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IEEE COMMUNICATIONS SURVEYS & TUTORIALS, ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION
A Survey on Wireless Body Area Networks:

Technologies and Design Challenges
Riccardo Cavallari, Student Member, IEEE, Flavia Martelli, Ramona Rosini, Student Member, IEEE,
Chiara Buratti, Member, IEEE, and Roberto Verdone, Member, IEEE
AbstractInterest in Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs)

has increased significantly in recent years thanks to the advances
in microelectronics and wireless communications. Owing to the
very stringent application requirements in terms of reliability,
energy efficiency, and low device complexity, the design of these
networks requires the definition of new protocols with respect
to those used in general purpose wireless sensor networks. This
motivates the effort in research activities and in standardisation
process of the last years. This survey paper aims at reporting
an overview of WBAN main applications, technologies and
standards, issues in WBANs design, and evolutions. Some case
studies are reported, based on both real implementation and
experimentation on the field, and on simulations. These results
have the aim of providing useful insights for WBAN designers
and of highlighting the main issues affecting the performance of
these kind of networks.
Index TermsWireless Body Area Network, Channel Modelling, Energy Efficiency, Coexistance, MAC protocols,
IEEE 802.15.4, IEEE 802.15.6, Bluetooth LE.
I. I NTRODUCTION
WIRELESS Body Area Network (WBAN) typically consists of a collection of low-power, miniaturised, invasive
or non-invasive, lightweight devices with wireless communication capabilities that operate in the proximity of a human
body. These devices can be placed in, on, or around the body,
and are often wireless sensor nodes that can monitor the human body functions and characteristics from the surrounding
environment.
On one hand, WBANs enable new applications and thus
new possible markets with respect to Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), on the other hand, their design is affected by
several issues that call for new paradigms and protocols.
The diversity of envisioned applications, which span from
the medical field (e.g., vital signs monitoring, automatic drug
delivery, etc.) to the entertainment, gaming, and ambient
intelligence areas, creates a set of technical requirements
with a wide variation in terms of expected performance
metrics, as throughput or delay, therefore flexible architectures
and protocols are needed. The main communication standard
solutions considered as reference are: IEEE 802.15.4 [1],
IEEE 802.15.6 [2], and Bluetooth Low Energy [3]. IEEE
802.15.4 (published in 2006), specifies the physical (PHY) and
Manuscript received January 7, 2013; revised April 5, 2013 and October

16, 2013.
The authors are with DEI, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy (e-mail: {riccardo.cavallari, ramona.rosini,
flavia.martelli, c.buratti, roberto.verdone}@unibo.it.). R. Rosini is also with
CEA-Leti, Minatec Campus, 17 rue de Martyrs, 38054 Grenoble, France.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/SURV.2014.012214.00007
medium access control (MAC) layers for short-range wireless

communications, devised to support low power, low cost, and
low bit rate networks. The IEEE 802.15.6 (published in 2012),
was specifically designed for wireless communications in the
vicinity of, or inside, a human body. Finally, Bluetooth Low
Energy (BT LE) (published in 2010) is the ultra-low power
consumption configuration of Bluetooth technology, targeting
several applications for small and cheap devices powered by
button-cell batteries, such as wireless sensors. Due to the quite
large number of available standards, it is necessary to identify
the best solution, depending on the application requirements.
For what concerns the main issues to be accounted for in the
design of a WBAN, the impact of wireless medium, the battery
lifetime and the coexistence with other wireless networks are
of fundamental importance. The presence of the human body
affects the radio wave propagation, leading to a specific and
peculiar radio channel, which has to be properly accounted
for in the design of the protocols. The need for long battery
lifetime shall be addressed through energy efficient solutions
since frequent battery replacements must be avoided, being a
very hard task in some application (e.g., medical applications
where nodes are implanted). The third main issue to be taken
into account is the outage occurrence due to coexistence with
other wireless networks operating in the same frequency band.
As it will be remarked later in the paper, many standard
solutions for WBAN operate in the licence-free Industrial
Scientific and Medical (ISM) band centered at 2.45 GHz and
this leads to coexistence issues with other networks operating
in the same band (e.g., Wi-Fi IEEE 802.11).
This paper provides a survey on WBANs over the period
2005-2013, including their applications and standard technologies, the main features and challenges in their design and the
possible future research directions. After the definition of the
main applications and requirements, the standard solutions
identified above are described and compared through the
introduction of some case studies. Particular attention is paid
to the IEEE 802.15.6 standard, being optimised for low power
devices and operation on, in or around the human body.
Moreover, the paper presents some insights with reference to
the main issues identified above, by introducing other case
studies, with the aim of showing the impact on the WBAN
performance of some key factors to be addressed in the design,
as the impact of the radio channel, the energy consumption,
and the coexistence with external interfering networks.
The main new contribution of this paper, beside presenting
an updated survey of the WBAN technologies, is to provide
to the scientific community a broad overview of the most
c 2014 IEEE
1553-877X/14/$31.00
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2
TABLE I
S URVEYS ON WBAN
Subject
Ref.s
Requirements
Security
General applications
Medical applications
Channel modelling
MAC protocols
Energy efficiency
Routing
[4-7]
[8-9]
[4],[6-7]
[10-18]
[19]
[20-24]
[10-11], [24-26], [144]
[21-22],[27]
challenging aspects in the design of a WBAN, and to give

useful hints about the way to tackle these challenges. The
latter is achieved also by introducing some novel numerical
results, with particular reference to the IEEE 802.15.6 and
coexistence studies, mainly derived through experimentation
on the field performed at the University of Bologna.
The remainder of this paper is organised as follows. The
next section reports a set of already published surveys on
WBAN; a taxonomy of WBANs is presented in Sec. III.
In Sec. IV some of the most common applications for
WBANs are described along with the broad range of system
requirements needed by these applications. Sec. V gives an
overview of the standards mainly adopted to realise a WBAN.
Sec. VI follows where a comparison of the standards is
presented through simulations and experimental results. The
main challenges related to the design of a WBAN are then
treated in Sec. VII, where some case studies are reported
as examples to show the impact of the different key factors
affecting the WBAN performance, with the aim of providing a
good insight to the designer. Sec. VIII reports on the possible
future research directions and Sec. IX provides a interesting
use case, showing the utility of the topics addressed in the
paper. Lastly, Sec. X concludes this paper.
II. R ELATED W ORKS

This section provides an overview of general surveys on
WBANs and surveys on more specific aspects of the WBANs,
as applications or protocols as summarised in Table I. The
reader can also find related works dealing with more specific
topics, as channel modelling, energy-efficiency and coexistence in Sec. VII.
Several surveys on WBANs can be found in the literature of
recent years, among them [4][7] present general overviews
on WBAN technical requirements, the application scenarios
in which they could be involved and the candidate wireless
technologies to be considered as possible de facto standards.
The key research aspects that should be addressed in the
near future are specifically considered in [4], with a detailed
analysis that spans from the most suitable frequency band
selection up to security and privacy aspects, covering the
entire system architecture. An interesting overview of the
most important characteristics and limitations of the types
of sensors commonly used in WBANs devices is provided
in [7], highlighting how important a proper choice of the

hardware is, in order to realise systems fulfilling applicationdependent requirements. Surveys on solutions to increase
WBAN reliability, security and availability is given in [8] and
[9].
In contrast with the above mentioned works, this paper aims
to introduce the reader to the main issues in WBAN design,
namely the radio channel modelling, the minimisation of the
energy consumption and the coexistence with other WBANs.
Simulation and experimental numerical results are provided
to show their real impact on the performance of a WBAN,
therefore the reader is guided to the best approach to challenge
these issues according to the system requirements.
As for the surveys on applications, a special emphasis
on medical ones and healthcare is given in [10][13], with
[14] specifically focusing on cardiac patients monitoring. In
particular, a detailed list of existing healthcare monitoring
applications is provided both in [12] and [13], the latter giving
also an insight into the peculiar research challenges faced by
healthcare systems like the ones presented. The authors of
[15] and [16] consider the issue of mobility of patients in an
hospital wearing a WBAN. In their works they surveyed the
handover mechanisms for intra-mobility, that is the mobility
of sensor nodes between different access points, but always
within the same network domain. Surveys on mobile phone
sensing and human activity recognition using wearable sensors
are given in [17] and [18] respectively.
In [19] is described the activity carried out by the COST
Action 2100 on WBAN, focused on channel modelling and
antenna design. Different in-body, on-body and on-body to offbody channel models are presented along with related antenna
designs. The quality of links between on-body devices is
explored in term of cumulative distribution function of packet
loss rate by means of measurements.
Protocol solutions specifically designed for WBANs and for
body centric communications are also reviewed in [20][23].
While [20] presents a comparison of different MAC protocols,
the other three referenced works propose an overview also on
physical layer solutions. As one of the most critical aspects to
be considered when dealing with WBANs for medical applications, authors in [10], [11] and [24] stress the importance of
designing energy-efficient MAC protocols to enhance devices
battery-life keeping their size as smaller as possible. A survey
on duty cycle mechanisms to keep the energy consumption
low in wireless sensor network is given in [25], while [26]
is a survey on energy harvesting techniques that can be also
applied in WBAN using the human body as source of energy.
Routing protocols for WBAN are reviewed in [27], the authors
classify routing protocols into six categories: thermal aware,
cluster based, cross layers based, quality of service aware, and
delay tolerant aware routing protocols and they discuss the
advantages and the performance for each category. Finally,
particular emphasis is given in [21], [22] to routing protocols
and cross-layer approach to improve the performance.
In contrast with the above mentioned works, this paper
is much more general and deals with different aspects, as
applications, requirements, MAC protocols, energy efficiency,
radio channel and coexistence.
CAVALLARI et al.: A SURVEY ON WIRELESS BODY AREA NETWORKS: TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN CHALLENGES
WBAN
RF
HBC
Ultrasound
Molecular
[28]
[36-37]
[39],[42-43]
[38],[40-41]
MICS [29-30]
Galvanic coupling
WMTS [31]
Capacitive coupling
ISM [32]
MBAN [33]
UWB [34-35]
Fig. 1. Taxonomy of WBAN.
III. A TAXONOMY OF WBAN S

WBANs can be categorised according to the wireless communication technology employed. In this section we present
on overview of these technologies, considering not only Radio
Frequency (RF) solutions, but also other technologies, as
Human Body communication (HBC), molecular communications and ultrasonic waves. This classification of WBAN is
summarised in Fig. 1. The rest of the paper is on RF WBANs,
being the main focus of this survey.
The majority of the works that can be found in the literature
are about WBANs based on RF techniques, which can be
classified according to the frequency band they operate in.
Worldwide communication authorities regulate the use of the
frequency spectrum, however, it is not straightforward for the
WBAN designer to choose the most appropriate band for the
target application. To this end the IEEE 802.15 Task Group
6 delivered a report that provides an overview of frequency
regulations for medical applications in different countries and
regions [28]. The different bands are illustrated in Fig. 2 and
a description of them follows.
Wireless Medical Telemetry System (WMTS) and Medical Implant Communications Service (MICS) bands were
allocated exclusively for body-worn and implanted medical
applications [29], which require simple point-to-point communication. They were introduced to overcome the range, bit rate
and reliability limitations imposed by the magnetic coupling
communication technology used in the early wireless medical
devices. Within the MICS band is possible to achieve a bit
rate up to 400 kbps and a communication range around 2
meters [30] to satisfy the requirements of application such as
cardiac pacemakers, implanted defibrillator and neurostimulator. Application like the swallable camera pill may require
bit rate in the order of 1 Mbps, which are achievable in the
WMTS band. An example of WBAN using a combination of
devices operating in the MICS band for short range intra-BAN
communication, and in the WMTS band for medium range
communication with a central data collector, can be found in
[31].
The unlicensed ISM bands are defined by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) and are designated for purposes different from telecommunications and, some of them
are subject to specific countrys radio regulations [32]. Being
unlicensed, the ISM bands are prone to coexistence issues that

must be taken seriously into account by the WBAN designer,
as discussed in Sec. VII-C. The band between 2.4 and 2.5 GHz
is often preferred among the others because of its worldwide
availability. An interesting action was taken by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) on May 2012 to allocate
40 MHz of spectrum between 2.36-2.40 GHz on a secondary
basis for a new Medical Body Area Network (MBAN) licensed
service [33]. This will be an effective way to mitigate the
interference experienced by devices working in the adjacent
ISM unlicensed band.
Another option is Ultra-wide Band (UWB). An UWB signal
is formally defined by ITU as any signal that occupies more
than 500 MHz of spectrum. The regulatory authority specifies,
however, that the power spectral density shall not exceed 41.25 dBm/MHz, which is around 30 dB below the maximum
allowed for a signal in the 2.4-2.5 GHz ISM band [28].
Some positive features that make UWB a good candidate
technology for WBANs are the low susceptibility to multipath
fading that improves the performance of indoor systems,
the immunity to interference, the very high bit rate (up to
500 Mbps). Moreover, intrinsically secure communication is
possible thanks to the low energy and spectral density, which
is below the noise floor of conventional receivers, and the
simplicity of the transceiver architecture. The interested reader
can find a primer on UWB in [34], while an example of
a WBAN with cognitive radio features based on UWB is
presented in [35].
The focus of this survey is primarily on RF WBANs,
however recent works have shown that other wireless communication paradigms can be applied in this framework.
One of this technique is neither wireless nor wired, in
fact, it uses the human body as communication medium. It is
called Human Body Communication (referred to also as Intra
Body Communication and Body Channel Communication).
The propagation signal through the human body is possible
by capacitive coupling of the human body to its surrounding
environment, and galvanic coupling achieved by coupling
alternate current into the human body. The benefits HBC can
bring to a WBAN are: intrinsic security since signals are
confined to the persons proximity and receiving data requires
body contact, the energy consumption can be kept as low as
one order of magnitude compared to UWB at around 10 Mbps,
coexistence with other HBC WBAN is possible because the
communication is confined in or in the immediate proximity
of the human body. An extensive survey of HBC can be
found in [36], while a general model for HBC is derived from
Maxwells equations in [37].
Considering in particular in-body WBANs, molecular and
ultrasonic communications can represent good alternatives to
RF solutions. The former refers to the use of molecules as
messages transferred between a transmitter and a receiver
using nanotechnology [38], while the latter is based on the use
of ultrasound, i.e. acoustic waves at non-audible frequencies
[39].
Due to their intrinsic biocompatibility, diffusion-based
molecular communications are promising for nanomedicine
applications, such as restoration of the glucose feedback
loop in diabetic patients, recognising and destroying tumours
4
Japan
5
50
HBC
401 406 420 450
MICS
North America
Australia
Europe New Zeland Japan
WorldWide
863 870 902 928 1395 1429 2360
WMTS
ISM
2400
MBAN
2500
ISM
3100
10600
UWB
f [MHz]
Fig. 2. Some of the available bands for WBAN based on RF technology.
with engineered bacteria, or even intracellular surgery with

nanorobots [40]. On the other hand, their use brings crucial
challenges that have to be addressed to allow the realisation of
reliable networks. Channel characteristics differ significantly
from those of classic RF medium in terms of propagation
delays, noise, applicable modulations, and achievable capacity. The nature of molecular movement (based on Brownian
motion) has to be taken into account when designing MAC
and routing solutions, which have to be as simple as possible,
given the very low memory and processing capabilities of
nanomachines [40]. In [41] Yen et al. described how Brownian
motion makes the physical channel very different from the one
experienced in conventional wireless communications. They
show how a new paradigm of channel coding can enhance
the overall system reliability and how conventional MultiInput-Multi-Output techniques can be applied to molecular
communications.
Ultrasonic waves can overcome some of the limits of RF
propagation inside the human body, as the high attenuation
values. They have been used for decades as the preferred technology solution for underwater communications and they are
thus considered a suitable option for enabling communications
inside the human body, which is mostly made up of water [39],
[42]. Proper design choices have to be done at the PHY, MAC,
and network layers to exploit the possible high capacity and to
realise WBANs based on ultrasonic communications. In [43]
the authors derived a model for ultrasonic communications
inside the human body and proposed a multiple access MAC
protocol; simulation results show high performance of their
proposal in terms of throughput, packet loss rate and energy
consumption of their proposal.
IV. WBAN A PPLICATIONS AND R EQUIREMENTS
The ability to deploy a finite number of wireless sensor
nodes on the human body leads to the opportunity of developing a large number of applications in several fields. In
this section we first present a set of possible applications for
WBANs, then the requirements imposed by these applications
will be listed and discussed.
continuous monitoring of the heart and brain activity, respectively. WBANs cannot only detect fatal events and anomalies,
they can also improve the life style of hearing and visually
impaired people by means of earing aid, cochlear implant and
artificial retina, respectively [44][46]. The following is a nonexhaustive list of applications that can benefit from WBAN usage: electrocardiogram (ECG), electroencephalogram (EEG),
electromyogram (EMG), pulse oximetry, drugs delivery, post
operative and temperature monitoring, glucose level, toxins,
blood pressure, etc..
2) Sport and Entertainment: A real-time log of vital parameters like blood pressure, heart beat, blood oximetry and
posture can improve fitness and sport experiences. In this way
users can gather information concerning their sport activity
and use them to prevent injuries and to plan future training to
improve their performance.
WBANs bring more realism in the user experience in the
field of entertainment. Motion capturing techniques make
possible to track the position of different parts of the body
by means of a network of gyroscopes and accelerometers
wirelessly connected to a central node and worn by the user.
The real-time information about the motion allows the user
to use his body as a controller in videogames. Moreover, film
industry takes advantage of motion capture along with post
production techniques to realise highly realistic digital movies
where actors play the role of non-human subjects [47].
3) Military and Defence: Network-Enabled Capability
(NEC) is the name of the long term program aimed to
achieve enhanced military effect through the use of information systems [48]. New capabilities added by a WBAN will
enhance the performance, at both individual and squad level,
of soldiers engaged in military operations. At individual level,
a set of sensors can monitor vital parameters and provide
information about the surrounding environment in order to
avoid threats, while information taken at squad level will make
the commander able to better coordinate the squad actions
and tasks. Spatial localisation techniques and communication
between different WBANs (inter-WBAN communications)
play an important role in this field, as well as security in
order to prevent sensitive information from being caught by
the enemies [49].
A. Applications
1) Healthcare: At a first glance this is the most promising
field of application for a WBAN. Several non-intrusive sensors
deployed inside or on the human body allow the patients
and the doctors to sample continuous waveform of biomedical signals in a remote and continued fashion [23]. Events
that require prompt assistance like heart attack and epileptic
seizure, can be detected and even foreseen thanks to the
B. Requirements
To develop a WBAN is a challenging task because of
the broad range of requirements imposed by the applications
described in Sec. IV-A. The most important requirements, as
recommended by the IEEE TG6 [50], are detailed in this
section. Some of them are better analysed and discussed
in the following sections. In particular, some details about
TABLE II
B IT RATE AND Q O S REQUIREMENTS FOR SOME WBAN APPLICATIONS
[51].
Application
Bit rate
Delay
BER
Deep brain stimulation

Drug delivery
Capsule endoscope
ECG
EEG
EMG
Glucose level monitor
Audio streaming
Video streaming
Voice
< 320 kbps

< 16 kbps
1 Mbps
192 kbps
86.4 kbps
1.536 Mbps
< 1 kbps
1 Mbps
< 10 Mbps
50 - 100 kbps
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
250 ms
250 ms
250 ms
250 ms
250 ms
250 ms
250 ms
20 ms
100 ms
100 ms
10-10
10-10
10-10
10-10
10-10
10-10
10-10
10-5
10-3
10-3
transmission range, topology, bit rate and security are provided

in Sec. V, with reference to the different considered standard
solutions, while some indications about the quality of service
achievable with such standards are provided in Sec. VI.
Finally, Sec. VII deals with details about the radio channel,
power consumption and coexistence issues.
1) Bit rate and Quality of Service: The bit rate requirement
varies on a very broad range depending on the application
and on the type of data to be transmitted. It goes from
less than 1 kbps (e.g., temperature monitoring) to 10 Mbps
(e.g., video streaming). The bit rate can refer to a single link
or to multiple links, when several devices transmit/receive
information to/from one coordinator at the same time (e.g.,
multiple leads ECG). A list of possible applications with their
target bit rates is proposed in [4]. High level of QoS should be
guaranteed in medical and military applications. Appropriate
error correction and interference-avoidance methods should be
implemented at MAC and PHY layers to reduce the bit error
rate (BER). Other important parameters are: the end-to-end
delay, the delay variation and the capability to provide fast and
reliable reaction to emergency situations. Furthermore, for this
kind of WBAN the capability to handle traffic with different
priority levels is important [50]. In Table II is reported a list
of requirements for different WBAN applications.
2) Range and Topology: The communication range should
not be larger than few meters (3 6 m) for most of the
applications, as presented in [4]. Thus, a simple star topology
is usually enough, however, the human body can represent
an obstacle itself for the radio propagation, especially for
the implanted nodes. In this case, a multi-hop communication must be established and a relaying technique should be
accounted for in order to exploit node spatial diversity, as
proposed for example in [52], [53]. The number of nodes
forming the WBAN ranges from two (e.g., glucose meter) to
ten and can vary at run time. Therefore, the network should
implement reliable association and disassociation procedures
to allow nodes to join and leave the network as needed by
the application. In Sec. V transmission range and possible
topologies for the different standards are provided.
3) Security: Security is of primary importance, especially
for what concerns medical and military applications, and
it should be addressed in terms of privacy, confidentiality,
authorisation, and integrity [4]. As it will be briefly described

in Sec. V, each of the standard intended to be used in the
WBAN context provide some techniques to deal with security
issues. Anyway, conventional data encryption mechanisms
or authentication process result to be not perfectly suitable
for these kind of networks due to limited processing power,
memory, and energy constraints of WBAN nodes. Hence,
novel lightweight and resource-efficient methods are being
developed [54], [55]. A promising solution in this context
is the use of biometric identification based mechanisms [56],
[57]. In Sec. V some details about the security provided by
the different standards are given.
4) Antenna and radio channel: As already stated, antenna
design can be a very critical issue and researches on miniaturisation should lead to quite efficient solutions [58], always
considering the proper trade-off between antennas sizes and
their efficiency. Moreover, the presence of the human body
could not be neglected since it affects antennas radiation and
polarisation characteristics, according to the specific device
on-body position [59], [60]. A good radio channel characterisation is then mandatory in order to design an antenna
able to provide the proper radiation properties. The impact
of radio channel on network performance is accounted for in
Sec. VII-A.
5) Power Consumption: The power consumption requirement is very dependent on the nature of the application.
However, WBAN devices are generally battery-powered and
the battery lifetime is required to be up to several years
for implanted devices (e.g., pacemakers require at least five
years) [61]. Ultra-low power design for radio transceivers is
essential, as well as power-wise MAC protocol design. A
common technique for the latter at the expense of end-toend delay is lowering the duty cycle, which allows devices
to be in sleep mode (transceiver and CPU shut down) for
most of the time. This solution is effective for applications
that require infrequent transmissions, however, a proper tradeoff between delay and power consumption should be found.
Energy scavenging could also be an option to lessen the need
for a battery [62], [63], in particular from body heat [64] or
from human movements [65]. Power consumption issues are
addressed in Sec. VII-B.
6) Coexistence: Most of the WBANs are designed to operate in the license-free ISM band centered at 2.45 GHz. This
is an overcrowded radio band, indeed, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11),
Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1), IEEE 802.15.4/ZigBee and other
standards operate in this band. Many WBAN applications
(e.g., medical applications) require very high reliability, especially when an emergency or alarm traffic has to be established, therefore techniques to avoid or reduce interference
should be studied and implemented. A proper evaluation of
the real impact on WBAN performance in terms of packet loss
rate or transmission delay due to the presence of interfering
systems is then of outmost importance. Some works that
address this topic are reported in [66][68], which study
coexistence aspects between several sources of interference
(i.e., systems working according to Wi-Fi standard or IEEE
802.15.4a) and different PHY Layer solutions for the WBAN
(i.e. narrowband PHY at 2.45 GHz, IEEE 802.15.6 UWB).
Moreover, as specified in [50], in order to reduce or eventually
6
eliminate possible damaging effect of simultaneous activity,

proper techniques of interference rejection should be considered as proposed in [69][72], just to give some examples.
Anyway, the presence of other nearby networks should not
be seen just as a potential source of interference, but also as
possible useful relay networks to forward the information in
a non fully connected scenario for delay-tolerant applications
[73], [74]. Coexistence issues are addressed in Sec. VII-C.
7) Form Factor: Size constraints can be stringent; the
most critical aspect of this is to fit the antenna and the
battery into a very tight case while providing good radiation
property and lifetime. This is true mainly for implantable
devices, anyway, when a WBAN node is designed to be worn,
flexibility and stretchability may be more relevant in order
to be comfortable for the user, especially in sport, fitness
and military applications. For recent advances in stretchable
electronics the interest reader should refer to [75], while [76]
[78] focus on stretchable antennas and RF circuits. Recent
advances in integrated circuit design and miniaturisation of
both radio components and antennas strive to realise devices
with adequate form factor to be implanted or comfortably
worn.
8) Signal processing: WBAN applications are power consumption limited and the radio circuits are often the powergreedy part of the system [79]. However, power efficient signal
processing techniques can help the designer to keep under
control the power consumption related to the acquisition and
analysis of the biological signals. To this extent compressed
sensing (CS) is a technique that allow to sample a sparse
analogue signal at a sub-Nyquist rate, and saving energy
without loosing the information contained in it [80], [81].
CS has been applied to many WBAN scenarios such as EEG
[82], ECG and EMG [83], where the authors show that power
consumption can be lowered by reducing the amount of data
to be transmitted using CS to compress data up to a factor
of 16. In [84] the authors show how to use block sparse
Bayesian learning to reconstruct a sub-Nyquist sampled signal
(fetal ECG) exploiting its correlation, and they proved the
effectiveness of their approach with experimental results. [85]
presents a wavelet transform based algorithm used to detect the
QRS complex of a down-sampled ECG signal. An overview
of CS applied to WBAN design can be found in [86].
9) Safety for the human body: At the frequencies of interest for WBANs, the known health-related effects centered
around human tissues include only heating. The International
Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP)
specifies general restrictions and limits that have to be met
to guarantee health safety when the body is exposed to timevarying electromagnetic fields [87]. For the frequency range
from 100 kHz to 10 GHz such restrictions are established
in terms of Specific Absorption Rate (SAR). SAR represents
the mass normalized rate at which RF power is coupled to
biological tissues and it is typically expressed in units of watts
per kilogram [W/Kg]. Low power devices, such as WBAN
ones, do not radiate enough power for the whole-body SAR
to be a concern, while attention has to be paid to the localised
SAR, which is the SAR measured in specific parts of the
body most exposed to RF fields. Therefore, WBANs should
minimise the localised SAR and comply with international
[87] or regional SAR regulations (such as those defined by

the European Union for Europe [88] and by the FCC for USA
[89]).
V. S TANDARD S OLUTIONS
The benefits brought by standardisation are manifold: manufacturers can rely on solid bases and specifications in developing their products, costs for both the vendors and consumers
are lower and the latter are no longer dependent on a specific
vendors; moreover, the enhanced interoperability enables a
seamless use and spread of the technology. In this section
we describe the main solutions considered as reference:
IEEE 802.15.4 [1], IEEE 802.15.6 [2], and Bluetooth Low
Energy [3].
The former was published in 2006, specifying the PHY
and the MAC layers for short-range wireless communications,
devised to support low power, low cost, and low bit rate
networks. Nowadays, it can be regarded to as a de-facto
standard for WSNs. The second standard solution, instead,
was specifically designed for wireless communications in the
vicinity of, or inside, a human body. IEEE 802.15 Task
Group 6 initiated WBAN standardisation activities in November 2007, recognising that existing standards did not fully
meet the medical (proximity to human tissues) and relevant
communication regulations for some application environments
and they were not suitable to support the combination of
reliability, low power, bit rate, and non-interference required
to broadly address the breadth of WBAN applications. A
first draft was released in May 2010, the final version was
published in February 2012. Finally, Bluetooth Low Energy
(BT LE) is the ultra-low power consumption configuration
of Bluetooth technology, as defined in the latest Bluetooth
core configuration (June 2010) [3]. BT LE targets several
applications for small and cheap devices powered by buttoncell batteries, such as wireless sensors.
A. The IEEE 802.15.4 Standard
IEEE 802.15.4 wireless technology is a short-range (up to
100 m) communication system intended to enable applications
with relaxed throughput and latency requirements in Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs). The key features of
IEEE 802.15.4 wireless technology are low complexity, low
cost, low power consumption, low bit rate transmissions, to be
supported by cheap either fixed or moving devices. The main
field of application of this technology is the implementation of
WSNs. The network topologies supported are the star, tree and
mesh [90]. The IEEE 802.15.4 standardises the two bottom
layers of ISO/OSI protocol stack, namely PHY and MAC
layers. There are two options for the upper layers definition:
ZigBee protocols, specified by the industrial consortia ZigBee
Alliance, and 6LowPAN [91].
IEEE 802.15.4 specifies a total of 27 half-duplex channels
across three frequency bands, organised as follows: i) The 868
MHz band with just a single channel with bit rate of 20 kbps;
ii) The 915 MHz band, where ten channels with a bit rate
of 40 kbps are available; iii) The 2.45 GHz ISM band with
sixteen channels with bit rate equal to 250 kbps.
At the MAC layer the IEEE 802.15.4 defines two different
operational modes, namely the beacon-enabled and the non
beacon-enabled, which correspond to two different channel

access mechanisms. In the beacon-enabled mode the access
to the channel is managed through a superframe (SF), starting with a packet called beacon, transmitted by the WPAN
coordinator. The superframe may contain an inactive part,
allowing nodes to go in sleeping mode, whereas the active
part is divided into two parts: the Contention Access Period
(CAP), where a slotted Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) protocol is used, and the
Contention Free Period (CFP), where guaranteed time slots
may be allocated to specific nodes in the network by the
coordinator.
The CSMA/CA algorithm is implemented using units of
time called backoff periods. Each node maintains three variables for each transmission attempt: N B, CW and BE. N B
is the number of times the CSMA/CA algorithm was required
to backoff while attempting the current transmission. CW is
the number of backoff periods that need to be clear of channel
activity before the transmission can start. BE is the backoff
exponent related to the maximum number of backoff periods
a node will wait before attempting to assess the channel.
The algorithm follows the following steps. First, N B, CW ,
and BE are initialized to 0, 2, and BEmin , respectively.
Upon reception of the beacon, any activity is delayed (backoff
state) for a random number of backoff periods in the range
(0, 2BE 1) [step (1)]. After this delay, channel sensing is
performed for one backoff period [step (2)]. If the channel is
assessed to be busy, CW is set to 2 and N B and BE are
increased by 1, ensuring that BE is not larger than BEmax .
If the value of N B is lower than N Bmax , the algorithm
returns to step (1); otherwise the algorithm will unsuccessfully
terminate, meaning that the node does not succeed in accessing
the channel. If the channel is assessed to be idle, instead, CW
is decremented by 1 and compared with 0. If CW > 0, the
algorithm returns to step (2); otherwise a transmission may
start.
In the non beacon-enabled mode nodes only use an unslotted CSMA/CA protocol [1].
IEEE 802.15.4 standard defines a encryption algorithm to
be used when cyphering the data to transmit, however, the
standard does not specify how the keys have to be managed or
what kind of authentication policies have to be applied. These
issues are treated in the upper layers which are managed by
ZigBee, as an example. The encryption algorithm used is AES
(Advanced Encryption Standard) with a 128-bit key length.
The AES algorithm is not only used to encrypt the information
but also to validate the data which is sent. This concept
is called data integrity and it is achieved using a Message
Integrity Code (MIC) which is appended to the message.
This code ensures integrity of the MAC header and payload
data attached. ZigBee implements two extra security layers
on top of the IEEE 802.15.4: the Network and Application
security layers. All the security policies rely on the AES 128bit encryption algorithm.
B. The IEEE 802.15.6 Standard
IEEE Task Group TG6 was established in November 2007
to realise a standard specifically designed for WBANs, namely
IEEE 802.15.6, whose final version was released in February

2012 [2]. Due to the broad range of possible applications,
three different PHYs have been defined:
I) Narrowband (NB) PHY: A compliant device shall be
able to support transmission and reception in at least
one of the following optional frequency bands: 402405 MHz, 420-450 MHz, 863-870 MHz, 902-928 MHz,
950-958 MHz, 2360-2400 MHz and 2400-2483.5 MHz.
In particular, the latter is in the ISM band and it is extremely interesting because of its worldwide availability,
but there may be coexistence issues with other standards
working in the same band (e.g., IEEE 802.15.4).
II) UWB PHY: UWB is divided into a low (3.25-4.75 GHz)
and a high (6.6-10.25 GHz) band, both sub-divided into
operating channels of 500 MHz bandwidth each. UWB
PHY is specifically designed to offer robust performance
for high quality, low complexity and ultra low power
operations. Two types of UWB technologies are considered: impulse radio UWB (IR-UWB) and wideband frequency modulation (FM-UWB). Two operational mode
are also defined: default for medical and non-medical
applications, and high quality of service for high-priority
medical applications. Both modes shall support IR-UWB
as mandatory PHY, but the default one also supports FMUWB as optional.
III) HBC PHY: This PHY solution uses the human body
as a communication medium. The band of operation is
centred at 21 MHz with a bandwidth of 5.25 MHz.
A wide range of bit rates is supported by the standards.
They can be found in Table III.
The transmission range is limited to 3 m for in-body applications and has to be at least 3 m for body-to-body applications.
The network topology is allowed to be a star or at most a
2-hops tree. Even if different PHY solutions are proposed
in the standard, just a single MAC protocol is presented. In
order to support different applications and data flows types
(i.e., continuous, periodic, non-periodic and burst), each one
characterised by specific performance requirements, the MAC
protocol should be the most flexible as possible, combining
both contention-based and contention-free access techniques
[92]. A BAN coordinator could decide whether to operate in
one of the following three access modes:
a) Beacon mode with beacon periods (superframes): The
coordinator establishes a common time base by sending
beacon packets that define the beginning of an active
beacon period. It shall also divide each active superframe
(SF) into applicable access phases ordering them as shown
in Fig. 3, and defining their specific duration. In the Exclusive Access Phase (EAP), used only for the transmission
of emergency data, Random Access Phase (RAP) and
Contention Access Period (CAP), nodes use CSMA/CA or
Slotted ALOHA methods. In the managed access period
(MAP), the coordinator may schedule intervals, or poll
nodes [2].
In CSMA/CA the node shall obtain a contended allocation
selecting a backoff counter (BC) among the equiprobable
values in the interval [0-CW(UP)]. CW is the Contention
Window value, it could vary between a maximum and
8
TABLE III
IEEE 802.15.6 SUPPORTED BIT RATES
PHY
NB
UWB
HBC
Frequency
band (MHz),
center
frequency
(MHz), or
moulation
Bit
rate 0
(kbps)
Bit
rate 1
(kbps)
Bit
rate 2
(kbps)
Bit
rate 3
(kbps)
Bit
rate 4
(kbps)
Bit
rate 5
(kbps)
Bit
rate 6
(kbps)
Bit
rate 7
(kbps)
402 - 405
75.9
151.8
303.6
455.4
420 - 450
75.9
151.8
187.5
863 - 870
902 - 928
101.2
101.2
202.4
202.4
404.8
404.8
607.2
607.1
950 - 958
101.2
202.4
404.8
607.1
2360 - 2400
121.4
242.9
485.7
971.4
2400 - 2483.5
Noncoherent
Differentiallycoherent
121.4
242.9
485.7
971.4
394.8
789.7
1579
3159
6318
12636
487
975
1950
3900
7800
15600
557
1114
FM
202.2
21
164
328
656
1312.5
B2
EAP1
RAP1
EAP2
MAP
RAP2
MAP
CAP
Beacon period (superframe) n
Fig. 3. IEEE 802.15.6 SF structure for beacon mode with beacon periods access technique, including EAP, RAP, MAP and CAP periods.
minimum that are dependent on the data type and its User
Priority (UP); larger CW values are set for data with less
stringent requirements. If the channel is sensed as idle for
a minimum interval of time the node shall decrement its
BC by one for each idle CSMA slot that follows, and
once BC reaches the value 0, the node obtains a contended
allocation during which the frame transmission could take
place. The BC is locked to a specific value when the
channel is sensed as busy, and the count down is resumed
as soon as the channel returns in idle conditions. CW value
is set according to the result of the last contention attempt,
following specific assignment rules.
As for the slotted ALOHA technique, a node transmits the
packet in a given slot if z CP [U P ], where z is a value
the node draws at random from the interval [0-1], and CP
is the Contention Probability value, which is set according
to the result of the last contended allocation, and whose
value depends on the data UP (smaller for lower priority
data).
b) Non-beacon mode with superframes: In this mode a coordinator may have only a MAP in any SF, and it may
organise the access to the medium as explained above for
the MAP phase in the beacon enabled access mode.
c) Non-beacon mode without superframes: A coordinator may
provide unscheduled allocation interval. After determining
that the next frame exchange will take place in non-beacon
mode without SF, a node shall treat any time interval as a
portion of EAP1 or RAP1 and employ CSMA/CA based
random access to obtain a contended allocation [2].
As it could be seen from this brief description, the huge

variety of channel access techniques proposed in the standard
gives a great flexibility to the protocol, but at the same time it
is not so immediate for the designer to choose the best options
and to find the optimal solution to be implemented.
Security aspects are also accounted for in the standard and
they are addressed with nodes choosing among three different
security levels: level 0: unsecured communications, it provides
no measures for message authenticity and integrity validation,
confidentiality and privacy protection; level 1: authentication
but not encryption, messages are transmitted in secured authenticated but not encrypted frames, providing measures for
authentication and integrity validation but not confidentiality
and privacy protection; level 2: authentication and encryption
are considered, resulting in the most secure transmission
condition provided by the standard. The security selection in
turn sets off a security association between communication
ends for activating a pre-shared or generating a new shared
master key. As part of message security, replay protection is
also provided [2].
C. Bluetooth Low Energy
Bluetooth wireless technology is a short-range communication system intended to replace the cable(s) connecting
portable and/or fixed electronic devices. The key features
of Bluetooth wireless technology are robustness, low power
consumption, and low cost [3]. There are two main core
configurations of Bluetooth technology systems: Basic Rate
(BR), with optional Enhanced Data Rate (EDR), and Low

Energy (LE). BR is the classic Bluetooth, which allows a
bit rate up to 3 Mbps with EDR. The LE system includes
features designed to realise products characterised by lower
current consumption, transmission range up to 30 m, lower
complexity, and lower cost than BR/EDR. The LE system is
also designed for use cases and applications with lower bit
rates and duty cycles. LE aims at small and cheap devices,
powered by button-cell batteries, such as wireless sensor
devices, for several applications: sports and fitness (sport
equipment and monitoring devices, speedometer, heart rate
meter, pedometer), healthcare and illness treatment (weight
scale, blood pressure monitor, glucose meter, pulse oximeter),
home automation and entertainment (remote controls, home
sensors and switches), automotive (tyre pressure monitoring,
parking assistant, keyless entry), watch/wrist wearable devices
(music players and mobile phones remote controls, proximity
detection).
Bluetooth LE specifications regard the whole protocol stack.
Only star topologies are possible. Two implementation options
are defined for LE: a single-mode (stand-alone) implementation, targeted at applications requiring low power consumption
and small size (typically button cell battery powered devices),
and a dual-mode implementation, an extension to the classic
Bluetooth radio, targeted at mobile phones and PCs.
Bluetooth LE operates in the 2.45 GHz ISM band, where
40 channels, each one is 2 MHz wide, are defined. The
modulation is Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying (GFSK) and
the supported bit rate is equal to 1 Mbps.
At the Link Layer (LL), the radio channels are allocated
into two different types: advertising physical channels and
data physical channels. The three advertising channels are
used for discovering devices, initiating a connection, and
broadcasting data. The remaining data physical channels are
used for communication between connected devices during
normal operations. In both cases, channels are sub-divided into
time units known as events: advertising events and connection
events, respectively. On data channels, the communication is
managed by a master node, which defines the timings of
transmissions and channel hopping procedures.
Since Bluetooth is a well-known and widespread technology, it could be a good option for WBANs. The most recent
mobile phones and tablets come with dual-mode Bluetooth
radio, and some monitoring devices equipped with LE can
already be found on the market (e.g., heart rate belts) [93].
The main drawbacks of Bluetooth LE are the lack of multihop
communication and the limited scalability, in fact only star
topologies are possible.
Bluetooth LE offers various security services for protecting
the information exchange between two connected devices.
Most of the supported security services can be expressed in
terms of two mutually-exclusive security modes called LE
security mode 1 and LE security mode 2. In the first mode
paying (through authentication or not), encryption and data
integrity are provided, while in the second mode encryption
is not foreseen. Encryption and authentication techniques are
implemented using Counter with Cipher Block ChainingMessage Authentication Code (CCM) Mode and a 128-bit
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) block cipher. The LL
RC
(a) On body
(b) On table
Fig. 4. The WBAN scenarios considered. (a) Nodes are placed on body, Ptx
= 0 dBm. (b) Nodes are placed on a table, Ptx = 10 dBm.
connection may be either encrypted and authenticated or

unencrypted and unauthenticated. In the first case, messages
shall be encrypted and authenticated, and authentication is
performed by appending a specific field to the packet payload.
Each security mode accounts with different levels, which
express requirements as to the type of pairing that has to be
used. Pairing is a procedure by which the devices generate
and distribute key material. Standard also implements some
privacy features, indeed devices hide they real address using
instead randomly generated addresses that change during time.
Privacy is then guaranteed since these random addresses could
be resolved only knowing the proper key.
VI. S TANDARDS C OMPARISON : C ASE S TUDY
This section presents examples of numerical results of the
performance achievable with the standard solutions described
in Sec. V, in terms of packet loss rate (PLR), average delay
and network throughput. The reader can refer to [94] for a
comparison of the standards in terms of bit error probability
(i.e., performance related to the PHY layer). Our aim is to give
useful insights to the reader by providing a fair comparison
of the network performance of the most suitable standards for
WBAN, and to provide indications about the best solution to
be chosen, depending on the application requirements.
Results shown in this section have been obtained through: i)
simulations, using a discrete-event simulator written in C++,
implementing the different standards; ii) experiments made
using the IcyCom SoC [95], implementing at the MAC layer
the IEEE 802.15.4 and the IEEE 802.15.6 protocols.
A typical WBAN scenario is studied: some sensor nodes are
assumed to be distributed on a body and they have to transmit
data to a given receiver, called remote controller (RC), which
is the coordinator of the network (see, for example, Fig. 4a).
We consider a small number of devices, as in most of the
actual WBAN applications. However, we expect to obtain
the same comparison among the standards also for larger
networks, with the only difference that the quality of service
will decreases, due to the larger number of nodes competing
for the channel.
10
TABLE IV
PHY AND MAC SIMULATION PARAMETERS
Transmit power
Frequency band
Receiver sensitivity (IEEE 802.15.4)
Receiver sensitivity (BT LE)
Noise level
RC antenna gain
Nodes antenna gain
PHY+MAC header size
Number of retransmissions
CAP duration
{BEmin , BEmax , N Bmax }
Bluetooth LE
IEEE 802.15.4
Value
0 dBm
ISM 2400-2500 MHz
-96 dBm
-90 dBm
-102 dBm
3 dB
-15 dB
23 Bytes
3
37 ms
{3, 5, 4}
10
PLR
Parameter
10
10
10
50
100
150
200
150
200
MAC payload [bytes]
(a) PLR
20
18
Bluetooth LE
IEEE 802.15.4
16
14
Delay [ms]
A query-based traffic is also considered, being used in

almost all the WBAN applications: the coordinator (i.e., the
RC) periodically sends a query packet to nodes and it waits
for replies from them. One packet per query is generated by
nodes, and this packet should be correctly received by the RC
before the transmission of the subsequent query, otherwise the
packet is discarded and considered as lost.
In both cases, simulations and experiments, acknowledgement (ACK) packets are used and nodes may retransmit packets up to three times. Moreover, results have been achieved
by averaging over 10.000 packets transmitted by each node
toward the RC.
Performance is evaluated in terms of: i) PLR: the ratio
between the number of packets lost and the number of
generated packets; ii) Average delay: the time interval between
the beginning of query from the RC and the correct reception
of the node packet at the RC, averaged over the total number
of correctly received packets; iii) Network throughput: average
number of information bits per seconds received by the RC.
Note that packets can be lost due to connectivity, collisions,
or because a packet is not correctly received before the
transmission of the subsequent query.
We first study the impact of having different PHY layers,
comparing the IEEE 802.15.4 and BT LE, while for a performance comparison of the different modulation and coding
schemes for the narrow-band PHYs defined by the IEEE
802.15.6, the reader could refer to [96].
In particular, we compare the GMSK modulation with a
bit rate of 1 Mbps (BT LE PHY layer) with the MSK
modulation with spreading with a bit rate of 250 kbps (IEEE
802.15.4 PHY layer). On top of these two PHY layers the
IEEE 802.15.4 CSMA/CA protocol in beacon-enabled mode is
considered. The query interval coincides with the superframe
(SF) duration and only the CAP is implemented.
Results have been achieved through simulations, considering four nodes on a body transmitting to the RC, which is held
in the right hand as depicted in Fig. 4a. In the simulations
the channel between the RC and the other four nodes was
accounted for considering real-time channel data acquired
through an extensive indoor measurement champaign, for the
characterisation of the space-time variations of the channel.
A detailed description of the channel characterisation can be
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
50
100
MAC payload [bytes]
(b) Average delay

Fig. 5. Performance of two different PHY layers using the CSMA/CA MAC
protocol (simulation results).
found in [59]. The capture effect implemented, that is the

correct reception of one of the two or more simultaneously
transmitted packets, is described in [66]. Other PHY and MAC
parameters used in the simulation are reported in Table IV.
Fig. 5 shows the results of the simulations for the PLR
averaged over the four links and for the average delay. From
Fig. 5(a) it can be observed that for BT LE the PLR is almost
two order of magnitude smaller that the PLR of 802.15.4,
this is because the BT LE is characterised by an higher bit
rate as compared to the IEEE 802.15.4. A larger bit rate
leads to a lower number of packets lost due to end of SF or
collisions, since the channel stays busy for a shorter amount
of time. For what concerns the average delay (Fig. 5(b)) BT
LE outperforms 802.15.4 thanks to the higher bit rate.
With reference to the application requirements of Table II,
the audio streaming application requirements on BER equal
to 105 , which is equivalent to a PLR of 8 103 for a
100 byte packet,1 can be satisfied by Bluetooth LE but not by
1 P LR = 1 (1 BER)z where z is the packet size in bits, assuming
that a packet reception fails if at least one bit is erroneously received.
TABLE V
PHY AND MAC EXPERIMENT PARAMETERS
Parameter
Transmit power
Frequency band
Modulation
Bit rate
PHY header size
MAC header size
Number of retransmissions
CAP duration
{BEmin ,BEmax ,N Bmax }
{CWmin ,CWmax }
{CPmin ,CPmax }
Value
10 dBm
ISM 863-928 MHz
MSK
200 kbps
11 Bytes
12 Bytes
3
60 ms
{3, 5, 4}
{4, 8}
{1/4, 1/8}
IEEE 802.15.4 PHY (see Fig. 5(a)) in the considered scenario

(query-based traffic with four transmitting devices).
With the aim of comparing only the MAC protocols defined
by the standards using the same PHY layer, we present results
achieved through experiments performed by implementing the
IEEE 802.15.4 and the IEEE 802.15.6 on the IcyCom SoC
[95]. In the case of the IEEE 802.15.6 standard the beacon
mode with beacon periods is implemented, including only
one CAP phase in each SF, where the CSMA/CA protocol or
the Slotted ALOHA could be used. For the IEEE 802.15.4
the beacon-enabled mode is still considered. The traffic is
generated as described above, while in this experiments we
deploy a network composed of one RC and three nodes placed
on a table (Fig. 4b) and we transmit with a higher power
with respect to the previous scenario, to neglect connectivity
issues and to consider only the MAC performance. We refer
to Sec. VII-A to show the impact of connectivity. The set of
parameters used in the experiments is detailed in Table V.
Performance is evaluated in terms of PLR, average delay
and network throughput defined by Eq. 1, where z is the
payload size in bit, N = 3 is the number of nodes generating
data in the network, and Tquery = 75ms is the query interval,
that is the data generation period, equal to the SF duration.

(1 P LR) z N bit
(1)
T =
Tquery
s
The PLR is reported in Fig. 6(a), as expected Slotted
ALOHA performs worse than CSMA/CA because of the
absence of the sensing phase, so collisions cannot be avoided.
From the comparison between the two CSMA/CA algorithms,
it can be noticed that the one implemented according IEEE
802.15.6 has better performance, this is because there is no
limitation on the maximum number of attempts to sense the
channel after finding it busy, differently from IEEE 802.15.4
where the parameter N Bmax limits the amount of retries. This
limitation makes the algorithm discarding those packets for
which the channel has been sensed busy more than N Bmax
times. Moreover, the amount of packets discarded grows with
the size of the packet itself, since larger packets keep the
channel busy for longer, and this explains the increasing of the
PLR with the rising of the payload size. Anyway, the IEEE
802.15.6 exhibits a flat PLR since the CAP is long enough to
11
fit all the possible retransmissions and there is no limitation

on the the amount of times the channel has been sensed busy.
The delay results are shown in Fig. 6(b). Again, Slotted
ALOHA performs worse than CSMA/CA because collisions
are not avoided, so a larger number of packets are retransmitted as compared to CSMA/CA. The two curves related to
CSMA/CA show that the two algorithms have more or less
the same performance, however, since there is no limitation
on the number of times the channel can be sensed as busy,
the IEEE 802.15.6 algorithm waits more, on average, before
transmitting the packet than the IEEE 802.15.4 one.
Fig. 6(c) show the network throughput computed according
to Eq. 1, it can be seen that up to 50 bytes of payload size
all the three protocols have the same behaviour, while for
bigger payload sizes the Slotted ALOHA tends to have worse
performance because of the increasing of collisions.
The results presented in this section should give to the
reader an insight on the approach to be taken when designing
a WBAN for a specific application. In particular, the PHY
layer of BT LE, working at larger bit rate, provides the best
performance, while from the MAC layer viewpoint the IEEE
802.15.6 seems to be the best solution. As stated above,
the results shown in this section could be useful for the
design of many WBANs, being the reference scenario and
the application considered very typical.
VII. M AIN I SSUES IN W IRELESS B ODY A REA N ETWORKS
D ESIGN
This section explores the main issues of WBANs, that is
those aspects that make the design more challenging. Along
with a description of the issues, we provide to the reader
possible ways to mitigate the problem. First we address the
impact of the human body on the radio propagation, then the
problem of minimising the energy consumption by adopting
efficient MAC protocol solutions, and finally coexistence with
other radio networks will be discussed. The simulation and
experimental results presented are mainly to demonstrate the
impact of the different issues raised in this section on the
performance of a WBAN, and to show to the reader how the
standards described in Sec. V cope with these issues.
A. Impact of the Radio Channel
Devices forming a WBAN are placed on the human body or
even implanted in it. In order to realize systems optimised for
body centric communications, a deep knowledge of the radio
channel is of outmost importance. Even if this section focuses
on the characterisation of links between on-body devices
and how it affect network performance, several works were
performed on different communication scenarios, defined by
the relative position of devices, as presented in [97]. Channel
characterisation for transmissions between implanted devices
is reported in [98][101] for the MICS band, whereas in-body
propagation at 2.45 GHz is investigated in [102][104] for
different human tissues. As a promising frequency band for
in-body communications, UWB channel is described in [105],
[106]. Path loss models for channels between implants and onbody devices are provided again in [98][100]. Links between
an implanted device and one placed outside the human body
12
30
0.25
IEEE 802.15.4 CSMA/CA
IEEE 802.15.6 Slotted Aloha
28
26
0.2
24
22
PLR
Delay [ms]
0.15
20
18
0.1
16
14
0.05
12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
MAC payload size [Bytes]
80
90
10
100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
(b) Average delay
(a) PLR
3.5
x 10

Throughput [bit/s]
2.5
1.5
0.5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
(c) Network throughput

Fig. 6. Performance of three MAC protocols (experimental results).
(e.g., an access point, a laptop, etc.) are characterized in [107]

[110] for the MICS band, accounting for human movements
and environment effect.
A limited contribution is available on the characterisation
of the channel between an on-body device and an external
one (off-body case) or between on-body nodes located on
different human subjects (body-to-body case). In [111][113]
the off-body channel was characterised in dynamic conditions
at 2.45 GHz, both in indoor and/or anechoic chamber. First
and second order statistics were provided in [114] to describe
channel features at 868 MHz in different environments. Crosscorrelation coefficients between the signal fading measured
by the different bodyworn devices were also given. Indoor
UWB measurements were realised in [115][117], where
authors investigate radio channel under different propagation
conditions (i.e., static/dynamic, Line of Sight/Non Line of
Sight).
As for Body-to-body (B2B) communications, the radio
channel between two WBANs was investigated by authors
in [118][120], where they present a characterisation at 2.45
GHz in indoor environment, accounting for different human

movements and devices on-body positions. A similar study
is reported in [121], where indoor wideband measurements
were performed at 5.5 GHz to extract a model that is given
in terms of path loss, large and small-scale fading. Outdoor
environment was also investigated and results are presented in
[122], [123]. Finally, authors in [124] propose an UWB channel model extracted from acquisitions performed in anechoic,
accounting for different orientations of the human subjects.
Focusing now on the reference case of on-body transmissions, one way to characterise the on-body propagation is
through the theoretical description of electromagnetic propagation phenomena using anatomically accurate models of
the human body. Accounting for the different surrounding
environments is practically intractable due to the large computational volume, in this case a ray-tracing model can be
adopted for indoor propagation channel modelling [125]. The
theoretical channel model is intended for detailed description
of specific aspects of the propagation, for example, the influence of the body structure on the antenna patterns.
Indoor Tx Hip Walking

30
Rx Thigh, P(t)
Rx Thigh, G0*S(t)
Rx Right Hand, P(t)
Rx Right Hand, G0*S(t)
Rx Left Hand, P(t)
Rx Left hand, G0*S(t)
Rx Left Ear, P(t)
Rx Left Ear, G0*S(t)
35
40
P(t) [dB]
45
50
55
60
65
70
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Time [s]
Fig. 7. Channel power transfer function evolving in time as the user walks.
Another approach consists in the adoption of an empirical

model to characterise the channel. Several examples of this
type could be found in literature, but they normally lack in
accounting for different source of channel variability (such
as different body shapes or environments) and they do not
consider human movement [126][132]. Moreover, these kind
of models are often given as a function of the distance between
nodes, whereas it has been demonstrated that the specific onbody node position and the movement reproduced by the user
have a strong impact on the definition of channel characteristics [133]. In particular, an extensive measurement campaign
has been performed at CEA-Leti (Grenoble) to characterise the
time-variant on-body transmission channel [59]. An example
of result is reported in Fig. 7, where it is shown how the
channel power transfer function for different links in a WBAN
evolves in time. The reference scenario is similar to that of
Fig. 4a. The specific time-domain measurement test-bed was
composed of a digital oscilloscope at the transmitting side,
and four low noise amplifiers at the receiving side, in a SIMO
(Single Input Multiple Output) configuration. The test-bed can
collect simultaneously up to four channel impulse responses,
each one corresponding to a different receiver location on the
body. Four human subjects were involved in the measurements
campaign, each one reproducing several movements (standing
still, walking, sitting down/standing up). All acquisitions were
repeated both in anechoic chamber and in indoor. Fig. 7
shows an example of the analysis performed, presenting the
evolution over time of the dynamic channel power transfer
function (dashed curves), P (t), each color referring to a
specific investigated on-body link. It could be noticed how the
node position and the movement performed by the user affect
the temporal evolution of P (t). In particular, it is possible
to point out a slow-varying component (continuous curves)
strictly related to the body presence that dynamically shadows
the communication while the subject moves. For example,
following the trend of the continuous curve which refers to
the link between the right hand and the hip, it is possible
to reconstruct the swinging movement of the arms while
13
performing a walk. The dips of the curve refer to the time

instants for which the arm is behind the subjects torso, when
the body completely shadows the communication, resulting
then in a strong channel attenuation.
Moreover, an additional fast-fading contribution could be
extracted, which is the remaining part of P (t) once subtracting
the slow-varying component. It accounts mainly for the fading
effect due to the multipath contributions, originating from
diffractions or reflections from the body or the environment.
More details on the time-variant channel model extracted
through these measurements campaign could be found in [133]
and [59].
As expected, the behaviour of the channel shown in Fig. 7
strongly affects the network performance. Experimental results, described in [134], validate this assumption by evaluating the performance of an IEEE 802.15.4 network. The experimental setup was composed of four IEEE 802.15.4 compliant
devices deployed on the human body and one coordinator held
in the right hand (see Fig. 4a). A beacon-enabled MAC was
implemented with a query based traffic model. The devices
attempt to transmit a packet of fixed size to the coordinator
at the beginning of each superframe. The packet is considered
as lost if it is not correctly received by the end of the current
superframe. Fig. 8 shows the PLR as a function of the packet
payload size for each link. As expected, the best link is the one
connecting the coordinator and the right ear, while the worst
link is the one between the coordinator and the left ear. This
is because of the shadowing effect introduced by the subjects
head. Links 3 and 4 have intermediate performance because
the propagation is shadowed by the human body roughly for
half of the duration of the experiment, due to the typical
swinging movement of the arm while walking. These results
are in accordance with those obtained through a numerical
PHY-MAC simulation campaign, as described in [135], [136].
The aim of this section was to introduce the reader to the
importance of a proper characterisation of the radio channel
for the design of WBANs. As shown in Fig.s 7 and 8 the
channel power transfer function has different trends depending
on the nodes position, moreover abrupt variations up to 20 dB
takes place if the person is moving and the performance of the
WBAN may be seriously affected. Thus, the characterisation
of the links between nodes should be properly taken into
account when developing and simulating MAC and routing
protocols, in order to get ore realistic performance.
B. Energy Consumption Issues
The most promising applications for a WBAN are in the
field of healthcare, as pointed out in Sec. IV-A. When one
or more devices have to be implanted or worn be a person,
it is of outmost importance to reduce the stress caused by
the battery replacement/recharge, which in some cases may
require surgery. The problem of reducing energy consumption
can be tackled by the designer by realising energy efficient
PHY and MAC layers. [137], for instance, describes a Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) based strategy, focusing on
a non dynamic network for vital signs monitoring. In [138]
nodes can decide whether or not to transmit their data in the
assigned slot, depending on their battery status and buffer
14
Packet Loss Rate (PLR)

0.14
link 1: right ear

link 2: left ear
link 3: heart
link 4: left hip
average
0.12
0.1
PLR
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
10
20
30
40
50
60
Payload size [Byte]
70
80
90
100
Fig. 8. PLR for different links.
occupancy, aiming at maximising device lifetime. A wake-up

strategy is introduced in [139] to deal with failed transmissions
and alarms management. [140] focuses on reducing devices
duty-cycle, using an out of band centralised and coordinated
external wake-up mechanism. [141] and [142] present dynamic features to adapt to time changing characteristics of
WBANs: in particular, the former is traffic aware and varies
accordingly the wake-up interval, while the latter proposes an
adaptive scheme to allocate channel and time for coexisting
WBANs.
As widely addressed in the literature, several sources contribute to the energy inefficiency, including collisions, overhearing, and idle listening [143], [144]. Apart from collisions,
already discussed in the previous sections, idle listening incurs
when a node listens to an idle channel to receive possible
traffic, while overhearing occurs when one node receives a
packet that is intended to other nodes. If the traffic load
is centrally managed, overhearing and idle listening can be
ignored, but in the case of contention-based MAC protocol,
these issues should be accounted for.
Among the standard solutions described in Sec. V, there
is a trade-off between reliability and power consumption
for the different channel access algorithms. As an example,
we compare the energy consumed by the different standards
considering the scenario shown in Fig. 4a and the parameters
set described in the previous section. As it can be seen from
Fig. 9, the IEEE 802.15.6 CSMA/CA implementation drains
more energy than the IEEE 802.15.4. This is due to the fact
that in the former case sensing is always performed before
decrementing the back-off counter, while in the latter the
sensing phase takes only two back-off periods when the backoff counter reaches zero. On the other hand, the probability
of successfully transmitting a packet is higher in the first
case because devices adopting IEEE 802.15.6 CSMA/CA
have a deeper knowledge of the channel status. If the power
consumption is a primary issue, as for implanted devices, the
IEEE 802.15.6 Slotted-ALOHA may be the best choice, since
the sensing phase is missing, at the expenses of a higher
probability of packet collisions.
With the aforementioned mechanisms the problems of overhearing and idle listening are still not fully addressed, a
possible solution to this problem may be the implementation
of a duty-cycled MAC. Preamble sampling, also referred to
as LPL (Low Power Listening), is a key technique used by
a large number of MAC protocols in order to save energy.
In LPL nodes save energy by keeping their radios off most
of the time to reduce idle listening. An extensive survey of
MAC protocols, with a section dedicated to preamble sampling
protocols can be found in [144].
Two solutions have been mainly considered in the literature
[145], [146]: transmission of a single long preamble and
transmission of a burst of short preambles. The second solution
is more energy efficient since it prevents the overhearing
problem by dividing the single long preamble into a series
of short preamble packets, each one containing the address of
the target node.
Fig. 10 depicts how the LPL works. Devices save energy
by alternating sleeping and active phases, whose durations are
denoted as Ts and Ton , respectively. Each node wishing to
send a data to a given receiver, or to a set of receivers, will
15
IEEE 802.15.4 PHY 250 kbit/s

240
220
200
802.15.6
CSMA/CA
180
Energy [ J]
160
140
120
802.15.4
CSMA/CA
100
80
60
40
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
MAC payload [byte]
Fig. 9. Simulation of the energy drained for different CSMA/CA algorithms.
TX
T1
ON
P
A
C
K
Data
Frame
A
C
K
= TX
IDLE
t
RX
ON
Active
IDLE
Ton
Sleep
Ts
Tw
A
C
K
Data
Frame
Tdata
= RX
A
C
K
t
Fig. 10. The LPL mechanism.
transmit a burst of short preambles, separated by an interval of

time T1 , for the reception of the ACK. Once the preambles are
sent, which contain the addresses of all the intended receivers,
the transmitter will wait for the ACK from all these devices. To
check the status of the channel the node will listen the channel
for Ton before the transmission of the first preamble, in order
to check that no other devices are transmitting preambles. To
be sure that the intended destination node receives at least
one preamble, the transmitter has to send preambles for at
least the duration of the sleep period of the destination node.
When a node wakes up and receives a short preamble packet,
it looks at the target node address that is included in the
packet: if the node is not the intended recipient, it returns
to sleep immediately and continues its duty cycling as if the

medium had been idle; if the node is the intended recipient, it
replies with an acknowledgement and remains awake for the
subsequent data packet.
An example of numerical results related to LPL is shown
in Fig. 11. Results have been achieved through experiments
on the field when considering a transmitter generating data
at random instants to be sent to a receiver. Experiments
were performed using the IcyCom SoC [95] and locating
devices next to other and transmitting at 10 dBm, such that no
connectivity issues may occur. Fig. 11 shows the behaviour
of the average energy spent by the transmitter and by the
receiver for the transmission/reception of one packet. We set
16
IEEE 802.15.4 PHY and CSMA/CA
0.2
RX, 60Bytes
TX, 60 Bytes
0.4
0.15
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.05
0.1
50
802.11 Interference case 2

802.11 Interference case 1
No Interference
PLR
Average energy consumed per packet [mJ/packet]
0.5
0
0
75
Tw [ms]
100
20
40
60
80
100
MAC payload [byte]
Fig. 12. Simulated PLR as a function of the MAC payload with IEEE 802.11
interference.
Fig. 11. Average energy consumption per packet transmitted/received when
LPL is used for different values of Tw .
Ton = 5 ms, T1 = 3.3 ms, the packet size was equal to

79 bytes, the preamble size was 19 bytes, the ACK was 15
bytes and the bit rate was 200 kbps. The current consumption
values are: 3 mA for transmission, 2.5 mA for reception,
50 A for data acquisition at 10 kHz sampling rate, while
the processor absorbs 500 A in normal mode and 2 A in
hibernation mode. Thus, the power consumption not related to
the transceiver activity can be neglected. As can be noted, the
energy consumed at the transmitter increases by increasing
Tw , since more preambles have to be transmitted to wakeup the receiver, meanwhile at the receiver the average energy
consumed decreases, since the receiver may stay more time
off. Therefore, a proper trade-off must be founded.
To conclude this section, the LPL is an effective approach to
reduce the energy consumption of a WBAN up to 98% [147]
when the target application is characterised by a loose traffic,
for example, emergency alarm, and a larger delay compared to
the TDMA and contention based approaches can be tolerated.
When the network traffic increases (e.g., audio streaming),
the energy efficiency of LPL decreases significantly, due to
the need of transmitting preambles before data packets.
C. Coexistence Issues
The ISM unlicensed band at 2.45 GHz is very crowded
nowadays because of its worldwide availability. Coexistence
of WBAN with other systems operating in this band (e.g.,
IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), Bluetooth, IEEE 802.15.4) is of primary
importance to guarantee reliability during daily life. However,
this topic has been only little investigated yet.
Some works about coexistence issues with other technologies working at 2.45 GHz can be found in the literature.
Focusing on IEEE 802.15.4, for example, [148][150] show
that the interference caused by an IEEE 802.11 network leads
to a significant PLR degradation (the first two works report
results of experimental tests in a hospital room and in an
apartment, respectively, while the third work presents a model
based on timing and power aspects). Tests of coexistence with
a microwave oven have also been performed [151], leading to
the conclusion that its impact is negligible for distances longer

than 2 meters. A coexistence framework focusing specifically
on WBANs can be found in [66], where a complete system
characterisation is taken into account (realistic channel model
for on-body propagation, detailed frequency and time domain
interference description for IEEE 802.11 and IEEE 802.15.4
interfering sources). Coexistence studies between UWB-based
WBANs has been performed in [152], [153]. The latter takes
into account coexistence between IEEE 802.15.6-based and
IEEE 802.15.4a UWB WBANs showing that the bit error
rate of the IEEE 802.15.6 UWB receiver is not affected by
the interfering power coming from another IEEE 802.15.6
network or an IEEE 802.15.4a network as long as the desired
signal power is larger than -30 dBm, beyond this threshold,
severe degradation occurs. The problem of increasing the
robustness to interference of a WBAN is also addressed in
[154], where the authors propose a beacon corruption recovery
scheme as an extension of the IEEE 802.15.4 beacon-enabled
mode, and a centralised access scheme that employs cognitive
spectrum sensing capabilities to access the channel. Results
shows that the centralised access scheme achieves four times
better performance, in term of throughput, respect to the IEEE
802.15.4 standard in presence of Wi-Fi traffic. Among the
standards described in Sec. V Bluetooth LE is the best one in
coping with other networks operating in the ISM 2.45 GHz
band thank to the frequency hopping scheme. However the
new release of IEEE 802.15.4, IEEE 802.15.4e [155], adopts
channel hopping as well to improve the robustness of the
network in presence of interference.
In order to evaluate how much WBAN performance can
degrade when interfering devices are present, a complete
characterisation of the interference is needed, both in the
frequency and in the time domain. In [66] such a coexistence
study is carried out considering Wi-Fi and IEEE 802.15.4
networks as possible interfering sources, and their impact on
WBAN performance is reported.
Fig. 12 shows an example of WBAN PLR degradation
due to an IEEE 802.11 interfering network, obtained through
simulations. The reference scenario is an hospital room of
3m x 3.5m, where a person wearing a WBAN (as the one
Web Browsing traffic

0.5
FTP downloading traffic

0.5
distance = 0 m
distance = 5 m
distance = 10 m
0.45
0.4
0.4
0.35
0.35
0.3
0.3
PLR
PLR
0.45
0.25
0.25
0.2
0.2
0.15
0.15
0.1
0.1
0.05
0.05
0
0
20
40
60
MAC payload [byte]
17
80
100
0
0
distance = 0 m
distance = 5 m
distance = 10 m
20
40
60
MAC payload [byte]
80
100
Fig. 13. Experimental PLR as a function of the MAC payload with IEEE 802.11 interference (completely overlapping channel) for two different interference
traffics: web browsing (left) and FTP downloading (right).
of Fig. 4b) is walking. An IEEE 802.11 access point (AP)

and a laptop are located in the room, and they exchange a
traffic corresponding to a web browsing session (i.e., simple
navigation operations, such as the opening of web pages with
their reading), using a transmit power of 20 dBm. IEEE
802.15.4 PHY and MAC are considered for the WBAN,
with the transmit power set to 0 dBm, the device and coordinator antennas efficiency equal to -15 dB and -3 dB,
respectively. Two different operating channels are considered
for the WBAN: the first one overlaps in frequency with the
channel used by IEEE 802.11 interfering only partially with it
(case 1 in the Fig. 12), while the second one is characterised
by a complete overlap (case 2). As expected, the PLR is
higher when interfering sources are present, with a significant
degradation also for the case of partial channel overlapping.
This is due to the fact that the IEEE 802.11 traffic is heavy
as compared to the WBAN one, and WBAN devices often
find the channel busy, being therefore not able to correctly
transmit their data to the coordinator. Experimental results are
illustrated in Fig.s 13 and 14. The experiments have been
performed with IEEE 802.15.4-compliant Texas Instrument
devices in an indoor office environment. A Wi-Fi AP and
a laptop have been located 30 cm apart, and they operate
with IEEE 802.11 in channel 5 (center frequency of 2432
MHz). The two IEEE 802.15.4 devices (one receiver and
one transmitter) have been placed at different distances from
the interfering IEEE 802.11 sources. Fig. 13 shows the PLR
as a function of the payload obtained when IEEE 802.15.4
devices work on a channel completely overlapped with the
IEEE 802.11 one. Two different traffics are shown: web
browsing (figure on the left), and FTP downloading (figure
on the right), where files with dimensions up to 30 Mbytes
were downloaded from an FTP site.
A preliminary experiment was carried out to test the PLR
without interference, which was negligible. Therefore, from
Fig. 13 we can see that the degradation of the performance
when IEEE 802.11 interferes are active is significant. To give
an example, the PLR shall be lower than 1% when 100 byte
packets are transmitted in an hearing aid application for audio

streaming, however, the experimental results show that even
for small packet sizes the PLR is always above 10%.
In Fig. 14 the PLR obtained for different IEEE 802.15.4
channels is reported. A web browsing traffic is considered,
and IEEE 802.15.4 MAC payload is set to 2 bytes. Channel
17 completely overlaps with the one used by IEEE 802.11,
channel 14 partially overlaps with it, while channel 26 does
not overlap.
Again, the degradation of the PLR can be noticed, especially
when the two networks are close to each other, and also for
only partially overlapping channels.
This section shows that up to now the coexistence issue
between WBAN and other network operating in the same
band has not been properly addressed by the current standards.
However, we believed that much more effort should be spent
to improve coexistence, especially with Wi-Fi that is already
widely deployed and uses a transmission power higher than
the one adopted by a WBAN.
VIII. F UTURE R ESEARCH D IRECTIONS
The aim of this section is to give to the reader an idea of the
future research directions in the field of WBANs, we will first
discuss the research trends for what concerns the main issues
of WBANs that is channel modelling, energy consumption and
coexistence, then we will consider future possible applications
for WBANs.
As for the future perspectives for the radio channel modelling, some deeper studies should be performed for the off-body
and B2B scenarios, which are currently little investigated and
lack in a standardised widely accepted model. Moreover, the
research community should move towards an agreement on
a common experimental test-bed, which could allow channel
data and related models coming from different measurements
campaigns to be fairly compared. Another important aspect
that should be addressed when considering channel modelling
for WBAN, is the antenna impact on channel characteristics.
Currently proposed models always include antenna effect,
18
Web Browsing traffic

distance = 0 m
distance = 5 m
distance = 10 m
0.2
is at its very early stage, but in the long term it is expected

to grow thanks to its non-invasiveness making also possible
the realisation of hybrid molecular/RF WBANs that use the
molecular technology inside the body and the RF technology
to communicate with the outside.
0.15
PLR
IX. D ISCUSSION
0.1
0.05
17
14
26
IEEE 802.15.4 Channel
Fig. 14. Experimental PLR obtained on different channels with IEEE 802.11
interference, web browsing traffic.
but future works should aim at de-embedding it, in order to

provide a channel characterisation not biased by the specific
antenna used in the acquisition process. The research trend
in microelectronics is oriented to the realisation of SoC
increasingly smaller and with lower consumption. This will
make possible to realise WBANs composed of hundreds of
nodes for which a simple star topology cannot be used, to
this extend, routing protocols based on multi-hopping tailored
for WBAN applications need to be explored. The requirements
in terms of maximum delay and reliability will become even
more stringent due to the larger number of nodes. Moreover, techniques like cooperative Multiple-input and Multipleoutput (MIMO) [156], [157] and cooperative beamforming
[158] can be employed in a WBAN to improve the reliability
and reduce the energy consumption.
A thorough study for what concerns the mitigation of the
interference generated by such a high density of nodes is
needed. For what concerns the coexistence with other wireless
network, cognitive wireless communication paradigms can be
considered as a successful approach to improve the reliability
of WBANs which is a serious issue due to their low transmission power, as highlighted in Sec. VII-C.
With reference to possible new applications of WBANs
made of a large number of nodes are the so called Factories
of the Future (FoF). FoF is one of the three Public-Private
Partnership included in the European Commissions recovery
package and it consists of a research programme of 1.2 billion
Euro to support the manufacturing industry in the development
of new and sustainable technologies 2 . The research in this
field aims at the transformation of present factories, towards
re-usable, flexible, modular, intelligent, affordable, easy-toadapt, easy-to-operate, easy-to-maintain and highly safe and
reliable FoF. To this aim a large number of sensors could
be distributed on robot, machines and on suites dressed by
workers, to prevent accidents.
As mentioned in Sec. III molecular networks are gaining
more and more interest. Up to now the research on this field
2 See the website: http://ec.europa.eu/research/industrial technologies/
factories-of-the-future en.html.
This work can be considered as a starting point in the

WBAN design and can be used to choose the best way to
tackle the issues raised by the system requirements. To give
an idea, let us consider an example of a WBAN composed of a
cardiac implant, a wearable hearing aid and a smartphone used
as network coordinator. First of all, the two different channels
(in-body and off-body) have to be properly investigated in
order to obtain a reliable model for the propagation between
the two devices and the smartphone. This model should be
employed when the behaviour of the network is explored
through simulations. Then, based on the stringent requirements
on power consumption for the cardiac implant, an energy
efficient design should be oriented to LPL protocols when
delays in the order of the adopted duty-cycle can be tolerated.
On the other hand, when the PLR and delay requirements are
more stringent than the ones on the energy consumption, for
example for audio streaming from the wearable hearing aid
or ECG data transmission from the cardiac implant, a proper
trade-off between reliability and delay should considered and
the choice should be oriented to Slotted-Aloha, CSMA/CA
or TDMA based MAC protocols. The next step should be to
consider how the designed protocols behave in presence of
interference coming from other devices operating in the same
band, and adopt proper solutions to counteract the degradation
of the performance due to the presence of interference.
X. C ONCLUSION
The research effort in WBAN has significantly increased
in recent years motivated by the attracting applications that
can be enabled by this technology is a multitude of fields.
However, the wide applicability of WBANs makes their design
challenging. Throughout this paper we presented to the reader
the main characteristics of a WBAN and a list of possible
applications and requirements they impose. We described the
main standards that can be used as a reference in a RF-based
WBAN design paying more attention to the IEEE 802.15.6.
With the aim of introducing the reader to the main issues in a
WBAN design, namely the peculiarities of the radio channel,
the power consumption and the coexistence with other RFbased systems, we surveyed a large amount of literature
dealing with these problems and we provided simulation and
experimental numerical results to show the real impact of them
on the performance of a WBAN.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is supported by the European Commission in the
framework of FP7 IP Project WiserBAN, contract n. 257454.
The authors would also like to thank Raffaele DErrico, for
his inputs on the radio channel modelling and measurements,
Mickael Maman, for the fruitful collaboration within WiserBAN related to the MAC protocol design, Andrea Stajkic and
Stefan Mijovic, for their studies and measurements on the LPL

protocol and Tanya Poparova and Andrea Mancini, for their
studies and measurements related to the coexistence issues.
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Riccardo Cavallari received the M.S. degree (summa

cum laude) in Electronics Engineering from the
University of Bologna in 2012. In 2010 he spent
a year at the University of California, San Diego
as exchange student (Overseas scholarship). He is
currently attending a PhD degree in Electronics,
Telecommunications and Information Technology at
the University of Bologna under the supervision of
Prof. Roberto Verdone. His research interests are:
embedded system firmware development for Wireless Body Area Networks (CSEM IcyCom, Texas
Instruments CC2530), with particular attention to MAC protocols, IEEE
802.15.4, IEEE 802.15.6 standards and in the application of the theory of
stochastic geometry for Delay Tolerant Network applications. He actively
collaborating to two European Projects: the WiserBAN Integrated Project
which deals with Wireless Body Area Networks for medical applications and
the Network of Excellence NEWCOM#.
Ramona Rosini received her Master Degree in

Telecommunication Engineering from the University
of Bologna in March 2010. She then enrolled in
a joint PhD program in Electronics, Informatics
and Telecommunications between the University of
Bologna and the French research institute CEA-Leti
in Grenoble, alternating working periods in the two
hosting institutions. She is currently completing her
PhD, whose defense is envisaged for May 2014.
Her main research interests focus on wireless body
area networks, more specifically on radio channel
characterization for body-centric communication, with some insights on
system level performance evaluation and sociality aspects. She is author of 10
technical papers, all IEEE or ACM. She was actively involved in the European
IP project WiserBAN, the Networks of Excellence NEWCOM++ and
NEWCOM#. She also contributed to the COST Actions COST2100 and
IC1004.
Flavia Martelli received the M.S. and the B.S degrees (summa cum laude) in telecommunications
engineering in 2009 and 2006, respectively, and the
Ph.D. degree in electronics, computer science, and
systems, in 2013, from the University of Bologna,
Italy. Her research interests focus on wireless body
area networks and wireless sensor networks, with
particular attention to medium access control protocols, and the IEEE 802.15.6 and 802.15.4 standards.
She participated in NEWCOM# and NEWCOM++
Networks of Excellence and within Cost Actions
IC1004 and 2100 and she was involved in the FP7 WiserBAN project. She is
currently working in the Research and Development team of Teko Telecom
Srl in Italy. Dr. Martelli has acted as a Technical Program Committee member
and reviewer for several IEEE conferences.
Chiara Buratti received the M.S. degree in Telecommunication Engineering from the University of
Bologna in 2003. On May 2009 she received
the Ph.D. degree in Electronics, Computer Science
and Systems at the University of Bologna. She
is currently Assistant Professor at the University
of Bologna. Her research interest is on Wireless
Sensor Networks, with particular attention to MAC
and routing protocols, and to the IEEE 802.15.4
standard. She is co-author of more than 50 technical
papers, most of them IEEE and ACM and one book.
Since 2004, she has collaborated to different European Projects, such as
the Networks of Excellence, NEWCOM and CRUISE, NEWCOM++ and
NEWCOM#, the Artemis Project, eDIANA, and the IP WiserBAN. She won
the 2012 Intel Early Career Faculty Honor Program Award, provided by Intel.
She has been Invited Professor at CNRS Limos Laboratory in Sept. 2012. She
won the award for the 2010 National GTTI Best Ph.D Thesis. She was a corecipient of a Best paper award at the IEEE ICUMT Conference. She is IEEE
member.
23
Roberto Verdone received the Laurea degree in

Electronics Engineering and his Ph.D. from the University of Bologna in 1991 and 1995, respectively.
Since 2001 he is Full Professor in Telecommunications at the University of Bologna. In 2001 he started
creating a research group in wireless networks at the
University of Bologna. His research activity is concerned with both infrastructure-based radio networks
and infrastructure-less radio networks. Main topics
investigated in the last ten years are Radio Resource
Management for cellular systems, and MAC, routing
and topology aspects of wireless sensor networks. Since 2004 he participated
to several European projects and Networks of Excellence (among them,
NEWCOM, NEWCOM++ and NEWCOM#). He acted as TPC member of
many IEEE conferences. In 2008 he was General Chairman of EWSN2008.
In 2014 he will be TPC Chairman of EuCNC, the EC flagship conference
in Networks and Communications. He is co-author of books published by
Elsevier, and Springer, on Wireless Sensor Networks. He published more
than 100 research papers, mostly on IEEE journals or conferences. He is
IEEE member.

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A Survey on Wireless Body Area Networks:

AbstractInterest in Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs)

Manuscript received January 7, 2013; revised April 5, 2013 and October

medium access control (MAC) layers for short-range wireless

IEEE COMMUNICATIONS SURVEYS & TUTORIALS, ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION

challenging aspects in the design of a WBAN, and to give

II. R ELATED W ORKS

in [7], highlighting how important a proper choice of the

Fig. 1. Taxonomy of WBAN.

III. A TAXONOMY OF WBAN S

unlicensed, the ISM bands are prone to coexistence issues that

IEEE COMMUNICATIONS SURVEYS & TUTORIALS, ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION

401 406 420 450

863 870 902 928 1395 1429 2360

Fig. 2. Some of the available bands for WBAN based on RF technology.

with engineered bacteria, or even intracellular surgery with

Deep brain stimulation

< 320 kbps

transmission range, topology, bit rate and security are provided

authorisation, and integrity [4]. As it will be briefly described

IEEE COMMUNICATIONS SURVEYS & TUTORIALS, ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION

eliminate possible damaging effect of simultaneous activity,

[87] or regional SAR regulations (such as those defined by

beacon-enabled, which correspond to two different channel

IEEE 802.15.6, whose final version was released in February

IEEE COMMUNICATIONS SURVEYS & TUTORIALS, ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION

Beacon period (superframe) n

As it could be seen from this brief description, the huge

(BR), with optional Enhanced Data Rate (EDR), and Low

connection may be either encrypted and authenticated or

IEEE COMMUNICATIONS SURVEYS & TUTORIALS, ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION

MAC payload [bytes]

A query-based traffic is also considered, being used in

(b) Average delay

found in [59]. The capture effect implemented, that is the

IEEE 802.15.4 PHY (see Fig. 5(a)) in the considered scenario

fit all the possible retransmissions and there is no limitation

IEEE COMMUNICATIONS SURVEYS & TUTORIALS, ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION

(b) Average delay

IEEE 802.15.4 CSMA/CA

(c) Network throughput

(e.g., an access point, a laptop, etc.) are characterized in [107]

GHz in indoor environment, accounting for different human

Indoor Tx Hip Walking

Another approach consists in the adoption of an empirical

performing a walk. The dips of the curve refer to the time

IEEE COMMUNICATIONS SURVEYS & TUTORIALS, ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION

Packet Loss Rate (PLR)

link 1: right ear

Fig. 8. PLR for different links.

occupancy, aiming at maximising device lifetime. A wake-up

IEEE 802.15.4 PHY 250 kbit/s

MAC payload [byte]

Fig. 9. Simulation of the energy drained for different CSMA/CA algorithms.

Fig. 10. The LPL mechanism.

transmit a burst of short preambles, separated by an interval of

to sleep immediately and continues its duty cycling as if the