Oracle Notes

ORACLE
Database: It is collection of meaningful data.

Ex:
SNO
SNAME
MARKS
101
MALLI
99
102
SREE
98
103
KRISH
104
VISH
96
97
Management System: It is a software it helps to manage the

database management system should able to perform the following
activities very easily.
1. Inserting the new data.
2. Updating the exiting data.
3. Deleting unnecessary data.
4. Retrieving the require data.
A database along with the software which helps to manage. The
database is called database management system (DBMS).
A DBMS which is based on relational theory is called as relational
database management system.
Examples of RDBMS:
1. ORACLE
2. SQL SERVER
3. DB2
4. MYSQL
5. SYBASE
6. TERA DATA
7. MS ACCESS
SQL:
Structured query language pronounced as (SEQUEL). This
language is used to communicate to oracle database.
Features of SQL:
1. It is a command based language.
2. It is not case sensitive.
3. Every command should end with ;.
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4. Every command starts with verb.

5. It is similar to English. This language is developed in the year
1972. Mr.CODD, by IBM developed by IBM.
SUB LANGUAGE OF SQL:
1. DDL (Data Definition Language)
2. DML (Data Manipulation Language)
3. DRL/DQL (Retrieval/query)
4. TCL (Transaction Control Language)
5. DCL (Data Control Language)
*DDL: This language is used to manage database objects. It is
collection of five commands.
CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, RENAME
*DML: This language is used to manipulate the data you have stored.
It is collection of four commands.
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, MERGE
*DRL: This language is used to retrieve the data from the database. It
is collection of only one command.
SELECT
*TCL: It is used to maintain the transaction of Oracle database. It is
collection of three commands.
COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT
*DCL: This language is used to control the axis of the data to the
users it is collection of two commands.
GRANT, REVOKE
TABLE: Table is an object which is used to store some data. In general
it is collection of Rows and Columns.
Create command: This command is used to create a table.
Syntax:
CREATE
TABLE<TABLE_NAME>(COL_NAME1
DATATYPE(SIZE),COL_NAME2
DATATYPE(SIZE),
COL_NAME3
DATATYPE(SIZE));
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Ex:
Create table student (SNO number (3), SNAME varchar2(20),
MARKS number(3));
SQL * PLUS: it is a client
environment.
SQL>Conn: it is called connect.
Default username: Scott
Password: tiger
SQL*PLUS: It is a client environment where the developer will write

the queries and submit the queries is execution.
*TO ESTABLISH CONNECTIO:
SQL>CONN
USER NAME: SCOTT
PASSWORD: TIGER
CONNECTED
*INSERT COMMENT:
Syntax:
INSERT INTO<TABLE_NAME>VALUES(VAL1,VAL2,VAL3,VALn);
EX:
Insert into student values(101,Arun,60);
Error: Arun
Correct: Arun
Note: for varchar to value we need enclose with single( ) codes.
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
into
into
into
into
student
student
student
student
values(102,kiran,86);
values(103,Ajay,50);
values(104,vijay);//this statement is wrong
values(105,vijay,null);
Note: Null is a keyword which is used to represent unavailable or

undefined symbol.
Insert into student values(106,null,null);
*SELECT: This commend is used to return the data from the table.
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Syntax1: SELECT * FROM <TABLE_NAME>;

Ex: select * from student; // * represent ALL
Note: where we use * all the information (ALL the columns and the
rows are display).
Syntax2: for insert command:
INSERT
INTO
<TABLE_NAME>
(COL1,COL2,..COLn)
(VAL1,VAL2,.VALn);
Ex: insert into student (SNO,SNAME) values (106,Amit);
VALUES
*insert the values at runtime using & operator:

Ex: INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES (&SNO,&SNAME,&MARKS);
*SELECTING SPECIFIC COLUMNS:
Ex:
Select SNO, MARKS from student;
student;
SNO
MARKS
SNO
101
60
102
85
------------108
98
Select MARKS, SNO from

MARKS
60
85
------98
101
102
----------
Select SNO, SNO, SNAME from student;

Select * from student;
Select * From student;
// not case sensitive
Create table employee(ENO number(2),ENAME varchar2(20),SALARY
number(5),JOB varchar2(20));
Insert into employee values(101,vijay,10000,HR);
Insert into employee values(102,ABC,33000,GM);
*write the one column to be display in the student?
Select SNAME from student;
Select EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,JOB FROM EMP;
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We can perform some calculation using Arithmetic operations to

desired output.
Ex:
Select EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,SAL*12,DEPTNO from EMP;
EMPNO
101
102
103
ENAME
SAL
Mallikarjuna 50000
-------------
SAL*12
600000
-------
DEPTNO
GM
-------
*Columns ALIAS: Column ALIAS user defined column heading given

to the required column.
Ex:
Select EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,SAL*12 ANNUAL_SAL,DEPTNO from
EMP;
Select EMPNO ROLL_NO,ENAME,SAL from EMP;
Note:
1. Column Alias can be provides for any column.
2. Column Aliases are temporary.
3. The scope of column Alias is to respect to the same query.
*DATA TYPES:
1. CHAR: The data type is used to store alpha numeric values.
It can be also store special symbols like -,:,/,* and etc.
This data type of fixed size. The Maximum size is 255 bytes.
Note: Memory is not used efficiently.
2.VARCHAR2: This data type it can store alphanumeric values
special symbols like -,:,_
and etc. This data type is of variable size. Maximum size 4000
bytes.
Note: Memory is efficiently used.
3.NUMBER(P,S): p-precision/s-scale
This data type used to store numeric values maximum size 38
digits.
4.DATE: This data type is used to store date values it will not have
size. Range 01-JAN-4712 BC TO 31-DEC-9999 AD
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Default Date format is DD-MM-YY.

Ex:
Create table student1(SNO number(2),
SNAME varchar2(20),
MARKS number(3),
DOJ Date);
Insert into student1 values(101,Ravi,99,SYSDATE);
5.LONG: Similar to varchar2 data type. Maximum size 2 GB.
6.RAW: used to store Images,logos,digital signatures etc. Maximum
size 255 bytes.
7.LONG RAW: Similar to RAW data type. Maximum size 2 GB.
8.CLOB:(character large object) used to store characters. Maximum
size 4 GB.
9.BLO:(binary large object) used to store binary data. Maximum size
4 GB.
10.BFILE:(binary file)
*Describe command: This command is used to see the structure of
the table.
Ex:
DESCRIBE Student //(not use ;)
NAME
NULL
TYPE
SNO
NUMBER(2)
SNAME
VARCHAR2(20)
MARKS
NUMBER(3)
NOTE:
It is SQL*PLUS command
Short form is DESC
EXIT
CONN
ARE SQL*PLUS
CL SCR
COMMANDS
ALL
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*where clause: class is used to select specific rows basing on a

condition.
Ex:
Select * from emp where sal>2000;
SAL
2975
2875
3000
Select * from emp where deptno = 10;
Select * from student where sno < = 103;
Select eno,ename,sal,deptno from emp where dept = 20;
Note: Data which is stored the inside the table is case sensitive.
Ex:
Select * from emp where job = clerk;
Select * from student where comm is NULL;
Note: is NULL is operator which is use to retrieve the rows based on
NULL values.
Ex:
Select * from student where marks is NULL;
Select * from student where sname is NULL;
Distinct Keyword: it is display distinct values (unique values).
Duplicates of suppressed.
Ex: select distinct deptno from emp;
DEPTNO
30
20
10
Select distinct job from emp;
*update: The command is used to change data present in the table.
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Syntax:
Update<TABLE_NAME> set <COL_NAME> = <VALUE> where
<CONDITION>;
Ex:
Update student set marks = 30 where sno = 102;
Update emp set sal = 1000 where ename = scott;
Update emp set ename = Arun where eno = 7369;
Update emp set comm = 500 where eno = 7698;
NOTE: when where clunse is not use, all the rows are updated.
Ex:
Update emp set sal = 5000;
Update
Update
Update
Update
emp set sal = 3500 where comm is NULL;

student set marks = NULL where sname = kiran;
emp set sal = NULL where comm is NULL;
emp set job = HR, sal = 5000 where ename = Alen;
*DELETE: This command is used to remove the complete row from

the table.
SYSTAX: Delete from <table_name> where <condition>;
*write a
Ex:
query delete command?
Delete from student where sno = 101;
Update student set sname = null, marks = null where sno = 101;
Note: when where clause is not use all the rows delete.
Ex:
Delete from student1;
*LOGICAL OPERATORS: There are three logical operators. They are
1. AND
2. OR
3. NOT
1. AND( T AND T = T):
Systax: select * from EMP where SAL > 2000 AND JOB =
MANAGER;
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Note: AND operator will return the rows when all the conditions
are satisfied.
Select * from emp where SAL >2000 AND JOB = MANAGER AND
deptno = 30;
Select * from emp where DEPTNO = 10 OR DEPTNO = 20;
Select * from emp where SAL >2000 AND SAL < 4000;
Write a query to delete first and last rows?
Ex:
Select * from empno = 7499 OR 7521 OR 7566;
Select * from empno =7499 OR empno = 7521 OR empno =
7566;
Note: query to display the rows who are not managers?
Select * from emp where NOT job = MANAGER;
Select * from emp where NOT deptno = 30;
BETWEEN: between operator is used to display the rows which is
following in the range of values.
Select * from EMP where SAL BETWEEN 2000 AND 3000;
Note: Extreme values are included
Always specify first lower limit first and then higher limit.
*IN OPERATOR:
1. IN operator will be return the rows when the values are matching in
the list.
2. IN operator can be use as a replacement of OR operator.
Ex: Select * from EMP where EMPNO IN(7369,7499,7521);
Select * from EMP where DEPTNO IN(10,20);
Select * from EMP where DEPTNO IN(10,20,30);
*PATTERN MATCHING OPERATOR: They are two pattern matching
operator.
1. Percentage (%)
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2. Under score (_)

1. Percentage (%): This command is used to select the letters.
Ex: Select * from emp where ename like S%; //starts with letter
S
Select * from emp where ename like R%; //ends with letter
R
Select * from emp where ename like J%S; // first letter J and
last letter S
Select * from emp where ename like %A%; //middle letter A
Select * from emp where NOT ename like %A%; //not
middle letter A
2. Under Score: This command is also select the letters.
Ex: Select * from emp where ename like _A%;
Select * from emp where ename like __A%;
Can we display the rows whos emp name ends with last position
E.
Select * from emp where ename like %E_;
Select * from emp where ename like ____;
Note: Like keyword is used with pattern matching operator.
Select * from emp where deptno NOT IN(10,20);
*DDL (DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE):
1. CREATE
2. ALTER
3. DROP
4. TRUNCATE
5. RENAME
2) ALTER: By using ALTER command we can perform the following
task.
2.1. ADDING A NEW COLUMN
2.2. DROPING AN EXISTING COLUMN
2.3. MODIFYING A COLUMN
2.4. RENAMING A COLUMN
i.
ADDING A NEW COLUMN:

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Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE_NAME> ADD (COL1_NAME DATA

TYPE(SIZE),
(COL2_NAME
DATA TYPE(SIZE));
Ex: ALTER table student ADD(city varchar2(10));
ALTER table student ADD(state varchar2(10), pincode
number(6));
Note: New column can be added only at last.
The new column will have null values.
Update student set city = Hyderabad where sno = 101;
Update student set state = Andra pradesh where sno = 101;
Update student set pincode = 500082 where sno = 101;
ii.
DROPING AN EXISTING COLUMN:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE_NAME>
DROP(COL1_NAME,COL2_NAME);
Ex: ALTER table student drop(state);
ALTER table student drop(city,pincode);
iii.
MODIFYING A COLUMN: (increasing/decreasing the size of

columns)
Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE_NAME> MODIFY(COL1_NAME
DATA TYPE(SIZE));
Ex:
ALTER table student modify(Sname varchar2(10));
ALTER table student modify(Sname varchar2(8));
Note: .we can increase and decrease as well as the size of the
column.
.We can decrease the column size only when existing
column values can
fit into new size.
.By using modify keyword we can change the data type of a
column.
.Column should be empty to change its data type.
iv.
RENAMING A COLUMN:
Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE_NAME> RENAME
COLUMN<OLD_COL_NAME>
TO <NEW_COL_NAME>;
Ex:
ALTER table emp rename column SAL TO WAGES;
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3) DROP: This command is used to rename the table from the

database.
Syntax: DROP TABLE <TABLE_NAME>;
Ex:
DROP table student;
DROP table emp;
4) TRUNCATE: This command is used to remove all the rows from
the table.
Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE <TABLE_NAME>;
Ex: TRUNCATE table student;
Select * from TAB; // ALL TABLE NAMES ARE DISPLAYED
*Difference between TRUNCATE and DELETE?
DELETE
TRUNCATE
We can Roll Back the data.
data.
Rows are deleting temporally.
permanently.
Where clause can be used.
used.
Delete is sub language DML.
DDL.
* We cannot Roll Back the

* Rows are deleting
* Where clause cannot be
* Delete is sub language
5) Rename: This command is used to change the table name.

Syntax: RENAME <OLD_TABLE_NAME> TO
<NEW_TABLE_NAME>;
Ex: Rename student To student1;
Rename SALGRADE To GRADE;
NOTE: When we use a Truncate command the table gets dropped and
re-created. As the structure is effected is called as a DDL command.
All DDL command are permanent.
All DML command are Temporary.
*To see list of all the tables of a user: Select * from TAB;
*Creating duplicate tables or backup tables: By using the
combination of create and select. We can create copy of a table.
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Ex:
Create table emp1 AS select * from emp; //total table copy
Create table emp2 AS select * from emp where deptno = 30; //
only deptno = 30
Create table emp3 AS select * from emp where 10; // only deptno
=10 is copy
Create table emp4 AS select empno, ename, wages, deptno from
emp where
deptno = 20; //empno,ename,wages,deptno is coped by emp4
table
Create table emp5 AS select *from emp where 1=2; //This mean
total table copy
Select * from emp where 1 = 1;
Select * from malli from emp;
***Right click
and ok.
properties
options and select quick edit modifier
/
Run the same query
ED
Open the Buffer command
SET NUM
5
SCOTT is a new user
***Creating a new user:
Connect in the database AS DBA.
*user_name: /AS SYSDBA
*create user: create user malli Identified by malli123; //user and
password created
*giving permissions to the user;
*GRANT CONNECT, RESOURCE TO malli; //Grant Succeeded
*SHOW user To connect the current user.
**FUNCTIONS: Functions will manuplate the data items and gives
the result. They are two types of functions.
1. Group functions or multiple row functions
2. Scalar functions or single row function
1) Group functions or multiple row functions: This functions act on
group of rows.
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i. AVG: select AVG(sal) from emp;

ii.
SUM: select SUM(sal) from emp;
iii.MAX: select MAX(sal) from emp;
iv.MIN: select MIN(sal) from emp;
v.COUNT(*): select COUNT(*) from emp; //Return total no.of
rows in the table
vi.COUNT(EXPR): Return no.of values present in the column.
Ex: Select COUNT(sal) from emp;
Select COUNT(empno) from emp;
Select COUNT(comm) from emp;
Dual table: It is a dummy table which is generally used to perform
some calculation is seeing to the system date and etc. Dual table is
collection of one row and one column with X in it.
Ex: Select SYSDATE from dual;
Select 10+20 from dual;
Select 20+40, 50+60 from dual;
2) Scalar functions or single row functions: Scalar function are
decided into four types. They are given that.
i.
Character functions
ii.
Number functions
iii. Data functions
iv. Conversion functions
i.
Character functions:
a. Upper: converts into lower case to upper case.
Ex: Select upper(oracle) from dual; //ORACLE
b. Lower: This function is convert to the upper to lower case.
Ex: Select lower(ORACLE) from dual; //oracle
Select ENO, lower(ENAME), SAL from emp;
c. INITCAP: First letter is capital and reaming letters are small
letters.
Ex: Select INITCAP(oracle training) from dual; //Oracle
Select INITCAP(ORACLE TRAINING) from dual; //Oracle
d. LENGTH: Returns length of the string.
Ex: Select LENGTH(oracle) from dual; //length 6
Select LENGTH(MALLIKHARJUNA) from dual; //length
13
Select * from emp where length(ename) = 4;
e. LPAD: pads the character towards the left side.
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Ex: select LPAD(oracle,10,z) from dual; //zzzzoracle

f. RPAD: Rpad the character towards the right side.
Ex: Select RPAD(ORACLE,10,X) from dual; //ORACLEzzzz
Select LPAD(RPAD(ORACLE,8,Z,10,Z) from dual;
//Nesting function
g. LTRIM:
Ex: Select LTRIM(zzoracle,z) from dual;
h. RTRIM:
Ex: Select RTRIM(ZORACLEZZZ,Z) from dual; //ZORACLE
Select RTRIM(oracle) from dual; // oracle
Select RTRIM(ORACLE
) from dual; // ORACLE
Select LENGTH(RTRIM(ORACLE )) from dual; // length is
6
i. TRIM: Removes the specified characters from both sides.
Ex: Select TRIM(z from zzoraclezz ) from dual;
Select TRIM(
ORACLE
) from dual;
j. INSTR: Returns the passion of the string
Ex: Select INSTR(ORACLE,A) from dual; //3
Select INSTR(oracle,H) from dual;
Select INSTR(DATABASE,A) from dual; //2
k. SUBSTR: Returns the part of the string.
Ex: Select SUBSTR(ORACLE,2,3) from dual; //RAC
Select SUBSTR(ORACLE,2,4) from dual; //RACLE
Select SUBSTR(ORACLE,2,1) from dual; //R
Select SUBSTR(ORACLE,3,2) from dual; //AC
Select SUBSTR(ORACLE,3,10) from dual; //ACLE
Select SUBSTR(ORACLE,3) from dual; //ACLE
l. CONCAT: To join the two words. It will accept only two
character.
Ex: Select concat(MAGA,STAR) from dual; //MAGASTAR
Select concat(concat(MAGA,STAR),CHIRU) from dual;
Select
SNO
101
102
103
* from test1;
SNAME MARKS
ARUN 80
ARUN 80
VIJAY
80
Page 15 of 110
Select * from test1 where SNAME = ARUN; //101 ARUN 80

Select SNO, SNAME, LENGTH(SNAME) from test1;
SNO
101
102
103
SNAME
ARUN
ARUN
VIJAY
LENGTH(SNAME)
4
5
5
Select * from test1 where RTRIM(SNAME) = ARUN;

Select * from test1 where TRIM(SNAME) = ARUN;
Update test1 set SNAME = TRIM(SNAME);
Select SNO, SNAME, LENGTH(SNAME) from test1;
ii.
Number functions:
a. ABS: Returns absolute values
Ex: Select ABS(-40) from dual; // 40
Select ABS(40) from dual; //40
b. SQRT: Returns the squawroot values.
Ex: Select SQRT(25) from dual; // 5
Select SQRT(26) from dual; //5.09901951
c. MOD(A,B): Returns the MOD vaues.
Ex: select MOD(10,3) from dual; // 1
d. POWER(A,B):
Ex: Select POWER(2,5) from dual; // 32
e. CEIL:
Ex: Select CEIL(40.9) from dual; //41
Select CEIL(40.2) from dual; //41
Select CEIL(40.5) from dual; //41
f. FLOOR:
Ex: Select FLOOR(40.9) from dual; //40
Select FLOOR(40.2) from dual; //40
Select FLOOR(40.5) from dual; //40
g. TRUNC:(TRUNCATE) Remove the decimal points.
Ex: Select TRUNC(40.9) from dual; // 40
Select TRUNC(40.2) from dual; // 40
Select TRUNC(40.5) from dual; // 40
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Select
Select
Select
Select
Select
TRUNC(40.1234,2) from dual; // 40.12

TRUNC(685.195364,3) from dual; // 685.195
TRUNC(6854,-1) from dual; // 6850
TRUNC(6854,-2) from dual; // 6800
TRUNC(7777,-3) from dual; // 7000
h. ROUND: Rounds of the nearest value.

Ex: Select ROUND(40.9) from dual; //41
Select ROUND(40.2) from dual; //40
Select ROUND(40.5) from dual; //41
Select ROUND(123.863,2) from dual; //123.86
Select ROUND(123,-1) from dual; //120
i. GREATEST:
Ex: Select GREATEST(100,200,300) from dual; // 300
j. LEAST:
Ex: Select LEAST(100,200,300) from dual; // 100
iii. Datafunctions: They are four data functions.
A. ADD_MONTHS
B. MONTHS_BETWEEN
C. NEXT_DAY
D. LAST_DAY
A. ADD_MONTHS: ADD_MONTHS of months to the given date.
Ex: Select ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,12) from dual; // 16-JUN-13
Select ADD_MONTHS(11-APR-05,3) from dual; // 11-APR05
B. MONTH_BETWEEN: Returns number of months b/w given the
two months.
Ex: Select MONTHS_BETWEEN(11-JAN-05,11-JAN-04) from
dual; // 12
Select MONTHS_BETWEEN(11-JAN-04,11-JAN-05) from
dual; // -12
Select EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, HIREDATE from emp; //display
emp table
Page 17 of 110
Select EMPNO, ENAME, SAL,

MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIREDATE) from
emp;
MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIREDATE)/12
from emp;
ROUND(MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,
HIREDATE)/12) from emp;
ROUND(MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,
HIREDATE)/12) EXP from emp;
C. NEXT_DAY: Returns date of the specified date.
Ex: Select NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,MONDAY) from dual; // 18JUN-12
Select NEXT_DAY(11-JAN-05,MONDAY) from dual; // 17JAN-05
D. LAST_DAY: Returns the last day of the month.
Ex: Select LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) from dual; // 30-JUN-12
Select LAST_DAY(11-FEB-05) from dual; // 28-FEB-05
iv.
Conversion functions:
Conversion functions are one data type to another data type
conversion. They are three conversion functions.
TO_CHAR
TO_NUMBER
TO_DATE
1.TO_CHAR: This functions is having two functionalities.

a. Number to_char: This function is used only $ or u-rows and
number is used 9.
Ex: Select eno,ename, TO_CHAR(sal,9,999) from emp;
Select eno,ename, TO_CHAR(sal,99,99) from emp;
Select eno,ename, TO_CHAR(sal,$9,999) from emp;
Select eno,ename, TO_CHAR(sal,8,888) from emp; // invalid
number format
b.Date to_char:
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Ex: Select eno,ename,hiredate from emp;

Select eno,ename, TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,DD-MM-YY) from emp;
Select eno,ename, TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,DD-MM-YYYY) from emp;
Select SYSDATE from dual; // 18-JUN-12
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DD-MONTH-YY) from dual; // 18-JUN-12
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DAY) from dual; // Monday
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,YYYY) from dual; // 2012
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,MM) from dual; // 06
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DDD) from dual; // 170
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DD) from dual; // 18
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,MON) from dual; // MONDAY
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DY) from dual; // mon
Select TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DD-MM-YY HH:MI:SS) from dual; //1806-12 12:40:44
Select * from emp where TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,YYYY) = 1981;
Select * from emp where TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,YYYY) = 1980;
Select * from emp where TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,MON) = DEC;
2.TO_NUMBER:
Ex: Select TO_NUMBER(LTRIM($1400,$)) + 10 from
dual; // 1410
3.TO_DATE: This function is used to convert character values to data
value.
Ex: ADD_MONTHS
Select ADD_MONTH(11-JAN-05,2) from dual;
Select ADD_MONTH(11-JANUARY-2005 11:45 A.M.,DDMONTH-YYYY
HH:MI
A.M),2) from dual;
Select ADD_MOONTHS(TO_DATE(11-01-2005 11:45 A.M.,
DD-MM-YYYY HH:MI A.M.),2) from dual; //11MAR-2005
*implicit convertion:
Ex: Select * from emp where DEPTNO = 10;
Select sum(sal) from emp where deptno = 10; //8750
Select sum(sal) from emp where deptno = 20; //10875
Select sum(sal) from emp where deptno = 30; // 9400
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*Group By clause: Group By clause is used to divided rows into

several group. So that we can apply group function on each group.
Ex: Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp Group By deptno;
Deptno Sal
30
9400
20
10875
10
8750
Select deptno,min(sal),max(sal) from emp Group By
deptno;
Deptno Min Max
30
950 2850
20
800 3000
10
13005000
Select job, avg(sal) from emp Group By job;
Select job,count(*) from emp Group By job;
Select job,count(job) from emp Group By job;
Select Deptno, sum(Sal), min(Sal), max(Sal), avg(Sal),
count(*) from emp
Group By deptno;
Not
equal
in
oracle
<>
We can use the combination of where clause and Group By

clause.
First where clause is executed on the result of where clause
Group By clause is apply.
Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp where deptno <> 10 Group
By deptno;
Select deptno, job, sum(sal) from emp Group By deptno, job;
*Rule of group by clause: All the column in the select of list should
use group functions or should by included in group by clause.
Select deptno, sum(sal), ename from emp Group By deptno;
Error: Not a Group By Expression
*Having clause: (to use Group By clause)
Page 20 of 110
Having clause is used to filter the output from Group By clause.

Ex: Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp Group By deptno having
sum(sal) > 9000;
Deptno Sum(sal)
30
9400
20
10875
*Order By clause:
Order By clause is used to arrange the rows in the table.
By default order by clause ascending order.
Null values are arranged in the last.
Ex: Select * from emp Order By sal;
Select * from emp Order By ename;
Select * from emp Order By HIREDATE; //Chronological order
1980..1985
Select * from emp Order By eno;
Select * from emp Order By job,sal;
Select * from emp Order By sal DESC; //descending order by
depending the query
Note: Order by clause should be the last change of the query.
Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp Group By deptno Having sum(sal)
> 9000
Order By sum(sal) DESC;
Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp where ename <> King Group By
deptno;
deptno
Having sum(sal) > 9000;
deptno
Having sum(sal) > 9000 Order By sum(sal) DESC;
***Interview questions***
1. What is SQL?
SQL transfer Structured Query Language are also called as
SEQUEL.
2. List out sub language of SQL?
They are 5 sub languages DDL,DML,DRL/DQL,TCL,DCL .
3. What is different between char and varchar2?
Page 21 of 110
Char is a fixed size and varchar2 is a not a fixed size.

4. What is projection?
Selecting specific columns is projection.
5. How can we filter the rows in the table by use the Where, Group
BY, Having, Order By clause?
Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp where ename <> KING
Group By deptno Having sum(sal) > 9000 Order By sum(sal)
DESC;
6. What is column Alias?
Providing the duplicate to column Name. This is not a
permanent.
7. Can we perform a arithmetic operation by using dual?
Select 10 + 20 Result from dual;
8. What is dual table?
Dual table is dummy table to calculate the some problems. This
is one column and one row. Specified to X
9. Write a query to display current date along with HH:MI:SS?
Select To_Char(sysdate,DD-MON-YYYY HH:MI:SS) from dual?
10. Write a query to see the current date?
Select sysdate from dual;
11. Which operator is used to accept the values from the user?
INSERT, UPDATE,CREATE and etc.
12. How can you see all the table which are in the data base?
Select * from TAB
13. Which command is used to remove the table from the data
base?
Drop command is used to the table.
14. What is different between delete and truncate command?
Delete to the table and getting the roll back. Truncate is used
not possible the
table roll back.
15. Which operator is used to retrieve the rows based on null
values?
IS NULL
16. In how many ways we can rename all the rows from the table?
They are two ways Delete and Truncate
17. How can we create copy of a table?
Create table emp1 AS select * from emp;
Create table emp2 AS select * from emp where deptno = 30;
18. Write a query to display no.of rows in the table?
BY using count(*)
Select count(*) from emp;
19. What is different between count(*) and count(Expr)?
*is total table. Expr is only one column to count the table.
Page 22 of 110
20. What is difference between group functions and scalar

function?
Group functions will act on total table and scalar functions will
act on one row.
21. What is a use of Group By clause?
Group By clause will decided into several groups.
22. How can we filter the rows of Group By clause?
Having clause is used to filter the data.
23. Which clause is used to arrange the rows in the table?
Order By clause is used to arrange.
24. Which clause should be the last clause of the query?
Is order By caluse.
***Any operation performed on null will result to null values.
25. What is a TOAD?
Tool for Oracle Application Development.
*INTEGRITY CONSTRAINS:
Constrains are rules which are applied on tables.
Constrains helps in improving the accurency and quality of the data
base.
They are five types of constrains.
1. NOT NULL
2. UNIQUE
3. PRIMARY KEY
4. FOREIGN KEY or REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINS
5. CHECK
Constrains can be created at two levels
a. Column level
b. Table level
1.NOT NULL: This constrains will not accept null values.
NOT NULL constrains can be created only at column level.
Ex:
*Create table student1(Sno number(3) NOT NULL,
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
into
into
into
into
student1
student1
student1
student1
values(101,Arun,50);
values(101,Arun,NULL);
values(101,NULL,50);
values(NULL,Arun,50);
Page 23 of 110
Error: cannot insert into null to scott, student1, sno.

*Create table student2(Sno number(3) NOT NULL,
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3) NOT NULL);
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
into
into
into
into
student2
student2
student2
student2
2.UNIQUE CONSTRAINS: This constrains will not accept duplicate

values.
This constrains can be created at column level as well as table level.
Ex: Creating unique constraint at column level.
* Create table student3(Sno number(3) UNIQUE,
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
into
into
into
into
into
student3
student3
student3
student3
student3
Note: UNIQUE constraint will accept multiple will values.

*Create table student4(Sno number(3) UNIQUE,
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3) UNIQUE);
Insert into student4 values(101,Arun,50);
Creating unique constraint at table level:
Ex:
* Create table student5(Sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3),
UNIQUE(Sno));
Page 24 of 110
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
into
into
into
into
into
student5
student5
student5
student5
student5
Note: There is no different when a constrain at column level or table

level.
**3. PRIMARY KEY CONSTRIANS:
A primary key constrains of a combination of NOT NULL and UNIQUE.
A primary key constrains will not accept null values as well as
duplicate values.
Primary key column is used to uniquely every row in a table.
A table can have only one primary key.
Primary key constrains can be created at column level or table level.
Create primary key constraint at column level:
Ex:
* Create table student6(Sno number(3) PRIMARY KEY,
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student6 values(NULL,Arun,50);
Create Primary key constraint at table level:
Ex:
* Create table student7(Sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3)
PRIMARY KEY(Sno));
***3.1.COMPOSITE PRIMARY KEY:
When primary key is applied a multiple columns it is called composite
primary key.
Composite primary key can be applied only at table level.
Page 25 of 110
*Creating composite primary key constraint at table level:

Ex:
Create table student9(Surname varchar2(10),
Firstname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3),
PRIMARY
KEY(Surname,Firstname));
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
into
into
into
into
into
into
student9
student9
student9
student9
student9
student9
values(xyz,Arun,40);
values(xyz,Kiran,40);
values(mno,Arun,40);
values(xyz,Kiran,40);
values(abc,NULL,40);
***4.FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINS or REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY:

These constraints establish relationship between tables.
This relationship is called as parent and child relationship. It is also
called master detail relationship.
A foreign key column in the child table will only accept values which
are their the primary key column or unique column of parent table.
Creating the parent table:
Create table school(sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3),
primary key(sno));
Insert Rows parent table:
Insert into school values(101,Arun,90);
Insert into school values(102,Kiran,92);
Insert into school values(103,Amit,45);
Creating the child table:
Create table library(sno number(3) REFERENCES school(sno),
Book_name varchar2(10));
Insert Rows child table:
Insert into library values(102,java);
Insert into library values(103,c++);
Page 26 of 110
Insert into library values(103,oracle);

Insert into library values(108,dotnet); //error
Insert into library values(Null,DBA); //valid
Foreign key column name need not match with primary key column
name or unique column name. But the data type should match.
To establish relationship it is mandatory that the parent table should
have primary key constraint or at least unique constraints.
Delete from school where sno = 101;
1 row deleted
Delete from school where sno = 102; //error
Message: child record found
Note: we can not delete to the row from the parent table in the
corresponding value existing child table.
*Using on delete cascade:
When using on delete cascade. We can delete the rows from the
parent table and the corresponding child table rows deleted
automatically.
Create the parent table:
Create table school1(sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3),
primary key(sno));
Insert Row parent table:
Insert into school1 values(101,Arun,90);
Insert into school1 values(102,Kiran,92);
Insert into school1 values(103,Amit,45);
Create table library1(sno number(3) REFERENCES school1(sno)
on delete cascade,
Insert into library1 values(102,java);
Insert into library1 values(103,c++);
Page 27 of 110
Insert into library1 values(103,oracle);

Insert into library1 values(108,dotnet); //error
Insert into library1 values(Null,DBA); //valid
Delete from student1 where sno = 101; //valid
1 row deleted
Delete from student1 where sno = 102; //valid
1 row deleted
One row will be deleting from parent table.
One row will be deleting from child table automatically.
*On delete set null: When delete the row from parent table. The
corresponding value will be changed to null.
Create the parent table:
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3),
primary key(sno));
Create table library2(sno number(3) REFERENCESschool2(sno)
on delete set null,
Insert into library2 values(102,java);
Insert into library2 values(103,c++);
Insert into library2 values(103,oracle);
Insert into library2 values(108,dotnet); //error
Insert into library2 values(Null,DBA); //valid
Delete from school2 where sno = 102; //valid
One row from parent table is deleted.
Foreign key column value 102 is changed to null.
Page 28 of 110
*Create foreign key constraint at table level:

Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3),
primary key(sno));

Create table library3(Rollno number(3),
Book_name varchar2(10),
Foreign key (Rollno)
REFERENCES school3(sno) on
delete cascade);
*Check constraint: Check constraint is used to define domain of a
column. Domain of column means values a column can store.
Create table student4(sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student4 values(101,ARUN,66);
*Domain: Create table student5(sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3)
check(marks <=100));
Insert into student5 values(103,ARUN,160); //Error
Msg: check constraint violated
Page 29 of 110
Insert into student5 values(101,ARUN,-160);

Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3) check(marks
between 0 AND 100));
Insert into student6 values(101,ARUN,160);//Error
Sname varchar2(10);
Marks number(3),
City
varchar2(10)
IN(HYDERABAD,CHENNAI,DELHI));
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
into
into
into
into
student7
student7
student7
student7
check(city
values(101,ARUN,66,HYDERABAD);
values(101,ARUN,66,DELHI);
values(101,ARUN,66,CHENNAI);
values(101,ARUN,66,NELLORE); //Error

Sname varchar2(10) check(Sname =
upper(sname)),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student8 values(101,ARUN,60);// Valid
Insert into student8 values(101,ARuN,60);// error
Insert into student8 values(101,arun,60);// error
*Check constraint at table level:
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3),
Check (sname = upper(Sname)));
Note: Every constraint will have a constraint name in the format of
SYS_Cn(where N is number).
Ex: SYS_c004525, SYS_c004526
Page 30 of 110
*Data Dictionary tables:

Select TABLE_NAME, CONSTRAINT_NAME,CONSTRINT_TYPE from
USER_CONSTRAINT;
Set of predefined table which constraints meta data information are
called as data dictionary table.
Ex: USER_CONSTRAINT
Query to find constraint_name and constraint_type of the table.
Select TABLE_NAME, CONSTRAINT_NAME, CONSTRAINT_TYPE from
USER_CONSTRINT where TABLE_NAME = student5; or student7;
We can also provide user defined constraint_name
Ex:
Create table student9(sno number(3) CONSTRAINT MY_UN
UNIQUE,
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(10));
In the above query MY_UN is the constraint_name.
*ALTER:
*Adding Constraints: Alter command is used to add a constraint to
an Existing table.
Ex:
Create table Student10(sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
ALTER table student10 ADD(Primary key(Sno));
*Dropping a constraint:
Alter command is used to drop a constraint to an existing table.
Ex:
Alter table student10 DROP Primary key;
*Unique Constraint:
Page 31 of 110
Ex:
Create table Student11(sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
ALTER table student11 ADD(Unique(sno));
ALTER table student11 DROP Unique(Sno);
***JOINS: joins are used to retrieve the data from multiple tables.
Types of Joins:
1. EQUI_JOIN
2. NON EQUI_JOIN
3. SELF JOIN
4. OUTER JOIN
4.1
Right outer join
4.2
Left outer join
4.3
Full outer join
1.EQUI_JOIN: when tables are joined basing on a common column it
is called EQUI_JOIN.
Ex: select empno, ename, dname
from emp, dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno;
output:
7369
7499
7521
EMPNO
SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
ENAME
DNAME
RESEARCH
SALES
SALES
Note:
We need to mention join conditions in the where clause.
In EQUI_JOINS we along use to equal to operator in join
condition.
Ex:
Selete empno, ename, sal, job, dname, loc
from emp, dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno;
Page 32 of 110
Selete empno, ename, sal, deptno, dname, loc

from emp, dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno;// error
Selete empno, ename, sal, emp.deptno, dname, loc
from emp, dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno; //valid
Note: we need to mention table name dot column(emp.deptno)
name for the common column to resolve the any table.
The common column can be retrieved from any of the table.
We can filter the data from the result of join.
Ex:
Select empno, ename, sal, emp.deptno, dname, loc
from emp, dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno AND sal >
2000;
To improve the performance of the join we need mention table name
dot column name for all the columns.
Ex:
Select emp.empno, emp.ename, emp.sal,emp.deptno,
dept.dname, dept.loc
from emp,dept
where emp.deptno = dept.deptno AND sal >
2000;
*Table alias:
Table alias is an alternate name given to a table.
By using a table alias length of the table reduces and at the same
time performance is maintains.
Table alias are create in same clause can be used in select clause as
well as where clause.
Table alias is temporary once the query is executed the table alias are
losed.
Ex:
Select E.Empno, E.Ename, E.sal, E.deptno, D.Dname, D.loc
from emp E, Dept D
where E.deptno = D.deptno;
*Join the multiple tables(3 tables):
Select * from Areas;
Page 33 of 110
City
State
Newyork AP
Dallas
Mh
Ex: Select E.empno, E.ename, E.sal,D.dname,A.state from emp E,
dept D, Areas A
where E.deptno = D.deptno AND D.loc = A.city;
Note: To join n tables we need n-1 conditions.
*NON EQUI JOIN: When we do not use NON EQUI JOIN to operator in
the join condition is NON EQUI JOIN.
Ex:
Select * from SALGRADE;
GRADE
LOSAL
HISAL
1
700
1200
2
1201
1400
3
1401
2000
4
2001
3000
5
3001
9999
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, s.grade from emp e, salgrade s
where e.sal BETWEEN s.losal AND hisal;
EMPNO
7369
7876
7900
ENAME
SMITH
ADAMS
JAMES
GRADE
1
1
2
Select e.empno, e.ename, s.grade from emp e, salgrade s

where e.sal BETWEEN s.losal AND s.hisal AND s.grade = 4;
*SELF JOIN: When a table is joining to it self it is called self join. In
self joins we need to create two table aliases for the same table.
Select empno, ename, job, mgr, from emp;
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.job, m.ename from emp e, emp m
where e.mgr = m.empno;
Empno
Ename
7902
7869
Ename
FORD
SCOTT
ANALYST
CLERK
Page 34 of 110
JONES
JONES
Job
7900
JAMES
SALESMAN BLAKE
*CARTESIAN PRODUCT:
When tables are joined without any join condition it is called
Cartesian product. In the result we get all possible combination.
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname, d.loc
from emp e, dept d; //14*4=56 rows are selected
*ANSI JOINS: They are the three types.
1. Inner joins: It is same as Equi join.
Ex:
from emp e INNER JOIN dept d ON(e.deptno = d.deptno);
2.NATURAL JOIN: It is same as Equi join.
Ex:
Select empno, ename, sal, deptno, dname,loc from NATURAL
JOIN dept;
3.CROSS PRODUCT/CROSS JOIN: It is same as Cartesian product.
Ex:
from emp e CROSS JOIN dept d; //14*4 = 56 rows are
displayed.
*DEFAULT:
Ex:
Create table stu1(sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3) default 100,
Doj Date DEFAULT sysdate);
Insert into stu1(sno, sname) values(101,malli);
Insert into stu1 values(102,ARUN,40,11-JAN-09);
Insert into stu1 values (103,KIRAN,NULL,12-FEB-10);
SNO SNAME MARKS
DOJ
101
malli
100
26-JUN-12
102
ARUN 40
11-JAN-09
103
KIRAN
12-FEB-10
Page 35 of 110
*SUPER KEY: Combination of columns which can be used unique key

identify every row is called as super key.
Table
object
Column
Attributes
Row
Tuple/Record
*OUTER JOINS: It is extension of EQUI JOINS.
In outer joins we get match as well as non matching rows.
(+) This called as outer join operator.
1. RIGHT OUTER JOIN:
SQL Syntax:
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname,
d.loc
from emp e, dept d
where e.deptno(+) = d.deptno; //14 + 1 = 15
rows
empno
7900
8963
6798
ename
james
adams
adams
sal
950
1400
2000
deptno
30
20
10
dname
sales
clerk
sales
anaylist
loc
chicago
newyork
india
ap
*ANSI SYNTAX OF RIGHT OUTER JOIN:

ANSI SYSTAX:
from emp e RIGHT OUTER JOIN dept d ON(e.deptno =
d.deptno);
2. LEFT OUTER JOIN:
SQL Syntax:
Select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.dname,
d.loc
from emp e, dept d
where e.deptno = d.deptno(+); //14+3 = 17
row displayed
ANSI SYNTAX OF LEFT OUTER JOIN:
ANSI SYNTAX:
from emp e LEFT OUTER JOIN dept d ON(e.deptno
= d.deptno);
Page 36 of 110
3. FULL OUTER JOIN:

ANSI SYNTAX:
from emp e FULL OUTER JOIN dept d ON(e.deptno =
d.deptno);
//14 + 2 + 3 = 19 rows are displayed.
*SET OPERATORS: Set operators are used to retrieve the data from
multiple tables.
They are different types.
1. UNION:
Select * form student10;
Sno
sname
marks
101
Arun
40
102
Arun
50
103
Arun
69
Select * from student20;
Sno
sname
marks
103
Arun
90
104
Arun
60
Union Syntax: (no duplicates)
Select sno from student 10
Union
104
Select sno from student 20;
//0/p sno: 101 102 103
2. UNION ALL:
Union All Syntax: (All rows)
Union All
// o/p sno: 101 102 103
103 104
3. INSERT SECT:
Insert Sect Syntax: (common rows)
Insert Sect
4. MINUS:
Page 37 of 110
// o/p sno: 103

Minus
Minus
Select sno from student10;
//o/p sno: 101,102
// o/p sno: 104
RULES OF SET OPERATORS:

1. Number of columns used in the query should match.
2. Column data type should match for the queries in set operators.
Select empno from emp
Union
Select sno from student10
Union
Select deptno from dept;
// valid
INTERVIES QUESTIONS
1. What is need for Integrity constraint?
Constrains are rules which are applied on tables.
2. List out types of constraints?
They are 5 types NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN
KEY, and CHECK.
3. In how many level constraints can be created?
Those are two levels i.e. column level and table level.
4. Which can constraint can be created?
The constraint created not null.
5. Dose not null constraints accept duplicate values?
Yes
6. Which constraint is used to unique for every row in the table?
Primary key
7. What is composite primary key?
When primary key is applied on multiple columns it is called
composite primary key. Composite primary key can be applied
only at table level.
Page 38 of 110
8. Can a table name two primary key?

It is not possible.
9. What is foreign key constraint explain?
This foreign key is a established in parent table and child table
relationship.
10. Can we establish a parent & child relationship without having
constraint in the parent table?
On
11. Con you explain change related to foreign key on delete
cascade on delete set null constraint?
Foreign key column in the child table will only accept values
which are their the primary key column or unique column.
We can delete the rows from the parent table and the
corresponding child table rows deleted automatically.
When we delete row from parent table. The corresponding
values will be changed to null.
12. Does every constraint it have constraint name?
13. How can you know constraint name and combination type
apply for a table?
By using user constraint.
14.
Is their any different when a constraint is a created at
column level or table level?
No difference.
15.
Can you provide user defined constraint name?
Yes
16.
What are data dictionary tables?
Predefined tables or user constraints
17.
What is the need for join?
To retrieve the multiple tables
18.
What is EQUI join?
When tables are joined basing on a common column it is called
EQUI_JOIN.
19.
How many conditions are required to join n tables?

Page 39 of 110
We need to n-1 conditions.

20.
How can be display matching as well as non matching
rows?
By using outer joins.
21.
What is outer join operator?
(+)
22.
What is Cartesian product?
All possible in the table matching
23.
What is difference between union and union all?
The union set operator display only original values and union all
set operator is display all values. Duplicate values also.
**TCL (Transaction Control Language): It is collection of three
commands. They are
1. COMMIT
2. ROLLBACK
3. SAVE POINT
*Commit: This command is used to make changes permanent to the
data base.
Syntax: COMMIT;
Ex:
Create table student(sno number(3),
Name varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student values(301,Kiran,69);
Insert into student values(302,Naga,69);
Name varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student1 values(301,Kiran,69);
Page 40 of 110
Insert into student1 values(302,Naga,69);

COMMIT;
In three ways we can make changes permanent to the data base.
1. By using command COMMIT
2. By using DDL command
3. By using the environment using EXIT command
*ROLLBACK: The rollback will undo the changes which are not
permanent.
Syntax:
ROLLBACK;
Ex:
Name varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
COMMIT;
Select * from student2; //display 5 rows
ROLLBACK;
Select * from student2; //display 3 rows there are permanently
*SAVE POINT: Save points are logical marking given for series of
transaction.
Instead of complete rollback we can rollback to a save point.
Syntax: SAVEPOINT<SAVEPOINT_NAME>;
Ex:
Name varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Page 41 of 110
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
Insert
into
into
into
into
into
student3
student3
student3
student3
student3
values(301,Kiran,69);
values(302,Naga,69);
values(304,Kiran,69);
SAVEPOINT A;
//8 rows displayed
ROLLBACK;
//5 rows are displayed

Name varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
SAVEPOINT P;
SAVEPOINT Q;
ROLLBACK;
// 6 rows
//0 rows
Page 42 of 110
Note: All the save points are lost when the DB is permanent.
***DCL (Data Control Language):
They are two Data Control Languages.
1. GRANT
2. REVOKE
Schema: Schema is a memory location which is associated to a user.
It is collection of objects.
Privilege: privileges are permissions (rights given to a user)
They are two types of privileges.
1. System Privileges
2. Object Privileges
*System Privileges: These privileges are given by DBA to user.
*Object Privileges: These Privileges are given by one user to
another user.
*GRANT: Grant command is used to Grant the privileges to the user.
Syntax:
GRANT <PRIVILEGE_NAME1>,<PRIVILEGE_NAME2> TO
<USER_NAME>;
Ex:
Create user kiran IDENTIFIED by kiran123;
Create user naga IDENTIFIED by naga123;
DBA> GRANT CONNECT, RESOURCE to kiran;
*Object Privileges: These privileges are given by one user to
another user.
KIRAN
DBA
AJAY
Page 43 of 110
KIRAN> create table student(Sno number(3),

Name varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
KIRAN> insert into student values(101,Arun,99);
KIRAN> insert into student values(101,Anil,97);
KIRAN> insert into student values(101,Anitha,95);
COMMIT;
AJAY> select * from student; //There is no response
KIRAN> GRANT select ON student TO AJAY; // KIRAN given privileges
to AJAY
Examples of object privileges are select, insert, update, drop and
alter etc.
KIRAN> GRANT insert, update ON student TO AJAY;
AJAY> insert into KIRAN.student values(104,Nandini,89);
AJAY> update KIRAN.student set sno = 102 where ename = Arun;
KIRAN> GRANT ALL ON student TO AJAY,ANIL;
KIRAN> GRANT select ON student TO public;
**REVOKE: This command is used to get back the privileges which
are granted.
Syntax:
REVOKE<privilege_name><privilege_name>
ON
<table_name> from <user_name>;
Ex:
KIRAN> REVOKE select, insert ON student from AJAY;
KIRAN> REVOKE ALL ON student from AJAY_ANIL;
KIRAN> REVOKE select ON student from public;
**DML (data manipulation language)
MERGE: MERGE command is used as a combination of insert and
update.
Select * from student10; // 3 rows are displayed
SNO SNAME MARKS
Page 44 of 110
101
102
103
Arun
Anil
Kiran
30
40
50
Select
SNO
101
105
* from student20; // 2 rows are selected

SNAME MARKS
James 90
Smith 50
KIRAN> merge into student10 s1

2>
using student20 s2
3>
on(s1.sno = s2.sno)
4>
when matched
5>
then updated set sname = s2, sname, marks = s2, marks
6>
when not matched
7>
then insert(sno, sname, marks) values(s2.sno, s2.sname,
s2.marks);
o/p: 2
SNO
101
102
103
105
rows merge
SNAME MARKS
James 90
Anil
40
Kiran
50
Smith 50
Note: There will be no changes student20 table.

Delete from emp where ename = null;
Select * from emp where eno = 7369 or eno = 7499 or eno = 7521;
Select * from emp where eno IN(7369,7499,7521);
**PSEUDO COLUMNS:
1. ROWNUM: It is ROWNUM is a pseudo column which starts with
one and increment by 1. (1 and 1+1)
Ex:
Select Rownum, empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp;
Rownum values are temporary.
Rownum values are generated when query is executed.
Rownum values generation always starts with one
increment by one.
Page 45 of 110
and
*Query to display first three rows from emp table?

Select * from emp where Rownum <=3;
*write a query to display 5th row of emp table?
Select * from emp where Rownum <=5
Minus
Select * from emp where Rownum <=4; //5th row is display
*write a query to display 3rd row to 7th row?
Select * from emp where Rownum <=7
Minus
Select * from emp where Rownum <=2; //3rd to 7th row display
**ROWID:
ROWID is pseudo column which contains hexadecimal values.
ROWID value indicates the address where the row is store in the
database.
ROWID values are permanent.
Ex:
Select ROWID, empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp;
*Difference between ROWNUM and ROWID?
ROWNUM
ROWID
1.Rownum values starts with 1 and
1. Rowids are hexadecimal
values.
increment by one.
2.Rownum values are temporary.
2. Rowid values are
permanent.
3.Rownum values are generated
3. The Rowid values are
generated when
when query is exiecuted.
Row is created or
inserted.
Create table student(Sno number(3),
Sname varchar2(10),
Marks number(3));
Insert into student values(101,Arun60);
Page 46 of 110

Delete from student where Rownum IN(1,2,3); // this is not right query
Select Rowid, sno, sname, marks from student;
Select min(Rowid) from student;
Select min(Rowid) from student group by sno;
*Subqueries:
Subqueries are used to get the result based on unknown values. They
are different type.
1. Single Row subquery
2. Multiple Row subquery
3. Multiple column subquery
4. Co-related subquery
5. Scalar subquery
6. Inline view
*Single Row Subquery:
When subquery returns one row (1 value). It is called Single
RowSubquery.
Ex: write a query to display details are having salary > ALLENS sal ?
Select * from emp where sal > (select sal from emp where ename =
ALLEN);
o/p: 1600
Note:
Subqueries should always place in the inside.
Subqueries are executed first and then parent query is executed by
using the result of sub query.
Level Two query:
Select * from emp where job = (select job from emp where ename =
ALLEN)
AND job = (select job from emp where ename = BLAKE);
Level Three query:
Select * from emp where sal > (select sal from emp
Where ename = (select ename from emp
Where empno = 7499));
Page 47 of 110
Note: The above query is three level query.

Sub query can be nested upto 32 levels.
**Multiple Row Subquery:
When subquery returns multiple rows. It is called multiple row salary.
Note: we should multiple row operators with multiple row subqueries.
They are three multiple row operators.
1. IN
2. ANY
3. ALL
*ALL: Select * from emp
Where sal > ALL(Select sal from emp
Where deptno = 30);
Empno
ename job
7369 SMITH salesman 2975
7860 ALLEAN ANALYST 3000
sal
Ex: Select * from emp where sal < ALL(1600,2500,1250,3000,950);

*ANY: Select * from emp where sal > ANY(select sal from emp
where deptno = 30);
Select * from emp where sal < Any(select sal from emp where deptno
= 30);
*IN: Select * from emp where ename IN(ALLEN, KING,FORD);
Select * from emp where sal IN(select sal from emp where deptno =
30);
*MULTIPLE COLUMN SUBQUERY:
When subquery return more then one column. It is called multiple
column subquery.
We should use in operator with multiple column subqueries.
Ex:
Page 48 of 110
Select * from emp where(job,sal) IN(select job, sal from emp where
deptno = 30);
o/p:
Job
sal
salesman
manager
salesman
1600
1250
2850
Note: In the o/p we get the rows when both the values are matching.
Delete some valuesu:
Select min(rowid) from student group by sno;
Select max(rowid) from student group by sno;
Delete from student
where rowid not
IN(select min(rowid) from
student group by sno);
*write a query to display the row from emp table who is having the
highest salary?
Select * from emp where sal = (select max(sal) from emp);
*write a query to display all the rows who are having salary grater
than AVG salary of emp table?
Select * from emp where sal >(select AVG(sal) from emp);
*write a query to display all deptno AVG salary?
Select deptno, AVG(sal) from emp group by deptno;
*Co-RELATED SUBQUERY:
When subquery is executed in relation to parent query, it is called corelated subquery.
*write a query to display all the rows who are having salary grater
than AVG salary his department?
Select AVG(sal) from emp;
Select * from emp where sal > (select AVG(sal) from emp group by
deptno); //invalid
Page 49 of 110
Select * from emp where sal > (select AVG(sal) from emp where
deptno = 10);
***Select * from emp e
where sal > (select AVG(sal) from emp where deptno =
e.deptno);
o/p:
sal
1600
2975
2850
3000
5000
3000
deptno
30
20
30
20
10
20
The above example is a co-related subquery.

In co-related subquery, parent query is executed first and then
subquery is executed in relation to result of parent query.
*SCALAR subquery: when we use subquery in the select clause. It is
called as Scalar subquery.
*write a query to display following output?
Deptno
Dname
loc
sumsal
10
Accounting New York 8750
20
Research
Dallas
10875
30
Sales
Chicago 9400
40
Operations Boston
-----Select deptno, dname, loc, (Select sum(sal) from emp where deptno
= d.deptno)
Sum_sal from dept d;
Scalar subquery are also called sub select.
*INLINE VIEW:
When a subquery is used in from clause. It is called INLINE view.
Select Rownum, empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp;
Select * from emp;
Page 50 of 110
Select * from emp ORDER BY sal desc;

*write a query to display details of employees who are having top 5
salaries?
Select * from emp where Rownum <=5 ORDER BY sal desc;
Select * from (select * from emp ORDER BY sal desc) where rownum
<=5;
*write a query to display details of 5th highest salary?
Select * from (select * from emp ORDER BY sal desc)
where rownum <=5)
minus
Select * from (select * from emp ORDER BY sal desc)
where rownum <=4;
clause
select yes
from yes
where yes
group by no
having
order by no
subcaluse
scalar
inline
yes
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are pseudo columns?
It is rownum is a pseudo column which starts with one and
increment by 1.
2. Write a query to display first n rows from the table?
Select rownum, empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp;
3. What are different between rownum and rowid?
Rownum
Rowid
Rownum values starts with 1
Rowids are hexadecimal
values.
and increment by one.
Rownum values are temporary.
Rowid values are
permanent.
Rownum values are generated
The Rowid values are
generated when
when query is executed.
row is created or inserted.
Page 51 of 110
4. Write query to delete duplicate rows from the table?

Delete from student where Rowid Not IN(select min(Rowid)
from student group by sno);
5. write a query to display the first five of highest?
Select * from(select * from emp ORDER BY sal desc) where
rownum <=5)
Minus
Select * from(select * from emp ORDER BY sal desc) where
rownum <=4);
6. Explain about correlated subquery?
When subquery is executed in relation to parent query, it is
called correlated subquery.
7. Whar are multiple row operators?
IN
ANY
ALL
8. Explain scalar subquery?
When we use sub query in the select clause it is called scalar
subquery.
9. Explain inline view?
When a sub query is used inform clause it is called inline view.
*views: view is a logical representation of data from one or more
then one table.
They are different types
Simple views
Complex views
Read only views
With check option views
Materialized views
*Single views: when view is created using one base table it is called
as Single view.
Sybtax:
Create view<view_name> as <select STMT>;
Ex:
Page 52 of 110
Create view v1 as select empno, ename, sal from emp;

View does not contain any data.
View does not consume memory location.
When we write select statement on view, we get the data from the
table.
Ex: Select * from v1;
Empno
7369
7499
-------------
Ename
Smith
Allen
-----------
Sal
800
1600
-----------
Tables which are used for creating the view are called as above
tables.
Select * from TAB; will gives list of all the tables and view which are
the data base tables.
Ex:
Create view emp_V10 AS select empno, ename, sal, deptno, from
emp
where deptno =
10;
emp
where deptno =
20;
emp
where deptno =
30;
Select * from V10;
Select * from V20;
Select * from V30;
We can perform DML operations on simple views.
Any DML operation performed on simple view will be reflected on
base table.
To see the structure of the table.
Page 53 of 110
Ex:
DESC V1
Name Null
Empno
Ename
Sal
Type
Notnull
number(4)
varchar2(10)
number(7,2)
*Query to see only view tables?

Select view_name from user_views;
Outputs: V1, emp_v10, emp_20, emp_30, V5
user_views is an example of data dictionary table.
Create view test_v6 as select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp
where deptno = 30;
Select * from Test_v6;
// 6 rows are selected
Insert into Test_v6 values(6868, Anil,2000,10);
// 6 rows are selected
Select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp where deptno = 30;
View_name
Test_v6
Text
select empno, ename, sal, deptno
from emp where deptno = 30;
In user_view from the database we get list of all the view and
corresponding select statement used for the view.
Select view_name, Text from user_views;
*Complex view:
When a view is created using multiple base tables it is called Complex
view.
Ex:
Create view Test_v7
As select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno,
d.dname, d.loc from emp e, dept d where e.deptno =
d.deptno;
insert into Test_v7 values(7878,ravi,9000,40,HR,HYD);
msg: DML operations are not allowed in complex views.
Create view Test_v8
Page 54 of 110
// Error
As select empno, ename, sal, sal*12 from emp; // Error

Create view Test_v8
As select empno, ename, sal, sal*12 Annual_sal from emp;
Insert into Test_v8 values(1212,GMR,1000,12000);
// Error
Create view Test_v9
As select empno, ename, Lower(ename) Name from emp;
A view is called as complex view when we use arithmetic operations
an functions are group by clauses.
Create view Test_v10
As select deptno, sum(sal) sum_sal from emp group by deptno;
***Different between simple and complex views?
Simple view
Complex view
1. Created by using only one table.
1. Created by using multiple
tables.
2. DML operations are allowed.
2. DML operations are not
allowed.
3. Should not be created using
3. Can be created using
arithmetic
arithmetic operations or functions
operations or functions or
group by
or group by clauses.
clauses.
*Read Only View:
We can restrict DML operation views by creating read only view.
Ex:
Create view v3
As select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp with read only;
Select * from v3;
Insert into v3 values(3131,ABC,10000,60); // Error
Create or replace clause is used to change definition of the view.
Create or replace view v4
As select empno, ename, sal, deptno, job from emp;
*With Check Option View:
These views will allow DML operation only when where condition is
satisfied.
Page 55 of 110
Create view Test_V12

As select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp
Where deptno = 30
With check option;
Insert into Test_V12 values(666,AAA,4000,30);
Insert into Test_V12 values(888,AAA,4000,10);
// valid
// error (invalid)

As select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp
Where sal > 2000
With check option;
Select * from Test_V13;
Insert into Test_V13 values(6969,AAA,3100,10); // valid
Insert into Test_V13 values(6955,AAA1510,10); // Invalid
Update Test_V13 set sal = 4000 where empno = 7566; //valid
Update Test_V13 set sal = 1100 where empno = 7902; // invalid
*materialized view:
Materialized views will help improving the performance of select
statement on view.
To create materialized view, the based table should have primary key.
Changes to base table will not reflect on materialized view.
Materialized view or previously called as snap short.
Ex:
As select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp;
As select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno,d.dname,d.loc
from emp e, dept d where e.deptno = d.deptno;
select * from Test_V14;
select * from Test_V15;
//performance fast
//performance fast two tables
Syntax:
Create MATERIALIZED view <VIEW_NAME> AS <select STMT>;
Ex:
Page 56 of 110
Create materialized view MV1

As select empno, ename, sal, deptno from emp;
Select * from MV1;
*To Refresh materialized View:
Sql> exec DBMS_SNAPSHOT.REFRESH(MV1);
Select * from MV1;
DBMS_SNAPSHOT-PACKAGE NAME
REFRESH ---procedures
Select view_name from user_views; //
All view tables are display
*To Drop a view:

Syntax:
Drop view <view_name>;
Ex:
Drop view Test_V14;
When base tables are drop, the view becomes invalid.
When base tables are re_created view will become valid.
***INDEX:
Index is an object which is used to improve the performance of select
statements.
Types of Indexes: They are two types of Indexes.
1. Simple Index
2. Composite Index
1.Simple Index:
When index is created on one column it is called as simple
index.
Syntax:
CREATE INDEX <INDEX_NAME> ON <TABLE_NAME>
(COL_NAME);
Ex:
Create index IDX1 on emp(sal);
Index should be created on columns which we regularly use in the
where clause.
Page 57 of 110
When a index is created a separate structure is created with first

column is ROWID and second column as indexed column.
The Rows in the index will be arranged in the ascending order of
indexed column.
IDX1
ROWID
of ROWIDs
SAL
800
950
1100
1250
1600
Using algorithm is identifies the back

Using which rows are displayed.
5000
*Composite Index: when Index is created multiple columns it is

called composite index.
Ex: create index IDX2 on emp(sal,job);
The above index IDX2 is used only when both the columns are used in
the where clause.
Disadvantages of index:
Index will consume memory.
The performance of DML command will be decreased.
Index can also be categorized two types:
1. Unique index
2. Non-unique index
*Unique Index:
If the indexed column contains unique value it is called unique index.
A unique index is automatically created. When we create a table with
primary key constraint or unique constraint.
*Non-unique index:
If an index column contains duplicated values they are called as nonunique index.
Ex:
Create index IDX1 on emp(sal);
Page 58 of 110
See to index tables:

Select index_name, from user_indexes;
*Query to see list of all the indexes.
Select index_name, table_name from user_indexes;
*Query to see list of all the indexes along with column name.
Select index_name, table_name, column_name from
user_ind_columns;
Desc user_indexes
Desc user_ind_columns
*function based index:
When index is created by using functions it is called as function based
index.
Ex:
Create index indexs on emp (lower(ename));
The index is used only when use the appropriate function in the
where clause function.
Select * from emp where lower(ename) = king;
To drop on index:
Ex:
Drop INDEX IDX1;
*Sequences: sequence is an object which is used to generate
numbers.
Syn:
Create sequence <SEQUENCE_NAME> start with <value>
increment by <value>;
Ex:
Create sequence SE1 start with 1 increment by 1;
Ex:
Create sequence SE4 start with 1000 increment by 1 maxvalue
5000 cycle;
*Using the Sequence: There are two pseudo to sequence.
Page 59 of 110
1. NEXTVAL
2. CURRVAL
*NEXTVAL: Nextval is used to generate a number.
*CURRVAL: Currval is used to know the latest number generated.
Create sequence SE5 start with 101 increment by 1;
Insert into student7 values(SE5.NEXTVAL,Arun,60);
Insert into student7 values(SE5.NEXTVAL,Amit61);
Sequence is a sharable object.
When sequence is shared we get gaps in numbers.
Example of CURRVAL: To know the latest value generated.
Ex:
Select SE5.CURRVAL from dual;
Sequence with cache option will help in generating the numbers
faster.
Ex:
Create sequence SE6 start with 1000 increment by 1 maxvalue
10000 cycle cache 40;
Cache option will help in improving the performance of sequence.
*Synonym: it is an alternate name given to an object.
Syntax: create synonym <Synonym_name> for <Table_name);

Ex:
Create synonym E1 for emp;
Synonym helps in reducing the length of the query.
Synonym is used instead of table names for all the commands.
Ex:
Select * from E1;
Query to see all synonyms:
SQL> select synonym_name from user_synonyms;
To drop a synonym:
SQL> DROP SYNONYM E1;
Object of Oracle:
Page 60 of 110
1. Table
2. View
3. Index
4. Sequences
5. Synonyms
Synonym Objects of PL/SQL:
1. PROCEDURE
2. FUNCTION
3. PACKAGE
4. TRIGGER
Normalization: Normalization is process of removing redundancy
and improving accurency of the database. Normalization can be
achieved by using normal forms.
*1st Normal form (1NF): A database is in 1NF if it satisfies following
rules.
Rule1: Each cell should have one value.
Rule2: Table should have primary key.
Ex: Author ID
Author Name
Book Name
PRIMARY
KEY
Book Cost
Author ID
A101
IVAN
SQL
200/Author Name
A101
IVAN
PLSQL
250/-
*2nd Second Normal form (2NF): A database is in 2NF if it satisfies

following rules.
Rule1: Database should be in 1NF.
Rule2: There should be no partial dependency.
Partial dependency: When a non-key attribute is dependent on part
of a primary key. Then these exists partial dependency. The following
table is satisfying 2NF rules.
PRIMARY KEY
Part ID
Supplier ID
S Name
Address
65
2
TATA
59
Bangalore
73
2
TATA
60
Price
Page 61 of 110
Partial dependency
In the above table S Name (non key attribute) is depending on
supplier ID (part of primary key). Hence these exists partial
dependency. We can eliminate partial dependency by dividing the
table into two different tables. The following tables are satisfying 2NF
rules.
Primary key
Primary key
Part ID Supplier ID
Price
65
2
59
73
2
60
Supplier ID S Name
Address
2
TATA
Bangalore1
BIRLA
*3rd Normal form (3NF): A database is in 3NF if it satisfies the

following rules.
Rule1: Database should be in 2nd NF.
Rule2: These should be no transitive dependency.
Transitive dependency: When a non key attribute is dependent on
another non key attribute then these Exists transitive dependency the
following table is not satisfying PART
3rd NF
NO rules.
MANFNAME
MANFADDRESS
Primary key
1000
AVENUE
1001
TOYOTA
PARK
MISTUBUSHI
LOS
In the above table manufacture address (non key) is dependent of

manufacture name (non key). Hence there exists transitive
dependency.
We can eliminate transitive dependencies by dividing the table into
two different tables.
Primary key
Part no
MenufName
1000
1001
Mistubushi
Toyota
ManfName
ManfAddress
Toyota
Park
Avenue
Inter view Questions:
Page 62 of 110
1. What is view?
A view is a logical representation of data from one or more then
one table.
2. List of different between single views and complex views?
3. In which cases a view is called complex view?
When a view is created using multiple base tables it is
called complex view.
4. How can we restrict DML operations on simple views?
We can perform DML operations on simple views. Any DML
operation performance on simple view will be reflected on base
table.
5. What is with check option view?
These views will allow DML operation only when where condition
is satisfied.
6. Do you think view contains data?
View does not contain any data.
View does not consume memory location.
When we write select statement on view, we get the data from
the table.
7. What is a data dictionary table used to see the list of view?
8. What is a materialized view?
Materialized views will help improving the performance of select
statement on view.
9. What is the advantage of index?
Index is an object which is used to improve the performance of
select statements.
10. What is the disadvantage of index?
Index will consume memory.
The performance of DML command will be decreased.
11. What is unique index?
If the indexed column contains unique value it is called unique
index.
A unique index is automatically created. When we create a table
with primary key constraint or unique constraint.
Page 63 of 110
12. What is sequence?

Sequence is an object is used to generate numbers.
13. What is different between simple index and composite index?
14. What are pseudo columns related to sequence?
15. When can we have gaps in sequence?
16. What is a synonym?
It is an alternate name given to an object.
17. What is different between table alias and synonym?
CODD RULES: These rules are developed by Mr.s E F CODD.
If a DBMS satisfies at least 6 rules out of 12 then it is called as
RDBMS.
Rule 1: The information rule:
All information in the data type is to be represented in one and only
one way, in the form of rows and columns.
Rule 2: The guarantied access rule:
If you can insert, you should able to select.
Rule 3: Systematic treatment of null values:
The DBMS must allow each field to remain null (or empty) specifically,
It must support a representation of missing information ad
inapplicable information.
Rule 4: Achieve online catalog based on the relational model:
Users must be able to access the data bases structure (catalog)
using the same query language that they use to access the data
bases data.
Rule 5: The comprehensive data sub language rule:
Language should be divided into several sub language basing on
activities the command will perform.
Rule 6: The view updating rule:
Page 64 of 110
All views that are theoretically update must be update table by the
system.
Rule 7: High-level insert, update, and delete:
This rule states that insert, update and delete operations should be
supported for any retrievable set rather then just for a single row in a
single table.
Rule 8: Physical data independence:
Changes to the physical level (How the data is stored, whether in
arrays or linked lists etc.) must not require a change on application
based on the structure.
Rule 9: Logical data independence:
Changes to the logical level (tables, columns, rows, and so on) must
not require a change to an application based on the structure.
Rule 10: Integrity independence:
This rule says that, it must be possible to change such constrains as
and when appropriate without unnecessarily a selecting existing
application.
Rule 11: Distribution independences:
The distribution of portions of the database to various locations
should be invisible to users of the database.
Rule 12: The non subversion rule:
If the system provides a low-level (record-at-a-time) interface, then
that interface cannot the used to subvert (degrade) the system.
*Script: A script is a file which is collection of commands same with
extension .SQL
To run the script @D:\malli\FIRST.SQL
Page 65 of 110
***PL/SQL***
It is extension of SQL the following or advantages of PL/SQL.
1. We can use programming features like if statement loops etc.
2. PL/SQL helps in reducing network traffic.
3. We can have user defined error massages by using concept of
exception handling.
4. We can perform related actions by using concept of Triggers.
5. We can save the source code permanently for repeated
execution.
PL/SQL Block:
A PL/SQL programs called as PL/SQL block.
Page 66 of 110
PL/SQL Block:
DECLARE
------------------------------------------------- --DECLARE SECTION --OPTIONAL
------------------------BEGIN
------------------------------------------------- --EXECUTABLE SECTION --MANDATORY
------------------------EXCEPTION
------------------------------------------------- --EXCEPTION SECTION --OPTIONAL
------------------------END;
/
*Declare: This section is used to declare local variables, cursors,
Exceptions and etc. This section is optional.
*Executable Section: This section contains lines of code which is
used to complete table. It is mandatory.
*Exception Section: This section contains lines of code which will be
executed only when exception is raised. This section is optional.
*Simplest PL/SQL Block:

Begin
---------------------END;
/
*write a PL/SQL Block which will display Hello World?
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( HELLO WORLD );
Page 67 of 110
END;
/
o/p: Hello world
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Note: To get the output of the program server output environment
variable should be on.
Command: SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DBMS_OUTPUT is name of the PACKAGE
.PUT_LINE is name of the PROCEDURE
/ Slash is used to submit the program in DBS.
*Write PL/SQL block which will calculate some of two numbers and
display the output?
DECLARE
A number(2);
B number(2);
C number(3);
BEGIN
A := 10;
B := 20;
C := A + B;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(C);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( sum of two numbers || C);
END;
/
o/p: 30
o/p: sum of two numbers 30
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
--is a Single line comment.
/*
*/ ----Multi-Line comment
Ex:
Initialization in declare section
A number(2) := 50;
B number(2) := 25;
Page 68 of 110
*Write a PL/SQL block which accepts two numbers from the user and
display the sum?
DECLARE
A number(2);
B number(2);
C number(3);
BEGIN
A := &A; or A := &malli;
B := &B; or B := &iNetSlov
C := A + B;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( sum of the two numbers || C);
END;
/
To modify the data
Begin
Merge----------------Insert-----------------Update---------------Commit--------------Select---------------- // not execute
END;
/
DCL--------NO
DDL--------NO
DML------YES
DRL--------NO
TCL--------YES
*Write a PL/SQL block which accepts employee number and
increment is salary by 1000?
DECLARE
A number(4);
A := &Empno;
Update emp set sal = sal + 1000 where Empno = A;
END;
Page 69 of 110
/
*Write a PL/SQL block which empno and delete that row from the emp
table?
DECLARE
A number(4);
BEGIN
A := &Empno;
Delete from emp where Empno = A;
END;
/
*Control statement: If Then Else
Declare
A number := 5;
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( welcome );
If A > 10 Then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( HELLO1 );
Else
END If;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( THANK YOU );
END;
/
*LOOPS: There are three types
1. Simple loop
2. While loop
3. for loop
1. Simple:
Declare
A number(2) := 1;
Begin
LOOP
Exit when A = 4;
Page 70 of 110
A := A + 1;
END LOOP;
END;
/
2. While:
Declare
A number(2) :=1;
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(
While A <=4 loop
A := A + 1;
END LOOP;
END;
/
3. FOR LOOP:
Declare
A number;
Begin
FOR A IN 1 .. 4 LOOP
END LOOP;
END;
/
WELCOME );
HELLO1 );
HELLO2 );
THANK YOU );
WELCOME );
HELLO1 );
HELLO2 );
THANK YOU );
Note: in for loop the loop variable is implicitly declare.

*write a select statement in PL/SQL block?
Every select statement in a PL/SQL block should have into clause.
***write a program to display employee name for the empno 7698?
Declare
A varchar2(15);
// Ename varchar2(15);
Begin
Select ename into A from emp where empno = 7698;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( A );
Page 71 of 110
END;
/
*write a program accepts deptno and display deptname and location?
Declare
L_Deptno number(2);
L_DName varchar2(15);
L_Loc varchar2(10);
Begin
L_Deptno := &Deptno;
Select DName, Loc into L_DName, L_Loc from dept where Deptno =
L_Deptno;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( L-DName );
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( L_Loc);
END;
/
*Using % type attribute:
Percentage type attribute is used to declare local variable with
respect to column of a table.
Syntax: <VAR_NAME><TABLE_NAME>.<COL_NAME> % TYPE;
Ex:
L_Dname Dept.Dname%TYPE;
*Write a program which accepts empno to display ename, job and
salary?
Declare
L_empno emp.empno % type;
L_ename emp.ename % type;
L_job emp.job % type;
L_salary emp.salary % type;
Begin
L_empno := &empno;
Select ename, job, salary into L_ename, L_job, L_salary from emp
where empno = L_empno;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( L_ename );
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( L_job );
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( L_salary );
(or)
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( L_ename|| L_job||||L_salary);
Page 72 of 110
END;
/
Note:
When a select statement does not return any row program will
terminate abnormally.
When select statement returns more then one row, program will
terminate abnormally.
*Percentage (%) Row type attributes:
This attribute to declare a local variable which can store complete
Row of a table.
Syn:
<VARIABLE_NAME> <TABLE_NAME> % ROW TYPE;
Ex:
A EMP%ROWTYPE;
We cannot directly display a Row type variable.
We can access one value in Row type variable by using.
<VARIABLE_NAME>.<COL_NAME>
Ex:
Declare
A EMP%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( WELCOME );
Select * INTO A from emp where empno = 7782;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(A.sal||A.job||A.Hiredate);
END;
/
*EXCEPTIONS:
Runtime Errors are called as Exceptions. They are three types of
Exceptions.
1. ORACLE Predefined Exception
2. ORACLE Non Predefined Exception
3. USER Defined Exception
*Oracle Predefined Exception:
These Exceptions will have Exception name and Exception number.
Examples of predefined Exceptions are:
Page 73 of 110
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
NO_DATA_FOUND
TOO_MANY_ROWS
ZERO_DIVIDE
VALUE_ERROR
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX
*NO_DATA_FOUND: This Exception is raised when select statement

does not return any Row.
Ex:
Declare
L_sal emp.sal%type;
Begin
Select sal INTO L_sal from emp where empno = &empno;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(L_sal);
EXCEPTION
when NO_DATA_FOUND then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( INVALID EMPNO);
END;
/
*TOO_MANY_ROWS:
This Exception is raised when select statement more then one row.
Ex:
Declare
L_sal emp.sal%type;
Begin
Select sal INTO L_sal from emp where deptno = 30;
EXCEPTION
when TOO_MANY_ROWS then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( MORE THEN ONE ROW RETURNED);
END;
/
*ZERO_DIVIDE:
Ex:
Page 74 of 110
Declare
A Number;
Begin
A := 5/0;
Exception
when ZERO_DIVIDE then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( DO NOT DIVIDE BY 0 );
END;
/
Note:
This Exception is raised when we try to divided by zero.
*VALUE_ERROR: This Exception is raised when there is miss match
with the value and data type of local variable or size of local
variables.
Ex 1:
Declare
L_sal emp.sal%type;
Begin
Select ename INTO L_sal from emp where empno = 7521;
EXCEPTION
when VALUE_ERROR then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( please check the local variables);
END;
/
Ex 2:
Declare
A number(3);
Begin
A := 1234;
Exception
when VALUE_ERROR then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( PLEASE CHECK THE LOCAL VARIABLES );
END;
/
Page 75 of 110
*DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX: (duplicate value on index)

This Exception is raised when we try to insert a duplicate value in
primary key constraint.
Ex:
Begin
Insert into student values(104, ARUN,60);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( Thank you );
Exception
when DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( Do not insert duplicates );
END;
/
The above program works on an assumption the table student for if
having a primary key SNO column with value 104.
Exception Name
Exception No
Exception Message
1.NO_DATA_FOUND
ORA-1403
2.TOO_MANY_ROWS
ORA-1422
REQUESTED MOTRE
NO DATA FOUND
EXACT FETCHED
THEN ONE ROW
3.ZERO_DIVIDE
ORA-1476
DIVISON IS EQUAL TO ZERO
4.VALUE_ERROR
ORA-6502
ERROR
5.DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX
ORA-0001
CONSTRAINT VIOLATED
NUMRIC OR VALUE
UNIQUE
*WHEN OTHERS:
When others are a universal Exception angular this can catch all the
Exceptions.
Declare
L_sal number(4);
A number;
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( Welcome );
Select sal INTO L_SAL from emp where deptno = &deptno;
Page 76 of 110
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(The sal is .||L_sal);

A :=10/0;
Exception
WHEN OTHERS THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( please check the code );
END;
/
*ERROR REPORTING FUNCTIONS: They are two Error Reporting
functions.
1. SQLCODE
2. SQLERRM
These error reporting functions are used in when others clause to
identified the exception which is raised.
1. SQLCODE: It returns ERRORCODE
2. SQLERRM: It returns Exception number and Exception message.
Note: for NO_DATA_FOUND Exception SQLCODE will return 100.
Declare
L_sal number(4);
A number;
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( Welcome );
Select sal INTO L_SAL from emp where deptno = &deptno;
A :=15/0;
Exception
WHEN OTHERS THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( please check the code );
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(SQLCODE);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(SQLERRM);
END;
/
*NESTED BLOCK:
Declare
Page 77 of 110
A number := 10;
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(HELLO1);
Declare
B number := 20;
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(B);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(A);
END;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(B); --ERROR
END;
/
Note: outer block variables can be accessed in nested block nested
block variables can not be accessed in outer block.
*EXCEPTION PROPAGATION:
Begin
L_SAL EMP.SAL%TYPE;
Begin
Select sal INTO L_SAL from emp where empno = 1111;
END;
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
END;
/
*ORALE NON PREDEFINED EXCEPTIONS:
These Exceptions will have only Exception number. But does not have
Exception name.
Steps to handle non predefined exceptions.
Syntax:
Step1: Declare the Exception
<EXCEPTION_NAME> EXCEPTION;
Page 78 of 110
Step2: Associate the Exception

PRAGMA
EXCEPTION_INIT(<EXCEPTION_NAME>,<EXCEPTION
NO>);
Step3: Catch the Exception
WHEN <EXCEPTION_NAME> THEN
---------------------------------------------------END;
/
ORA -2292 is an example of non predefined exception.
This exception is raised when we delete row from a parent table. If
the corresponding value existing the child table.
Declare
MY_EX1 Exception; --step1
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(MY_EX1, -2292); --step2
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(Welcome);
Select from student where eno = 102;
EXCEPTION
WHEN MY_EX1 THEN --step3
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(do not delete pargma table);
END;
/
Pragma Exception_init is a compiler directive which is used to
associated an Exception name to the predefined number.
*USER DEFINED EXCEPTION:
These Exceptions are defined and controlled by the user. These
Exceptions neither have predefined name nor have predefined
number. Steps to handle user defined Exceptions.
Step1: Declare the Exception
Step2: Raised the Exception
Step3: Catch the Exception
Declare
Page 79 of 110
MY_EX1 EXCEPTION;
--Step1
L_SAL EMP.SAL%TYPE;
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(welcome);
Select SAL INTO L_SAL from emp where empno = &empno;
IF L_SAL > 2000 THEN
RAISE MY_EX1;
--Step2
ENDIF;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(The sal is ||L_sal);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(Thank you);
EXCEPTION
WHEN MY_EX1 THEN
--Step3
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(Sal is two high);
END;
/
Note: When others should be the last handler of the exception
section other wise we get a compiler ERROR.
*RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR: RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR is a
procedure which is used to throw one error number and error
message to the calling environment.
It internally performance rolls back.
ERROR number should be range of -20000 to -20999. ERROR
message should be displayed less then or equal to 512 characters.
Declare
L_sal emp.sal%TYPE;
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(Welcome);
Insert INTO dept values (08,arun,70);
Select sal INTO L_sal from emp where empno = 7698;
IF L_sal > 2000 THEN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20150, SAL IS TOO HIGH);
END IF;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(THE SAL IS||L_SAL);
END;
/
Page 80 of 110
*CURSORS: CURSOR is a memory location which is used to run SQL

commands. They are two types of cursors.
1. Implicit cursor
2. Explicit cursor
*Implicit cursor: All the activities related to cursors like opening the
cursor, processing the cursor and closing the cursor are done
automatically. Hence these cursor are called as implicit cursor.
*Implicit cursor attributes: They are 4 implicit cursor attributes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
SQL%ISOPEN
SQL%FOUND
SQL%NOTFOUND
SQL%ROWCOUNT
*SQL%ISOPEN: It is a Boolean attribute. It always returns false.

*SQL%FOUND: it is a Boolean. It returns true. If SQL command is
successful returns false if SQL command is fails.
*SQL%NOTFOUND: It is a Boolean attribute returns true. If SQL
command is fails returns false if SQL command is successful.
Note:
SQL%NOTFOUND attribute is exactly opposite to SQL%FOUND.
*SQL%ROWCOUNT: It returns the number of rows affected by SQL
command.
*using SQL%FOUND: It is used to know whether a specific
command is effecting the table data or not.
Ex:
Begin
Update emp set sal = 2000 where empno = 1111;
IF SQL%FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(UPDATE SUCCESSFUL);
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(UPDATE FAILED);
END IF;
END;
/
*USING SQL%ROWCOUNT:
Page 81 of 110
Begin
Update emp set sal = 2000 where deptno =30;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(SQL%ROWCOUNT||ROWS UPDATED);
END;
/
*SQL%ISOPEN
Begin
Update emp set sal = 1000 where empno = 7654;
IF SQL%ISOPEN THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(CURSOR IS OPEN);
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(CURSOR IS CLOSED);
END IF;
END;
/
Note: By the time we check whether cursor is open or not it is
already closed by the oracle engine. Hence it is always returns false.
*write a PL/SQL block which accepts deptno and display all the
employee names of the department?
Declare
L_ename emp.ename%TYPE;
Begin
Select ename into L_ename from emp where deptno = &deptno;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(L_ename);
--ERROR
END;
/
**EXPLICIT CURSORS: All the activities related to cursor like.
1. Opening the cursor
2. Processing the cursor
3. Closing the cursor
Act should be done by the developer. Hence this cursor is called
explicit cursors.
We should use explicit cursors to run a select statement. Which
returns more then one row?
Page 82 of 110
Steps to use explicit cursors:

Step 1: declare the cursor
Step 2: open the cursor
Step 3: fetch data from cursor to local variables
Step 4: close the cursor
Syntax:
Step 1: declare the cursor
CURSOR <CURSOR_NAME> IS <SELECT STMT>;
Step 2: open the cursor
OPEN <CURSOR_NAME>;
Step 3: fetch data from cursor to local variables
FETCH <CURSOR_NAME> INTO <VAR1>,<VAR2>,.,.,
.<VARn>;
Step 4: close the cursor
CLOSE <CURSOR_NAME>;
*EXPLICIT CURSOR ATTRIBUTES: These are four explicit cursor
attributes.
1. %ISOPEN
2. %FOUND
3. %NORFOUND
4. %ROWCOUNT
*%ISOPEN: It is a Boolean attribute which returns true when cursor is
open. Returns false when cursor is closed.
*%FOUND: It is a Boolean attribute returns true when fetch
statement is successful.
*%NOTFOUND: It is a Boolean attribute returns true. When fetch
statement fails. Returns false when fetch statement successful.
Note: %NOTFOUND attributes is exactly opposite to % is found
attribute.
*ROWCOUNT: Returns number of rows processed by fetches
statement.
Page 83 of 110
*write a program to display all the employee names working in dept

number 10?
Declare
Cursor c1
IS select ename from emp where deptno = 10;
Begin
open c1
loop
FETCH c1 into L_ename;
EXIT WHEN c1%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(L_ename);
END LOOP;
CLOSE c1;
END;
/
CLIENT
DATABASE
ENAME
C1
ACTIVE DATA SET:

1. When we open a cursor the memory location is created.
2. Memory location will be loaded by data returned by select
statement.
3. Cursor pointer points to 1 st row of the memory location. This
status is called active data set.
*write a PL/SQL block to display all the department names and
locations from the department table?
Declare
Cursor c1
IS select dname, loc from dept;
L_dname dept.dname%TYPE;
L_loc dapt.loc%TYPE;
Begin
Open c1;
Page 84 of 110
Loop
Fetch c1 into L_dname, L_loc;
EXIT WHEN c1%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(L_dname||L_loc);
END loop;
Close c1;
END;
/
*write a program to display employee names, job, salary who are
working in a department number 30?
Declare
CURSOR c1
IS select ename,job,salary from emp where deptno = 30;
A c1%ROWTYPE;
Begin
OPEN c1;
LOOP
FETCH c1 INTO A;
EXIT WHEN c1 %NOTFOUND
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(A.ename||||A.job||||A.salary);
END LOOP;
END;
/
*CURSOR FOR LOOPS:
It is a short cut way of writing an explicit cursor program. When we
use cursor for loop following steps are not required.
1. Opening the cursor not required.
2. Closing the cursor not required.
3. Fetch statement not required.
4. Exit when condition not required.
5. Declaring local variable not required.
Declare
CURSOR c1
IS select ename, job, salary from emp where deptno = 30;
Begin
FOR A IN c1 LOOP
Page 85 of 110
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(A.ename||||A.job||||A.salary);
END LOOP;
END;
/
*Write a program to display the entire employee numbers their
names and location?
Declare
CURSOR c1
IS select E.empno, E.ename, D.loc from emp E, Dept D where
E.Deptno = D.Deptno;
Begin
FOR A IN c1 LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(A.empno||||A.ename||||A.loc);
END LOOP;
END;
/
SNO
101
102
103
104
105
SNAME SUB1
ARUN
60
VARUN 65
SREENU 60
AMIT
60
VEERA
40
SUB2
70
77
91
70
50
SUB3
80
80
80
88
60
*Write a program it will calculate AVG marks from the entire student
table?
Declare
CURSOR c1
IS select * from student;
L_AVG number(5.2);
Begin
FOR A IN c1 LOOP
L_AVG := (A.sub1 + A.sub2 + A.sub3)/3;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(AVERAGE OF ||A.sno||IS||L_AVG);
END LOOP;
END;
/
*Using%ISOPEN attribute:
Page 86 of 110
Declare
Cursor c1
IS select empno, ename from emp where deptno = 20;
L_empno emp.empno%TYPE;
Begin
open c1;
IF c1%ISOPEN then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(cursor is open);
Else
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(cursor is closed);
END IF;
END;
/
*Using%ROWCOUNT attribute: This attribute is used to fetch
limited number of rows from the local variables.
Ex:
Declare
Cursor c1
IS select empno, ename from emp where deptno = 20;
Begin
open c1;
Loop
FETCH c1 INTO L_empno, L_ename;
Exit when c1%ROWCOUNT = 3;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(L_empno||..||L_ename);
END Loop;
close(1);
END;
/
*Parameterized cursor: A cursor which accepts a parameter from
the user is called as parameterized cursor. Active dataset changes
dynamically basing on the value passed to the cursor.
Ex:
Declare
Cursor c1(A number)
Page 87 of 110
IS select empno, ename from emp where deptno = A;

Begin
open c1(&deptno);
Loop
FETCH c1 INTO L_empno,L_ename;
Exit when c1%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(L_empno||..||L_ename);
END Loop;
close c1;
END;
/
*Procedures: A procedure is a PL/SQL block which is compiled and
permanently stored in the database for repeated execution.
Syntax:
create or replace procedure<procedure_Name>
IS
Begin
---------------------------------------END;
/
Ex:
create or replace procedure p1
IS
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(HELLO);
END;
/
*To execute the procedure:
SQL>EXEC P1
Procedure can have 3 types of parameters
1. Inparameter
2. OutParameter
3. In Out parameter
Page 88 of 110
1. InParameter:
InParameters are used to accept values from the user.
Ex: create a procedure which accepts two numbers and display the
num?
*Create or replace procedure ADD_NUM(A IN number, B IN number)
IS
C number;
Begin
C := A + B;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(The sum is||C);
END;
/
*create a procedure which accepts employee number and increment
salary by 1000?
Create or replace procedure INC_SAL (A IN number)
IS
Begin
Update emp set sal = sal + 1000 where empno = A;
END;
/
*create a procedure which accepts employee number and display
salary?
Create or replace procedure display_sal (L_empno IN emp.empno
%TYPE)
IS
L_sal emp.sal%TYPE;
Begin
Select sal INTO L_sal from emp where empno = L_empno;
END;
/
*create a procedure which accepts deptno and display the name and
location?
Create or replace procedure display_details(L_deptno IN dept.deptno
%TYPE)
IS
Page 89 of 110
L_Dname dept.Dname%TYPE;
L_loc dept.loc%TYPE;
Begin
Select Dname, loc INTO L_Dname, L_loc from dept where deptno =
L_Deptno;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(L_Dname||.||L_loc);
Exception
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(IN value NO);
END;
/
Query to see all the list of procedures:
Select object_NAME from user_objects
PROCEDURE;
where
object_TYPE
To see the source code of a procedure:

Select text from user_source where NAME = ADD_NUM;
Spool command:
This command is used to extract the character which we can see in
SQL*PLUSE environment to a text file.
Ex:
SQL>spool c:\sample\abc.txt
SQL>select * from emp;
SQL>select * from dept;
SQL>spool off
To edit the procedure:
SQL>spool c:\sample\xyz.txt
SQL>select text from user_SOURCE where name = p1;
SQL>spool off
Create a procedure which accepts a number and display its square.
Note: if there are any errors in the source code, then procedure will
be created with compilation errors.
Show errors command is used to see the compilation errors.
We can execute multiple procedures act once by using a PL/SQL
block.
Ex:
Page 90 of 110
Begin
P1;
ADD_NUM(20,15);
DISPLAY_SQUARE(1);
END;
/
We can remove the procedure by using drop command.
Ex: drop procedure p1;
We can call a procedure using another procedure there exist
depending between the procedures.
Ex:
Create or replace procedure test11
IS
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(This is from test11);
END;
/
Create or replace procedure sample11
IS
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(This is from sample11);
END;
/
Note:
When we drop test11 procedure, sample11 procedure will become
invalid.
**Out parameters: out parameters are used to return the value to
the user.
Ex:
Create a procedure which accepts two numbers and return the sum?
Create or replace procedure ret_sum
(A IN number,B IN number, C
OUT number)
IS
Begin
C := A + B;
END;
/
Page 91 of 110
*Steps to invoke procedures which are having out

parameters:
Step 1: create bind variable
SQL> variable N number
Step 2: execute the procedure
SQL> EXEC Ret_sum(10,20,:N)
Step 3: print bind variable
SQL>print N
Ex:
Create a procedure which accepts a number and return its square?
Create or replace procedure ret_square(A IN number,B IN
number)
IS
Begin
B := A * A;
END;
/
SQL> variable N number
SQL> EXEC ret_square(7,:N)
SQL> print N
IN out parameters: These parameters are used to accept the value
as well as to return the value to user.
Ex: create a procedure which accepts a number and return its
square?
Create of replace procedure ret_square1(A IN out number)
IS
Begin
A := A * A;
END;
/
Step 1: SQL> variable m number
Step 2: initialize bind variable
Begin
:m = 5;
END;
/
Step 3: EXEC ret_square1(:m);
Step 4:print m;
Page 92 of 110
Note:
The scope of the bind variable is with respect to one session.
Once the environment is closed all the bind variables are lost.
*Functions:
A function is a named PL/SQL block which must and should return a
value.
Syntax: create or replace function<FUNCTION_NAME>(VAR1
datatype, var2 datatype,.,varn datatype);
Return datatype
IS
Begin
------------------END;
/
Ex: Create a function which accepts two numbers and returns the
sum?
Create or replace function ADD_NUM_FUN(A number, B number)
Return number
IS
C number;
Begin
C := A + B;
Return C;
END;
/
Output: function created
Calling:
Declare
N number;
Begin
N := ADD_NUM_FUN(10,20);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(N);
END;
/
Page 93 of 110
We can invoke the function using select statement.

Ex: select ADD_NUM_FUN(50,10) from dual;
Functions can be invoked from expression.
Ex: select 100 + ADD_NUM_FUN(50,10) from dual;
We can not have DML commands inside a function.
If a function has DML commands, we get the error when we invoke it.
Functions are preferred to perform calculations.
*create a function which accepts salary and returns tax value. Tax
value is 10% of salary?
Create or replace function CAL_TAX(L_sal emp.sal%TYPE)
Return number
IS
Begin
L_TAX = L_sal * 10/100;
Return L_TAX;
END;
/
Ex: select empno, ename, sal, cal_tax(sal) from emp;
Differences between procedure and functions:
Procedures
Functions
1. Procedures need not return any
return only one
value can return one or more than
one value.
2. DML commands are allowed.
not allowed.
3. Can not be invoked from select
select statement
statement.
1. Must and should

value.
2. DML commands are

3. Can be invoked from
and expressions.
*Query to see list of all the functions:

Select object_Name from user_objects where object_type = function;
Procedures and functions are called sub programs.
*Packages:
Page 94 of 110
A package is collection of logically related sub programs.

Creation of package invokes two steps.
Step 1: creating package specification.
Step 2: creating package body.
Package specification: package specification contains declaration
of sub programs.
Package body: package body contains definition of sub programs.
Example of PKS:
create or replace package test_PKG1
IS
Procedure p1;
Procedure display_sal(L_empno IN number);
Procedure display_details(L_deptno IN emp.deptno%TYPE);
Function cal_tax(L_sal emp.sal%TYPE)
Return number;
END test_PKG1;
/
Example of PKB:
Create or replace package body test_PKG1
IS
Procedure p1
IS
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(HELLO WORLD);
END;
Procedure display_sal(L_empno IN number)
IS
L_sal emp.sal%TYPE;
Begin
Select sal into L_sal from emp where empno = L_empno;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(The sal is||L_sal);
END;
Procedure display_details(L_deptno IN emp.deptno%TYPE)
IS
Cursor c1
IS select ename from emp where deptno = L_deptno;
Begin
For emp_rec IN c1 LOOP
Page 95 of 110
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(emp_rec.ename);
END LOOP;
END;
Function cal_tax(L_sal emp.sal%TYPE)
Return number
IS
Begin
Return(L_sal*10/100);
END;
END test_PKG1;
/
To invoke a sub program which is inside the package, we need to
mention package name subprogram name.
Ex: Exec test_PKG1.p1
Select test_PKG1.cal_tax(2500) from dual;
Note:
Packages can not be parameterized.
Packages can not be nested.
Packages help in modularization.
Packages help in overloading subprograms.
Example of overloading sub programs:
Create or replace package test_pkg2
IS
Procedure p1(A number);
Procedure p1(A number, B number);
END test_pkg2;
/
PKB:
Create or replace package body test_pkg2
IS
Procedure p1(A number)
IS
B number;
Begin
B := A * A;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(The square is ||B);
END;
Page 96 of 110
Procedure p1(A number, B number)

IS
C number;
Begin
C := A + B;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(The sum is ||C);
END;
END test_pkg2;
/
Invoke the package
Begin
Test_pkg2.p1(10);
Test_pkg2.p1(10,20);
END;
/
Dropping the package involves two steps:
Step 1: drop package body
Step 2: drop package specification
Ex: drop package body test_pkg2;
Package body dropped
Ex: drop package test_pkg2;
Package dropped.
***Triggers:
A Trigger is a PL/SQL block which is executed automatically basing on
an event.
Triggering events are inserted, update, delete.
Trigger timing can be before, after, instead of
Syntax:
Create or replace trigger <TRIGGER_NAME><TIMMING><EVENT> ON
<OBJECT_NAME>
Begin
------------------------------END;
/
Page 97 of 110
Ex:
create or replace trigger trg1
after insert on dept
begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(hello);
END;
/
Trigger created
SQL> insert into dept values(65,Admin,HYD);
Trigger can be created on multiple events
Ex:
Create or replace trigger trg1
After insert or update or delete on dept
Begin
If inserting then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(thank you for inserting);
ElsIf updating then
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(thank you for updating);
Else
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(thank you for deleting);
End If;
END;
/
SQL> insert into dept values(65,arun,hyd);
Thank you for inserting
SQL> deleting from dept where deptno = 65;
Thank you for deleting
*Triggers are divided into two types
1. Statement level trigger
2. Row level trigger
*Statement level trigger:
These triggers are executed only once irrespective of number of rows
affected by the event. By default every trigger is a statement level.
*Row level trigger:
Page 98 of 110
These triggers are executed for every row which is affected by the
event (multiple numbers of times). We can create a row level trigger
by using FOR EACH ROW clause.
Ex:
Create or replace trigger trg2
After update on emp for each row
Begin
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(thank you for updating);
END;
/
Trigger updated
SQL> update emp set sal = 2000 where deptno = 30;
Output:
Thank you for updating
6 rows updated
Triggers are used to enforce business rules.
We can enforce business rules by using :OLD and :NEW qualifiers.
*Query to see list of all the triggers:
Select object_Name from user_objects where object_TYPE = Trigger;
OR
Select Trigger_Name from user_Trigger;
*To see the source code of a trigger:
Select text from user_source where name = trg2;
*To drop a trigger:
Syntax: drop trigger <trigger_name>.
Ex: drop trigger trg2;
*Using: new qualifier:
*Create a trigger which will allow insert command only when salary is
less than 5000. Trigger should reject the insert command by providing
a meaningful message. If SAL > 5000?
Page 99 of 110
Create or replace trigger TRG5 before insert on emp for each row
Begin
If :new.sal>5000 then
Raise_application_error(-20150,sal cannot be more than 5000);
END IF;
END;
/
Ex:
insert
into
emp(empno,
ename,
sal,
values(444,BBB,7500,10);
Output: ERROR ORA-20150 :sal cannot be more than 5000
deptno)
Insert
into
emp(empno,
values(111,AAA,2500,10);
Output: 1 row created
deptno)
ename,
sal,
*create a trigger which will accept insert command only for deptno
10?
Create or replace trigger trg3 before insert on emp for each row
Begin
IF :new.deptno<>10 then
Raise_application_error(-20150,deptno should be only 10);
END IF;
END;
/
*Using :old qualifier:
*A trigger should restrict delete operation on president?
Create or replace trigger trg7 before delete on emp for each row
Begin
IF :old.JOB = president then
Raise_Application_Error(-20150,cannot delete president);
END IF;
END;
/
Delete from emp where empno = 7839;
Error: ORA -20152, cannot delete president
Delete from emp where empno = 7499;
--- valid
Page 100 of 110
*Create a trigger which will restrict dont operations on weekends?

Create or replace trigger trg8 before insert or update or delete on
emp
Begin
IF TO_CHAR(sysdate,DY) IN (sal,sun) then
Raise_Application_Error(-20160,cannot perform dml operations on
weekends);
END IF;
END;
/
*Instead of triggers:
Instead of triggers are created on complex view.
By using instead of trigger we can execute insert command on a
complex view
Ex:
COMPLEX VIEW
Create view vv1
As select e.empno, e.ename, e.sal, e.deptno, d.deptno, d.loc from
emp e1 dept d where e.deptno = d.deptno;
View created
Select * from vv1;
*Instead of trigger example:
Create or replace trigger trg9 instead of insert on vv1 for each row
Begin
Insert into dept values (:new.deptno, :new.dname, :new.loc);
Insert into emp(empno, ename, sal, deptno) values (:new.empno,
:new.ename, :new.sal, :new.deptno);
END;
/
Ex: insert into vv1 values (555,ddd,2000,60,ADMIN,HYD);
--valid
Note:
:new and :old qualifiers can be used only in the row level
trigger.
Page 101 of 110
*Abstract datatypes:
Abstract data types are consists of one or more subtypes. Rather than
being constrained to the standard oracle data types of number, date
and varchar2 data types can more accurately describe your data.
Ex:
SQL>create type address_ty5 as object
(street varchar(20),
city varchar2(10),
state char(10),
pin number);
/
Type created
SQL> create type person_ty5 as object
(name varchar2(20),
Address address_ty5);
/
Type created
SQL> create table customer5
(customer_ID number(3),
Person person_ty5);
SQL> insert into customer5 values
(1,person_ty5(hari,address_ty5(#102
lokhanadala,mumbai,MH,10101)));
SQL> select customer_ID, c.person.name from customer c;
*Nested table:
Nested table is a collection of rows, represented as a column with in
the main table.
For each record with in the main table, the nested table may contain
multiple rows. In one sense, its a way of storing a one-to-many
relationship with in one table.
SQL> create or replace type emp_ty5 as object
(desg varchar2(20),
dname varchar2(20),
doj date);
Page 102 of 110
/
Type created
SQL> created type emp_nt5 as table of emp_ty5;
/
Table created
SQL> created table emp data5
(ename varchar2(20),
details emp_nt5)
nested table details store as emp_nt_tab5);
Table created
SQL> set describe depth2
SQL> desc empdata5
Name
Ename
Details
Desg
Dname
Doj
Type
Varchar2(20);
Emp_nt
Varchar2(20)
Varchar2(20)
Date
SQL> insert into empdata5 values

(Raju, emp_nt5(clerk,sales,12-sep-05),
emp_ty5(Asst,mrket,15-oct-04),
emp_ty5(mngr,sales,13-aug-09)));
SQL> select * from emp data5;
*VARRAYS: varrays can also be used to create one-to-many
relationship with in the table.
*creating varray:
Ex: create type dependent_brithdate_t5 as varray(10) of date;
Using varray in table:
Create table employee5( id number, name varchar2(20),
dependent ages dependent-brithdate-t5);
Page 103 of 110
inserting row into table:

insert into employee5 values(42,Arun, dependent_brithdate_t5
(12-jan-1765,04-jul-1977,11mar-2021);
***Differences between nested tables and
varrays***
Nested
Varrays
1. There is no restriction on size.
maximum size.
2. Data is stored in special auxiliary
rest of the
tables called as store tables.
tables
1. We need to define the

2. Data is stored inline to the
table data.
*Execute immediate:
One can call DDL statement like create, drop, truncate and etc from
PL/SQL by using the Execute immediate statement.
Ex:
Begin
Execute immediate drop table dept;
END;
/
Begin
Execute immediate Truncate table emp;
END;
/
*BULK COLLECT:
Bulk collect feature helps in improving the performance of explicit
cursor programs.
Fetch statement can fetch all the rows from the cursor to the
programs local variable at once thus helps in improving the
performance.
Ex:
Declare
Type string_array is varray(20) of varchar2(20);
Page 104 of 110
L_ename string_array;
Cursor c1
Is select ename from emp;
Begin
Open c1;
Fetch c1 bulk collect into L_ename;
Close c1;
For i in L_ename.first .. L_ename.last loop
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(L_ename(i));
END loop;
END;
/
*REF CURSOR:
A ref cursor is basically a data type.
A variable created based on such a data type is generally called a
cursor variable.
A ref cursor can be associated with more than one select statement
at run time. Before associating a new select statement. we need to
close the cursor.
Ex:
Declare
Type r_cursor is REF cursor;
C_emp r_cursor;
Type rec_emp is record{
name varchar2(20);
sal number(6);
};
er rec_emp;
begin
open c_emp for select ename, sal from emp where deptno = 10;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(department: 10);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE();
Loop
Fetch c_emp into er;
Exit when c_emp%notfound;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(er.name||..||er.sal);
End loop;
Close c_emp;
Open c_emp for select ename, sal from emp where deptno = 20;
Page 105 of 110
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(department: 20);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(..);
Loop
Fetch c_emp into er;
Exit when c_emp%notfound;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(er.name||-||er.sal);
End loop;
Close c_emp;
END;
/
SQL * loader:
SQL loader is a tool which is use to load the data from the file to the
table.
This tool requires control file(.Ctrl).
Control file contains all the information about source and destination.
It is developer responsibility to create a control file.
Syntax to create control file:
LOAD data
Infile <Data filepath>
Insert into table <Table_name> fields Terminated by ,
(col1, col2,., clon)
Ex:
LOAD data
INFILE E:\sunil\student_data.txt
Insert into table sutdent50 fields terminated by ,
(sno, sname, marks)
Steps to invoke the tool:
Step 1: open the command prompt.
Step 2: >SQLLDR SCOTT/TIGER
CONTROL: E:\SUNIL\Load.CTL
*Autonomous transactions:
In general a commit command used in a PL/SQL block will act globally
and make all the changes permanent.
To restrict commit command to a specific program we need to make
the PL/SQL block autonomous.
We can create autonomous PL/SQL block by using PRAGMA
AUTONOMOUS_TRAN SACTION in the declare section.
Page 106 of 110
PRAGMA autonomous_transaction is a compiler directive.

Ex:
Create table student20(sno number(3), sname varchar2(10), marks
number(3));
Insert into student20 values(101,Arun,40)
Insert into student20 values(102,Arun,40)
Declare
Pragma autonomus_transactions;
Begin
commit;
END;
/
Where current of:

Where current of clause is used in some update statements. The
where current of clause is an update or delete statement states that
the most recent row fetched from the table should be updated.
We must declare the cursor with for update clause to use this
feature.
Ex:
Declare
Cursor c1
IS
Select empno, ename, sal from emp
where comm is null
for update of comm.;
var_comm number(4);
begin
for cur_rec.sal < 2000 then
var_comm := 200;
elsif cur_rec.sal < 4000 then
var_comm := 400;
else
var_comm := 100;
end if;
update emp set comm = var_comm
where current of c1;
Page 107 of 110
end loop;
end;
/
*Managing large objects:
*Creating table with LDB columns:
Ex: create table airbus_desc5(airbusno char(5), airbus_det bfile,
airbus_profile clob);
*Insert values in lobs: To insert values in the bfile, the function
bfilename is used.
It takes the os path of the directory and the name of the file.
Ex:
Insert
into
airbus_desc5
bfilename(E:\sunil,esert.jpg),
the description the plane is as follows);
values(ABO1,
*displaying data from lobs: data from lobs cannot be displayed,

except for clob by using select statement.
Ex: select aitbusno, airbus_profile from airbus_desc5;
*Locks:
As oracle is a multiuser environment there is always a chance that
multiple users will perform DML operators on some table parallel in
such case the data becomes inconsistent.
To maintain the consistency of data base a user can lock the table.
Select for update command is used for locking a table.
Ex:
Ajit> select * from student for update;
Table is locked by Ajit
ASHWIN> update Ajit.student set marks = 95 where sno = 101;
Client will be in waiting state.
Locks are released when a user executes commit command.
*Levels of locks: There are three levels of locks.
1. Row level
2. Page level
3. Table level
Page 108 of 110
*Row level: when where clause in select for update command is

evaluating to one row, row level lock is applied.
Ex: select * from student where sno =101 for update;
*Page level: when where clause in select for update command is
evaluating to multiple rows, page level lock is applied.
Ex: Select * from emp where deptno = 20 for update;
*Table level:
When where clause is not used in select for update, table level lock is
applied.
Ex: select * from emp for update;
*FLASHBACK and PURGE command:
*What is Recycle bin?
Oracle has introduced Recycle bin feature oracle log to store all the
dropped objects.
A user drops a very important table accidentally. Oracle log Recycle
bin feature the user can easily restore the dropped object.
*To enable the recycle bin:
SQL> Alter system set recycle bin = on;
or
SQL> Alter session set recycle bin = on;
To view the recycle bin use the follows command:
SQL> show recycle bin;
Ex:
Create table test_inet1(val number(2));
SQL> insert into test_inet1(val) values(10);
SQL>drop table test_inet1;
Print the recycle bin;
Restore the objects back to data base:
FLASHBACK table <<table_name>> to before drop;
Ex: Flashback tabe test_inet1 to before drop;
SQL> select * from test_RBIN;
*Clearing the recycle bin (RB):
To clear the recycle bin the following statement can be used.
Page 109 of 110
SQL> purge table <<table_name>>;

SQL> purge table student6;
Page 110 of 110

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ORACLE

Database: It is collection of meaningful data.

Management System: It is a software it helps to manage the

4. Every command starts with verb.

SQL*PLUS: It is a client environment where the developer will write

Note: Null is a keyword which is used to represent unavailable or

Syntax1: SELECT * FROM <TABLE_NAME>;

*insert the values at runtime using & operator:

Select MARKS, SNO from

Select SNO, SNO, SNAME from student;

We can perform some calculation using Arithmetic operations to

*Columns ALIAS: Column ALIAS user defined column heading given

Default Date format is DD-MM-YY.

*where clause: class is used to select specific rows basing on a

emp set sal = 3500 where comm is NULL;

*DELETE: This command is used to remove the complete row from

2. Under score (_)

ADDING A NEW COLUMN:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLE_NAME> ADD (COL1_NAME DATA

DROPING AN EXISTING COLUMN:

MODIFYING A COLUMN: (increasing/decreasing the size of

3) DROP: This command is used to rename the table from the

* We cannot Roll Back the

5) Rename: This command is used to change the table name.

options and select quick edit modifier

i. AVG: select AVG(sal) from emp;

Ex: select LPAD(oracle,10,z) from dual; //zzzzoracle

Select * from test1 where SNAME = ARUN; //101 ARUN 80

Select * from test1 where RTRIM(SNAME) = ARUN;

TRUNC(40.1234,2) from dual; // 40.12

h. ROUND: Rounds of the nearest value.

Select EMPNO, ENAME, SAL,

1.TO_CHAR: This functions is having two functionalities.

Ex: Select eno,ename,hiredate from emp;

*Group By clause: Group By clause is used to divided rows into

We can use the combination of where clause and Group By

Having clause is used to filter the output from Group By clause.

Char is a fixed size and varchar2 is a not a fixed size.

20. What is difference between group functions and scalar

Error: cannot insert into null to scott, student1, sno.

2.UNIQUE CONSTRAINS: This constrains will not accept duplicate

Note: UNIQUE constraint will accept multiple will values.

Note: There is no different when a constrain at column level or table

*Creating composite primary key constraint at table level:

***4.FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINS or REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY:

Insert into library values(103,oracle);

Insert into library1 values(103,oracle);

*Create foreign key constraint at table level:

Insert Row parent table:

Insert into student5 values(101,ARUN,-160);

Create table student8(sno number(3),

*Data Dictionary tables:

Selete empno, ename, sal, deptno, dname, loc

Select e.empno, e.ename, s.grade from emp e, salgrade s

*SUPER KEY: Combination of columns which can be used unique key

*ANSI SYNTAX OF RIGHT OUTER JOIN:

3. FULL OUTER JOIN:

//0/p sno: 101 102 103

// o/p sno: 103