TECHNICAL REPORT

KALYANI
SANJIB KUMAR SAHA
2010
GOVT. ENGG. COLLEGE
DEPT:-ECE, 2nd year
ROLL NO-08102003055

OPERATIONAL
➢ INTRODUCTION
An operational amplifier, which is often called an op-amp, is a DC-coupled high-gain
electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. An
op-amp produces an output voltage that is typically millions of times larger than the voltage
difference between its input terminals.
Typically the op-amp's very large gain is controlled by negative feedback, which largely
determines the magnitude of its output ("closed-loop") voltage gain in amplifier applications,
or the transfer function required (in analog computers). Without negative feedback, and
perhaps with positive feedback for regeneration, an op-amp essentially acts as a comparator.
High input impedance at the input terminals (ideally infinite) and low output impedance at
the output terminal(s) (ideally zero) are important typical characteristics.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array
of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few
cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational
amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small
quantities. Op-amps sometimes come in the form of macroscopic components, (see photo) or
as integrated circuit cells; patterns that can be reprinted several times on one chip as part of a
more complex device.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include
the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with two outputs), the
instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op-amps), the
isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but
which works fine with common-mode voltages that would destroy
an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually
built from one or more op-amps and a resistive feedback network).

➢ Circuit notation
The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown to the right, where:

• : non-inverting input

• : inverting input

• : output
 • : positive power supply

• : negative power supply

The power supply pins ( and ) can be labeled in different

ways. Despite different labeling, the function remains the same
— to provide additional power for amplification of signal. Often
these pins are left out of the diagram for clarity, and the power
configuration is described or assumed from the circuit.

➢ HISTORY
➢ 1941: First (vacuum tube) op-amp
An op-amp, defined as a general-purpose, DC-coupled, high gain, inverting feedback
amplifier, is first found in US Patent 2,401,779 "Summing Amplifier" filed by Karl D.
Swartzel Jr. of Bell labs in 1941. This design used three vacuum tubes to achieve a gain of
90dB and operated on voltage rails of ±350V. It had a single inverting input rather than
differential inverting and non-inverting inputs, as are common in today's op-
amps. Throughout World War II, swartzel’s design proved its value by being
liberally used in the M9 artillery director designed at Bell Labs. This artillery
director worked with the SCR584 radar system to achieve extraordinary hit rates
(near 90%) that would not have been possible otherwise.
➢ 1947: First op-amp with an explicit non-inverting input
In 1947, the operational amplifier was first formally defined and
GAP/R's K2-W: a
named in a paper by Professor John R. Ragazzini of Columbia vacuum-tube op-amp
University. In this same paper a footnote mentioned an op-amp (1953)
design by a student that would turn out to be quite significant.
This op-amp, designed by Loebe Julie, was superior in a variety of ways. It had two major
innovations. Its input stage used a long-tailed triode pair with loads matched An op-amp in
to reduce drift in the output and, far more importantly, it was the first op-amp a modern DIP
design to have two inputs (one inverting, the other non-inverting). The
differential input made a whole range of new functionality possible, but it would not be used
for a long time due to the rise of the chopper-stabilized amplifier.
➢ 1949: First chopper-stabilized op-amp
In 1949, Edwin A. Goldberg designed a chopper-stabilized op-amp. This
set-up uses a normal op-amp with an additional AC amplifier that goes
alongside the op-amp. The chopper gets an AC signal from DC by
switching between the DC voltage and ground at a fast rate (60 Hz or 400 Hz). This signal is
then amplified, rectified, filtered and fed into the op-amp's non-inverting input. This vastly
improved the gain of the op-amp while significantly reducing the output drift and DC offset.
Unfortunately, any design that used a chopper couldn't use their non- a solid-state,
inverting input for any other purpose. Nevertheless, the much improved discrete op-amp
characteristics of the chopper-stabilized op-amp made it the dominant way (1961)
to use op-amps. Techniques that used the non-inverting input regularly would not be very
popular until the 1960s when op-amp ICs started to show up in the field.
In 1953, vacuum tube op-amps became commercially available with the release of the model
K2-W from George A. Philbrick Researches, Incorporated. The designation on the devices
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shown, GAP/R, is a contraction for the complete company name. Two nine-pin 12AX7
vacuum tubes were mounted in an octal package and had a model K2-P chopper add-on
available that would effectively "use up" the non-inverting input. This op-amp was based on a
descendant of Loebe Julie's 1947 design and, along with its successors, would start the
widespread use of op-amps in industry.

➢ 1961: First discrete IC op-amps

with the birth of the transistor in 1947, and the silicon transistor in 1954,
the concept of ICs became a reality. The introduction of the planar
process in 1959 made transistors and ICs stable enough to be
commercially useful. By 1961, solid-state, discrete op-amps were being
produced. These op-amps were effectively small circuit boards with
packages such as edge-connectors. They usually had hand-selected resistors in order to
improve things such as voltage offset and drift. The P45 (1961) had a a solid-state,
gain of 94 dB and ran on ±15 V rails. It was intended to deal with discrete op-amp
(1961)
signals in the range of ±10 V.
➢ 1962: First op-amps in potted module
By 1962, several companies were producing modular potted packages that could be plugged
into printed circuit boards.These packages were crucially important as they made the
operational amplifier into a single black box which could be easily treated as a component in
a larger circuit.
➢ 1963: First monolithic IC op-amp
In 1963, the first monolithic IC op-amp, the μA702 designed by Bob Widlar at Fairchild
Semiconductor, was released. Monolithic ICs consist of a single chip as
opposed to a chip and discrete parts (a discrete IC) or multiple chips
bonded and connected on a circuit board (a hybrid IC). Almost all
modern op-amps are monolithic ICs; however, this first IC did not meet
with much success. Issues such as an uneven supply voltage, low gain
and a small dynamic range held off the dominance of monolithic op-
A solid-state op-
amps until 1965 when the μA709(also designed by Bob Widlar) was amp
released.
➢ 1968: Release of the μA741 – would be seen as a nearly
ubiquitous chip
The popularity of monolithic op-amps was further improved upon the release of the LM101
in 1967, which solved a variety of issues, and the subsequent release of the μA741 in 1968.
The μA741 was extremely similar to the LM101 except that Fairchild's facilities allowed
them to include a 30 pF compensation capacitor inside the chip instead of requiring external
compensation. This simple difference has made the 741 the canonical op-amp and many
modern amps base their pinout on the 741s.The μA741 is still in production, and has become
ubiquitous in electronics—many manufacturers produce a version of this classic chip,
recognizable by part numbers containing 741.
➢ 1966: First varactor bridge op-amps
Since the 741, there have been many different directions taken in op-amp design. Varactor
bridge op-amps started to be produced in the late 1960s; they were designed to have
extremely small input current and are still amongst the best op-amps available in terms of

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common-mode rejection with the ability to correctly deal with hundreds
of volts at their inputs
➢ 1970: First high-speed, low-input current FET design
In the 1970s high speed, low-input current designs started to
be made
by using FETs. These would be largely replaced by op-amps made with
MOSFETs in the 1980s. During the 1970s single sided supply op-amps
also became available.
➢ 1972: Single sided supply op-amps being produced
A single sided supply op-amp is one where the input and output voltages can be as low as the
negative power supply voltage instead of needing to be at least two volts above it. The result
is that it can operate in many applications with the negative supply pin on the op-amp being
connected to the signal ground, thus eliminating the need for a separate negative power
supply.
The LM324 (released in 1972) was one such op-amp that came in a quad package (four
separate op-amps in one package) and became an industry standard. In addition to packaging
multiple op-amps in a single package, the 1970s also saw the birth of op-amps in hybrid
packages. These op-amps were generally improved versions of existing monolithic op-amps.
As the properties of monolithic op-amps improved, the more complex hybrid ICs were
quickly relegated to systems that are required to have extremely long service lives or other
specialty systems.
➢ Recent trends
Recently supply voltages in analog circuits have decreased (as they have in digital logic) and
low-voltage opamps have been introduced reflecting this. Supplies of ±5V and increasingly
5V are common. To maximize the signal range modern op-amps commonly have rail-to-rail
inputs (the input signals can range from the lowest supply voltage to the highest) and
sometimes rail-to-rail outputs

➢ Basic Operation
The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a input and a input, and ideally the op-amp
amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two, which is called the differential input
voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp is given by the equation,

where is the voltage at the non-inverting terminal, is the voltage at the inverting
terminal and Gopen-loop is the open-loop gain of the amplifier. (The term open-loop refers to
the absence of a feedback loop from the output to the input.)
The magnitude of Gopen-loop is typically very large—seldom less than a million—and

therefore even a quite small difference between and (a few microvolts or less) will
result in amplifier saturation, where the output voltage goes to either the extreme maximum
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or minimum end of its range, which is set approximately by the power supply voltages.
Finley's law states that "When the inverting and non-inverting inputs of an op-amp are not
equal, its output is in saturation." Additionally, the precise magnitude of Gopen-loop is not well
controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is impractical to use an operational
amplifier as a stand-alone deferential amplifier.If linear operation is desired, negative
feedback must be used, usually achieved by applying a portion of the output voltage to the
inverting input. The feedback enables the output of the amplifier to keep the inputs at or near
the same voltage so that saturation does not occur. Another benefit is that if much negative
feedback is used, the circuit's overall gain and other parameters become determined more by
the feedback network than by the op-amp itself. If the feedback network is made of
components with relatively constant, predictable, values such as resistors, capacitors and
inductors, the unpredictability and inconstancy of the op-amp's parameters (typical of
semiconductor devices) do not seriously affect the circuit's performance.
If no negative feedback is used, the op-amp functions as a switch or comparator.
Positive feedback may be used to introduce hysteresis or oscillation.
Returning to a consideration of linear (negative feedback) operation, the high open-loop gain
and low input leakage current of the op-amp imply two "golden rules" that are highly useful
in analysing linear op-amp circuits.

➢ Classification of Operational
Amplifiers
Op-amps may be classified by their construction:
• discrete (built from individual transistors or tubes/valves)
• IC (fabricated in an Integrated circuit) - most common
• hybrid
IC op-amps may be classified in many ways, including:
• Military, Industrial, or Commercial grade (for example: the LM301 is the commercial
grade version of the LM101, the LM201 is the industrial version). This may define
operating temperature ranges and other environmental or quality factors.
• Classification by package type may also affect environmental hardiness, as well as
manufacturing options; DIP, and other through-hole packages are tending to be
replaced by Surface-mount devices.
• Classification by internal compensation: op-amps may suffer from high frequency
instability in some negative feedback circuits unless a small compensation capacitor
modifies the phase- and frequency- responses; op-amps with capacitor built in are
termed compensated, or perhaps compensated for closed-loop gains down to (say) 5,
others: uncompensated.
• Single, dual and quad versions of many commercial op-amp IC are available, meaning
1, 2 or 4 operational amplifiers are included in the same package.
• Rail-to-rail input (and/or output) op-amps can work with input (and/or output) signals
very close to the power supply rails.
• CMOS op-amps (such as the CA3140E) provide extremely high input resistances,
higher than JFET-input op-amps, which are normally higher than bipolar-input op-
amps.
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 • other varieties of op-amp include programmable op-amps (simply meaning the
quiescent current, gain, bandwidth and so on can be adjusted slightly by an external
resistor).
• manufacturers often tabulate their op-amps according to purpose, such as low-noise
pre-amplifiers, wide bandwidth amplifiers, and so on.

➢ Internal circuitry of 741 type op-amp

Though designs vary between products and manufacturers, all op-amps have basically the
same internal structure, which consists of three stages:

A component level diagram of the common 741 op-amp

1. Voltage amplifier – provides high voltage gain, a single-pole frequency roll-

off, usually single-ended output.
2. Output amplifier – provides high current driving capability, low output
impedance, current limiting and short circuit protection circuitry.

Input stage
Constant-current stabilization system
The input stage DC conditions are stabilized by a high-gain negative feedback system whose
main parts are the two current mirrors on the left of the figure, outlined in red. The main
purpose of this negative feedback system—to supply the differential input stage with a stable
constant current—is realized as follows.
The current through the 39 kΩ resistor acts as a current reference for the other bias currents
used in the chip. The voltage across the resistor is equal to the voltage across the supply rails

( ) minus two transistor diode drops (i.e., from Q11 and Q12), and so the current

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has value . The Widlar current mirror built by
Q10, Q11, and the 5 kΩ resistor produces a very small fraction of Iref at the Q10 collector.
This small constant current through Q10's collector supplies the base currents for Q3 and Q4
as well as the Q9 collector current. The Q8/Q9 current mirror tries to make Q9's collector
current the same as the Q3 and Q4 collector currents. Thus Q3 and Q4's combined base
currents (which are of the same order as the overall chip's input currents) will be a small
fraction of the already small Q10 current.
So, if the input stage current increases for any reason, the Q8/Q9 current mirror will draw
current away from the bases of Q3 and Q4, which reduces the input stage current, and vice
versa. The feedback loop also isolates the rest of the circuit from common-mode signals by
making the base voltage of Q3/Q4 follow tightly 2Vbe below the higher of the two input
voltages.
Differential amplifier
The blue outlined section is a differential amplifier. Q1 and Q2 are input emitter followers
and together with the common base pair Q3 and Q4 form the differential input stage. In
addition, Q3 and Q4 also act as level shifters and provide voltage gain to drive the class A
amplifier. They also help to increase the reverse Vbe rating on the input transistors (the
emitter-base junctions of the NPN transistors Q1 and Q2 break down at around 7 V but the
PNP transistors Q3 and Q4 have breakdown voltages around 50 V).
The differential amplifier formed by Q1–Q4 drives a current mirror active load formed by
transistors Q5–Q7 (actually, Q6 is the very active load). Q7 increases the accuracy of the
current mirror by decreasing the amount of signal current required from Q3 to drive the bases
of Q5 and Q6. This configuration provides differential to single ended conversion as follows:
The signal current of Q3 is the input to the current mirror while the output of the mirror (the
collector of Q6) is connected to the collector of Q4. Here, the signal currents of Q3 and Q4
are summed. For differential input signals, the signal currents of Q3 and Q4 are equal and
opposite. Thus, the sum is twice the individual signal currents. This completes the differential
to single ended conversion.
The open circuit signal voltage appearing at this point is given by the product of the summed
signal currents and the paralleled collector resistances of Q4 and Q6. Since the collectors of
Q4 and Q6 appear as high resistances to the signal current, the open circuit voltage gain of
this stage is very high.
It should be noted that the base current at the inputs is not zero and the effective (differential)
input impedance of a 741 is about 2 MΩ. The "offset null" pins may be used to place external
resistors in parallel with the two 1 kΩ resistors (typically in the form of the two ends of a
potentiometer) to adjust the balancing of the Q5/Q6 current mirror and thus indirectly control
the output of the op-amp when zero signal is applied between the inputs.

Class A gain stage

The section outlined in magenta is the class A gain stage. The top-right current mirror
Q12/Q13 supplies this stage by a constant current load, via the collector of Q13, that is
largely independent of the output voltage. The stage consists of two NPN transistors in a
Darlington configuration and uses the output side of a current mirror as its collector load to
achieve high gain. The 30 pF capacitor provides frequency selective negative feedback
around the class A gain stage as a means of frequency compensation to stabilise the amplifier
in feedback configurations. This technique is called Miller compensation and functions in a
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similar manner to an op-amp integrator circuit. It is also known as 'dominant pole
compensation' because it introduces a dominant pole (one which masks the effects of other
poles) into the open loop frequency response. This pole can be as low as 10 Hz in a 741
amplifier and it introduces a −3 dB loss into the open loop response at this frequency. This
internal compensation is provided to achieve unconditional stability of the amplifier in
negative feedback configurations where the feedback network is non-reactive and the closed
loop gain is unity or higher. Hence, the use of the operational amplifier is simplified because
no external compensation is required for unity gain stability; amplifiers without this internal
compensation may require external compensation or closed loop gains significantly higher
than unity.

Output bias circuitry

The green outlined section (based around Q16) is a voltage level shifter or rubber diode (i.e.,
a VBE multiplier); a type of voltage source. In the circuit as shown, Q16 provides a constant
voltage drop between its collector and emitter regardless of the current through the circuit. If
the base current to the transistor is assumed to be zero, and the voltage between base and
emitter (and across the 7.5 kΩ resistor) is 0.625 V (a typical value for a BJT in the active
region), then the current through the 4.5 kΩ resistor will be the same as that through the 7.5
kΩ, and will produce a voltage of 0.375 V across it. This keeps the voltage across the
transistor, and the two resistors at 0.625 + 0.375 = 1 V. This serves to bias the two output
transistors slightly into conduction reducing crossover distortion. In some discrete component
amplifiers this function is achieved with (usually two) silicon diodes.

Output stage
The output stage (outlined in cyan) is a Class AB push-pull emitter follower (Q14, Q20)
amplifier with the bias set by the Vbe multiplier voltage source Q16 and its base resistors.
This stage is effectively driven by the collectors of Q13 and Q19. Variations in the bias with
temperature, or between parts with the same type number, are common so crossover
distortion and quiescent current may be subject to significant variation. The output range of
the amplifier is about one volt less than the supply voltage, owing in part to Vbe of the output
transistors Q14 and Q20.
The 25 Ω resistor in the output stage acts as a current sense to provide the output current-
limiting function which limits the current in the emitter follower Q14 to about 25 mA for the
741. Current limiting for the negative output is done by sensing the voltage across Q19's
emitter resistor and using this to reduce the drive into Q15's base. Later versions of this
amplifier schematic may show a slightly different method of output current limiting. The
output resistance is not zero, as it would be in an ideal op-amp, but with negative feedback it
approaches zero at low frequencies.

 BIASING OF OPAMP
• Theory
An ideal current source is any device that will pass a constant amount of current no matter
what the voltage drop across it is. Naturally, there is no such thing as an ideal current source,
so this article will describe several alternatives of increasing complexity and closeness to the
ideal. Most of these variations can be implemented on the PIMETA circuit board and all of

8
them can be done on the PPA, so the text will make reference to part positions on those
circuit boards.

Buffered op-amp circuit with ideal current source for class A

bias

When you put a current source on the op-amp's output inside the feedback loop, it causes the
op-amp to continuously "fight" against the current source. The chip must put out at least as
much current as the current source demands in order to force its output to the voltage the op-
amp inputs demand. If it did not, the current source would pull the output of the op-amp to
V-. This continual fight against the current source keeps the op-amp's output stage turned on
all the time, with a constant current. Voilá, class A bias.
The reason we connect the current source to V- is that it forces the NPN transistors in the op-
amp to remain active instead of the PNP ones. Biasing the output to V+ would also work, but
in general PNP transistors don't behave as well as NPN ones, so we'd rather make the NPN's
do the work.
The current level that must be passed by the current source depends on what load the op-amp
is driving. The simple rule for this is that to keep the op-amp in class A, it has to be passing
more current all the time than the load would take on its own. Imagine that the maximum
signal level we expect is 3Vrms and we're buffering the op-amp with an Elantec EL2001,
which has a minimum input impedance of 1 MΩ. The peak voltage is 4.2V (1.414 * 3Vrms)
so the maximum current level between the op-amp's output and the buffer is 4.2 µA, which is
therefore also the minimum value for the current source.
We don't want to make the current source value minimal, though. Down at their lower limits,
transistors are nonlinear, and we're trying to get rid of nonlinearities with this tweak.
Therefore, in a buffered op-amp circuit, you usually see biases of at least 0.5 mA, and
occasionally as high as 5 mA. The amount you must use depends on the op-amp and the
signal characteristics; you'll have to experiment if you want to find the optimal value.
I should repeat at this point that these numbers only apply to buffered op-amp circuits. If the
op-amp is driving a low-impedance load, you will have to use a higher bias level. Imagine
that the op-amp is driving 32-ohm headphones directly. The loudest signal level will likely be
about 0.5Vrms for such headphones, which means that the peak voltage is 0.7V so the peak
current draw is about 22 mA. Therefore, your class A bias would have to be higher than
22 mA to keep the chip operating in class A at all times.
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It might seem from this discussion that the higher the bias level, the better. Not so. Be sure to
take a look at your op-amp's datasheet to find out its output current characteristics. If the op-
amp is only capable of delivering 40 mA maximum, putting a 22 mA current source on the
output of the op-amp will likely make the chip perform worse than with no biasing at all. At
this level, you're likely activating the current limiting circuitry of the op-amp, and you're
raising the operating temperature of the chip significantly. The moral of the story is that you
need an op-amp capable of delivering significantly more current to the load than strictly
required if you want to add a bias tweak to it.

➢ Applications

Use in electronics system design

The use of op-amps as circuit blocks is much easier and clearer than specifying all their
individual circuit elements (transistors, resistors, etc.), whether the amplifiers used are
integrated or discrete. In the first approximation op-amps can be used as if they were ideal
differential gain blocks; at a later stage limits can be placed on the acceptable range of

parameters for each op-amp.

Circuit design follows the same lines for all electronic circuits. A specification is drawn up
governing what the circuit is required to do, with allowable limits. For example, the gain may
be required to be 100 times, with a tolerance of 5% but drift of less than 1% in a specified
temperature range; the input impedance not less than one megohm; etc.
A basic circuit is designed, often with the help of circuit modeling (on a computer). Specific
commercially available op-amps and other components are then chosen that meet the design
criteria within the specified tolerances at acceptable cost. If not all criteria can be met, the
specification may need to be modified.
A prototype is then built and tested; changes to meet or improve the specification, alter
functionality, or reduce the cost, may be made.

Positive feedback configurations

Another typical configuration of op-amps is the positive feedback, which takes a fraction of
the output signal back to the non-inverting input. An important application of it is the
comparator with hysteresis (i.e., the Schmitt trigger).

 Basic single stage amplifiers

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Non-inverting amplifier

An op-amp connected in the non-inverting amplifier configuration

The gain equation for the op-amp is:

However, in this circuit V– is a function of Vout because of the negative feedback through the
R1R2 network. R1 and R2 form a voltage divider with reduction factor

Since the V– input is a high-impedance input, it does not load the voltage divider appreciably,
so:

Substituting this into the gain equation, we obtain:

Solving for Vout:

If Gopen-loop is very large, this simplifies to

Inverting amplifier
Because it does not require a differential input, this negative feedback connection was the
most typical use of an op-amp in the days of analog computers. It remains very popular.

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An op-amp connected in the inverting amplifier configuration

This circuit is easily analysed with the help of the two "golden rules".
Since the non-inverting input is grounded, rule 1 tells us that the inverting input will also be
at ground potential (0 volts):

The current through Rin is then:

Rule 2 tells us that no current enters the inverting input. Then, by Kirchoff's current law the
current through Rf must be the same as the current through Rin. The voltage drop across Rf is
then given by Ohm's law:

Since V- is zero volts, Vout is just − VRf:

• Some Variations:
○ A resistor is often inserted between the non-inverting input and
ground (so both inputs "see" similar resistances), reducing the input
offset voltage due to different voltage drops due to bias current and
may reduce distortion in some op-amps.
○ A DC-blocking capacitor may be inserted in series with the input
resistor when a frequency response down to DC is not needed and
any DC voltage on the input is unwanted. That is, the capacitive
component of the input impedance inserts a DC zero and a low-
frequency pole that gives the circuit a bandpass or high-pass
characteristic.

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  Other applications
• audio- and video-frequency pre-amplifiers and buffers
• voltage comparators
• differential amplifiers
• differentiators and integrators
• filters
• precision rectifiers
• precision peak detector
• voltage and current regulators
• analog calculators
• analog-to-digital converters
• digital-to-analog converter
• voltage clamps
• oscillators and waveform generators
Most single, dual and quad op-amps available have a standardized pin-out which permits one
type to be substituted for another without wiring changes. A specific op-amp may be chosen
for its open loop gain, bandwidth, noise performance, input impedance, power consumption,
or a compromise between any of these factors.

 Limitations of real op-amps

Real op-amps differ from the ideal model in various respects.
IC op-amps as implemented in practice are moderately complex integrated circuits; see the
internal circuitry for the relatively simple 741 op-amp below, for example.
➢ DC imperfections
Real operational amplifiers suffer from several non-ideal effects:
Finite gain
Open-loop gain is infinite in the ideal operational amplifier but finite in real
operational amplifiers. Typical devices exhibit open-loop DC gain ranging from
100,000 to over 1 million. So long as the loop gain (i.e., the product of open-loop and
feedback gains) is very large, the circuit gain will be determined entirely by the
amount of negative feedback (i.e., it will be independent of open-loop gain). In cases
where closed -loop gain must be very high, the feedback gain will be very low, and
the low feedback gain causes low loop gain; in these cases, the operational amplifier
will cease to behave ideally.
Finite input impedance
The input impedance of the operational amplifier is defined as the impedance between
its two inputs. It is not the impedance from each input to ground. In the typical high-
gain negative-feedback applications, the feedback ensures that the two inputs sit at the
same voltage, and so the impedance between them is made artificially very high.
Hence, this parameter is rarely an important design parameter. Because MOSFET-
input operational amplifiers often have protection circuits that effectively short circuit
any input differences greater than a small threshold, the input impedance can appear
to be very low in some tests. However, as long as these operational amplifiers are
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 used in a typical high-gain negative feedback application, these protection circuits
will be inactive and the negative feedback will render the input impedance to be
practically infinite. The input bias and leakage currents described below are a more
important design parameter for typical operational amplifier applications.
Non-zero output impedance
Low output impedance is important for low resistance loads; for these loads, the
voltage drop across the output impedance of the amplifier will be significant. Hence,
the output impedance of the amplifier reflects the maximum power that can be
provided. If the output voltage is fed back negatively, the output impedance of the
amplifier is effectively lowered; thus, in linear applications, op-amps usually exhibit a
very low output impedance indeed. Negative feedback can not, however, reduce the
limitations that Rload in conjunction with Rout place on the maximum and minimum
possible output voltages; it can only reduce output errors within that range.
Low-impedance outputs typically require high quiescent (i.e., idle) current in the
output stage and will dissipate more power, so low-power designs may purposely
sacrifice low output impedance.
Input current
Due to biasing requirements or leakage, a small amount of current (typically ~10
nanoamperes for bipolar op-amps, tens of picoamperes for JFET input stages, and
only a few pA for MOSFET input stages) flows into the inputs. When large resistors
or sources with high output impedances are used in the circuit, these small currents
can produce large unmodeled voltage drops. If the input currents are matched, and the
impedance looking out of both inputs are matched, then the voltages produced at each
input will be equal. Because the operational amplifier operates on the difference
between its inputs, these matched voltages will have no effect (unless the operational
amplifier has poor CMRR, which is described below). It is more common for the
input currents (or the impedances looking out of each input) to be slightly
mismatched, and so a small offset voltage can be produced. This offset voltage can
create offsets or drifting in the operational amplifier. It can often be nulled externally;
however, many operational amplifiers include offset null or balance pins and some
procedure for using them to remove this offset. Some operational amplifiers attempt
to nullify this offset automatically.
Input offset voltage
This voltage, which is what is required across the op-amp's input terminals to drive
the output voltage to zero is related to the mismatches in input bias current. In the
perfect amplifier, there would be no input offset voltage. However, it exists in actual
op-amps because of imperfections in the differential amplifier that constitutes the
input stage of the vast majority of these devices. Input offset voltage creates two
problems: First, due to the amplifier's high voltage gain, it virtually assures that the
amplifier output will go into saturation if it is operated without negative feedback,
even when the input terminals are wired together. Second, in a closed loop, negative
feedback configuration, the input offset voltage is amplified along with the signal and
this may pose a problem if high precision DC amplification is required or if the input
signal is very small.
Common mode gain
A perfect operational amplifier amplifies only the voltage difference between its two
inputs, completely rejecting all voltages that are common to both. However, the
differential input stage of an operational amplifier is never perfect, leading to the
amplification of these identical voltages to some degree. The standard measure of this
defect is called the common-mode rejection ratio (denoted CMRR). Minimization of

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 common mode gain is usually important in non-inverting amplifiers (described below)
that operate at high amplification.
Temperature effects
All parameters change with temperature. Temperature drift of the input offset voltage
is especially important.
Power-supply rejection
The output of a perfect operational amplifier will be completely independent from
ripples that arrive on its power supply inputs. Every real operational amplifier has a
specified power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) that reflects how well the op-amp can
reject changes in its supply voltage. Copious use of bypass capacitors can improve the
PSRR of many devices, including the operational amplifier.
Drift
Real op-amp parameters are subject to slow change over time and with changes in
temperature, input conditions.
➢ AC imperfections
The op-amp gain calculated at DC does not apply at higher frequencies. To a first
approximation, the gain of a typical op-amp is inversely proportional to frequency. This
means that an op-amp is characterized by its gain-bandwidth product. For example, an op-
amp with a gain bandwidth product of 1 MHz would have a gain of 5 at 200 kHz, and a gain
of 1 at 1 MHz. This low-pass characteristic is introduced deliberately, because it tends to
stabilize the circuit by introducing a dominant pole. This is known as frequency
compensation.
Typical low cost, general purpose op-amps exhibit a gain bandwidth product of a few
megahertz. Specialty and high speed op-amps can achieve gain bandwidth products of
hundreds of megahertz. For very high-frequency circuits, a completely different form of op-
amp called the current-feedback operational amplifier is often used.
Other imperfections include:
• Finite bandwidth — all amplifiers have a finite bandwidth. This creates several
problems for op amps. First, associated with the bandwidth limitation is a phase
difference between the input signal and the amplifier output that can lead to
oscillation in some feedback circuits. The internal frequency compensation used in
some op amps to increase the gain or phase margin intentionally reduces the
bandwidth even further to maintain output stability when using a wide variety of
feedback networks. Second, reduced bandwidth results in lower amounts of feedback
at higher frequencies, producing higher distortion, noise, and output impedance and
also reduced output phase linearity as the frequency increases.
• Input capacitance — most important for high frequency operation because it further
reduces the open loop bandwidth of the amplifier.
• Common mode gain — See DC imperfections, above.
Nonlinear imperfections
➢Saturation — output voltage is limited to a minimum and maximum value close to the
power supply voltages.[ Saturation occurs when the output of the amplifier reaches this
value and is usually due to:
○ In the case of an op-amp using a bipolar power supply, a voltage gain that
produces an output that is more positive or more negative than that maximum
or minimum; or

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 ○ In the case of an op-amp using a single supply voltage, either a voltage gain
that produces an output that is more positive than that maximum, or a signal so
close to ground that the amplifier's gain is not sufficient to raise it above the
lower threshold.
➢Slewing — the amplifier's output voltage reaches its maximum rate of change. Measured as
the slew rate, it is usually specified in volts per microsecond. When slewing occurs, further
increases in the input signal have no effect on the rate of change of the output. Slewing is
usually caused by internal capacitances in the amplifier, especially those used to implement
its frequency compensation.
➢Non-linear transfer function — The output voltage may not be accurately proportional to
the difference between the input voltages. It is commonly called distortion when the input
signal is a waveform. This effect will be very small in a practical circuit if substantial
negative feedback is used.
➢Power considerations
• Limited output current — the output current must obviously be finite. In practice,
most op-amps are designed to limit the output current so as not to exceed a specified
level — around 25 mA for a type 741 IC op-amp — thus protecting the op-amp and
associated circuitry from damage. Modern designs are electronically more rugged
than earlier implementations and some can sustain direct short circuits on their
outputs without damage.
• Limited dissipated power — an op-amp is a linear amplifier. It therefore dissipates
some power as heat, proportional to the output current, and to the difference between
the output voltage and the supply voltage. If the op-amp dissipates too much power,
then its temperature will increase above some safe limit. The op-amp may enter
thermal shutdown, or it may be destroyed.
Modern integrated FET or MOSFET op-amps approximate more closely the ideal op-amp
than bipolar ICs when it comes to input impedance and input bias and offset currents.
Bipolars are generally better when it comes to input voltage offset, and often have lower
noise. Generally, at room temperature, with a fairly large signal, and limited bandwidth, FET
and MOSFET op-amps now offer better performance.

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Acknowledgement

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 CONTENTS
1. Introduction.
2. Circuit Notation.
3. History
i) 1941: First (vacuum tube) op-amp
ii) 1947: First op-amp with an explicit non-inverting input
iii) 1949: First chopper-stabilized op-amp
iv) 1961: First discrete IC op-amps
v) 1962: First op-amps in potted modules
vi) 1963: First monolithic IC op-amp
vii) 1966: First varactor bridge op-amps
viii)1968: Release of the μA741 – would be seen as a nearly ubiquitous
chip
ix) 1970: First high-speed, low-input current FET design
x) 1972: Single sided supply op-amps being produced
xi) Recent trends
1. Basic operation
2. Classification of Operational Amplifiers
3. Internal circuitry of 741 type op-amp
i. Input stage
i. Constant-current stabilization system
ii. Differential amplifier
iii. Class A gain stage

b) Output stage

7.Biasing of OPAMP

8.Applications
i. Use in electronics system design
ii. Positive feedback configurations
iii. Non-inverting amplifier
iv. Inverting amplifie

9.other applications

PREFACE

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This report is written primarily as a collection of theory & basic idea of OPAMP besides
for increasing knowledge on technical matter .The culture on this topic is for spreading
the innovative ideas of engineers & scientists who wish to update their knowledge to
semiconductor electronics & particularly of integrated circuits

The following basic approach is used:Each device is introduced by presenting a simple

physical picture of the basic circuit of OPAMP. This discussion leads to a characterization
of the in terms of basic equipment's such as transistor. An analysis of this device as
circuit elements in case of analog applications is then made. Here the given details of
the previous concept of OPAMP lead us to think how gradually it increases it’s gradual
demonstration.

The principle concern in this theory is upon the analysis and design of electronic circuits
& subsystems. The OPAMP is a direct-coupled high gain amplifier to which feedback is
added to control its overall response characterstic. The integrated OPAMP has gained
wide acceptance as a versatile ,predictable,and economic system building block. It offers
all the advantage of monolithic integrated circuits.a detailed analysis of the several
stages in a bipolar transistor OPAMP is made. This help us in our daily life in integrated
circuit.in the discursion the classification and applications are discussed deeply.

For the most part ideal and non-ideal characterstic are employed. In this way anyone of
our classmate may become with the classification and application of the circuit so that
they can use it in there any kind of work.

This SPICE model is beginning to look like those created by many op amp manufacturers. Only slightly more complex than
thebasic model, it includes slew rate limiting. But, the main benefit is that many advanced behaviors - voltage and current limit,
CMR behavior, additional poles and zeros - can be easily added to this model (see Level 3 model below.) You can download
an Excel spreadsheet that calculates the component values given an op amp's specifications.This work will be reached to the
success when it will be used tour students.

Sanjib kumar saha

Dept-ECE,2nd year

Roll no-08102003055

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