Ece Vi Antennas and Propagation (10ec64) Notes

Antennas and Propagation
10EC64
SYLLABUS
Subject Code : 10EC64
IA Marks
: 25
No. of Lecture Hrs/week : 04
Exam Hours
: 03
Total no of Lecture Hrs : 52
Exam Marks
: 100
PART- A
UNIT 1: ANTENNA BASICS
Introduction, basic antenna parameters, patterns, beam area, radiation intensity, beam
efficiency, directivity and gain, antenna apertures, effective height, bandwidth, radiation,
efficiency, antenna temperature and antenna field zones.
7 Hours
UNIT 2: POINT SOURCES AND ARRAYS
Introduction, point sources, power patterns, power theorem, radiation intensity,field patterns, phase
patterns. Array of two isotropic point sources, Endfire Array and Broadside Array
6 Hours
UNIT 3: ELECTRIC DIPOLES AND THIN LINEAR ANTENNAS

Introduction, short electric dipole, fields of a short dipole(no derivation of field components),
radiation resistance of short dipole, radiation resistances of lambda/2 Antenna, thin linear antenna,
micro strip arrays, low side lobe arrays, long wire antenna, folded dipole antenna
7 Hours
UNIT 4: LOOP, SLOT, PATCH AND HORN ANTENNA
Introduction, small loop, comparison of far fields of small loop and short dipole, loop antenna
general case, far field patterns of circular loop, radiation resistance, directivity, slot antenna,
Babinets principle and complementary antennas, impedance of complementary and slot antennas,
patch antennas.
8 Hours
Dept of ECE, SJBIT
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PART B
UNIT 5 & 6: ANTENNA TYPES

Horn antennas, rectangular horn antennas, helical Antenna, Yagi-Uda array, corner reflectors,
parabolic reflectors, log periodic antenna, lens antenna, antenna for special applications sleeve
antenna, turnstile antenna, omnidirectional antennas, antennas for satellite antennas for ground
penetrating radars, embedded antennas, ultra wide band antennas, plasma antenna, high-resolution
data, intelligent antennas, antenna for remote sensing.
12 Hours
UNIT - 7 & 8:
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION: Introduction, Ground wave propagation, free space
propagation, ground reflection, surface wave, diffraction.
TROPOSPHERE WAVE PROPAGATION: Tropospheric scatter, Ionosphere propagation,
electrical properties of the ionosphere, effects of earths magnetic field.
10 Hours
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Antennas and Wave Propagation, John D. Krauss, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill International
edition, 2010
2. Antennas and Wave Proapagation Harish and Sachidananda: Oxford Press 2007.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Antenna Theory Analysis and Design - C A Balanis, 2nd ED, John Wiley, 1997
2. Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication Systems - Sineon R Saunders, John
Wiley, 2003.
3. Antennas and wave propagation - G S N Raju: Pearson Education 2005
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INDEX SHEET
SL.NO
TOPIC
PAGE NO.
PART A
UNIT 1: ANTENNA BASICS
5-22
Introduction
Basic Antenna parameters
Patterns
Beam area or beam solid angle
11
Radiation intensity, beam efficiency, directivity and gain
12
Antenna apertures, effective height
16
Antenna temperature, radiation efficiency, antenna filed zones
UNIT 2 : POINT SOURCES AND ARRAYS:

Introduction, point sources, power patterns, power theorem
1
2
Radiation intensity, filed patterns, phase patterns.
Array of two isotropic point sources, non-isotropic but similar point

3
sources
Principles of pattern multiplication, examples of pattern synthesis by
4
pattern multiplication
5
Broad side and End fire aray
UNIT 3: ELECTRIC DIPOLES AND THIN LINEAR ANTENNAS
18
23-42
23
25
29
33
38
43-54
1
2
Introduction, short electric dipole, fields of a short dipole

Radiation resistance of short dipole
43
Thin linear antenna, Long wire antenna, folded dipole antennas.
52
UNIT 4 & 5 LOOP, SLOT, PATCH AND HORN ANTENNA

Introduction, small loop
1
49
55-65
55
Loop antenna general case
55
Far field patterns of circular loop
57
Radiation resistance, directivity, slot antenna
58
Babinets principle
60
complementary antennas
61
impedance of complementary
63
impedance of slot antennas
64
UNIT 6 : ANTENNA TYPES
66-89
horn antennas, rectangular horn antennas
66
2
3
Helical Antenna
71
78
Yagi-Uda array
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4
5
6
7
Log periodic antenna
Antenna for ground penetrating radar, Adaptive antenna
79
80
84
85
Embedded antenna, ultra wide band antenna, Plasma antenna
86
lens antenna
Sleeve antenna, turnstile antenna, omnidirectional antenna
UNIT - 7 : RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
90-102
Radio propagation
90
2
3
4
5
Ground wave propagation
94
95
96
98
Ground Reflection, Sky wave

Surface Wave
Diffraction
UNIT 8 : TROPOSPHERE WAVE PROPAGATION

1
Tropospheric propagation
2
3
4
Ionospheric Propagation
Electrical properties
Ionospheric Storms
Dept of ECE, SJBIT
101-112
101
106
107
111
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UNIT 1
ANTENNA BASICS
Syllabus:
Introduction, basic antenna parameters, patterns, beam area, radiation intensity, beam
efficiency, directivity and gain, antenna apertures, effective height, bandwidth, radiation,
efficiency, antenna temperature and antenna field zones.
7 Hours
TEXT BOOKS:
edition, 2010
REFERENCE BOOKS:
2. Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication Systems - Sineon R Saunders,
John Wiley, 2003.
Introduction:
Antenna is a source or radiator of Electromagnetic waves or a sensor of
Electromagnetic waves. It is a transition device or transducer between a guided wave and a
free space wave or vice versa. It is also an electrical conductor or system of conductors that
radiates EM energy into or collects EM energy from free space. Antennas function by
transmitting or receiving electromagnetic (EM) waves. Examples of these electromagnetic
waves include the light from the sun and the waves received by your cell phone or radio.
Your eyes are basically "receiving antennas" that pick up electromagnetic waves that are of
a particular frequency. The colors that you see (red, green, blue) are each waves of different
frequencies that your eyes can detect. All electromagnetic waves propagate at the same
speed in air or in space. This speed (the speed of light) is roughly 671 million miles per
hour (1 billion kilometers per hour). This is roughly a million times faster than the speed of
sound (which is about 761 miles per hour at sea level). The speed of light will be denoted as
c in the equations that follow. We like to use "SI" units in science (length measured in
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meters, time in seconds, mass in kilograms):

c = 3 x 108 meter/second
Some Antenna Types:

Wire Antennas- dipoles, loops and Helical
Aperture Antennas-Horns and reflectors Array
Antennas-Yagi, Log periodic Patch AntennasMicrostrips, PIFAs
Basic Antenna Parameters:

A radio antenna may be defined as the structure associated with the region of
transition between a guided wave and a free space wave or vice versa.
Principle: Under time varying conditions, Maxwells equations predict the radiation of
EM energy from current source (or accelerated charge). This happens at all frequencies,
but is insignificant as long as the size of the source region is not comparable to the
wavelength. While transmission lines are designed to minimize this radiation loss,
radiation into free space becomes main purpose in case of Antennas. The basic principle
of radiation is produced by accelerated charge. The basic equation of radiation is
I L = Q V (Ams-1)
where, I = Time changing current in Amps/sec
L = Length of the current element in meters
Q = Charge in Coulombs
V = Time changing velocity
Thus time changing current radiates and accelerated charge radiates. For steady state
harmonic variation, usually we focus on time changing current. For transients or pulses, we
focus on accelerated charge. The radiation is perpendicular to the acceleration and the
radiated power is proportional to the square of IL or QV.
Transmission line opened out in a Tapered fashion as
Antenna:
a). As Transmitting Antenna: Here the Transmission Line is connected to source or
generator at one end. Along the uniform part of the line energy is guided as Plane TEM
wave with little loss. Spacing between line is a small fraction of . As the line is opened
out and the separation between the two lines becomes comparable to , it acts like an
antenna and launches a free space wave since currents on the transmission line flow out
on the antenna but fields associated with them keep on going. From the circuit point of
view the antennas appear to the transmission lines as a resistance Rr, called Radiation
resistance.
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b) As Receiving Antenna: Active radiation by other Antenna or Passive radiation

from distant objects raises the apparent temperature of Rr .This has nothing to do with
the physical temperature of the antenna itself but is related to the temperature of distant
objects that the antenna is looking at. Rr may be thought of as virtual resistance that does
not exist physically but is a quantity coupling the antenna to distant regions of space via a
virtual transmission line.
Thus, an antenna is a transition device, or transducer, between a guided wave and a free
space wave or vice versa. The antenna is a device which interfaces a circuit and space.
Reciprocity: An antenna exhibits identical impedance during Transmission or Reception,
same directional patterns during Transmission or Reception, same effective height while
transmitting or receiving. Transmission and reception antennas can be used interchangeably.
Medium must be linear, passive and isotropic (physical properties are the same in different
directions). Antennas are usually optimized for reception or transmission, not both.
Patterns:
The radiation pattern or antenna pattern is the graphical representation of the
radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space. That is, the antenna's pattern
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describes how the antenna radiates energy out into space (or how it receives energy). It is
important to state that an antenna can radiate energy in all directions, so the antenna pattern
is actually three-dimensional. It is common, however, to describe this 3D pattern with two
planar patterns, called the principal plane patterns. These principal plane patterns can be
obtained by making two slices through the 3D pattern, through the maximum value of the
pattern. It is these principal plane patterns that are commonly referred to as the antenna
patterns.
Radiation pattern or Antenna pattern is defined as the spatial distribution of a
quantity that characterizes the EM field generated by an antenna. The quantity may be
Power, Radiation Intensity, Field amplitude, Relative Phase etc.
Always the radiation has Main lobe through which radiation is maximum in the z
direction and Minor lobe (side and back lobes) in the x and y direction. Any field pattern is
presented by 3D spherical coordinates or by plane cuts through main lobe axis. Two plane
cuts as right angles are called as principal plane pattern. To specify the radiation pattern
with respect to field intensity and polarization requires three patterns:
(i). The component of the electric field as a function of the angles and or E(,) in
Vm-1.
(ii).The component of the electric field as a function of the angles and or E(,) in
Vm-1.
(iii). The phases of these fields as a function of the angles and or (,) and (,) in
radian or degree.
Normalized field pattern: It is obtained by dividing a field component by its maximum

value. The normalized field pattern is a dimensionless number with maximum value of unity.
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Half power level occurs at those angles (,)for which E(,)n =0.707. At distance d>>
and d>> size of the antenna, the shape of the field pattern is independent of the distance.
Normalized power pattern: Pattern expressed in terms of power per unit area is called
power pattern. Normalizing the power with respect to maximum value yields normalized
power patterns as a function of angle which is dimensionless and maximum value is unity.
Where, S(,) is the Poynting vector = [ E2(,) + E2(,) ] / Z0 Wm-2

S(,)max is the maximum value of S(,), Wm-2
Z0 is the intrinsic impedance of free space = 376.7.
Decibel level is given by
dB = 10 log10 Pn(,)
Half power levels occurs at those angles (,) for which P(,)n =0.5.
Pattern Lobes and Beamwidths:

The radiation pattern characteristics involve three dimensional vector fields for full
representation, but the scalar quantities can be used. They are:
1. Half power beam-width HPBW
2. Beam Area, A
3. Bema Efficiency, M
4. Directivity D, Gain G
5. Effective Aperture, Ae
6. Radiation Intensity
Pattern in spherical co-ordinate system

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Beamwidth is associated with the lobes in the antenna pattern. It is defined as the
angular separation between two identical points on the opposite sides of the main lobe. The
most common type of beamwidth is the half-power (3 dB) beamwidth (HPBW). To find
HPBW, in the equation, defining the radiation pattern, we set power equal to 0.5 and solve it
for angles. Another frequently used measure of beamwidth is the first-null beamwidth
(FNBW), which is the angular separation between the first nulls on either sides of the main
lobe.
Pattern in Cartesian co-ordinate system

Beamwidth:
Antenna Beam-width is the measure of directivity of an antenna. The antenna
beamwidth is the angular width expressed in degrees which is measured on the major lobe
of the radiation pattern of an antenna.
HPBW:
The angular width on the major lobe of radiation pattern between two points where
the power is half of the maximum radiated power is called Half Power Beam-width. Here
the power decreases to half of its maximum value.
FNBW:
When the angular width is measured between the first nulls or first side lobes it is
called First Null Beam Width.
The factors affecting beam width are:
1. Shape of the radiation pattern.
2. Dimensions of antenna.
3. Wavelength.
Beam width defines the resolution capability of the antenna, i.e., the ability of the system to
separate two adjacent targets.
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Beam Area (or Beam Solid Angle) A :

The beam solid angle of an antenna is given by the integral of the normalized power
pattern over a sphere (4 steradians).
Beam area A is the solid angle through which all of the power radiated by antenna
would stream if P(, ) maintained its maximum value over A and was zero.
Total power radiated = P(, ) A watts
Beam area is the solid angle A is often approximated in terms of the angles
subtended by the Half Power points of the main lobe in the two principal planes(Minor
lobes are neglected)
Radian and Steradian: Radian is plane angle with its vertex a the centre of a circle of
radius r and is subtended by an arc whose length is equal to r. Circumference of the circle is
2r Therefore total angle of the circle is 2 radians.
Steradian is solid angle with its vertex at the centre of a sphere of radius r, which is
subtended by a spherical surface area equal to the area of a square with side length r
Area of the sphere is 4r2. Therefore the total solid angle of the sphere is 4steradians
1steradian = (1radian)2
= (180 / )2
= 3282.8064 square degrees
4 steradians = 3282.8064 x 4
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= 41,253 square degrees

The infinitesimal area ds on a surface of a sphere of radius r in spherical co-ordinates(with
as vertical angle and as azimuth angle) is
ds = r2 sin d d
By definition of solid angle: ds = r2 d
Hence,
d = sin d d
Radiation Intensity :
Definition: The power radiated from an Antenna per unit solid angle is called the
Radiation Intensity. U Units: Watts/steradians or Watts/ square degree
Poynting vector or power density is dependent on distance from the antenna while
Radiation intensity is independent of the distance from the antenna.
The normalized power pattern can also be expressed as the ratio of radiation
intensity as a function of angle to its maximum value.
Beam Efficiency :
The total beam area A consists of the main beam area M plus the minor lobe area m .
A = M + m
The ratio of main beam area to the total beam area is called the beam efficiency M
M = M / A
The ratio of minor lobe area to the total beam area is called stray factor m
m = m / A
Directivity D and Gain G :

From the field point of view, the most important quantitative information on the antenna
is the directivity, which is a measure of the concentration of radiated power in a
particular direction. It is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. The
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average radiation intensity is equal to the total radiated power divided by 4. If the
direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation is implied. Mathematically,
the directivity (dimensionless) can be written as
U ( ,) max
D=
U ( ,) average
The directivity is a dimensionless quantity. The maximum directivity is always 1
Directivity and Beam area
Directivity is the ratio of total solid angle of the sphere to beam solid angle. For antennas
with rotationally symmetric lobes, the directivity D can be approximated as:
D = 4 /
Directivity of isotropic antenna is equal to unity , for an isotropic antenna Beam area A
=4
Directivity indicates how well an antenna radiates in a particular direction in
comparison with an isotropic antenna radiating same amount of power
Smaller the beam area, larger is the directivity
Gain: Any physical Antenna has losses associated with it. Depending on structure both
ohmic and dielectric losses can be present. Input power Pin is the sum of the Radiated
power Prad and losses Ploss
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The Gain G of an Antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than Directivity D
due to ohmic losses in the antenna. Mismatch in feeding the antenna also reduces gain.
The ratio of Gain to Directivity is the Antenna efficiency factor k (dimensionless)
In practice, the total input power to an antenna can be obtained easily, but the total radiated
power by an antenna is actually hard to get. The gain of an antenna is introduced to solve
this problem. This is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from
the antenna to the total input power accepted by the antenna divided by 4. If the direction
is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation is implied. Mathematically, the gain
(dimensionless) can be written as
Directivity and Gain: Directivity and Gain of an antenna represent the ability to focus
its beam in a particular direction. Directivity is a parameter dependant only on the shape of
radiation pattern while gain takes ohmic and other losses into account.
Effective Aperture
Aperture Concept: Aperture of an Antenna is the area through which the power is
radiated or received. Concept of Apertures is most simply introduced by
considering a Receiving Antenna. Let receiving antenna be a rectangular Horn immersed
in the field of uniform plane wave as shown,
Let the poynting vector or power density of the plane wave be S watts/sq m and let the
area or physical aperture be Ap sq-m.If the Horn extracts all the power from the Wave over
its entire physical Aperture Ap, Power absorbed is given by P=SAp= (E2/Z)Ap Watts, S
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is poynting vector ,
Z is intrinsic impedance of medium, E is rms value of electric field
But the Field response of Horn is not uniform across Ap because E at sidewalls must
equal zero. Thus effective Aperture Ae of the Horn is less than Ap.
Aperture Efficiency is as follows:
The effective antenna aperture is the ratio of the available power at the terminals of the
antenna to the power flux density of a plane wave incident upon the antenna, which is
matched to the antenna in terms of polarization. If no direction is specified, the direction of
maximum radiation is implied. Effective Aperture (Ae) describes the effectiveness of
an Antenna in receiving mode, It is the ratio of power delivered to receiver to incident
power density
It is the area that captures energy from a passing EM wave
An Antenna with large aperture (Ae) has more gain than one with smaller aperture(Ae)
since it captures more energy from a passing radio wave and can radiate more in that
direction while transmitting
Effective Aperture and Beam area: Consider an Antenna with an effective Aperture
Ae which radiates all of its power in a conical pattern of beam area A, assuming uniform
field Ea over the aperture, power radiated is
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Effective height
The effective height is another parameer related to the apertures. Multiplying the effective
height, he(meters), times the magnitudeof the incident electric field E (V/m) yields the
voltage V induced. Thus V=he E or he= V/ E (m). Effective height provides an indication
as to how much of the antenna is involved in radiating (or receiving. To demonstrate this,
consider the current distributions a dipole antenna for two different lengths.
If the current distribution of the dipole were uniform, its effective height would be l Here
the current distribution is nearly sinusoidal with average value 2/=0.64(of the maximum)
so that its effective height is 0.64l .It is assumed that antenna is oriented for maximum
response.
If the same dipole is used at longer wavelength so that it is only 0.1 long, the current
tapers almost linearly from the central feed point to zero at the ends in a triangular
distribution. The average current is now 0.5 & effective height is 0.5l
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For an antenna of radiation resistance Rr matched to itd load , power delivered to load is
P=V2/(4Rr), voltage is given by V=he E.
Therefore P=(he E)2/(4Rr)
In terms of Effective aperture the same power is given by
P=SAe= (E2/Z0)Ae
Equating the two,
Bandwidth or frequency bandwidth:

This is the range of frequencies, within which the antenna characteristics (input impedance,
pattern) conform to certain specifications . Antenna characteristics, which should conform
to certain requirements, might be: input impedance, radiation pattern, beamwidth,
polarization, side-lobe level, gain, beam direction and width, radiation efficiency. Separate
bandwidths may be introduced: impedance bandwidth, pattern bandwidth, etc.
The FBW of broadband antennas is expressed as the ratio of the upper to the lower
frequencies, where the antenna performance is acceptable.
Based on Bandwidth antennas can be classified as
1. Broad band antennas-BW expressed as ratio of upper to lower frequencies of
acceptable operation eg: 10:1 BW means fH is 10 times greater than fL
2. Narrow band antennas-BW is expressed as percentage of frequency difference over
centre frequency eg:5% means (fH fL ) /fo is .05. Bandwidth can be considered to
be the range of frequencies on either sides of a centre frequency(usually resonant
freq. for a dipole)
The FBW of broadband antennas is expressed as the ratio of the upper to the lower
frequencies, where the antenna performance is acceptable
Broadband antennas with FBW as large as 40:1 have been designed. Such antennas are
referred to as frequency independent antennas.
For narrowband antennas, the FBW is expressed as a percentage of the frequency difference
over the center frequency
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The characteristics such as Zi, G, Polarization etc of antenna does not necessarily vary in the
same manner. Some times they are critically affected by frequency Usually there is a
distinction made between pattern and input impedance variations. Accordingly pattern
bandwidth or impedance bandwidth are used .pattern bandwidth is associated with
characteristics such as Gain, Side lobe level, Polarization, Beam area. (large antennas)
Impedance bandwidth is associated with characteristics such as input impedance, radiation
efficiency(Short dipole)
Intermediate length antennas BW may be limited either by pattern or impedance variations
depending on application
If BW is Very large (like 40:1 or greater), Antenna can be considered frequency
independent.
Radiation Efficiency
Total antenna resistance is the sum of 5 components
Rr+Rg+Ri+Rc+Rw
Rr is Radiation resistance
Rg is ground resistance
Ri is equivalent insulation loss
Rc is resistance of tuning inductance
Rw is resistance equivalent of conductor loss
Radiation efficiency=Rr/( Rr+Rg+Ri+Rc+Rw). It is the ratio of power radiated from the
antenna to the total power supplied to the antenna
Antenna temperature
The antenna noise can be divided into two types according to its physical source:
- noise due to the loss resistance of the antenna itself; and
- noise, which the antenna picks up from the surrounding environment The noise power per
unit bandwidth is proportional to the objects temperature and is given by Nyquists relation
where
TP is the physical temperature of the object in K (Kelvin degrees); and k is
Boltzmanns constant (1.38x10-23 J/K
A resistor is a thermal noise source. The noise voltage(rms value) generated by a resistor
R, kept at a temperature T, is given by
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Where,
k is Boltzmanns constant (1.38x10-23 J/K). And
B is the bandwidth in Hz
Often, we assume that heat energy is evenly distributed in the frequency band f .
Then, the associated heat power in f is
The receiver also has a temperature TR associated with it and the total system noise
temperature (i.e., Antenna + Receiver) has combined temperature given b
And total noise power in the system is
Antenna Field Zones:

The space surrounding the antenna is divided into three regions according to the
predominant field behaviour. The boundaries between the regions are not distinct and the
field behaviour changes gradually as these boundaries are crossed. In this course, we are
mostly concerned with the far-field characteristics of the antennas.
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1.Reactive near-field region: This is the region immediately surrounding the antenna,
where the reactive field dominates. For most antennas, it is assumed that this region is a
sphere with the antenna at its centre
2. Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region :This is an intermediate region between the
reactive near-field region and the far-field region, where the radiation field is more
significant but the angular field distribution is still dependent on the distance from the
antenna.
3. Far-field (Fraunhofer) region :Here r >> D and r >>
The angular field distribution does not depend on the distance from the source any more,
i.e., the far-field pattern is already well established.
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RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS
1. Define the following parameters with respect to antenna:
i. Radiation resistance.
ii. Beam area.
iii. Radiation intensity.
iv. Directivity.
v. Gain.
vi. Isotropic radiator.
vii. Directive gain.
viii. Hertzian dipole.
ix. Power gain.
x. Efficiency.
xi. Power density.
xii. Steradians & radians.
2. With the help of neat diagrams explain the principle of radiation in antennas.
3. Explain the antenna as a transmitting device and as a receiving device.
4. Write a note on radiation pattern and radiation lobes.
5. Draw the radiation pattern of: (i) Directional antenna. (ii) Isotropic antenna.
6. Explain different types of aperture.
7. Define aperture of an antenna and find its relation with directivity.
8. Explain effective height of an antenna.
9. Derive FRIIS transmission formula and explain its significance.
10. Derive an expression for power radiated by an isotropic antenna.
11. Derive the relation between directivity and beam solid angle.
12. Derive the relationship between radiation resistance and efficiency.
13. Derive an expression for field intensity at a distant point.
14. Write short notes on: (a) Fields of an oscillating dipole
(b) Antenna field zones.
15. Show that an isotropic radiator radiating 1 KW power gives a field of 173mv/m at a
distance of 1 Km.
16. Find the directivity of an antenna having radiation resistance of 72 and loss
resistance of 12 and a gain of 20.
17. What is the maximum effective aperture of a microwave antenna which has a
directivity of 900?
18. Using FRISS transmission formula find the maximum power received at a distance
of 0.75 Km over a free space. A 100 MHz circuit consisting of a transmitting
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antenna of 30dB gain and a receiving antenna with a 25dB gain is used. The power
input to the transmitting antenna is 120W.
19. A radio station radiates a total power of 10KW and a gain of 30. Find the field
intensity at a distance of 100Km from the antenna. Assume free space propagation.
20. Find the number of square degrees in the solid angle on a spherical surface that is
between =20o and 40o and =30o and 70o.
21. Calculate the length of half wave dipole antenna meant to have wavelength at
60MHz.
22. Calculate the gain of an antenna with a circular aperture of diameter 3m at a
frequency of 5 GHz.
23. An antenna radiates a total power of 100W in the direction of maximum radiation,
the field strength at a distance of 10Km was found to be 12mV/m. What is the gain
of the antenna? Assume free space propagation. If efficiency=90% find directivity.
24. An antenna has a radiation resistance of 72 loss resistance of 8 power gain of
12dB. Determine the antenna efficiency and directivity.
25. An antenna has a loss resistance of 10 power gain of 20 and directivity gain of 22.
Calculate the radiation resistance.
26. Calculate the effective length of a /2 antenna gives Rr=73 effective aperture
0.13 2.
27. An antenna radiates power equally in all directions. The total power delivered to the
radiator is 100 KW. Calculate the power density at distance of (i) 100m (ii) 1000m.
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UNIT 2
POINT SOURCES AND ARRAYS
Syllabus:
Introduction, point sources, power patterns, power theorem, radiation intensity, field
patterns, phase patterns. Array of two isotropic point sources, Endfire Array and Broadside
Array
TEXT BOOKS:
edition, 2010
REFERENCE BOOKS:
2. Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication Systems - Sineon R Saunders, John
Wiley, 2003.
Radiation Pattern:
The radiation pattern of antenna is a representation (pictorial or
mathematical) of the distribution of the power out-flowing (radiated) from the antenna
(in the case of transmitting antenna), or inflowing (received) to the antenna (in the case
of receiving antenna) as a function of direction angles from the antenna.
Antenna radiation pattern (antenna pattern): It is defined for large distances
from the antenna, where the spatial (angular) distribution of the radiated power does not
depend on the distance from the radiation source is independent on the power flow
direction
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It is clear in Figures a and b that in some very specific directions there are zeros, or
nulls, in the pattern indicating no radiation.
The protuberances between the nulls are referred to as lobes, and the main, or major,
lobe is in the direction of maximum radiation.
There are also side lobes and back lobes. These other lobes divert power away from the
main beam and are desired as small as possible.
Pattern lobe is a portion of the radiation pattern with a local maximum. Lobes are
classified as: major, minor, side lobes, back lobes
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Normalized pattern:
Usually, the pattern describes the normalized field (power) values with respect to
the maximum value.
Note: The power pattern and the amplitude field pattern are the same when
computed and when plotted in dB.
3-Dimensional pattern
Antenna radiation pattern is 3-dimensional. The 3-D plot of antenna pattern assumes both
angles and varying.
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2-Dimensional pattern
Usually the antenna pattern is presented as a 2-D plot, with only one of the direction
angles, or varies.
It is an intersection of the 3-D one with a given plane .Usually it is a = const plane or
a = const plane that contains the patterns maximum.
RADIATION INTENSITY
The radiation intensity is total power radiated per unit solid angle and is denoted by U
and it is expressed as U= P/4.
First figure shows radiation intensity of a source and second figure is relative radiation
intensity of that source.
POINT SOURCE
A point source is a radiator that has dimensions of a point in space.
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POWER PATTERN
The directional property of the antenna is often described in the form of a power pattern.
The power pattern is simply the effective area normalized to be unity at the maximum.
Fig: Power pattern for isotropic source

Power pattern and relative power patterns of a source
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Figure (a) shows power pattern of a source. Figure(b) shows relative power
pattern of a same source. Both Patterns have the same shape. The relative power
pattern is normalized to a maximum of unity
The radiated energy streams from the source in radial lines.
Time rate of Energy flow/unit area is called as Poynting vector (PowerDensity)
It is expressed as .watts / square meters.
For a Point source Poynting vector has only radial component Sr
S component in and directions are zero. Magnitude of S = Sr
Source radiating uniformly in all directions Isotropic Source. It is independent of and
.
Graph of Sr at a constant radius as a function of angle is POWER PATTERN
Field pattern
A pattern showing variation of the electric field intensity at a constant radius r as a function
of angle( , ) is called field pattern
Fig: Relation of poynting vector s and 2 electric field components of a far field
The power pattern and the field patterns are inter-related:
P(, ) = (1/)*|E(, )|2 = *|H(, )|2
P = power
E = electrical field component vector
H = magnetic field component vector
= 377 ohm (free-space impedance)
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The power pattern is the measured (calculated) and plotted received power: |P(, )| at a
constant (large) distance from the antenna
The amplitude field pattern is the measured (calculated) and plotted electric (magnetic)
field intensity, |E(, )| or |H(, )| at a constant (large) distance from the antennas
Antenna Arrays
Antennas with a given radiation pattern may be arranged in a pattern line, circle, plane,
etc.) to yield a different radiation pattern.
Antenna array - a configuration of multiple antennas (elements) arranged to achieve
a given radiation pattern.
Simple antennas can be combined to achieve desired directional effects. Individual
antennas are called elements and the combination is an array
Types of Arrays
1. Linear array - antenna elements arranged along a straight line.
2. Circular array - antenna elements arranged around a circular ring.
3. Planar array - antenna elements arranged over some planar surface (example rectangular array).
4. Conformal array - antenna elements arranged to conform two some non-planar surface
(such as an aircraft skin).
Design Principles of Arrays

There are several array design variables which can be changed to
achieve the overall array pattern design. Array Design Variables
1. General array shape (linear, circular,planar)
2. Element spacing.
3. Element excitation amplitude.
4. Element excitation phase.
5. Patterns of array elements.
Types of Arrays:
Broadside: maximum radiation at right angles to main axis of antenna
End-fire: maximum radiation along the main axis of antenna
Phased: all elements connected to source
Parasitic: some elements not connected to source: They re-radiate power from other
elements.
Yagi-Uda Array
Often called Yagi array
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Parasitic, end-fire, unidirectional

One driven element: dipole or folded dipole
One reflector behind driven element and slightly longer
One or more directors in front of driven element and slightly shorter
Log-Periodic Dipole Array

Multiple driven elements (dipoles) of varying lengths
Phased array
Unidirectional end-fire
Noted for wide bandwidth
Often used for TV antennas
Monopole Array
Vertical monopoles can be combined to achieve a variety of horizontal patterns
Patterns can be changed by adjusting amplitude and phase of signal applied to each
element
Not necessary to move elements
Useful for AM broadcasting
Collinear Array
All elements along same axis
Used to provide an omnidirectional horizontal pattern from a vertical antenna
Concentrates radiation in horizontal plane
Broadside Array
Bidirectional Array
Uses Dipoles fed in phase and separated by 1/2 wavelength
End-Fire Array
Similar to broadside array except dipoles are fed 180 degrees out of phase
Radiation max. off the ends
Application of Arrays
An array of antennas may be used in a variety of ways to improve the performance of a
communications system. Perhaps most important is its capability to cancel co channel
interferences. An array works on the premise that the desired signal and unwanted co
channel interferences arrive from different directions. The beam pattern of the array is
adjusted to suit the requirements by combining signals from different antennas with
appropriate weighting. An array of antennas mounted on vehicles, ships, aircraft,
satellites, and base stations is expected to play an important role in fulfilling the
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increased demand of channel requirement for these services
ARRAY OF POINT SOURCES

ARRAY is an assembly of antennas in an electrical and geometrical of such a nature
that the radiation from each element add up to give a maximum field intensity in a
particular direction& cancels in other directions. An important characteristic of an
array is the change of its radiation pattern in response to different excitations of its
antenna elements.
CASE1:
2 isotropic point sources of same amplitude and phase
Phase difference =d/2*cos=2/*d/2*cos

= propagation constant
dr= d=2/*d = Path difference
E2 = E0 exp(j*/2)
E1 = E0 exp(-j*/2)
The total field strength at a large distance r in the direction is :
E =E1+ E2= E0[exp(j*/2 +exp(-j*/2)]
Therefore: E = 2E0cos/2 ............ (1)
= phase difference
between E1 & E2
&
Dept of ECE, SJBIT
/2=
dr/2*cos
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E0 =amplitude of the field at a distance by single isotropic antenna

Substituting for in (1) & normalizing
E=2E0 COS(2/*d/2*cos) Enor=COS(dr/2*cos)
for d= /2
E=COS(/2*cos)
At =/2
E=1...
Point of maxima= /2(or) 3/2
At =0
E=0...
Point of minima= 0
(or)
At =/3
E=1/2 3db bandwidth point=
/3
CASE2:
2 isotropic point sources of same amplitude but opposite phase
The total field strength at a large distance r in the direction is :

E =E1+ E2=E0[exp(j*/2 -exp(-j*/2)]
Therefore: E = 2jE0SIN(/2) ...............(2)
= phase difference between E1&E2
/2=dr/2*cos
E0 =amplitude of the field at a distance by single isotropic antenna
At k=0
E=1
Point of maxima= 0(or)
At k=0,=/2
E=0
Point of minima= /2(or)-/2
At =/3
E=1/2 3db bandwidth point= /3
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END FIRE ARRAY PATTERN
Pattern multiplication:
The total far-field radiation pattern |E| of array (array pattern) consists of the original
radiation pattern of a single array element multiplying with the magnitude of the array
factor |AF|. This is a general property of antenna arrays and is called the principle of
pattern multiplication.
Uniformly excited equally spaced linear arrays

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Linear arrays of N-isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and spacing:

An array is said to be linear if the individual elements of the array are spaced equally
along a line and uniform if the same are fed with currents of equal amplitude and having a
uniform phase shift along the line
The total field E at distance point in the direction of is given by

E=1+j+ j2 + j2 +...................................+ j(n-1) (1)
Where = total phase difference between adjacent source =dr*cos + =2/*d*cos +
=
phase difference of adjacent source
multipliying equation (1) by j
E j = j + j2 + j3 +.................................+ jn
(1)-(3)
(3)
E(1- j) = (1- jn ) E=1 jn/1- j

E = j(n-1)/2 {sin(n/2)) /sin(/2) }
If the phase is referred to the centre point of the array, then E reduces to
E=(sin(n/2)) /sin(/2)
when =0 E=lim (sin(n/2)) /sin(/2)
0,
E =n=Emax
=0 E=Emax= n . normalizing
Enorm =E/Emax =(1/n)(sin(n/2)) /sin(/2)
CASE 1: LINEAR BROAD SIDE ARRAY

An array is said to be broadside if the phase angle is such that it makes maximum radiation
perpendicular to the line of array i.e. 900&2700
For broad side array
=0 & =0
Therefore =dr*cos +=dcos +0=0
therefore max= 90 0&2700
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= 900
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Broadside array example for n=4 and d=/2

By previous results we have max = 900 &270 0
Direction of pattern maxima:

E=(1/n)(sin(n/2)) /sin(/2)
This is maximum when numerator is maximum i.e. sin(n/2)=1 n/2= (2k+1)/2
where k=0,1,2.........
K=0
major lobe maxima
K=1
n/2= 3/2
= 3/4
Therefore dr*cos =2/*d*Cos = 3/4 cos =3/4
-1 ( 3/4) = 41.40 or 138.60
=( max)minor lobe= cos
At K=2, = cos-1 ( 5/4) which is not possible
Direction of pattern minima or nulls

It occurs when numerator=0 i.e. sin(n/2) =0
n/2= k
where k=1,2,3.................................. now using condition =0
=2k/n= k/2
dr*cos = 2/*d/2*cos
Substituting for d and rearranging the above term cos = k/2
therefore min =cos-1(k/2)
K=1
min =cos-1(1/2)= 600 or 1200
-1
0
0
K=2
min =cos (1) = 0 or 180
cos = k/2
Beam width is the angle b/w first nulls
From the pattern we see that

0
Beamwidth
Dept of ECE,between
SJBIT first pair of nulls =BWFN=60
Half power beam width =BWFN/ 2=30
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=0 &
For end fire array

Therefore =dr*cos
=0
0 &1800
= -dr
The above result indicates that for an end fire array the phase difference b/w sources is
retarded progressively by the same amount as spacing b/w the sources in radians.
If d= /2
= -dr = - 2/ x /2= -
The above result indicates that source 2 lags behind source1 by radians.
End fire array example for n=4 and d=/2

Direction of maxima
Maxima occurs when sin(n/2)=1
i.e./2= (2k+1)/2 where k=0,1,2.........
= (2k+1)/n
dr*cos +=
(2k+1)/n
cos
= [(2k+1)/n ]/dr
Therefore
max=cos-1 {[(2k+1)/n ]/dr}
By definition For end fire array : = -dr = -2/*d
Therefore
max=cos-1 {[(2k+1)/n ]/ (-2/*d) }
For n=4, d=/2
dr= after substituting these values in above
equation & solving we get
max=cos-1 {[(2k+1)/4 +1} Where k=0,1,2......
For major lobe maxima,
= 0=dr*cos
=dr*cos
-dr
=dr(cos
cos
-1)
m =1 there fore
m
Minor lobe maxima occurs when k=1,2,3......
K=1
( max)minor1=cos-1
{[(3)/4 +1}
=cos-1 (7/4 or 1/4) Since cos-1 (7/4 ) is not possible

Therefore ( max)minor1=cos-1
(1/4)=75.5
=00 or 180 0
K=2
( max)minor2=cos-1
{[(5)/4 +1}
=cos-1 (9/4 or -1/4)

Since cos-1 (9/4 ) is not possible
Therefore
( max)minor1=cos-1
(-1/4)=104.4
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BWFN=60+60=1200
END
FIRE
ARRAY
WITH
HANSEN&WOODYARD CONDITION:
INCREASED
DIRECTIVITY
It states that a large directivity is obtained by increasing phase change b/w sources so that,
=- (dr +/n)
now, =dr*cos +
=dr*cos -(dr
+/n)
=dr(cos
-1) /n
End fire array with Increased directivity

Example with n= 4 &d= /2
dr= 2/ * /2
= (cos -1) /4
W.K.T major lobe occurs in the direction =00 or 1800
at 00
E=(1/n)(sin(n/2)) /sin(/2)
where = (cos -1) /4
= (cos0-1)- /4
=- /4
therefore
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E =(1/4) sin(- /2)/sin(- /8)=0.653

At 1800
E=(1/n)(sin(n/2)) /sin(/2)
where = (cos -1) /4
= (cos180-1)- /4
=- 9/4
therefore
E =(1/4) sin(- 9/2)/sin(- 9/8)
=-0.653
MAXIMA DIRECTIONS:
by definition sin(n/2)=1
n/2= (2k+1)/2
Where k =1,2,3..............
now, = (2k+1)/n
(cos -1) /4= (2k+1)/4 there fore
cos =
(2k+1)/4+5/4
K=1
cos =
(3)/4+5/4=1/2
which implies =cos-1(1/2)= 600
there fore (max)minor1 = 60
Now E=(1/n)(sin(n/2)) /sin(/2)

where = (cos -1) /4
= (cos60-1)- /4
=- 3/4
Now,
E =(1/4) sin(- 3/2)/sin(- 3/8) =-0.27
E = -0.27 at 600
therefore
K=2, cos
= (5)/4+5/4=0 &10/4 which is not possible which implies
=cos-1(0)= 900
there fore ( max)minor2

= 900

where = (cos -1) /4
= (cos90-1)- /4
=- 5/4
Now, E =(1/4) sin(-5/2)/sin(-5/8)=0.27 therefore E = 0.27 at 900
K=3,cos
=
(7)/4+5/4=-1/2 &12/4 which is not possible which implies
=cos-1(-1/2)=
1200

= 1200
Dept of ECE, SJBIT
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where = (cos-1)- /4
= (cos120-1)- /4
=- 7/4
Now, E =(1/4) sin(-7/2)/sin(-7/8)= 0.653 therefore
K=4, cos
E = 0.653 at 1200
=
(9)/4+5/4=-1 &14/4 which is not possible which implies
=cos-1(-1)=
180

= 1800
Direction of nulls
(sin(n/2)=0
n/2= k
Where k=1,2,3,4.....
now, = 2k/n (cos -1)cos =(2k/4)-5/4
/4 there fore
K=1
cos =
(1)/2+5/4=3/4 &7/4 which is not possible which implies
=cos-1(3/4)=
41.40
there fore null1 = 41.40

K=2
cos =
(1)+5/4=1/4 &9/4 which is not possible which implies
=cos-1(1/4)=
75.5
there fore
null2
= 75.50
K=3, cos
=
(6/4)+5/4=-1/4 &11/4 which is not possible which implies
=cos
-1(-1/4)= 104.40
0
= 104.4
there fore null3
K=4, cos = (8/4)+5/4=-3/4 &13/4 which is not possible which implies

=cos
-1(-3/4)= 75.5
0
= 75.50
there fore null4
K=5, cos= (10/4)+5/4=-5/4 &15/4

Both values are not possible
Dept of ECE, SJBIT
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Explain different types of power pattern.

Explain power theorem.
Find the directivity for the following intensity patterns:
Hemispheric power pattern of a uni directional antenna.
Unidirectional cosine power pattern.
Bi directional sine power pattern.
Bi directional sin2 power pattern.
Unidirectional cos2 power pattern.
Show that directivity for unidirectional operation is 2(n+1) for an intensity variation
of U=UmCosn ?.
10. Write a note on antenna arrays. Mention the factors on which the resultant pattern
11. depends.
12. Differentiate between BSA and EFA.
13. Draw the radiation pattern of
14. 2 isotropic point sources of same amplitude and phase that are ?/2 apart along X axis
symmetric w.r.t origin & =0
symmetric w.r.t origin & =
16. 2 isotropic point sources of same amplitude and opposite phase that are ?/2 apart
along X axis symmetric w.r.t origin & =0
with 1 source at origin & =0
18. 2 isotropic point sources of same amplitude and in phase quadrature.
19. Derive an expression for electric field intensity of array of n isotropic sources of
equal amplitude and spacing and having a phase difference of .
20. Explain the principle of pattern multiplication.
21. Obtain the electric field intensity of non isotropic but similar point sources.
22. obtain the radiation pattern of 4 sources forming a uniform BSA with a spacing of
?/2.
23. Obtain BWFN & HPBW for BSA.
24. Obtain BWFN & HPBW for EFA.
25. Explain Hansen Woodyard condition for increased directivity.
26. 4 sources have equal magnitude & are spaced /2 apart. Maximum field is to be in
line with sources. Plot the field pattern of the array given =0.
27. Find BWFN for uniform EFA & extended EFA. Given (i) n=4 (ii) d= /2.
28. The principle lobe width of uniform 10 elements of BSA was observed to be 30o at
a frequency of 30MHz. Estimate the distance between the individual elements of the
array.
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29. A uniform linear array consists of 16 isotropic sources with a spacing of /4 & phase
difference = - 90o. Calculate HPBW & effective aperture.
30. The main lobe width of 8 elements of BSA was observed to be 45o at a frequency of
20MHz. Estimate the distance. N=8.
31. An EFA is composed of elements with the axis at right angles to the line of the array
is required to have a power gain of 20. Calculate the array length and width of the
major lobe between the nulls.
32. Calculate exact & approximate BWFN for BSA given n=4 & d= /2..
33. A BSA operating at 200cm wavelength consists of 4 dipoles spaced /2 apart &
having Rr=73ohms. Each element carries radio frequency in same phase & of
magnitude 0.5 A. Calculate (i) radiated power. (ii) HPBW.
34. Complete the field pattern & find BWFN & HPBW for a linear uniform array of 6
isotropic sources spaced /2 apart. The power is applied with equal amplitude and in
phase.
35. An array of 4 isotropic antennas is placed along a straight line. Distance between the
elements is /2. The peak is to be obtained in the direction from the axis of the array.
What should be the phase difference between the adjacent elements? Compute the
pattern and find BWFN & HPBW.
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UNIT 3
ELECTRIC DIPOLES AND THIN LINEAR ANTENNAS
Syllabus:
Introduction, short electric dipole, fields of a short dipole(no derivation of field
components), radiation resistance of short dipole, radiation resistances of lambda/2
Antenna, thin linear antenna, micro strip arrays, low side lobe arrays, long wire antenna,
folded dipole antenna
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Antennas and Wave Propagation, John D. Krauss, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill International edition,
2010
REFERENCE BOOKS:
2. Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication Systems - Sineon R Saunders, John Wiley,
2003.
Short dipole antenna:

The short dipole antenna is the simplest of all antennas. It is simply an open-circuited wire,
fed at its center as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Short dipole antenna of length L.

The words "short" or "small" in antenna engineering always imply "relative to a
wavelength". So the absolute size of the above dipole does not matter, only the size of the
wire relative to the wavelength of the frequency of operation. Typically, a dipole is short if
its length is less than a tenth of a wavelength:
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If the antenna is oriented along the z-axis with the center of the dipole at z=0, then the
current distribution on a thin, short dipole is given by:
The current distribution is plotted in Figure 2. Note that this is the amplitude of the current
distribution; it is oscillating in time sinusoidally at frequency f.
Figure 2. Current distribution along a short dipole.

The fields radiated from this antenna in the far field are given by:
The above equations can be broken down and understood somewhat intuitively. First, note
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that in the far-field, only the

and
fields are nonzero. Further, these fields are
orthogonal and in-phase. Further, the fields are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation, which is always in the direction (away from the antenna). Also, the ratio of
the E-field to the H-field is given by
(the intrinsic impedance of free space). This
indicates that in the far-field region the fields are propagating like a plane-wave.
Second, the fields die off as 1/r, which indicates the power falls of as
Third, the fields are proportional to L, indicated a longer dipole will radiate more power.
This is true as long as increasing the length does not cause the short dipole assumption to
become invalid. Also, the fields are proportional to the current amplitude I0, which
should make sense (more current, more power).
The exponential term:
describes the phase-variation of the wave versus distance. Note also that the fields are
oscillating in time at a frequency f in addition to the above spatial variation.
Finally, the spatial variation of the fields as a function of direction from the antenna are
given by Sin. For a vertical antenna oriented along the z-axis, the radiation will be
maximum in the x-y plane. Theoretically, there is no radiation along the z-axis far from the
antenna.
The dipole is similar to the short dipole except it is not required to be small compared to the
wavelength (of the frequency the antenna is operating at).
For a dipole antenna of length L oriented along the z-axis and centered at z=0, the current
flows in the z-direction with amplitude which closely follows the following function:
Note that this current is also oscillating in time sinusoidally at frequency f. The current
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distributions for a quarter-wavelength (left) and full-wavelength (right) dipoles are given in
Figure . Note that the peak value of the current
the length is greater than half a wavelength.
is not reached along the dipole unless
Figure . Current distributions on finite-length dipoles.

Before examining the fields radiated by a dipole, consider the input impedance of a dipole
as a function of its length, plotted in Figure below. Note that the input impedance is
specified as Z=R + jX, where R is the resistance and X is the reactance.
Note that for very small dipoles, the input impedance is capacitive, which means the
impedance is dominated by a negative reactance value (and a relatively small real
impedance or resistance). As the dipole gets larger, the input resistance increases, along
with the reactance. At slightly less than 0.5
the antenna has zero imaginary component to
the impedance (reactance X=0), and the antenna is said to be resonant.
If the dipole antenna's length becomes close to one wavelength, the input impedance
becomes infinite. This wild change in input impedance can be understood by studying high
frequency transmission line theory. As a simpler explanation, consider the one wavelength
dipole shown in Figure 1. If a voltage is applied to the terminals on the right antenna in
Figure 1, the current distribution will be as shown. Since the current at the terminals is zero,
the input impedance (given by Z=V/I) will necessarily be infinite. Consequently, infinite
impedance occurs whenever the dipole is an integer multiple of a wavelength.
The far-fields from a dipole antenna of length L are given by:
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The normalized radiation patterns for dipole antennas of various lengths are shown in
Figure
Figure . Normalized radiation patterns for dipoles of specified length.

The full-wavelength dipole is more directional than the shorter quarter-wavelength dipole.
This is a typical result in antenna theory: it takes a larger antenna in general to increase
directivity. However, the results are not always obvious. The 1.5-wavelength dipole pattern
is also plotted in Figure 1. Note that this pattern is maximum at approximately +45 and -45
degrees.
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The dipole is symmetric when viewed azimuthally; as a result the radiation pattern is not a
function of the azimuthal angle
Hence, the dipole antenna is an example of an
omnidirectional antenna. Further, the E-field only has one vector component and
consequently the fields are linearly polarized. When viewed in the x-y plane (for a dipole
oriented along the z-axis), the E-field is in the -y direction, and consequently the dipole
antenna is vertically polarized.
The 3D pattern for the 1-wavelength dipole is shown in Figure . This pattern is similar to
the pattern for the quarter- and half-wave dipole.
Figure . Normalized 3d radiation pattern for the 1-wavelength dipole.

The 3D radiation pattern for the 1.5-wavelength dipole is significantly different, and is
shown in Figure
Figure . Normalized 3d radiation pattern for the 1.5-wavelength dipole.

The (peak) directivity of the dipole varies as shown in Figure .
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Figure Dipole directivity as a function of dipole length.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Derive an expression for intrinsic impedance of short dipole.

Derive the expression for electric & magnetic fields of linear antenna.
Derive the expression for radiation resistance of linear antenna.
Find the radiation resistance of Hertzian dipole whose wavelength is ?/8.
S.T directivity of short dipole is 1.5.
A thin dipole is ?/15 long. If its loss resistance is 1.5 Hz find its efficiency.
A short dipole antenna was observed to have Rr=2 Ohms at 1MHz. Calculate its length.
Calculate the efficiency of an antenna operated at 500 KHz and having a resistance
12 Hz and effective height=30m.
9. 2m long vertical wire carries a current of 5A at 1MHz find the strength of the
radiated field at 30Km in the direction at right angles to the axis of the wire. Assume
that the wire is in free space.
10. A plain wave is incident on a short dipole. The wave is linearly polarized with
electric field in the Y-direction. The current on the dipole is assumed constant and in
the same phase over entire length. The antenna loss resistance=0. Find the dipole
maximum effective aperture and directivity.
11. Starting from the concepts of magnetic vector and electric scalar potentials derive
the expressions for field components of short dipole.
12. Derive the expression for radiation resistance of Hertzian dipole.
13. Distinguish between far field and near field.
14. Derive an expression for power density of short dipole.
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UNIT 4
LOOP, SLOT, PATCH AND HORN ANTENNA
Syllabus:
Introduction, small loop, comparison of far fields of small loop and short dipole, loop
antenna general case, far field patterns of circular loop, radiation resistance, directivity, slot
antenna, Babinets principle and complementary antennas, impedance of complementary
and slot antennas, patch antennas.
TEXT BOOKS:
2010
REFERENCE BOOKS:
2003.
LOOP ANTENNAS :
All antennas discussed so far have used radiating elements that were linear conductors. It is
also possible to make antennas from conductors formed into closed loops. There are two
broad categories of loop antennas:
1. Small loops, which contain no more than 0.085 wavelengths (/12) of wire
2. Large loops, which contain approximately 1 wavelength of wire.
SMALL LOOP ANTENNAS:

A small loop antenna is one whose circumference contains no more than 0.085 wavelengths
of wire. In such a short conductor, we may consider the current, at any moment in time to
be constant. This is quite different from a dipole, whose current was a maximum at the feed
point and zero at the ends of the antenna. The small loop antenna can consist of a single turn
loop or a multi-turn loop as shown below:
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The radiation pattern of a small loop is very similar to a dipole. The figure below shows a 2dimensional slice of the radiation pattern in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the loop.
There is no radiation from a loop
There is no radiation from a loop along the axis passing through the center of the loop, as
shown below.
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When the loop is oriented vertically, the resulting radiation is vertically polarized and vice
versa:
The input impedance of a small loop antenna is inductive, which makes sense, because the
small loop antenna is actually just a large inductor. The real part of the input impedance is
very small, on the order of 1 ohm, most of which is loss resistance in the conductor making
up the loop. The actual radiation resistance may be 0.5 ohms or less. Because the radiation
resistance is small compared to the loss resistance, the small loop antenna is not an efficient
antenna and cannot be used for transmitting unless care is taken in its design and
manufacture.
While the small loop antenna is not necessarily a good antenna, it makes a good receiving
antenna, especially for LF and VLF. At these low frequencies, dipole antennas are too large
to be easily constructed (in the LF range, a dipole's length ranges from approximately 1600
to 16,000 feet, and VLF dipoles can be up to 30 miles long!) making the small loop a good
option. The small loop responds to the magnetic field component of the electromagnetic
wave and is deaf to most man-made interference, which has a strong electric field. Thus the
loop, although it is not efficient, picks up very little noise and can provide a better SNR than
a dipole. It is possible to amplify the loop's output to a level comparable to what one might
receive from a dipole.
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When a small loop is used for receiving, its immunity and sensitivity may be improved by
paralleling a capacitor across its output whose capacitance will bring the small loop to
resonance at the desired receive frequency. Antennas of this type are used in AM radios as
well as in LF and VLF direction finding equipment used on aircraft and boats.
Loop antennas may be combined to form arrays in the same manner as dipoles. Arrays of
loop antennas are called "quad arrays" because the loops are most often square. The most
common type of quad array is a Yagi-Uda array using loops rather than dipoles as elements.
This type of array is very useful at high elevations, where the combination of high voltage
at the element tips of the dipoles in a standard Yagi array and the lower air pressure lead to
corona discharge and erosion of the element . In fact, the first use of a quad array was by a
broadcaster located in Quito, Ecuador (in the Andes Mountains) in the 1930's.
The input impedance of a loop depends on its shape. It ranges from approximately 100
ohms for a triangular loop to 130 ohms for a circular loop. Unlike the dipole, whose input
impedance presents a good match to common 50 or 75 ohm transmission lines, the input
impedance of a loop is not a good match and must be transformed to the appropriate
impedance. Impedance matching will be the topic of the next unit.
SLOT ANTENNA:
These antennas find applications where low profile or flush installations are required. eg
High Speed Aircraft. Relation of slot and their complimentary dipole forms. Any slot has its
complementary form in wires or strips. Pattern and impedance data can be used to predict
the pattern and impedance of corresponding slots. Two resonant /4 stubs connected
to two wire transmission line form inefficient radiator. The two wires are closely spaced
and carry currents of opposite phase so that the fields tend to cancel. The end wires carry
currents in the same phase but they are too short to radiate efficiently. Hence enormous
current is required to radiate appreciable amount of power. /2 slot cut in a flat metal sheet.
Currents are not confined to the edges but spreads out of the sheet. Radiation occurs equally
from both sides of the sheet.
Slot antenna can be energized with coaxial transmission line. They are Omni
directional microwave antennas. Feature gain around the azimuth with horizontal
polarization.
Waveguide slot antennas, usually with an array of slots for higher gain, are used at
frequencies from 2 - 24 GHz. Simple slotted-cylinder antennas are more common at the
UHF and lower microwave frequencies where the size of a waveguide becomes
unwieldy. They are simple, rugged, and fairly easy to build. A thin slot in an infinite
ground plane is the complement to a dipole in free space. The slot is a magnetic dipole
rather than an electric dipole. Radiation from a vertical slot is polarized horizontally.
A vertical slot has the same pattern as a horizontal dipole of the same dimensions.
A longitudinal slot in the broad wall of a waveguide radiates just like a dipole
perpendicular to the slot.
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The slot is a magnetic dipole rather than an electric dipole. Radiation from a vertical slot is
polarized horizontally. A vertical slot has the same pattern as a horizontal dipole of the
same dimensions. A longitudinal slot in the broad wall of a waveguide radiates just like a
dipole perpendicular to the slot. A waveguide slot antenna has a vertical row of slots along
the length of a vertical waveguide. The array of slots increases the gain by flattening the
vertical beam. Since the slots are oriented vertically along the guide, the polarization is
horizontal. A comparable dipole antenna would be a stack of horizontal dipoles.
Increasing the number of slots provides more gain but flattens the beam into a
narrower elevation angle. Since a slot in one side of the physical waveguide does not
radiate uniformly on both sides like a theoretical slot in infinite plane. An identical row
of slots is added on the far side of the waveguide to make the radiation pattern more
uniform.
Design of an antenna array involves a number of details:
Cutting the elements to resonance.
Spacing the elements properly.
Splitting the power to distribute to the elements.
feeding the elements in phase through a harness of transmission lines.
Providing a mounting structure for each element.

For traditional arrays, each of these items may be attacked separately, but the
waveguide slot antenna combines them all into a single piece of waveguide. we must find a
set of dimensions that satisfies all the requirements simultaneously.
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A longitudinal slot cut into the wall of a waveguide interrupts the transverse current
flowing in the wall, forcing the current to travel around the slot, which induces an electric
field in the slot. The position of the slot in the waveguide determines the current flow.
That is the position determines the impedance presented to the transmission line and
the amount of energy coupled to the slot and radiated from the slot. The current in the
walls of the guide must be proportional to the difference in electric field between any two
points. A slot in the exact center of the broad wall of the waveguide will not radiate at all.
Since the electric field is symmetrical around the center of the guide and thus is identical
at both edges of the slot. As the slot is positioned away from the centerline, the
difference in field intensity between the edges of the slot is larger, so that more current
is interrupted and more energy is coupled to the slot, increasing radiated power.
As we approach the sides of the waveguide, the field is very small, since the sidewalls are
short circuits for the electric field. The induced current must also be small; longitudinal
slots far from the center or in the sidewall will not radiate significantly. However, angled
slots in the sidewalls can be effective radiators. From the point of view of the waveguide,
the slot is a shunt impedance across the transmission line, or an equivalent admittance
loading the transmission line (admittance is the reciprocal of impedance). Slots further from
the centerline of the guide present a larger admittance (lower impedance) to the
transmission line. When the admittance of the slot (or combined admittance of all the
slots) equals the admittance of the guide, then we have a matched transmission line, or
low VSWR.
In a circular waveguide, the point of maximum electric field is needed to be located to make
a slot antenna .In a rectangular waveguide, the maximum electric field is conveniently
located at the centerline of the broad wall, while in circular guide the maximum electric
field is on a line through the center but may be oriented in any direction. The slots are
resonant so that they provide a resistive load to the (waveguide) transmission line.
It is desirable for an omni directional antenna to radiate in a horizontal (azimuth) plane.
This is achieved by feeding all the slots in phase.
The radiation pattern may be tilted upward or downward (visualize a shallow cone) by
changing the phasing of the slots, if desired. So we would require a mechanism to fix the
alignment of the electric field in the circular waveguide, and to keep it from rotating
when encountering a discontinuity such as a slot. This difficulty makes rectangular
waveguide much more attractive for slot antennas. The slots are fed in phase by
spacing their centers at electrical half-wavelength intervals along the waveguide. Far
field is produced by three sources one at the slot of strength 1sint Two at the edges of the
sheet with a strength ksin(t-) , where k1 and gives the phase difference of the edge
sources with respect to the source 1 at the slot.
The relative field intensity is
E=sint+ ksin(t--)+ksin(t-+)
Dept of ECE, SJBIT
where =(/)L cos
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By expansion and rearrangement

E=(1+2kcos cos )sin t (2k sin cos )cos t
|E|= (1+2kcos cos )2 (2k sin cos )2
|E|= 1+4kcos cos
Maxima and minima occurs when =n .
Babinet Principle:
To find complementary impedances.
It states (in optics) that when a field behind a screen with an opening is added to the field of
a complementary structure (that is a shape covering the screen hole), then the sum is equal
to the field where there is no screen.
The end result of practical interest for antenna engineers is the following formula:
Zmetal Zslot = 2 /4
Zmetal and Zslot are input impedances of the metal and slot radiating pieces.
is the intrinsic impedance of the media in which the structure is immersed.
Zslot is not only the impedance of the slot, but can be viewed as the
complementary structure impedance (a dipole or loop in many cases).
In addition, Zmetal is often referred to as Zscreen were the screen comes from the optical
definition.
Eta or intrinsic impedance, = /
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Let a perfectly absorbing field screen be placed in plane A. In plane B there is a region
of shadow .Let the field behind this screen be some function f1 of x, y and z.
Fs = f1(x,y,z)
If the screen is replaced by its complementary screen. The field behind is given by
Fcs= f2(x,y,z)
With no screen present the field
Fo= f3(x,y,z)
Then Babinets principle asserts that at the same point x1, y1, z1,
Fs+ Fcs= Fo
IMPEDANCE OF COMPLEMENTARY SCREEN
Vi
Vt
Vr
Yo
Y1
Yo
Consider the infinite transmission line of characteristics impedance Z0 or admittance

Y0 = 1/ Z0. Neglecting impedance of the admittance
Y1=I/V
Y is same for any square section of the sheet.The field intensities of the wave
reflected and transmitted normally to the screen are Er and Et.Let the medium
surrounding the screen be free space. It has a characteristics admittance Y0 which is a pure
conductance G0.
Y0=1/Z0=1/377=G0
The ratio of the magnetic to electric field intensity of any plane traveling wave in free space
has the valve
Y0=Hi/Ei=-Hr/Er=Ht/Et
The transmission coefficient for the voltage of transmission line is
Vt/Vi=2Y0/2Y0+Y1
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The transmission coefficient for the electric field is

Et/Ei=2Y0/2Y0+Y1
If the original screen is replaced by the complimentary screen with an admittance
Et/Ei=2Y0/2Y0+Y2
Applying Babinets principal we have
Et/Ei+Et=1
Therefore
2Y0/2Y0+Y1 + 2Y0/2Y0+Y2=1
We obtain Bookers result
Y1Y2=4Y02
Z1Z2=Z02/4 or
Z1Z2=Z0/2
For free space

Z0=376.7
Z1=35476/Z2
IMPEDANCE OF SLOT ANTENNAS

Let a generator be connected to the terminals of the slot.The driving point impedance Zs at
the terminal is Vs/Is.Let Es and Hs be the electric and magnetic fields of the slot at any
point P. Then Vs at the terminal FF is given
Lim c1 Es dl
Current Is of the slot is given by 2 lim c2 Hs dl
Let the generator be connected to the terminals of the dipole. The driving point
impedance
Zd= Vd/Id
Let Ed and Hd be the electric and magnetic fields of the slot at any point P.
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The terminal voltage at the dipole is Vd =lim c2 Ed dl

Id= 2 lim c2Hd dl
and current is
However lim c2 Eddl=Z0 lim c2 HS dl and lim c1Hddl = 1/z0 lim c1 Es dl

Full Dipole
Z0=intrinsic impedance of surrounding medium

Vd=Z0/2*Is and Vs= Z0/2*Id
Multiplying Vd and Vs we have

VdVs/IdIs=Zo2/4
2
ZsZd=Zo /42 or Zs=Zo /4Z
d
For free space

Z0=376.7,
Zs=3547/Zd
Impedance of the slot is propositional to admittance of the dipole
Zs=35476/Rd+jXd
=35476/Rd2+X d (R2 -jX
d )
/2 Dipole
/2 Slot
L=/2
D=0
Z =73+J42.5
L=/2
w=0
Z=363- J211
If the dipole antenna is inductive the slot is capacitative. The impedance of

infinitesimal thin /2 antenna is 73+j42.5 .Therefore the terminal impedance of the
infinitesimally thin /2 slot antenna L=0.5 and L/w=infinity is
Z1=35476/73+j42.5=363-j211
Dept of ECE, SJBIT
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Resonant /2 Dipole
10EC64
Resonant /2 Slot
L=0.45
D=L/100=0.005
Z =67+J0.0
L=0.45
W=2D=0.01
Z =530+J0.0
A cylindrical antenna with length diameter ratio of 100 is resonant when the length is about
0.475 .The terminal impedance is resistive and equal to about 67 .
The terminal resistance of the complementary slot antenna is then
Z1=35476/67=530+j0
The complementary slot has a length L=0.475 same as dipole but width twice the
diameter of the cylindrical dipole. The width of complementary dipole is 0.01
A cylindrical dipole with an L/D ratio of 28 and length of about 0.925 has a terminal
resistance of about 710+j0 . The terminal resistance of the complementary slot is then
50+j0 .
The bandwidth or selectivity characteristics of the slot antenna are same as for the
complementary dipole. Smaller L/w ratio increases the bandwidth of the slot antenna.
Increasing the thickness of dipole (smaller L/D) increases the bandwidth.
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UNIT 5 & 6
ANTENNA TYPES
Syllabus:
Horn Antennas, rectangular horn antennas, Helical antenna, yagi-uda array, corner reflector,
parabolic reflector, log periodic antenna, lens antenna, antenna for special applications-sleeve
antenna, turnstile antenna, omni directional antennas, antennas for satellite, antenna for ground
penetrating radars, embedded antennas, ultra wideband antennas, plasma antennas.
TEXT BOOKS:
2010
REFERENCE BOOKS:
2003.
Horn antenna:
A horn antenna is used for the transmission and reception of microwave signals. It derives its
name from the characteristic flared appearance. The flared portion can be square, rectangular, or
conical. The maximum radiation and response corresponds with the axis of the horn. In this
respect, the antenna resembles an acoustic horn. It is usually fed with a waveguide.
In order to function properly, a horn antenna must be a certain minimum size relative to the
wavelength of the incoming or outgoing electromagnetic field. If the horn is too small or the
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wavelength is too large (the frequency is too low), the antenna will not work efficiently.
Horn antennas are commonly used as the active element in a dish antenna. The horn is pointed
toward the center of the dish reflector. The use of a horn, rather than a dipole antenna or any
other type of antenna, at the focal point of the dish minimizes loss of energy (leakage) around the
edges of the dish reflector. It also minimizes the response of the antenna to unwanted signals not
in the favored direction of the dish.
Horn antennas are used all by themselves in short-range radar systems, particularly those used by
law-enforcement personnel to measure the speeds of approaching or retreating vehicles.
Helical antenna
A helical antenna is a specialized antenna that emits and responds to electromagnetic fields with
rotating (circular)polarization. These antennas are commonly used at earth-based stations in
satellite communications systems. This type of antenna is designed for use with an unbalanced
feed line such as coaxial cable. The center conductor of the cable is connected to the helical
element, and the shield of the cable is connected to the reflector.
To the casual observer, a helical antenna appears as one or more "springs" or helixes mounted
against a flat reflecting screen. The length of the helical element is one wavelength or greater.
The reflector is a circular or square metal mesh or sheet whose cross dimension (diameter or
edge) measures at least 3/4 wavelength. The helical element has a radius of 1/8 to 1/4
wavelength, and a pitch of 1/4 to 1/2 wavelength. The minimum dimensions depend on the
lowest frequency at which the antenna is to be used. If the helix or reflector is too small (the
frequency is too low), the efficiency is severely degraded. Maximum radiation and response
occur along the axis of the helix.
The most popular helical antenna (often called a 'helix') is a travelling wave antenna in the shape
of a corkscrew that produces radiation along the axis of the helix. These helixes are referred to as
axial-mode helical antennas. The benefits of this antenna is it has a wide bandwidth, is easily
constructed, has a real input impedance, and can produce circularly polarized fields. The basic
geometry is shown in Figure
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Geometry of Helical Antenna.
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The radiation characteristics of the antenna can be varied by controlling the size of its geometrical
properties compared to the wavelength.
Mode of Operation
o Normal Mode
o Axial Mode
Normal Mode:If the circumference, pitch and length of the helix are small compared to the
wavelength, so that the current is approximately uniform in magnitude and phase in all
parts of the helix, the normal mode of radiation is excited.
In normal mode as shown in fig 6.2 the radiation is maximum in the plane normal to the
helix axis. The radiation may be elliptically or circularly polarized depending upon helix
dimensions.
Disadvantages:
o Narrow Bandwidth
o Poor Efficiency
The radiation pattern in this mode is a combination of the equivalent radiation form a
short dipole positioned along the axis of the helix and a small co-axial loop.
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The radiation pattern of these two equivalent radiators is the same with the polarization at
right angles and the phase angle at a given point in space is at 900 apart. Therefore the
radiation is either elliptically polarized or circularly polarized depending upon the field
strength ratio of the two components. This depends on the pitch angle
When is very small, the loop type of radiation predominates, when it becomes very
large, the helix becomes essentially a short dipole. In these two limiting cases the polarization is
linear. For intermediate value of the polarization is elliptical and at a particular value of the
polarization is circular
Analysis of normal mode

Field due to short dipole is given by
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Axial Mode:-
If the dimensions of the helix are such that the circumference of one turn is approximately
, the antenna radiates in the axial mode, which is as shown in fig 6.3.
Advantages:
Large Bandwidth and Good Efficiency
The Radiation is circularly polarized and has a max value in the direction of helix axis.
The directivity increase linearly with the length of the helix. It also referred as helix beam
antenna.
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It acts like end fire array. The far field pattern of the helix can be developed by assuming
that the helix consists of an array of N identical turns with an uniform spacing s between
them.
Applications:Used in space telemetry application at the ground end of the telemetry link for satellite and
space probes at HF and VHF.
Low Frequency, Medium Frequency and High Frequency Antennas:
The choice of an antenna for a particular frequency depends on following factors.
Radiation Efficiency to ensure proper utilization of power.

Antenna gain and Radiation Pattern
Knowledge of antenna impendence for efficient matching of the feeder.
Frequency characteristics and Bandwidth
Structural consideration
Yagi uda array:

Yagi-Uda or Yagi is named after the inventors Prof. S.Uda and Prof. H.Yagi around 1928.
The basic element used in a Yagi is /2 dipole placed horizontally known as driven element or
active element. In order to convert bidirectional dipole into unidirectional system, the passive
elements are used which include reflector and director. The passive or parasitic elements are
placed parallel to driven element, collinearly placed close together as shown in fig 6.4.
The Parasitic element placed in front of driven element is called director whose length is 5% less
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than the drive element. The element placed at the back of driven element is called reflector
whose length is 5% more than that of driver element. The space between the element ranges
between 0.1 to 0.3.
For a three element system,

Reflector length = 500/f (MHz) feet
Driven element length = 475/f (MHz) feet
Director length = 455/f (MHz) feet.
The above relations are given for elements with length to diameter ratio between 200 to
400 and spacing between 0.1 to 0.2 .
With parasitic elements the impedance reduces less than 73 and may be even less
than 25 . A folded /2 dipole is used to increase the impedance.
System may be constructed with more than one director. Addition of each director
increases the gain by nearly 3 dB. Number of elements in a yagi is limited to 11.
Basic Operation:
The phases of the current in the parasitic element depends upon the length and the
distance between the elements. Parasitic antenna in the vicinity of radiating antenna is used
either to reflect or to direct the radiated energy so that a compact directional system is obtained.
A parasitic element of length greater than /2 is inductive which lags and of length less
than /2 is capacitive which leads the current due to induced voltage. Properly spaced
elements of length less than /2 act as director and add the fields of driven element. Each
director will excite the next. The reflector adds the fields of driven element in the direction
from reflector towards the driven element.
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The greater the distance between driven and director elements, the greater the
capacitive reactance needed to provide correct phasing of parasitic elements.Hence the length
of element is tapered-off to achieve reactance.
A Yagi system has the following characteristics.
1. The three element array (reflector, active and director) is generally referred as beam
antenna
2. It has unidirectional beam of moderate directivity with light weight, low cost and
simplicity in design.
3. The band width increases between 2% when the space between elements ranges between
0.1 to 0.15.
4. It provides a gain of 8 dB and a front-to-back ratio of 20dB.
5. Yagi is also known as super-directive or super gain antenna since the system results a high
gain.
6. If greater directivity is to be obtained, more directors are used. Array up to 40 elements
can be used.
7. Arrays can be stacked to increase the directivity.
8. Yagi is essentially a fixed frequency device. Frequency sensitivity and bandwidth of about
3% is achievable.
9. To increase the directivity Yagis can be staked one above the other or one by side of the
other.
Corner reflector:
Two flat reflecting sheets intersecting at an angle or corner as in figure 6.5 form an effective
directional antenna. When the corner angle =900, the sheets intersect at right angles, forming a
square- corner reflector. Corner angles both greater or less than 900 can be used although
there are practical disadvantages to angles much less than 90. A corner reflector with =1800 is
equivalent to a flat sheet reflector and may be considered as limiting case of the corner reflector.
Assuming perfectly conducting reflecting sheets infinite extent, the method of images can be
applied to analyze the corner reflector antenna for angle = 180/n, where n is any positive
integer. In the analysis of the 90 corner reflector there are 3 image elements, 2, 3 and 4, located
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shown in Figure. The driven antenna 1the 3 images have currents of equal magnitude. The
phase
of the currents in I and 4 is same. The phase of the currents in 2 and 3 is the same but 180 out
of phase with respect the currents in 1and 4. All elements are assumed to be /2 long.
At the point P at a large distance D from the antenna. The field intensity is
Where
I1= current in each element
Sr = spacing of each element from the corner, rad
=2S/
K=constant involving the distance D,
For arbitrary corner angles, analysis involves integrations of cylindrical functions. The emf Vt at
the terminals at the center of the driven element is
V1=I1Z11+I1R1L+I1Z14 - 2I1Z12
Where
Z11= Self-Impedance of driven element R1L=Equivalent loss resistance of driven element
Z12=Mutual impedance of element 1 and 2
Z14=Mutual impedance of element 1 and 4
If P is the power delivered to the driven element, then from symmetry
The Gain in the field intensity of a square corner reflector antenna over a single /2 antenna
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Where the expression in brackets is the pattern factor and the expression included under the
radical sign is the coupling factor. The pattern shape is a function of both the angle , and the
antenna- to-corner spacing S. For the 60 corner the analysis requires a total of 6 elements, 1
actual antenna and 5 images as in Figure.
Parabolic reflectors
Suppose that we have a point source and that we wish to produce a plane-wave front over a large
aperture by means of a sheet reflector. Referring to Fig(a), it is then required that the distance
from the source to the plane-wave front via path 1 and 2 be equal or
The parabola-general properties
Referring to Fig. (b), the parabolic curve may be defined as follows. The distance from any point
P on a parabolic curve to a fixed point F, called the focus, is equal to the perpendicular distance to
a fixed line called the directrix. Thus, in Fig.(b), PF = PQ. Referring now to Fig.(c), let AA be a
line normal to the axis at an arbitrary distance QS from the directrix. Since PS = QS PQ and
PF =PQ, it follows that the distance from the focus to S is
PF+PS=PF+QS-PQ=QS
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Thus, a property of a parabolic reflector is that waves from an isotropic source at the focus that
are reflected from the parabola arrive at a line AA with equal phase. The image of the focus is
the directrix and the reflected field along the Jine A A appears as though it originated at the
directrix as a plane wave. The plane BB (Fig. 6.7c) at which a reflector is cut off is called the
aperture plane.
A cylindrical parabola converts a cylindrical wave radiated by an in-phase line source at the
focus, as in Fig. 6.7a, into a plane wave at the aperture, or a paraboloid-of-revolution converts a
spherical wave from an isotropic source at the focus, as in Fig. 6.7b, into a uniform plane wave at
the aperture. Confining our attention to a single ray or wave path, the paraboloid has the property
of directing or collimating
radiation from the focus into a beam parallel to the axis.
The presence of the primary antenna in the path of the reflected wave, as in the above examples,
has two principle disadvantages. These are, first, that waves reflected from the parabola back to
the primary antenna produce interaction and mismatching. Second, the primary antenna acts as an
obstruction, blocking out the central portion of the aperture and increasing the minor lobes. To
avoid both effects, a portion of the paraboloid can be used and the primary antenna displaced as in
Fig below This is called an offset feed.
Let us next develop an expression for the field distribution across the aperture of a parabolic
reflector. Since the development is simpler for a cylindrical parabola, this case is treated first, as
an introduction to the case for a paraboloid. Consider a cylindrical parabolic reflector with line
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source as in Fig.a. The line source is isotropic in a plane perpendicular to its axis (plane of page).
For a unit distance in the z direction the power P in a strip of width dy is
The ratio of the power density
The field intensity ratio in the aperture plane is equal to the square root of the power ratio
Equating the above two equations, we get,
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LOG PERIODIC DIPOLE ARRAY:

The log periodic dipole array (LPDA) is one antenna that almost everyone over 40 years old has
seen. They were used for years as TV antennas. The chief advantage of an LPDA is that it is
frequency-independent. Its input impedance and gain remain more or less constant over its
operating bandwidth, which can be very large. Practical designs can have a bandwidth of an
octave or more.
Although an LPDA contains a large number of dipole elements, only 2 or 3 are active at any
given frequency in the operating range. The electromagnetic fields produced by these active
elements add up to produce a unidirectional radiation pattern, in which maximum radiation is off
the small end of the array. The radiation in the opposite direction is typically 15 - 20 dB below
the maximum. The ratio of maximum forward to minimum rearward radiation is called the
Front-to-Back (FB) ratio and is normally measured in dB.
The log periodic antenna is characterized by three interrelated parameters, , and as well as
the minimum and maximum operating frequencies, fMIN and fMAX. The diagram below shows the
relationship between these parameters.
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Unlike many antenna arrays, the design equations for the LPDA are relatively simple to work
with. If you would like to experiment with LPDA designs, click on the link below. It will open
an EXCEL spreadsheet that does LPDA design.
LENS ANTENNAS
With a LENS ANTENNA you can convert spherically radiated microwave energy into a plane
wave (in a given direction) by using a point source (open end of the waveguide) with a
COLLIMATING LENS. A collimating lens forces all radial segments of the spherical wavefront
into parallel paths. The point source can be regarded as a gun which shoots the microwave
energy toward the lens. The point source is often a horn radiator or a simple dipole antenna.
Waveguide Type The WAVEGUIDE-TYPE LENS is sometimes referred to as a conductingtype. It consists of several parallel concave metallic strips which are placed parallel to the
electric field of the radiated energy fed to the lens, as shown in figure 3-10A and 3-10B. These
strips act as waveguides in parallel for the incident (radiated) wave. The strips are placed slightly
more than a half wavelength apart.
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Advantages of Lens Antenna

Can be used as Wide band Antenna since its shape is independent of frequency.
Provides good collimation.
Internal dissipation losses are low, with dielectric materials having low loss tangent.
Easily accommodate large band width required by high data rate systems.
Quite in-expensive and have good fabrication tolerance

Disadvantages of Lens Antenna
Bulky and Heavy
Complicated Design
Refraction at the boundaries of the lens
Sleeve antenna
Ground plane or sleeve type /4 long cylindrical system is called a sleeve antenna. The
radiation is in a plane normal to the axis of this antenna.
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The second variety of sleeve is similar to stub with ground plane having the feed point at the
centre of the stub. The lower end of the stub is a cylindrical sleeve of length /8.
A balanced-sleeve dipole antenna corresponding to the sleeve stub is shown in fig. This is fed
with a coaxial cable and balance to unbalance transformer or balun. For L ranging between
/2 to , the operating frequency ranges through 2 to 1.
Evolution of flush-disk antenna from vertical /4 stub antenna

It is the modified ground plane antenna.
Here the ground plane has de-generated into a sleeve or cylinder /4 long.
Maximum radiation is normal to the axis.
Turn Stile Antenna

The Antenna is similar to stub antenna with ground plane but with a feed point moved to
approximately the center of the stub.
A basic turn stile consists of two horizontal short dipoles placed normal to each other as shown
in fig.The individual field patterns are figure of eight fitted by 900. The total field pattern is
given by
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Where
V = Impressed emf
I1 = current at terminals of dipole 1
I2 = current at terminals of dipole 2
Thus
The Antenna is similar to stub antenna with ground plane but with a feed point moved to
approximately the center of the stub
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Turn stile array with individual field pattern
Turn stile array with resultant field pattern

The turn stile is most suited for TV transmission for frequency from 50 MHz. Directivity can be
increased by stacking super turn stiles one above the other as asshown in figure.
Stack of turn stile array
Omni-directional antennas
Slotted cylinder, and turnstile are almost omni-directional in horizontal plane. Clover-leaf
is one more type of omni-directional whose directivity is much higher than that of turnstile.
The system basically contains horizontal dipole which is bidirectional in vertical plane. A
circular loop antenna as shown in fig can be used to obtain omni directional radiation pattern.
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a) Circular Loop Antenna b) Approximately equivalent arrangements of clover-leaf type c)

triangular-loop type Antenna
d) Square or Alford loop
Antenna for Mobile Application

Switched Beam Antenna:
The base station antenna has several selectable beams of which each covers a part of the cell area
as shown in the figure 6.24. The switched beam antenna is constructed based on Butler matrix,
which provides one beam per antenna element. The system operation is very simple but has
limited adaptability.
Switched Beam Pattern
Adaptive Antenna:
Adaptive array is the most comprehensive and complex configuration. The system
consists of several antennas where each antenna is connected to separate trans-receiver and
Digital Signal Processor as shown in fig. DSP controls the signal level to each element
depending upon the requirements. Butler matrix can be adapted for the improvement of SNR
during reception. Direction of arrival finding and optimization algorithms are used to select
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the complex weights for each mobile users. For frequency domain duplexing the transmission
weights are estimated based on Direction of arrival information.
Adaptive Antenna
Antenna for satellite
High Frequency Transmitting Antenna
Parabolic Reflector
Antennas for Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Like Earth Surface Radars, the radars can be used to detect underground anomalies both
natural and Human Made.
The anomalies include buried metallic or nonmetallic objects, earth abnormalities etc.,
Pulse and its echo pulse are used for processing.
Far field radar equation to be modified as distance travelled by wave is less.
Power required is more since ground is lossy medium.
Mismatch at air-ground interface.
Pulse width should be less.
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Antenna
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Antennas for Mobile Handsets
Embedded Antennas
If dipole is embedded in a dielectric medium of relative permitivity r (>1), then its length can
be reduced.
A /2 dipole resonates at the same frequency when embedded in a dielectric medium having a
length 0.5/sq root of r
If r= 4, length required is half.
Used in Bluetooth technology, interfacing RF Networks.
Half-wavelength dipole embedded in a dielectric for Bluetooth

Application
Ultra Wide Band Antenna

Used for digital Applications
Pulse Transmission which results in Large bandwidth.
Phase dispersion of pulse (transmitted at different instant of time)
Degrading of signals
V Antenna used for Communication
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Ultra Wide Band Antenna
Plasma antenna
A plasma surface wave can be excited along a column of low-pressure gas by adequate RF
power coupled to the column in a glass tube.
It is a system in which the radar cross section is only the thin wall glass tube when not
transmitting.
With a laser beam producing the plasma the radar cross section becomes zero when laser is off.
Plasma antenna
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Write a note on loop antenna.

Derive electric and magnetic fields of a loop antenna.
Compare far fields of small loop and short dipole.
Derive an expression for radiation resistance of a loop antenna.
Write a note on helical antenna and helical geometry.
Derive the relation between circumference spacing turn lengths and pitch angle of a helix.
Show the limiting cases of a helix when :
i. Spacing is zero.
ii. Diameter is zero.
8. Explain helix modes of operation.
9. Explain the following parameters of monoflair axial helix antenna: (a) Gain (b) Bam
width (c) Impedance.
10. Write short note on Yagi-Uda array antenna.
11.Write short note on:
iii. 1 Slot antenna.
iv. Complementary antenna.
v. Horn antenna and its types.
vi. Log periodic antenna.
vii. Broad band frequency independent antenna.
viii. Antennas for terrestrial mobile communication systems.
ix. Antennas for ground penetrating Radar.
x. Embedded antennas.
xi. Ultra Wide band antennas for digital applications.
xii. Plasma antenna.
12. Explain different types of reflectors.
13 Explain parabolic reflectors.
14 Explain the types of feed systems for a reflector.
15 Differentiate between circular and rectangular horn antenna
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UNIT 7
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
Syllabus:
Introduction, ground wave propagation, free space propagation, ground reflection, surface wave,
diffraction.
TEXT BOOKS:
2010
REFERENCE BOOKS:
2003.
Radio Propagation:
What is Radio?
Radio is a Transmitter or a Receiver. The Radio Transmitter induces electric and magnetic fields.
The electrostatic field Components is 1/d3, induction field components is 1/d2 and
radiation field components is 1/d. The radiation field has E and B Component. Surface area
of sphere centered at transmitter, the field strength at distance d = EB 1/d2.
Two main factors affect signal at the Receiver. One is distance (or delay) that results in path
attenuation, second is multipath that results in Phase differences
Green signal travels 1/2 farther than Black to reach receiver, who sees Blue. For 2.4 GHz,
(wavelength) =12.5cm.
Your ability to work with radio is based on 4 factors:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
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Your skill as a radio operator (knowing your regions, etc.)

Your equipment and how you use it
The antennas you use
Understanding radio wave propagation.
Antennas:
The antennas are the transducers. The transmitting antenna changes the electrical
energy into electromagnetic energy or waves. The receiving antenna changes the
electromagnetic energy back into electrical energy. These electromagnetic waves propagate
at rates ranging from 150 kHz to 300GHz.
Polarization:
The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field with respect to
the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by its
orientation. Radio waves from a vertical antenna will usually be vertically polarized and that
from a horizontal antenna are usually horizontally polarized.
Propagation:
Propagation means how radio waves travel from one point A to another point B. What are
the events that occur in the transmission path and how they affect the communications between
the points?
Electromagnetic Waves (EM waves) are produced when the electrons in a conductor i.e.,
antenna wire are made to oscillate back and forth. These waves radiate outwards from the
source at the speed of light (300 million meters per second). Electromagnetic Waves are of two
types (i) Light Waves (waves we see) (ii) Radio Waves (waves we hear).Both of these EM
Waves differ only in frequency and wavelength. EM waves travel in straight lines, unless acted
upon by some outside force. They travel faster through a vacuum than through any other
medium. As EM waves spread out from the point of origin, they decrease in strength in what is
described as an inverse square relationship.
The two fields are at right-angles to each other and the direction of propagation is at
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right-angles to both fields. The Plane of the Electric Field defines the polarization of the wave.
The radio waves can further be classified as Transverse and longitudinal. The
Transverse Waves Vibrates from side to side, i.e, at right angles to the direction in which they
travel for eg: A guitar string vibrates with transverse motion. EM waves are always transverse.
For Longitudinal radio waves vibrations are parallel to the direction of propagation. Sound
and pressure waves are longitudinal and oscillate back and forth as vibrations are along or
parallel to their direction of travel.
Factors affecting the propagation of radio wave are:

1. Spherical shape of the earth:-For Free Space RW travel in straight line. But
communication on the earth surface is limited by distance to horizon and requires
change in propagation.
2. Atmosphere-Height of about 600km.Is divided into layers. RW near the surface is
affected by troposphere. Higher up RW is influenced by ionosphere.
3. Interaction with the objects.
Atmosphere:
Is divided into Troposphere(earths surface to about6.5mi),Stratosphere(extends from the
troposphere upwards for about 23 mi), Ionosphere(extends from the stratosphere upwards for
about 250mi) Beyond this layer is Free Space.
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The ionosphere is the uppermost part of the atmosphere and is ionized by solar
radiation. Ionization is the conversion of atoms or molecules into an ion by light (heating up or
charging) from the sun on the upper atmosphere. Ionization also creates a horizontal set of
stratum (layer) where each has a peak density and a definable width or profile that
influences radio propagation. The ionosphere is divided into layers.
About 120 km to 400 km above the surface of the Earth is the F layer. It is the top most layer
of the ionosphere. Here extreme ultraviolet (UV) (10-100 nm) solar radiation ionizes atomic
oxygen (O). The F region is the most important part of the ionosphere in terms of HF
communications. The F layer combines into one layer at night, and in the presence of
sunlight (during daytime), it divides into two layers, the F1 and F2.The F layers are
responsible for most sky wave propagation of radio waves, and are thickest and most reflective
of radio on the side of the Earth facing the sun. The E layer is the middle layer, 90 km to
120 km above the surface of the Earth. This layer can only reflect radio waves having
frequencies less than about 10MHz. It has a negative effect on frequencies above 10 MHz due
to its partial absorption of these waves. At night the E layer begins to disappear because the
primary source of ionization is no longer present. The increase in the height of the E layer
maximum increases the range to which radio waves can travel by reflection from the layer.
The D layer is the innermost layer, 50 km to 90 km above the surface of the Earth when the sun
is active with 50 or more sunspots. During the night cosmic rays produce a residual amount of
ionization as a result high-frequency (HF) radio waves aren't reflected by the D layer. The D
layer is mainly responsible for absorption of HF radio waves, particularly at 10 MHz and
below, with progressively smaller absorption as the frequency gets higher. The absorption is
small at night and greatest about midday. The layer reduces greatly after sunset. A common
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example of the D layer in action is the disappearance of distant AM broadcast band stations in the
daytime.
Radio Propagation Modes:
Ground Wave Propagation:

Propagation of EM wave near earth surface (including troposphere).When the Transmit and
Receive antenna are on earth there can be multiple paths for communication. If the Transmit
and Receive antenna are in line of sight (LOS) then direct path exist. The propagating wave is
called direct wave. When EM wave encounters an interface between two dissimilar media, a
part of energy will flow along the interface Known as Surface Wave. At LF and MF this is
predominant mode of energy transfer for vertically polarized radiation. Interaction with the
objects on ground will manifest as, Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction, Scattering. Waves are
collectively called as Space Wave.
Free Space:
Implies an infinite space without any medium or objects that can interact with the EM wave.
Antenna is kept in free space and radiation fields are in the form of spherical waves with
angular power distribution given by the antenna pattern. It assumes far-field (Fraunhofer region)
d >> D and d >> , where D is the largest linear dimension of antenna, is the carrier
wavelength. With no interference and obstructions. The received power at distance d is
Pr=K Pt / d2
where Pt is the transmitter power in Watts, a constant factor K depends on antenna gain, a
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system loss factor, and the carrier wavelength.

Pr=PtGtGr 2 / (4R)2
Where Pt=Transmit power, Gt=Transmit gain antenna, Gr=Receive gain antenna
Transfer of electromagnetic energy from transmit antenna to receive
antenna take place in a straight line path such communication link is called line of sight link.
The factor [ / (4R)]2 is due propagation and is called free space path loss.It represents the
attenuation of the signal due to the spreading of the power as function of distance are R.In
decibel units the path loss is expressed as:
PL=10log10(4R/ )2 dB
Ground Reflection:
In LOS model, the assumption is that there is only one path for propagation of EM
Wave from transmit antenna to receive antenna. The two antennas are kept in free space with
no other objects intersecting radiation from transmitter antenna. If two antennas are situated
close the ground due to discontinuity in the electrical properties at the air ground interface any
wave that falls on the ground is reflected. The amount of reflection depending on factors like
angle of incidence, Polarization of wave, Electrical Properties of the Ground i.e conductivity
and dielectric constant, the frequency of the propagating wave. Thus, the field at any point
above the ground is a vector sum of the fields due to the direct and the reflected waves.
Direct Wave:
It is limited to line-of sight transmission distances .The limiting factors are antenna height
and curvature of earth. The Radio horizon is about 80% greater than line of sight because of
diffraction effects. A Part of the signal from the transmitter is bounced off the ground and
reflected back to the receiving antenna. If the phase between the direct wave and the reflected
wave are not in phase can cause problems
Detune the antenna so that the reflected wave is too weak to receive
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To compute the fields of a transmit antenna above an imperfect ground. Used to design of
communication links. To select the locations of the transmit and receive antennas and
their patterns. Consider a transmit antenna located at point P at a height ht. Receive antenna
located at point Q at a height hr from the surface of the ground.
between the two antenna be d.
Let the horizontal distance
The electromagnetic wave from transmit antenna can reach the receive antenna by two
possible paths(a) direct path (b) ground reflected path. The total electric field at the field point
Q is given by the vector sum of the electric field due to the direct wave and ground reflected
wave.
Assumptions:1. The transmit antenna and the field points are located in the y-z plane.
2. The transmit antenna is an infinitesimal dipole oriented along the x-axis.
The electric field is of infinitesimal dipole oriented along the x-axis is given by
E = -jk(I0 dl/4)(e-jkR/R)(acoscos-asin)
- R is the distance from the antenna to the field point.
In the y-z plane, =90o .Since cos90o= 0. The -component of the electric field is zero. The
-component of the electric field at Q due to the direct wave is given by
E1= -jk(I0 dl/4)(e-jkR1/R1)
The field at Q also has a contribution from the wave that travels via the
reflected path PXQ. The location of the point of reflection X depends on ht, hr, and d. At X
the incident and reflected rays satisfy snells law of reflection (angle of incidence is equal
to angle of reflection).The incident ray PX the reflected ray XQ and the normal to the surface
are all contained in the y-z plane. The y-z plane is also known as the plane of incidence. The
incident field at X is given by
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- R'2 is the distance from the transmitter to X and the incident E field vector is
perpendicular to the plane of incidence. At X the reflection co-efficient , is given by
=Er/Ei= (sin- ( r-j )-cos2))/ sin+ ( r-j )-cos2)
Electric field is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. At Q is given by
E = E1+E2
Surface Wave:
Travels directly without reflection on ground. Occurs when both antennas are in LOS
Space wave bend near ground follows a curved path. Antennas must display a very low
angle of emission. Power radiated must be in direction
of the horizon instead of escaping in sky. A high gain and horizontally polarized antenna is
recommended.
If dipole and the field points are on the surface of the earth but separated by a distance d, We
have R2= R1=d and =0
then
If ground has finite conductivity (typically 10-3S/m-30*10-3S/m)
= -1,
The EF due to the direct and ground reflected wave will cancel each other. The EF due to
the direct and ground reflected wave is also known as surface wave. Surface wave constitute
the primary mode of propagation for frequencies in the range of few KHz-several MHz. In
AM broadcast application, A vertical monopole above the ground is used to radiate power in
the MW frequency band. The receivers are placed very close to the surface of the earth and
hence they receive the broadcast signal via surface wave. Achieve Propagation over hundreds of
kilometers. Attenuation factor of the surface wave depends on
1. Distance between the transmitter and receiver.
2. The frequency of the electrical properties of the ground over which the ground propagates.
At the surface of the earth the attenuation is also known as the ground wave attenuation factor
and is designated as Asu
Where R is the distance between the transmit and receive antennas and
is given as
=/ 0
For r the power factor angle is nearly zero and the ground is almost
resistive.
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For a 1MHz wave propagating over a ground surface with

=12*10-3S/m and r=15
the valve of is 215.7 and is much greater than r
The power factor angle is 4.250 . At higher frequency 100MHz the valve of is 2.157 and
power factor angle becomes 82.320
For large numerical distance the attenuation factor decreases by a factor of 10 for every
decade i.e 20dB/decade. Thus attenuation is inversely proportional to p and R.
The electric field intensity due to the surface wave is proportional to the product of Asu and
e-jkR/R. The EF due to the surface wave at large distance from vertically polarized antenna
is inversely propositional to the surface of the distance or the power is inversely propositional
to R4.
The EF of a vertically polarized wave near the surface of the earth have a forward tilt. The
magnitude of the wave tilt depends on the conductivity and permittivity of the earth. The
horizontal component is smaller than the vertical component and they are not in phase. The
EF is elliptically polarized very close to the surface of the earth.
Diffraction:
DIFFRACTION is the bending of the wave path when the waves meet an obstruction.
The amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength of the wave. Higher frequency waves
are rarely diffracted in the normal world. Since light waves are high frequency waves, they are
rarely diffracted. However, diffraction in sound waves can be observed by listening to music.
When outdoors, behind a solid obstruction, such as a brick wall, hear mostly low notes are
heard. This is because the higher notes, having short wave lengths, undergo little or no
diffraction and pass by or over the wall without wrapping around the wall and reaching the
ears. The low notes, having longer wavelengths, wrap around the wall and reach the ears.
This leads to the general statement that lower frequency waves tend to diffract more than
higher frequency waves. Broadcast band(AM band) radio waves (lower frequency waves) often
travel over a mountain to the opposite side from their source because of diffraction, while
higher frequency TV and FM signals from the same source tend to be stopped by the
mountain.
Diffraction, results in a change of direction of part of the wave energy from the normal lineof-sight path making it possible to receive energy around the edges of an obstacle. Although
diffracted RF energy is usually weak, it can still be detected by a suitable receiver. The
principal effect of diffraction extends the radio range beyond the visible horizon. In certain
cases, by using high power and very low frequencies, radio waves can be made to encircle the
Earth by diffraction.
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Mechanism for Diffraction:

Diffraction arises because of the way in which waves propagate; this is described by the
Hugyens-Fresnel Principle and the principle of superposition of waves. The propagation of
a wave can be visualized by considering every point on a wavefront as a point source for a
secondary spherical waves. The wave displacement at any subsequent point is the sum of these
secondary waves. When waves are added together, their sum is determined by the relative
phases as well as the amplitudes of the individual waves so that the summed amplitude of the
waves can have any value between zero and the sum of the individual amplitudes. Hence,
diffraction patterns usually have a series of maxima and minima.
There are various analytical models which allow the diffracted field to be calculated,
including the Kirchoff-Fresnel diffraction equation which is derived from wave equation, the
Fraunofer diffraction approximation of the Kirchhoff equation which applies to the far field
and the Fresnel diffraction approximation which applies to the near field. Most configurations
cannot be solved analytically, but can yield numerical solutions through finite element and
boundary element methods.
It is possible to obtain a qualitative understanding of many diffraction phenomena by
considering how the relative phases of the individual secondary wave sources vary, and in
particular, the conditions in which the phase difference equals half a cycle in which case waves
will cancel one another out.
The simplest descriptions of diffraction are those in which the situation can be reduced to a
two-dimensional problem. For water waves, this is already the case; water waves propagate
only on the surface of the water. For light, we can often neglect one direction if the
diffracting object extends in that direction over a distance far greater than the wavelength. In
the case of light shining through small circular holes we will have to take into account the full
three dimensional nature of the problem.
Effect of Diffraction of Waves:

Speeddoes not change
Frequency. does not change
Wavelength..does not change
Amplitude decreases
If diffraction is due to mountain or a hill, Knife edge diffraction model is used to study the
properties of the diffracted ray, and if is due to a building, rounded surface diffraction model
is used.
Knife Edge Diffraction Model:

In EM wave propagation knife-edge effect or edge diffraction is a redirection by diffraction
of a portion of the incident radiation that strikes a well-defined obstacle such as a mountain
range or the edge of a building.
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The knife-edge effect is explained by Hugyens- Fresnel principle which states that a welldefined obstruction to an electromagnetic wave acts as a secondary source, and creates a new
wave front. This new wave front propagates into the geometric shadow area of the obstacle.
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UNIT 8
TROPOSPHERE WAVE PROPAGATION
Syllabus:
Tropospheric scatter, Ionosphere propagation, electrical properties of the ionosphere, effects of
earths magnetic field.
TEXT BOOKS:
2010
REFERENCE BOOKS:
2003.
Troposheric Propagation:
The lowest part of the earths atmosphere is called the troposphere. Typically, the troposphere
extends from the surface of the earth to an altitude of approximately 9 km at the poles and 17
km at the equator. This upper boundary is referred to as the tropopause and is defined as the
point at which the temperature in the atmosphere begins to increase with height. Within the
troposphere, the temperature is found to decrease with altitude at a rate of approximately 7o C
per km . The earths weather system is confined to the troposphere and the fluctuations in
weather parameters like temperature, pressure and humidity cause the refractive index of the air
in this layer to vary from one point to another. It is in this context that the troposphere
assumes a vital role in the propagation of radio waves at VHF (30-300 MHz) and UHF (3003000 MHz) frequencies. The meteorological conditions therefore influence the manner in
which radio wave propagation occurs in the troposphere both on a spatial and temporal scale.
Refractive Index, Refractivity and Modified Refractivity:
[Transhorizon Radiowave Propagation due to Evaporation Ducting, The Effect of Tropospheric
Weather Conditions on VHF and UHF Radio Paths Over the Sea, S D Gunashekar, D R Siddle
and E M Warrington]
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In general, the refractive index, n, of the troposphere decreases with altitude To simplify the
mathematics involved variations in the horizontal are neglected and horizontal homogeneity of
the refractive index of the troposphere is assumed in most discussions on this topic. A typical
value for n at sea level is 1.000350. A few s above sea level, this might decrease to a value such
as 1.000300. For all practical purposes, at this scale, this change in the refractive index is
negligibly small, with hardly any visible deviation. However, immediately above the surface of
the sea, it is often this small (but rapid) change in the refractive index profile that facilitates the
formation of meteorological phenomena called evaporation ducts. A convenient way of
expressing these unwieldy numbers is to use the concept of refractivity instead. Refractivity, N,
is defined as follows:
N = (n1)*106
So, for example, when n = 1.000350, N = 350.
A well-known approximation for refractivity N is given below
where P = total atmospheric pressure (in mb); T = atmospheric temperature (in K);
e = water vapour pressure (in mb).
All three terms, P, T and e fall with height in an exponential manner, resulting in a
corresponding decrease in N with height. A standard atmosphere, therefore is one in which the
refractivity varies with altitude according to equation. Using Snells law, a radio ray projected
into the atmosphere will have to travel from a denser to rarer medium and will refract
downwards towards the surface of the earth. The curvature of the ray, however, will still be
less than the earths curvature. The gradient of refractivity in this case generally varies from 0
to 79 N-units per kilo. When the refractivity gradient varies from 79 to 157 N-units per
kilo, a super refractive condition is said to prevail in the troposphere and the ray will refract
downwards at a rate greater than standard but less than the curvature of the earth . A
refractivity gradient that is even less than 157 N-units per kilo will result in a ray that
refracts towards the earths surface with a curvature that exceeds the curvature of the earth.
This situation is referred to as trapping and is of particular importance in the context of
evaporation ducts. Finally, if the refractivity gradient is greater than 0 N units per kilo, a sub
refractive condition exists and a radio ray will now refract upwards, away from the surface of
the earth. Depending on the existing conditions in the troposphere, a radio wave will undergo
any of the types of refraction: sub refraction, standard refraction, super refraction or trapping.
Figure1 illustrates the four refractive conditions discussed above.
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While dealing with radio propagation profiles, the curved radio rays are replaced with linear
rays for the purpose of geometric simplicity. To account for drawing radio rays as straight
lines, the earth radius has to be increased. The radius of this virtual sphere is known as the
effective earth radius and it is approximately equal to four-thirds the true radius of the earth
(i.e. roughly 8500 km). A more classical form of representing n is that of modified refractivity,
M. In this case, the surface of the earth is represented by a flat plane and the radio rays are
constituted by curves that are determined by Snells law and the corresponding value of M at
each point along the radio link. The following is the expression for M
N + 0.157h,
where N = refractivity (in N-units), h = height above sea level (in s), a = radius of the earth
(in s).
Formation of Evaporation Ducts:

The air that is in immediate contact with the sea surface is saturated with water
vapour (i.e. the relative humidity is 100%). As the height increases, the water vapour
pressure in the atmosphere rapidly decreases until it reaches an ambient value at which it
remains more or less static for a further increase in height. Therefore, for the first few s
above the surface of the sea, it is the water vapour pressure, e, in the expression for N that
dominates. This rapid decrease in e causes a steep fall in N.
This is reflected in the modified refractivity, M, which also correspondingly decreases.
(The height term h, which increases, is more than offset by the rapidly decreasing N term). This
behaviour can be seen in the graph of h vs M
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as that portion of the curve with a strong negative M gradient. Therefore, despite the fact that
the height h is increasing, it is the sharp fall in the water vapour pressure, e, that contributes
to the rapid decrease in M.
Once e has reached its ambient value at a given height, a further rise in altitude does not
cause a substantial change in the humidity of the troposphere. Thus, as h increases further, N
decreases more (since air pressure and temperature both decrease with height). But this
decrease in N is very small over large height increments. Consequently, despite a decreasing
N term, it is the h term that starts to dominate in the expression for M. Thus, M now gradually
increases with height, and can be seen as the portion of the curve that has a positive M gradient.
The point at which the M gradient changes from negative to positive is referred to as the
evaporation duct height (or thickness), and is a practical and realistic measure of the
strength of the evaporation duct.
Evaporation Ducts and the Troposphere:

By virtue of their nature of formation, evaporation ducts are nearly permanent
features over the sea surface. Typically, the height of an evaporation duct is of the order of
only a few s; however, this can vary considerably with geographical location and changes in
atmospheric parameters such as humidity, air pressure and temperature. In the lower regions of
the troposphere where the earths weather is confined, these parameters do, in fact, fluctuate
significantly. The turbulent nature of the atmosphere contributes to its unpredictability and a
variable atmosphere, in turn, is one of the major causes of unreliable wireless communications.
Depending on their location and the prevailing climate, evaporation duct heights may vary
from a few meters to few tens of meters. Additionally, it is observed that calm sea conditions
are more conducive for the creation of ducts. As a consequence of sporadic meteorological
phenomena, evaporation duct heights undergo significant spatial and temporal variations.
Evaporation ducts are weather-related phenomena; their heights cannot easily be measured
directly using
instruments like refractometers and radiosondes. At best, the height of an
evaporation duct can be deduced from the bulk meteorological parameters that are
representative of the ongoing physical processes at the air-sea boundary. The dependence of
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evaporation ducts on the physical structure of the troposphere signifies that changing weather
conditions can indeed result in alterations in radio wave propagation.
Evaporation Ducts and Radio Wave Propagation:

Over the years, much research has been undertaken to explain the mechanism of radio
wave propagation in evaporation ducts. A key reason why evaporation ducts are so important
for radio communications is because they are often associated with enhanced signal strengths at
receivers. An evaporation duct can be regarded as a natural waveguide that steers the radio
signal from the transmitter to a receiver that may be situated well beyond the radio horizon.
The drop in the refractive index of the atmosphere within the first few meters above the
surface of the sea causes incident radio waves to be refracted towards the earth more than
normal so that their radius of curvature becomes less than or equal to that of the earths
surface. The sudden change in the atmospheres refractivity at the top of the duct causes the
radio waves to refract back into the duct, and when it comes in contact with the surface of
the sea, it gets reflected upwards again. The waves then propagate long ranges by means of
successive reflections (refractions) from the top of the duct and the surface of the earth.
Since the top of an evaporation duct is not solid (as in the case of an actual waveguide),
there will be a small but finite amount of energy leakage into the free space immediately
above the duct .However, despite this escape of energy, radio waves are still capable of
travelling great distances through the duct, with relatively small attenuation and path loss.
The ducting effect often results in radio signals reaching places that are beyond the radio
horizon with improved signal strengths. This naturally has far reaching implications on
practical radio propagation patterns. For this reason, evaporation ducts and their impact on
radio wave propagation have been studied extensively over the years. Numerous statistical
models have been proposed to describe evaporation ducts and compute the duct heights under
different atmospheric conditions.
The presence of evaporation ducts might not always indicate enhanced signal strengths. For
instance, if there is an unwanted distant transmitter also located within the duct, then there
is always the possibility of the system under consideration being susceptible to signal
interference and interception. This is dependent on the location of the radio paths being
investigated. Another scenario that might arise is the interference between the various
propagation modes that exist within the evaporation duct itself. Depending on the
separation of the transmitter and receiver and the prevailing atmospheric conditions, there
could be destructive interference between the direct and reflected rays, the latter of which is
comprised of the various multiple hop (one-hop, two-hop, and so on) propagation modes.
Additionally, signal degradation may also occur if there is destructive interference between
various modes that arrive at the receiver after refraction from different heights in the
troposphere. All these situations could possibly cause key problems in the domain of
cellular mobile communication systems in littoral regions. Thus, in addition to aiding radio
wave propagation, evaporation ducts could also be principal limiting factors in beyond line of
sight over-the-sea UHF propagation.
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Ionosphere Propagation:
The ionosphere is a part of the upper atmosphere, from about 85 km to 600 km altitude,
comprising portions of the mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere, thermosphere and
exosphere, distinguished because it is ionized by solar radiation. It plays an important part in
atmospheric electricity and forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical
importance because, among other functions, it influences radio wave Propagation to distant
places on the earth.
In a region extending from a height of about 90 km to over thousands of kms, most of the
molecules of the atmosphere are ionized by radiation from the Sun. This region is called the
ionosphere
At greater heights- intensity of ionizing radiation is very high, few molecules are available for
ionization, ionization density is low
As height decreases- more molecules are available due to reduced atmospheric pressure,
ionization density is higher (closer to the earth)
But as height decreases further, ionization density decreases though more molecules are
available since the energy in the ionizing radiation has been used up to create ions.
Hence, ionization is different at different heights above the earth and is affected by
time of day and solar activity
Ionospheric Layers
At the night the F layer is the only layer of significant ionization present, while the ionization in
the D and E layers is extremely low. During the day, the D and E layers become much more
heavily ionized, as does the F layer which develops an additional weaker region of ionization
known as the F1 layer. The F2 layer persists by day and night and is the region mainly
responsible for the refraction of radio waves.
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D Layer:
E Layer:
The E layer is the middle layer, 90 km to 120 km above the surface of the Earth. Ionization is
due to soft X-ray (1-10 nm) and far ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation ionization of molecular
oxygen(O2). Normally, at oblique incidence, this layer can only reflect radio waves having
frequencies lower than about 10 MHz and may contribute a bit to absorption on frequencies
above. However, during intense Sporadic E events, the Es layer can reflect frequencies up
to 50 MHz and higher. The vertical structure of the E layer is primarily determined by the
competing effects of ionization and recombination. At night the E layer rapidly disappears
because the primary source of ionization is no longer present. After sunset an increase in
the height of the E layer maximum increases the range to which radio waves can travel by
reflection from the layer.
Es
The Es layer (sporadic E-layer) is characterized by small, thin clouds of intense ionization,
which can support reflection of radio waves, rarely up to 225 MHz. Sporadic-E events may
last for just a few minutes to several hours. Sporadic E propagation makes radio amateurs
very excited, as propagation paths that are generally unreachable can open up. There are
multiple causes of sporadic-E that are still being pursued by researchers. This propagation
occurs most frequently during the summer months when high signal levels may be reached.
The skip distances are generally around1,000 km
(620 mi). Distances for one hop
propagation can be as close as 900 km [500 miles] or up to 2,500 km (1,600 mi). Double-hop
reception over 3,500 km (2,200 mi) is possible.
F Layer:
The F layer or region, also known as the Appleton layer extends from about 200 km to
more than 500 km above the surface of Earth. It is the densest point of the ionosphere, which
implies signals penetrating this layer will escape into space. At higher altitudes the amount of
oxygen ions decreases and lighter ions such as hydrogen and helium become dominant, this
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layer is the topside ionosphere. Here extreme ultraviolet (UV, 10100 nm) solar radiation
ionizes atomic oxygen. The F layer consists of one layer at night, but during the day, a
deformation often forms in the profile that is labeled F1. The F2 layer remains by day and
night responsible for most skywave propagation of radio waves, facilitating high frequency
(HF, or shortwave ) radio communications over long distances.
Day and night structure of ionosphere:
VARIATIONS IN THE
Because the existence of the ionosphere is directly related to radiations emitted from the sun,
the movement of the Earth about the sun or changes in the sun's activity will result in
variations in the ionosphere. These variations are of two general types:
(1) those which are more or less regular and occur in cycles and, therefore, can be predicted in
advance with reasonable accuracy, and
(2) those which are irregular as a result of abnormal behavior of the sun and, therefore,
cannot be predicted in advance. Both regular and irregular variations have important effects
on radio wave propagation.
Regular Variations
The regular variations that affect the extent of ionization in the ionosphere can be divided into
four main classes: daily, seasonal, 11-year, and 27-day variations.
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DAILY. - Daily variations in the ionosphere are a result of the 24-hour rotation of the Earth
about its axis. Daily variations of the different layers (fig. 2-14) are summarized as follows:
The D layer reflects VLF waves; is important for long range VLF communications; refracts lf
and mf waves for short range communications; absorbs HF waves; has little effect on vhf and
above; and disappears at night. In the E layer, ionization depends on the angle of the sun. The
E layer refracts HF waves during the day up to 20 megahertz to distances of about 1200 miles.
Ionization is greatly reduced at night. Structure and density of the F region depend on the
time of day and the angle of the sun. This region consists of one layer during the night and
splits into two layers during daylight hours.
Ionization density of the F1 layer depends on the angle of the sun. Its main effect is to absorb hf
waves passing through to the F2 layer.
The F2 layer is the most important layer for long distance HF communications.
It is a very variable layer and its height and density change with time of day, season, and
sunspot activity.
SEASONAL. - Seasonal variations are the result of the Earth revolving around the sun; the
relative position of the sun moves from one hemisphere to the other with changes in
seasons. Seasonal variations of the D, E, and F1 layers correspond to the highest angle of the
sun; thus the ionization density of these layers is greatest during the summer. The F2 layer,
however, does not follow this pattern; its ionization is greatest in winter and least in summer,
the reverse of what might be expected. As a result, operating frequencies for F2 layer
propagation are higher in the winter than in the summer.
Eleven Year Sun Spot Cycle:

One of the most notable phenomena on the surface of the sun is the appearance and
disappearance of dark, irregularly shaped areas known as SUNSPOTS. The exact nature of
sunspots is not known, but scientists believe they are caused by violent eruptions on the sun
and are characterized by unusually strong magnetic fields. These sunspots are responsible for
variations in the ionization level of the ionosphere. Sunspots can, of course, occur
unexpectedly, and the life span of individual sunspots is variable; however, a regular cycle of
sunspot activity has also been observed. This cycle has both a minimum and maximum level
of sunspot activity that occur approximately every
11 years.
During periods of maximum sunspot activity, the ionization density of all layers increases.
Because of this, absorption in the D layer increases and the critical frequencies for the E, F1,
and F2 layers are higher. At these times, higher operating frequencies must be used for long
distance communications.
27-DAY SUNSPOT CYCLE. - The number of sunspots in existence at any one time is
continually subject to change as some disappear and new ones emerge. As the sun rotates on its
own axis, these sunspots are visible at 27-day intervals, the approximate period required for the
sun to make one complete rotation.
Dept of ECE, SJBIT
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The 27-day sunspot cycle causes variations in the ionization density of the layers on a day-today basis. The fluctuations in the F2 layer are greater than for any other layer. For this reason,
precise predictions on a day-to-day basis of the critical frequency of the F2 layer are not
possible. In calculating frequencies for long- distance communications, allowances for the
fluctuations of the F2 layer must be made.
Irregular Variations
Irregular variations in ionospheric conditions also have an important effect on radio wave
propagation. Because these variations are irregular and unpredictable, they can drastically
affect communications capabilities without any warning.
The more common irregular variations are sporadic E, sudden ionospheric disturbances,
and ionospheric storms.
SPORADIC E: Irregular cloud-like patches of unusually high ionization, called sporadic E,
often form at heights near the normal E layer. Exactly what causes this phenomenon is not
known, nor can its occurrence be predicted. It is known to vary significantly with latitude, and
in the northern latitudes, it appears to be closely related to the aurora borealis or northern
lights.
At times the sporadic E is so thin that radio waves penetrate it easily and are returned to
earth by the upper layers. At other times, it extends up to several hundred miles and is
heavily ionized.
These characteristics may be either harmful or helpful to radio wave propagation. For
example, sporadic E may blank out the use of higher, more favorable ionospheric
layers or cause additional absorption of the radio wave at some frequencies. Also, it can
cause additional multipath problems and delay the arrival times of the rays of rf energy.
On the other hand, the critical frequency of the sporadic E is very high and can be greater than
double the critical frequency of the normal ionospheric layers. This condition may permit the
long distance transmission of signals at unusually high frequencies. It may also permit short
distance communications to locations that would normally be in the skip zone.
The sporadic E can form and disappear in a short time during either the day or night.
However, it usually does not occur at the same time at all transmitting or receiving stations.
SUDDEN IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES: The most startling of the ionospheric
irregularities is known as a SUDDEN IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCE (SID). These
disturbances may occur without warning and may prevail for any length of time, from a few
minutes to several hours. When SID occurs, long distance propagation of hf radio waves is
almost totally "blanked out." The immediate effect is that radio operators listening on normal
frequencies are inclined to believe their receivers have gone dead.
When SID has occurred, examination of the sun has revealed a bright solar eruption. All
stations lying wholly, or in part, on the sunward side of the Earth are affected. The solar
eruption produces an unusually intense burst of ultraviolet light, which is not absorbed by the
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F2, F1, and E layers, but instead causes a sudden abnormal increase in the ionization density
of the D layer. As a result, frequencies above 1 or 2 megahertz are unable to penetrate the
D layer and are usually completely absorbed by the layer.
IONOSPHERIC STORMS: Ionospheric storms are disturbances in the Earth's magnetic
field. They are associated, in a manner not fully understood, with both solar eruptions and
the 27-day intervals, thus corresponding to the rotation of the sun.
Scientists believe that ionospheric storms result from particle radiation from the sun. Particles
radiated from a solar eruption have a slower velocity than ultraviolet light waves produced by
the eruption. This would account for the 18-hour or so time difference between a sid and an
ionospheric storm. An ionospheric storm that is associated with sunspot activity may begin
anytime from 2 days before an active sunspot crosses the central meridian of the sun until
four days after it passes the central meridian. At times, however, active sunspots have
crossed the central region of the sun without any ionospheric storms occurring. Conversely,
ionospheric storms have occurred when there were no visible spots on the sun and no
preceding SID. As you can see, some correlation between ionospheric storms, sid, and
sunspot activity is possible, but there are no hard and fast rules. Ionospheric storms
can occur suddenly without warning.
The most prominent effects of ionospheric storms are a turbulent ionosphere and very erratic
sky wave propagation. Critical frequencies are lower than normal, particularly for the F2
layer. Ionospheric storms affect the higher F2 layer first, reducing its ion density. Lower
layers are not appreciably affected by the storms unless the disturbance is great. The practical
effect of ionospheric storms is that the range of frequencies that can be used for
communications on a given circuit is much smaller than normal, and communications are
possible only at the lower working frequencies.
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1. Write short notes on:
Wave propagation.
Scatter systems.
Surface wave propagation.
Surface wave tilting.
Space wave propagation.
Ionosphere propagation.
Structure of ionosphere.
Sky wave propagation.
Duct propagation.
2. Derive an expression for tilt angle.
3. Derive an expression for distance of communication.
4. Obtain an expression for space wave field component taking into account a direct wave
field component and a reflected wave from the earth surface.
5. Derive an expression for refractive index.
6. Define the following and derive the relevant expressions:
i. Critical frequency.
ii. Maximum usable frequency.
iii. Virtual height.
iv. Skip distance.
7. Briefly explain characteristics of different ionized layers in ionospheric propagation.
8. Calculate the critical frequency for a medium at which the wave reflects if the maximum
electron density is 1.24*10 6 electrons/cm3.
9. Which propagation will aid the following frequencies and why. (a) 120KHz. (b) 10MHz.
(c) 300 MHz. (d) 30GHz.
10. Estimate the surface wave tilt in degrees over an earth of 12mm conductivity and relative
permittivity 20 at a wave length of 300m.
11. A transmitter radiates 100Wof power at a frequency of 50MHz, so that space wave
propagation takes place. The transmitting antenna has a gain of 5 and its height is 50m.
The receiving antenna height is 2m. It is estimated that a field strength of 100 ?V/m is
required to give a satisfactory result. Calculate the distance between transmitter and
receiver.
Dept of ECE, SJBIT
Page 112

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Antennas and Propagation

No. of Lecture Hrs/week : 04

Total no of Lecture Hrs : 52

UNIT 3: ELECTRIC DIPOLES AND THIN LINEAR ANTENNAS

Dept of ECE, SJBIT

Antennas and Propagation

UNIT 5 & 6: ANTENNA TYPES

Dept of ECE, SJBIT

Antennas and Propagation

Basic Antenna parameters

Beam area or beam solid angle

Radiation intensity, beam efficiency, directivity and gain

Antenna apertures, effective height

Antenna temperature, radiation efficiency, antenna filed zones

UNIT 2 : POINT SOURCES AND ARRAYS:

Radiation intensity, filed patterns, phase patterns.

Array of two isotropic point sources, non-isotropic but similar point

Introduction, short electric dipole, fields of a short dipole

Thin linear antenna, Long wire antenna, folded dipole antennas.

UNIT 4 & 5 LOOP, SLOT, PATCH AND HORN ANTENNA

Loop antenna general case

Far field patterns of circular loop

Radiation resistance, directivity, slot antenna

impedance of slot antennas

UNIT 6 : ANTENNA TYPES

horn antennas, rectangular horn antennas

Dept of ECE, SJBIT

Antennas and Propagation

Log periodic antenna

Antenna for ground penetrating radar, Adaptive antenna

Embedded antenna, ultra wide band antenna, Plasma antenna

UNIT - 7 : RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

Ground wave propagation

Ground Reflection, Sky wave

UNIT 8 : TROPOSPHERE WAVE PROPAGATION

Dept of ECE, SJBIT

Antennas and Propagation

Antennas and Propagation

meters, time in seconds, mass in kilograms):

Some Antenna Types:

Basic Antenna Parameters:

Antennas and Propagation

b) As Receiving Antenna: Active radiation by other Antenna or Passive radiation

Antennas and Propagation

Normalized field pattern: It is obtained by dividing a field component by its maximum

Dept of ECE, SJBIT

Antennas and Propagation

Where, S(,) is the Poynting vector = [ E2(,) + E2(,) ] / Z0 Wm-2

Pattern Lobes and Beamwidths:

Pattern in spherical co-ordinate system

Antennas and Propagation

Pattern in Cartesian co-ordinate system

Dept of ECE, SJBIT

Antennas and Propagation

Beam Area (or Beam Solid Angle) A :

Antennas and Propagation

= 41,253 square degrees

Directivity D and Gain G :

Phase difference =d/2cos=2/d/2*cos