: The Government has undertaken an exercise to
revise the Companies Act, 1956 so as to simplify the law in order to address the changes
that are taking place in the national and international scenario. It has brought out a
Concept Paper on Company Law.
The approach given in the Concept Paper specifies the following objects:
(a) To bring the Corporate Laws in consonance with the changes that has occurred in
the area of economic development.
(b) To delete the redundant provisions and to regroup the scattered provisions relating
to specific subjects.
(c) To condense, simplify and rationalize the provisions of company law.
(d) To delink the procedural aspects from the substantive law.
(e) To give an overview of the form of the re-codified Companies Bill containing only 289
sections and a few schedules in place of existing 781 sections and 15 schedules.
An Expert Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. J. J. Irani has been constituted to
advise the Government on the new Company Law and a new Bill on Company Law is
expected to be introduced in Parliament. On passage of the Bill, it will usher in a new era
in the history of company law in India.
The Companies (Second Amendment) Act, 2002: All the provisions of this amendment
Act has not yet come into force. However, Section 2 on amended definitions, and Section
6 relating to formation/constitution and powers of National Company Law Tribunal and
Appellate Tribunal came into force with effect from 1 st April 2003 and the same has been
included in this study material.
The Companies (Amendment) Act, 2006
In context of the rapid developments witnessed in technology, the Ministry of Company
Affairs decided to (carried out so far by the Ministry and its field offices) take recourse to
the use of contemporary information technology and computers. It was felt that the earlier
efforts at computerization had not yielded the desired efficiency in operation of the system
and an operating system that took into account contemporary technology was necessary.
Therefore, it was decided to implement a comprehensive e-governance system and
programme (MCA 21) to achieve the above objective. To enable the students to have an
understanding of the programme, a chapter – Company Law in a Computerized
Environment has been included.
iii
Part - II
Ethics
The world community is earnestly and eagerly seeking answers to fundamental questions
relating to ethics and morality in the conduct of businesses especially in the light of
corporate frauds that has been taking place from time to time. All professionals play a
dual role i.e. being the principal and an agent to their customers in discharge of their
functions. Often, there is a conflict of interests in every aspect of professional life, which
represents an ethical dilemma or dharmasankat, and it arises fundamentally due to
conflicting roles played by individuals and institutions. The emphasis is how to live and
deal effectively with such situations. A number of factors such as natural environment,
work culture, protecting the consumers at large and issues revolving around accounting
and finance principles come into consideration and, therefore, it is important to
understand the ethical issues in business and to know how to resolve them.
As part of the learning process, the students in this section are exposed to an introduction
to business ethics, corporate governance, corporate social responsibility, and issues
relating to environment, ethics in workplace, marketing, accounting, finance and
protection of consumer.
Part - III
Communication
Communication is a sine qua non for any business activity. With the emergence of new
technological advances in information and knowledge, an important skill that is required is
creating an environment that enables the business to connect and have contacts with its
stakeholders. To build long lasting business relationships with the customers,
communication should be clear, crisp and with clarity. To achieve success, professionals
need to assess and respond to communication situations that occur constantly. Business
Communication usually starting with oral form need to be materialized in a written form in
the form of deeds and documents for which model varies with the nature of agreement.
This section introduces the students to the elements of communication, communication in
business environment and the preparation of legal deeds and documents.
iv
SYLLABUS
To test working knowledge of business laws and company law and their practical application in
commercial situations.
Contents
Business Laws (30 Marks)
1. The Indian Contract Act, 1872
2. The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
3. The Payment of Bonus Act, 1965
4. The Employees’ Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
5. The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972.
PART I: LAW
BUSINESS LAWS
ii
Unit – 5: Breach of Contract
1.43 Anticipatory Breach of Contract .................................................................... 1.72
1.44 Actual Breach of Contract ............................................................................ 1.73
1.45 Measurement of Damages ........................................................................... 1.73
1.46 Liability for Damages ................................................................................... 1.74
1.47 How to calculate the Damage ....................................................................... 1.75
1.48 Compensation for Breach of Contract where the Penalty is stipulated for ....... 1.75
1.49 Self-Examination Questions ......................................................................... 1.77
Unit – 6: Contingent and Special Contracts
1.50 Contingent Contract..................................................................................... 1.79
1.51 Rules relating to Enforcement ...................................................................... 1.80
1.52 Quasi-Contracts .......................................................................................... 1.81
1.53 Types of Quasi-Contract .............................................................................. 1.81
1.54 Self-Examination Questions ......................................................................... 1.83
Unit – 7 : Contract of Indemnity and Guarantee
1.55 Contract of Indemnity................................................................................... 1.85
1.56 Contract of Guarantee ................................................................................. 1.85
1.57 Nature of Surety’s Liability ........................................................................... 1.86
1.58 Continuing Guarantee .................................................................................. 1.86
1.59 Discharge of a Surety .................................................................................. 1.87
1.60 Rights of Surety against the Principal Debtor and Creditor............................. 1.88
1.61 Contribution as between Co-Sureties............................................................ 1.90
1.62 Distinction between a contract of Indemnity and a contract of Guarantee ....... 1.91
1.63 Self-Examination Questions ......................................................................... 1.91
Unit – 8: Bailment and Pledge
1.64 What is Bailment? ....................................................................................... 1.93
1.65 Bailor’s Duties and Rights ............................................................................ 1.94
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1.66 Care to be taken by Bailee ........................................................................... 1.95
1.67 Duties and Rights of a Bailee ....................................................................... 1.96
1.68 Rights and Duties of Finder of Goods ........................................................... 1.96
1.69 General Lien and Particular Lien .................................................................. 1.97
1.70 Pledge ........................................................................................................ 1.98
1.71 Pledge by Mercantile Agents ........................................................................ 1.99
1.72 Distinction between Bailment and Pledge ..................................................... 1.99
1.73 Self-Examination Questions ........................................................................1.100
Unit – 9: Agency
1.74 What is Agency? ........................................................................................1.101
1.75 Modes of Creation of Agency ......................................................................1.102
1.76 Extent of Agent’s Authority..........................................................................1.104
1.77 Duties and Obligations of an Agent .............................................................1.105
1.78 Rights of an Agent ......................................................................................1.106
1.79 Personal Liability of the Agent.....................................................................1.107
1.80 Undisclosed Principal .................................................................................1.107
1.81 Principal’s Liability for Agent’s act to third parties ........................................1.108
1.82 Termination of Agent’s Authority..................................................................1.108
1.83 Irrevocable Agency .....................................................................................1.109
1.84 Sub-Agent ..................................................................................................1.110
1.85 Substituted Agent .......................................................................................1.110
1.86 Self-Examination Questions ........................................................................1.111
EXTRA QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE .........................................................1.111
ANSWERS .................................................................................................1.123
iv
2.3 Characteristics of Negotiable Instrument ........................................................ 2.2
2.4 Definitions .................................................................................................... 2.2
2.5 Classification of Instruments ........................................................................ 2.18
2.6 Sight and Time Bills etc. (Sections 21 to 25). ................................................ 2.20
2.7 Negotiation, Negotiability, Assignability ........................................................ 2.22
2.8 Negotiability vs. Assignability ....................................................................... 2.27
2.9 Different Provisions relating to Negotiation ................................................... 2.27
2.10 Rights and Obligations of Parties to an Instrument obtained illegally .............. 2.40
2.11 Notice of Dishonour ..................................................................................... 2.46
2.12 Noting and Protesting .................................................................................. 2.48
2.13 Acceptance and Payment for Honour and Reference in Case of Need ............ 2.49
2.14 Presentment of Instruments ......................................................................... 2.50
2.15 Payment and Interest................................................................................... 2.53
2.16 International Law regarding negotiable Instrument ........................................ 2.54
2.17 Different Types of Hundis............................................................................. 2.55
2.18 Rules of Compensation ................................................................................ 2.56
2.19 Self-Examination Questions ......................................................................... 2.58
v
3.8 The Third Schedule ..................................................................................... 3.13
3.9 Payment of Minimum Bonus (Section 10)...................................................... 3.17
3.10 Payment of Maximum Bonus (Section 11) ..................................................... 3.17
3.11 Calculation of Bonus with respect to certain Employees (Section 12) ............. 3.17
3.12 Procedure for Calculation of Working Days and
Proportionate Reduction in Bonus ............................................................. 3.18
3.13 Set on and Set Off of Allocable Surplus (Section 15) ..................................... 3.18
3.14 The Fourth Schedule ................................................................................... 3.19
3.15 Special Provision with respect to Certain Establishments (Section 16) ........... 3.20
3.16 Special Provision with respect to Bonus Linked with Production
or Productivity (Section 31A)........................................................................ 3.26
3.17 Power of Exemption (Section 36) ................................................................. 3.27
3.18 Power to make Rules (Section 38)................................................................ 3.27
3.19 Application of Certain Laws not Barred (Section 39) ...................................... 3.28
3.20 Self-Examination Questions ......................................................................... 3.28
vi
5.3 Aims and Objects of the Act ........................................................................... 5.2
5.4 Extent & Applicability ..................................................................................... 5.3
5.5 Important Definitions...................................................................................... 5.4
5.6 Payability of Gratuity ..................................................................................... 5.7
5.7 Calculation of Gratuity Amount Payable .......................................................... 5.8
5.8 Forfeiture of Gratuity ..................................................................................... 5.9
5.9 Compulsory Insurance ................................................................................. 5.10
5.10 Power to Exempt ......................................................................................... 5.10
5.11 Nominations for Gratuity .............................................................................. 5.11
5.12 Application for the Payment of Gratuity......................................................... 5.13
5.13 Employer’s duty regarding the payment ........................................................ 5.13
5.14 Mode of payment of Gratuity ........................................................................ 5.14
5.15 Disputes...................................................................................................... 5.15
5.16 Procedure for Dealing with application for direction ...................................... 5.16
5.17 Appeals ...................................................................................................... 5.17
5.18 Appointment of Inspectors ........................................................................... 5.17
5.19 Recovery .................................................................................................... 5.18
5.20 Exemption of Employer from Liability ........................................................... 5.19
5.21 Cognizance of Offences ............................................................................... 5.19
5.22 Protection against action taken in Good Faith ............................................... 5.20
5.23 Protection of Gratuity................................................................................... 5.20
5.24 Miscellaneous ............................................................................................. 5.20
5.25 Self-Examination Questions ........................................................................ 5.21
vii
COMPANY LAW
UNIT 1
1.1 What is a Company?...................................................................................... 6.1
1.2 Lifting of the "corporate veil" .......................................................................... 6.2
1.3 Classes of companies under the Act ............................................................... 6.4
1.4 Miscellaneous provisions (Section 43-45) ..................................................... 6.12
1.5 Conversion of public company into a private company ................................... 6.13
1.6 Procedure for conversion of a private company into a public company ........... 6.14
1.7 Privileges and exemptions ........................................................................... 6.15
1.8 When companies must be registered ? ......................................................... 6.16
1.9 Mode of registration/Incorporation of company .............................................. 6.18
1.10 Memorandum of Association ........................................................................ 6.24
1.11 Alteration of the Memorandum ..................................................................... 6.27
1.12 Articles of Association ................................................................................. 6.35
1.13 Alteration of Articles .................................................................................... 6.36
1.14 Doctrine of Indoor Management ................................................................... 6.37
1.15 Preliminary or Pre-Incorporation Contracts ................................................... 6.39
1.16 Provisional Contracts................................................................................... 6.40
1.17 Promoters ................................................................................................... 6.41
1.18 Board of Company Law Administration (Section 10E) .................................... 6.41
1.19 National Company Law Tribunal ................................................................... 6.43
1.20 Self-Examination Questions ......................................................................... 6.57
1.21 Answers ...................................................................................................... 6.64
UNIT 2
2.1 Prospectus–Meaning and Role ..................................................................... 6.65
2.2 Section 55A – Powers of SEBI ..................................................................... 6.67
2.3 When Prospectus is not required to be Issued (Section 56) ........................... 6.68
viii
2.4 Requirements as to the Issue of Prospectus ................................................. 6.69
2.5 Abridged form of Prospectus ........................................................................ 6.70
2.6 Matters to be stated in the Prospectus (Section 56)....................................... 6.71
2.7 Additional disclosures to be made in Prospectus ........................................... 6.83
2.8 Statement by Experts .................................................................................. 6.86
2.9 Shelf Prospectus [Section 60A – Companies (Amendment) Act, 2000] .......... 6.86
2.10 Information Memorandum
[Section 60B Companies (Amendment) Act, 2000]......................................... 6.87
2.11 Mis-statement in Prospectus and its Consequences ...................................... 6.88
2.12 Offer for sale or Prospectus by implication or
Deemed prospectus (Section 64) ................................................................. 6.94
2.13 Acceptance of Deposits ............................................................................... 6.95
2.14 "Small Depositors"– [Section 58AA].............................................................6.100
2.15 Non-refund of deposits to be cognizable [Section 58AAA].............................6.101
2.16 Companies (Acceptance of deposits) Rules, 1975 .......................................6.101
2.17 Allotment of Shares ....................................................................................6.113
2.18 Minimum Subscription and Refund ..............................................................6.114
2.19 Restriction on use of Application Moneys.....................................................6.115
2.20 Underwriting...............................................................................................6.120
2.21 Purchase of own shares and financial assistance for purchase of own
shares........................................................................................................6.122
2.22 Whether a company can 'buy-back' its own shares ? ....................................6.123
2.23 Membership ...............................................................................................6.126
2.24 Contracts ...................................................................................................6.131
2.25 Investment by Company (Section 49) ..........................................................6.134
2.26 Service of Documents .................................................................................6.135
2.27 Self-Examination Questions ........................................................................6.136
2.28 Answers .....................................................................................................6.141
ix
UNIT 3
3.1 Concept of capital.......................................................................................6.143
3.2 Shares .......................................................................................................6.145
3.3 Variation of shareholders rights...................................................................6.150
3.4 Voting rights of a member ...........................................................................6.151
3.5 Further issue of capital (Right Share i.e., Right of pre-emption
or Pre-emptive Right) .................................................................................6.152
3.6 Section 81 of the Companies Act, 1956 .......................................................6.155
3.7 Steps to be taken by a company in respect of issue of further shares ...........6.157
3.8 Conversion of shares into stock...................................................................6.159
3.9 Alteration of share capital(Section 94) .........................................................6.160
3.10 Reduction of the share capital .....................................................................6.161
3.11 Reduction vs. diminution .............................................................................6.163
3.12 Issue of shares at a discount.......................................................................6.164
3.13 Issue of sweat equity ..................................................................................6.165
3.14 Issue of securities at a premium ..................................................................6.166
3.15 Share certificate .........................................................................................6.167
3.16 Share warrant.............................................................................................6.171
3.17 Calls on shares ..........................................................................................6.172
3.18 Transfer of shares ......................................................................................6.173
3.19 Nomination facility in respect of shares........................................................6.178
3.20 How nomination facility shall operate in case of
transmission of shares ? .............................................................................6.178
3.21 Refusal to register transfer and appeal
against refusal (Section 111).......................................................................6.179
3.22 Transfer of securities of a public company ...................................................6.180
3.23 Certification of transfer (Section 112) ..........................................................6.181
3.24 Blank transfers ...........................................................................................6.183
3.25 Forged transfers .........................................................................................6.183
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3.26 Transmission of shares ...............................................................................6.184
3.27 Forfeiture and surrender of shares ..............................................................6.185
3.28 Capitalisation of profit.................................................................................6.186
3.29 Debentures ................................................................................................6.189
3.30 Registration of a charge..............................................................................6.204
3.31 Self-Examination Questions ........................................................................6.209
3.32 Answers .....................................................................................................6.218
UNIT 4
4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................6.221
4.1 Classification of Meetings ...........................................................................6.221
4.2 Meeting of Shareholders .............................................................................6.222
4.3 Annual General Meeting .............................................................................6.224
4.4 Extraordinary General Meeting ....................................................................6.228
4.5 Powers of Company Law Board / Tribunal....................................................6.236
4.6 Class Meetings...........................................................................................6.238
4.7 Procedure for Convening and conduct of General Meetings ..........................6.239
4.8 Notice of Meeting .......................................................................................6.239
4.9 Special and Ordinary Business....................................................................6.247
4.10 Quorum......................................................................................................6.248
4.11 Voting and the right to demand a poll ..........................................................6.253
4.12 Proxies ......................................................................................................6.253
4.13 Resolution..................................................................................................6.257
4.14 Passing of Resolution by Postal Ballot [Section 192A] ..................................6.263
4.15 Minutes ......................................................................................................6.265
4.16 Meeting of Debentureholders ......................................................................6.267
4.17 Company Law in a Computerised Environment.............................................6.268
4.18 Self-Examination Questions ........................................................................6.275
4.19 Answers .....................................................................................................6.278
xi
PART II: ETHICS
xii
9.5 Harassment .................................................................................................. 9.7
9.6 Importance of Ethical Behaviour at the Workplace .......................................... 9.8
9.7 Guidelines for Managing Ethics in the Workplace ........................................... 9.9
9.10 Self-Examination Questions ......................................................................... 9.10
xiii
12.7 Threats ....................................................................................................... 12.6
12.8 Examples of circumstances creating above mentioned threats ....................... 12.7
12.9 Safeguards ................................................................................................. 12.9
12.10 Ethical conflict resolution ............................................................................12.11
12.11 Self-Examination Questions ........................................................................12.11
xiv
14.5 Emotional Intelligence.................................................................................. 14.6
14.6 Competencies Associated With Emotional Intelligence .................................. 14.8
14.7 Self-Examination Questions ......................................................................... 14.9
xv
CHAPTER 17 : COMMUNICATING CORPORATE CULTURE, CHANGE AND INNOVATIVE
SPIRITS
17.1 What is Corporate Culture? .......................................................................... 17.1
17.2 Elements of culture...................................................................................... 17.2
17.3 Change ....................................................................................................... 17.3
17.4 Resistance to Change.................................................................................. 17.3
17.5 Communication And Change ........................................................................ 17.5
17.6 Spurring The Innovative Spirits .................................................................... 17.9
17.7 Barriers To Innovation ................................................................................17.10
17.8 Building Innovation Enabled Organization ....................................................17.11
17.9 Self-Examination Questions ........................................................................17.16
xvi
PART I
BUSINESS
LAWS
CHAPTER 1
THE INDIAN CONTRACT ACT, 1872
UNIT – I : BACKGROUND
Learning objectives
After studying this unit, you would be able to -
♦ Understand the meaning of the terms 'agreement' and 'contract' and note the distinction
between the two.
♦ Note the essential elements of a contract.
♦ Be clear about various types of contract.
♦ Understand the concept of offer and acceptance and rules of communication and
revocation thereof.
Any commercial activity requires ‘understanding’ among people concerned. This
understanding is often reduced into writing to give effect to the intention of the parties. Such
formal versions are known as contracts. These contracts define the rights and obligations of
various parties to facilitate easy performance of the contractual obligations.
The Indian Contract Act 1872 codifies the legal principles that govern such ‘contracts’. The Act
basically identifies the ingredients of a legally enforceable valid contract in addition to dealing
with certain special type of contractual relationships like indemnity, guarantee, bailment,
pledge, quasi contracts, contingent contracts etc.
proposal by another person. If the agreement is capable of being enforced by law then it is a
contract.
Now let us take a look at the definitions as per the Act. Section 2[b] while defining a ‘promise’
provides that “when the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the
proposal is said to be accepted. Proposal when accepted becomes a promise”.
Section 2[e] of the Act defines an agreements as ‘every promise and every set of promises
forming consideration for each other. Section 2[h] of the defines the term contract as “an
agreement enforceable by law”.
The above discussion can be diagramatically represented as follows:
PROPOSAL
|
PROMISE
|
CONSIDERATION
|
AGREEMENT
/ \
LEGALLY ENFORCEABLE LEGALLY NOT ENFORCEABLE
| | |
CONTRACT VOIDABLE VOID
AGREEMENT AGREEMENT
1.2
The Indian Contract Act, 1872
1.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
3. The last element to clinch a contract is that the agreement entered into for this purpose
must not be which the law declares to be either illegal or void. An illegal agreement is an
agreement expressly or impliedly prohibited by law. A void agreement is one without any
legal effects.
For Example: Threat to commit murder or making/publishing defamatory statements or
entering into agreements which are opposed to public policy are illegal in nature.
Similarly any agreement in restraint of trade, marriage, legal proceedings etc are classic
examples of void agreements.
1.3 TYPES OF CONTRACT
Now let us discuss various types of contracts
1. Void Contracts
Section 2 (j) states as follows: “A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law becomes
void when it ceases to be enforceable”. Thus a void contract is one which cannot be enforced
by a court of law.
Examples : There are a number of agreements, which are specifically identified by the Act
itself as void. These are
(a) Where both parties to an agreement are under a mistake of fact [Section 20]
(b) When the consideration or object of an agreement is unlawful [Section 23],
(c) An agreement without consideration [Section 25],
(d) An agreement in restraint of- marriage [Section 26], trade [Section 27], legal proceedings
[Section 28] and agreement by way of wager [Section 30] are instances of void contract.
It may be added by way of clarification here that when a contract is void, it is not a contract at
all but for the purpose of identifying it , it has to be called a [void] contract.
2. Voidable Contract
Section 2[i] defines a voidable agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one or
more parties but not at the option of the other or others is a voidable contract.
This in effect means where one of the parties to the agreement is in a position or is legally
entitled or authorized to avoid performing his part, then the agreement is treated and becomes
voidable. Such a right might arise from the fact that the contract may have been brought about
by one of the parties by coercion, undue influence, fraud or misrepresentation and hence the
other party has a right to treat it as a voidable contract.
At this juncture it would be desirable to know the distinction between a void contract and a
voidable contract. The distinctions lie in three aspects namely definition, nature and rights.
These are elaborated hereunder
1.4
The Indian Contract Act, 1872
(a) Definition
A void contract cannot be enforced at all. A voidable contract [is an agreement] which is
enforceable only at the option of one of the parties but not at the option of the other. Therefore
‘enforceability’ or otherwise, divides the two types of contracts.
(b) Nature
By nature, a void contract is valid at the time when it is made but becomes unenforceable and
thus void on account of subsequent developments or events like supervening impossibility,
subsequent illegality etc., Repudiation of a voidable contract also renders the contract void.
Similarly a contingent contract might become void when the occurrence of the event on which
it is contingent becomes impossible.
On the other hand voidable contract would remain valid until it is rescinded by the person who
has the option to treat it as voidable. The right to treat it as voidable does not invalidate the
contract until such right is exercised. All contracts caused by coercion, undue influence, fraud,
misrepresentation are voidable. Generally, a contract caused by mistake is void.
(c) Rights
As regards rights of the parties, in the case of a void contract there is no legal remedy for the
parties as the contract cannot be performed in any way. In the case of voidable contract the
aggrieved party has a right to rescind it within a reasonable time. If it is so rescinded, it
becomes void. If it is not rescinded it is a valid contract.
3. Illegal Contracts
Illegal contracts are those that are forbidden by law. All illegal contracts are hence void also.
Because of the illegality of their nature they cannot be enforced by any court of law. In fact
even associated contracts cannot be enforced. Contracts which are opposed to public policy
or immoral are illegal. Similarly contracts to commit crime like supari contracts are illegal
contracts.
The above discussion shows that illegal contracts are at par with void contracts. The Act
specifies several factors which would render an agreement void. One such factor is unlawful
nature of contract or the consideration meant for it. Though illegal agreements and void
agreements appear similar they differ in the following manner:
(a) Scope: All illegal agreements are void. However void agreements might not be illegal at
the time of entering but would have become void because of some other factors. For
example, where the terms of the agreement are uncertain the agreement would not be
illegal but might be treated as void. An illegal contract would encompass a void contract
where as a void contract may not include in its scope illegal contracts.
1.5
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(b) Nature and character: Illegal agreements are void since the very beginning they are
invariably described as void ab initio. As already emphasized under the scope, a contract
by nature, which is valid, can subsequently change its character and can become void.
(c) Effect on collateral transactions: In the case of illegal contract, even the collateral
transactions namely transactions which are to be complied with before or after or
concurrently along with main contract also become not enforceable. In contrast in the
case of voidable contracts the collateral transactions can be enforced despite the fact
that the main contract may have become voidable, to the extent the collateral
transactions are capable of being performed independently.
(d) Penalty or punishment: All illegal agreements are punishable under different laws say
like Indian Penal Code etc. Whereas parties to void agreements do not face such
penalties or punishments.
Further classification of contracts according to the formation is also possible. Under this
sub-classification the following contracts fall:
4. Express Contracts
A contract would be an express contract if the terms are expressed by words or in
writing. Section 9 of the Act provides that if a proposal or its acceptance of any promise
is made (even) in words the promise is said to be express.
5. Implied Contracts
Implied contracts in contrast come into existence by implication. Most often the
implication is by law and or by action. Section 9 of the Act contemplates such implied
contracts when it lays down that in so far as such proposal or acceptance is made
otherwise than words, the promise is said to be implied. For instance ‘A’ delivers goods
by mistake at the warehouse of ‘B’ instead of that of ‘C’. Here ‘B’ not being entitled to
receive the goods is obliged to return the goods to ‘A’ although there was no such
contract to that effect.
6. Tacit Contracts
Tacit contracts are those that are inferred through the conduct of parties. A classic
example of tacit contract would be when cash is withdrawn by a customer of a bank from
the automatic teller machine [ATM]. Another example is where a contract is assumed to
have been entered into with taciturnity when a sale is given effect to at the fall of hammer
in an auction sale.
Further classification of contracts is possible on the basis of their performance. They are:
1.6
The Indian Contract Act, 1872
7. Executed Contract
The consideration in a given contract could be an act or forbearance. When the act is
done or executed or the forbearance is brought on record, then the contract is an
executed contract.
8. Executory Contract
In an executory contract the consideration is reciprocal promise or obligation. Such
consideration is to be performed in future only and therefore these contracts are
described as executory contracts.
9. Unilateral Contract
Unilateral contracts is a one sided contract in which only one party has to perform his
duty or obligation.
10. Bilateral Conracts
A Bilateral contract is one where the obligation or promise is outstanding on the part of
both the parties.
Now let us take a look at yet another type of classification of contracts from the view point of
English Law.
The English law classifies contracts as (i) Formal contracts and (ii) Simple contracts.
Formal contracts are further classified as (a) contract of record and (b) contract under seal.
(a) Contract of record: A contract of record derives its binding force from the authority of
court. The authority of court is invariably through judgment of a court or by way of
recognizance. The judgment of a court is technically not a contract as it is not based on the
agreement between parties. However the judgment is binding on all the persons who are
litigants. The judgment creates certain rights on certain persons and obligation on certain
other persons. A recognizance, on the other hand is a written acknowledgement of a debt due
to the state generally in the context of criminal proceedings.
(b) Contract under seal: A contract under seal is one which derives its binding force from
its form alone. It is in writing, duly signed and sealed and delivered to parties. It is also
referred to as a deed or a specialty contract.
Simple contracts as against formal contracts are devoid of all the formalities referred above.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
The word ‘proposal’ and the word ‘offer’ mean one and the same thing and therefore are used
interchangeably. In terms of Section 2(a) of the Act “a person is said to make a proposal when
he signifies to another his willingness to do or abstain from doing anything with a view to
obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence”. It must be appreciated that
‘doing’ an act and ‘not doing an act’ both have the same effect in the eyes of the law, though
one is a positive act and the other is a negative act.
Hence there are two important ingredients to an offer. Firstly, it must be expressions of
willingness to do or to abstain from doing an act. Secondly the willingness must be expressed
with a view to obtain the assent of the other party to whom the offer is made.
This can be illustrated as follows:
(a) Where “A” tells “B” that he desires to marry ‘B’ by the end of 2006, there is no offer made
unless, he also asks “will you marry me?”, conveying his willingness and tries to obtain
the assent of ‘B’ in the same breadth.
(b) Where “A” offers to sell his car to “B” it conveys his willingness to do an act. Through this
offer nor only willingness is being conveyed but also an intention to obtain the assent can
be seen.
Classification of offer
Offer can be classified as general offer, special offer, cross offer, counter offer,
standing/open/continuing offer. Now let us examine each one of them.
(a) General Offer: It is an offer made to public at large with or without any time limit. In
terms of Section 8 of the Act anyone performing the conditions of the offer can be considered
to have accepted the offer (Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball). Until the general offer is retracted
or withdrawn, it can be accepted by anyone at any time as it is a continuing offer.
(b) Special offer: Where an offer is made to a particular and specified person, it is a
specific offer. Only that person can accept such specific offer, as it is special and exclusive to
him. [Bottom v. Johns]
(c) Cross offer
As per section 2(b), when a person to whom proposal (offer) is made signifies his assent, the
proposal is said to be accepted. Thus, assent can be only to a ‘proposal’. If there was no
proposal, questionof its acceptance cannot arise. For example, if A makes a proposal to B to
sell some goods at a specified price and B, without knowing proposal of A, makes a proposal
to purchase the same goods at the price specified in the proposal of A, it is not an acceptance,
as B was not aware of proposal made by A. It is only cross proposal (cross offer). And when
two persons make offer to each other, it can not be treated as mutual acceptance. There is no
binding contract in such a case [Tin v. Haffmen & co. 1873]
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(d) Counter offer: Upon receipt of an offer from an offeror, if the offeree instead of
accepting it straightway, imposes conditions which have the effect of modifying or varying the
offer, he is said to have made a counter offer. Counter offers amounts to rejection of original
offer.
(e) Standing or continuing or open offer: An offer which is made to public at large and if
it is kept open for public acceptance for a certain period of time, it is known as standing or
continuing or open offer. Tenders that are invited for supply of materials and goods are classic
examples of standing offer.
Rules relating to offer
Following are the rules for a valid and legal offer:
(a) The ‘offer’ must be with intent to create a legal relationship. Hence if it is accepted, it
must result in a valid contract. An invitation to join a friend for dinner is a social activity.
This does not create a legal relationship or right or obligation.
(b) The offer must be certain and definite. It must not be vague. If the terms are vague, it is
not capable of being accepted as the vagueness would not create any contractual
relationship. For Example, where ‘A’ offers to sell 100 quintals of oil, without indicating
what kind of oil would be sold, it is a vague offer and hence cannot create any
contractual relationship. If however there is a mechanism to end the vagueness, the offer
can be treated as valid. For example, in the above example if ‘A’ does not deal in any oil
but only in gingilee oil and this is known to every one, the offer cannot be treated as
vague offer. This is for the reason that the trade in which ‘A’ is, is a clear indicator
providing a mechanism to understand the terms of offer.
(c) The offer must be express or implied.
(d) The offer must be distinguished from an invitation to offer.
(e) The offer must be either specific or general.
(f) The offer must be communicated to the person to whom it is made. Otherwise the offeree
cannot accept the offer. He cannot accept the offer because he is not aware of the
existence of the offer. Such a situation does not create any legal obligation or right on
any one.
(g) The offer must be made with a view to obtaining the consent of the offeree.
(h) An offer can be conditional but there should be no term in the offer that non-compliance
would amount to acceptance. Thus the offeror cannot say that if non-acceptance is not
communicated by a certain time the offer would be treated as accepted.
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The Indian Contract Act, 1872
The above decision was followed in Mac Pherson vs Appanna [1951] A.S.C. 184 where the
owner of the property had said that he would not accept less than Rs.6000/- for it. This
staterment did not indicate any offer but indicated only an invitation to offer.
Similarly when goods are sold through auction, the auctioneer does not contract with any one
who attends the sale. The auction is only an advertisement to sell but the items are not put for
sale though persons who have come to the auction may have the intention to purchase.
Following are instances of invitation to offer to buy or sell:
(i) An invitation by a company to the public to subscribe for its shares.
(ii) Display of goods for sale in shop windows.
(iii) Advertising auction sales and
(iv) Quotation of prices sent in reply to a query regarding price.
1.5 ACCEPTANCE
The significance of “acceptance of a proposal so as to form an agreement has been discussed
in previous paragraphs. Let us analyse various issues concerning ‘acceptance’ now,
Meaning: In terms of Section 2(b) of the Act, “ A proposal or offer is said to have been
accepted when the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent to the proposal
to do or not to do something”. In short, act of acceptance lies in signifying one’s assent to the
proposal.
Relationship between offer and acceptance
According to Sir William Anson “Acceptance is to offer what a lighted match is to a train
of gun powder”. The effect of this observation is that what acceptance triggers cannot be
recalled or undone. But there is a choice to the person who had the train to remove it before
the match is applied. It in effect means that the offer can be withdrawn just before it is
accepted. Acceptance converts the offer into a promise and then it is too late to revoke it. This
means as soon as the train of gun powder is lighted it would explode. Gun powder [the train]
itself is inert, but it is the lighted match [the acceptance] which causes the gun powder to
explode. The significance of this is an offer by itself cannot create any legal relationship but it
is the acceptance by the offeree which creates a legal relationship. Once an offer is accepted
it becomes a promise and cannot be withdrawn or revoked. An offer remains an offer so long
as it is not accepted, but becomes a contract as soon as it is accepted.
Rules governing acceptance
(1) Acceptance must be absolute and unqualified:
As per Section 7 of the Act, acceptance is valid only when it is absolute and unqualified and is
also expressed in some usual and reasonable manner unless the proposal prescribes the
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manner in which it must be accepted. If the proposal prescribes the manner in which it must
be accepted, then it must be accepted accordingly. The above view will be clear from the
following example:
‘A’ enquries from ‘B’, “Will you purchase my car for Rs. 2 lakhs?” If ‘B’ replies “I shall purchase
your car for Rs.2lakhs, if you buy my motorcycle for Rs. 50000/-, here ‘B’ cannot be
considered to have accepted the proposal. If on the other hand ‘B’ agrees to purchase the car
from ‘A’ as per his proposal subject to availability of valid Registration Certificate / book for the
car, then the acceptance is in place though the offer contained no mention of R.C. book. This
is because expecting a valid title for the car is not a condition. Therefore the acceptance in
this case is unconditional.
(2) The acceptance must be communicated
To conclude a contract between the parties, the acceptance must be communicated in some
perceptible form. Any conditional acceptance or acceptance with varying or too deviant
conditions is no acceptance. Such conditional acceptance is a counter proposal and has to be
accepted by the proposer, if the original proposal has to materialize into a contract. Further
when a proposal is accepted, the offeree must have the knowledge of the offer made to him. If
he does not have the knowledge, there can be no acceptance. The acceptance must relate
specifically to the offer made. Then only it can materialize into a contract. The above points
will be clearer from the following examples,
(a) M offered to sell his land to N for £ 280. N replied purporting to accept the offer but
enclosed a cheque for £ 80 only. He promised to pay the balance of £ 200 by monthly
installments of £ 50 each. It was held that N could not enforce his acceptance because it
was not an unqualified one. [Neale vs. Merret [1930] W. N. 189].
(b) A offers to sell his house to B for Rs. 1000/-. B replied that, “ I can pay Rs.800 for it. The
offer of ‘A’ is rejected by ‘B’ as the acceptance is not unqualified. B however changes his
mind and is prepared to pay Rs.1000/-. This is also treated as counter offer and it is upto
A whether to accept it or not. [Union of India v. Bahulal AIR 1968 Bombay 294].
A mere variation in the language not involving any difference in substance would not make the
acceptance ineffective. [Heyworth vs. Knight [1864] 144 ER 120].
(3) Acceptance must be in the prescribed mode:
Where the proposal prescribes the mode of acceptance, it must be accepted in that manner.
Where the proposal does not prescribe the manner, then it must be accepted in a reasonable
manner. If the proposer does not insist on the proposal being accepted in the manner in which
it has to be accepted, after it is accepted in any other manner not originally prescribed, the
proposer is presumed to have consented to the acceptance. Sometimes the acceptor may
agree to a proposal but may insist on a formal agreement, in which case until a formal
agreement is drawn up there is no complete acceptance.
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(4) The acceptance must be given within a reasonable time and before the offer lapses.
(5) Mere silence is not acceptance. The acceptor should expressly accept the offer.
Acceptance can be implied also. Acceptance must be given only by that person to whom
it is made, that too only after knowing about the offer made to him.
(6) Acceptance by conduct:
As already elaborated above, acceptance has to be signified either in writing or by word of
mouth or by performance of some act. The last of the method, namely ‘by some act’ has to be
understood as acceptance by conduct. In a case like this where a person performs the act
intended by the proposer as the consideration for the promise offered by him, the performance
of the act constitutes acceptance. In other words, there is an acceptance by conduct.
For example, where a tradesman receives an order from a customer, and the order is
executed accordingly by the trader, there is an “acceptance by conduct” of the offer made by
the customer. The trader’s subsequent act signifies acceptance.
Section 8 of the Act very clearly in this regard lays down that “ the performance of the
conditions(s) of a proposal or the acceptance of any consideration of a reciprocal promise
which may be offered with a proposal constitutes an acceptance of the proposal.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Communication of acceptance:
There are two issues for discussion and understanding. They are: what are the modes of
acceptance and when is acceptance complete?
Let us first consider the modes of acceptance. Section 3 of the Act prescribes in general terms
two modes of communication namely, (a) by any act and (b) by omission, intending thereby to,
to communicate to the other or which has the effect of communicating it to the other.
Communication by act would include any expression of words whether written or oral. Written
words will include letters, telegrams, faxes, emails and even advertisements. Oral words will
include telephone messages. Again communication would include any conduct intended to
communicate like positive acts or signs so that the other person understands what the person
‘acting ‘ or ‘making signs’ means to say or convey.
Communication can also be by ‘omission’ to do any or something. Such omission is conveyed
by a conduct or by forbearance on the part of one person to convey his willingness or assent.
However silence would not be treated as communication by ‘omission’
Communication of acceptance is also done by conduct. For instance, delivery of goods at a
price by a seller to a willing buyer will be understood as a communication by conduct to
convey acceptance. Similarly one need not explain why one boards a public bus or drop a coin
in a weighing machine. The first act is a conduct of acceptance and its communication to the
offer by the public transport authority to carry any passenger. The second act is again a
conduct conveying acceptance to use the weighing machine kept by the vending company as
an offer to render that service for a consideration.
The other issue in communication of acceptance is about the effect of act or omission or
conduct. These indirect efforts must result in effectively communicating its acceptance or non
acceptance. If it has no such effect, there is no communication regardless of which the
acceptor thinks about the offer within himself. Thus a mere mental unilateral assent in one’s
own mind would not amount to communication. Where a resolution passed by a bank to sell
land to ‘A’ remained uncommunicated to ‘A’, it was held that there was no communication and
hence no contract. [Central Bank Yeotmal vs Vyankatesh (1949) A. Nag. 286].
Let us now come to the issue of when communication of acceptance is complete. In terms of
Section 4 of the Act, it is complete,
(i) As against the proposer, when it is put in course of transmission to him so as to be out of
the power of the acceptor to withdraw the same;
(ii) As against the acceptor, when it comes to the knowledge of the proposer.
Where a proposal is accepted by a letter sent by the post, the communication of acceptance
will be complete as against the proposer when the letter of acceptance is posted and as
against the acceptor when the letter reaches the proposer. For instance in the above example,
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The Indian Contract Act, 1872
if ‘B’ accepts, A’s proposal and sends his acceptance by post on 14th, the communication of
acceptance as against ‘A’ is complete on 14th, when the letter is posted. As against ‘B’
acceptance will be complete, when the letter reaches ‘A’. Here ‘A’ the proposer will be bound
by B’s acceptance, even if the letter of acceptance is delayed in post or lost in transit. The
golden rule is proposer becomes bound by the contract, the moment acceptor has posted the
letter of acceptance. But it is necessary the letter is correctly addressed, sufficiently stamped
and duly posted. In such an event the loss of letter in transit, wrong delivery, non delivery etc.,
will not affect the validity of the contract. However from the view point of acceptor, he will be
bound by his acceptance only when the letter of acceptance has reached the proposer. So it is
crucial in this case that the letter reaches the proposer. If there is no delivery of the letter, the
acceptance could be treated as having been completed from the viewpoint of proposer but not
from the viewpoint of acceptor. Of course this will give rise to a piquant situation of only one
party to the contract being treated as bound by the contract though no one would be sure as to
where the letter of acceptance had gone.
Communication of special conditions:
Sometimes there are situation where there are contracts with special conditions. These
special conditions are conveyed tacitly and the acceptance of these conditions are also
conveyed by the offeree again tacitly or without him even realizing it.
For instance where a passenger undertakes a travel, the conditions of travel are printed at the
back of the tickets, sometimes these special conditions are brought to the notice of the
passenger, sometimes not. In any event, the passenger is treated as having accepted the
special condition the moment he bought his ticket.
When someone travels from one place to another by air, it could be seen that special
conditions are printed at the back of the air ticket in small letters [in a non computerized train
ticket even these are not printed] Sometimes these conditions are found to have been
displayed at the notice board of the Air lines office, which passengers may not have cared to
read. The question here is whether these condition can be considered to have been
communicated to the passengers of the Airlines and can the passengers be treated as having
accepted the conditions. The answer to the question is in the affirmative and was so held in
Mukul Datta vs. Indian Airlines [1962] AIR cal. 314 where the plaintiff had traveled from Delhi
to Kolkota by air and the ticket bore conditions in fine print.
Yet another example is where a launderer gives his customer a receipt for clothes received for
washing. The receipt carries special conditions and are to be treated as having been duly
communicated to the customer and therein a tacit acceptance of these conditions is implied by
the customer’s acceptance of the receipt [Lily White vs. R. Muthuswami [1966] A. Mad. 13].
In the cases referred above, the respective documents have been accepted without a protest
and hence amounted to tacit acceptance.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
1.16
The Indian Contract Act, 1872
(iii) if an offer is made in the form of a promise in return for an act, the performance of that
act, even without any communication thereof, is to be treated as an acceptance of the
offer.
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The Indian Contract Act, 1872
Answers
1. See Paragraph 1.2.
2. See Paragraph 1.3 – Point No. 6.
3. A contract without any legal effect and which cannot be enforced in a court of law
4. Voidable
5. Because of subsequent illegality
6. Yes
7. Illegal contract
8. Unenforceable contract
9. A general offer is made to the public in general and a specific offer to a definite person
10. No
11. The offer has to be accepted
12. No
13. When the letter reaches the person
14. Yes
15. Yes. By lapse of time fixed for acceptance or by the failure of the acceptor to fulfill a
condition precedent to acceptance or by death or insanity of the person
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
UNIT – 2 : CONSIDERATION
Learning objectives
After studying this unit, you would be able to -
♦ Understand the concept of consideration, its importance for a contract and its double
aspect.
♦ Clearly understand how consideration may move from a third party and how this makes
the contract valid.
♦ Learn about the peculiar circumstances when a contract is valid even without
consideration.
♦ Be aware of the rule 'A stranger to a contract cannot sue' and exceptions thereof.
In the previous unit we learnt that one of the important elements of contract is “consideration”.
In this unit the concept of consideration and the legal requirements for consideration are
discussed.
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The Indian Contract Act, 1872
In most cases the promisor for doing an act or not doing an act derives some benefit by way of
consideration. This consideration is identified as quid pro quo from its promise of the
promisor.
But it is also possible that there may not be any identifiable benefit towards consideration.
For example ‘A’ promises to carry ‘B’ goods free of charge and B allows ‘A’ to carry the same.
Here ‘B’ does not offer any consideration to ‘A’. Is this a valid contract?
The answer to the question is ‘B’ has suffered a detriment or disadvantage while allowing ‘A’
to carry his goods. Here there is sufficient consideration. This illustration is given essentially
to prove the point that consideration could be not necessarily a gain or advantage to the
promisor but it can even be a loss or detriment to the promisee. That is why ‘consideration’ is
referred to as a concept with ‘double aspect’.
Where Y applies for a loan of Rs,10,000/- to X, and if ‘X’ insists on a guarantee by ‘S’ and
upon ‘S’ guaranteeing the loan, ‘X’ gives the loan to “Y”. In this case ‘S’ will be the promisor
and ‘X’ the promisee. The benefit in this transaction conferred on ‘Y’ by ‘X’ at the guarantee of
‘S’, is sufficient consideration for X. In other words ‘X’ has suffered a detriment which is the
consideration for the guarantee of ‘S’ to repay the loan which ‘X’ has given to ‘Y’. Detriment
to one is benefit to another.
It can often be seen that consideration is mutual. For instance if ‘A’ promises to sell his house
to ‘B’ for Rs.5 lakhs ,here “A” is the promisor and “B” is the promisee. In the same transaction
where ‘B’ agrees to buy the house for Rs.5 lakhs, ‘B’ will be the promisor and ‘A’ will be the
promisee. Here ‘A’ must part with the house and ‘B’ must part with Rs.5 lakhs. This proves
the point that consideration is mutual and has two sides.
Whether gratuitous promise can be enforced?
The word “gratuitous” means ‘free of cost’ or ‘without expecting any return’. It can therefore be
inferred that a gratuitous promise will not result in an agreement in the absence of
consideration. For instance a promise to subscribe to a charitable cause cannot be enforced.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(ii) Consideration can flow either from the promisee or any other person
The consideration for a contract can move either from the promisee or from any other person.
This point is made clear even by the definition of the word “consideration”, according to which
at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person, doing something is
consideration.
That the consideration can legitimately move from a third party is an accepted principle of law
in India though not in England. ‘A’ by a deed of gift made over certain property to her daughter
with condition that her brother should be paid annuity by A’s daughter. On the same day A’s
daughter executed a document agreeing to pay annuity accordingly but declined to pay after
sometime. A’s brother sued A’s daughter. It was contended on behalf of A’s daughter, that
there was no consideration from A’s brother and hence there was no valid contract. This plea
was rejected on the ground that the consideration did flow from A’s mother to ‘A’ and such
consideration from third party is sufficient to enforce the promise of A’s daughter to enforce
her promise to pay annuity to A’s brother (Chinya Vs Ramaya(1881) a.mad.13.7.
Thus a stranger to a contract can sue upon a contract in India and also in England, where a
stranger to a consideration can sue under Indian law though not under English law.
(iii) Executed and executory consideration
Where consideration consists of performance, it is called “executed” consideration. Where it
consists only of a promise, it is executory. For example where A pays Rs.5000/- to ‘B’
requesting ‘B’ to deliver certain quantity of rice, to which B agrees, then here consideration for
B is executed by ‘A’ as he has already paid Rs.5000/- whereas ‘B’s promise is executory as
he is yet to deliver the rice.
Insurance contracts are of the same type. When A pays a premium of Rs.5000/- seeking
insurance cover for the year, from the insurance company which the company promises in the
event of fire, the consideration paid by A to the insurance company is executed but the
promise of insurance company is executory or yet to be executed. A forbearance by the
promisor should however be considered as an executed consideration provided the
forbearance is sufficient at the time of contract.
(iv) Past consideration
The next issue is whether past consideration can be treated as consideration at all. This is
because consideration is given and accepted along with a promise concurrently. However the
Act recognizes past consideration as consideration when it uses the expression in Section
2(d) ‘has done or abstained from doing”. But in the event of services being rendered in the
past at the request or desire of the promisor the subsequent promise is regarded as an
admission that the past consideration was not gratuitous. The plaintiff rendered services to
the defendant at his desire during his minority. He also continued to render the same services
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The Indian Contract Act, 1872
after the dependant attained majority. It was held to be good consideration for a subsequent
express promise by the defendant to pay an annuity to the plaintiff but it was admitted that if
the services had not been rendered at the desire of the defendant it would be hit by section 25
of the Act. (Sindia Vs Abraham (1985)Z. Bom 755)
(v) Adequacy of Consideration
Consideration need not necessarily be of the same value as of the promise for which it is
exchanged. But it must be some thing which can be inadequate as well. Inadequate
consideration would not invalidate an agreement but such inadequate consideration could be
taken into account by the court in deciding whether the consent of the promisor was freely
given.
In Chijjitumal Vs. Rampal Singh AIR, 1968, the Supreme Court reiterated that consideration
need not be material and may be even absent. In the said case, the father had died leaving
his house to two sons. They had agreed to partition the house which did not admit the division
in exactly equal parts and one of the sons had agreed not to construct a door at a certain
place in his portion of the house. In a dispute, the agreement was challenged on the ground
that it was without adequate consideration. The Supreme Court came to the conclusion that
the motive for the said agreement at the time when it was made, was to avoid any dispute in
future, and held that it was sufficient consideration.
The above view is in tune with explanation 2 to section 25 of the Act, which provides that an
agreement to which the consent of the promisor is freely given is not void merely because the
consideration is inadequate. Where there is valuable consideration, Court will not interfere and
inquire into the adequacy of it but leave the matter to the parties to make their own bargain.
But inadequate consideration might raise suspicion about the free will of the promisor.
Promisor could be treated as victim of some imposition but this would not render the
agreement void.
(vi) Performance of what one is legally bound to perform:
The performance of an act by a person who is legally bound to perform the same cannot be
consideration for a contract. Hence, a promise to pay money to a witness is void, for it is
without consideration. Hence such a contract is void for want of consideration. Similarly, an
agreement by a client to pay to his counsel after the latter has been engaged, a certain sum
over and above the fee, in the event of success of the case would be void, since it is without
consideration.
But where a person promises to do more than he is legally bound to do, such a promise
provided it is not opposed to public policy, is a good consideration. For instance during a civil
strike, a question arose as to how best to protect a coal mine. The police authorities thought
that surveillance by a mobile force would be adequate but the colliery manager desired a
stationary police guard. Ultimately it was agreed that the police authorities would provide a
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
stationary guard and the manager would pay $2,200 for the service. It was held that the
promise to pay the amount was not without consideration. The police, no doubt, were bound
to afford protection, but they had discretion as to the form it should take. The undertaking to
provide more protection than what they deemed to be necessary was a consideration for the
promise of reward. (Classbrook Brothers vs. Glamorgan Country Council (19250 A.C.270)
(vii) Consideration must not be unlawful, immoral, or opposed to public policy.
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The Indian Contract Act, 1872
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
7. Whether a consideration can move at the desire of the third party other than the promisor
and promisee?
8. Whether a consideration can move from a third party?
9. A pays Rs.5000/- requesting B to deliver certain quantity of rice to which B agrees. What
is the position of consideration as “executed” or “executory” regarding A and B?
10. While a third party to consideration can sue, a third party to a contract cannot sue. In the
case of family settlement, if the terms of settlement are reduced in writing, members of
the family who were not a party to the settlement can also enforce the claim. Is it
correct?
11. An agreement without consideration is void. Even inadequate consideration would
render enforceability of the contract difficult. In such a case, whether a written and a
registered agreement made between parties out of natural love and affection without
consideration is valid?
12. Without consideration a promise was made to compensate for past voluntary services
rendered by someone to promisor. Can the promise be enforced?
13. Can a promise in writing to pay a debt which is barred a limitation valid without
consideration?
14. Whether consideration is necessary to create an agency?
15. Should consideration be adequate to the value of the promise?
Answers
1. Yes 2. No 3. Yes 4. A, B 5. B, A
6. Yes 7. No 8. Yes
9. For ‘A’ executed, & for ‘B’ executory
10. Yes, It is an exception
11. Yes
12. Yes
13. Yes
14. No
15. No
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The Indian Contract Act, 1872
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
under mistake as he thought he was dealing with Blenkiron & Co, while he was in fact dealing
with Blenkran. Hence there was no contract at all, valid or voidable. The agreement was
declared as void in the absence of identity of minds or proper consent. The suit was decreed
against Lindsay.
The consent referred above must be “free consent” as well. Consent is free when it is not
caused by coercion, undue influence, fraud, misrepresentation or mistake (section 14). When
the consent is caused by mistake, the agreement is void, but when caused by other factors it
is voidable.
Now let us discuss each of these factors, which should not influence consent.
(a) Coercion
“Coercion” is the committing, or threatening to commit any act forbidden by the Indian Penal
Code 1860, or the unlawful detaining, or threatening to detain any property, to the prejudice of
any person whatever, with the intention of causing any person to enter into an agreement. For
example, X says to Y ‘I shall not return the documents of title relating to your wife’s property,
unless you agree to sell your house to me for Rs.5000’. ‘Y’ says, “All right, I shall sell my
house to you for Rs.5000; do not detain my wife’s documents of title”, X has employed
coercion; he cannot therefore enforce the contract. But Y can enforce the contract if he finds
the contract to his benefit. An agreement induced by coercion is voidable and not void. That
means it can be enforced by the party coerced, but not by the party using coercion.
It is immaterial whether the Indian Penal Code is or is not in force at the place where the
coercion is employed.
Where husband obtained a release deed from his wife and son under a threat of committing
suicide, the transaction was set aside on the ground of coercion, suicide being forbidden by
the Indian Penal Code. (Amiraje Vs. Seshamma (1974) 41 Mad, 33)
A person to whom money has been paid or anything delivered under coercion, must repay or
return it.
(b) Undue influence (Section 16)
A contract is said to be induced by “undue influence” where the relations subsisting between
the parties are such that one of the parties is in a position to dominate the will of the other and
uses that position to obtain an unfair advantage of the other. A person is deemed to be in a
position to dominate the will of the other, when he holds authority, real or apparent over the
other, or when he stands in a fiduciary relation to other.
The essential ingredients of undue influence are:
One of the parties dominates the will of the other and
(i) he has real or apparent authority over the other;
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restore the payment but he cannot be compelled for an identical sum as it would amount to
enforcing void contract.
Ratification of agreement not permitted
A minor on his attaining majority cannot validate any agreement which was entered into when
he was minor, as the agreement was void. Similarly a minor cannot sign fresh promissory
notes on his attaining majority in lieu of promissory notes executed for a loan transaction when
he was minor, or a fresh agreement without consideration.
Liability for necessaries
A person who supplied necessaries of life to a minor or his family, is entitled to be reimbursed
from the properties of a minor, not on the basis of any contract but on the basis of an
obligation resembling a contract. Necessaries of life not only include food and clothing but
also education and instruction. They also include ‘goods’ and ‘services’.
Contract by guardian are valid
Though an agreement with minor is void, valid contract can be entered into with the guardian
on behalf of the minor. The guardian must be competent to make the contract and the
contract should be for the benefit of the minor. For instance a guardian can make an
enforceable marriage contract on behalf of the minor. Similarly father of bride can enter the
contract with the father of bridegroom for payment of certain allowance to the bride.
But not all contracts by guardian are valid. A guardian cannot bind a minor in a contract to
purchase immovable properties – Mir Sarwarjan vs. Fakharuddan [1912] 39. Cal. 232.
However a court appointed guardian can bind a minor is respect of certain sale of property
ordered by the court.
Sound Mind
The next important requirement by way of capacity to contract is “sound mind”. A person will
be considered to be of sound mind if he at the time of entering into a contract is capable of
understanding it and forming a rational judgment as to its effect upon his interest. A person
who is of unsound mind but occasionally of sound mind can enter into a contact when he is in
sound mind though for temporary periods. For example a person who is in lunatic asylum
during intervals of sound mind can enter into contracts. Similarly a person who is generally of
sound mind, but occasionally of unsound mind cannot enter into a contract when he is of
unsound mind.
From the above it clear that the period of lucidity would be crucial as much as the periods of
lunacy. But the burden of proof of ‘unsound mind’ is on the person who challenges the validity
of the contract.
A lunatic whose estate is managed by a committee or manager is not capable of entering in to
a contract even during the periods of lucidity in view of special provisions of Lunacy Act.
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The basic test for lunacy or lucidity is to see whether the person is able to understand the
implications of a contract which he enters into on his interest. Idiots, lunatics and drunken
persons are examples of persons of unsound mind.
Necessaries of life supplied to a person of unsound mind
In term of section 68 of the Act if a person incapable of entering into a contract is supplied by
another person with necessaries of life, the person who has furnished such supplies is entitled
to be reimbursed from the property of such a person.
Contract by disqualified persons.
Apart from minors and persons of unsound mind, the are others who are not capable of
entering into contract either wholly or partially. Contract by such persons are void.
An alien enemy, during war cannot enter into a contract with an Indian subject, unless he is
permitted by central government to do so he cannot sue in Indian Courts. This disability to an
alien enemy arises on account of public policy. Statutory corporations or Municipal bodies
cannot enter into contracts on matters which are beyond their statutory powers or ultra vires
the memorandum or articles through which they are created.
An Advocate in India can enter into contracts with his clients for recovery of fees or payment
of fees in certain manner unlike his counterpart in U.K where barristers are prohibited to enter
into contracts for recovery of fees from their clients [Nichal chand vs. Dilawar Khan 55. All
790]
Before entering into contract with the government, certain procedure and formalities are
required to be complied with. On default of it, such contract will be void. [Bikhraj vs.Union of
India (1962) 2 S.C.R.880. Karamshi vs. State of Bombay AIR (1964) S.C.1714]
Sovereign states, Ambassadors and Diplomatic Couriers enjoy certain privileges with the
result that they cannot be proceeded against in Indian Courts. However, they can, at their will
enter into contracts which may be enforceable in India.
1.17 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COERCION AND UNDUE INFLUENCE
Having discussed in detail the concepts of coercion and undue influence, let us understand
the difference between the two.
Nature of action
Coercion involves physical force and sometimes only threat. Undue influence involves only
moral pressure.
Involvement of criminal action
Coercion involves committing or threatening to commit any act prohibited or forbidden by law,
or detention or threatening to detain a person or property. In undue influence there is no such
illegal act involved.
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1.18 FRAUD
In term of section17 of the Act, fraud means and includes any of the following act committed
by a party to a contract or with his connivance or by his agent with intent to deceive another
party thereto or his agent or to induce him to enter into the contract
(i) the suggestion, as to a fact, of that which is not true by one who does not believe it be
true;
(ii) the active concealment of a fact by one, having knowledge or belief of the fact;
(iii) a promise made without any intention of performing it;
(iv) any other act fitted to deceive; and
(v) any such act or omission as to law specially declared to be fraudulent
It is important to note that ‘fraud’ that results in a contract alone is covered by section17 of the
Act. If there is a ‘fraud’ but it does not result in a contract, it would not fall within the purview
of the Act.
The following can be taken as illustration of fraud
♦ A director of a company issues prospectus containing misstatement knowing fully well
about such misstatement. It was held any person who had purchased shares on the faith
of such misstatement can repudiate the contract on the ground of fraud.
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♦ B discovered an ore mine in the Estate of ‘A’ He conceals the mine and the information
about the mine. ‘A’ in ignorance agrees to sell the estate to ‘B’ at a price that is grossly
undervalued. The contract would be voidable of the option of ‘A’ on the ground of fraud.
♦ Buying goods with the intention of not paying the price is an act of fraud.
♦ It will be interesting to know that not only Contract Act but also other Acts have
specifically declared certain acts and omission as fraud. A seller of a property should
disclose any material defect in the property. Concealing the information would be an act of
fraud. Any other act committed to deceive is fraud.
Mere silence would amount to fraud under certain circumstances.
Although a mere silence as to facts which is likely to affect the willingness of a person to enter
into a contract is no fraud, where there is a duty to speak or where his silence is speech, then
such silence amounts to fraud. This would be clearly seen from the explanation to section 17
of the Indian Contract Act. This situation often arises in Insurance contracts.
In the case of fire insurance contract between person standing in fiduciary relationship, non-
disclosure of certain information would amount to fraud as there is a duty to make special
disclosure. These are also know as uberrimae fidei contract.
In the case of marine insurance policy contract, where a charterer is shipping goods of high
value but fails to disclose such high value of the goods to the underwriter, there is fraud.
Similarly the insurer is not bound by the policy issued by him where he is misinformed about
insurance policy previously taken by the insured.
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case of misrepresentation, the person making the statement believes it to be true which might
later turn out to be untrue. In spite of this difference, the end result is that the other party is
misled.
Right of the person concerned who suffers
Fraud not only enables the party to avoid the contract but is also entitled to bring action.
Misrepresentation merely provides a ground for avoiding the contract and not for bringing an
action in court.
Action against the person making the statement
In order to sustain an action for deceit, there must be proof of fraud. As earlier discussed fraud
can be proved only by showing that a false statement was made knowing it to be false or
without believing it to be true or recklessly without any care for truth. One is for action against
deceit and the other is action for recession of the contract. In the case of misrepresentation
the person may be free from blame because of his innocence but still the contract cannot
stand.
Defences available to persons
In case of misrepresentation, the fact that plaintiff had means of discovering the truth by
exercising ordinary diligence can be a good defense against the repudiation of the contract,
whereas a defense cannot be set up in case of fraud other than fraudulent silence.
The tenuous difference between fraud and misrepresentation was beautifully brought out in
the famous case of Dery vs. Peek. In the said case the plaintiff brought an action of deceit
against the promoters of a tramway company.
According to him, the promoters in the prospectus had not mentioned that they had not
obtained the permission of the board of trade which was necessary for using mechanical
power [to run a train] and here this was deceit. The plea of the defendant was that it never
occurred to them to say anything about the consent —of the Board of trade because they had
a right under the Act of parliament for using steam; they had presumed .they would also get
the consent of Board of trade. The Court verified the position and concluded that there was
no deceit and the plea for action for deceit was dismissed.
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For example ‘A’ fraudulently informs ‘B’ that his estate is free from encumbrance, therefore ‘B’
buys the estate. But the estate is subject to mortgage. ‘B’ may avoid the contract or insist on
the debt being redeemed and mortgage being released.
But where it is possible to discover the truth with ordinary diligence, and though the consent
might have been obtained by misrepresentation or silence, then the contract cannot be
avoided. For instance where ‘A’ misrepresents to ‘B’ that his sugar factory can produce 500
tons of sugar and whereas it actually produced 300 tones of sugar and if ‘B’ had the
opportunity to examine the accounts through which he could have found out the truth and if in
spite of that he had entered into a contract, he can not repudiate it.
Where a party to contract perpetrates fraud or misrepresentation, but the other party is not
misled by such fraud or misrepresentation, then the contract cannot be avoided by the latter.
Where for instance, the seller of specific goods deliberately conceals a fault in order that the
buyer may not discover it even if he inspects the goods, but the buyer in fact does not make
any inspection at all, the buyer cannot avoid the contract as he is not deceived by the seller.
Where a contract is voidable and the party entitled to avoid it decides to do so by rescinding it,
he must restore any benefit which he might have received from the other party. He cannot
avoid the contract and at the same time enjoy the benefit under the rescinded/avoided
contract.
However where a contract is sought to be rescinded on the ground of ‘undue influence’ the
court may set aside the contract partially or fully. Where the party seeking to rescind the
contract had received only benefit, the contract will be set aside by the court upon such terms
and conditions deemed fit.
Example: A student was induced by his teacher to sell his brand new car to the latter at less
than the purchase price to secure more marks in the examination. Accordingly the car was
sold. However, the father of the student persuaded him to sue his teacher. State on what
ground the student can sue the teacher?
Yes, the student can sue his teacher on the ground of undue influence under the provision of
Indian Contract Act, 1872. A contract brought about as a result of coercion, undue influence,
fraud or misrepresentation would be voidable at the option of the person whose consent was
so caused.
1.21 MISTAKE
The fifth significant element that vitiates consent is ‘Mistake’. Where parties to an agreement
are under a mistake as to a matter of fact which is essential to the agreement, then the
agreement is void. As we all know a void agreement cannot be enforced at all.
In a particular case, ‘A’ agrees to sell certain cargo which is supposed to be on its way in a
ship from London to Bombay. But in fact, just before the bargain was struck, the ship carrying
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the cargo was cast away because of storm and rain and the goods were lost. Neither of the
parties was aware of it. The agreement is void. [Couturier vs Hasite 5 H.L.C.673]
Mistake must be a matter of fact and not of law. Where ‘A’ and ‘B’ enter into contract believing
wrongly that a particular debt is not barred by law of limitation, then the contract is valid
because there is no mistake of fact but of law only. However a question on foreign law would
become a matter of question of fact. Similarly the existence of a particular private right
though depends upon rules of law, is only a matter of fact. For instance where a man
promises to buy a property which already belongs to him without him being aware of it, then
such a promise is not binding on him. However a family arrangements or a compromise of
doubtful rights cannot be avoided on the ground of mistake of law.
Yet another issue to remember in mistake is that it must be of an essential fact. Whether the
fact is essential or not would again depend on how a reasonable man would regard it under
given circumstances. A mere wrong opinion as to the value is not an essential fact.
While deciding whether a contract is hit by mistake or not it must be remembered that
‘Mistake’ is not unilateral. Both the parties should be under mistake. A unilateral mistake
would not render the contract invalid. For example where ‘A’ agrees to purchase from ‘B’ 18
caret gold thinking it to be pure gold but ‘B’ was not instrumental for creating such an
impression then contract between ‘A’ and ‘B’ should be treated as valid.
From the foregoing it is clear that
a. Mistake should be a matter of fact
b. Mistake should not be a matter of law
c. Mistake should be a matter of essential fact
d. Mistake should not be unilateral but of both the parties and
e. Mistake renders agreement void and neither party can enforce the contract against each
other
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While on the subject of ‘object’ and ‘consideration’ it must be said that in practice it is difficult
to distinguish between ‘object’ and ‘consideration’ especially when consideration consists of a
promise to do or, not to do something. Sometimes both ‘object’ and ‘consideration’ are seen
for evaluation. For example, where ‘A’ agrees to sell goods to ‘B’ who is insolvent and B
assigns the benefit of the contract for Rs.100/- with a view to defrauding creditors, the
consideration for the assignment viz Rs.100/- is lawful but the object namely defrauding
creditors is unlawful as it is to defeat the provision of insolvency law.
Although ‘object’ and ‘consideration’ are sometimes intertwined we have to, where ever it is
possible, separate them and identify whether they are lawful.
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assignment as the consideration stipulating penalty is only to regulate the matter as a matter
of administrative measure.
(ii) Consideration defeats the provision of law
Where an agreement is entered into with the object of defeating any provision of law then it is
prohibited. “Law” here should mean any statute, Law, regulation etc, in force. This can be
illustrated by the following.
Where a debtor agrees not to plead limitation vis-à-vis his creditor, it is an agreement to
defeat Limitation Act.
An agreement between owner of land who has to pay land revenue in arrears and a stranger
that the stranger would purchase his estate for revenue’s sake and reconveys it to the former
on receipt of purchase money is void, as it would defeat the law relating to revenue, which
apparently prohibits defaulting owners from purchasing back the same estate already sold due
to his default.
An agreement by a Hindu to give his son in adoption in consideration of annual allowance to
natural parents would be in violation of Hindu Law and hence is unlawful.
Any agreement by a Muslim with wife before their marriage that the wife shall be at liberty to
live with her parents after marriage is void as it would defeat the provisions of Muslim Law.
(iii) Consideration that would defeat any rule for the time being in force
This is a situation not very different from point (ii) discussed above. The issue covered by this
point can be explained by following two examples:
(a) A ‘will’ must be proved in order to be probated by a court. A mere consent of parties by
way of agreement to except this requirement of proof of genuineness or proper execution
of will is not lawful and therefore cannot be enforced under C.P.C.
(b) A receiver is a court officer. Therefore his remuneration has to be fixed by the court.
Parties to certain litigations cannot add or devocate of the power of the receiver. Similarly
they cannot fix salary of a receiver without the leave of the court however unconditional it
may be. Such an act would be in contravention of law.
(iv) Where consideration is a fraud
Following are illustrations to prove where the object or consideration of an agreement is
unlawful on the ground of fraud -
(a) ‘A’ is an agent for Zamindar, the principal. He agrees for money to obtain a lease of land
for ‘B’ from his principal the Zamindar. The agreement between ‘A’ and ‘B’ is void as the
consideration is fraudulent
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(b) ‘A’ & ‘B’ are partners in a firm. They agree to defraud a Government department by
submitting a tender in the individual name and not in the firm name. This agreement is
void as it is a fraud on the Government department.
(v) Where object or consideration is unlawful because it involves causing injury to a
person or loss of property
The term ‘injury’ means criminal or wrongful harm. Following are the illustrations where the
object or consideration is unlawful as it involves injury either to person or property.
(a) ‘A’ agrees to buy a property from ‘B’ although A knows ‘B’ had agreed previously to sell
the property to ‘C’. The intention of ‘A’ here is to cause injury to the property of ‘C’
(b) ‘A’ agrees to print a book of ‘B’ which has clearly been published by “W” This agreement
is void as it is not only in violation of Copyright Act but also with the intent to cause injury
to the property of another.
(c) A’ borrowed money from ‘B’. He is unable to pay either the principal or interest.
Therefore he agrees to render manual labour for certain period failing which he agrees to
pay exorbitant interest. This agreement is void as rendering labour as consideration
amounts to agreeing to be a slave. Slavery is opposed to public policy as well. In other
words consideration involves ‘injury’ to ‘A’. Hence the agreement is void.
(vi) Where consideration is immoral
Following are illustration where the agreement is void because the object or consideration is
unlawful being immoral.
(a) Where ‘A’ agrees to let his house to a prostitute on rent, where with A’s knowledge she
carries on her vocation. ‘A’ cannot collect the rent as the agreement is void, the object
being void.
(b) Where ‘P’ had advanced money to ‘D’ a married woman to enable her to obtain a divorce
from her husband. He also promised to marry her after divorce. It was held that ‘P’ was
not entitled to recover the amount from ‘D’ as the agreement was against good morals.
(vii) Where consideration is opposed to public policy
Agreement, either because of their object or consideration being opposed to public policy are
void and not enforceable. Therefore the meaning of the expression ‘public policy’ is very
important. It can be interpreted in a narrow sense or in a broad sense. If it is understood in a
narrow sense, it would cut into rights of people to enter into even genuine agreements. ‘Public
policy’ as a concept is evolved basically to develop an orderly society and for good of the
community. But framing public policy itself is a difficult exercise since a too restrictive
approach would stifle the rights of people and a too liberal approach would open the gate for
very many illegal transactions. Therefore policy on ‘public policy’ has to be developed with
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circumspection. Public policy has been described as “an unruly horse, which if not properly
bridled, may carry its rider he knows not where”. Time immemorial following activities/
agreements have been identified as “opposed to public policy”.
(a) Trading with enemy: Any trading or business activity with a person who owes allegiance
to a Government of a country with whom India is at war without any license from Government
of India is void. This is because such a trade would be against the interest of Government of
India and people of India.
Any agreement made during peace time would be suspended automatically and cannot be
carried on further until hostilities come to an end.
(b) Stifling prosecution: Any agreement to stifle or prevent illegally any prosecution is void
as it would amount to perversion or abuse of justice. The principle is that one should not
make a trade of felony. It must be understood however that under Criminal Procedure Code
many offences are compoundable. Therefore any agreement towards compounding of an
offence to avoid prosecution is not void but is very much enforceable. Thus, where ‘A’ agrees
to sell certain land to ‘B’ in consideration of ‘B’ abstaining from taking any criminal proceeding
against ‘A’ with respect to an offence which is compoundable, the agreement is not opposed
to public policy.
(c) Maintenance and Champerty: Maintenance is promotion of litigation in which the
litigant has no interest. Champerty is bargain whereby one party agrees to assist the other in
recovering property with a view to sharing the profit of litigation. These agreements for
maintenance and champerty are void in England but not in India. Hence these are not
opposed to public policy. But where such advances are made by way of gambling in litigation,
the agreement to share the subject of litigation is certainly opposed to public policy and
therefore is void.
(d) Interference with course of law and justice: Any agreement with the object of inducing
a judicial officer or administrative officer of the state to act corruptly or not impartially is void.
Similarly an agreement to use influence in a litigation in a underhand manner is void. For
instance through an agreement ‘A’ agrees to reward ‘B’ if he abstains from being a witness in
a suit against ‘A’ is void. But an agreement to pay for to a holy man for prayers for success of
a suit is valid.
(e) Marriage brokerage contract: An agreement to negotiate a marriage for reward is void.
Such marriage brokerage contracts are opposed to public policy.
(f) Interest against obligation: The following are examples of agreement that are void as
they tend to create an interest against obligation. The object of such agreements is opposed
to public policy.
(1) An agreement by an agent to receive without his principal’s consent compensation from
another for the performance of his agency is invalid.
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(iii) Again in terms of section 54 of the Partnership Act partners among themselves may
agree that upon dissolution of the firm some of them may not carry on the business of the
firm. Such an agreement is valid.
(iv) Section 55 of the Act provides that where a full firm is sold by partners along with
goodwill to a buyer, there can be an agreement that they would not carry on the business
of the dissolved firm for certain period and within certain local limits and such an
agreement will be valid.
(v) An agreement of service through which an employee commits not to compete with his
employer is not in restraint of trade. ‘B’ is a Doctor and he employs ‘A’ a junior Doctor as
his assistant. ‘A’ agrees not to practice as Doctor during the period of his employment
with ‘B’ as a Doctor independently. Such an agreement will be valid.
(vi) An agreement between manufacturer and a wholesale merchant that the entire
production during a period will be sold by the manufacturer to the wholesale merchant is
not in restraint of trade.
(vii) An agreement among sellers not to sell a particular product below a particular price is not
an agreement in restraint of trade.
(k) Agreement in restraint of legal proceedings (Section.28)
An agreement in restraint of legal proceedings resulting in restriction of one’s right to enforce
legal rights is void. Similarly any agreement which abridges the usual period for commencing
the legal proceedings is also void. Further these agreement are also void in view of section
23 of the Contract Act as the object of the agreements are to defeat the provision of law.
Nevertheless, a clause in an fire insurance policy stipulating that if the claim is made and
rejected and if no suit is instituted within three months after such a rejection, all the benefits
under the policy will be forfeited, is valid. However, there are certain exceptions to the above
rule:
(i) A contract by which the parties agree that any dispute between them in respect of any
subject shall be referred to arbitration and that only the amount awarded in such
arbitration shall be recoverable is a valid contract. For instance, in agreement between
the holder of a fire insurance policy and the insurance company that no suit shall be
instituted until the question of the amount of damage sustained by the assured has first
been ascertained by a reference to an arbitrator is a perfectly valid agreement.
(ii) Similarly, a contract by which the parties agree to refer to arbitration any question
between them which has already arisen or which may arise in future, is valid; but such a
contract must be in writing.
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For example ‘A’ agrees to pay Rs.500/- to ‘B’ if it rains and similarly ‘B’ agrees to pay ‘A’ if it
does not. This is a classic case of a wagering agreement. But where one of the parties has
control over the event, the agreement is valid. An agreement by way of a wager is void. A
good definition of wagering agreement would be the one given by Anson: “A promise to give
money or money’s worth upon determination or ascertainment of an uncertain event”.
Now let us see the position with regard to transaction of “purchase of lottery ticket” and “horse
racing”. Section 30 of the Act provides that an agreement [to buy lottery tickets] is one by way
of wager and is void. However any subscription or contribution or agreement towards such
subscription or contribution towards any plate or prize or sum of money, of the value of Rs.500
or more to be awarded to a winner of a horse race is not unlawful.
Speculative transactions
While as clearly seen, wagering contracts are void, speculative transactions are valid. It is
often difficult to distinguish between the two. There are two bare elements of a speculative
transaction. They are (a) mutual intention of parties to acquire or deliver goods or
commodities and (b) undertaking of risk arising from movement prices. In wagering contract,
only the element of risk is seen.
Now let us take an example:
‘A’ enters into a agreement with ‘B’ to buy 100 bales of jute at Rs.150/- per bale for forward
delivery after six months. This is a proposed transaction of purchase @ Rs.150/- per bale.
What if the price at the time of delivery goes up to Rs.200/- ‘A’ has the following two options
(i) to take delivery of 100 bales at the contracted rate of Rs.150/- [ and sell it to some other
buyer and make a profit of Rs.50/ per bale or
(ii) to simply collect the difference of Rs.50/- per bale from ‘B’
Similarly what if the price at the time of delivery goes down to Rs.125/- per bale. ‘A’ has the
following two options.
(i) to take delivery of 100 bales at the contracted rate of Rs.150/- [and perhaps sell it to
some buyer and incur a loss of Rs.25 per bale] or
(ii) to pay the difference of Rs.25/- per bale to ‘B’ & close the contract.
In the above example if the original intention of the parties was only to settle the difference in
price, than it would be a wagering contract which would be void. Thus by now it would be
clear that wagering postulates only incurring of risk. It is void because it is opposed to public
policy.
While gambling and wagering are prohibited by law, speculation is not.
Now let us consider other peculiar situations to see whether they are wagering contracts or
speculative contracts or valid contracts.
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Insurance policy
An insurance policy is a valid contract. But if an insurance policy is taken by a person who
has no insurable interest, then it is void. For instance a person who has no insurable interest
in a ship, takes a policy against it being sunk, then the contract is void.
Promissory notes on a wagering contract
While a wagering contract is void ab initio, it is but automatic that a promissory note given out
of a wagering contract is not enforceable by way of a suit. A promissory note of this character
is one without consideration and hence is null and void.
Suit to recover deposit
A winner of bet cannot recover the amount which he has won even if the amount is kept by
way of deposit by the loser with the stakeholder. Such earmarking or identification of funds
does not enhance the validity of the contract which is void. In the above example the loser
can recover the amount from stakeholders as long as the amount has not been made over by
the stakeholder to the winner.
Wager and collateral transactions
The validity of a collateral transaction cannot be challenged because the main contract is a
wager and void. For instance in a wagering contract, the broker is entitled to collect his
brokerage. Similarly the principal can recover the prize money from his agent received by him
on account of a wagering transactions.
The acid test of validly of a collateral transaction is whether the main transaction is illegal or
legal but void. If the main transaction is illegal, the collateral transaction cannot be valid. For
example security given for regular payment of the rent of a house let out for the purpose of
gambling cannot be recovered; the recovery of security being tainted with the illegality of
original transaction cannot be enforced.
A promise made by the loser of a wager to pay the amount lost in consideration of the winners
forbearance to sue him as defaulter can be enforced as a fresh contract, separate and distinct
from original wagering contract though collateral to it.
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3. Can a doctor dominate the will of a patient who has protracted illness? How do you
describe such domination?
4. The burden of proof that there is no undue influence in an agreement would be that of the
person who is in a position to dominate the will of another – true or false?
5. On account of undue influence borrowers paying very high rate of interest to the lenders.
Is it because lenders are in a position to dominate the will of the borrower?
6. Is a person of unsound mind competent to contract?
7. Is it necessary for a person to attain age of majority to enforce a contract?
8. Can money advanced to a minor be recovered?
9. Can a minor on his attaining majority validate any agreement which was entereded when
he was minor?
10. Is a contract entered into by a guardian on behalf of minor valid?
11. The burden of proof of unsound mind in a contract is on the person who challenges the
validity of contract. Is it correct?
12. Idiots, lunatics and drunken persons are examples of persons having unsound mind- true
or false?
13. Can an alien enemy during war enter into a contract with an Indian subject?
14 Whether illegal act is present in coercion or undue influence?
15. In cases of coercion and undue influence the contract is voidable. Is it true?
16. Where there is a duty to speak or where one’s silence is speech, then such silence
amounts to fraud. Is it true?
17. ‘A’ charters a ship describing in the charter party claiming that weight of the ship is not
more 2000 tonnes but the ship turns out to be a vessel of 3045 tonnes. Can ‘A’ avoid the
contract on the ground of misrepresentation?
18. In terms of Section 19 of the Act, a contract hit by coercion or undue influence or fraud or
misrepresentation is voidable – true?
19. ‘A’ and ‘B’ enter into a contract believing wrongly that a particular debt is not barred by
law of limitation. Whether the contract is valid or not? Whether the mistake, in this case
is mistake of fact or mistake of law?
20. ‘A’ agrees to pay Rs.100 to ‘B’ on ‘B’ stealing the purse of ‘C’. ‘B’ manages to steal the
purse of ‘C’ and ‘A’ does not fulfill his promise. Whether court can compel ‘A’ to pay ‘B’
Rs.100?
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21. Where the object or consideration is unlawful, it involves injury either to a person or a
property – is it true?
22. An agreement through which a person is restrained from exercising a lawful profession,
trade or business of any kind is to that extent void or voidable?
23. An agreement not to sell a particular product below a particular price is not an agreement
in restraint of trade. Is it true?
24. What is the nature of agreement which involves payment of a sum of money upon the
determination of an uncertain event?
25. Mutual intention of parties to acquire or deliver goods or commodities arising from
movement of prices is
a. What type of transaction?
b. What type of contract?
Answers
1. It will be an enforceable contract.
2. No, No identity of mind
3. Yes, Undue influence
4. True
5. Yes
6. No
7. Yes
8. No
9. No
10. Yes
11. Yes
12. True
13. No, unless permitted by Central Govt.
14. Coercion
15. Yes
16. Yes
17. Yes
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18. True
19. Yes, Mistake of law
20. No, because the contract is illegal
21. True
22. Void u/s.27
23. Yes
24. Wagering
25. Speculative transactions, wagering contract
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(iii) Representatives
Generally upon the death of promisor, the legal representatives of the deceased are bound by
the promisor unless it is a promise for performance involving personal skill or ability of the
promisor. However the liability of the legal representative is limited to the value of property
inherited by them from the promisor.
(iv) Third Person
The question here is whether a total stranger to a contract who is identified as a third person
can perform a promise. Where a promisee accepts performance from a third party he cannot
afterwards enforce it against the promisor. Such a performance, where accepted by the
promisor has the effect of discharging the promisor though he has neither authorized nor
ratified the act of the third party.
(v) Joint promisors
Where two or more persons jointly promise, the promise must be performed jointly unless a
contrary intention appears from the contract.
Where one of the joint promisors dies, the legal representative of the deceased along with the
other joint promisor(s) is bound to perform the contract
Where all the joint promisors die, the legal representatives of all of them are bound to perform
the promise.
The law set out above can be illustrated with the following examples:
1. A promises to B to pay Rs.1000/- on delivery of certain goods. A may perform this
promise either himself or causing someone else to pay the money to B. If A dies before
the time appointed for payment, his representative must pay the money or employ some
other person to pay the money. If B dies before the time appointed for the delivery of
goods, B’s representative shall be bound to deliver the goods to A and A is bound to pay
Rs.1000/- to B’s representative.
2. A promises to paint a picture for B for a certain price. A is bound to perform the promise
himself. He cannot employ some other painter to paint the picture on his behalf. If A
dies before painting the picture, the contract cannot be enforced either by A’s
representative or by B.
3. A delivered certain goods to B who promise to pay Rs.5000/-. Later on B expresses his
inability to clear the dues. C, who is known to B, pays Rs.2000/-to A on behalf of B.
Before making this payment C did tell B nothing about it. Now A can sue B only for the
balance and not for the whole amount.
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The above legal principles were settled in the famous English case Start up vs.Macdonald
1843 6 Man. & G. 593, 610 thus “The law considers a party who has entered into a contract to
deliver goods or pay money to another as having substantially performed it, if he has tendered
the goods or money to the party to whom the delivery or payment was to be made, provided
only that the tender has been made under such circumstances that the party to whom, it has
been made, has had a reasonable opportunity of examining the goods or the money tendered
in order to ascertain that the thing tendered is really what that it is purported to be”.
An offer to any one of the several joint promisees has the same legal consequence as an offer
to all of them.
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them jointly. A joint promisor cannot claim that he be sued along with all other joint promisors
only. If, however the promisee sues one of the promisors and obtains a decree against him,
he is precluded from bringing a fresh suit against the remaining borrowers.
The above rule of contribution, does not apply as between the principal debtor and his surety
even though they are joint promisors in one sense. The principal debtor, if he pays up the full
loan, cannot recover anything from surety.
However the concept of “joint and several liability” is not applicable against the legal heirs. In
other words where the original debtor dies, the liability devolves on the legal heirs. But among
the legal heir, the creditor cannot bring a suit against any one or more legal heirs. He must
bring a suit against all the legal heirs collectively.
In the matter of release of one of the joint promisors, by another joint promisor, it must be
understood that such a release does not discharge other joint promisors nor does the released
joint promisor would stand released to other joint promisor or promisors. [Section 44 of the
Act].
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cords only a part of it , but neglects to cord the rest of it, then the buyer has a right to
avoid the contract and claim compensation for any loss sustained.
(b) In the well known case of O ‘Nell vs. Armstrong, an Englishman was engaged by the
Captain of a Japanese ship to act as fireman on a voyage from England to Japan.
During the course of the voyage Japan declared War against China. The Englishman
had to leave service because had he continued in service he would have incurred
penalties under Foreign Enlistment Act. In effect because of the war, the Englishman
was prevented from discharging his part of the contract. The suit filed by him was
decreed in his favour in spite of being opposed by the Japanese shipping company. It
should be appreciated that the Captain of Japanese ship could not have brought a case
against the Englishman for non-performance as the Japanese themselves were
responsible for preventing the Englishman from performing his part of the contract.
Sometimes the parties would be prevented from discharging a part of the contract but not the
entire contract. In such a case, the party so prevented need not avoid the full contract but
perform the rest of it.
(v) Effects of default as to promise to be performed first
Section 54 of the Act provides that promises may be such that
(i) one of them cannot be performed or
(ii) its performance cannot be demanded till the other has been performed.
Where ‘B’ a ship owner agrees to convey A’s cargo from Calcutta to Mauritius for a freight.
Here the beginning part of the transaction is on ‘A’ as he has to provide the cargo to ‘B’ to
enable ‘B’ to perform his promise. Thus until cargo is handed over by ‘A’. A cannot expect ‘B’
to perform his promise nor would ‘B’ be in a position to perform his promise. This peculiar
position arises because of default on the part of one of the parties. Here ‘B’ is entitled to put
an end to the contract and claim compensation for any loss he may have suffered.
Position of legal and illegal parts of Reciprocal promises
Reciprocal promise to do certain things that are legal and certain others that are not legal –
Section 57 of the Act provides that if reciprocal promises have two parts, the first part being
legal and the second part being illegal, the legal part is a valid contract and the illegal part is
void.
Where ‘A’ agrees to sell his house to ‘B’ for Rs.50000/- and further ‘A’ insists and it is agreed
that if the house is used as a gambling house, then ‘B’ would pay another Rs.75000/-. In this
case the first part is valid as it is legal, the second part is void as it is illegal.
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(ii) In transaction involving sale of land, redemption of mortgages, though certain time frame
is fixed, any delay is not valued seriously provided justice can be done to parties. Of
course even in sale of land, time can be made as on essence of contract by express
words.
Contract cannot be avoided where time is not of essence
When there is delay in performing promise on executing a contract where the time is not of
essence, parties concerned cannot avoid the contract. However in such cases promises must
be performed with in a reasonable time other wise it becomes voidable at the option of the
promisee.
Effect of acceptance of performance out of time
Even where time is of essence, the party who is entitled to avoid the contract can waive the
condition relating to “performance within time”; but in such cases he cannot claim any
compensation for loss if any suffered unless he has put the other party on notice.
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(iii) If known only to the promisor: Where the promisor alone knows it is impossible to
perform or even if he does not know but he should have known about the impossibility with
reasonable diligence, the promisee is entitled to claim compensation for the loss suffered
because of failure of the promisor to perform.
(2) Supervening impossibility
When performance of a promise becomes impossible on account of subsequent developments
of events or change in circumstances, which are beyond the contemplation of parties, the
contract becomes void. Supervening impossibility can arise due to a variety of circumstances
as stated below.
(i) Accidental destruction of the subject matter of the contract : ‘A’ had agreed with ‘B’ to
hire for rent his music hall for holiday concerts on certain specified dates. The music hall was
destroyed before the specified dates and hence it became impossible to stage concerts. It
was held that as the music hall ceased to exist; it is a case of supervening impossibility and
both the parties were excused from the performance of the contract [Taylor vs. Caldwell
3B&S826].
(a) Non-existence or non occurrence of a particular state of things: It was agreed to by the
defendant through a contract to have from the plaintiff a flat for specified days for witnessing
the coronation procession of King Edward VII. The said procession was cancelled and it did
not take place. Therefore the defendant refused to pay the balance rent. It was held that the
foundation of the contract had totally failed and here the balance of rent amount cannot be
recovered from the defendant. [Krell vs. Henry 2 KB. 740]
(b) Incapacity to perform a contract of personal services : In case of contract of personal
service, disability or incapacity to perform, caused by an act of God e.g. illness, constitutes
lawful excuse for non-performance of the contract (Robinson vs. Davison L.R.6Ex.269)
(c) Change in law: Performance of a contract may also become impossible due to change in
law subsequently. The law passed subsequently may prohibit the act which may form part as
basis of contract. Here the parties are discharged from their obligations. For example ‘A’ and
‘B’ may agree to start a business for sale of lottery and contribute capital for the business. If
the business of sale of lottery ticket is banned by a subsequent law, parties need not keep up
their legal obligations.
(d) Outbreak of war: Out break of war may be affect the enforceability of contracts in many
ways like
(i) emergency legislations controlling prices
(ii) relaxation of trade restrictions and
(iii) prohibiting or restraining transaction with alien enemy.
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Doctrine of Frustration
The idea of “supervening impossibility” is referred to as ‘doctrine of frustration’ in U.K. In order
to decide whether a contract has been frustrated, it is necessary to consider the “intention of
parties as are implied from the terms of contract”.
However in India the ‘doctrine of frustration’ is not applicable. Impossibility of performance
must be considered only in term of section 56 of the Act. Section 56 covers only ‘supervening
impossibility and not implied terms’. This view was upheld by Supreme Court in ‘Satyabrata
Ghose vs Mugneeram Bangur A.I.R.(1954) S. C. 44 and Alopi Prasad vs Union of India A.R.
1960 S.C.588.
What would not constitute ground of impossibility
Now let us consider various decisions which have identified certain situations as not
constituting grounds of impossibility. In other words this is a negative list of what are not
‘grounds’ of impossibility -
(a) ‘A’ promised to ‘B’ that he would arrange for ‘B’s marriage with his daughter. ‘A’ could not
persuade his daughter to marry ‘B’. ‘B’ sued ‘A’ who pleaded on the ground of
impossibility that he is not liable for any damages. But it was held that there was no
ground of impossibility. It was held that ‘A’ should not have promised what he could not
have accomplished. Further ‘A’ had chosen to answer for voluntary act of his daughter
and hence he was liable.
(b) The defendant agreed to supply specified quantity of ‘cotton’ manufactured by a mill with
in a specified time to plaintiff. The defendant could not supply the material as the mill
failed to make any production at that time. The defendant pleaded on the ground of
impossibility which was not approved by The Privy Council and held that contract was not
performed by the defendant and he was responsible for the failure. [Hamandrai vs
Pragdas 501A]
(c) The defendant agreed to procure cotton goods manufactured by Victoria Mills to plaintiff
as soon as they were supplied to him by the mills. It was held by Supreme Court that the
contract between defendant and plaintiff was not frustrated because of failure on the part
of Victoria Mills to supply goods [Ganga Saran vs Finn Rama Charan,A.I.R 1952 S.C.9]
(d) A dock strike would not necessarily relieve a labourer from his obligation of unloading
the ship within specified time.
(e) In Satyabrat Ghosh vs Mugneeram Bangur & Co. A.I.R 1954 S.C.44, Calculate High
court held in a context of impossibility of performance that “having regard to the actual
existence of war condition, the extent of the work involved and total absence of any
definite period of time agreed to the parties, the contract could not be treated as falling
under impossibility of performance. In the given case the plaintiff had agreed to
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purchase immediately after outbreak of war a plot of land. This plot of land was part of a
scheme undertaken by the defendant who had agreed to sell after completing
construction of drains, roads etc. However the said plot of land was requisitioned for war
purpose. The defendant thereupon wrote to plaintiff asking him to take back the earnest
money deposit, thinking that the contract cannot be performed as it has become
impossible of being performed. The plaintiff brought a suit against the defendant that he
was entitled for conveyance of the plot of land under condition specified in the contract.
It was held that the requisition order did not make the performance impossible.
While judging the impossibility of performance issue the Courts would be very cautious since
contracting parties often bind themselves to perform at any cost of events without regard to
price prevailing and market conditions.
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From the above it can be seen that the creditor enjoys the right to appropriate even to a debt
which is barred by limitation.
It was held by Lord Macnaughten in Cory Bros. & Co. vs. Owner of the Mecca (1817)
A.C.286.293 that if the debtor does not make any appropriation, at the time of payment, the
right devolves on the creditor. Creditors have a right to decide till the very last moment. The
above decision was followed in a number of important cases including in the famous case of
Vinkatadri Appa Rao vs Parthasarthi Appa Rao [(1921) L.R. 48. I.A. 150; 44 Mad 570 573]. In
the said case it was held that creditor can decide at his discretion on the appropriation of
payment towards any lawful debt even if barred by limitation . If there is any debt carrying
interest and if there are no express or implied instructions the amount paid should be
appropriated towards payment of interest and then to capital.
(iii) Application of payment when neither party appropriates
In terms of section 61 of the Act, where neither party appropriates
(a) the payment shall be applied in discharge of debts in order of time and
(b) if the debts are of equal standing the payment shall be applied in discharge of each
proportionately.
The above appropriation takes place whether or not the debt is barred by limitation.
For example where there are two debts are Rs.500 and another Rs.700 falling due on the
same day, and if the debtor pays Rs.600/- the appropriation shall be prorata of Rs.250/- and
Rs.350/- for the two debts.
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deliver certain goods by a certain date, ‘B’ can extend the time but he cannot take advantage
to charge interest on the extended time.
Similarly a promisee can accept any other performance to his satisfaction instead of the
specified stipulated performance.
For example where A promises to sell his horse for a consideration of Rs.5000/- to ‘B’, ‘A’ may
instead of cash consideration of Rs.5000/-may accept jewellery worth Rs 5,000/-in full
satisfaction of the consideration. In a situation like this the essential element of ‘satisfaction’
is that the promisee must accept the consideration unequivocally. If a promisor tenders some
thing in full satisfaction but the promisee does not accept it or accepts in part performance,
such satisfaction will fall outside the ambit of section 63 of the Act. [ Shyamnagar tin Factory
vs Snow White Food Products, A.I.R (1965) Cal 54]
It should be noted that novation, rescission or alteration cannot take place without
consideration but in case of part or complete rescission no consideration is required. The
promisee can dispense with performance without consideration and without a new agreement.
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It should be noted that any benefit received out of ancillary transaction to the contract need
not be restored. For example earnest money paid in connection with sale of land by the
seller, may be retained by him although he has validly rescinded the contract.
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(g) A promisee may remit the performance of the promise by the promisor. Here there is a
discharge. Similarly the promisee may accept some other satisfaction. Then again there
is a discharge on the ground of accord and satisfaction
(h) When a promisee neglects or refuses to afford the promisor reasonable facilities or
opportunities for performance, promisor is excused by such neglect or refusal.
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14. A sells 500 qtls of rice to ‘B’ and ‘B’ promises to pay the price on delivery. What is the
name of promise in this case?
(ii) In the above case, whether simultaneous performance is possible?
15. In performance of reciprocal promise where one order is expressly fixed and in the other
the order is understood by implication. Is this possible?
16. What if a Section of the reciprocal promise is valid?
17. In reciprocal promise the first part being legal, the second part being illegal, what will
happen to the legal and illegal part of contract?
18. In a contract, promise must be performed within a reasonable time, otherwise what will
happen to it?
19. (i) When both the promisor and promisee are ignorant of the impossibility of the
promise what will happen to the contract?
(ii) Where in the above case the promisor only knows about the impossibility of the
promise what is the remedy available to the promisee?
20. Can a creditor enjoy the rights to appropriate debts which is barred by limitation?
21. Where there are two debts one Rs.500/- another Rs.700/- falling due on the same day
and if the debtor pays Rs.600/-. Whether the appropriation can be made pro rata for
the two debts?
22. What is the name given to a contract which is substituted by a new contract?
23. In case of rescission what happens to the old contract?
24. What is called remission?
25. Under voidable contract, earnest money paid in connection with sale of land to the seller
can be retained by him – is it correct?
26. What are the two types of discharges of performance?
27. What is the discharge of contract when a promisor dies or goes insolvent?
Answers
1. Primary tenet
2. Yes
3. Yes
4. Yes
5. Yes
6. Tender
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7. Yes
8. Yes
9. Yes
10. Yes, No
11. Yes
12. Within a reasonable time
13. To fix a reasonable place
14. Reciprocal promise, Yes
15. Yes
16. Section 57
17. Legal – valid
Illegal – void
18. Will become voidable
19. Void, He can claim compensation
20. Yes
21. Yes
22. Novation
23. Cancelled
24. Waiver
25. Yes
26. Actual performance, attempted performance
27. Discharge by operation of law
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“deterioration” means not only physical damages but also loss of opportunity. In Wilson vs.
Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company 50 LJCP 232, the plaintiff bought velvet with a
view to making it into caps for sale during spring. But due to delay in transit, he was unable to
use the velvet for making caps for sale during season.
It was held that the fall in value of sale of cloth in consequence of the same having arrived
after the season amounted to deterioration. It was here held that the plaintiff is entitled for
compensation without notice.
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The distinction between liquidated damages and penalty is very much part of English law,
whereas Section 74 of the Indian Contract Act 1872 does not make any such distinction.
In terms of Section 74 of the Act “where a contract has been broken, if a sum is named in the
contract as the amount to be paid in case of such breach, or if the contract contains any other
stipulation by way of penalty, the party complaining of the breach, can claim whether or not
actual damages or loss is proved to have been caused thereby, from the other party, a
reasonable compensation not exceeding the amount so named, or as the case may be the
penalty stipulated for.
Any stipulation for payment of increased interest is a stipulation for payment of penalty which
has to be paid.
There are however exceptions to the general rule laid down in Section 74.
These are:
(a) In contract of bail bond recognizance and other similar instrument or under laws of any
state govt. or a contract where public is interested, any one who makes a breach of such
contract shall be liable to pay whole sum mentioned
(b) Person who enters into a contract with govt. does not necessarily thereby undertake any
public duty or to do an act in which public is interested.
In terms of Section 74, courts are empowered to reduce the sum payable on breach whether it
is ‘penalty’ or “liquidated damages” provided the sum appears to be unreasonably high.
Supreme Court in Sri Chunni Lal vs. Mehta & Sons Ltd. A.I.R.1962 S.C. 1314 laid down the
ratio that the aggrieved party should not be allowed to claim a sum greater than what is
specific in the written agreement. But even there the court has powers to reduce the amount if
it considers it reasonable to reduce.
The brief facts of the case leading to the above ratio is as follows:
Where the parties to a contract specify liquidated damages then the right to claim an uncertain
some of money is excluded. It however does not mean that the party who had suffered by the
breach has given up his right to claim an amount whether or not ascertainable or on the date
of the breach.
Apart from claiming damages for breach of contract, the following other remedies are also
available.
Liquidated damages and penalty
Following are the important differences between liquidated damages and penalty.
(i) Liquidated damages are imposed by way of compensation, but penalty is imposed by
way of punishment.
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(ii) Liquidated damages are assessed amounts of loss based on actual or probable
calculation. Penalty is not based on actuals or probables. It is imposed to prevent
parties from committing the breach.
(iii) Though the English Law recognizes the difference between the two, Section 74 of the act
does not recognize any difference between the two.
(i) Rescission of contract
Where one party breaches the contract, the other party can treat it as rescinded. In this case
the other party is absolved of his obligation and is entitled to compensation for damages which
he suffered.
(ii) Suit upon quantum meruit
The phrase ‘quantum meruit’ literally means “as much as is earned” or “according to the
quantity of work done”. A person who has begun a civil contract work and has to later stop the
work because the other party has made the performance impossible, is entitled to receive
compensation on the principle of ‘Quantum Meruit’
Following are instances where ‘quantum meruit’ may arise:
(a) Where the work has been done and accepted under a contract which is subsequently
discovered to be void. In such a case, the person who has performed his part of the
contract is entitled to recover the amount for the work done and the party, who receives
and accepts the benefit under such contract, must make compensation to the other party.
(b) Where a person does some act or delivers something to another person with the
intention of receiving payment, the other person is bound to make payment if he accepts
such services or goods or enjoys the benefits.
(c) Where the contract is divisible and where a party performs a part of the contract and
refuses to perform the remaining part, the party in default may sue the other party who
enjoyed the benefit of the part performance.
(iii) Suit for specific performance
Where damages are not an adequate remedy in the case of breach of contract, the court may
in its discretion on a suit for specific performance direct the party in breach, to carry out his
promise according to the terms of the contract.
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3. Under dishonour of cheque when the value of cheque is small the damage will be heavy
and vice versa – is it true?
4. When the buyer breaks the contract, the damage would be the difference between ___
price and _____ price.
When the seller breaches the contract, the buyer can recover the difference
between.____ price and ______ price as on the date of breach.
5. What is meant by “Quantum Meriut”?
6. How liquidated damages and penalty are imposed?
Answers
1. Yes
2. Exemplary damages, would take into account the injury suffered by the person
3. True
4. Contract, Market
Market, Contract
5. (a) “as much as is earned”
(b) “according to the quantity of work done”
6. (i) By compensation (ii) By punishment
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Learning objectives
After studying this unit, you would be able to -
♦ Have clarity about the basic characteristics of 'Contingent contract' and 'quasi-contract' so
that you are able to distinguish between a contract of any of these types and a simple
contract.
♦ Be familiar with the rules relating to enforcement of these in order to gain an
understanding of rights and obligations of the parties to the contract.
In this unit we shall briefly examine
(a) ‘Contingent contracts’ and the rules regarding their enforceability and
(b) Quasi contracts
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For example if ‘A’ supplies necessaries of life to ‘B’ a lunatic or to his wife or child whom ‘B’ is
liable to protect and maintain, then ‘A’ can claim the price from the property of ‘B’. For such
claim to be valid ‘A’ should prove the supplies were to the actual requirements of ‘B’ and his
dependents. No claim for supplies of luxury articles can be made. If ‘B’ has no property ‘A’
obviously cannot make his claim.
(b) Right to recover money paid for another person.
A person who has paid a sum of money which another is obliged to pay, is entitled to be
reimbursed by that other person provided the payment has been made by him to protect his
own interest.
Here the person who makes the payment must honestly believe that his own interest demands
payment. [Muni Bibi vs. Trilokinath]. Presence of reasonable ground even if unfounded is
enough.
In a case the plaintiff agreed to purchase certain mills and to save it from being sold to
outsiders paid certain arrears of municipal dues. Here the payment made by the plaintiff was
held to be recoverable as he had interest in the property as prospective buyer.
(c) Obligation of person enjoying benefits of non-gratuitous act .
In term of section 70 of the Act “where a person lawfully does anything for another person, or
delivers anything to him not intending to do so gratuitously and such other person enjoys the
benefit thereof, the latter is bound to pay compensation to the former in respect of, or to
restore, the thing so done or delivered.
In the above situation there are three limbs namely
(i) plaintiff must have acted lawfully & paid.
(ii) the payment was not intended to be gratuitous and
(iii) the other person enjoyed the benefit.
The above can be illustrated by a case law where ‘K’ a government servant was compulsorily
retired by the government. He filed a writ petition and obtained an injunction against the
order. He was reinstated and was paid salary but was given no work and in the mean time
government went on appeal. The appeal was decided in favour of the government and ‘K’ was
directed to return the salary paid to him during the period of reinstatement. [Shyam Lal vs.
State of U.P. A.I.R (1968) 130]
(d) Responsibility of finder of goods.
In terms of section 71 ‘A person who finds goods belonging to another and takes them into his
custody is subject to same responsibility as if he were a bailee’.
Thus a finder of lost goods has
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(i) to take proper care of the property as men of ordinary prudence would take
(ii) no right to appropriate the goods and
(iii) to restore the goods if the owner is found.
Where ‘P’ a customer in ‘D’s shop puts down a brooch worn on her coat and forgets to pick
it up and one of ‘D’s assistants finds it and puts it in a drawer over the week end. On
Monday, it was discovered to be missing. ‘D’ was held to be liable in the absence of ordinary
care which a prudent man would have taken.
(e) Liability for money paid or thing delivered by mistake or by coercion.
In terms of section 72 of the Act, “a person to whom money has been paid or any thing
delivered by mistake or under coercion, must repay or return it. Every kind of payment of
money or delivery of goods for every type of ‘mistake’ is recoverable. It is not necessary to
distinguish between a mistake of fact and mistake of law [Shivprasad vs Sirish Chandra A.I.R.
1949 P.C. 297]
A payment of municipal tax made under mistaken belief or because of mis- understanding of
the terms of lease can be recovered from municipal authorities. The above law was affirmed
by Supreme Court in cases of Sales tax officer vs. Kanhaiyalal A.I.R.1959 S.C.835
Similarly any money paid by coercion is also recoverable. The word coercion is not
necessarily governed by S.15 of the Act. The word is interpreted to mean and include
oppression, extortion, or such other means [Seth Khanjelek vs National Bank of India].
In a case where ‘T’ was traveling without ticket in a tram car and on checking he was asked to
pay Rs.5/- as penalty to compound transaction. T filed a suit against the corporation for
recovery on the ground that it was extorted from him. The suit was decreed in his favour.
[Trikamdas vs. Bombay Municipal Corporation A.I.R.1954]
In all the above cases the contractual liability arose without any agreement between the
parties.
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5. A promises to give money or money’s worth if an uncertain event happens or doe not
happen is………..agreement. A contract to do or not to do something with reference to a
collateral event happening or not happening is………..contract. Fill in the blanks.
6. Quasi contract does not arise from any agreement of the parties concerned, but it is
imposed by law. Is this correct. How?
7. If necessaries are supplied to persons incapable of contracting whether the supplier is
entitled to claim their price from the property of such a person?
8. Can a finder of goods appropriate those goods to his own use?
9. What is the liability u/s.72 of the Contract Act of a person to whom money has been paid
or anything delivered?
Answers
1. Contract of Insurance
2. Refer Section.32, 33, 34 and 36
3. No
4. No – Contract is void
5. Wagering, Contingent
6. Yes
7. Yes
8. No
9. The person must repay or return it.
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Learning objectives
After studying this unit, you would be able to -
♦ Be conversant with the two special type of contracts i.e. Indemnity contracts and
Guarantee contracts and also the nature of obligations and rights of each of the parties to
the contracts.
♦ Be clear about distinction between these contracts.
In this unit let us discuss and learn the law relating to indemnity and guarantee.
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The principle of implied promise to indemnify surety(one who gives guarantee) is contained in
Section 145 of the Act which provides that ‘in every contract of guarantee there is an implied
promise by the principal debtor to indemnify the surety and the surety is entitled to recover
from the principal debtor whatever sum he has rightfully paid under the guarantee but no sum
which he has wrongfully paid.
The right of surety is not affected by the fact that the creditor has refused to sue the principal
debtor or that he has not demanded the sum due from him.
What constitutes consideration in a case of guarantee in an important issue and is laid down
in section 127 of the Act. As per section.127 of the Act “anything done or any promise made
for the benefit of the principal debtor may be sufficient consideration to the surety for giving
the guarantee.
For example ‘A’ had advanced money to ‘B’ on a bond hypothecating B’s property stating that
C is the surety for any balance that might remain due after realization of B’s property. C was
not a party to the bond. He, however signed a separate surety bond two days subsequent to
the advance of the money. It was held that the subsequent surety bond was void for want of
consideration: (Nanak Ram vs. Mehinlal 1877, I Allahabad 487).
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continuing relationship is established. For instance where ‘A’ becomes surety of ‘C’ for B’s
conduct as manager in C’s bank and ’B’ is appointed on the faith of this guarantee, ‘A’ is
precluded from annulling the guarantee so long as B acts as manager in C’s bank.
The second aspect is upon the death of surety, the continuing guarantee is revoked for all
future transactions in the absence of any contract to the contrary.
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(iii) Where the principal debtor compounds [settles] with the creditor regarding the amount or
promises not to sue, the surety will be discharged. But a contract for giving time to a
debtor is entered into with a third party, the surety will not be discharged. Where there
are co-sureties release of one co-surety would not automatically discharge the other co-
sureties. Further in between other co-sureties, the released co-surety is not absolved of
his liability vis a vis other co-sureties.
(iv) the surety would be discharged if the creditor does anything or acts in a manner which
(a) is inconsistent with the rights of surety and
(b) impairs the eventual remedy of the surety.
For example, ‘A’ puts ‘M’ as the cashier under B and agrees to stand as surety provided ‘B’
checks the cash every month. ‘M’ embezzles cash. ‘A’ was not held to be responsible as B
failed to verify the cash every month.
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Where surety becomes surety without the knowledge of principal debtor, he is entitled for all
the rights against the principal debtor but not the right to claim an indemnity against the
principal debtor.
(2) Sureties right against the creditor
Following are the rights of sureties against the creditor:
(i) the surety gets the right of subrogation for all payments and performances he is liable.
This right would accrue only when the surety has paid the amount of liability in full. For
example where a creditor had the right to stop the goods or sellers lien, surety would
enjoy the same right after he has paid the amount per Imperial Bank vs. SL Kathereine
Docks 1877 5 Ch.D.
(ii) surety is entitled for all securities which the debtor has provided to creditor whether
surety is aware of it or not. Where a creditor loses any of the security by default or
negligence the liability of the surety abates proportionately. If a creditor does not hand
over the securities to surety he can be compelled to do so. Classic examples of surety’s
right are: he is entitled for all mortgage rights which the secured creditor has. But the
surety is not entitled for any security provided subsequent to the contract of guarantee
(iii) surety has a right to require the creditor to sue for and recover the guaranteed debt. This
right of surety is known as right to file a ‘Quia timet action” against the debtor. There is
of course an inherent risk of having to indemnify the creditor for delay and expense
(iv) surety has a right to call upon the creditor to dismiss the person from service if the
person whose fidelity is guaranteed by surety is persistently dishonest
(v) surety has a right of set off against the principal debtor exactly as a creditor would have.
(vi) surety also can compel the creditor where he has claim on two funds, to resort to that
fund first on which surety has no claim.
(vii) surety can claim that he is not liable on the guarantee to the creditor, if it can be proved
that principal debtor was incapable of entering into a contract, say because he was a
minor.
This is on the principle that the liability of the surety is co-extensive with that of the principal
debtor.
Guarantee when valid
Following are the circumstances when a guarantee can be treated as invalid.
(i) when the guarantee has been obtained by means of mis-representation made directly by
the creditor or made with his knowledge and the mis-representation relates to a material
part of the transaction.
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(ii) when the creditor has obtained any guarantee by means of keeping silence as to material
circumstances.
The expression “keeping silence” implies intentional concealment of a material fact, as distinct
from a mere non-disclosure thereof. There must exist some element of fraud. [Balakrishna
vs. Bank of Bengal (1891) 15 Bom. 585]. Thus, A engages B as clerk to collect money for him
and B fails to account for some of his receipts. Thereupon, A calls upon B to furnish security
for his duly accounting the receipts. C gives the required guarantee. A does not apprise C of
the fact of a previous defalcation by B and thereafter B again makes a default. The guarantee
would be invalid.
(iii) when a contract of guarantee is entered into on the condition that the creditor shall not
act upon it until another person has joined in it as co-surety and that other party fails to
join as such.
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3. A obtains housing loan from LIC Housing and if B promises to repay what is the nature of
contract?
4. What is called a guarantee which extends to a series of transaction?
5. If A becomes a surety to C for payment of rent by B under a lease and B and C contract,
without the consent of ‘A’ that ‘B’ will pay higher rent, then what would be the
liability of ‘A’ as a surety?
6. ‘A’ puts ‘M’ as the cashier under ‘B’ and agrees to stand as surety provided, ‘B’checks
the cash every month. B does not check the cash every month.‘M’ embezzles the cash.
What is the liability of ‘A’ in this case?
7. Whether a surety can claim reimbursement only of actual payments that have been
made along with merely executed promissory notes?
8. Surety as the debtor is entitled for securities provided to creditor – is it true?
9. Whereas there is only one contract in case of contract of indemnity, how many contracts
are there in the contract of guarantee?
10. On discharging the debt due by the principal debtor to the creditor what is the remedy
available to the surety?
Answers
1 True
2. Yes
3. Contract of guarantee
4. Continuing guarantee
5. He will be discharged from his liability
6. A was not held to be responsible
7. He can not claim on executed promissory notes
8. Yes
9. Three
10. “He can proceed against the principal debtor”
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Learning objectives
After studying this unit, you would be able to -
♦ Understand the general principles underlying contracts of bailment and pledge.
♦ Grasp the duties and rights of the parties to the contracts.
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Similarly depositing ornaments in a bank locker is not bailment, because ornaments are kept
in a locker whose key are still with the owner and not with the bank. The ornaments are in
possession of the owner though kept in a locker at the bank.
Different forms of Bailment
Following are the popular forms of bailment
(1) Delivery of goods by one person to another to be held for the bailor’s use.
(2) Goods given to a friend for his own use without any charge
(3) Hiring of goods.
(4) Delivering goods to a creditor to serve as security for a loan.
(5) Delivering goods for repair with or without remuneration.
(6) Delivering goods for carriage.
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(b) right to claim compensation for loss caused by an unauthorized use of the goods
bailed;
c) right to claim damages arising out of mixing the goods of the bailor with his own
goods.
(2) Bailor has a right to terminate the contract if the bailee does anything which is
inconsistent with the conditions of bailment. For example ‘A’ lets on hire his horse to ‘B’
for his own riding but ‘B’ uses the horse for driving his carriage. ‘A’ has a right to
terminate the contract of bailment.
(3) Bailor in the case of gratuitous bailment has a right to demand the goods back even
before the expiry of the period of bailment. If in the process, loss is caused to the bailee,
bailor is bound to compensate.
(4) Bailor has a right to claim the increase or profit from the goods bailed which may have
occurred from the goods value. For example where ‘A’ bails his cow to ‘B’ and if the cow
gives birth to a calf, ‘B’ is bound to return the cow and the calf to ‘A’.
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Apart from the above, the ‘finder of lost goods’ can ask for reimbursement for expenditure
incurred for preserving the goods but also for searching the true owner. If the real owner
refuses to pay compensation, the ‘finder’ cannot sue but retain the goods so found.
Further where the real owner has announced any reward, the finder is entitled to receive the
reward. The right to collect the reward is a primary and a superior right even more than the
right to seek reimbursement of expenditure.
Lastly the finder though has no right to sell the goods found in the normal course, he may sell
the goods if the real owner cannot be found with reasonable efforts or if the owner refuses to
pay the lawful charges subject to the following conditions.
a) when the article is in danger of perishing and losing the greater part of the value or
b) when the lawful charges of the finder amounts to two-third or more of the value of the
article found.
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Where the bailee delivers the goods without receiving his remuneration, he has a right to sue
the bailor. In such a case the particular lien may be waived. The particular lien is also lost if
the bailee does not complete the work within the time agreed.
Difference between general lien and particular lien.
The difference between the two can be summarised as follows:
(a) particular lien is exercisable only on such goods in respect of which charges are due.
General lien is a right to detain/retain any goods of the bailor for general balance of
account outstanding
(b) particular lien is automatic. A general lien is not automatic but is recognized through on
agreement. It is exercised by the bailee only by name
(c) particular lien comes into play only when some labour or skill is involved. A general lien
can be exercised against goods even without involvement of labour or skill.
1.70 PLEDGE
Pledge is a variety or specie of bailment. It is bailment of goods as security for payment of
debt or performance of a promise. The person who pledges[or bails] is known as pledgor or
also as pawnor, the bailee is known as pledgee or also as pawnee. In pledge, there is no
change in ownership of the property. Under exceptional circumstances, the pledgee has a
right to sell the property pledged.
Let us now examine the rights of pawnee and pawnor.
Pawnee’s rights
(a) Right of retainer
Pawnee has right to retain the goods pledged not only for payment of debt or performance of a
promise but also for recovery of debts and all expenses incurred for preservation of goods
pledged. Where ‘M’ pledges stock of goods for certain loan from a bank, the bank has a right
to retain the stock not only for adjustment of the loan but also for payment of interest.
(b) Right to retention to subsequent debts
Pawnee has a right to retain the goods pledged towards subsequent advances as well,
however subject to such right being specifically contemplated in the contract.
(c) Right to seek reimbursement of extraordinary expenses
Pawnee has a right to seek reimbursement of extraordinary expenses incurred. However his
right to retain the goods shall not extend to such extraordinary expenses but is restricted to
ordinary expenses.
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Answers
1. ‘X’ bailor. ‘Y’ bailee 2. No- only for movable goods
3. No 4. No-the money cannot be identified
5. No- the ornaments are in possession of owner 6. Yes
7. No- he has exercised with ordinary prudence 8. Yes
9. Yes 10. Where labour or skill is involved
11. Pledgor, Pledgee.
12. He enjoys the right to sell after giving the notice
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UNIT – 9 : AGENCY
Learning objectives
After studying this unit, you would be able to –
♦ Understand the relationship between agent and principal and the intention behind
adoption of such course of agency.
♦ Note that consideration is not at all necessary for validity of agency contracts.
♦ Learn various modes of creation, especially agency by ratification.
♦ Understand rights and obligations of an agent as well as the circumstances when the
agent is personally liable for the acts done by him on behalf of the principal and the legal
position of the agent, the principal and the third parties involved.
♦ Be familiar with the terms ‘sub-agent’ and ‘substituted agent’ and to distinguish between
the two.
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Ratification would be restricted to certain limitations to which original acts are limited and
ratification can be to that portion of exceeded authority by the agent.
(c) Agency by ostensible authority
Where the authority of the principal is inferred by the conduct of the principal, there the
agency through ostensible authority is born. Here the agent’s authority is ostensible and the
principal is bound by the act of the agent. Ostensible authority happens on account of
estoppel and holding out. Let us analyse these two types with examples.
(i) Agency by estoppel
If a person permits or represents another to act on his behalf, so that a reasonable person
would infer that the relationship of principal and agent had been created then he will be
stopped from denying his agent’s authority and getting himself relived from his obligations to a
third party by proving that no such relationship infact existed
For instance where ‘A’ informs ‘B’ in the presence and within hearing of ‘P’ that ‘P’ is his
agent. Later ‘B’ enters into contract with ‘P’ thinking that ‘P’ is the agent of ‘A’. In a situation
like this neither ‘P’ nor ‘A’ can refuse the obligations under the contract. ‘P’ had become the
agent of ‘A’ by estoppel. ‘P’ will be treated as agent of ‘A’ even if he was not an agent at all.
Where a master permits his servant to pledge his credit, there is an agency on account of
estoppel. Even if the servant had on occasion pledged without the authority of master, the
master is still bound because of estoppel. Similarly where a married woman co-habits with her
husband, there is a presumption that she has the authority to pledge his credit for
necessaries.
A principal cannot privately revoke or restrict the authority of his agent, which he has allowed
in public.
(ii) Agency by Holding out
Under the principle of holding out, any one who holds himself out as an agent of another, then
a relationship of agent and principal gets in place. The process of holding out happens
through willful conduct done to create a deliberate impression. In such a case person
concerned is estopped from denying that he is the agent of a principal. The doctrine of
holding out is also applicable in case of partnerships. The law of partnership also adopts the
principle of agency to a large extent. However under “holding out” principle following
conditions are required to be present:
(a) statement or conduct of misrepresentation
(b) a genuine not necessarily a fraudulent misrepresentation and
(c) the third person should prove that he entered into the transaction believing the
statement so made.
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(v) Duty to communicate: The agent must in order to obtain instruction, communicate and
contact the principal as a man of ordinary diligence.
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d) third party has a right to refuse, if the principal discloses himself, on the ground that had
he known about the principal he would not have entered into the contract.
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Answers
1. Third person for whom the act is done or is so represented.
2. Principal must be a major and of sound mind.
3. Yes.
4. Actual & Ostenible authority.
5. Yes.
6. Principal is liable for the act of agent done with his authority.
7. Agent is entitled for compensation.
8. Irrevocable agency.
9. No- because a delegate cannot further delegate.
10. The Principal.
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12. The delivery of goods by one person to another for some specific purpose, is known as
(a) bailment
(b) pledge
(c) hypothecation
(d) mortgage.
13. The delivery of goods by one person to another as security for the repayment of a debt,
is known as
(a) bailment
(b) pledge
(c) hypothecation
(d) mortgage.
14. A person appointed by the original agent to act in the business of agency, but under the
control of original agent, is known as
(a) agent
(b) sub-agent
(c) substituted agent
(d) del credere agent
15. Which of the following agency is irrevocable?
(a) agency for fixed period.
(b) agency for single transaction.
(c) agency coupled with interest.
(d) continuing agency.
16. All agreements in restraint of trade are void and there are no exception to this,
(a) true, the Indian Contract Act provides so.
(b) false, the Indian Contract Act and Partnership Act contain exception.
17. A, B and C jointly promised to pay Rs. 30,000 to D. For recovery of this amount, D filed
a suit against A only. Is he justified ?
(a) yes, as the liability of joint promisors is joint and several
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36. P pays Rs. 4,000 to Q and Q promises to deliver him 45 bags of cement within a
fortnight. What is the nature of consideration in this transaction ?
37. Is past consideration valid in India?
38. Can a stranger to a contract normally sue thereon ?
39. R's son was missing. N who was a distant relation of R made a search for the missing
son, found him and brought him back. R then promised N that he would compensate him
for the services rendered. Later R refuses to keep his promise. Could N enforce it in a
court ?
40. A promised to pay a subscription of Rs. 5,000 to the Gandhi Memorial Fund. He later
changed his mind. Could the amount be recovered from A ?
41. A agreed to give his house to school for its library on the condition that the library would
be named after him. The management accepted the condition. Subsequently, A changed
his mind. Could the management enforce the contract ?
42. A's father had died leaving a house to two sons. They agreed to partition the house
which did not admit the division in exactly equal parts and one of the sons had agreed
not to construct a door at a certain place in his portion of the house. In a dispute, the
agreement was challenged on the ground that it was without adequate consideration.
Could the challenge be upheld ?
43. Can a contract which is made by a deed (i.e., a contract under seal) be valid even if it is
made without consideration ?
44. Can a promise to pay money to a witness served with a notice be enforced ?
45. A gives to B Rs. 300 to be given to C. B informs C that he is holding the money for him.
But afterwards B refuses to pay the money. C sues B for the money. B contends that C
cannot sue as he was not a party to the contract. Will the contention of B be upheld ?
46. Can a minor, though incompetent to contract, receive a benefit arising thereunder ?
47. The guardian of a minor (a) can, (b) cannot, bind the minor by a contract entered into on
his behalf for the purchase of immovable property. Which statement is correct ?
48. A minor, lent Rs. 100 to B at the market rate of interest on the basis of a promissory
note. A year thereafter, when he had attained majority, he filed a suit against B for the
recovery of the amount thereon. B contended that since A was a minor at the time the
loan was advanced, the contract was void. Would B succeed ?
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49. A buys from B bales of branch cotton for December, 1991 delivery, at Rs. 1,250 per bale.
On the date of delivery, the price is Rs. 1,000 per bale. A wants to avoid contract. Can he
do so with impunity ?
50. X sells horse to Y knowing well that the horse is vicious. X does not disclose the nature
of the horse to Y. Can X be made liable to Y for the transaction ?
51. A grocer supplied monthly rations for five months to B who was aged 17 years and 5
months. B having failed to pay the bills for the supplies, the grocer decided to sue him for
the realisation of his dues. Could he succeed if he does so ?
52. A advanced money to his son B, during his minority. Upon B's coming of age, A obtains
by use of his parental influence, a bond from B, for a greater amount than the sum due in
respect of the advance. Can A enforce the loan ?
53. A, enfeebled by disease or age, is induced by B, his attendant, to agree to pay B an
unreasonable sum for his professional services. Can B enforce the agreement ?
54. A being indebted to B, the money-lender of his village, contracts, a fresh loan on terms
which appear to be unconscionable. Will it be presumed that the contract was induced by
undue influence ?
55. A applies to banker for a loan at a time when there is stringency in the money market.
The banker declines to make the loan except at an unusually high rate of interest. A
accepts the loan on these terms. Is the contract induced by undue influence ?
56. A and B, being traders enter upon a contract. A has private information of a change in
prices which would affect B's willingness to proceed with the contract. Is A bound to
inform B ?
57. A falsely represents to B that 500 tonnes of nails are made annually at A's factory and
thereby induces B to buy the factory. Is the contract voidable at the option of B ?
58. A by misrepresentation, leads B erroneously to believe that 500 maunds of indigo are
made annually at A's factory. B examines the accounts of the factory, which shows that
only 100 maunds of indigo have been made. After this B buys the factory. Can the
contract be avoided on the ground of misrepresentation ?
59. A's son had forged B's name to a promissory note. B under threat of prosecuting A's son,
obtains a bond from A for the amount of the forged note. B sues on bond. Will he
succeed ?
60. A and B make contract grounded on the erroneous belief that a particular debt is barred
by the Indian law of limitation. Is the contract voidable ?
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61. A agrees to marry C's daughter in consideration of dowry to be paid by C. Can A enforce
the promise in a court ?
62. Which of the following statements are correct ?
(a) In the case of fraud, the person making the represenation believs it to be true.
(b) In the case of misrepresentation, the maker does not believe it to be true.
(c) Fraud does not afford a ground for bringing an action in tort for damages; whereas
misrepresentation does.
(d) In the case of misrepresentation, the fact the plaintiff had means of discovering the
truth by exercising ordinary diligence can be good defence against the repudiation
of the contract but such a defence cannot be set up in the case of fraud other than
fraudulent silence.
63. Are the following agreements valid ?
(a) A sells the goodwill of his business to B and agrees with him to refrain from carrying
on a similar business within specified local limits.
(b) A, a shopkeeper in Kalkaji Market, agrees to pay B who is his rival in the business a
sum of money as compensation, if B closes his business there.
(c) R, an optical surgeon, employs S as the assistant for a term of three years and S
agrees not to practice as a surgeon during this period.
(d) A promise made by the loser of wager to pay the amount lost in consideration of the
winner's forbearance to post him as a defaulter.
(e) A agrees to sell B "my white horse for Rs. 5000 or Rs. 10,000".
(f) A promises to superintend, on behalf of B, a legal manufacturer of liquor and an
illegal traffic in the other narcotic drugs. B promises to pay a salary of
Rs. 2,000 per month.
64. A promises to deliver goods to B on a certain day, on payment of Rs. 1,000. A dies
before that day. Discuss the liability of A's representative to B.
65. A promises to paint a picture for B by a certain day, at a certain price. A dies before that
day. Can the contract be enforced either by A's representatives or by B ?
66. A, a singer, enters into a contract with B, the manager of a theatre, to sing at his theatre
two nights in every week during the next two months and B engages to pay her 100
rupees for each night's performance. On the sixth night, A wilfully absents herself from
the theatre. Is B at liberty to put an end to the contract ?
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67. A, a singer, enters into a contract with B, the manager of a theatre, to sing at the theatre
two nights in every week during the next two months and B agrees to pay her at the rate
of 100 rupees for each night's performance. On the sixth night, A wilfully absents herself
from theatre. With the consent of B, A sings the seventh night. Discuss B's rights.
68. A, B and C jointly promise to pay D Rs. 3,000. Can D compel either A or B or C to pay
him Rs. 3,000 ?
69. A, B and C jointly promise to pay D a sum of Rs. 3,000. C is compelled to pay the whole.
A is insolvent but his assets are sufficient to pay one half of his debts. Discuss C's rights.
70. A, B and C are under a joint promise to pay D a sum of Rs. 3,000. C is unable to pay
anything and A is compelled to pay the whole. Is A entitled to receive Rs. 1,500 from B ?
71. A promises to deliver goods to B's warehouse, on the 1st january. On that day A brings
the goods to B's warehouse, but after the usual hour for closing the warehouse and they
are not received. Has A performed his promise ?
72. B owes A Rs. 2,000. A desires B to pay the amount to A's account with C, his banker. B
who also banks with C, orders the amount to be transferred from the account to A's credit
and this is done by C. Afterwards, and before A knows of the transfer, C fails. Has there
been a good payment by B ?
73. A owes B Rs. 2,000. B accepts some of A's goods in deduction of the debt. Does the
delivery of the goods operate as a part payment ?
74. A and B contract that B shall execute certain work for A for Rs. 1,000. B is ready and
willing to execute the work accordingly. But A prevents him from doing so. (a) is the
contract voidable ? (b) is compensation claimable for any loss that results from such non-
performance ?
75. A hires B's ship to take in and convey from Kolkota to Mauritius a cargo to be provided by
A, B receiving a certain freight for its conveyance. A does not provide any cargo for the
ship.
(a) can A claim the performance of B's promise ?
(b) can A be compelled to recompensate B for any loss arising out of non-performance?
76. A contracts with B to execute certain builder's work for a fixed price with B supplying the
scaffolding or timber necessary for the work. B refuses to furnish any scaffolding or
timber and the work cannot be executed. Should A execute the work ?
77. A party to a contract promises to do a certain thing at or before a specified time, but he
fails to do so. Can the promisee, in the circumstances, avoid the contract ?
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78. Examine the following and decide whether time is of essence of the contract :
(a) the time of delivery of goods has been fixed by the parties to the contract. But the
delivery thereof has not been made at the scheduled date.
(b) in a mortgage bond, a time has been fixed for the repayment of the mortgage
money.
(c) in a contract of sale of land, there is a clause which stipulates a time for the
completion of the sale.
79. Suppose the time fixed for performance of the contract has expired but the time is not
essential. What is the remedy of the promisee in the circumstances ?
80. Suppose, time is of the essence of the contract but the promisor does not perform the
promise within the stipulated time. But five days after the expiry of the stipulated time, the
promisor offers to perform his promise. Can the promisee accept such performance and
at the same time claim compensation from the promisor for the delay ?
81. A agrees with B to discover treasure by magic. Is the agreement valid ?
82. X and Y contract to marry each other on a particular date. But prior to the scheduled time
X turns lunatic. Does the contract become void ?
83. A, an Indian, contracts to marry B. A is already married-a fact of which B was unaware. A
breaks his promise in course of time. Thereupon B brings a suit against A for a breach of
contract. A pleads that his promise is impossible of being performed as the law of the
country does not permit polygamy. Can A get away with the plea ?
84. A and B agree : (i) that A shall sell a house for Rs. 50,000; but (ii) that if B uses it as
gambling den, he shall pay A Rs.11 lakhs for it. Which set of these reciprocal promises is
a contract ?
85. A owes money to B under a contract. It is agreed between A, B and C that B shall
henceforth accept C as his debtor instead of A. Does the old debt of A to B come to an
end in this manner ?
86. A owes B Rs. 1,000 under a contract, B owes C Rs. 1,000. B orders A to credit C with
Rs. 1,000 in his books, but C does not assent to the arrangement. Does B still owe C Rs.
1,000 ?
87. A agrees to sell land to B for Rs. 40,000. B pays to A Rs. 4,000 as a deposit at the time
of the contract, the amount to be forfeited to A if B does not complete the sale within a
specified period. B fails to complete the sale within the specified period, nor is he ready
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and willing to complete the sale within a reasonable time after the expiry of that period.
Can A rescind the contract and at the same time retain the deposit?
Short/ Essay Type Questions
88. X invites Y (a well-known film actor) to his daughter’s engagement and dinner party. Y
accepts the invitation and promised to attend. X made special arrangements for Y at the
party but he did not turn up. X enraged with Y’s behaviour, wanted to sue for the loss
incurred in making special arrangements. X is seeking your advice. What will your advice
be?
89. Explain the rules under the Indian Contract Act, 1872 as regards to time and place for the
performance of the promise?
90. Define an offer. Explain the rules of an offer. How an offer is different from an invitation
to offer.
91. Ram, Rahim and Robert are partners of a software business and jointly promise to pay
Rs. 30, 000 to Raheja. Over a period of time Rahim became insolvent, but his assets are
sufficient to pay one-fourth of his debts. Robert is compelled to pay the whole. Decide
whether Robert is required to pay whole amount himself to Raheja in discharging joint
promise.
92. Briefly explain how the principal is liable for the acts of an agent and state under what
circumstances an agent is personally liable.
93. A, who owes B Rs. 10,000, appoints B as his agent to sell his landed property at Delhi
and after paying himself (B) what is due to him, to hand over the balance to A. Can A
revoke his authority delegated to B?
94. M advances to N Rs. 5,000 on the guarantee of P. The loan carries interest at ten
percent per annum. Subsequently, N becomes financially embarrassed. On N’s request,
M reduces the interest to six per cent per annum and does not sue N for one year after
the loan becomes due. N becomes insolvent. Can M sue P?
95. Briefly explain the contract of indemnity and state the rights of an indemnity-holder.
96. Explain the characteristics of a contract of bailment. Is placing of one's valuables in a
locker taken on hire from a bank a contract of bailment?
97. State and explain the different remedies available under the Indian Contract Act, 1872 to
an aggrieved party for breach of contract.
98. No consideration, no contract. State the exceptions to the rule.
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99. Explain the meaning of `quasi-contract'. Name any four examples of such contract .
100. "The liability of the surety is co-extensive with that of principal debtor". Comment.
101. When is communication of a proposal, acceptance and its revocation said to be
complete?
102. What is the effect of failure to perform a contract at a time where time is essential?
103. Explain the position of minor under the Indian Contract Act, 1872.
104. What is the effect of refusal to accept offer of performance and refusal of party to perform
the promise?
105. Miss. Chitra, a singer, enters into a contract with the manager of Bangalore gate club, to
sing in the club for two concerts every week during the next two months and the club
agrees to pay her at the rate of Rs. 2000 for each concert. On the seventh concert Miss.
Chitra wilfully absents herself. With the assent of the manager of the club, Miss. Chitra
sings for the eighth concert. But on the following day, the club, puts an end to the
contract. Can Miss. Chitra claim damages for breach of contract? Advise.
106. Mr. X, is employed as a cashier on a monthly salary of Rs. 2,000 by ABC bank for a
period of three years. Y gave surety for X’s good conduct. After nine months, the
financial position of the bank deteriorates. Then X agrees to accept a lower salary of Rs.
1,500/- per month from bank. Two months later, it was found that X has misappropriated
cash since the time of his appointment. What is the liability of Y?
107. Under what circumstances the doctrine of supervening impossibility is not applicable?
108. X agrees to sell his house to Y. X further fraudulently tells Y that the house is free from
all mortgages. On X’s coming to know from his friend Z that the house is already
mortgaged, Y still decides to buy the house but wants X to redeem the mortgage debt.
X refuses to redeem the mortgage debt. Considering the provisions of the Indian
Contract Act, 1872, decide giving reasons whether Y will succeed.
109. Define acceptance. What are its rules?
110. What are the differences between void and illegal agreements.
111. Under what circumstances the consideration and an object of the contract becomes
illegal? Illustrate.
Answers
1. (c); 2. (d); 3. (b); 4. (a); 5. (b); 6. (c); 7. (d); 8. (b); 9. (c); 10. (a); 11. (d); 12. (a);
13. (b); 14. (b); 15. (c); 16. (b); 17. (a); 18. (b); 19. (b); 20. (b)
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1.124
CHAPTER 2
THE NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS ACT, 1881
Learning Objectives
In this Chapter, the students will understand the
♦ Meanings of various negotiable instruments and their differences
♦ Negotiation and assignability of instruments
♦ Presentment and dishonour of instruments
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The law relating to negotiable instruments is the law of the commercial world which was
enacted to facilitate the activities in trade and commerce making provision of giving sanctity to
the instruments of credit which could be deemed to be convertible into money and easily
passable from one person to another. In the absence of such instruments, the trade and
commerce activities were likely to be adversely affected as it was not practicable for the
trading community to carry on with it the bulk of the currency in force. The introduction of
negotiable instruments owes its origin to the bartering system prevalent in the primitive
society. The negotiable instruments are, in fact, the instruments of credit being convertible on
account of the legality of being negotiated and thus easily passable from one hand to another.
The source of Indian law relating to such instruments is admittedly the English Common Law.
The main objective of the Act is to legalise the system by which instruments contemplated by
it could pass from hand to hand by negotiation like any other goods. The purpose of the Act
was to present an orderly and authoritative statement of the leading rules of law relating to the
negotiable instruments.
The Law in India relating to negotiable instruments is contained in the Negotiable Instruments
Act, 1881. It deals with Promissory Notes, Bills of Exchange and cheques, the three kinds of
negotiable instruments in most common use. The Act applies to the whole of India and to all
persons resident in India, whether foreigners or Indians. The provisions of this Act is not
applicable to Hundis and other native instruments. Special customs and local usages govern
such instruments. Where no such custom is established, this Act will equally apply to Hundis.
Students may kindly note that the Act, 1881 was amended by the Negotiable
Instruments (Amendment and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 2002{55 of 2002].
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
2.4 DEFINITIONS
(a) Promissory Note : A promissory note is an instrument (not being a bank note or a
currency-note) in writing containing an unconditional undertaking, signed by the maker to pay
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
a certain sum of money only to or to the order of, a certain person or to the bearer of the
instrument (Section 4). In other words, the requirements of a promissory note are as follows :
(i) It must be in writing : This means that the engagement cannot be oral. There is no
prescribed form or language for this; even the word ‘promise’ need not be used. What is
necessary is that whatever language is used, it must clearly show that the maker is
unconditionally bound to pay the sum.
(ii) The promise to pay must be unconditional: If a condition is attached to the ‘promise to
pay’ then the instrument will not be construed as a promissory note. Suppose, A signs an in-
strument made out as follows, “I promise to pay to B Rs. 500 on D’s death, provided D leaves
me enough to pay the sum”. The instrument will not be a promissory note. Similarly, if A signs
thus, “I promise to pay to B Rs. 500 deducting any money which B may owe me;” such an
instrument also will not be a promissory note. Let us now take a converse case. An instrument
runs thus : “I acknowledge myself to be indebted to B of Rs. 500 to be paid on demand, for
value received”. This instrument would be a promissory note.
It may be noted that a promise to pay will not be conditional under Section 4, where it depends
upon an event which is certain to happen but the time of its occurrence may be uncertain. For
example, where a promissory note is in this form : “I promise to pay to A Rs. 2,000, 15 days
after the death of B”, it is not conditional as it is certain that B will die though the exact time of
his death is uncertain (Section 4).
(iii) The amount promised must be a certain and a definite sum of money : Certainty is one of
the essential characteristics of a promissory note. Certainty must be as to the amount and
also as to the person by whose order and to whom payment is to be made. Uncertainty in such
matters has a tendency to restrict credit and to hamper commerce. Hence the necessity of
certainty. For example, where an instrument contains: “I promise to pay Rs. 350 and all other
sums which shall be due”, it is not a valid promissory note as the sum is not certain within the
meaning of Section 4.
You should also note that payment with interest or at a specified rate of exchange is certain
within the meaning of Section 4. You should also remember that in the event of figures and
words indicating the sum payable being contradictory, the sum in words must be taken into
account.
(iv) The instrument must be signed by the maker : It is incomplete till it is so signed. Since
the signature is intended to authenticate the instrument it can be on any part of the instrument.
(v) The person to whom the promise is made must be a definite person :- The payee must
be a certain person. Where the name of the payee is not mentioned as a party, the instrument
becomes invalid. Remember that a promissory note cannot be made payable to the maker
himself. Thus, a note which runs “I promise to pay myself” is not a promissory note and hence
invalid. However, it would become valid when it is endorsed by the maker. This is because it
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
then becomes payable to bearer, if endorsed in blank, or it becomes payable to the endorsee
or his order, if endorsed specially.
In connection with the promissory note, you should also remember that : (a) consideration
need not be mentioned; (b) place and date of making it need not be mentioned; (c) an undated
instrument will be treated as having been made on the date of its delivery; and (d) an ante-
dated or post dated instrument is not invalid.
N.B. The words “or to the bearer of the instrument” still appear in Section 4 to the Act, since
these have not yet been deleted therefrom by the Parliament : Nevertheless, in view of the
provision contained in Sub-section (2) of Section 31 of the Reserve Bank of India Act, the
aforesaid words have become inoperative or ineffective. Therefore, the present position is that
no person in India other than the Reserve Bank of India or the Central Government can make
or issue a promissory note payable to the bearer of the instrument.
(b) Bill of Exchange : Before going into the definition, you must know how a bill of exchange
ordinarily comes into existence. It comes into being, when a trader decides to sell goods on
credit. Suppose, A sells goods worth Rs. 800 to B, and allows him three months’ time to pay
the price. A will then draw a bill on B in the following terms “Three months after date pay to my
order the sum of Rs. 800 for value received”. After signing the bill, A will present it to B for
acceptance. If B writes across the bill ‘accepted’, it will indicate that B undertakes the liability
to pay a sum of Rs. 800 within the time stipulated therein. Here A is the drawer, B is the
drawee and after acceptance B will be the acceptor. A bill of exchange is an instrument in
writing containing an unconditional order signed by the maker, directing a certain person to
pay a certain sum of money only to, or to the order of certain person to the bearer of the
instrument (Section 4).
You should now try to understand the application of the points emerging from the said
definition :
(i) The bill of exchange must be in writing. This point, we take it for granted, needs no further
annotation.
(ii) There must be an order to pay. It is of the essence of the bill that its drawer orders the
drawee to pay money to the payee. It must be imperative - mere precatory words do not
suffice. Although terms of politeness may be admissible, excessive politeness may
nonetheless prompt one to disregard it as an order.
(iii) This order must be unconditional, as the bill is payable at all events. Thus it is absolutely
necessary for the drawer’s order to the drawee to be unconditional. The order must not
make the payment of the bill dependent on a contingent event. A conditional bill of
exchange is invalid.
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
Where a bill contains an order to pay the amount specified therein out of a particular fund
it will be conditional and therefore invalid. The reason for this invalidity is that it is
uncertain whether the fund will be in existence or prove sufficient on the bill becoming
payable. However, an unqualified order to pay together with an indication of a particular
fund out of which the drawee is to reimburse himself, is not conditional. Hence such an
indication does not vitiate the instrument.
(iv) The drawee must sign the instrument. The instrument without the proper signature will be
inchoate and hence ineffective. It is permissible to add the signature at any time after the
issue of the bill. But if it is not so added, the instrument remains ineffectual.
(v) The drawer, the drawee (acceptor) and the payee-the necessary parties to a bill-are to be
specified in the instrument with reasonable certainty. You should remember that all these
three parties may not necessarily be three different persons. One can play the role of two.
But there must be two distinct persons in any case.
(vi) The sum must be certain [what we have discussed on this point in relation to promissory
note vide requirement (iii) on page 3 will equally hold good here].
(vii) The medium of payment must be money and money only. The distinctive order to pay
anything in kind will vitiate the bill.
(c) Distinction between a promissory note and a bill of exchange : The distinctive features
of these two types of negotiable instruments are tabulated below :
Promissory Note Bill of Exchange
1. It contains a promise to pay It contains an order to pay.
2. The liability of the maker of a note is The liability of the drawer of a bill is
primary and absolute (Section 32). secondary and conditional. He would be
liable if the drawee, after accepting the bill
fails to pay the money due upon it provided
notice of dishonour is given to the drawer
within the prescribed time (Section 30)
3. It is presented for payment without If a bill is payable some time after sight, it is
any previous acceptance by maker. the required to be accepted either by the
drawee himself or by some one else on his
behalf, before it can be presented for
payment.
4. The maker of a promissory note The maker or drawer of an accepted bill
stands in immediate relationship with the stands in immediate relationship with the
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
the payee (Explanation to Section 44) acceptor and the payee (Explanation to
and is primarily liable to the payee or the Section 44).
holder.
5. It cannot be made payable to In the case of bill, the drawer and payee or
the maker himself, that is the maker and the drawee and the payee may be the same
the payee cannot be the same person. person.
6. In the case of a promissory note In the case of a bill of exchange there are
there are only two parties, viz., the maker three parties, viz., drawer, drawee and
(debtor) and the payee(creditor). payee, and any two of these three capacities
can be filled by one and the same person.
7. A promissory note cannot be drawn The bills can be drawn in sets.
in sets.
8. A promissory note can never be A bill of exchange too cannot be drawn
conditional. conditionally, but it can be accepted
conditionally with the consent of the holder. It
should be noted that neither a promissory
note nor a bill of exchange can be made
payable to bearer on demand.
(d) Definition of Cheque : A “cheque” is a bill of exchange drawn on a specified banker and
not expressed to be payable otherwise than on demand and it includes the electronic image of
a truncated cheque and a cheque in the electronic form.
Explanation I :For the purposes of this section, the expressions-
(a) “a cheque in the electronic form” means a cheque which contains the exact mirror image
of a paper cheque, and is generated, written and signed in a secure system ensuring the
minimum safety standards with the use of digital signature (with or without biometrics
signature) and asymmetric crypto system;
(b) “a truncated cheque” means a cheque which is truncated during the course of a clearing
cycle, either by the clearing house or by the bank whether paying or receiving payment,
immediately on generation of an electronic image for transmission, substituting the further
physical movement of the cheque in writing.
Explanation II : For the purposes of this section, the expression “clearing house” means the
clearing house managed by the Reserve Bank of India or a clearing house recognised as such
by the Reserve Bank of India.’ (Section 6, Negotiable Instruments Act). That is to say, it is a
bill drawn on a banker, which is payable on demand.
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
A cheque being a specie of bill of exchange, it must, under Section 5, be signed by the drawer
and must contain an unconditional order on a specified banker to pay a certain sum of money
to or the order of the specified person or to the bearer of the instrument. A cheque, however,
is a peculiar type of negotiable instrument in the sense that it does not require acceptance;
also it is not meant to be payable to bearer on demand. A cheque is an exception to the
general rule that a bill of exchange cannot be drawn “payable to bearer on demand” Section
31, (The Reserve Bank of India Act). A cheque may be drawn up in three forms, viz., (i) bearer
cheque (i.e., one which is either expressed to be so payable or on which the last or only
endorsement is an endorsement in blank); (ii) order cheque i.e., one which is expressed to be
so payable or which is expressed to be payable to a particular person without containing any
prohibitory words against its transfer or indicating an intention that it shall not be transferable
(Section 18); and (iii) crossed cheque is a cheque which can be only collected through a
banker.
(e) Difference between Cheque and Bill of Exchange :
(1) In the case of a cheque the drawee- i.e., the person on whom the bill is drawn-must
always be banker whereas in the case of a bill of exchange the drawee may be any
person.
(2) No days of grace are allowed in the case of a cheque, and a cheque is as a rule,
payable on demand, whereas three days’ grace is allowed in the case of a bill.
(3) In the case of a dishonour of a cheque, notice of dishonour is not necessary whereas
notice of dishonour is usually required in the case of a bill.
(4) A cheque can be drawn to bearer and made payable on demand, whereas a bill cannot
be bearer if it is made payable on demand.
(5) In the case of a cheque, it is not necessary to present it for acceptance. It needs only be
presented for payment. Bills sometimes, require presentment for acceptance and it is
advisable to present them for acceptance even when it is not essential to do so.
(6) Cheques do not require to be stamped in India, whereas bills must be stamped according
to the law. In England and several other countries, cheques also are required to be
stamped.
(7) A cheque may be crossed, whereas a bill cannot be crossed.
Generally, it must be remembered that cheques are negotiable instruments and the most
of the rules in relation to bills of exchange also apply to cheques.
(f) Bank Draft : A bank draft is, by definition, an order drawn by an office of a bank upon
another office of the same bank. In other words, it is, in a sense, an order drawn by one
person upon himself, whereas in the case of bills, they are drawn by one person upon another
person (Section 85A).
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Section 131A of the Act makes all rules as regards crossed cheques, laid down in Sections
123 to 131, applicable to drafts defined by Section 85A. Thus a banker who collects a draft on
behalf of a customer will not be protected by Section 131.
A draft is drawn either against cash deposited at the time of its purchase or against debit to
the buyer’s current account with the banker. The buyer of the draft generally furnishes
particulars of the person to whom the amount thereof should be paid. The banker charges for
his services a small commission. The draft like a cheque, can be made payable to drawer on
demand without any legal objection thereto, since the Reserve Bank of India Act, under
Section 31, specially allows such a draft be issued.
Moreover, where a draft purports to have been endorsed by or on behalf of the payee the
paying bank is discharged from liability by its payment in due course even though the
endorsement of the payee has been forged. This affords great protection to the paying banker
in so far as it is always possible for the paying banker to identify the signature of the payee.
(g) Marked cheques : A cheque need not be presented for acceptance. Therefore the
drawee of the cheque i.e., the banker, is under liability, to the person in whose favour the
cheque is drawn. The banker, however, will be liable to his customer (drawer), if he wrongly
refuses to honour the cheque. In such a case, action can be taken by the customer against the
banker for the loss of his reputation. In certain cases, however, a cheque is marked or certified
by the banker on whom it is drawn as “good for payment’. Such a certification or marking is
strictly not equivalent to an acceptance but is very similar to it and protects the person to
whom the cheque is issued against the cheque being refused for payment subsequently by
Banking in India, as a rule, do not mark or certify cheques in this manner. Bankers in India,
are not liable even if a bank has marked a cheque as “good for payment” (Bank of Baroda vs.
Punjab National Bank Ltd.).
(h) Crossed cheque: (a) The usage of crossing cheques : Cheques are usually crossed as
a measure of safety. Crossing is made by drawing two parallel transverse lines across the
face of the cheque with or without the addition of certain words. The usage of crossing
distinguishes cheques from other bills of exchange. The object of general crossing is to direct
the drawee banker to pay the amount of the cheque only to a banker, to prevent the payment
of the cheque being made to wrong person (Section 123);
(b) Special crossing : Where a cheque bears across its face an entry of the name of a
banker either with or without the words “not negotiable”, the cheque is considered to have
been crossed specially to that banker. In the case of special crossing the addition of two
parallel transverse lines is not essential though generally the name of the bank to which the
cheque is crossed specially is written between two parallel transverse lines (Section 124).
(c) Crossing after issue : (i) If cheque has not been crossed, the holder thereof may cross it
either generally, or specially. (ii) If it is crossed generally, the holder may cross it, specially.
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
(iii) If it is crossed, either generally or specially the holder may add the words “not negotiable”.
(iv) If a cheque is crossed specially, the banker to whom it is crossed, may again cross it
specially to another banker, his agent, for collection. This is the only case where the Act
allows a second special crossing by a banker and for the purpose of collection [Akro Kervi
Mines vs. Economic Bank (1904) 2 K.B. 465 (Section 125)]. It may be noted that the crossing
of a cheque is an instance of an alteration which is authorised by the Act.
(d) Payment of cheque, crossed generally or specially (Sections 126 & 127) : If a cheque is
crossed generally, the banker on whom it is drawn shall not pay it otherwise than to a banker.
Again, where a cheque is crossed specially, the banker on whom it is drawn shall not pay it
otherwise than to the banker to whom it is crossed or his agent for collection.
Where a cheque is crossed specially to more than one banker except when it is crossed to an
agent for the purpose of collection, the banker on whom it is drawn shall refuse payment
thereof. This is because, in such a case, the instruction by the drawer would not be clear
(Section 127).
(e) Payment in due course of crossed cheque : Where the banker on whom a crossed
cheque is drawn, pays it in due course, it is to be presumed that he has made payment to the
true owner of cheque, though in fact, the amount of the cheque may not reach the true owner.
In other words, banker making payment in due course is protected, whether the money is or is
not, in fact, received by the true owner of the cheque (Section 128).
(f) Payment out of due course : Any banker paying a crossed cheque otherwise than in
accordance with the provisions of Section 126 shall be liable to the true owner of the cheque
for any loss he may have sustained. Thus, if the money does not reach the true owner, he can
claim payment over again from the banker (Section 129).
(g) Cheque marked “not negotiable” : A person taking a cheque crossed generally or
specially bearing in either case the words ‘not negotiable’ shall not have or shall not be able to
give a better title to the cheque than the title the person from whom he took had. In
consequence if the title of the transferor is defective, the title of the transferee would be
vitiated by the defect. But, in the case of a bill negotiated in the ordinary way, the title of the
holder in due course would not be affected by the defect in the title of the transferor (Section
130).
For example, X, by means of fraud, obtained from Y a cheque crossed ‘not negotiable’ and got
it cashed at a bank other than the drawee bank. Y sued the bank for conversion. Is the bank
liable for conversion? The effect of Section 130 of the Act, broadly, is that if the holder has a
good title, he can still transfer it with a good title; but if the transferor has a defective title, the
transferee is affected by such defects, and he cannot claim the right of a holder in due course
by proving that he purchased the instrument in good faith and for value. As X in the case in
question had obtained the cheque by fraud, he had no title to it and could not give to the bank
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
any title to the cheque or the money: and the bank would be liable for the amount of the
cheque for conversion. A similar decision was taken in Great Western Railway Co. vs. London
and Country Banking Co. (1901) A.C. 414 the facts whereof are exactly the same as the
example cited above.
The addition of the words “not negotiable” in a crossed cheque has a special significance. The
use of the words does not render the cheque non-negotiable but only affects one of the main
features of negotiability. The general rule about the negotiability is that the holder in due
course of a bill or promissory note or cheque takes the instrument free from any defect which
might be existing in the title of the transferor. If the holder takes the instrument in good faith,
before maturity and for valuable consideration, his claim is not defeated or affected by the
defective title of the transferor. In case of any dispute, it is the transferor with the defective title
who is liable. But the addition on the words “not negotiable” to the crossing of a cheque,
makes the position different. When such a crossing is placed on a cheque, the holder in due
course does not get any better title than what the transferor had. If the transferor had defective
title, the title of the holder in due course also becomes defective. Therefore, he will have to
refund the amount of the bill to the true owner. In other words, the principle of the ‘nemo dat
quod non habet’ - (that is, nobody can pass on a title better than what he himself has) will be
applicable to a cheque with a “not negotiable” crossing.
Thus, cheques with “not negotiable” crossing are negotiable so long as their title is good.
Once the title of the transferor or endorser become defective the title of the transferee is also
affected by such defect and the transferee cannot claim the right of a holder in due course.
As per the latest instructions issued by the Reserve Bank of India (9-9-1992) it would be safer
for the drawer to cross a cheque “not negotiable” with the words “account payee” added to it.
The courts of law have held that “an account payee” crossing is a direction to the collecting
banker as to how the proceeds are to be applied after receipt. The banker can disregard the
direction only at his own risk and responsibility. In other words, an ‘account payee’ cheque can
be collected only for the account of the payee named in the cheque and not for anyone else. A
banker collecting an ‘account payee’ cheque for a person other than the payee named in the
cheque may be held liable for conversion.
In other words, if the bank collects an account payee cheque for a person other than the
payee it does so at its own risk. It is imperative on the part of collecting bank, therefore to take
utmost care to enquire into the title of its customer and satisfy itself that there is no defect in
the title of the customer presenting such cheque for collection.
(h) Cheque marked “Account Payee” : It is a form of restrictive crossing, represented by the
words “Account Payee” entered on the face of the cheque. Such a crossing acts as a warning
to the collecting bankers that the proceeds are to be credited only to the account of the payee.
If the collecting banker allows the proceeds of the cheque so crossed to be credited to pay
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
any other account, he may be held guilty of a negligence in the event of an action for wrongful
conversion of funds being brought against him. These words are not an addition to the
crossing but are mere direction to the receiving or collecting bankers. These do not affect the
paying banker who is under no duty to ascertain that the cheque in fact has been collected for
the account of the person named as the payee.
In the case of a cheque bearing “Account Payee” crossing which is not specially crossed to
another banker, the paying banker needs only to see that the cheque bears no other
endorsement but that of the payee, and that it is otherwise in order. But where the cheque is
also crossed specially, the paying banker must make payment only to the bank named in the
crossing. It has been held that crossing cheque with the words “Account Payee” and
mentioning a bank is not a restrictive endorsement so as to invalidate further negotiation of
the cheque by the endorsee.
(i) Protection in respect of uncrossed cheque : When a cheque payable to order purports to
be endorsed by or on behalf of the payee and the banker on whom it is drawn pays the
cheque in due course, he is authorised to debit the account of his customer with the amount
so paid, even though the endorsement of the payee subsequently turns out to be a forgery, or
though the endorsement may have been made by payee’ agent without his authority. In other
words, the banker is exonerated for the failure to direct either the genuineness of the validity
of the endorsement on the cheque purporting to be that of the payee or his authorised agent.
For example, a cheque is drawn payable to B on order and it is stolen. Thereafter, the thief
or someone else forges B’s endorsement and presents the cheque to the bank for
encashment. On paying the cheque, the banker would be able to debit the drawer’s account
with the amount of the cheque. Likewise, if the cheque, in the above case, was not stolen
but instead presented for payment by B’s agent on endorsing the same “Per pro” for B and
the cheque is cashed the banker could debit the account of the drawer. He would not be
held guilty of the ground that he has cashed the cheque endorsed by the agent of B who
has misappropriated the amount thereof.
Example: X drew a cheque payable to 'Y or on order’. Unfortunately it was lost and Y's
endorsement was forged. Subsequently, the banker pays for the cheque. Is the banker
discharged from liability? What will be the consequences if the drawer's signatures were
forged?
The paying banker is discharged from liability, despite the forged Indorsement in favour of
the payee, because of special protection granted by section 85(1) of the Negotiable
Instruments Act, 1881.
In another instance, where the drawer's signature is forged, a banker remains liable to the
drawer even by a payment in due course and cannot debit the drawer's account.
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Such a protection is also available in respect of drafts drawn by one branch of a bank of
another payable to order (Section 85A).
(j) Protection in respect of crossed cheques : When a banker pays a cheque (drawn by his
customer), if crossed generally then to any banker, and if crossed specially then to banker, to
whom it is crossed or his agent for collection (also being a banker), he can debit the drawer’s
account so paid, even though the amount of the cheque does not reach true owner.
The protection in either of the two cases aforementioned can be availed of, if the payment
has been made in due course: i.e., according to the apparent tenor of the instrument, in
good faith and without negligence, to any person in possession thereof in the circumstances
which do not excite any suspicion that he is not entitled to receive payment of the cheque.
The condition of good faith and without negligence would be judged on the criteria as are
applied for judging the conduct of a collecting banker. In brief, the payment should be made
in ordinary course in circumstances in which a man of ordinary prudence would not suspect
that the person claiming payment was not the true owner.
Even though the banker is protected for having made payment of the cheque to a wrong
person, the true owner of the cheque is entitled to recover the amount of the cheque from
the person who had no title to the cheque.
(k) Drawer, Drawee, Acceptor, Maker, Payee, etc.,: (i) The party who draws a bill of
exchange or a cheque or any other instrument is called drawer.
(ii) The party on whom such bill of exchange of cheque is drawn is called the drawee. In
other words the person who is thereby directed to pay is called the drawee.
(iii) The drawee of a bill of exchange who has signified his assent to the order of the drawer
is called the acceptor. The acceptor becomes liable to the holder after he has signified his
assent but not before.
Now a question would naturally arise as to who can be acceptors? Under Section 33 of the
Act, no person except the drawee of a bill of exchange, or all or some of several drawees or
a person named therein as drawee in case of need, can bind himself by an acceptance.
Under Section 34, where they are several drawees of a bill of exchange who are not
partners, each of them can accept it for himself; but none of them can accept it for another
without his authority.
It follows from the aforesaid provisions that the following persons can be acceptors:
(a) Drawee, i.e., the person directed to pay.
(b) All or some of the several drawees when the bill is addressed to more drawees than one.
(c) A drawee in case of need.
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made on a paper attached to the bill; in either of the cases, acceptance would not be
sufficient.
(d) Acceptance must be completed by delivery: It would not complete and the drawee would
not be bound until the drawee has either actually delivered the accepted bill to the
holder or tendered notice of such acceptance to the holder of the bill or some person on
his behalf.
Where a bill is drawn in sets, the acceptance should be put on one part only. Where the
drawee signs his acceptance on two or more parts, he may become liable on each of them
separately.
Acceptance may be either general or qualified. By a general acceptance, the acceptor
assents without qualification to the order of the drawer. The acceptance of a bill is said to be
qualified, when the drawee does not accept it according to the apparent tenor of the bill but
attaches some conditions or qualification which have the effect of either reducing his
(acceptor’s) liability or acceptance of the liability subject to certain conditions. The holder of
a bill is entitled to require an absolute and unconditional acceptance as well as to treat it as
dishonoured, if it is not so accepted. However he may agree to qualified acceptance, but he
does so at his own peril, since thereby he discharges all parties prior to himself, unless he
has obtained their consent.
According to the Explanation to Section 86 of the Act, an acceptance to be treated as
qualified.
(1) Where it is conditional, declaring the payment to be dependent on the happening of an
event therein stated, e.g., “accepted payable when in funds” (Juisan vs. Shobrooke
(1753,2 Wills, 9) “accepted payable on giving up bills of lading for cover per S.S.
Amazon” (Smith vs. Virtue) “accepted payable when a cargo consigned to me is sold”
(Smith vs. Abbot);
(2) When it undertakes the payment of part only of the sum ordered to be paid, e.g., a bill
drawn for Rs. 5,000 but “accepted for Rs. 4,000 only”.
(3) When, no place of payment being specified on the order, it undertakes to pay only at a
specified place and not elsewhere or to pay at a place different from that specified in the
bill and not elsewhere.
An acceptance to pay at a particular place is only a general acceptance unless it
expressly states that the bill is to be paid there only and not elsewhere in which case it
becomes qualified, for example, “accepted payable at the Diwala Bank”. This is general
acceptance, whereas “acceptance payable at the Diwala Bank and not elsewhere” is an
instance of qualified acceptance.
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(4) Where it undertakes the payment at a time other than that at which under the order it
would be legally due e.g., a bill drawn “payable three months after date” is accepted as
“accepted, payable six months after date.”
The aforementioned list of examples is only illustrative of the different respects in which
the bill may be qualified, for it is possible to qualify the acceptance of a bill in other ways
as well.
(v) Drawee in case of need: When in the bill or any endorsement thereon the name of any
person is entered, in addition to the drawee, to be restored to in case of need, such a
person is called a drawee in case of need. In case of need means in the event of the bill
being dishonoured by the drawee by non-acceptance or non-payment. The holder of the
bill is at liberty to choose whether he will resort to the drawee in case of need or not.
(vi) Payee: The party to whom or to whose order the amount of a bill of exchange, cheque or
promissory note is payable is the payee.
(vii) Delivery means transfer of possession from one person to another.
(viii) Issue of negotiable instrument means its first delivery, complete in form, to a person who
takes it as a holder.
(l) Holder, holder for value and holder in due course: (Sections 8 & 9) : (i) “Holder” of a
negotiable instrument means any person entitled in his own name to the possession of it
and to receive or recover the amount due thereon from the parties thereto. In other
words, holder means the payee or endorsee of a bill of exchange, cheque, or promissory
note, who is in possession of it. The finder of a lost instrument payable to bearer, or a
person in wrongful possession of such instrument, is not a holder.
(ii) “Holder for value” means, as regards all parties prior to himself, a holder of an instrument
for which value has at any time been given.
(iii) “Holder in due course”, in the case of an instrument payable to bearer means any person
who, for consideration became its possessor before the amount mentioned in it became
payable. In the case of an instrument payable to order, “holder in due course” means any
person who became the payee or endorsee of the instrument before the amount
mentioned in it became payable. In both the case, he must receive the instrument without
having sufficient cause to believe that any defect existed in the title of the person from
whom he derived his title. In other words, holder in due course means a holder who takes
the instrument bona fide for value before it is overdue, and without any notice of defects
in the title of the person, who transferred it to him. Thus a person who claims to be
‘holder in due course’ is required to prove that: (1) on paying a valuable consideration, he
became either the possessor of the instrument if payable to bearer, or endorsees thereof,
if payable to order; (2) he had come into the possession of the instrument before the
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amount due thereunder became actually payable; and (3) he had come to possess the
instrument without having sufficient cause to believe that any defect existed in the title of
transferor from whom he derived his title.
(m) Privileges of a “holder in due course”:
(i) A person signing and delivering to another a stamped but otherwise inchoate instrument
is debarred from asserting, as against a holder in due course, that the instrument has not
been filled in accordance with the authority given by him, the stamp being sufficient to
cover the amount (Section 20).
(ii) In case a bill of exchange is drawn payable to the drawer’s order in a fictitious name and
is endorsed by the same hand as the drawer’s signature, it is not permissible for acceptor
to allege as against the holder in due course that such name is fictitious (Section 42).
(iii) In case a bill or note is negotiated to a holder in due course, the other parties to the bill
or note cannot avoid liability on the ground that the delivery of the instrument was
conditional or for a special purpose only (Sections 42 and 47).
(iv) The person liable in a negotiable instrument cannot set up against the holder in due
course the defences that the instrument had been lost or obtained from the former by
means of an offence or fraud or for an unlawful consideration (Section 58).
(v) No maker of a promissory note, and no drawer of a bill or cheque and no acceptor of a
bill for the honour of the drawer shall, in a suit thereon by a holder in due course be
permitted to deny the validity of the instrument as originally made or drawn (Section 120).
(vi) No maker of a promissory note and no acceptor of a bill payable to order shall, in a suit
thereon by a holder in due course, be permitted to deny the payee’s capacity, at the rate
of the note or bill, to endorse the same (Section 121). In short, a holder in due course
gets a good title to the bill.
(n) Distinction between a holder and a holder in due course :
(i) A holder may become the possessor or payee of an instrument even without
consideration, whereas a holder in due course is one who acquires possession for
consideration.
(ii) A holder in due course as against a holder, must become the possessor payee of the
instrument before the amount thereon become payable.
(iii) A holder in due course as against a holder, must have become the payee of the
instrument in good faith i.e., without having sufficient cause to believe that any defect
existed in the transferor’s title.
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
Negotiation, endorsement, etc. (Sections 14 & 15) (i) Negotiation means the transfer of
an instrument for value to a person who, thereupon, become entitled to hold in and sue
thereon in his own name.
(ii) Endorsement denotes appropriate writing on the back of an instrument so as to transfer
the right, title and interest therein to some other person. For the purpose, no particular
form is necessary. For example, X, who is the holder of a negotiable instrument writes on
the back thereof: “pay to Y or order” and signs the instrument. In such a case, X is
deemed to have endorsed the instrument to Y. If X delivers the instrument to Y, X ceases
to be the holder and Y becomes the holder.
(iii) Bearer means the person in possession of an instrument which is payable to bearer.
(iv) Instrument, being choses, in action, are assignable without endorsement but the
assignee only acquires the rights of the assignor.
(o) Payment in due course (Section 10)
Under Section 10 of the Negotiable Instrument Act, “payment in due course” means
payment in accordance with the apparent tenor of the instruments in good faith and
without negligence to any person in possession thereof under circumstances which do
not afford a reasonable ground for believing that he is not entitled to receive payment of
the amount therein mentioned. In order that such payment may operate as a discharge of
a negotiable instrument, it must fulfil the following conditions.
(i) That the payment should be in accordance with the apparent tenor of the instrument. The
connotation of the expression ‘apparent tenors’ is “in accordance with what appears on
the face of the instrument to be the intention of the parties. Consequently, it is imperative
that the payment should be made at or after maturity. A payment before maturity is not a
payment in accordance with the apparent tenor of the instrument; and as such it is not a
payment in due course. Further, for the purpose of Section 10, such payment should be
made in money only, because the instrument expressed to be payable in money. A
different form of payment may however be adopted but only with the consent of the
holder of the instrument.
(ii) That the person to whom payment is made should be in possession of the instrument.
Therefore, payment must be made to the “holder” or a person authorised to receive
payment on his behalf. Suppose, the instrument is payable to a particular person or order
and is not endorsed by him. Payment to any person in actual possession of the
instrument in such case, will not amount to payment in due course. However, in the event
of the instrument being payable to bearer or endorsed in blank the payment to a person
who possesses the instrument is, in the absence of suspicious circumstances, payment
in due course. Any party to a bill, but not any stranger, may pay it; and on payment,
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acquire the rights of the holder against all parties prior to him. But a stranger may pay
supra protest and for honour of some party to the bill or note.
(iii) That the payment should be made in good faith, without negligence, and under
circumstances which do not afford a reasonable ground for believing that the person to
whom it is made is not entitled to receive the amount. If suspicious circumstances are
there, then person making the payment is to at once put on an enquiry. If he does not
make the enquiry, the payment would not be in due course.
2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
(a) Bearer and Order instruments: An instrument may be made payable: (1) to bearer; (2) to a
specified person or to his order.
An instrument is payable to bearer which is expressed to be so payable on which is expressed
thus “Pay to R or bearer”. It is also payable to bearer when the only or last endorsement on it
is an endorsement in blank.
An instrument is payable to order, (1) when it is payable to the order of a specified person or
(2) when it is payable to a specified person or his order or, (3) when it is payable to a specified
person without the addition of the words “or his order” and does not contain words prohibiting
transfer or indicating an intention that it should not be transferable. When an instrument, either
originally or by endorsement, is made payable to the order of a specified person and not to
him or his order, it is payable to him or his order, at his option.
When an instrument is not payable to bearer, the payee must be indicated with reasonable
certainty.
Significance of bearer instruments: The expression “bearer instrument” signifies an
instrument, be it a promissory note, bill of exchange or a cheque, which is expressed to be so
payable or on which the last endorsement is in blank (Explanation 2 to Section 13 of the
Negotiable Instrument Act).
Under Section 46, where an instrument is made payable to bearer it is transferable merely by
delivery, i.e., without any further endorsement thereon. This character of the instrument,
however, can be altered subsequently. For Section 49 provides that a holder of negotiable
instrument endorsed in blank (i.e., bearer) may, without signing his own name, by writing
above the endorser’s signatures, direct that the payment of the instrument be made to another
person. An endorsee thus, can convert an endorsement in blank into an endorsement in full. In
such a case, the holder of the instrument would not be able to negotiate the instrument by
mere delivery. He will be required to endorse the instrument before delivering it.
In the case of a cheque, however the law is a little different from the one stated above.
According to the provisions of Section 85(2) where a cheque is originally expressed to be
payable to bearer, the drawee is discharged by payment in due course to the bearer thereof,
2.18
The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
despite any endorsement whether in blank or full appearing thereon notwithstanding that any
such instrument purported to restrict or exclude further negotiation. In other words, the original
character of the cheque is not altered so far as the paying bank is concerned, provided the
payment is made in due course. Hence the proposition that “once a bearer instrument always
a bearer instrument”.
(b) Inland and foreign instrument (Sections 11 & 12): A promissory note, bill of exchange or
cheque drawn or made in India and made payable in or drawn upon any person resident in
India shall be deemed to be an inland instrument. Any such instrument, not so drawn, made or
payable shall be deemed to be a foreign instrument.
Thus, the foreign bills are:
(i) bills drawn outside India and made payable in or drawn upon any person resident in any
country outside India;
(ii) bills drawn outside India and made payable in India, or drawn upon any person resident in
India;
(iii) bills drawn in India upon persons resident outside India and made payable outside India.
In the absence of a contract to the country, the liability of the maker or drawer of a foreign
promissory note or bill of exchange is regulated in all essential matters by the law of the place
where he made the instrument, and the respective liability of the acceptor and endorser by the
law of the place where the instrument is made payable (Section 134). For example, a bill of
exchange is drawn by A in California where the rate of interest is 25% and accepted by B
payable in Washington where the rate of interest is 6%. The bill is endorsed in the State and is
dishonoured. An action on the bill is brought against B in the States. He is liable to pay
interest at the rate of 6% only. But if A is charged as drawer, he is liable to pay interest at 25.
The distinction between inland and foreign bills is of importance in connection with Sections
104 and 134 of the Act. Inland bills need not be protested for dishonour; protest in this case is
optional. But foreign bills must be protested when law of the place of making or drawing them
requires such protest. The question by what law are the contracts on negotiable instruments
governed is also important. Lex loci contractus governs the liabilities of the drawer or maker
and the form of the instrument.
N.B. Foreign bills must be protested for dishonour if the law of the place where these are
drawn prescribes for such a protest. In the case of inland bills, protest is optional (Section
104).
(c) Ambiguous and inchoate bills: An ambiguous bill means an instrument which can be
construed either as a promissory note or as bill of exchange (Section 17), e.g., a bill drawn by
a person on himself in favour of a third person or where the drawee is a fictitious person. The
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law on the point is that the holder of such a bill is at liberty to treat the instrument as bill or a
promissory note. The nature of the instrument will be as determined by the holder.
An incomplete instrument called an inchoate instrument. Section 20 of the Negotiable
Instruments Act provides that when one person signs and delivers to another a paper stamped
in accordance with the law relating to negotiable instruments then in force in India and either
wholly blank or having written thereon an incomplete negotiable instrument, he thereby give
prima facie authority to the holder thereof to maker or complete, as the case may be, upon it a
negotiable instrument for an amount specified therein and not exceeding the amount covered
by the stamp. The person so signing shall be liable upon such instrument in the capacity in
which he signed the same, to any holder in due course for such amount. Provided that no
person other than a holder in due course shall recover from the person delivering the
instrument anything in excess of the amount intended to be paid by them there under. The
principle of this rule (namely that a person who gives another possession to his signature on a
blank stamped paper, prima facie authorises the latter as his agent to fill it up and give to the
world the instrument as accepted by him) is one of estoppel. By such signature he binds
himself as drawer, maker, acceptor or endorser. His signature on the blank paper purports to
be an authority to the holder to fill up the blank, and complete the paper as a negotiable
instrument. Till this filling in and completion, the instrument is not a valid negotiable
instrument, and no action is maintainable on it. Further, as a condition of liability, the signer as
a maker, drawer, endorser or acceptor must deliver the instrument to another. In the absence
of delivery, the signer is not liable. Furthermore, the paper so signed and delivered must be
stamped in accordance with the law prevalent at the time of signing and on delivering
otherwise the signer is not estopped from showing that the instrument was filled without his
authority.
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
(ii) Time Bills: The expression “after sight” means, a promissory note after presentment for
sight, and in a bill of exchange, after acceptance, noting for non-acceptance or protest for
non-acceptance. It is useful to make a bill or not payable at so many months or days after
sight.
The term ‘after sight’ is differently used in a note and a bill. In the former case, it denotes that
payment is not to be demanded till it has been exhibited to the maker, for a note is incapable
of being accepted; while in the latter case, it denotes that sight must appears in legal way, i.e.,
after acceptance, if the bill has been accepted, or after noting for non-acceptance or protest
for non-acceptance (Homes vs. Kerisson).
(iii) Maturity: Where bill or note is payable at fixed period after sight, the question of maturity
becomes important. The maturity of a note or bill is the date on which it falls due. A note or
bill, not payable on demand, at sight or on presentment; is at maturity on the third day after
the day on which it is expressed to be payable. Three days are allowed as days of grace. No
days of grace are allowed in the case of a note or bill payable on demand, at sight, on
presentment.
(iv) Calculation of maturity : Where a bill is payable at a fixed period after sight, the time is to
be calculated from the date of acceptance if the bill is accepted and from the date of noting or
protest if the bill is noted or protested for non-acceptance (For the explanation of noting and
protesting, read Sections 99 and 100 of the Negotiable Instruments Act).
In the case of a note, the expression “after sight” means after exhibition thereof to maker for
the purpose of founding a claim for payment.
In the case of a bill payable after a stipulated number of months after sight which has been
accepted for honour, the date of its maturity is calculated from the date of acceptance for
honour. (For the explanation of the phrase ‘acceptance for honour’, read Section 108 of the
Negotiable Instruments Act).
In calculating the date at which a note or bill made payable a certain number of days after date
or after sight or after a certain event is at maturity on the day or the date, or the day of
presentment for acceptance or sight or the day of protest for non-acceptance, or the day on
which the event happens shall be excluded (Section 24). When a note or bill is made payable,
a stated number of months after date, the period stated terminates on the day of the month
which corresponds with the day on which the instrument is dated. When it is made payable
after a stated number of months after sight the period terminates on the day on the month
which corresponds with the day on which it is presented for acceptance or sight or noted for
non-acceptance or protested for non-acceptance. When it is payable a stated number of
months after a certain event, the period terminates on the day of the month which corresponds
with the day on which the event happens (Section 23).
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If the month in which the period would terminate has no corresponding day, the period
terminates on the last day of such month (Section 23). Three days of grace are allowed to
these instruments after the day on which they are expressed to be payable (Section 22).
When the last day of grace falls on a day which is public holiday, the instrument is due and
payable on the preceding business day (Section 25).
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
delivery is valid, the condition attaches exclusively to the delivery and not to the making or
drawing of an instrument. A bill must be drawn and a note made unconditionally. When an
instrument is delivered conditional or for special purpose, the property in the instrument does
not pass on to the transferee until the condition is fulfilled and the transferee holds such
instrument in law as trustee or agent of the transferor.
If, however, an instrument delivered conditionally to X is transferred by him for value to Y
without notice of the condition, Y can claim payment even if the condition is not complied with.
The reason is obvious - Y is bona fide transferee for value without notice of the condition and,
as such, he should not suffer for suppression of fact by X.
(iv) Negotiation by delivery (Section 47) : An instrument payable to bearer is negotiable by
delivery thereof. But when such instrument is delivered on condition that it is not to take effect
except in certain event, it is not negotiable (except in the hands of a holder for value without
notice of the condition) unless such event happens.
The distinction between ‘delivery’ and ‘negotiation’ should be noticed. An instrument is said to
be negotiated, when it is transferred from one person to another in such a manner as to
constitute the transferee the holder thereof.
(v) Negotiation by endorsement : In order to negotiate, that is to transfer title to an
instrument payable to order, it is at first to be endorsed and then delivered by the holder.
The Indorsement consists of the signature of the holder made on the back of the negotiable
instrument with the object of transferring the instrument. If there is no space on the
instrument, the Indorsement may be made on a slip of paper attached to it. This attachment is
known as “Allonge”.
According to Section 15 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 “ when the maker or holder
of a negotiable instrument signs the same, otherwise than as such maker, for the purpose of
negotiation, on the back or face therefore or on slip of paper annexed thereto, or so signs for
the same purpose a stamped paper intended to be completed as negotiable instrument, he is
said to indorse the same, and is called the indorser.”
(vi) Different types of endorsements (a) Blank (or general) : No endorsee is specified in an
endorsement in blank; it contains only the bare signature of the endorser. A bill so endorsed
becomes payable to bearer.
SPECIMEN
Motilal Poddar
(b) Special (or in full) : In such an endorsement, in addition to the signature of the endorser
the person to whom or to whose order the instrument is payable is specified.
2.23
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
SPECIMEN
Pay to B, Batliwala or order.
S. Shroff
(c) Restrictive : Such an endorsement has the effect of restricting further negotiation and
transfer.
SPECIMEN : (1) Pay to A only S. Mukerjee
(2) For the account of A only N. Aiyar
(d) Conditional : Such an endorsement combines an order to pay with condition.
SPECIMEN: Pay to A on safe receipt of goods.
V. Chopra
(e) Sans Recourse : By adding these words after the endorsement, the endorser declines to
accept and liability on the instrument of any subsequent party.
(f) Sans Frais : These words when added at the end of the endorsement, indicate that no
expenses should be incurred on account of the bill.
(g) Facultative : When it is desired to waive certain right, the appropriate words are added to
indicate the fact, e.g., “notice of dishonour dispensed with”.
Every endorser of a negotiable instrument is liable, under Section 35, to every subsequent
party to it provided due notice of dishonour is given to or received by him e.g., if a bill is drawn
by A upon B and is payable to C or order, and C endorses the bill to D, who in turn endorses it
to E, then, in case B, dishonours the bill, the holder, i.e., E has the right of action against all
the parties i.e., D.C. and A. Similarly, D has right against C and A. To this rule that every prior
party of a bill is liable to every subsequent party,there are a few exceptions which are
enumerated below:
(1) Any endorser can exclude personal liability by endorsing “sans recourse” i.e. without
recourse.
(2) If the holder of a negotiable instrument, without the consent of the endorser destroys the
instrument or in any way prejudices the holder (Section 40 ibid).
(3) The rule is not applicable also in the case of “circuity of action” - e.g., a bill is drawn by A
upon B payable to C or order, who endorses it to D who endorses it to E, who endorses it
to F, who endorses it to G and who again, endorses it back to D. In that case, it will be
observed that a circle is complete between the first and second holdings of D; and the
parties in between (i.e., E,F and G) are absolved from liability to D because D is, as
against them, both a subsequent party and a prior party. If, however, D’s first
endorsement was “sans recourse”, the intermediate parties, i.e., E, F and G would not be
absolved from liability to him.
2.24
The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
2.25
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
The explanation to Section 51 provides that though a maker or a drawer may endorse or
negotiate an instrument, he cannot do so, unless the instrument fall into his possession
in a lawful manner or unless he is the holder thereof. Further, insofar as the payee or an
endorsee is concerned, he must before he can negotiate the instrument, be a holder
thereof. Consequently, a person who steals or endorses or finds a lost instrument, cannot
endorse or negotiate, as he is not a holder within the meanings of the Act.
(x) Exclusion of liability of endorser (Section 52) : The endorser of an instrument may, by
express words in the endorsement, exclude his own liability on the instrument. Suppose
that the endorser signs his name, adding the words “without recourse”, he incurs no
liability. The holder cannot claim compensation from him in case of dishonoured by the
drawee, acceptor or maker. But for the words “without recourse”, he would have been
liable.
The endorser, instead of excluding his liability altogether, may restrict his liability by
endorsement. Thus, he may either (1) make his liability depend upon the happening of a
specified uncertain event, (2) make the right of the endorsee to receive the amount
mentioned in the instrument depend upon a specified uncertain event.
But when such endorser afterwards becomes the holder, all intermediate endorsers are
liable to him. For example, A the payee and holder of an instrument endorses it to B with
the words “without recourse” and B endorses it to C who in his turn endorses it to A, B
and C are liable to A as intermediate endorsers.
(xi) Holder deriving title from holder in due course (Section 53) : A holder of an instrument
deriving title from a holder in due course has rights thereon of the holder in due course.
Therefore, a holder deriving title from a holder in due course can claim the amount of a
bill drawn and accepted without consideration. It has been held that a title, which has
been cleansed of defects by passing through the hands of a holder in due course
remains immune from those defects inspite of the fact that a subsequent holder may
have noticed that the defects once existed provided he was not a party to them
[Guideford Trust vs. Goss [1926] 43 LR 167; Credit Bank vs. Schenkers [1927] WN 39].
For example, X obtains Y’s acceptance to a bill by fraud. X endorses it to Z who takes it
as a holder in due course. Z endorses the bill to F who knows of the fraud. Since F
derives the title from Z who is a holder in due course and F is not party to fraud, F gets a
good title to the bill.
(xii) Effect of endorsement in full after a blank one (Sections 54 and 55) : An instrument
endorsed in blank is payable to the bearer, although originally it was payable to order. If
an instrument after having been endorsed in blank is endorsed in full, the endorsee in full
does not incur the liability of an endorser, so the amount of it cannot be claimed from
him. In other words, if an endorsement in blank is followed by an endorsement in full, the
2.26
The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
instrument still remains payable to bearer and negotiable by delivery as against all
parties prior to the endorse in full, though the endorser in full is only liable to a holder
who made title directly through his endorsement and the persons deriving title through
such holder. For example, X is the payee holder of a bill of exchange. X endorsee it in
blank and delivers it to Y who endorses it in full to Z or order Z, without endorsement,
transfers the bill to F. In view of Section 55, F as the bearer of the instrument can receive
payment or sue the drawer, acceptor or X but not Y or Z who is a subsequent but not a
prior party. But there is an exception to this rule. The person to whom it has been
endorsed in full, or any one who derives title through him, can claim the amount from the
endorser in full.
(xiii) Effect of endorsement for part of sum due (Section 56) : An endorsement purporting to
transfer only a part of the amount of instrument is invalid, and the endorsee, therefore
cannot negotiate it. But when the amount due has been paid in part, a note to that effect
may be endorsed on instrument and the instrument may then be negotiated for the
balance.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
party to the negotiable instrument takes it again. For example, suppose that the endorsements
on a negotiable instrument are as under:
P
A
B
X
Y
A
Here A is person who is a prior party to the instrument. He negotiated it to B,B to X,X to Y and
Y again to this very A. On account of this last endorsement, A should have right to claim
money from X, Y and B. The rule is that every prior party is liable to every subsequent party.
Thus, conversely, every subsequent party may sue every prior party. As a result of the prior
party (i.e., A) having taken back the instrument subsequently, he (i.e., A) becomes a
‘subsequent’ party. Therefore A, by reason of the last endorsement mentioned above, come to
have the rights to claim money Y, X or B. A is permitted by law to use Y, X or B then Y, X or B
in his turn can sue A because of A’s prior endorsement. This will lead to a circuitry of action.
To prevent this, Section 52 of the Negotiable Instruments Act enacts an exception to the
general rule to provide that the holder in due course of a negotiable instrument may sue all
prior parties thereto. Thus A, in the above case cannot sue Y, X or B. But A can sue P since
the latter is prior to A’s original endorsement. If however A, in original endorsement, had
signed “sans recourse” there could be no circuitry of action and A could sue Y, X or B.
(b) Capacity to incur liability under instrument Section 26 : Every person competent to
contract has capacity to incur liability by making ‘drawing’ accepting, endorsing, delivering and
negotiating an instrument.
A party having such capacity may himself put his signature or authorise some other person to
do so.
A minor cannot make himself liable as drawer, acceptor or endorser, but where the instrument
is drawn or endorsed by him, the holder can receive payment from any other party thereto.
Authority to sign (Sections 27 & 28) : Every person, capable of incurring liability, may bind
himself or be bound by a duly authorised agent acting in the name.
A general authority to transact business given to an agent does not empower him to accept or
endorse bills of exchange so as to bind the principal.
An agent may have authority to draw bills of exchange, but not endorse them. An authority to
draw does not, necessarily, imply an authority to endorse.
2.28
The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
An agent who signs his name on an instrument without indicating that he signs as agent, is
personally liable, but this rule does not apply where any one induces him to sign upon the
belief that principal only would be held liable.
The mere signature of an agent in his own name, with the word “agent” added, does not
exempt him from personal liability.
(c) Liabilities of parties
(a) Liability of legal representatives (Section 29) : A ‘legal representative’ of a deceased
person, who signs his own name on an instrument, is personally liable for the entire amount;
but he may expressly limit his liability to the extent of the assets received by him as legal
representative. The term “legal representative” includes heirs, executors and administrators.
(b) Liability of drawer (Section 30) : The drawer of a bill of exchange or cheque is bound, in
the case of dishonour by the drawer or acceptor thereof to compensate the holder, provided
due notice of dishonour has been given to, or received by him provided in Sections 93 to 98 of
the Act.
The drawer’s liability is conditional, i.e., it arises only in the event of a dishonour by the
drawee or acceptor. Once there has been dishonour and the notice of dishonour has been
served on the drawer, he is bound to compensate the holder whatever be the state of the
account between himself and the drawee or acceptor (Seth Ka-Haridas vs. Bhai 3, Bom. 182).
The holder will have to be compensated, for the principal sum together with interest calculated
according to the rules mentioned in Sections 79 & 80 and for the expenses properly incurred
by him in presenting noting and protesting the instrument. On dishonour of a bill of exchange
by non-acceptance followed by a notice of dishonour to the drawer, the drawer becomes liable
immediately for the full amount of the bill. The drawer cannot ask the holder to wait till the date
of maturity to see whether it will be dishonoured by non-payment [Whitehead vs. Walker
[1842] 9 M and W 506]. If however, the holder chooses to wait till its maturity before he sues
the drawer he does not acquire a fresh cause of action by reason of its non-payment of the
due date.
The only pre-condition of the liability of the drawer is that notice of dishonours should have
been received by him, unless the case is one covered by Section 98 of the Act and notice of
dishonour is dispensed with.
The drawer of a bill or cheque is a “prior party” to the instrument and as such is liable for every
holder in due course, under Section 36 of the Act, till the instrument is discharged. Until
acceptance, he is liable on the instrument as a principal debtor and thereafter as a surety
(Section 37).
2.29
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Usually, the liability of the drawer of a bill or cheque is secondary and conditional (the liability
of the acceptor of the bill and drawee of the cheque being primary and unconditional).
However, in the case of an accommodation bill drawn for the accommodation of the drawer, in
addition to his liability to the payee or holder, the drawer is bound to indemnify the acceptor if
he suffers any damage on account of his acceptance.
It should, however, be noted that the liability of a drawer is subject to a contract to the
contrary. He may, by an express stipulation in the instrument, limit or exclude his liability.
(c) Liability of drawee of cheque (Section 31) : The drawee of the cheque is always a
banker. It is the duty of the banker to pay the cheque, provided he has in his hands sufficient
fund of the drawer and the funds are properly applicable to such payment. Trust money is not
properly applicable to the payment of a cheque drawn in breach of trust. If the banker refuses
payment without sufficient cause being shown, he must compensate the drawer for any loss
caused by such improper refusal. The bank is required to compensate, not the holder, but the
drawer. The amount of compensation, that the drawee would have to pay to the drawer is to
be measured by the loss or damage say loss of credit, suffered by the drawer). The principle
is: “The lesser the value of the cheque dishonoured, the greater the damage to the credit of
the drawer”. If there is any agreement between the drawer and the banker that the former shall
not draw more than one cheque every week, the banker is not bound to pay the second
cheque. The banker must pay the cheque, only when he is duly required to do so. If any
trustee opens an account the banker is entitled to refuse to pay cheques drawn for purposes
other than those of the trust.
In addition to such a general right, a banker will be justified or bound to dishonour a cheque in
the following cases, viz. ;
(i) If a cheque is undated [Griffth vs. Delton [1940] 2 K.B. 264].
(ii) If it is stale, that is if it has not been presented within reasonable period, which may vary
three months to a year after its issue dependent on the circumstances of the case
(Paget’s Law of Banking).
(iii) If the instrument is inchoate or not free from reasonable doubt [as per view of Lord
Haldan in London Joint Stock Bank vs. Macmillan and Arthur [1981] A.C. 777 (814)].
(iv) If the cheque is post-dated and presented for payment before its ostensible date [Morley
vs. Culverwell 7 M. & W. 174, 178].
(v) If the customer’s funds in the banker’s hands are not ‘properly applicable’ to the payment
of cheque drawn by the former. Thus, should the funds in the banker’s hand’s be subject
to a lien or should the banker be entitled to a set-off in respect of them, the funds cannot
be said to be “properly applicable” to the payment of the customer’s cheque, and the
banker would be justified in refusing payment.
2.30
The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
(vi) If the customer has credit with one branch of a bank and he draws a cheque upon
another branch of the same bank in which either he has account or his account is
overdrawn [Woodload & Fear (1808) A.C. 998].
(vii) If the bankers receive notice of customer’s insolvency or lunacy [Mathew vs.Sherwell
(1810), 2 Taunt 439, Screw vs. Nunn (879) 4 Q.B.D. 661].
(viii) If the customer countermands the payment of cheque for the banker’s duty and authority
to pay on a cheque ceases [Mowji Shamji vs.The National bank of India 22 Bom. 499].
(ix) If a garnishee or other legal order from the Court attaching or otherwise dealing with the
money in the hand of the banker, is served on the banker [Rogers vs.Whitely (1889), 22
Q.B.D. 236, affirmed 1892 A.C. 118].
(x) If the authority of the banker to honour a cheque of his customer is undermined by the
notice of the latter’s death. However, any payment made prior to the receipt of the notice
of death is valid [Tata vs. Hbert 9 Ves, 111; in re Beaumont, 1 Ch. 889].
(xi) If notice in respect of closure of the account is served by either party on the other
[Bukinghum & Co. vs. London & Midland Bank (1895) 12 T.L.R. 70].
(xii) If it contains material alterations, irregular signature or irregular endorsement.
(d) Liability of maker of note and acceptor of bill (Section 32) : The maker of a promissory
note is bound to pay the amount at maturity, according to the tenor of the note. In default of
such payment, the maker is bound to compensate any party to the note for any loss sustained
by reason of such default.
Under Section 32, the liability of the drawee only arises when he accepts the bills. In the
absence of a contract to the contrary, the acceptor (drawee) of a bill before maturity is bound
to pay the amount thereof only at maturity, in accordance with the apparent tenor of the
acceptance. In the event of the bill being accepted after maturity, he is bound for the amount
to the holder on demand. In default of such payment as aforesaid, he is bound to compensate
any party to the bill for any loss or damage caused to him by such a default. There is no
provision in the Act that the drawee as such is liable on the instrument, the only exception
being under Section 31 in the case of a drawee of cheque (discussed hereinafter) having
sufficient funds of the customer in his hands, and even then the liability is towards the drawer
and not the payee (Seth Jagjivan vs. Ranchhoddas A.I.R. 1954 S.C. 551).
The following persons incur liability by acceptance; (1) drawee (2) person named as drawee in
case of need, and (3) acceptor for honour. Where there are several drawees, each can accept
only for himself, unless they are partners.
(e) Liability of endorser (Section 35) : The endorser of an instrument by endorsing and
delivering the instrument, before maturity, undertakes in effect the responsibility that on the
2.31
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
due presentment it shall be accepted, (if a bill), and paid and that if it is dishonoured by the
drawee, acceptor or maker, he will indemnify the holder or subsequent endorser who is
compelled to pay, provided due notice of dishonour is received by him. But he may insert, in
the endorsement, stipulations excluding, or making his liability conditional. In this respect, his
position is better than that of a drawer or an acceptor, neither of whom can exclude his
liability. An acceptor, however can make his acceptance conditional.
(f) Liability of parties to holder in due course (Section 36) : Every prior party (i.e., maker or
drawer, acceptor and all intervening endorsers to an instrument is liable to a holder in due
course until the instrument is satisfied. Thus the maker and endorsers of a note are jointly and
severally liable for the payment and may be sued jointly.
(g) Liability of maker, drawer and acceptor as principals (Sections 37 & 38) : The maker of a
promissory note is liable as the principal debtor. If the payee endorses it to A, the maker will
be liable to A as the principal debtor and the payee will be liable as a surety. Similarly, the
drawer of a cheque, the drawer of a bill until acceptance and the acceptor are respectively
liable as sureties. As between the parties so liable as sureties, each prior party is also liable
as a principal debtor in respect of each subsequent party. For instance, A draws a bill payable
to his own order on B who accepts it. Afterwards A endorses the bill to C, C to D to E. As
between E (holder and B, B is the principal debtor, and A, C and D are his sureties. As
between E and C, C is the principal debtor and D his surety.
(h) Nature of suretyship (Section 39) : The holder of an accepted bill may waive his claim
against the acceptor, but at the same time, he may expressly reserve his right to charge the
other parties. Under Section 134 of the Contract Act, the release of the principal debtor has
the effect of discharging the surety, but in the case of a bill it is not so. But if the holder does
not reserve his right expressly against the other parties, they too will be discharged if he
releases the acceptor.
(i) Discharge of endorser’s liability (Section 40) : Any party liable on the instrument may be
discharged by the intentional cancellation of his signature by the holder. Suppose that A is the
holder of a bill of exchange of which B is the payee and it contains the following endorsement
in blank:
First endorsement, “B” Second endorsement, “C”
Third endorsement, “D” Fourth endorsement, “E”
A, the holder, may intentionally strike out the endorsement by D and C; in that case the liability
of D and C upon the bill will come to an end. But if the endorsements of D and C are struck
out without the consent of E, A will not be entitled to recover anything from E the reason being
that as between D and E, D is the principal debtor and E is surety. If D is released by the
holder under Section 39 of the Act, E, being surety, will be discharged. The rule may be stated
2.32
The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
thus: when the holder without the consent of the endorser impaires the endorser’s remedy
against a prior party, the endorser is discharged from liability to the holder.
(j) Effect of forged endorsement on acceptor’s liability (Section 41) : A bill may be accepted
before or after endorsement by the payee. The acceptor is not precluded by his acceptance
from showing that the subsequent endorsement is forged, since acceptance does not amount
to an admission that the endorsement is genuine. And the holder under a forged endorsement
cannot demand payment from the acceptor. But an acceptor of a bill already endorsed is not
relieved from liability by reason of the fact that such endorsement is forged, if he was aware at
the time of acceptance that the endorsement was forged; for by such acceptance he is
stopped from setting up forgery in denial of his liability.
(k) Liability of acceptor of a bill drawn in a fictitious name (Section 42) : The acceptor is not
relieved from liability by proving that the drawer is fictitious. Suppose X uses a fictitious name
in drawing a bill upon Z and that the bill is made payable to the order of the drawer X then
endorses the bill in the same fictitious name to Y, who presents the Bill to Z, for acceptance. If
Z accepts the bill,in spite of the fact that the name of the drawer is fictitious; he cannot escape
liability to pay by showing that the name of the drawer is fictitious; rather he will not be allowed
to lead evidence that the name is fictitious.
(l) Liability on an instrument made drawn etc. without consideration (Section 43) : An
instrument made, drawn, accepted, endorsed, or transferred without consideration creates no
obligation of payment between the parties to the instrument. For example, if a promissory note
is delivered by the maker to the payee as a gift, it cannot be endorsed against the maker by
the payee.
Similarly, if the consideration fails, there is no obligation on the parties to pay. For example, X
makes a note in favour of Y in anticipation of Y’s supplying a bale of cotton. Y fails to deliver
the cotton cannot claim payment from X.
Again, a bill that is drawn or accepted without consideration does not impose any liability
either on the drawer or on the acceptor to pay the holder. Similarly, if an instrument is en-
dorsed without consideration, nothing can be claimed from the endorser.
But if any party to an instrument made, accepted, endorsed or transferred without any
consideration, or for a consideration which fails, has transferred the instrument to a holder for
a consideration such holder and every subsequent holder deriving title from him, may recover
the amount due on such instrument from the transfer for consideration or from any party prior
thereto. For Example, X and Z are respectively the drawer, the payee and the acceptor of a
bill of exchange drawn without consideration; Y transfers the bill to P for consideration. P can
claim payment from Y and also from Z and X.
(d) Dishonoured cheque to be treated as an offence : From 1st April 1989, a person
issuing a Cheque will be committing an offence if the cheque is dishonoured for insufficiency
2.33
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
of funds. The offence will be punishable with imprisonment for a term up to two years [as
prescribed by the Negotiable Instruments (Amendment and Miscellneous and Provisions Act,
2002] or with a fine twice the amount of the cheque or both. The cheque in question should be
issued in discharge of a liability and therefore a cheque given as gift will not fall in this
category. The cheque should be presented within six months or its specific validity period
whichever is earlier. The payee or holder in due course should give notice demanding
payment within 15 days of his receiving information of dishonour which should be for no
reason other than insufficiency of funds. The drawer can make payment within 15 days of the
receipt of the notice and only if he fails to do so, prosecution can take place. The complaint
can be made only by the payee/holder in due course, within one month.
A banker who in good faith but without negligence receives payment for a customer of a
cheque crossed generally or specially to himself, does not, in the event of the title of the
customer to the cheque proving to be defective, incur any liability to the true owner of the
cheque for having received payment therefor (Section 131). It is special protection given to the
collecting banker which is available to him only if he acts in good faith but without negligence.
Given below are a few illustrations of circumstances in which a banker has been deemed to
have complied with these conditions :
(i) That the collecting banker has acted in good faith and without negligence. In Lloyds
Savoury Co. (1933) A.C. 201, the court held that if the banker receives payment of a cheque
to which the customer has no title, the onus is on him to disprove negligence. What amounts
to negligence is, however a question of fact in each case. “Negligence” means want of
“reasonable care” with reference to the interest of the true owner. The test of “negligence” is
whether the transaction of paying in any given cheque coupled with the circumstances
antecedent and present was so flagrantly out of the ordinary course that it ought to have
aroused suspicion in the mind of the banker and caused him to make enquiry (Bopulal Prem
Chand vs. The Nath Bank Ltd. 48 Bom. L.R. 393).
(ii) That the collecting banker has received payment of the crossed cheque for a customer.
To make a person a customer of a bank it is essential that there must be some sort of
account, either a deposit or a current account or some similar relation [Lucave Co. vs. Credit
Lyoanais (1897) 1 Q.B. 148].
(iii) That the collecting banker acts only to receive payment of the crossed cheque for
customer. The section will be restricted to a case where the banker is acting as an agent for
collection but not to a case where the banker is himself the holder. For example, if a customer
had overdrawn his account with the bank, and cheque was paid to extinguish that overdrawn
account, it was held that the bank was a holder of the cheque for value and not a mere agent
for collection. [McLean vs. Clydesale Banking Co. (1833) 9 A.C. 95, 115; A.L. Underwood Ltd.
vs. Barclays Bank (1914) I.K.B. 799].
2.34
The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
(iv) That the payment has been received only for a crossed cheque, and that crossing had
been made before the cheque fell into the hands of the collecting bankers.
If the aforementioned conditions do not co-exist, this protection would be denied to the
collecting banker. The protection can be claimed by the collecting banker even when he
credited his customer’s account with the amount of the cheque before receiving payment
thereof. The protection is also available in respect of any draft as defined in Section 85A
(Section 131A).
(e) Problems :
(1) A drawer of a cheque after having issued the cheque, informs the drawee not to present
the cheque as well as informs the bank to stop the payment. Does it constitute an offence
under the Act ?
The Supreme Court in Modi Cements Ltd. vs. Kuchil Kumar Nandi [1998] 2 CLJ 8 held that
once a cheque is issued by the drawer, a presumption under Section 139 follows and merely
because the drawer issues a notice thereafter to the drawee or to the bank for stoppage of
payment, it will not preclude an action under Section 138. The object of Sections 138 to 142 of
the Act is to promote the efficacy of the banking operations and to ensure credibility in
transacting business through cheques. Section 138 is a penal provision in the sense that once
a cheque is drawn on an account maintained by the drawer with his banker for payment of any
amount of money to another person from out of that account for the discharge in whole or in
part of any debt or other liability, is informed by the bank unpaid either because of insuf-
ficiency of amount to honour the cheques or the amount exceeding the arrangement made
with the bank, such a person shall be deemed to have committed an offence.
(2) Whether the payee or the holder of a cheque can initiate prosecution for an offence
under the N.I. Act, for its dishonour for the second time if he had not initiated now prosecution
on the first occasion ?
Supreme Court in Sadanandan Bhadran v. Madhavan Sunil Kumar [1998] 4 CLJ 228 held
that on a careful analysis of Section 138, it is seen that the main part creates an offence when
a cheque is returned by the bank unpaid for any of the reasons mentioned therein. The said
proviso lays down three conditions precedent to the applicability of the above section and the
conditions are :
(1) the cheque should have been presented to the bank within six months of its issue or
within the period of its validity whichever is earlier;
(2) the payee should have made a demand for payment by registered notice after the
cheque is returned unpaid and;
(3) the drawer should have failed to pay the amount within 30 days [as per Negotiable
Instruments (Amendment and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 2002] of the receipt of
2.35
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
notice. It is only when all the above three conditions are satisfied that a prosecution can
be launched for the offence under Section 138.
So far as the first condition is concerned, clause (a) of the proviso to section 138 does not put
any embargo upon the payee to successively present a dishonoured cheque during the period
of validity. It is not uncommon for a cheque being presented again and again within its validity
period in the expectation that it would be enchased. The question whether dishonour of the
cheque on each occasion of its presentation gives rise to a fresh cause of action, the following
facts are required to be proved to successfully prosecute the drawer for an offence under
Section 138 :-
(1) that the cheque was drawn for payment of an amount of money for discharge of a
debt/liability and the cheque was dishonoured;
(2) that the cheque was presented within the prescribed period;
(3) that the payee made demand for payment of the money by giving a notice in writing to
the drawer within the stipulated period;
(4) that the drawer failed to make the payment within 30 days (as per Negotiable Instruments
(Amendment and Miscellanous Provisions) Act, 2002) of the receipt of the notice.
If one has to proceed on the basis of the generic meaning of the terms “cause of action”,
certainly each of the above facts would constitute a part of the cause of action, but it is
significant to note that clause (b) of Section 142 gives a restrictive meaning in that it refers to
only one fact which will give rise to the cause of action and that is failure to make the payment
within 30 days from the date of receipt of the notice.
Besides the language of Sections 138 and 142 which clearly postulates only one cause of
action, there are other formidable impediments which negates the concept of successive
causes of action. The combined reading of Sections 138 and 142 leave no room for doubt that
cause of action within the meaning of Section 142(c) arises and can arise only once.
The final question as how apparently conflicting provisions of the Act, one enabling the payee
to repeatedly present the cheque and the other giving him only one opportunity to file a
complaint for its dishonour and that too within one month from the date of cause of action
arises can be reconciled, the Court held that the two provisions can be harmonised with the
interpretation that on each presentation of the cheque and its dishonour, a fresh right and not
cause of action accrues in his favour.
Therefore, the holder/payee of a cheque cannot initiate prosecution for an offence under
Section 138 for its dishonour for the second time, if he had not initiated such prosecution on
the earlier cause of action.
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
(3) What is the extent of liability of the company and the person(s) in charge of the company
in respect of an offence for dishonour of cheques?
From a perusal of Section 141, it is apparent that in case where a company committed an
offence under Section 138, then not only the company, but also every person who at the time
when the offence was committed, was in charge of and was responsible to the company shall
deemed to be guilty of the offence and liable to be proceeded against under those provisions,
only if that person was in charge of and was responsible to the company for the conduct of its
business. [K.P.G. Nair vs. Jindal Menthol Indian Ltd. (2001) 2CLJ 258 SC]
(4) For cognizance of offence for the dishonour of cheque, should the cheque necessarily be
presented to the drawee’s (payee’s) bank or can it be presented before any bank within the
stipulated period?
The Act intends to legalise the system under which claims upon mercantile instruments could
be equated with ordinary goods passing from hand to hand. To achieve the objective of the
Act, the legislature in its wisdom thought it proper to make provision in the Act for conferring
such privileges to the mercantile instruments contemplated under it and provide special
procedure in case the obligation under the instrument was not discharged. It has, always to be
kept in mind that Section 138 of the Act creates an offence and it has further to be noticed that
to make an offence under Section 138 of the Act, it is mandatory that the cheque is presented
to the bank within a period of six months, from the date on which it is drawn or within the
period of its validity, which ever is earlier. It is the cheque drawn which has to be presented to
the bank within the period specified therein. The post-dated cheque becomes a cheque under
the Act on the date which is written on the said cheque and the six months period has to be
recokned, for the purposes of Section 138 of the Act, from the said date.
Section 138 provides that where any cheque drawn by a person on an account maintained by
him with a 'banker' for payment of any amount of money to another person from out of that
account for the discharge, in whole or in part, of any debt or other liability, is returned by 'the
bank' unpaid, either because of the amount of money standing to the credit of that account is
insufficient to honour the cheque or that it exceeds the amount arranged to be paid from that
account by an agreement made with the bank, such person shall be deemed to have
committed on offence punishable with imprisonment as prescribed therein subject to the
conditions mentioned in clauses (a), (b) and (c) of the proviso. Section 3 of the Act defines the
'banker' to include any person acting as a banker and any post office savings bank. Section 72
of the Act provides that a cheque must, in order to charge the drawer, be presented at the
bank upon which it is drawn before the relations between the drawer and his banker has been
altered to the prejudice of the drawer.
The use of the words 'a bank' and 'the bank' in the section is indicator of the intention of the
legislature. The former is indirect article and the latter is pre-fixed by direct article. If the
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legislature intended to have the same meanings for 'a bank' and 'the bank', there was no
cause or occasion for mentioning it distinctly and differently by using two different articles. It is
worth noticing that the word 'banker' in Section 3 of the Act is prefixed by the indefinite article
'a' and the word 'banker' in Section 3 of the Act is prefixed by the indefinite article 'a' and the
word 'bank' where the cheque is intended to be presented under Section 138 is prefixed by the
definite article 'the'. The same section permits a person to issue a cheque on an account
maintained by him with 'a bank' and makes him liable for criminal prosecution if it is returned
by 'the bank' unpaid. The payment of the cheque is contemplated by 'the bank' meaning
before nouns, with a specifying of particularising effect opposed to the indefinite or
generalising force of 'a' or 'an'. It determines what particular thing is meant that is, what
particular thing we are to assume to be meant. 'The' is always mentioned to denote particular
thing or a person. 'The' would, therefore, refer implicity to a specified bank and not any bank.
"The bank" referred to in clause (a) to the proviso to Section 138 of the Act would mean the
drawee-bank on which the cheque is drawn and not all banks where the cheque is presented
for collection including the bank of the payee, in whose favour the cheque is issued.
It, however, does not mean that the cheque is always to be presented to the drawer's bank on
which the cheque is issued. The payee of the cheque has the option to present, the cheque in
any bank including the collecting bank where he has his account, but to attract the criminal
liability of the drawer of the cheque, such collecting bank is obliged to present the cheque in
the drawee or payee bank on which the cheque drawn within the period of six months from the
date on which it is shown to have been issued. In other words, a cheque issued by (A) in
favour of (B) drawn in a bank named (C) where the drawer has an account can be presented
by the payee to the bank upon which it is drawn i.e. (C) bank within a period of six months, or
present it to any other bank for collection of the cheque amount provided such other bank
including the collecting-bank presents the cheque for collection to the (C) bank. The non-
presentation of the cheque to the drawee-bank within the period specified in the Section would
absolve the person issuing the cheque, of his criminal liability under Section 138 of the Act,
who shall otherwise may be liable to pay the cheque amount to the payee in a civil action
initiated under the law.
[A combined reading of Sections 2, 72 and 138 of the Act would leave no doubt that the law
mandates the cheque to be presented at the bank on which it is drawn, if the drawer is to be
held criminally liable. Such presentation is necessarily to be made within six months at the
bank on ©which the cheque is drawn whether presented personally, or through another bank,
namely, the collecting bank of the payee.] Shri Ishar Alloy Steels Ltd. (v) Jayaswals Neco. Ltd.
(2001) LCLJ 18 (SC)
(5) Whether ‘giving of notice of dishonour itself constitute ‘receipt of notice for constituting
offence under Section 138 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881?
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
The above matter was considered by the Supreme Court in Oalmia Cement (Bharat) Ltd v.
Galaxy Traders and Agencies Ltd., (2001) 5 CLJ 26 SC. The Court observed that, the payee
has to make a demand by ‘giving’ notice in writing and it is a failure on the part of the drawer
to pay the amount within 15 days [30 days as per Negotiable Instrument (Amendment and
Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 2002] of the ‘receipt’ in writing of the said notice in writing
giving is a process of which receipt is the accomplishment. It is therefore clear that 'giving'
notice is not the same as 'receipt' of notice. It is for the payee to perform the former process
by sending the notice to the drawer at the correct address. The context envisaged in Section
138 of the Act invites a liberal interpretation for the person who has the statutory obligation to
give notice because he is presumed to be the loser in the transaction and it is for his interest,
that the very provision is made by the legislature. The words in clause (b) of the proviso to
Section 138 of the Act shown that the payee has the statutory obligation to make a demand by
giving notice. The thrust in the clause is on the need to make a demand. It is only the mode for
making such demand, which the legislature has prescribed. A payee can send the notice for
doing his part for giving the notice. Once it is dispatched, his part is over and the next
depends on what the sender does.
The next question arises - What is the starting point for fifteen (now 30 days) days notice?
Section 138(b), inter alia, provides that the payee has to make a demand for the payment of
money by giving a notice to the drawer of the cheque within 15 days (now 30 days) of the
receipt of information by him from the bank regarding the return of the cheque as unpaid.
Therefore, the fifteen days (now 30 days) are to be counted from the receipt of information
regarding the return of the cheque as unpaid. For example, where the cheque was returned on
13th January by the bank with stop endorsement, but the information regarding the return was
received by the appellant only on 17th January, since 14th to 16th January happened to be
bank holidays and the complainant issued notice on 29th January, it cannot be said that the
notice issued on 29th January fell outside the prescribed period of 15 days (now 30 days).
Munoth Investments Ltd. v. Puttukola Properties Ltd. IT 2001 (6) SC 403
Whether demand draft is a cheque?
Section 131 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 is intended to widen the scope of a
crossed draft as to contain all incidences of a crossed cheque. This is for the purpose of
foreclosing a possibility of holding the view that a draft cannot be crossed. Even if it is
possible to construe the draft either as a promissory note or as a Bill of Exchange, the law has
given the option to the holder to treat it as he chooses. This can be discerned from the Section
137 which says that where an instrument may be construed either as a promissory note or bill
of exchange, the holder may, at his discretion, treat it as either and the instrument shall
thence forward be treated accordingly. This means, once the holder has elected to treat the
instrument as a cheque, it cannot but be treated as a cheque thereafter. This is an
irretrievable corollary of exercising such an election by the holder himself. A pay order was
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accordingly held to be a cheque entitling the bank holding the instrument to lodge a complaint
under Section 138. Punjab & Sind Bank v Vinkar Sahakari Bank Ltd., (2001) 4 CLJ 188 (SC)
(6) Where an owner of company, who is neither a director nor a person-in-charge, sent a
cheque from the companies account to discharge its legal liability. Subsequently the cheque
was dishonoured and the compliant was lodged against him. Does he liable for an offence
under section 138?
H.N.D.Mulla Feroze Vs. C.Y.Somayajulu, J [2004] 55 SCL (AP)
The owner of a company (i.e., petitioner) borrowed a loan of 25 lakhs on behalf of his
company from the respondent. Later, at the request of respondent, the petitioner sent a
cheque from the companies account. However, the cheque was dishonoured.
The respondent filed a complaint under section 138 with reference to Dishonour of cheque for
insufficiency, etc, of funds in the account, against the petitioner and another in connection with
the bouncing of a cheque issued on behalf of the company.
This compliant was challenged on the ground that, the petitioner is neither a director nor a
person-in-charge of the company and is not connected with the day to day affairs of the
company and had neither opened nor is operating the bank account of the company and had
not issued the cheque which was dishonoured and further contended that in any event notice
of dishonour of the cheque was not served.
The Andhra Pradesh High court held that, although the petitioner has a legal liability to refund
amount to the appellant, petitioner is not the drawer of the cheque, which was dishonoured,
and the cheque was also not drawn on an account maintained by him but was drawn on an
account maintained by the company. Hence, it was held that the petitioner couldn’t be said to
have committed the offence under section 138 of the Act.
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
Under Section 45A, the loser of the instrument has the right to apply to the drawer for a
duplicate of the lost bill. If the drawer does not grant the application the loser may compel him
to provide him with a duplicate.
(b) Rights and obligations of a person who had obtained an instrument by unlawful means :
If an instrument is obtained from any maker, acceptor or holder by means of an offence or
fraud, the possessor is not, ordinarily, entitled to receive the amount under it from such maker,
acceptor or holder, or from any party prior to such holder. Thus, if X steals a bill from the
acceptor, X does not acquire any title to the instrument, and the proceeds of the bill, if
collected, could be recovered from X by acceptor. If X transfers it to Y who is a gratuitous
transferee, Y too would not acquire any title to the bill. Similarly, if X obtains a bill from the
acceptor by fraud, he cannot receive the amount of it, but if he endorses it to Y who receives
the bill for value without notice of the fraud, he could collect the amount of the bill from X but
from no other party.
(c) Rights and obligations of a person who has obtained an instrument for unlawful
consideration : When an instrument has been obtained from any maker, acceptor or holder for
an unlawful consideration no possessor is, ordinarily, entitled to receive the amount due
thereon from such maker, acceptor or holder or from any party prior to such holder. The
consideration may be unlawful either because it is immoral and contrary to public policy or
because it is specially interdicted or prohibited by the statute. If the possessor endorses it to
say, P, even P would not be entitled to claim payment, unless he is holder in due course. P
would be regarded as a holder in the course, if it is endorsed to him for valuable consideration
without any notice having been received by him as to the consideration being unlawful.
Effect of forgery : Where a signature on a negotiable instrument has been forged, it become a
nullity: the property in the instrument remains vested in the person who is the holder at the
time when the forged signature was put on it. The holder of a forged instrument can neither
enforce payment thereon nor give a valid discharge therefor. In the event of the holder being
able to obtain payment in spite of forgery, he cannot retain the money. The true owner may
sue in tort the person who had received. This principle is universal in character, by reason
whereof even a holder in due course is not exempt from it. Forgery is not capable of being
ratified.
But what would be the effect of a forged endorsement? The answer to this question is wholly
dependent upon whether the instrument had been endorsed in full or in blank. In the former
case, the person claiming under the forged endorsement even if he is a purchaser for value
and in good faith, cannot acquire the rights of a purchaser for value and in good faith cannot
acquire the rights of a holder in due course. He acquires no title to the bill or note. (Mercantile
Bank vs. D’ Silva, 30 Bom. L.R. 1225).
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Instrument acquired after dishonour (Section 59) : It has already been pointed out that the
holder in due course is not affected by the defect in the title of his transferor; but it is not so in
the case of a holder who acquires the instrument after dishonour, or after maturity.
The holder of instrument, who has acquired it after dishonour, has as against the other parties,
only the rights thereon of his transferor. For example, receive the amount of it from the other
parties because the endorsee too could not do so.
Instrument acquired after maturity (Section 59) : The holder of an overdue instrument too is
affected by the defect in title of his transferor. For example, Q accepts a bill drawn by P and
deposits with P certain goods as collateral security for the payment of bill. The bill, not having
been paid at maturity, P sells the goods and retains the proceeds, but in breach of faith
endorses the bill to R. R, having only the right of P, cannot realise the amount of the bill from
Q. But if R were bona fide endorsee before maturity, he could realise the amount from Q.
Liabilities on an accommodation note or bill (Proviso to Section 59) : In the case of
accommodation bills or notes, a defect in the title of the transferor does not affect the title of
the holder acquiring after maturity. An accommodation may be explained as follows: X draws a
bill payable to himself on Y, who accepts the bill without consideration just to accommodate X,
that is, to enable X to raise money by negotiating the bill in the market. Though Y accepts the
bill, X is primarily liable on the bill, and he cannot demand the amount from Y, for in an
accommodation bill, the acceptor is only surety for the party accommodated. However, if the
accommodation bill, in the above illustration, is transferred by X to Z for good consideration
after maturity and Z becomes the holder in good faith, Z will be able to realise the amount of
the bill from Y, the acceptor though Z’s transferor X could not, at the date of transfer, recover
anything from Y.
Duration of negotiation (Section 60) : An instrument may be negotiated until payment thereof
by the maker, drawee or acceptor at or after maturity, but not after such payment. But the
maker, drawee or acceptor cannot negotiate the instrument after maturity, even if it remains
unpaid. An instrument may be satisfied even without payment, and such satisfaction is
equivalent to payment.
Discharge from liability on Notes, bills and cheques : (a) Distinction between discharge of a
party and discharge of instrument: An instrument is said to be discharged only when the party
who is ultimately liable thereon is discharged from liability. Therefore, discharge of a party to
an instrument does not discharge the instrument itself. Consequently, the holder in due course
may proceed against the other parties liable for the instrument. For example, the endorser of a
bill may be discharged from his liability, but even then acceptor may be proceeded against. On
the other hand, when a bill has been discharged by payment, all rights thereunder are
extinguished, even a holder in due course cannot claim any amount under the bill.
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
(b) Different modes of discharge from liability : Parties to negotiable instrument are
discharged from liabilities when the right of action on the instrument is extinguished. The right
of action on a negotiable instrument is extinguished by the following methods:
(i) By payment in due course : The maker, acceptor or endorser respectively of a negotiable
instrument is discharged from liability thereon to all parties thereto if the instrument is
payable to bearer, or has been endorsed in blank and such maker, acceptor or endorser
makes payment in due course of the amount due thereon i.e., when the payment has
been made to the holder of the instrument at or after maturity in good faith and without
notice of any defect in the title to the instrument (Section 82).
(ii) By cancellations of acceptor’s or endorser’s name : The maker, acceptor and endorser
respectively of a negotiable instrument is discharged from liability thereon to a holder
thereof who has cancelled such acceptor’s or endorser’s name with the intent to discharge
him and to all parties claiming under such holder. In other words, if the holder (payee) of a
bill cancels the signature of acceptor (drawee) with an intention to discharge him, both
maker (drawer) and the acceptor of such negotiable instrument are discharged from the
liability to the holder and to all parties claiming under such a holder [Clause (a) Section
82.]
(iii) By release : The maker, acceptor or endorser respectively of a negotiable instrument is
discharged from liability thereon to a holder thereof who has renounced his right in
respect of the instrument. The waiver of the right may be express or implied [Clause (b) of
Section 82].
(iv) By default of the holder : If the holder of a bill of exchange allows the drawee more than
forty-eight hours, exclusive of public holiday, to decide whether he will accept the bill, all
prior parties not consenting to such an allowance are discharged from liability to such
holder. It is because if the drawee fails to signify his acceptance within forty-eight hours,
the holder must treat the instrument as dishonoured and he must at once give notice to
the drawer and to all prior, parties, and must not allow time unless they give their consent
that more time should be allowed (Section 83).
(v) Dissenting parties discharged by qualified or a limited acceptance : If the holder of a bill
who is entitled to an absolute and unqualified acceptance elects to take a qualified ac-
ceptance, he does so at his own peril and discharges all parties prior to himself unless he
obtains their consent to such an acceptance. Thus, the previous parties are discharged in
the following cases namely (i) when acceptance is qualified, (ii) when acceptance is for a
part of the sum, (iii) when acceptance substitutes a different place or time of payment,
(iv) when acceptance is not signed by the drawees not being partners.
They are discharged, if such acceptance is acquiesed in by the holder without obtaining
their previous consent. They are discharged as against the holder and those claiming
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
under him. But, if they subsequently approve of such acceptance by the holder, they will
not be discharged.
An acceptance is qualified in the following cases, namely : (a) where it is conditional,
declaring the payment to be dependent on the happening of an event stated therein, (b)
when it undertakes the payment of part only of the sum ordered to be paid, (c) where no
place of payment being specified on the order, it undertakes the payment at a specified
place, and not otherwise or elsewhere or where a place of payment being specified in the
order it undertakes the payment at some other place and otherwise or elsewhere, (d)
where it undertakes the payment at a time other than that at which under the order it
would be legally due (Section 86).
(vi) By material alteration of the instrument without assent of all parties liable : Any material
alteration of a negotiable instrument renders the same void as against any one who is
party thereto at the time of making such alteration and does not consent thereto, unless it
was made in order to carry out the common intention of the original parties and any such
alteration, if made by an endorsee, discharges his endorser from all liability to him in
respect of the consideration thereof (Section 87). The alteration must be so material that
it alters the character of the instrument to a great extent. Alteration of the date, alteration
of the amount payable, or alteration of the time and the alteration on the place of
payment of the instrument are regarded as material alterations of the instrument. In
Hongkong and Shangai Bank vs. Lee Shi (1928) A.C. 181, it has been held that an
accidental alteration will not, however, render the instrument void. It is necessary to show
that the alteration has been improperly and intentionally.
(vii) By payment, alteration not being apparent : If, however, a person pays an altered note,
bill or cheque, provided the alteration is not apparent and payment is made in due course
by person or a banker who is liable to pay the amount he is protected (Section 89): For
example, if A draws a cheque for Rs. 8 in favour of B who fraudulently converts eight into
eighty, and the alteration is not apparent, the banker, paying Rs. 80 to B will not be liable
to make good to the drawer the amount paid in excess.
(viii) By acceptor becoming holder of a bill at or after maturity in his own right : If a bill of
exchange which has been negotiated is, at or after maturity held by the acceptor in his
own right all rights to action thereon are extinguished (Section 90).
(ix) By default in presenting the cheque within a reasonable time : In the case of a cheque, if
it is not presented for payment within a reasonable time of its issue and the drawer or
person on whose account, it is drawn had the right at the time when presentment ought
to have been made as between himself and the banker, to have the cheque paid and
suffers actual damage through the delay he is discharged to the extent of such damage,
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
that is to say, to the extent to which such drawer or person is creditor of the banker to a
larger amount that he would have been if such cheque had been paid (Section 84).
For example, if X draws 10 cheques of Rs. 100 each, but when the cheque ought to be
presented, has only Rs. 600 at the bank and subsequently the bank fails before the
cheques are presented, X will be released from liability to the extent of Rs. 600 but will
remain liable for the balance. If he had the full amount of Rs. 1,000 at the bank, he will
be discharged in full.
Note : In the above case liability of the drawer will be transferred to the banker. For
determining what is reasonable time for presentation, the following matters would be
considered: (i) nature of instrument: (ii) usage of the trade and bankers and (iii) facts of
the case.
(x) By operation of law : It should be noted that a negotiable instrument is also discharged
by operation of law which may occur in any one of the following circumstances. (a) By
lapse of time i.e., when the claim under the instrument becomes barred by the Limitation
Act on the expiry of the period prescribed for the recovery of the amount due on the
instrument; (b) By merger, i.e., when the debt, under the instrument is merged in the
judgement debt obtained against the acceptor maker or endorser; Under the law of
insolvency, i.e., when the acceptor, maker, or endorser, who has been adjudicated an
insolvent, is discharged by an order of the Court made in the insolvency proceedings.
(xi) By payment by the drawee of a cheque payable to order or to bearer : Where a cheque
payable to order purports to be endorsed by or on behalf of the payee, the drawee who
always is a banker is discharged by payment in due course. A cheque is said to have
been paid in due course, when it has been paid in good faith, after taking proper care to
ascertain the genuineness of the endorsement. Payment in due course discharges the
bank from liability even if the payment is made to a wrong person. Even if the
endorsement of the payee is forged the banker is discharged from the payment in good
faith and without negligence. But if the drawer’s signature is forged, the banker can,
under no circumstances, claim discharge on payment, for the banker is presumed to
know the signature of his customer (i.e. the drawer).
The bank is discharged by payment in due course to the bearer notwithstanding any
endorsement thereon, whether in full or in part and whether or not such endorsement purports
to restrict or exclude further negotiation. The endorsee under an endorsement in full cannot
recover the amount from the banker who has paid it to the bearer (Section 85).
The rule of the discharge applicable to a cheque payable to order also applies, to a draft
drawn by one of the bank upon another payable to order or demand (Section 85A).
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notice of dishonour. (iii) When the party charged would not suffer damage for want of a notice.
In such a case neither presentment nor notice of dishonour is necessary, provided it is shown
that at the time of drawing the instrument there were no funds belonging to the drawer in the
hands of the drawee [Subrao vs. Sitaram 2 Bom. L.R. 891]. (iv) When the party entitled to
notice after due search, cannot be found. (v) Where there has been accidental omission to
give the notice, provided the omission has been caused by an unavoidable circumstances,
e.g., death or dangerous malady of the holder or his agent, or other inevitable accident, or
overwhelming catastrophe not attributable to the default, misconduct or negligence of the
party tendering notice. (vi) When one of the drawers is acceptor. From this, it is also possible
to deduce a further rule that notice of dishonour is not necessary for charging the drawer
where the drawer and the acceptor are the same person. However, the mere fact that the
drawer and drawee of a bill are partners does not give rise to the presumption that they are
partners in respect of the drawing of the bill, or that the bill was drawn by one of them on
behalf of both. [Jambu Ramaswamy vs. Sundraraja Chetti 29 Mad. 239]. Such a case does not
fall under purview of the rule mentioned above, so as to dispense with notice. (vii) In the case
of promissory note which is not negotiable, (viii) When the party entitled to notice, knowing the
facts, promises unconditionally to pay the amount due on the instrument.
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
protesting is that this constitutes prima facie good evidence in the Court of the fact that
instrument has been dishonoured. It is necessary to note that under Section 119, the Court is
bound to recognise a protest. But it may or may not recognise noting. To make good this
lacuna, Section 104A has been introduced. It clarifies the position that any bill or document
which has been noted can be protested any time thereafter for taking legal action against the
parties. Thus, where a document has been noted within the time required by law, legal
proceeding cannot be vitiated on account of protest not having been made.
(c) Notary Public : A Notary public is appointed by the Central or State Government. His
functions are to attest deeds, contracts and other instruments that are to be used abroad and
to give a certificate of due execution of such documents. He enjoys the confidence of the
business world, and any certificate given by him is presumed to be true by a court of law. The
profession of notaries is regulated by the Notaries Act, 1952.
(d) Notice of Protest : When a promissory note or a bill of exchange is required by law to be
protested, notice of such protest in lieu of notice of dishonour must be given in the same
manner as notice of dishonour (Section 102).
2.13 ACCEPTANCE AND PAYMENT FOR HONOUR AND REFERENCE IN CASE OF NEED
Acceptance for honour:- If a bill has been dishonoured by non-acceptance and has been duly
noted or protested for such dishonour, any person, before it is overdue, who is not a party al-
ready liable under the bill may, with the consent of the holder of the bill, by writing on the bill,
accept the bill for the honour of any of the parties liable on it. The object of such an
acceptance for honour is to protect the credit of the party liable on the bill, and to prevent legal
proceedings being taken against him.
Conditions for valid acceptance for honour : These are : (i) that the bill has been noted or
protested for non-acceptance or better security: (ii) that such an acceptance has been made
with the consent of the holder, (iii) that the acceptor for honour is not already liable on the bill,
(iv) that the acceptance is for the honour of any party already liable on the bill; and (v) that the
acceptance is by writing on the bill.
Rights and Liabilities of such acceptor : Section 111 of the Act states that an acceptor for
honour binds himself to all parties subsequent to the party for whose honour he accepts to pay
the amount of the bill if the drawee does not. But an acceptor for honour is not liable to the
holder of the bill unless it is presented or (in case the address given by such acceptor on the
bill is a place other than the place where the bill is made payable) forwarded for presentment
not later than the day next after the day of its maturity. Moreover, an acceptor for honour
cannot be charged unless the bill has been presented at its maturity to the drawee for
payment and has been dishonoured by him and noted or protested for such dishonour
(Section 112).
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Section 111 further provides that the party for whose honour the acceptor accepts to pay and
all prior parties become liable in their respective capacities to compensate the acceptor for
honour for all loss or damage sustained by him in consequence of such acceptance.
Payment for honour : It is a payment which is made by any person for the honour of any party
liable on the bill after it has been protested for non-payment. The condition essential for such
payment are, (i) that the bill must have been noted or protested for non-payment (ii) that the
person paying or his agent declares before Notary Public the party for whose honour he pays;
(iii) that such declaration has been recorded by such Notary Public; (iv) that the payment must
be made for the honour of any party liable to pay the bill and (v) that the payment may be
made by any person whether he is already liable on the bill or not.
The effects of such a payment are :
All parties subsequent to the party for whose honour it is paid are discharged.
(1) The payer for honour acquires for the rights of a holder whom he pays and becomes
entitled to all the remedies of the holder on the instrument,
(2) The payer can recover all sums paid by him together with the interest and expenses
properly incurred in making such payment (Section 114).
According to Section 115 where a “drawee in case of need” is mentioned in a bill or any
endorsement thereon, it is obligatory for the holder to present the instrument to him i.e, the
drawee in case of need, and it will not be considered to have been dishonoured, unless it has
been dishonoured by such drawee. The failure to present the bill to the drawee in case of
need absolves the drawer from liability (Bahadur Chand v. Gulab Rai AIR Lah 557). Again
according to the Bombay High Court if a bill of exchange has been duly accepted but
dishonoured when presented to drawee in the first instance for payment, it cannot be validly
presented for payment to the drawee in case of need if it was not first presented to him for
acceptance [Dore vs. Kanchiwalla & Co. 40 Bom. LR 473].
2.14 PRESENTMENT OF INSTRUMENTS
(a) Presentment of bills for acceptance (Section 61): A bill of exchange is not necessarily
required to be presented for acceptance, before its being presented for payment. For example,
a bill payable on demand, payable certain number of days after date, payable on a certain
day, etc., need not be presented for acceptance. Although it is a matter of common practice to
obtain acceptance of the bill by the drawee at the earliest opportunity after it is drawn, such an
acceptance is not absolutely essential to the bill being a negotiable instrument. For example, a
person to whom a bill has been negotiated before acceptance may sue thereon as a holder in
due course. [National Park Bank of New York vs. Berggren & Co. (1914) 110 L.T. 907].
It should, however, be noted that in two cases presentment for acceptance would be
necessary, namely :
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
(i) where a bill is payable after sight - presentment for acceptance is with a view to fixing the
maturity of the instrument;
(ii) where a bill expressly stipulates that it shall be presented for acceptance.
But when a bill is not payable after sight, presentment is unnecessary to render any prior party
liable. It is, however, prudent for the holder of such bill to present it for acceptance, for if it is
accepted, he obtains the security of the acceptor’s signature and if it is not accepted he is
relieved of the necessary presentment for payment.
How, when and by whom bill is to be presented : A bill payable after sight is to be presented to
the drawee by a person entitled to demand acceptance, and it is generally the holder of the bill
who is entitled to demand acceptance. The bill must be presented by the holder within a
reasonable time after it is drawn, and in business hours on a business day either at the
residence or at the place of business of the drawee. But if the bill itself indicates a place of
presentment, it must be presented at the place. If the drawee cannot, after reasonable search,
be found, the bill is to be regarded as dishonoured for non-acceptance. When authorised by
agreement of usage, a presentment through the post office by a registered letter is sufficient.
Drawee’s time for deliberation : Under Section 63, the drawee is entitled to a respite of forty
eight hours (exclusive of public holidays) to consider whether he should accept a bill
presented to him for acceptance.
When presentment is excused : Presentment for acceptance is excused if the drawee is a
fictitious person (Section 91) or if he cannot, after reasonable search, be found (Section 61).
Again even if presentment is made irregularly, such an irregularity is excused if the bill has
been dishonoured by non-acceptance on some other ground.
(b) Presentment of promissory note for sight (Section 64) : When and why a note is to be
presented for sight ? Like a bill of exchange payable after sight, a promissory note payable at
a certain period after sight must be presented to the maker for sight. The presentment is to be
made by a person entitled to demand payment who is usually the holder. Again, the note must
be presented within a reasonable time after it is made and in business hours on a business
day. In default of such presentment, the maker is not liable to pay anything to the holder. The
necessity for presentment, in the case of such a note, viz., a note payable at a certain period
after sight, is obvious; without such presentment the maturity of the note cannot be fixed.
(c) Presentment of instrument for payment : Presentment of a bill of exchange means its
exhibition to drawee or acceptor by holder with a request for payment in accordance with its
apparent tenor (Section 64). Presentment may be made through post by means of a registered
letter if such a mode of presentment is authorised by agreement or usage. If the bill is paid,
the holder would have to hand it over to the payer. In default of presentment, the drawer and
the endorser would be discharged from their liability to the holder.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
2.52
The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
(vii) Presentment of cheque to charge any other person (Section 73) : It may be recalled that
in order to charge the drawer, the cheque must be presented before the relation between
the drawer and his banker has been altered to the prejudice of the drawer, but in order to
charge any person other than the drawer the cheque must be presented within a
reasonable time. For example, A draws a cheque in favour of B, who endorses it to C. C
must present it at the bank within a reasonable time, otherwise B will be discharged from
liability.
(viii) Presentment of instrument to agents, etc. (Section 75) : Presentment for acceptance or
payment may be made not only to the drawer maker or acceptor but also to his duly
authorised agent or where he is dead to his legal representative, or where he has been
declared an insolvent, to his assignee.
When presentment is unnecessary (Section 76) :
(a) No presentment for payment is necessary in any of the following cases; (1) if the maker,
of acceptor intentionally prevents the presentment of the instrument; (2) if the instrument
being payable at his place of business, he (i.e., maker, drawer or acceptor) closes such
place on a business, day during the usual business hours; (3) if the instrument being
payable at some other specified place, neither he nor any person authorised to pay it
attends at such place during the usual business hours; (4) if the instrument not being
payable at any specified place, he (i.e., maker, etc.) cannot after due search be found.
(b) No presentment for payment is necessary as against any party sought to be charged with
payment, if he has engaged to pay notwithstanding non-presentment.
(c) No presentment for payment is necessary as against any party if, after maturity and with
the knowledge that instrument has not been presented:
(d) (1)He makes a part-payment on account of the amount due on the instrument; or (2) he
promises to pay the amount due thereon in whole or in part; or (3) he otherwise waives
his right to take advantage of any default in presentment for payment.
When we say that no presentment for payment is necessary, we mean thereby the instrument
is taken as dishonoured at the due date for presentment even though it has not been
presented. The result is that the holder may sue the party liable without presentment and the
plea that the instrument was not presented for payment is no defence to the claim of the
holder.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
acceptor, be made to the holder. If payment is made to any person other than the holder,
the holder can claim payment over again from the maker or acceptor.
(b) Payment of interest when rate is specified (Section 49) : Where interest at a specified
rate is expressly made payable on a promissory note or a bill of exchange, interest shall
be calculated at the rate specified, on the amount of the principal money due thereon; (i)
from the date of the instrument until tender or realisation of such amount or (ii) from the
date of the instrument until such date after the institution of a suit to recover the principal
amount as the Court directs.
(c) Payment of interest when no rate is specified (Section 80) : When no rate of interest is
specified in the instrument, interest on the amount due shall be calculated at the rate of
18% per annum from the date at which the instrument ought to have been paid until
tender or realisation of the amount, or until such date as the Court directs.
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
(b) That the negotiable instrument was drawn on the date shown on the face of it;
(c) That the bill of exchange was accepted before its maturity, i.e., before it became overdue;
(d) That the negotiable instrument was transferred before its maturity;
(e) That the endorsements appearing upon a negotiable instrument were made in the order in
which they appear.
(f) That an instrument which has been lost was properly stamped;
(g) That the holder of a negotiable instrument is the holder in due course, except when the
instrument has been obtained from its lawful owner or its lawful custodian. Likewise, if it
has been obtained from a maker or and acceptor by means of an offence or fraud, it is for
the holder to prove that he is the holder in due course.
(b) Certain rules of estoppel applicable to instruments : When one person causes
another person to believe a thing to be true and to act upon such belief he is not allowed in a
suit between him and such person, to deny the truth of that thing. That is, he is not allowed to
give evidence in support of his denial. This rule is called the rule of estoppel, by which evi-
dence is excluded. There are certain rules of estoppel applicable to negotiable instruments.
These are contained in Sections 120 to 122 of the Act.
The objective of these provisions are : (i) that the original parties to the instrument may not
deny the validity of the instrument; (ii) that the maker of a promissory note or an acceptor of a
bill may not deny the right of the payee to receive the payment therefore; and (iii) that an
endorser of a negotiable instrument may not disown the signature or capacity to contract of
any prior party to the instrument.
Hundis : Bills of exchange drawn up in the vernacular are generally known as Hundis. The
Negotiable Instruments Act ordinarily is not applicable to Hundis but, the parties to the Hundis
may agree to be governed by the Negotiable Instrument Act.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
unless the goods reach their destination. In consequence, the consignor or the person with
whom he has negotiated the hundi, has to suffer the loss in case the ship is sunk.
(iii) Nam Jog Hundi : It is a hundi payable to the party named therein or to his order. The
party, however, has a right to endorse it in favour of any other person as can be done in case
of any other bill of exchange.
(iv) Jawabee Hundi : It is an instrument for remitting money and takes the form of ordinary
letter advising the party that he may collect money from a banker. The remitter hands over the
hundi to his banker who in turn endorses it to a correspondent residing in the town in which
the payee is resident. The correspondent on receiving the letter forwards it to the payee. The
payee on presenting the letter collects the amount from the correspondent.
Dhani Jog Hundi : This is a Hundi payable to Dhani or owner i.e. a person who purchase it.
Firman Jog Hundi : This is a Hundi payable to order.
Certain terms explained
(i) Zikri Chit : It is a letter of protection addressed to a merchant in the town where a hundi
is payable and issue to the holder of the hundi by some prior party liable thereon. The letter, it
is intended, would be used by the holder if the hundi is dishonoured by non-acceptance. The
letter contains a request to the merchant that he may accept the hundi in case of dishonour.
(ii) Peth and Perpeth : Peth is the duplicate copy of hundi, issued on the loss of the original
hundi, and perpeth is the triplicate copy of the hundi given on the loss of the peth.
(iii) Khoka : After a hundi has been paid and cancelled it is called a Khoka.
Classification of hundis according to time of payment : Hundis payable at sight are known
as darshani hundis and those payable after a time are known as miadi hundis. A darshani
hundi is transferable by endorsement. In drawing a miadi hundi, the interest for the period of
hundi is charged. A miadi hundi is known in Bengali as the muddati hundi.
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The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
(b) When the person charged resides at a place different from that at which the instrument
was payable, the holder is entitled to receive such sum at the current rate of exchange
between the two places.
(c) When the person charged and such endorser reside at different places, the endorser is
entitled to receive such sum at the current rate of exchange between the two places.
Clauses (b) and (c) relate to ‘re-exchange’. Re-exchange is the measure of damages
occasioned by the dishonour of a bill in a country different from that in which it was
drawn or endorsed. When a person sought to be charged resides at a place different
from that at which the instrument was payable, the holder is entitled to receive such sum
at the current rate of exchange between the two countries. If an ordinary bill of exchange
is drawn in one country upon a person, in another and distant country, the holder who
has contracted for the transfer of funds from the one country to the other, almost
necessarily sustains damages by the dishonour of the bill. He must take other means to
put himself in funds in the country where the bill was payable. Hence, the right to re-
exchange which is the measure of those damages. Re-exchange, in its usual application,
means the loss resulting from the dishonour of a bill in a country different from that in
which it was drawn. [Williams vs. Ayres (1877) 3 A.C. 133, 146]. As the holder of the
instrument sustains loss to the extent of the amount mentioned in the instrument on the
day of dishonour, the rate of exchange should be taken for calculation as of the rate
prevailing on the date of dishonour. [In re British American Continental Bank Ltd. (1972),
2 Ch. 575, 589; S.S. Celia vs. volturna (1921) A.C. vs. 544 Muller Maclean & Co. vs.
Atanlla & Co., 51 Cal. 320].
(d) An endorser, who has paid the amount due under the instrument, is entitled to the
amount so paid with interest at 6% per annum from the date of payment until tender or
realisation together with all expenses caused by the dishonour and non-payment. But an
endorser who has paid a bill or note is entitled to the amount so paid only if at the time of
payment he was liable on the instrument. The endorser is only entitled to charge interest
at the rate of 6% per annum on the amount paid by him, even though interest at a higher
rate is mentioned in the instrument.
(e) The party entitled to compensation may draw a bill upon the party liable to compensate
him, payable at sight or on demand, for the amount due to him, together with all
expenses properly incurred by him. Such bill must be accompanied by the instrument
dishonoured and the protest thereof (if any). If such bill is dishonoured, the party
dishonouring the same is liable to make compensation thereof in the same manner as in
the case of the original bill.
The bill mentioned is called a redraft. The party entitled to compensation is enabled to draw a
bill payable at sight or on demand on party liable to compensate him for the amount due to
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
him together with all expenses properly incurred by him. The re-draft must be accompanied by
the dishonoured instrument and the protest thereof if there be any. In case the draft is
dishonoured the party on whom it is drawn is liable to make compensation in accordance with
the rules laid down in this section in the case of the original bill.
2.58
The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
2.59
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
2.60
The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
17. A bill is drawn “Pay to X or order the sum of one thousand rupees. In the margin the
amount stated is Rs. 100. What is the amount of the bill for ?
18. When is a negotiable instrument, dated 30th August (in a year) and made payable three
months after date, deemed to be at maturity ?
19. A bill of exchange is addressed to Swapan Ganguli. Anil Banerjee writes an acceptance
on it. Can Anil Banerjee bind himself by such acceptance?
20. Where there are several drawees of a bill, who are not partners, can any one of such
drawees accept it for another without that other’s authority ?
21. A who is the holder of a bill transfers it to B without consideration. B transfers it to C
without consideration. C transfers it to D for value. D transfers it without consideration to
E. (a) Can E recover the amount of the bill from A? (b) Has E any right against D ? Say
Yes or No.
22. A owes to B Rs. 500. B draws a bill on A for Rs. 1,000. A to accommodate B and at his
request, accept it. B sues A on the bill. Can he recover Rs. 1,000 ?
23. A agrees to supply a quantity of paper to B. B accept a bill for Rs. 1,000 drawn by A,
being the price of the paper. The paper is delivered to B but it turns out to be of a quality
different from the stipulated one, and worth Rs. 500 only. B retains the paper. A sues B
on the bill. Is B bound to pay Rs. 1,000 to A ?
24. X accepts a bill for Rs. 1,500. This is the agreed price of two bales of cotton to be
supplied by Y to X, Y delivers only one bale to X, Y sues X on the bill. Can Y recover Rs.
1,500 from X ?
25. X owes to Y Rs. 2,000 and makes a promissory note for the amount payable to Y. X dies
and the note is subsequently found amongst his papers. Can Y sue on the note even if it
was later on delivered to him ?
26. A, the holder of a negotiable instrument payable to bearer, which is in the hands of A’s
banker who is at the time the banker of B, directs the banker to transfer the instrument to
B’s credit in the banker’s account with B. The banker does so and according now
possesses the instrument as B’s agent. Can the instrument be deemed to have been
negotiated ?
27. A is the holder of a bill payable to “A or order”. A by simple delivery transfers the bill
without endorsing it to B. Can ‘B’ deemed to be a holder in due course?
28. A is holder of a bill endorsed by B in bank. A writes over B’s signature the words “pay to
C or order”. (a) Is the writing of A operates as an endorsement in full from B to C ? (b) Is
A liable an endorser?
29. B signs the following endorsement on different negotiable instruments payable to bearer.
Do these endorsements exclude the right of further negotiation by C ? Say Yes or no:
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
2.62
The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881
(b) The drawer of a negotiable instrument draws a bill but forgets to write the words “or
order”. Subsequently, the holder of the instrument inserts these words.
(c) A bill payable three months after date is altered into a bill payable three months
after sight.
(d) A bill was dated 1972 instead of 1973 and subsequently the agent of the drawer
corrected the mistake.
(e) A bill is accepted payable at the Union Bank, and the holder, without the consent of
the acceptor, scores out the name of the Union Bank and inserts that of the
Syndicate Bank.
40. A cheque payable to bearer is crossed generally and is marked “not negotiable”. The
cheque is lost or stolen and comes into possession of B who takes it in good faith and
gives value for it. B deposits the cheque into his own bank and his banker presents it and
obtains payment for his customer from the bank and upon which the cheque is drawn. (a)
Can both the bankers paying the cheque and the banker collecting it plead exoneration
from their liability ? (b) Can B be compelled to refund the money to the true owner of the
cheque ?
41. Define “cheque”, under the Negotiable Instrument Act, 1881. What are the differences
between a cheque and a bill of exchange?
42. A Bill of Exchange is dishonoured by the acceptor. Explain the provisions of “Noting” and
“Protest” under the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881.
43. State by and to whom, a notice of dishonour of a negotiable instrument should be given
and also state the mode to be followed for giving such notice under the provisions of the
Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881.
44. What is meant by “Payment in due course” in respect of a negotiable instrument? When
does such payment operate as a discharge of a negotiable instrument?
45. What do you understand by the term ‘Inchoate Instrument? Examine the validity of such
instruments under the provisions of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881.
46. Explain the provisions of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881, relating to the liabilities of
parties to negotiable instruments drawn, accepted, or endorsed without consideration?
47. M a broker draws a cheque in favour of N, a minor. N indorses the cheque in favour of O,
who in turn indorses it in favour of P. Subsequently, the bank dishonoured the cheque.
State the rights of O and P and whether N, can be made liable?
48. Who is holder in due course? How he is differing from a Holder?
49. What do you mean by an Indorsement. Briefly explain the types of an Indorsement.
50. Distinguish between a Promissory Note and a Bill of Exchange.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Practical Problems
51.Mr. Clever obtains fraudulently from J a cheque crossed ‘Not Negotiable1. He later
transfers the cheque to D, who gets the cheque encashed from ABC Bank, which is not the
Drawee Bank. J, when comes to know about the fraudulent act of Clever, sues ABC Bank for
the recovery of money. Examine with reference to the relevant provisions of the Negotiable
Instruments Act, 1881, whether J will be successful in his claim. Would your answer be still the
same in case Clever does not transfer the cheque and gets the cheque encashed from ABC
Bank himself?
52. X by inducing Y obtains a Bill of Exchange from him fraudulently in his (X) favour. Later,
he enters into a commercial deal and endorses the bill to Z towards consideration to him (Z)
for the deal. Z takes the bill as a Holder-in-due-course. Z subsequently endorses the bill to X
for value, as consideration to X for some other deal. On maturity the bill is dishonoured. X
sues Y for the recovery of the money.
With reference to the provisions of the Negotiable Instruments Act, decide whether X will
succeed in the case?
53. A issues a cheque for Rs. 25,000/- in favour of B. A has sufficient amount in his account
with the Bank. The cheque was not presented within reasonable time to the Bank for payment
and the Bank, in the meantime, became bankrupt. Decide under the provisions of the
Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881, whether B can recover the money from A?
54. A draws a bill on B. B accepts the bill without any consideration. The bill is transferred to
C without consideration. C transferred it to D for value. Decide-.
(i) Whether D can sue the prior parties of the bill, and
(ii) Whether the prior parties other than D have any right of action intense?
Give your answer in reference to the Provisions of Negotiable Instruments Act. 1881
Answers
1. (c); 2. (b); 3. (a); 4. (c); 5. (b); 6. (d); 7. (c); 8. (b); 9. (c); 10. (b); 11. (c), (d), (e), (f),
(g), (h); 12(a). Foreign; 12(b). Inland; 12(c). Foreign; 12(d). Foreign; 12(e). Inland, 13. No; 14.
Yes; 15. Yes; 16. Yes; 17. Rs. 1,000; 18. 3rd December; 19. No. 20. No; 21(a). No; 21(b). No;
22. No; 23. Yes; 24. No; 25. No; 26. Yes; 27. No; 28(a). Yes; 28(b). No; 29(a) Yes; 29(b) Yes;
29(c). Yes; 29(d). Yes; 29(e). No; 29(f). No; 29(g). No; 30. Yes; 31. No; 32. No; 33 Yes; 34.
No; 35. No; 36. No, 37(a). Yes; 37(b) yes; 38. Yes; 39(a). Yes; 39(b). No; 39(c). Yes; 39(d).
No; 39(e). Yes; 40(a). Yes; 40(b). Yes.
2.64
CHAPTER 3
THE PAYMENT OF BONUS ACT, 1965
Learning Objectives
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This is an Act intended to provide for the payment of bonus to persons employed in certain
establishments and for matters connected therewith. It came into force from September 25,
1965. It extends to the whole of India. Unless it is provided otherwise in the Act, it shall apply
to : (a) every factory and (b) every other establishment in which 20 or more persons are
employed on any day during an accounting year. But the appropriate Government may apply
the provisions of the Act with effect from such accounting year as may be notified in the
Gazette to any establishment or class of establishments [including an establishment as
defined by Section 2(m) (ii) of the Factories Act], employing persons between 10 and 19 in
number [Proviso to Section 1(3)].
An establishment in which 20 or more persons are employed on any day during an accounting
year, must continue to be governed by this Act, in spite of the fact that the number of persons
employed therein falls below 20.
(ii) Seamen as defined under Section 3(42) of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.
(iii) Employees registered or listed under any scheme made under the Dock Workers
(Regulation of Employment) Act, 1948 and employed by the registered or listed
employers.
(iv) Employees employed by an establishment engaged in any industry carried on by or under
the authority of any department of the Central Government or a State Government or a
local authority.
(v) Employees employed by : (a) the Indian Red Cross Society or any other institution of a
like nature (including its branches); (b) Universities and other educational Institutions : (c)
Institutions (including hospitals, chambers of commerce and social welfare institutions)
established not for purposes of profit.
(vi) Employees employed through contractors on building operations.
(vii) Employees employed by the Reserve Bank of India.
(viii) Employees employed by; (a) the Industrial Finance Corporation of India; (b) any financial
Corporation established under Section 3 or any joint financial corporation established
under Section 3A of the State Financial Corporations Act, 1951; (c) the Deposits
Insurance Corporation; (d) the Agricultural Refinance Corporation; (e) the Unit Trust of
India; (f) the Industrial Development Bank of India; (g) any other Financial Institution
(other than a banking company) being an establishment in public sector, which the Central
Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette; specify; while so specifying the
Central Government shall have regard to its capital structure, its objectives and the nature
and extent of financial assistance or any concessions given to it by the Government and
any other relevant factor.
(ix) Employees employed by inland water transport establishment operating on routes passing
through any other country.
Besides the above, if the appropriate Government is of the opinion that it will be in the public
interest, having regard to the financial position and other relevant circumstances of any estab-
lishment or class of establishment, it may, by notification in the Official Gazette, exempt for
such periods as may be specified therein and subject to such conditions as it may think fit to
impose, such establishment or class of establishments from all or any of the provisions of this
Act.
3.3 DEFINITIONS
Accounting year [Section 2(1)] : It means, (i) in relation to a corporation, the year ending on
the day on which the books of accounts of the corporation are to be closed and balanced.
3.2
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
(ii) in relation to a company, this term means a period in respect of which any profit or loss
account of the company laid before it in an annual general meeting is made up whether that
period is a year or not.
(iii) in any other case (a) the year commencing on the first day of April, or (b) if the accounts
of an establishment maintained by the company thereof are closed and balanced on any day
other than the 31st day of March then at the option of the employer, the year ending on the
day on which its accounts are so closed and balanced.
If, however, the said option is once exercised by the employer, it cannot be exercised once
again, except with the permission in writing of the prescribed authority and upon such
conditions as that authority may think fit. In other words, the exercise of the said option can
only take place on obtaining the previous written permission of the prescribed authority, and
the prescribed authority may impose such conditions as it may think fit.
Allocable surplus [Section 2(4)] : This expression means 67% of the available surplus in an
accounting year, in relation to an employer, being a company, other than a banking company,
which has not made the arrangements prescribed under the Income-tax Act, for the
declaration and payment within India of the dividends payable out of its profits in accordance
with the provisions of Section 194 of that Act. In any other case, the allocable surplus means
60% of such available surplus.
Appropriate Government : In relation to an establishment in respect of which the appropriate
Government under the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 is the Central Government the
appropriate Government means the Central Government. But in relation to any other
establishment, the expression means the Government of the State in which the other
establishment is situated.
Award [Section 2(7)] : It means an interim or final determination of any industrial dispute or of
any question relating thereto by any Labour Court, Industrial Tribunal or National Tribunal con-
stituted under the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, or by any other authority constituted under
any corresponding law, relating to investigation and settlement of industrial dispute in force in
state and includes an arbitration award made under Section 10A of that Act or under that law.
Employee [Section 2(13)] : It means any person other than an apprentice employed on a
salary or wage not exceeding Rs. 10,000 per mensem in any industry to do any skilled or
unskilled, manual, supervisory, managerial, administrative, technical or electrical work for hire
or reward, whether the terms of employment be express or implied.
Employer [Section 2(14)] : In relation to establishment which is a factory, this term includes
the owner or occupier of the factory including the agent of such owner or such occupier, the
legal representative of a deceased owner or occupier and where a person has been named as
a manager of that factory under Section 7(1)(f) of the Factories Act, 1948, the person so
named. But in relation to any other establishment which is not a factory, the term includes the
3.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
person who or the authority which has the ultimate control over the affairs of the establishment
and if the said affairs are entrusted to a managing director, then such manager or managing
director.
Establishment in private sector [Section 2(15)] : This expression means any establishment
other than an establishment in public Sector.
Establishment in public Sector [Section 2(16)] : It means an establishment owned, controlled
or managed by (a) a Government company as defined in Section 617 of the Companies Act,
1956; (b) a corporation in which not less than 40% of its capital is held whether singly or taken
together by : (i) the Government; or (ii) the Reserve Bank of India; or (iii) a corporation owned
by the Government or the Reserve Bank of India.
Salary or wage [Section 2(21)] : It means all remuneration other than remuneration in respect
of overtime work, capable of being expressed in terms of money, which would, if the terms of
employment, express or implied, were fulfilled, be payable to an employee in respect his
employment or of work done in such employment. It includes dearness allowance, i.e., all cash
payments by whatever name called, paid to an employee on account of a rise in the cost of
living. But the term excludes :
(i) any other allowance which the employee is for the time being entitled to;
(ii) the value of any house accommodation or of supply of light, water, medical attendance or
other amenities or of any service or of any concessional supply of food grains or other
articles;
(iii) any travelling concession;
(iv) any contribution paid or payable by the employer to any pension fund or for benefit of the
employee under any law for the time being in force;
(v) any retrenchment compensation or any gratuity or other retirement benefit payable to the
employee or any ex-gratia payment made to him; and
(vi) any commission payable to the employee.
It may be noted that where an employee is given, in lieu of the whole or part of the salary or
wage payable to him, free food allowance or free food by his employer, such food allowance
or the value of such food shall be deemed to form part of the salary or wage for such
employee.
It is also worthy of note that the words and expression used but not defined in Payment of
Bonus Act but defined in the Industrial Disputes Act shall have the same meanings
respectively assigned to them in the Act.
3.4
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
3.5
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
which he is dismissed (Pandian Roadways Corporation Ltd. vs. Presiding Officer [1996] 2 CLR
1175 (Mad.).
3.6
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
3.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
4. Add also income, profits or gains (if any) credited directly to published or disclosed
reserves other than:
(i) capital receipts and capital profits (including profits on the sale of capital
assets on which depreciation has not been allowed for income-tax).
(ii) Profits of, and receipts relating to any business situated outside India;
(iii) income of foreign banking companies from investments outside India.
Total of Item No. 4 Rs.
5. Total of Item Nos. 1, 2, 3, & 4 Rs.
6. Deduct:
(a) Capital receipts and capital profits See foot-
(other than profits on the sale of note(2)
assets on which depreciation has been
allowed for income tax)
(b) Profit of, and receipt relating to any
business situated outside India.
(c) Income of foreign banking compan- See foot-
ies from investments outside India. note (2)
(d) Expenditure or losses, if any, debited
directly to published or disclosed reserves,
other than
(i) capital expenditure and capital
losses (other than losses on sale
of capital assets on which depre-
ciation has not been allowed for
income-tax)
(ii) losses of any business situated See foot-
outside India. note (3)
(e) In the case of foreign banking com-
panies proportionate administrative
(overhead) expenses of Head Office
allocable to Indian business.
3.8
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
3.9
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
3.10
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
research which is allowed as a deduction under any law for the time being in force relating to
direct (taxes) and capital losses (other than losses on sale of capital assets on which
depreciation has been allowed for income-tax or agricultural Income-tax.)
(e) Losses of, or expenditure relating to,
any business situated outside India.
Total of Item No. 3 Rs.
4. Add also Income, Profits or gains (if any)
credited directly to reserves, other than :
(i) capital receipts and capital profits
on the sale of capital assets on
which depreciation has not been
allowed or income-tax).
(ii) profits of, and receipts relating to,
any business situated outside India;
(iii) income of foreign concerns from in-
vestment outside India.
Total of Item No. 4 Rs.
5. Total of Item Nos. 1, 2, 3, & 4 Rs.
6. Deduct :
(a) Capital receipts and capital profits See foot-
(other than profits on the sale of note (2)
assets on which depreciation has been allowed for
income-tax on agricultural income tax)
(b) Profits of, and receipts relating to See Foot-
any business situated outside India note (2)
(c) Income of foreign concerns from See foot
investments outside India. note (2)
(d) Expenditure or losses, (if any), debited
directly to reserves, other than :
(i) capital expenditure and capital
3.11
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
3.12
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
Having calculated the gross profits in terms of Section 4, the following sums must be deducted
from gross profit as prior charges :
(a) Any amount by way of depreciation admissible under Section 32(1) of the Income Tax
Act or under the provisions of the agriculture income tax law. If however, any employer has
been paying bonus to his employees under a settlement or an award or agreement made
before the promulgation of the Bonus Ordinance, i.e., before 29 May, 1965, and subsisting on
that date, after deducting from the “gross profit” notional normal depreciation, then the amount
of depreciation to be deducted as prior charge may continue to be such notional normal
depreciation. This, however, is at the option of the employer who may choose either the
normal depreciation or the depreciation admissible under the Bonus Act. This option has to be
exercised only once and within one year from May 29, 1965.
(b) Any amount by way of development rebate, investment allowance or development nce
which the employer is entitled to deduct from his income under the Income-tax Act.
(c) Subject to the provision of Section 7, any direct tax which the employer is liable to pay for
the accounting year in respect of his income, profits and gains during that year.
(d) Such further sums as are specified in respect of the employer in the Third Schedule.
3.13
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
company in India after deducting the amount of its current liabilities (other than any amount
shown as payable by the company to its Head Office or otherwise or any interest paid by the
company to its Head Office) in India.
2. Banking company
(i) The dividends payable on its reference share capital for the accounting year calculated at
the rate at which such dividends are payable;
(ii) 7.5 per cent of its paid up equity share capital as at the commencement of the accounting
year;
(iii) 5 per cent of its reserves shown in its balance sheet at the commencement of the
accounting year, including any profits carried forward from the previous accounting year;
(iv) any sum which, in respect of the accounting year, is transferred by it.
(a) to a reserve fund under Sub-section (1) of Section 17 of the Banking Regulation Act,
1949 (10 of 1949); or
(b) to any reserve in India in pursuance or any direction or advice given by the Reserve Bank
of India, whichever is higher;
Provided that where the banking company is a foreign company within the meaning of Section
591 of the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956), the amount to be deducted under this item shall
be the aggregate of–
(i) the dividends payable to its preference shareholders for the accounting year at the rate
at which such dividends are payable on such amount as bears the same proportion to its
preference share capital as its total working funds in India bear to its total world working
funds;
(ii) 7.5 per cent of such amount as bears the same proportion to its total paid up equity
share capital as its total working funds in India bear to its total world working funds;
(iii) 5 per cent of such amount as bears the same proportion to its total disclosed reserves as
its total working funds in India bear to its total world working funds;
(iv) any sum which in respect of the accounting year, is deposited by it with the Reserve
Bank of India under sub-clause (ii) of clause (b) of Sub-section (2) of Section 11 of the Bank-
ing Regulation Act, 1949, not exceeding the amount required under the aforesaid provision to
be so deposited.
3. Corporation
(i) 8.5 per cent of its paid up capital as at the commencement of the accounting year;
(ii) 6 per cent of its reserves if any, shown in its balance sheet as at the commencement of
the accounting year, including any profits carried forward from the previous accounting
year.
3.14
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
4. Co-operative society
(i) 8.5 per cent of the capital invested by such society in its establishment as evidenced
from its books of accounts at the commencement of the accounting year;
(ii) such sum as has been carried forward in respect of the accounting year to a reserve fund
under any law relating to co-operative societies for the time being in force.
5. Any other employer not falling 8.5 per cent of the capital invested by him in under any
of the aforesaid his establishment as evidenced from his categories. books of accounts
at the commencement of the accounting year; Provided that where such employer is a person
to whom Chapter XXII A of the Income-tax Act applies, the annuity deposit payable by him
under the provisions of that Chapter during the accounting year shall also be deducted:
Provided further that where such employer is a firm, an amount equal to 25 per cent, of the
gross profits derived by it from the establishment in respect of the accounting year after
deducting depreciation in accordance with the provisions of clause (a) of Section 6 by way of
remuneration to all the partners taking part in the conduct of business of the establishment
shall also be deducted, but where the partnership agreement whether oral or written, provides
for the payment of remuneration to any such partner, and
(i) the total remuneration payable to all such partners is less than the said 25 per cent, the
amount payable, subject to a maximum of forty-eight thousand rupees to each such
partner; or
(ii) the total remuneration payable to all such partners, is higher than the said 25 per cent,
such percentage, or a sum calculated at the rate of forty-eight thousand rupees to each
such partner, whichever is less, shall be deducted under this proviso: Provided also that
where such employer is an individual or a Hindu undivided family :
(i) an amount equal to 25 per cent of the gross profits derived by such employer from
the establishment in respect of the accounting year after deducting depreciation in
accordance with the provisions of clause (a) of Section 6;
(ii) or forty-eight thousand rupees, whichever is less by way of remuneration to such
employer, shall also be deducted.
6. Any employer falling under In addition to the sums deductible under
Item No. 1 or Item No. 3, or any of the aforesaid items, such sums
Item No. 4 or Item No 5 as are required to be appropriated by
and being a licensee within the licensee in respect of the accounting
the meaning of the Electricity year to a reserve under the Sixth Schedule to
(Supply) Act, 1948 (54 of 1948). that Act shall also be deducted.
Explanation: The expression “reserves” occurring in column (3) against Item Nos. 1(iii), 2(iii)
and 3(ii) Shall not include any amount set apart for the purpose of :
3.15
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(i) payment of any direct tax which according to the balance sheet, would be payable;
(ii) meeting any depreciation admissible in accordance with the provisions of clause (a) of
Section 6;
(iii) payment of dividends which have been declared, but shall include:
(a) any amount, over and above the amount referred to in clause (i) of this Explanation, set
apart as specific reserve for the purpose of payment of any direct tax; and
(b) any amount set apart for meeting any depreciation in excess of amount admissible in
accordance with the provisions of clause (a) of Section 6.
(b) Available surplus (Section 5): According to Section 2(6), it means the available surplus
Computed under Section 5. Accordingly, the available surplus comprises of the gross profits
for accounting year after deducting certain prior charges (already discussed above). Further
an amount equal to the tax saved on the account of bonus in respect of the immediately
preceding accounting year, should be added. It is obvious that an employer can claim the
amount of bonus payable as deductible expense for the purpose of his tax assessments. Such
saving must also be added to the amount of gross profits for the purpose of calculation of
available surplus.
(c) Calculation of direct tax payable by the employer (Section 7): Any direct tax payable
by the employer for any accounting year shall, subject to the following provisions, be
calculated at the rates applicable to the income of the employer for the year.
In calculating the above mentioned tax, no account shall be taken on the following matters,
namely :
(i) any loss incurred by the employer in respect of any previous accounting year and carried
forward under any law for the time being in force relating to direct tax;
(ii) any arrears of depreciation which the employer is entitled to add to the amount of the
allowance for depreciation for any following accounting year or years under Section 32(2)
of the Income-tax Act;
(iii) any exemption conferred on the employer under Section 84 of the Income Tax Act or of
any deduction to which he is entitled under Section 101(1) of the Income-tax Act, as in
force immediately before the commencement of the Finance Act.
Where the employer is religious or charitable institution to which Section 32 does not apply
and the whole or part of its income is exempt from tax under the Income Tax Act, then with
respect to the income so exempted, such institution shall be treated as if it were a company in
which the public are substantially interested within the meaning of that Act.
If the employer is an Individual or a H.U.F. then the tax payable by such employer under the
Income Tax Act shall be calculated on the basis that the income derived by him from the
establishment is his only income.
3.16
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
If the income of the employee includes any profits and gain derived from the export of any
goods or merchandise and any rebate on such income is allowed under any law for the time
being in force relating to direct taxes, then no account shall be taken of such rebate.
No account shall be taken of any rebate (other than the development rebate or investment
allowance or development allowance) or credit or relief or deduction (not herein before
mentioned) in the payment of any direct tax allowed under any law for the time being in force
relating to direct taxes or under the relevant annual Finance Act for the development of any
industry.
3.17
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
employee under Section 10 or, as the case may be, under Section 11, shall be calculated as if
his salary or wages were Rs. 2,500 p.m.
3.18
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
There may be a case where there is no allocable surplus or where the allocable surplus falls
short of the amount of minimum bonus payable to the employee under Section 10 and there is
no amount or sufficient amount carried forward and set on under the aforesaid provisions
which could be utilised for paying minimum bonus. In such a situation minimum amount or the
deficiency as the case may be, shall be carried forward for being set off in the succeeding
accounting year and so on up to and inclusive of the 4th accounting year in the manner
illustrated in Fourth Schedule.
The principle of set on and set off as illustrated in the Fourth Schedule shall apply to all other
cases not covered by Sub-section (1) or (2) for the purpose of payment of bonus under this
Act [Section 15(3)].
Where in any accounting year any amount has been carried forward and set on or set off
under this Section, then, in calculating bonus for the succeeding accounting year, the amount
of set on or set off carried forward from the earliest accounting year shall first be taken into
account [Section 15(4)].
3.19
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(inclusive of 2,20,000(2)
(30,000 from year-2)
4. 3,75,000 2,50,000* Set on Set on
1,25,000 2,20,000(2)
1,25,000(4)
5. 1,40,000 2,50,000* Nil Set on
(inclusive of 1,10,000(2)
1,10,000 from year-2) 1,25,000(4)
6. 3,10,000 2,50,000* Set on Set on
60,000 Nil**(2)
1,25,000(4)
60,000(6)
7. 1,10,000 2,50,000*(inclusive Nil Set on
of 1,25,000 from 35,000(6)
year-4 and 25,000
from year-6)
8. Nil 1,04,167*** Set off Set off
(due to loss) (inclusive of 69,167 69,167(8)
35,000 from year-6)
9. 10,000 1,04,167*** Set off Set off
94,167 69,167(8)
94,167(9)
10. 2,15,000 1,04,167***(after Nil Set off
setting off 69,167 52,501(9)
from year-8 and
41,666 from year-9)
3.20
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
entitled to be paid bonus in accordance with the provisions of Sub-sections (IA), (IB) and (IC)
discussed below [Sub-section (1)]. It may be noted that an establishment shall not be deemed
to be newly set up merely by reason of a change in its location, management, name or
ownership.
In the first five accounting years following the accounting year in which the employer sells the
goods produced or manufactured by him or renders services, as the case may be, to such
establishment, bonus shall be payable only in respect of the accounting year in which the
employer derives profit from such establishment. Such bonus shall be calculated in
accordance with the provisions of this Act relating to that year but without applying the
provisions of Section 15[Sub-section (IA)]. It may be noted that an employer shall not be
deemed to have derived profit in accounting year unless: (a) he has made provision for that
year’s depreciation to which he is entitled under Income Tax Act or, as the case may be, under
the agricultural Income Tax law; and (b) the arrears of such depreciation and losses incurred
by or in respect of the establishment for the previous accounting years have been fully set off
against his profits.
But in the sixth and seventh accounting year, the provisions of Section 15 shall apply subject
to the following modifications, namely: (i) for the sixth accounting year, set on or set off (as the
case may be) shall be made in the manner illustrated in the Fourth Schedule, taking into
account the excess or deficiency (if any, as the case may be) of the allocable surplus set on or
set off in respect of the 5th and 6th accounting years; (ii) for the 7th accounting year, the same
principle is to be followed but the excess or deficiency of the allocable surplus set on or set off
in respect of the 5th, 6th and 7th accounting years has to be taken into account [Sub-section
(IB)].
From the 8th accounting year following the accounting year in which the employer sells the
goods produced or manufactured by him or renders services, as the case may be, from such
establishment, the provisions of Section 15, shall apply in relation to such establishment as
they apply in relation to any other establishment [Sub-section (IC)].
For the purpose of Sub-sections (IA), (IB) and (IC), sale of the goods produced or
manufactured during the course of the trial running of any factory or of the prospecting stage
of any mine or any oilfield shall not be taken into consideration. Where any question arises
with regard to such production or manufacture, the decision of the appropriate Government
made after giving the parties a reasonable opportunity of representing the case, shall be final
and shall not be called into question by any Court or other authority.
A. Adjustment of customary or interim bonus against bonus payable under the Act
(Section 17) : If in any accounting year, an employer has paid any puja bonus or other
customary bonus to any employee, then the former shall be entitled to deduct the amount of
bonus so paid from the amount of bonus payable by him to the employee under this Act in
3.21
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
respect of that accounting year. The employee shall be entitled to receive only the balance.
The employer can do the same thing even in a case where he has paid off the bonus payable
under this Act to an employee before the date on which such bonus payable becomes
payable.
B. Deduction of certain amounts from bonus payable under the Act (Section 18) : If any
accounting year, an employee is found guilty of misconduct causing financial loss to the
employer, then the employer can lawfully deduct the amount of loss from the amount of bonus
payable by him to the employee in respect of that accounting year only. In this case, the
employee shall get only the balance, if there be any.
C. Time Limit for payment of bonus (Section 19) : The employer is bound to pay his
employee bonus within one month from the date on which the award becomes enforceable or
the settlement comes into operation, if a dispute regarding payment of bonus is pending
before any authority under Section 22. In other cases, however, the payment of the bonus is to
be made within a period of 8 months from closing of the accounting year. But this period of 8
months may be extended up to a maximum of 2 years by the appropriate Government or by
any authority specified by the appropriate Government. This extension is to be granted on the
application of the employer and only for sufficient reasons.
D. Application of the Act to the establishment in public sector in certain cases (Section
20) : In any accounting year, an establishment in public sector may sell any goods produced
or manufactured by it or it may render any services in competition with an establishment in
private sector. If it does so, and if the income from such sale or service or both is not less than
20% of the gross income of establishment in public sector, then the provision of the Bonus Act
shall apply in relation to establishment in private Sector [Sub-section (1)]. Save as otherwise
provided in Sub-section (1), nothing in this Act shall apply to the employees employed by any
establishment in the public sector [Sub-section(2)].
E. Recovery of the bonus due from an employer (Section 21) : It may so happen that an
amount of bonus is due to an employee from his employer under a settlement or an award or
agreement and it is not paid. In such a case, the employee is to make an application for the
recovery of the amount to the appropriate Government. This application can be made even by
his assignee or heirs when the employee is dead. The application is to be made within one
year from the date on which the money(bonus) becomes due but it may be entertained even
after the expiry of the said period of one year, if the appropriate Government is satisfied that
the applicant had sufficient cause for not making the application within the said period.
On the receipt of the aforesaid application for the recovery of the bonus amount, the
appropriate Government or such authority as it may specify in this connection is to be satisfied
that the money is so due. On being thus satisfied, it must issue a certificate for that amount to
3.22
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
the Collector. Thereupon, Collector shall proceed to recover the same in the same manner as
an arrear of land revenue.
According to the Explanation to Section 21, “employee” (mentioned in Sections 21, 22, 23, 24
and 25) includes a person who is entitled to the payment of bonus under this Act but, who is
no longer in employment.
F. Disputes (Section 22) : Disputes may arise between an employer and his employees
either regarding bonus payable under this Act or regarding the application of this Act to an
establishment in public sector. Such a dispute shall be deemed to be an industrial dispute
within the meaning of the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 or any corresponding law relating to
investigation and settlement of Industrial disputes in force in State and the provisions of that
Act or as the case may be such law shall, save as otherwise expressly provided, apply
accordingly.
G. Presumption about the accuracy of balance sheet and profit and loss account of
corporations and companies (Section 23) : Proceeding may be lying before any arbitrator or
Tribunal under the Industrial Disputes Act or under any corresponding law relating to
investigation and settlement of Industrial disputes in force in State to which any dispute of the
nature specified in Section 22 has been referred. During the course of such proceeding the
balance sheet and the profit and loss account of an employer, being a corporation or a
company other than a banking company, may be and are actually produced. If these
statements of account are audited by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India or by
auditors qualified under Section 226(1) of the Companies Act, then the above mentioned State
may presume that those are accurate. In view of this presumption, corporation or the company
need not prove the accuracy of such statements by affidavit or by any other mode. But if the
State is satisfied that those statements are not accurate, it may take such steps as it thinks
necessary to find out the accuracy thereof.
Situation may demand a clarification relating to any item in the balance sheet or the profit and
loss account. In such a situation, the trade union may apply to the above mentioned State, it
being a party to the dispute. If there is no trade union, then the application to the State may be
made by the employees, being a party to the dispute. On receipt of such application, the State
is to satisfy itself as to the necessity of such clarification. On being thus satisfied, the State
may furnish to the trade union or the employees clarification within such time as may be speci-
fied in the direction. Thereupon, the company or the corporation must comply with such
direction.
H. Audit of accounts of banking companies not be questioned (Section 24) : Where any
dispute of the nature specified in Section 22 between an employer, being a banking company
and its employees has been referred to the said authority under that Section and during the
course of proceedings the accounts of the banking company duly audited are produced before
3.23
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
it, the said authority shall not permit any trade union or employees to question the correctness
of such accounts, But the trade union or the employees may be permitted to obtain from the
banking company such information as is necessary for verifying the amount of bonus under
this Act [Sub-section(1)], but these provisions shall not enable the trade union or the
employees to obtain any information which the banking company is not compelled to furnish
under Section 34A of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949 [Sub-section (2)].
I. Audit of accounts of employers not being corporation or companies (Section 25)
Where the dispute of the nature specified in Section 22 has been referred to the said State
under Section 22 and the only audited accounts of the employer (not being a corporation or
company) have been produced before it then the provision of Section 23 shall apply to the
accounts so audited. (You will recapitulate that Section 23 deals with presumptions about the
accuracy of balance sheet and profit and loss account).
But if the aforementioned State finds that the accounts of the employer have not been audited
by an auditor duly qualified to act as such under Section 226(1) of the Companies Act, it can,
if it think necessary to do so ask the employer to get his accounts audited within the stipulated
time. Thereupon, the employer must get his accounts audited within the stipulated time. If the
employer fails to do so, then the said State may get the accounts audited by such auditor or
auditors as it thinks fit. The accounts thus audited, whether by the employer or on his default
by the State, shall fall within the provisions of Section 23.
J. Maintenance of registers, records etc. (Section 26) : Every employer shall prepare and
maintain such registers, records and other documents in such form and in such manner as
may be prescribed.
Rule 4 of the Payment of Bonus Rules, 1965 prescribes three kinds of registers to be
maintained by the employers, viz., (i) Register in Form A (appended to the rules) showing the
computation of allocable surplus referred to in Section 2(4); (ii) Register in Form B showing
the set on and set-off the allocable surplus; (iii) Register in Form C showing the details of
the amount of bonus due to each of the employees, the deductions under Sections 17 and
18 and the amount actually disbursed to the employees.
K. Inspectors (Section 27) : The appropriate Government may, by notification in the Official
Gazette, appoint such persons as he thinks fit to be Inspectors for the purposes of this Act and
may define the limits within which they shall exercise jurisdiction.
An inspector thus appointed has to ascertain whether any ofthe provisions of this Act has been
complied with. And for this purpose, he may: (i) require an employer to furnish such
information as he may consider necessary; (ii) at any reasonable time and with assistance, if
any, as he thinks fit, enter any establishment or any premises connected therewith and require
anyone found in charge thereof to produce before him for examination any account books,
registers and other documents relating to the employment of persons or the payment of salary
3.24
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
or wage or bonus in the establishment; (iii) examine with respect to any matter relevant to any
of the purpose aforesaid, the employer, his agent or servant or any other person whom the
inspector has reasonable cause to believe to be or to have been an employee in the estab-
lishment; (iv) make copies of or take extracts from, any book, register or other document
maintained in relation to the establishment; (v) exercise such other powers as may be
prescribed.
The Inspector appointed as aforesaid is deemed to be a public servant under Indian Penal
Code.
Any person whom an Inspector calls upon to produce any account book, register or other
document or to give information, shall be legally to do so.
The provisions of Section 27 do not empower an Inspector to require a banking company to
furnish or disclose any statement or information or to produce or give inspection of, any of its
books of accounts or other documents, which a banking company cannot be compelled to
furnish, disclose, produce or give inspection of, under Section 34-A of the Banking Regulation
Act, 1949.
L. Penalty (Section 28) : A person shall be liable to punishment: (i) if he contravenes any of
the provisions of this Act or any rule framed thereunder; or (ii) if he fails to comply with any
direction or requisition which may have been given or made to him under this Act. The
punishment may be imprisonment for a term extending up to 6 months or of fine extending up
to Rs. 1000 or both.
M. Offences by Companies (Section 29) : If any person committing an offence under this Act
is a Company, then every person who, at the time the offence was committed was in charge of
and responsible to the company for the conduct of its business, and also the company would
be deemed to be guilty of the offence and liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly. But such person shall be exonerated from liabilities and incidental punishment, if
he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge or that he exercised all due
diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
The above mentioned provisions notwithstanding, where an offence under this Act has been
committed by a company and it is proved that the offence has been committed by a company
with the consent and connivance of or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any
director (‘director’ in relation to a firm means a partner in the firm), manager, secretary, or
other officer of the company (meaning anybody corporate and including a firm or other
association of individuals), such director, manager, secretary or other officer shall also be
deemed to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly.
N. Cognizance of offences (Section 30) : No Court shall take cognizance of any offence
which means any act or omission made punishable by any law for the time being in force [vide
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Section 3(38) of the General Clauses Act] punishable under this Act, save and except on
complaint made by or under authority of the appropriate Government or an officer of the
Government(not below the rank of A Regional Labour Commissioner in the case of an officer
of the Central Government and not below the rank of Labour Commissioner in the case of an
officer of the State Government) specially authorised in this behalf by that Government. No
Court inferior to that of presidency magistrate or a magistrate of the first class try any offence
punishable under this Act.
Thus it is evident that Section 30 makes it obligatory, on every Court before it takes
cognizance of a complaint against any person for an offence under this Act that the necessary
sanction is obtained or complaint is made under the authority of the appropriate Government
or specified officer of the Central Government or the State Government.
O. Protection of an action taken under the Act (Section 31) : No suit, prosecution or other
legal proceedings shall be taken against the Government or any officer or the Government for
anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done in pursuance of this Act or any
rule thereunder.
It may be noted that”... a thing shall ‘be deemed to be done in good faith’, where it is in fact
done honestly, whether it is done negligently or not” - vide Section 3(22) of the General
Clauses Act.
3.26
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
inconsistent therewith contained in any other law for the time being in force or in the terms of
any award, agreement or contract of service.
Saving (Section 35) : Nothing contained in this Act shall be deemed to affect the provisions of
the Coal Mines Provident Fund, Family Pension and Bonus Scheme Act, 1948 (46 of 1948) or
of any scheme made thereunder.
3.27
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documents and the form and manner in which such registers, records and documents may be
maintained under Section 26; (iii) the powers which may be exercised by an Inspector under
Section 27(2)(e);(iv) any other matter which is to be, or may be, prescribed.
Every rule thus made has to be laid, soon after its making, before each House of Parliament
while it is in session for a total period of 30 days, which may be comprised in one session or in
two or more successive sessions. If before the expiry of the session immediately following the
session or the successive sessions aforesaid, both House agree in making any modification in
the rule, the modified version of the rule shall be operative; but if both House agree that the
rule should not be made, it will not be operative. Such modification, or as the case may be.
Annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of anything previously done under that
rule. In other words, any previously done act under that rule will remain unaffected by the said
modification or annulment.
3.28
The Payment of Bonus Act,1965
3. Who is entitled to entitled to bonus under the Payment of Bonus Act, 1965
(a) A part time employee who is engaged on a regular basis.
(b) A probationer employee.
(c) A dismissed employee reinstated with back wages.
(d) All of the above.
4. Ordinarily, the Payment of Bonus Act, 1965 cannot apply on an establishment employing
less than 20 persons.
(a) True.
(b) False.
5. Once the Bonus Act is applicable on an establishment, the Act will continue to apply even
if the number of employees comes below the required minimum.
(a) True.
(b) False.
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16. What is the minimum bonus that is payable to (a) an employee ? (b) an employee under
15 years of age ?
17. (a) What is the maximum amount of bonus payable to an employee ?
(b) Has this maximum amount any ceiling ?
18. With reference to what is the quantum of bonus payable calculated ?
19. For an accounting year, the allocable surplus exceeds the amount of maximum bonus.
How would you treat this excess for the purpose of payment of bonus ?
20. What is the maximum amount of surplus that can be “set on” ?
21. Is adjustment of customary or interim bonus paid permissible against bonus payable
under the Act ?
22. In an accounting year, an employer has sustained financial loss due to employee’s
misconduct. Is this amount of financial loss deductible from the amount of bonus payable
to the employee ?
23. Is there any time-limit for bonus payment ?
24. Can the Bonus Act be applicable to an establishment in public sector ?
25. An amount of bonus is due to an employee under a settlement and it is not paid to him.
What should he do for the recovery of the amount ?
Practical Problems
26. In an accounting year, a company to which the payment of Bonus Act, 1965 applies,
suffered heavy losses. The Board of Directors of the said company decided not to give
bonus to the employees. The employees of the company move to the Court for relief.
Decide in the light of the provisions of the said Act whether the employees will get relief?
27. On 1st January. 2002, Aryan Textiles Ltd. agreed with the employees for payment of an
annual bonus linked with production or productivity instead of bonus based on profits
subject to the limit of 30% of their salary wages during the relevant accounting year. It
was also agreed by the employees that they will not claim minimum bonus stated under
Section 10 of the Payment of Bonus Act, 1965. As per the agreement the employees of
Aryan Textiles Ltd claimed annual bonus linked with production or productivity in the
relevant accounting year. On refusal of the company the employees of the company
moved to the court for relief.
28. Decide in reference to the provisions of the payment of Bonus Act, 1965 whether the
employees will get the relief? Inspite of the aforesaid agreement whether the employees
are still entitled to receive minimum bonus.
Answers
1. (b); 2. (d); 3. (d); 4. (a); 5. (a)
3.30
CHAPTER 4
THE EMPLOYEES’ PROVIDENT FUNDS AND
MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS ACT, 1952
Learning Objectives
In this Chapter, the students come to know the
♦ Operations of Employees’ Provident Fund Scheme
♦ Operations of the Employee’s Pension Scheme
♦ Operations of the Deposit-Linked Insurance Scheme
♦ Obligations of the employer and employee towards PF accounts
♦ Other provisions of the Act such as powers of the Central Government, determinations of
moneys due from employers etc.
Every worker wants security and maintenance for old age. The Provident Fund Act, 1925
deals with the provident funds relating to only Government, Railways and local authorities.
So it was considered desirable to introduce a Provident Fund Scheme for the industrial
workers.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952 (hereinafter referred
to as ‘the Act’) extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu & Kashmir. It seeks
to provide for the institution of provident funds, family pension funds and deposit linked
insurance funds for employees in factories and other establishments. The Act is at present
applicable to 173 industries and classes of establishments of Schedule I.
Subject to the exceptions contained in Section 16 (which we shall discuss later on), this Act
applies to the following entities, namely :
(a) every establishment which is a factory engaged in any industry specified in Schedule I
and in which 20 or more persons are employed ; and
(b) any other establishment which employs 20 or more persons or class of such
establishments which the Central Government may, by notification in Official Gazette
specify in the behalf.
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
However, the Central Government may, after giving not less than 2 months’ notice of its
intention to do so, apply the provisions of this Act to any establishment with less than 20
persons in the employment.
Notwithstanding anything mentioned above or in Sub-section (1) of Section 16, where it
appears to the Central Provident Fund Commissioner, whether on an application made to him
in this behalf or otherwise, that the employer and the majority of employees in relation to any
establishment, have agreed that the provisions of this Act should be made applicable to the
establishment, he may, by notification in the Official, Gazette, apply the provision of this Act to
the establishment on and from the date of such agreement or from any subsequent date
specified in such agreement.
An establishment to which this Act applies must continue to be governed by this Act, even if
the number of persons employed therein falls at any time below 20.
4.2
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
clause (f) of Sub-section (I) of Section 7 of the Factories Act, 1948 the person so named ;
and
(ii) in relation to any other establishment, the person who, or the authority which, has
ultimate control over the affairs of the establishment, and where the said affairs are
entrusted to a manager or managing director, such manager, managing director or
managing agent.
(f) “Employee” means any person who is employed for wages in any kind of work, manual or
otherwise, in or in connection with work of an establishment, and who gets his wages
directly or indirectly from the employer, and includes any person, (i) employed by or
through a contractor in or in connection with the work of the establishment ; (ii) engaged
as an apprentice, not being an apprentice engaged under the Apprentice Act, 1961 (52 of
1961), or under the standing orders of the establishment.
(ff) “Exempted employee” means an employee to whom a Scheme would, but for the
exemption granted under Section 17, have applied.
(fff ) “Exempted establishment” means an establishment in respect of which an exemption has
been granted under Section 17 from the operation of all or any of the provisions of any
Scheme, whether such exemption has been granted to the establishment as such or to
any person or class of persons employed therein.
(g) “Factory” means any premises, including the precincts thereof, in any part of which a
manufacturing process is being carried on or is ordinarily so carried on, whether with the
aid of power or without the aid of power.
(i) “Industry” means an industry specified in Schedule I, and includes any other industry
added to the Schedule by notification under Section 4.
(ie) “Manufacture” or “Manufacturing process” means any process for making, altering,
repairing, ornamenting, finishing, packing, washing, cleaning, breaking up, demolishing,
otherwise treating or adapting any, article or substance with a view to its use, sale,
transport, delivery or disposal.
(k) “Occupier of a factory” means the person who has ultimate control over the affairs of the
factory and where the said affairs are entrusted to a managing agent, such agent shall be
deemed to be the occupier of the factory.
Establishment to include all departments and branches (Section 2A) : If an establishment
consists of different departments or has branches whether situated in the same place or in
different places, all such departments or branches shall be treated as parts of the same
establishment.
Power to apply the Act to an establishment which has a common Provident Fund with
another establishment (Section 3) : When an establishment covered by this Act has a
4.3
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common Provident Fund with another establishment immediately before the Act came into
force, the Central Government has the power to direct through a notification in the Official
Gazette, that the provisions of this Act shall also apply to that another establishment.
The Central Government has also the power, by virtue of Section 4, to add to Schedule I any
other industry in respect of the employees whereof it is of the opinion that a provident
fund scheme should be framed under this Act. Thereupon, the industry so added must be
deemed to be an industry specified in Schedule I for the purposes of this Act. The addition is
to be made through a notification in the Official Gazette and the notification is required to be
laid before Parliament as soon as possible after issue.
4.4
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
4.5
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Central Board (Section 5A) : The Central Government may, by notification in the Official
Gazette, constitute with effect from such date as may be specified therein, a Board of
Trustees for the territories to which this Act extends (hereinafter in this Act referred to as the
Central Board) consisting of the following persons, as members, namely :
1 (a) a Chairman and a Vice-Chairman to be appointed by the Central Government;
(aa) the Central Provident Fund Commissioner, ex-officio;
(b) not more than fifteen persons appointed by the Central Government from amongst
its officials;
(c) not more than fifteen persons, representing Governments of such State as the
Central Government may specify in this behalf, appointed by the Central
Government;
(d) ten persons representing employers of the establishments to which the Scheme
applies, appointed by the Central Government after consultation with such
organisations of employers as may be recognised by the Central Government in this
behalf; and
(e) ten persons representing employees in the establishments to which the Scheme
applies, appointed by the Central Government after consultation with such
organisations of employees as may be recognised by the Central Government in
this behalf.
2. The terms and conditions subject to which a member of the Central Board may be
appointed and the time, place and procedure of the meetings of the Central Board shall
be such as may be provided for in the Scheme.
3. The Central Board, shall [subject to the provisions of Section 6A (and Section 6C)]
administer the fund vested in it in such manner as may be specified in the Scheme.
4. The Central Board shall perform such other functions as it may be required to perform by
or under any provisions of the Scheme (the Family Pension Scheme and the Insurance
Scheme).
5. The Central Board shall maintain proper accounts of its income and expenditure in such
form and in such manner as the Central Government may, after consultation with the
Comptroller and Auditor-General of India, specify in the Scheme.
6. The accounts of the Central Board shall be audited annually by the Comptroller and
Auditor-General of India and any expenditure incurred by him in connection with such
audit shall be payable by the Central Board to the Comptroller and Auditor-General of
India.
4.6
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
7. The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India and any person appointed by him in
connection with the audit of the accounts of the Central Board shall have the same rights
and privileges and authority in connection with such audit as the Comptroller and Auditor-
General has, in connection with the audit of Government accounts and, in particular,
shall have the right to demand the production of books, accounts, connected vouchers,
documents and papers and inspect any of the offices of the Central Board.
8. The accounts of the Central Board as certified by the Comptroller and Auditor-General of
India or any other person appointed by him in his behalf together with audit report there-
upon shall be forwarded to the Central Board which shall forward the same to the Central
Government alongwith its comments on the report of the Comptroller and Auditor-General.
9. It shall be the duty of the Central Board to submit also to the Central Government an
annual report of its work and activities and the Central Government shall cause a copy of
the annual report, the audited accounts together with the report of the Comptroller and
Auditor-General of India and the comments of the Central Board thereon to be laid before
each House of Parliament.
Executive Committee (Section 5AA) : The Central Government may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, constitute, with effect from such date as may be specified therein, an
Executive Committee to assist the Central Board in the performance of its functions.
The Executive committee shall consist of the following persons as members, namely :
(a) a Chairman appointed by the Central Government from amongst the members of the
Central Board;
(b) two persons appointed by the Central Government from amongst the persons referred to
in clause (b) of Sub-section (1) of Section 5A.
(c) three persons appointed by the Central Government from amongst the persons referred
to in clause (c) of Sub-section (1) of Section 5A.
(d) three persons representing the employers elected by the Central Board from amongst the
persons referred to in clause (d) of Sub-section (1) of Section 5A.
(e) three persons representing the employees elected by the Central Board from amongst
the persons referred to in clause (e) of Sub-section (1) of Section 5A.
(f) the Central Provident Fund Commissioner, ex-officio.
The terms and conditions subject to which a member of the Central Board may be appointed
or elected to the Executive Committee and the time, place and procedure of the meetings of
the Executive Committee shall be such as may be provided for in the Scheme.
State Board (Section 5B) : It was stated above that the Central Government may constitute
Trustees for a State Board in consultation with the Government of that State. The State Board
4.7
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shall exercise such powers and perform such duties as the Central Government may assign to
it from time to time.
Board of Trustees to be body corporate (Section 5C) : The above Central Board or the
State Board shall be a body corporate under the name specified in the notification constituting
it having perpetual succession and a common seal.
Appointment of Officers (Section 5D) : The Central Government shall appoint a Central
Provident Fund Commissioner who shall be the Chief Executive Officer of the Central Board.
He shall be subject to the general control and superintendence of that Board.
The Central Government may also appoint a Financial Adviser and Chief Accounts Officer to
assist the Central Provident Fund Commissioner in the discharge of his duties.
The Central Board may appoint subject to the maximum scale of pay, as may be specified in
the Scheme as many Additional Central Provident Fund Commissioners, Deputy Provident
Fund Commissioners, Regional Provident Fund Commissioners and Assistant Provident Fund
Commissioners as it may consider necessary for the efficient administration of the Scheme.
The aforesaid appointments carrying a scale of pay equivalent to Group ‘A’ or Group ‘B’ posts
under the Central Government must be made only after consultations with Union Public
Service Commission. However, such consultation is unnecessary in regard to any such
appointment :
(a) for a period not exceeding one year; or (b) if the person to be appointed is at the time of
his appointment : (i) an I.A.S. Officer, or (ii) in the Service of the Central Government or State
Government or the Central Board in Group A or Group B post.
The State Board may, with the approval of the State Government concerned appoint such staff
as it may consider necessary.
The method of recruitment, salary and allowances, discipline and other conditions of service of
the aforesaid Commissioner and the Financial Adviser and Chief Accounts Officer shall be
such as may be prescribed by the Central Government. Such salary and allowances must be
paid out of the Fund.
The method of recruitment, salary and allowances, discipline and other conditions of service of
the Additional Central Provident Fund Commissioner, Deputy Provident Fund Commissioner,
Regional Provident Fund Commissioner, Assistant Provident Fund Commissioner, and other
officers and employees of the Central Board shall be such as may be specified by the Central
Board in accordance with the rules and orders applicable to the officers an employees of the
Central Government drawing corresponding scales of pay.
Provided that where the Central Board is of the opinion that it is necessary to make a
departure from the said rules or orders in respect of any of the matters aforesaid, it shall
obtain the prior approval of the Central Government.
4.8
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
In determining the corresponding scales of pay of officers and employees under clause (a),
the Central Board shall have regard to the educational qualifications, method of recruitment,
duties and responsibilities of such officers and employees under the Central Government and
in case of any doubt, the Central Board shall refer the matter to the Central Government
whose decision thereon shall be final.
Acts and proceedings of the Central Board or its Executive Committee or State Board
not to be invalidated on certain grounds (Section 5DD) : No Act done or proceeding taken
by the Central Board or the Executive Committee constituted under Section 5AA or the State
Board shall be questioned on the ground merely of the existence of any vacancy in, or any
defect in the constitution of the Central Board or the Executive Committee or the State Board,
as the case may be.
Delegation (Section 5E) : The Central Board may delegate to the Executive Committee or to
the Chairman of the Board or to any of its Officers and a State Board may delegate to its
Chairman or to any of its Officers such of its powers and functions under this Act as it may
deem necessary for the efficient administration of the Scheme. This delegation may be subject
to such conditions and limitations, if any, as the said Board may specify.
Contribution and matters which may be provided for in Scheme (Section 6) : The
employees’ contribution to the fund shall be 10%* of the basic wage, dearness allowance and
retaining allowance (if any). An employee can at his will contribute beyond 10%* if the scheme
makes provision therefor subject to the conditions that the employer shall not be under an
obligation to pay any contribution over and above his contribution payable under this Section.
This rule will prevail irrespective of whether the employer employs the person directly or
through contractor.
According to the first proviso to the Section the Central Government may, however, raise the
aforesaid percentage of contribution from 10%* to 12% in respect of any establishments. It
may do so after making such enquiries as it deems fit.
*[As amended by E.P.F. & M.P. (Amendment) Act, 1988.]
According to the second proviso if the amount of any contribution involves fraction of a rupee,
the Scheme may provide for rounding off such fraction to the nearest rupee, half of a rupee or
a quarter of rupee.
It may be noted that the dearness allowance mentioned above shall be deemed to include also
the cash value of any food concession allowed to the employees; also that “retaining
allowance” means an allowance payable for the time being to an employee of any factory or
other establishment during any period in which the establishment is not working for retaining
his service.
4.9
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Note: Students may note that in view of the Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous
Provisions (Amendment) Act, 1996 coming into force from 16th November, 1995, some
structural changes have been introduced in the Act. The Amendment Act, 1996 was assented
by the President of India on 16th August, 1996. With reference to the Pension Scheme, a new
Section 6A has been substituted for earlier Sections 6A and 6B. Henceforth for the words
“family pension” the word “pension” shall be substituted.
4.10
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
(c) the net assets of the Employees’ Family Pension Fund as on the date of the
establishment of the Pension Fund;
(d) such sums as the Central Government may, after due appropriation by Parliament by law
in this behalf, specify.
(3) On the establishment of the Pension Fund, the Family Pension Scheme (hereinafter
referred to as the ceased scheme) shall cease to operate and all assets of the ceased scheme
shall vest in and shall stand transferred to, and all liabilities under the ceased scheme shall be
enforceable against, the Pension Fund and the beneficiaries under the ceased scheme shall
be entitled to draw the benefits, not less than the benefits they were entitled to under the
ceased scheme, from the Pension Fund.
The Pension Scheme may provide for all or any of the following matters specified in Schedule
III.
Matters for which Provision may be made in the Pension Scheme (Schedule III)
1. The employees or class of employees to whom the Pension Scheme shall apply.
2. The time within which the employees who are not members of the Family Pension
Scheme under Section 6A as it stood before the commencement of the Employees’
Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions (Amendment) Ordinance, 1995
(hereinafter, in this Schedule, referred to as the amending Ordinance) shall opt for the
Pension Scheme.
3. The portion of employers’ contribution to the Provident Fund which shall be credited to
the Pension Fund and the manner in which it is credited.
4. The minimum qualifying service for being eligible for pension and the manner in which
the employees may be granted the benefit of their past service under Section 6A as it
stood before the commencement of the amending Ordinance.
5. The regulation of the manner in which, the period of service for which no contribution is
received.
6. The manner in which employees’ interest will be protected against default in payment of
contribution by the employer.
7. The manner in which the accounts of the pensions fund shall be kept and investment of
moneys belonging to pension fund to be made subject to such pattern of investment as
may be determined by the Central Government.
8. The form in which an employee shall furnish particulars about himself and the members
of his family whenever required.
4.11
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
9. The forms, registers and records to be maintained in respect of employees, required for
the administration of the Pension Scheme.
10. The scale of pension and pensionary benefits and the conditions relating to grant of such
benefits of the employees.
11. The manner in which the exempted establishments have to pay contribution towards the
Pension Scheme and the submission of return relating thereto.
12. The mode of disbursement of pension and arrangements to be entered into with such
disbursing agencies as may be specified for the purpose.
13. The manner in which the expenses for administering the Pension Scheme will be met
from the income of the Pension Fund.
14. Any other matter which is to be provided for in the Pension Scheme or which may be,
necessary or proper for the purpose of implementation of the pension Scheme.”
4.12
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
Payment of contribution
(1) The employer shall pay the contribution payable to the Employees’ Pension Fund in
respect of the member of the Employees’ Pension Fund employed by him directly or by
or through a contractor.
(2) It shall be the responsibility of the principal employer to pay the contributions payable to
the Employees’ Pension Fund by himself in respect of the employees directly employed
by him and also in respect of the employees employed by or through a contractor.
4.13
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4.14
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
Where an order under Sub-section (1) is passed against an employer ex parte, he may, within
three months from the date of communication of such order, apply to the officer for setting
aside such order and if he satisfies the officer that the show cause notice was not duly served
or that he was prevented by any sufficient cause from appearing when the inquiry was held,
the officer shall make an order setting aside his earlier order and shall appoint a date for
proceeding with the inquiry.
No such order shall be set aside merely on the ground that there has been an irregularity in
the service of show cause notice if the officer is satisfied that the employer had notice of the
date of hearing and had sufficient time to appear before the officer. However, where an appeal
has been preferred under this Act against an order passed ex parte and such appeal has been
disposed of otherwise than on the ground that appellant has withdrawn the appeal, no
application shall lie under this Sub-section for setting aside the ex parte order [Section 7A(4)].
No order passed under this section shall be set aside on any application under Sub-section
(4), under notice thereof has been served on the opposite party.
Thus,the scope of enquiry and manner of conducting the enquiry is at the discretion of the
authority. As the proceedings shall be quasi-judicial and shall vitally affect the rights of the
parties the principle of natural justice must be strictly followed in deciding the dispute in the
proceeding. The employer is entitled to a reasonable opportunity of being heard. The order
made under this section shall be final and will not be called in question in any Court of law.
4.15
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Notice that :
(a) no such application shall be granted without previous notice to all the parties before him
to enable them to appear and be heard in support of the order in respect of which a
review is applied for, and
(b) no such application shall be granted on the ground of discovery of new matter or evidence
which the applicant alleges was not within his knowledge or could not be produced by him
when the order was made, without proof of such allegation.
No appeal shall lie against the order of the officer rejecting an application for review, but an
appeal under this Act shall lie against an order passed under review as if the order passed
under review were the original order passed by him under Section 7A.
Determination of escaped amount (Section 7C) : Where an order determining the amount
due from an employer under Section 7A or Section 7B has been passed and if the officer who
passed the order :
(a) has reason to believe that by reason of the omission or failure on the part of the employer
to make any document or report available, or to disclose, fully and truly, all material facts
necessary for determining the correct amount due from the employer, any amount so due
from such employer for any period has escaped his notice;
(b) has, in consequence of information in his possession, reason to believe that any amount
to be determined under Section 7A or Section 7B has escaped from his determination for
any period notwithstanding that there has been no omission or failure as mentioned in
clause (a) on the part of the employer.
He may, within a period of five years from the date of communication of the order passed
under Section 7A or Section 7B, re-open the case and pass appropriate order re-determining
the amount due from the employer in accordance with provisions of this Act.
However, no order re-determining the amount due from the employer shall be passed under
this section unless the employer is given a reasonable opportunity of representing his case.
Employees’ Provident Fund Appellate Tribunal (Section 7D) : The Central Government
may, by notification in the Official Gazette, constitute one or more Appellate Tribunals to be
known as the Employees’ Provident Funds Appellate Tribunal to exercise the powers and
discharge the functions conferred on such Tribunal by this Act and every such Tribunal shall
have jurisdiction in respect of establishments situated in such area as may be specified in the
notification constituting the Tribunal.
A Tribunal shall consist of one person only to be appointed by the Central Government.
A person shall not be qualified for appointment as the Presiding Officer of a Tribunal
(hereinafter referred to as the Presiding Officer), unless he is, or has been, or is qualified to be
4.16
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
4.17
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
be entertained by a Tribunal unless he has deposited with it seventy-five per cent of the
amount due from him as determined by an officer referred to in Section 7A.
The Tribunal may, however, for reasons to be recorded in writing, waive or reduce the amount
to be deposited under this section.
Transfer of certain applications to Tribunals (Section 7-P) : All applications which are
pending before the Central Government under Section 19A, before its repeal shall stand
transferred to a Tribunal exercising jurisdiction in respect of establishments in relation to which
such applications had been made as if such applications were appeals preferred to the
Tribunal.
Interest payable by the employer (Section 7-Q) : The employer shall be liable to pay simple
interest at the rate of 12% per annum or at such higher rate as may be specified in the
Scheme on any amount due from him under this Act from the date on which the amount has
become so due till the date of its actual payment. However, the higher rate of interest
specified in the Scheme cannot exceed the lending rate of interest charged by any scheduled
bank.
Mode of recovery of money due from employers (Section 8) : Any amount due from such
employer as is specified in Section 8 may, if the amount is in arrear, be recovered in the
manner specified in Sections 8B to 8G. For order of demand under Section 8, it is necessary
that there should be a determination of the amount due, if the liability is disputed. An order
under Section 7A(3) is a condition precedent to the making of a demand under Section 8 [A.T.
Union (P.) Ltd. vs. RPF Commissioner].
(i) Recovery of moneys by employers and contractors (Section 8A) : The amount of
employers’ and employees’ contribution and any charges on the basis of such contribution for
meeting the cost of administering the fund paid or payable by an employer in respect of an
employee employed by or through a contractor may be recovered by such employer from the
contractor. The recovery may be made by deduction from any amount payable by the
Contractor. The contractor in his turn may recover from such employee the employee’s
contribution by deducting from the basic wage, dearness allowance, any retaining allowance
(if any), payable to such employee. But the contractor cannot deduct the employer’s contri-
bution or the charges aforesaid from the total emoluments payable to the employee; nor can
he otherwise recover such contribution or charges from such employee. This is true
irrespective of whether there is any contract to the contrary.
(ii) Issue of certificate to the Recovery officer (Section 8B) : Where any amount is in
arrear under Section 8, the authorised officer may issue to the Recovery Officer, a certificate
under his signature specifying the amount of arrears and the Recovery Officer on receipt of
such certificate, shall proceed to recover the amount specified therein from the establishment
or as the case may be, the employer by one or more of the modes mentioned below :
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The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
(a) attachment and sale of the movable or immovable property of the establishment or, as
the case may be, the employer;
(b) arrest of the employer and his detention in prison;
(c) appointing a receiver for the management of the movable or immovable properties of the
establishment or, as the case may be, the employer.
The attachment and sale of any property under this section shall, however, be first effected
against the properties of the establishment and where such attachment and sale is insufficient
for recovering the whole of the amount of arrears specified in the certificate, the Recovery
Officer may take such proceedings against the property of the employer for recovery of the
whole or any part of such arrears.
(iii) Recovery Officer to whom certificate is to be forwarded (Section 8C) : The
authorised officer may forward the certificate referred to in Section 8B to the Recovery Officer
within whose jurisdiction the employer :
(a) carries on his business or profession or within whose jurisdiction the principal place of
the establishment is situate; or
(b) resides or any movable or immovable property of the establishment or the employer is
situate.
Where an establishment or the employer has property within the jurisdiction of more than one
Recovery Officer and the Recovery officer to whom a certificate is sent by the authorised
officer :
(a) is not able to recover the entire amount by the sale of the property, movable or
immovable, within his jurisdiction; or
(b) is of the opinion that, for the purpose of expediting or securing the recovery of the whole
or any part of the amount, it is necessary so to do, he may send the certificate or, where
only a part of the amount is to be recovered, a copy of the certificate in the prescribed
manner and specifying the amount to be recovered to the Recovery Officer within whose
jurisdiction the establishment or the employer has property or the employer resides, and
thereupon that Recovery Officer shall also proceed to recover the amount due under this
section as if the certificate or the copy thereof had been the certificate sent to him by the
authorised officer.
(iv) Stay of proceedings under certificate and amendment or withdrawal thereof
(Section 8E) : Notwithstanding that a certificate has been issued to the Recovery officer for
the recovery of any amount, the authorised officer may grant time for the payment of the
amount and thereupon the Recovery Officer shall stay the proceeding until the expiry of the
time so granted.
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Where a certificate for the recovery of amount has been issued, the authorised officer shall
keep the Recovery officer informed of any amount paid or time granted for payment,
subsequent to the issue of such certificate.
Where the order giving rise to a demand of amount for which a certificate for recovery has
been issued has been modified in appeal or other proceeding under this Act, and, as a
consequence thereof, the demand is reduced but the order is the subject-matter of further
proceeding under this Act, the authorised officer shall stay the recovery of such part of the
amount of the certificate as pertains to the said reduction for the period for which the appeal or
other proceeding remains pending.
Where a certificate for the recovery of amount has been issued and subsequently the amount
of the outstanding demand is reduced as a result of an appeal or other proceeding under this
Act, the authorised officer shall, when the order which was the subject-matter of such appeal
or other proceeding has become final and conclusive, amend the certificate or withdraw as the
case may be.
(v) Other modes of recovery (Section 8F) : Notwithstanding the issue of a certificate to
the Recovery Officer under Section 8B, the Central Provident Fund Commissioner or any
officer authorised by the Central Board may recover the amount by any one or more of the
modes provided in this section.
If any amount is due from any person to any employer who is in arrears, the Central Provident
Fund Commissioner or any other person authorised by the Central Board in this behalf may
require such person to deduct from the said amount the arrears due from such employer under
this Act, and such person shall comply with any such requisition and shall pay the sum so
deducted to the credit of the Central Provident Fund Commissioner or the officer so
authorised, as the case may be :
Nothing in this sub-section shall, however, apply to any part of the amount exempt from
attachment in execution of a decree of a Civil Court under Section 60 of the Code of Civil
Procedure, 1908 (5 of 1908).
The Central Provident Fund Commissioner or any other officer authorised by the Central
Board in this behalf may, at any time or from time to time, by notice in writing, require any
person from whom money is due or may become due to the employer or, as the case may be,
the establishment or any person who holds or may subsequently hold money for or on account
of the employer or as the case may be, the establishment, to pay to the Central Provident
Fund Commissioner either forthwith upon the money becoming due or being held or at or
within the time specified in the notice (not being before the money becomes due or is held) so
much of the money as is sufficient to pay the amount due from the employer in respect of
arrears or the whole of the money when it is equal to or less than that amount.
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The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
If the person to whom a notice under this sub-section is sent fails to make payment in
pursuance thereof to the Central Provident Fund Commissioner or the officer so authorised,
he shall be deemed to be an employer in default in respect of the amount specified in the
notice and further proceedings may be taken against him for the realisation of the amount as if
it were an arrear due from him in the manner provided in Sections 8B to 8E and the notice
shall have the same effect as an attachment of a debt by the Recovery Officer in exercise of
his powers under Section 8B.
The Central Provident Fund Commissioner or the officer authorised by the Central Board in
this behalf may apply to the Court in whose custody there is money belonging to the employer
for payment to him of the entire amount of such money, or if it is more than the amount due,
an amount sufficient to discharge the amount due.
(vi) Application of certain provisions of Income-tax Act (Section 8-G) : The provisions of
the Second and Third Schedules to the Income-tax Act, 1961 and the tax (Certificate
Proceedings) Rules, 1962, as in force, from time to time, shall apply with necessary
modifications as if the said provisions and the rules referred to the arrears of the amount
mentioned in Section 8 of this Act instead of the income-tax.
However, any reference in the said provisions and the rules to the “assessee” shall be
construed as a reference to an employer as defined in this “Act”.
Fund to be recognised under the Income-tax Act, 1961 (Section 9) : For the purposes of
Income-tax Act, 1961, the Fund shall be deemed to be a recognised Provident Fund. Even if
any provision of the Scheme under which the Fund is established is repugnant to any of the
provisions of the Income-tax Act in this regard, the provision of the Scheme remains effective
and operative.
Protection against attachment (Section 10) : The amount standing to the credit of any
member in the Fund or credit of any exempted employee in provident fund shall not in any way
be capable of, being assigned or charged and shall not be liable to attachment under any
decree or order of any Court in respect of any debt or liability incurred by the member or the
exempted employee. Neither the Official Assignee appointed under the Presidency-Town
Insolvency Act, 1909 nor any Receiver appointed under the Provincial Insolvency Act, 1920,
shall be entitled to or have any claim on any such amount.
The amount standing to the credit of the aforesaid categories of persons at the time of their
death and payable to their nominees under the Scheme or the rules vest in nominees. And the
amount shall be free from any debt or other liability incurred by the deceased or the nominee
before the death of the member or of the exempted employee and shall also not be liable to
attachment under any decree or order of any Court.
Priority of payment of contribution over other debts (Section 11) : If the employer is
adjudged an insolvent or if the employer is a company and an order for winding thereof has
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been made, the amount due from the employer whether in respect of the employee’s
contribution or the employer’s contribution must be included among the debts which are to be
paid in priority to all other debts under Section 49 of the Presidency-Towns Insolvency Act,
Section 61 of the Provincial Insolvency Act, Section 530 of the Companies Act, 1956, in the
distribution of the property of the insolvent or the assets of the company. In other words, this
payment will be a preferential payment provided the liability therefor has accrued before this
order of adjudication or winding up is made.
Employer not to reduce wage etc. (Section 12) : No employer in relation to any
establishment to which any Scheme applies shall by reason only of his liability for the payment
of any contribution to the Funds or any charge under this Act or the Scheme, reduce directly
or indirectly the wages of any employee or the total quantum of benefits in the nature of old-
age pension, gratuity fund to which the employee is entitled under the term of his employment-
express or implied.
Inspector (Section 13) : The power to appoint Inspectors has been vested in appropriate
Government for the purpose of the Act and Scheme. The area of jurisdiction is also for the
appropriate Government to decide upon. Appointment and the area assigned are to be notified
in the Official Gazette.
Sub-section (2) deals with the powers of inspectors. These are general powers by means of
which the inspectors may carry out their particular duties. The sub-section, inter-alia, vested
the inspectors with powers to :
(a) collect information and require the employer or any contractor from whom any amount is
recoverable under Section 8A to furnish such information as he may consider necessary;
(b) at any reasonable time and with necessary assistance, enter and search any
establishment or any premises connected therewith;
(c) require any one found in charge of the above-mentioned establishment or premises to
produce before him for examination any accounts, books, registers and other documents
relating to the employment of persons or the payment of wages in the establishment;
(d) examine, in respect of any matter relevant to any of the purposes aforesaid, the employer
or any contractor from whom any amount is recoverable under section 8A, his agent or
servant or any other person found in charge of the establishment or any premises
connected therewith or whom the inspector has reasonable cause to believe to be or to
have been, an employee in an establishment
(e) make copies of, or take extract from any book, register or other document maintained in
relation to the establishment and, where he has reason to believe that any offence under
this Act has been committed by an employer, seize with such assistance as he may think
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The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
fit, such book, register or other document or portions thereof as he may consider relevant
in respect of that offence;
(f) exercise each other powers as the scheme may provide.
By virtue of Sub-section (2A) any inspector may, for the purpose of enquiring into correctness
of any information furnished in connection with the Family Pension Scheme or for the purpose
of ascertaining whether any of the provisions of the Act or of the Family Pension Scheme have
been complied with in respect of an establishment to which the Family Pension Scheme
applies, exercise all or any of the powers conferred on him under the clauses mentioned in the
preceding paragraph.
Sub-section (2B) provides that the provisions of the Criminal Procedure Code shall, so far as
may be, apply to any search or seizure mentioned in the earlier paragraphs.
Penalties (Section 14): This Section deals with punishment for breaches of the provisions of
the Act and the Scheme. Sub-section (1) provides for penalty for knowingly making or causing
to be made, any false statement or false representation for avoiding any payment to be made
by himself or of enabling any other person to avoid such payment. Such penalty is in the form
of imprisonment for a term extending to one year or of fine extending to Rs. 5,000 or both.
Under Sub-section (1A), an employer who contravenes or makes default in complying with
provisions of Section 6 or Section 17(3)(a) in so far as it relates to the payment of inspection
charges, or Paragraph 38 of the Scheme in so far as it relates to the payment of administrative
charges, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to 3 years, but—
(a) which shall not be less than 1 year and a fine of Rs. 10,000 in case of default in payment
of the employees’ contribution deducted from his wages; (b) which shall not be less than six
months and a fine of Rs. 5,000, in any other case. It may, however, be noted that the Court
may, for any adequate and special reasons to be recorded in the judgment, impose a
sentence of imprisonment for lesser term.
According to Sub-section (1B), an employer who contravenes or makes default in complying
with the provisions of Section 6C or Section 17(3A)(a) in so far as it relates to the payment of
inspection charges, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to 1
year. But it shall not be less than six months and shall also be liable to fine which may extend
to Rs. 5,000. The Court may however, for any adequate and special reasons to be recorded in
the judgment, impose a sentence of imprisonment for a lesser term.
Sub-section (2) provides that subject to the provisions of this Act, the Scheme, the family
Pension Scheme or the Insurance Scheme may provide that any person who contravenes or
makes default in complying with any of the provisions thereof shall be punishable with
imprisonment for a term extending to 1 year, or with fine extending to Rs. 4,000, or with both.
Sub-section (2A) provides penalty where no other penalty is provided under this Act:
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(i) for contravention or default in complying with the provisions of the Act, or (ii) of any condi-
tion subject to which exemption was granted under Section 17 of the Act. The penalty
provided is imprisonment upto 6 months but not less than 1 month or/and fine upto Rs. 5,000.
Offences of company (Section 14A): This Section deals with prosecution of the companies
which include firms and other associations of individuals; it also deals with the liability of
officers, directors, partners, etc., of the company. If the offence under the Act is committed by
a company, then the liability for the offence lies both on the company and on the person in
charge of or responsible to the company at the time when the offence was committed. The
company and the person as such would be jointly and severally responsible for the offence.
Both can be proceeded against and punished for the offence. According to the proviso, the
company and such person can be exonerated from liability if it and/or he proves: (a) that the
offence was committed without its/his knowledge; or (b) that it/he exercised all due diligence to
prevent the commission of such offence.
Sub-section (2) limits the scope of the Proviso mentioned above. If the prosecution proves that
the offence: (a) was committed with the (i) consent; or (ii) connivance; or (b) is attributable to
any negligence on the part of a director, manager secretary or other officer of the company,
then such director, manager, secretary or other officer shall be deemed to be guilty of the
offence and liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.
Enhanced punishment in certain cases after previous conviction (Section 14AA): This
Section deals with imposition of enhanced penalty, after the previous conviction. The
conditions are: (a) that there should have been a conviction of offence punishable under this
Act or the Scheme of the Family Pension Scheme, or the Insurance Scheme; (b) that the
person convicted must be found guilty of an offence involving the commission of the same of-
fence. The punishment for the conviction of the subsequent offence is imprisonment which
should not be less than 2 years but can go up to five years. Further, there must be an
additional imposition of the fine extending to Rs. 25,000.
Certain offences to be cognisable (Section 14AB): This Section renders the offences
relating to default in payment of contribution by the employer a cognisable offence. A
cognisable offence is one where the police can arrest a person without warrant.
Cognisance and trial of offence (Section 14AC): This section deals with the complaints in
regard to offences under the Act, the scheme or the Family Pension Scheme or Insurance
Scheme and their cognisance.
The essential conditions of cognisance of offences are :
(a) There must be a report in writing of the facts constituting such offence,
(b) This report must be made with the previous sanction of the :
(i) Central Provident Fund Commissioner; or
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The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
may, in addition to awarding any punishment, by order in writing require him within a specified
period in the order to pay the amount of contribution or transfer the accumulations, as the
case may be, in respect of which the offence was committed. The period referred to in this
order may, however, be extended by the Court if it thinks fit and on application in this behalf
from time to time.
By virtue of Sub-section (2) of the Section, the impact of the aforesaid order of the Court
would be that the clause in the order relating to continuance of the offence would remain sus-
pended. If, however, on the expiry of the specified time, or as the case may be, the extended
time, the order remains uncomplied with, then this default will be regarded as a further
offence. For this further offence, the employer shall be liable to be punished with imprisonment
under Section 14 and shall also be liable to a fine extending upto Rs. 100 for every day after
such expiry on which the order has not been complied with.
Special provisions relating to existing provident funds (Section 15): This Section deals
with the provisions relating to existing provident funds prior to the application of the Scheme or
after the application of the scheme.
The implication of the opening phrase, viz., “subject to the provisions of Section 17” (dilated
upon later on), is that if an exemption has been granted to the already existing rule regarding
Provident Fund, then the provisions of Section 17 and the conditions laid down therein shall
apply.
The section saves the existing provident Fund. That is to say, it shall, pending the application
of the scheme, be operated and worked as though the Act had not been enforced. Therefore,
every employee who is a subscriber to the existing provident fund of an establishment,
pending the application of any scheme to the establishment, continues to be entitled to the
benefits accruing to him under the provident fund; and the provident fund shall continue to be
maintained in the same manner and subject to the same conditions as it would have been if
this Act had not been passed.
On the application of the scheme to the fund already in existence, the amount standing to the
credit of the employee who becomes a member shall be transferred to the fund established
under the scheme. The condition contained in the scheme shall supersede all provisions of
law or deed or instrument if there is anything to the contrary.
Act not to apply to certain establishments (Section 16): This Act does not apply to the
following classes of establishments, namely :
(a) an establishment under the Co-operative Societies Act, 1912 or under any other law
relating to co-operative societies in any State, employing less than 50 persons and
working without the aid of power; or
(b) any other establishment belonging to or under the control of the Central Government or a
State Government and whose employees are entitled to the benefit of contributory
4.26
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
provident fund or old age pension in accordance with any scheme or rule framed by the
Central Government or the State Government governing such benefits; or
(c) to any other establishment set up under any Central, Provincial or State Act and whose
employees are entitled to the benefits of contributory provident fund or old age pension in
accordance with any scheme or rule framed under the Act governing pension in
accordance with any scheme or rule framed under that Act governing such benefits; or
Sub-section (2) of the section further empowers the Central Government to exempt whether
prospectively or retrospectively any class of establishments (not an individual establishment
unless it constitutes a class within itself) from the operation of the Act, if the Government
thinks necessary or expedient after taking into consideration the financial position of the
establishment or other circumstances of the case. This exemption can be granted only through
notification in the Official Gazette.
Authorising certain employers to maintain a P.F. Account (Section 16-A) : The Central
Government may, on an application made to it in this behalf by the employer and the majority
of employees in relation to an establishment employing one hundred or more persons,
authorise the employer by an order in writing, to maintain a provident fund account in relation
to the establishment subject to such terms and conditions as may be specified in the Scheme.
No authorisation shall, however, be made under this sub-section if the employer of such
establishment had committed any default in the payment of provident fund contribution or had
committed any other offence under this Act during the three years immediately preceding the
date of such authorisation.
Any authorisation made under this section may be cancelled by the Central Government by
order in writing if the employer fails to comply with any of the terms and conditions of the
authorisation or where he commits any offence under any provision of this Act.
Before cancelling the authorisation, the Central Government shall give the employer a
reasonable opportunity of being heard.
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Power to exempt (Section 17): The exemption from the operation of all or any of the
provisions of any scheme may be granted by the appropriate Government. The exemption
order is required to be notified in the Official Gazette. The exemption can be conditional. The
condition shall have to be specified in the notification published in the Official Gazette. It can
be from all or any of the provisions of the Scheme or Family Pension Scheme applicable to the
establishment and may be made prospectively or retrospectively.
While granting exemption, the appropriate Government shall see that, in its opinion, the rules
in force regarding provident fund or family pension in the establishment :
are not less favourable to employees than the benefits provided in the Act or the Scheme in
relation to the establishment;
No exemption under this Section shall be made without consultation with the Central Board.
(a) the provision of Sections 6, 7-A and 14-B shall, so far as may be, apply to the employer
of the exempted establishment in addition to such other conditions as may be specified in
the notification granting such exemption, and where such employer contravences, or
makes default in complying with any of the said provisions or conditions or any other
provision of the Act, he shall be punishable under Section 14 as if the said establishment
had not been exempted;
(b) the employer shall establish a Board of Trustees for the administration of the provident
fund as per the terms specified in Section 17(1-A).
Any Scheme may make a provision for exemption of any person or class of persons employed
in any establishment to which the Scheme applies from the operation of all or any of the
provisions of the Scheme, if the benefits enjoyed (all taken together) in respect of provident
fund, gratuity or old-age pension are on the whole not less favourable than the benefits
provided under this Act or the Scheme. But no such exemptions can be granted in respect of a
class of persons, unless the appropriate Government is of the opinion that the majority of
persons constituting such class desire to continue to be entitled to such benefits [Sub-section
(2)].
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The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
The Central Provident Fund Commissioner may grant exemption to any establishment from
the operation of all or any of the provisions of the Insurance Scheme, whether prospectively or
retrospectively. This exemption may be granted by notification in the Official Gazette and
subject to such conditions as may be specified in the notification. The Central Provident Fund
Commissioner may exempt: (a) if it is requested to do so by the employer and (b) if it is
satisfied that the employees of such establishment are, without making any separate
contribution or payment of premium, in enjoyment of benefits in the nature of life insurance,
whether or not linked to their deposits in the provident fund, and such benefits are more
favourable to such employees than the benefits admissible under the Insurance Scheme [Sub-
section (2-A)].
Without prejudice to the provisions referred to in the preceding paragraph, the Insurance
Scheme may provide for the exemption to any person or class of persons employed in any
establishment and covered by that scheme from the operation of all or any of the provisions
thereof. This exemption is admissible if the benefits in the nature of life insurance admissible
to such person or class of persons are more favourable than the benefits provided under the
Insurance Scheme [Sub-section (2-B)].
In exercise of the powers conferred by clause (a) of Sub-section (3) of Section 17, the Central
Government directs that every employer in relation to an establishment exempted under
clause (a) or (b) of Sub-section (1) of Section 17 or in relation to any employee or class of
employees exempted shall transfer the monthly provident fund contributions in respect of the
establishment or as the case may be of the employee or class of employees within 15 days of
4.29
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
the close of the month to the Board of Trustees duly constituted in respect of that
establishment, and that the said Board of Trustees shall invest every month within a period of
two weeks from the date of receipt of the said contributions from the employee, the provident
fund accumulations in respect of that establishment or as the case may be, of the employee or
class of employees, that is to say, the contributions, interest, and other receipts as reduced by
any obligatory outgoings in accordance with the investment pattern as envisaged in the
Notification No. S.O. 937 dated 27th March 1997.
Where an exemption is granted under Sub-section (2-A) or (2-B) mentioned above, the
employer in relation to such establishment: (a) shall in relation to the benefits in the nature of
life insurance to which any such person or class of persons is entitled or any insurance fund,
maintain such accounts, submit such returns, make such investments, provide for such
facilities for inspection and pay such inspection charges so the Central Government may direct
(b) shall not, at any time after the exemption, without the leave of the Central Government,
reduce the total quantum of benefits in the nature of life insurance to which any such person
or class of persons was entitled immediately before the date of the exemption; and (c) shall,
where any such person leaves his employment and obtains re-employment in another estab-
lishment to which this Act applies, transfer within such time as may be specified in this behalf
by the Central Government, the amount of accumulations to the credit of that person in the
insurance fund of the establishment left by him to the credit of that person’s account in the
insurance fund of the establishment in which he is re-employed or, as the case may be, in the
Deposit-linked Insurance Fund [Sub-section (3-A)].
The exemption granted under this Section can be cancelled in case of failure on the part of an
employer to comply with the terms and conditions imposed on which exemptions were granted
under various sub-sections mentioned above. In that case, the accumulations to the credit of
an employee would be transferred to the relative Funds mentioned above [Sub-sections (4 and
5)].
The appropriate Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, and subject to the
condition on the pattern of investment of pension fund and such other conditions as may be
specified therein, exempt any establishment or class of establishments from the operation of
the Pension Scheme if the employees of such establishment or class of establishments are
either members of any other pension scheme or proposes to be members of such pension
scheme, where the pensionary benefits are at par or more favourable than the Pension
Scheme under this Act” [Section 17(1)]
Transfer of accounts (Section 17-A): This Section provides for the transfer of accounts of an
employee in case if his leaving the employment and taking up employment in another
establishment and to deal with the case of an establishment to which this Act applies and also
4.30
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
to which it does not apply. The option to get the amount transferred is that of the employee.
Where an employee of an establishment to which this Act applies leaves his employment and
obtains re-employment in another establishment to which this Act does not apply, the amount
of accumulations to the credit of such employee in the Fund or, as the case may be, in the
provident fund in the establishment left by him shall be transferred to the credit of his account
in the provident fund of the establishment in which he is re-employed, if the employee so
desires and the rules in relation to that provident fund permit such transfer. This transfer has
to be made within such time as may be specified by the Central Government in this behalf
[Sub-section (1)].
Conversely, when an employee of an establishment to which this Act does not apply leaves
his employment and obtains re-employment in another establishment to which this Act applies,
the amount of accumulations to the credit of such employee in the provident fund of the
establishment left by him, if the employee so desires and the rules in relation to such
provident fund permit, may be transferred to the credit of his account in the fund or as the
case may be, in the provident fund of the establishment in which he is re-employed [Sub-
section (2)].
Act to have effect notwithstanding anything contained in the Life Insurance Corporation
Act, 1956 (Section 17-AA): In case of any inconsistency between this Act and LIC Act, 1956,
this Section provides that the Employees Provident Fund, etc. Act will prevail over the
provisions of the Life Insurance Corporation Act, 1956.
It would be thus evident from the foregoing provisions that Section 17-B deals with the liability
of transferor and transferee in regard to the money due under: (a) the Act; or (b) the Scheme;
(c) Pension Scheme. In the case of transfer of the establishment brought in by sale, gift,
lease, or any other manner whatsoever, the liability of the transferor and the transferee is joint
and several, but is limited with respect to the period up to the date of the transfer. Also the
liability of the transferee is further limited to the assets obtained by him from the transfer of the
establishment.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Protection of action taken in good faith (Section 18): No suit, prosecution or other legal
proceeding shall lie against the Central Government, a State Government, the presiding
Officer of a Tribunal, any authority referred to in Section 7-A, an Inspector or any other person
for anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done in pursuance of this Act, the
Scheme, the Pension Scheme or the Insurance Scheme.
Presiding Officer and other officers to be public servants (Section 18-A): The Presiding
Officer of a Tribunal, its officers and other employees, the authorities referred to in Section 7-A
and every inspector shall be deemed to be public servants within the meaning of Section 21 of
the Indian Penal Code.
Delegation of powers (Section 19): The appropriate Government may direct that any power
or authority or jurisdiction exercisable by it under this Act, the Scheme, the Pension Scheme
or the Insurance Scheme shall, in relation to such matters and subject to such conditions, if
any, as may be specified in the direction, be exercisable also (a) where the appropriate
Government is the Central Government, by such officer or authority subordinate to the Central
Government or by the State Government or by such officer or authority subordinate to the
State Government as may be specified in the notification; (b) where the appropriate
Government is a State Government by such Officer or authority subordinate to the State
Government as may be specified in the notification.
It would be thus evident from the foregoing provisions that Section 17-B deals with the liability
of transferor and transferee in regard to the money due under: (a) the Act; or (b) the Scheme;
(c) Pension Scheme. In the case of transfer of the establishment brought in by sale, gift,
lease, or any other manner whatsoever, the liability of the transferor and the transferee is joint
and several, but is limited with respect to the period up to the date of the transfer. Also the
liability of the transferee is further limited to the assets obtained by him from the transfer of the
establishment.
Protection of action taken in good faith (Section 18): No suit, prosecution or other legal
proceeding shall lie against the Central Government, a State Government, the Presiding
4.32
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
Officer of a Tribunal, any authority referred to in Section 7-A, an Inspector or any other person
for anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done in pursuance of this Act, the
Scheme, the Pension Scheme or the Insurance Scheme.
Presiding Officer and other officers to be public servants (Section 18-A): The Presiding
Officer of a Tribunal, its officers and other employees, the authorities referred to in Section 7-A
and every inspector shall be deemed to be public servants within the meaning of Section 21 of
the Indian Penal Code.
Delegation of powers (Section 19): The appropriate Government may direct that any power
or authority or jurisdiction exercisable by it under this Act, the Scheme, the Pension Scheme
or the Insurance Scheme shall, in relation to such matters and subject to such conditions, if
any, as may be specified in the direction, be exercisable also (a) where the appropriate
Government is the Central Government, by such officer or authority subordinate to the Central
Government or by the State Government or by such officer or authority subordinate to the
State Government as may be specified in the notification; (b) where the appropriate Gov-
ernment is a State Government by such officer or authority subordinate to the State
Government as may be specified in the notification.
Under this Section, both the Central Government and the State Government have been given
a right to delegate their powers, authority or jurisdiction exercisable by them to an officer or
authority sub-ordinate to them and subject to any condition. The Central Government is also
authorised to delegate the powers, etc., to the State Government.
Power to remove difficulties (Section 19-A): If any doubt or difficulty arises in giving effect
to the provisions of this Act, and particularly, in respect of : (i) cases where an establishment
which is a factory, is engaged in any industry specified in Schedule I;(ii) whether any
particular establishment is an establishment falling within the class of establishments to which
this Act applies by virtue of a notification under Section 1(3) (b); or (iii) the number of persons
employed in an establishment; or (iv) the number of years which have elapsed from the date
on which an establishment has been set up; (v) whether the total quantum of benefit to which
an employee is entitled has been reduced by the employer then the Central Government may,
by order, make such provisions or give such directions, not inconsistent with the provisions of
this Act, as appear to it to be necessary or expedient for the removal of the doubt or difficulty :
and the order of the Central Government in such cases shall be final.
4.33
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
1. Generally the Employees Provident funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
applies to entities employing more than
(a) 10 persons.
(b) 20 persons.
2. The Central Government may apply the provisions of this act even if it employs less than
required persons.
(a) True.
(b) False.
3. The liability for employer to contribute under the Employees’ Provident Fund etc Act,
1952 is 10% pf the employees’ emoluments.
(a) True.
(b) False.
4. The maximum contribution that an employee can make to his provident fund account is
10%.
(a) True.
(b) False.
5. An employee getting pay above Rs. 6,500 can never become a member under the
Provident Fund Scheme, 1952.
4.34
The Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952
(a) True.
(b) False.
7. Who shall administer the Fund created under the said Scheme?
9. How many persons in the maximum shall be there in the Central Board?
11. Do the aforesaid Board of Trustees have a perpetual succession and a common seal?
12. Can the said Board of Trustees delegate their powers and functions to their chairman or
any other officer?
13. (a) What are the percentages of employer’s and employee’s contribution to the Fund?
17. Is the payment of provident fund contribution a preferential payment in case of the
employer being insolvent ?
18. What is procedure for determination and recovery of dues from employer under the
Employee’s Provident Fund and Misc. Provisions Act?
19. What are the provisions regarding transfer of account under the Employee’s Provident
Fund etc. Act of an employee who has changed his job?
4.35
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Practical Problems
20. An employee leaves the establishments in which he was employed and gets employment
in another establishment wherein he has been employed. Explain the procedure laid
down in the Employees’ Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952 in this
relation.
21. Manorama Group of Industries sold its textile unit to Giant Group of Industries.
Manorama Group contributed 25% of total contribution in Pension Scheme, which was
due before sale under the provisions of Employees Provident Fund and Miscellaneous
Provisions Act, 1952. The transferee company (Giant Group of industries) refused to
hear the remaining 75% contribution in the Pension Scheme. Decide, in the light of the
Employees Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952, who will be liable to
pay for the remaining contribution in case of transfer of establishment and upto what
extent?
Answers
4.36
CHAPTER 5
THE PAYMENT OF GRATUITY ACT, 1972
Learning Objectives
In this Chapter, the students come to know the
♦ To whom Gratuity is payable?
♦ How to calculate the amount of Gratuity payable?
♦ When Gratuity will be forfeited?
♦ Procedure for nomination in respect of Gratuity payment.
5.1 AN INTRODUCTION
Gratuity is a word derived from a Latin word ‘Gratuitas’ which simply means a ‘Gift.’ In the
industrial sector, it can be treated as a gift from the employer to his employee for the services
rendered to his establishment by him for the development and prosperity of the same.
Gratuity is a benefit, which an employee gets at the time of retirement or when he leaves the
establishment. Gratuity is a amount ( as a lump sum payment) which is paid by an employer
to his employee for his past services when the employment is terminated. When the
employment comes to an end due to the retirement or superannuation of the workers, it
becomes a good help to the workers, it becomes a good help to the effected employee to meet
the new situation which often comes due to reduction in regular earnings or even total
stoppage of earnings. In case of death of the worker, it provides financial assistance to the
members of his family for their survival, if they have got no other means for their survival.
Thus, this gratuity scheme serves as an instrument of social security as well as a reward to a
person who sacrifices his whole life in the betterment, development and prosperity of an
establishment, and in other way for the Nation.
should get gratuity as a right in return of their long dedicated services to the industry.
Industrial Tribunals and Supreme Courts dealt with the disputes on the subject and their
awards and decisions brought the revolutionary changes in Social Security Legislations in
Indian industrial sector.
In the case of Delhi Cloth and General Mills Co. Ltd. Vs their workers (1968) 36 FJR 247.
Supreme Court held that the object of providing a gratuity scheme is to provide a retiring
benefit to the workman who have rendered long and unblemished service to the employer and
thereby contributed to the prosperity of the employer.
In the Working Journalists (Conditions of Service) & Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1955, the
provision to pay the gratuity to the working journalists was made. After few years, the
Government of Kerala enacted the Kerala Industrial Employees Payment of Gratuity Act, 1970
making gratuity a statutory right of the employees. West Bengal Government enacted the
West Bengal Employees Payment of Gratuity Act, 1971 relating to the subject. The other
states were also thinking to legislate such enactments. Thus, it was felt that there should be
an uniform central legislation for the whole country instead of state legislations for each and
every separate states. The whole matter was discussed in the Labour Ministers’ Conference
held 24th and the August 1971 and thereafter in the Indian Labour Conference held on 22nd
and 23rd Oct., 1971 it was agreed that the central legislation on the payment of gratuity should
be undertaken. Accordingly, the payments of Gratuity Act, 1972 was enacted, largely based
on the West Bengal legislation, which was come into force on 16th September, 1972.
5.2
The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
In was proposed that the appropriate Government for administering the Act in relation to the
establishment belonging to or under the control of the Central Govt. or a railway co., or mine,
a major part and outfield or in relation to establishments having departments or branches in
more than one state, will be the Central Government and in relation to other establishments,
the State Government.
ACT 39 OF 1972
The payment of Gratuity Bill passed by both of the houses of parliament was signed by the
President of India on 21st August 1972 and came into force on 16th September, 1972 as THE
PAYMENT OF GRATUITY ACT, 1972 (39 of 1972). This Act was amended time to time as
per requirement, the years 1984, 1987, 1994 and 1998.
5.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
preceding 12 months, as classes of establishments to which the Act shall apply. Once this Act
becomes applicable to a shop or establishments, it will continue to govern by it even if the
number of employees falls below 10 after the application of the Act.
Application of the Act to an employed person depends on two factors (i) he should be
employed in an establishment to which the Act applies & (ii) he should be an employee under
the definition of Section 2(e) of the Act.
5.4
The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
♦ In any other case, the person, who, or the authority which has the ultimate control over
the affairs of the establishment, factory, mine, oilfield, plantation, port, railway company or
shop, and where the said affairs are entrusted to any other person, whether called a
manager, managing director or by any other name, such person; [Section. 2 (f)]
(6) FACTORY: ‘factory’ has the meaning assigned to it in clause (m) of Section 2 of the
Factories Act, 1948 (63 of 1948); [Section. 2 (g)]
(7) FAMILY:
In relation to an employee, shall be deemed to consist of –
♦ In the case of a male employee, himself, his wife, his children, whether married or
unmarried, his dependent parents (and the dependent parts of his wife and the
widow)1 and children of his predeceased son, if any,
♦ In the case of a female employee, herself, her husband, her children, whether
married or unmarried, her dependent parents and the dependent parents of her
husband and the widow and children of her predeceased son, if any;
EXPLANATION:
Where the personal law of an employee permits the adoption by him of a child, any child
lawfully adopted by him shall be deemed to be included in his/her family, and where a
child of an employee has been adopted by another person and such adoption is, under
the personal law of the person making such adoption, lawful, such child shall be deemed
to be excluded from the family of the employee. [Section. 2 (h)]
(8) RETIREMENT:
Means termination of the service of an employee otherwise then on superannuation;
[Section. 2 (q)]
(9) SUPERANNUATION:
In relation to an employee, means the attainment by the employee of such age as is fixed
in the contract or conditions if service as the age on the attainment of which the employer
shall vacate the employment. [Section. 2 (r)]
(10) WAGES:
Means all emoluments which are earned by an employee while on duty or on leave in
accordance with the terms and conditions of his employments and which are paid or are
payable to him in cash and includes D.A. but does not include any bonus, commission,
house rent allowance, overtime wages and any other allowances. [Section. 2 (s)]
5.5
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
5.6
The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
♦ he has been absent due to temporary disablement caused by accident arising out of and
in the course of his employment; and
♦ in the case of a female, she has been on maternity leave; so, however, that the total
period of such maternity leave does not exceed twelve weeks.
Where an employee, employed in a seasonal establishment, is not in continuous service within
the meaning of clause(1), for any period of one year or six months, he shall be deemed to be
in continuous service under the employer for such period if he has actually worked for not less
than seventy.
** An employee who is re-employed without any break in service will be eligible for gratuity
and he can not be denied to get the gratuity simply on the ground of the change in
employment. (Jeevan Lal (1929) Ltd. Vs controlling authority; (1982) (LLN217)
A retrenched employee is also entitled for gratuity, it was held in the case of state of Punjab
Vs Labour Court (1986))
CONTROLLING AUTHORITY:
The Appropriate Government may, be notification, appoint any officer to be a controlling
authority, who shall be responsible for the administration of this Act and different authorities
may be appointed for different areas. [Section. 3]
5.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
An employee resigning from service is also entitled to gratuity; (Texmaco Ltd. Vs Sri Ram
Dham, 1992 LLR 369(Del) and Non acceptance of the resignation is no hurdle in the way
of an employee to claim gratuity; (Mathur Spenning Mills Vs Deputy Commissioner of
Labour, (1983) II LLJ 188).
For the purpose of this Section, disablement means such disablement as incapacitates
an employee for the work which he was capable of performing before the accident or
disease resulting in such disablement.
5.8
The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
** In case of Bharat Commerce and Industries Vs Ram Prasad, 200 (LLR 918 (MP) it was
decided that if for the purposes of computation of quantum of the amount of gratuity the
terms of agreement or settlement are better than the Act, the employee is entitled for that
benefit but the maximum statutory ceiling limit as providing under sub-Section 3 of
Section 4 of the Act can not be reduced by mutual settlement or agreement.
5.8 FORFEITURE OF GRATUITY: (Section. 4(6)]
If the services of an employee have been terminated for any act, willful omission, or
negligence causing any damage or loss to, or destruction of, property belonging to the
employer the gratuity shall be forfeited to the extent of the damage or loss so caused;
And if the services of such employee have been terminated for his disorderly conduct or any
other act of violence on his part, or if the services of such employee have been terminated for
any act which constitutes an offence involving moral turpitude, provided that such offence is
committed by him in the course of his employment, the gratuity payable to the employee may
be wholly or partially forfeited. (Prior to this amendment of the Act in 1984, the forfeiture in
such case was 100%).
CASE LAW:
If the employer has to be paid any amount regarding any type of charge by the employee and
he has not paid the same during the course of his service then the employer can adjust the
amount from the gratuity of the employee at the time of the payment of the gratuity at the
termination of his employment. In Wazir Chand Vs Union of India 2001, LLR 172 (SC), it was
held that there was no illegality in the amount of gratuity, which was paid by the employer. The
appellant even after superannuation continued to occupy the quarter and the government in
accordance with the rules charged the rent from him and after adjusting other dues, the
gratuity amount offered to be paid.
In Travancore Plywood Industries Ltd. Vs Regional Joint Labour Commissioner, (1966) II LLJ
85 (Ker.) it was held that the refusal of employees to surrender land belonging to the employer
is not a sufficient ground to withhold the gratuity.
In the case Parmali Wallance Kimited Vs Stfate of M.P., (1996) II LLJ 515 (MP), it was held
that the right of the employer to forfeit the amount of earned gratuity of an employee whose
services were terminated for any act, willful omission or negligence causing any damage to
the employer is limited to the extend of the damage, and the proof of such damage.
When an offence of theft under law involves moral turpitude, gratuity stands wholly forfeited in
view of the Section.4(6) of the Act. (Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. Vs Regional Labour Commissioner
(Central), (1987) 70 FJR 11 (Kern.)
But when an employee, who has been given the benefit of probation under Section.3 of the
Probation of Offenders Act, 1958, can not be disqualified to received the amount of his
5.9
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
5.10
The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
plantation, port, railway company or shop to which this Act applies from the operation of
the provisions of this Act, if in the opinion of the appropriate Government the employees
in such establishment, factory, mine, oilfield, plantation, port, railway company or shop
are in receipt of gratuity or pensionary benefits not less than the benefits conferred under
this Act.
1(2) The Appropriate Government may be notification and subject to such conditions as may
be specified in the notification, exempt any employee or class of employees employed in
any establishment, factory, mine, oilfield, plantation, port, railway company or shop to
which this Act applies from the operation of the provisions of this Act, if, in the opinion of
the appropriate Government, such employee or class of employees are, in receipt of
gratuity or pensionary benefits not less favourable than the benefits conferred under this
Act.
2(3) A notification issued under sub-Section (I) or sub Section (ii) may be issued
retrospectively a date not earlier than the date of commencement of this Act, but no such
notification shall be issued so as to prejudicially, affect the interests of any person.
The provisions of Section. 5 of the Act empowers the appropriate Government to exempt any
employer or the class of employers as well as the employee or the class of employees from
the application the Act provided that if there are existing beneficial provision regarding gratuity
of the employees in comparison with the provisions of the Act. It may be notified with
retrospective effect but not before the date of commencement of the Act without any type of
prejudiction at all.
5.11
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
If at the time of making a nomination the employee has no family, the nomination may be
made in favour of any person or persons but if the employee subsequently acquires a family,
such nomination shall forthwith become invalid and the employee shall make within such time
as may be prescribed, a fresh nomination in favour of one or more members of his family.
A nomination may, subject to the provisi9ons of sub-Sections (3) or (4) be notified by an
employee at any time, after giving to his employer a written notice in such form and in such a
manner as may be prescribed, if his intention to do so.
If a nominee predeceases the employee, the interest of the nominee shall revert to the
employee who shall a fresh nomination, in the prescribed form, in respect of such interest.
Every nomination, fresh nomination or alteration of nomination, as the case may be, shall be
sent by the employee to his employer, who shall keep the same in his safe custody.
5.12
The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
in presence of the tow witnesses, who shall also sign a declaration to that effect in the
nomination, fresh nomination or notice of modification of nomination, as the case may be, and
it shall take effect from the date of receipt thereof by the employee.
5.13
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
5.14
The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
In case of the nominee or a legal heir, who is minor, the controlling authority shall invest the
gratuity amount deposited by him for the benefit of such minor in term deposit with the State
Bank of India or any of its subsidiaries or any nationalized Bank. (Rule 9)
5.15 DISPUTES:
If there is any dispute regarding the amount of gratuity payable to an employee or admissibility
of any claim of or in relation to, an employee for payment of gratuity or the person entitled to
receive the gratuity, the employer shall deposit, such amount as the admits to be payable by
him as gratuity, to the controlling authority and for these (one or all) other person raising
dispute may make an application to the controlling authority for deciding the dispute.
The controlling authority shall, after due inquiry and after giving the reasonable opportunity of
being heard to the parties to the dispute, determine the matter or matters in dispute. After
such inquiry any amount is found to be payable to the employee, the controlling authority shall
direct the employer to pay such amount or the difference of amount so determined and the
amount already deposited by the employer to the controlling authority. The controlling
authority shall pay the amount deposited by the employer including the excess amount, if any,
to the person entitled thereto.
As soon as the employer made the said deposit, the controlling authority shall pay the amount
to the applicant where he is the employee or where the applicant is not the employee, to the
nominee or as the case may be, the guardian of such nominee or legal heir of the employee, if
he is satisfied that there is no dispute as to the right of the applicant to receive the amount of
gratuity. For the purpose of conducting inquiry, the controlling authority shall have the same
powers as are vested in the court, while trying a suit, under the code of civil procedure, 1908.
The proceedings made by him will be the ‘judicial proceedings’ within the meaning of Sections
193 & 228 & for the purposes of Section. 196, IPC the controlling authority will avail all the
powers like enforcing the attendance, production of documents, receiving evidences on
affidavits and issuing commission for the examination of witnesses. [Section. 7(4)]
5.15
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
The controlling authority may accept any application on sufficient cause being shown by the
applicant, after the expiry of the specified period also.
The said application and other relevant documents shall be presented in person to the
controlling authority or shall be sent to him by registered post with A/D (Rule 10).
5.16
The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
to the controlling authority within 30 days from the date of the receipt of the notice, by the
employer. A copy of the notice shall be endorsed to the applicant also. [Rule 17]
5.17 APPEALS:
Any person aggrieved by an order made by the controlling authority may, within 60 days from
the receipt date of the order, prefer an appeal to the Appropriate Government or such other
authority as may be specified by the Appropriate Government in this behalf. After being
satisfied with sufficient cause, he may extend this time by another period of 60 days.
The Appropriate Government or the appellate authority, as the case may be, may, after giving
a reasonable opportunity of being heard, confirm, modify or reverse the decision of the
controlling authority.
The employer’s appeal shall not be admitted without producing the certificate of deposit of
gratuity amount issued by the controlling authority or the deposit of the said amount with
Appellate Authority. [Section. 7 (7)]
POWERS OF INSPECTORS:
An inspector may exercise all or any of the following powers, for the purpose of ascertaining
the compliance of the various provisions of the Act, namely,
• to furnish such informations as he may consider necessary,
• to enter and inspect, at all reasonable hours, any premises of or place in any factory,
mine, oilfield, plantation, port, railway company, shop or other establishment to which
this Act applies, for the purpose of examining any register, record or notice or other
documents required to be kept or exhibited under this Act or the rules made thereunder.
• to examine the employer or any person whom he finds in such premises or place and
employee employed therein, having a reasonable cause to believe.
• to make copies of, or take extracts from, any register, record, notice or other document,
as he may consider relevant, and where he has reason to believe that any offence under
5.17
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
this Act has been committed by an employer, search seize with such assistance as he
may think fit, such register, record, notice or other document as he may consider
relevant in respect of that offence,
• to exercise such other powers as may be prescribed.
Any person required to produce any type of document or to give any information by an
inspector shall be deemed to be legally bound to do so within the meaning of Sections 175
and 176 of the IPC and the provisions of the code of criminal procedure, 1973 shall apply to
any search or seizure under this Section as they apply to any search or seizure made under
the authority of a warrant issued under Section 94 of the code.
In this way, we can say that the inspector has get all the executive powers to implement he
provisions of the Act. [Section. 7(B)]
5.19 RECOVERY
If the gratuity payable under the Act is not paid by the employer within the prescribed time, to
the person entitled thereto. The controlling authority shall issue a certificate for the amount to
the collector to recover the same alongwith the compound interest at such rate as prescribed
by the Central Government from the date of expiry of the prescribed time as land revenue
arrears to enable the person entitled to get the amount after receiving the application from the
aggrieved person. [Section. 8]
Before issuing the certificate for such recovery the controlling authority shall give the employer
a reasonable opportunity of showing cause against the issue of such certificate.
The amount of interest payable under this Section shall not exceed the amount of gratuity
payable under this Act in no case. [Section. 8]
5.18
The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
PENALTIES:
Any person who is responsible for the purpose of avoiding any payment to be made by himself
or of enabling any other person to avoid such payment, knowingly makes or causes to be
made any false statement or false representation shall be punishable with the imprisonment
for the term which may extend to six months, or with time which may extend to ten thousand
rupees, or with both.
An employee, who contravenes or makes default in complying with, any of the provisions of
the Act or any rule or order made there under shall be punishable with imprisonment for the
term which shall not less than three months but which may extend to one year or with fine
which shall not be less than Rs.10000/- but may be extended to twenty thousand rupees or
with both.
If the offence relates to non-payment of any gratuity payable under the Act, the employer shall
be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than six months but which
may extend to two years unless the court trying the offence, for the reasons to be recorded but
it in writing, is of the opinion that a lesser term of imprisonment or the imposition of a fine
would meet the ends of justice. [Section. 9]
5.19
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
5.24 MISCELLANEOUS
DISPLAY OF NOTICE:
The employer shall display a notice at or near the main entrance of the establishment in bold
letters in English and in the language understood by the majority of the employees specifying
the name of the officer with designation authorized by the employer to receive on his behalf
notices under the Acts and Rules made there under.
5.20
The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
5.21
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Answer
1. (c); 2. (c); 3. (b); 4. (b); 5. (b); 6. (b); 7. (a);
5.22
CHAPTER 6
THE COMPANIES ACT, 1956
UNIT 1
Learning Objectives
In this unit the students are exposed to the working knowledge on the introductory part
of the Companies Act, 1956 covering the following aspects:
♦ Company and Corporate Veil
♦ Classes of companies under the Companies Act
♦ Registration and incorporation of companies
♦ Memorandum of Association and Articles of Association and their alteration
♦ Contracts entered at the time of incorporation
♦ Promoters and their duties
As the company is an artificial person, it can act only through some human agency, viz., and
directors. They are at the helm of affairs of the company and act as its agency, but they are
not the agents of the members of the company. A company has a common seal to
authenticate its formal acts.
6.2
The Companies Act, 1956
The following are the cases where company law disregards the principle of corporate
personality or the principle that the company is a legal entity distinct and separate from its
shareholders or members:
(1) In the law relating to trading with the enemy where the test of control is adopted. The
leading case in point is Daimler Co. Ltd. vs. Continental Tyres & Rubber Co. [1916] 2
A.C. 307, if the public interest is not likely to be in jeopardy, the Court may not be willing
to crack the corporate shell. But it may rend the veil for ascertaining whether a company
is an enemy company. It is true that, unlike a natural person, a company hasn’t mind or
conscience; therefore, it cannot be a friend or foe. It may, however, be characterised as
an enemy company, if its affairs are under the control of people of an enemy country. For
the purpose, the Court may examine the character of the persons who are really at the
helm of affairs of the company.
(2) In certain matters concerning the law of taxes, death duties and stamps particularly
where question of the controlling interest is in issue. [S. Berendsen Ltd. vs.
Commissioner of Inland Revenue [1953] Ch. I. (C.A.)]. Where corporate entity is used to
evade or circumvent tax, the Court can disregard the corporate entity [Juggilal vs.
Commissioner of Income Tax AIR (1969) SC (932)]. Where it was found that the sole
purpose for the formation of the company was to use it as a device to reduce the amount
to be paid by way of bonus to workmen, the Supreme Court uphold the piercing of the
veil to look at the real transaction (The Workmen Employed in Associated Rubber
Industries Limited, Bhavnagar vs. The Associated Rubber Industries Ltd., Bhavnagar and
another, AIR 1986 SC1).
(3) Where companies form other companies as their subsidiaries to act as their agent. The
application of the doctrine may operate in favour of such companies depending upon the
acts of a particular case. Suppose, a company acquires a partnership concern and
registers it as a company, which becomes subsidiary of the acquiring company. In an
action for compulsory acquisition of the business premises of the subsidiary, it was held
that the parent company (which through itself and nominees held all the shares) was
entitled to compensation, maintain action for the same [Smith, Stone and Knight Ltd. vs.
Lord Mayor, etc., of Birmingham [1939] 4, All. 116].
(4) Where the benefit of limited liability of shareholders is destroyed and each shareholder’s
liability has become unlimited. This happens (under Section 45) when the number of
members of a public company or a private company or a private company falls below 7 or
2 respectively, and business is carried on for more than six months. In such a situation,
every person who is a member and is cognisant of the fact shall be severally liable for
the payment of the whole debts of the company incurred during that time.
(5) Under the law relating to exchange control.
6.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(6) Where the device of incorporation is adopted for some illegal or improper purpose, e.g.,
to defeat or circumvent law, to defraud creditors or to avoid legal obligations.
6.4
The Companies Act, 1956
being wound up. Thus, the liability of the member of a guarantee company is limited by a
stipulated sum mentioned in the memorandum. Members cannot be called upon to contribute
beyond that stipulated sum.
From what you have read so far, you will observe that the common features between a
‘guarantee company’ and ‘share company’ are legal personality and limited liability. In the
latter case, the member’s liability is limited by the amount remaining unpaid on the share,
which each member holds. Both of them have to state in their memorandum that the members’
liability is limited. However, the point of distinction between these two types of companies is
that in the former case the members may be called upon to discharge their liability only after
commencement of the winding up and only subject to certain conditions; but in the latter case,
they may be called upon to do so at any time, either during the company’s life-time or during
its winding up.
It is clear from the definition of the guarantee company that it does not raise its initial working
funds from its members. Therefore such a company may be useful only where no working
funds are needed or where these funds can be had from other sources like endowment, fees,
charges, donations, etc.
Similarities and dis-similarities between the Guarantee Company and the Company
having share capital: The common features between a “guarantee company” and the
“company having share capital” are legal personality and limited liability. In case of the later
company, the members’ liability is limited by the amount remaining unpaid on the shares,
which each member holds. Both of them have to state this fact in their memorandum that the
members’ liability is limited.
However, the dis-similarities between a ‘guarantee company’ and ‘company having share
capital’ is that in the former case the members may be called upon to discharge their liability
only after commencement of the winding up and only subject to certain conditions; but in latter
case, they may be called upon to do so at any time, either during the company’s life or during
its winding up.
Further to note, the Supreme Court in Narendra Kumar Agarwal vs. Saroj Maloo (1995) 6 SC
C 114 has laid down that the right of a guarantee company to refuse to accept the transfer by
a member of his interest in the company is on a different footing than that of a company
limited by shares. The membership of a guarantee company may carry privileges much
different from those of ordinary shareholders.
It is also clear from the definition of the guarantee company that it does not raise its initial
working funds from its members. Therefore, such a company may be useful only where no
working funds are needed or where these funds can be had from other sources like
endowment, fees, charges, donations etc.
6.5
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
6.6
The Companies Act, 1956
(d) Prohibit an invitation or acceptance of deposits from persons other than its member,
directors or their relatives.
(1) Restriction on transfer of shares: The articles contain a provision restricting the right to
transfer its shares. The object of such a provision is to confine the ownership of and interest in
the company to a choice circle of friends and relatives [Section 3(1)(iii)a]. The right of transfer
is generally restricted in the following manner:
(a) By authorising the directors to refuse transfer of shares to persons whom they do not
approve or by compelling the shareholder to offer his shareholding to the existing
shareholders first. It may be noted that it can only restrict the right of sale to a member.
On this consideration, the articles usually provide that before selling or transferring his
share, the directors must be communicated in writing of such intention of the
shareholder.
(b) By specifying the method for calculating the price at which the shares may be sold by
one member to another. Generally, it is left to be determined either by the auditor of the
company or by the company at a general meeting.
(c) By providing that the shareholders who are employees of the company shall offer the
shares to specified persons or class of persons when they leave the company’s service.
(2) Limitation of membership: The articles must contain a provision whereby the company
limits the number of its members (exclusive of employees who are members and ex-
employees continuing to be members) to 50; in counting the number of shareholders, joint-
shareholders are treated as a single member [Sec. 3(1)(iii)(b)]. The reason why ‘employee
members’ are excluded from the computation is perhaps to enable the company to associate
workers with the management of the company and to give them the benefit of owning interest
in the company. This will in its turn impel the workers to work for the welfare of the company
and thereby to promote industrial peace. That is why, it may be pertinent to note here that
Section 77 authorises a company to grant loans to its employees, etc. (other than directors) to
purchase its shares.
(3) Prohibition on making an invitation to public: The articles must prohibit any invitation to the
public to subscribe for any of its shares or debentures [Section 3(1)(iii)(c)]. Such a prohibition
is necessary for the substance of the private character of the company. One should note that
under Section 67, an offer or invitation to a section of the public selected as members of the
company is an offer or invitation to the public or debenture-holders of the company. But such
an invitation to the public shall be excluded from the category of ‘invitation to the public’ if
such offer or investigation can be properly regarded in all circumstances:
(i) as not being calculated to result directly or indirectly in the shares or debentures
becoming available for subscription or purchase by person other than those receiving the
offer or invitation; or
6.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(ii) otherwise as being a domestic concern of the persons making and receiving the offer or
invitation.
Consequently, a company is permitted to offer shares or debentures to its members or
debentures holders. An offer of shares by the directors to their friends by a document marked
“private and confidential not for publication” is not an invitation to the public [Sharewell vs.
Combined Incandescent Metals Syndicate [1907] 23 T.L.R. 482]. Similarly a circular offering
the allotment of shares in a company in exchange for existing shares is not a prospectus
[Government Stock, etc. Co. vs. Christopher [1956] 1 AER 490].
Question may arise as to whether the articles of existing companies need be amended to
include this condition.
Even if the articles are not amended, the provisions of Section 9 will apply wherein it is stated
that the provisions of the Act will supercede the provisions of the articles. However, it is
desirable & advisable as a good secretarial practice to alter the articles.
If these restrictions are not there, the company will be treated as public company. Therefore,
the articles of Association should be amended immediately by passing Special Resolution
under Section 31 to provide for restriction, in particular item (d) above.
(ii) It may be noted that after the above amendment no private limited company can take any
loan/deposit or retain any loan/deposit taken from any outsider (other than its members,
director’s or their relatives). Therefore, all private limited Companies will have to regularize
this matter immediately.
(iii) Every private company should have paid up capital of Rs. one lac. Existing companies will
have to issue shares to ensure paid up capital of Rs. 1 lac within 2 years of commencement
of Amendment Act. Such capital may be Equity or Preference
(iv) If paid up capital is not increased to Rs. 1 lac within 2 years the company will be deemed
to be a defunct company under Section 560, name of such a company will be struck off by
ROC.
Public company [Section 3(1) (iv)].
(i) The amended definition provides that a company, which is not a private company, will be a
public company. Further a private company which a subsidiary of a public company is also
covered by definition of a public company.
(ii) It is now necessary that a public company should have paid up capital of atleast Rs. 5 lacs.
In the case of an existing company the paid up capital should be increased to Rs. 5 lacs within
2 years from commencement of Amendment Act. If this is not done, name of the company will
be removed as a defunct company under Section 560.
6.8
The Companies Act, 1956
(iii) A private company, which is a subsidiary of public company, will have to comply with the
above requirement of minimum paid-up capital and other provisions applicable to public
companies.
(iv) Section 25 company is not required to have the above minimum capital.
(iv) Subsidiary of public company:
♦ 43A company which is subsidiary of a public cannot be converted into a private company
in view of definition of public company under Section 3(1) (iv)
♦ Such a company to have Minimum capital of Rupees 5 lacs – Minimum directors – 3 and
Minimum Members – 7
(g) Holding and subsidiary companies
‘Holding and subsidiary’ companies are relative terms. A company is a holding company of
another only if the other is a subsidiary. Any of the three circumstances illustrated below must
exist to constitute the relationship of holding and subsidiary companies.
(a) A will be subsidiary of B, if B controls the composition of the Board of Directors of A, i.e.,
if B can, without the consent or approval of any other person, appoint or remove a majority of
directors of A. B will be deemed to possess the power to appoint majority of persons as
directors of A: (i) when these persons cannot be appointed in that capacity without B’s
consent, or (ii) when their appointments follow necessarily from their appointment as directors,
manager or the holder of any office in B company, or (iii) when the holding company (i.e., B)
itself or its another subsidiary holds the directorship in ‘A’ company [Section 4(1)(a) & (2)].
(b) (i) A will be a subsidiary of B, if B is entitled to exercise control over more than half the
total voting power of A, where A is an existing company in respect of which the holders of
preference shares, issued before the commencement of the Companies (Amendment) Act,
1960 had the same voting rights in all respects as the holders of equity shares.
(ii) Again, A will be subsidiary of B, if B holds more than half in nominal value of its equity
share capital, where A is any company other than the one specified under (i) above. In other
words, B must hold more than 50% of the equity capital on the basis of the nominal capital
whatever may be the amount paid up on the shares [Sections 4(1)(a) & (b)].
For the purpose of condition described in para (ii) above, the shares that a company holds
must be held in its own right and not merely in fiduciary capacity. Thus, the shares held in
trust for an individual are to be excluded. On the other hand, shares held by another person as
a nominee for the company or any of its subsidiaries should be regarded as being held by the
company for the purpose.
In order to determine whether a company is a subsidiary of another, shares held by any
person under the provisions of any debentures are not to be taken into account. Also, where a
6.9
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
6.10
The Companies Act, 1956
6.11
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Other public financial institutions specified (to mention a few) by the Central Government
are :
(g) The General Insurance Corporation of India;
(h) The National Insurance Co. Ltd.
(i) The United India Fire and General Insurance Co. Ltd.;
(j) The Orient Fire and General Insurance Co. Ltd.;
(k) The India Insurance Co. Ltd.;
(l) The Industrial Reconstruction Corporation of India Ltd. (Now called the Industrial
Reconstruction Bank of India Ltd.)
(m) Tourism Finance Corporation of India Ltd. (TFCI)
(n) Shipping Credit & Investment Co. of India Ltd. (SCICI)
(o) Risk Capital & Technology Finance Corporation Ltd.
(p) Technology Development and Information Company Ltd.
(q) Power Finance Corporation Ltd.
6.12
The Companies Act, 1956
cease to be a private company from the date the alteration, file with the Registrar a prospectus
or a statement in lieu of prospectus containing all matters and reports as detailed under
Section 56.
If upon conversion, the company decides to make a public issue of shares or debentures, it
would be necessary for it to issue a prospectus; otherwise it may only issue a statement in lieu
of prospectus. In either case by reason of the requirements of Schedules II and IV as to
disclosure, it would be necessary for it to disclose a great deal of information as regards its
affairs not requiring disclosure. It would be necessary for it have at least 7 members and 3
directors. At times, on such a conversion, the company may also decide to include certain
provisions in and delete others from its articles to assist in its functioning.
6.13
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
When altering the articles for the aforesaid purposes, the company should take care to see
that the articles as a whole confirm to the requirements of the Act regarding private
companies, e.g., if the articles provide for power to issue share warrants to bearer, the same
must be deleted, for a private company cannot issue the same.
6.14
The Companies Act, 1956
because inclusion of untrue statement will attract penalty by virtue of Section 44(4). It
may be noted that a statement included in a prospectus or statement in lieu of
prospectus shall be deemed to be untrue if it is misleading in the form and context in
which it is included. Likewise, where the omission from prospectus or a statement in lieu
of prospectus of any matter is calculated to mislead, it shall be deemed, in respect of
such omission, to be a prospectus or a statement in lieu of prospectus in which an untrue
statement is included.
(7) It shall file with the concerned stock exchange 6 copies of such amendments on both
articles and memorandum, one of which must be a certified copy.
(8) It shall file with the Registrar the said special resolution together with the explanatory
statement within 30 days of their passing [Section 192].
(9) It must take some of the steps regarding further issue of capital under Section 81 which
are not in common with the steps discussed in relation to further issue of shares.
(10) The company has to apply to the Registrar for the issue of a fresh certificate of
incorporation for the changed name, namely, the existing name with the word “private”
deleted. On issue of such certificate shall the name of the converted company be final
and complete [Section 23].
6.15
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
8. The consent of the Central Government for any increase in the remuneration of directors
including managing or wholetime director or upon their appointment at increased
remuneration, is not required [Section 310].
9. The directorship of a private company is not includible in the maximum number of
directorships that a person may hold [Section 278].
10. The consent of the Central Government for advancing loans to directors is not required
[Section 295].
11. There are no restrictions on the powers of the Board of Directors [Section 293].
12. The Central Government is not empowered to prevent a change in the Board of Directors
of a company which is likely to affect management prejudicially [Section 409].
13. It can advance loans for the purchase of its own shares [Section 77(2)].
14. Provisions of Section 416 relating to contracts by agents of a company in which the
company is an undisclosed principal, are not applicable.
15. A director can vote on a contract in which he is interested [Section 300(2)(a)].
6.16
The Companies Act, 1956
such a case 12 major member of the two joint families would be carrying on the banking
business and therefore, the association should be registered under the Companies Act;
otherwise it would be regarded as an illegal association. The necessity for such a registration
arises on account of the fact that when two or more joint families represented by their Kartas
enter into a partnership, the member of the association for the purpose of Section 11 will be
not Kartas but also other members of the joint families [Shymlal Roy vs. Madhu Sudhan Roy
AIR 1959 Cat. 330]. However, for the purpose of computing the number of persons carrying on
the business, the minor member of such families are not to be included.
You know that an association, which has membership in excess of the number
aforementioned, will be an illegal association. What is the significance of the statement? It
signifies that, as a body, it will have no legal existence and it cannot be wound up under the
Act, or even as an unregistered company. Neither a member of it would be able to sue it, nor
would it be able to sue the member. Nevertheless, a member who has paid any money to the
association would be able to recover it from the director or agents or the association before
the money so paid has been applied to an illegal purpose [Greeberg vs. Cooperstein [1965]
Ch. 657 followed in Ram Das vs.Kunut Dhari AIR 1925]. Every person who is, or continues to
be a member of an association in the circumstance described above, is personally culpable for
all liabilities incurred in such business and every member is in addition punishable for any
person or persons to trade or carry on business under any name or title of which ‘limited’ is the
last word, without being fully incorporated.
The purpose of prohibiting formation of large unincorporated business association is to
“prevent the mischief arising from large trading undertakings being carried on by large
fluctuating bodies so that persons dealing with them did not know with whom they were
contracting and so might be put to great difficulty and expenses” [Smith vs. Anderson [1980]
15 Ch. D 247].
A company, association or partnership not compulsorily registrable at the inception under
Section 11 of the Act of 1956 would become so registrable if, during its continuance, its
number of members exceeds the limit prescribed by the Act [Nibaran Chandra vs. Lalit Mohan
[1939] Cal. 187].
An association of more than 20 persons, if unregistered, is invalid at its inception and cannot
be validated by subsequent reduction in the number of members below 20 [Madanlal vs.
Janakipradsad 48 All. 319], nor can a contract entered into by such an illegal association
before registration be made valid and be sued against on a subsequent registration [Gujarat
Trading Co. vs. Tricumjee, 5 Bom. H.E.R. (O.C.J.) 45].
Illegality or invalidity in the constitution of an association does not affect its liability to tax or its
chargeability as a unit of assessment [Kumarswamy Chettiar vs. ITO [1957] ITR 457].
6.17
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
6.18
The Companies Act, 1956
(3) The agreement, if any, which the company proposed to enter into with any individual for
appointment as its managing or whole time director or manager [Section 33(1)(c)].
(4) A declaration that the requirements of the Act and the rules framed there under have
been complied with. This declaration is required to be signed by an advocate of the
Supreme Court or High Court or an attorney or a pleader having the right to appear
before High Court or a secretary, or a chartered accountant in whole time practice in
India who is engaged in the formation of a company, or by a person named in the articles
as a director, manager or secretary of the company [Section 33(2)].
(5) In case of a public company having share capital, where the articles name a person as
director/directors, the list of the directors and their written consent in prescribed form to
act as directors and take up qualification shares [Section 266].
Besides the aforementioned documents, the company must give a notice regarding the
situation of its registered office under Section 146 within 30 days of registration.
(d) Subscribing their names: Subscribing name means signing the names. Section 15
stipulates that each subscriber who should add his address, description and occupation in the
presence of one witness should sign the Memorandum. An agent may sign on behalf of the
subscriber if he is authorised by a power of Attorney in this behalf (Circular No. 8/15/58-PR dt.
13-9-1958). In the case of a company having share capital, the subscribers to the
memorandum should take atleast one share each and state clearly the number and nature of
shares taken by them. In the same way, the Articles of Association should be signed.
Both the Memorandum and Articles should be duly stamped and dated.
If you recall Section 12, you will find that only a person can be a signatory to the
memorandum. It follows therefore that a firm cannot be signatory to the memorandum, for it is
not a person having an individuality separate from that of its partners ; only individuals or other
legal entities can be members of a company [Ganesh Dass vs. R.G. Cotton Mills Co [1974]
C.W.N. (345)]. But under Section 25(4), a firm may continue to be member of any association
or company to which a licence has been issued under this section by the Central Government
entitling it to be registered as a company with a limited liability. But it is an exception to the
generality of the law which precludes the firm being accepted as a shareholder of a company.
(e) Commencement of business: A company having a share capital which has issued a
prospectus inviting the public to subscribe for its shares cannot commence any business or
exercise any borrowing power unless:
(a) the minimum number of shares which have to be paid for in cash has been subscribed
and allotted ;
(b) every director has paid, in respect of shares for which he is bound to pay an amount
equal to what is payable on shares offered to the public on application and allotment ;
6.19
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(c) no money is or may become liable to be paid to application of any shares or debentures
offered for public subscription by reason of any failure to apply for or to obtain permission
for the shares or debentures to be dealt in on any recognised Stock Exchange, and
(d) a statutory declaration by the secretary or one of the directors that the aforesaid
requirements have been complied with, is filed with the Registrar.
If, however, a company having a share capital has not issued a prospectus inviting the public
to subscribe for its shares, it cannot commence any business or exercise borrowing powers
unless it has issued a statement in lieu of prospectus (explained below) and the condition
contained in paragraphs (b) and (d) aforementioned have been complied with.
6.20
The Companies Act, 1956
In the Explanation to Sub-section (2A), it is stated that the restriction contained in the
foregoing provision of law is to be construed as one applicable to only business which is not
germane to the business which the company was carrying on at the commencement of the
Companies (Amendment) Act, 1965, in relation to any of the objects referred to in the said
clause.
This provision is intended to prohibit a company from commencing any business not related or
ancillary to its main objects without obtaining the prior approval of the shareholders by a
special resolution.
(g) Certificate of incorporation: Upon the registration of the documents mentioned earlier
under the heading “Documents to be filed for registration of the company” and the payment of
the necessary fees, the Registrar of Companies issues a certificate that the company is
incorporated, an in the case of a limited company that it is limited [Section 34].
Section 35 provides that a certificate of incorporation issued by the Registrar in respect of any
association, shall be conclusive evidence of the fact that all the requirements of the Act have
been complied with in respect of registration and matters precedent and incidental thereto,
and that the association is a company authorised to be registered and duly registered under
the Act.
The certificate of incorporation is conclusive as to all administrative acts relating to
incorporation and as to the date of incorporation. Thus in Jubilee Cotton Mills vs. Lewis [1924]
A.C. 958, the Registrar issued on 8th January a certificate dated 5th January. It was held that
an allotment of shares made on 6th January could not be declared void on the ground that it
was made before the company was incorporated. The certificate is not, however, conclusive
evidence of that all the objects of the company, as set out in the memorandum, are legal
[Bowen vs. Secular Society [1917] A.C. 406, 435].
6.21
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
A legal personality emerges from the moment of registration of a company and from that
moment the persons subscribing to the Memorandum of Association and other persons joining
as members are regarded as a body corporate or a corporation in aggregate and the legal
person begins to function as an entity. A company on registration acquires a separate
existence and the law recognises it as a legal person separate and distinct from its members
[State Trading Corporation of India vs. Commercial Tax Officer AIR 1963 SC 1811].
It may be noted that under the provisions of the Act, a company may purchase shares of
another company and thus become a controlling company. However, merely because a
company purchases all shares of another company it will not serve as a means of putting an
end to the corporate character of another company and each company is a separate juristic
entity [Spencer & Co. Ltd. Madras vs. CWT Madras [1969] 39 Comp. Case 212].
As has been stated above, the law recognizes such a company as a juristic person separate
and distinct from its members. The mere fact that the entire share capital has been contributed
by the Central Government and all its shares are held by the President of India and other
officers of the Central Government does not make any difference in the position of registered
company and it does not make a company an agent either of the President or the Central
Government [Heavy Electrical Union vs. State of Bihar AIR 1970 SC 82].
Under Section 35, a certificate of incorporation given by the Registrar in respect of any
association shall be conclusive evidence that all the requirements of the Act have been
complied with in respect of the registration and matters precedent and incidental thereto, and
that the association is a company authorised to be registered and duly registered under this
Act.
Determination of jurisdiction for complaint against the company is depending upon the
situation of the registered office of the Company
The case mentioned herein has upheld that, the location of registered office of the Company is
very important to determine the jurisdiction of court against the company.
The Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India Ltd., (ICICI) Vs. H.V.Jayaram (1998)
94 COM Cases 409 (Kant)
In this Case, the appellant lodged a criminal case for non-delivery of share certificate alleging
that the respondent company had committed offence punishable under section 113(2) of the
Companies Act, 1956.
The appellant who did not receive share certificate lodged a complaint against the company at
his place i.e., Bangalore. The same was challenged by the respondent company on the
ground that the registered office is not situated in Bangalore and therefore, as no cause of
6.22
The Companies Act, 1956
action arise in Bangalore, and therefore, the complaint alleging non-delivery of shares could
not be lodged in Bangalore, it should be at the place where registered office of the company is
situated. The Karnataka High Court upheld the Company’s argument. Aggrieved against the
order of the High Court, the petitioner filed his petition before the Supreme Court.
The Supreme Court upheld the decision of the Karnataka High Court by a joint reading of
Section 53 and 113 of the Companies Act, 1956, and it said that the share certificates are to
be delivered either personally or by registered post. Further, the Supreme Court held that, the
cause of action for failure to deliver the share certificates within prescribed time would arise at
the place where registered office of the company is situated and petition can be lodged only
where registered office is situated and not where the complainant is residing.
(i) Contractual relationship between different parties formed on registration of
Memorandum and Articles
Section 36 of the Act provides that the memorandum and articles of association, when
registered, must be binding on the company and the members thereof to the same extent as if
each of them had individually signed the documents, so far as covenants contained therein
are concerned. As a result, a number of legal relationships are formed between different
parties and the company which are described below:
(a) Between the members and company: The memorandum and articles constitute a contract
between the members and the company. In consequence, the members are bound to the
company under a statutory covenant. For instance, it has been held in Bradford Banking
Co. vs. Briggs that where the articles give the company a lien upon each share for debts
due by shareholders to the company, and where a shareholder mortgages his shares and
the mortgagee serves notice thereof upon the company, the mortgagee would have
priority over the company, only if the shareholder had incurred a liability to the company
after the notice of the mortgage was given to the company. If, on the other hand, the
shareholder had incurred a liability before the notice of mortgage was given to the
company, the company would have the priority.
(b) Between the company and the members: Views differ on the questions as to whether and
how far the memorandum and articles bind the company to the members. One view is
that it is bound just as its members are. Another view is that the company is not wholly
bound. But it seems that courts, instead of conforming to either of these views, have
elected to take a via media. It is not true to say that the company is wholly bound so that
any member can enforce any articles against it. But it is bound to the extent that any
member can sue it so as to prevent any breach of the article which is likely to affect his
right as a member of the company [Hickman vs. Kent Sheepbreeder’s Association [1985]
1 Ch. 881]. Thus an individual member can file a suit against the company to enforce his
individual rights, e.g. right to contest election for directorship of the company, right to get
back his shares wrongfully forfeited, right to receive a share certificate, share warrants to
6.23
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
bearer or notice of general meetings etc. [Pender vs. Lushington [1817] 7 Ch. D. 70;
Nagaffa vs. Madras Race Club, AIR 1951 Mad. 83 C.L. Joseph vs. Los AIR 1965 (Ker.)
68].The member suing in such cases “sues not in the rights of a member but in his won
right to protect from invasion of his own individual right as a member” [Per Jenkis L.J. in
Edwards vs. Halliwell [1950] 2 All ER 1964 at p. 1067].
(c) Between member inter se: In the case of Wood vs. Odessa Water Works Co. [1989] 42
Ch. D. 363, Sterling J. Observed : The articles of Association constitute a contract not
merely between the shareholders and the company but between each individual
shareholder and every other.
The foregoing principle had been further clarified by the decision in another English case
of Welton vs. Saffary [1897] A.C. 315. In this case, the learned Judge observed that “It is
quite true that the articles constitute a contract between each members of the company
but the articles do not, any the less in my opinion, regulate the right inter se. Such rights
can only be enforced by or against a member through the company or by the liquidator
representing the company, but no member has as between himself and another member
any right beyond that which the contract with the company gives him”.
This proposition is not free from controversy because of the conflict of judicial opinions;
in fact, until the decision in Rayfide vs. Hands [1960] Ch. 1, weightage of judicial opinion
was against a member being bound to other member. In this case, the articles of a
private company provided that “every member who intends to transfer shares shall inform
the directors who will take the said shares equally between them at a fair value. “It was
held that articles bound the directors as members to do so and that this obligation was a
personal one, which could be forced against them by other members directly, without
joining the company as a party. Obviously, the Court was influenced by the fact that the
company was private company, which “bears a close analogy to partnerships”.
(d) Between the company and the outsiders: The memorandum and the articles do not
constitute a contract between the company and outsiders. Neither the company nor the
members are bound by the articles to outsiders, since these constitute a contract
between members, inter se, and the outsider is not a party to the articles although he
may be named therein.
Nonetheless, an outsider is entitled to assume that in respect of contract entered into with him
all the formalities required to be carried out under the articles or memorandum have been duly
complied with [Royal British Bank vs. Turquand [1956] 6 E.B. 327].
6.24
The Companies Act, 1956
6.25
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(b) Doctrine of ultra vires : The meaning of the term ultra vires is simply “beyond (their)
powers”. The legal phrase “ultra vires” is applicable only to acts done in excess of the legal
powers of the doers. This presupposes that the powers are in their nature limited. To an
ordinary citizen, the law permits whatever does the law not expressly forbid. It is only when the
law has called into existence a person for a particular purpose or has recognised its existence
- such as in the case of a limited company - that the power is limited to the authority delegated
expressly or by implication and to the objects for which it was created. In the case of such a
creation, the ordinary law applicable to an individual is somewhat reversed, whatever is not
permitted expressly or by implication, by the constituting instrument, is prohibited not by any
express prohibition of the legislature, but by the doctrine of ultra vires.
It is a fundamental rule of Company Law that the objects of a company as stated in its
memorandum can be departed from only to the extent permitted by the Act - thus far and no
further [Ashbury Railway Company Ltd. vs. Riche]. In consequence, any act done or a contract
made by the company which travels beyond the powers not only of the directors but also of
the company is wholly void and inoperative in law and is therefore not binding on the compa-
ny. On this account, a company can be restrained from employing its fund for purposes other
than those sanctioned by the memorandum. Likewise, it can be restrained from carrying on a
trade different from the one it is authorised to carry on.
The impact of the doctrine of ultra vires is that a company can neither be sued on an ultra
vires transaction, nor can it sue on it. Since the memorandum is a “public document”, it is
open to public inspection. Therefore, when one deals with a company one is deemed to know
about the powers of the company. If in spite of this you enter into a transaction which is ultra
vires the company, you cannot enforce it against the company. For example, if you have
supplied goods or performed service on such a contract or lent money, you cannot obtain
payment or recover the money lent. But if the money advanced to the company has not been
expended, the lender may stop the company from parting with it by means of an injunction;
this is because the company does not become the owner of the money, which is ultra vires the
company. As the lender remains the owner, he can take back the property in specie. If the
ultra vires loan has been utilised in meeting lawful debt of the company then the lender steps
into the shoes of the debtor paid off and consequently he would be entitled to recover his loan
to that extent from the company.
An act which is ultra vires the company being void, cannot be ratified by the shareholders of
the company. Sometimes, act which is ultra vires can be regularised by ratifying it
subsequently. For instance, if the act is ultra vires the power of the directors, the shareholders
can ratify it; if it is ultra vires the articles of the company, the company can alter the articles; if
the act is within the power of the company but is done irregularly. Shareholder can validate it.
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The Companies Act, 1956
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Government. If the proposed name of the company is identical with or too nearly resembles
the name of another company which is already in existence, the Central Government may
refuse to register it [Section 20 (2) ; Ewing vs. Buttercup Margarine Co. Ltd.]. The company
must also be permitted to mention the fact that it is the successors to proprietary concern or
firm, etc. In this way, goodwill is preserved.
The name of public limited company must end with the word “Limited” and that of a private
limited company with the word “Private Limited”. But, as you have already noticed earlier, the
Central Government may, by a licence, authorise a company which is non-profit making
association to change its name so as to omit the words, “Limited or Private Limited” as the
case may be, by passing a special resolution.
The name and the address of the registered of office must be printed or affixed outside every
office or place of business in the characters of one of the languages in general use in the
locality and mentioned in all business letters, bill heads, letter papers, notices and other
official publications. The name alone must be engraved on the seal and mentioned in all bills
of exchange, promissory notes, endorsements, cheques and orders for money or goods,
invoices, receipts, etc. The characters must be legible. The address of the registered office is
also required to be shown [Section 147].
The use of words “Limited” and “Private Limited” by any person or body of persons not
incorporated with a limited liability or as a private limited company, as the case may be, is an
offence punishable with a fine - [Section 63].
(b) Change of name
A company may, by special resolution, and with the approval of the Central Government,
signified in writing, change its name [Section 21]. [*Power under Section 21 has been
delegated to the registrar of company. Vide notification GSR 507(E) dt. 24-6-85] The
application for change of name is required to be made to me ROC in four IA with a fee of Rs.
500. Where the Registrar is satisfied with the company’s proposal, he may accord to me
proposal which will be valid for a period of six months. However, such an approval of the
Central Government would not be necessary where the only change in the name of the
company is the addition thereto or the deletion there from of the words “private” consequent
upon the conversion as per the provisions of this Act of a public company into a private
company or vice versa [Proviso to Section 21]. It may be noted that this proviso is designed to
obviate the technical necessity of obtaining Government’s approval for the mere addition or
deletion of the word “private” to and from a company’s name in the aforesaid circumstances.
If through inadvertence etc., the name is identical with, or too nearly resembles, the name by
which a company, in existence, has been previously registered, it may be changed by ordinary
resolution with the sanction of the Central Government within twelve months of the
registration. The company shall make the change by ordinary resolution and with the previous
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The Companies Act, 1956
approval of the Central Government within three months of the date of the direction of the
Central Government being received or such longer period as the Central Government may
deem fit to allow [Section 22(1)].
Where the name of a company has been changed, the Registrar shall issue fresh certificate
with the change embodied therein. The change in name shall not affect any of the company’s
rights or obligations of the company or render any legal proceedings by or against it. Any legal
proceedings, which might have been continued or commenced by or against the company by
its former name, may be continued by its name [Section 23].
(c) Registered Office
Every company must have registered office where : (a) necessary documents may be served
upon, or deposited; (b) notices, letters, etc., may be issued ; (c) inspection may be had, and
(d) communication may be made. The domicile and the nationality of a company is determined
by the place of its registered office. This is also important for determining the jurisdiction of the
Court.
A company must have a registered office as from the day on which it commences business, or
as from the 30th day after the date of its incorporation whichever is earlier. it may be noted
that the address of the registered office ordinarily is not to be stated in the memorandum of
association. For if this was done, every change therein would require amendment of the
memorandum. It is advisable to provide in the articles that the registered office should be
situated at such place, as the Board should from time to time fix. Otherwise, the registered
office cannot be removed outside the city etc., where it is situated, without special resolution.
Notice of the situation of the registered office and of every change therein must be sent to the
Registrar (otherwise than through a statement as to the address of the registered office in the
annual report) within 30 days of the date of incorporation of the date of change. This provision
is designed to locate the spot where the records of the company could be inspected and
where the letters should be addressed and notices served upon the company.
(d) Alteration of registered office
The address may be changed within the local limits of any city, town or village where such
office is situated by just giving a notice to the concerned Registrar within 30 days after the
date of the change. But a special resolution will be required if the change of the registered
office is from one village, town etc., in the same State [Section 146].
Where the place of registered offices is to be altered from one State to another State, the
company may do so by passing special resolution and getting confirmation of the Company
Law Board besides. The change can be permitted only if it is to achieve any of the purposes
mentioned in Section 17(1). [Mentioned on subsequent pages of this book].
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The Company is required to give an advertisement in the spapers indicating the change
proposed to be made and also a notice is to be given to the State Government when it is
proposed to transfer the registered office from one State to another. (Vide Rule 36 of the
Company Law Board) (Bench) Rules, 1975 (App. IV).
The law, as contained in Section 17(3), requires notice for this to be served on all
shareholders. In an Orissa High Court case, only two shareholders out of three had passed
the special resolution and as such, the resolution was held to be invalid. Again, when an
application is made for a change in registered office of a company form one State to another,
the former State is the authority whose interests are affected by this change and thus has the
locus standi to such an application [Orient Paper Mills Limited vs. State AIR 1977 Orissa
582].
The Court (now the Company Law Board) must be satisfied as to the bona fides, of the
company’s application for the proposed change. Thus where a company, proposing to change
the location of registered office from Orissa to Andhra Pradesh had relied on Section 17(1)(a)
for the change on the ground of more direct and economic administration but had failed to
clarify how the expenses would be curtailed or how the administration from Andhra Pradesh
could be more direct, while the factory or unit or production was in Orissa, it was held that
bona fides of the company’s application for the change were questionable [Orissa Chemicals
and Distilleries Private Ltd. In re. AIR 1961 Orissa 62].
(e) Steps to be taken by a company: (i) for transfer of its registered office from one
State say West Bengal to another State say Tamil Nadu.
(i) The Company may, by a special resolution, alter the provisions of its memorandum so as to
change the place of its registered office from West Bengal to Tamil Nadu; this change alone
needs confirmation of the Company Law Board. When an application is made for a change as
aforesaid, it is the State where the registered office is at present situated, whose interests are
likely to be affected by the change and thus will have the locus standi to oppose such an
application [Orissa Paper Mills Ltd. vs. State AIR 1957 482]. Furthermore, it shall be
necessary to satisfy the Company Law Board as to the bona fides of the company’s
application for the proposed change [Orissa Chemicals and Distilleries Pvt Ltd., in Re. AIR
1961 Orissa 621].
As per the Companies (Amendment) Act, 1996, the C.L.B. has the power either to confirm or
refuse to confirm alteration relating to change of registered office.
(ii) Section 17 inserted by the Companies (Amendment) Act, 2000
(a) The amended provision shall apply only to companies that change their registered office
from the jurisdiction of the Registrar of Companies to the jurisdiction of another registrar
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The Companies Act, 1956
of Companies within the same State. (At present the provision shall be applicable to the
States of Maharashtra & Tamilnadu which have more then one office of ROC namely at
Mumbai & Pune and Chennai & Coimbatore respectively).
(b) The company cannot do such change of office unless the Regional Director confirms it.
(c) To obtain confirmation, the company has to apply in the prescribed form.
(d) The confirmation must be communicated to the company within 4 weeks from the date of
receipt of the application.
(e) Certified copy of the confirmation along with the attested copy of the memorandum of
Association must be filed with the ROC for registration within 2 months from the date of
confirmation.
(f) Within one month of filing, the ROC shall certify registration, which shall be the
conclusive evidence that all requirements with respect to alteration and confirmation
have been complied with.
(f) Object clause: The powers of the company are limited to: (a) power expressly given by the
memorandum (termed “express” powers) or conferred by statute, (b) powers reasonably
incidental or necessary to the company’s main purpose (termed “implied” powers).
You will perhaps recall that acts beyond the company’s powers are ultra vires and void, and
cannot be ratified even though every member of the company may give his consent [Ashbury
Railway Carriage Co. vs. Riche [1875] L.R. 7 H.L. 653]. The test to be applied whether a
power is implied or not, is not the benefit the transaction is expected to confer on the
company, but whether it can reasonably be regarded as arising from the main object of the
company.
It is customary to exclude the general rule of construction for the interpretation of the intention
contained in different clauses of the memorandum of association, by including a statement
that the objects specified in each paragraph of the memorandum shall be in no way limited or
restricted by reference to or inference from the terms of any other paragraph or the name of
the company.
The subscribers to the memorandum may choose any “object” or “objects” for the purposes of
their company. There are two restrictions, however, on the selection of “object” for a company:
(i) the objects should not include anything which is illegal or contrary to law or public policy,
e.g., floating a company for dealing in lotteries [Ex. parte More [1931] 2 K.B. 197]; or trading
with alien enemies [Daimler & Co. vs. Continental Tyre Co. [1916] 2 A.C. 307]. Objects, which
are in restraint of, trade [Mac. Ellis vs. Ballymacalligot etc. Company [1919] A.C. 459] ; or are
biasphemeous (but not denying Christianity) have also been held to be bad [Bowen vs.
Secular Society [1917] A.C. 406]; (ii) the objects should not also contemplate doing anything
which is prohibited by the Companies Act. Apart from those two restrictions, the object of a
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
company may be anything that the proposed company desires to achieve [Lal Gopal Dutt vs.
Khorotriah Mego Zlite Zamindary Co. 16 C.W.N. 297].
The object clause enables shareholders, creditors shall and all those who deal with the
company to know what its powers are and what is the range of its activities and enterprise, it is
therefore true that the object clause of the memorandum of association of a company is of
fundamental importance to its members as well as to its non-members. In the first place, it
gives protection to susbcribers (members) who learn from it the purpose to which their money
can be applied. In the second place, it protects persons dealing with the company, who can
infer from it the extent of the company’s powers. The narrower the objects appended in the
memorandum, the lesser are the subscriber’s risk; the wider these objects, the greater is the
security of those who transact business with the company.
(g) Alteration of objects: The members of a company may rightly expect that their money
would be employed only for the objects for which the company has been established.
Accordingly, the Act permits alteration of the objects, only so far as is considered necessary
for specified purposes. Section 17(1) permits a company to alter its objects for the under
mentioned purposes:
(a) to carry on business more economically :
(b) to attain the main purpose of the company by or improved means :
(c) to carry on some business which under the existing circumstances may conveniently or
advantageously be combined with the existing business.
(d) to change and enlarge the local area of operations;
(e) to restrict or abandon any of the existing objects;
(f) to sell or dispose of the whole or any part of the undertaking;
(g) to amalgamate with any other objects or body or person.
Certain amendments have been made by the Companies (Amendment) Act, 1996 in Sections
17 and 18. Accordingly, as per Section 17(2), only, the alteration of the provisions of
memorandum relating to change of place of its registered office from one State to another
requires to be confirmed by the Company Law Board on petition. In other words, Companies
are now under liberty to alter the object change of the memorandum without confirmation of
CLB. However, alteration can be made only on grounds stated above in Sub-section (1) of
Section 17.
In addition, according to the amended Section 18(1), a company shall file with the Register a
copy of the special resolution passed by the company in relation to clauses (a) to (g) of Sub-
section (1) of Section 17 within one month from the date of such resolution. The Registrar
shall register the same and certify the registration under his hand within one month firm the
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The Companies Act, 1956
date of filing such documents. Such certificate shall be conclusive evidence that all the
requirements with respect to alteration have been complied with, and memorandum so altered
shall be the memorandum of the company.
If the documents required to be filed with the Registrar under Section 18 are not filed within
the prescribed time, the alteration shall at the expiry of such period, become void and inopera-
tive. [Section 19].
Steps to be taken by a company for starting a business for which there is no provision in the
objects clause of the memorandum of association:
Since the present “objects clause” of the company in question does not contain any enabling
provisions for the company to carry on proposed business, the objects clause will have to be
altered. The alteration can be only for any one or more of purposes specified in Section 17(1)
discussed earlier.
Debenture holders and creditors are entitled to be heard by the Company Law Board unless it
decides otherwise. However, the Registrar of Companies has a right to be heard. As Mitra J.
Observed in Re Ganeshberi : Tea Co. (Pvt.) Comp. Case 556 “ in deciding as to whether a
company should be allowed to start additional business an application made in this behalf is
not to be disallowed merely because the business is wholly different form and bears no
relation to the existing business of the company. All that is essential is that it should be
capable of being conveniently and advantageously combined with the existing business and is
not destructive of or inconsistent with the existing business”.
According to the amended Section 18(1) of the Principal Act (as stated previously), a company
shall file with the Registrar a special resolution passed by the company relating to clauses (a)
to (g) of Sub-section (1) of Section 17 within one month from the date of such resolution or a
certified copy of the order of the Company Law Board made under Sub-section (5) of that
section confirming the alteration, within three months from the date of order as the case may
be, together with a printed copy of the memorandum as altered and the Registrar shall register
the same and certify the registration under his hand within one month from the date of filing of
such documents.
It should be noted that on the objects being altered as aforesaid, the company would not be
automatically entitled to commence the proposed business since the provisions of Section
149(2A) would also require compliance therewith.
Section 149 (2A) prohibits a public limited company from commencing any business other than
that covered by the main objects of the company, unless it has by a special resolution,
approved of the commencement of such business and a duly verified declaration by one of its
Directors or its Secretary in the prescribed form that such a resolution has been passed or as
the case may be the provisions of Section 149(2B) have been complied with, has been filed
with the Registrar. In the context of this prohibition, a distinction has been made between a
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
company existing immediately before the commencement of the Amendment Act, 1965 and
one formed after such commencement. In the former case, the special resolution is required
for commencing a business, in relation to any of the objects mentioned in its memorandum,
which is not germane to the business it was carrying on at the commencement of the
Amendment Act. In the latter case, the special resolution is necessary to set up a business in
relation to any object other than its main objects, or ancillary to it, on its memorandum.
Thus, for commencing the proposed business, a special resolution of the company would be
necessary. An ordinary resolution would be sufficient if, in addition the Central Government,
on an application by the Board of Directors, allows the company to commence such a
business [Section 149(2B)].
(h) Liability clause: Liability clause in the memorandum defines the limitations of the liability
of members. This liability may be limited liability in either of the two ways: (a) it may be limited
to the amount remaining unpaid on shares held by a member or shareholder; or (b) in case of
a guarantee company, it may be limited to the amount which each member undertakes to
contribute, to the assets of the company in the event of winding up. It may be noticed that the
limited liability clause is entirely omitted from the memorandum, in case of unlimited company
because the liability of members of such a company is unrestricted.
(i) Alteration of Liability clause: No member of a company shall be bound by an alteration
made in the memorandum or articles after the date on which he became a member, if such an
alteration requires him to take or subscribe for more shares should then the number held by
him as the date of alteration or in any way increase his liability. [Section 38]. But the section
will not apply where the member agrees in writing either before or after a particular alteration
is made, so as to bound by the alteration. Similarly, if the company is a club or association,
alteration in the memorandum the articles requiring be a member to pay subscriptions/charges
at a higher rate, a member may be bound by the alteration, even though he does not agree in
writing.
In the case of registration of unlimited company as a limited company, the liability may either
be limited or reduced, such an alteration by way change of registration of such companies
shall not, alter any debts, liabilities, obligations or contracts incurred or entered into by or on
behalf the company before the registration.
(j) Capital clause: The capital clause states the amount of share capital with which the
company proposes to be registered and the division thereof, into shares of fixed amount. It is
for those who are promoting the company, to decide the amount of capital, which will be
necessary for the company. Such capital is called that “Nominal” or “Authorised” Capital.
There is no limit to the amount of authorised capital with which a company can be incorpo-
rated. The amount of authorised capital should be sufficiently high so that further issue of
shares may easily be done to finance the expanding business. It is optional for a company to
state the division of the authorised capital into different classes of shares, if any, and the
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The Companies Act, 1956
rights of various classes of shareholders in this clause. Generally, such details are described
in the articles of the company.
Note, that an unlimited company having a share capital is not required to have the capital
clause in its memorandum. In the case of such company Section 27(i) provides that the
amount of share capital with which the company is to be registered must be stated in the
Articles of Association of the Company.
(k) Alteration of capital clause - For details of such alteration, refer to Unit 3.
6.35
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
6.36
The Companies Act, 1956
6.37
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
articles, if done in a particular manner, an outsider dealing with the company is entitled to
assume that it has been done in the manner required. The above mentioned doctrine of Indoor
Management or Turquand Rule has limitations of its own. That is to say, it is inapplicable to
the following cases, namely :
(a) When the person dealing with the company has notice, whether actual or constructive, of
the irregularity [Moris vs. Kenssen (1946) A.C. 459; Devi Ditta Mal vs. The Standard
Bank of India (1972) I.C. 568]. Thus director of a company cannot normally claim the
benefit of the rule in the Turquand Case where he is also acting for the company in the
transaction.
(b) Where the person dealing with the company is put upon an inquiry, for example, where
the transaction is unusual or not in the ordinary course of business. When a sole director
and principal shareholder of a company paid into his own account with a bank a cheque
drawn in favour of the company, the said bank was held to be put upon an enquiry and
the bank could not rely upon the ostensible authority of the director [Underwood vs. Bank
of Liverpool (1924) I.K.B. 775]. Likewise, a person who deals with a company may be put
upon enquiry by reason of the unusual magnitude of the transactions having regard to
the position of the agent who is acting for the company, [Houghom & Co. vs. Nothard
Lowe & Wills (1917) 2 KB. 147, 149; Rama Corporation Ltd. vs. Proved Tin & General
Investments Ltd. (1952) 2 K.B. 147, 152].
The company documents “are open to all who are minded to have any dealing
whatsoever with the company and those deal with them just be affected with notice of all
that is contained in those two documents. After that . . . all that the directors do with
reference to what I may call the indoor management of their own concern, is a thing to
them only; subject to this observation, that no person dealing with them has a right to
suppose that anything has been or can be done that is not permitted (by the company’s
documents, namely memorandum or articles). When there are persons conducting the
affairs of the company in a manner which appears to be perfectly consonant with the
articles of association then those dealing with them externally are not to be affected by
any irregularities which may take place in the internal management of the company”,
says Lord Hatherly in Mahony vs. East Holyford Mining Co. [1875] L.R. 7 H.L. 869.
(c) When an instrument purporting to be executed on behalf of the company is a forgery.
The doctrine of indoor management applies only to irregularities which might otherwise
affect a transaction but it cannot apply to forgery which must be regarded as nullity
[Ruben vs. Great Fingal Consolidated (1966) A.C. 439: Official Liquidator vs. Commr. of
Police (1969) I Comp. L.J. (Mad.)].
In view of the exceptions discussed above the rigidity of the doctrine of constructive notice is
appreciably elastic. Therefore, if the doctrine of indoor management is at all a silver lining, it is
only a slender silver lining of a rather dense cloud.
6.38
The Companies Act, 1956
A critical examination of the statement that the memorandum and articles of association of a
company cannot be altered except with the Court’s permission: It would be evident from the
under-mentioned discussion on the provisions of law that such blanket statement is not
correct.
According to Section 16 of the Companies Act, the conditions in the memorandum of a
company can be altered only in the cases, in the mode and to the extent for which express
provision is made in the Act. For changing the place of registered office of the company from
one State to another and its objects, a special resolution and the confirmation of the alteration
by the Company Law Board are necessary [Section 17], but not the Court’s permission. The
change of name by a company also requires a special resolution and the approval of the
Central Government and not the Company Law Board, and for that matter, not the Court’s
[Section 21]. The liability clause of the memorandum cannot be altered so as to render the
limited liability of members unlimited except in one circumstance as contemplated by Section
45, i.e., where the number of members falls below the statutory minimum of 7 or 2 in the case
of public or private limited company respectively and the business of company is carried on for
more than 6 months; in this case no other formalities are required to be complied with. Again,
under Section 323 (which is not included in your syllabi, nevertheless you should have a
knowledge of this as well), a limited company may, if so authorised by the articles, by a
special resolution, alter its memorandum so as to render unlimited liability of its directors or
manager; in this case too there is no necessity to seek the Court’s permission. Even for the
alteration of the company’s share capital in the shape of increasing, consolidating, sub-
dividing, cancelling, Section 94(2) specifically states that no confirmation by the Court is re-
quired. Only in the matter of reduction of share capital, confirmation by the Court has been
prescribed by Section 100.
In the matter of alteration of articles, Section 31(1) requires only a special resolution for the
purpose, and if such resolution has the effect of converting a public company into a private
company, the proviso thereto requires the approval of the Central Government - not of the
Court - for its operation.
It is thus clear that the headline statement, unqualified as it is, cannot be said to be correct.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
preliminary contract for the acquisition may be entered into before the company is formed. But
as the company is non-existent before incorporation it cannot be bound, by any purported
ratification [Kelner vs. Baxter (1862) L.R. 2 C.P. 174].
The rules in respect of preliminary contracts may be summarised as follows:
(a) The vendor cannot sue, or be sued by the company thereof, after its incorporation;
(b) Person who acts for the intended company remains personally liable to the vendor even
if the company purports to ratify the agreement, unless the agreement provides that :
(i) his liability shall cease if the company adopts the agreement; and
(ii) either party may rescind the agreement, if the company does not adopt it within a
specified time;
(c) After incorporation, the company may adopt the preliminary agreement. But this must be
by novation which may be implied from the circumstances. But in some cases, the
memorandum directs the directors to execute such contracts. The company can enforce
a pre-incorporation contract if it is warranted by the terms of incorporation and for
purposes of company.
A pre-incorporation contact can be enforced against the company if it is warranted by the
terms of incorporation and it is adopted by the company. [Sections 15 and 16 of the Specific
Relief Act, 1963]. In such a case, the directors have no discretion in the matter.
6.40
The Companies Act, 1956
1.17 PROMOTERS
Persons who initiate promotion of a company are known as promoters. All persons who take
steps for the registration of a company e.g., those associated with the preparation of a pro-
spectus or in drawing up the Memorandum of Association of the company and assisting in its
registration are regarded as promoters. It should, however, be noted that persons acting only
in a professional capacity e.g., the solicitor, banker, accountant etc. are not regarded as
promoters. The Act does not define a promoter, and whether a person is a promoter in any
particular case depends on the facts having regard to the person’s actions and his relationship
to the company that is formed. Any one who assists in the formation for a consideration
payable if the company is floated, is a promoter. “Picture formed in our minds is that of a
person who, after rising to affluence by preying on the susceptibilities of a gullible public,
finally retires from the scene in the blaze of a sensational suicide or Old Belley Trial,” (Prof.
Gower; Modern Company Law, 2nd Edition). “They are those who asset in motion the
machinery by which the Act enables them to create an incorporated company”, [per Lord Blank
burn in Erlanger vs. Sambrero Phosphate & Co. (1893) 3 App. Case. 1218].
(a) Promoter’s duty to disclose : Until a company is incorporated, a promoter stands in a
fiduciary capacity towards the company and its prospective shareholders. Hence, he must not
make, either directly or indirectly or through a nominee etc., any profit out of his trust, unless
the company after full disclosure of the facts, consents. Such disclosure is ineffective if made
merely to directors who are nominees of the promoters. Disclosure may be made either to an
independent board, or by means of a prospectus to the prospective shareholders. If the
promoter makes a secret profit the company can rescind the contract or compel him to
account for it. Where all the members of a private company are cognisant of the facts, the rule
would not apply.
(b) Promoters as vendors: A promoter is entitled to sell his own property to the company
provided he makes proper disclosure. This applies also to property which he acquires during
the promotion and which he resells to the company. If he fails to make disclosure the company
may either (a) rescind the contract, or (b) compel the promoter to surrender the profit.
(c) Promoter’s remuneration: A promoter has no right to demand any remuneration from the
company, for his promotional services in the absence of an express contract with the
company. Indeed, in the absence of such a contract, he cannot even recover from the
company payments he has made towards legal fees, stamp duties, registration fees, or other
expenses in connection with the formation of the company.
6.41
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Company Law Administration to exercise and discharge such powers and functions conferred
on the Central Government by or under this Act or any other law as may be delegated to it by
that Government.
Until the Amendment Act, 1988 came into force, the Company Law Board had to function as
two separate bodies, one as a delegate and the other as an independent body. The
Amendment Act, 1988 has increased the scope of powers and functions of the Company Law
Board as an independent body by amending Section 10E, on the one hand, and by
substituting ‘Company Law Board’ for the words ‘Central Government’ or the word ‘Court’ as
the case may be, in several sections of the Act. Thus, what are now the powers and function
of the Company Law Board are not limited to Sections 17, 18, 19, 79, 141, 186 and 635B, but
extend to a number of other provisions of the Act. These other provisions of the Act are either
Sections 111, 167 and 409 under which the Company Law Board used to exercise the powers
and functions of the Central Government delegated to it by virtue of a notification issued under
Section 637 or Sections 43 (proviso), 49, (10), 113(3), 118(3), 144(4), 163(6), 188(5), 196(4),
225(3), 284(4), 304(2)(b), 307(9), 388B to 388E, 397 or 405, 407(1)(b) and 614(1) under
which the powers and functions were exercisable by the High Court. The Company Law Board
has also been clothed with certain powers which do not strictly fall within either of the two
categories mentioned above, the examples of such powers are Sections 58A, 80A, 113(1),
235, 237, 247, 250, 269, etc.
The independent character of the Company Law Board can also be gleaned from several other
provisions of this section as now amended. For example, Sub-section (2A) now requires
Central Government to appoint members with prescribed qualifications and experience. Sub-
section (5) makes it binding on the Company Law Board not only to follow the principles of
natural justice (which it is even otherwise bound to follow) but is also required to be guided by
the dictates of its own sense of discretion. Sub-section (6) entitles the Company Law Board to
lay down its own procedure for conduct of its business. In sharp contrast with position hitherto
obtaining, the procedure, to be followed by the Company Law Board cannot be prescribed by
the Central Government and in the exercise of its powers and discharge of its functions, the
Company Law Board is no longer subject to the control of the Central Government.
While providing for an independent Company Law Board with powers statutorily conferred on it
under Sub-section 1A, the erstwhile arrangement for delegation of the powers and functions of
the Central Government to the Board under this Act has also been retained. Additionally, Sub-
section 1A provides for exercise and discharge of such powers and functions of the Central
Government under any other law, as may be conferred on it by that Government. In this
connection, reference may be made of the provisions of Section 22A of the Securities
(Contracts) Regulation Act, 1956 introduced by Securities (Contracts) Regulation Act, 1985
where under the jurisdiction to decide any reference under Section 49(c) has been conferred
on the Board. The Central Government has also authorised the Board to decide any question
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of the nature referred to in Section 2A of MRTP Act, 1969. Thus, one may say that the dual
character of the Board has been maintained to some extent.
The Board shall consist of such number of members, not exceeding nine, as the Central
Government deems fit. One of the members is to be appointed as the Chairman of the Board
by the Central Government.
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Member of the Indian Company Law Service (Accounts Branch) in Senior Administrative
Grade in that Service; or
(b) is, or has been, a Joint Secretary to the Government of India under the Central Staffing
Scheme, or any other post under the Central Government or a State Government
carrying a scale of pay which is not less than that of a Joint Secretary to the Government
of India for at least five years and has adequate knowledge of, and experience in, dealing
with problems relating to company law; or
(c) is, or has been, for at least fifteen years in practice as a chartered accountant under the
Chartered Accountants Act, 1949 (38 of 1949); or
(d) is, or has been, for at least fifteen years in practice as a cost accountant under the Costs
and Works Accountants Act, 1959 (23 of 1959); or
(e) is, or has been, for at least fifteen years working experience as a Secretary in whole-time
practice as defined in clause (45A) of section 2 of this Act and is a member of the
Institute of the Companies Secretaries of India constituted under the Company
Secretaries Act, 1980 (56 of 1980); or
(f) is a person of ability, integrity and standing having special knowledge of, and
professional experience of not less than twenty years in, science, technology, economics,
banking, industry, law, matters relating to industrial finance, industrial management,
industrial reconstruction, administration, investment, accountancy, marketing or any other
matter, the special knowledge of, or professional experience in, which would be in the
opinion of the Central Government useful to the Tribunal; or
(g) is, or has been, a Presiding Officer of a Labour Court, Tribunal or National Tribunal
constituted under the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 (14 of 1947); or
(h) is a person having special knowledge of, and experience of not less than fifteen years in,
the matters relating to labour.
Explanation.—For the purposes of this Part,—
(i) “Judicial Member” means a Member of the Tribunal appointed as such under sub-
section (2) of section 10FD and includes the President of the Tribunal;
(ii) “Technical Member” means a Member of the Tribunal appointed as such under sub-
section (3) of section 10FD.
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The Companies Act, 1956
three years from the date on which he enters upon his office but shall be eligible for re-
appointment:
Provided that no President or other Member shall hold office as such after he has attained,—
(a) in the case of the President, the age of sixty-seven years;
(b) in the case of any other Member, the age of sixty-five years :
Provided further that the President or other Member may retain his lien with his parent cadre
or Ministry or Department, as the case may be, while holding office as such.
Salary, allowances and other terms and conditions of service of President and other
members (Section 10FG)
The salary and allowances and other terms and conditions of service of the President and
other members of the Tribunal shall be such as may be prescribed:
Provided that neither the salary and allowances nor the other terms and conditions of service
of the President and other Members shall be varied to their disadvantage after their
appointment.
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(3) If, for reason other than temporary absence, any vacancy occurs in the office of the
President or a Member, the Central Government shall appoint another person in accordance
with the provisions of this Act to fill the vacancy and the proceedings may be continued before
the Tribunal from the stage at which the vacancy is filled.
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(3) The Central Government may suspend from office the President or Member of the Tribunal
in respect of whom a reference has been made to the Judge of the Supreme Court under sub-
section (2) until the Central Government has passed orders on receipt of the report of the
Judge of the Supreme Court on such reference.
(4) The Central Government may, by rules, regulate the procedure for the investigation of
misbehaviour or incapacity of the President or a Member referred to in sub-section (2).
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Provided that in case a Special Bench passes an order in respect of a company to be wound
up, the winding up proceedings of such company may be conducted by a Bench consisting of
a single Member.
(3) If the Members of a Bench differ in opinion on any point or points, it shall be decided
according to the majority, if there is a majority, but if the Members are equally divided, they
shall state the point or points on which they differ, and the case shall be referred by the
President of the Tribunal for hearing on such point or points by one or more of the other
Members of the Tribunal and such point or points shall be decided according to the opinion of
the majority of Members of the Tribunal who have heard the case, including those who first
heard it.
(4) There shall be constituted such number of Benches, as may be notified by the Central
Government.
(5) In addition to the other Benches, there shall be a Principal Bench at Delhi presided over
by the President of the Tribunal.
(6) The Principal Bench of the Tribunal shall have powers of transfer of proceedings from any
Bench to another Bench of the Tribunal in the event of inability of any Bench from hearing any
such proceedings for any reason:
Provided that no transfer of any proceedings shall be made under this sub-section except after
recording the reasons for so doing in writing.
Benches of Tribunal (Section 10FL)
(1) Subject to the provisions of this section, the powers of the Tribunal may be exercised by
Benches, constituted by the President of the Tribunal, out of which one shall be a Judicial
Member and another shall be a Technical Member referred to in clauses (a) to (f) of sub-
section (3) of section 10FD:
Provided that it shall be competent for the Members authorised in this behalf to function as a
Bench consisting of a single Member and exercise the jurisdiction, powers and authority of the
Tribunal in respect of such class of cases or such matters pertaining to such class of cases,
as the President of the Tribunal may, by general or special order, specify :
Provided further that if at any stage of the hearing of any such case or matter, it appears to
the Member of the Tribunal that the case or matter is of such a nature that it ought to be heard
by a Bench consisting of two Members, the case or matter may be transferred by the
President of the Tribunal or, as the case may be, referred to him for transfer to such Bench as
the President may deem fit.
(2) The President of the Tribunal shall, for the disposal of any case relating to rehabilitation,
restructuring or winding up of the companies, constitute one or more Special Benches
consisting of three or more Members, each of whom shall necessarily be a Judicial Member, a
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The Companies Act, 1956
Technical Member appointed under any of the clauses (a) to (f) of sub-section (3) of section
10FD, and a Member appointed under clause (g) or clause (h) of sub-section (3) of section
10FD :
Provided that in case a Special Bench passes an order in respect of a company to be wound
up, the winding up proceedings of such company may be conducted by a Bench consisting of
a single Member.
(3) If the Members of a Bench differ in opinion on any point or points, it shall be decided
according to the majority, if there is a majority, but if the Members are equally divided, they
shall state the point or points on which they differ, and the case shall be referred by the
President of the Tribunal for hearing on such point or points by one or more of the other
Members of the Tribunal and such point or points shall be decided according to the opinion of
the majority of Members of the Tribunal who have heard the case, including those who first
heard it.
(4) There shall be constituted such number of Benches, as may be notified by the Central
Government.
(5) In addition to the other Benches, there shall be a Principal Bench at Delhi presided over
by the President of the Tribunal.
(6) The Principal Bench of the Tribunal shall have powers of transfer of proceedings from any
Bench to another Bench of the Tribunal in the event of inability of any Bench from hearing any
such proceedings for any reason :
Provided that no transfer of any proceedings shall be made under this sub-section except after
recording the reasons for so doing in writing.
Order of Tribunal (Section 10 FM)
(1) The Tribunal may, after giving the parties to any proceeding before it, an opportunity of
being heard, pass such orders thereon as it thinks fit.
(2) The Tribunal may, at any time within two years from the date of the order, with a view to
rectifying any mistake apparent from the record, amend any order passed by it under
subsection (1), and shall make such amendment if the mistake is brought to its notice by the
parties.
(3) The Tribunal shall send a copy of every order passed under this section to all the parties
concerned.
Power to review (Section 10FN)
The Tribunal shall have power to review its own orders.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(e) has so abused his position as to render his continuance in office prejudicial to the public
interest.
(2) The Chairperson or a Member of the Appellate Tribunal shall not be removed from his
office except by an order made by the Central Government on the ground of proved
misbehaviour or incapacity after an inquiry made by a Judge of the Supreme Court in which
such Chairperson or Member had been informed of the charges against him and given a
reasonable opportunity of being heard in respect of those charges.
(3) The Central Government may suspend from office the Chairperson or a Member of the
Appellate Tribunal in respect of whom a reference has been made to the Judge of the
Supreme Court under sub-section (2) until the Central Government has passed orders on
receipt of the report of the Judge of the Supreme Court on such reference.
(4) The Central Government may, by rules, regulate the procedure for the investigation of
misbehaviour or incapacity of the Chairperson or a Member referred to in sub-section (2).
Vacancy (Section 10FS)
In the event of the occurrence of any vacancy in the office of the Chairperson of the Appellate
Tribunal by reason of his death, resignation or otherwise, the senior-most Member of the
Appellate Tribunal shall act as the Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal until the date on
which a Chairperson appointed in accordance with the provisions of this Act to fill such
vacancy enters upon his office.
When the Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal is unable to discharge his functions owing to
absence, illness or any other cause, the senior-most Member or, as the case may be, such
one of the member of the Appellate Tribunal, as the Central Government may, by notification,
authorize in this behalf, shall discharge the functions of the Chairperson resumes his duties.
If for reason other than temporary absence, any vacancy occurs in the office of the
Chairperson or a Member, the Central Government shall appoint another person in
accordance with the provisions of this Act to fill the vacancy and the proceedings may be
continued before the Appellate Tribunal from the stage at which the vacancy is filled.
Salary, allowances and other terms and conditions of service of Chairperson and
Members (Section 10FW)
The salary and allowances and other terms and conditions of service of the Chairperson and
other Members of the Appellate Tribunal shall be such as may be prescribed and shall not be
varied to their disadvantage after appointment.
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The Companies Act, 1956
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Member, officer or other employee or operating agency or liquidator or any other person
authorised by the Appellate Tribunal or the Tribunal in the discharge of any function under this
Act for any loss or damage caused or likely to be caused by any act which is in good faith
done or intended to be done in pursuance of this Act.
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The Companies Act, 1956
(b) in the case of an order against any other person, the person concerned voluntarily
resides or carries on business or personally works for gain.
All proceedings before the Tribunal or the Appellate Tribunal shall be deemed to be judicial
proceedings within the meaning of sections 193 and 228, and for the purposes of section 196,
of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860) and the Tribunal and the Appellate Tribunal shall be
deemed to be a civil court for the purposes of section 195 and Chapter XXVI of the Code of
Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974).
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
6.56
The Companies Act, 1956
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
State Yes or No
11. An association of persons may form a company and get it registered as such under the
Companies Act. What are the considerations, which may actuate it, do so?
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The Companies Act, 1956
12. If the members composing the company die or dissociate themselves, the company also
gets extinct. Is it a correct statement?
13. A company can own property, have a banking account, raise loans, incur liabilities and
enter into contracts, whereas its members cannot contract with the company, acquire
rights against it or incur liability to it. Examine the veracity of this statement.
14. For the debts of the company, its creditors (a) can (b) cannot, sue the members of the
company. Which is correct?
15. Are the directors of company agents or the members thereof?
16. S had been in the leather business for many years and solvent. Later he decided to form
a company, the members thereof being S himself, his wife and five children (each having
one share) and transferred his business to the company. In consideration thereof S was
allotted fully paid-up shares and debentures; the latter were secured on the assets of the
company. Eventually, the company had to be liquidated and the assets being insufficient
to repay either the debentures or the trade creditors. S claimed preference on the ground
of being a secured creditor in respect of the debentures held by him. The unsecured
creditors objected to this claim on the ground that S and his company were one and put
in a counter claim that their debts should be discharged first. In the circumstances, could
S get repayment in priority to the unsecured creditors?
17. An English company was formed for selling in England tyres produced by a German
company in Germany. The German company held the bulk of English company’s shares.
The overwhelming majority of the shareholders and all the directors were German
nationals residing in Germany. The English company filed a suit during the World War I
to recover a trade debt. Could the company be allowed to proceed with the action?
[Dalmier Co. Ltd. vs. Continental Tyre and Rubber Co. [1916] 2 A.C. 307].
18. X, having huge dividend and interest income, formed four private companies. He agreed
with each of such companies to hold a block of investment as an agent for the company.
The income received was credited to the accounts of the company but the company gave
it back to X as a pretended loan. In this way, X divided his income with a view to reduce
his tax-burden. In a legal proceeding against X, the court ignored the company and
concerned itself directly with X. Could the court do so? [In re Sir Dinshaw Maneckjee
Petit AIR [1927] 371].
19. H was appointed the managing director of A & Co. on the term that he must not, at any
time during the tenure of his office as such, or afterwards, entice away the customers of
A & Co. Subsequent to the cessation of H’s employment under an agreement he set up a
business in the name of H & Co. which solicited the customers of A & Co. Evidence
showed that H & Co. was formed to enable H to commit a breach of his covenant against
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
solicitation. Could H & Co. and H be restrained from doing so ? [Gilford Motor Co. vs.
Horne [1932] I. Ch. 935].
20. A Hindu undivided family consisting of 11 persons carries on banking with a view to
acquiring profit for itself or its members without itself being registered under the Banking
Regulation Act, 1949(a) Will it be a legal association? (b) Will your answer be the same,
if two undivided families would have carried on the said business?
21. At the inception the association was not registrable under the Act as its membership
number did not exceed the statutory limit. But long thereafter the number of its members
exceeded that statutory limit. Could the association continue with the business for gain
without registration?
22. For determining the legality or otherwise of the object of an incorporated company, can
the motive which actuated the founders of the company to form the association be looked
into?
23. Can a firm be a signatory to memorandum?
24. According to Section 25(4) a firm may continue to be a member of a company to which a
licence has been granted by the Central Government entitling it to be registered as a
limited company. How can you reconcile this position with your answer to question 13?
25. The memorandum of a company stated that it was formed to work German patent to
manufacture coffee from dates, to acquire and purchase any other inventions for similar
purpose and import and export all description of produce for the purpose of food. The
German patent was not granted. But the company was solvent and the majority of the
shareholders wished that the company should continue. Could the company be allowed
to continue? [Re German Date Coffee Co. (1882) Ch. D. 169]
26. (a) Suppose, the company wants to shift its registered office from Asaf Ali Road to
Parliament Street, Delhi. Is a sanction for it through a resolution necessary?
(b) If the registered office is proposed to be changed from Brabourne Road, Calcutta to
Howrah, what kind of resolution is needed for the purpose?
27. The registered office of a company is situated in Orissa. Its factory was also in Orissa. It
applies to the Court for the change of its registered office from Orissa to Andhra Pradesh
on the ground of more direct and economic administration. But fails to clarify how the
expenses will be curtailed or how the administration from Andhra Pradesh can be more
direct when the factory will remain in Orissa. Can you in the circumstances, question the
bona fides of the company’s application for the proposed change?
28. The object of the company was to promote, assist and protect cyclists. Later on, it sought
power to assist motorists. Would alteration of the memorandum for the purpose be
permissible?
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The Companies Act, 1956
29. A sole director and principal shareholder of a company paid into his own account with a
bank a cheque drawn in favour of the company. Could the bank rely on the Turquand
case?
30. The doctrine of indoor management (a) applies, (b) does not apply, in the following
cases:
(i) When the person dealing with the company has notice of the internal irregularity.
(ii) Where he is put upon an enquiry. Which is correct?
31. Where a public company has been converted into a private company, will the approval of
the Central Government be necessary?
32. The alteration in the articles has in consequence increased the liability of a member to
contribute to the company. In such a circumstances, will the alteration be binding on a
present member?
33. If any irregular alterations have been acted upon for many years, will these be binding?
34. The original articles of a company contained no powers to issue preference shares.
Later, the articles were altered by a special resolution so as to assume the necessary
power, and preference shares were issued accordingly. Would the alteration be
effective? [Andrews vs. Gas Meter Co. (1897) 8 Ch. 361]
35. The articles of a company give it a lien upon each share for debts due to the company by
shareholders. A shareholder mortgages his shares and the mortgagee serves notice
thereof upon the company. Who will have prior claim over the shares, if the shareholder
has incurred a liability to the company (a) before the service of the notice of mortgage,
(b) after the service.
36. The articles of a company provided that the salary of the managing director shall not
exceed Rs. 1,500 per month and the rate of commission payable to him should not
exceed 5% of the profit. Notwithstanding this it was resolved in a general meeting of the
company that the managing director be paid a salary of Rs. 2,500 per month, and
commission of 8% and the resolution was declared by chairman to have been carried by
a show of hands. One of the shareholders subsequently brought an action against the
company and the directors for a declaration that the resolution was not binding on the
company. Could he bring such a suit without the permission of the company?
37. A company was being formed to purchase a hotel from K.A contract was entered into on
behalf of the company by A, B and C for the purchase of stock of certain value from K.
The company was formed and the goods were made over to it and consumed. But before
payment was made, the company went into liquidation. (a) Could the company by
subsequent ratification of the contract bind to K? (b) Could A, B and C be held personally
liable on the said contract?
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
38. A syndicate of which E was the head, bought an island which is said to contain valuable
mines of phosphate for $55,000. E formed a company to purchase the island, and
contract was made between X (a nominee of the syndicate) and the company for its
purchase at $1,10,000. The promoters of the company did not disclose the profit they
were making. Could the company rescind the contract and recover the purchase money
from E and other members of the syndicate?
39. The registrar issued on 8th January a certificate of incorporation dated 6th January. An
allotment of shares was made on 5th January. Could the allotment be declared void on
the ground that it was made before the company was incorporated?
40. What will be the consequences if a private company defaults on complying with any of
the provisions contained in Section 3(1)(iii)?
41. The number of members of a private limited company falls below 2 on 1-7-89. The
company continues to carry on its business with the reduced number till 1-11-89. During
the intervening period between 1-7-89 and 1-11-89; the company contracts a debt of Rs.
5,000. Will the continuing member be severally liable for the whole debt, if the company
with the reduced number had continued business say up to 3-1-90 and the said debt had
been incurred during the period between 1-7-89 and 1-11-89?
42. All seven signatures on a Memorandum of Association were forged by a single person
and a certificate of incorporation was obtained. Is the certificate valid?
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The Companies Act, 1956
went into liquidation and the debt could not he paid by the company for the purchase of
above furniture. As a result suppliers sued the promoters of the company for the
recovery of money.
Examine whether promoters can he held liable for payment under the following
situations:
(i) When the company has already adopted the contract after incorporation?’
(ii) When the company makes a fresh contract with the suppliers in terms of pre-
incorporation contract?
48. Explain fully the doctrine of Ultra Vires and state its implications.
49. Explain the limitations relating to alternation of Articles of Association of a company.
50. Explain clearly the meaning of Lifting the Corporate Veil, as applicable in case of
companies incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956. Under what circumstances the
veil of a company can be lifted by the court?
51. Explain clearly the concept of “Perpetual Succession” and “Common Seal” in relation to a
company incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956.
52. State the conditions of restrictions with which a private company is incorporated under
the Companies Act, 1956.
53. Briefly explain the doctrine of “ultravires” under the Companies Act, 1956. What are the
consequences of ultravires acts of the company?
54. The Articles of Association of Mars Company Ltd. provides that documents may be
served upon the company only through Fax. Ramesh despatches a document to the
company by post, under certificate of posting. The company does not accept it on the
ground that it is in violation of the Articles of Association. As a result Ramesh suffers
loss. Explain with reference to the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956:
(i) What refusal of document by the company is valid?
(ii) Whether Ramesh can claim damages on this basis?
55. What do you understand by Pre-incorporation Contracts? Distinguish between Pre-
incorporation contracts and Provisional contracts.
56. What is the procedure laid down in the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956 for
converting a private company into a public company ?
57. The Articles of Association of a Limited Company provided that ‘X’ shall be the Law
Officer of the company and he shall not be removed except on the ground of proved
misconduct. The company removed him even though he was not guilty of misconduct.
Decide, whether company’s action is valid?
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
58. Which of the institutions are regarded as “Public Financial Institutions” under the
Companies Act, 1956?
59. Explain the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956 relating to registration of a non-profit
organisation as a company. What procedure is required to be adopted for the said
purpose?
60. What are the purposes for which “objects” can be altered by a company under the
Companies Act, 1956? Briefly explain the procedure to be applied to such matters.
61. Some of the creditors of M/s Get Rich Quick Ltd. have complained that the company was
formed by the promoters only to defraud the creditors and circumvent the compliance of
legal provisions of the Companies Act, 1956. In this context they seek your advice as to
the meaning of corporate veil and when the promoters can be made personally liable for
the debts of the company.
62. What is meant by a Guarantee Company? State the similarities and dissimilarities
between a Guarantee Company and a Company having Share Capital.
1.21 Answers
1. (b); 2. (c); 3. (b); 4. (b); 5. (d); 6. (c); 7. (a); 8. (d); 9. (d); 10. (d);
11 Limitation of individual risk, procurement of capital and technical and managerial
personnel, corporate personality, transferability of shares etc.
12. No; 13. Partially, correct; 14. (b);
15. Agents, may also be members;
16. Yes. (Saloman vs. Saloman & Co. Ltd.); 17. No; 18. Yes;
19. Yes character of company;
20. (a) Yes; 20. (b) No; 21. No; 22. No; 23. No;
24. By stating that it is an exception to the general rule that firm cannot be accepted as
shareholders of the company.
25. No; 26. (a) No; 26. (b) Special; 27. Yes; 28. No; 29. No 30 (b) 31. Yes;
32. No; rules he has in writing agreed; 33. Yes; 34. Yes; 35. (a) Company;
35 (b) Mortgagee; 36. Yes; 37. (a) No; 37. (b) Yes; 38. Yes; 39. No;
40. Forfeiture of the statutory privileges and exemptions and subject to the whole of the Act.
41. No; 42. No;
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The Companies Act, 1956
UNIT 2
Learning objectives
You might recall that from Unit 1 you have understood there are certain distinctions between a
private and a public company. Besides private company have certain privileges and
exemptions under the Companies Act, 1956. However, one aspect that you might have
observed is that a private company is prohibited from access to the public in raising its capital.
Contrast to this a public company shall have access to the public for raising the share capital.
For doing so, it has to observe certain formalities like issue of prospectus, compliance of
certain requirements in getting minimum subscription, share allotment etc. Also a company is
permitted under the Act, after issuing shares to buy back its own shares. In this unit the
following aspects of study are covered:
♦ Requirement for issue of prospectus
♦ Consequences in case of mis-statements in prospectus
♦ Acceptances of Fixed Deposits and Small Depositors
♦ Allotment of shares and irregular allotment
♦ Buy back of shares and the procedure
♦ Membership in a company
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
acceptance of such an invitation by any member of the public, no binding contract between
him and the company comes into being. Application for purchase of shares or debentures or
for making a deposit constitutes an offer by the subscriber to the company and it is only on its
acceptance by the company that a binding contract comes into existence.
You have seen from the definition that a document cannot be regarded as a prospectus,
unless it is an invitation for an offer to the public. What is the connotation of the term “public”
in this context. According to Section 67(1) it includes any section of the public, “whether
selected as members or debenture holders of the company concerned or as clients of the
person issuing the prospectus or in any other manner”.
The prospectus must be in writing. An oral invitation to subscribe for shares will not be
considered prospectus. Television or film advertisement cannot be treated as prospectus.
The next issue worthy of consideration is this: When can the invitation for offer (which we
referred to earlier) be not treated as having been made to the public? You have noticed that
Sections 67(1) & (2) treats an offer or invitation made to a section of the public selected as
members of the company, as an offer or invitation to the public. But Section 67(3) excludes
from the category of: “invitation to the public” any invitation or offer to the members or
debenture holders of the company in either of the two circumstances specified therein viz.:
(1) If the invitation or offer can properly be ‘regarded in all circumstances as not being
calculated to result directly or indirectly in the shares or debentures becoming available for
subscription or purchase by persons other than those receiving the offer or invitation, it shall
not be treated as having been made to the public. (2) If it can be properly regarded as being a
domestic concern of the persons making and receiving the offer or invitation, it will not be
treated as having been made to the public. Thus, to determine whether or not an offer has
been made to the public, the test is not who receives the offer or the invitation but who can
accept it. If only the persons to whom it has been made are entitled to accept it and nobody
else, then it is hit by Section 67(3); it is not one made to the public. For example, when a
prospectus was issued only to a small circle of friends of the directors, or to the existing
members, it was held that it was not an offer to the public [Lynde v. S. Nash (1928) 2 K.B.
23].
The prospectus is the basic document on the basis of which the intending investors decide
whether or not they should subscribe to the shares or debentures. Therefore, the law requires
unstinted disclosure of various matters through prospectus and forbids variations of any terms
and conditions of a contract contained therein except with the approval and authority of the
company in general meeting [Section 61].
“Those who issue prospectus holding out to the public great advantage which will accrue to
persons who take up shares on the representations contained therein, are bound to state
everything with scrupulous accuracy and not only to abstain from stating as fact that which is
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not so but to omit no fact within their knowledge, the existence of which might in any degree
affect the nature or extent or quality of the privilege and advantages which the prospectus
holds out as an inducement to take shares [as per Kindersely V.C. in Burnswick and Canada
Railway Co. vs. Mullridge].
It is therefore essential that the information statutorily needing disclosure is stated fully and
precisely so that the investing public which is ignorant of the present and future prospects of
the company may get all the information which is likely to affect the public mind. It is only to
protect the members of the public against their being misguided by half truths or falsehoods
that the law casts a liability on various persons connected with the issue of the prospectus to
compensate every person (who subscribes on the faith of the prospectus) for any loss or
damage he may have sustained because of the inclusion of any untrue statements in the
prospectus [Section 62].
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In the context of the above provisions of law, such offers cannot be treated as private
placement and provisions relating to prospectus under the Companies Act are applicable. The
companies concerned, their promoters and their intermediaries were warned that making of
so-called private placement of shares or collecting unofficial premia without recording the
same in the books of account of the company, are serious contravention of the Companies Act
and would invite penal action under the Act by the Government. It may be noted that
marketing of rights of renunciation by a private company is prohibited under Section 3(1)(iii)(c)
of the Companies Act, as it cannot make any invitation to the public to subscribe for its shares.
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The company and every person, knowingly a party to the issue of the prospectus without
registration, shall be liable to a fine extending upto Rs. 5,000 [Section 60].
(iii) Approval of prospectus by various agencies : The draft prospectus has to be approved
by various agencies before it is filed with the ROC of the concerned State. The various author-
ities who approve the prospectus are the following:
(i) All the lead managers to the issue.
(ii) Each of the stock exchanges where the shares of the company are listed and where the
shares/debentures are proposed to be listed.
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Earlier, the application form for issue of shares was required to be accompanied by a full
prospectus. The Amendment Act of 1988 (w.e.f. 31-5-1991) permits a company to furnish
alongwith the application form for shares/debentures an abridged form of prospectus, instead
of the full prospectus, which however, is to be furnished on demand. The memorandum
containing salient features of the prospectus accompanying the application forms shall be as
per rules prescribed by the Central Government in this behalf. It is, however, open to a
company to attach full prospectus along with the application forms.
The Government has recently revised the format of this memorandum (abridged prospectus)
to provide for greater disclosure of information to prospective investors so as to enable them
to take an informed decision regarding investment in shares and debentures.
The abridged prospectus (in Form 2A) and the share application form should bear the same
printed number. The investor may detach the share application form along the perforated line
after he has had an opportunity to study the contents of the abridged prospectus, before
submitting the same to the company or its designated bankers. The same procedure be also
followed while making available copies of the prospectus under Section 56 of the Act.
Exceptions: There are, however, certain exceptions to the above provision, where an abridged
prospectus containing all the prescribed details need not accompany the Application Forms
sent out. These exceptions are:
(a) In the case of bona fide underwriting agreement [Section 56(3)(a)].
(b) Where the shares or debentures are not offered to the public [Section 56(3)(b)].
(c) Where the offer is made only to existing members or debenture holders of the company,
whether with or without the right of renunciation [Section 56(5)(a)].
(d) In the case of issue of shares or debentures, which are in all, respects similar with those
previously issued and dealt in on a recognised stock exchange [Section 56(5)(b)].
The logic behind these exceptions should be noted. In the first two exceptions the public is not
involved, hence no need of protection. In the case of last two, the offeree, being already a
member for the shares being quoted one, must have enough information about the company
to protect himself.
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regarding the company, its management, the project proposed to be undertaken by the
company, the financial performance of the company for the last five years and management
perception of risk factors so as to enable the investors to take an informed decision regarding
investment in shares or debentures offered through public issue. The company will also be
required to furnish particulars in regard to other listed companies under the same man-
agement within the meaning of Section 370(1B) of the Companies Act, which have made any
capital issue during the last three years. The company will inform whether they have obtained
credit rating for debenture/preference share issue. A declaration will also have to be furnished
to the effect that all the relevant provisions of the Companies Act, 1956 and the guidelines
issued by the government have been complied with and no statement made in prospectus is
contrary to the provisions of Companies Act, 1956 and rules made thereafter.
The Government has also prescribed rules on similar lines regarding salient features of the
prospectus for the purpose of Sub-section (3) of Section 56 (abridged prospectus) of the
Companies Act, 1956 and has prescribed Form 2A in this regard.
The Company issuing prospectus should fulfill the requirements as per Schedule II of the
Companies Act, 1956 and the SEBI guidelines for disclosure and investor protection. The
Schedule II of the Companies Act, 1956 is as follows:
PART I
I. General information:
(a) Name and address of registered office of the company.
(b) (i) Consent of the Central Government for the present issue and declaration of the
Central Government about non-responsibility for financial soundness or correctness of
statements.
(ii) Letter of intent/industrial licence and declaration of the Central Government about
non-responsibility for financial soundness or correctness of statements.
(c) Names of regional stock exchange and other stock exchanges where application made
for listing of present issue.
(d) Provisions of sub-section (1) of section 68A of the Companies Act, relating to punishment
for fictitious applications.
(e) Statement/declaration about refund of the issue if minimum subscription of 90% is not
received within 90 days from closure of the issue.
(f) Declaration about the issue of allotment letters/refunds within a period of 10 weeks and
interest in case of any delay in refund at the prescribed rate under section 73(2)/(2A).
(g) Date of opening of the issue.
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28
Substituted by Notification No. SO666(E), dated 3.10.1991
29. Inseted by Notification No. GSR-265(E), dated 15.5.1997
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(k) Future prospects – expected capacity utilisation during the first three years from the
date of commencement of production, and the expected year when the company
would be able to earn cash profits and net profits.
Stock market data for shares/debentures of the company high/low price in each of
the last three years and monthly high/low during the last six months (where
applicable).
VI. Following particulars in regard to the company and other listed companies under the
same management within the meaning of section 370(1B), which made any capital issue
during the last three years:
Name of the company
Year of issue
Type of issue
(Public/rights/composite)
Amount of issue
Date of closure of issue
Date of completion of delivery of share/debenture certificates
Date of completion of the project, where object of the issue was financing of a project.
Rate of dividend paid.
VIII. (a) Outstanding litigation pertaining to-
(i) matters likely to affect operation and finances of the company including disputed tax
liabilities of any nature; and
(ii) criminal prosecution launched against the company and the directors for alleged
offences under the enactments specified in paragraph I of Part I of Schedule XIII to
the Companies Act, 1956.
(b) Particulars of default, if any, in meeting statutory dues, institutional dues, and
towards instrument holders like debentures, fixed deposits, and arrears on
cumulative preference shares, etc. (also give the same particulars about the
companies promoted by the same private promoters and listed on stock
exchanges).
(c) Any material development after the date of the latest balance sheet and its impact
on performance and prospects of the company.
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VIII. Management perception of risk factors (i.e., sensitivity to foreign exchange rate
fluctuations, difficulty in availability of raw materials or in marketing of products, cost/time
overrun, etc).
PART II
A. General information
1. Consent of directors, auditors, solicitors/advocates, managers to the issue,
Registrar of Issue, bankers to the company, bankers to the issue and experts.
2. Expert opinion obtained, if any.
3. Change, if any, in directors and auditors during the last three years, and reasons
thereof.
4. Authority for the issue and details of resolution passed for the issue.
5. Procedure and time schedule for allotment and issue of certificates.
6. Names and addresses of the company secretary, legal adviser, lead managers, co-
managers, auditors, bankers to the company, bankers to the issue, and brokers to
the issue.
B. Financial information
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and found correct by them. The said statement may indicate the nature of provision
or adjustments made or are yet to be made).
2. If the company has no subsidiaries, the report shall-
(a) so far as regards profits and losses, deal with the profits or losses of the company
(distinguishing items of a non-recurring nature) for each of the five financial years
immediately preceding the issue of the prospectus; and
(b) So far as regards assets and liabilities, deal with the assets and liabilities of the
company at the last date to which the accounts of the company were made up.
3. If the company has subsidiaries, the report shall-
(a) so far as regards profits and losses, deal separately with the company’s profits or
losses as provided by sub-clause (2) and in addition deal either-
(i) as a whole with the combined profits or losses of its subsidiaries, so far as they
concern members of the company; or
(ii) individually with the profits or losses of each subsidiary, so far as they concern
members of the company;
or, instead of dealing separately with the company’s profits or losses, deal as a
whole with the profits or losses of the company, and, so far as they concern
members of the company, with the combined profits or losses of its subsidiaries;
and
(b) so far as regards assets and liabilities, deal separately with the company’s assets
and liabilities as provided by sub-clause (2) and in addition, deal either-
(i) as a whole with the combined assets and liabilities of its subsidiaries, with or
without the company’s assets and liabilities; or
(ii) individually with the assets and liabilities of each subsidiary;
and shall indicate as respects the assets and liabilities of the subsidiaries, the
allowance to be made for persons other than members of the company.
4. If the proceeds, or any part of the proceeds, of the issue of the shares or debentures are
or is to be applied directly or indirectly-
(i) in the purchase of any business; or
(ii) in the purchase of an interest in any business and by reason of that purchase, or
anything to be done in consequence thereof, or in connection therewith; the
company will become entitled to an interest as respects either the capital or profits
and losses or both, in such business exceeding fifty per cent, thereof;
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PART III
PROVISIONS APPLYING TO PARTS I AND II OF THE SCHEDULE
16. Every person shall, for the purpose of this Schedule, be deemed to be a vendor who has
entered into any contract, absolute or conditional, for the sale or purchase or for any
option of purchase, of any property to be acquired by the company, in any case where-
(a) the purchase money is not fully paid at the date of the issue of the prospectus;
(b) the purchase money is to be paid or satisfied, wholly or in part, out of the proceeds
of the issue offered for subscription by the prospectus;
(c) the contract depends for its validity or fulfillment on the result of that issue.
17. Where any property to be acquired by the company is to be taken on lease, this
Schedule shall have effect as if the expression “vendor” included the lessor, the
expression “purchase money” included the consideration for the lease, and the
expression “sub-purchaser” included a sub-lessee.
18. If in the case of a company which has been carrying on business, or of a business which
has been carried on for less than five financial years, the accounts of the company or
business have only been made up in respect of four such years, three such years, two
such years or one such year, Part II of this Schedule shall have effect as if references to
four financial years, three financial years, two financial years or one financial year, as the
case may be, were substituted for references to five financial years.
19. Where the five financial years immediately preceding the issue of prospectus which are
referred to in Part II of this Schedule or in this Part cover a period of less than five years,
references to the said five financial years in either Part shall have effect as if references
to a number of financial years the aggregate period covered by which is not less than five
years immediately preceding the issue of the prospectus were substituted for references
to the five financial years aforesaid.
20. Any report required by Part II of this Schedule shall either
(a) indicate by way of note any adjustments as respects the figures of any profits or
losses or assets and liabilities dealt with by the report which appear to the persons
making the report necessary; or
(b) make those adjustments and indicate that adjustments have been made.
21. Any report by accountants required by Part II of this Schedule--
(a) shall be made by accountants qualified under this Act for appointment as auditors of
the company; and
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(b) shall not be made by any accountant who is an officer or servant, or a partner or in
the employment of an officer or servant, of the company or of the company’s
subsidiary or holding company or of a subsidiary of the company’s holding
company.
For the purposes of this clause, the expression “officer” shall include a proposed director
but not an auditor.
22. Inspection of documents:
Reasonable time and place at which copies of all balance sheets and profit and loss
accounts, if any, on which the report of the auditors is based, and material contracts and
other documents may be inspected.
Note: Term “year” wherever used hereinearlier, means financial year.
3a[Declaration: That all the relevant provisions of the Companies Act, 1956, and the
guidelines issued by the Government or the guidelines issued by the Securities and Exchange
Board of India established under section 3 of the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act,
1992, as the case may be, have been complied with and no statement made in prospectus is
contrary to the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956 or the Securities and Exchange Board
of India Act, 1992 or rules made thereunder or guidelines issued, as the case may be].
Place:………………………….. ……………………………
Date:………………………….. Signature of directors
1
1
3a substituted by Notification No. GSR 650(E), dated 17-9-2002, w.e.f. 17.9.2002
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vetting of the draft prospectus/letter of offer by SEBI should not in any way be
deemed/construed as approval from SEBI for the proposed Issue. SEBI does not take
any responsibility for the financial soundness of any scheme or project or for the state-
ments made or opinions expressed in the offer document. SEBI merely ensures, on the
basis of information furnished to it, that adequate disclosures have been made in the
offer document to enable the investors to take informed investment decisions”.
(ii) Reservation for Non-Resident (NRIs) Overseas Corporate Bodies (OCBs) in Public
Issues:
(a) “Name and address of at least one source in India from where individual NRI
applicants can obtain the application forms”—at the appropriate place.
(b) “NRI applicants may please note that only such applications as are accompanied by
payment in free foreign exchange will be considered for allotment under the
reserved category. Such NRIs who wish to make payment through Non-Resident
Ordinary (NRO) accounts shall not use the forms meant for reserved category but
must use the form meant for Resident Indians”—at the appropriate place.
(iii) Stockinvest: Manner of obtaining Stockinvest and disposal of applications accompanied
by Stockinvest as also a paragraph, on the following lines, at the appropriate place.
“Registrars to the issue have been authorised by the Company (through Resolution of the
Board passed on. . . .) to sign on behalf of the Company to realise the proceeds of the
Stockinvest from the issuing bank or to affix non-allotment advice on the instrument or cancel
the stockinvest of the non-allotees or partially successful allottees who have enclosed more
than one stockinvest. Such cancelled stockinvest shall be sent back by the Registrars directly
to the Investors”.
(iv) Buy-back arrangement for purchase of non-convertible portion (khokha) of partly
convertible debentures:
(a) Full information relating to the terms of offer or purchase including the name(s) of
the party offering to purchase the Khokhas, the discount at which such offer is made
and the ultimate price that would work out to the investor including the discount
portion.
Any such offer shall be on spot-delivery basis, so as to be consistent with the
provisions of the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956.
(b) Where no such arrangement has been disclosed in the offer document, the Lead
Manager may not allow such offer being made during the period he is associated
with the issue.
(v) Performance vis-a-vis promises relating to previous issues: In case the issuer has come
out with a public or rights issue within the previous 3 years of the proposed issue, details
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relating to the objects of the previous issues, schedule of implementation thereof and the
status against the same should be disclosed under the head.
(vi) Deployment of proceeds of the issue : The offer document shall give details of avenues
of investment in which the management proposes to deploy issue proceeds pending
utilisation in the proposed project.
(vii) Stock market data : Along with high/low and average prices of shares of the Company,
during preceding 3 years details relating to volume of business transacted should also be
stated for respective periods.
(viii) Statement relating to allotment and refund : Lead manager shall ensure that the offer
document does not contain statements to the effect that “. . .or in the event of unforeseen
circumstances within such further time as may be allowed by the Stock Exchange.
Extension, if any, granted by the Stock Exchange would be without prejudice to the
Company’s liability to pay interest under Section 73 of the Companies Act, 1956". (This is
as per instructions contained in Circular No. 1/3/92-CL. V, dated February 17, 1993, of
the Department of Company Affairs, Ministry of Law, Justice and Company Affairs).
The SEBI has also in its guidelines for disclosure and investor protection [Circular No. 4 dated
12-10-1995, Clarification No. XIII] has stated that every prospectus submitted to it shall, in
addition to the requirements of Schedule II of the Companies Act, contain/specify the
followings information. Some of them to mention are:
An index of the contents of the prospectus, details of actual project expenditure, and its
financing, details of bridge-loan, bifurcated details of turnover (separately) into products manu-
factured, traded, not normally traded in, statement of assets and liabilities after providing for
revaluation, a statement by directors regarding last financial statements affecting materially
the profitability of the company if any, details of share holding by the promoter group, stock
market data, management perception of internal and external risk factors, discussion of the
financial conditions and results of the operations,details regarding major shareholders etc.
(NOTE: Though students at the PE-II level are not expected to be fully conversant with SEBI
Guidelines, they can pass on just as a reference, as these guidelines relate to the contents of
Prospectus).
Legal significance: It was stated in earlier pages of this book that a company cannot normally
vary at any time the terms of a contract in the prospectus and that it can do so only with the
approval and authority obtained from its general meeting [Section 61]. Suppose, there is a
condition in the prospectus, which requires or binds an applicant for shares or debentures to
waive compliance with any of the requirements relating to statutory matters and reports. In
such a case it will be void. Similarly, if there is a condition, which has the effect of affecting
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him with the notice of any contract, document or a matter not specifically referred to in the
prospectus, then such a condition shall be void [Section 56(2)].
Suppose, the requirements of Section 56 have not been complied with but the application for
shares has been accepted by the company. Can the applicant ask for the rescission of the
contract or rectification of the register? The answer is “no”. But he can sue the person
responsible for the issue of the prospectus for any damages he may have suffered [South of
England Natural Gas and Petroleum Co. (1911) 1 Ch. 573].
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(4) Any variation between the information memorandum and the red-herring prospectus shall
be highlighted as variations by the issuing company.
Explanation.—For the purposes of Sub-sections (2), (3) and (4), “red-herring prospectus”
means a prospectus which does into have complete particular on the price of the
securities offered and the quantum of securities offered.
(5) Every variation as made and highlighted in accordance with Sub-section (4) above shall
be individually intimated to the persons invited to subscribe to the issue of securities.
(6) In the event of the issuing company or the underwriters to the issue have invited or
received advance subscription by way of cash or post-dated cheques or stock-invest, the
company or such underwriters or bankers to the issue shall not encash such subscription
moneys or post-dated cheques or stockinvest before the date of opening of the issue,
without having individually intimated the prospective subscribers of the variation and
without having offered an opportunity to such prospective subscribers to withdraw their
application and cancel their post-dated cheques or stock-invest or return of subscription
paid.
(7) The applicant or proposed subscriber shall exercise his right to withdraw from the
application on any intimation of variation within seven days from the date of such
intimation and shall indicate such withdrawal in writing to the company and the
underwriters.
(8) Any application for subscription which is acted upon by the company or underwriters or
bankers to the issue without having given enough information of any variations, or the
particulars of withdrawing of offer or opportunity for cancelling the post-dated cheques or
stock invest or stop payments for such payments shall be void and the applicants shall
be entitled to receive a refund or return of its post-dated cheques or stock-invest or
subscription moneys or cancellation of its application, as if the said application had never
been made and the applicants are entitled to receive back their original application and
interest at the rate of fifteen per cent for the date of encashment till payment of
realisation.
(9) Upon the closing of the offer of securities, a final prospectus stating therein the total
capital raised, whether by way of debt or share capital and the closing price of the
securities and any other details as were not complete in the red-herring prospectus shall
be filed in a case of a listed public company with the Securities and Exchange Board and
Registrar, and in any other case with the Registrar only.’
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which is material enough has been omitted from the prospectus, and the omission is
calculated to mislead those who act on the faith of the prospectus, the prospectus shall be
deemed, in respect of such omission, to be a prospectus in which an untrue statement is
included. The prospectus in these circumstances may also be described as a ‘misleading
prospectus’.
The legal consequence of inclusion of mis-statement in a prospectus is that it attaches civil
liability to certain persons. They are as follows:
(1) Every person who is a director of the company at the time of the issue of the prospectus.
(2) Every person who has authorised himself to be named and is named in the prospectus
either as a director or as having agreed to become a director immediately or after an
interval of time.
(3) Every promoter including a person who participated in the preparation of the prospectus
or the untrue part thereof but not acting in a mere professional capacity (e.g., banker,
broker and solicitor) of the company.
Before we dilate upon the nature of the liability (referred to earlier) for making an untrue or
wrong statement, we must known the principle on which this liability is based. The principle is
that directors and other persons who are responsible for the issue of the prospectus indirectly
hold out to the public that great advantages are likely to accrue to those members of the public
who would take up shares in the company. This “holding out” casts onerous duty on them, i.e.,
they must state the facts honestly and faithfully. They must not only abstain from stating
something as a fact when it is not actually so, but also must not omit a fact which they know or
should have known and the existence of which might in any degree affect the nature or quality
of the privileges and advantages which the prospectus holds out as an inducement to take
shares. This principle was propounded in Burswick, etc. Land Co. vs. G. Muggeridge.
If the persons responsible for the issue of the prospectus fail to discharge such an onerous
obligation resulting in an untrue statement being crept into the prospectus, then certain rights
accrue to the shareholders against the company and the directors and others. We shall
discuss them hereunder :
(1) Remedies against the company - A company is liable for a misstatement if it is shown
that the prospectus was issued by the company or by some one with the authority of the
company. The subscriber may have the following remedies against the company:
(i) Rescission of the contract : A contract made with the company to purchase shares is an
uberrimae fidei contract (i.e., a contract based on the utmost good faith). It implies that if
a misrepresentation or non-disclosure of fact renders a statement untrue in a material
particular or renders the whole prospectus untrue, the contract is voidable at the option
of the aggrieved party. In other words, the subscriber to the shares can file a suit against
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the company to rescind the contract under the general law of contracts. But before this
right can be exercised, the following conditions must prevail, namely:
(i) the statement was an omission of material fact or material misrepresentation of fact;
(ii) it induced the shareholder to take the shares;
(iii) the shareholder relied on the statement in the prospectus in applying for the shares. A
purchaser of shares in the open market has no remedy against the company or any other
person even if he purchased shares by being influenced by misrepresentation in the
prospectus [Peek vs. Gurney, (1873) 6 LR 377 (HL)].
(iv) the omission of material fact or misrepresentation of a material fact was misleading;
(v) those acting on behalf of the company acted fraudulently;
(vi) those purporting to act on behalf of the company were authorised to act on its behalf;
(vii) he suffered a loss or damage;
(viii) the proceeding for rescission was started as soon as the allottee came to know of the
misleading statement.
(ii) Damages for deceit - The second remedy against the company is damages for deceit
under the general law of contract. The allottee may recover damages from the company
for any loss he may have suffered if he was induced to take shares based on a fraudulent
misrepresentation of material facts.
Another remedy is to sue the company for damages for deceit. The allottee cannot,
however, both retain the shares and get damages against the company. He must show
that he has repudiated the shares and has not acted as a shareholder after discovering
the misrepresentation.
(2) Remedies against Directors, Promoters and Experts
(i) Compensation for misstatement : According to Section 62, every director, promoter and
every person who is responsible for the issue of the prospectus containing false or untrue
information are liable to compensate all those persons who subscribe to the shares on
the faith of the prospectus. But the action for damages must be taken within 3 years front
the date of the allotment of the shares.
It should be remembered that the above-mentioned remedy by way of damage will not be
available to a person if he has not purchased the shares on the basis of the prospectus. A
person cannot be said to have bought shares on the basis of the prospectus, if he has done so
from an existing shareholder or from the share market; therefore, in these circumstances he
cannot bring an action for deceit against the directors (Peek vs. Gurney).
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The subscribers may institute a suit for damages against those responsible for the issue of the
prospectus, in spite of the fact that the contract to purchase shares has been repudiated. This
is an action for deceit under the general law [Derry vs. Peek (1889) 14 A.C. 337] and this
action can be taken even if the remedy by way of rescission (as against the company) has
been lost through or negligence or even if the company goes into liquidation.
Example: A limited company willing to purchase a tea estate in Assam. Extracts from experts
report mentioning number of tea plants and other relevant information was incorporated in the
prospectus. The expert report was found to be incorrect. Does any prospective applicant
shareholder buying the shares on the basis of false information has any remedy against the
company?
In the case of mis-statement in a prospectus, the allottees shall have the right to claim
compensation from the company for any loss that they might have sustained in terms of the
value of shares.
(ii) Criminal Liability for misstatements [Section 63] : Apart from the liability to compensate
shareholders who have suffered a loss due to untrue statement in the prospectus,
directors and other persons responsible for the issue of the prospectus may also render
themselves punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years or
with fine up to five thousand rupees, or with both. That is so say, every person who had
authorised the issue of the prospectus containing an untrue statement is prima facie
guilty of criminal offence under Section 63 of the Act. However, such persons may plead
that the statement was immaterial or that they had reasonable ground to believe and did,
up to the time of the issue of the prospectus, believe that the statement was true in order
to exonerate themselves from this criminal liability.
(iii) Liability for omission : An omission to state in a prospectus a matter required as per
Section 56, may give rise to an action for damages by a subscriber who has suffered loss
thereby even if the omission does not make the prospectus false or misleading but he
has to prove that he has sustained damage by reason of this omission. The Act does not
specifically mention that the directors will be liable but this seems to be implied from
Section 56(4).
You should note that a director or other person responsible for the issue of the prospectus
does not incur any liability for the non-compliance with or contravention of the requirements of
Section 56, if he is able to prove, as regards any matter not disclosed, that he had no
knowledge of the lapse; or that non-compliance or contravention was the result of an honest
mistake of fact on his part or in respect of matters which were not material [Section 56(4)].
When a director is not liable [Section 62(2)] : A person who is held liable for the issue of a
prospectus containing an untrue statement as a director will be exonerated from such a
liability if he can show:
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(ii) that after the delivery of a copy of the prospectus for registration but before allotment, he
on becoming aware of the untrue statement withdrew his consent in writing and gave
reasonable public notice thereof and the reasons therefore; or
(iii) that he was competent to make the statement and he had reasonable ground to believe,
and did up to the time of allotment of the shares or debentures believe, that the
statement was true [Section 62(3)].
Note : The defence under (i) is available only to a director; defence under (i), (ii), (iii) & (iv) to
all persons mentioned in Section 62(1)(a) to (d) and the defence under Section 62(3) is
available only to an expert.
(4) Right of directors and Expert to indemnity [Section 62(4)] : Where the prospectus
names any person as a director (or as having agreed to become a director) and he (i) has not
consented to become a director; or (ii) has withdrawn his consent before the issue of the
prospectus and has not authorised or consented to its issue, then (i) the directors of the
company (excluding those without those knowledge or consent, the prospectus was issued)
and (ii) any other person who authorised its issue are liable to indemnify the person so named
(as a director) or whose consent was required against all damages, cost and expenses which
he may incur, consequent upon his name being included or consent thereto being accorded.
The expert can also claim indemnity against the persons aforementioned in case where (i) he
has not given the consent or (ii) he has withdrawn his consent before the issue of the
prospectus and in spite of this fact consent to its issue is mentioned in the prospectus as
required under Section 58.
(5) Penalty for fraudulently inducing a person to invest money [Section 68] : Under
Section 68, any person who, by making (knowingly or recklessly) any false, deceptive or
misleading statement, promise, etc. or by dishonest concealment of material facts, induces
another person to enter into :
(i) an agreement for the acquisition, disposal, subscribing or underwriting of shares or
debentures, or
(ii) an agreement for securing any profit to any of the parties from the yield of shares or
debentures or from fluctuations in the value of shares or debentures, shall be punishable
with imprisonment up to 5 years or fine up to Rs. 1,00,000 or with both.
Example: X applied for 500 shares in a limited company in a fictitious name. The shares were
allotted in that fictitious name. Referring to the relevant provisions of Companies Act, 1956
state whether X will incur any liability. X shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term,
which may extend to 5 years. (Section 68A (1) The Companies Act, 1956.)
(6) Personation for acquisition of shares [Section 68A] : Under Section 68A, the following
acts are punishable with imprisonment for a term extending to five years, viz., (a) making an
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application to a company for acquiring or subscribing for its shares therein under a fictitious
name; or (b) inducing a company to allot or register any transfer of shares therein to him or
any other person in a fictitious name.
It is obligatory for every company to prominently state the foregoing provisions in every issue
of a prospectus as well as in the form or application for shares.
(7) SECTION 68B – Issue of Securities only in Demat Form: Initial Public officer of
Securities of Rs. 10 crores or more should be only in Dematerialised form, by complying with
the requisite provisions of the Depositories Act, 1996 and Regulations made thereunder.
However, the section is not sychronising with the provisions of Section 8 the Depositories Act,
1996 which provides an option to the subscribers to receive security certificate or hold
securities in demat form with a depository. It would therefore appear that the option is being
withdrawn, and subscribers can hold securities only in dematerialised form. Further SEBI
Guidelines (para 2.1.5 of DIP, 2000) provides that a company can make an issue of securities
to the public or a right basis only in demat form, while this section implies that only with
regard to initial offer it should be in demat form, whereas for any subsequent issue it could be
in physical form. A listed company has been defined under Section 2 (23A) to mean a public
company which has any of it securities listed in any recognised Stock Exchange.
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Such a document under Section 64(2) shall be treated as a prospectus (unless the contrary is
proved) where: (a) an offer of all or any of the securities for sale to the public was made within
six months after the allotment or agreement to allot; or (b) at the date when the offer for sale
to the public was made, the company had not received the whole consideration in respect of
the said shares or debentures.
The following additional information is required to be given in the deemed prospectus :
(a) the net amount of the consideration received or to be received by the company in respect
of the shares or debentures to which the offer relates;
(b) the place and time at which the contract under which the said shares or debentures have
been or are to be allotted may be inspected.
It is sufficient if the prospectus is signed on behalf of the company or firm by two directors of
the company or by not less than one half of the partners in the firm, as the case may be, either
themselves or by their agents authorised in writing.
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(b) Meaning of public : As per its normal connotation the expression ‘Public’ includes a
section of the public also. As a matter of fact Sub-section (1) of Section 58A makes a
distinction between the public and the members of the company. However, neither Sub-
section (1) nor Sub-section (2) excludes from its ambit the employees of the company. It is
therefore, felt that the employees and ex-employees are also to be regarded as those falling in
the category of public and the deposits accepted from them would as much attract the
provisions of Section 58A and the rules made thereunder as deposits from other categories of
public.
(c) Deposits not to be invited without advertisement : Section 58A is designed to regulate
acceptance of deposits. It gives the Central Government the power to prescribe, in
consultation with the Reserve Bank, the limit up to which, the manner in which and the
conditions subject to which deposits may be invited or accepted either from the public or from
the members of the company [Section 58A(1)].
A company shall not itself or through any other person invite deposits unless it publishes an
advertisement including therein a statement showing its financial position. The Central
Government may prescribe the form and the manner of such an advertisement [Section
58A(2)]. Refer to Rules 4 and 4A of the Companies (Acceptance of Deposits) Rules.
As per the Companies (Amendment) Act, 1996, no company shall invite, or allow any other
person to invite or cause to be invited on its behalf, any deposit unless the company is not in
default in the repayment of any deposit or part thereof and any interest thereupon in
accordance with the terms and conditions of such deposit.
Deposit vs. Loan : Apparently there seems to be little difference between a ‘deposit’ and a
‘loan’. But if you closely analyse the terms, you shall find an appreciable amount of difference
between the two. Under the Limitation Act, 1963, the limitation in case of a loan and in case of
a deposit, begins at different points of time. In case of a loan, it commences from the date of
incurring that loan, whereas in the case of a deposit, it begins from the date where the
demand is made. In simple words, unlike a loan there is no immediate obligation to repay in
the case of deposits.
Earlier there was a controversy as to whether inter corporate deposits are loans or not so as
to attract the provisions of earlier Section 370 (now Section 372A) of the Act. This controversy
has been settled by the Companies (Amendment) Act, 1988, by inserting an explanation at the
end of Section 370 (now Explanation to Section 372A of the Companies (Amendment) Act,
1999. The Explanation to Section 370A provides that loan includes any deposit of money
made by one company with another company not being a banking company. Thus inter-
corporate deposits are now to be governed by provisions of Section 370A of the Companies
(Amendment) Act, 1999.
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(d) Repayment of deposits: Repayment of deposits has been made obligatory under Sub-
section (3A) of Section 58, inserted by the Companies (Amendment) Act, 1988. Accordingly
every deposit accepted by a company after September 1, 1989, shall unless reed in
accordance with the rules made under Sub-section (1), be repaid in accordance with terms
and conditions of such deposit.
Where deposits are accepted by a company in violation of rules made by the Central
Government, repayment thereof shall be made by the company within 30 days. But the time of
refund may be extended by the Central Government on sufficient cause being shown, but not
beyond another 30 days [Section 58A(4)].
In case the repayments are not made in the manner indicated above, every officer in default is
punishable with imprisonment for a term extending upto 5 years as also with a fine. The
company is also liable to be punished with a fine equal to twice the amount not refunded. If the
fine is realised then the Court shall pay an amount equal to the amount of the refunded
deposit to the depositor and with that the company’s liability to the depositor comes to an end
[Section 58A(5)].
The amended provisions of Sub-section (9) of Section 58A empower the Company Law Board
to take cognizance of any case of repayment of deposits on maturity and to direct the
company to make repayment of such deposits within such time and subject to such conditions,
as may be specified in the order. Non-compliance of the orders of the Company Law Board
would attract penalty by way of imprisonment, which may extend to three years and shall also
be liable to a fine of not less than Rs. 500 for every day till such non-compliance continues.
The amended provisions have come into force with effect from 1st September, 1989.
The deposits which had matured before the amended provisions of Section 58A came into
force but have not been re-paid, would be covered by the said amended provisions of law.
The Company Law Board may, if it is satisfied, also pass orders under Section 58A(9), on its
own motion.
(e) Nomination for Deposits : A depositor may at any time, make a nomination in the
prescribed manner, a person to whom his deposits with the company shall vest in an event of
his death. The provisions of Sections 109 and 109B relating to nomination of shares shall, as
far as apply to the nomination made under the Sub-section 6(11) of Section 58A (as amended
by the Companies (Amendment) Act, 1999).
Non-compliance of the order of the Company Law Board has now been made a punishable
offence attracting penalty by way of imprisonment upto 3 years and fine of not less than Rs.
50 for every day till such non-compliance continues. The amended provisions have come into
force w.e.f. 1-9-1989. The aggrieved depositors, whose deposits had matured before or after
1-9-1989 and who have not been repaid, may make an application (in triplicate) to the
Company Law Board Bench (located at Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras depending upon
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the registered office of the company) in the prescribed Form No. 11, alongwith an application
fee of Rs. 50 by bank draft in favour of the “Pay and Accounts Officer, Department of
Company Affairs”. The application can either be filed with the concerned Bench Officer
personally or sent by post.
It may be clarified that, in the following circumstances, application under Section 58A(9) of
the Act will not lie :
(i) Deposit made for booking/purchase of scooter, car, etc. is not a deposit for purposes of
Section 58A of the Act.
(ii) Deposits accepted by financial companies like hire-purchase finance company, a housing
finance company, an investment company, a loan/mutual benefit financial company, and
equipment leasing company, a chit fund company or a company, which receives deposits
under any scheme or arrangement by way of contribution/subscriptions or by sale of
units/certificates.
(iii) Deposits accepted by a sick industrial company covered by the Sick Industrial
Companies (Special Provisions) Act, 1985, in respect of which the Board of Industrial &
Financial Reconstruction (BIFR) has specifically, by order, suspended the operation of
any contract, agreement, settlement, etc., under Section 22(3) of the said Act.
(iv) Deposits accepted by relief undertakings which are notified as such under the various
State laws. Proceedings under Section 58A(9) of the Companies Act, 1956 shall remain
stayed during the notified period.
In addition to the relief available under the Companies Act, 1956, the depositors can also
take action against the defaulting companies under the normal civil law of the country.
(f) Acceptance of deposits in contravention to rules : Apart from this, Sub-section (6)
levies penalties on the company for accepting or inviting deposits in contravention of the rules
made by the Central Government. If the contravention relates to the acceptance of deposit,
the amount of fine is equal to, or more than, the amount of the deposit so accepted. But in the
case of invitation of any deposit in contravention of the said rules, the minimum amount of fine
is at least Rs. 50,000 and the maximum limit is Rs. 10 lakhs. Besides, every officer of the
company who is in default shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term extending up to 5
years and also with fine.
(g) Power to grant exemption or extension: The provisions of Section 58A shall not apply to
a banking company, or such other company as the Central Government may, after
consultation with the Reserve Bank, specify in this behalf [Section 58A(7)].
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According to Sub-section (8) the Central Government may, if it considers necessary for
avoiding any hardship or for any other just and sufficient reason, by order, issued either
prospectively or retrospectively from a date not earlier than the commencement of the
Companies (Amendment) Act, 1974, grant extension of time to a company or class of
companies to comply with or exempt any company or class of companies from all or any of the
provisions of this section either generally or for any specified period, subject to such
conditions as may be specified in the order. Provided that no order under this sub-section
shall be issued in relation to a class of companies accept after consultation with the Reserve
Bank of India.
In exercise of the powers conferred by Sub-section (8), the Central Government has
exempted from provisions of Sub-sections (1) to (7) (w.e.f. 1-1-1990), the class of companies
which satisfy the eligibility criteria laid down by the Reserve Bank of India in the Non-Banking
Companies (Acceptance of Deposits through commercial paper) Directives, 1989 subject to
the following conditions:
(i) the companies shall comply with the terms and conditions stipulated from time to time by
the RBI.
(ii) The companies shall, in their annual accounts disclose the maximum amount raised at
any time during a financial year and the amount outstanding as at the end of financial
year [Notification GSR 1075(E), dated 29-12-1989].
Similarly in exercise of the powers conferred by Section 58A(7) of the Companies Act, the
Central Government has specified that the provisions of Section 58A, shall not apply to the
companies which are small scale industrial units and fulfil the following conditions, namely:
(a) The paid up capital of the company does not exceed Rs. 25 lakhs;
(b) The company accepts deposits from not more than 100 persons;
(c) There is no invitation to public for deposits; and
(d) The amount of deposits accepted by the company does not exceed Rs. 20 lakhs or the
amount of its paid-up capital, whichever is less.
Here:
(i) a “Small Scale Industrial Unit” means any industrial undertaking registered with the
Directorate of Industries or Small Scale Industries, as the case may be, of the State
Government and in respect of which the investment in plant and machinery is not in
excess of 3 crores of rupees in value;
(ii) “Deposit” has the same meaning as in clause (b) of Rule 2 of the Companies
(Acceptance of Deposits) Rules, 1975.
(h) Provisions relating to prospectus to apply to advertisement [Section 58B] : Under
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Section 58B, the provisions of this Act relating to a prospectus shall, so far as may be, apply
to an advertisement referred to in Section 58A. The advertisement referred to is the one which
is to be issued by the companies for inviting or accepting deposits. Such an advertisement is
covered under the definition of ‘Prospectus’ laid down in Section 2(36) of the Act, as amended
recently. Accordingly, all the provisions of the Act relating to prospectus automatically become
applicable to such an advertisement. But having regard to the words “so far as may be” as
used in Section 58B, wherever in respect of certain matters specific provisions have been
made in Section 58A or the Companies (Acceptance of Deposits) Rules, 1975, the
corresponding provisions in the Act relating to prospectus would not apply to this
advertisement. For example, Section 56(1) requires a prospectus to contain information on
matters specified in Schedule II. This will not be applicable on an advertisement inviting
deposits because of Rule 4 of the Companies (Acceptance of Deposit) Rules, 1975. The other
provisions will mutatis mutandis apply to such an advertisement. [Vide Circular No. 7/75 dated
7-6-1975].
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association of the companies regarding their borrowing power. Sections 58A and 58B are
supplemented by the Companies (Acceptance of Deposits) Rules, 1975. These rules are
reproduced below:
Definitions
2. In these Rules, unless the context otherwise requires :
(a) “Act” means the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956);
(b) “Deposit” means any deposit of money with, and includes any amount borrowed by a
company, but does not include:
(i) any amount received from the Central Government or a State Government or any
amount received from any other source and whose repayment is guaranteed by the
Central Government or a State Government, or any amount received from a local
authority or a foreign Government or any other foreign citizen, authority or person;
(ii) any amount received as a loan from any banking company or from the State Bank of
India or any of its subsidiary banks or from a banking institution notified by the
Central Government under Section 51 of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949 (10 of
1949), or a corresponding bank as defined in clause (d) of Section 2 of the Banking
Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act, 1970 (5 of 1970), or
from a co-operative bank as defined in clause (b-ii) of Section 2 of the Reserve
Bank of India Act, 1934 (2 of 1934);
(iii) any amount received as a loan from the Industrial Finance Corporation of India
established under the Industrial Finance Corporation Act, 1948 (15 of 1948), or from
a State Financial Corporation established under the State Financial Corporation Act,
1951 (63 of 1951), or from the Shipping Development Fund Committee constituted
under Section 15 of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958 (44 of 1958) or from the Unit
Trust of India established under the Unit Trust of India Act, 1963 (52 of 1963), or
from the Industrial Development Bank of India established under the Industrial
Development Bank of India Act, 1964 (18 of 1964), or from an Electricity Board
constituted under the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948 (54 of 1948) or from the Life
Insurance Corporation of India constituted under Section 3 of the Life Insurance
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declaration in writing to the effect that the amount is not being given out of funds
acquired by him by borrowing or accepting from others;
Explanation: For the removal of doubts, it is hereby declared that any deposit received or
reed by a company before the commencement of the Companies (Acceptance of
Deposits) Amendment Rules, 1975, shall continue to be governed by the rules applicable
at the time of such deposit or real as the case may be.
(ix) any amount raised by the issue of bonds or debentures secured by the mortgage of any
immovable property of the company or with an option to convert them into shares in the
company provided that in the case of such bonds or debentures secured by the mortgage
of any immovable property the amount of such bonds or debentures shall not exceed the
market value of such immovable property.
(x) any amount brought in by the promoters by way of unsecured loans in pursuance of
stipulations of financial institutions subject to the fulfilment of the following conditions,
namely:
(a) the loans are brought in pursuance of the stipulation imposed by the financial
institutions in fulfilment of the obligation of the promoters to contribute such finance;
(b) the loans are provided by the promoters themselves and/or by their relatives, and
not from their friends and business associates; and
(c) the exemption under this sub-clause shall be available only till the loans of financial
institutions are repaid and not thereafter.
Explanation: For the purpose of this sub-clause the term ‘financial institution’ shall
mean:
(a) a public financial institution specified in or under Section 4A of the Companies
Act, 1956;
(b) a State Financial, Industrial or Investment Corporation;
(c) the State Bank of India or a subsidiary bank as defined in the State Bank of
India (Subsidiary Banks) Act, 1959 (38 of 1959);
(d) a nationalised bank, that is to say, a corresponding bank as defined in Section 2 of:
(i) the Banking Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act, 1970
(5 of 1970); or
(ii) the Banking Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act, 1980
(40 of 1980);
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Provided further that where a company has before the 1st day of April, 1978,
accepted any deposit repayable after a period of more than thirty-six months, such
deposits shall, unless reed after the said date, be repaid in accordance with the
terms of such deposits.
(c) no company shall invite or accept or re any deposits in any form, on a rate of
interest exceeding, fourteen per cent per annum at rests which shall not be shorter
than monthly rests.
(d) no company shall pay brokerage to any broker at a rate, exceeding one per cent of
the deposits for a period up to one year, one and half per cent of the deposits for a
period of more than one year but up to two years, and two per cent of the deposits
for a period exceeding two years, collected by or through such broker, and such
payment shall be on one time basis.
Explanation: Any person who is authorised by a company, in writing, to solicit
deposits on its behalf and through whom deposits are procured will only be entitled
to brokerage and payment of brokerage to any other person for procuring deposits
shall be deemed to be not in conformity with the rules.
(2) No company, other than a Government company, shall accept :
(i) any deposit against an unsecured debenture or any deposit from a shareholder (not
being a deposit accepted by a private company from its shareholder) or any deposit
guaranteed by any person who, at the time of giving such guarantee is a director of
the company if the amount of any such deposit together with the amount of such
other deposits of all or any of the kinds of deposits referred to in this clause and
outstanding on the date of acceptance or real of such deposit exceeds ten per cent
including any deposit accepted under the proviso to sub-rule (1) of rule 3 of the
aggregate of the paid-up share capital and free reserves of the company:
Provided that for the purpose of calculation of the amount of deposits outstanding
on the date of such acceptance or real, any deposit guaranteed by a person who, at
the time of giving such guarantee was the managing agent or secretary and
treasurers of the company and outstanding on such date shall be taken into
account.
(ii) any other deposit, if the amount of such deposit together with the amount of such
other deposit other than any of the deposits referred to in clause (i), outstanding on
the date of acceptance or real exceeds twenty-five per cent of the aggregate of the
paid-up share capital and free reserves of the company.
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(2A) No Government company shall accept any deposit, if the amount of such deposit
exceeds thirty five per cent including any deposit accepted under the proviso to sub-rule
(1) of rule 3 of the aggregate of its paid-up share capital and free reserves.
(3) If, immediately before the commencement of these Rules, the aggregate amount of
deposits, of the nature referred to in clause (i) of sub-rule (2), accepted by a company
before such commencement, exceeds the limit specified in the said clause (i), the
company shall, on or before the 31st day of March, 1978 bring down the deposits to the
limit aforesaid and for this purpose the company shall repay such deposits, as may be
necessary.
Explanation : For the purpose of this rule in arriving at the aggregate of the paid-up of
the paid-up share capital and free reserves as appearing in the latest audited balance-
sheet of the company, the amount of accumulated balance of loss, balance of deferred
revenue, expenditure and other intangible assets, if any, as disclosed in the said balance
sheet;
“Government company” means a company as defined in Section 617 of the Companies
Act, 1956.
(4) On and from the 1st day of April, 1978, where a company has any outstanding loans
which were excluded from deposits by virtue of Explanation I as it stood immediately
before the said date, then such company shall before the first day of April, 1981, repay or
bring such loan down to an amount which alongwith other outstanding deposits, is within
the limits specified in this rule”.
Note : ‘Free reserves’ for the purpose of these Rules will not include any amount shown
in the Balance sheet under the Heading ‘Share Premium Account’ having regard to the
provisions of Section 78(1), such amounts are to be regarded as part of the paid-up
share capital.
Maintenance of liquid assets
3A. (1) Every company shall before the 30th day of April of each year deposit or invest, as
the case may be, a sum which shall not be less than 15 per cent of the amount of its
deposits maturing during the year ending on the 31st day of March next following in
any one or more of the following methods, namely :
(a) in a current or other deposit account with any scheduled bank, free from
charge or lien;
(b) in unencumbered securities of the Central Government or of any State
Government;
(c) in unencumbered securities mentioned in clauses (a) to (d) and (ee) of Section
20 of the Indian Trusts Act, 1882 (2 of 1882).
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(h) a summarised financial position of the company as in the two audited balance-
sheets immediately preceding the date of advertisement in the following form,
namely :
Summarised financial position of the company as appearing in
the two latest audited balance-sheets
Liabilities Figures for Figures for Assets Figures for Figures for
the latest the finan- the latest
the finan- financial cial year financial
cial year year for previous to year for
previous to which the year which
the year audited referred to audited
referred accounts in column 2 accounts
to in are are
column 5 available available
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Share Capital Fixed assets
Reserves and Investments
surplus Current assets
Secured loans Loans and
Unsecured Advances
loans Miscellaneous
Current expenditure
liabilities Profit and
and provisions loss account
Total Total
Note: brief particulars of contingent liabilities may be added by way of footnote.
(i) the amount which the company can raise by way of deposits under these rules and the
aggregate of deposits actually held on the last day of the immediately preceding financial
year.
(j) a statement to the effect that on the day of the advertisement the company has no
overdue deposits other than unclaimed deposits, or a statement showing the amount of
such overdue deposits as the case may be.
(k) a declaration to the effect :
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(i) that the company has complied with the provisions of these rules;
(ii) that compliance with these rules does not imply that repayment of deposits is
guaranteed by the Central Government; and
(iii) that the deposits accepted by the company (other than secured deposits, if any,
accepted under the provisions of these rules, the aggregate amount of which may
be indicated) are unsecured and ranking pari passu with other unsecured liabilities.
(3) An advertisement issued in accordance with this rule shall be valid until the expiry of six
months from the date of closure of the financial year in which it is issued or until the date
on which the balance sheet is laid before the company in general meeting, or, where the
Annual General Meeting for any year has not been held, the latest day on which that
meeting should have been held in accordance with the provisions of the Act, whichever is
earlier, and a fresh advertisement shall be made, in each succeeding financial year, for
inviting deposits during that financial year.
(4) No advertisement shall be issued by or on behalf of a company unless on or before the
date of its issue, there has been delivered to the Registrar for registration a copy thereof
signed by a majority of the Directors on the Board of Directors of the company as
constituted at the time the Board approved the advertisement or their agents, duly
authorised by them in writing.
Notes
It will be treated as sufficient compliance with this provision if the advertisement is signed
by every director or by his agent authorised in writing [Department clarification dated 25-
9-1975].
Explanation : For the purpose of this rule, the date of the issue of the paper in which the
advertisement appears shall be taken as the date of issue of the advertisement.
Statement in lieu of advertisement
4A. (1) Where a company intends to accept deposits without inviting or allowing or causing
any other person to invite, such deposit, shall before accepting deposits deliver to
the Registrar for registration a statement in lieu of advertisement containing all the
particulars required to be included in the advertisement by virtue of sub-rule (2) of
Rule 4 and duly signed in the manner provided in sub-rule (4) of that Rule.
(2) A statement delivered under sub-rule (1) shall be valid until the expiry of six months
from the date of closure of the financial year in which it is so delivered or until the
date on which the balance sheet is laid before the company in general meeting, or
where the Annual General Meeting for any year has not been held, the latest day on
which that meeting should have been held in accordance with the provisions of the
Act, whichever is earlier.
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(2) The register or registers referred to in sub-rule (1) shall be preserved in good order
for a period of not less than eight calendar years from the financial year in which the
latest entry is made in the register.
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months, it shall be excluded and if such part is six months or more, it shall be
reckoned as one year.
(2) Where depositors so desire, deposits may be accepted in joint names not exceeding
three, with or without any of the clauses, namely, “either or survivor”, “number one
or survior”, “Anyone or survior”.
9. Power of Central Government to decide certain questions : If any question arises as to
whether these rules are or not applicable to a particular company, such question shall be
decided by the Central Government in consultation with the Reserve Bank of India.
10. Return of deposits to be filed with the Registrar : Every company to which these Rules
apply shall on or before the 30th day of June, of every year, file with the Registrar, a return in
the form annexed to these rules and furnishing the information contained therein as on the
31st day of March of that year duly certified by the Auditor of the Company.
(2) A copy of the return shall also be simultaneously furnished to the Reserve Bank of India.
11. Penalty : If a company or any other person contravenes any provision of these rules for
which no punishment is provided in the Act, the company and every officer of the company
who is in default or such other person shall be punishable with fine which may extend to five
hundred rupees and where the contravention is a continuing one, with a further fine which may
extend to fifty rupees for every day after the first, during which the contravention continues.
12. Repeal and savings : On the commencement of these rules, all rules, orders or directions
in force in relation to any matter for which provision is made in these Rules shall stand
repealed, except as respects things done or omitted to be done before such repeal.
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alternate sources of funding. The lead manager shall verify and confirm the same as part of
their due diligence.
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where the issue is not underwritten and for a maximum of 10 working days where the issue is
underwritten. Where, after a prospectus is first issued generally, a public notice has been
given by some person (responsible under Section 62) so as to exclude, limit, or diminish his
responsibility, then the shares cannot be allotted until the beginning of the 5th day after the
date on which such public notice was given. The reason for the prescription of this period of 5
days is to enable the public to digest the contents of the prospectus as also to obtain inde-
pendent advice to form a judgement before they could stake their money. An application of
shares is not revocable until the end of the 5th day from the opening of the subscription list
[Section 72].
(e) Listing of shares on stock exchange [Section 73] : (i) Where, the prospectus states that
application has been made for permission for the shares or debentures offered for subscription
to be dealt in on one or more recognised stock exchange, in such a case prospectus shall
state the name of the stock exchange or as the case may be, each stock exchange. The
eligibility criteria for listing of securities of a company on the stock exchange were revised
w.e.f. 4-7-1995, that
(a) in respect of companies, the invest hold limit for listing will be issued capital of Rs. 5
crores.
(b) in respect of existing, and now seeking listing as the Bombay Stock Exchange, all the
following criteria will have to be fulfilled
(i) minimum issued equity capital of Rs. 3 crores,
(ii) minimum Book value of Rs. 5 crores (Capital + Free reserves) and
(iii) minimum Market capitalisation of Rs. 10 crores.
SEBI has prescribed norms for minimum quantity of capital of 25 per cent being offered
to the public beyond all reservations to different categories of persons and institutions.
(ii) If the permission has not been granted by the stock exchange or each such stock
exchange before the expiry of 10 weeks from the date of the closing of the subscription lists
the allotment made shall become void [Sub-section (1)] as amended by the Amendment Act
of 1988].
(iii) An appeal may be preferred against the decision of any recognised stock exchange
refusing the aforesaid permission for enlistment under Section 22A of the Securities
Contract (Regulation) Act, 1956, and then such allotment shall not be void until the
dismissal of the appeal.
(iv) Where the permission has not been applied for or having been applied for, has not been
granted, the application money received must be refunded to the applications forthwith without
any interest. If the money is not refunded within 8 days after the company becomes liable to
repay it, the company and every Director of the company who is an officer in default shall, on
and from the expiry of the eighth day be jointly and severally liable to repay that money with
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interest at such rate which shall not be less than 15 per cent, as may be prescribed, having
regard to the length of the period of delay in making the repayment of such money [Sub-
section (2)].
(v) If the permission has been granted by the recognised stock exchanges and the moneys
received from applicants for shares or debentures are in excess of the aggregate of the appli-
cation money relating to the shares or debentures in respect of which allotments have been
made, the company shall repay the moneys to the extent of such excess forthwith without
interest. But if such moneys are not repaid within 8 days the company and every director of
the company who is an officer in default shall, on and from the expiry of the eighth day, be
jointly and severally liable to repay that money with interest at such rate, not less 15 per cent,
depending upon the period of delay [Sub-section 2(A)].
If default is made in complying with these provision then the company and every officer of the
company who is in default shall be punishable with fine extending up to Rs. 50,000 and where
repayment is not made within 6 months from the expiry of the 8th day also with imprisonment
for a term which may extend to one year [Sub-section 2(B)].
(vi) All moneys received as application or allotment moneys shall be kept in a separate bank
account maintained with a schedule bank “until the permission has been granted or where an
appeal has been preferred against the refusal to grant permission, until the disposal of the
appeal, and the moneys standing in such separate account shall, where the permission has
not been applied for as aforesaid or has not been granted, be repaid within the time and in the
manner specified in Sub-section (2)”. If default is made in complying with this sub-section,
then the company and every officer of the company who is in default shall be punishable with
fine extending up to Rs. 50,000 [Sub-section (3)].
(vii) Moneys standing to the credit of the separate bank account referred to in Sub-section (3)
above shall not be utilised for purpose other than either of the following purposes namely :
(a) adjustment against allotment of shares, where the shares have been permitted to be
dealt in on the stock exchange or specified in the prospectus, (b) repayment of money
received from applicants in pursuance of the prospectus, where shares have not been
permitted to be dealt in on the stock exchange or each stock exchange specified in the
prospectus, as the case may be, or where the company is for any other reason unable to
make the allotment of shares [Sub-section (3A)].
It shall be deemed that permission has not been granted if the application for permission,
where made has not been disposed of within the time specified in Sub-section (1) above [Sub-
Section (5)].
(f) Effect of Irregular Allotment: When the shares are not allotted in pursuance of
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Sections 69 and 70 such an allotment is known as irregular allotment. In spite of the stringent
provisions of Sections 69 and 70, one may find that allotment has been made in utter
contravention thereof. The directors may choose to take a chance and proceed to allot shares
although minimum subscription has not reached or a prospectus or statement in lieu of
prospectus has not been filed. Such an allotment is treated by the Act not as void ab initio but
as irregular.
The applicant for the shares may avoid the allotment. If he does so within the time specified by
Section 71, namely,
(a) where the allotment was made before the statutory meeting, within 2 months after the
holding of statutory meeting of the company and not later; or
(b) where no statutory meeting is required to be held by the company, within 2 months after
the date of allotment and not later; or
(c) where the allotment was made after the statutory meeting within 2 months of allotment
[and not later] the allotment shall be voidable despite the fact that the company is in the
course of being wound up.
Within the above-mentioned period, the allottee must intimate to the company that he wants to
avoid the allotment. If legal proceedings are required to be taken, these need not be within the
period of two months provided the notice of avoidance was served on the company within the
aforesaid time, but they should be reasonably prompt thereafter if they are required to be
brought [Re. National Motor Mail Coach Co. (1908) 2 Ch. 228].
Furthermore, Sub-section (3) of Section 71 makes every director of a company, who knowingly
contravenes or authorises the contravention of any of the provisions of Section 69 or Section
70 with respect to allotment, liable to compensate the company and the allottee for any loss,
damages or costs which they may have sustained or incurred thereby. But the proceedings for
such compensation can only be taken within two years from the date of allotment. As the
allotment is only voidable at the option of the shareholder, the shareholder may keep the
shares and yet sue the directors who have knowingly contravened either of the two Sections
(69 and 70) to compel them to make good the loss to him as a result of the irregular allotment.
(g) Return of allotment [Section 75]: The company is to submit a report in prescribed Form
No. 2 called ‘Return of Allotment’, to the Registrar within 30 days of allotment of shares. It
must state:
(1) In case shares are allotted in cash :
(a) the number and nominal amount of the shares allotted;
(b) the names, addresses and occupations of the allottees and the amount, if there be
any, paid or due and payable on each shares.
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But the company must not show shares as having been allotted for cash, if cash has not
been actually received by it.
(2) In case shares allotted are not bonus shares and allotted as fully or partly paid up
otherwise than in cash : The company must produce for the inspection and examination
of the Registrar certain documents. These documents are:
(a) a contract in writing constituting the title of the allottee; and
(b) any contract of sale or contract of service or other consideration in respect of which
the allotment was made.
These documents must be duly stamped. Also along with these documents the company
must file with the Registrar:
(i) copies of the said contracts after verifying them in the prescribed manner, and
(ii) a return stating the number and nominal amount of the shares so allotted, the
extent to which they are to be treated as paid-up and the consideration for which
they have been allotted.
Under Rule 5 of the Companies (Central Government’s) General Rules and Forms, 1956
these copies of contracts must be verified by affidavit of a responsible officer of the
company. Where such a contract is not in writing, the company must within 30 days after
allotment, file with the Registrar a document embodying the said particulars of the
contract. The document must bear the same amount of stamp duty as would have been
payable if the contract had been in writing.
(3) In the case of issue of bonus shares : The return is required to indicate the number and
nominal amount of shares allotted, the names, addresses and occupations of the allottee
and resolution authorising the issue of bonus shares.
(4) In the case of issue of shares at a discount : The return must be accompanied :
(i) by a copy of the company’s resolution authorising such an issue,
(ii) by copy of the order of Court which sanctions the issue, and
(iii) where the maximum rate of discount exceeds 10 per cent by a copy of the Central
Government’s order permitting the issue at a higher percentage.
The 30 days period for filing the return is extendable by the Registrar. But the company has to
seek this extension by an application either before or after the expiry of this period.
While explaining the meaning of the word ‘allotment’, we have stated why a re-issue of
forfeited shares does not constitute an allotment. In consonance with that reasoning, Section
75(5) specifically states that the provisions of Section 75 do not apply to such case; thus the
question of filing a return in respect of it does not arise.
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2.20 UNDERWRITING
The expression ‘underwriting’ presupposes a contract. What is that contract ? Between whom
? What is the consideration therefor ? It is a contract entered into between the company and
certain parties (called underwriters) before the shares or debentures are offered to the public
for subscription. The contract is that in case the whole or an agreed portion of the shares or
debentures are not applied for, then the underwriters will themselves apply for unsubscribed
shares or debentures; alternatively, they will procure persons to apply for them. The company
is least concerned with how the underwriters procure the purchasers. Thus, the underwriters
expose themselves to a great risk in ‘placing’ the shares before the public. And in return for
this exposure to the risk the underwriters get commission. The commission is payable on the
amount of shares underwritten. It will be payable even if the underwriters are not ultimately
called upon to take up any shares.
Note: Students may note that according to S.E.B.I, Main Guidelines Section D, Underwriting
However, if the issue is not underwritten and the minimum subscription of 90% of after to the
public is not received, the entire amount as received as subscription would have to be
refunded un full.
Under Section 76, the circumstances in which underwriting commission can be paid are as
follows:
(i) The payment of commission should be authorised by the articles.
(ii) The names and addresses of the underwriters and the number of shares or debentures
underwritten by each of them should be disclosed in the prospectus.
(iii) The amount of commission should not exceed, in the case of shares, 5 per cent of the
price at which the shares have been issued or the amount or rate authorised by the
articles whichever is less; and in the case of debentures it should not exceed 2½ per
cent.
(iv) The rate should be disclosed in prospectus, or in the statement in lieu of prospectus (or
in a statement in prescribed form signed in the like manner as the statement in lieu of
prospectus) and should be filed with the Registrar along with a copy of the underwriting
contract before the payment of the commission.
(v) The number of shares or debentures which persons have agreed to subscribe absolutely
or conditionally for commission, should be disclosed in the manner aforesaid; and
(vi) A copy of the contract for the payment of the commission should be delivered to the
Registrar along with the prospectus or the statement in lieu of prospectus for registration.
Section 76(4A) clarifies that commission to the underwriters is payable only in respect of
those shares or debentures which are offered to the public for subscription. However,
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where (i) a person, who for a commission has subscribed (or agreed to subscribe) for
shares or debentures of a company and before the issue of the prospectus (or statement
in lieu of prospectus) for such shares or debentures, some other person (or persons) has
subscribed for any or all of them, and (ii) such a fact together with the aggregate amount
of commission payable to the underwriter is disclosed in such prospectus (or statement in
lieu of prospectus), then the company may pay commission to the underwriter in respect
of his subscription irrespective of the fact that the shares or debentures have already
been subscribed.
Brokerage : It is the sum paid to a person by the company for placing shares. Section
76(3) states that a company may pay brokerage which is lawful. It must be reasonable
and must be paid only to a person carrying business of broker.
Brokerage must be distinguished from underwriting commission. A broker undertakes ‘to
place shares’ i.e. finds person who will buy shares in consideration of an agreed
brokerage and if he fails to place any share, he is not personally liable to take them nor
he is entitled to any brokerage. The underwriter on the other hand, is bound to take over
the shares which have not been taken.
“Placing” shares: The difference between subscribing for shares and “placing” shares
has been well explained by Mellish L.J. in Gorrissen’s Case where he said “It appears to
me that an agreement to “place” shares, even although the person making it binds
himself that within a specified time or within a reasonable time, he will place a certain
number of shares, is a materially different thing from an agreement to “take” shares. If a
person agrees to “take” shares, then by agreeing to take shares, he does at that moment
become a shareholder and the company are entitled and are indeed bound at that
moment to put him on the register. But if he agrees to “place” shares, he does not agree
to become a shareholder nor is the company entitled to put him on the Register as a
shareholder but he simply agrees that he will procure other persons to take the shares.
Paying “brokerage” to brokers for “placing” shares is therefore legitimate. “Placing” is
generally done by Issue Houses who take up large blocks of shares which they thereafter
transfer to clients and friends. There is no “invitation to the public” in this case, and,
therefore, no need for a prospectus. “Placing” may however, in certain cases, amount to
an “offer to the public” to subscribe for the shares. Thus “placing” may or may not require
a prospectus according to the facts of each case.
An “underwriting agreement” is different. The word “underwriter” means to agree to take
up by way of subscription in a company or issue, a certain number of shares, if and so
far as not applied for by the public. Australian Investment Trust v. S. Strand etc.
Properties. In substance, it is a contract of guarantee or indemnity, whereby the
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underwriter guarantees that the whole of the shares in question will be subscribed by
undertaking that to the extent to which they are not otherwise subscribed, he will apply
for them himself. It is in effect equivalent to a contract of insurance and might be
expressed as such.
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balance to the credit of the securities premium account but shall not include share
application money.
(e) all the shares or other specified securities for buy-back arc fully paid-up;
(f) the buy-back of the shares or other specified securities listed on any recognised stock
exchange is in accordance with the regulations made by SEBI in this behalf;
(g) the buy-back in respect of shares or other specified securities other than those specified
in Clause (f) is in accordance with guidelines as may be prescribed. [Sections 77A(2) and
77A(6)].
(3) Procedure before buy-back : The notice of the meeting at which special resolution is
proposed to be passed shall be accompanied by an explanatory statement stating -
(a) a full and complete disclosure of the all material facts;
(b) the necessity for the buy-back;
(c) the class of security intended to be purchased under the buy back;
(d) the amount to be invested under the buy-back; and
(e) the time limit for completion of buy-back.
(4) Time limit for completion of buy-back : Every buy-back shall be completed within twelve
months from the date of passing the special resolution or a resolution passed by the Board
under clause (b) of Sub-section (2).
(5) Buy-Back from Whom ? : The buy-back under Sub-section (1) may be -
(a) from the existing security holders on a proportionate basis; or
(b) from the open market; or
(c) from odd lots, that is to say, where the lot of securities of a public company, whose
shares are listed on a recognised stock exchange, is smaller than such marketable lot, as
may be specified by the stock exchange; or
(d) by purchasing the securities issued to employees of the company pursuant to a scheme
of stock option or sweat equity.
(6) Declaration of Solvency : Where a company has passed a special resolution under
clause (b) of Sub-section (2) or the Board has passed a resolution under the first proviso to
clause (b) of Sub Section (2) to buy-back its own shares or other securities under this section,
it shall, before making such buy-back, file with the Registrar and the Securities and Exchange
Board of India a declaration of solvency in the form as may be prescribed and verified by an
affidavit to the effect that the Board has made a full inquiry into the affairs of the company as a
result of which they have formed an opinion that it is capable of meeting its liabilities and will
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not be rendered insolvent within a period of one year of the date of declaration adopted by the
Board, and signed by at least two directors of the company, one of whom shall be the
managing director, if any;
Provided that no declaration of solvency shall be filed with the Securities and Exchange
Board of India by a company whose shares are not listed on any recognised stock
exchange.[Sub-section 6]
(7) Extinguishment of Securities : Where a company buys-back its own securities, it shall
extinguish and physically destroy the securities so bought-back within seven days of the last
date of completion of buy-back.
(8) Cooling Period: Where a company completes a buy-back of its shares or other specified
securities under this section, it shall not make further issue of same kind of shares (including
allotment of further shares under clause (a) of Sub-section (1) of Section 81 or other specified
securities within a period of six months except by way of bonus issue or in the discharge of
subsisting obligations such as conversion of warrants, stock option schemes, sweat equity or
conversion of preference shares or debentures into equity shares.
(9) Register of Buy Back : Where a company buys-back its securities under this section, it
shall maintain a register of the securities so bought, the consideration paid for the securities
bought-back, the date of cancellation of securities, the date of existing and physically
destroying of securities and such other particulars as may be prescribed.
(10) Filing of Buy-back Return : A company shall, after completion of the buy-back under
this section, file with the Registrar and the Securities and Exchange Board of India, a return
containing such completion, as may be prescribed :
Provided that no return shall be filed with the Securities and Exchange Board of India by a
company whose shares are not listed on any recognised stock exchange.
(11) Penalty for Default : If a company makes default in complying with the provisions of this
section or any rules made thereunder or any regulations made under clause (f) of Sub-section
(2), the company or any officer of the company who is in default shall be punishable with
imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years, or with fine which may extend to fifty
thousand rupees, or with both.
Transfer of certain sums to Capital Redemption Reserve account - Section 77AA: Where
a company purchases its own shares out of free reserves, then a sum equal to the nominal
value of the share so purchased shall be transferred to the capital redemption reserve account
referred to in clause (d) of the proviso to Sub-section (1) of Section 80 and details of such
transfer shall be disclosed in the balance sheet.
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2.23 MEMBERSHIP
Section 41 of the Act enables you to become a member of a company by subscribing to the
memorandum. The subscriber to the memorandum is deemed to have agreed to become a
member of the company, and on its registration, is entered as member in its register of
members. The subscriber to the memorandum becomes a member, on registration of the
company, even without the shares having been allotted to him and is liable as a contributory
when the company is wound up [Universal Transport Co. vs. Jagjit Singh (1956) Comp. Case.
36 Babulal vs. Naraina Sugar Mill (1958) Comp. Case. 155].
Membership can also be had by any other person who agrees in writing to become a member
of the company and whose name is entered in its register of members, since in such a case,
he is deemed to be a member. Since his agreement needs to be in writing, one cannot be
deemed to be a member on ground of estoppel, simply because his name appears in the
register of members. Where, however, a person’s name is there in the register and he has, in
fact, accepted the position and acted as a member, the agreement will be presumed to be in
writing until the presumption is rebutted by proof to the contrary.
Apart from subscribers to memorandum [Section 41(1)] and every other person who agrees in
writing to become a member of a company [Section 41(2)], a newly added Sub-section (3)
provides that “every person holding equity share capital of company and whose name is
entered as beneficial owners in the records of the depository shall also be deemed to be a
member of the concerned company”.
A person can also become a member through transfer of shares under Section 108 or by
transmission [We shall discuss transfer and transmission in Chapter 3].
(a) Can a minor become a member ? : Now a question may arise in your mind, whether a
minor or a company can become a member. It is true that the Act prescribes no qualification
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for membership. Membership entails an agreement and this agreement can be enforced in the
Court. Therefore, the contractual capacity as envisaged by the Indian Contract Act should be
taken into consideration. It has been held in Mohri Bibi vs. Dharmadas Ghose (1930) 30 Cal
531 (P.C.) that since a minor has no contractual capacity, the agreement with a minor is void.
Therefore, a minor or a lunatic cannot enter into an agreement to become a member.
For example, a father applied for shares in a company as guardian of his minor daughter. The
company issued shares and registered them in the name of the minor describing her as minor.
The transaction was void and the father who signed the application on the minor’s behalf could
not be treated as having contracted for the shares; as such he could not be placed on the list
of contributories when the company was wound up [Palaniappa vs. Official Liquidator AIR
1942 Mad. 470]. But what will happen if the directors allot share to a minor in response to his
application, without knowing that he was a minor and enter his name in the register of
members? As soon as the company comes to known of this fact, it can eschew the allotment
and strike the name of the minor off the register of members. But the company must refund
the entire money to the minor, which it obtained in relation to the shares allotted. Can the
minor be likewise compelled to restore to the company the benefits (if any) received by him
from the allotment of shares? It is a matter for the Court to decide, regard being had to the
facts and circumstances of each case.
But as regards the rescission of the contract, in point of time, the minor and the company are
on a little different footing. Even after attaining majority, the minor can deny his liability on the
shares on the ground of minority. But the company cannot successfully impeach the action of
the minor’s repudiation by setting up the plea that he received the dividend during his minority
or that he had made a fraudulent representation of his age in the application [Sadiq Ali vs. Jay
Kishore, 30 Bomb. L.R. 1346 (1); P.C. Balangowada vs. Godigeppa 3 Bomb. L.R. 350]. If, in
this illustration, the minor received dividends after he had attained majority, could be legally
allowed to shirk his liability on the shares? The answer is ‘no’. This is because he would be
deemed to have intentionally led the company to believe him to be a shareholder and on the
faith of such belief to pay him the dividends. therefore, he would be estopped by this conduct,
while being a person sui juris, from denying as between himself and the company that he is a
shareholder [Fazalbhoy vs. The Credit Bank of India Ltd. 39 Bomb. 331].
However, notice that in some later decisions, a minor has been permitted to be a shareholder.
The Company Law Board has laid down in Nandita Jain v. Bennet Coleman & Co. Ltd. that a
minor can become a member provided four conditions are fulfilled:
(a) Company must be a Co. Ltd. by shares.
(b) Shares are fully paid up.
(c) Application for transfer is made on behalf of minor by lawful guardian.
(d) The transfer is manifestly for the benefit of the minor.
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transfers them.
The Register of members, however, is only, prima facie evidence as to whether a person is a
member or not and if a person’s name is improperly removed, all his rights and obligations as
a member continue to remain the same.
On a member’s death, his name remains on the register and his estate continues to be
member until his legal representative takes either of the steps mentioned in clause (d) above
i.e., he transfer the shares or secures their registration in his own name. He can receive
dividends, notice of meeting but cannot vote; but the Board can compel him to make an
election under clause (d) above. [See Regulation 28, Proviso, Table A of Schedule I].
(d) Members and shareholders : At this stage of your study, you know the different ways in
which you can become a member of a company. Here, we would draw your attention to the
fact that in the parlance of Company Law, the two words “member” and “shareholder”, are
loosely used by common people, thereby giving an impression that they are absolutely
synonymous. Such an impression needs to be qualified. You will perhaps recollect that in a
member and a shareholder can be differentiated on the following grounds:
1. A registered member may not be a shareholder, since a company limited by guarantee
and not having a share capital, does have members, but not shareholders. But a
registered shareholder is a member, since his name appears in the Register of members
maintained by the company.
2. A person who owns a share warrant (shares) is not a member since his name does not
appear in the Register of members maintained by the company. He is a share- holder
only [Section 115 (1)].
3. A legal representative of a deceased member is a shareholder, but not a member, till he
applies for registration and his name is entered in the Registrar of members.
(e) Rights of a member : These are as follows :
(i) To have the certificate of shares held or the certificate of stock issued to him within the
prescribed time [Section 113].
(ii) To have his name borne on the register of members.
(iii) To transfer shares subject to any restrictions imposed by the articles [Section 82].
(iv) To attend meetings of shareholders, receive proper notice and to vote at the meetings.
(v) To associate in the declaration of dividends and to apply to the Court for an injunction
restraining the directors from paying dividends on an ultra vires declaration or out of
capital.
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(vi) To inspect the registers, indexes, returns and copies of certificates, etc. kept by the
company and to obtain extracts or copy thereof [Section 16].
(vii) To obtain copies of Memorandum and Articles on request on payment of the prescribed
fees [Section 39].
(viii) To have the first option in case of issue of shares or a further issue of shares (i.e., the
right of pre-emption) by the company [Section 81].
(ix) To receive a copy of the statutory report [Sections 165(1) & (2)].
(x) To apply to the Court to have any variation or abrogation to his rights set aside by the
Court [Section 107].
(xi) To have notice of any resolution requiring special notice [Section 190(2)].
(xii) To obtain on request minutes of proceedings at general meeting [Section 196(2)].
(xiii) To remove directors by joining with others [Section 284].
(xiv) To obtain a copy of the profit and loss account and the balance sheet with the auditor’s
report [Sections 210 and 219].
(xv) To apply for the appointment of one or more competent inspectors by the Government to
investigate into the affairs of the company as well as for reporting thereon [Sections 235
and 237].
(xvi) To participate in the appointment of an auditor or auditors at the Annual General Meeting
[Section 224].
(xvii) To inspect the auditor’s report at the Annual General Meeting of the company [Section
230].
(xviii)To receive a share in the capital of the company and in the surplus assets, if any, on the
company’s liquidation.
(xix) To participate in passing of the special resolution that the company may be wound up by
the Court or voluntarily [Sections 433 and 484(1)(b)].
(xx) To participate in appointment and in fixation of remuneration of one or more liquidators in
the case of a Member’s Voluntary Winding up and to fill any vacancy in the office of a
liquidators so appointed by him [Sections 490 and 492].
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compliance with the provisions of the Act as regards the issue of the prospectus or as
regards allotment.
(ii) To pay for the shares allotted to him when the allotment is made and when calls have
been made validly and in conformity with the provisions of the articles.
(iii) To abide by the doing of the majority of members unless the majority acts vindictively,
oppressively, mala fide or fraudulently.
(iv) to contribute to the assets of the company in the case of winding up when the shares
held are partly paid-up.
(v) Members are severally liable for debts of the company contracted, where its business is
carried on beyond the expiry of six months from the date at which its membership is
redeemed below the legal minimum (i.e., seven members in the case of public company
and two members in the case of a private company). However, such members are not
liable for debts contracted before the expiry of six months. No liability will accrue to those
members who are not cognisant of the fact that the business of the company is being
carried on with members fewer than the legal minimum [Section 45].
Example: X purchased 100 equity shares of ABC ltd. from Y. Though the amount of
transaction was paid to the seller, the transferee name is not appearing in the list of
members. Subsequently, the company declared dividend. Referring to the provisions of
the Companies Act, 1956 state to whom the company will be paying the dividend.
According to section 206 of the Companies Act, 1956 dividend shall be paid only to the
registered holder of shares or to his order or to his bankers or to the bearer of a share
warrant. Where shares have been sold but not yet registered, the dividend shall be paid
to the transferee only in case the transferor gives a mandate in writing to that effect.
Otherwise, the dividend in respect of such shares shall be transferred to the ‘unpaid
dividend account’.
2.24 CONTRACTS
With the extent of knowledge of the company law so far acquired, you will now be able to
follow the procedures regarding contracts and deeds, investments, seal etc., which we shall
presently deal with.
“A contract to take shares in company is governed by the same rule as any other contract”.
There being no difference between a contract to take shares and any other contract, it is not
necessary that an agreement to take shares should be formal. If in substance, an agreement
is made, the form is immaterial (Risto’s case 4 Ch. D. 782). The only requirement under
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Section 41(2) of the Act for a person to become a member of the company is to agree in
writing.
The same rules, which govern the contract under the law of contracts also apply to a contract
to take shares. The intending candidate sends in response to a prospectus, his application to
the company for such number of shares as he wants to have or as the company may allot to
him. It is treated as an offer from the applicant, which needs to be accepted by the company
before a binding contract can come into being. The fact of acceptance is then communicated
to the applicant through a notice of allotment [Polatt’s case (1867) L.R. 2 Ch. Appl. 527]. The
application for shares or debentures, made in pursuance of a prospectus issued generally,
cannot be revoked until after the expiry of the 6th day after the opening of the subscription list,
or the giving, before the expiry of the said 5th day by some person responsible under Section
62 for the prospectus, of a public notice having the effect of excluding, limiting or diminishing
the responsibility of that person. The applicant, however, can revoke his application, before
the notice of allotment is put in the course of transmission to him, e.g., by post [Maclangan’s
case (1882) 51 L.J. Ch. 841; Wallance’s case, (1920) 2 Ch. 671]. Where handing over of the
notice of allotment to a postman, however, does not constitute its posting (Re. London &
Northern Bank Exp. Jons (1900) 1 Ch. 210). On proper posting of the notice the contract is
complete even if it goes astray [Harri’s case, (1872) L.R. 7 Ch. App. 587). Again the
acceptance must be communicated to the applicant in some way, whether by writing or
verbally or conduct [Gunn’s case, (1867) by L.R. Ch. App. 40]. Even a notice of allotment
brought home to the applicant, not from the company but from elsewhere will be binding on
him [Wall’s case (1863) L.R. 3 Ch. App. 325].
Where shares have been applied for prior to the company’s incorporation, allotment and notice
after incorporation in response to such application constitute a complete contract. This is
because the application operates as a continuing offer and when the company accepts it after
incorporation, it matures into a binding contract [Lawarence’s case, (1866) 2 Ch. App. 413;
Donwnes vs. Ship (1868) L.R. 3 H.L. 344].
The aforesaid application may be either simple or conditional. In the former case, a simple
allotment to the applicant with the notice thereof will constitute the agreement.
If it is conditional, the allotment must be made in pursuance of the specified conditions [In Re.
Universal Banking Co.; Roger’s case; Harison’s case (1858) 3 Ch. App. 633]. Where it has
been made subject to a condition precedent, the applicant becomes a member only when the
condition is complied with. But where the application has been made subject to a collateral
condition or a condition subsequent, the applicant becomes a member in present, when he
accepts the notice of allotment and his name has been placed on the register of members.
Consequently, even if the company goes into liquidation, he cannot escape the liability as
contributory, though the condition has not been complied with by the company before that
time. He may be entitled to damages against the company for its failure in carrying out the
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condition [Elkington’s case (1867) 1 Ch. App. 511; Fisher’s case (1885) 31 Ch. D. 120]. But
since the liability of a contributory arises ex lege and not ex contractu, he cannot set up the
non-fulfilment of the condition as a defence against his statutory liability as a contributory,
which is the direct result of his being a member of the company [Hansraj vs. Astana 35 Bom.
L.R. 012 (P.G.)].
Even where an applicant waives notice of allotment or where there is no necessity for such
notice, the contract for shares is nevertheless complete and the allottee becomes entitled to
the membership of the company.
Besides, according to Section 41, the applicant, by agreeing to take shares, merely agrees to
become a member but does not actually become a member; he becomes a member only when
his name is entered on the register of members [Nicol’s case 32 Ch. D. 421; and Mussel White
& Sons Ltd. (1962) 1 All E.K. 20].
Further, to decree specific performance of a contract by a person to take or a company to allot
shares is well within jurisdiction of the Court [ Burnswich etc. Land Co. vs. Muggeridge (1860)
Dr. & sm. 363; Odessa Tramways Co. vs. Monde (1878) 7 Ch. D. 235].
In view of the foregoing discussion it may thus be concluded that the statement that a
“contract to take shares in a company is governed by the same rules as any other contract” is
fully correct.
(a) Forms of contract : You will notice from Section 46 that a company can enter into
contracts just like an individual person. Suppose, a contract between private persons requires,
for its validity, to be in writing signed by the parties to be charged. A similar contract may be
made exactly in the same manner by any person acting under the authority of the company.
Such an authority may be express or implied. Such a contract may be varied or discharged by
the authorised representative of the company in the same manner as the one by private
persons.
Likewise, where a private person can verbally make a legally valid contract, a company can
also do so. The same rule will apply in respect of any variance or discharge of such type of
contracts.
It is thus evident that a company can enter into oral contract when writing is not legally
necessary as well as a written contract where writing is a ‘must’. As a general rule, it is
permissible for a company to transact a contract without seal. As long as the contract is made
by an expressly or impliedly authorised person on behalf of the company and is signed by him,
it would be enough.
(b) Bill of Exchange and Promissory Note and Hundi : The next important question is
whether a company can make, accept, endorse, or issue a bill of exchange, promissory note,
hundi and such other negotiable instruments. The answer to this query will depend on the
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conditions laid down in the memorandum. Under Section 47, a bill of exchange, hundi or
promissory note shall be deemed to have been made, accepted, drawn or endorsed on behalf
of the company if drawn, accepted, made or endorsed in the name of, or on account of, or on
behalf of, the company by any person acting under its authority, express or implied. It is,
however, important to note that unless the person is signing the note on behalf of the company
only, and not on his own account, he runs the risk of being held personally liable on the
instrument signed by him.
(c) Execution of deeds: According to Section 48, there must be either a general power of
attorney or special power of attorney given to a person by a company to execute deeds on its
behalf anywhere in or out of India. This power of attorney, the company must give under its
common seal. Thereafter, if the attorney, signs the deed under his seal where sealing is
required, it will bind the company. Thus, you would have noticed that company’s common seal
is necessary for giving the power of attorney but not for actual execution of deed on its behalf
by such attorney. But it should be remembered that its power of attorney and the scope of its
operation are strictly construed; any person dealing on the basis of such power is put on
enquiry though not as to the existence of the special circumstances.
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Moreover, a company is not prevented from depositing with or transferring to any person any
shares or securities by way of security for repayment of any loan advanced to the company or
the performance of any obligation undertaken by it.
With the introduction of the Depository System and consequent Amendments in the
Companies Act, 1956, Sub-section 5 clause C do not prevent a company from holding
investments in the name of a depository when such investments are in the form of securities
held by the company as a beneficial owner.
The certificate or letter of allotment relating to shares or securities must be in the custody of
the company or with the State Bank or a scheduled bank which is the banker of the company.
The provision is, however, subject to the provisions discussed above in relation to investment
companies, and securities deposited for collection of dividend, interest or as security.
If the company does not hold these shares or securities in its own name, it must maintain a
register in which it must record the nature, value and such other particulars as may be
necessary to fully identify the shares or securities in question. It must also mention the bank or
person in whose name or custody the shares or securities are held. The register must be kept
open for inspection by a member or a debenture holder. At least two hours must be set apart
every day for such inspection.
If default is made in complying with any provision of Section 49 then the company and every
office in default will be punishable with a fine which may extend up to Rs. 50,000.
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Under Section 53, a company may serve a document on its member either personally or by
sending it by post to him to his registered address; or if he has no registered address in India
to the address (if any) within India supplied by him to the company for giving notices to him.
Authentication of documents : There may be a case, where a company has to authenticate
a document or any proceeding. In terms of Section 54 it may be authenticated by being signed
by a director, the manger or secretary or other authorised officer of the company. But it need
not be under the common seal of the company.
State YES or NO
1. Can a company vary the terms of a contract in the prospectus?
2. What are the rights of the applicant for shares or debentures (i) against company
(ii) against the directors and others?
3. Is there any limitation period for bringing an action against directors on ground of
misstatement contained in the prospectus?
4. One person bought shares from an allottee who became the shareholder in pursuance of
the prospectus and another person bought shares from the share market. Later on, both
of them came to know that the prospectus contained culpable misstatement. Would they
have any remedy either against the company or against the directors?
5. Mr. Alfa applies for 200 shares in a public limited company in a fictitious name. Does he
incur any penalty?
6. (i) State whether the following type of conditions contained in a prospectus are
valid :
(a) A condition requiring an applicant to waive compliance with any of the statutory
requirements regarding prospectus.
(b) A condition affecting an applicant with notice of any contract, document or
matter not specifically referred to in the prospectus.
(ii) Explain the consequences of an untrue statement in a prospectus.
7. A company has forfeited some shares and re-issued them. Will it be an allotment of
shares as conceived by the Companies Act ?
8. What will be the effect of allotment in the following circumstances ?
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(a) Where, according to the prospectus, permission for dealing in the shares on a
recognised stock exchange is to be sought but has not been sought within the
statutory period and the allotment has been made.
(b) Where the application for the aforesaid permission has been duly made but the
permission has not been granted within the statutory period and the allotment has
been made.
9. What are the statutory periods for the application of permission and for the actual grant
of the permission as aforesaid ?
10. What do you understand by the phrase, “time of opening of the subscription list” ?
11. What is the necessity of making the subscription list open only after the specified
statutory period ?
12. How can a person become a member of a company?
13. Can a minor or a luantic enter into an agreement to become a member of the company?
14. The directors have allotted shares to a minor without the knowledge of his minority and
entered his name in the register of members; (a) Can both the company and the minor
rescind the contract? (b) Can the company be compelled to return the entire money to
minor? (c) The minor be likewise compelled to restore to the company the benefits, if
any, received by him from the allotment?
15. A minor, on attaining majority, repudiates the contract. The company contends that he
cannot rescind the contract, because he received dividends during his minority and
dividends apart he fraudulently represented his age in the application for shares. Who
will succeed?
16. Does the company confirm to the same forms of contracts as a private individual?
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complied with by the company under the Companies Act before and after the shares are
so purchased.
28. In what way does the Companies Act, 1956 regulate and restrict the/allowing in respect
of a company going/or public issue of shares :
(i) Minimum Subscription: and
(ii) Application Money payable on shares being issued ? Explain.
29. Explain clearly the meaning of the term ‘Underwriting’ and ‘Underwriting’ Commission’. In
what way, does the Companies Act, 1956 regulate payment of such Commission ?
Explain.
30. State the remedies available against a company to a subscriber fur allotment of shares
on she faith of a misleading prospectus. What conditions must be satisfied by such a
subscriber before opting for the remedies?
31. M Company Limited issued 2,00.000 equity shares of Rs 10 each. You are allotted 100
shares. Explain any ten rights you have as a member of the company.
32. Can a Public Limited Company reduce its Share Capital? If so, when and how? Also
state the procedure it has to follow for doing so.
33. What conditions as required under the Companies Act, 1956 must be satisfied by a
company for the forfeiture of shares of a member, who has defaulted the payment of
calls? What are the consequences of such forfeiture? (November, 2001)
34. When is an Allotment of Shares treated as an irregular allotment? State the effects of an
irregular allotment.
35. Whether a company can issue shares at premium? State the purposes for which the
Share Premium account can be used under the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956.
36. Who is an ‘Expert’? When an expert is not liable for the mis-statement in the prospectus
of a public company?
37. ABC Company Limited at a general meeting of members of the company pass an
ordinary resolution to buy-back 30% of its Equity Share Capital. The articles of the
Company empower the company for buy-back of shares. The company further decide
that the payment for buy-back be made out of the proceed of the company’s’ earlier issue
of equity shares. Explaining the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956, and stating the
sources through which the buy-back of companies own shares be executed. Examine.
(i) Whether company’s proposal is in order?
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(ii) Would your answer be still the same in case the company instead of 30% decide to
buy-back only 20% of its Equity Share Capital?
38. Explain the concept of “Shelf Prospectus” in the light of Companies (Amendment) Act,
2000.
39. The Board of Directors of a company decide to pay 5% of issue price as underwriting
commission to the underwriters. On the other hand the Articles of Association of the
company permit only 3% commission. The Board of Directors further decide to pay the
commission out of the proceeds of the share capital. Are the decisions taken by the
Board of Directors valid under the Companies Act, 1956?
40. Can a company issue shares at discount? What is the law, in this relation, laid down in
the Companies Act, 1956?
2.28 Answers
4. No;
7. No;
9. 10 days respectively;
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10. 5 days period after the publication of the prospectus for keeping the subscription list open;
11. To enable the public to digest the contents of the prospectus and to obtain independent
advice before deciding to invest their money;
13. No;
17. (b); 18. (b); 19. (d); 20. (a); 21. (d);
22. (a); 23. (c); 24. (d); 25. (c); 26. (c);
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UNIT – 3
Learning Objectives
The share capital is the lifeblood for running the affairs of the company. Sometimes after the
issue of capital a company may either alter or reduce the share capital depending upon the
exigencies of the situation. Desired share capital, a company may also raise a debenture
which have to be registered as a charge. There are certain guidelines, which have to be
observed under the Companies Act as well as under the SEBI (DIP) Guidelines 2000. The
SBEI (DIP) Guidelines have been given as a part for understanding the whole gamut of the
matter. In this unit the following headings are covered:
♦ Share capital and shares
♦ Rise of shareholders and its variation
♦ Alteration and reduction of share capital
♦ Issue of shares at a premium and at a discount
♦ Transfer and transmission of shares
♦ Issue of debentures and related SEBI (DIP) Guidelines.
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Part I of Schedule VI has made it obligatory for a company to disclose its issued capital in the
balance sheet.
(c) Subscribed capital: It is the nominal amount of shares taken up by the public. Where any
notice, advertisement or other official communication or any business letter, bill head or letter
paper of a company states the authorised capital, the subscribed and paid-up capital must
also be stated in equally conspicuous characters. A default in this regard is punishable with
fine extending up to Rs. 10,000 [Section 148].
(d) Called-up capital: It is the total amount called up on the shares issued. Paid-up capital is
the total amount paid or credited as paid up on shares issued. It is equal to called up capital
less calls in arrears.
(e) Reserve capital: This is that part of the uncalled capital of the company which can be
called up only in the event of its winding up. A limited company may, by a special resolution,
determine that a portion of its uncalled capital shall be called up.
(i) in the event of winding up,
(ii) for the purposes of winding up [Section 99].
Reserve capital cannot be turned into uncalled capital without the leave of the Court. It is
available only for the creditors on the winding up of the company. The company can neither
charge reserve capital nor cancel it in a reduction of capital [Midland Rly Carriage Co. Re
(1904) W.N. 175].
But the expression “capital reserve” does not include any amount regarded as free for
distribution through the profit and loss account. Any reserve other than a capital reserve shall
be “revenue reserve” [Vide Part III, Schedule VI, 7(1)(c)].
Capital reserves comprise profits that arise in special circumstances and are connected with
special circumstances. A few examples of these are given below :
(i) Profit prior to incorporation;
(ii) Profit on acquisition of business, that is, where the value of assets acquired is more than
the liabilities taken over and the purchase consideration;
(iii) Profit on sale of fixed assets, the excess of sale proceeds over the original cost;
(iv) Premium on issue of debentures;
(v) Profit on redemption of debentures;
(vi) The credit to the capital Redemption Reserve Account (for redemption of redeemable
preference shares);
(vii) Premium on issue of shares; and
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3.2 SHARES
(a) Nature of shares: A share means a share in the share capital of a company and includes
stock except where a distinction between stock and shares is expressed or implied [Section
2(46)]. A share thus represents such proportion of the interest of the shareholders as the
amount paid up thereon bears to the total capital payable to the company. It is a measure of
the interest in the company’s assets to which a person holding a share is entitled.
Farwell Justice, in Borland Trustees vs. Steel Bors. & Co. Ltd. observed that “a share is not a
sum of money but is an interest measured by a sum of money and made up of various rights
contained in the contract, including the right to a sum of money of a more or less amount”.
You should note that the shareholders are not, in the eyes of law, part owners of the
undertaking. The undertaking is somewhat different from the totality of the shareholders. The
rights and obligations attaching to a share are those prescribed by the memorandum and the
articles of a company. It must, however, be remembered that a shareholder has not only
contractual rights against the company, but also certain other rights which accrue to him
according to the provisions of the Companies Act.
The shares or other interests of a member of a company are movable properties transferable
in the manner prescribed by the articles of the company [Section 82]. Each share in a
company, having a share capital, must be distinguished by its appropriate number [Section
83].
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(b) Kinds of share capita:- As per the Companies (Amendment Act, 2000), there will now be
two types of share capital as under:
(a) Equity Share Capital
(i) With voting Rights
(ii) With differential rights. The expression “shares with differential voting rights” is
defined as a share that is issued in accordance with the provision of Section 86.
When read with Section 86, it means shares issued with differential rights as to”
dividend, voting or otherwise” in accordance with such rules and subject to such
may be prescribed. The rules called as the Companies (Issue of Share Capital with
Differential Voting Rights) Rules, 2001 were notified by the Department of Company
Affairs and came into force with immediate effect.
(b) Preference Share Capital. [New Section 86, Companies (Amendment) Act, 2000.]–
Section 88 prohibiting disproportionate rights has been omitted by the Companies
(Amendment) Act, 2000.
(i) Equity shares: Equity shares, with reference to any company limited by shares, are those
which are not preference shares [Section 85(2) of 1956 Act].
The important characteristics of equity shares are as follows:
1. Equity shares carry voting rights at the general meetings of the company and have the
right to control the management of the company.
2. Equity shares carry the right to share in the profits of the company in the form of
distribution of dividend and bonus shares.
3. In the event of winding up of the company, equity share capital is repayable only after
repayment of the claims of the creditors and preference share capital.
4. Equity shareholders enjoy various rights as members, which include, inter alia, the
following rights :
(a) Right of pre-emption in the matter of fresh issue of capital [Section 81].
(b) Right to apply to the Court to have any variation of their rights set aside [Section
107].
(c) Right to receive a copy of the statutory report [Section 165].
(d) Right to apply to Central Government to call an annual general meeting when the
company fails to call such a meeting [Section 167].
(e) Right to apply to CLB for calling an extraordinary general meeting of the company
[Section 186].
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(f) Right to receive copies of annual accounts along with auditors report [Sections 210
& 219].
(ii) Preference shares: Preference share capital means, with reference to any such company,
that part of the share capital which fulfils both the following requirements, namely:
(a) as respects dividend it carries or will carry a preferential right to be paid a fixed amount
or an amount calculated at a fixed rate, and
(b) as respects capital, it carries or will carry, on the winding up or repayment of capital, a
preferential right to be repaid the amount of the capital paid up or deemed to have been
paid up, whether or not there is a preferential right to the payment of either or both of the
following amounts, namely :
(i) any money remaining unpaid, in respect of the amount specified in clause (a), up to
the date of the winding up or repayment of capital; and
(ii) any fixed premium any fixed scale, specified in the memorandum or articles of the
company [Section 85].
Capital shall be deemed to be preference capital, notwithstanding that it is entitled to either or
both of the following rights, namely:
(i) that, as respects dividends, in addition to the preferential right to the amount
specified in clause (a) it has a right to participate, whether fully or to a limited
extent, with capital not entitled to the preferential right aforesaid;
(ii) that, as respects capital, in addition to the preferential right to the repayment, on a
winding up, of the amounts specified in clause (b) it has a right to participate,
whether fully or to a limited extent, with capital not entitled to the preferential right
in any surplus which may remain after the entire capital has been repaid.
[Explanation to Section 85(1)].
(iii) Deferred shares: Deferred shares are also known as “founders’ shares”, since they are
often held by the promoters of the company. Where such shares are issued, ordinary shares
get a fixed dividend just like preference shares. After paying dividends on all other kinds of
shares (or returning capital in the case of winding up), such shares are the last to receive both
as regards dividends and repayment of capital. They carry disproportionate voting rights so
that by a small investment management may be controlled and it is for this reasons that they
are also known as ‘management shares’.
Under the Companies Act, 1956, no public company or deemed to be public company under
Section 43A, or private company which is subsidiary of a public company can issue deferred
shares [Sections 86 and 88]. However, an independent private company is still entitled to
issue deferred shares [Section 92(2)]. Such shares are not all common now a days.
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(iv) Kinds of preference shares: There may be different kinds of preference shares
depending upon the terms of issue which are either defined in the Articles of Association or in
the prospectus of the company. A company may issue the following types of preference
shares:
1. Cumulative preference shares: They carry the right to cumulative dividends if the
company fails to pay the dividend in a particular year. The accumulated arrears of
dividends shall be paid, if any dividend is declared in subsequent years, before any
dividend is paid to the equity shareholders. If the company goes into liquidation, no
arrears of dividends are payable unless either the Articles contain an express provision
to this effect or such dividends have been declared. Of course the arrears of undeclared
dividends shall be payable, even if the Articles are silent, out of any surplus left, after
returning in full the preference and equity share capital.
All preference shares are always presumed to be cumulative unless the contrary is stated
in the Articles or in the terms of issue.
2. Non-cumulative preference shares: Such shares do not carry the right to receive the
arrears of dividend in a particular year, if the company fails to declare dividend in
previous year or years. If no dividend is paid in any particular year, it lapses.
3. Participating preference shares: These are preference shares, which receive their fixed
dividend e.g., 13 per cent, in the normal way, but which then participate further in the
distributed profits along with the equity shares after a certain fixed percentage has been
paid to equity shareholders as well. The holders of such shares may also be entitled to
get a share in the surplus assets of the company on its winding up if specified provision
exists to that effect in the Articles.
4. Non-participating preference shares: These shares are entitled to only a fixed rate of
dividend and do not participate further in the surplus profits irrespective of the magnitude
of such profit. If the articles are silent, all preference shares are deemed to be non-
participating unless stated otherwise in the terms of issue.
5. Convertible preference shares: The holder of these shares is given the right of
conversion of his shares into equity shares at a later date.
6. Non-convertible preference shares: Here the preference shareholder is not given the
right of conversion of his shares into equity shares. If the articles are silent, all
preference shares are deemed to be non-convertible unless provided otherwise in the
terms of issue.
7. Redeemable preference shares : Ordinarily capital received on the issue of shares can
be returned on the winding up of the company only, because if the company in allowed to
return it any time it so wished, the creditors could not rely on the company having any
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money at all. But Section 80 of the Companies Act, authorises a company limited by
shares to issue “redeemable preference shares”. Capital received on such shares can be
paid back to the holders of such shares during the life-time of the company. The paying
back of capital is called the redemption. After the commencement of the Companies
(Amendment Act, 1996, no company limited by shares, shall issue any preference shares
which is irredeemable or is redeemable after the expiry of a period of twenty years from
the date of its issue.
8 Irredeemable preference shares: When the preference shares are not redeemable except
on the happening of certain specified events, which may not happen for an indefinite
period, for example, winding up, such shares are known as irredeemable preference
shares. Issue of irredeemable preference shares was permitted till the amendment in the
Companies Act, 1956 was made by the introduction of Section 80A with effect from 15th
June, 1988.
Pursuant to Section 80A, all preference shares existing on 15-6-1988 which were not
redeemable within ten years from the date of the issue and had not been redeemed
before the commencement of the Companies Amendment Act, i. e., on 15-6-1988 were to
be compulsorily redeemed by the company on the due date of redemption or within a
period not exceeding ten years from 15-6-1988. The said section provides that
notwithstanding anything contained in the terms of issue of any preference shares, every
preference share issued before the commencement of the Companies (Amendment) Act,
1988:
(a) which is irredeemable should be redeemed within a period not exceeding five years
from such commencement;
(b) which is not redeemable before the expiry of ten years from the date of issue
thereon should be redeemed in accordance with the terms of the issue or within a
period not exceeding ten years from such commencement, whichever is earlier.
Where a company is not in a position to redeem any such shares within the period
aforesaid and to pay the dividend, if any, due thereon, it may with the consent of the
Company Law Board (CLB), on a petition made by it in this behalf issue further
redeemable shares equal to the amounts due (including the dividend thereon) in
respect of the unredeemed preference shares, and on the issue of such further
redeemable preference shares, the unredeemed shares shall be deemed to have
been redeemed.
9. Cumulative convertible preference shares (C.C.P.) : Introduced in 1985, the objects of
the issue of the instrument should be for setting up new projects, expansion or
diversification of existing projects, capital expenditure for modernisation and working
capital requirements. The amount of issue of CCP shares will be to the extent the
company would be offering equity shares to the public for subscription. These shares are
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deemed to be equity issue for the purpose of calculating debt-equity ratio. The entire
issue would be convertible into equity shares between the end of 3 years and 5 years.
The rate of dividend payable on CCP would be 10 per cent. The face value of these
shares will ordinarily be Rs. 100 each, and the holders are entitled to receive arrears of
dividend, if any, even after conversion.
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in person or by proxy in the case of a private company; in the case of a public company, the
number of member present should be 5). If the meeting passes the special resolution then
variation can be proceeded with [Section 170(2)(b); Section 174(1)].
Shareholders holding not less then 10 per cent, in the aggregate, of issued shares of that
class, being persons who have not consented to or voted for the resolution for the variation of
the rights may apply to the Court to have the variation cancelled. The application has to be
made within 21 days from the date of passing of the resolution. In the case where an
application has been made, the variation shall be effective only after it has been confirmed by
the Court. The decision of the Court on any such application shall be final. If the Court has
made an order, the company must, within 30 days after the service on the company of any
order by it, forward copy of it to the Registrar [Section 107]. It would be worth noting in this
context that sub-division of shares is not tantamount to variation.
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A company may, be making a provision in the articles, restrain a shareholder from exercising
his voting rights in respect of any shares registered in his name on which any call or other
amount due has not been paid or on which the company has a lien or exercised a lien. But a
public company or a private company which is a subsidiary of the public company cannot
prohibit a member from voting on the ground that he has not held his share or other interest
for a specified period before the time of voting or on any other ground except as mentioned
above.
A company may, if so authorised by its articles, accept from any member the whole or any part
of the uncalled amount on shares, but the member will not be entitled to voting rights in
respect of the sum paid by him until it becomes payable [Section 92]. It is in an exception to
the rule that the voting rights of equity and preference shareholders on a poll will be in the
same proportion as the capital paid up on those shares bears to the total paid-up equity
capital.
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3. Compliance under FEMA, if applicable to the subject company: For FEMA companies,
RBI permission is required for issuing right shares to non-residents vide Section 19(i)(d)
or to any foreigners (whether resident or non-resident) or to any company with more than
40 per cent non-resident interest.
4. SEBI Guidelines on Rights Issue :
(a) Object: The Guidelines on Rights Issue will enable companies listed on a
recognised stock exchange to raise capital by issuing securities to its shareholders
on a right basis, with or without the right renunciation without being required to
submit the letter of offer for vetting or to obtain an acknowledgement card from
SEBI in respect of the said rights issue.
(b) Applicability of the Guidelines : The Guidelines will be applicable to all rights
issue to be made by companies listed on a recognised stock exchange after 1st
July, 1995. However guidelines will not be applicable to composite issues, i.e., on
issue of securities on a rights basis made either simultaneously or preceded or
followed by an issue of securities to public within a period of 3 months before or
after the closure of rights issue as the case may be.
(c) Vetting of offer documents : Rights issue which are not accompanied by public
issues 3 months prior or subsequent to the days of the rights issue will not be
required to be vetted by SEBI.
(d) Prohibition of rights issue over Rs. 50 lakhs unless guidelines are complised
with : A listed company shall not make a rights issue, where the aggregate value of
the securities, including premium, if any exceeds Rs 50 lakhs, unless a category I
merchant Broker, holding a valid certificate of registration issued by SEBI has
been appointed to manage the issue and has submitted to the offer document to
SEBI.
(e) Duty of Merchant Banker : (1) It shall be the duty of the merchant banker, acting
as the lead manager to ensure that the letter of offer provides a true and correct
view of the state of affairs of the company which are adequate for the investors to
arrive at a well-informed decision.
(2) The merchant banker shall, however, submit the draft of the letter of offer to
SEBI six weeks before the issue is scheduled to after for subscription, if any
suggested by SEBI, within 3 weeks of receipt of such draft, shall be
incorporate/complied with by the merchant broker before filing a copy of the
letter of offer.
(3) A copy of the letter of offer shall be submitted by the merchant banker to SEBI
two weeks before the issue opens for subscription.
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(4) The merchant broker shall submit along with the letter of offer a due diligence
certificate to SEBI in the prescribed form.
(5) The merchant banker submitting the letter of offer shall be responsible for
ensuring compliance with SEBI Rules, regulations and guidelines and
requirements of other laws for the time being in force.
(f) All listed configures desirous of making rights issue shall variably issue an
advertisement prominently is not less than 2 All India newspapers about the details
of right offer.
(g) Shareholders who have neither received the original composite application forms
nor in a position to obtain duplicate forms, any make an application to subscribe to
the rights on a plain paper.
(h) No preferential allotment may be made along with any right issue. If the issue
company desires to do so, they may do so independent of rights issue by complying
with the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956.
(i) Rights issue should not be kept open for more then 60 days.
5. Compliance with stock exchange requirements : A listed company intending to make
rights issue is required to comply with the following requirements as contained in clause
23 of the listing agreement :
(i) Unless the shareholders in General Meeting decide otherwise, to close the transfer
books at such a date or in such a manner as is suitable in the settlement of
transactions in consultation with the exchange.
(ii) To make such issues or offers in a form to be approved by the exchange and
forward supply of the renunciation forms promptly to the exchange.
(iii) To issue where necessary, coupons or fractional certificates or provide for the
payment to the equivalent value in cash as the company’s General Meeting or as
the Exchange decides.
(iv) The minimum time for which the rights issue is to be kept open is not stipulated. As
per the listing requirements with stock exchange, rights issue are to be kept open
for at least 4 weeks although a minimum time of 2 weeks has been stipulated under
Section 81 of the Companies Act.
(v) To issue letters of allotment or letters of rights within 6 weeks of the record date or
date of reopening of transfer books after their closure for the purpose of making a
bonus or rights issue and to issue allotment letters or certificates within 6 weeks of
the last date fixed by the company for submission of list of renunciation or
application for new securities.
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Government’s approval would be necessary. Unless the issue to such person or persons is
beneficial to the company the Central Government will not accord its approval.
It has been held by the Supreme Court that neither Section 81(1) nor Section 81(1A) would
apply to a private company which has become a public company by virtue of Section 43A but
has retained in its articles the three matters referred to in Section 3(1)(iii). The provision
contained in Section 81(1)(c) of the Companies Act, 1956, cannot be construed in a manner
which will lead to the negation of the option exercised by a private company which has
become a public Company by virtue of Section 43A to retain in its articles the three matters
referred to in Section 3(1)(iii). Both these are statutory provisions and they are contained in
the same statute and must be harmonised, unless the words of the statute are so plain or
unambiguous and the policy of the statute so clear that to harmonise will be doing violence to
those words and to that policy. The policy points in the directions that integrity and structure of
“Section 43A proviso-companies” should, as far as possible, not be broken up. Since Section
81(1)(c) of the Companies Act, 1956, is subject to the qualification ‘unless’ the articles of the
company otherwise provide, while interpreting that section and allied provisions of the Act, it
would be necessary to have regard to the relevant articles of association of a company. In the
context in which a private company becomes a public company under Section 43A and by
reason of the option available to it under the proviso, the word ‘provide’ must be understood to
mean “provide expressly or by necessary implication”. The necessary implication of a
provision has the same effect and relevance in law as an express provision has, unless the
relevance of what is necessarily implied is excluded by the use of clear words. Considering
particularly the genesis of ‘Section 43A proviso companies’, in order to attract the opening
words of clause (c) of Section 81(1), it is not necessary that he article of the company must
contain an express provision otherwise than what is contained in clause (c) [Needle Industries
(India) Ltd. and others vs. Needle Industries and Newey (India) Holding Ltd. and others (1987)
51 Com. Case. (SC) 743 at pp. 745-746].
The provisions of Section 81 do not apply: (a) to private companies; or (b) to the increase
of the subscribed capital of a public company caused by the exercise of an option attached to
debentures issued or loans raised by the company. The option should be (i) to subscribe for
shares of the company, or (ii) to convert such loans or debentures in the company. However,
the terms of issue of such debentures or terms of such loans must include a term providing for
such option; and such term either has been approved by the Central Government before the
issue of the debentures or the raising of the loans, or is in conformity with the rules, if any,
made by the Government in this connection. In the case of debentures or loans other than
debentures issued to, or loans obtained from, the Government or any institution specified by
the Central Government in this behalf the option should have also been approved by a special
resolution passed by the company in general meeting before such issue or raising of the
loans.
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Moreover, the Central Government may allow a Government holder of the debentures or a
Government lender of money to the company to ask for shares of the company in lieu of the
loan or debentures even though the instrument of debentures or of the loan does not contain
any provision giving the holder or the lender the option to convert loans or debentures into
shares of the company. In such a case, the Central Government may impose such terms and
conditions as it may think fit. It is the duty of the Central Government, in imposing the terms
and conditions, to see that it pays due regard to the financial position of the company, the
terms of the issue of the debentures or of the loans, as the case may be, the rate of interest
payable thereon, the capital of the company, its loan liabilities, its reserves, its profits during
the preceding 5 years and the current market price of the shares of the company. It must take
all these facts into account before imposing the terms and conditions of conversion into
shares. Such an order can be made if, in the opinion of the Central Government, it is
necessary to do so. A copy of every such order issued by the Central Government must be
laid in draft before each House of Parliament while it is in session for a total period of 30 days
which may be comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions. If the terms
and conditions of the conversion ordered by the Central Government are not acceptable to the
company, the company may, within 30 days from the date of communication to it of such order
or within such further time a may be granted by the Court, appeal to the Court in respect of
those terms and conditions. The decision of the Court on such appeal shall be final and
conclusive and binding both on the company and the Central Government.
You should note that since the Companies Act, 1956 does not prescribe for a written
application for allotment of shares, there can be an oral offer for the purpose and allotment on
its basis. Therefore, once the allotment has been made on the basis of such an oral offer for
allotment of shares under Section 81, the absence of a written application cannot be
subsequently implied, so as to question the allotment [See Ayyangar Spinning and Weaving
Mills Ltd. vs. V.V. Rajendra & others [1973] 43 Comp. case 225]. It should further be noted
that the issue and allotment of shares in payment for (a) property sold or transferred or (b)
goods or machinery supplied or (c) services rendered to the company in or about the
formation or promotion of or the conduct of business which would not fall within the purview of
Section 81, it being applicable only when the company proposes to increase its subscribed
capital by allotment of shares to the public. Where the articles empower the directors to issue
and allot shares as fully or partly paid up in full or part payment for the said purposes and the
allotment was made pursuant to this power, then only it would be outside the ambit of Section
81(ibid).
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2. In case of a listed company, notify the stock exchange concerned the date of Board
Meeting at which the rights issue is proposed to be considered.
3. As per the SEBI guidelines, the gap between the closure dates of rights issues and public
issues should not exceed 30 days. Therefore, if the company has made a simultaneous
issue of public and rights shares, it should ensure that the gap between the closure dates
of these two does not exceed 30 days.
4. As per the SEBI guidelines for rights issue of listed companies exceeding Rs. 50 lakhs,
the appointment of a merchant banker is mandatory. Therefore, steps should be taken to
appoint a merchant banker where the issue amount exceeds Rs. 50 lakhs. Appointment
of Underwriters, as per SEBI guideline is now optional.
5. Convene the Board meeting and place before it the proposal for rights issue.
6. The Board should decide on the following matters :
(i) Quantum of issue and the proportion of rights shares.
(ii) Whether the shares shall be issue at par or premium keeping in view of the SEBI
guidelines. The price is to be fixed by the Board of Directors in consultation with the
lead manager to the issue.
(iii) Alteration of share capital, if necessary, and offering shares to persons other than
existing holders of shares in terms of Section 81(1A).
(iv) Fixation of record date.
(v) Appointment of merchant bankers and underwriters.
(vi) The letter of offer should conform to the disclosures prescribed in Form 2A under
Section 56(3) of the Companies Act (memorandum containing the salient features of
prospectus). Full justification and parameters used for issue price should clearly be
mentioned in letter of offer.
7. Immediately after the Board Meeting notify the concerned Stock Exchanges about
particulars of Board’s decision.
8. Send the draft letter of offer to SEBI for vetting. As stipulated by SEBI guidelines, the
lead managers is responsible for obtaining SEBI clearance to the letter of offer before ap-
proaching Stock Exchange(s) for fixing the record date for the proposed issue.
9. If the issue does not require appointment of lead managers (in case of rights issue not
exceeding Rs. 50 lakhs) a copy of letter of offer is to be forwarded to SEBI for its infor-
mation.
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10. If it is proposed to offer shares to persons other than the shareholders of the company, a
General Meeting has to be convened and a resolution passed for the purpose in terms of
Section 81(1A) of the Companies Act.
11. If rights shares are to be offered to NRIs, obtain RBI approval.
12. Forward 6 sets of letter of offer to concerned Stock Exchange(s).
13. Despatch letters of offer to shareholders by registered post.
14. Make arrangement with bankers for acceptance of share application forms.
15. If the company does not receive 90 per cent of the issue amount including accepted
devolvement from underwriters within 120 days from the date of opening of the issue, the
amount of subscription received is required to be refunded.
16. Prepare a scheme of allotment in consultation with Stock Exchange(s).
17. Convene Board Meeting and make allotment of shares.
18. File return of allotment in Form 2 with Registrar of Companies within 30 days of
allotment.
19. Within 45 days of the closure of rights issue, a report in the prescribed form along with
the compliance certificate from statutory auditor/practising chartered accountant/
company secretary in practice is to be forwarded by the lead managers to SEBI.
20. Make an application to the Stock Exchange(s) where the company’s shares are listed for
permission for listing of new shares.
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of stock transferable, so however that such minimum shall not exceed the nominal amount of
shares from which the stock arose.
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return from the company, the Registrar shall carry out the necessary alterations in the
memorandum of the company.
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case to direct that the provisions of Section 101(2) shall not apply as regards any classes of
creditors [Section 101(3)]. As regards the “special circumstances”, these must be such as
would convince the Court that with reasonable foresight it can be said the proposed reduction
of capital would not adversely affect the relevant creditor and would not render him any worse
off than if he had attended and objected to the application for confirmation [Re. Lucanic Temp-
scule Billard Hall (London) Ltd. [1965] 3 All E.R. 879].
In regard to every creditor of the company, who under Section 101 is entitled to object to the
reduction, if the Court is satisfied that either his consent to the reduction has been obtained or
his debt or claim has been discharged, or has been determined or has been secured, then it
may make an order confirming the reduction on such terms and conditions as it thinks fit
[Section 102(1)].
The Court may order that the words “and reduced” be added to the name of the company for a
certain period. The Court may further require the company to publish the reasons for the
reduction and the causes which have led to it [Section 102(2)].
(a) Registration of order and minutes of reduction: According to Section 103, the Registrar
must register the order and minutes (approved by the Court) of reduction. It must be done (1)
on the production of an order of the Court confirming the reduction and (ii) on the delivery of a
certified copy of the order and minutes approved by the Court.
The certified copy of the order must show the following items namely :
(i) The amount of share capital ;
(ii) The number of shares into which it has to be divided ;
(iii) the amount of each share ; and
(iv) the amount if any at of the date of registration deemed to be paid up on each share.
On registration of the order and the minutes, but not before, the resolution shall become
effective. The notice of registration must be published in such a manner as the Court may
direct. The Registrar then will issue a certificate which will be conclusive evidence that the
requirements of the Act as to the reduction have been complied with and that the shares of the
company are only that as stated in the minutes. The minutes shall be deemed to be
substituted for the corresponding part of the memorandum thereby altering the memorandum
within the meaning of Section 40.
Therefore, the copies of the memorandum which will be issued subsequently must be in
accordance with the alteration.
(b) Liability of members in respect of reduced share : Under Section 104 on a reduction of
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share capital, the extent of the liability of any past or present member on any call or
contributions shall not exceed the difference between :
(a) the amount paid on shares or the reduced amount, if any, which is deemed to have been
paid thereon by the member ; and
(b) the amount of the shares as fixed by the minutes of reduction.
It may so happen that the name of a creditor has not been entered on the list of creditors
sowing to his ignorance of the proceedings for reduction or owing to his ignorance of the
nature and effect of such proceedings in respect of his claim. It may also happen that, after
the reduction, the company is unable, within the meaning of the provisions, of Section 434 of
the Act with respect to winding up by the Court to pay the amount of his debt or claim. In all
these circumstances, (a) every person who was a member of the company at the time of
registration of the order for reduction and minutes, is liable to contribute for the payment of
debt or claim of an amount not exceeding the amount which he would have contributed if the
winding up of the company had commenced on the day immediately before the date of
registration of order and minutes ; and (b) if the company is wound up, the Court, on the
application by the creditor as also on the proof of his ignorance, may settle a list of
contributories and made and enforce calls and orders on the contributories settled on the list
as if they were ordinary contributories in a winding up.
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439; South London Greyhound Racecourses Ltd. vs. Wake 1931 Ch. 496].
(b) Estoppel as to payment: Where a company states that shares are fully paid up, it cannot
later contend that they were not, unless the person relying upon the certificate knew that
the shares were not in fact fully paid up [Bloomenthal vs. Ford [1897] A.C. 156]. It has
also been held in another case that the bona fide holder of the share certificate, who had
no notice that the shares were not actually paid up fully, could sell those shares away as
fully paid to a person who knew that they were not fully paid so as to give the latter a
good title to shares as fully paid because the latter derived title from the transferor who
had a good title [Gulabdas’s [1982] 17 Bom 672].
A certificate, however, does not confirm the existence of an equitable interest in the share and
as such, the company owes no obligation to a person who holds such an interest. The title of
mortgagee, with whom a share certificate and bank transfer have been deposited, may be
defeated by the borrower selling all the shares and procuring the registration of the purchaser
by obtaining a duplicate certificate. The purchaser in such cases would obtain priority over the
mortgagee, since the mortgagee would have no remedy against the company [Reinford vs.
James Keith Blackman and Co. [1905] 1 Ch. 296].
Section 84 provides that a certificate under the common seal of the company, which specifies
any shares by any member shall be prima facie evidence of the title of the member to such
shares. The certificate is not conclusive proof of the title of the member, specified in the
certificate, to certain shares mentioned therein. To the shareholder this evidence is useful in
so far as it enables him to prove his title to any shares that he might be desiring to transfer,
pledge, or charge. A share certificate, however cannot be described as “share”. It is just prima
facie evidence of the title to a share or shares represented by the certificate [Gopal Paper
Mills Ltd. vs. CIT Central Calcutta [1966] 1 Com. L.J. 1 174].
Section 84(2) provides that a company may renew or issue a duplicate certificate if it is proved
to have been lost or destroyed or having been defaced, mutilated or torn, after the certificate
is surrendered to the company. Section 84(4) makes it obligatory for companies to follow the
rules prescribed by Government in regard to the following matters :
(i) The manner of issue or renewal of a certificate or issue of a duplicate thereof.
(ii) The form of a certificate (original on renewed or a duplicate thereof).
(iii) The particulars to be entered in the Register of Members or in the register of renewed or
duplicate certificate.
(iv) The form of such registers.
(v) The fee on payment of which the terms and conditions, if any including terms and
conditions as to evidence and indemnity and reimbursement for expenses incurred in
connection with investigating evidence on which a certificate may be renewed or
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share certificate. One of the two directors must be a person other than the managing or
wholetime director.
Rule 7 : Particulars in respect of the certificate issued under Rule 4(1) must be entered on the
Register of Members against the names of persons and in whose favour the certificates have
been issued, indicating the date of the issue. Similarly, entries must also be made in respect
of certificates issued under Rules 4(2) and (3) in a register of renewed and duplicate
certificates indicating against the names of members, the number and date of issue of
certificate, in lieu whereof the new certificate has been issued. Both these categories of
entries should be authenticated either by the Secretary or by a person appointed by the Board.
Rule 8 : All forms intended for the issue of share certificates must be printed under the
authority of a resolution of the Board and a person appointed by the Board shall be having the
custody of all blocks and other equipment of their printing.
Rule 9 : The Managing Director, if any, but otherwise every director of the company must be
responsible for the safe custody of all books and documents pertaining to the issue of share
certificate.
(b) Penalty for impersonation of shareholders : If any person deceitfully impersonates an
owner of any share or interest in the company, or any share warrant or coupon and thereby
obtains or attempts to obtain any such share or interest or any such warrant or coupon or
receives or attempts to receive any money due to any such owner, then he shall be liable to
imprisonment upto three years and shall be liable to fine (Section 116).
Who is responsible to prove delivery of share certificate?
Cardiff Chemicals Ltd. Vs. Fortune Bio-Tech Ltd. and another [2004] 414 CLB.
The petitioner company has allotted some shares against application and the company has
failed to deliver the share certificates in spite of its repeated demands. Hence, the appellant
filed petition under section 113 of the Companies Act, 1956 before the Company Law Board
seeking directions against the company for delivery of share certificates. The respondent
company challenged the petition on the ground that the director of the petitioner took physical
delivery of share certificates from the company. However, the respondent company has failed
to produce conclusive proof that it had delivered the share certificates to the petitioner. It was
held that, the burden of proving delivery of the share certificates to the petitioner is upon the
company; failure of which it could not be said that the company becomes discharged its
obligations imposed under section 113(1). Hence, Company Law Board upheld the default of
company in delivering the share certificates and further directed the company to deliver share
certificates to the petitioner.
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(b) Payment of calls in advance: But before we conclude our discussion on calls we have
also to know how payment in advance of calls is treated by a company. A company may, if so
authorised by the articles, accept from any member the whole or a part of the amount
remaining unpaid of any shares by him although no part of that amount has been called up
[Section 92(1)]. The amount so received or accepted is described as payment in advance of
calls. When a company receives payment in advance of calls, the consequences will be as
follows:
(i) The shareholder is not entitled to voting rights in respect of the moneys so paid by him
until the same would, but for such payment, become presently payable [Section 92(2)].
(ii) The shareholder’s liability to the company in respect of the call for which the amount
is paid in extinguished.
(iii) The shareholder is entitled to claim interest on the amount of the call to the extent
payable according to articles of association. If there are no profits, it must be paid out of
capital, because shareholder becomes the creditor of the company in respect of this
amount.
(iv) The amount received in advance of calls is not refundable.
(v) In the event of winding up the shareholder ranks after the creditors, but must be paid his
amount with interest, if any before the other shareholders are paid off.
(vi) The power to receive the payment in advance of calls must be exercised in the general
interest and for the benefit of the company (Syke’s case (1872) L.R. 13 Eq. 255).
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presented to the prescribed authority who shall stamp or otherwise endorse thereon the
date on which it is so presented.
(2) After this has been done, the instrument must be executed by or on behalf of the
transferor and the transferee and completed in all other respects (must specify the name,
address and occupation, if any, of the transferee).
(3) After that, the instrument of transfer completed in all respects (i.e., along with the share
certificate or if no such certificate is in existence, along with the letter of allotment of the
shares) should be delivered to the company :
(i) in the case of shares dealt in or quoted on a recognised stock exchange, at any
time before the date on which the register of members is closed, in accordance with
the law, for the first time after the date of the presentment to the prescribed
authority or within twelve months from the date of such presentation, whichever is
later [Section 108(1A)(b)(i)].
(ii) in any other case, within two months from the date of such presentation [Section
108(1A)(b)(i)].
These time-limits are intended to do away with the evil of blank transfers. Blank transfers
created problems of evasion of taxes, priority between transferees, etc., since there is no
entry on the instrument, i.e., it is signed in blank. As a result of these limits, the currency
of blank transfers has been restricted.
Exemptions: The above mentioned provisions are however, not applicable to transfer of
shares held : (a) by a company in any other body corporate in the name of director or
nominee pursuant to Section 49(2) or (3); (b) by a corporation owned or controlled by the
Central Government or a State Government in any other body corporate; or (c) in respect
of which a declaration has been made to the Public Trustee under Section 153B.
These exemptions are operative only if the following two conditions are complied with,
namely; (i) if the company or corporation referred to in (a) & (b) above stamps or
otherwise endorses on the form of transfer the date on which it decides that such shares
shall not be held in the name of the said director or nominee and Public Trustee
mentioned in (c) above stamps or otherwise endorses on the form under his seal, the
date on which the form is presented to him (ii) if the instrument of transfer, complete in
itself, is delivered to the body corporate in whose share capital, such company or
corporation has made the investment in the name of its director or nominee, or the
company in which such share is held in trust; this completed instrument of transfer is to
be delivered as aforesaid within two months of the date, so stamped or otherwise
endorsed.
*The prescribed authority apart from the Registrar, that may from time to time, be
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(b) Acquisition and transfer of shares: Sections 108A to 108H were originally introduced in
the Companies Act, 1956 by the Amendment Act, 1974 to regulate the acquisition and transfer
of shares of a body-corporate owning any undertaking to which the provisions of Part A of
Chapter III of the MRTP Act, apply. They were intended to prevent acquisition or take-over of
companies leading to further concentration of economic power.
The Sachar Committee recommended that provisions of Sections 108A to 108H in the
Companies Act be transferred to the MRTP Act, and stated that “the provisions of these
Sections are apparently applicable, by virtue of the specific provisions in Section 108H to
shares of companies to which the provisions of Part A of Chapter III of the MRTP Act, apply;
therefore, they should be transferred to the MRTP Act. Consequently the provisions of
Sections 108A to 108H of the Companies Act, were omitted and incorporated in Chapter IIIA
(Sections 30A to 30G) of MRTP Act, by the MRTP (Amendment) Act, 1984.
The MRTP Act, has been reconstructed by the MRTP Amendment Act, 1991 and the concept
of MRTP undertakings has been re-moved by omitting Sections 20 to 26 of Part A of Chapter
III. The provisions of Chapter IIIA (Sections 30A to 30G) have been re-transferred to
Companies Act, as Sections 108A to 108I. On transfer to the Companies Act, these provisions
now apply where the acquirer or transferee of shares is (or would be) the owner of a dominant
undertaking as defined in Section 2(d) of the MRTP Act, 1969, or as result of acquisition of
shares the dominance of the acquirer increases vide Section 108G.
The provisions of Sections 108A to 108I are summarised as under :
(i) Section 108A provides that no individual, firm or group, constituent of a group, body
corporate or bodies corporate under the same management, shall acquire or agree to acquire
more than 25 per cent of the paid-up equity share capital of a public company or a private
company which is a subsidiary of a public company, without the previous approval of the
Central Government. Also the following shall not transfer or agree to transfer any shares to
such acquirer unless the acquirer has obtained the previous approval of Central Government:
(a) company in which not less than 51 per cent of the share capital is held by the Central
Government; or
(b) corporation (not being a company) established by or under any Central Act; or
(c) financial institution.
(ii) Section 108B provides that every body corporate or bodies corporate under the same
management holding whether singly or in the aggregate 10 per cent or more of the subscribed
equity share capital of any company and which proposes to transfer any of such shares, shall
inform the Central Government regarding the particulars of the shares proposed to be
transferred, the name and address of the proposed transferee and his existing shareholdings
in that company etc. Where the Central Government is of the view that such transfer would
result in a change in the composition of Board of Directors of the company and that such
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change would be prejudicial to the interests of the company or to public interest, it may by
order director either not to give effect to such transfer or in case of share held by a company
engaged in an industry specified in Schedule XV, to transfer such shares to the Central
Government itself or any specified corporation owned or controlled by that Government. The
Central Government or the specified corporation shall pay in cash, the market value of these
shares.
(iii) Section 108C provides that a body corporate or bodies corporate under the same
management, which hold in aggregate, 10 per cent or more of the nominal value of equity
share capital of a foreign company having an established place of business in India, shall not
transfer any share in such foreign company to any citizen of India or any body corporate
incorporated in India except with the previous approval of Central Government. The Central
Government shall not refuse such approval unless it is of the opinion that such transfer would
be prejudicial to public interest.
(iv) Section 108D empowers the Central Government to direct companies not to give effect to
any transfer of shares if as a result of such transfer, a change in the controlling interest of the
company is likely to take place and such change would be prejudicial to interests of the
company or public interest.
Where the Central Government refuses the transfer, the shares shall stand transferred back to
the transferor and the amount paid by the transferee shall be refunded.
If the refund is not made within 30 days from the date of the order, the Central Government
shall, on the application of the person entitled to get the refund, direct, by order, the refund of
such amount and such order, shall be enforced as if it were a decree made by a Civil Court.
The person to whom such shares are re-transferred, shall on making the refund, be eligible to
exercise voting or other rights attaching to such share or block of shares.
(v) Section 108E provides for the time limit of 60 days of receipt of the request within which
the Central Government must communicate its decision for any refusal on the proposal for an
acquisition of shares under Section 108A or transfer of shares under Section 108C otherwise
the approval shall be presumed to have been granted.
(vi) Section 108F provides that Sections 108A to 108D shall not apply to the following except
that these entities shall not transfer or agree to transfer any share to the acquirer covered
under Sections 108A to 108E, unless such acquirer has obtained the previous approval of the
Central Government for acquisition or such shares :
(i) Any company in which not less than 51 per cent of shares capital is held by the Central
Government.
(ii) Any corporation not being a company established by or under any Central Act, i.e., a
Statutory Corporation.
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If the person being a nominee, so becoming entitled, elects to be registered as holder of the
share or debenture, himself as the case may be, he shall deliver or send to the company a
notice in writing signed by him stating that he so elects and such notice shall be accompanied
with the death certificate of the deceased shareholder or debenture -holder, as the case may
be. (Sub-section 2)
All the limitations, restrictions and provisions of this Act relating to the right to transfer and the
registration of transfers of shares or debentures shall be applicable to any such notice or
transfer as aforesaid as if the death of the member had not occurred and the notice or transfer
were a transfer signed by that shareholder or debenture holder, as the case may be. (Sub-
section 3)
A person, being a nominee, becoming entitled to a share or debenture by reason of the death
of the holder shall be entitled to the same dividends and other advantages to which he would
be entitled if he were the registered holder of the share or debenture except that he shall not,
before being registered a member in respect of his share or debenture, be entitled in respect
of it to exercise any right conferred by membership in relation to meetings of the company:
Provided that the Board may at, any time, give notice requiring any such person to elect
either to be registered himself or to transfer the share or debenture, and if the notice is not
complied within ninety days, the Board may thereafter withhold payment of all dividends,
bonuses or other moneys payable in respect of the share or debenture, until the requirements
of the notice have been complied with. (Sub-section 4).
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refusal, as provided in Sub-section (1) offence is punishable under Sub-section (12) with a fine
upto Rs. 500 per day.
Earlier, the appellate power was vested with the Central Government and now, the power has
been statutorily conferred on the Company Law Board. The Board can now decide any
question relating to the title of any person, under Sub-section (7); this power was earlier
vested with the court under Section 155. Since the Board is now exercising judicial and quasi-
judicial functions, the proceedings are no more confidential as earlier provided in Sub-section
(3), now omitted by the Amendment Act of 1988. Now, the parties cannot claim confidentiality
in these proceedings. The board was earlier required to give notice to the transferor and the
transferee, under the then Sub-section (5). Sub-section (5) now to provides for hearing the
parties and the Board is not obliged to issue notice of hearing also to the transferor, unless the
petition has been filed by him; the Board is required to give hearing to the company and the
aggrieved party, who may be either the transferor or the transferee. It may, however, be noted
that rule 5 of the Companies (Appeal to the Central Government) rules, 1975 provide for
notice to the transferor also. These rule will continue to apply so long as the Company Law
Board does not frame its own rules or procedures to regulate the proceedings under Section
111.
Under Sub-section (6), the Board has been empowered to pass interim orders, including any
order of injunction or stay and other interlocutory order, regarding payment of dividend or
allotment of bonus or rights shares during the pendency of the appeal. It may be noted that
under Section 206A, inserted by Amendment Act of 1988, provision has been made for
transfer of dividend to a special account and for keeping in abeyance any offer of rights shares
and any issue of bonus shares, in respect of any instrument of transfer lodged with the
company.
In the matter of private company, it may be stated that though by its very definition under
Section 3(1)(iii) a private company restricts transfer of its shares, under Section 111 the power
of a private company to refuse transfer of shares has been iterated under Sub-section 13.
However, the right conferred is only to the extent of enforcing restrictions contained in the
articles of association and not on any other grounds. Also, Sub-section 11 of Section 111
provides that petition will lie for non-transmission of shares in or debentures of a private
company which is not a subsidiary of a public company, if such transmission is by way of sale
thereof held by a court or other public authority.
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(2) If dividends are declared and paid before transfer is registered, the company must pay it
to the transferor. As between the seller and the buyer, it is the buyer who has a prima
facie right to all dividends declared, after the date of transfer [Black vs. Homersham],
unless otherwise agreed. Thus, where shares have been sold ‘ex-dividend’ the seller
shall be entitled to retain dividends.
(3) The voting power rests with the transferor but he must vote as the transferee directs
[Musselwhite vs. Musselwhite & Sons Ltd. (1962) Ch. 964]. However, if the transferee
has not paid the price, the transferor may vote as he pleases.
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shall be liable to compensate the purchaser in so far as the company had issued a certificate
to transfer and was therefore estopped from denying the liability accruing from its own act.
The innocent purchaser for value acting upon the faith of the certificate issued by the company
could validly and reasonably assume that the person named in the certificate as the owner of
shares was really the owner of the shares represented by the certificate [Balkis Consolidated
Co. vs. Tamkinson (1982) A.C. 1961]. If as a result of the forged transfer, the name of the true
owner of shares is taken off the Register of Members he can compel the company to restore
his name to the register. He can also claim any dividend which may not have been paid to him
during the intervening period [Barton vs. North Staffordshire Supra]. Likewise the transferee
must take care that he is not getting a certificate from the company on a forged transfer,
because in that case the transferee shall be liable to indemnify the company against the
consequences of the damages which may have to be paid by the company to the true owner
of the shares [Sheffield Corporation vs. Barclay (1905) B.C. 393]. The person who even
without any negligence brings about a transfer is liable to indemnify the company against its
liability to the owner of shares whose name was taken off from the register as a result of the
forged transfer [Sheffield Corporation vs. Barclay (supra); Starkey vs. Bank of England (1903)
A.C. 104].
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A duly verified declaration in writing that the declarant is a director, the manager or the
secretary of the company and that a share in the company has been duly forfeited on a date
stated in the declaration shall be conclusive evidence of the facts therein stated as against all
persons claiming to be entitled to the shares.
As regards surrender of shares both the Act and Table A are silent. The articles of companies,
however, often empower the directors to accept the surrender of shares. Courts too recognise
in on the principle that it relieves the directors of the necessity to go through the formality
relating to forfeiture. Although surrender and forfeiture have almost the same effect, yet they
differ from each other. Surrender is effected with the assent of the shareholder, whereas
forfeiture is a proceeding in invitum (i.e., against a reluctant shareholder) [Trevor vs. White-
work (1887) 12 App. Case. 417]. But a surrender of shares are not fully paid can only be
accepted where forfeiture would be justified [Bellerly and Rawland and Marwoods Steamship
Co. (1902) 2 Ch. 14].
Where the company pays any consideration for the surrender of partly paid up shares, the
surrender will be invalid, in as much as it will amount to purchase by the company of its own
shares. Unless there are special circumstances, e.g., where the surrender is a part of
compromise. Every surrender of shares, whether or not fully paid up, involves reduction of
capital, which is unlawful without the sanction of the Court. But if it does not result in the
reduction of capital e.g., if the surrender is in exchange of other shares of the same nominal
value, it has been held in a leading case that it can be accepted without leave of the Court but
doubts have been cast on this decision by leading text-book writers like Palmer.
Thus, it may be right to say that surrender of shares in a company is a shortcut to forfeiture.
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desirable to capitalise a part of the amount for the time being standing to the credit of any of
the company’s reserve accounts, or to the credit of the profit and loss account, or otherwise
available for distribution and (b) such sum be accordingly set free for distribution in the
specified manner amongst the members who have been entitled thereto if distribution by way
of dividend and in the same proportions would have made.
The sum mentioned in the preceding paragraph must not be paid in cash. It must be applied
(subject to the provision stated in paragraph immediately following) either in or towards, inter
alia (a) paying up any amounts for the time being unpaid on any shares held by such members
respectively, (b) paying up in full unissued shares of the company to be allotted and
distributed, credited as fully paid up, among such members in the proportions aforesaid.
A share premium account and a capital redemption reserve may only be applied in paying up
unissued shares to be issued to the members of the company as fully paid bonus shares.
Conceptual framework as regards to capitalisation of profits: There are a number of
consideration which will weigh with the Board of Directors of a company in issuing bonus
shares by capitalisation of accumulated profits. The principal objects are: (i) the company’s
cash resources may not be sufficient to pay dividend in cash; (ii) the company intends to
building-up cash resources for expansion or for repayment of a liability; (iii) in order to bring
the paid-up capital more in line with the capital employed in the business. For instance, if the
company has a share capital of Rs. 2 crores, reserves and surplus of Rs. 6 crores and capital
employed in the business (i.e., net fixed assets plus working capital) of Rs. 12 crores, it is
more realistic to state that the paid-up capital of the capital of the company is Rs. 8 crores. To
achieve this mode of disclosure, a part of the reserves are converted into share capital by
issuing bonus shares, this depicts a more rational capital base; (iv) a company which has built
up large reserves, when it earns profit, gives a superficial view of its current earning capacity.
For example, if a company with a share capital of Rs. 5 crores and a general reserve of Rs. 10
crores earns an annual profit of Rs. 1.5 crores, it works out at 30 per cent on share capital of
five crores. The real rate of return is 10 per cent (150 lakhs on 15 crores). To depict this
realistic picture the company may convert a part of its reserves into capital by issuing bonus
shares. This saves the company from accusation of profiteering and demand from labour for
higher reward having regard to higher earning capacity which is in fact deceptive; (v) bonus
issue is also resorted to with a view to bringing down the rate of dividend though not the
quantum of dividend on the issued capital. When the capital base is small and the earnings
are large, even a small portion of profits distributed by way of dividend would yield quite a high
percentage and may give the impression of profiteering. For instance if paid up capital is Rs.
10 lakhs on which profit of Rs. 1 lakh is distributed, it yield 10 per cent return. If, however, Rs.
5 lakhs of the reserves is capitalised to issue bonus shares, a profit of Rs. 1 lakh will give a
return of bare 6.7 per cent. It will be observed that the proposal of bonus issue may have been
influenced as a result of any of these considerations.
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(a) Guidelines on Bonus Issue (Issued by SEBI) - Disclosure and Invertors’ Protection
Guidelines, 2000).
A listed company proposing to issue bonus shares shall comply with the following
1 GUIDELINES FOR BONUS ISSUES
15.0 A listed company proposing to issue bonus shares shall comply with the following:
15.1.1 (a) No company shall, pending conversion of FCDs/PCDs, issue any shares by
way of bonus unless similar benefit is extended to the holders of such
FCDs/PCDs, through reservation of shares in proportion to such convertible
part of FCDs or PCDs.
(b) The shares so reserved may be issued at the time of conversion(s) of such
debentures on the same terms on which the bonus issues were made.
15.1.2 The bonus issue shall be made out of free reserves built out of the genuine profits
or share premium collected in cash only.
15.1.3 Reserves created by revaluation of fixed assets are not capitalised.
15.1.4 The declaration of bonus issue, in lieu of dividend, is not made.
15.1.5 The bonus issue is not made unless the partly-paid shares, if any existing, are
made fully paid-up.
15.1.6 The Company –
(a) has not defaulted in payment of interest or principal in respec t of fixed
deposits and interest on existing debentures or principal on redemption thereof
and
(b) has sufficient reason to believe that it has not defaulted in respect of the
payment of statutory dues of the employees such as contribution to provident
fund, gratuity, bonus etc.
15.1.7 A company which announces its bonus issue after the approval of the Board of
Directors must implement the proposal within a period of six months from the date
of such approval and shall not have the option of changing the
decision.
15.1.8 (i) The Articles of Association of the company shall contain a provision for
capitalisation of reserves, etc.
(ii) If there is no such provision in the Articles the company shall pass a
Resolution at its general body meeting making provisions in the Articles of
Associations for capitalisation.
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Return of Bonus Issue : Under Section 75(1)(c) when a company having a share capital
makes any allotment of bonus shares, it must within 30 days thereafter file with the Registrar a
return stating the number and nominal amount of such shares comprised in the allotment and
the names, addresses and occupations of the allottees and a copy of the resolution
authorising the issue of such shares.
3.29 DEBENTURES
Under Section 2(12) debenture includes debenture stock, bonds and other securities of the
company whether constituting a charge on the assets of the company or not. Debentures are
bonds issued in acknowledgement of any indebtedness. Generally, however, they are issued
under the company’s seal and contain a provision for the repayment of principal sum at the
appointed date and the payment of interest at fixed rate. Debentures are usually secured upon
the company’s property or undertaking.
Thus, a debenture is an instrument which is drawn under the seal of the company; it binds the
company to pay a sum of money at a fixed time with interest but the debenture stock is a debt
which carries interest at a fixed rate; it is constituted generally by a deed of covenant with
trustees and the stockholder obtains a certificate of title. A stock is called perpetual if the
principal amount of debt is not payable at any fixed time but only in the case of winding up or
in case of default in paying interest.
Let us once again recapitulate the distinction between a debenture and debenture stock. The
former is the description of an instrument while the latter is the description of debt or sum
secured by an instrument. Lord Lindley has described debenture stock as the borrowed capital
consolidated into one mass for the sake of convenience.
(a) Type of Debentures
Debentures may be of the following types:
1. Naked or unsecured debentures.
2. Secured debentures.
3. Redeemable debentures.
4. Perpetual debentures.
5. Bearer debentures.
6. Registered debentures.
1. Naked or unsecured debentures: Debentures that do not carry any charge on the assets of
the company are known as naked or unsecured debentures. The holders of these debentures
do not have any security as to repayment of principal or interest thereon.
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2. Secured debentures: Debentures that are secured by a mortgage of the whole or part of the
assets of the company are known as mortgage debentures or secured debentures.
3. Redeemable debentures: Debentures that are redeemable at the expiry of a certain period
are known as redeemable debentures. Debentures once redeemed can be reissued in
accordance with the provisions of Section 121 of the Companies Act.
4. Perpetual debentures: Where the debentures are redeemable on the happening of specified
events which may not happen for an indefinite period, for example, winding up, they are
known as perpetual debentures.
5. Bearer debentures: These debentures are payable to a bearer and are transferred by
delivery and no stamp duty is payable on the transfer. The debenture holder is not registered
in the books of the company but is entitled to claim interest and repayment of principle. A bona
fide transferee for value is not affected by the defect in the title of the transferor.
6. Registered debentures: These debentures are payable to registered holders. A registered
holder is one whose name appears on the debenture certificate/letter of allotment and is
registered on the company’s register of debenture holders maintained under Section 152 of
the Companies Act, 1956.
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further period not exceeding nine months, if it is satisfied that it is not possible for the
company to deliver the certificates within the said period.
If default is made in complying with the above provisions, every officer of the company who is
in default shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years and
the company and every officer of the company who is in default shall be punishable with fine
which may extend to Rs. 5,000 per day of default.
If a company on which a notice has been served requiring it to make good the default fails to
do so within 10 days of the service of the notice, the CLB may on an application made by the
aggrieved person, make an order directing the company and any officer of the company to
deliver the securities within the period mentioned in the order. The order may provide that all
costs incidental to the application shall be borne by the company or by the officer of the
company responsible for the default.
Transfer of debentures: Bearer debentures are negotiable instruments and hence are
transferable by delivery, free from any equities. A bona fide transferee for value gets a good
title notwithstanding any defect in the title of the transferor. Transfer of registered debentures
takes place exactly in the same way as the transfer of shares.
Fixed and floating charges: Debentures may be secured by a fixed charge or by a floating
charge or by a combination of both. A floating charge is an equitable charge which is not a
specific charge on any property of the company. Thus, the company may, despite the charge
deal with any of the assets in the ordinary course of business. “It is of the essence of a floating
charge that it remains dormant until the undertaking charged ceases to be a going concern or
until the person in whose favour the charge is created, intervenes. His right to intervene may,
of course, be suspended by agreement. But if there is no agreement of suspension, he may
exercise his right whenever he pleases after default.”
On the other hand, a specific (fixed) charge is a charge which is expressed to cover specific
property like land, building, etc. Although the company usually remains in possession of the
property, it can only deal with it subject to the prior rights created by the charge.
It is thus evident that a floating charge is characteristically ambulatory and shifting; it flows
“with the property which is intended to affect until some event occurs or some act is done
which causes it to settle and fasten on the subject of the charge within its reach and grasp.”
But specific charge is a charge which fastens on to the property which is ascertained and defi-
nite or capable of being ascertained and made definite.
The main characteristics of a floating charge as described in [Re. Yorkshire Woolcombers’s
Association (1903) 2. Ch. 284 and 285] are as follows:
(a) It is a charge on a class of the company’s assets, present and future, that class being
one which, in the ordinary course of the business is changing from time to time.
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(b) Generally, it is contemplated that the company carry on its business in an ordinary way
with such a class of assets till some event occurs on which the charge is to settle down
on the property as then existing and the charge becomes fixed. The moment the charge
crystallises, it becomes a fixed charge. It takes place when some event contemplated in
the agreement creating the charge occurs, e.g. debenture holders enforcing their
securities on a default being made by company either in payment of interest or capital on
the company being wound up.
There are two major statutory limitations to the rights arising out of floating charge. Firstly, a
floating charge created within 12 months preceding the commencement of the winding up
(whether compulsory or voluntary or subject to supervision), shall unless it is proved that the
company immediately after the creation of the charge was solvent, be invalid except up to the
amount of any cash paid to the company at the time of, or subsequent to the creation of and in
consideration for the change together with the interest on that amount at 5 per cent per annum
or at any other prescribed rate (Section 534).
[Note: You should note that although these provisions of Section 534 are excluded from your
syllabus nonetheless you should read them by way of passing reference]. Secondly, floating
charge crystallises, i.e. becomes fixed and consequently the security ceases to be a floating
security (i) in the charge, i.e. failure of the company to pay interest or to redeem the
debentures as agreed; cessation of businesses by the company, (ii) if a receiver is appointed
for the debenture holders either by the Court or by the debenture holders or their trustees
under power given by terms of issue of debentures and (iii) if the company is wound up even if
it is a voluntary winding up for the purpose of reconstruction [Re Crompton & Co. (1914) 1.
Ch. 954.]
Under Section 123 of the Act, where a receiver is appointed on behalf of the debenture
holders secured by a floating charge even though the company may not be in the course of
winding up, the debts which in a winding up are to be paid in priority to all other debts under
Section 530 shall be paid out of the assets available in the hands of the receiver, in priority to
any claim in respect of the principal or interest to which the debenture holders with floating
charge are entitled. In other words, preferential debts have priority over a debenture holder’s
floating charge not only in a winding up but also when a receiver is appointed in a debenture
holder’s action. Where the debentures are secured both by a floating charge and a fixed
charge, such priority is applicable to the assets subject to the floating charge; the fixed charge
remains unaffected [Anthony Ulysses John vs. Suraj Bhan (1938) All 896]. The preferential
payments referred to in Section 123 are to be made forthwith out of the assets that come to
the hands of the receiver. If the receiver fails to do so, he thereby renders himself liable in tort.
But if his failure to make the preferential payment is the result of misguidance or inducement
given by the debenture holder, he can claim indemnity from debenture holders [West Minister
City Counsel vs. Treby (1936) 2. A.N.R. (21)].
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(e) ‘Pari Passu’ clause in a debenture means that all the debentures of the series are to be
paid rateably. If therefore, security is insufficient to satisfy the whole debts secured by the
series of debentures, the amounts of debentures will abate proportionally. If the clause is not
made use of then the debentures rank in accordance with the date of issue and if they are all
issued on the same date they will be payable according to their numerical order. A company,
however, cannot issue a new series of debentures so as to rank pari passu with prior series
unless the power to do so is expressly reserved and contained in the debenture deed of the
previous series.
In the event of the pari passu clause being included in the debentures, it is enough if the
following particulars are filed with the Registrar within 30 days after the execution of the deed
containing the charges or where there is no deed after the execution of any debentures of the
series: (i) the total amount secured by the whole series, (ii) the dates of the resolutions
authorising the issue of the series, (iii) The date of deed if any, by which security is created
and (iv) a general description of the property charged and the name of the trustees for
debenture holders, if any, together with the deed containing the charges or a certified copy of
the deed or, if there is no deed, one of debentures of the series (Section 128).
Where more than one issue is made of debentures in the series, particulars of the date and
the amount of each issue filed with the Registrar. An omission to do so will not affect the
validity of the debentures issued.
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The trust deed shall be open to inspection by any member or debenture holder in the same
manner as the register of members of the company, as provided for in Section 163. [Sections
118 of 1956 Act].
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(v) Debentures generally have a charge on the assets of the company but shares do not
carry any such charge.
(vi) The rate of interest is fixed in the case of debentures whereas on equity shares the
dividend may vary from year to year.
(vii) Fixed amount of interest on debentures gets priority over dividend on shares.
(l) SEBI GUIDELINES FOR ISSUE OF DEBT INSTRUMENTS (Updated till May 8, 2006)
10.0 A company offering Convertible/ Non Convertible debt instruments through an offer
document, shall comply with the following provisions in addition to the relevant provisions
contained in other chapter of these guidelines.
10.1 Requirement of credit rating
10.1.1 (No company shall make a public issue or rights issue of debt instruments
(whether convertible or not), unless credit rating of not less than investment
grade is obtained from not less than two registered credit rating agencies and
disclosed in the offer document.)
10.1.2 (Deleted)
10.1.3 (Where credit ratings are obtained from more than two credit rating agencies,
all the credit rating/s, including the unaccepted credit ratings, shall be
disclosed.)
10.1.4 All the credit ratings obtained during the three (3) years preceding the public or
rights issue of debt instrument (including convertible instruments) for any listed
security of the issuer company shall be disclosed in the offer document.
10.2 Requirement in respect of Debenture Trustee
10.2.1 (No company shall issue a prospectus or a letter of offer to the public for
subscription of its debentures, unless the company has appointed one or more
debenture trustees for such debentures in accordance with the provisions ns of
the Companies Act, 1956.)
10.2.2 (The names of the debenture trustees shall be stated in the Offer Documents
and also in all the subsequent periodical communications sent to the
debenture holders).
10.2.3 (A trust deed shall be executed by the issuer company in favour of the
debenture trustees within three months of the closure of the issue.)
10.2.4 Trustees to the debenture issue shall be vested with the requisite powers for
protecting the interest of debenture holders including a right to appoint a
nominee director on the Board of the company in consultation with institutional
debenture holders.
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10.2.5 (The merchant banker shall, along with the draft offer document, file with the
Board, certificates from the bankers of the Company that the assets on which
the security is to be created are free from any encumbrances and the
necessary permissions to mortgage the assets have been obtained or No-
objection Certificate from the Financial Institutions or Banks for a second or
pari passu charged in cases where assets are encumbered.
The merchant banker shall also ensure that the security created is adequate to
ensure 100% asset cover for the debentures.)
10.2.6 The debenture trustee shall ensure compliance of the following:
a) (It shall obtain reports from the lead bank, regarding monitoring progress of the
project.)
b) (It shall monitor utilization of funds raised in the debenture issue.)
c) Trustees shall obtain a certificate from the company's auditors:
(i) in respect of utilisation of funds during the implementation period of projects .
(ii) in the case of debentures for working capital, certificate shall be obtained at
the end of each accounting year.
d) Debenture issues by companies belonging to the groups for financing replenishing
funds or acquiring share holding in other companies shall not be permitted.
Explanation:
The expression `replenishing of funds or acquiring shares in other companies' shall
mean replenishment of funds or acquiring share holdings of other companies in the
same group. In other words, the company shall not issue debentures for acquisition
of shares / providing loan to any company belonging to the same group. However,
the company may issue equity shares for purposes of repayment of loan to or
investment in companies belonging to the same group.
e) The debenture trustees shall supervise the implementation of the conditions
regarding creation of security for the debentures and debenture redemption reserve.
10.3 Creation of Debenture Redemption Reserve (DRR)
(10.3.1 For the redemption of the debentures issued, the company shall create
debenture redemption reserve in accordance with the provisions of the
Companies Act, 1956.)
10.4 Distribution of Dividends
(a) (In case of the companies which have defaulted in payment of interest on debentures or
redemption of debentures or in creation of security as per the terms of issue of the
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debentures, any distribution of dividend shall require approval of the Debenture Trustees
and the Lead Institution, if any.)
(b) In the case of existing companies prior permission of the lead institution for declaring
dividend exceeding 20% or as per the loan covenants is necessary if the company does
not comply with institutional condition regarding interest and debt service coverage ratio.
(c) (i) Dividends may be distributed out of profit of particular years only after transfer of
requisite amount in DRR.
(ii) If residual profits after transfer to DRR are inadequate to distribute reasonable
dividends, company may distribute dividend out of general reserve.
10.5 Redemption
10.5.1 The issuer company shall redeem the debentures as per the offer document.
10.6 Disclosure and Creation of Charge
(10.6.1 The offer document shall specifically state the assets on which security shall be
created and shall also state the ranking of the charge/s. In case of second or
residual charge or subordinated obligation, the offer document shall clearly state the
risks associated with such subsequent charge. The relevant consent for creation of
security such as pari passu letter, consent of the lessor of the land in case of
leasehold land etc. shall be obtained and submitted to the debenture trustee before
opening of issue of debenture.)
(10.6.2 The offer document shall state the security / asset cover to be maintained. The
basis for computation of the security / asset cover, the valuation methods and
periodicity of such valuation shall also be disclosed. The security / asset cover shall
be arrived at after reduction of the liabilities having a first / prior charge, in case the
debentures are secured by a second or subsequent charge.)
10.6.3 (Deleted).
(10.6.4 The issue proceeds shall be kept in an escrow account until the documents for
creation of security as stated in the offer document, are executed.)
(10.6.5) If the issuing company proposes to create a charge for debentures of maturity of less
than 18 months, it shall file with Registrar of Companies particulars of charge under
the Companies Act.
Provided that, where no charge is to be created on such debentures, the issuer
company shall ensure compliance with the provisions of the Companies (Acceptance
of Deposits) Rules, 1975, as, unsecured debentures / bonds are treated as "deposits"
for purposes of these rules.
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(10.6.6) The proposal to create a charge or otherwise in respect of such debentures, may be
disclosed in the offer document along with its implications.
10.7 Requirement of letter of option
10.7.1 (Where the company desires to rollover the debentures issued by it, it shall file
with SEBI a copy of the notice of the resolution to be sent to the debenture-
holders for the purpose, through a merchant banker prior to dispatching the
same to the debenture-holders. The notice shall contain disclosures with
regard to credit rating, necessity for debenture -holders resolution and such
other terms which SEBI may specify. Where the company desires to convert
the debentures into equity shares in accordance with clause 10.7.2, it shall file
with SEBI a copy of the letter of option to be sent to debenture-holders with the
Board, through a merchant banker, prior to dispatching the same to the
debenture -holders. The letter of option shall contain disclosures with regard to
option for conversion, justification for conversion price and such other terms
which SEBI may specify.)
10.7.1.1 (Roll over of Non Convertible Portions of Partly Convertible Debentures
(PCDs)/ Non Convertible Debentures (NCDs), by company not being in
default.
The non-convertible portions of PCDs or the NCDs issued by a listed company, the value of
which exceeds Rs.50 lacs, can be rolled over without change in the interest rate subject to
section 121 of the Companies Act, 1956 and subject to the following conditions, if the
company is not in default:
(a) A resolution to this effect is passed by postal ballot, having the assent from not less
than 75% of the debenture-holders.
(b) The company shall redeem the debentures of all the dissenting debenture holders,
who have not assented to the resolution.
(c) Before roll over of any NCDs or non-convertible portion of the PCDs, at least two
credit ratings of not less than investment grade, shall be obtained within a period of
six months prior to the due date of redemption and communicated to debenture
holders before roll over.
(d) Fresh trust deed shall be executed at the time of such roll over.
(e) Fresh security shall be created in respect of such debentures to be rolled over.
Provided that if the existing trust deed or the security documents provide for continuance of
the security till redemption of debentures, fresh trust deed or fresh security need not be
created.)
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iv) The provision of sub-clause (iii) above shall not apply if such redemption is to be
made in accordance with the terms of the issue originally stated.
10.7.1.3 (The debenture trustee shall submit a certificate of compliance with clauses
10.7.1.1, 10.7.1.1A or 10.7.1.2, as the case may be, to the merchant banker which shall
be filed with the Board within 15 days of the closure of the rollover or conversion.)
(10.7.2 Companies may issue unsecured/ subordinated debt instruments/ obligations
(which are not 'public deposits' as per the provisions of Section 58 A of the
Companies Act, 1956 or such other notifications, guidelines, Circular etc.
issued by RBI, DCA or other authorities).
Provided that such issue shall be subscribed by Qualified Institutional Buyers or other
investor who has given positive consent for subscribing to such unsecured /sub-ordinated debt
instruments/ obligation.)
10.8 Other requirements
10.8.1 No company shall issue of FCDs having a conversion period of more than 36
months, unless conversion is made optional with "put" and "call" option.
10.8.2 If the conversion takes place at or after 18 months from the date of allotment,
but before 36 months, any conversion in part or whole of the debenture shall
be optional at the hands of the debenture holder.
10.8.3
(a) No issue of debentures by an issuer company shall be made for acquisition of
shares or providing loan to any company belonging to the same group.
Sub-clause (a) shall not apply to the issue of fully convertible debentures providing
conversion within a period of eighteen months.
10.8.4 Premium amount and time of conversion shall be determined by the issuer company
and disclosed.
10.8.5 The interest rate for debentures can be freely determined by the issuer company.
10.9 Additional Disclosures in respect of debentures
The offer document shall contain:
(a) Premium amount on conversion, time of conversion.
(b) In case of PCDs/ NCDs, redemption amount, period of maturity, yield on redemption
of the PCDs/ NCDs.
(c) Full information relating to the terms of offer or purchase including the name(s) of
the party offering to purchase the khokhas (non-convertible portion of PCDs).
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(d) The discount at which such offer is made and the effective price for the investor as
a result of such discount.
(e) The existing and future equity and long term debt ratio.
(f) Servicing behaviour on existing debentures, payment of due interest on due dates
on term loans and debentures.
(g) That the certificate from a financial institution or bankers about their no objection for
a second or pari passu charge being created in favour of the trustees to the
proposed debenture issues has been obtained.
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Where a company raised a loan from a bank by pledging its fixed deposit receipts without
registering the pledge with Registrar of Companies, it was held that since fixed deposit
receipts were movable property and since the charge was in the nature of a pledge of
movables, it was exempted from registration [Meenakshi Mills v. Registrar of Companies
A.I.R. (1966) May 24]. If moneys are advanced on ‘open credit’ system and the goods of the
company are pledged with the bank in consideration of loan by the bank to the company and if
the bank consents to the borrower withdrawing any goods, so pledged with the bank, the
transaction would amount to a pledge of the goods, and not a mere hypothecation. Even if the
constructive possession of the pledgee bank is maintained, a subsequent pledge of the same
goods even without notice of pledge to the company gets no preference over the bank. The
rule of estopple does not affect the property of the pledgee bank [Nadar Bank Ltd. v. Canara
Bank Ltd. (1961) 21 Comp Cas. 12].
Effect of non-registration - If any of the above-mentioned mortgages or charges is not
registered, then the unregistered mortgage or charge shall be void against the liquidators and
creditors of the company [Monolithic Building Co. 1915. 1. Ch. 643. 669]. Another effect of
non-registration of a charge is that the money secured thereby becomes immediately payable
[Sec. 125(3)]. Beside the company and every officer of the company may be subjected to a
penalty upto Rs. 5000 for everyday during which the default continues [Sec. 142(1)]. The
prescribed particulars of the mortgage or charge together with the instrument, if any, creating
the mortgage or evidencing it or a verified copy [Rule 6 of the Companies (Central
Government’s) General Rules and Forms] of such instrument must be filed with the Registrar
within 30 days after the creation of the charge or mortgage. It is however, open to the
Registrar to allow the particulars and instrument or copy to be filed within 30 days next
following the expiry of the period of 30 days if the company satisfies the Registrar that it had
sufficient cause for not filing the particulars and instrument or copy within 30 days. Where
there is a document, the time runs not from the date of agreement to advance money or the
date at which the money is actually advanced, but the date at which a document is executed
[Columbia Fire Proofing Co. Ltd. 19 2 Ch. 11], Capital Counties Bank 1913. 2. Ch. 336).
According to the view of the Company Law Board, if the instrument or copy of it is not filed
with the Registrar within 30 days or the extended period of 7 days [as per the proviso to
Section 125(1)] then the Registrar should not take the document on record even on payment
of additional fees provided in Section 611(2) unless the sanction of the Company Law Board is
obtained under Section 141].
Section 141(1) provides for the remedies available to the company for the failure on its part to
register with the Registrar within prescribed time limit the particulars of the charge created by
it on its immovable property together with documents creating it. The company may apply to
the Company Law Board and seek extension of time for filling of the particulars for
registration. But before passing any order, the Company Law Board must be satisfied (a) that
the aforesaid omission was accidental or due to inadvertence or due to some other sufficient
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cause or was not of the nature to prejudice the position of creditors or shareholders of the
company; or (b) that it is just and equitable to grant relief on other grounds. Being thus
satisfied, the Company Law Board may and on such terms and conditions as it may deem just
and convenient, direct that the time for the filing of the particulars of the charge for registration
shall be extended, or as the case may require, that the omission shall be rectified.
If the particulars of mortgage or charge are filed with the Registrar of Companies within the
time allowed under the Companies Act, it is immaterial as to when the same are actually
registered by the Registrar. The mortgage or charge cannot be invalidated merely because of
the delay by the Registrar in registering the particulars which were filed with him on time
[Banaras Bank Limited v. Bank of Bihar I.L.R. 1646 All 867]. Though for want of registration
required by Section 125 by the mortgage or charge shall become void against the liquidator
and creditor, the moneys payable by the company shall become immediately payable and
contract or obligation to pay the debt shall remain unaffected. The effect of non-registration is
that the charge becomes void against liquidator and creditor, but the debt is good as a simple
debt; though the security for the debt may not be valid the debt itself remains good as a simple
debt [C. Padumji Company v. Moose 2 Bomb. L.R. 1288]. Further, in the event of the charge
being void for non-registration, no right of lien can be claimed on the documents of title, as
they are only ancillary to the charge and were delivered pursuant to the charge [In Re Moltan
Ltd. (1868) Ch. 325 (1968), 53 Cp.[Cas. 833].
Though floating charge on stock-in trade requires registration, if it is not registered, the
creditor who lawfully takes possession of the goods before the winding up of company is not
affected by the absence of the registration [Mercantile Bank of India v. Chartered Bank of
India (1937) All E.R. 2311]. The company whose properties or goods are charged cannot seek
to repudiate the charge consider it good as a simple debt only because the only consequence
or non-registration under Section 125 is that the charge fails as such and is void against the
liquidator and creditor. Section 125 does not provide that the charge shall be void against the
company [also Monolithic Building Co.’s Case 1975 1. Ch. 643, Aunganzapa v. Chettiar 5
Rang 535, Thyagarajan v. Official Liquidator 1915, 2 Mad L.J. 295; Mayappaya Chettiar v.
Jayanti Films Madura Private Ltd. A.I.R. 1964 Mad 134.
An equitable mortgage by deposit of the title deeds requires to be registered [Maneklal v.
Saraspur Mfg. Co. 29 Bocm. C.R. 253].
A simple debenture does not require any registration under Section 125 because such
debenture is neither secured by a mortgage nor by a charge, fixed or floating but it is a simple
(unsecured) debt. A mere lien does not require registration [Ashby Warner Co. v. Simmons
(1936) All E.R. 697]. So also a negative lien does not require registration which applies to a
charge which is created by an act of the parties (an act in the law) and not to a charge which
comes in by operation of the law (an act of the law). A charge by operation of the law also
does not require registration [Humkumchand v. Pioneer Mills, A.I.R. (1927) Oudh 55].
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In the case of mortgage or charge created outside India, the property charged being outside
India, the particulars of the mortgage or a copy of such instrument shall be filed with the
Registrar for registration. The filing must be completed within 30 days after the date at which
the instrument or copy would, in due course of post, and if despatched with due diligence be
received in India. If the mortgage or charge is created in India but the property is outside India
can then the instrument creating the charge or mortgage or a copy thereof in prescribed
manner must be filed in with the Registrar within 30 days after the creation of the mortgage or
charge even though further formalities or steps are required to complete the mortgage of the
property which is outside India according to law of the land in which the property is situated.
(a) Modification of charge - Section 135 of the Act provides that “whenever the terms or
conditions or the extent or operation of any charge registered under this part are or is
modified, it shall be the duty of company to send to the Registrar the particulars of such
modifications and the provisions of this part as to registration of a charge shall apply to
modification of the charge.”
The term ‘modification’ includes variation of any of the terms of the agreement including
variation of rate of interest which may be by mutual agreement or by operation of law. Even if
the rights of a charge holder are assigned to a third party, it will be regarded as a modification.
What constitutes modification?
1. where the charge is modified by varying any terms and conditions of the existing charge
by agreement;
2. where the modification is in pursuance of an agreement for enhancing or decreasing the
limits;
3. where the modification is by ceding a pari passu charge;
4. change in rate of interest (other than bank rate);
5. change in repayment schedule of loan; (this is not applicable in working capital loans
which are repayable on demand) and
6. partial release of the charge on a particular asset or property.
(b) Registration and satisfaction of charge - Registration of charges under Section 125
constitutes a notice to whosoever acquires a future interest on the charged assets. The
Registrar has to maintain in respect of each company a register of charges with a proper
chronological index [Sections 130 and 131]. The certificate of registration which must be given
by Registrar under his hand is conclusive evidence of proper registration [Section 132].
In case the appointment of a receiver or manager is made, the person who obtains the order
for such an appointment is bound to notify the Registrar about it, within 30 days of the
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passage of the order of such appointment and the Registrar on payment of the prescribed fee,
must enter in his register this appointment.
(c) Satisfaction of charge - Whenever any charge is created by a company and registered with
the Registrar at the instance of the company or the charge holder and is satisfied in full, the
company shall give an intimation thereof to the Registrar as to the payment and satisfaction in
full of the said charge within 30 days from the date of such payment or satisfaction, upon
which the Registrar will send a notice to the holder of the charge to show cause why payment
or satisfaction, as notified by the company should not be recorded. Notice by the Registrar will
be issued as early as possible so that unnecessary delay in recording particulars of
satisfaction of the charge is avoided. The best procedure for notifying satisfaction of the
charge to the Registrar by the company (in Form No. 17) is to attach with the form a certified
copy of the chargeholder’s letter confirming the date of the satisfaction of the charge. In some
cases, the financial institutions and the banks take considerable time in conforming the
satisfaction of the charge to the company. In this context, the Department is of the view that
the period of thirty days under Section 138 of the Act for reporting satisfaction of the charge, in
cases where banks are involved, will be counted from the date of issue of the bank’s letter to
companies intimating them about satisfaction of the charge under Section 138.
Part payment or satisfaction of charge need not be intimated to the Registrar; only satisfaction
in full has to be reported within 30 days from the date of such payment or satisfaction [Section
138]. The Registrar is empowered to make entries of satisfaction, even though not intimated
by the company [Section 139]. If the entry turns out to be incorrect, it cannot affect the charge
holder’s rights unless he was a consenting party to the making of the entry. According to
Section 140 the company will have to be furnished with a copy of memorandum of satisfaction.
A rectification of the register of charges can also be made under the orders of a Court on the
application of the company or any person interested [Section 141].
(d) Register of charges [Section 143] - Every company is under an obligation to keep at its
registered office a register of charges and enter therein all charges specifically affecting
property of the company and all floating charges on the undertaking or any property of the
company. In each such case, the following particulars must be entered namely (i) a short
description of the property charged, (ii) the amount of the charges and (iii) except in the case
of securities to bear, the names of the persons entitled to charges. Any officer of the company
who knowingly omits or wilfully authorises or permits the omission of any entry renders himself
punishable with fine extending up to Rs. 5000.
(e) Rights of inspection of instrument and company’s register of charge - During office hours,
inspection by any creditor or member of the company is allowed without charging any fee
therefore. An inspection of the register of charges is permitted to an outsider on payment of a
fee of one rupee for each inspection at the registered office of the company. Default in
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allowing inspection is liable to a penalty or fine which may extend up to Rs. 500 and with
further fine extending up to Rs. 20 for every day during which the default continues. The Court
may also compel an immediate inspection of the copies of the register, as the case may be
[Section 144].
3.31 SELF-EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Choose the Correct Alternative
1. An extraordinary general meeting may be convened:
(a) By the Board of Directors on its own or on the requisition of members.
(b) By the requisition of members on the failure of the Board to call the meeting.
(c) By the Company Law Board.
(d) Any of the above.
2. Which one of the following is not true about shares
(a) It is a right to participate in the profits made by a company.
(b) Share is not a negotiable instrument.
(c) Share is small unit in the share capital.
(d) Share is not considered as goods.
3. A depositor who has invested in a financial year a sum not exceeding Rs. 20, 000/- in a
company and includes is successors, nominees and legal representatives is known as
(a) Medium depositor.
(b) Small depositor.
(c) Conservative depositor.
(d) Liberal depositor.
4. A company may issue shares
(a) At discount.
(b) At premium.
(c) At par
(d) Any of the above.
5. An instrument of transfer signed by the transferor in which the name of the transferee
and date of transfer are not failed is called as
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36. When does the resolution for the reduction of share capital take effect?
37. What is the member’s liability in respect of reduced shares?
38. Section 79 specifies circumstances in which shares can be lawfully issued at a discount.
Is it necessary that all these specified circumstances must exist for the validity of such an
issue?
39. In case of improper issue of shares at a discount, are the directors bound to compensate
the company ?
40. Can shares by issued at different premiums?
41. Can shares at a premium be issued for consideration other than cash?
42. What is the significance of a share certificate in so far as the company is concerned?
43. Section 94 allows a company to increase its capital by issuing new shares. Can such
new shares be offered to the public?
44. The soundness of A & Co. Ltd. promoted B to buy the majority of the shares of the
company from the open market. Immediately after the purchase of the shares by B, the
directors of the company offered rights shares in conformity with the law and duly allotted
them to the existing members. Two shareholders who had sold shares to B filed a suit
against the scheme on two grounds : (i) that company not being in need of further capital,
its allotment was not bona fide in the interest of the company; and (ii) that about 275
shares of the new issue were not in fact offered to the shareholders. It was established
that the company in fact needed the funds. In the circumstances, could the second
contention of the shareholders be upheld ? [Nandalal Zaveri v. The Bombay Life
Assurance Co. AIR [1950] SC 172].
45. (a) Can new shares be offered to outsiders in total disregard of the existing shareholders
? and (b) How ?
46. Has the Central Government any power to convert into shares any debentures issued to
or loan taken from the Government by a company?
47. Is variation of shareholder’s right permissible where memorandum or articles contain no
provision in respect to such variation?
48. The holders of 3/5th of the issued shares of a particular class have consented to the
variation in writing. Will the variation be permissible?
49. If a special resolution sanctioning the variation has been passed at a separate meeting of
the shareholders of a particular class, can the rights attaching the class be varied?
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50. Suppose, the holders of at least 10% of the shares of concerned class do not consent to
or vote in favour of the resolution. Then what should they do?
51. Is there any time limit for the action as conceived by Question 28?
52. A public company has the right to convert (i) its fully paid-up shares; and (ii) its partly
paid-up share warrants. Which is true ?
53. For the purpose of share warrants, which of the two things are necessary: authority of the
articles or the approval of Central Government?
54. How may be bearer of a share warrant transfer the shares comprised therein?
55. Is registration of transfer optional with the company?
56. Can a private company assume power in its articles to issue share warrants?
57. Will it be sufficient legal compliance if only the transferor executes the instrument of
transfer of shares?
58. Is it necessary to specify the name, address and occupation of the transferee in the
transfer-deed?
59. Does instrument of transfer need stamping?
60. The law requires the instrument of transfer to be delivered to the company along with the
certificate relating to the shares transferred. But if no such certificate is in existence, then
what should the parties do?
61. Can the instrument of transfer be in any form?
62. Can the instrument be signed by the transferor or can any entry be made in the
instrument before it is presented to the prescribed authority?
63. What is the prescribed authority required to do with the instrument?
64. What is the next step to be taken in this regard and by whom?
65. When is the instrument to be presented to the company (a) when share are quoted on a
recognised stock exchange and (b) where it is not be quoted?
66. When all the requirements relating to transfer are compiled with what should the
company do ?
67. Can registration of transfer of shares be refused by the company on any ground ?
68. State the period within which the notice of refusal must be communicated to both the
transferor and the transferee ?
69. What is the remedy of the parties in case of refusal ?
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70. Can the Company Law Board compel the company to register the transfer ?
71. Can a company create a charge on the security of its reserve capital ?
Essay / Practical Questions
72. How far can a minor become a member of a company under the Companies Act, 1956?
73. Explain the meaning and significance of the ‘Pari Passu’ clause in a debenture. State the
particulars to be filed with the Registrar of Companies in case of such debentures
secured by a charge on certain assets of the company.
74. What do you understand by the term 'Charge'? State the list of charges which are
required to be filed for Registration with the Registrar of Companies.
75. When can a Public Company offer the new shares (further issue of shares) to persons
other than the existing shareholders of the Company? Can these shares be offered to the
Preference Shareholders?
76. With reference to the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956 explain the circumstances
under which a subsidiary company can become a member of its holding company-
Examine the position of the following with regard to membership in a company:
(i) An Insolvent
(ii) Partnership Firm.
77. Explain the following with reference to transfer of shares in a company registered under
the Companies Act 1956:
(i) Blank Transfers
(ii) Forged Transfers.
78. ABC Limited realised on 2nd May, 2001 that particulars of charge created on 12th March,
2001 in favour of a Bank were not field with the Register of Companies for Registration,
What procedure should the Company follow to get the charge registered with the
Registrar of Companies? Would the procedure he different if the charge was created on
12th February, 2001 instead of 12th March, 2001? Explain with reference to the relevant
provisions of the Companies Act, 1956.
79. What is a Debenture Certificate? When and within what time it should be issued’ Is there
any penalty for the delay or default in the issue of such certificate?
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80. Explain the meaning of ‘Sweat Equity Shares’ and state the conditions a company has to
fulfill for issuing such shares.
81. Explain the term 'Share Warrant'. How does it differ from 'Share Certificate'?
82. Name any five charges which are required to be registered under the Companies Act.
1956. What is the effect of non-registration of a charge under Companies Act, 1956?
83. State the types of debentures which may be issued by a public company.
84. Define the term ‘Small Depositors’. State the legal provisions relating to acceptance,
repayment and further deposits of such small depositors under the Companies
Amendment Act, 2000. (Nov. 2002)
85. ‘A’ commits forgery and thereby obtains a certificate of transfer of shares from a
company and transfers the shares to ‘B’ for value acting in good faith. Company refuses
to transfer the shares to ‘B’. Whether the company can refuse? Decide the liability of ‘A’
and of the company towards ‘B’.
86. What are the conditions and procedure whereunder shares may be forfeited under the
Companies Act, 1956?
87. After receiving 80% of the minimum subscription as stated in the prospectus, a company
allotted 100 equity shares in favour of ‘X’. The company deposited the said amount in the
bank but withdrew 50% of the amount, before finalisation of the allotment, for the
purchase of certain assets. X refuses to accept the allotment of shares on the ground
that the allotment is voilative of the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956. Comment.
88. A who holds one share certificate of 1000 Equity shares in a company, wants to transfer
300 shares in favour of B. Explain the procedure to be followed for executing the partial
transfer under the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956.
89. What are the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956 relating to the appointment of
‘Debenture Trustee’ by a company? Whether the following can be appointed as
‘Debenture Trustee’:
(i) A shareholder who has no beneficial interest.
(ii) A creditor whom the company owes Rs. 499 only.
(iii) A person who has given a guarantee for repayment of amount of debentures issued
by the company.
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90. Examine the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956 regarding ‘nomination’ in case of
transmission of shares.
91. What is the concept of “charge” under the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956? Point
out the circumstances where under a floating charge becomes a fixed charge.
92. Explain briefly the distinction between shares and debentures and state whether a
company can issue debentures with voting rights.
93. The Board of Directors of M/s Reckless Investments Ltd. have allotted shares to the
investors of the company without issuing a prospectus or filing a statement in lieu of
prospectus with the Registrar of Companies, Mumbai. Explain the remedies available to
the investors in this regard.
3.32 Answers
1. (d); 2. (d); 3. (b); 4. (d); 5. (a); 6. (b); 7. (d); 8. (b); 9. (d); 10. (b); 11. (d);
12. (a); 13. (b); 14. (d); 15. (b); 16. (b); 17. (c); 18. (b); 19. (c); 20. (d); 21. (d);
22. (b);
23. First entitlement to the receipt of dividends in preference to equity shareholders when the
company is a going concern and to the payment of the amount paid up on preference shares
when it is in liquidation,
24. No;
25. No;
26. No;
27. Both incorrect;
28. (a) Capital Redemption Reserve Account;
28. (b) Amount paid on redemption;
29. No, except when sanctioned by the Court;
30. Capital being the only security on which the creditors rely, must not be allowed to be
depleted except under genuine necessity,
31. True;
32. Special resolution;
33. Apply to the court by petition for its confirmation order;
34. No
35. When reduction diminishes shareholder’s liability to pay uncalled capital or involves
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61. No;
62. No;
63. To stamp or otherwise endorse on the instrument of the date of presentation;
64. Execution; completion and presentment to the company for registration by the transferor
and the transferee
65. (a) Either before the closure of register of members or within 12 months whichever is
later;
65. (b) Within 2 months from the date of presentation to the prescribed authority;
66. Register the transfer and replace transferor’s name by that of transferee in the Register of
members;
67. Yes;
68. Within 2 months;
69. To appeal to the Company Law Board;
70. Yes, if the refusal is found to be unjustifiable;
71. No;
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4.0 INTRODUCTION
Since a company is an artificial legal entity distinct from that of its members, the affairs of the
company is practically done by the Board of Directors. The Board of Directors in carrying out
the day-to-day affairs of the company have to perform the role within their limited powers and
the powers, which are granted to them. Certain powers can be exercised by the board of their
own and with the consent of the company at the general meeting. The shareholders as
owners of the company ratify the actions of the board at the meetings of the company. The
meetings of the shareholders serve as the focal point for the shareholders to converge and
give their decisions on the actions taken by the directors.
4.1 Classification of meetings
Meetings held under the Companies Act, 1956 may be classified as follows:
1. Meetings of shareholders or members:
(a) Statutory meeting.
(b) Annual general meeting.
(c) Extraordinary general meeting.
(d) Class meetings.
2. Meeting of debenture holders.
3. Meetings of creditors and contributories in winding up.
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Default in filing the statutory report or in holding the statutory meeting is one of the grounds on
which the company may be wound up by the Court (Section 433). The Court may instead of
making a winding up order, direct the report to be delivered or the meeting to be held and
order the costs to be paid by the persons in default. [Section 433(3)].
4.2.3.2 Adjournment of statutory meeting: Section 165(8) provides that the statutory
meeting may be adjourned from time to time, and at any adjourned meeting, any resolution of
which notice has been given in accordance with the provisions of the Act, whether before or
after the former meeting, may be passed; and the adjourned meeting shall have the same
power as an original meeting.
The power to adjourn rests with the decision of the meeting, that is to say, the chairman may
not adjourn without the consent of the meeting, and must adjourn if so directed by the
meeting, notwithstanding any discretionary power given to the chairman by the articles.
Normally, where the chairman is given a discretion he is not bound to adjourn the meeting
even if the majority desires it [Salisbury Gold Mining Co. Vs. Hathorn (1897) AC 268;
Parashuram Vs. Tata Industrial Bank Ltd. (1924) ILR 47 Bom. 915].
The statutory meeting also provides an exception to the normal rule that only business left
unfinished at the original meeting can be transacted at the adjourned meeting [Reg. 53(2),
Table A]. Members have a right to introduce new business at the adjourned meeting, for the
Act provides that any resolution of which notice has been given in accordance with the
provisions of the Act, either before or after the former meeting, may be passed, and the
adjourned meeting has the same power as an original meeting. If the meeting wishes to pass
a resolution on any matter which it is entitled to discuss it may adjourn so that in accordance
with the provisions of the Act may be given in the interval.
4.2.3.3 Default: If any default is made in filing the statutory report or in holding the statutory
meeting, those in default are liable to a fine, which may extend to five thousand rupees
[Section 165(9)]. Another consequence of not holding the statutory meeting in time is that the
court can under Section 433(b) order the compulsory winding up of the defaulting company.
4.2.3.4 Statutory Report: The Directors are required to send a report to the members of
the company at least 21 days before the meeting. Even if the report is forwarded later than
required, it shall be deemed to have been duly forwarded, if all the members entitled to attend
and vote agree to it (sub-section 2). The eight particulars to be set out in the statutory report
are contained in sub-section (3) of Section 165. These are:
(a) the number of shares allotted, distinguishing fully or partly paid up, otherwise than for
cash and stating the extent to which the partly paid up shares have been paid and the
consideration for which they have been allotted;
(b) the total amount of cash received on account of shares allotted;
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(c) an abstract of receipts and payments up to the date within 7 days of the date of report,
exhibiting under distinctive headings the receipts of the company from shares and
debentures and other sources, the payment made thereout and particulars concerning
the balance remaining in hand and an account or estimate of the preliminary expenses of
the company, showing separately any commission or discount paid or to be paid on the
issue or sale of shares or debentures;
(d) the names addresses and occupations of the directors and auditors, manager and
secretary, if any, and any changes therein, if occurred, since the date of the company’s
incorporation;
(e) the particulars of any contract or modifications thereof to be submitted to the meeting for
its approval;
(f) the extent of non-carrying of each underwriting contract together with the reason
therefore;
(g) the arrears due on calls from every director and manager; and
(h) particulars of commission or brokerage paid or to be paid to any director for manager in
connection with the issue or sale of shares or debentures.
The report aforesaid must be certified as correct by at least two directors, one of whom should
be the managing director, if there be any. The auditors should also certify it to be correct
insofar as the report relates to shares allotted by the company, cash received in respect
thereof and receipts and payments on revenue as well as on capital account of the company.
A copy of the above report should be sent to the Registrar also, after it has been sent to the
members [Section 165(5)].
4.3 Annual General Meeting: Section 166 provides that every company must hold annual
general meeting in addition to any other meetings at stipulated intervals specifying the
meetings as such in the notice calling the meeting. The first annual general meeting of a
company may, however, be held within 18 months of incorporation, and so long as the
company hold its first annual general meeting within that period, the company need not hold
any general meeting in the year of incorporation or in the following year [first proviso to
Section 166 (1)]. This provision is intended to enable the company to make its first set up
financial reports covering a longer period than what it wishes to be its financial year on cases
where the first date of such year does not correspond with the date of its incorporation and
present then in time for the first annual general meeting.
The second proviso to Section 166(1) states that the Registrar of Companies may, for any
special reason, extend the time within which any annual general meeting (not being the first
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annual general meeting) shall be held, by a period not exceeding three months. If the
Registrar grants such extension of time, a company may not, in some cases, hold the annual
general meeting in a particular year. For example, if the company was to hold its annual
general meeting by the latest on 31st December of a particular year and the company had
obtained an extension of time for holding the annual general meeting, the meeting could be
held only in the following year. According to the clarification given by the Company Law
Board/Tribunal, the Registrar and grant extension of time for special reasons up to the
maximum limit of 3 months, even if such extension allows the company to hold its annual
general meeting beyond the calendar year.
4.3.1 Interval between two annual general meetings: According to Section 166(1), there
must not be more than 15 months between two consecutive annual general meetings. Section
210 requires the directors of a company to lay at every annual general meeting of the
company a profit and loss account, or in the case of a company not trading for profit, income
and expenditure account. The first account must cover the period since incorporation, and
must be made up to a date not earlier than the date of meeting by more than nine months.
Subsequent accounts must cover the period since the preceding account, and must be made
up to a date not earlier than the date of meeting by more than six months. The account is
required to be accompanied by a balance sheet as at the date to which the profit and loss
account or income and expenditure account is made up.
It will therefore be appreciated that while a company may hold its annual general meeting in a
year within the time limit of 15 months as provided by Section 166(1) it may still contravene
Section 210. The date on which the annual general meeting is to be held is apart from the first
annual general meeting, which is subject to different rules determined by three factors of time:
(1) The meeting must be held in each year;
(2) It must not held later than 15 months from the date of previous annual meeting; and
(3) It must not held later than six months of date of balance sheet.
These three requirements are cumulative and separate: failure to comply with any of them
constitutes an offence unless the Registrar of Companies has granted an extension of time for
holding the meeting. The period of such extension is limited to three months [Second proviso
to [Section 166 (6)]
The following example will explain the position: The financial year of a company ends on
31st December each year. The annual general meeting to adopt the accounts, etc. of the year
ending 31st December, 1991 was held on 29th June, 1992. Under Section 166(1) the next
annual general meeting need not be held until 29th September, 1993, but the accounts would
be those, up to 31st December, 1991 which is more than six months before the date of the
meeting. Therefore the last for holding that meeting would be 30th June, 1993.
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Thus in fixing the date of the annual general meeting, Section 166 as well as Section 210 must
be considered. A company and its directors may thus commit three different offences: that of
not holding the annual general meeting in a calendar year, that of not holding the meeting
within 15 months after the last meeting, and that of not holding the meeting within six months
of the date to which the accounts are made up. [B.N. Viswanathan Vs. Assistant Registrar of
Joint Stock Companies, Madras (1953) 23 Comp. Cas. 63; AIR 1953 Mad 558; Sevaram
Pansari Vs. Registrar of Companies (1964) 34 Comp.Cas.31]
4.3.2 Date, time and place: An annual general meeting must be called for at any time during
business hours, on a day that is not a public holiday, and must be held either at the registered
office of the company or at some other place within the city, town or village in which the
registered office of the company is situated, unless the company belongs to a class of
companies exempted by Central Government from these requirements [Section 166(2)].
A public company or private company which is a subsidiary of public company, may by its
articles fix the time for its annual general meeting and may also by resolution passed in one
general meeting fix the time for its subsequent annual general meetings [Second proviso (a)
to Section 166(2)].
A private company which is not a subsidiary of public company, may in like manner and also
by a resolution agreed to by all the members thereof, fix the time as well as the place for its
annual general meeting [Second proviso (6) of Section 166(2)]. Such a place need not be
within the city, town or village in which the registered office of the company his situated.
Can an annual general meeting be held on a public holiday? An annual general meeting
cannot be held on a public holiday. A public holiday has been defined in Section 2(38) as a
public holiday within the meaning of the Negotiable Instruments Act 1881. Explanation to
Section 25 of Negotiable Instruments Act states that the expression “public holiday” includes
Sundays and any other day declared by the Central Government, by notification in the official
Gazette, to be a public holiday. A day may be declared to be a public holiday after the notices
calling the meeting for the day have already been issued. To avoid the difficulties that may be
caused from such a situation, Section 2(38) provides that no day declared by the Central
Government to be a public holiday shall be deemed to be such a holiday in relation to any
meeting, unless the declaration was notified before the issue of the notice convening such
meeting.
4.3.3 Default in holding annual general meeting: If an offence is committed by a company
by not holding an annual general meeting in accordance with Section 166, it will render the
company and every officer of the company who is in default, punishable with fine which may
extend to Rs. 50,000 and in the case of a continuing default with further fine which may extend
to Rs. 2,500 for every day after the first day which such default continued, (Section 168).
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The company Law Board may, not withstanding any thing in this Act, or in the Articles of the
company, on the application of any member of the company, call or direct the calling of a
general meeting of the company and gives such ancillary or consequential directions as the
Company Law Board thinks expedient in relation to the calling, holding and conducting of the
meeting. The directions, which the Company Law Board may give, include a direction that one
member of the company present in person or by proxy shall be deemed to constitute a
meeting. A general meeting so held is deemed, subject to any directions of Company Law
Board, to be an annual general meeting of the company. (Section 167).
4.3.3 Relevant case laws:
1. The annual general meeting must be called, whether or not the annual accounts are ready
for consideration at the meeting [Re El Sombrero Ltd. (1958)].
2. An annual general meeting held beyond time can not be said to be void or illegal if the
Registrar’s permission is obtained, because the meeting must be held; it is not true to
say that once the time for holding the meeting has expired the meeting can never be held
as Sections 166,167 and 168 make the failure to hold an annual general meeting within
time punishable with penalty and do not say that the annual general meeting held after
the prescribed time is void. Therefore, the meeting can be held and it will be valid even
after the time fixed for holding it has expired. [Hungerford Investment Trust Ltd. Vs.
Tourner Morrison & Co. Ltd. ILR(1972) 1 Cal 186].
3. If because of circumstances beyond their control (for example, pandemonium in the hall)
the directors decided not to hold the meeting, it can not be said to have been held by
mere fact that before the directors’ announcement, printed copies of balance sheet and
agenda had been distributed to shareholders. [Selvaraj Vs. Mylapore Hindu Permanent
Fund Ltd. (1968) 38 Comp. Cas 153 (Mad)].
4. It may be noted that directors could not be allowed to escape performance of duties
regarding the meeting by a mere plea that they had no real control over the affairs of the
company and they did not wilfully permit default; if directors were mere passive
spectators and did not have the statutory requirements carried out, they may be
considered as having wilfully permitted default [Sarasvati Printers Limited Vs. State
(1968) 30 Comp. Cas 523 (Raj)].
5. An annual general meeting can not be held at a place other than the town, city etc. in
which registered office is situated. [Dineker Rai D. Desai .Vs. R.P. Bhasin (1986)].
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6. If the registered office is not available, moving to a nearby place and holding meeting
there is not a violation of law; it is only an irregularity. [M.R.S. Rathnavelusami Chettiar
Vs. M.R.S. Manickavelu Chettiar (1951) 21 Comp. Cas. 93 (Mad.)].
7. Where all members of the company were also members of the board of directors, a
meeting of the board could well be treated as a general meeting of the company. [P.VS.
Damodara Reddi Vs. Indian National Agencies Ltd. (1945) 15 Comp. Cas 148(Mad.)].
8. Holding of the AGM, whether or not the annual accounts are ready for consideration at
the meeting, is a statutory requirement under Section 166 of the Companies Act, 1956.
In fact consideration of accounts is only one of the matters to be dealt at an AGM (Re. E1
Sumbrero Ltd. It has also been held in Re, Brahambaria Loan Co. (1934) that if the
annual accounts are not ready for being laid before the meeting as required by Section
210(1) the proper course to follow is to hold the meeting within the prescribed period and
then adjourn it to a suitable date, say a month later for considering the accounts.
Therefore, holding of the AGM even without getting the annual accounts ready is quite
valid. However, in view of the decisions in the Bejoy Kumar Karani V. Registrar of
Companies (W.B) (1985) and also in view of the 1988 an amendment to Section 220,
care should be taken by the company to ensure that the adjourned AGM was held within
the statutory period to avoid violation of Section 210 and 220 of the Companies Act,
1956.
4.4 Extraordinary general meeting (Section 169): An extraordinary general meeting is any
general meeting of a company other than the statutory meeting or the annual general meeting
or any adjournment thereof. Such a meeting may held subject to the terms of the Articles of
Association at any time the directors think fit, and when they desire to transact the business of
a special character.
There are, various matters in relation to administration of a company’s affairs, which can be
transacted only by resolutions of members in a general meeting. It is not always possible or
expedient for consideration of such matters to wait until the next annual meeting. The Articles
of Association of the company therefore make provisions for the convention of general
meeting other than the annual general meeting. Such meetings are termed extraordinary
general meetings’. (Regulation 47 of Table A).
An extraordinary general meeting may be convened:
1. by the Board of Directors on its own or on the requisition of members ; or
2. by the requisitionists themselves on the failure of the Board to call the meeting;
3. by the Company Law Board.
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1. By the Board of Directors: (a) On its own: An extraordinary general meeting may be
convened by the directors if some business of special importance requires an approval from
the members. The articles invariably provide, as does Reg. 48 (1) Table A that the Board of
directors may, whenever it thinks fit, call an extraordinary general meeting.
It is contended by some people that the term ‘extraordinary general meeting’ should be
confined to a general meeting called on the requisition of members under Section 169, as not
only this section is headed “calling of extraordinary general meeting on requisition” but the
term is also so used in the body of section; however, Reg. 47 of Table A specifically provides
that “all general meeting other than annual general meetings should be called extraordinary
general meetings. It may therefore be noted that if the Articles of a company contain a clause
in similar terms, every general meeting other than an annual general meeting, whether
convened by the directors of their own or on requisition of members should be called an
extraordinary general meeting.
Exercise of directors’ power to call extraordinary general meetings. The directors’ power to call
general meeting including extraordinary general meeting must, like their other powers, be
exercised at a properly convened Board meeting. It is not open to some of the directors to
convene a general meeting of their own motion [Harben Vs. Phillips (1883) Ch.D-14].
If the Articles provide that a resolution in writing signed by all the members of the board
without meeting is as effective as a resolution passed at a Board meeting as in normally the
case, (Reg.81 of table A), a general meeting may be convened on a resolution so signed.
The Articles also frequently provide for the contingency that there may be insufficient number
of directors to call an extraordinary general meeting. Thus, Reg 48(2) of Table A provides that
if at any time there are not within India sufficient directors capable of acting to form a quorum,
any director or any two members of the company may call an extraordinary general meeting in
the same manner (as nearly as possible) as meetings are convened by the Board of directors.
(b) On requisition of members: The members of a company may also ask for an
extraordinary meeting to be held. The Rules in this regard may be noted as hereunder:
Persons entitled to requisition (Section 169). A requisition for convening an extraordinary
general meeting may be made by members (i) holding 10% of the paid-up share capital of the
company and having a right to vote at the date of deposit of requisition on the matter to be
discussed at the meeting or (ii) if the company has no share capital, members having 10% of
the voting power of all members having a right to vote at the date of the deposit of requisition
on the matter to be discussed. Shares on which any call money is due or shares the holder of
which has died will be excluded in counting 1/10th, as they have no power on the date of
deposit of the requisition. Preference shareholders can join in the requisition only if their
dividends are in arrears for the specified period or if the proposed resolution is likely to affect
their interest, e.g., a resolution for winding up of the company. After requisition if any
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2. By the requisitionists themselves: If the directors fail to issue the notice of the meeting
within 21 days from the date of the deposit of requisition to convene the meeting on a day not
later than 45 days from the date of deposit of the requisition, the meeting may be called:
(a) in the case of company having a share capital, by the requisitionists representing either a
majority in value of the paid up share capital held by all of them or not less than one-
tenth of the paid up share capital of the company having the right of voting, whichever is
less; or
(b) in case of a company not having a share capital, by the requisitionists representing not
less than one-tenth of the total voting power of all the members of the company [Section
169(6)].
Such a meeting must be held within a period of three months from the date of the deposit of
requisition by the requisitionists or any of them. The meeting shall be called in the same
manner as nearly as possible that in which Board meeting are called [Section 169(7)].
It may be noted that it is not necessary for the requisitionists to disclose reasons for resolution
they propose to move at the meeting. Thus in Life Insurance Corporation of India Vs. Escort
Ltd. (1986) 59 Comp. Cas. 548 (S.C), certain financial institutions held 52 percent shares in
company E. Company E had launched litigation in a case which the institutions did not
approve of and suggested withdrawal of litigation and have further discussions. As the
management did not agree to this course, one of the institutions (LIC) requisitioned an
extraordinary general meeting for the purpose of removing the non-executive directors and
electing new directors in their places. Company E sought an order restraining the LIC from
requisition the meeting; the contention of E was the LIC being an instrumentality of the State,
it was incumbent upon it to state reason for the resolution for removal of directors.
Held that every shareholder of a company has the right, subject to statutorily prescribed
procedural and numerical requirements to call an extraordinary general meeting in accordance
with the provision of the companies Act. He cannot be restrained from calling a meeting and
he is not bound to disclose the reasons for the resolution proposed to be moved at the
meeting. Nor are the reasons for the resolutions subject to judicial review. No doubt, under
Section 173(2), there shall be annexed to the notice of the meeting a statement setting out all
material facts concerning each item of business to be transacted at the meeting including in
particular, the nature of concern a the interest, if any, there in, of every director, and of the
manager, if any. This is a duty cast on the management to disclose, in an explanatory note, all
material facts related to resolution coming up before the general meeting to enable the
shareholders to form a judgement on the business before them. It does not require the
shareholders calling meeting to disclose the reasons for the resolution which they propose to
move at the meeting. Therefore, the LIC, in the present case, as a shareholders of E, had as
the same right as every shareholder to call an extraordinary general meeting of the company
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for the purpose of moving a resolution to remove some directors and appoint others in their
place. Hence, the LIC could not be restrained from doing so, nor was it bound to disclose its
reasons for moving the resolution.
When the State or an instrumentality of the State ventures into the corporate world and
purchases the shares of a company, it assume to itself the ordinary role of a shareholder, and
don the robes of a shareholder, with all the right available to such a shareholder. There is no
reason why the State as a shareholder should be expected to state its reasons when it seeks
to change the management by resolution of the company, like any other shareholder.
It may again be noted that where an amalgamation scheme has been approved in a statutory
meeting under Section 391, shareholders cannot requisition a meeting to compel the company
for withdrawing its petition pending before Court for its sanction under Section 392.
Thus in Centron Industrial Alliance Ltd. Vs. Pravin Kantilal Vikil (1985)57 Comp. Cas.
12(Bom)., after a scheme for the amalgamation of company C with company B had been
approved by an overwhelming majority of shareholders and secured and unsecured creditors,
it was filed with High Court for sanction. While it was pending with the High Court, some
shareholders requisitioned an extraordinary general meeting of the company to consider a
resolution to the effect that the company should examine alternate sanction of High Court to
the proposed scheme. The meeting was conveyed but another shareholder sought an
injunction to restrain the company from holding this extraordinary general meeting. The
question was whether after the approval of the scheme in the meeting held under Section 391,
and presentation of the scheme to the High Court for sanction, the shareholders could
requisition a meeting for compelling the company to withdraw its petition from the High Court.
Held that under Section 391, read with rule 79 of the Companies (Court) Rules after a scheme
is approved at the statutory meeting held for the purpose, the company is under an obligation
to present a petition for confirmation of the scheme within 7 days of the filing of the report by
the chairman of such meeting or meetings. Accordingly, company C was under a statutory
obligation to present a petition for sanctioning the scheme. The requisitioned meeting clearly
interfered with the company’s obligation in this connection. In Isle of Wight Railways Co. Vs.
Tahaourdin (1884) 25 Ch. D 320 (CA), Lord Justice Lindley had in his guarded language,
expressed a view that if the resolution proposed to be passed at the requisitioned meeting
were wholly illegal, then the board of directors would be under no obligation to call meeting
requisitioned for the purpose of passing such an illegal resolution. Thus, there could be no
point in calling a meeting for passing a resolution, which would be wholly illegal. Even
otherwise, in the instant case, the meeting had not been called to consider the internal
management of the company. The resolution, which had been proposed, did not deal with
matters, which concerned only the company and its shareholders. The purpose of the
requisition was to compel the company to withdraw the petition for amalgamation which was
pending before the Court. A scheme of amalgamation affects not merely the company and its
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shareholders, but it also vitally concern an important body of outsiders, viz., the creditors of
the company, both secured and unsecured. It is, therefore, important that any opposition to
this scheme should be express and taken note of in the manner provided in Section 391 and
not by the shareholders requisition a meeting in order to compel the company to withdraw the
petition. In the present case, there appeared to be a clear attempt on the part of the opponent
to interfere with the petition under Section 391 which was to pending in the Court .It seemed
that the opponents, by calling a requisitioned meeting of the shareholders were seeking to
undo the effect of the statutory meeting which had been already held to consider the scheme
and seeking to postpone the sanctioning of the scheme by the Court as far as possible. The
requisitioned meeting in the present case, therefore, was convened for a purpose, which was
totally different from the purpose for which such meetings are ordinarily convened. Thus, the
shareholders could not requisition such a meeting for compelling the company to withdraw its
petition from the High Court.
It may further be noted that the Court cannot prevent shareholders from requisitioning a
meeting, discussing and passing a resolution, proposing a modification to an amalgamation
scheme, even when the scheme is pending for sanction before Court. Thus in Pravin Kantilal
Vakil Vs. Mrs. Rohini Ramesh Save(1985) Comp. Cas. 31 (Bom.), a scheme of amalgamation
of company C with company B was approved at a statutory meeting convened under Section
391, after which the scheme was presented to the High Court for sanction. The scheme, inter
alia, provided for exchange ratio of share of B for 5 shares of C. While the scheme was
pending in the High Court, an extraordinary general meeting was requisitioned for the purpose
of asking the company C to re-negotiate with B, as according to the requisitionists the ratio
was not fair and equitable. The question was whether the Court could prevent the
shareholders from discussing the modification on the ground that the scheme of amalgamation
was already pending before the Court.
Held that Section 392 gives wide powers to the Court to give such directions in regard to any
matter or make such modification in the compromise or arrangement as it may consider
necessary for the proper working of the compromise or arrangement arrived at. Under the said
Section 392 the Court even at the instance of any shareholder could consider any such
modification in the scheme. In that event, a mere discussion by the shareholders at a properly
requisitioned meeting about the proposed modification to the scheme pending before the
Court for sanction and if approved passing a resolution to that effect would not by itself affect
either the scheme or the Court’s powers to consider the modification and sanction of the
scheme with or without modification. Thus, the shareholders could requisition the meeting for
proposing a modification to the scheme pending for sanction before the Court.
It may be mentioned here that once a final dividend is declared at an annual general meeting,
no further dividend can be declared at an extraordinary general meeting. Sections
166,186,210,211,217 and provisions in Schedule VI, Part II, clause (3) (xiv) of the Act indicate
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that the declaration of the dividend is a business of annual general meeting. Clause 3 (xiv) in
Schedule VI states that the profit and loss account is to set out the aggregate amount of
dividends paid and proposed. It, therefore, manifest that interim dividends and dividends
proposed at the annual general meeting exhaust the dividends for the year. Further, Section
173 makes declaration of dividend a business of the ordinary general meeting. Therefore,
there is no power to declare further dividend at an extraordinary meeting [Biswanath Prasad
Khaitan Vs. New Central Jute Mills Co. Ltd. (1961) 31 Comp. Cas. 125 (Cal)].
The business to be transacted at the extraordinary general meeting will be special in all cases
[See Section 173 (1) (b)]. It is to be noted that even at an extraordinary meeting both ordinary
and special resolution can be passed.
Relevant judicial rulings (Extraordinary general meetings).
1. Every shareholder of a company has the right, subject to statutorily prescribed
procedural and numerical requirements, to call an extraordinary general meeting in
accordance with the provisions of the Companies Acts. He cannot be restrained from
calling a meeting and he is not bound to disclose the reasons for the resolution proposed
to be moved at the meeting. Nor are the reasons for the resolutions subject to judicial
review. No doubt, under Section 173(2), there shall be annexed to the notice of the
meeting a statement setting out all material facts concerning each item of business to be
transacted at the meeting including, in particular, the nature of the concern or the
interest, if any, therein, of every director and managers, if any. This is duty cast on the
management to disclose, in an explanatory note, all material facts relating to the
resolution coming up before the general meeting to enable the shareholders to form a
judgement on the business before them. It does not require the shareholders calling a
meeting to disclose the reasons for the resolution, which they propose to move at the
meeting. [Life Insurance Corpn. Of India Vs. Escorts Ltd. (1986)59 Comp. As. 548(SC)].
2. Section 181, inter alia, states that notwithstanding anything contained in the Act, The
articles of the company may provide that no member shall exercise any voting right in
respect of any shares registered in his name on which any calls or other moneys
presently payable by him have not been paid. From conjoint reading of Section 181 and
the Articles of Association of the company, it is clear that any sum is due from a
shareholder in respect of share, he is not entitled to vote at any general meeting.
Section 169 deals with calling of extraordinary general meeting on requisition. Sub-
section (4) says that the number of members entitled to requisition a meeting in regard to
any matter, in the case of a company having a share capital shall be such number of
them holding at the date of the deposit of the requisition, not less than the one-tenth of
such of the paid-up capital of the company as at that date carry the right of voting in
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regard to that matter. From a reading of sub-section it is clear that only those
shareholders who have a right of voting can requisition a meeting.
Where the articles of association of a company prohibited any defaulting shareholder
from exercising his right to vote at any general meeting, and certain shareholders had not
paid a call made on their shares it was held that they were not entitled to requisition an
extraordinary general meeting under Section 169 [Col. Kuldip Singh Dhillon Vs.
Paragaon Utility Financiers (P) Ltd. (1986) 60 Comp. Cas 1075 (Punj.& Har)].
3. Where an amalgamation scheme has been approved in a statutory meeting under
Section 391, the shareholders cannot requisition a meeting to compel the company for
withdrawing its petition pending before the Court for its sanction Under Section 392.
[Centron Industrial Alliance Ltd. Vs. Pravin Kantilal Vakil (1985) 57 Comp. Cas. 12
(Bom.)].
4. All that is required to be seen before the provision of sub-section (6) of Section 169
become applicable would be to consider whether the requisition deposited was in
accordance with the provisions of Section 169 as to its contents, the number of
signatories and similar matters, and it would not be open to the board of directors of a
company to refuse to act on a requisition on the grounds that, although such requisition
was in accordance with the requirements of Section 169, it was otherwise invalid. This
conclusion receives support when one peruses sub-section (5) of Section 169, where
also the use of the word ‘valid’ is perceived. The word or the adjective ‘valid’ in Section
169 has no reference to the object of the requisition but rather to the requirements in that
section itself. If these requirements indicated in the earlier part of section are satisfied,
then the requisition deposited with the company must be regarded as a valid requisition
on which the directors of the company must act. [Cricket Club of India Ltd. v Madhav L.
Apte (1975) 45 Comp. Cas. 574 (Bom)]
3. By the Company Law Board: If for any reasons it is ‘impracticable' to call a meeting of
the company other than an annual general meeting in any manner in which the meeting
of that company may be called or hold or to conduct it in any manner prescribed by the
Act and the Articles, the Company Law Board, under Section 186, may, either on its own
motion (suo motu) or on the application of any director of the company or any member
thereof would be entitled to vote at the meeting, order a meeting to be called ,held and
conducted in such a manner as it thinks fit and give such directions as it thinks expedient
(Section 186) .Thus, where a petition was filed under Section 186 but in the petition there
was no allegation that it was for any reason impracticable for the company to call, hold
or conduct a meeting, such a petition would be incompetent. [Siri Ram Vs. Edword Ganj
Public Welfare Association Limited (1997) 47 Comp. Cas 283].
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(ii) The discretion granted under Section 186 should be used sparingly with caution so that
the CLB/Tribunal does not become either a shareholder or director of the company trying
to participate in the internecine squabbles of the company.
(iii) The word ‘impracticable’ means impracticable from a reasonable point of view.
(iv) The CLB/Tribunal should take a common sense view of the matter and must act as a
prudent man of business.
(v) A prudent man of business has not a sensitive officious view of intervention in case of
every rivalry between two groups of directors; prudence demands that the CLB/Tribunal
should ordinarily keep itself aloof from participating in quarrels of rival groups of directors
or shareholders.
(vi) But where the meeting can be called only by the directors and there are serious doubts
and controversy as to who are directors or where these is a possibility that one or other
or both the meetings called by the rival groups of directors may be invalid, the
CLB/Tribunal ought not to expose the shareholders to uncertainties and should hold a
position has arisen which makes it “impracticable: to convene a meeting in any manner in
which meeting of the company may be called.
(vii) “Before the CLB/Tribunal exercise its discretion under Section 186, the CLB/Tribunal
must be satisfied when a director or a member moves an application, that it has been
made bona fide in the larger interests of the company for removing a deadlock otherwise
irremovable”.
In Smt. Jain Vs. Delhi Flour Mills Company Ltd. and others (1974) 44 Comp. Cas. 228 (Delhi),
it was held that an application under Section 186 need not to on behalf of the company for the
very language of that Section even permits the Company Law Board suo moto to call meeting
of the company if it has become impracticable to call a meeting other than an annual general
meeting. An action need not be in the name of the company for actions concerning injuries
personal to the petitioner.
Where a meeting can be called by recourse to Section 169 or 167, the Company Law Board
will not grant an application under Section 186; for the petitioner would at least have to show
that there is no other option but to apply under Section 186.
In a petition under Section 186 for an order directing the holding of general meeting the
CLB/Tribunal will not go to the extent of rectifying the register of members for the purpose of
giving directions as to who should vote at such a meeting.
In B.R. Kundra Vs. Mohan Pictures Association (1976) 46 Comp. Cas. 339 (Delhi) it was held
that:
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Directors can not continue in office by failing to call annual general meeting at which they are
to retire; where directors no longer continued to hold office as such, the court (now
CLB/Tribunal) can call a meeting to elect directors.
In re. Motion Pictures Association (1979) 46 Comp. Cas.298 (Delhi), it was held that :
A meeting which is not conducted in accordance with the directions of the Company Law
Board in not a meeting of a company under sub-section (2) of Section 186 and any business
conducted in that meeting must fail.
In Indian Hardware Industries Ltd. Vs. S.K. Gupta (1981) 51 Comp. Cas. (Delhi), it was held
that:
There is nothing is Section 186 which lays down that a Company Court which is supervising
the scheme under Section 392 cannot call a meeting of the company if it feels that it is
necessary to do so for the proper supervision and implementation of the scheme. So long as
the meeting is to be called, because the Court feels it necessary for the proper working of the
scheme, the power must be found to be implicit in the Court by virtue of Section 392(1) and it
is not necessary to invoke Section 186 for this purpose. In other words, Section 186 is not
applicable to cases covered by Section 392.
In Bengal & Assam Inventors Ltd. Vs. J.K. Eastern Industries (P) Ltd. (1957) 27 Comp. Cas 86
(Cal), it was held that:
The Company Law Board’s power under Section 186 is discretionary. It is not a power which it
must exercise. It is not a mandatory obligation upon the Company Law Board. It is an
alternative remedy to be applied only when the normal machinery of company management
fails and the Company Law Board must find firstly that it is impracticable to call a meeting and
secondly that to leave the parties to follow their own remedies and rights will put the company
in jeopardy.
4.6 Class meetings: Meetings of members of a company fall into two broad divisions, namely,
general meetings and class meetings. Class meetings are meeting of shareholders, holding a
particular class of share which are held to pass resolution which will bind only the members of
the class concerned. Only members of the class concerned may attend and vote at meeting.
Usually the rules to voting apply to class meetings as they govern voting at general meetings.
These class meetings must be convened whenever it is necessary to alter or change the rights
or privileges of that class as provided by the articles. For effecting such changes, it is
necessary that these are approved at a separate meeting of the holders of those shares and
supported by a special resolution. Under Section 106, class meeting of the holders of different
classes of shares shall be held if the rights attaching to these shares are to be varied.
Similarly, under Section 394, where a scheme of arrangement is proposed, meeting of several
classes of shareholders and creditors are required to be held.
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shareholders when their dividend is in arrears for more than a certain period [Section
87(2)(b)]. This obligation arises from the fact that preference shareholders whose dividends
are in arrears are entitled to attend and vote at the meeting.
The non-receipt of notice or accidental omission to given notice to any member shall not
invalidate the proceedings in the meeting [Section 172(3) ].However, omission to serve notice
of meeting on a member on the mistaken ground that he is not a shareholder cannot be said
to be an accidental omission [Musselwhite Vs. C.H. Musselwhite & Sons Ltd.(1962) 32 Comp.
Cas 804]. ‘Accidental omission’ means that the omission must be not only designed but also
not deliberate [Maharaja Export Vs. Apparels Exports Promotion Council (1986) 60 Comp. Cas
353.].
4.8.2 Length of notice: A general meeting cannot ordinarily be called by giving less than 21
days’ notice in writing excluding the day of service of notice and the day of the meeting [See
Section 171(1)]. The Delhi High Court held in Bharat Kumar Dilwale Vs. Bharat Carbon and
Ribbon Manufacturing Co. Ltd. and other (1973) 43 Comp. Cas 197 that the expression “not
less than 21 days notice” appearing in Section 171 of the Act implies a notice of 21 whole or
clear days i.e. a period of 21 days excluding the day from which it ran and the day on which
the notice expired. Part of the day, after the notice would be deemed to have been served,
could not be added up to part of the day immediately before the timing of the meeting so as to
construe one day. Each of the 21 days must be full or a clear day. Following the Supreme
Court’s interpretation of the expression "not less than one month" that the first day and the last
day of the month had to be excluded, the day of service of the notice and the day of the
meeting were excluded from the computation of 21 days.
Consider the following practical situation:
ABC Ltd. called its annual general meeting on 7th September, 2005. The notice of AGM was
posted on 16th August, 2005. One member holding 20 shares wishes to challenge the
resolutions passed at the AGM on the ground that the notice was not valid. What advise
would you give to him?
According to Section 171(1) a general meeting of a company may be called by giving not less
than 21 days notice in writing. Not less than 21 days means 21 clear days i.e. excluding both
the date on which the notice was served and the date of the meeting. In case the notice of the
general meeting is sent by post, service notice of the meeting shall be deemed to have been
effected at the expiry of 48 hours after it was posted. In the instant case, the notice was short
of one day as per the section:
16th August to 7th September 23 days
Less date of service and date of meeting 2 days
21 days
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Less 48 hours of posting but 24 hours are common between date of service 1 day
& 48 hours of posting
20 days
Therefore, the meeting was invalid and the resolutions passed were invalid. However in case
AGM, where all members entitled to vote consent, the meeting may be held on shorter notice.
However, there are different High Court judgments relating to the question as to whether the
requirement as to the period of notice is directory or mandatory.
In Saliesh Harilal Shah v. Matushree Textiles Ltd. (1994) 2CLJ, 291, the Bombay High Court
[in contrast to the Madras High Court decision in N. Chettair(v) the Madras Race Club (1951]
held that the requirement of the section as length of notice is directly only and not mandatory.
A couple of shareholders cannot be permitted to defeat the interest of the large body of
shareholders by saying that the duration of the notice was not sufficient even if the short
notice does not indicate any prejudice to the complaining shareholders.
In this problem, the member may be advised to explore whether he has suffered any prejudice
by the short notice before proceeding to challenge the validity of the resolutions.
An Annual general meeting, however, may be called by giving a shorter notice with the
consent of all the members entitled to vote at meeting and, in case of any other meeting with
the consent of members holding not less than 95 percent of paid up capital or, if the company
has no share capital, not less than 95 per cent of the total voting power [Section 171(2)]. Note
that all members can similarly agree to the accounts being sent to them less than 21 days
before the annual general meeting [Section 219(1) proviso(c)].
It may be noted that consent means ‘consent of members entitled to attend and vote’ and 'not
of members entitled to vote and present'. Under the proviso to Section 171 (2), It would be
seen that the requirement as to 21 days ‘notice may be dispensed with by agreement of all the
members, entitled to attend and vote and not merely of all the members entitled to vote and
present in person or proxy at the meeting. It, therefore, requires an agreement of all the
members of the company in order to dispense with the requirement of 21 days notice. The
proviso, in other words, indicates the intention on the part of the Legislature that the provision
in sub-section (2) is mandatory and that it can be dispensed with only by the agreement of all
the members. It is not enough that the members present at the meeting indicated either
expressly or impliedly that they consented to or acquiesced in shortening the period of notice
[N.O.R Nagappa Chettiar Vs. Madras Race Club (1949) 19 Comp. Cas.].
Even though consent of shareholders to a shorter notice for meeting at which a special
resolution is passed, is not obtained prior to meeting, consent obtained thereafter would
validate the resolution. It has been held in various English decisions under the English
Companies Act, the provisions of which are similar to the provisions of Section 171(2), that
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even though consent of shareholders to shorter notice for the meeting at which a special
resolution is passed is not obtained prior to the meeting, consent obtained thereafter would
validate the resolution. The only Indian case, Self Help Private Industrial Estate (P) Ltd. In re
(1972) 42 Comp. Cas 6(Mad.) is in favour of the view that a post-consent validates a special
resolution passed without proper notice.
Where majority of the members of the company holding more than 95 percent of such part of
the paid-up share capital which give them a right to vote at the meeting, had given their
consent, subsequent to the meeting, to a shorter notice and had ratified and accepted the
special resolutions passed at the meeting and the company had stated on affidavit that not a
single objection was received from any of the other members, it was held that in view of the
subsequent consent obtained by the company from its members who formed a majority and
held more than 95 percent of the paid-up share capital which gave them a right to vote, the
resolutions must be deemed to be valid [Parikh Engg. & Body Building Co. Ltd. In re (1975) 45
Comp. Cas 157(Pat)].
As regards shorter notice for general meeting, let us consider a practical problem. According
to Section 171 read with Section 170 it boils down to this that a private company which is not a
subsidiary of a public company can provide in its articles for holding the general meeting at a
shorter notice than 21 days. Now, in view of this position of law, if the articles of the private
company provide for 7 days’ notice in lieu of 21 days, can a copy of the balance sheet,
together with the profit and loss account, auditors’s report, etc., be also sent to its members
for consideration at the annual general meeting along with notice of such meeting? Does
Section 219 need any amendment to bring it in conformity with Section 171 read with Section
170?
According to the proviso (c) to Section 219(1), statement of account, auditors’s report together
with all necessary annexures or attachments can be sent to members less than 21 days
before the date of meeting only if so agreed to by all members entitled to attend and vote
there at. Seemingly, this provision is in conflict with that of Section 171 read with Section 170.
But this conflict is perhaps not unintentional and irrational. The formalities prescribed by
Sections 171 and 219 are independent of one another, the copies of the documents referred
to in Section 219 are to be despatched also to persons other than those entitled to receive the
notice of the general meeting. Moreover, consideration of annual accounts, etc., cannot be
treated as identical and hence at par with the consideration of other business coming before
the shareholders. Therefore, the shareholders must be given sufficient time to peruse the
documents mentioned in Section 219.
If a meeting is called without notice to a shareholder the omission not being accidental, it is
invalid and all proceedings therein are also invalid. A meeting was convened for December,
1969 but deliberately notice of the meeting was not sent to S and his wife. At that meeting B
and S were elected as directors, but were to hold office only till April, 1970. In the next
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meeting, S was not elected and B and his wife were elected as directors. The contention of S
was that since the meeting of December, 1969 was invalid, the meeting of 1970 was also
invalid and so were the appointments of B and his wife. The omission to send the notice was
not accidental.
Held that all the proceedings of April, 1970 meeting suffered from the infirmity of the
December, 1969 meeting being invalid, and could not confer any legitimacy on the
proceedings held at the alleged meeting of April, 1970. Any proceedings at this meeting of
April, 1970 would be obviously unauthorised and illegal [Eastern Linkers (P) Ltd. Vs. Dina
Nath Sodhi (1984) 55 Comp. Cas 462 (Delhi)].
4.8.3 Service of notice: The notice may be served personally or sent through post to the
registered address of the members and in the absence of any registered office in India, to the
address, if there be any, within India furnished by him to the company for the purpose of
serving notice to him. Service through post shall be deemed to have effected by correctly
addressing, preparing and posting the notice. If, however, a member wants the notice to be
served on him under a certificate or by registered post with or without acknowledgment due
and has deposited money with the company to defray the incidental expenditure therefore, the
notice must be served accordingly; otherwise service will not be deemed have been effected.
Service on the joint holder may made by serving it on the one whose name appears first in the
register of members. Service of notice shall be deemed to have been effected in the case of
notice of meeting on the expiry of 48 hours since the posting of the same. When a notice is
advertised in a news paper circulating in the neighbourhood of the registered office of the
company, it is regarded as having been served on day on which the advertisement appears,
on every member having no registered address in India and who has not supplied to the
company an address within India for giving notice to him. Note that Section 53 applies to all
documents and not merely service of notice of meetings (Section 53).
Where a person refuses to accept notice served by registered post, under section 27 of the
General Clauses Act, such tender of the registered cover and his refusal to accept the same is
vaild service, in accordance with law [Joginder Singh Palta Vs. Time Travel (.P) Ltd. (1984) 56
Comp, Cas. 103 (Cas)].
Where the photocopy of the purported notice of two meetings, one of the board of directors
and another an extraordinary general meeting of the company to consider the removal of a
permanent director, was sent to the permanent director under certificate of posting despite
protests by the said director by registered acknowledgment due post that he had not been
receiving notices of meetings, it was held that such notice was not properly served and
meetings either could not be held or if they were held there was no proper notice to the
director and hence the meetings were invalid. [Tarlok Chand Khanna Vs. Raj Kumar Kapoor
(1983) 54 Comp. Cas 12 (Delhi)].
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It should be noted that an improper or insufficient notice, as well as absence of notice, may
affect the validity of a meeting and render the resolutions passed at the meeting ineffective
[See Boschoek Proprietary Company Vs. Fuxe (1906) I Ch.148; Bailu Vs. Oriental # Company
(1915) I Ch.503]. But the accidental omission to give notice does not invalidate proceedings at
meeting [Section 172(3)]. The requirement of 21 days notice is not mandatory and an
accidental omission to give a notice of less than 21 days ‘does not invalidate the meeting.
The annual general meeting for 1980-81 and 1981-82 were convened on 7-10-1983 belatedly
and with great difficulty. The notice of the meeting was published in a newspaper of Calcutta on
12-9-1983. The shareholders received the notice 22-9-1983 which was shown to have been
posted on 16-9-1983. The notice was dated 9-9-1983. D sought an injunction that the resolutions
passed at the meetings are not given effect to, on the ground that the notice was received by
him on 22-9-1983. D held only seven shares of Rs. 10 in the company and was a resident of
Calcutta where the meeting was to be held. He was not prejudiced by the short notice in anyway.
The question was whether the shortness of the notice invalidated the meeting.
Held that Section 172(3) makes it abundantly that it is not a condition precedent to the holding
of the annual general meeting of a company that a clear 21 days’ notice must be given to each
and every member of the company. The accidental omission to give notice to any member or
non-receipt of notice by any member shall not invalidate the proceedings at the meeting. If the
contention of D was to be upheld it would mean that whereas if the notice to a shareholder
was not accidentally posted at all, the proceedings at the annual general meeting of a
company would be valid, but if the notice was posted accidentally less 21 days before the
meeting, the proceedings at the meeting will be void even though the shareholder received the
notice in good time before the meeting was held an actually attended the meeting. Hence,
such a construction would lead to absurdity and should be avoided. The contention could not,
therefore be accepted that a short notice served on member will invalidate meeting altogether
but non-receipt of the notice by a member will not have the same effect. In view of the clear
provisions of Section 172(3), it cannot be said that the requirements of Section 171 are
mandatory and a short notice given to any member will render the entire meeting void and of
no legal consequence even if that the member has not suffered any prejudice in any way. On
the facts of the case that the notice of the meetings was published in a newspaper in good
time, the shareholder was a resident of Calcutta; advertisement was given in a newspaper
having circulation in Calcutta the two annual meetings were held at Calcutta; the shareholder
had not been able to make out any case of any prejudice at all; and that two annual meetings
were at last held after protracted litigations, there was no reason why the resolutions passed
at the annual general meeting should not given effect to merely because one shareholder
having 7 shares of Rs.10 actually each received the individual notices less than 21 days in
advance. The balance of convenience did not required an order of injunction [Calcutta
Chemical Co. Ltd. Vs. Chandra Roy (1985) 58 Comp. Cas 275 (Cal)]. Further if a notice of
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A notice must clearly specify the business, which is to be transacted at the meeting to which
the notice relates; otherwise the notice would be bad. It should make a full and frank
disclosure to the shareholders of the fact, on which they would be expected to vote. [Tiessien
Vs. Henderson (1889) 1 Ch. 861; Narayanlal Bansailal Vs. Manekji Patel Mfg. Company, 93,
(Bom) L.R.556].
Where the business to be transacted at the meeting is considered as special, an explanatory
statement must be annexed to the notice convening the meeting setting out all material facts
concerning each item of business, nature of the concern or interest, if any, of every director
and the manager (Section 173). Where the special business relates to another company the
extent of shareholding/ interest of every director, etc. is necessarily, to be disclosed only if the
shareholding interest is not less than 20% of the paid-up capital of that other company
(Student should not confuse ‘special business’ with ‘special resolution’). Where the statement
annexed to the notice of the meeting contains full and frank disclosure of the material facts
concerning each item of business must essentially depend upon the facts of each case. A very
minor defect arising out of strict non-conformity with the provisions contained in Section 173(2)
might not render the resolution null and void [Joseph Michael Vs. Tranvancore Rubber & Tea
Co. Ltd. (1986) 59 Comp. Cas.898 (Ker.)].
The explanatory statement must give all facts, which have a bearing on the question on which
shareholders have to form their judgement. The explanatory statement, which is required to be
annexed under Section 173, is for the purpose of ensuring that all facts that have a bearing on
the question on which shareholders have to form their judgement are brought to their notice.
Company C had, at a statutory meeting convened under Section 391, approved a scheme of
amalgamation with company B. Later, some shareholders to consider alternative scheme in
the interest of the company requisitioned an extraordinary general meeting. The explanatory
statement did not mention any specific scheme, but it was contended by the requisition insist
that in the two annual reports of the company there was a mention of proposal from M, for the
lease of C’s factory which had been sent for legal advice and, therefore, the shareholders
must be deemed to be aware of the alternate scheme even though the explanatory statement
did not specifically refer to this proposal of M. Further, the annual reports did not contain the
scheme proposed by M. The question was whether the explanatory statement was insufficient
and misleading.
Held that in the explanatory statement there was not even a reference to the proposal of M. If
the purpose of calling the requisitioned meeting was to consider the scheme proposed by M, it
should have been so stated. The explanatory statement was insufficient and misleading; The
requirements of law were not complied with and all relevant facts in the present case, and the
alternative schemes were not put before the shareholders fairly and, accordingly, the
requisition for calling the impugned meeting was bad in law [Centron Industrial Alliance Ltd.
Vs. Pravin Kantilal Vakil (1985) 57 Comp. Cas.12 (Bom.).]
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Section 173 is designed to secure that facts having a bearing on the issue on which the
shareholders have to form their judgement, are brought to the notice of the shareholders so
that they can exercise intelligent judgement.
A combined reading of Sections 391 and 393 and their comparison with provisions of Section
173 shows that the former section deal with a specific situation to the exclusion of general
provisions made by Section 173. The provisions of Section 173 are general provisions
pertaining to the meetings of a company, whether an annual general meeting or an
extraordinary general meeting. As against the said provisions, Section 393 (1) deals with ‘a
meeting of creditors or any class of creditors or members or any class of members called
under Section 391’. The provisions of Section 393 take their colour from Section 391 which
contemplates convening of the meetings under the directions of a Court,’ of creditors or class
of creditors, of the members or class of members, as the case may be.’ Sections 391 and 393
are a code complete in themselves in respect of provisions or procedure relating to sponsoring
of the scheme, the approval thereof by the creditors or the members, as the case may be, and
the sanction thereof by the Court. A combined reading of Sections 391 and 393 and their
comparison with the provision of Section 173 shows that the former sections deal with a
specific situation to the exclusion of the general provision made by Section 173. Furthermore,
Section 173 postulates a meeting of a company whereas Sections 391 and 393 contemplate
convening of a meeting of members or a class of members. It is true that any meeting of a
company is factually also a meeting of the members of that company but the thrust of the two
set of sections clearly establishes a different legal identity of such meetings [Khandelwal
Udyog Ltd., In re. (1977) Comp. Cas 503 (Bom.)].
4.9. Special and ordinary business: When we refer to the business of the company, it may
be special business or ordinary business. The following discussion may be useful to
understand the meaning and statutory requirements stipulated to transact these businesses by
the Companies Act.
In the case of an annual general meeting the items of business relating to :(i) the
consideration of the accounts, balance sheet and the reports of the Board of Directors and
auditors; (ii) the declaration of a dividend; (iii) the appointment of directors in the place of
those retiring; and (iv) appointment of and fixation of remuneration of auditors, are regarded
as ordinary business .All businesses, other than those under (i) to (iv) transacted at the
meeting are deemed to be special. In the case of any other meeting, all businesses shall be
deemed special. By implication, Therefore, all businesses transacted at an extraordinary
general meeting are special.
If the notice convening the meeting (where at special business will be transacted) does not
state the nature of the special business, the meeting would be deemed to have been
convened irregularly. Consequently, that special business cannot be dealt with at the meeting.
Where the notice convening an extraordinary general meeting had furnished insufficient
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particulars as to the special business to be transacted thereat, and the members passed a
resolution at the meeting, the directors were restrained by the Court’s injunction from acting on
that resolution. This was because the insufficient particulars furnished prevented the members
from preparing their mind prior to the meeting so that they could exercise their judgement at
the meeting in proper manner [Jain Vs. Kalinga Tubes,1965 I.S.C.S 540: Pacific Coast Coal
Mines Ltd. Vs. Arbuthnot 1917 A.C. 607].
4.10 Quorum: Quorum means the minimum number of members that must be present in order
to constitute a meeting and transact business thereat. Thus, quorum represents the number of
members on whose presence the meeting of a company can commence its deliberations.
Unless the articles provide for a larger number, five members, personally present in the case
of a public company (Other than a public company which has become such by virtue of
Section 43 (A) and two in the case of any other company form the quorum for a general
meeting (Section 174). This provision is calculated to remove a practical difficulty in respect of
Section 43 A public companies which may have less than 5 members. Therefore, two
members in this case will be sufficient.
The words, personally present exclude proxies. However, the representative of a body corporate
appointed under Section 187 or the representative of the President or a Governor of a State
under Section 187-A is a member ‘personally present' for purpose of counting a quorum [Re.
Kelantan Coconut Estate Ltd. ,1920 W.N. 274]. In case two or more corporate bodies who are
members of a company are represented by single individual , each of the bodies corporate will
be treated as personally present by the individual representing it. If, for instance, he represents
three corporate bodies, his presence will be counted as three members being present in person
for purposes of quorum. It has been held in a Scottish case that one individual may count as
more than one member if he attends the meeting in more than one capacity, e.g. as a member
holding shares in his own right and as a member entitled to vote in person in respect of a trust
holding (Neil McLeod & Sons Ltd., Petitioners, 1976 SC 16).
In the case of the meeting of a special class of shareholders, Annexure B to the Companies
(Central Government’s) Rules, 1956, applies and fixes the quorum at five members of that
class present either in person or by proxy in the case of public companies, and two members
in the case of a private company. In the case of a meeting of debenture holders, or any class
of debenture holders , the quorum is uniform. i.e., five debenture holders, personally present.
4.10.1 Joint holders and quorum: In the case of joint holders it would seem prima facie that
any one of them may be counted in a quorum. In an Australian case [Re. Trans-Continental
Hotel Ltd. (1947) SASR 49], It has been held that two joint holders are each members and are
to be counted towards a quorum as two members personally present.
It should be noted that Act specifically provides that for certain purposes where two or more
persons hold any shares jointly, they shall be counted only as one member, e.g. under Section
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3(1) (iii) for the purposes of counting the number of members in a private company, and under
Section 399 for the purposes of right to apply for relief in cases of oppression or
mismanagement. If the articles do not provide anything to the contrary, it appears that two or
more joint holders when personally present can be counted as so many members for the
purpose of forming a quorum.
4.10.2 When quorum is immaterial: If all the members are present, it is immaterial that the
quorum required is more than the total number of members [Re. Express Engineering Works
Ltd.(1920) Ch 466: Re Oxted Motor Co. Ltd. (1921) 3 KB 32]. If, for example, the articles of a
private company provide that four members personally present shall be a quorum, and the
number of members is reduced to three then the question of quorum will not arise when all the
three members attend a meeting.
The meeting cannot proceed with business in the absence of quorum. Unless the articles of
the company provide otherwise, if within half-an-hour from the time appointed for holding the
meeting of the company, quorum is not present then the meeting shall be dissolved, if it has
been called upon by the requisition to the same day in the next week, at the same time and
place, or to such other day and such other time and place as the Board may determine. If at
such an adjourned meeting a quorum is not present within half-an-hour from the time
appointed for the meeting, the members present shall constitute the quorum (Section 174). A
single member present shall not constitute quorum at an adjourned meeting.
4.10.3 Effect of failure of a quorum: If no quorum is present, then there is no meeting
and the proceedings are invalid [Re Romford Canal Co. (1883) 24 Ch D 85]. However, acts
done creating rights in favour of third parties at a meeting without a quorum being present
would not affect the rights of such third parties, provided they had no notice of the irregularity
e.g. debentures issued at a meeting of directors where there was an insufficient quorum-Re.
Romford Canal.
In the context of Section 174, let us now grapple with some practical problems, Suppose, the
articles of X & Co. Ltd provide thus, “In the event of the quorum being not present within half-
an-hour- from the time scheduled for the annual general meeting, the meeting shall stand
dissolved “ and then quorum is not formed within half-an-hour from the time fixed therefor.
(a) In the circumstance, what further steps are necessary to hold the annual general
meeting? By implication of Section 174(2), if the articles of the company otherwise
provide, the meeting cannot be adjourned to the same day at the next week at same time
and place or to such other day and at such other time and place as the Board
determines. To resolve this impasse, till any judicial ruling is given, the annual general
meeting should be called a new in the circumstances of the above-mentioned case.
(b) Now, if it is to be convened afresh as opined above, will a fresh resolution of the Board
be needed? Since a resolution is taken at a Board meeting, fixing the date of the annual
general meeting and since the annual general meeting will have to be convened afresh in
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the circumstances of the case, it seems that a fresh resolution of the Board fixing the
date of the new annual general meeting would be required.
(c) What will be the position of retiring directors-will they cease to be directors from the date
on which the general meeting could not be held for want of quorum and consequently
stood dissolved as per the articles as aforesaid or will they remain directors till the date
of the fresh annual general meeting which was convened subsequent to the first one? if
the newly convened annual general meeting is held well within the statutory period, then
the rotational directors may remain in office till the date of the second meeting so held. If,
however, the meeting is called on the last day of the statutory prescribed period and the
meeting could not be held for want of quorum and a fresh annual general meeting is
convened as a result, then the rotational directors might be allowed to retain their office
till the date of the second meeting with the prior permission of the registrar of
Companies.
Examples:
1. A general meeting of a public company was adjourned by the chairman for want of
quorum. Fresh notice was not served for the adjourned meeting. Do you feel that notice
is required for the adjourned meeting? Referring to the provisions of the Companies Act,
1956 state the minimum number of members required to be present in the adjourned
meeting.
As per section 174 of the companies Act, 1956, if within half an hour from the time
appointed for holding a meeting for the company quorum is not present, the meeting,
shall stand adjourned to the same day in the next week, at the same time and place
unless the directors determine otherwise. No fresh notice is, therefore, required to hold
the adjourned meeting. Besides, no quorum is necessary in the adjourned meeting. Thus,
the adjourned meeting in question is valid.
2. Section 174 of the Companies Act, 1956 stipulates that unless the articles of
associations provide for a larger number, two members personally presented shall
constitute quorum in the case of a private company. Hence, the private company may
provide a larger number for quorum. The general principle is that if no quorum is present
the meeting and proceedings are void. However, there can be situations when quorum
becomes immaterial. If all the members are present, it is immaterial that the quorum
required is more than the total number of members. (Re. Express Engineering Works
Ltd. (1920) CH466.
3. Whether the following persons can be counted for the purposes of quorum in a general
meeting of a public company (a) a person representing three member companies; (b)
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both the joint owners of shares or present at the meeting; (c) a single member present at
the meeting.
Answer
(i) Unless the articles of a company provide for a larger number, five members personally
present in the case of a public company shall be the quorum for a meeting of the
company (section 174). Personally present excludes proxies. But a representative of a
body corporate appointed under Section 187 is a member personally ‘present’ for
purposes of counting of quorum. If one individual represents three member companies,
his presence will be counted as three members being present in person for purpose of
quorum [Mac-Leod (Neil) & Sons Ltd.].
(ii) For the purpose of quorum, joint shareholders will be collectively regarded as one
shareholder. However in an Australian Case (Re. Trans-Continental Hotel Ltd.), it has
been held that two joint holders are each members and are to be counted towards a
quorum as two members personally present.
The Companies Act specifically provides for certain purposes e.g. under Section 3(i) (iii)
and under section 399 where two or more persons hold shares jointly they shall be
counted only as one member. If the articles do not provide anything to the contrary, it
appears that two or more joint holders when personally present can be counted as so
many members for the purpose of forming quorum.
(iii) The word ‘meeting’ literally means a coming of together of two or more persons and
generally more than one person will be necessary to constitute a meeting [Mac-leod
(Neil) & Sons Ltd.]. But there may be cases where the constitution of a company may be
such as, for instance, where one person holds all the equity shares of a class or all the
preference shares so that there can be no meeting of more than one voting shareholder
or one member of a particular class of shares. In such cases, it must be presumed that
the Act contemplates positions where a meeting of two or more persons will not be
possible in the strict sense and the word ‘meeting’ must be taken to have been used in
the sense of a function which can be performed by one person also as effectively as by
two or more (East v. Bennet Bros. Ltd.). Apart from these special circumstances, there is
an express provision in the Companies Act where a single member will constitute a
meeting. Section 167 empowers the CLB to call annual general meeting of a company.
Section 186 empowers CLB to order a meeting of the company, other than an annual
general meeting. In both these cases, the CLB may issue directions in relation to the
calling, holding and conducting of the meeting. The directions may include a direction
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that one member of the company present in person or by proxy shall be deemed to
constitute a meeting.
4. The Articles of Associations of X Ltd. require the personal presence of six members to
constitute quorum of General Meeting. The following persons were present at the time of
commencement of an Extraordinary General Meeting to consider the appointment of
Managing Director:
(i) Mr. G. the representative of Governor of Gujarat
(ii) Mr. A and Mr. B, shareholders of Preference Shares.
(iii) Mr. L. representing M Ltd., N Ltd. and X Ltd.
(iv) Mr. P, Mr. Q, Mr. R and Mr. S who were proxies of Shareholders.
Can be said that quorum was present? Discuss.
Answer
Quorum means the minimum number of members that must be personally present in order to
constitute a meeting and transact business threat. Thus, quorum represents the number of
members on whose presence the meeting of a company can commence its deliberations.
According to Section 174, of the Companies Act, 1956, unless the Articles provide for larger
number, five members, personally present in the case of a public company and two in the case
of any; other company form the quorum for a general meeting. In this case, the Articles
provide for six.
The word ‘personally present’ exclude proxies. However, the representative of a body
corporate appointed under Section 187 or the representative of the President or a Governor of
State under Section 187A is a member ‘personally present’ for purpose of counting a quorum.
In case two or more corporate bodies who are members of a company are represented by a
single individual, each of the bodies corporate will be treated as personally present by the
individual representing it. If, for instance, he represents three corporate bodies, his presence
will be counted as three members being present in person for purposes of quorum.
The quorum of members, personally present means the presence of the members who are
called to vote in the meeting. Preference shareholders can vote only in relation to the matters
affecting the rights of preference shares. In the extra ordinary general meeting in question, only
the appointment of the managing director has to be considered. It is not a matter affecting the
right of preference shares and the preference shareholders are not entitled to vote and hence,
they cannot be considered as “members personally present” for the purpose of quorum.
Thus, the number of persons being personally present would be as follows:
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convening a meeting of a company which has a share capital or the articles of which provide
for voting by proxy, there must be included with reasonable prominence a statement that a
member is entitled to appoint a proxy and that a proxy need not be member. Any provision in
the articles requiring the instrument appointing a proxy to be lodged with the company more
than 48 hours before a meeting in case of public companies and their subsidiaries which are
private companies shall have effect as if 48 hours had been specified therein. No invitation
can be issued by the company at its expense to appoint specified persons as proxies. But the
list of persons willing to act as proxies can be sent to all members.
It has already been observed that a proxy cannot speak at the meeting. But can he express
his views in writing or through any other vehicle? The answer to this question is definitely in
the negative. This is because if he is so allowed, a door might be open for the prepetration of
the mischief that Section 176 has been designed to guard against, by denying him the right of
audience. A proxy is not a member or a shareholder; he is simply an outsider. If proxies are
allowed the right of audience or are otherwise allowed to interrupt a company meeting, many
members may appoint and brief professional persons as proxies. In that event the
proceedings at the meeting may be undesirably prolonged. Two eschew such a situation a
proxy cannot also express his views in writing because it would tantamount to speech.
You have noticed the impact of Section 176(3) is that a company is prohibited from providing
in its articles a longer period than 48 hours from the of meeting for depositing proxies. By
implication therefore, the company can provide for a shorter period than 48 hours without any
restriction whatsoever. Now the question arises as to whether a proxy can be lodged before
an adjourned meeting, if it was not lodged 48 hours before the original meeting. According to
Article 61 of Table A, an instrument appointing a proxy may be deposited 48 hours before an
“adjourned meeting at which the person named in the instrument proposes to vote.” Therefore,
if the articles of company include Article 61 or any other similar provision then the proxy may
be lodged even before the adjourned meeting. But if they do not so include, then of course the
ruling in [Laren Vs. Thompson (1917) 2 Ch. 261] will come to prevail. According to this ruling,
a proxy cannot be deposited 48 hours before an adjourned meeting, since adjournment is just
a cotinuation meeting ;’it ought to be lodged within the stipulated time before the original
meeting.
Representations of corporations at meetings of companies and creditors: According to Section
187, a company, it is member of another company, may by a resolution of its Board of
Directors or other governing body, authorised such person as it thinks fit to act as its
representative at any meeting of the company or at any meeting of any class of members of
the company. The person so authorised is entitled to exercise the same rights and powers
(including the right to vote by proxy) on behalf of the company which he represents as that
company could exercise if it were an individual member of the company. These very rules will
govern a case where the company is a creditor (including a holder of debenture) of another
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company.
Representation of the President and Governors in meeting of companies to which they are
members: The President of India or the Governor of a State, if he is member of a company,
may or appoint such person as he thinks fit to sit as his representative at any meeting of the
company or at any meeting of any class of members of the company. Such appointee shall be
deemed to be a member of such a company and he shall be entitled to exercise the same
rights and powers (including the rights to vote by proxy) as the President ,or as the case may
be, the Governor could exercise as a member of the company (Section 187A).
Declaration by persons not holding beneficial interest in any share: Despite anything
contained in Section 150, Section 153-B or Section 187-B , a person ,whose name is entered
in the register of members of a company as the holders of a share in that company but who
does not hold a beneficial interest in such share then he must within such time and in such
form as may be prescribed, make a declaration to the company specifying the name and other
particulars of the person who holds the beneficial interest in such share [Section 187-C(1), as
introduced by the Companies (Amendment) Act, 1974].
A person who holds a beneficial interest in a share or class of shares of a company must
make a declaration to the company. This declaration is to be made within 30 days after his
becoming such beneficial owner. The declaration must specify the nature of his interest,
particulars of the person in whose name the shares stand registered in the books of the
company and such other particulars as may be prescribed [Section 187-C(2)]. Whenever there
is a change in the beneficial interest in such shares, the beneficial owner must, within 30 days
from the date of such change, make a declaration to the company in such form containing
such particulars as may be prescribed [Section 187-C(3)].
Within 30 days from the date of the receipt of any of the declarations mentioned above, the
company must make a note of it in its register of members and file a return with the Registrar
in the prescribed form in respect of such declaration. This requirement shall have to be
complied with irrespective of anything contained in Section 153 [Section 187-C(4)].
If the person who is required to make the said declaration fails to do so without any
reasonable excuse, he shall be punishable with fine extending to Rs. 1,000 for every day
during which the failure continues. If the company fails to comply with the provisions of
Section 187-C, then the company and every officer there of who is in default, shall be liable to
the same punishment as aforesaid [Section 187-C(5)].
Any charge, promissory note or any other collateral agreement created, executed or entered
into in relation to any share by the ostensible owner there of, or any hypothecation by the
ostensible owner of any share, in respect of which a declaration is required to be made under
the foregoing provisions of this section, but not so declared, shall not be enforceable by
beneficial owner or any person claiming through him [Section 187- C(6)].
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Nothing in Section 187-C shall be deemed to prejudice the obligation of a company to pay
dividend in accordance with the provisions of Section 206 and the obligation shall, on such
payment, stand discharged [Section 187-C(7)]
It will have been observed from the foregoing exposition of law that it has been made
obligatory that all benami holdings of shares in existence at the commencement of the
Companies (Amendment) Act of 1974 must be declared both by the benamidar and by the
beneficial owner. Likewise, all beneficial interest in shares in future is also to be declared.
Investigation of beneficial ownership of shares in certain cases: The Central Government may
appoint one or more inspectors to investigate and report as to whether the provisions of
Section 187-C have been complied with. On such appointment, the provisions of Section 247
shall apply to such investigation as if it were an investigation ordered under that Section
[Section 187-D as introduced by the Companies (Amendment) Act of 1974].
Consider the following practical situation and analyse:
M/s Happy Homes Ltd. had sent notices to all its members about the holding of the 5th Annual
General Meeting to be held on 15th October, 2005 at 4.00 P.M. As per the notice the members
who are unable to attend the meeting in person can appoint a proxy and the proxy forms duly
filled should be sent so as to reach at least 48 hours before the meeting. Mr. A, a member of
the company appoints Mr. P as his proxy and the proxy form dated 10.10.2005 was deposited
by Mr. P with the company at its Registered Office on 11.10.2005. However, Mr. A changes
his mind and on 12.10.2005 gives another proxy to Mr. Q and it was deposited on the same
day with the company. Similarly another member Mr. B also gives to separate proxies to two
individuals named Mr. R and Mr. S. IN the case of Mr. R, the proxy dated 12.10.2005 was
deposited with the company on the same day and the proxy form in favour of Mr. S was
deposited on 14.10.2005. All the proxies viz., P, Q, R and S were present before the meeting.
In the light of the relevant provisions of the Companies Act, who would be the persons allowed
to represent at proxies for members A and B respectively ?
Answer
A Proxy is an instrument in writing executed by a shareholder authorizing another person to
attend a meeting and to vote thereat on his behalf and in his absence. As per, the provisions
of Section 176 of the Companies Act, 1956 every shareholder who is entitled to attend and
vote has a statutory right to appoint another person as his proxy and the proxy need not be a
member of the company. Further, any provision in the articles of association of the company
requiring instrument of proxy to be lodged with the company more than 48 hours before a
meeting shall have effect as if 48 hours had been specified therein. The members has a right
to revoke the proxy’s authority by voting himself before the proxy has voted but once the proxy
has voted the member cannot retract his authority. Where two proxy instruments by the same
shareholder are lodged in respect of the same votes before the expiry of the time for lodging
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proxies, the second in time will be counted and where one is lodged before and the other after
the expiry of the date fixed for lodging proxies, the former will be counted. Thus in case of
Member A, the proxy Q (and not Proxy P) will be permitted to vote on his behalf. However, in
the case of Member B, the proxy R (and not Proxy S) will be permitted to vote as the proxy
authorizing S to vote was deposited in less than 48 hours before the meeting.
4.13 Resolution: The purpose of a meeting is to arrive at decisions and the sense of a
meeting is ascertained by voting upon proposals put to the meeting. A formal proposal put to
the meeting is resolution. A company expresses its will by the mean of resolutions.
There are only two kinds of resolutions under the Act, ordinary and special, and they are
defined in Section 189. Some writers classify resolutions into three types namely, ordinary,
special and resolutions requiring special notice.
4.13.1 Ordinary Resolution: This is resolution passed by a simple majority of those
present in person or by proxy where proxies are allowed and voting upon the resolution.
Members not participating in voting are not taken into account. As distinguished from a simple
majority, an absolute majority is a majority of all those entitled to vote whether they attend or
not.
Section 189(1) defines an ordinary resolution as follows:
“A resolution shall be an ordinary resolution when at a general meeting of which the notice
required under this Act has been duly given, the votes cast (whether on a show of hands, or
on a poll, as the case may be) in favour of the resolution (including the casting vote, if any, of
the chairman) by members who, being entitled so to do, vote in person, or where proxies are
allowed, by proxy, exceed the votes, if any, cast against the resolution by members so entitled
and voting.”
Subject to the articles, an ordinary resolution is sufficient, for inter alia any of the following
matters:
(a) To authorise an issue of shares at a discount (Section 79);
(b) To increase the share capital if authorised by the articles, or otherwise alter the share
capital apart from its reduction (Section 94,100);
(c) To appoint auditors [Section 224(1)]; but in the case of a company in which not less than
25 percent of the subscribed share capital is held, whether singly or in any combination,
by a public financial institution or a Government company or Central or any State
Government, or a nationalised bank or an insurance company carrying a general
insurance business, the appointment of auditors requires a special resolution (Section
224A);
(d) To appoint directors;
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company must be filed with Registrar of Companies within thirty days of its being passed
(Section 192).
Acts for which special resolutions are required: Some matters may be so important and
outside the ordinary course of the company’s business, such as any important constitutional
changes, that safeguards should be imposed to ensure that a larger majority than a simple
majority of the members approve of them before they are given effect to. The Act requires that
the following matters, inter alia, have to be resolved by the company, by a special resolution:
(1) To alter any provision contained in the memorandum, which could lawfully have been
contained in the articles instead of the memorandum (Section 16);
(2) To alter the objects or the place of registered office of a company (Section 17);
(3) To change the name of the company (Section 21);
(4) To alter the articles of association (Section 31);
(5) To create a reserve liability, that is, to determine that a portion of the uncalled capital
shall not be capable of being called up, except in the event of a winding up (Section 99);
(6) To reduce the share capital (Section 100);
(7) To move the company’s registered office within the same State but outside the local
limits of the city, town or village where such office is situated [Section 146(2)];
(8) To commence any new business which is not germane to the business the company is
carrying on currently, though covered by the objects clause of the memorandum [Section
149(2A)];
(9) To pay interest on shares out of capital (Section 208);
(10) To appoint auditors, if not less than 25 per cent of the company’s subscribed capital is
held, whether singly or in any combination, by the Central or any State Government,
Government companies, financial institutions, nationalised banks, etc. (Section 224A);
(11) To support an application to the Central Government to appoint inspectors to investigate
the affairs of the company (Section 237);
(12) To appoint sole selling agents, if the company’s paid -up capital is Rs. 50 lakhs or more
[Section 294 AA(3)];
(13) To authorise the payment of remuneration to non- executive directors by way of
commission on the basis of a percentage of the net profits, in the case of public company
or a private company which is a subsidiary of a public company [Section 309(4)];
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(14) To authorise directors, etc. to hold office or place of profit under the company (Section
314);
(15) To alter the memorandum where the articles permit, to make unlimited the liability of
director (Section 323);
(16) Investment exceeding the limits prescribed in Section 372A.
(17) To have the company wound up by the court [Section 433(a)];
(18) To wind up voluntarily for any reason not otherwise provided for by the section (Section
484).
(19) To authorise the liquidator to transfer or sell the assets of the company, which is
proposed to be, or is in the course of being wound up voluntarily, to another company in
exchange for shares (Sections 494 and 507);
(20) To authorise the liquidator in a members’ voluntary winding up to exercise the powers
given by clauses (a) to (d) Section 457(1) to a liquidator in a winding up by the Court
[Section 512 (1) (a)].
(21) To sanction the exercise by the liquidator in volunteer winding up of powers mention in
Section 546;
(22) To direct the disposal of books and papers of the company in a members, voluntary
winding up (Section 550(3) (a)];
(23) To adopt Table A in Schedule I in the case of registration of a company under Part IX of
the Act [Section 578(3) (a)];
(24) To alter the form of constitution of a company registered under Part IX of the Act [Section
579(1)];
In addition to the requirements of the Act, a company’s own articles may prescribe for special
resolution where under the Act only an ordinary resolution is necessary. However, where the
Act specifies for a special resolution, the articles cannot provide for the different kind of
resolution.
4.13.3 Resolution requiring special notice: For certain purposes, the Act requires a special
notice, i.e., 14 days notice, to be received by the company from a shareholder of his intention
to move the resolution, either as an ordinary or as a special resolution. After the receipt of the
notice, the company must immediately issue a notice to the shareholders in this regard, not
less than 7 days before the meeting either by serving it on them or through an advertisement
in the newspaper having an appropriate circulation or in any other mode allowed by the
articles (Section 190).
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The matters in respect of which special notice is required are: (1) for appointment a person as
auditor at the annual general meeting other than the retiring auditor for providing expressly
that the retiring auditor shall not be re-appointed [Section 225(1)]; (2) for removing a director
before the expire of the period of his office and appointing some one in the place of the
director so removed [Section 284(2)]; and for appointing certain person who cannot be
appointed in the ordinary course as director provided for in Section 261 [Section 261(2)].
Now suppose, at the annual general meeting of a company a resolution is proposed to be
moved to the effect that the retiring auditors shall not be re-appointed. What would be the duty
of the company and the right of the auditor in the circumstances? From the law discussed
above, the duty of the company may be summed up follows:
(i) On the receipt of the 14 days’ special notice, the company must forthwith send a copy
thereof to the retiring auditor [Section 225(2)].
(ii) Where the retiring auditor makes a written representation, not exceeding a reasonable
length, to the company and requests the company to notify such representation to the
members, the company is bound to state in any notice of the resolution given to the
members, the fact of the representation having been made and send a copy of the
representation to every member to whom notice of the meeting is sent-whether before or
after a receipt of the representation by the company. Moreover, the company is bound by
this duty if the representation has not been received too late. If the representation has
been received too late, the company will be relieved of this duty. But in such a case, the
auditor may (without prejudice to his right to be heard orally) require that the
representation shall be read out at the meeting.
The auditor’s right to get the copies of the presentation sent out to members or read out at the
meeting is hedged in by the provision that if the Court is satisfied, on the application of the
company or any other aggrieved person, that the right is being abused to secure needless
publicity for a defamatory matter, the Court may order that the representation may not be
circularised or read out. The Court may further order that the company’s costs on such an
application should be paid by the auditor, in whole or any part even though he is not a party to
the application [Section 225(3)].
The rights of the auditor in this context are as follows:
(1) It follows from paragraph (ii) above that the auditor has the right to make representation
to the company and to request it to the members.
(2) The auditor has also right to be heard orally at the meeting of the shareholders.
(3) Where a copy of the representation has not been despatched as aforesaid because it
was received too late or because of the company’s default, the auditor may without
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prejudice to his right to be heard orally, require that the representation be read out at the
meeting.
4.13.4 Circulation of members’ resolution and statements: Students should carefully note
the circumstances in which the members can make use of the administrative machinery of a
company for introducing resolutions for consideration at any annual general meeting or for
circulation of statements in regard to any resolution to be proposed at an extraordinary general
meeting or business to be dealt with at that meeting. Such circumstances are stated below:
The company on the receipt of the written requisition by: (i) such number of members as
represents not less than 1/20th of the total voting power of all members having at the date of
requisition, the right to vote on the resolution or business to which the requisition relates; or (ii)
not less than 100 members holding shares on which there has been paid up as aggregate sum
of not less than Rs. 1 lakh in all and having a right to vote, must (a) give to members entitled
to have notice of meeting sent to them , the notice of any resolution which may properly be
moved and which is intended to be moved at the meeting; and (b) circulate to members who
are entitled to have notice of any general meeting with statement in not more that 100 words
in regard to the proposed resolution at the business to be dealt with at the meeting.
The company is not bound to give notice of any resolution or to circulate any statement unless
(a) a copy of the requisition by the requisitionists is deposited at the registered office of the
company (i) in case of a requisition requiring a notice of a resolution, not less than 6 weeks
before the meeting and (ii) in the case of any other requisition, not less than 2 weeks before
the meeting; and (b) a sum reasonably sufficient to meet the company’s expenses has been
deposited along with the requisition.
It is also not binding upon the company to circulate any resolution or statement when, on its
application or that of an aggrieved party, the Company Law Board decided that it contains
defamatory matter.
In the case of a banking company, if the Board of Directors opines that the circulation of a
statement will be detrimental to the interests of the company, it need not circulate the same.
Notwithstanding any provision to the contrary in the company’s articles a resolution in respect
of which notice has been given by a member as aforementioned, may be dealt with at an
annual general meeting; also any incidental omission to serve notice upon one or other
members will not invalidate the proceedings (Section 188).
4.13.5 Registration of resolution and agreement (Section 192): Printed or typewritten
copies of all special resolutions as well as certain ordinary resolutions and agreements, some
of which are described below, together with explanatory statement under Section 173 are
required to be filed with the Registrar of Companies within 30 days after the passing or making
thereof:
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“postal ballot” includes voting by shareholders by postal or electronic mode instead of voting
personally by presenting for transacting businesses in a general meeting of the company.
“requisite majority” with regard to special resolution means votes cast in favour of the business
is three times more than the votes cast against, with regard to ordinary resolution, votes cast
in favour is more than the votes cast against.
List of businesses in which the resolutions may be passed through postal ballot :
(a) alteration in the object clause of memorandum;
(b) alteration of articles of associations in relation to deletion or insertion of provisions
defining private company;
(c) buy-back of own shares by the company under sub-section (1) of Section 77A;
(d) issue of shares with differential voting rights as to voting or dividend or otherwise under
sub-clause (ii) of clause (a) of Section 86;
(e) change in place of registered office out side local limits of any city, town or village as
specified in sub-section (2) of Section 146;
(f) sale of whole or substantially the whole of undertaking of a company as specified under
sub-clause (a) of sub-section (1) of Section 293;
(g) giving loans or extending guarantee or providing security in excess of the limit prescribed
under sub-section (1) of Section 372A;
(h) election of a director under sub-section (1) of Section 252;
(i) power to compromise or make arrangements with creditors and members as specified
under sub-section (2) of Section 391;
(j) variation in the rights attached to a class of shares or debentures or other securities as
specified under Section 106.
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(b) the board of directors shall appoint one scrutinizer, who is not in employment of the
company, may be a retired judge or any person of repute who, in the opinion of the board
can conduct the postal ballot voting process in a fair and transparent manner;
(c) The scrutinizer will be in position for 35 days (excluding holidays) from the date of issue
of notice for annual general meeting. He is to submit his final report on or before the said
period.
(d) The scrutinizer will be willing to be appointed and he is available at the registered office
of the company for the purpose of ascertaining the requisite majority;
(e) The scrutinizer shall maintain a register to record the consent or otherwise received,
including electronic media, mentioning the particulars of name, address, folio number,
number of shares, nominal value of shares, whether the shares have voting, differential
voting or non-voting rights and the scrutinizer shall also maintain record for postal ballot
which are received in defaced or mutilated form. The postal ballot and all other papers
relating to postal ballot will be under the sate custody of the scrutinizer till the chairman
considers, approves and signs the minutes of the meeting. Thereafter, the scrutinizer
shall return the ballot papers and other related papers/register to the company so as to
preserve such ballot papers and other related papers/register safely till the resolution is
given effect to;
(f) Consent or otherwise relating to issue mentioned in notice for annual general meeting
received after 35 days from the date of issue will be strictly treated as if the reply from
the member has not been received. [Companies (Passing of the Resolution by Postal
Ballot) Rules, 2001 Notification No. G.S.R.337 (E), dated 10th May, 2001]..
If default is made in following this procedure, fine of Rs. 50,000 can be levied for each
default.
4.15 Minutes: The minutes represent a record of business transacted at a meeting. It is
obligatory for every company to cause minutes of all proceedings of the general meeting of the
Board or committees of the Board to be entered in the Minute Book. The minutes of each
meeting contain a fair and correct summary of the proceedings. The appointment of officers
made at the meeting will have to be included in the minutes.
In the case of the meeting of the Board or of a committee thereof, the minutes must contain
the names of directors present there at and the names of directors who dissent from or do not
concur in, any resolution. It, therefore, follows that a director can insist upon his dissent being
recorded in the minutes of the Board meeting. But the director cannot so insist in the case of a
general meeting, as Section 193 makes no such provision.
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The chairman of the meeting has, however, unfettered discretion on the matter of excluding
from the minutes any matter which could reasonable be regarded as defamatory of any
person, or is irrelevant or immaterial, or determined to the interests of the company (Section
193) .The minutes of the meeting must contain a fair and correct summary of the proceedings
thereat. But it is not necessary unless it affects fairness to mention the names of members
who participated in such discussion.
Minutes must be entered within 30 days of the conclusion of the meeting concerned. They
have to be written by hand and typed minutes cannot be pasted in the Minute Book. Ordinarily
minutes cannot be kept in loose-leaf system. The Department of Company affairs, however,
has expressed that it would refrain from taking any action against a company which
maintained its minutes in the loose-leaf form provided adequate safeguards are taken against
falsification, and loose-leaves are bound in books at reasonable interval, say six months.
Every page of the book, with pages consecutively numbered, should be initialled or signed and
the last page shall be dated and signed: (a) in the case of Board or Committee minutes, by the
Chairman of the meeting or the Chairman of a succeeding meeting; (b) in the case of minutes
of general meeting, by the Chairman of the meeting within the aforesaid period of 30 days of
the conclusion of the meeting or in the event of death or inability of the Chairman, by the
Director duly authorised for the purpose.
In this context let us consider a concrete case. The chairmen of the Board, having presided
over the company’s annual general meeting, left India immediately thereafter. He is likely to
come back only after a couple of months, Now how are the minutes to be signed and dated?
By virtue of Section 193(1A) (b), minutes of proceedings of general meeting can be signed
and dated within a period of 30 days, by a director duly authorised by the Board for the
purpose. In the circumstances contemplated by the question, therefore, a Board meeting has
to be convened and one of the directors present thereat be authorised to sing and date the
minutes of the annual general meeting.
Any such minutes, when kept according to provisions mentioned above, are evidence of the
proceedings (Section 194). It has been held in Kerr Vs. Motiram (1940) 1CH 657 that should
the articles provide that the minutes signed by the Chairman shall be conclusive evidence
without any further proof of the facts therein stated, evidence cannot be led in to contradict the
minutes.
A director, who is present at a meeting at which the minutes of a prior board meeting are
confirmed, is not thereby made responsible for what was done at prior meeting [Re land
Allotment Co. 1894 1 Ch. 615].
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The Companies Act, 1956
A member has the right to inspect, free of cost, during business hours at the registered office
of the company, the books containing the minutes of general meeting of the company. Any
member shall be entitled to be furnished within seven days after his request with a copy of any
such minutes on payment of the prescribed fee. Penalties are imposed for defaults, and the
Company Law Board has the power to order immediate inspection of the minutes or to direct
that copies shall be furnished (Section 196) . These statutory rights of the members are
exercisable only in respect of minutes of general meetings. Note that the fee for copies
mentioned above , need not be prepaid unlike to obtain the copy of a document filed with the
Registrar for which the fee must be prepaid [Section 610(1)(b)].
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bona fide for the benefit of the whole class [British America Nickel Crpn.Vs. O’Brien (1927) AC
369,PC]
Section 170(2)(b) states that unless the articles of the company or a contract binding on the
persons concerned otherwise provide, Sections 171 to 175 and Sections 177 to 186 with such
adaptations and modifications, if any, as may be prescribed, shall apply with respect to
meetings of debenture-holders or any class of debenture-holders of a company, in like manner
as they apply to general meetings of the company.
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The Official Liquidators (OL) attached to various High Courts functioning in the country are
also under the overall administrative control of the MCA. Its headquarters at Delhi also
includes two Directors of Inspection and Investigation and Director of Research and Statistics.
MCA 21 Program
Ministry of Company Affairs (MCA), Government of India (GoI) has initiated MCA 21 program,
for easy and secure access to MCA services in a manner that best suits the businesses and
citizens.
The program goals have been set as follows keeping in mind stakeholders' needs:
♦ Business enabled to register a company and file statutory documents quickly and easily
♦ Public to get easy access to relevant records and effective grievances redressal
♦ Professionals to be able to offer efficient services to their client companies
♦ Financial Institutions to easily find charges registration and verification
♦ Employees to ensure proactive and effective compliance of relevant laws and corporate
governance
MCA 21 is envisioned to provide anytime and anywhere services to businesses. It is a
pioneering program being the first mission mode e-governance project being undertaken in the
country. This program builds on the GoI vision to introduce a Service Oriented Approach in the
design and delivery of Government services, establish a healthy business ecosystem and
make the country globally competitive.
Program Scope
MCA 21 program will provide for anytime anywhere electronic services with speed and
certainty to all the stakeholders. It will include:
♦ Design and development of application system
♦ Setting up of IT infrastructure
♦ Setting up the Digital Signature/PKI delivery mechanisms and associated security
requirements
♦ Setting up of Physical Front Offices (PFOs)
♦ Setting up of temporary FOs for the peak periods to meet with the requirements and
subsequent shutdown of temporary FOs at the end of such peak periods
♦ Migrating legacy data and digitization of paper documents to the new system
♦ Providing MCA services to all MCA 21 stakeholders in accordance with the Service
Oriented Approach
♦ Providing user training at all levels and all offices (Front and Back Offices)
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The MCA 21 is designed to automate processes related to the proactive enforcement and
compliance of the legal requirements under the Companies Act, 1956. However, it does not
include processes related to OL.
Front Office
The implementation of Front Offices (FO) is done in two ways. These can be called as Virtual
Front Office (VFO) and Physical Front Office (PFO).
The VFO is what the citizen has in front while accessing the MCA 21 portal. The PFO will be a
replacement to the existing RoC counters. The PFO will also accept paper documents.
However, these will be converted into electronic documents by customer service agents
manning PFO. Also, the authorised person(s) will have to sign these documents digitally.
Consequently the authorised signatories for a given document will need to appear in person at
the PFO for the purpose of digitally signing the document.
The user can avail the following services on MCA 21 portal
♦ eFiling
♦ Viewing public document
♦ Requesting certified copies
♦ Registering investor complaint
♦ Tracking transaction status
Back Office
The back office is what MCA employee has in front which accessing back office portal. The
back office process relates to:
♦ Dynamic routing of documents that have been electronically filed to the concerned
official within MCA based on the type of service request.
♦ Electronic workflow systems to support speed and certainty in service delivery
♦ Supporting all routine tasks such as registrations and approvals
♦ Storing of all approved documents of companies as part of electronic records, including
provision of access to electronic records for the stakeholders
♦ Enhancing identification of defaulters
♦ Increasing efficiency of Technical Scrutiny
♦ Ensuring close follow-up on matters related to compliance management including
prosecutions
♦ Enabling quicker responses to investor grievances
♦ Providing alerts when the tasks are not carried out within stipulated period
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Key Benefits
MCA 21 seeks to fulfill the requirements of the various stakeholders. The key benefits of MCA
21 project are the back office process relates to:
♦ Expeditious incorporation of companies
♦ Simplified and ease of convenience in filing of Forms/ Returns
♦ Better compliance management
♦ Total transparency through e-Governance
♦ Customer centric approach
♦ Increased usage of professional certificate for ensuring authenticity and reliability of the
Forms / Returns
♦ Building up a centralised database repository of corporate operating
♦ Enhanced service level fulfillment
♦ Inspection of public documents of companies anytime from anywhere
♦ Registration as well as verification of charges anytime from anywhere
♦ Timely redressal of investor grievances
♦ Availability of more time for MCA employees for monitoring and supervision
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7. You need to click the Check Form button available in the eForm. System will check the
mandatory fields, mandatory attachment(s) and digital signature(s).
8. You need to upload the eForm for pre-scrutiny. The pre-scrutiny service is available
under the Services tab or under the eForms tab by clicking the Upload eForm button.
The system will verify (pre-scrutinise) the documents. In case of any inadequacies, the
user will be asked to rectify the mistakes before getting the document ready for execution
(signature).
9. The system will calculate the fee, including late payment fees based on the due date of
filing, if applicable.
10. Payments will have to be made through appropriate mechanisms - electronic (credit card,
Internet banking) or traditional means (at the bank counter through challan).
(a) Electronic payments can be made at the Virtual Front Office (VFO)or at PFO
(b) If the user selects the traditional payment option, the system will generate 3 copies
of pre-filled challan in the prescribed format. Traditional payments through cash,
cheques can be done at the designated network of banks using the system
generated challan. There will be five banks with estimated 200 branches authorised
for accepting challan payments.
11. The payment will be exclusively confirmed for all online (Internet) payment transactions
using payment gateways.
12. Acceptance or rejection of any transaction will be explicitly communicated to the
applicant (including facility to print a receipt for successful transactions).
13. MCA 21 will provide a unique transaction number, the Service Request Number (SRN)
which can be used by the applicant for enquiring the status pertaining to that transaction.
14. Filing will be complete only when the necessary payments are made.
15. In case of a rejection, helpful remedial tips will be provided to the applicant.
16. The applicants will be provided an acknowledgement through e-mail or alternatively they
can check the MCA portal.
2. What are the steps for online eFiling?
1. When the business or the registered users access the MyMCA portal, they enter their
username and authentication details - Password/ Digital Certificate.
2. The user will be shown a list of eForms category-wise under eForms tab .
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3. At any time, the users can read the related instruction kit, available under Help menu, to
familiarise themselves with the procedures.
4. The users can then fill the appropriate eForm for the service required. There is an option
of pre-fill facility in the eForms, where the static details such as name and address of the
company will be pre-filled by the system automatically on entering the Corporate Identity
Number (CIN).
5. The users attach the necessary documents to the eForm.
6. The users may avail the pre-scrutiny service of the eForm. The documents will be verified
(pre-scrutinised) by the system. In case of any inadequacies, for example, if a mandatory
column in the eForm is not filled in, the user will be asked to rectify before the document
is ready for execution (signature).
7. The applicant or a representative of the applicant will then submit the duly signed
documents electronically.
8. The system will calculate the fee, including late payment fees, if applicable.
9. Payments will have to be made through appropriate mechanisms - electronic (credit card,
Internet banking) or traditional means (at the bank counter).
(a) Electronic payments can be made at the Virtual Front Office (VFO).
(b) If the user selects the traditional payment option, the system will generate a pre-filled
challan in the prescribed format. Traditional payments through cash, cheques can be
done at the designated network of banks using the system generated challan. There will
be five banks with estimated 200 branches authorised for accepting challan payments.
10. The payment will be exclusively confirmed for all online (Internet) payment transactions
using payment gateways.
11. Acceptance or rejection of any transaction will be explicitly communicated to the
applicant (including facility to print a receipt for successful transactions).
12. MCA 21 will provide a unique transaction number, which can be used by the applicant for
enquiring status pertaining to that transaction.
13. Filing will be complete only when the necessary payments are made.
14. In case of a rejection, helpful remedial tips will be provided to the applicant.
15. The applicants will be provided an acknowledgement through e-mail or alternatively they
can check the MCA portal.
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10. How do I find SRN for form 1A filed before MCA 21 project?
You may find SRN by entering NIC issued name approval reference number in the “Name
Approval Reference Number” service available after logging into MyMCA portal.
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Essay/Practical Questions
13. State the conditions, which are required to be fulfilled before declaration of “Interim
Dividend” under the Companies Act, 1956.
14. Dinesh, a director in a company, gave in writing to the company that notice for any
General Meeting and the Board of Directors’ Meeting be sent to him at his address in
India only by Registered Mail and for which he paid sufficient money. The company sent
two notices to him, of such meetings, by ordinary mail, under certificate of posting.
Dinesh did not receive the said notices and could not attend the meetings and the
proceedings thereof on the ground of improper notice. Decide in the light of the
provisions of the Companies Act, 1956:
(i) Whether the contention of Dinesh is valid?
(ii) Would you answer be still the same in case Dinesh remained outside India for two
months (when such notices were given and meetings held)
15. Explain the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956 relating to holding of Annual General
Meeting of the Company with regard to the following:
(i) Period within which the first and the subsequent Annual General Meetings must be
held.
(ii) Business which may be transacted at an Annual General Meeting.
16. M/s Low Esteem Infotech Ltd. was incorporated on 1.4.2003. No General Meeting of the
company has been held so far. Explain the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956
regarding the time limit for holding the first annual general meeting of the Company and
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the power of the Registrar to grant extension of time for the First Annual General
Meeting.
17. The Board of Directors of M/s Optimistic Company Lid. propose to pay interim dividend of
Rs.2 per equity share of Rs. 10 each. Advise the Board regarding:
(i) The time limit for payment of interim dividend to the shareholders, and
(ii) Steps to be taken in case any dividend amount remains unpaid in the books of the
company.
18. In what way does the Companies Act, 1956 regulate the holding of an Annual General
Meeting by a public limited company? Explain.
19. M/s Low Esteem Infotech Ltd. was incorporated on 1.4.2003. No General Meeting of the
company has been held so far. Explain the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956
regarding the time limit for holding the first annual general meeting of the Company and
the power of the Registrar to grant extension of time for the First Annual General
Meeting.
20. Annual Genera! Meeting of a Public Company was scheduled to be held on 15.12.2003.
Mr. A, a shareholder, issued two Proxies in respect of the shares held by him in favour of
Mr. ‘X’ and Mr. T. The proxy in favour of ‘Y’ was lodged on 12.12.2003 and the one in
favour of Mr. X was lodged on 15.12.2003. The company rejected the proxy in favour of
Mr. X as the proxy in favour of Mr. Y was of dated 12.12.2003 and thus in favour of Mr. X
was of dated 13.12.2003. Is the rejection by the company in order?
21. The Board of Directors of M/s Optimistic Company Lid. propose to pay interim dividend of
Rs.2 per equity share of Rs. 10 each. Advise the Board regarding:
(i) the time limit for payment of interim dividend to the shareholders, and
(ii) steps to be taken in case any dividend amount remains unpaid in the books of the
company.
4.19 Answer
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (d)
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PART II
ETHICS
CHAPTER 7
PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS ETHICS
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to
♦ Define business ethics
♦ Distinguish between Business Ethics and Morality
♦ Understand Ethical Dilemmas
♦ Explain how businesses can promote Ethical Behaviour
♦ List the benefit of Business Ethics
"Whether men understand it or not, they are impelled by that power behind to become
unselfish. That is the foundation of morality. It is the quintessence of all ethics, preached in
any language, or any religion, or by any prophet in the world. "Be thou unselfish", "Not 'I', but
'Thou'" - that is the background of ethical codes."
Swami Vivekananda
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Corporate scandals such as Enron are illustrative of the relationship between ethics and
business. Investigation into the fraud committed by corporate senior executive officers as well
as the stress on the employees, who have to follow the unreasonable and sometimes illegal
orders of their superiors have also come to the fore in recent times. In a general sense, ethics
is the concern for good behaviour - doing the right thing. Human beings have always been
puzzled with moral questions of right and wrong behaviour; struggling to develop a system that
produced the maximum good for the individual and for the group. They understood the
importance of “right” behavior and realized that there was danger of extinction if violent acts
and pilferage were not curtailed. Over time, codes of conduct were developed to ensure
survival. These codes were for nurturing children, forming of family and tribal units, hunting
rituals and so on. Thus, a system of acceptable behavior was formed. One example that
comes to mind most readily is the Ten Commandments from the Bible. Other traditions and
religions have comparable sacred or ancient texts that have guided people's actions in all
areas, including business, for centuries, and still do.
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
At all times, wise men and religions all over the world have considered “value centred
perfection” and not “material success” as the ultimate goal of every human being.
Unfortunately with passage of time, we started witnessing a degradation of values-ethics,
forgetting the wise teachings; associating material success and fame as highest achievement.
According to Vedanta one of the world's most ancient religious philosophies based on the
Vedas, the sacred Hindu scriptures of India, it is crucially important that our thoughts and
actions be governed by ethical values and habits.
Vedanta, is in agreement with Socrates in holding the view that the practice of virtue should be
preceded by a rational understanding of the implications and the nature of virtue. It says that
Viveka (understanding) should precede Vairagya (dispassion) and the practice of Shatsampat
(six ethical virtues – tranquility, training, withdrawal, forbearance, faith and focus), are
cultivated to stabilize the mind and emotions. “The knowledge of the importance of virtue does
not deter people from moving to the evil side of things. This is the inscrutable illusion covering
the consciousness of man, says the Vedanta.
Mahatma Gandhi, Father of India, promoted non-violence, justice and harmony between
people of all faiths. Satyagraha, Gandhi's approach to conflict, was to "hold firmly to Truth.” He
stressed that people follow ethical principles and listed following seven Social Sins:
(i) Politics without Principles.
(ii) Wealth without work.
(iii) Commerce without Morality.
(iv) Knowledge without Character.
(v) Pleasure without Conscience.
(vi) Science without humanity.
(vii) Worship without sacrifice.
The first deals with the political field. The Kings in Indian tradition were only the guardian
executors and servants of ‘Dharma’. For Gandhi Rama was the symbol of a king dedicated to
Principles. The second and the third dicta deal with the sphere of Economics. Tolstoy and
Ruskin inspired Gandhi on the idea of bread-labour. The Bhagavad Gita also declares that he
who eats without offering sacrifice eats stolen food. Gandhi put this into practice at his
community centers. The third maxim was developed into the idea of Trusteeship by Gandhiji.
A business man has to act only as a trustee of the society for whatever he has gained from the
Society. Everything finally belongs to the society. "Trusteeship provides a means of
transforming the present capitalist order of society into an egalitarian one". The fourth dictum
deals with knowledge. Education stands for the all round development of the individual and his
7.2
Principles of Business Ethics
character. Gandhi's system of basic education was the system for development of one's
character. True knowledge leads to the development of one's character where one evolves his
`Rational self .' Gandhi held that Science without the thought of the welfare of humanity is a
Sin. Science and humanity together pave the way for welfare of all. In religion, we worship, but
if we are not ready to sacrifice for social service, worship has no value; it is sin to worship
without sacrifice . Gandhiji's everyday prayer was a recitation of the virtues of an ideal person
as depicted in the Bhagvad Gita. His prayer addressed to better one's own self, the
conscience, the true self. There is little doubt that unethical behaviour results in unspeakable
restlessness, tension, secret fear and loss of peace.
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7.4
Principles of Business Ethics
7.5
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
7.6
Principles of Business Ethics
and having a vision about its future role in society, nation and the world. In the broad sense
ethics in business is simply the application of everyday moral or ethical norms to business.
Being ethical in business requires acting with an awareness of how the products and services
of an organization, and the actions of its employees, can affect its stakeholders and society as
a whole and developing codes of conduct for doing business in an ethical manner. While
values and moral development are part of personal development, organizational factors can
also affect ethical behaviour. The strength of an organization’s culture influences ethical
behaviour. An organizational culture most likely to encourage high ethical standards is one
that is high in risk tolerance, control, and conflict tolerance. Managers in such cultures are
encouraged to be aggressive and innovative, are aware that unethical practices will be
discovered, and feel free to openly challenge expectations they consider to be unrealistic or
personally undesirable. Amongst the thinkers of modern times, an invaluable contribution to
practising business ethically is provided by Mahatma Gandhi, the father of our nation. He
sought to unite mankind in common pursuit of justice and establishment of a moral order in
world-society. He advised our countrymen to observe truthfulness in business and reminded
them that their responsibility was greater since their conduct would be seen as a reflection of
their country.
7.4 NEED FOR BUSINESS ETHICS
"Trusteeship provides a means of transforming the present capitalist order of society into an
egalitarian one” said Mahatma Gandhi. According to him, “a business man has to act only as
a trustee of the society for whatever he has gained from the society. Everything finally belongs
to the society.” Society bestows upon businesses the authority to own and use land and
natural resources. In return, society has the right to expect that productive organizations will
enhance the general interests of consumers, employees and community. Society may also
expect that organisations to honour existing rights and limit their activities within the bounds
of justice. So, under this ‘social contract’ between society and business, what rules should
guide the behavior of business enterprises? What are the minimal duties of business
professionals? Business ethics provides this guidance, including the consequences and
complications of their actions. Thus business ethics is that set of principles or reasons which
should govern the conduct of business – whether at the individual or collective level by the
application of ethical reasoning to specific business situations and activities.
Being ethical in business requires acting with an awareness of:
♦ The need for complying with rules, such as the laws of the land, the customs and
expectations of the community, the principles of morality, the policies of the organization
and such general concerns as the needs of others and fairness.
♦ How the products and services of an organization, and the actions of its members, can
affect its employees, the community and society as a whole.
7.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Business ethics has come to be considered a management discipline, especially since the
birth of the social responsibility movement in the 1960s. In that decade, social awareness
movements raised expectations of businesses to use their massive financial and public
influence to address social problems such as poverty, crime, environmental protection, equal
rights, public health and improving education. An increasing number of people asserted that
because businesses were making a profit from using the country's resources, they owed it to
the country to work to improve society. Many researchers, business schools and managers
have recognized this broader constituency, and in their planning and operations have replaced
the word "stockholder" with "stakeholder," meaning to include employees, customers,
suppliers and the wider community.
In the above framework we can define business ethics as “the principles and standards that
determine acceptable conduct in business organizations.” Learning to recognise ethical issues
is the most important step in understanding business ethics. An ethical issue is an identifiable
problem, situation or opportunity that requires a person to choose from among several actions
that may be evaluated as right or wrong, ethical or unethical. In business such a choice often
involves weighing monetary profit against what may be appropriate conduct .
7.5 ETHICAL DILEMMA
Learning to recognize ethical issues is the most important step in understanding business
ethics. An ethical issue is an identifiable problem, situation, or opportunity that requires a
person to choose from among several actions that may be evaluated as ethical or
unethical.This will often involve an apparent conflict between moral imperatives, in which to
obey one would result in transgressing another. Many business issues may seem straight
forward and easy to resolve by choosing the one option which appears to be the clear choice,
but in reality, one is faced with having to make a choice from various alternatives in which
more than one option seems “right” resulting in an ethical dilemma. In business, more than
anywhere else, we are faced with moral and ethical decisions daily. Not only are we faced with
questions between right and wrong, but between right and right. According to Joseph
Badaracco, Professor at Harvard Business School, "We have all experienced situations in
which our professional responsibilities unexpectedly come into conflict with our deepest
values. We are caught in a conflict between right and right. And no matter which option we
choose, we feel like we've come up short." Ethical dilemmas faced by managers are often
highly complex with no clear guidelines. For example, if you are a salesperson, when does
offering a gift to a customer become a bribe rather than sales promotion? Codes of ethics that
seek to influence moral behaviour of a group have a long tradition. Codes of Ethics are the
most widespread means by which companies communicate their ethical standards to the
employees or professionals. These are formalised rules and standards that describe what is
expected from them. The Hippocratic Oath, which still governs the ethical behaviour of
medical practitioners was drawn up more than two thousand years ago.
7.8
Principles of Business Ethics
Medical ethics, a branch of ethics, deals with moral decisions in various aspects of medicine.
The Hippocratic oath is the most enduring tradition in medicine that has been the guiding
ethical code for physicians since ancient Greece, and has eventually become the basis of all
medical ethics. In its most compelling portions, it emphasizes the profundity of the medical
agreement, patient dignity, the confidentiality of the transaction, and the physician's
responsibility to guard against abuse or corruption of his or her knowledge and art. It also
exhorts the physicians to honor the rules of their profession and expose those who do not
follow the high standards of conduct.
A slogan on an ethics poster for Boeing states the profound truth about ethical dilemma :
"Between right and wrong is a troublesome grey area." Each person must weigh alternatives
and make choices in light of personal values and goals, but also with consideration to
organizational and professional success. Decisions have to be made that are optimal and that
we can live with in the long run. An analysis of the relationship between ethical behavior and
effective leadership reveals that it is a matter of choosing both the ends and the means. A
business enterprise must be profitable in order to survive. At the same time, the means by
which they achieve those ends are increasingly important. Placing value on short term gains at
the detriment of long term results often ends in disaster .
Some guidelines1 to address ethical dilemmas are given below:
1. Define the problem clearly.
2. How would you define the problem if you stood on the other side of the fence?
3. How did the situation arise?
4. To whom are you loyal as a person and as a member of the organisation?
5. What is your intention in making this decision?
6. How does this intention compare with the probable results?
7. Whom could your decision or action injure?
8. Can you discuss the problem with the affected parties before you make your decision?
9. Are you confident that your position will be as valid over a long period?
1
Excerpt from “Ethics Without The Sermon” by Laura L. Nash, Harvard Business review-
November-December, 1981
7.9
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10. Could you disclose without any doubt your decision or action to your boss, your CEO, the
Board of Directors, your family, society as a whole ?
11. What is the symbolic potential of your action if understood? If misunderstood ?
12. Under what conditions would you allow exceptions to your stand ?
7.10
Principles of Business Ethics
ethics management program. Most organisations feel that it is far better to incur the cost of
mechanisms to ensure ethical practices than to incur costs of litigation later.
6. Ethics programs help to avoid criminal acts “of omission” and can lower fines.
Ethics programs help to detect ethical issues and violations early, so that they can be
reported or addressed.
7. Ethics programs help to manage values associated with quality management, strategic
planning and diversity management .
Ethics programs help identifying preferred values and ensuring that organizational behaviors
are aligned with those values. This includes recording the values, developing policies and
procedures to align behaviours with preferred values, and then training all personnel about the
policies and procedures. This overall effort is very useful for several other programs in the
workplace that require behaviors to be aligned with values, including quality management,
strategic planning and diversity management. For example, Total Quality Management
initiatives include high priority on certain operating values, e.g., trust among stakeholders,
performance, reliability, measurement, and feedback.
8. Ethics helps to promote a strong public image
An organization that pays attention to its ethics can portray a strong and positive image to
the public. People see such organizations as valuing people more than profit and striving to
operate with the integrity and honor.
Thus managing ethical values in businesses besides optimizing profit generation in the long
term, legitimizes managerial actions, strengthens the coherence and balance of the
organization’s culture, improves trust in relationships between individuals and groups,
supports greater consistency in standards and qualities of products, and cultivates greater
sensitivity to the impact of the enterprise’s values and messages. Finally and most essentially,
proper attention to business ethics is the right thing to do.
References:
Business –A Changing World, 4th edition, O.C. Ferell & Geoffrey Hirt, McGraw-Hill
Business Ethics, Manuel G. Velasquez, Pearson Education
Ethics in Management and Indian Ethos, Biswanath Ghosh, Vikas Publishing House
Website: www.managementhelp.org/ethics
7.11
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
7.12
CHAPTER 8
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AND CORPORATE
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter , you will be able to-
♦ Define Corporate Governance and understand the term “stakeholder”
♦ Explain various corporate governance initiatives in India and abroad
♦ Understand Corporate Social responsibility and the need and importance of being a
Corporate Citizen
♦ Explain the implementation and list the benefits of Corporate Social Responsibility
“What good did the creatures of the earth do to the clouds that pour the rain? So indeed
should you serve society, seeking no return. Good men put forth industry and produce
wealth, not for themselves but for the use of society. Wealth is not to be earned for the
purpose of self indulgence or for satisfaction of greed. Wealth should be treated as the
citizen's instrument for helpfulness. The word is not just helpfulness but helpfulness
combined with a sense of duty. There is no pleasure in this or in the other world equal to
the joy of being helpful to those around you. Do not lose the opportunity for this rare
pleasure.”
C. Raja Gopalachari’s translation of ThiruValluvar’s Kural (Social Cooperation)
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The importance of corporate social responsibility surfaced in the 1960s when the activist
movement began questioning the singular economic objective of being maximization of profits.
This has always been a source of contention. For example, were tobacco companies ignoring
health risks associated with nicotine and its addictive properties? Times have changed and
managers must regularly make decisions about issues that have a dimension of social
responsibility. Karl Marx , commenting on business objectives said “Business is all green,
only philosophy is grey.” What he meant was that business is all about profits and comfort for
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
its rich owners and discomforts for all other sections of the society who are at the receiving
end of the business. Despite such socialist ideology been relegated to the background due to
fact that capitalism is being gradually accepted; business is still painted as essentially
exploitative in nature. But one has to accept that much of the progress in the world would not
have been possible without entrepreneurship and business which involves risk. Corporate
Governance is getting a focused attention particularly after market and public confidence
became fragile after a series of high profile corporate failures in which the absence of effective
governance was a major factor.
Business ethics if properly understood is neither anti business nor anti capitalist. It is simply
articulating a cohesive set of values to guide decision making in running a business.
Globalisation and liberalization of economies has brought corporate organizations to the
center stage of social development. As a result in the process of corporate decision making,
managers contribute , consciously or unconsciously to the shaping of human society. It is not
a choice between profits and ethics , but profits in an ethical manner. This mantra has lead to
the evolution of Corporate Governance. Corporate Governance is getting attention for
satisfying the divergent interests of the stakeholders of a business enterprise especially after
the corporate scandals and loss of shareholder value at Enron and several other large
companies in the recent past, which focused more attention on the issue of shareholder rights,
calling for greater transparency and accountability and enhancing corporate reporting and
disclosure. The scandals led to numerous corporate governance reforms, including passage of
the Sarbanes - Oxley Act and the adoption of new listing requirements by the New York Stock
Exchange in the United States. Other countries have introduced similar legal requirements. As
a result, increasing number of companies are working proactively to address issues that
concern shareholders and a range of other stakeholders.
Definition
“Corporate governance is about promoting corporate fairness, transparency and
accountability".1 It is concerned with structures and processes for decision making,
accountability, control and behaviour at the top level of organisations. It influences how the
objectives of an organisation are set and achieved, how risk is monitored and assessed and
how performance is optimized.
The term Corporate Governance is not easy to define. The term governance relates to a
process of decision making and implementing the decisions in the interest of all stakeholders.
It basically relates to enhancement of corporate performance and ensures proper
accountability for management in the interest of all stakeholders. It is a system through which
an organisation is guided and directed. On the basis of this definition2, the core objectives of
1
J.Wolfensohn, President of the Word bank- Financial Times, June 21, 1999
2
The Cadbury Report , 1992
8.2
Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility
8.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
8.4
Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility
proper disclosure of financial information and executive compensation. Many companies have
established ethics and /or social responsibility committees on their Boards to review strategic
plans, assess progress and offer guidance on social responsibilities of their business. In
addition to having committees and boards, some companies have adopted guidelines
governing their own policies and practices around such issues like board diversity,
independence, and compensation.
Indian Companies are required to comply with Clause 49 of the listing agreement primarily
focusing on following areas:
♦ Board composition and procedure
♦ Audit Committee responsibilities
♦ Subsidiary companies
♦ Risk management
♦ CEO/CFO certification of financial statements and internal controls
♦ Legal compliance
♦ Other disclosures
Developments in India
The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) took the lead in framing a desirable code of corporate
governance in April 1998. This was followed by the recommendations of the Kumar Mangalam Birla
Committee on Corporate Governance. This Committee was appointed by the Securities and Exchange
Board of India (SEBI). The recommendations were accepted by SEBI in December 1999, and
enshrined in Clause 49 of the Listing Agreement of all Stock Exchanges in India.
In August 2002 , the Department of Company Affairs, Government of India, constituted a nine-member
committee under the chairmanship of Mr. Naresh Chandra, to examine the Auditor- Company
relationship, role of independent directors, disciplinary mechanism for auditors committing irregularities
and the CEO/CFO certification introduced by SOX.
SEBI having analysed disclosures made by many companies under Clause 49 constituted a review
committee under the chairmanship of Mr. N. R. Narayana Murthy. The Narayana Murthy Committee
report, 2003, suggested further improvements and in alignment with these recommendations , the
revised Clause 49 has been made effective.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
2. Studies show clear evidence that good governance is rewarded with a higher
market valuation.
3. Ensures commitment of the board in managing the company in a transparent
manner .
8.6 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a concept that organizations, have an obligation to
consider the interests of customers, employees, shareholders, communities, and ecological
considerations in all aspects of their operations. This obligation is seen to extend beyond their
statutory obligation to comply with legislation. CSR is closely linked with the principles of
Sustainable Development, which argues that enterprises should make decisions based not
only on financial factors such as profits or dividends, but also based on the immediate and
long-term social and environmental consequences of their activities, especially taking into
consideration the needs of future generations. . It is an integrated combination of policies,
programs, education, and practices which extend throughout a corporation’s operations and
into the communities in which they operate, about how companies voluntarily manage the
business processes to produce an overall positive impact on society. CSR can mean different
things to different people:
♣ for an employee it can mean fair wages, no discrimination, acceptable working conditions
etc.
♣ for a shareholder it can mean making responsible and transparent decisions regarding
the use of capital.
♣ for suppliers it can mean receiving payment on time.
♣ for customers it can mean delivery on time, etc.
♣ for local communities and authorities it can mean taking measures to protect the
environment from pollution.
♣ for non-governmental organisations and pressure groups it can mean disclosing business
practices and performance on issues ranging from energy conservation and global
warming to human rights and animal rights, from protection of the rainforests and
endangered species to child and forced labour, etc.
For a company, however, it can simply be seen as responding to the needs and concerns of
people who can influence the success of the company and/or whom the company can impact
through its business activities, processes and products.
The term corporate citizenship denotes the extent to which businesses meet the legal,
ethical, economic and voluntary responsibilities placed on them by their stakeholders.
8.6
Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility
Companies can best benefit their stakeholders by fulfilling their economic, legal, ethical and
discretionary responsibilities. The benefits of “good corporate citizenship” include:
♦ A stable socio-political-legal environment for business as well as enhanced competitive
advantage through better corporate reputation and brand image.
♦ improved employee recruitment, retention and motivation, improved stakeholder relations
and a more secure environment in which to operate.
8.7 NEED FOR CSR
CSR is pursued by businesses to balance their economic, environmental and social objectives
while at the same time addressing stakeholder expectations and enhancing shareholder value.
Over the past decade, CSR has risen in global prominence and importance. More companies
than ever before are engaged in serious efforts to define and integrate CSR into all aspects of
their business, with their experiences being strengthened by a growing body of evidence that
CSR has a positive impact on business economic performance.
Ethical
Responsibilities
Economic
Responsibilities
Discretionary Responsibilities
Legal Responsibilities
New voluntary CSR standards and performance measurement tools continue to grow amidst
the ongoing debate about whether and how to formalize legal CSR requirements for
companies. Stakeholders, including shareholders, analysts, regulators, activists, labour
unions, employees, community organizations, and the news media, are asking companies to
be accountable not only for their own performance but for the performance of their entire
supply chain. This is taking place against the backdrop of a complex global economy with
continuing economic, social and environmental imbalance. Corporate governance scandals
such as those at WorldCom, Enron, Daewoo etc. profoundly affected major capital markets
worldwide, and placed issues such as ethics, accountability, and transparency firmly on the
business, regulation and policy agenda. Additionally, issues such as peace, sustainable
8.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
development, security, poverty alleviation, environmental quality and human rights are having
a profound effect on businesses and the business environment. While CSR does not have a
universal definition, many see it as a way of integrating the economic, social, and
environmental necessity of business activities. Social issues with which business corporations
have been concerned since the 1960s may be divided into three categories:
(a) Social problems external to the corporation that were not caused by any direct business
action like poverty, drug abuse, decay of the cities and so on.
(b) The external impact of regular economic activities. For example pollution caused by
production; the quality, safety, reliability of goods and services; deception in marketing
practices, the social impact of plant closures and plant location belong to this category.
(c) Issues within the firm and tied up with regular economic activities, like equal employment
opportunity, occupational health and safety, the quality of work life and industrial
democracy .
The second and third categories are of increasing importance and are tied up with the regular
economic operations of business. Improved social performance demands changes in these
operations.
Corporate social responsibility ensures that corporations promote corporate citizenship as part
of their culture. Corporate social responsibility is about businesses transforming their role from
merely selling products and services with a view to making profits and increasing their
revenue to the development of a society through their abilities of generating capital and
investing it for social empowerment.
Definition :
"Corporate Social Responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically
and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce
and their families as well as of the local community and society at large".3
“Corporate Social Responsibility is achieving commercial success in ways that honour ethical
values and respect people, communities, and the natural environment.”4
CSR Policies
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) refers to operating a business in a manner that
accounts for the social and environmental impact created by the business. CSR means a
3
"Making Good Business Sense" by Lord Holme and Richard Watts -The World Business
Council for Sustainable Development publication .
4
Business Social Responsibility, a global non-profit organization.
8.8
Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility
commitment to developing policies that integrate responsible practices into daily business
operations, and to reporting on progress made toward implementing these practices.
8.9
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Stakeholders increasingly hold companies accountable for the practices of their business
partners throughout the entire value chain with special focus on suppliers, environmental,
labour, and human rights practices.
Transparency and Reporting: Companies are facing increased demands for transparency
and growing expectations that they measure, report, and continuously improve their social,
environmental and economic performance. Companies are expected to provide access to
information on the impact of their operations, to engage stakeholders in meaningful dialogue
about issues of concern that are relevant to either party and to be responsive to particular
concerns not covered in standard reporting and communication practice. Many companies are
also instituting various types of audit and verification as further means of increasing the
credibility of their transparency and reporting efforts. Increasingly, demands for greater
transparency also encompass public policy - stakeholders want to know that the way
companies use their ability to influence public policy is consistent with stated social and
environmental goals. As part of this move toward greater disclosure, many companies are
displaying detailed information about their social and environmental performance on their
publicly accessible websites - even when it may be negative.
Convergence of CSR and Governance Agenda: In the past several years, there has been a
growing convergence of corporate governance and CSR agenda. In the 1990s, the overlap
was seen most clearly on issues such as board diversity, director independence, and
executive compensation. The need for having on the board of directors, directors who are non-
executive and who are independent i.e., directors who are not involved in the day-to-day
administration of the company but who would bring a non-partisan and unbiased approach to a
company’s policies is emphasized by both CSR and Corporate Governance dictates.
Similarly, the need for putting a reasonable cap on executive compensation, such that, the
CEO and the top level executives do not reward themselves with excessively high pay
packages and unreasonable stock options at the cost of shareholders’ and stakeholders’
interest is stressed by CSR and Corporate Governance regimes. More recently, an
increasing number of corporate governance advocates have begun to view companies’
management of a broad range of CSR issues as a fiduciary responsibility alongside traditional
risk management. In addition, more and more CSR activists have begun to stress the
importance of board and management accountability, governance, and decision-making
structures as imperative to the effective institutionalisation of CSR.
Growing Investor Pressure and Market-Based Incentives: CSR is now more and more part
of the mainstream investment scene. The last few years have seen the launch of several high-
profile socially and/or environmentally screened market instruments (e.g., indexes like the
Dow Jones Sustainability Indexes), This activity is a testament to the fact that mainstream
investors increasingly view CSR as a strategic business issue. Many socially responsible
investors are using the shareholder resolution process to pressure companies to change
8.10
Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility
policies and increase disclosure on a wide range of CSR issues, including environmental
responsibility, workplace policies, community involvement, human rights practices, ethical
decision-making and corporate governance. Activist groups are also buying shares in targeted
companies to give them access to annual meetings and the shareholder resolution process.
Advances in Information Technology: The rapid growth of information technology has also
served to sharpen the focus on the link between business and corporate social responsibility.
Just as email, mobile phones and the Internet speed the pace of change and facilitate the
growth of business, they also speed the flow of information about a company’s CSR record.
Pressure to Quantify CSR “Return on Investment”: Ten years after companies began to
think about CSR in its current form, companies, their employees and customers, NGOs, and
public institutions increasingly expect returns on CSR investments, both for business and
society. This is leading to questions about how meaningful present CSR practice is, and the
answers to those questions would determine both the breadth and depth of CSR practice for
the next decade. Companies want to determine what their CSR initiatives have accomplished
so that they can focus on scarce resources more effectively.
8.9 CSR MECHANISM
Some companies have established committees that are specifically responsible for identifying
and addressing social or environmental issues, or have broadened the scope of more
traditional standing committees to include responsibility for CSR.; while others have
strategically appointed directors on the board based on the unique expertise and experience
they bring on specific issues, who then serve as advisors to others on the Board (see
Corporate Governance at ITC). Moreover, companies are finding that a board that is diverse
in terms of gender, ethnicity and professional experience is better equipped to grapple with
emerging and complex challenges.
Companies implement CSR by putting in place internal management systems that generally
promote :
♦ Adherence to labour standards by them as well their business partners;
♦ Respect for human rights;
♦ Protection of the local and global environment;
♦ Reducing the negative impacts of operating in conflict zones;
♦ Avoiding bribery and corruption and;
♦ Consumer protection.
Each company differs in how it implements CSR. The distinction depends on such factors as
the company’s size, sector, culture and the commitment of its leadership. Some companies
8.11
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
focus on a single area – the environment, for example, or community economic development
while others aim to integrate a CSR vision into all aspects of their operations. Below are some
key strategies companies can use when implementing CSR policies and practices-
Mission, Vision and Values Statements: If CSR is to be regarded as an integral part of
business decision-making, it merits a prominent place in a company’s core mission, vision and
values documents. These are simple but important statements that succinctly state a
company’s goals and aspirations. They also provide insight into a company’s values, culture
and strategies for achieving its aims. The mission or vision of a socially responsible business
frequently refers to a purpose beyond “making a profit” or “being the best,” and specifies that it
will engage in ethical and responsible business practices, and seek to make decisions that
balance the needs of key stakeholders, including shareholders/owners, employees,
customers, suppliers communities and the natural environment.
Cultural Values: Many companies now understand that corporate social responsibility cannot
flourish in an environment where innovation and independent thinking are not welcome. In a
similar vein, there must also be a commitment to close the gap between what the company
says it stands for and the reality of its actual performance. Goals and aspirations should be
ambitious, but care should be exercised so that the company says what it means and means
what it says.
Management Structures: The goal of a CSR management system is to integrate corporate
responsibility concerns into a company’s values, culture, operations and business decisions at
all levels of the organization. Although there is no single universally accepted method for
designing a CSR management structure, many companies have taken steps to create such a
system by assigning responsibility to a committee of the Board, an executive level committee
or a single executive or group of executives who can identify key CSR issues and evaluate
and develop a structure for long-term integration of social values throughout the organization.
It is vital to design a structure that aligns the company’s mission, size, sector, culture,
business structure, geographic locations, risk areas and level of CSR commitment.
Strategic Planning: A number of companies are beginning to incorporate CSR into their long-
term planning processes, identifying specific goals and measures of progress or requiring
CSR impact statements for any major company proposals.
General Accountability: In some companies, in addition to the efforts to establish corporate
and divisional social responsibility goals, there are attempts to address these issues in the job
description and performance objectives of employees. This helps everyone understand how
each person can contribute to the company's overall efforts to be socially responsible.
Employee Recognition and Rewards: Most companies understand that employees tend to
engage in behaviour that is recognized and rewarded and avoid behaviour that is penalized.
8.12
Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility
The system of recruiting, hiring, promoting, compensating and publicly honouring employees
can be designed to promote corporate social responsibility.
Communications, Education and Training: Many companies now recognize that employees
cannot be held accountable for irresponsible behaviour if they are not aware of its importance
and provided with the information and tools they need to act appropriately in carrying out their
job requirements. These companies are emphasising the importance of corporate social
responsibility internally, have a code of conduct, provide managers and employees with
adequate decision-making processes that help them achieve responsible outcomes.
CSR Reporting: Many companies have come to understand the value of assessing their
social and environmental performance on a regular basis. Annual CSR reports can build trust
among stakeholders and encourage internal efforts to comply with a company’s CSR goals.
The best reports demonstrate CEO and senior leadership support; provide verified
performance data for social, environmental and economic performance indicators; share
“good” and “bad” news; set goals for improvement; include stakeholder feedback; and many
times are verified by outside auditors. According to Sustainability’s Global Reporters 2002
Survey, the Global Reporting Initiative has made it easier to produce such reports.
8.10 EXTERNAL STANDARDS AND OTHER DEVELOPMENTS
The increased interest in CSR has been accompanied by substantial growth in the number of
external standards produced for business by governmental, non-governmental, advocacy and
other types of organizations. These various standards are designed to support, measure,
assist in implementation and enhance accountability for corporate performance on CSR
issues. While many of the standards produced are based on a single issue (e.g., focused on
environmental performance or corporate governance), others like Social Accountability 8000
address a range of CSR issues.
Various performance and reporting standards have been introduced. Some are explained
below
The Global Reporting Initiative: is a reporting standard established in 1997 with the mission
of designing globally applicable guidelines for preparing enterprise-level sustainability reports
including both social and environmental indicators. The GRI is convened by CERES (Coalition
for Environmentally Responsible Economies) incorporates the active participation of
corporations, non-governmental organizations, international organizations, United Nations
agencies, consultants, accountancy organizations, business associations, universities, and
other stakeholders from around the world. The GRI first released its Sustainability Reporting
Guidelines in 1999 and is now a permanent, independent, international body with a multi-
stakeholder governance structure. The Global Reporting Initiative’s (GRI) vision is that
reporting on economic, environmental, and social performance by all organizations becomes
as routine and comparable as financial reporting. GRI accomplishes this vision by developing,
8.13
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
continually improving, and building capacity around the use of its Sustainability Reporting
Framework. An international network of thousands from business, civil society, labor, and
professional institutions create the content of the Reporting Framework in a consensus-
seeking process
AA1000: Launched in 1999, AA1000, based on John Elkington's triple bottom line (3BL)
reporting is an accountability standard designed to complement the Global Reporting
Initiative’s (GRI) Reporting Guidelines with the objective to improve accountability and
performance by learning through stakeholder engagement. The AA1000 Stakeholder
Engagement Standard (AA1000SES) is a generally applicable, open-source framework for
improving the quality of the design, implementation, assessment, communication and
assurance of stakeholder engagement. The AA1000 Assurance Standard was launched in
2003 as the world’s first sustainability assurance standard and applies to the principles of
Materiality, Completeness and Responsiveness.
CSR initiatives in India
Indian companies like Tata and Birla Groups have regularly maintained since several
decades a certain level of expenditure for social and charitable causes . Some of the
observations made by the Sachar Committee (1978), which was formed by Govt. of India to
consider and report on the changes necessary in the form and structure of the Companies Act
and MRTP Act, observed that," the company must behave and function as a responsible
member of the society just like any other individual. It cannot shun moral values nor can it
ignore actual compulsion ---.” Though there are no Govt. directives or legal compulsions,
some progressive companies in India like SAIL, BHEL, MMTC, and ONGC, etc., in the public
sector and TISCO, ITC, BATA, etc., in the private sector have ventured into the field of social
responsibility reporting since 1980. Companies like Infosys, Wipro, Hero Honda and Bharti
Enterprises have taken various initiatives to promote and support the environment, education,
health, cultural harmony and welfare in the society. The Infosys Foundation in the past has
provided Rs 38 lakh of financial assistance to war widows in various parts of India. It has also
been involved with the construction of a super speciality hospital and reconstruction of schools
in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The Azim Premji Foundation run by the Wipro chairman in
his personal capacity is working on the universalizing elementary education and to improve
the quality of learning in schools.
Social Accountability 8000 : Globalisation of business, whilst providing significant benefits to
organisations, has brought new challenges and risks. As supply chains become more
complex, it is increasingly difficult to ensure transparent management practices in every
market. Recently, many high profile multi-nationals like Nike have been implicated in scandals
involving the use of child labour, discriminatory work practices or enforced labour within their
supply chains. Consumer pressure, NGO scrutiny and the media, amongst others, are all
placing business under the microscope. SA 8000 is a comprehensive, global, verifiable
8.14
Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility
performance standard for auditing and certifying compliance with corporate responsibility. The
heart of the standard is the belief that all workplaces should be managed in such a manner
that basic human rights are supported and that management is prepared to accept
accountability for this. SA8000 is an international standard for improving working conditions.
This standard is based on the principles of the international human rights norms as described
in International Labor Organisation conventions, the United Nations Convention on the Rights
of the Child and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The requirements of this standard
apply regardless of geographic location, industry sector, or company size.
United Nations Global Compact: The Global Compact is a voluntary international corporate
citizenship network initiated to support the participation of both the private sector and other
social actors to advance responsible corporate citizenship and universal social and
environmental principles to meet the challenges of globalization. The UN Global Compact was
formally launched in September 2000. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan called on world
business leaders to voluntarily “embrace and enact” a set of nine principles in their individual
corporate practices .
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Guidelines for
Multinational Enterprises: The guidelines were first published in 1976 and updated most
recently in June 2004. The guidelines are recommendations addressed by governments to
multinational enterprises and are voluntary principles and standards, not legally enforceable.
Governments adhering to the Guidelines encourage the companies operating within the
countries to observe the guidelines wherever they operate.
Benchmarks for Measuring Business Performance: The Interfaith Centre on Corporate
Responsibility (ICCR) has published “Principles for Global Corporate Responsibility,” which is
not a standard but a “collective distillation of the issues of concern” for institutional investors
developed by groups in the U.S., Canada, and the U.K. The ICCR is comprised of more than
275 religious institutions that use their investments to promote social change. The principles
cover the entire spectrum of CSR issues, including workplace, community, the environment,
human rights, ethics, suppliers and consumers. The principles are published as a reference
tool that companies (and investors) can use to benchmark or monitor their own policies, or
those of the companies in which they invest.
The Caux Round Table (CRT) : promotes principled business leadership and the belief that
business has a crucial role in identifying and promoting sustainable and equitable solutions to
key global issues affecting the physical, social and economic environments. The CRT is
comprised of senior business leaders from Europe, Japan and North America, and is based in
Caux, Switzerland. The CRT has produced “Principles for Business,” a document which seeks
to express a worldwide standard for ethical and responsible corporate behaviour for dialogue
and action by business and leaders worldwide. The principles include the social impact of
company operations on the local community, a respect for rules and ethics, support for
8.15
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
multilateral trade agreements that promote the “judicious liberation of trade,” respect for the
environment and “avoidance of illicit operation,” including bribery, money laundering, and
other corrupt practices.
The Global Sullivan Principles: Introduced in 1999, the Global Sullivan Principles expand
upon the original Sullivan Principles, which were developed by the late Reverend Leon H.
Sullivan in 1977 as a voluntary code of conduct for companies doing business in apartheid
South Africa. According to Rev. Sullivan, “The objectives of the Global Sullivan Principles are
to support economic, social and political justice by companies where they do business; to
support human rights and to encourage equal opportunity at all levels of employment,
including racial and gender diversity on decision-making committees and boards; to train and
advance disadvantaged workers for technical, supervisory and management opportunities;
and to assist with greater tolerance and understanding among peoples; thereby, helping to
improve the quality of life for communities, workers and children with dignity and equality.”
Asian-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Business Code of Conduct: APEC is known
as the primary international organization for promoting open trade and economic cooperation
among 21 member countries. The Code, issued as a draft in 1999, is a standard that draws
significantly on a variety of other internationally recognized codes and standards. The drafting
of the Code was initiated by business leaders from companies operating in APEC countries
and is designed to supplement and support companies’ existing codes of conduct. In addition
to providing recommendations for specific “company action” on a range of issues, the Code
addresses policy recommendations to APEC country governments.
8.11 BENEFITS Of CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Corporate social responsibility is the commitment of businesses to behave ethically and to
contribute to sustainable economic development by working with all relevant stakeholders to
improve their lives in ways that are good for business, the sustainable development agenda,
and society at large. Social responsibility becomes an integral part of the wealth creation
process - which if managed properly should enhance the competitiveness of business and
maximize the value of wealth creation to society. There is a growing body of data, quantitative
and qualitative, that demonstrates many benefits of socially responsible corporate
performance.
The Iron Law of Responsibility
The institution of business exists only because it performs invaluable services for society.
Society gives business its license to exist and this can be amended or revoked at any time if
it fails to live up to society’s expectations. Therefore, if a business intends to retain its existing
social role and power, it must respond to society’s needs constructively. This is known as the
Iron Law of Responsibility. In the long-run those who do not use power in a manner that
society considers responsible, will tend to lose it.
8.16
Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility
8.17
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
8.18
Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility
among their suppliers often experience a decrease in merchandise that is defective or can’t be
sold.
Increased Ability to Attract and Retain Employees
Companies perceived to have strong CSR commitments often find it easier to recruit and
retain employees, resulting in a reduction in turnover and associated recruitment and training
costs. Even in difficult labour markets, potential employees evaluate a company’s CSR
performance to determine whether it is the right “fit”.
To further illustrate the points discussed above, as an example, the corporate governance
structure of ONGC Ltd. is provided below. The Corporate Governance Structure of ONGC
has been chosen to be included, as ONGC has received many awards for best Corporate
Governance practices. The structure of this company also complies with Clause 49
requirements as provided in the SEBI’s Listing Agreements.
___________________________________________________________________________
8.19
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
• 'Golden Peacock Award for Excellence in Corporate Governance - 2002' by the Institute
of Directors;
• 'ICSI National Award for Excellence in Corporate Governance' - 2003 by the Institute of
Company Secretaries of India; and
• 'Golden Peacock Global Award' for Corporate Governance in Emerging Economies -2005
by World Council for Corporate Governance, U.K.
• 'Golden Peacock Award for Excellence in Corporate Governance - 2005' by the Institute
of Directors;
• ' Golden Peacock Award for Excellence in Corporate Social Responsibility in Emerging
Economies' 2006 - by World Council for Corporate Governance, UK.
The Company is managed by the Board of Directors, which formulates strategies, policies and
reviews its performance periodically. The Chairman & Managing Director (CMD) and six
whole-time Directors manage the business of the Company under the overall supervision,
control and guidance of the Board.
Composition
The Board of Directors has an adequate combination of Executive (Functional) and Non-
executive Directors. The Board has 14 members, comprising of 7 Functional Directors
including the Chairman & Managing Director. Besides, the Board comprises of 6 non-
executive Directors comprising of: 2 part-time official Directors and 4 part-time non-official
Directors, all nominated by Government of India.
Decisions and deliberations of the Board are supported by various committees of the Board.
8.20
Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility
Board Procedures
(A) Institutionalised decision making process:
With a view to institutionalize all corporate affairs and setting up systems and
procedures for advance planning for matters requiring discussion/ decisions by the
Board , the Company has defined guidelines for the meetings of the Board of
Directors and Committees thereof. These Guidelines seek to systematize the decision
making process at the meetings of Board/Committees, in an informed and efficient
manner.
(B) Recording minutes of proceedings at the Board Meeting:
Minutes of the proceedings of each Board/Committee meeting are recorded. Draft
minutes are circulated amongst all members of the Board/ Committee for their critical
appreciations and comments. The comments are incorporated in the minutes, which
are finally approved by the Chairman of the Board/Committee. These minutes are
confirmed in the next Board/Committee Meeting. The finalized minutes of the
proceedings of the meetings are entered in the Minutes Book.
(C) Follow-up mechanism:
The guidelines for the Board/Committee Meetings facilitate an effective post meeting
follow-up, review and reporting process for the action taken on decisions of the Board
and Committee. Functional Directors submit follow-up Action Taken Report (ATR) on
the areas of their responsibilities, at least once in a quarter, on the decisions/
instructions/directions of the Board.
(D) Compliance:
Every functional Director while preparing the agenda notes is responsible for and is
required to ensure adherence to all the applicable provisions of law, rules, guidelines
etc. The Company Secretary has to ensure compliance to all the applicable provisions
of the Companies Act, 1956, Secretarial Standards issued by ICSI, SEBI Guidelines,
Listing Agreement, and other statutory requirements pertaining to capital market. A
Quarterly Compliance Report (collected from all work centers) confirming adherence
to all the applicable laws, rules, guidelines and internal instructions/manuals including
on Corporate Governance is reviewed by the Audit & Ethics Committee and the
Board.
8.21
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
The role of the Audit & Ethics Committee includes the following:
a) Overseeing financial reporting processes and the disclosure of financial information, to
ensure that the financial statements are correct, sufficient and credible;
b) Recommending to the Board, audit fees payable to Statutory Auditors appointed by
C&AG and approving payments for any other services;
c) Reviewing with management the periodic financial statements/results before submission
to the Board, focusing primarily on:
8.22
Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility
d) Reviewing with the management, Statutory Auditors, Govt. Audit and Internal audit
reports, adequacy of internal control systems and recommending improvements to the
management;
e) Reviewing the adequacy of internal audit function, approving internal audit plans and
efficacy of the functions including the structure of the internal audit department, staffing,
reporting structure, coverage and frequency of internal audits;
f) Discussion with internal auditors any significant findings and follow-up thereon;
g) Reviewing the findings of any internal investigations by the internal auditors into the
matters where there is suspected fraud or irregularity or a failure of internal control
systems of a material nature and reporting the matter to the Board;
h) Discussion with the Statutory Auditors before the audit commences, the nature and
scope of audit, as well as post-audit discussion including their observations to ascertain
any area of concern;
i) Reviewing the Company’s financial and risk management policies;
j) Reviewing Quarterly Compliance Report confirming adherence to all the applicable
laws, rules, guidelines, instructions and internal instructions/manuals including on
Corporate Governance principles;
k) Reviewing the management discussion and analysis of financial condition and results of
operations, statement of significant related party transactions, management letters/letter
of internal control weaknesses issued by the statutory auditors, internal audit reports;
and
l) Reviewing the financial statements and in particular the investments made by the
unlisted subsidiaries of the Company.
m) Matters relating to Corporate Governance including Ethics in business.
Minutes of the meetings of the Audit & Ethics Committee are approved by the Chairman of the
Committee and are noted and confirmed by the Board in its next meeting.
Remuneration committee
ONGC being a Government Company, appointment and terms and conditions of remuneration
of Executive (whole-time functional) Directors are determined by the Government through
administrative ministry, the Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas. Non-executive part-time
official Directors (ex-officio) do not draw any remuneration. The Part-time non-official Directors
receive sitting fees of Rs. 10,000/- for each Board/Committee meeting attended by them.
8.23
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Shareholdiner`s/Investors`grievance committee
The Shareholders’/Investors’ Grievances Committee specifically looks into redressing of
shareholders’ and investors’ complaints/grievances pertaining to share transfers, non receipt
of annual reports, dividend payments, issue of duplicate certificates, transmission(with or
without legal representation) of shares and other miscellaneous complaints. The Committee
oversees and review performance of the Registrar and Transfer Agent and recommends
measures for overall improvement in the quality of investor services. The Committee also
monitors implementation and compliance of Company’s Code of Conduct for Prevention of
Insider Trading in ONGC securities.
The Company Secretary acts as Secretary to the Committee.
Minutes of the meetings of the Shareholders’/Investors’ Grievance Committee are approved by
the Chairman of the Committee and are noted and confirmed by the Board in its next meeting.
Human Resource Management committee
The terms of reference include consideration of all issues / areas concerning Human Resource
Planning & Management, HR policies & Initiatives and Promotions from E6 to E7 and above
level.
Minutes of the meetings of the Human Resource Management Committee are approved by the
Chairman of the Committee and are noted and confirmed by the Board in the ensuing Board
Meeting.
Project Appraisal committee
The Project Appraisal Committee examines and makes recommendations to the Board on
projects/capital investment exceeding Rs.150 Crore. Proposals exceeding Rs.150 Crore are
appraised in-house, while the proposals exceeding Rs.250 Crore are first appraised by outside
technical and financial consultants. It monitors IOR / EOR Schemes.
Minutes of the meetings of the Project Appraisal Committee are approved by the Chairman of
the Committee and are noted and confirmed by the Board in the ensuing Board Meeting.
Share Transfer committee
In order to expedite the process of share transfers and other related activities, the Share
Transfer Committee has been empowered to approve the requests received for share transfer/
transmission/ transposition, issue of duplicate share certificates, sub-division, consolidation,
re-materialization, change of status etc. These requests are processed through the Registrar
& Share Transfer Agent, M/s Karvy Computershare Private Ltd. generally once in a fortnight.
The details of transfers are reported to the Board of Directors at the ensuing meeting.
Minutes of the meetings of the Share Transfer Committee are circulated to the members of the
Committee and the Board is kept apprised.
8.24
Corporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility
8.25
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Trading Window. To deal securities, beyond specified limit permission of Compliance Officer is
also required. All Directors/Advisors/Officers/designated employees are also required to
disclose related information periodically as defined in the code, which in turn is being
forwarded to the stock exchanges. Company Secretary has been designated as the
Compliance Officer.
CEO/CFO Certification
In terms of revised Clause 49 of the Listing Agreement, the certification by the CEO/CFO on
the financial statements and internal controls relating to financial reporting has been obtained.
Subsidiary Monitoring Framework
All subsidiaries of the Company are Board managed with their Boards having the rights and
obligations to manage such companies in the best interest of their stakeholders. As a majority
shareholder, the Company nominates its representatives on the Boards of subsidiary
companies and monitors the performance of such companies periodically.
The Company has wholly-owned unlisted non-material subsidiary companies. In terms of
Clause 49.III (ii) and (iii) of the Listing Agreement, their performance has been reviewed by the
Audit and Ethics Committee and the Board by the following means:
a) Financial Statements for the year/period ended 31st March, 2007, in particular the
investments made by the unlisted subsidiary companies, are reviewed by the Audit and Ethics
Committee;
(source: website:www.ongcindia.com)
References:
website:www.ongcindia.com
8.26
CHAPTER 9
WORKPLACE ETHICS
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter , you will be able to understand -
♦ The role and importance of ethical behaviour at the workplace
♦ Ethical dilemmas of the individual
♦ Discriminatory practices and harassment in organisations
♦ Measures to ensure ethics in the workplace
It's the action, not the fruit of the action, that's important. You have to do the right thing. It may
not be in your power, may not be in your time, that there'll be any fruit. But that doesn't mean
you stop doing the right thing. You may never know what results come from your action. But if
you do nothing, there will be no result.”
MAHATMA GANDHI
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Gandhi's ethics of khadi (homespun cloth) is closely linked with swadeshi. To him it meant a
specific form of home-industry to counter the exploitation inherent in the more imperialistic
forms of capitalism. Today industrialisation is an irreversible fact; but in our context khadi may
certainly be interpreted to mean the intimate relation between a man and his work - the
demand that a man should bear responsibility for his work in order to lend it dignity; and that
he should share in the fruits of his labour. In other words - no man should be exploited in his
work or alienated through his work.
Public concerns about ethical practices in business usually relate to issues like fraud and
embezzlement, accepting bribes or lying. Well publicized incidents of unethical activities
ranging from financial scams to deceptive advertising of food and beverages to unfair
competitive practices strengthen the public perception that ethical standards in business need
to be improved. Ensuring the presence of sound values and ethics is a vital and ongoing part
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
THE INDIVIDUAL
An ethical issue is an identifiable problem, situation or opportunity that requires a person to
choose from several actions which could be evaluated as right or wrong. For example, should
a salesperson omit the fact of frequent replacement of the filter while selling a kitchen chimney
to a prospective customer? When does offering a gift to a customer become a bribe rather
than a sales promotion? There are no easy answers. An individual’s ethical behaviour affects
not only his or her reputation within the company, but may also contribute to the way in which
9.2
Workplace Ethics
the company is perceived by others. Values reflect enduring beliefs that one holds that
influences attitudes, actions, and the choices one makes. As individuals, our values are
shaped by our personal beliefs. Values developed in childhood and youth are constantly
tested and on-the-job decisions reflect the employee’s understanding of ethical responsibility.
Various socio-psychological factors could be responsible why individuals could develop
negative attitudes or lose personal motivation.
♦ Negative work or life experiences.
♦ Employees failing to respect each others unique personalities.
♦ Overly aggressive financial or business targets.
♦ Pressures to perform and take quick decisions
Some examples of ethical issues faced by an individual in the workplace are:
(1) Relationships with suppliers and business partners:
(a) Bribery and immoral entertainment
(b) Discrimination between suppliers
(c) Dishonesty in making and keeping contracts
(2) Relationship with customers
(a) Unfair pricing
(b) Cheating customers
(c) Dishonest advertising
(d) Research confidentiality
(3) Relationship with employees
(a) Discrimination in hiring and treatment of employees
(4) Management of resources
(a) Misuse of organisational funds
(b) Tax evasion
9.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
An individual’s ethical concerns are about relationships and responsibilities at the workplace
where correct decisions are not perfectly clear, and there are no hard and fast rules to follow.
One set of relationships and responsibilities is directly related to employees, and include such
areas as discipline, performance appraisal, safety, and the administration of reward systems.
Another set is concerned with customers and suppliers, and include the intricate aspects of
such elements as timing, quality, and price. Ethical dilemmas also arise when there are
conflicts in values with superiors or peers over such things as strategy, goals, policy, and
administration. Mainly ethical issues can be categorized in the framework of their relation with
business associates, conflicts of interest, fairness and honesty, and communications.
Business Relationships
The behaviour of businesspersons toward customers, suppliers, and others in their workplace
may also generate ethical concerns. Ethical behaviour within a business involves keeping
company secrets, meeting obligations and responsibilities, and avoiding undue pressure that
may force others to act unethically.
Managers, in particular, because of the authority of their position, have the opportunity to
influence employees’ actions. For example, a manager can influence employees to use pirated
computer software to save costs. The use of illegal software puts the employee and the
company at legal risk, but employees may feel pressured to do so by their superior’s authority.
Customer’s need should be considered most when it comes to ethical business practices. In
the long run, a company will reap great profits from a customer base that feels it is being
treated fairly and truthfully. Organizational pressures may encourage a person to engage in
activities that he or she might otherwise view as unethical, such as invading others’ privacy or
stealing a competitor’s secrets.
Conflicts Of Interest
A conflict of interest exists when a person must choose whether to advance his or her own
personal interests or those of the organisation. Seven former executives of Daewoo, a South
Korean conglomerate were arrested on charges of fraud and embezzlement. Prosecutors
charged that the executives raised $20 billion by taking out illegal foreign exchange loans and
pooling funds from company subsidiaries through falsified import/export documents. A bribe is
a conflict of interest because it benefits an individual at the expense of an organization or
society. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., may have the toughest policy against conflict of interest in the
retail industry. Sam Walton, the late founder of Wal-Mart, prohibited company buyers from
accepting so much as a cup of coffee from suppliers. To avoid conflicts of interest, employees
must be able to separate their personal financial interests from their business dealings.
Conflicts of interest need not be financial. For example, “if my son is working in a company
that manufactures the type of tools that my organisation purchases, I have an interest in
seeing him succeed and may be motivated to give him my company's business even although
other firms may offer better terms.
9.4
Workplace Ethics
9.5
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
also views it as a form of injustice is based on the formal "principle of equality": Individuals
who are equal in all respects relevant to the kind of treatment in question should be treated
equally even if they are dissimilar in other non relevant respects. Although many more women,
minorities and physically challenged are entering formerly male-dominated jobs, they still face
problems that they would characterize as forms of discrimination.
Discrimination in employment involves three basic elements.
♦ First, it is a decision against one or more employees (or prospective employees) that is
not based on individual merit, such as the ability to perform a given job, seniority, or
other morally legitimate qualifications.
♦ Second, the decision derives solely or in part from racial or sexual prejudice, false
stereotypes, or some other kind of morally unjustified attitude against members of the
class to which the employee/s belongs.
♦ Third, the decision (or set of decisions) has a harmful or negative impact on the interests
of the employees, perhaps costing them jobs, promotions, or better pay.
Arbitrarily giving some individuals less of an opportunity, to compete for jobs than others is
unjust. Discrimination in employment is wrong because it violates the basic principle of justice
by differentiating between people on the basis of characteristics (race or sex) that are not
relevant to the tasks they must perform.
It is consequently understandable that the law has gradually been changed to conform to
these moral requirements, and that there has been a growing recognition of the various ways
in which discrimination in employment occurs. Among the practices now widely recognized as
discriminatory are the following:
Recruitment Practices Firms that rely solely on the word-of-mouth referrals of present
employees to recruit new workers tend to recruit only from those racial and sexual groups that
are already represented in their labor force. Also, when desirable job positions are only
advertised in media that are not used by minorities or women or are classified as for men only,
recruitment would also tend to be discriminatory.
Screening Practices Job qualifications are discriminatory when they are not relevant to the
job to be performed (e.g., requiring a high school diploma or a credential for an essentially
manual task.). Job interviews are discriminatory if the interviewer routinely disqualifies certain
class of people - for example assumptions about occupations “suitable for women” or the
propriety of putting women in "male "environments.
Promotion Practices: Promotion, job progression, and transfer practices are discriminatory
when employers place males on job tracks separate from those open to women and
minorities.. When promotions rely on the subjective recommendations of immediate
supervisors.
Conditions of Employment : Many times wages and salaries are discriminatory to the extent
that equal wages and salaries are not given to people who are doing essentially the same
9.6
Workplace Ethics
work. Another issue is related to fair wages and treatment to workers. Companies
subcontracting manufacturing operations abroad are now aware of the ethical issues
associated with supporting facilities like child labour that abuse and/or underpay their work
forces. Such facilities have been termed “sweatshops.” Maximizing profits is often the
motivation behind a company’s decision to utilize sweatshops. Nike was accused in 2001 of
not only failing to fulfil many of its promises but also of intimidating sweatshop workers from
speaking out about abuses. Three years ago, Nike chief executive Phil Knight promised
sweatshop reform, including ending child labour and paying factory workers a living wage.
Dismissal : Firing an employee on the basis of his or her race or sex is a clear form of
discrimination. Less blatant but still discriminatory are layoff policies that rely on a seniority
system, in which women and minorities have the lowest seniority because of past
discrimination.
9.5 HARASSMENT
Harassment is “tormenting by subjecting to constant interference or intimidation.” Law
prohibits harassing acts and conduct that "creates an "intimidating, hostile or offensive
working environment” which could be a term or condition of an individual's employment, either
explicitly or implicitly or such conduct which has the purpose or effect of unreasonably
interfering with an individual's work performance or creating an intimidating, hostile or
offensive working environment.
Another type of harassment is sexual harassment - situations in which an employee is coerced
into giving into another employee's sexual demands by the threat of losing some significant
job benefit, such as a promotion, raise, or even the job. This kind of degrading coercion
exerted on employees who are vulnerable and defenseless inflicts great psychological harm
on the employee, violates the employee’s most basic right to freedom and dignity and is an
unjust misuse of the unequal power that an employer can exercise over the employee. Sexual
harassment is prohibited, and an employer is held responsible for all sexual harassment
engaged in by employees, "regardless of whether the employer knew or should have known"
the harassment was occurring and regardless of whether it was "forbidden by the employer."
According to The Supreme Court definition, in Vishaka Vs. State of Rajasthan & Others,
sexual harassment is any unwelcome sexually determined behaviour, such as - physical
contact, a demand or request for sexual favours, sexually coloured remarks, showing
pornography and any other physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of a sexual nature. In this
judgment, the Supreme Court also held that employers/institutions employing women
employees must mandatorily constitute a Sexual Harassment Redressal Committee.
The Members of the Committee should have the desired qualities viz., Subjectivity and
Empathy.
9.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
9.8
Workplace Ethics
9.9
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
in confidence about the work situations they confront and seek advice.
(7) Creating an atmosphere of trust is also critical in encouraging employees to report ethical
violations they observe This function might best be provided by an outside consultant,
e.g., lawyer, clergyperson, counsellor etc. Or, provide a “tip” box in which personnel can
report suspected unethical activities, and do so safely on an anonymous basis.
(8) Regularly update policies and procedures to produce behaviours preferred from the code of
conduct, job descriptions, performance appraisal forms, management-by-objectives
expectations, standard forms, checklists, budget report formats, and other relevant control
instruments to ensure conformance to the code of conduct. There are numerous examples
of how organizations manage values through use of policies and procedures. For example,
we are most familiar with the value of social responsibility. To instil behaviours aligned with
this value, organizations often institute policies such as recycling waste, donating to
charities or paying employees to participate in community events. In another example, a
high value on responsiveness to customers might be implemented by instituting policies to
return phone calls or to repair defective equipment within a certain period of time.
(9) Include a grievance policy for employees to use to resolve disagreements with
supervisors and staff.
(10) Set an example from the top: Executives and managers not only need to endorse strict
standards of conduct, but should also ensure that they follow it themselves. They must
stress to employees that dishonest or unethical conduct will not be tolerated, and that
they are expected to report any wrongdoing they encounter; showing through actions as
well as words that the company relies on, rather than discriminates against, those who
come forward concerning ethical breaches.
__________________________________________________________________________
References:
Business Ethics, Manuel G. Velasquez, Pearson Education
Ethics in Business , A Guide for Managers, Robert B. Maddux & Dorothy Maddux, Viva Books (p) Ltd
Business Ethics, New Challenges for Business Schools and Corporate Leaders, Edited by R.A.
Peterson & O.C. Ferrell, M.E. Sharpe
9.10 SELF-EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1. What are the various factors that influence ethical behaviour of an employee?
2. Describe various ethical issues encountered in a workplace.
3. Write short notes on:
(i) Harassment
(ii) Discriminatory practices
3. The employee’s main moral duty is to work toward the goals of the organisation and
avoid any activities that might harm those goals. Elaborate.
9.10
CHAPTER 10
ENVIRONMENT & ETHICS
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to-
♦ Explain the Concept of Sustainable Development
♦ Understand the Effects of Pollution and Resource Deletion
♦ Understand the importance of Conservation of Natural Resources
♦ Explain Eco friendly Business Practices
"Once the last tree is cut and the last river poisoned, you will find you cannot eat your money."
(Proverb)
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The Prayer "Sarvatra Sukhinah Santu Sarve Santu Niramayah;" `Let all be happy here and let
all enjoy full health’ of Vedic Sages echoed universal welfare. The earthly life constituted the
central concern for the Vedic Aryans. The sacrificial fire-rites which were evolved during Vedic
period had social welfare as its motto, the motive was to prepare the land for agriculture for
abundance and welfare of human race. Gandhiji said “There's enough on this planet for
everyone's needs but not for everyone’s greed.”
Industrial and technological development has provided us with material prosperity but has also
created unique environmental threats to us and to future generations. As the twenty-first
century begins, several well-established environmental trends are shaping the future of
civilization - rising pollution, global warming, falling water tables, shrinking forests, and the
loss of plant and animal species. The extent of the environmental damage produced by
present and projected industrial technology makes one wonder how long this kind of
development would be sustainable.
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
generations to meet their own needs.” A nation or society should satisfy its requirements –
social, economic and others – without jeopardizing the interest of future generations.
High economic growth means high rate of extraction, transformation and utilization of non-
renewable resources. There is no doubt that twenty first century markets shall be driven by
the requirements of sustainable environments.
10.3 POLLUTION AND RESOURCE DEPLETION
Pollution refers to the undesirable and unintended contamination of the environment by the
manufacture or use of commodities. Resource depletion refers to the consumption of finite or
scarce resources. In a certain sense, pollution is also a type of resource depletion because
contamination of air, water, or land diminishes their beneficial qualities.
Air Pollution: Air pollution has increased exponentially as industrialization expanded. The
most prevalent forms of air pollution are the gases and particulates spewed out by autos and
industrial processes, which affect the quality of the air we breathe. One of the worst industrial
disasters of all time occurred in Union Carbide’s plant in Bhopal on the night of December 3,
1984. The accidental release of methyl-isocynate in the congested, low-income district of Old
Bhopal killed 3,000 people and left many thousand more with chronic disabilities leading to
premature deaths.
Air pollutants also affect vegetation decreasing agricultural yields, deteriorate exposed
construction materials through corrosion, discoloration, and rot, are hazardous to health and
life and threaten disastrous global damage in the form of global warming, destruction of the
stratospheric ozone layer and acid rains.
Global Warming: Greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and
chlorofluorocarbons, occur naturally in the atmosphere to absorb and hold heat from the sun,
preventing it from escaping back into space, to keep the earth's temperature about 33°C
1
Report of Brundtland Commission – ‘Our Common future’, 1987
2
World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987
10.2
Environment & Ethics
warmer than it would otherwise be, so that life can evolve and flourish. However, industrial,
and other human activities during the last 50 years have released substantially more
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, particularly by the burning of fossil fuels such as oil
and coal rising the levels of greenhouse gases and resulting in increasing amounts of heat,
raising temperatures around the globe. Average global temperatures are now at least 1°C
higher than in 1900 and are expected to rise by upto 4.5°C during this century. This rising
heat will expand the world's deserts; melt the polar ice caps, causing sea levels to rise; make
several species of plants and animals extinct; disrupt farming; and increase the distribution
and severity of diseases. Bodies of water such as lakes and oceans will warm, and this will
dramatically shift the geographical distribution of fish and other marine species and increase
the frequency and magnitude of droughts. The increase in levels of greenhouse gases would
require reducing current emissions of greenhouse gases by 60 to 70 percent-an amount that
would seriously damage the economies of both developed and developing nations.
To restrict current rates of emission of greenhouse gases, the international community signed
two agreements namely, The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in the
year 1992 and a follow-up agreement called Kyoto Protocol in the year 1996. Under the Kyoto
Protocol industrial countries (developed countries) have committed to cut their combined
emission to 5% below the 1990 levels between the year 2008 to 2012.
In August, 2008 over 1600 participants representing Governments, Businesses and civil
society undertook the United Nations Accra Climate Change Talks to identify targets for the
period beyond Kyoto Protocol target dates, that is for the period beyond 2008 – 2012.
Ozone Depletion : A layer of ozone in the lower stratosphere screens all life on earth from
harmful ultraviolet radiation. This ozone layer, however, is destroyed by CFC gases, which
have been used in aerosol cans, refrigerators, air conditioners, industrial solvents, and
industrial foam blowers. When released into the air, CFC gases rise; in 7 to 10 years, they
reach the stratosphere, where they destroy ozone molecules and remain for 75 to 130 years,
continuing all the while to break down additional ozone molecules. Shrinking of the ozone
layer. This results in the subsequent increase of ultraviolet rays which could cause several
hundred thousand new cases of skin cancer and could also lead to considerable destruction
of the 75 percent of the world's major crops that are sensitive to ultraviolet light.
But ozone depletion has been minimized with adoption of the Vienna Convention on ozone
depletion in the year 1985 and Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer
in the year 1989. Under these two international agreements various Governments had
restricted the use of CFC gases by the business houses within their national borders. It is
believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to
recover by 2050. Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an
examples of exceptional international cooperation with Kofi Annan (former U.N. Secretary
General) quoted as saying of the Montreal Protocol that is perhaps the single most successful
international agreement to date.
10.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Acid Rain : Like global warming, acid rain is a threat to the environment that is closely related
to the combustion of fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas),which are heavily used by utilities
to produce electricity. Burning fossil fuels, particularly coal containing high levels of sulphur,
releases large quantities of sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. When
these gases are carried into the air, they combine with water vapour in clouds to form nitric
acid and sulphuric acid. These acids are then carried down in rain, which often falls hundreds
of miles away from the original sources of the oxides raising the acidity of the water sources. It
also soaks into soils and falls directly on trees and other vegetation. Numerous studies have
shown that many fish populations and other aquatic organisms are unable to survive in lakes
and rivers that have become highly acidic due to acid rain. Other studies have shown that acid
rain directly damages forests and indirectly destroys the wildlife and species that depend on
forests for food and breeding. Acidic rainwater can also contaminate drinking water. Acid rain
can corrode and damage buildings, statues, and other objects, particularly those made of iron,
limestone, and marble.
Water Pollution : In 1985, about 11,000 oil spills, involving about 24 million gallons of oil,
were recorded in and around U.S. In the past, the oceans have been used as disposal sites
for intermediate and low -level radioactive wastes. Oceanographers have found traces of
plutonium, cesium, and other radioactive materials in seawater that have apparently leaked
from the sealed drums in which radioactive wastes are disposed.
Although water is essential to human life as well as to industrial growth and development, the
world's per capita supplies of water are shrinking and are now 30 percent smaller than 25
years ago. A number of factors have contributed to this. An increase in population and
economic activity particularly in urban areas, has resulted in increased demands for water. To
meet these demands, water is being increasingly diverted from agricultural irrigation to provide
water for cities.
Land Pollution:
Solid Wastes: Each year people living in cities produce tons of solid wastes every year. City
garbage dumps are significant sources of pollution, containing toxic substances such as
cadmium (from rechargeable batteries), mercury, lead (from car batteries and TV picture
tubes), vanadium, copper, zinc.
Hazardous or toxic substances: are those that can cause increase in mortality rates or
irreversible or incapacitating illness or those that have other seriously adverse health or
environmental effects. Benzene is a common industrial toxic chemical used in plastics, dyes,
nylon, food additives, detergents, drugs, fungicides, and gasoline. Benzene workers are
several times more likely than the general population to get leukemia. Vinyl chloride is another
common industrial chemical used in the production of plastics, which is released in small
10.4
Environment & Ethics
amounts when plastic products deteriorate, causes liver damage; birth anomalies; liver,
respiratory, brain, and lymph cancers, and bone damage Basel Convention 1992.
DEPLETION OF FOSSIL FUELS
Fossil fuels depletion at an exponentially rising rate results in the loss of forest habitats.
Combined with the effects of pollution it has led to the extinction of a phenomenal number of
species and the danger of many existing species disappearing forever.
10.4 ECOLOGICAL ETHICS
The problem of pollution and other environmental issues can best be framed in terms of our
duty to recognize and preserve the ecological systems within which we live. An ecological
system is an interrelated and interdependent set of organisms and environments, such as a
lake, in which the fish depend on small aquatic organisms, which in turn live off decaying
plant and fish waste products. Since the various parts of an ecological system are
interrelated, the activities of one of its parts will affect all the other parts. Business firms (and
all other social institutions) are parts of a larger ecological system. Business firms depend on
the natural environment for their energy, material resources, and waste disposal, and that
environment in turn is affected by the commercial activities of business firms. For example, the
activities of 18th century European manufacturers of beaver hats led to the wholesale
destruction of beavers (a semi aquatic large furry rodent) in the United States, which in turn
led to the drying up of the innumerable swamp lands that had been created by beavers.
Unless businesses recognize the interrelationships and interdependencies of the ecological
systems within which they operate and unless they ensure that their activities will not seriously
injure these systems one cannot hope to deal with the problem of pollution.
Ecological ethics is based on the idea that the environment should be protected not only for
the sake of human beings but also for its own sake.The issue of environmental ethics goes
beyond the problems relating to protection of environment or nature in terms of pollution,
resource utilization or waste disposal. It is the issues of exploitive human nature and attitudes
that should be addressed in a rational way. Problems like Global warming, Ozone depletion
and disposal of hazardous wastes that concern the entire world. They require International
cooperation and have to be tackled at the global level.
10.5 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Conservation refers to the saving or rationing of natural resources for later uses.
Conservation, therefore, looks primarily to the future: to the need to limit consumption now to
have resources available for tomorrow. In a sense, pollution control is a form of conservation.
Pollution "consumes " pure air and water, and pollution control "conserves" them for the
future. Consequently, our concern over the depletion of resources is primarily a concern for
future generations. Conservation, therefore, is the only way of ensuring a supply for
tomorrow's generations.
10.5
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
10.6
Environment & Ethics
minimization of waste play major role in protection the environment and conservation of
resources. Business, Industry and multinational corporations have to recognize environmental
management as the priority area and a key determinant to sustainable development. Sound
management of wastes is among the major environmental issues for maintaining the quality of
Earth’s environment and achieving sustainable development. Accordingly, waste management
is to be done through following systems.
(i) Minimum production of waste.
(ii) Maximizing reuse of waste and recycling.
(iii) Promoting environmentally sound waste disposal practices.
Economic progress and environmental protection is not a conflicting proposition. If companies
redesign products and adopt latest technologies available; they can achieve the goals of
reduction in wastage and resources depletion. This requires a new thinking and strategies in
respect of environment-business relationship. A change is needed at all levels starting from
organisational structure, finance, manufacturing, marketing, operations, accounting and other
related disciplines. Some enlightened leaders of industry and trans national corporations are
implementing certain policies that show environmental concern- viz. Environment Impact
Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Audits. Some businesses have realized that
implementation of environmental standards like ISO 14001 can provide competitive advantage
like TQM did in 1980’s and 1990’s. Environmental consideration have become a part of
corporate strategy, which means incorporating environmental issues in the process of
developing a product, in new investments and in the organisational set up. A good
environmental practice improves corporate performance. In many industries it has been found
that environmental friendly practices have resulted in more savings; for example the process
of recycling the waste. Thus environmental considerations play a key role in corporate
strategy. Markets of new millennium will be able to create wealth if they respond to the
challenges of sustainable development as unsustainable products will become obsolete.
Business must therefore make environmental ethic an integral part of their corporate goal,
taking care that their practices, processes, and products conserve energy and resources and
have a minimum impact on ecosystems.
Industries that are based on natural resources, like minerals, timber, fibre, and foodstuffs, etc.
have a special responsibility for:
1. adopting practices that have built-in environmental consideration.
2. introducing processes that minimize the use of natural resources and energy, reduce
waste, and prevent pollution;
3. making products that are “environment-friendly”, with minimum impact on people and
ecosystem.
10.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
4. Green accounting systems: Conventional accounts may result in policy decisions which
are non-sustainable for the country. Green accounting on the other hand is, focused on
addressing such deficiencies in conventional accounts with respect to the environment. If
the environmental costs are properly reflected in the prices paid for goods and services
then companies and ultimately the consumer would adjust market behaviour in a way that
would reduce damage to environment, pollution and waste production. Price signal will
also influence behaviour to avoid exploitation or excessive utilization of natural
resources. Such measures would facilitate the approach of “Polluter Pay Principle”.
Removing subsidies that encourage environmental damage is another measure.
There is no doubt , that with the public opinion moving towards accountable socio-economic
structures, ethical and eco-friendly business practices would be standard corporate norms.
References:
Environmental Management, N.K. Uberoi, Excel Books (IMT, Ghaziabad)
An Introduction to Sustainable Development, 2Jenifer A. Elliot, Routledge
Business Ethics, Manuel G. Velasquez, Pearson Education
10.8
CHAPTER 11
ETHICS IN MARKETING AND CONSUMER
PROTECTION
Learning Objectives
♦ To know the ethical dilemmas in marketing
♦ To understand the reasons for marketing ethical behaviour
♦ To learn the initiatives taken in India towards promoting healthy competition
♦ To know the distinction between protecting consumers interest and public interest
♦ To know the initiatives taken by the United Nations towards Consumers Welfare
Next to doing the right thing, the most important thing is to let people know you are doing the
right thing.
JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER
11.2
Ethics in Marketing and Consumer Protection
there is responsibility tied to that power. If marketers do not use their power in a socially
acceptable manner, that power will be lost in the long run.
♦ To protect the image of the organization. Buyers often form an impression of an entire
organization based on their contact with one person. More often than not, that person
represents the marketing function. You may base your opinion of a retail store on the
behavior of a single sales clerk. As Procter & Gamble put it in an annual report: “When a
Procter & Gamble sales person walks into a customer’s place of business that sales
person not only represents Procter & Gamble, but in a very real sense, that person is
Procter & Gamble.”
11.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
What is Competition?
A broad definition of Competition is “a situation in a market in which firms or sellers
independently strike for the buyers’ patronage in order to achieve a particular business
objective, for example profit, sales or market share” (World Bank, 1999). A pre-requisite for a
good competition is trade, trade is the unrestricted liberty of every man to buy, sell and barter,
when, where and how, of whom and to whom he pleases. For a free market to be in existence
the handicap is that for a given distribution of income of those who can pay the highest price
will most be able to purchase the goods regardless their relative needs. However, the real
culprit is income distribution system and not the competitive system. In an unregulated free
market, in certain circumstances it could be of greater benefit to the owner to withhold goods
from market in order to extract a higher price. Despite the efforts to regulate prices which have
been unsuccessful, the caution in a free market as compared to the problems in an
unregulated market can be overcome by posturing competition by which the ultimate raison
de’ etre of competition, namely the, interest of the consumer can be protected.
Competition Policy and Law
The Competition Policy is regarded as genus, of which, the Competition Law is specie.
Competition Law provides necessary powers to the commission to enforce and implement the
Competition Policy. The central economic goal of the Competition Policy is the preservation
and promotion of the competitive process. It is a symbolic process, which encourages
efficiency in the production and allocation of goods and services over a period of time through
its effects on innovation and adjustment to technological change. In conditions of effective
competition, competitors will be having equal opportunities to compete for their own economic
interest and therefore the quality of their outputs and resource deployment will be given top
priority in order to sustain and succeed in the market by meeting consumers’ demand at the
lowest possible cost.
Competition Laws in UK and US
There are three major federal anti-trust laws in United States namely the Sherman Anti-trust
Act, the Clayton Act and the Federal Trade Commission Act.
The Sherman Act passed in 1890 was the first Federal Anti-Trust Laws. The Act aimed at
restraint of trade and monopolisation of Inter-State and Foreign Commerce.
The Clayton Act is a civil statute (carrying no criminal penalties, was passed in 1914 and
significantly amended in 1950). The Act is the result of failure of the Sherman Act to stop the
trend towards concentration in the American economy. It attempts to nip monopolise in the
bud by specifying practices that monopolists used to gain monopoly power.
The Federal Trade Commission Act, 1914 prohibits unfair methods of competition in Inter-
State Commerce but carries no criminal penalties. However, there was Federal Trade
11.4
Ethics in Marketing and Consumer Protection
Commission to monitor violations of the Act. Thus, in US basically anti-trust laws protect
competition by ensuring free and open competition, which bring benefits to consumers by way
of lower prices, new and better products.
The UK Competition Act, 1988 which came into force in March 1, 2000 is based upon the
Competition Law of the European Commission. The Act prohibited agreements, which have
the object of preventing, restricting or distorting competition which directly or indirectly fix
prices, trading conditions, limit or control production, markets or sources of supply.
The Enterprise Act introduced the next major reform of UK Competition Law, 2002 which
concentrated on a new regime for the assessment of mergers and markets in the UK. The
third and final stage of reform process in the UK Competition Law will be the implementation
of European Commission, which is a radical modernisation of UK’s Competition Policy. To
regulate the competition and its practices, most of the countries have the competition authority
commonly known as the Competition Commission.
Competition Act, 2002
The Competition Act, 2002 intends to provide, keeping in view of the economic development
of the country, for the establishment of a Commission to prevent practices having adverse
effect on competition, to promote and sustain competition in markets, to protect the interests
of consumers and to ensure freedom of trade carried on by other participants in markets, in
India, and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. The renewed efforts of the
Government in implementing a Competition Act, 2002 is a laudable step in the right direction
and a new beginning in the frontiers of India’s Competition Policy towards harmonizing
international trade and policy.
Parameters of Competition Law
♦ Prohibition of certain agreements, which are considered to be anti-competitive in
nature. Such agreements [namely tie in arrangements, exclusive dealings (supply and
distribution), refusal to deal and resale price maintenance] shall be presumed as anti-
competitive if they cause or likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition
within India.
♦ Abuse of dominant position by imposing unfair or discriminatory conditions or limiting
and restricting production of goods or services or indulging in practices resulting in denial
of market excess or through in any other mode are prohibited.
♦ Regulation of combinations which cause or likely to cause an appreciable adverse
affect on competition within the relevant market in India is also considered to be void.
Consumer - [Section 2(f). Competition Act, 2002]
"Consumer" means any person who—
11.5
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(i) buys any goods for a consideration which has been paid or promised or partly paid and
partly promised, or under any system of deferred payment and includes any user of such
goods other than the person who buys such goods for consideration paid or promised or
partly paid or partly promised, or under any system of deferred payment when such use
is made with the approval of such person, whether such purchase of goods is for resale
or for any commercial purpose or for personal use;
(ii) hires or avails of any services for a consideration which has been paid or promised or
partly paid and partly promised, or under any system of deferred payment and includes
any beneficiary of such services other than the person who hires or avails of the services
for consideration paid or promised, or partly paid and partly promised, or under any
system of deferred payment, when such services are availed of with the approval of the
first-mentioned person whether such hiring or availing of services is for any commercial
purpose or for personal use;
It is noteworthy that the definition of consumer is substantially the same has given to the
expression under Section 2(d) of the consumer protection Act, 1986. The difference is that
under clause (i), in the Competition Act, it uses the words “whether such purchase of goods is
for the resale of for any commercial purpose or for personal use” in places of the words “but
does not include a person who obtains such goods for resale of for any commercial purpose”,
as in the Consumer Protection Act. Likewise, in clause (ii), the words used in the Competition
Act are “whether such hiring or availing of services is for any commercial purpose or for
personal use” in place of the words “but does not include a person who avails of such services
for any commercial purpose” as in the Consumer Protection Act. Thus, the interpretation of
“consumer” in the Consumer Protection Act will be the same as in Competition Act. In the
latter, “consumer” will also include a person who purchases goods for resale or for any
commercial purpose or for personal use.
11.6
Ethics in Marketing and Consumer Protection
3. Public interest, on the other hand, is something in which society as a whole has some
interest, not fully capture, by a competitive market. It is an externality. However, there is
a justifiable apprehension that in the name of “public interest”, Governmental policies
may be fashioned and introduced which may not be in the ultimate interest of the
consumers. The asymmetry arises from the fact that all producers are consumers but
most are producers as well. What is desirable for them in one capacity may be inimical in
the other capacity. A simple example will make the point clear. A farmer wants the price
of goods he consumes to be as cheap as possible but wants the highest price for his
produce. A Government wishing to encourage agriculture for self-sufficiency in food as a
national security measure faces the conflict: should it support high prices to encourage
production or low prices to protect the consumer? This is a characteristic public interest-
consumer interest conflict. In genera, it can be stated that buyers want competition and
sellers monopoly. The economists’ answer is that there are in a society too many such
divergent interests and therefore the resolution is best left to markets without
Government intervention. They are all too conscious of the possibility of abuse of the
expression “public interest” by vested interested.
Competition and Consumer Welfare
Competition means rivalry in the marketplace, which is regulated by a set of policies and laws
to achieve the goals of economic efficiency and consumer welfare, and to check on the
concentration of economic power. All these goals have an interactive relationship and, when in
harmony, deliver total welfare. Indeed, it is the consumers who are supposedly the biggest
beneficiaries of competition. On the other hand, it is the consumers who are the main losers
due to anti-competitive activities in a market. The consumers are worse off because of their
lack of capacity to deal with such problems.
It is sometimes believed that competition policy and law are tools for the rich, the urban, and
industries alone. However, at the macro level, the design and implementation of a competition
policy promotes the advancement and increased welfare of the poor. At the micro level, an
effective competition regime or consumer law (covering competition distortions) can prevent
consumer abuses, both at industry level as well as in a village or locality where one
shopkeeper can cheat the whole community. An appropriate and dynamic competition policy
and law are imperative to buttress economic development, curb corruption reduce wastage
and arbitrariness, improve competitiveness and provide succour to the poor.
Before we embark on assessing the consumer welfare implications, it is important to
understand the notion of consumer welfare. Unfortunately, there is no agreed definition of
consumer welfare. Even so, one can have a fair understanding of the notions surrounding
consumer welfare by looking at the United Nations Guidelines for Consumer Protection,
adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1985, and amended in 1999. These guidelines
11.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
represent an international regulatory framework for governments to use, for the development
and strengthening of consumer protection policy and legislation, aimed at promoting consumer
welfare.
The UN Guidelines call upon governments to develop, strengthen and maintain a strong
consumer policy, and provide for enhanced protection of consumers by enunciating various
steps and measures around eight themes (UNCTAD, 2001). These eight themes are:
1. Physical safety
2. Economic interests,
3. Standards
4. Essential Goods and services
5. Redress
6. Education and information
7. Specific areas concerning health
8. Sustainable consumption
The Guidelines have implicitly recognized eight consumer rights, which were made explicit in
the Charter of Consumers International as follows:
♦ Right to basic needs
♦ Right to safety
♦ Right to choice
♦ Right to redress
♦ Right to information
♦ Right to information
♦ Right to consumer education
♦ Right to representation
♦ Right to healthy environment
These eight consumer rights can be used as the touchstones for assessing the consumer
welfare implications of competition policy and law, and to see how they help or hinder the
promotion of these rights.
11.8
Ethics in Marketing and Consumer Protection
11.9
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
11.10
CHAPTER 12
ETHICS IN ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter you should be able to understand,
♦ the importance of ethics for a finance and accounting professional;
♦ the various principles which need to be adhered to by finance and accounting
professionals;
♦ the concept of ethical dilemma and conflict resolution;
♦ the various threats which can be faced by a finance and accounting professional while
working as an auditor, consultant or an employee in an organisation;
♦ the various safeguards which need to be adopted to counter threats.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Finance and Accounts is perhaps the only business function which accepts responsibility to
act in public interest. Hence, a finance and accounting professional’s responsibility is not
restricted to satisfy the needs of any particular individual or organisation While acting in public
interest, it becomes imperative that the finance and accounting professional adheres to certain
basic ethics in order to achieve his objective.
Until recently, various surveys conducted globally had ranked finance and accounting
professionals very high in terms of professional ethics. However, various accounting scandals
witnessed during the past few years have put a serious question mark on the role of the
finance and accounting professional in providing the right information for decision making,
both within and outside their respective organisations. In companies such as Enron, World
Com, Tyco, Global Crossing, Adelphia, Quest, Xerox and most of the late dotcoms, the
accounting information used by the Finance Department was false and manipulative.
What was the role of finance and accounting professionals in all these high profile failures? Of
course there were a few professionals who were directly involved in fraudulent activities,
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
however, the majority, at most of the times, refused to challenge what they had already
known.
Enron is a classic example of such behaviour. Months before Enron Corp declared
bankruptcy, an employee of the name of Sherron Watkins sent the company’s top executive
(Kenneth Lay) a message which had detailed information of the accounting hoax in the form of
the now famous ‘off the book liabilities’. However, instead of taking note of what was
mentioned in the message, the management of the company demoted Sherron. It is well
known now, that, like Sherron, hundreds of finance and accounting employees at Enron knew
about the happenings but preferred to remain silent. Hence, most of them did not lie, but
neither did they disclose the truth nor did they attempt to correct the misleading and confusing
information. Shouldn’t they have blown the whistle the way Sherron did? Was the behaviour of
these employees un ethical? Cases like Enron exist in plenty e.g. World Com, Global
Crossing, Xerox, Qwest and many other companies have been known to have created
accounting entries with the sole purpose of making their financial statements look attractive
thereby inviting further investments from unsuspecting individuals and organisations.
12.2 ETHICS AND ETHICAL DILEMMA
The word Ēthikos (Ethics) imbibes within itself both individual behaviour and community
culture. Various iIndividuals would be having different opinions on the same subject because
of which what is perceived as right by one may be considered wrong by the other. Hence,
doing what one thinks is right, may not always be the right thing to do! This is the essence of
the term ‘Ethics’ which may be defined as ‘those moral principles which guide the conduct of
individuals’ Irrespective of the differences of opinions amongst individuals, Ethical behavior
implies such course of actions which are taken after giving due thought to their impact on the
society and other stake holders. Hence when accounting and finance professionals at Enron
did not report of the wrongs which they believed were being done at the top, their behaviour
amounted to being unethical in spite of the fact that they were not directly involved in any of
the fraudulent or manipulative activities. In contrast, when Cynthia Cooper, Vice President –
Internal Audit of World Com found wrong accounting entries resulting in inflated profits, she
immediately reported the matter to the Board of Directors, this, in spite of the fact that she was
reporting against seniors whom she had come to admire over the past so many years of
working together. These two examples mentioned above provide an insight into the meaning
of Ethical dilemmas. Ethical Dilemmas exist when finance and accounting professionals need
to choose from amongst alternatives and there are (1) significant value conflicts among
differing interests, (2) actual alternatives which can all be justified and (3) significant
consequences to all stakeholders. Let us consider an example of a finance and accounting
professional who has been asked to provide a profit forecast which needs to be given to a
banker for a much wanted loan to be utilised in launching a new product. The company has
not been doing well for the past few years and without this loan there is a likelihood of its
12.2
Ethics in Accounting and Finance
closing down. However, the loan can only be availed if the banker is convinced that the
projected profitability shall be at least Rs 50,00,000 per annum. A optimistic projection of the
profits shows that if everything goes extremely well the company may be able to make profits
of Rs 50,00,000, however, a realistic assumption provides a much lower figure. In such a
situation the concerned professional will need to resolve the dilemma of the type of profit
forecast to be provided to the banker. In case he gives a realistic projection the company may
not get the loan and perhaps may need to close down. On the other hand if he makes a
optimistic projection, he may be misleading the banker. There is no right answer to such a
situation. Both actions proposed have got there own risks.
12.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
♦ Lie to, or otherwise intentionally mislead (including misleading by remaining silent) others,
in particular:
♦ The auditors of the employing organization; or
♦ Regulators.
♦ Issue, or otherwise be associated with, a financial or non-financial report that materially
misrepresents the facts, including statements in connection with, for example:
♦ The financial statements;
♦ Tax compliance;
♦ Legal compliance; or
♦ Reports required by securities regulators.
12.4
Ethics in Accounting and Finance
Fair treatment to whistle blowers is a basic necessity to check fraud. It is re assuring that two
of the three persons of the year, selected by the popular Time magazine were accountants
from Enron and World Com who had dared to blow the whistle, however, needless to say that
the appreciation is much more needed from within the company rather than outside.
12.5 REASONS FOR UNETHICAL BEHAVIOUR
A creation of a proper ethical environment requires a proper understanding of the reasons
which lead to un ethical behaviour. Four such reasons are discussed below.,
1. Emphasis on short term results . This is one of the primary reasons which has led to the
downfall of many companies like Enron and WorldCom. Manipulating accounting entries
to depict good profitability can help companies raise further capital from the market
2. Ignoring small unethical issues : It is a known fact that most oft the compromises we
make start small however they lead us to large problems. Similarly, companies need to
develop an environment where small ethical lapses are taken seriously so that they do
not repeat in the future. Otherwise, toleration of such small lapses could lead to larger
problems.
3. Economic cycles : When Enron was doing well , no one had bothered to understand its
actual financial position. There were no question marks on its financial statements.
However, when the economy took a downward turn, finance and accounting managers
took decisions which were compromises over the established code of conduct. This was
done to reflect a financial position which would keep the investors in the market satisfied.
All this resulted in a huge crisis and the ultimate fall of this US Giant. Hence, to prevent
disclosure of ethical problems in times of depression, company need to be extremely
careful and vigilant during good times.
4. Accounting rules : In the era of globalisation and massive cross border flow of capital,
accounting rules are changing faster than ever before. The rules have become more
complex and it is difficult to identify deviations from these complex set of requirements.
The complexity of these principles and rules and the difficulty associated with identifying
abuse are reasons which may promote un ethical behaviour.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
discharging their respective professional duties. In addition the following acts of responsibility
would help comply with the Integrity principle,
♦ Avoid being involved in activities which would impair the goodwill of the organisation
♦ Communicate adverse as well as favourable information with those concerned
♦ Refuse any gift or favour which could influence actions taken or to be taken
♦ Refuse to get involved in any activity which would adversely affect the achievement of an
organisations objective.
♦ Avoid conflicts and advise related parties on apparent conflicts which could arise in the
future.
2. The principle of objectivity
This principle requires accounting and finance professionals to stick to their professional and
financial judgement. They should not allow bias, conflicting interests or undue influence of
others to override their business judgements . They should communicate information fairly and
objectively in such a way that the communication with the end user is complete and
transparent.
3. The principle of confidentiality
This principle requires practitioners of accounting and financial management to refrain from
disclosing confidential information related to their work. Such information may be however be
disclosed to their subordinates and care should be taken that the latter maintains
confidentiality. The only exception to this principle is when there are requirements to disclose
information under a legal obligation or because of some statutory ruling.
4. The principle of professional competence and due care
Finance and accounting professionals have a need to update their professional skills from time
to time. This has assumed a greater significance in the modern day competitive environment
where updated knowledge and skill shall ensure that the client or employer receives
competent professional services based upon current and contemporary developments in the
related areas.
5. The principle of professional behaviour
This principle requires accounting and finance professionals to comply with relevant laws and
regulations and avoid such actions which may result into discrediting the profession.
12.7 THREATS
The dynamic environment in which businesses operate today may usher a broad range of
circumstances because of which compliance with the abovementioned fundamental principles
may potentially be threatened. Such threats may be classified as follows:
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Ethics in Accounting and Finance
(a) Self-interest threats, which may occur as a result of the financial or other interests of a
finance and accounting professional or of an immediate or close family member;
(b) Self-review threats, which may occur when a previous judgment needs to be reevaluated
by the finance and accounting professional responsible for that judgment;
(c) Advocacy threats occur when a professional promotes a position or opinion to the point
that subsequent objectivity may be compromised;
(d) Familiarity threats occur when a finance and accounting professional has close
relationships in the work environment and such relationships impair his selfless attitude
towards work.
(e) Intimidation threats occur when a professional may be prohibited from acting objectively
by threats, actual or perceived.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
♦ Reporting on the operation of financial systems after being involved in their design or
implementation.
♦ Having prepared the original data used to generate records that are the subject matter of
the engagement.
♦ A member of the assurance team being, or having recently been, a director or Officer of
that client.
♦ A member of the assurance team being, or having recently been, employed by the Client
in a position to exert direct and significant influence over the subject matter of the
engagement.
Self review threat for finance and accounting professionals working as an employee
Such threats occur when business decisions or data is subjected to review and justification is
required to be given by the same professional who was responsible for taking such decisions
or preparing that data.
Advocacy threat for finance and accounting professionals working as consultants or auditors
♦ Promoting shares in a listed entity* when that entity is a consultancy or a financial
statement audit client.
♦ Acting as an advocate on behalf of an assurance client in litigation or disputes with third
parties.
Advocacy threat for finance and accounting professionals working as an employee
When furthering the legitimate goals and objectives of their employing organizations finance
and accounting professionals may promote the organization’s position, provided any
statements made are neither false nor misleading. Such actions generally would not create an
advocacy threat.
Familiarity threats for finance and accounting professionals working as consultants or auditors
♦ A member of the engagement team having a close or immediate family relationship with
a director or officer of the client.
♦ A member of the engagement team having a close or immediate family relationship with
an employee of the client who is in a position to exert direct and significant influence over
the subject matter of the engagement.
♦ A former partner of the firm being a director or officer of the client or an employee in a
position to exert direct and significant influence over the subject matter of the
engagement.
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Ethics in Accounting and Finance
♦ Accepting gifts or preferential treatment from a client, unless the value is clearly
insignificant.
♦ Long association of senior personnel with the assurance client.
Familiarity threats for finance and accounting professionals working as an employee
♦ A finance and accounting professional, in a position to influence financial or non financial
reporting or business decisions having an immediate or close family member who is in a
position to benefit from that influence.
♦ Long association with business contacts influencing business decisions.
♦ Acceptance of a gift or preferential treatment, unless the value is clearly insignificant.
Intimidation threat for finance and accounting professionals working as consultants or auditors
♦ Being threatened with dismissal or replacement.
♦ Being threatened with litigation.
♦ Being pressured to reduce inappropriately the extent of work performed in order to
reduce fees.
Intimidation threat for finance and accounting professionals working as employees
♦ Threat of dismissal or replacement of the finance and accounting professional or a close
or immediate family member over a disagreement about the application of an accounting
principle or the way in which financial information is to be reported for external use as
well as for decision making purposes.
♦ A dominant personality attempting to influence the decision making process, for example
with regard to the exclusion of irrelevant costs from projected cost estimates.
12.9 SAFEGUARDS
It is important to have safeguards which may increase the likelihood of identifying or deterring
unethical behavior. Such safeguards, which may be created by the finance and accounting
profession, legislation, regulation or an employing organization, shall ensure an ethical
environment. Safeguards that may eliminate or reduce the abovementioned threats to an
acceptable level fall into two broad categories:
(a) Safeguards created by the profession, legislation or regulation; and
(b) Safeguards in the work environment.
(c) Some of the safeguards created by the profession, legislation or regulation are as follows
♦ Educational, training and experience requirements for entry into the profession.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
12.10
Ethics in Accounting and Finance
12.11
PART III
COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER 13
ESSENTIALS OF COMMUNICATION
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand
♦ Formal and Informal Communication
♦ Interdepartmental
♦ Verbal, Nonverbal and Written
♦ Communication Channels
♦ Barriers to Effective Communication
♦ Planning and composing Business messages
“Worthless words are doubly unprofitable: the listeners' enjoyment is lost, and the speaker's
own virtues vanish”.
Kural (Verse 194)
13.1 INTRODUCTION
There is no doubt that Communication is so fundamental that without it no organisation can
exist and function effectively towards achieving its objectives. Communication is the principal
means by which members of an organisation work together. It helps to bind them together,
enabling them to react to and influence each other. It flows in different directions within the
organisation : downward,upward, horizontally and diagonally. No manager can be effective in
his job unless he is able to communicate. It is, therefore, apt to call communication the “life-
blood” of an organization. As Sir John Harvey-Jones says, “communication is the single most
essential skill.” Professional and result-oriented organisations are always looking for
managers who can communicate persuasively and competently. It has been pointed out that
about nine tenths of a manager’s time is spent in communicating, one way or the other. It lies
at the very heart of management. Powerful concepts in management such as participation,
empowerment and involvement revolve around communication. Given below are some of the
factors responsible for the growing importance of communication :
(a) Growth in the size and multiple locations of organisation: Most of the organisations
are growing larger and larger in size. The people working in these organisations may be
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
spread over different states of a country or over different countries. Keeping in touch, sending
directions across and getting feedback is possible only when communication lines are kept
working effectively.
(b) Growth of trade unions : Over the last so many decades trade unions have been growing
strong. No management can be successful without taking the trade unions into confidence.
Only through effective communication can a meaningful relationship be built between the
management and the workers.
(c) Growing importance of human relations : Workers in an organisation are not like
machines. They have their own hopes and aspirations. Management has to recognise them
above all as sensitive human beings and work towards a spirit of integration with them which
effective communication helps to achieve.
(d) Public relations : Every organisation has a social responsibility, towards customers,
government, suppliers and the public at large. Communication with them is the only way an
organisation can project a positive image of itself.
(e) Advances in Behavioural Sciences : Modern management is deeply influenced by
exciting discoveries made in behavioural sciences like psychology, sociology, transactional
analysis etc. All of them throw light on subtle aspects of human nature and help in developing
a positive attitude towards life and building up meaningful relationships. And this is possible
only through communication.
(f) Technological advancement : The world is changing very fast, owing to scientific and
technological advancements. These advancements deeply affect not only methods of work but
also the composition of groups. In such a situation proper communication between superiors
and subordinates becomes very necessary.
13.2 THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a dynamic, transactional (two-way process) in which there is an exchange
of ideas linking the sender and receiver towards a mutually accepted direction or goal
consisting of seven elements.
1. Sender (Source) : The process of communication begins with a sender, the person who
has an idea and wants to share it. The Branch Manager explaining new product lines to the
sales force, a computer programmer explaining a new program to a co-worker, accountant
giving financial report to the superior are all examples of sender of communication.
2. Encoding : The sender must choose certain words or non-verbal methods to translate the
idea into a message. This activity is called encoding. While encoding a message, one needs
to consider what contents to include, how the receiver will interpret it and how it may affect
one’s relationship. A simple “thank-you” message will be relatively easy. In contrast, to inform
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Essentials of Communication
200 employees of a bad news about salary cut or bid on engineering plans to construct a 50
crore industrial building will be more complicated, requiring carefully planned messages.
3. Message : For communication to occur your receiver should first get the message. A
message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver. Messages could be verbal
(written or spoken) or nonverbal (such as appearance, body language, silence, sounds,
yawns, sighs etc.)
4. Channel : How will you send your message? Should it be sent via an electronic word
processing system to be read on the receiver’s screen or through the printed word or through
graphic symbol on paper, or via the medium of sound? Briefly, should one write or speak?
The choice of channel or medium (written or oral) is influenced by the inter relationships
between the sender and the receiver. It also depends upon the urgency of the message being
sent. Besides, one may consider factors such as importance, number of receivers, costs and
amount of information.
Generally, it has been observed that if the message requires an immediate answer, an oral
channel may be a better choice. But if the message contains complicated details and figures
or if its subject requires filing for future reference, a written communication is necessary.
Further whether the receiver is inside or outside the organization also affects choice of the
medium. For internal communication, written media may be memos, reports, bulletins, job
descriptions, posters, employee manuals or even electronic bulletin boards or oral
communication may be through staff meeting reports, face to face discussions, speeches,
audio tapes, telephone chats, teleconferences or even video tapes. Another oral channel,
though unplanned by the sender, is the ‘grapevine’ through which news and rumors often
travel quickly.
External communication media may be, written - letters, reports, proposals, telegrams, faxes,
electronic mails, telexes, postcards, contracts, ads, brochures, catalogues, news releases
etc.; or oral – face to face, by telephone, or by speeches in solo or in panel situations
personally before groups or via teleconferences, video-conferences or T.V.
5. Receiver : A receiver is any person who notices and attaches some meaning to a
message. In the best circumstances, a message reaches its intended receiver with no
problems. In the confusing and imperfect world of business, however, several problems can
occur. The message may never get to the receiver. It might be sent but lie buried under a
mountain of files on the recipient’s desk. If the message is oral, the listener might forget it.
Even worse, a message intended for one receiver might be intercepted by someone else, or
your colleague may take your friendly joke in an offensive manner. For example, a competitor
might see a copy of your correspondence to a customer. Similarly, your immediate boss’s
suggestion may be taken to be an order by you.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Decoding : Even if the message reaches intact to its intended receiver, there is no guarantee
that it will be understood as the sender intended it to be. The receiver must still decode it -
Attaching meaning to the words or symbols. It may be noted that decoding is not always
accurate. It depends upon individual experiences. The problem is that all of us do not have
identical experiences with the subject or symbols chosen by the sender. Even within India,
attitudes, abilities, opinions, communication skills and cultural customs vary. And if the
communication is between people of two different countries say India and Japan, the problems
increase. There are greater chances of misinterpretation; personal biases may intervene, as
each receiver tries to perceive the intended meaning of the sender’s idea in his or her own
receptor mechanism also called frame of reference.
Communication Process
Feedback : Ultimately the receiver reacts or responds to the communication sent by the
sender. The response could be based on clear interpretation of the symbols sent or it could be
based on misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the symbols sent. Whatever the response
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Essentials of Communication
of a receiver to a sender is, it is known as feedback. Some feedback is non-verbal like smiles,
sighs, nods and so on. Sometimes it is oral, as when you react to a colleague’s ideas with
questions or comments. Feedback can also be written, as when you respond to a co-worker’s
memo. In many cases, no message can also be a feedback. Failure to answer a letter or to
return a phone call can suggest how non communicative the person feels about the sender.
Feedback is an important component of the communication process, because ultimately the
success or failure of the communication is decided by the feedback we get.
FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
All communication passes through some well-defined stages or positions in the organisation.
Everybody is familiar with the phrase ‘through proper channel’ which means that the sender of
a written communication means to pass it on to the addressee through someone occupying an
important position in the hierarchical system of the organisation. In this way the word ‘channel’
means the position or point through which the communication passes. These positions exist at
different levels in the organisation. There is quite a large amount of communication that does
not pass through these points or does not follow any protocol. So, we can divide the channels
of communication into two categories:
(a) Formal
(b) Informal
13.3 FORMAL COMMUNICATION
A formal communication flows along prescribed channels which all organizational members
desirous of communicating with one another are obliged to follow. Every organisation has a
built-in hierarchical system that can be compared to a pyramid. It can, therefore, be
understood that communication normally flows from top downwards. But it is not always so.
Communication in an organisation is multidimensional or multidirectional.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
13.6
Essentials of Communication
(b) Formal channels cover an ever – widening distance as organizations grow. Through
them it is easier to reach out to the branches of an organisation spread far and wide.
(c) The formal channels, because of their tendency to filter information, keep the higher level
managers from getting bogged down.
(d) Formal channels of communication consolidate the organisation and satisfy the people in
managerial position
13.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
13.8
Essentials of Communication
13.9
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
13.10
Essentials of Communication
Avoiding unnecessary conflict, poor performance, time delays, and decisions that work at
cross purposes are compelling reasons for taking active measures to improve
interdepartmental communication. Major causes of interdepartmental communication problems
are :.
Departments Are Physically Separated : Office design may create barriers to effective
interdepartmental relationships, because it subconsciously restricts natural communication im-
pulses. To a great extent, office design determines who has access to whom by creating
barriers to some departments and bridges to others. Because each office is unique, special
factors have to be considered in each organization to make changes that will facilitate more
effective communication between departments.
Departments Perform Separate Functions : Barriers are also caused by different priorities.
What may be the first priority for department X may be the last priority for department Y.
Ordinarily this may not be a problem, except when department X is dependent on department
Y, a destructive sequence of impatience, tension, and distrust may prevail. Territory battles
usually occur because departments fight over scarce resources, prestige, or such other
factors. But who really wins? Who loses? Even though a particular department may "win," the
customer usually loses. The competitor may even win. Customer service or a competitive
threat should inspire and bridge the gaps between departments.
13.7 COMMUNICATION MEDIA
After the discussion of the meaning and importance, and dimensions of communication it is
worthwhile to have a look at the means/media of communication. Specially after considering
the directions/dimensions of communication we can understand that there may be various
occasions requiring different types of communication. All communication cannot be of the
same type and cannot flow through the same means. Much depends on who sends a message
to whom and for what purpose. It must also be understood that a human being has at his
command a number of means of communication.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Oral Communication
According to a research, an average manager in general spends only 9% of his/her time in
writing, 16% in reading, 30% in speaking and 45% in listening, as shown in the following figure
The most basic form of communication is Intra personal communication i.e. communication
with the self. During intra personal communication one thinks and introspects . In contrast ,
when one engages in Interpersonal communication you interact with another, learn about him
or her, and act in ways that help sustain or terminate your relationship. When you participate
in Group communication , you interact with a limited number of others, work to share
information, develop ideas, make decisions, solve problems or just have fun.
Through Public Communication you inform and persuade the members of an audience to
hold certain attitudes, values or beliefs so that they think , believe or act in a certain way. On
the other hand you can also function as a member of the audience. During Mass
communication the media entertains or informs you and you in turn can influence the media
through your viewing and buying habits.
Oral communication, which is face-to-face communication with others, has its own benefits.
When people communicate orally they are able to interact, they can ask questions and even
test their understanding of the message. In addition people can also relate and comprehend
the non-verbal, which serves far more than words. By observing facial expressions, eye
contact, tone of voice, gestures, postures, etc., one can understand the message better.
The only shortcoming of oral communication is that more often than not it is spontaneous and
if one communicates incorrectly the message will not get understood. It is primarily due to this
reason one needs to develop effective oral communication skills as a message, if not
understood at appropriate time, can lead to disaster.
It is said that it does not matter what you say, what matters is how you say it. Your way of
saying includes your choice of words, and your confidence and sincerity.
13.12
Essentials of Communication
13.13
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
13.14
Essentials of Communication
Kinesics or Body language: It must be noted, though it is known to almost all, that all our
bodily movements, gestures, postures etc., are guided by our feelings and thought processes.
The nodding of our head, blinking of our eyes, waving of our hands, shrugging of our
shoulders etc., are expressions of our thought and feelings. All these movements are the
signals that our body sends out to communicate. That is why this area of study has been
called ‘body language’. Just as language uses sets of symbols to convey meaning, our body,
consciously as well as unconsciously, conveys messages, attitudes, moods, status
relationships etc. Nervousness, anger, fear, scorn, determination, horror, sympathy, pity, lack
of understanding, disinterestedness, resentment can be much better expressed through the
body language than through words. Mime is an old art in which ideas and emotions are
communicated through facial expressions and gestures. It would be a serious mistake to
overlook the contribution of the body language to the communication process. Nobody is
known to have been pleased by words of praise uttered in a sarcastic tone, for he knows that
it is the tone and not the words that matters. Would you believe a person who says glad to
meet you unless his face glows with warmth and his voice quivers with a thrill of happiness.
Successful communications make a very effective use of facial expressions and gestures. Any
intelligent observer can understand this ‘language’. Even if we try to hide the truth or anything
that we want to suppress, our body, our eyes, our gestures speak out loud and clear. That is
why it has been pointed out by psychologists that, by reading the signals sent out by one’s
body, we can tackle the ‘‘issues-at work and at home-before they become problems’’.
On careful observation, in a meeting, we can look around and see who occupies the highest
position. Generally, those who are in control try to appear large, strong and fearless. A classic
example of status consciousness expressed through body language is that of a senior army
officer and a soldier standing before him. The soldier invariably stands at attention while the
officer looks relaxed, at ease, with his arms and legs comfortably spread out. The soldier’s
body is tense and in perfect symmetry while that of the officer is relaxed, ‘speaking’ about his
status. A tense, stiff body is a sign of subservience. The same situation prevails in any other
organisation when a junior worker has to appear in the presence of a senior executive. In this
way their body language shows their status and role relationship that is communication
through body movement, facial expressions, gestures, posture etc.
Paralanguage: Very frequently how something is said is what is said. The term paralanguage
is used to describe a wide range of vocal characteristics like tone, pitch, and speed etc – vocal
cues that accompany spoken language which help to express and reflect the speaker’s
attitude. Adept communicators know how to use these cues effectively to help their listeners
appreciate and understand content and mood. Through it one can convey enthusiasm,
confidence, anxiety, and urgency. Paralanguage describes a wide range of vocal
characteristics, which help to express and reflect the speaker’s attitude.. On careful
observation, we find that a speaker uses a vast range of vocal cues like:
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(a) Pitch Variation: Most of us introduce wide variations in pitch while speaking. These
variations are necessary to catch the listener’s attention and to keep him interested in us.
Speaking at length on the same level of pitch makes the speech ‘monotonous’ or boring.
(b) Speaking speed : One should not, always speak at a high speed. Speaking fast or at a
high speed is not fluency. We speak at different speeds on different occasions and while
conveying different parts of a message. As a general rule we should present the easy parts of
a message at a brisk pace because it can be easily understood. On the other hand, the
difficult, complicated, highly technical part of information should be conveyed at a slower
pace. If we reverse the order the result will be counterproductive.
(c) Pause : The speaking speed is also accompanied by pauses. at the right moments.
Incorrect use of pauses can create problems. A pause can be highly effective in emphasising
the upcoming subject and in gaining the listener’s attention. Too frequent pauses will,
however, spoil the speech.
(d) Volume variation : Our speech should be loud enough to be audible to the audience, not
too loud to put them off. The larger the audience, the higher the volume. But depending upon
the different parts of the message we should monitor the volume of our speech so as to bring
about a sense of contrast to generate interest of the audience
(e) Non - fluencies : Utterances like ‘oh’, ‘ah’, ‘um’, ‘you know’, ‘ok’ etc. are known as non-
fluencies. They give the speaker breathing time (space fillers) and the audience time to think
over what has been said(grasp–breaks). Carefully and judiciously used these utterances add
to the fluency of the speaker. Frequent non-fluencies irritate the listener.
(f) Word Stress : Proper word stress is of crucial importance in communication. By putting
stress or emphasis on a word here or a word there in the same sentence we can change the
meaning. As an example let us look at the following sentences repeated with different words
stressed :
Have you seen my new book ?
Have you seen my new book ?
Artifactual Communication : It is well known that we react to people on the basis of their
appearance. The use of personal adornment like clothing , accessories, makeup, hairstyle etc.
provides important non verbal cues about one’s age, social and economic status, educational
level, personality etc.
Proxemics : refers to the space that exists between us when we talk or relate to each other
as well the way we organize space around us.. We can also call it ‘space language” as the
following four space zones indicate the type of communication and the relationship of the
source and receiver:
13.16
Essentials of Communication
Chronemics or Time language: is the study of how we use time to communicate. The
meaning of time differs around the world. While some are preoccupied with time , others waste
it regularly. While some people function better in the morning (early birds), others perform best
at night. Punctuality is an important factor in time communication. Misunderstandings or
disagreements involving time can create communication and relationship problems.
Haptics : is communication through touch .How we use touch sends important messages
about us. It reveals our perceptions of status, our attitudes and even our needs. The amount
of touching we do or find acceptable is at least in part culturally conditioned.
Silence : The absence of paralinguistic and verbal cues also serves important communicative
functions. ‘Silence is more eloquent than words’ is not a meaningless adage, it contains in it
the essence of generations of experience. Silence for example, can allow one to organize
ones thoughts. It is not unusual to come across a situation in which nothing can express one’s
response so effectively as silence. Silence can effectively communicate a number of
response. - respect, fear, resentment, lack of interest are some responses that can be
effectively communicated through silence. The most effective use of silence can be made by
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
giving a slight pause before or after making an important point during a speech. This is what
the most successful orators usually do. A slight pause before an important point creates
suspense, it raises a sense of anticipation and the audience listens to the next point more
attentively. And a slight pause afterwards suggests that something very important has been
said and the speaker desires his audience to assimilate it .
13.9 BENEFITS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Only through effective communication both inside and outside, an organisation, becomes an
open system interacting with its environment. Effective internal communication works towards
establishing and disseminating of the goals of an enterprise, evolving plans for their
achievement, organizing human and other resources in an efficient way, selecting, developing
and appraising members of the organisation, leading, motivating and encouraging people to
put in their best and controlling performance.
13.18
Essentials of Communication
13.19
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
examples of people who would give an ill-planned, long-winding lecture while a short
presentation with tables or graphs would be sufficient. Such an event would turn into one of
miscommunication. In the same way some people may not care to choose a suitable time and
place that are so very necessary for effective communication.
Managers have to communicate individually with people at different levels – superiors,
subordinates, peers, customers and public figures. The oral mode, of communication is easy,
time saving, and of functionally helpful in resolving issues. But oral communication demands
great control and communicative competence to be successful.
SEMANTIC PROBLEMS
Semantics is the systematic study of meaning. That is why the problems arising from
expression or transmission of meaning in communication are called semantic problems. Oral
or written communication is based on words. And words, limited in number, may be used in
unlimited ways. The meaning is in the mind of the sender and also in that of the receiver. But
it is not always necessary for the meaning in the mind of the sender to be the same as in the
mind of receiver. Much, therefore, depends on how the sender encodes his message.
The sender has to take care that the receiver does not misconstrue his message, and gets the
intended meaning. Quite often it does not happen in this way. That leads to semantic
problems. It can be ensured only if we aim at clarity, simplicity and brevity so that the receiver
gets the intended meaning.
CULTURAL BARRIERS
We live in a culturally diverse world ,and so could encounter individuals from different races,
religions, and nationalities . There is often anxiety surrounding unfamiliar cultures. What
manners are acceptable? What will offend a person from a very different background? It can
be paralyzing to deal with other people if we do not know what to expect Cultural differences
often come up as communication barriers. We have to be specially careful in this regard as
now we have to operate in international environment. The same category of words, phrases,
symbols, actions, colours mean different things to people of different countries or different
cultural backgrounds. For example, in the United States people love to be called by their first
names while in Britain, and to a large extent also in India, people like to be addressed by their
last name. In the North American States a sign of ‘O’ made with the forefinger and thumb
stands for ‘OK’ while in the Southern States it is construed as obscenity.
The desire to communicate is the first step in being effective. The desire to connect with
another human being is the bond that will express itself clearly. A genuine effort to understand
another person goes a long way in the path to communication. Knowing about other cultures
and being proactive will help to develop these skills.
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WRONG ASSUMPTIONS
Quite often we act on assumptions, without caring to seek clarification for them. We should
make all possible efforts to maintain our goodwill and not act impulsively on assumptions. If,
for example, a customer writes to us that he would like to visit our office or factory without
telling us that he would like to be picked up and we assume that he will manage to come on
his own it may lead to loss of goodwill. So it is necessary to be circumspect in such matters.
SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS
The attitudes and opinions, place in society and status-consciousness arising from one’s
position in the hierarchical structure of the organization, one’s relations with peers, seniors,
juniors and family background -all these deeply affect one’s ability to communicate both as a
sender and receiver. Status consciousness is widely known to be a serious communication
barrier in organisations. It leads to psychological distancing which further leads to breakdown
of communication or miscommunication. Often it is seen that a man high up in an organisation
builds up a wall around himself. This restricts participation of the less powerful in decision
making. In the same way one’s family background formulates one’s attitude and
communication skills.
Frame of Reference is another barrier to clear communication. Every individual has a unique
frame of reference formed by a combination of his experiences, education, culture, attitude
and many other elements, resulting in biases and different experiences in a communication
situation.
EMOTIONS
Emotions play a very important role in our life. Both encoding and decoding of messages are
influenced by our emotions. A message received when we are emotionally worked up will have
a different meaning for us than when we are calm and composed. Anger is the worst emotion
and enemy of communication.
SELECTIVE PERCEPTION
Perception provides each of us with a unique view of the world – a view some times related to,
but not necessarily identical with that held by others. Selective perception means that the
receivers selectively see and hear depending upon their needs, background, motivations,
experience and other personal characteristics.
While decoding the messages, most protect their own interests and expectations into process
of communication leading to a particular kind of feedback that may become a communication
problem.
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FILTERING
Filtering means that the sender of a message manipulates information in such a way that it will
be seen more favourably by the receiver. A manager, for example, likes to tell his boss what
he feels his boss wants to hear. In this process he is filtering information. The net result is that
the man at the top never gets objective information. In the same way, the people at the lower
levels condense and synthesise information so as to get maximum benefits for themselves.
They hold back or ignore some important part of information. The more vertical levels in the
organisation, the more chances there are for filtering. This is a very frequently occurring
communication problem.
INFORMATION OVERLOAD
Unchecked inflow of information, very often becomes another barrier to communication. It may
stifle the senior executive or bore and frustrate him. When people are bogged down with too
much information they are likely to make errors, They may also delay processing or
responding to information/message at least for sometime.
And delay may become a habit, causing serious communication problems. People may also
become selective in their response, and selectivity is not communication-friendly. On the other
hand, it is a communication problem.
POOR RETENTION
As a corollary to the problem mentioned above, it is worth noting that people are also likely to
forget messages reaching them. There from arises the necessity to repeat the message and
use more than one medium to communicate the same message.
POOR LISTENING
Poor listening may lead to serious communication problems. Too many people are interested
in talking, and mostly talking about themselves. They are so much involved with themselves
that they do not have patience to listen. The result is that they are not interested in the
speaker whose words go waste. Everybody knows about the importance of listening, but very
few actually practice patient, active and empathic listening. That I why, so many
communication problems crop up. Poor listening accounts for incomplete information and also
poor retention. One may simply not get the desired result if this keeps on happening.
GOAL CONFLICTS
Very often clashes of the goals of various units and sub-units of an organisation lead to
communication breakdowns. Communication should serve as a conflict-reduction exercise.
But the goal conflicts act as communication reduction mechanisms. Different units internalise
their own goals, and that leads to the splitting or bifurcation of interests in the organisation.
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When people start competing for the fulfillment of their narrow interests, communication
suffers.
OFFENSIVE STYLE OF COMMUNICATION
It is quite obvious that offensive style of communication leads to communication breakdown. It
is a rather sensitive point. If a manager sends a message in such a way that the
workers/juniors become defensive their relations get strained and communication suffers.
Hence it is absolutely necessary for the management to adopt a persuasive style of
communication.
INSUFFICIENT PERIOD FOR ADJUSTMENT
It is a fact well known to all that people respond to change in different ways. They take their
own time to adjust to any news or proposal for change. While the purpose of communication is
to effect change, it should be kept in mind that the employees whose duties, shifts etc., are
going to be changed should be given sufficient time. Only then the communication will be
effective.
LOSS BY TRANSMISSION
Communication often suffers or gets diluted when messages pass on from person to person in
a series of transmissions. They get diluted on the way. Special care has to be taken that the
intended message reaches the person concerned.
FRAME OF REFERENCE
Frame of reference is another barrier to clear communication. Every individual has a unique
frame of reference formed by a combination of his experiences, education, culture, attitude
and many other elements, resulting in biases and different experiences in a communication
situation.
13.11 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Planning and Composing Business Messages
Effective writing in the workplace is an essential skill. The rules are basically the same for any
type of writing, however, there are some special issues which arise in the business context.
Knowing the elements of good business writing can make or break a career. Some of these
basic elements are:
Know Your Audience
The key to effective business writing is knowing your audience. Before you sit down to
compose your letter, memo or report, think about the recipient of your document. What are
you trying to say to this person? Orderliness is crucial. Outlines are an invaluable aid to writing
a lengthy report or memo. Remember, time is in short supply for most business professionals.
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By organizing your thoughts beforehand, you can determine what exactly you are trying to
say. Decide what details must be included in the report or memo. Look for graphic elements to
add to your presentation, especially if your report contains many boring statistics. Statistics
and research bolster your conclusions, especially if they are presented in a visually appealing
manner. With the advent of modern word processing programs such as Microsoft Word and
Corel WordPerfect, it is easy to include spread sheets, graphs and colorful clip art to your
report, thereby making your work memorable and convincing.
After you have decided what the message is that you are trying to convey, work on saying it in
concise language. Be brief, whenever possible. Avoid using vague words when a more precise
word will do . Avoid wordiness and unnecessary jargon. Strive for clarity in your writing and
avoid vagueness (unless there is good reason to be vague). For example:
Wordy - It is the responsibility of the recruiting committee to ensure that the goals of the hiring
task force have been implemented.
Precise - Our recruiting committee must meet the hiring goals of the hiring task force.
Punctuation and Grammatical Errors
Many grammatical and/or punctuation errors are due simply to insufficient proofreading of the
document.
Some errors stem not from lack of proofreading, but from simple grammatical mistakes. The
most common mistakes include misuse of apostrophes, misuse of commas, incomplete
sentences, ending a sentence with a preposition and so on.
13.12 PARTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER
Listed below are the parts of a business letter :
1. Heading: The heading, also called ‘letterhead’, contains the name of the organization and
its address. It is usually given at the top centre or top right side of the paper. It is also usual to
give the telephone, fax and telegraphic address in the heading as shown below :
MEHTA CHEMICALS LIMITED
Regd. Office : 15, Okhla Estate, New Delhi - 110016
Phone : 6132757, Fax : 6132767
E-mail: [email protected] , website: www.mehtachem.org
2. Reference Number: Every business letters usually carries a reference number to which the
receiver may refer in all future correspondence. It serves the purpose of quick reference and
linking up the chain of letters going out of the organization or identifying the memos issued by
a department within the organization.
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5. Attention Line: When the writer sends his letter to a particular official in an organisation,
he may use the phrase ‘For the attention of’ below the inside address and above the
Salutation and underlines it. For example,
Mehta Chemicals Limited,
15, Okhla Estate,
New Delhi.
For the attention of Shri D. K. Singh
Other typical forms of this reference are as follows :
Attn. of D. K. Singh, General Manager
For Ms. R. Desai, Public Relations Officer
Attention : K. P. Verma, Vice President
Attention : B. K. Sood, Sales Manager
6. Salutation: Salutation is the greeting of the addressee. We may choose the salutation on
the basis of our familiarity with the reader and the formality of the situation. The commonly
used salutations are given below :
(i) Sir
(ii) Madam
(iii) Dear Sir/Dear Madam
(iv) Dear Mr. Verma
(v) Dear Ms. Singh
(vi) Dear Sirs
(vii) Your Excellency (while addressing the Ambassador or High Commissioner of a foreign
country)
(viii) Gentlemen - used when a circular is sent to many addresses including an individual, firm,
society, company etc. Now-a-days ‘Dear Sir/Madam’ is also freely used in circulars.
Punctuation of Salutation: When indented paragraphs are used in the letter, it is customary
to end the salutation with a comma.
For example,
Dear Ms. Joseph,
Thank you for your letter............
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When the paragraphs are not indented, the comma at the end of the salutation is omitted.
Dear Ms. Joseph
Thank you for your letter........
7. Subject line: Many writers use subject lines to enable the reader to quickly identify the
subject of correspondence. It tells what the correspondence is about. In addition, it contains
any specific identifying material that is supposed to be helpful date of previous letter, invoice
number, order number or the central point of the letter. It is placed just below the line of
salutation. It usually begins at the left margin, although it may be placed in the centre or
indented (if the paragraphs are indented).
The subject line may be worded in a number of ways. Given below are a few representative
samples :
Subject : Your December 16 inquiry about....
Reference : Your December 16 order for.........
About your Order No. 635 - A dated....
In reply, please refer to File K-304
Sub : Loan facilities for
Ref : Your enquiry of December 16
8. Body of the letter: The body of the letter carries its message or content. It is generally
divided into three or four paragraphs, each having its own function. The first paragraph links
up the correspondence and establishes rapport with the reader. The second paragraph may
be called the main paragraph that contains the subject proper. If need be, the point of the
second or main paragraph is elaborated or further developed upon in the third paragraph. The
fourth or final paragraph brings the letter to a goodwill ending, leaving the door open for
further business. Whatever the circumstances, the last paragraph brings the letter to a close
on a positive note. It is generally followed by phrases like, with regards’, with best wishes’,
‘with warm regards’, ‘Thanking you’, etc.
Second page heading
When a letter goes beyond one page, we should mark the following page/pages for quick
identification.
The following page/pages must always be typed on plain paper, not on the letterhead. Of the
various forms used to identify these pages, the following are the most common :
(i) Ms. T. Joseph December 16, 2005
(ii) Ms. T. Joseph December 16, 2005 Page 2
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(iii) For the Verma Associates when the individual signs in his representative
................................ capacity.
(P. C. Verma)
Partner
(iv) For Verma Associates when the individual signs in his representative
................................ capacity.
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(P. C. Verma)
Managing Trustee
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Standard formats for business letter are Full-Block, Modified block, and Semi-block. You can
use whichever your company or audience prefers.
Full-Block: Each line begins flush with left margin.
Company letterhead
(Printed Name, address, telephones, fax etc.)
Ref. No.
Date
Name
Inside Address
Attention line
Salutation:
Subjectline ____________________
Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Closing/Subscription
Signature
Signatory’s typed name
Signatory’s position in the company
Company name
Encl
P.S.
C.C.
Ref. Initials
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2. Modified Block
Date, closing and signature aligned at the right
Company letterhead
(Printed Name, address, telephones, fax etc.)
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Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.
Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Closing/Subscription
Signature
Signatory’s typed name
Signatory’s position in the Company
Company name
Encl
P.S.
C.C.
Ref. Initials
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
e. Use E-mail for speed lower cost, and increased access to other employees.
f. Use computer conferencing to focus attention of ideas instead of status
13.15 CHECKLIST FOR COMPOSING BUSINESS MESSAGES
A. ORGANIZATION
1. Recognize good organization.
a. Subject and purpose are clear.
b. Information is directly related to subject and purpose.
c. Ideas are grouped and presented logically.
d. All necessary information is included.
2. Achieve good organization through outlining.
a. Decide what to say.
i. Main idea
ii. Major points
iii. Evidence
b. Organize the message to respond to the audience’s probable reaction.
i. Use the direct approach when your audience will be neutral, pleased,
interested, or eager.
ii. Use the indirect approach when your audience will be displeased,
uninterested, or unwilling.
3. Choose the appropriate organization plan.
a. Short messages
i. Direct request
ii. Routine, good-news, and goodwill message
iii. Bad-news message
iv. Persuasive message
b. Longer messages
i. Informational pattern
ii. Analytical pattern
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Essentials of Communication
B. FORMULATION
1. Compose your first draft.
a. Get ideas down as quickly as you can.
b. Rearrange, delete, and add ideas without losing sight of your purpose.
2. Vary the style to create a tone that suits the occasion.
a. Establish your relationship with your audience.
i. Use the appropriate level of formality.
ii. Avoid being overly familiar, using inappropriate humor, including obvious
flattery, sounding preachy, bragging, and trying to be something you’re not.
b. Extend your audience-centered approach by using the “you” attitude.
c. Emphasize the positive aspects of your message.
d. Establish your credibility to gain the audience’s confidences.
e. Make your tone a polite one.
f. Use the style that your company prefers.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(b) Pause
(c) Non-fluencies
(d) Word stress
11. Write short notes on the following
(a) Filtering
(b) Information overload
(c) Goal conflict
(d) Status consciousness
(e) Emotions and communication
12. Explain how offensive style is the greatest barrier to communication.
13. Which communication media would you use to ask employees to work overtime to
meet an important deadline, a direct request or a persuasive message? Why?
14. Give five reasons for choosing the oral mode of communication instead of the
written form.
15. Rewrite these sentences to reflect your audience’s viewpoint:
a. We request that you use the order form supplied in the back of our catalog.
b. We insist that you always bring your credit card to the store.
c. We want to get rid of all our manual typewriters in order to make room in our
warehouse for the new electronic models. Thus we are offering a 25 percent
discount on all sales this week.
16. Revise the following sentences, using, shorter, simpler words:
a. The antiquated calculator is ineffectual for solving sophisticated problem.
b. It is imperative that the pay increments be terminated before an inordinate
deficit is accumulated.
II Choose the Correct Alternative
i) Hierarchy in a company means________________________
(a) a panel for promotion
(b) graded levels of employees
(c) formula for calculating bonus
(d) top level management
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13.40
CHAPTER 14
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand:
♦ Soft skills and the importance of Interpersonal Communication
♦ Active listening and Critical Thinking Skills
♦ Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Quotient
♦ The Role of leadership in organisation
The most powerful agent of growth and transformation is something much more basic than
any technique: a change of heart.
John Welwood
14.1 INTRODUCTION
"People skills" or interpersonal skills are an essential ingredient for success in any career.
These skills create a positive communication climate in which people feel valued. The key
factors to building a positive environment in all areas of one’s life are interpersonal com-
munication, active listening, critical thinking and emotional intelligence- which convey respect
for the other person and varied point of views; which during a conflict focus on solving
problems- not imposing solutions; are honest, show concern for the other party, demonstrate
an attitude of equality, and reflect the communicator's open-mindedness .
those around us and through these channels, we constantly receive communication from
others. Remember that: people judge you by your behaviour, not by your intent.
Interpersonal communication is irreversible: A Russian proverb says, "Once a word goes
out of your mouth, you can never swallow it again." You cannot really take back something
once it has been said. The effect will inevitably remain..
Interpersonal communication is complicated: No form of communication is simple.
Because of the number of variables involved, even simple requests are extremely complex.
.Actually we don't exchange ideas, BUT symbols that stand for ideas. This complicates
communication. Words (symbols) do not have inherent meaning; we simply use them in
certain ways, and no two people use the same word exactly alike.
Interpersonal communication is contextual: In other words, communication does not
happen in isolation. There is: psychological context, which is who the communicators are
and what they bring to the interaction. Their needs, desires, values, personality, etc., all form
the psychological context.
Relational context, which concerns reactions to each other.
Situational context deals with the “psycho-social-where" one is communicating. For example,
an interaction that takes place in a classroom will be very different from one that takes place in
a Board room.
Environmental context deals with the “physical -where" one is communicating. Furniture,
location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day, all are examples of factors in the
environmental context.
Cultural context includes all the learned behaviours and rules that affect the interaction. If
you come from a culture (foreign or within your own country) where it is considered rude to
make long, direct eye contact, you will out of politeness avoid eye contact. If the other person
comes from a culture where long, direct eye contact signals trustworthiness, then we have in
the cultural context a basis for misunderstanding.
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Interpersonal Communication Skills
14.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
This Chinese symbol that is used for our English "to listen" is
composed of four elements: ear, eyes, undivided attention, and
heart.
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Interpersonal Communication Skills
• Ask questions once in a while to clarify meaning. Doing so will keep you alert. and let
the other person know you have been listening and are interested in getting all the facts
and ramifications.
• Be aware of your own feelings and opinions. They may cloud your perception of what is
being said. Being aware of your own preconceptions is a type of critical thinking that
prevents biasing your judgment about the other person.
CRITICAL THINKING
Critical thinking is the discipline of rigorously and skillfully using information, experience,
observation and reasoning to guide your decisions, actions and beliefs. Critical thinking means
questioning every step of your thinking process: Have you considered all the facts? Have you
tested your assumptions? Is your reasoning sound? Can you be sure your judgment is
unbiased? Is your thinking process logical, rational and complete? This kind of rigorous,
logical questioning is often known as Socratic questioning, after the Greek Socrates who is
considered to be the founder of critical thinking. By developing the skills of critical thinking,
and bringing rigour and discipline to your thinking processes, you stand a better chance of
being “right” , likely to make good judgments, choices and decisions in all areas of your life.
This is an important part of "success" and "wisdom".
By thinking critically, you aim to ensure that the thinking processes you choose and follow are
rigorous and complete. To do this effectively, you need to develop skills to:
Analyze Cause and Effect: You must be able to separate the motive or reason for an action or
event (the cause) from the result or outcome (the effect).
Classify and Sequence: You must be able to group items or sort them according to similar
characteristics.
Compare and Contrast: You must be able to determine how things are similar and how they
are different.
Infer: You must be skilled in reasoning and extending logic to come up with plausible options
or outcomes.
Evaluate: You must be able to determine sound criteria for making choices and decisions.
Observe: You must be skilled in attending to the details of what actually happened.
Predict: You must be able to finding and analyze trends, and extend these to make sensible
predictions about the future.
Rationalize: You must be able to apply the laws of reason (induction, deduction, analogy) in to
judge an argument and determine its merits.
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Prioritize: You must be able to determine the importance of an event or situation and put it in
the correct perspective.
Summarize: You must be able to distill a brief report of what happened or what you have
learned.
Synthesize: You must be able to identify new possible outcome by using pieces of information
that you already know.
Qualities of a Critical Thinker
By combining the skills of critical thinking with the appropriate mindset, you can make better
decisions and adopt more effective courses of action. To develop as a critical thinker one must
be motivated to develop the following attributes
1. Open-minded – is willing to accept and explore alternative approaches and ideas.
2. Well-informed – Knows the facts and what is happening on all fronts.
3. Experimental – Think through “what if” scenarios to create probable options and then
test the theories to determine what will work and what won’t.
4. Contextual – Keeps in mind the appropriate context when thinking things through. Apply
factors of analysis that are relevant or appropriate.
5. Reserved in Making Conclusions – Know when a conclusion is “fact” and when it is not.
Only true conclusions support decisions.
14.5 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Every day, emotions shape the path of our lives and influence our decision-making. Our
emotional actions and reactions affect who we are and control whether or not we are able to
achieve our goals. Each days news comes to us rife with emotional disquiet showing an
increase in incidents of aggression - teens with guns in schools, freeway mishaps ending in
shootings, disgruntled employees killing colleagues. Such reports of the collapse of civility and
safety, reflects out of control emotions in our own lives and in those of the people around us.
No one is insulated from this erratic tide of outburst and regret. Our passions, when well
exercised, have wisdom; they guide our thinking, our values, our survival. But they can easily
go awry, and do so all too often. As Aristotle saw, the problem is not with emotionality, but
with the appropriateness of emotion and its expression. The question is, how can we bring
intelligence to our emotions-and civility to our streets and caring to our communal life? The
last decade, despite its bad news, has also seen an unparalleled burst of scientific studies of
emotion. Most dramatic are the glimpses of the brain at work, made possible by innovative
methods such as new brain-imaging technologies. This mapping offers a challenge to those
who subscribe to a narrow view of intelligence, arguing that IQ is a genetic gift that cannot be
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Interpersonal Communication Skills
changed by life experience, and that our destiny in life is largely fixed by these aptitudes. The
difference quite often lies in the abilities called emotional intelligence, which include self-
control, zeal and persistence, and the ability to motivate oneself.
“Emotional Intelligence" refers to the capacity to recognize your own feelings and those of
others, for motivating yourself, and for managing emotions well in yourself and in your
relationships. "It describes abilities distinct from, but complementary to, academic intelligence,
the purely cognitive capabilities measured by IQ. Many people who are book smart but lack
emotional intelligence end up working for people who have lower IQs than they but who excel
in emotional intelligence skills."1 The basic flair for living called emotional intelligence is being
able, for example, to rein in emotional impulse; to read another’s innermost feelings; to handle
relationships smoothly as Aristotle put it, the rare skill “to be angry with the right person, in the
right way.” “Intelligent” puts emotions at the centre of our abilities. These abilities can preserve
our most prized relation-ships, or their lack corrode them; the market forces that are
reshaping our work life are putting an unprecedented premium on emotional intelligence for
on-the-job success; and toxic emotions put our physical health at as much risk as does chain-
smoking, even as emotional balance can help protect our health and well-being. Our genetic
heritage endows each of us with a series or emotional set points that determines our
temperament. Drawing on groundbreaking brain and behavioural research, Daniel Goleman
shows the factors at work when people of high IQ flounder and those of modest IQ do
surprisingly well. These factors, which include self-awareness, self-discipline, and empathy,
add up to a different way of being smart-one he terms “emotional intelligence.” While
childhood is a critical time for its development, emotional intelligence is not fixed at birth. It
can be nurtured and strengthened throughout adulthood-with immediate benefits to our health,
our relationships, and our work. A view of human nature that ignores the power of emotions is
sadly shortsighted. The very name Homo sapiens, the thinking species, is misleading in light
of the new appreciation and vision of the place of emotions in our lives that science now
offers. As we all know from experience, when it comes to shaping our decisions and our
actions, feeling counts every bit as much-and often more-than thought. We have gone too far
in emphasizing the value and import of the purely rational-of what IQ measures-in human life.
For better or worse, intelligence can come to nothing when the emotions hold sway.
Emotional Quotient Inventory is designed to measure a number of constructs related to
emotional intelligence. A large part of our success in life is based on our EQ, our emotional
quotient. How we manage our emotions and the way we relate to others determines how
successful and satisfied we are at work, home, and with friends. Our EQ is the ability to make
and deepen connections at three levels: with ourselves (personal mastery), with another
1
Emotional Intelligence, Daniel Goleman, 1995
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person (one-to-one), and within groups/teams. Our EQ, or Emotional Intelligence, is the
capacity for effectively recognizing and managing our own emotions and those of others.
Emotions have the potential to get in the way of our most important business and personal
relationships.
2
"Working with Emotional Intelligence", Daniel Goleman, 1998
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Relationship Management
θ Inspirational leadership: Guiding and motivating with a compelling vision
θ Influence: Wielding a range of tactics for persuasion
θ Developing others: Bolstering others’ abilities through coaching, feedback and guidance
θ Change catalyst: Initiating, managing, and leading in a new direction
θ Conflict management: resolving disagreements
θ Building bonds: Cultivating and maintaining a web of relationships
θ Teamwork and collaboration: Cooperation and team building
According to John Kotter of Harvard Business School, ‘because of the furious pace of
change in business today, difficult to manage relationships sabotage more business than
anything else – it is not a question of strategy that gets us into trouble, it is a questions of
emotions’. The wonderful thing about EQ , unlike IQ which stabilizes when a person is around
18 years of age, is that it can change. A person today with a low EQ score on “empathy” can
have a higher “empathy” score in the future – if that person recognizes his/her limitation,
changes attitude, adopts a learning strategy, and practices key listening and empathy skills.
Successful organizations nurture their people with outstanding EQ. The future will belong to
those who have excellent relationship skills.
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θ Any other
1. As a result of a recent merger with another organization, a portion of the combined
workforce will be laid off. As director of Human Resources, it's your job to
communicate this difficult news to the affected employees. Although the
organization is offering a substantial severance package, this news will be hard to
deliver since it greatly impacts the lives of those being discharged. Your goal is to
convey this information so that it causes the least amount of harm possible to
employees' self-esteem while, if possible, maintaining a positive image of the
organization. This is going to be a difficult challenge!
2. You are the manager of the local bookstore and supervise eight employees. It's time
for annual performance appraisals. During the appraisal session you need to focus
both on the past and toward the future. That is, you need to review each employee's
performance record for the past year as well as set goals for the upcoming year.
Additionally, the performance appraisal system requires you to rate each employee
along five performance dimensions (initiative, productivity, quality, commitment, and
overall effectiveness). You need to discuss these ratings with your employees. What
communication medium should you use to conduct the performance reviews?
III Activities
1. Assume that you supervise five employees who range from five years younger to
seven years older than you. What kinds of personal and work relationships do you
believe you would develop with this group?
2. What do you usually do when you encounter a difficult person? Would you react any
differently in a work setting?
IV Objective / Multiple Choice Questions
1. Interpersonal communication involves the following :
(a) Those interacting are in close proximity to each other, large number of
participants many sensory channels used, immediate feedback.
(b) Small number of participants, those interacting are in close proximity to each
other,
(c) Small number of participants, those interacting are in close proximity to each
other, few sensory channel immediate feedback.
(d) Small number of participants, those interacting are close to each other, many
sensory channel used feedback in phases.
14.10
Interpersonal Communication Skills
2. The Russian proverb “once a word goes out of your mouth, you can never swallow it
again” point out.
(a) Interpersonal communication is irreversible
(b) Interpersonal communication has long lasting effect.
(c) Interpersonal communication is a one way process.
(d) (a) and (b) only
3. What makes interpersonal communication complicated :
(a) No of variables involved.
(b) Exchange of symbols that stand for ideas.
(c) Words do not have inherent meaning and no two people use the same word
exactly alike.
(d) All of the above.
4.. Situational context deals with :
(a) ‘Psycho – physical – Relationship.
(b) ‘Psycho – dynamic where’ one is communicating.
(c) ‘Psycho – ethnic where’ one is communicating.
(d) ‘Psycho – Social where’ one is communicating
5. Psychological context includes :
(a) Needs
(b) Values
(c) Desires
(d) All of the above
6. The interpersonal needs identified by William Schutz are the following except :
(a) Control
(b) Authority
(c) Inclusion
(d) Affection
7. ‘Building Understanding includes :
(a) Content Messages
14.11
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
14.12
CHAPTER 15
GROUP DYNAMICS
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand
♦ Groups : Importance and Characteristics
♦ Types of groups in organizations
♦ Characteristics of effective teams
♦ Handling Group Conflicts
♦ Negotiating and Bargaining
♦ Consensus Building, Influencing and Persuasion Skills
I have always loved the competitive forces in this business. You know I certainly have
meetings where I spur people on by saying, "Hey, we can do better than this. How come we
are not out ahead on that?" That’s what keeps my job one of the most interesting in the world.
Bill Gates
period of time.” A viable number of members in the group can be anywhere between 15 and
20. More than that will become unwieldy or unmanageable. The members of a group
recognize and have a certain attitude towards their group members and have some degree of
satisfaction from belonging to and participating in the group. They set norms that specify and
regulate the behaviour expected of members. Members of a group consistently influence and
are influenced by each other.
Mainly two types of groups are present in organizations : Formal Groups created by
deliberate sanction of management to meet certain official requirement and Informal Groups
that are created because of the operation of the social and psychological factors at the work
place.
15.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS
Group goals – every group establishes its own group goals, which provide motivation for
their existence.
Group structure – is based on the roles to be performed and member positions.
Group Patterns of communication – is the pattern of message flow in a group.
Group Norms – are the informed rules of interaction in a group.
Group climate – is the emotional atmosphere of a group based on
(1) Bonding and trust among members
(2) Participative spirit
(3) Openness
(4) High performance goals.
15.3 GROUP DYNAMICS
Groups are the basic building blocks of organizations. It is now very common for groups of
employees to make decisions to solve difficult problems that were once the domain of
authoritarian executives. Today workers and managers are experienced in participating in
different kinds of groups. Members of any group get many opportunities for interaction. These
interactions and processes take place in a team or Group. This is a direct manifestation of
what is known as ‘group dynamics’. The word dynamics has come from a Greek word meaning
force so group dynamics refers basically to the study of forces operating within a group. Group
dynamics deals with internal nature of groups, their formation, structure and processes and
the way they affect individual members, other groups and the organization as a whole. “It
implies”, in the words of an expert,“ continuously changing and adjusting relationships among
members of the group.” The core of group dynamics is interaction among members.
Interaction, in the broad sense is any means of communication between people. Thus,
15.2
Group Dynamics
15.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
group of workers from the same area who usually meet for an hour each week to discuss their
quality problems, investigate causes, recommend solutions and take corrective actions when
authority is in their purview. In other words, Quality Circle is a small group to perform
voluntarily quality control activities within their work area.
3. Committees – are of various types (a) Standing Committee which are permanent in nature
and highly empowered. (b) An advisory Committee comprises of experts in particular fields (c)
An adhoc committee is setup for a particular purpose and after the goal is achieved, it is
dissolved
4. Task Force – Task force is like Committee but it is usually temporary. Task force has wide
power to take action and properly fix responsibility for investigation, results and proper
implementation of decisions. Task force groups are very important in govt. organization to
tackle specific administrative problems.
15.5 TEAM ROLES
Whether the task is to write reports, give oral presentations, produce a product, solve a
problem, or investigate an opportunity, team members must communicate effectively among
themselves and with people outside their team. Thus, companies are looking for people who
can interact successfully in teams and make useful contributions while working together.
Teams encourage creativity in workers through participative management - involving
employees in the company’s decision making. At Kodak, for example, using teams has
allowed the company to halve the amount of time it takes to move a new product from the
drawing board to store shelves. Each member of a group play a role that affects the outcome
of the group’s activities. Some teams are more effective than others simply because the
dynamics of the group facilitates optimum input from each member and quick resolution of
differences. To keep things moving forward, productive teams also tend to develop rules that
are conducive to business. Often these rules are unstated, they just become standard group
practice, or norms – informal standards of conduct that members share and that guide
member behavior. For example, members may have an unspoken agreement that it’s okay to
be 10 minutes late for meetings but not 15 minutes late, or that it’s preferable to use e-mailto
communicate with other team members rather than using the phone. When a team has a
strong identity, the members observe team rules religiously. They are upset by any deviation
and feel a great deal of pressure to conform. This loyalty can be positive, giving members a
strong commitment to one another and highly motivating them to see that the team succeeds.
15.4
Group Dynamics
Team Roles
Team Roles: Members of a team can play various roles, which fall into three categories.
Members who assume self oriented roles are motivated mainly to fulfill personal needs, so
they tend to be less productive than other members. Far more likely to contribute to team
goals are those members who recognize that each individual brings valuable assets,
knowledge, and skills to the team. They are willing to exchange information, examine issues,
and work through conflicts that arise and assume team-maintenance roles, to help everyone
work well together, and those members who assume task-facilitating roles, to help solve
problems or make decisions.
Leadership: Groups need effective leadership to achieve their goals. They help establish a
cooperative climate that encourages group interaction, helps the discussion to follow smoothly
and keep the planned agenda on track. In the absence of a leader, the whole activity may run
haywire. If the group is large, it may also become chaotic. It is the role of the leader to steer
the discussion like a ship through troubled waters. Hence a leader is indispensable for a group
discussion.
Participation and leadership are interrelated. The degree to which group members make their
own decisions affects the leadership style with which they will be most comfortable. There are
many different descriptions of leadership. Some emphasize that a leader is a person who
influences the actions of others. A communication-specific definition is that a leader is the
15.5
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
member of a group who speaks the most to the group as a whole, is spoken to the most, and
directs communication in the group to productive levels.
A manager or supervisor is not necessarily a group leader. A person can be in charge of a
group without exhibiting any leadership qualities. A member who leads a group could be its
least experienced, lowest-ranking participant. Many training and development programs today
attempt to teach managers or supervisors how to be leaders. The focus of these programs is
on transforming managers from people with titles into people who exhibit true influence,
direction, and motivation.
Groupthink
Conformity, carried to its extreme, leads to groupthink. Groupthink is the tendency of group
members to seek agreement solely for agreement's sake. A group gripped by groupthink fails
to be creative, explore alternative solutions, problems, or concerns in an effort to present a
united or cohesive front to outsiders. Group members must question themselves and their
actions to ensure high-quality decision making. There are several ways to reduce the
tendency toward groupthink. One technique that encourages open discussion is to have the
group leader ask each member to assume the role of critical evaluator. It should be stressed
that the role is that of constructive rather than destructive questioner. Another technique is to
have the group from time to time divide into subgroups with similar tasks leading to fresh
perspectives. A third technique conducive to warding off groupthink is to have each group
member discuss the group's communications and actions with trusted outsiders to obtain an
objective viewpoint. A fourth way to avoid groupthink is to have the group hold a special
meeting where all misgivings, second-guessing, and objections are aired. At such a meeting,
each member is encouraged to express any doubts she or he may have , about any phase of
the group's deliberation.
A special method of minimizing groupthink is to have a measure of cultural diversity within a
group leading to emergence of diverse ideas, opinions, and arguments which can counteract
the effects of groupthink.
15.6 HANDLING GROUP CONFLICTS
Conflict is a part of almost every interpersonal relationship. Managing conflict, then, is
important if the relationship is to be long-lasting and rewarding. Conflict is a greatly
misunderstood facet of group communication. Many group leaders avoid conflict because they
think it detracts from a group's purpose and goals. Their attitude is that a group experiencing
conflict is not running smoothly. Avoiding conflicts may be necessary when conforming to
various rules, standards, and group goals during group decision making. However, Leaders
can use conflict productively to test ideas or propositions generated by groups before they are
implemented. Groups eventually must reach decisions, and conformity among group members
15.6
Group Dynamics
provides a basis for consensus. Members may be encouraged to disagree about the definition
of the problem, the alternatives generated, and the criteria by which to evaluate alternatives.
But certain fundamental issues-such as why the group exists and how it should operate-must
be agreed on by everyone.
A conflict does not signal that a meeting is disorderly, raucous, or rude. It is a sign that people
are actively discussing issues. If a group does not exhibit conflict by debating ideas or
questioning others, there is very little reason for it to exist. The members may as well be
working by themselves. Conflict, then, is part of the essence of group interaction. Leaders can
use conflict as a means to determine what is and what is not an acceptable idea, solution, or
problem; but it should be a debate about issues, not about personalities. A group will not be
productive if arguments are centered on the participants rather than on what the participants
are talking about. When conflicts arise, group members and especially leaders must be
diligent in refocusing members' attention on the issues, not on personalities.
Conflict has been defined as "an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent
parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference from the other
party in achieving their goals". Important concepts in this definition include "expressed
struggle," which means the two sides must communicate about the problem for there to be
conflict. Another important idea is that conflict often involves perceptions. The two sides may
only perceive that their goals, resources, and interference is incompatible with each other's.
Researchers have identified several problems that typically arise in conflict situations. First,
the parties will simply avoid the conflict. This can be damaging, because it can lead to greater
problems in the future. It is usually best that the individuals discuss their differences. Second,
individuals involved in conflict may blame the other individual. Often, individuals go beyond
the specific behaviour in question and blame the character of the person. A final problem that
is often encountered in conflict management is adopting a win-lose mentality. Focusing on
each individual's goals / outcomes will help avoid using a win-lose strategy.
The climate in which conflict is managed is important. It is essential to plan communications to
foster a supportive climate, marked by emphasis on
• Presenting ideas or opinions.
• Problem orientation- focusing attention on the task.
• Spontaneity-communicating openly and honestly.
• Empathy: understanding another person's thoughts.
• Equality- asking for opinions.
• A willingness to listen to the ideas of others.
15.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
15.8
Group Dynamics
15.9
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
15.10
Group Dynamics
• Collection and collating data that might come handy later. It is useful to create a checklist
for preparation as some items will need to be considered before the negotiation, some
during the negotiation, some both before and during negotiation.
2) Arguing :This is the first stage of the actual negotiation process, where the two parties are
engaged in the process of building a case for their respective stands. The aim of this process
is to forcefully inform the other party of the logic & strength of ones stand. Often negotiations
tend to fail at this stage because the two parties end up getting hostile when the opponents
start at a diametrically opposite positions.
One needs to remember that positions taken during this stage seldom result into an exact
outcome. The negotiation’s aim should be to try & narrow down the difference between the
two positions to a common acceptable ground. It is thus imperative for either side to patiently
listen to the other side and understand their position entirely.
15.11
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
3) Signaling: This phase occurs during the arguing process and usually after some amount of
arguing . The two parties are aware of the deadlock and are in a mood to break the deadlock
when signaling would occur. The signal refers to verbal or non-verbal clues that opens up the
possibility of adjustment in the stance of the person. One should be alert to the following
developments:
• Are there any signs of movement in the argument?
• What signals have we made to indicate our own willingness to move?
• If they have been ignored, how can we re-word them?
• What is the cause of opponent’s ‘stonewalling’? Confidence or lack of it?
4) Proposing : This phase is a decisive one. It is the culmination of arguments when based
on some signals one proposes for a possible solution. Propositions overcome arguments
because arguments cannot be negotiated. Proposals advance negotiations and proposals
seize the initiative.
5) Packaging: We can think of packaging as considering various proposals that appeared
and collating an overall suggested solution for consideration of the other party. We can think
of this process comprising of
• Identifying opponent’s inhibitions, objectives, priorities, and the signaled possibilities of
concessions that they might allow.
• Review opponent’s and own objectives by doing a fresh L-I-M (Like-Intend-Must) analysis.
• Is there enough movement indicated to produce a package? This is an important question
to be answered as we do not want to package a deal too soon. That way the deal could be
half baked or we might reduce the chance of it being acceptable.
• How can you address your package to meet some/all of your opponent’s inhibitions?
• What concessions are you looking for? Compare it against the signalled possibilities of
concessions that the opponent has shown willingness to concede or to consider.
• What negotiating room do you have in you current position?
• Which concessions are you going to signal in the package?
• What do you want in return?
• How equitable is the concession rate?
• Draw up list of conditions and place them in front of the package.
• Have all the possible variables in the package been considered
15.12
Group Dynamics
6) Bargaining: That’s what negotiating looks like to a third person as a spectator. But for a
negotiator this phase will be successful only if the groundwork has been done.
• Everything must be conditional. Consider this almost a firm rule – without exceptions.
• Decide what we require in exchange for the concessions.
• List and place that at the front of our presentation.
• Signal what is possible if, and only if, the opponent agree to your conditions.
• If the signal is reciprocated present proposals, restating conditions.
• Keep all the unsettled issues linked and trade-off a move on one for a new condition or a
move on something else.
• Be ready to bring back into contention any previously ‘settled’ issues if we need
negotiating room under pressure of opposition on a point.
7) Closing and Agreeing :This is the final phase where the deal gets finalized and sealed.
Closing means ending the bargaining and reaching a stage where we push the opponent to
make a decisions on agreeing or otherwise. This is true of overall negotiation process as well
as for individual concessions. Agreeing refers to our response to the opponents close. We
need to be careful about
• Where we intend to stop trading.
• Is the whole proposal credible – what have we done to check that? Often closing a deal
too soon leaves the opponent feeling that he got less then what was available for him.
• Think whether to lead with the summary close and then try the concession close or vice
versa. What other close could we use?
• If we are going for a ‘final offer’ are we serious or is it a bluff? Bluffing ‘final offer’ can
destroy credibility in the current negotiations and in subsequent ones. Do not try to force a
‘final offer’ under emotional pressure.
• If the close has been successful: what has been agreed? List the agreement in detail. List
the points of explanation, clarification, interpretation and understanding.
• If the agreement is oral, send a written note to the opponent of what we believe was
agreed as soon as it can be done after the meeting.
15.13
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
have or do not wish to use position power. You have to rely on influencing others through
assertiveness, negotiation and empowering skills. Influence is an respectable way to change
other people’s actions(“these are the benefits of doing this.”) the other ways are-
Command (“You have to do this.”) or
Manipulation (“If you do not do this, I will lose my job.”)
Influence is much wider in depth and dimension. It is :
• A process not an action
• A set of skills-including body language, listening, building rapport, planning, probing and
explaining
• A set of attitudes –including confidence, trust, patience and belief in win-win outcomes
• It is getting people to do things because they want to.
• It requires one to be other focused rather than self focused
• It enables proactive leadership
Persuasion is one dimension of influence. It is a direct communication when benefits are
stated in a reasoned arguments and competent views dealt with in a respectful manner. The
two principles of persuasion are
• Honour and Respect: These are communicated in various ways-You can respect
people’s time by being sensitive about the timing of your communication. Imagine barging
in and demanding someone’s attention simply because what you have to say is more
important to you than to them.
• Understanding the other person’s Frame of Reference: Each of us have a unique
personality but one can get to know a great deal about the other person by approaching
things from their point of reference, asking questions and listening.
The first problem one faces while communicating is getting someone’s undivided attention.
They are probably thinking about something else when you want to communicate with them.
So you must grab their attention and get it focused on what you want to communicate. You
can use something called the ‘hook’. Advertisers do this all the time. Just like a fish being
hooked on a line, you need to ‘hook’ the other person with a real reason for focusing on you.
This could be a question or a strong statement – something that takes them away from their
current line of thought to focus on your request or idea.
When you have hooked someone, how do you keep them there? This can be achieved
through a statement, a group of statements or a question that creates curiosity.
The third technique is by using something called ‘emotional word pictures’ (EWPs). These can
simultaneously communicate with a person’s heart and mind, to convey understanding and
15.14
Group Dynamics
emotional feelings. In order to appeal to anyone’s motivation to act, we must know these two
biggest motivators. The first is: THE DESIRE FOR GAIN.
The other is: FEAR OF LOSS. In any communication you must examine your argument and
analyse which desires or fears you are appealing to. This will help you plan the communication
suitably .
15.15
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
15.16
CHAPTER 16
COMMUNICATION ETHICS
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand -
Significance of ethical communication
Characteristics of ethical communication
Factors influencing ethical communication
Ethical dilemmas in communication
Guidelines to handle communication dilemma
“Because instant information has to be given, it becomes necessary to resort to guesswork, rumours,
and suppositions to fill in the voids, and none of them will ever be rectified, they will stay on the
readers' memory. How many hasty, immature, superficial, and misleading judgments are expressed
every day, confusing readers, without any verification? The press can both stimulate public opinion and
miseducate it. Thus, we may see terrorists turned into heroes, or secret matters pertaining to one's
nation's defence publicly revealed, or we may witness shameless intrusions on the privacy of well-
known people under the slogan: "Everyone is entitled to know everything.”
Alexander Solzhenitsyn
5. The community,
6. The government,
7. The environment and even,
8. The nation, and its interest.
Communication has always been of critical importance to the success of companies and
corporate reputation is one of a company's most valuable and enduring assets. It plays a
central role in the achievement of key business objectives such as creating shareholder
value, attracting, retaining and motivating high-quality people, enhancing reputation with
all audiences, marshaling stakeholder support on public policy issues, creating consumer
preference for products and services, and minimizing the impact a crisis can have on a
company's financial position and business prospects. Questions of right and wrong arise
whenever people communicate. Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible
thinking, decision making, and the development of relationships and communities within
and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Ethical communication enhances
human worth and respect for self and others. In business communication, however,
knowing right from wrong doesn't always mean that doing the right thing is either obvious
or easy. Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making,
and the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts,
cultures, channels, and media. Ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity
by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self
and others. 1 while unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and
consequently the well-being of individuals and the society in which we live.
An ethical communication:
includes all relevant information,
is true in every sense and is not deceptive in any way.
accurate and sincere. Avoids language that manipulates,, discriminates or exaggerates.
does not hide negative information behind an optimistic attitude .
does not state opinions as facts,
portrays graphic data fairly.
In a nutshell ethical communicators have a "well developed sense of social responsibility.
"One is honest with employers, co-workers, and clients, never seeking personal gain by
making others look better or worse than they are, don't allow personal preferences to
Influence your perception or the perception of others, and act in good faith.
1
The National Communication Association
16.2
Communication Ethics
Organizations, like people, should strive for ethical behavior. No one can completely
guarantee that a corporation or its employees will behave ethically; yet acknowledgement
of occasional failures does not reduce the fundamental ethical responsibility. This
philosophical position implies certain actions in three basic areas: cultural, policy, and
personal. Ethical organizations are created and sustained by individuals of personal
integrity, operating in a culture of principle, and governed by conscientious policies.
Organisational Policy
16.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Few would doubt that ethical concerns are inherent to the act of speech, but what about
the act of listening? Simply because someone will speak to us does not oblige us to listen.
Even choosing to listen means taking a moral stand.
Remaining silent might seem like the safest way to avoid ethical dilemmas. But even here
there is no safe haven. Remaining silent in the face of unlawful behavior or a potentially
harmful situation presents a serious ethical decision. Silence signals consent or perhaps
tacit agreement,
2. The Ethical Nature Of Communication Must Be Considered Within The Context Of Who,
What, When, And Where.
Suppose fellow employees discussed a project they were working on. This may seem
perfectly ethical on the surface. After all, such discussions actually foster effective
interdepartmental relationships; a worthy goal indeed. The problem may be that the
discussion took place in a crowded restaurant and a competitor overheard the
conversation. When the employees are confronted, they may reply, "What did we say that
was wrong? We were not talking to a competitor." But this is, of course, the wrong
question. The issue does not concern what was said or even who they were talking to.
The ethical issue revolves around where the conversation took place. Herein lies the
complexity of ethical issues-evaluations must be made on more than one dimension.
Ethical communicators are not concerned with just who or what or where or when, but with
all four dimensions simultaneously.
16.3 ORGANIZATION VALUES AND COMMUNICATION ETHICS
A key element in any communication activity is the values of the organization. Values are
the principles and ideas that people or organizations strongly believe in and consider
important. When people are in doubt about decisions, they frequently rely on deep-seated
values to help them make the right choice. In organizations, reliance on shared values
makes setting goals easier in the face of the competing ideas, desires, and objectives of
individual employees.
One can get a good idea about the values of an organization by examining its vision and
mission statement. These statements are short descriptions of the purpose of
organizations and the directions they try to take to achieve success. Many organizations
post their vision and mission statements in several places so that employees know what
the organization values
On the surface, ethical practices appear fairly easy to recognize. But deciding what is
ethical, can be quite complex. Under the influence of competition, job pressure, peer
pressure, ambition, financial gain (both personal and corporate), business people
16.4
Communication Ethics
sometimes make unethical choices. For example, a recent survey revealed that 20-30%
of middle managers had written deceptive internal reports . We are also aware of many
companies selling products without disclosure of side effects. An ethical dilemma involves
choosing among alternatives that aren't clear-cut (some times conflicting alternatives are
both ethical and valid, or perhaps your alternatives lie somewhere in the vast gray area
between right and wrong). Suppose you are president of a company that's losing money.
You have a duty to your shareholders to try to cut your losses and to your employees to
be fair and honest. After looking at various options, you conclude that you'll have to layoff
300 people immediately. You suspect you may have to layoff another 100 people later on,
but right now you need those 100 workers to finish a project. ""What do you tell them? If
you confess that their jobs are shaky, many of them may quit just when you need them
most. However, if you tell them that the future is rosy, you'll be stretching the truth.
16.4 ETHICAL DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION
Some of the ethical dilemmas faced while communicating are:
Secrecy
Secrets are kept for both honourable and dishonourable reasons; may be used to guard
intimacy or to invade it. Here then lies the challenge for the manager: to determine when
secrets are justifiable and when they are not. When the clamp of secrecy tightens too
much, the result is lack of innovation.
On the other hand, organizations have a legitimate need to protect certain information. If
competitors, for example, gain access to proprietary research and development, they can
produce that product for a much lower net cost because they do not have to pay the
research and development expenses.
Whistle-blowing
Any employee who goes public with information about corporate abuses or negligence is
known as a whistle-blower. Corporations and managers legitimately expect employee
loyalty. Greed, jealousy, and revenge motivate some whistle-blowers. Some are simply
misinformed. Some confuse public interest with private interest. Certainly the community
has a right to know about corporate practices that are potentially hazardous, yet courting
the whistle-blower too aggressively can be problematic..
Leaks
A leak is like anonymous whistle- blowing; one distinction being the propriety of the leak;
namely, that the person who leaks information cannot be cross-examined. This often casts
16.5
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
doubt on the credibility of the claim. The accused does not know who or why a person has
chosen to release certain information. Politicians have used leaks for years to, stall a
plan, or defame an opponent. Employees may also leak information to the press for
honourable or dishonourable reasons. Leaks may cause organizational plans to be altered
or forgone altogether. Leaks can be a form of political manoeuvring in the organization or
a way to sabotage the career of a colleague competing for a job.
Rumour and gossip
Rumours and gossip seem to be an inevitable part of everyday corporate life. Even though
rumours and gossip often travel through the same networks, there is a distinction between
the terms. Rumours tend to focus on events and information, whereas gossip focuses on
people. Even though managers usually treat the information as "yet to be confirmed," it
may cloud judgments about that employee. The information has a way of creeping into
performance evaluations and promotion decisions, even if unintended.
Lying
A lie is a false statement intended to deceive. Of all the ethical dilemmas discussed thus
far, lying would appear to be the least morally perplexing. Most would agree that "one
ought not to lie." Yet lies in business are more common than many would care to admit.
Lying breaks down the trust between individuals, shaking the foundation of ethical
communication.
16.6
Communication Ethics
Euphemisms
By definition, a euphemism is using a less offensive expression instead of one that might
cause distress. For example using the expression "passed away" instead "died" is one of
the more common examples. This usage is understandable. However, people frequently
use these terms to obscure the truth. For example a purchasing agent has a far easier
time accepting a "consideration fee" than a "bribe." Petty office theft gets passed off as
merely "permanently borrowing" the item instead of "stealing."
Ambiguity
Ambiguity, like secrecy, can be used for ethical or unethical purposes .Language itself is
made up of various words that carry values. So by using words in certain ways ,one can
influence others behaviour and expectations .Because all language contains some degree
of vagueness,. Communicators are to some extent held responsible for possible
misinterpretations. This means that one must be aware of the probabilistic nature of
communication, and need to consider not only their intentions, but also how their
messages might be misunderstood.
16.6 GUIDELINES TO HANDLE COMMUNICATION ETHICS DILEMMAS
Although some ethical dilemmas are more easily solved than others, all involve making
evaluations and judgments about what is morally right and wrong, what is fair and what is
not and what will cause harm and what will not Ethical communication requires effective
16.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
critical thinking skills, recognizing the importance of diverse perspectives, respect for the
well being of self and others, taking responsibility for individual and group actions, and
reflecting on the choices group members make.
Legal Considerations
One place to look for guidance is the law. If saying or writing something is clearly illegal,
you have no dilemma: You obey the law
Moral Considerations
Although legal considerations will resolve some ethical questions, one has
often had to rely on your own judgment and principles. If your intent is honest, the
statement is ethical, even though it may be factually incorrect; but if your intent is to
mislead or manipulate the audience, the message is unethical, regardless of whether it is
true. Looking at the consequences of decisions and opting for a solution that provides
the greatest good to the greatest number of people
Maintain Candour - Candour refers to truthfulness, honesty, and frankness in your
communication with other people. Although revealing everything you know about a
situation may not always be appropriate-for instance, providing all your information to
adversaries during intense and sensitive negotiations will only compromise your position-
Keep Messages Accurate - When you are relaying information from one source to
another, communicate the original message as accurately as possible. Ethical
communicators do not take liberties with the messages they pass on.
Avoid Deception - Ethical communicators are always vigilant in their quest to avoid
deception fabrication, intentional distortion, or withholding of information-in their
communication.
Behave Consistently - One of the most prevalent yet noticeable areas of unethical
behaviour is communicating one thing and doing another. You must always monitor your
behaviour to ensure that it matches what you say to others.
Keep Confidences - When someone tells you something and expects you not to divulge
that information to others, a sacred trust has been placed on you.
Ensure Timeliness of Communication - The timing of messages can be critical. When
you delay sending messages so that others do not fully benefit, they can (rightly) assume
that you have acted unethically.
Confront Unethical Behavior-To maintain a consistent ethical viewpoint, you must
confront unethical behavior when you observe it. Public condemnation of unethical
16.8
Communication Ethics
persons may not be necessary, but it is important that people understand that your own
tolerance for unethical behavior is low.
16.9
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Competent people are likely to search for organizations that. maintain high ethical
standards. When competent people migrate toward ethical firms, everyone benefits
because both competence and ethics are perpetuated. Indeed, _t is quite easy to make
the argument that competence and ethics go hand in hand They know that ethical
practices are the only sure the level of ethical awareness has risen over the last few
years. Many companies are reassessing their communication budgets, moving away from
traditional, functional approaches to public relations and public affairs and pursuing
internal and external corporate communication strategies. The theory and practice arising
from corporate communications lies at the heart of effective strategic management,
planning and control. New digital media technologies are having greater impact on news
management and the monitoring and evaluation of corporate identity, corporate
advertising, organizational reputation and overall performance.
16.9 SELF-EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
I Questions (Short/ Essay type Answers)
1. Explain the significance of ethics in communication. What are the attributes of an
ethical communication?
2. Discuss the factors influencing ethical communication
3. Write short notes on
(a) Whistle-blowing
(b) Organisation values and Communication ethics
(c) Timeliness of communication
4. Drawing on your own experience, explain how you think ethical communication
strengthens businesses and organizations.
II Activities
5. Select a major organization that you wish to research. Through an examination of
its advertising, pamphlets, shareholder statements, and recent media coverage,
or through interviews with executives and other employees, explain what you
believe the organization’s values are.
6. You have e just been promoted to manager and you have developed a good
rapport with most of your employees, but Mehta and Sharma are always going to
your supervisor with matter that should go through you. Both employees have
been at the company for at least 10 years longer than you have, and both know
your supervisor very well. Should you speak with them about this? Should you
speak with your supervisor?
16.10
Communication Ethics
7. Because of your excellent communication skills, your boss always asks you to
write his reports for him. When you overhear the CEO complimenting him on his
logical organization and clear writing style, he responds as if he has written all
those reports himself. You’re angry, but he is your boss. What can you do?
III Objective / Multiple Choice Questions
1. What are ethical dilemmas faced while communicating:
(a) Secrecy , Whistle-blowing, Leaks, Rumour and Gossip ,
(b) Ambiguity , Whistle-blowing, Leaks, Lying, Euphemisms
(c) None of the above.
(d) Both (a) and (b)
2. Candour refers to:
(a) Candour refers to diplomacy in communication with other people.
(b) Candour refers to truthfulness, honesty, and frankness in your communication with
other people.
(c) Candour refers to secrecy in your communication with other people.
(d) Candour refers to one of the most prevalent yet noticeable areas of unethical
behaviour.
3. What are the advantages of Ethical Communication?
(a) Promotes long term business success and profit
(b) Sustain organizational image
(c) Only (a)
(d) Both (a) & (b)
4. What is Whistle-blowing?
(a) Going public about corporate abuses
(b) Telling others about corporate negligence
(c) Only (a)
(d) Both (a) & (b)
Answers:
1. (d), 2. (b), 3. (d), 4. (d).
16.11
CHAPTER 17
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand
Corporate culture
Why change is important factor for survival & Growth
Building an innovation friendly organization
The real source of wealth and capital in this new era is not material things.. it is the human mind, the human
spirit, the human imagination, and our faith in the future.
Steve Forbes
In the transformation of the caterpillar into the butterfly, the caterpillar constructs a
cocoon and then undergoes an astounding transformational process, where the old
"caterpillar" molecules actually chemically transform into "butterfly" molecules. They have
to stop being caterpillars before they can possibly become butterflies. But then they
reassemble and become more than they were. They realize their inherent potential,
something that all can do. Thus unrealised organizational and individual potential can be
coached and supported by fostering open communication and a culture conducive to
change and innovation. Improvement is about understanding and capturing ideas and
possibilities, reformulating and restructuring those ideas into a usable form and then
transforming them into actions and behaviours. Clearly, innovation is the key driver for
wealth creation and economic competitiveness. Those who come up with innovative
solutions can expect huge financial rewards and the satisfaction of realizing their vision.
In a globalised economy, a city, region, or country wanting to succeed and prosper, must
have such innovative and creative individuals to maintain a competitive edge.
of an organization, and includes such elements as core values and beliefs, corporate
ethics, and rules of behaviour norms that are shared by people and groups in an
organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders
outside the organization.
These cultural statements become effective when executives are able to communicate the
values of their firm, which provide patterns for how employees should behave. Firms with
strong cultures achieve higher results because employees maintain focus both on what to
do and how to do it. Organizational values are beliefs and ideas about what kinds of goals
members of an organization should pursue and ideas about the appropriate principles of
behaviour organizational members should use to achieve these goals. From
organizational values develop organizational norms, guidelines or expectations that
prescribe appropriate kinds of behaviour by employees in particular towards one another.
Senior management may try to determine a Corporate Culture. They may wish to impose
corporate values and standards of behaviour that specifically reflect the objectives of the
organization. In addition, there will also be an internal culture within the workforce. Work-
groups within the organization have their own behavioural quirks and interactions which,
to an extent, affect the whole system.
STRONG / WEAK CULTURES
A strong culture is said to exist where the staff’s response to change and innovation is
high because of their alignment to organizational values- people do things because they
believe it is the right thing to do. Conversely, there is Weak Culture where there is little
alignment with organizational values, and control must be exercised through extensive
procedures and bureaucracy.
17.2 ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
A number of elements that can be used to describe or influence Organizational Culture:
The Paradigm: What the organization is about; what it does; its mission; its values.
Control Systems: The processes in place to monitor what is going on.
Organizational Structures: Reporting lines, hierarchies, and the way that work flows
through the business.
Power Structures: Who makes the decisions and how power is distributed across the
organization.
Symbols: These include the logos and designs, but would extend to symbols of power,
such as car parking spaces and executive washrooms!
Rituals and Routines: Management meetings, board reports and so on may become
more habitual than necessary.
17.2
Communicating Corporate Culture Change and Innovative Spirits
Stories and Myths: build up about people and events, and convey a message about what
is valued within the organization.
Communicating the corporate culture effectively is paramount. For example, at General
Electric (GE), corporate values are so important to the company, that Jack Welch, the
former legendary CEO of the company, had them inscribed and distributed to all GE
employees at every level of the company.
17.3 CHANGE
Typically, the concept of organizational change is in regard to organization-wide change,
as opposed to smaller changes such as adding a new person, modifying a program, etc.
Examples of organization-wide change include a change in mission, restructuring
operations, new technologies, mergers, major collaborations, new programs such as Total
Quality Management, re-engineering, etc. - a fundamental and radical reorientation in the
way the organization operates.
17.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Freedom
Pride and satisfaction
Responsibility
Authority
Good working conditions
Status
2. While a feeling of threat is a primary reason why people resist change, there are other
factors that can mobilize people into resisting any changes from a status quo. These
include:
Change not needed - status quo is working fine
Proposed change does more harm than good
Lack of respect for person responsible for the change
0bjectionable way of implementing the change
Negative attitude towards the organization before the change
no opportunity to have input into change
change perceived as implying personal criticism
Change simply adds more work and confusion.
Change requires more effort than to keep status quo
Bad timing of the change
A desire to challenge authority
Hearing about the change secondhand
3. The uncertainty principle
The Uncertainty principle states that when people are faced with ambiguous or uncertain
situations, where they feel they do not know what to expect, they will resist moving into
those situations. In other words, if people don't know what is to come resistive.
17.4
Communicating Corporate Culture Change and Innovative Spirits
1. PERSONAL GAIN
People will be more likely to accept change when they see the possibility that they will
gain in some of the following areas:
Increased Security
Money
More Authority
Status/Prestige
Better Working Conditions
Self-Satisfaction
Better Personal Contacts
Less Time And Effort
2. OTHER FACTORS:
Provides A New Challenge
Likes/Respects The Source
Likes The Way Change Is Being Communicated
Reduces Boredom
Provides Opportunity For Input
Improves Future
Perception That The Change Is Necessary
17.5
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
carried out as a team-wide effort. Communications about the change should be frequent
and with all organization members. To sustain change, the structures of the organization
itself should be modified, including strategic plans, policies and procedures. The best
approaches to address resistances are through increased and sustained communications
and education. For example, the leader should meet with all managers and staff to explain
reasons for the change, how it generally will be carried out and where one can go for
additional information.
A plan should be developed and communicated. Plans do change, so it is necessary to
continuously communicate changes and its reasons. Forums should be held for
organization members to express their ideas for the plan. They should be able to express
their concerns and frustrations as well.
Widely communicate the potential need for change. Communicate continuously the
action/s taken and results.
Get as much feedback as practical from employees, including what they think are the
problems and what should be done to resolve them. If possible, work with a team of
employees to manage the change.
Focus on the coordination of the departments/programs in your organization, not on each
part by itself. Have someone in charge of the plan.
Communication is probably the most important skill that people need to have in order to
be effective managers. It is probably the most taken for granted, and the area least
addressed by developing managers. In situations of instability, or change, or ambiguity,
communication becomes even more important.
Poor communication around change issues can:
1. Destroy commitment to an organization
2. Irrevocably damage employee morale
3. Generate huge resistance to change
4. Result in hostility.
5. Lead to performance problems
Communication can be simply described as CREATING UNDERSTANDING. In periods of
change (as in "normal" times), the manager must not only pass information to employees,
but also ensure that it is understood correctly. After all, the manager stands to lose a
great deal if information is not understood, as he or she is accountable for the results.
Unfortunately, some managers believe that effective communication consists of sending
memo, or telling people orally what is going on, or what will happen. Passing on of
17.6
Communicating Corporate Culture Change and Innovative Spirits
17.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
17.8
Communicating Corporate Culture Change and Innovative Spirits
9. Receiver cannot read language of the sender. Some people can understand a spoken
language but cannot read it.
Use written communication when:
1. Sender wants a record for future references.
2. Receiver will be referring to it later.
3. Message is complex and requires study by receiver.
4. Message includes a step-by-step procedure.
5. A copy of the message should go to another person.
Thus, the main role of the change manager is to work towards reducing the resistance
towards change, and increasing the enthusiasm and level of commitment for the change.
17.6 SPURRING THE INNOVATIVE SPIRITS
Innovation – the Key to Success and Survival
Companies that continuously innovate will create and re-invent new markets, products,
services, and business models – which lead to more growth. Leaders of successful, high-
growth companies understand that innovation is what drives growth, and innovation is
achieved by remarkable people with a shared passion for problem solving and for turning
ideas into realities through perseverance and a positive attitude. Innovation is dependent
on the organisation’s ability to recognize market opportunities, internal capabilities to
respond innovatively, and knowledge base. The successful business of the future will be
one that provides unequaled customer service, delivers an exceptional product or service,
and continuously makes innovative improvements. Success in the next decade will
depend on managers and leaders capturing the innovative hearts and minds of their
workers. This will only happen if businesses breathe, dream and allow innovation at all
levels of the business. Preoccupation with gimmicks, short term thinking, bureaucratic
rules and procedures will generate more "Going Out of Business" signs than anything
else. Innovation comes from a workforce empowered by both their ideas and their ability
to contribute to the enterprise. Creating this innovative environment is the greatest
business challenge of today’s fast paced competitive and borderless business world.
Innovation begins with the leader or business manager. In today's rapidly changing
working world, the manager must be more like a coach, or a team leader than a boss, a
collaborator instead of a manipulator. The leader must create an environment supporting
and nurturing innovation. We are seeing a new world where passion over knowledge,
where chaos over structure are the norms. today, citizens and customers hold the
government and all organizations to higher expectations.
17.9
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
17.10
Communicating Corporate Culture Change and Innovative Spirits
17.11
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
objectives of the business. Vision statements point to the direction in which the
organization is heading. This unifies everyone’s efforts toward a common purpose. By
contrast, bureaucratic organizations may miss opportunities for innovation, through
reliance on established procedures. A policy statement in the employee handbook can be
a useful starting point. Here, a commitment to innovation can be made in black and white.
The very process of developing this policy statement forces management to articulate
goals and commitments. The initial training of employees can also stress the necessity for
innovation. Even the corporate philosophy should have a sentence or phrase about the
organization’s position on innovation.
Innovative organizations need individuals who are prepared to challenge the status quo – be
it groupthink or bureaucracy, and also need procedures to implement new ideas effectively
Recognize and Reward Innovation
One of the more radical steps an organization or manager can take is to make innovation
a requirement of the job. For example, 3M sets divisional sales targets in terms of new
product development. Approximately 30% of an operating unit’s sales should come from
products developed in the last four years Bonuses are also tied to this yardstick. It works.
The formal evaluation system also plays an important role. Companies reward activities
they value. Employees know this, and react accordingly. Financial rewards have proven
successful, but there are other and often more meaningful rewards such as personal
recognition. Innovators can be recognized in company newsletters, trade publications, and
the local media. Stories about innovators not only provide recognition, but also show
others in the organization what the company really values.
Rewarding individual innovators is not the only tactic that can be employed. After all, the
objective is to spur on the spirit of innovation throughout the entire organization. Why not
recognize an entire unit, department, or division that is particularly innovative? This might
encourage the teamwork so necessary for successful innovation.
Develop Company Programs That Encourage Innovation
Some companies, such as IBM, allow their employees to take sabbaticals to work in a new
environment or teach in a college. By placing employees in different environments, they
can meet new people, come across new ideas, and, hopefully, generate their own novel
approaches.
Other major companies have model programs that encourage innovation as well. 3M has
a program that allows employees to spend up to 15% of their time working on their own
innovative project with little or no direct managerial control. The almost ubiquitous Post-it
Notes are a direct result of this rule, and now account for millions of dollars of revenue.
And 3M takes it one step further with its Genesis grants. Employees can apply for up to
$85,000 in seed money to carry their projects past the idea state.
17.12
Communicating Corporate Culture Change and Innovative Spirits
Another program that has been successful involves keeping a written record or log of all
suggestions and the actions taken on those ideas. The list is then circulated around the
company. Timeliness is also important. Walter Scott of Motorola, Inc., said, “Any
employee’s recommendation for new methods or change should get a reply in 72 hours or
less.”
Foster Informal Communication
The paperwork involved in proposing or even pursuing a project can be a major roadblock
to innovation. Employees often feel stifled when asked to fully justify ideas; they may be
working on a hunch. In the first place, many of the questions cannot be answered fully
until later in the innovation process. Second, many relevant questions cannot even be
anticipated. Moreover, the message sent to employees by requiring extensive paperwork
is that results must be guaranteed and failure is unacceptable.
Paperwork and administrative regulations are often initiated in organizations to provide
some control of organizational events. Informal communication can fill the gap. Managers
can keep up-to-date by informally communicating with employees about projects or new
ideas. Often, this kind of “checking up” proves more informative than endless reams of
paperwork.
Informal communication encourages discussion across departmental boundaries and
formal lines of authority. More useful ideas seem to be spawned in such a free-flowing
environment. Why? In part, because these discussions expose organizational problems,
concerns, and needs, all of which are begging for innovative solutions. Bill Gates, the
innovative founder of Microsoft, credits the use of electronic mail as one of the keys in
keeping his company on the creative frontier. If someone has a brainstorm, he or she can
immediately flash the idea to others for their reactions. He says, “It sparks interest.”
Adding blackboards, sketchpads, and small conference rooms in the workplace has also
proven helpful in encouraging more informal communication. Electronic mail, blackboards,
and sketchpads have one common characteristic: mistakes can be quickly and easily
corrected. Therefore, speculation, change, and creativity are encouraged. Deletions or
additions can be readily made. This is the spirit of informal networks-quick feedback with
little fear of change. There are few repercussions when changing an idea in an informal
situation. Formal documents are less easily amended. And that is why it so important to
set up an informal communication environment.
Information
The right kind of information is called innoinformation. This type of information is critical to
the vitality of the enterprise. Innoinformation consists of the plans, vision, goals, and all
the new ideas affecting the enterprise. The innovative enterprise is looking forward,
continuously changing and adapting to the needs of the customer. By providing
17.13
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Innoinformation everyone in the enterprise can see new opportunities, not just the people
at the top. Idea campaigns, teamwork, benchmarking and other programs keep the
organization flexible and vital. One way to ensure people are ready to change is by
communicating the ideas and suggestions made by the people within the organization. A
constant flow of ideas and suggestions show people that there is a need for change.
When people hear new ideas, they are more willing to change. Jack Jackson, a
professional speaker from Ft. Worth, Texas said, “Ifyou are going to innovate you must
communicate or you won’t motivate!”
Framework
The innovative enterprise must constantly adapt, create and innovate. Information and
communication are the wind that sails the innovative enterprise toward its destination.
Information and communication pose difficult challenges for most businesses. The
difficulty lies in balancing the flow of information between providing too much or too little
information. Managers complain that they are overloaded while, front-line workers
complain, “no one tells them what’s going on! In the traditional organization, information
represents power. The flow of information is important to keep the enterprise on course.
Those businesses faced with a rigid hierarchy have a limited flow of information. They
have a major difficulty staying current and flexible. They end up pushing instead of
leading their organization to the next juncture. On the other hand, the innovative
enterprise effectively uses information and communication to keep everyone informed,
working together.
Businesses must concern themselves with providing the right information at the right time,
in the most effective manner possible. Successful entrepreneurs have consistent policies
and a written business plan that defines short- and long-term requirements for growth and
provides a framework for decisions.
The plan needs to be developed with input from all levels of the organization and should
be updated at least annually and more frequently if market conditions change. Inhibit or
expand the company-wide search for radical ideas through brainstorming and by
encouraging actively other idea generation tools.
Fostering meaningful dialogue encourages learning and creativity The rules and culture
of the rganization encourages the degree of innovation.
17.14
Communicating Corporate Culture Change and Innovative Spirits
Top
management
team
leading innovation
Cross-functional Empowered
teams employees
mapping innovation road driving innovation
17.15
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
17.16
Communicating Corporate Culture Change and Innovative Spirits
2. Beliefs and ideas about what kinds of goals, members of an organization should pursue
is:
(a) Organisational Value
(b) Organisational Belief
(c) Organisational Culture
(d) All of the above.
3. Elements of culture care :
(a) Paradigm, control system and power structure
(b) Paradigm, control system and symbols
(c) Paradigm, control systems, organizational structure, rituals and myths.
(d) All of the above.
4.. The Paradigm means :
(a) What the organization is about and what it does
(b) Its mission and values
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above.
5. Details regarding appointment of managing director of a company and his perquisites
would form a part of :
(a) Ordinary business in a notice
(b) Complex business in a meeting
(c) Special business in a notice
(d) Specified business in a meeting
6. What are the pillars of transformation?
(a) Vision, values & vitality
(b) Vision, mission values
(c) Vision, neutrality, mission
(d) Vision, focus & vitality
17.17
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
7. Vision provides:
(a) Decision making power
(b) Overarching inspiration
(c) Nomenclature
(d) Goal
8. Correct statement :
(a) The PR should have a consistent format
(b) The release should have a title and a subtitle on the top.
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
9. Press notes are :
(a) Less formal in character
(b) Issued on important matters
(c) Heading or subheading is given
(d) All of the above
10. Handout is :
(a) Less formal
(b) Bears the name
(c) Place and date are indicated on top at right-hand side
(d) All of the above
Answers :
1. (c), 2. (a), 3. (d), 4. (c), 5. (c), 6. (a), 7. (b), 8. (c), 9. (d), 10. (d).
17.18
CHAPTER 18
COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand
Understand how the notice and minutes of a meeting are to be drafted.
Understand the importance and different types of Press Releases.
Understand how the Corporate Announcements by Stock Exchanges are made.
Managing Director for a period of five years w.e.f. 1st July, 2006 on the following terms
and conditions:
(A) Salary: Rs. 1,50,000 per month
(B) Perquisites:
(i) Medical reimbursement:
Expenses incurred for self and family subject to a ceiling of one month
salary in a year or three month’s salary over a period of three years.
(ii) Leave travel concession for self and family once in a year in accordance
with the Rules of the Company.
(iii) Club fee:
Fees of clubs, subject to a maximum of two clubs provided that no life
membership or admission fee will be allowed.
(iv) Personal accident insurance:
Premium not to exceed Rs. 1,0000.
(v) Company’s contribution towards pension/superannuation fund as per Rules
of the Company for the time being in force but such contribution together
with P.F. shall not exceed 25% of the salary or such other increased
amount provided that the same is not taxable under the Income-tax
Act,1961.
(vi) Company’s contribution towards P.F. as per rules of the company for the
time being in force but not exceeding 10% of the salary.
(vii) Gratuity not exceeding half month’s salary for each completed year subject
to a ceiling of Rs. 20 lakhs.
(viii) Free use of the telephone at residence but personal long distance calls
shall be billed by the company.
(ix) Free use of company’s car with driver for the business of the company.
(x) Earned / Privilege Leave:
One months’ leave with full pay and allowances for every 11 months of
service subject to the condition that leave accumulated but not availed of
will not be allowed to be encashed.
18.2
Communication in Business Environment
18.3
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
1. Notice
The notice convening the meeting was read by the Secretary.
2. Directors’ Report and Accounts.
With the consent of the members present, the Director’s Report and Accounts having
already been circulated to the members were taken as read.
3. Auditors’ Report
The Auditors’ Report was read
4. Adoption of Directors’ Report, etc.
The Chairman then invited queries from the members present on Directors’ report,
Accounts and Auditors’ and auditor’s Report, but there was no query. Thereafter, the
Chairman proposed the following resolution which was seconded by…………
“Resolved that the Directors’ Report, audited Balance Sheet as on 31st March, 2006 and
Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31st March, 2006 and Auditors’ Report
thereon be and the same are hereby received, considered and adopted.”
Carried unanimously.
5. Dividend
Proposed by Shri …………………………….
Seconded by Shri …………………………….
“Resolved that the Dividend as recommended by the Board of Directors for the year
ended 31st March, 2006 at the rate of Rs. …… per share on the equity share capital of
the company, subject to deduction of tax at source be and is hereby declared for
payment to those shareholders whose names appeared on the Register of Members as
on ……………. 2006.”
Carried unanimously
6. Directors
Proposed by ……………………………..
Seconded by …………………………….
“Resolved that Shri ………………………. who retires by rotation and is eligible for re-
appointment to and is hereby re-appointed a director of the company.”
Carried unanimously.
18.4
Communication in Business Environment
7. Auditors
Proposed by ……………………………..
Seconded by ……………………………...
“Resolved that M/s …………………………. Chartered Accountants, be and are hereby
appointed Auditors of the Company to hold office from the conclusion of this meeting
until the conclusion of the next Annual General Meeting at a remuneration of Rs. ………..
Carried unanimously.
The meeting closed with a vote of thanks to the Chair.
Dated …………………..2006.
Chairman
1996 2006
18.5
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
18.6
Communication in Business Environment
posed the formidable challenge of enabling the various businesses make the transition from
competing in a relatively protected environment to winning in an intensely competitive and
rapidly globalising market on the strength of superior value propositions.
Responding to this challenge meant engineering a paradigm shift in the corporate mindset.
The entire organisation had to be realigned to a new focus, namely acquiring international
competitiveness in cost and quality in each of ITC's businesses. Such realignment was given
shape through significant investments in technology, processes, innovation and brands; and
crafting a strategy of organisation based on the governance principle of distributed leadership
to unleash the entrepreneurial energies of ITC's high quality human resource. This
transformation was powered by the Vision that provides the overarching inspiration; the
Values that serve to guide thought and action; and the Vitality that enables excellence
in strategy formulation and execution.
VISION
A compelling Vision creates and forges corporate identity. It imparts a larger purpose and
meaning to individual endeavour. It is aspirational, unifying and motivational. Envisioning a
larger societal purpose has always been a hallmark of ITC, described by me in the past as "a
commitment beyond the market". We articulated a Vision appropriate to the Indian context,
tailored around the deep rural linkages that characterise your Company's value chain
relationships. This compelling Vision of enlarging its contribution to the Indian society
has powered your Company over the past decade. Such a Vision is manifest in multiple
18.7
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
forms, significantly reshaping ITC's profile. The Vision requires each of ITC's businesses to
attain leadership on the strength of international competitiveness. Simultaneously, it has
driven your Company to also consciously contribute to enhancing the competitiveness of the
larger value chains beyond its own operations. This broader commitment has led to the
creation of unique business models that synergise long term shareholder value enhancement
with fulfillment of the larger societal purpose. It has expanded corporate consciousness in the
practice of trusteeship to ensure sustainable wealth creation through contribution to the 'Triple
Bottom Line'. Above all, this superordinate purpose of creating growing value for the Indian
society has inspired your Company's human resource and aligned their collective endeavour
to provide unity of purpose across the organisation.
VALUES
Values refer to the institutional standards of behaviour that strengthen commitment to the
Vision, and guide strategy formulation and purposive action. The core Values of your
Company are shaped around the belief that enterprises exist to serve society. In terms of this
belief, profit is a means rather than an end in itself, a compensation to owners of capital linked
to the effectiveness of contribution to society and the essential ingredient to sustain such
enlarged societal contribution. Thus your Company has embraced an extended role of
trusteeship that reaches beyond the assets reflected in the balance sheet to encompass
societal assets. An unwavering commitment to integrity, ethical conduct, meritocracy,
teamwork and abiding concern for stakeholders are at the heart of your Company's value
system. The defining trait of ITC however, is its deeply 'Indian' character that aligns
corporate strategy to national priorities. Such a character flows from the Indianness of
its soul rather than the origin of its capital. As a premier 'Indian' enterprise, ITC
consciously engages across the value chains towards maximising benefit for the Indian
society. Such a combination of Values determines choice of corporate strategy, orients
such strategy in favour of Indian value chains wherever feasible, and engages the
organisation willingly in confronting the larger societal challenges of inclusive and
sustainable growth. Your Company's abiding commitment to society provides depth of
moral content and infuses energy across the enterprise, thus elevating collective
corporate effort to the fervour of a mission for the ultimate benefit of all stakeholders,
including you, the shareholders.
VITALITY
A compelling Vision and strong Values by themselves could not have radically transformed
your Company without the Vitality that enables robust strategy formulation and world-class
strategy execution. Vitality in ITC is manifest in many ways including the strengthening
competitive capability, the deepening consumer insight, the breakthrough innovations
in products and processes, the ability to rapidly absorb knowledge and harness
18.8
Communication in Business Environment
18.9
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
The transformation of the Paperboards business is another demonstration of long term value
creation born out of deep commitment. Substantial investment across the value chain, coupled
with leveraging special insights as a converter and consumer of high quality packaging, has
enabled the turnaround and growth of this business into a position of undisputed leadership in
the Indian paperboard market. The strengthening competitive capability of your
Company's Paperboards business has provided the impetus to embark on an ambitious
expansion plan to service the growing demand for high quality pulp-based products,
including a range of coated and uncoated papers.
Your Company's Agri-business, engaged in innovatively leveraging digital technology to create
value for the Indian farmer, continued to strengthen its position in domestic and global markets
as a leading supplier of high quality, identity-preserved agri commodities. This business is
rapidly developing into a reliable partner for two-way flow of goods and services in and out of
rural markets. Towards achieving this long term goal, the digital infrastructure of the ITC e-
choupal is being supplemented with a phased rollout of physical infrastructure called ITC
Choupal Saagars to serve as hubs for clusters of villages. While 10 Choupal Saagars are
already operational, 9 more are in an advanced stage of completion. The rural retailing
initiative will be scaled up by another 40 Choupal Saagars in the next 12 to 18 months. This
hub and spoke model is being energised at the village level through sanchalaks and
samyojaks drawn from the farming community, who represent the extended enterprise. The
innovative combination of digital, physical and human assets constitutes the basis for
your Company's deeper engagement with the rural economy through the progressive
development of low cost, broadband fulfillment capability.
New Growth Drivers
Your Company is also engaged in blending the multiple competencies residing in its various
businesses to create new growth drivers in a bid to secure the future. Competencies are
recognised, not by products or physical assets, but by the underlying skills that create value. To
illustrate, the Packaged Foods business draws upon the unique sourcing capability of the ITC e-
choupal, the cuisine expertise of ITC Welcomgroup, the innovation capacity resident in the ITC
R&D Centre and the traditional strengths of branding, trade marketing and distribution to provide
distinctive sources of competitive advantage in the marketplace. Conceived on the strength of
your Company's deep rural linkages, the Packaged Foods business marks a comprehensive
presence across the seed to stomach value chain. Within barely four years of launch, your
Company straddles a wide spectrum of value added food products comprising: Staples such as
atta, spices and cooking pastes, Snack Foods such as biscuits and pasta, Confectionery and
Ready-to-eat foods. The Foods portfolio now comprises 5 brands - Aashirvaad, Sunfeast,
Candyman, Mint-O and Kitchens of India - and over 100 distinct products.
In a testimony to the growing consumer franchise and market standing, Aashirvaad and
Sunfeast already feature among the most trusted food brands in a survey by the
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Communication in Business Environment
Economic Times Brand Equity. Aashirvaad atta continues to cement its position as the clear
leader among national branded players. Kitchens of India has also recently earned the
sobriquet of 'Superbrand'. A beginning has also been made towards marketing ITC's world-
class packaged food products in overseas markets under the Kitchens of India brand.
Your Company's other growth drivers in the FMCG space have similarly leveraged resident
competencies to forge strengthening positions in the marketplace. The Greeting Cards and
Stationery business supplements ITC's presence in the tree-to-text book value chain with a
slew of value added products. The Lifestyle Retailing business leverages the goodwill of your
company's valuable trademarks towards harnessing the significant market opportunity
afforded to India post the dismantling of the Multi-Fibre Agreement regime. Wills Lifestyle,
another Superbrand in the FMCG stable, is well on the way to becoming the most preferred
retail brand. John Players, catering to the mid-market segment, has earned high industry
recognition, winning the 'Most Admired Shirt Brand of the Year' award at the Images Fashion
Awards 2005. Products of daily relevance to rural markets such as safety matches, incense
sticks and iodised salt support the viability of the rural fulfillment channel, while presenting
attractive market opportunities.
While the synergising of in-house skills is contributing to the rapid growth of the new
FMCG businesses, such growth in turn has also spurred new opportunities for the other
businesses. The addition of spices in the Foods portfolio and the demand for traceability-led
products to meet emerging consumer needs in domestic and overseas markets has led to the
development and pilot marketing of organic agri inputs for farmers. Your Company's Agri
Business is now engaged in enlarging the scope of organic agri-input options towards offering
a total solution package for farmers, addressing crop protection and crop quality requirements.
Each of these FMCG businesses also contributes to enhancing the depth and breadth of your
Company's trade marketing and distribution capability. The efficacy of such fulfillment also
stands enhanced through the extensive use of Information Technology across the supply
chain, drawing upon in-house skills. ITC's IT-backed distribution highway today ensures direct
servicing of over 85,000 markets of varying population strata, covering nearly 2 million retail
outlets. Further, the Wills Lifestyle and John Players ranges are retailed to customers through
nearly 270 Exclusive Brand Outlets and shop-in-shops, and over 1500 multi-brand outlets.
Deep domain knowledge, together with diversity of services, growing global delivery footprint,
and world-class infrastructure and processes constitute a robust platform for your Company's
Information Technology subsidiary to strengthen its market standing in the IT services and IT
enabled services segments.
The substantial progress made in strategy implementation and the resultant financial
performance have earned the right for your Company to further aspire to make a larger
contribution to the Indian society.
18.11
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
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Communication in Business Environment
differentiator for your Company's products and services, thereby simultaneously serving the
cause of shareholders as well as society at large. It is hoped that your Company's example
will serve to encourage others in the corporate sector to contribute more readily with impactful
CSR initiatives. In this context, your Company's support for the setting up of the CII-ITC
Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Development is a sterling example of incentivising CSR
through recognition of excellence in sustainability practices. The Centre seeks to address the
institutional void in developing the requisite capability among Indian industry. The Centre will
endeavour to transform Indian businesses by providing thought leadership, promoting
awareness and building capacity.
The compelling Vision of enlarging contribution to society has propelled your Company
to engage in its unique endeavours to create benchmark Triple Bottom Line
performance. A growing consumer franchise driven by bundling CSR will provide additional
momentum and render long term sustainability to such endeavours by triggering a broader
movement.
I know that shareholders of ITC take justifiable pride in its unique contribution across the
Triple Bottom Line. I will therefore, as a matter of practice, update you on the progress relating
to all three dimensions of value creation.
CREATING ECONOMIC MULTIPLIERS
Your Company's conscious engagement with the entire value chains of which it is a part is
resulting in a growing and pervasive economic impact. Over the past decade, the value
addition by your Company has grown at a compound annual rate of more than 12% to over
Rs. 68,000 crores, representing nearly 1.1% of the value added by the Industry sector of the
economy. Nearly 77% of such value added accrued to the Exchequer, providing the much
needed resources for deployment in developmental priorities. Foreign exchange earnings of
the ITC Group during this period amounted to nearly US$ 2.5 billion, of which earnings from
agri exports constituted nearly 65%. These earnings from linking the Indian farmer with world
markets represent well over 2% of the country's agri exports. Your Company's investments
of over Rs.6000 crores towards enhancing the competitiveness of its businesses
support direct employment to the tune of 28,000 across the Group and indirect
employment across the value chains of nearly 5 million people, whose livelihoods are
substantially linked to their association with ITC. Amongst those associated are a number
of enterprises in the small scale and cottage sectors which continue to benefit from adoption
of best practices and access to markets. To illustrate, the Incense sticks business of your
Company sources products from 8 vendors in the cottage sector, who predominantly employ
women. Four of these vendors have earned the ISO 9000 accreditation - a first for this
industry. Thus the symbiotic partnership between your Company and such cottage industry
vendors leverages complementary strengths for mutual benefit, thereby enabling these
enterprises to flourish without the need for public largesse. Your Company's investment
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plans envisaging Rs.14-15,000 crores over the next few years would further enlarge
ITC's economic contribution.
CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIAL AND ECOLOGICAL CAPITAL
The uniqueness of ITC's contribution to enlarging social and ecological capital lies in being
able to enmesh such contribution into the process of generating shareholder value through
creative business models. I am referring to the innovative ITC e-choupal business model and
the ITC farm and social forestry initiatives. Apart from crafting such business models, your
Company is also engaged in implementing various other social development initiatives
towards making a meaningful contribution in the economic vicinity of its operating locations.
EMPOWERING THE SMALL FARMER
The ITC e-choupal initiative is a powerful illustration of linking business purpose with a larger
societal purpose. I have been briefing you on the progress of this young initiative from time to
time. I will now touch upon its potential to empower the small farmer and thus engender rural
transformation.
The ITC e-choupal leverages the power of the Internet to empower the small and marginal
farmer with a host of services related to know-how, best practices, timely and relevant weather
information, transparent discovery of prices and much more. This digital infrastructure can
also be used for channelising services related to credit, insurance, health, education and
entertainment. It can also serve as a strong foundation for linking small and marginal farmers
to futures markets to facilitate farmer risk management.
The ITC e-choupal is not just a village digital kiosk with a human interface. The access to e-
choupals, within walking distance from the farm gate, is supplemented through physical
infrastructure - the ITC Choupal Saagar - which functions as a hub for a cluster of villages
within tractorable distance. These made-to-design hubs also serve as warehouses, and as
rural hypermarkets for a variety of goods. In effect, the e-Choupal infrastructure is
potentially an efficient delivery channel for rural development and an instrument for
converting village populations into vibrant economic organizations.
An environment rife with illiteracy, lack of basic infrastructure and low incomes renders the
rollout of this initiative extremely onerous. Despite daunting implementation challenges, the
potential benefits of this project have spurred your Company to seek innovative solutions to
overcome constraints. This infrastructure project now comprises about 6000 installations
covering nearly 36,000 villages and serving over 3.5 million farmers. Over the next 7-10
years, it is your Company's Vision to create a network of 20,000 e-choupals and over
700 Choupal Saagars entailing investments of nearly Rs.5000 crores, thereby extending
coverage to 100,000 villages - representing one sixth of rural India. This networked rural
delivery system can contribute significantly towards addressing the 'knowledge deficit'
highlighted so forcefully by the National Commission on Farmers. It can also meaningfully
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Communication in Business Environment
complement the Bharat Nirman initiative of the government, towards truly securing a 'new deal
for rural India'. The transformational impact of this pioneering initiative continues to earn
global and domestic accolades, the most recent of which is the Stockholm Challenge
Award 2006.
AGRO FORESTRY LED RURAL RENAISSANCE
The labour intensity of agro forestry and the availability of the second highest arable land
mass in the world represent two strategic assets that can be leveraged to transform the
competitiveness of the tree-to-textbook value chain. Your Company's presence in this value
chain provides the basis for a significantly enlarged contribution towards raising living
standards in rural hinterlands. I have been briefing you about this special initiative in some
detail in my past speeches.
So far, more than 149 million saplings have been planted in nearly 41,000 hectares
under ITC's farm and social forestry programmes, providing over 18 million person days
of employment. The output of the agro forestry programmes accounts for over 91% of the
pulp wood requirements of your Company's mill at Bhadrachalam, thus supporting its
competitiveness. The growing competitiveness of your Company's paperboards business
provides the impetus for your Company to scale up the afforestation endeavour to
cover over 100,000 hectares by planting 600 million saplings over the next few years,
creating in the process over 40 million person days of employment among the
disadvantaged.
Apart from contributing to enrichment of social capital, the benefits of your Company's agro
forestry initiatives extend to conservation of natural capital as well. Increasing green cover, in
situ moisture conservation, groundwater recharge, significant reduction in soil erosion and
enrichment of depleted soils are some of the direct environmental benefits.
OTHER SOCIAL INITIATIVES
Your Company's other social initiatives in the vicinity of its operating locations are centered
around three main areas of intervention under 'Mission Sunehra Kal': (a) natural resource
management, which includes wasteland, watershed and agriculture development; (b)
sustainable livelihoods, comprising genetic improvement in livestock and women's economic
empowerment; and (c) community development, with focus on primary education and health
and sanitation.
CONTRIBUTING TO NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
The soil and moisture conservation programme is designed to assist farmers in identified
moisture-stressed districts. Under your Company's water resource management initiative, over
one thousand water harvesting structures provide critical irrigation to nearly 10,300 hectares.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Over the next 5-7 years, your Company intends to create nearly 6300 water harvesting
structures and thereby extend critical irrigation to more than 50,000 hectares of rainfed
arable land.
CREATING SUSTAINABLE RURAL LIVELIHOODS
The sustainable livelihoods initiative of your Company strives to create alternative employment
for surplus labour and decrease pressure on arable land by promoting non-farm incomes.
Among many such activities, the programme for genetic improvement of cattle through
artificial insemination to produce high-yielding crossbred progenies has been given special
emphasis because it reaches out to the most impoverished. Cattle development centres
already cover more than 1,400 villages, providing integrated animal husbandry services
to more than 35,000 milch animals. The initiative for the economic empowerment of women
has also registered significant progress. Todate, over 10,600 women have been organised
under 630 self-help groups. More than 4,000 women have been gainfully employed through
micro-enterprises or self-employment backed by income generation loans.
CONTRIBUTING TO RURAL COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Your Company's Community Development Programmes seek to contribute to two of India's
most urgent social priorities aligned to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
- health and primary education. About 34,000 women-at-risk and children under 5 are
being covered every year under the Mother and Child Health programme. ITC's education
support programmes are aimed at overcoming the lack of economic opportunities available to
the rural poor. As of now, ITC's rural education initiative covers over 47,000 children
through support to government primary schools and 674 Supplementary Learning
Centres.
CONCLUSION
Inspired by Vision, driven by Values, powered by Vitality, the journey of the past decade has
been most rewarding for your Company's world-class employees and for me, personally. The
real transformation lies in their capabilities, their commitment to stay the course of a
challenging strategic path, and their willingness to go the distance in their quest for enduring
value for the nation and for shareholders. In the unfolding era of new opportunities and new
challenges, I seek your support on their behalf, as always.
Thank you for your attention.
18.4 PRESS RELEASES
The term press release in its narrower sense is used for releases covering news. The press
release contains worthwhile material which has some news value. It is not only unnecessary
expenditure but also damages the reputation of the concerned publicity / information
department if the release is on a very trivial matter.
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Communication in Business Environment
The press release should be written in a journalistic style. It should provide facts or
information of interest to the readers and should attempt to cover all aspects of a specific
subject. There should not be any loose ends. It should be on a subject which is recent or in
news. The release should not be generally lengthy. It should be concise and to the point. It
has not much place for subsidiary or background material. The release is a piece of clear
writing without any ambiguity, without any effort towards colour or ornamentation.
The introduction or lead should be in a summary format as it is a news story. The relative
value of the various ingredients of the subjects in the press release is weighted and evaluated
and the most pertinent of them are included in the lead.
The releases should have a consistent format. Generally, the name of the organization from
where the release emanates is given on the top. The date and place are indicted on the top
right side. The release should have a title and a sub-title also, if necessary. It should have a
suitable introductory paragraph. In the case of releases from non-official organization, it is
desirable also to mention the designation of the person issuing the release and his telephone
number.
The press releases covering news in the case of the government are mainly of our types –
press communiqués, press notes, handouts, and unofficial stories or unofficial hand-outs.
The press communiqués are issued when some important government decisions or
announcements are made such as cabinet appointments, conclusion of the foreign dignitaries’
visits, international agreement, etc. The press communiqué is formal in character. It carries
the name of the ministry or department and the place the date at the bottom left-hand corner
of the release. Generally, the press is expected to reproduce the press communiqué without
any substantial change. No heading or subheading is given on press communiqués.
The second category of press releases are press notes. They are less formal in character.
They are issued on important matters, e.g., raising or lowering of tariff rates, etc. The press
note also carries the name of the ministry/department and the place and date at the bottom
left-hand corner. Heading or sub-heading are given in press notes.
The third category are hand-outs. They are issued on a variety of subjects and on day-to-day
activities of the ministry/department, VIP speeches, questions and answers in parliament, etc.
The hand-out is a less formal type of release and not issued under the government’s formal
authority. It bears the name of the PIB of other releasing agency on the top without any
mention of the ministry/department to which the release pertains. The place and date are
indicated on top at right-hand side. One of the most important common categories of hand-
outs relate to the speeches of ministers or other high officials. The hand-out is released only
when the speech is concerned with governmental activity. No official hand-out is issued if the
minister has spoken in his personal capacity as a member of a political organization.
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
The speech when released to the press in the form of handout is summarized and properly
edited. Formal introduce and concluding remarks are omitted and redundant and repetitive
material taken out. A proper title and sub-title are given. The important aspects which are to
be stressed are included in the beginning paragraph or in the led. The full next of the speech
is not released unless the subject is of very great importance.
While covering inaugural and other functions where VIPs make speeches, the press release
should stress on the significance of the function and try to spell out in concrete terms the
gains to the community rather than reproducing the speech. For instance, the opening of a
new branch of a bank or of power house at a particular place should be an opportunity to the
communicator to bring out in the press release the specific gains which would accrue to the
people of that area rather than only spotlighting on the dignitary and his speech.
The speech of the Prime Minster or of a very important dignitary at formal occasions or at
important gatherings is generally released in full to ensure correct reporting. The full text is
also helpful to the editors and column writers. It is also utilized for reference purposes in the
future.
Unofficial hand-outs are issued on a subject where the government would not like to assume
official responsibility in the matter but feels that there may be positive advantages in making
information public unofficially. These hand-outs are supplements to oral briefings. They are
given across the table to press correspondents and no general release is made. The unofficial
hand-out do not have the imprint of the PIB or of other releasing agencies. The data and
place are indicated at bottom left-hand corner.
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Communication in Business Environment
e-mail. Currently, even organized retailers such as those of apparel and lifestyle, consumer
durables, food and grocery, footwear and leather, as well as stationery and gifts have not
taken well to the concept of 3PL due to their apprehensions of losing control over the supply
chain. The transportation is carried out partly by organized service providers and partly by
truckers and local transporters.
3PL service providers have to prove their competency by offering cost effective services and
building long-term synergetic relationship with the retailers, which will also encourage market
entrants to outsource. The service providers will have to prove their expertise since Indian
retailers place considerable emphasis on their service providers’ trustworthiness, timeliness,
and cost effectiveness. “The economical services offered by the unorganized logistics
participants discourage retailers from outsourcing to organized service providers,” says Frost
& Sullivan Research Associate Aarthi Nandakumar. “Hence, there has to be a marked
difference in the quality of service offerings, cost, and other value-added services before the
retailers begin to work with organized 3PL providers.” 3PL service providers need to
customize the service offerings and offer them at competitive rates to truly take advantage of
the retail boom in India. Market participants will have to strategically position themselves and
work closely with the retailers to understand their specific logistics requirements and deliver
high-quality service. Retailers’ rising need to maintain fewer inventories is yet another factor
that will drive the market toward outsourcing. The increasing requirement of forwarding and
information management functions will help the retailers to achieve greater productivity and
efficiency, encouraging them to outsource to 3PL providers. “Moreover, with the
implementation of value-added tax (VAT), 3PL service providers have more opportunity to
market their offerings for warehousing services,” notes Aarthi Nandakumar. “There will be
more scope for alliances and joint ventures with foreign service providers that can establish
healthy relationships with retailers in order to strengthen the supply chain process in Indian
retailing.” The Strategic Analysis of 3PL Markets in the Indian Retail Sector is part of the Asia
Pacific Logistics Subscription, which also includes research in the following markets: Strategic
Analysis of the ASEAN 3 Third Party Logistics Markets, Strategic Analysis of 3PL Markets in
the Indian FMCG Sector, Strategic Analysis of Third Party Logistics Markets in India. All
research services included in subscriptions provide detailed market opportunities and industry
trends that have been evaluated following extensive interviews with market participants.
Interviews are available to the press. Frost & Sullivan, a global growth consulting company,
has been partnering with clients to support the development of innovative strategies for more
than 40 years. The company's industry expertise integrates growth consulting, growth
partnership services, and corporate management training to identify and develop
opportunities. Frost & Sullivan serves an extensive clientele that includes Global 1000
companies, emerging companies, and the investment community by providing comprehensive
industry coverage that reflects a unique global perspective and combines ongoing analysis of
markets, technologies, econometrics, and demographics.
18.19
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
18.20
Communication in Business Environment
18.21
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
18.22
Communication in Business Environment
18.23
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
18.24
CHAPTER 19
BASIC UNDERSTANDING OF LEGAL DEEDS AND
DOCUMENTS
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand
Understand the meaning of deeds and documents
Know how to draft model deeds and documents
Know how to prepare the annual report of a company
Document : Generally understood, a document is a paper or other material thing giving
information, proof or evidence of anything. The Law defines ‘document’ in a more technical
form. For example, Section 3 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 states that ‘document’ means
any matter expressed or described upon any substance by means of letters, figures or marks
or by more than one of those means, intended to be used, or which may be used, for the
purpose of recording that matter. Section 3(18) of the General Clauses Act, 1897 states that
the term ‘document’ shall include any matter written, expressed or described upon any
substance by means of letters, figures or marks, or by more by than one of those means which
is intended to be used, or which may be used, for the purpose of recording this matter.
Instrument : In common parlance, ‘instrument’ means a formal legal document, which creates
or confirms a right or records a fact. It is a formal writing of any kind, such as an agreement
deed, charter or record, drawn up and executed in a technical form. It also means a formal
legal document having legal effect, either as creating liability or as affording evidence of it.
Section 2(14) of the Indian Stamp Act, 1899 states that ‘instrument’ includes every document
by which any right or liability is or purports to be created, transferred, extended, extinguished
or recorded.
Deed : The Legal Glossary defined ‘deed’ instrument in writing (or other legible representation
or words on parchment or paper) purporting to effect some legal disposition. Simply stated
deeds are instruments though all instruments may not be deeds. However, in India no
distinction seems to be made between instruments and deeds.
19.1 PARTNERSHIP DEED
A partnership firm may be constituted either by oral agreement or a written agreement. A
written agreement of partnership or partnership deed is preferred as it minimizes the
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
challenges of disputes and ambiguities in future. The model form of partnership is given
below:
In form, deed can be seen as comprising of the following components:
1. Date
2. Names of Partners
3. Preamble
4. Recitals
5. Attestation
6. Custody
7. Special Rules
The Deed must be executed on a stamp paper of prescribed value. The copy of the deed must
be sent to the Registrar of Partnership Firms along with the prescribed form duly completed
for issue of ACKNOWLEDGEMENT of firm. All subsequent changes must be notified to the
Registrar.
1. Date:
“This Deed of partnership Executed on This .....................day of .................................
between ..............................................................................”
[NOTES: The date cannot be earlier than the date of stamp paper. An oral Partnership could
thereafter be reduced to writing; but the deed must be drawn up within the accounting year; in
case where the operation is retrospective it must be indicated in the preamble; under section
40 (b)(v), remuneration to a working partner must be authorized by and be in accordance with
the terms of the partnership deed and relate to any period falling after the date of such
partnership.]
2. Names of Partners
i. .................................................................................................son/daughter/wife of
......................................................... aged ............................ years, residing
at..............................................................................................................................
........... hereinafter called the first party;
ii. ..........................................................................................son/daughter/wife of
............................................................aged.......................... Years, residing
at..............................................................................................................................
........... hereinafter called the Second party;
iii. ................................................................................................son/daughter/wife of
19.2
Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
I. A minor cannot be a partner. He can only be admitted into the benefits of partnership and
a clause admitting into the benefits of partnership minors must be part of the terms.
II. An HUF cannot be a partner as it is not a juridical person but can be represented by its
Kartha, a Kartha can be a partner both in his individual capacity as well as in a
representative capacity
III. A Trust cannot be partner as it is not a juridical person
IV. A Company can be a partner as it is a juridical person
V. The description of partner 3 and 4 is given to indicate the status- individual or
representative of the partner, relevant while declaring their income under the income Tax
Act. Even without the description, if the partners can prove that the profits are earned to
the detriment of HUF/ Trust funds as the case may be, the profits can be assessed only
in the hands of the family/ Trust. The description in the partnership deed is only a
‘surplus’ information, as a as the partnership is concerned it recognizes only individuals
and not the relative family or Trust.
VI. The number of partners should be limited to 20 members as a partnership can have more
than 20 persons. For counting this number minors are to be excluded as minors are not
partners.]
3. A Preamble:
“If the Deed is Retrospective” “Whereas the aforesaid parties have come together to carry on
a business of dealing ….................................................as from........................................and
the terms and conditions of the partnership as agreed to be hereby set down in writing.” If the
execution coincides with the date of commencement” “Whereas the aforesaid parties have
come together to carry on a business of dealing in ...................................... in partnership and
the terms and conditions of the partnership are hereby mutually agreed to as follows:” When a
Proprietary Business is converted: “Whereas the ....................................... party had been
running a business under the name and style of ......................................... and whereas by
mutual consent the said proprietary business is taken over by the parties to work in
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Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
partnership the terms and conditions of the partnership as, mutually agreed are hereby set
down in writing.”
1. Date of Commencement: The date of commencement of the partnership
is...........................................................
2. Business of Partnership:
The partnership will carry on the business of ........................................................... and such
other business or business/ businesses as the parties may from time to time determine.
3. The following minors are admitted to the benefits of partnership.
a. Minor .................................................................. by guardian.
b. “........................................................... “etc.
4. Name:
The name of partnership firm shall be........................................................... and such other
names or names as the parties may from time to time determine.
5. Place of Business;
The place of business shall be at ........................................................... and/or such other
place/s as the parties may from time to time determine.
6. Duration;
The partnership shall be for a period of ........................... years and thereafter at WILL
Or
The partnership shall be a partnership at WILL
Or
The partnership shall be for duration of the loan obtained from the financial corporations and
after the repayment of the loan at WILL. [Note: If a fixed period is mentioned then after the
expiry of the period a fresh deed of partnership, must be executed; hence
it is better to add after the term, “and thereafter at WILL” to do away with the execution of a
fresh deed.]
7. Capital: The capital contribution by the parties shall be as follows:
a. First party
b. Second party etc.
Where applicable;
19.4
Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
“In the case of the first party whose business/immovable property bearing no
................................................ has been taken over by this firm he shall be credited with the
value of Rs. ................................................ (as per Annexure).” This shall be treated as
capital contribution.
8. Interest on capital: The fixed capital accounts of partners shall bear no interest/or shall
bear interest at 18 % per annum. The current account balances of partners shall bear
......................... %” In respect of debit balances if any the partners will be charged
interest at 12% p.a. [NOTE: Under Section 40b in the case of any firm assessable as
such any payment of interest to any partner which is authorized by and is in accordance
with, the terms of the partnership deed and relates to any period falling after the date of
such partnership deed insofar as such amount calculated at the rate of eighteen percent
simple interest per annum only is admissible.]
9. Sharing of profits/losses: In case of profits, it shall be divided as follows:
1. First party ............ %
2. Second
3.
4.
5. Minor In case of losses:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The minors, who are admitted to benefits of partnership shall not be liable for the losses of the
firm.
10. Accounts
The accounts of the partnership shall be closed once every year, preferably from
...................... to ...........................and a profit and loss account and Balance sheet compiled.
11. Borrowing powers:
The partners are free to borrow monies for the purposes of business from banks, financial and
lending institutions and from others and for this purpose may designate one or more partners
to negotiate and sign on behalf of the firm.
12. The partners from amongst themselves may designate one or all of them to act as
working Partner/s and pay the following remuneration
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On the first 75,000 of the book profit of the firm or in case of loss 90% of such book profits
divided equally amongst the working partners
On the next 75,000 of the book profits of the firm 60% of such book profits divided equally
amongst the working partners
On the balance of book profits of the firm 40% of such book profits divided equally amongst
the working partners
[NOTE: This is the maximum remuneration allowable to partners in the case of a firm carrying
on business. In the case of professional firms, maximum allowable remuneration would be:]
On the first Rs. 1,00,000 of the book profit of the firm or in case of loss 90% or Rs.50,000,
which ever is more
On the next Rs.1, 00,000 of the book profit 60%
On the balance 40%
The Board has also issued a circular no. 739 dated 25th march 1996 stating that no
remuneration will be deductible under section 40(b)(v) of the Income Tax Act unless the
partnership deed either specifies the amount of remuneration payable to each individual
working partner or lays down the manner of quantifying such remuneration.
The Board also said that the following types of clauses, which are vague and indeterminate,
are not entitled for deduction for remuneration.
X 1. The partners have agreed that the remuneration to a working partner will be the amount
of remuneration allowable under the provisions of section 40(b)(v) of the income Tax Act;
or
X 2. The amount of remuneration to working partner will be as may be mutually agreed upon
between partners at the end of the year.
[NOTE: The term “Book Profit” means the net profit as shown in the profit and loss account for
that year computed in the manner laid down in chapter IV of the Income Tax Act, 1961.]
13. Bank Accounts; The partners may open accounts with banks and the banking
operations shall be carried on under the signature of One or more partners Or At least two
partners Or ................................... party. A managing partner, who shall be designated from
time to time by the parties
14. Death, disability or retirement of any partner or partners will not dissolve the partnership
and the remaining partners shall be free to continue the partnership business with or without
taking the nominees of such deceased or disabled partner.
[NOTE: If nominee is to be taken follow clause 15.]
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Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
15. In case of death or disability of partner the nominee of such partner shall be taken to the
partnership and for the purpose of this clause the nominees of the partners are hereby as
follow; FIRST PARTY SECOND PARTY Etc., The partners are free to change the nominees
aforesaid mentioned from time to time by notifying the same to the partners.
16. Variation clause: Any of the above clauses may be altered or varied or added to by
common consent of the parties.
17. Arbitration; All disputes arising out of this partnership shall be subject to arbitration. In
witness hereof the parties have signed this out of mutual good will and consent. WITNESS
1. .................................................................................................signature of First party
2. .................................................................................................signature of Second party
3 ................................................................................................ signature of Third party
4. .................................................................................................signature of Fourth party
5. ................................................................................................ Signature of Fifth party
RECONSTITUTION OF PARTNERSHIP
Note: This Deed must be on a stamp paper of appropriate value and all legal formalities as is
applicable to partnership Deed
This Deed Reconstitution of Partnership executed on this ..............................day of
...................................between...............................................1. ....................................son /
daughter / wife of ......................... aged..................years, residing at
......................................... hereinafter called the first party.
(Repeat for others Parties)
Witnesses as follows
Whereas the parties 1 to 4 were working in partnership along with another
Sri..............................., a business under the name and style of .................................
constituted under an instrument of partnership the last of which is dated................................;
and Whereas the said Sri....................................... retired from the old partnership in
accordance with a retirement deed dated ................................. allowing the other partners to
continue the partnership business in the same name with all its assets and liabilities, and
Whereas the parties 1 to 4 invited the fifth party to join them in the partnership to carry on the
said business for which he has assented, the terms and conditions of the reconstituted
partnership are hereby agreed to as follows
1. The business under the name and style of .................................. carried on by the
erstwhile partnership will continue with all its assets and liabilities as the business of this
reconstituted partnership.
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2. The name the partnership business shall continue to be ................................. and such
other name /s as the parties may from time to time determine. Other clauses as in the
partnership deed
SUB PARTNERSHIP DEED
[Note: After the enactment of Benami Transactions, (provision) Act 1988, there cannot be a
Benami partner in a partnership. ]
A firm cannot be a partner in another firm, even in a representative capacity a partner of a sub
partnership cannot be joined in a main partnership as representing the sub partnership. He
can join in his individual capacity.
Deed
This deed a sub partnership executed on this............................. day of ............................
1998 ............................ between (mention name and description of parties as in partnership
deed) Witnesses as follows:
Whereas the aforesaid parties have come together to work in partnership a business of
investing in the business of another partnership, which is carrying on a business in under the
name and style of ...............................................And Whereas the partners find it convenient
to work in the said other partnership, the terms and conditions of sub partnership are hereby
agreed to as follows (Clauses as in other partnership)
The................................... Party shall represent the other partnership in the main partnership
of .......................................................................................constituted under an instrument of
partnership; he shall account the share of profits / losses from that main partnership to this
sub partnership with all other remuneration / compensation that may be paid to him. This will
be treated as the profit / loss as the case may be as sub partnership.
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Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
WITNESSES AS FOLLOWS:
WHEREAS the aforesaid parties were carrying on business in partnership under an instrument
of partnership the last of which is dated...............? AND WHEREAS the First/Second/Third
Party having expressed a desire to retire from the partnership by mutual consent, the terms of
retirement are hereby agreed to as follows:
1. ............................................, will retire from the partnership effective from close of
business on .............................................
2. The firm is free to continue the business with all its assets and liabilities and use the
same firm name with the remaining partners.
3. The accounts of the retiring partner is settled in accordance with the books of accounts
OR In full and final settlement of his account the .................................. party has been
given the following assets/
Rs.......................................
4. The Retiring partner hereby authorizes the continuing partners to collect all debts of the
firm or realize or sell any asset of the firm including any immovable property.
5. In consideration of monies received, the ............................... party hereby releases all
his rights, title and interest in the balance of assets of the firm including the goodwill.
6. The continuing partners release — party of all debts and obligations including taxes due
from the firm as on the date of this deed to third parties.
7. The parties hereby agree to execute such other document/s that may be necessary to
give effect to this Partnership Retirement Agreement.
WITNESS
1. ........................................................................... Signature of the First Party
2. ........................................................................... Signature of the Second Party
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state stamp act must be consulted. Section 45(4) of the income tax act which deals with the
profits or gains arising from the transfer of a capital asset by way of distribution of capital
assets on the dissolution of a firm must be kept in mind.
1. This Deed of Dissolution executed on this day of ............................ between: 1.
............................,s/o............................., aged ............. years, residing at
…….............................
2. ............................,d/o............................., aged ............. years, residing at
......………....................
3. ............................,w/o............................., aged ............. years, residing at
..............……..............
4. ............................,s/o............................., aged ............. years, residing at
.....................……….....
WITNESSES AS FOLLOWS:
WHEREAS the aforesaid parties constituted themselves into a partnership to run a business
under the name and style of “.......................... “ the same having been constituted under an
instrument of Partnership, placing the disposal of the partnership their interest in property
bearing No ..........................AND WHEREAS the parties have by mutual consent agreed to
dissolve the partnership as from ........................ on the terms and conditions of the dissolution
agreed to are hereby set down in writing.
or
AND WHEREAS the parties by mutual consent agreed to corporate the firm by selling all the
asset and liabilities of the firm to a new company incorporated under the name and style of —
.................... registered as.................... with..................... The terms and conditions of
dissolution are hereby agreed to in writing as follows.
The firm of .................... stands dissolved as from..................../ from which date the assets
and liabilities of the business of the firm as per Annexure will vest with the newly incorporated
Company ....................
or
The interest in the property bearing no..................... of the several partners shall revert back
to the partners in the same manner as before and they are free to hold them as co-owners or
in any other mode convenient to them.
or
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Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
The Accounts of the partners have been taken and the accounts are settled in full in
accordance with the books of the firm as noted in Annexure 2 to this deed. The partners are
agreed on the correctness and finality of the accounts as certified by a Chartered Accountant.
or
The partners have agreed to sell all the liabilities and assets of the firm to the newly
incorporated Company....................under a separate agreement signed today in which they
will be allotted shares in proportion to their account balances holding not less than 50% of the
voting power.
The partner’s release each other from all obligation arising from the deed dated ....................
save that all statutory liabilities like Income tax shall be proportionately borne by the parties
and paid for even after the dissolution and the partners agree to notify the discontinuance of
business to the Income tax authorities under section 176 and all other concerned authorities.
WITNESS
1. ........................................................................... Signature of the First Party
2. ........................................................................... Signature of the Second Party
3. ........................................................................... Signature of the Third Party
4. ........................................................................... Signature of the Fourth Party
19.2 POWER OF ATTORNEY
The law relating to power of attorney falls within the law of agency. A power of attorney is a
written instrument empowering a specified person or persons to act for and in the name of
person executing it. The instruments of power of attorney are classified into the following two
categories:
Specific Power of Attorney:
A specific power of attorney is given for a particular specific act for instance for appearance
before Tax authorities or before Registrar of Companies for presenting documents for
incorporation of a company or before a Sub-Registrar for registration of documents etc.
19.11
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Formats
To appear before Income-Tax authorities
I/we, —————————, residing at ——————hereby authorise —————————, to
represent me/my firm/my family in connection with ——————————————— for the
year —. His statement and explanation will be binding on me/us.
Place:
Date:
I, ——————— hereby declare that I am duly qualified to represent the above-mentioned
person.
Place:
Date:
(Address of Power of attorney holder)
Before Registrar of Companies
We the subscribers to the Memorandum and Articles of Association of the proposed Company,
hereby authorise to present the Memorandum of Articles of Association and other connected
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Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
documents for the registration of the said company before the registrar of Companies,
Karnataka, Bangalore and to make such corrections / alternations / deletions / additions as
may be required to be done by the Registrar in the documents and also to receive the
certificate of incorporation.
GENERAL POWER OF ATTORNEY
Know we all men by these presents that I—————— do hereby appoint and constitute———
— son/daughter of————— (hereinafter called “Attorney” who has subscribed his/her
signature hereunder in token of identification) presently residing at ————————————
———————— to be my lawful attorney in my name and on my behalf to do any one or all
of the following acts, deeds and things, namely:
1. To apply for a loan to M/s Can Fin Homes Limited (CFH) for such amount as the Attorney
may deem fit and for that purpose to pay the processing fee and sign the loan application
in my name and on my behalf and to furnish all the details and information required by
CFH and to give any statement, letter, clarification or any other writing required or
necessary for availing the said loan from CFH from time to time to follow up the said loan
application and do such other things and deeds as may be necessary in relation thereto.
2. To accept the loan offer letter and sign the acceptance thereof in token my acceptance of
the terms and conditions therein contained and to pay on my behalf the legal and
technical fees and any other charges leviable in respect of the said loan.
3. To receive the disbursement of the said loan and for that purpose give effectual
discharge and give all the necessary information and document to assist the Technical
and legal Appraisal of the property purchased/to be purchased with the help of the loan.
4. The mortgage my properly being—————————— or any other property he/she may
book/buy on my behalf with CFH by deposit of title deeds as security for repayment of the
loan granted or to be granted by CFH to me.
5. To deposit on my behalf the documents of title and to state on my behalf to any officer of
CFH that the said documents are being deposited for creating a security on the said
property by way of deposit of title deeds for repayment of the said loan. The Attorney is
fully authorised to make these statements and convey my intentions to create security on
my said property or any other property he/she may book/buy on my behalf.
6. He/She is further authorised to make any other statements necessary to create equitable
mortgage by deposit of title deeds and also to execute any writings, undertakings,
indemnities etc. on my behalf in respect of mortgage of the said property of the
repayment of the said loan and any other writings whatsoever required in respect of the
said transactions of the loan granted/to be granted to me or creation of the said security.
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7. He/She is also authorised to execute any loan agreement, promissory notes, letter of
declaration and indemnity or such other documents as may be required by CFH in
respect of the said loan.
8. To acknowledge my liability/debt in respect of the loan.
9. To book a flat/residential unit on my behalf either directly or through the agency of CFH
and to execute Agreement for Sale for the same with any builder/seller and make
payments to him there for and to present such Agreement for registration before the
appropriate Registrar/Sub-Registrar of Assurances or any other authority at any place or
places in India as may be necessary. He/She is further authorised to make payments
direct to CFH on my behalf for any flat/unit my said Attorney might book through CFH
and comply with such conditions/terms CFH may have in this behalf. He/She is
authorised to make such payments to CFH as may be demanded to CFH way of service
charge etc. He/She is authorised to execute any agreement, letters and documents as
may be required by CFH in respect of the above.
10. To admit execution of the Agreement for Sale before the said Registrar/Sub-Registrar of
assurances or any other authority or authorities as may be required for the purpose.
11. To obtain possession of the flat/unit as and when the same is ready for occupation.
12. To receive documents on my behalf and execute receipt there for.
13. To sign forms, documents and papers required for the purpose of registration of Co-
operative Housing Society or a Limited Company or an Association of Apartment Owners
and become member thereof participating in all the meetings and proceedings from tine
to time, obtain share certificates and/or other documents issued in my name and hold the
same as my attorney and obtain possession of the flat.
14. To open and/or operate Bank Account in any bank in India in my name both resident as
well as non-resident. The account may be operated in India Currency or foreign Currency
to be remitted by me from time to time. He/She is authorised to do all such acts, deeds
and things including signing any papers/documents as are necessary and incidental to
the above and that
Dated at______________ this the____________ day of_______________19. (Address)
Specimen signature of Attorney above named
Notary Public.
19.14
Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
19.15
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the Lessor has no objection to the Lessee’s usage of the Telephone facility, subject to
the conditions that the Lessee shall pay all amounts due to the Department of
Telecommunications on the account of the usage of this telephone including call charges
(Local, STD, ISD) rental charges, directory charges, service charges etc., from the date
of occupation by the lessee. The Lessor shall not be liable for any amounts due for the
use of the telephone during the lease period of this agreement.
5. During the lease period, the lessee shall pay the electricity and water charges to the
respective departments promptly and obviate disconnection at any time.
6. The lessee shall permit the lessor or his agents, to enter the Scheduled Property at all
reasonable times for the purpose of periodical inspection.
7. The lessor shall pay the building tax whenever the same shall fall due.
8. The Lessor hereby covenants with the Lessee that the Lessee paying the rent hereby
stipulated and performing the conditions and covenants herein, shall quietly and
peacefully hold, posses and enjoy the Scheduled Property during the said term of lease,
without any interruption and disturbance either from the Lessor or anybody claiming
under her.
9. Termination of the Lease - The Lessor has right to terminate the lease and re-enter into
another lease
i. by serving .. days notice prior to the termination of the lease.
ii. By Afflux to time
iii. In the event of non-payment of rent by the lease for a period of two consecutive
months.
iv. In the event of Breach of by either party of the terms and conditions and covenants
hereof.
10. Handing over the premises to the Lessor - The lessee shall deliver back in good
condition as it was on the day of the occupation, the possession of the Scheduled
Premises to the Lessor immediately upon the expiry of the said terms and conditions or
on earlier termination.
11. The lessee shall enjoy the schedule property during the said term of lease on as is where
is condition of the property. and the lessor will not be bound to make any additions or
alterations of any kind to the said property. However any Major repairs not attributable to
lessee, shall be undertaken by lessor
19.16
Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
SCHEDULE
........ Squares of house bearing No., at............ measuring East to West ........ M. North to
South .........
M and bounded on :
East by : ....
West by :...
North by :...
South by :...
Fixtures provided by the Lessor -
Fans - . Nos.
Geysers - . Nos.
Exhaust Fan - . No.
In Witness whereof the parties hereto have their respective hands and seals to this Agreement
on the day, month, year first written above.
Witness
1. LESSOR
2. LESSEE
19.4 AFFIDAVIT
An affidavit is a written statement used mainly to support certain applications and in some
circumstances as evidence in court proceedings. A person who makes the affidavit is called
the Deponent and must swear or affirm that the contents are true before a person who has the
authority to administer oaths in respects of the particular kind of affidavit. The model form of
affidavit is given below:
I ................................................ son of .................................... aged ............................
years, residing at ........................................................................................................,
hereby declare on oath as follows:
“.........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
................................................................”.........................................................................
..............................”Sworn on this ..................th day of
...................................................................................................................................
19.17
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19.18
Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
THIS DEED OF GIFT is made at (city) on this ____ day of _____, 19__ BETWEEN:
_____________________, an Indian Inhabitant residing at Flat No.___, ___ Floor,
______________ Co-operative Housing Society Ltd. _____________________, (city),
hereinafter called "THE DONOR" of the ONE PART and ______________________, also an
Indian Inhabitant of (city), residing at Flat No.___, ___ Floor, __________________ Co-
operative Housing Society Ltd. ______________________, (city), hereinafter called "THE
DONEE" of the OTHER PART.
WHEREAS the Donee______________ is the ______ of Donor _____ ______.
AND WHEREAS the Donor is the member of ____________society which is duly registered
under the Maharashtra Co-operative Societies Act 1960, (hereinafter referred to as the and is
the as the said society. The donor has 5 fully paid up shares of the said society. The donor
has acquired a flat No. ____on the ___ floor admeasuring _____ sq. mtrs. in the building
known as "______________" (hereinafter referred to as the "said building") situate at
________________________, ____________, __________, (city), (hereinafter referred to as
"the said flat") more particularly described in the Schedule hereunder written "said society").
WHEREAS the Donor has full right title and interest in the said shares/flat more particularly
described in the Schedule hereunder written.
AND WHEREAS the Donor desires to gift his right, title and interest in the said share/flat in the
said building of the said society more particularly described in the Schedule hereunder written
to the Donee hereto.
NOW THIS DEED OF GIFT WITNESSETH AS FOLLOWS: -
The Donor out of natural love and affection for the Donee, hereby transfers by way of gift his
right, title and interest in the said shares and the said flat more particularly described in the
Schedule hereunder written to the Donee absolutely for ever.
The Donee accepts the gift and agrees to hold the right title and interest of the Donor in the
said shares/the said flat in the said building of the said society more particularly described in
the Schedule hereunder written of the said flat from the Donor.
SCHEDULE OF PROPERTY ABOVE REFERRED TO
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the parties hereto have hereunder set and subscribed their
respective hands on the day and the year first hereinabove written.
SIGNED AND DELIVERED)
by the within named "DONOR" )
_________________________) __________________
in presence of .............. )
19.19
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1) ________________________)
2) _______________________)
SIGNED AND DELIVERED)
by the within named "DONEE" )
__________________________) __________________
in presence of .............. )
1) ________________________)
2) _____________________)
GIFT DEED
THIS DEED OF GIFT is made at (city) on this ____ day of _____, 19__ BETWEEN:
_____________________, an Indian Inhabitant residing at Flat No.___, ___ Floor,
______________ Co-operative Housing Society Ltd. _____________________, (city),
hereinafter called "THE DONOR" of the ONE PART and ______________________, also an
Indian Inhabitant of (city), residing at Flat No.___, ___ Floor, __________________ Co-
operative Housing Society Ltd. ______________________, (city), hereinafter called "THE
DONEE" of the OTHER PART.
WHEREAS the Donee______________ is the ______ of Donor _____ ______.
AND WHEREAS the Donor is the member of ____________society which is duly registered
under the Maharashtra Co-operative Societies Act 1960, (hereinafter referred to as the and is
the as the said society. The donor has 5 fully paid up shares of the said society. The donor
has acquired a flat No. ____on the ___ floor admeasuring _____ sq. mtrs. in the building
known as "______________" (hereinafter referred to as the "said building") situate at
________________________, ____________, __________, (city), (hereinafter referred to as
"the said flat") more particularly described in the Schedule hereunder written "said society").
WHEREAS the Donor has full right title and interest in the said shares/flat more particularly
described in the Schedule hereunder written.
AND WHEREAS the Donor desires to gift his right, title and interest in the said share/flat in the
said building of the said society more particularly described in the Schedule hereunder written
to the Donee hereto.
NOW THIS DEED OF GIFT WITNESSETH AS FOLLOWS: -
The Donor out of natural love and affection for the Donee, hereby transfers by way of gift his
right, title and interest in the said shares and the said flat more particularly described in the
Schedule hereunder written to the Donee absolutely for ever.
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The Donee accepts the gift and agrees to hold the right title and interest of the Donor in the
said shares/the said flat in the said building of the said society more particularly described in
the Schedule hereunder written of the said flat from the Donor.
SCHEDULE OF PROPERTY ABOVE REFERRED TO
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the parties hereto have hereunder set and subscribed their
respective hands on the day and the year first hereinabove written.
SIGNED AND DELIVERED)
by the within named "DONOR" )
_________________________ ) __________________
in presence of .............. )
1) ________________________ )
)
2) _______________________ )
SIGNED AND DELIVERED)
by the within named "DONEE”)
__________________________) __________________
in presence of .............. )
1) ________________________)
)
2) _____________________)
19.7 COMPANY – Memorandum and Articles of Association
A company is incorporated by means of a Memorandum of Association and Articles of
Association registered with the Registrar of Companies who will issue on registration a
certificate of incorporation (Specimen form is given below)
The Companies act, 1956
Memorandum of Association
1. Section 14
Memorandum of Association of a Company shall be in such one of the forms in Tables B, C, D
and E in Schedule - 1 as may be applicable to the case of the company or in a form as near
there to as circumstances admit.
19.21
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19.22
Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
of.......................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
……………………………...
B) OBJECTS INCIDENTAL OR ANCILLARY TO THE ATTAINMENT OF THE MAIN
OBJECTS :
1. To buy, sell, export and deal in all works, plant, machinery and materials commonly dealt
in by persons engaged in the above lines of business and also manufacture, experiment
with and render marketable all products residual and by products obtained incidental to
any of the business carried on by the Company.
2. To enter into agreements and contracts with Indian or Foreign individuals, firms,
companies or other organizations for technical, financial or other assistance or
collaboration for carrying out all or any of the objects of the Company.
3. To establish and maintain any agencies in India or any part of the world for the business
of the Company or for the sale of any materials or things for the time being at the
disposal of the company for sale.
4. To advertise and adopt means of making known the business activities of the Company
or any articles or goods traded or dealt in by the company in any way as may be
expedient including posting of bills in relation thereto and the issue of circulars, books
and pamphlets and price list and conducting of competitions, exhibitions, demonstrations
and giving of prizes and rewards.
5. To buy, sell, prepare, treat, repair, alter, manipulate, exchange, hire, let on hire, import,
export, dispose of any deal in all kinds of articles or raw materials which may be required
for any of the business which the company is authorized by its memorandum to carry on
or which may seem capable of .
13. To promote and form and to be interested in and to take, apply for, acquire, hold and
dispose of shares in any other company having objects similar altogether or in part to
those of this company or carrying on any business capable of being conducted so as
directly or indirectly to benefit the company and to subsidize or assist such company
financially or otherwise by subscribing for, or guaranteeing the subscription and issue of
shares, stocks, debentures or other securities of such company.
14. To pay for any properties, rights or privileges acquired by the company in shares or
debentures of this company or partly in shares or debentures and partly in cash or
otherwise and to give shares or stock or debentures of this company in exchange for
shares or stock or debentures of any other company.
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15. To procure the incorporation or the recognition of the company in any state or place in
India or abroad and to establish and regulate agencies for the purposes of the
Company’s business.
16. To draw, accept, make, endorse, discount and negotiate promissory notes, checks,
hundies, bills of exchange, commercial or mercantile instruments connected with the
business of the company subject to the provisions of Banking Regulation Act, 1949.
17. To borrow or raise money with or without security or to receive money on deposit at
interest or otherwise in such manner as the company may think fit and in particular by the
issue of debentures convertible into shares of this company and in security of any such
money so borrowed, raised or received, to mortgage, pledge or charge the whole or any
part of the property, assets or revenue of the Company, present or future including its
uncalled capital by special assignment or otherwise or to and to purchase, redeem or pay
off any such securities. The Company shall not carry on the business of banking as
defined under the Banking Regulations Act, 1949. The acceptance of deposits shall be
subject to the provisions of Section 58A of the Company’s Act, 1956 and the rules framed
there under.
18. To sell or in any other manner deal with or dispose of the undertaking or property of the
company or any part thereof for such consideration as the company may think fit and in
particular for shares, debentures and other securities of any other Company having
objects altogether or in part other company having objects altogether or in part similar to
those of the company and to promote any other company or companies for the purpose
of its or their acquiring all or any of the property, rights or liabilities of this Company.
19. To improve, manage, work, develop, exchange, lease, mortgage, turn to account,
abandon or otherwise deal with all or any part of the property, rights and concession of
the company.
20. To engage workers, laborers, staff, clerks, accountants, Technicians, Engineers,
Architects, Consultants and such other categories of employees needed for the carrying
out of the objects of the company upon such terms and conditions as to remuneration,
benefits, sharing of profits, payment of bonus, etc., as may be found expedient and
appropriate and change, alter, delete such terms as to remuneration etc., as and when
warranted and to dismiss, discharge, suspend, terminate, retire or otherwise determine
their employment as circumstances warrant from time to time.
21. To provide for the welfare of the Directors, Managing Director and employee’s of the
Company and wives, widows and families or the dependants of such persons by building
or contributing to the building of houses, dwellings or by grants of money, pension,
allowances, bonus or other payments or by creating and from time to time subscribing or
contributing to provident or other charitable associations, institutions, funds or trusts and
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28. To let on lease or otherwise deal with the whole or any part of the property of the
company.
29. To purchase or by any other means acquire and protect, prolong and renew, whether in
India or elsewhere any patents rights, ‘BREVETS D’ INVENTION, licenses, protections
and concessions which may appear likely to be advantageous or useful to the company
and to use and turn to account and to manufacture under or grant licenses or privileges
in respect of the same and to spend money in experimenting upon and testing and in
improving or seeking to improve any patents, inventions or grant licenses to use or to
vend the same.
30. To invest and deal with the moneys of the Company in any securities, shares,
investments, properties movable or immovable and in such manner as may from time to
time be determined and to sell, transfer or deal with the same.
31. To create any depreciation fund, reserve fund, sinking fund, insurance fund or any
special or other funds whether for depreciation or for repairing, improving, extending or
maintaining any of the property of the company or for redemption of redeemable
preference shares or for any purposes, whatsoever to the interest of the company.
32. To appoint sole or regional selling agents or distributors for the products of the company
and also buying agents for the raw materials or other products required for the company
subject to the provisions of section 294 of the Companies Act, 1956 and also to open
depots for effecting such sales or purchases.
33. To do all or any of the above things and all such other things as are incidental or as may
be thought conducive to the attainment of the above objects or any of them in India or in
any other part of the World and as principals, agents, contractors, trustees, agents or
otherwise and by or through sub-contractors, trustees, agents or otherwise and either
alone or in conjunction with others.
C) OTHER OBJECTS NOT INCLUDED IN (A) AND (B) ABOVE:
1. To carry on the business of importers, exporters and dealers of all kinds of merchandise,
raw-materials, manufactured goods, materials, produce and provision of every
description and to carry on business as commission agents, forwarding agents and
general merchants.
2. To transact and carry on all kinds of agency business connected or beneficial to the
business of the company.
3. To start or acquire existing workshop dealing in engineering goods and services.
4. To purchase or otherwise acquire and deal in real and personal property of all kinds and
in particular lands, buildings and any claims, interests and rights in the undertaking
acquired.
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5. To buy, sell, manufacture, refine, manipulate, import, export and deal Wholesale and
Retail in commodities, substances, apparatus, articles and things of all kinds capable of
being used or which can conveniently be dealt in by the company in connection with any
of its objects.
IV. The liability of the members is limited.
V. The authorized share capital of the company is Rs.................................................
divided into ................................................ equity shares of
Rs............................................. each to be issued and held on such terms and
conditions as the Board of Directors may decide with powers to consolidate, sub-divide,
reduce, increase or change the conditions of issue or type of share from time to time.
We, the several persons whose names, addresses and descriptions are subscribed
hereunder are desirious of being formed into a company, in pursuance of this
Memorandum of Association and we respectively agree to take the number of shares in
the capital of the Company set opposite to our respective names.
Sl.No. Names, Address and Occupations of the subscribers No. of shares
Taken by each Subscriber Signature of the Subscriber Names, Address Description and
Occupations of witness
Dated …………………….This Day of ………………………….at………………….
CHECKLIST - ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION
(Checklist in the office of Registrar of Companies)
1. In the Case of a private company, see whether the definition of a private company is
reproduced.
2. Increase of share capital: An ordinary resolution would be sufficient and a special
resolution is not required in case there is no article regarding capital.
3. Reduction of capital : Surrender of shares amounts to reduction of capital provisions of
section 100-105 to be complied with.
4. Disproportionate calls cannot be allowed on same class of shares - Section 91
5. Voting rights : Voting rights cannot be vested with debenture holders (vide Section 117) .
Is this complied with Section 87 also to be consulted.
6. Discount on issue of share or debentures. Is the Commission or discount payable on
issue of shares or debentures in conformity with section 76 and 79
7. Holding of annual general meeting: Is the regulation relating to the holding of the annual
general meeting in accordance with the Section 210 of the Act.
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8. Delegation of powers of the Board: All the powers of the Board cannot be delegated to
others. Refer to Section 292 of the Act and see whether the regulation is in agreement
with the Act.
9. Delegation of powers to call on shares the uncalled capital can be mortgaged but the
power to call on shares cannot be delegated to the mortgages (Sec 292 verify whether
this is contravened)
10. Quorum of Board: Is the quorum of Board of Directors, in conformity with section 287 of
the Act? (1/3rd or 2 which is higher)
11. Resolution by circulation among the Board of Directors: Is this in accordance with
Section 289 of the Act.
12. Appointment of alternate directors: This power can be exercised only by the Board and
not by an individual director under the circumstances indicated in section 313 of the Act.
13. Calling of extra-ordinary general meeting by requisition: Does this regulation confirm to
the requirements of section 169 of the Act.
14. Notice of meeting: Verify whether the provisions of section 172 are complied with the
case of a public company? A shorter notice can be provided in the case of a private
company and sec.170 (1) (ii) is to be kept in mind.
15. Quorum for the general meeting: Minimum two or five members present in person in case
of a private company and public company respectively should be provided.
16. In case of a public company, if directors are named in the Articles all the first directors
should retire at the first annual general meeting; if there is no provision for their
appointment at an earlier general meeting. See whether this requirement is satisfied by
the concerned regulation. All the directors can retire every year. Sec.255
17. Verify whether there are any regulations (in the case of a private company) which are not
applicable to them and if any, point out to the party.
18. Subscription clauses: Is it on the lines of memorandum?
ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION
Articles OF ASSOCIATION OF.................................................PRIVATE LIMITED (Company
Limited by Shares ) (Incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956)
1. The Regulation contained in the table ‘A’ in the First Schedule to the Companies Act,
1956 shall apply to this company so far only as they are not inconsistent with any of the
provisions contained in these regulations are made in these regulations.
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Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
2. In these Regulations :
The “Act” means the Companies Act, 1956, or any statutory modification or Re-
enactment thereof for the time being in force. “The Company” means “———————
————————————————————————————— - PRIVATE LIMITED”
“Directors” means the Directors for the time being of the company or as the case may
be, the Directors assembled at a Board.
“The Seal” means the Common Seal of the Company. Unless the context otherwise
requires, words or expressions contained in these Regulations shall bear the same
meaning as in the Act or any statutory modification thereof in force at the date at
which these Regulations become binding on the company.
PRIVATE COMPANY
3. The Company is a Private Company within the meaning of section 2(35) and 3(1) (iii) of
the Act and accordingly:
a) The right to transfer the shares of this company shall be restricted in the manner and
to the extent hereinafter appearing in these Regulations.
b) The number of members of the Company shall be limited to 50 (fifty) not including:
i. Persons who are in the employment of the Company: and
ii. Persons who having been formerly in the employment of the Company, were
members of the Company while in that employment and have continued to be
members after the employment ceased. Provided that where two or more persons
hold one or more shares in the company jointly, they shall for this purpose be
treated as a single member.
c) No invitation shall be issued to the public to subscribe for any shares in or debentures
of this company.
COMMENCEMENT OF BUSINESS
4. The Business of the Company may be commenced as soon as the Directors think fit, not
withstanding that the whole of the Capital may not have been subscribed or only part of
the shares may have been issued or allotted and only part of the capital has been paid
up.
CAPITAL
5. (a) The Authorized Share Capital of the Company is Rs……divided into……. Equity
Shares of Rs … each with power to increase, sub-divide, consolidate or reduce the
Capital subject to the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956.
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(b) The Company shall have power to issue preference share including redeemable
preference shares in accordance with the provisions of Sections 80 and 85 of the
Act or any statutory modification thereof.
(c) The Company shall have powers to issue shares at a discount but in doing so it
shall comply with the provisions of Section 79 of the Act or any statutory
modification thereof.
(d) Subject to the provisions of these Articles, the shares shall be under the control of
the Board, who may allot or otherwise dispose of the same to such persons on such
terms and conditions and at such time as the Board thinks fit subject to Article 3
thereof.
FORM OF TRANSFER
6. Subject to the restrictions hereinafter provided, shares in the Company shall be
transferable by written instrument in the prescribed form signed by both the transferor
and the transferee.
TRANSFER OR TO CONTINUE TO BE MEMBER UNTIL TRANSFER REGISTERED
7. The transferor shall be deemed to remain the holder of shares until the name of the
transferee is entered on the register of members in respect thereof.
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evidence as the Directors may require to prove the title of the Transferor to make the
transfer.
PRE-EMPTION OF SHARES
10. No shares of the company shall except as hereinafter provided by transferred unless and
until the rights of pre-emption hereinafter conferred shall have been exercised.
DIRECTORS TO HAVE ABSOLUTE DISCRETION IN RECOGNISING TRANSFERS.
11. The Board of Directors may in its absolute discretion and without assigning any reason
decline to register any proposed transfer of shares notwithstanding anything apparently
to the contrary in these articles. Notice of refusal to transfer shall be given to the
transferor and the transferee within two months from the date on which the notice of
transfer was lodged with the company.
12. Every member who intends to transfer shares (hereinafter called the “VENDOR”) shall
give notice in writing to the Company of his/her intention to transfer and that notice shall
constitute the Company his/her agent for the sale of the said shares in one or more lots
at its discretion to members of the Company at a price to be agreed upon by the Vendor
and the Company or in default of agreement at a price which the Board of Directors for
the time being shall certify by writing under its hand in consultation with the Auditors of
the Company to be in its opinion the fair selling value thereof as between a willing vendor
and a willing purchaser. In so certifying the Auditors or the Board of Directors shall be
considered as experts and not as arbitrators and accordingly the Indian Arbitration Act
will not apply.
13. Upon the price being fixed as aforesaid the Company shall forthwith give notice to all the
members of the Company of the number and price of the shares to be sold and invite
each of them to state in writing within 21 days from the date of the said notice whether he
is willing to purchase any, and if so, what maximum number of the said shares.
BOARD TO ALLOCATE THE SHARES TO MEMBERS WILLING TO BUY
14. At the expiration of the said twenty one days subject to the provisions of Section 108 of
the Companies Act, 1956 the Company shall allocate the said shares amongst the
member or members who shall have expressed his/her or their
willingness to purchase as aforesaid, and if more than one, so far as may be, pro rata
according to the number of shares already held by him/her or them respectively, or by
casting lots among the willing members when only one share is available for sale,
provided no member shall be obliged to take more than the said maximum number of
shares so notified by him/her/them as aforesaid. Upon such allocation being made the
Vendor shall be bound on payment of the said price to transfer the shares to the
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purchaser or the said price to transfer the shares to the purchaser or purchasers and if
he/she/they make/s default in so doing the company may receive and give a good
discharge for the purchase money on behalf of Vendor and enter the names of the
purchaser in the Register of members as holder by transfer of the said shares purchased
by him/her/them.
EXCEPTION
16. Articles 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 above shall not apply to transfer of the shares to a
person who is already a member of company nor to a transfer by a share holder by way
of gift or with or without any pecuniary consideration to the spouse of such member or to
parents, son, daughter, sister and brother of such member not to a transfer merely for the
purpose of effectuating the appointment of New Trustees nor to a transfer by a trustee to
a beneficiary provided that it is proved to the satisfaction of the Board of Directors that
the transfer bonafide falls within any one of the exceptions herein.
TRANSMISSION OF SHARES
17. a) On the death of a member in the case of joint holding the survivor or survivors shall
be the only persons recognized by the Company as having any title to his/her interest
in the shares without prejudice to the liability of the estate of the deceased joint
holder in respect of any shares which had been jointly held by him/her with other
person.
b) The executor or Administrators or holders of a Succession Certificate or the legal
representative of a deceased member (not being one or more joint holders) shall be the
only persons recognized by the Company as having any title to the shares registered in
the name of such members and the Company shall not be bound to recognize such
Executors or Administrators or holders of a Succession Certificate or the legal
representatives unless such executors or Administrators or legal representatives shall
have first obtained probate or letter or administration or Succession Certificate as the
case may be from a duly constituted court in the Union of India, provided that in any
case where the Board in its absolute discretion think fit, the Board may dispense with
production of probate or letters of administration or Succession Certificate upon such
terms as to indemnity or otherwise as the Board in their absolute discretion may think
necessary and register the name of any person who claims to be absolutely entitled to
the shares standing in the name or a deceased member, as a member.
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GENERAL MEETING
18. The quorum for a General Meeting of the Company shall be two members present in
person.
19. An Annual General Meeting of the Company may be convened by giving not less than 21
days notice in writing. All other General Meeting may be convened by giving not less than
7 days notice in writing. It shall also not be necessary for the Board to annex explanatory
statement to the notice calling general meeting.
20. The provision of Section 171 to 186 of the Companies Act, 1956, shall not apply to this
Company. The proxy shall be a member of this Company.
21. The accidental omission to give any such notice to or the non receipt of any such notice
by any of the members to whom it should have been given shall not invalidate any
resolution passed or proceedings held at any such meeting.
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
22. a) Until and otherwise determined at a general meeting the number of Directors shall be
not less than two and not more than twelve including all kinds of Directors.
b) The following shall be the first Directors of the Company:
1. —————
2. —————
23. A Director of the Company shall not be required to hold any qualification share.
24. The Chairman for each meeting shall be appointed amongst the Directors to conduct the
proceedings of the meeting.
25. Subject to the provision of the act, the Board of Directors may from time to time appoint
one or more of their body to the office of Managing Director, Technical Director,
Executive Director, Commercial Director or Whole time Director, for such terms and at
such remuneration, whether by way of salary or commission or participation in profits or
partly by way of one and partly in another, as they may think fit. The Board may define,
limit and restrict their powers and fix their remuneration. A Director so appointed shall not
while holding that office is subject to retirement by rotation.
26. The Board shall have power to co-opt one or more persons to be directors so that the
total number shall not exceed twelve and such persons shall hold office unto the date of
next annual general meeting of the company, but shall be eligible for reappointment by
the company as a Director at the meeting. The Company at that meeting may fix the
terms of office and other terms and conditions in respect of such directors reappointed.
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27. Until and otherwise determined in the General Meeting every Directors shall be entitled
to a sitting fees for each meeting of the Board of Directors attended by him/her. The
amount of sitting fees shall be fixed by Board of directors subject to provisions of the
companies act. The Directors shall also be entitled to be repaid all traveling and hotel
expenses properly incurred by him/her:-
a) In attending and returning from the meeting of the Board of Directors or any
Committee thereof:
or
b) In connection with the business of the company.
28. A Director, during any absence of not less than three months from India, may with the
approval of the Board of Directors appoint any person to be an alternate Director during
such absence and such appointment shall have effect and such appointee while he holds
the office as an alternate director shall be while he holds the office as an alternate
director shall be entitled to the notices of the meetings of Directors and to attend and
vote thereat as a Director and shall ipso facto vacate the office, if and when the appointer
returns to India or vacates the office as a Director removes the appointee director from
office by a notice in writing under his hand. If the term of office of the original, Director is
determined before he returns to India, any provision for the reappointment of retiring
director in default of another appointment shall apply to the original director and not to
the alternate director.
29. The Board of Directors shall have power to appoint additional Directors, but in doing so
the provisions of Section 260 of the Act or any statutory modifications thereof, shall be
complied with.
30. Subject to the provisions of the Section 262 of the Act or any statutory modifications
thereof, the Board of Directors shall have power to fill up casual vacancies.
31. If any Director, being willing, shall be called upon to perform extra service or to make any
special exertions in going or residing away from his usual place of residence for the
purpose of the Company or in giving special attention to the business of the Company or
as a member of a Committee of the Board, then the Board may subject to the provision of
Section 314 of the Act, remunerate the Director so doing, either by a fixed sum or by a
percentage of profits or otherwise and such remuneration may be in addition to or in
substitution to any other remuneration to which he may be entitled.
32. In case the Union Government or any State Government or any Industrial Finance
Corporation or Company sponsored or Financed by any of the aforesaid Governments or
the State Financial Corporation or the State Industrial Investment and Development
Corporation Limited or any other financial institution or Bank grants loan or accepts
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Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
participation in the Capital and Direction of the company, such government, corporation,
financial institutions or Bank may during such period as they hold shares in the company
or the loans granted by them remain unpaid, be entitled to nominate one or more
directors to protect the interest of such Government, Corporation, Financial institution or
Bank on the Board of Directors of the Company. Such directors shall not be liable to
retire by rotation.
33. No Director shall be disqualified from his office by contracting with the Company nor shall
such contract entered into by or on behalf of the company in which any Director is in any
way interested, be avoided nor shall any Director so contracting or being so interested be
liable to account to the company any profit realized by any such contract by reason only
of such Directors holding such office or of that fiduciary relationship thereby established ;
but the nature of his interest must be disclosed at the meeting of Directors at which the
contract is first taken into consideration if his interest is then existing or in
any other case at the first meeting of the Directors held after the acquisition of the
interest.
34. All acts done by the Directors or by a Committee of Directors or by any person acting as
Director shall notwithstanding that if be afterwards discovered that there was some
defect in the appointment of any such Director or person acting as aforesaid or that they
or any of them were disqualified be as valid as if every such person had been duly
appointed.
POWER AND DUTIES OF DIRECTORS
35. The power and responsibilities of the Board of Directors of the Company shall be as laid
down in the Companies Act, 1956 and in Table ‘A’ thereof except in so far as they stand
modified by the provision of these articles.
BOARD MEETING
36. Subject to the provisions contained in Section 287 of the Act, the quorum for a meeting
shall be one third of its total strength (any fraction contained in that one third being
rounded off as one) or two directors whichever is higher.
BORROWING POWERS
37. Subject to the provisions of the Act, the Board of Directors may from time to time raise or
borrow any sums of money for and on behalf of the company from the members of other
persons, companies, Banks or Financial institutions or they may themselves advance
money to the company on such terms and conditions as may be approved by the
Directors.
38. The Board of Directors may, from time to time secure the payment of such money in such
manner and upon such terms and conditions in all respects as they think fit and in
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Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
company shall if so required by the Board before entering upon his duties sign a
declaration pledging himself to observe a strict secrecy respecting all transactions of the
company with its customers and the state of accounts with individuals and in matters
relating thereto and shall obey such declaration pledge himself not to reveal any of the
matters which may come to his knowledge in the discharge of his duties except when
required so to do
INDEMNITY
48. Every Director, Manager and other officers and Auditors of the company or their
respective heirs, administrators or Executors shall be indemnified and secured harmless
by the company against all actions, costs, losses, expenses which they or any of them or
any of their heirs, Administrators or executors may incur or become liable to by reason of
any contract entered into or at or thing done by him as such officer or Auditor or in any
way in the discharge of his duties including travelling expenses and the amount for which
such indemnity is provided shall immediately attach as lien on the property of the
Company and have priority as between the matters over all other claims. We, the several
persons whose names, addresses and descriptions are subscribed hereunder are
desirous of being formed into a company, in pursuance of this Articles of Association.
Sl.No. Names, Address No. of shares Signature of Names, Address
and Occupations Taken by each the the Description and
of Subscriber Subscriber Occupations of
Winnessibers
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People
Technology
International operations
Corporate social responsibility
Directors’ report
Independent financials – 10 year highlights
Consolidated financials – 5 years highlights
Graphs – Independent financials
Managements discussion and analysis
Auditors Reports
Balance Sheet
Profit and Loss Account
Cash Flow Statements
Schedules forming part of accounts
Notes forming part of accounts
Statement pursuant to Section 212 of the Companies Act, 1956
Information on Subsidiary Companies
Auditors reports on Consolidated Financial Statement
Consolidated Balance Sheet
Consolidated Profit And Loss Account
Consolidated Cash Flow Statement
Schedules forming part of Consolidated Accounts
Notes forming part of Consolidated Accounts.
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Basic Understanding of Legal Deeds and Documents
19.39
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
(b) Preamble
(c) Recitals
(d) Special Rules
4. Choose the false statement:
(a) A firm cannot be a partner in another firm, even in a representative capacity a
partner of a sub partnership cannot be joined in a main partnership as
representing the sub partnership. He can join in his individual capacity.
(b) Partnership retirement Deed must be executed on a stamp paper of
appropriate value and copy sent to the Registrar of Firms along with the
prescribed form duly completed. The execution of a Retirement Deed does not
result in a reconstitution of the firm. A fresh Reconstitution deed must be
executed and all formalities applicable to a partnership deed for registration of
firm must be complied with under income Tax Act.
(c) If the partnership dissolution involves the transfer of any immovable property to
any person other than the original partners then the stamp act prescribes the
same duty as conveyance and relevant state stamp act must be consulted.
(d) A specific power of attorney is given for a particular specific act for instance for
appearance before Tax authorities or before Registrar of Companies for
presenting documents for incorporation of a company or before a Sub-Registrar
for registration of documents etc.
5. A lease is a defined as transfer of enjoyment of immovable property by one person
called the lesser to another person called the lessee in consideration of a premium,
which means a price paid or promised or rent which may be periodical payment of
money, share of crops or rendering of services. In order to constitute the valid
lease, there must be a transfer of right to enjoyment of immovable property though
delivery of possession of the property is not a condition preceded for operation of a
lease as per;
(a) Section 105 of the Transfer of Property Act
(b) Section 106 of the Transfer of Property Act
(c) Section 106(a) of the Transfer of Property Act
(d) Section 107 of the Transfer of Property Act
Answers :
1. (a), 2. (a), 3. (d), 4. (b), 5. (a).
19.40