CCM Exam Subjects

1.
Images of the self
Archetypes- how cultures see themselves+how they are built, traditions, mythology, proverbs
2.
Images of the other
Stereotypes- how we judge other cultures (impressions), they depend on the relationship between
cultures, proverbs
3.
Organizational culture vs. national culture
MNCs
4.
Fatalism/ choice
-attitude towards time, causality
-fatalistic culture= the fate is to be blamed- Eastern europe
-choice culture-what is happening is the result of choices we made- Western culture
5.
Dominance vs. harmony
-attitude to nature
-dominant cultures: the man is the master of nature
harmony- live in harmony with the nature; Peru, Mexic, Buddhist countries
6.
Advantages and disadvantages of parochialism
Parochialism: culture orientation presenting the idea that the way we do things is the only good way
ADVANTAGES: confident, straightforward
They stick to their opinions
DISADVANTAGES:
-they dont import ideas from other cultures
-lack of tolerance
-if you have a manager from a parochialist culture, your possibilities of expression are limited
7.
Conservatism vs. liberalism
Conservatism cultures: closed cultures, tradition-based, religions, less friendly to strangers
Liberal cultures: open to new things, changes(Netherlands, US), flexible economic framework,
investments are encouraged
8.
Substitutable values/ unique values
Substitutable values: means to reach an end-substitute money with having free time
Being honest, being a good person cant be substituted
9.
Career anchors(8)+comment
Managerial competence
Technical/functional competence
Lifestyle
Creativity
Security/Stability
Autonomy and independence
Service
Pure challenge

10.
Kinetics
The way in which people from certain cultures move-body gestures- latino cultures
11.
Proxemics
The way you use space- keeping a polite distance- in Asian countries there is limited physical contact
12.
Chronemics
The way you relate to time
In some cultures, time is always enough-latin cultures, no problem in coming late, American,
German-time limits
Oriental cultures- more flexible
Western cultures-more stressed-having things done in time
13.
Cromatics
European- black=mourning, Asian-white=mourning
Christian cultures- green=color of the devil (??????)
14.
Elaborate vs. succinct verbal styles
Latin cultures-many words to say what they want
Northern European, Asian- succint
15.
Cultural representations of good and evil
-what is considered good and bad in some cultures is very different from other cultures
-black cat
Japanese are afraid of no 4
16.
Advantages and disadvantages of team diversity
-a team with people from the same country- you know what to expect
-people from diff cultures- conflicts, no consensus- DIS
-more diverse opinions, learn from one another- ADV
17.
Religion and work-related values
Religions and ideologies reflect beliefs and behaviors shared by groups of people that cannot be
verified by empirical tests. Religious traditions are closely related to cultural values and can have a
cultural influence through the content of their belief systems, the structure of their beliefs and rituals,
and the identities that they promote. For example, the content or specific teachings of many religious
traditions promote a strong work ethic, not just among their adherents but throughout the societies
where the religious groups have been especially influential.
Religious groups have long competed with nation states as a basis of social identities that shape with
whom people are most willing to work, trade or fight. The extent to which religion influences the
cultural profile of a society depends on the extent to which a particular religion is dominant or state
sanctioned, the importance that society places on religion, the degree of religious homogeneity in the
society, and the degree of tolerance for religious diversity that exists in the society.
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Although Christianity has the highest percentage of adherents worldwide, its percentage of followers
is projected to be relatively stable in the near future, with Islamic religious and Hindus representing
an increasing percentage of the world population.
Of course religions are not evenly distributed across the planet, with some religions concentrated in
some specific geographic regions. For example, Islam is largely concentrated in Asia and Africa. And
Shinto exists almost exclusively in Japan.
Obviously, therefore, specific religions have a greater influence in some cultures than in others.
Work values can be defined as those qualities that people desire from their work which reflect a
correspondence between a need and satisfaction. Cultural differences in work values can be used to
explain differences in individual performance and to predict job satisfaction, to develop a committed
workforce and to prepare the organization to be able to function during periods of change.
Examples of work-related values: : Having interesting work to do, from which one can get a personal
sense of accomplishment. Knowing that one's job is secure. Having an opportunity to earn a lot of
money. Having little stress on the job.: Beeing free to implement one's own approach to the job.:
Working with people that cooperate well with each other.: Being included in the companys decisionmaking.: Having an opportunity for advancement to higher level jobs. : Working for a company
which cares about its employees.: Having a good working relationship with your manager.
Christianity
Islam
Hinduism
Buddhism
Confucianism
Judaism
Shinto
18.
Cultural orientations assumptions
There are 3 overarching cultural orientations that account for variations in HRM practices:
relationships vs performance, hierarchy vs participation and stability vs change .

19.
Affective vs. instrumental verbal styles
the affective style is characterized by language which requires the listener to carefully note what is
being said and to observe how the sender is presenting the message. ( countries: Egypt, japan, Korea
and Saudi Arabia ); language is process oriented and receiver focused; collective, high context;
Affective style is common in collective, high-context cultures and is characterized by language that
requires the listener to note what is said and to observe how the message is presented; The meaning
is often nonverbal and requires the receiver to use his or her intuitive skills to decipher the message.
The instrumental style is goal oriented and focuses on the sender. (countries: Australia, Canada,
England, united states); language is goal oriented and sender focused; individualistic, low context.
Instrumental style is goal oriented and focuses on the sender who clearly lets the other party know
what he or she wants the other party to know. The instrumental style is more commonly found in
individualistic, low-context cultures.
20.

Cross-cultural perceptions and misperceptions

21.

All business is global?

22.

Trust across cultures

There are two basic types of trust: cognitive trust and affective trust. Cognitive trust is based on the
confidence you feel in another persons accomplishments, skills and reliability. This is trust from the
head. Affective trust on the other hand, arises from feelings of emotional closeness, empathy or
friendship. This type of trust comes from the heart. In all cultures, the trust you feel for a parent or
spouse is likely to be an affective trust. But when it comes to business, cultural differences are
significant.
In cultures that are more task-based, such as the U.S., Denmark, Germany, Australia and the U.K.,
business people are much more likely to develop work bonds based largely on cognitive trust. In
China, Brazil, Saudi Arabia and Nigeria, trust is relationship-based and is built through developing
a personal bond. In the business world of those cultures, cognitive and affective trust arent separate
but are woven together.
For those from task-based societies who are working with relationship-based counterparts, a few key
rules to remember are:
Put more time and effort into organising meals or social events to be shared.
During those engagements, drop talks about work. Laugh together, and make friends.
Beyond meals, make all efforts to find time to let your guard down with those youd like to
build trust with, and to build up personal bonds.

Those from relationship-based societies who are working with task-based counterparts should keep
the following points in mind:
Dont throw out socialising altogether. Go ahead and organise a lunch but if it is likely to
stretch to ninety minutes or longer, prepare your colleagues in advance.

Feel free to set up evening dinner or drinks, but if your counterparts leave early to rest or
catch up on work, dont take offence.

Recognise that a personal bond might help, but the business is more likely to come with
cognitive proof of a high-quality product.

There is a very clear, practical benefit to investing in affective relationship-building, especially in

emerging markets. Very often the relationship is, in itself, the business contract, so it is important to
join the crowd and show your true self to feel a personal bond. In these cultures, trust is like an
insurance policy: its an investment you need to make up front, before the need arises.
23.

Low context cultures

In an increasingly connected and interdependent world effective communication not only becomes
more important but also much more difficult. Ironically, it is often not dissimilar languages that cause
the greatest problems but rather much more mundane and harder to detect cultural differences. One
such difference is that of a high context culture versus a low context culture.
A low context culture is one in which things are fully (though concisely) spelled out. Things are
made explicit, and there is considerable dependence on what is actually said or written. A high
context culture is one in which the communicators assume a great deal of commonality of knowledge
and views, so that less is spelled out explicitly and much more is implicit or communicated in
indirect ways. In a low context culture, more responsibility is placed on the listener to keep up their
knowledge base and remain plugged into informal networks.
Low context cultures include Anglos, Germanics and Scandinavians. High context cultures include
Japanese, Arabs and French.
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The implications are obvious. Interactions between high and low context peoples can be problematic.
For example:
Japanese can find Westerners to be offensively blunt. Westerners can find Japanese to be
secretive, devious and bafflingly unforthcoming with information.

French can feel that Germans insult their intelligence by explaining the obvious, while
Germans can feel that French managers provide no direction.

24.

High context cultures

High context cultures are vulnerable to communication breakdowns when they assume more shared
understanding than there really is. They are strongly inclined to indirect methods of communication.
This is especially true in an age of diversity.
Low context cultures, on the other hand, are not known for their ability to tolerate or understand
diversity, and tend to be more insular. The explicitness with which they communicate can often cause
offence and resentment.
The point, of course, is that in an age of diversity these cultural differences are just as likely to
appear across a desk as they are across borders. Don't assume a common geographic location
guarantees a common heritage.
Association (high context )

Relationships depend on trust,

build up slowly, are stable. One
distinguishes between people inside and
people outside one's circle.

How things get done depends on

relationships with people and attention to
group process.

One's identity is rooted in

groups (family, culture, work).

Association ( low context)

Relationships begin and end quickly.
Many people can be inside one's circle; circle's
boundary is not clear.

Things get done by following procedures

and paying attention to the goal.

One's identity is rooted in oneself and

one's accomplishments.

Social structure is decentralized;

responsibility goes further down (is not
concentrated at the top).

Interaction

Interaction

High use of nonverbal

elements; voice tone, facial expression,
gestures, and eye movement carry
significant parts of conversation.

Verbal message is implicit;

context (situation, people, nonverbal
elements) is more important than
words.

Verbal message is indirect; one

talks around the point and embellishes
it.

Communication is seen as an
art forma way of engaging
someone.

Social structure and authority are

centralized; responsibility is at the top.
Person at top works for the good of the
group.

Low use of nonverbal elements. Message

is carried more by words than by nonverbal
means.

Verbal message is explicit. Context is less

important than words.

Verbal message is direct; one spells things

out exactly.

Communication is seen as a way of

exchanging information, ideas, and opinions.
Disagreement is depersonalized. One
withdraws from conflict with another and gets on
with the task. Focus is on rational solutions, not
personal ones. One can be explicit about

Disagreement is personalized.
One is sensitive to conflict expressed
in another's nonverbal communication.
Conflict either must be solved before
work can progress or must be avoided
because it is personally threatening.

another's bothersome behavior.

Territoriality

Territoriality

Space is compartmentalized and privately

owned; privacy is important, so people are farther
apart.

Space is communal; people

stand close to each other, share the
same space.

Temporality

Everything has its own time.

Time is not easily scheduled; needs of
people may interfere with keeping to a set
time. What is important is that activity
gets done.

Change is slow. Things are rooted

in the past, slow to change, and
stable.
Time is a process; it belongs to
others and to nature.

Temporality
Things are scheduled to be done at
particular times, one thing at a time. What is
important is that activity is done efficiently.

Change is fast. One can make change and

see immediate results.

Time is a commodity to be spent or saved.

Ones time is ones own.

25.
Universally accepted leadership traits
Effective leaders recognize that choosing the right leadership style for the current situation tends to
improve the likelihood of success. Typically though, most leaders use a primary style in their
management approach. Cultural traditions and values play a role in a leader's style. According to the
"International Journal of Cross Cultural Management," leadership traits result partly from cultural
norms and partly from the needs of the leadership job. Cultures differ regarding the use of power.
People who act to maximize their personal gain behave as individualists. Collectivists, on the other
hand, are expected to act to help the community. By acknowledging these differences, leaders
improve their ability to function while conducting global business.
Autocratic Style
Autocratic leaders make all the decisions for their departments and tend to show little concern for
individuals. Staff members don't have the opportunity to provide input. Typically, this results in high
rates of low morale, absenteeism and employee turnover. In a crisis situation, such as a natural
disaster, autocratic behavior tends to get the best results. However, effective leaders realize that
motivating and inspiring employees on a daily basis leads to greater employee satisfaction and
productivity. In collectivist cultures, employees expect leaders to focus on tasks but also show
concern toward people. For example, Gregorio Billikopf, labor management farm advisor at the
University of California, observes that Latin Americans make more eye contact and face each other
more. Leaders from these countries tend to be less autocratic and more sensitive to employee needs.
Bureaucratic Style
Bureaucratic leaders set up rules and want them followed precisely. For example, according to the
"Cambridge Handbook of Culture, Organizations, and Work," employees in western countries, such
as the United States and Germany, have an independent concept of self. Leaders distance themselves
from their employees. They tend not to nurture employees and accept mistakes. In these
individualistic cultures, leaders prefer to maintain professional relationships.
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Charismatic Style
Leaders who inspire their employees establish a vision and communicate it with passion and
enthusiasm. A charismatic leader establishes an organization with dedicated followers who believe in
his mission. In individualist cultures, these types of leaders focus on accomplishing tasks and tend to
accept paternalism, a hierarchy based on a fatherly leader. According to the "Cambridge Handbook
of Culture, Organizations and Work," 80 percent of the Japanese surveyed accepted paternalism as
compared with only 51 percent of Americans surveyed.
Democratic Style
Democratic leaders involve their subordinates in decision making processes. By encouraging
collaboration, they typically increase an employee's job satisfaction and commitment to his job.
Team members feel like they have control over their work. Democratic leaders motivate their
personnel to solve problems themselves. Collectivists, such as the Japanese, tend to sacrifice
individual needs for the whole group. Leaders in these cultures rely on an employee's sense of duty
to produce quality products and services.
26.
Culturally bound leadership traits
Leaders must adapt style to different national cultures. What works in the United States, for instance,
isnt likely to work in France or Indonesia. Fred Hassan, chairman and CEO of Schering Plough, a
pharmaceutical company, argues that a global attitude is a critical skill for todays leaders that is, to
be effective you need to have a curiosity about the world, accept what different cultures have to offer,
and adapt yourself to the cultural environment. A GE executive recalls when he used his American
leadership style in Japan: Nothing happened. He quickly realized that he had to adapt his approach to
act more as a consultant to his colleagues and to adopt a team based motivational decision making
process rather than the more vocal style tends to be common in the West. In Japan the silence of a
leader means far more than a thousand words uttered by somebody else.
Leaders are also constrained by the cultural conditions that their followers have come to expect. For
instance, American leaders are expected to empower followers. However, followers in Mexico and
some Asian countries look to their leaders to provide structure and direction. For example, a study in
Hong Kong found that leaders were expected to be relatively autocratic.
Consistent with the contingency approach, leaders need to adjust style to the unique cultural aspects
of a country. For example, a manipulative or autocratic style is compatible with high power distance,
and it is found high power distance scores in Russia, Spain, Arab, Far Eastern, and most Latin
countries. Power distance rankings should also be good indicators of employee willingness to accept
participative leadership. Participation is likely to be most effective in low power distance cultures as
exist in Norway, Finland, Denmark, and Sweden.
The global research program, which we introduced, has gathered data on approximately 18,000
middle managers in 825 organizations, covering 62 counties. Its the most comprehensive cross
cultural study of leadership ever undertaken. So its findings should not be quickly dismissed. It is
illuminating that one of the results coming from the GLOBE program is that there are some universal
aspects to leadership. Specifically, a number of the elements making up transformational leadership
appear to be associated with effective leadership regardless of what country the leader is in. This
conclusion is very important because it fits in the face of the contingency view that leadership style
needs to adapt to cultural differences.
The adaptation of leadership styles to different contingencies has been well characterized by the
developers of the leadership continuum concept. The concept is leadership as involving a variety of
styles, ranging from one that is highly boss-centered to one that is highly subordinate-centered. The
styles vary with the degree of freedom a leader or manager grants to subordinates.
Elements of transformational leadership appear universal are Vision, foresight, providing
encouragement, trustworthiness, dynamism, positive thinking, and pro-activeness. The results led
two members of the GLOBE team to conclude that effective business leaders in any country are
expected by their subordinates to provide powerful and proactive vision to guide the company into
the future, strong motivational skills to stimulate all employees to fulfill the vision, and excellent
planning skills to assist in implementing the vision.
8

What might explain the universal appeal of the transformational leadership attributes? It has been
suggested that pressures towards common technologies and management practices, as a result of
global competition and multinational influences may make some aspects of leadership universally
accepted. If true, we may be able to select and train leaders in a universal style and thus significantly
raise the quality of leadership worldwide.
27.
Contextual vs. personal verbal styles
Context is the information that surrounds a communication and helps to convey the message. In high
context societies, messages are often coded and implicit, they rely on indirect style. In low context
societies, message is explicit and the speaker says precisely what she/he means, rely on direct style.

The contextual style, focuses on the speaker and the relationship between the parties; high power
distance , collective and high context. ( countries: egypt, japan, korea, Saudi arabia )
The personal style focuses on the speaker and the reduction of barriers between the parties; low
power distance, individualistic, low context. ( countries: Australia, Canada, danemark, England,
united states ).
28.
Here be dragons
Here be dragons" means dangerous or unexplored territories, in imitation of the medieval practice of
putting dragons, sea serpents and other mythological creatures in uncharted areas of maps.
There are just two known historical uses of this phrase in the Latin form "HC SVNT DRACONES"
(i.e. hic sunt dracones, 'here are dragons'); one is on the Hunt-Lenox Globe (c. 150307). The
term appeared on the Lenox Globe around the east coast of Asia, and might be related to
the Komodo dragons in the Indonesian islands, tales of which were quite common throughout
East Asia. The other appearance of the term is on a globe engraved on two conjoined halves of
ostrich eggs, dated to 1504. Earlier maps contain a variety of references to mythical and real
creatures, but the Lenox Globe and the egg globe are the only known surviving maps to bear this
phrase. And the two maps may be closely linked: an investigation of the egg globe performed by
collector Stefaan Missinne concluded that the Hunt-Lenox Globe is a cast of the egg globe.
"Here be dragons, is a very interesting sentence, said Thomas Sander, editor of the Portolan,
the journal of the Washington Map Society. In early maps, you would see images of sea
monsters; it was a way to say theres bad stuff out there.
There is a persistent myth that map makers used to write Hic Sunt Dracones -- "here be dragons" on
the parts of the world they knew nothing about. This is actually not true since there are no authentic
old maps marked in this way and hic sunt draconesappears just once, on the Lennox Globe made at
the beginning of the 1500s.
Yet the idea of territory so unexplored that it might as well be populated with dragons describes very
well our understanding of other cultures. Most people are aware that people in other places are
different -- even if it is only from TV comedy and cartoons like Disney-Pixar's Cars franchise. Very
often, though, this understanding does not go much beyond surface differences like the way people
greet each other -- visible signs that are almost immediately recognizable. Most people also focus on
the unusual and the bizarre in other cultures, especially those things that are visually appealing.
Superficial cultural differences are, in fact, rarely a problem because you see them and because you
can ask people what to do. Most intercultural conflicts are caused by deeper differences that are not
visible to outsiders. People within a culture are also not aware of their on hidden culture until they go
somewhere else or read about it in a book.
9

29.

Cultural perceptions of time

Often, when we are immersed in our own culture, it is difficult to understand how those from other
ethnicities perceive our culture, customs, and way of life. In addition, some aspects of our culture
are so ingrained in our minds and so commonplace to us that we begin to feel they are universally
accepted.
One of these cultural variables is a persons perception of time. Most people have their own idea
of what time is and give little thought to the possibility that their definition could be different
from anyone elses. For instance, it would not occur to someone living in most parts of the world
today that the future couldnt possibly exist. However, the people of Piraha heritage living in the
Amazon have no concept of time beyond the present so the concept of future for them doesnt
exist. They dont even have a word for the concept of future in their vocabulary. Similarly,
most humans on earth find it nearly impossible to picture an extraterrestrial culture of some sort
where the arrow of time the direction of its flow from past to future is reversed. Because we
cant envision it, does that mean it cannot be?
One particular study that used all three of these methods was successful in collecting data from
31 different countries. Specifically, the study tested the following things:
(1) walking speedthe speed with which pedestrians in downtown areas walk a distance of 60
feet;
(2) work speedhow quickly postal clerks complete a standard request to purchase a stamp; and
(3) the accuracy of public clocks (Levine). As a result, this study found that Japan and a
collection of Western European countries had the fastest pace. Switzerland was a top contender,
in particular because of the accuracy of its clocks.
Other studies have found that the United States also tends to come in as an extremely fast-paced
countryin many cases competing with Japan for the fastest pace. Within the United States, Boston
and Kansas City have been seen as two of the fastest paced individual cities (Lienhard). After
10

reviewing the results of these studies, it almost seems as if these fast paced countries are in a race to
get through life as quickly and as efficiently as they can each day.
As time goes on, slower-paced countries and cultures are harder and harder to find. Unlike America
and the Western European countries mentioned above, Being late to an appointment, or taking a
long time to get down to business, is the accepted norm in most Mediterranean and Arab countries
(Devereaux and Johanson). Latin American countries and Native American countries are also known
to have a slower paced lifestyle, partially due to the fact that much of their lifestyle is controlled by
the past, whereas fast-paced countries like America are constantly rushing into the future. Although
Italy tends to be placed among the faster paced countries, it too has been regarded as a slower-paced
country by some, when compared to its fellow Western European neighbors.
Italians take things slow they wander, they spend hours at a table talking about their family and
their church, they ride bikes instead of driving cars. They do not really have a schedule, except for
their scheduled breaks. This is especially hard for us to comprehend. (King)
Greece is another European country that most people consider, without question, to be slow-paced. In
an article about vacationing in Greece, one person reflects that visitors to this country are tempted to
simply let the day unfold. Slow your pace of life to that of the locals, philosophize, read a good
book, bathe, snooze (Whitaker). After learning about these two lifestyles, which kind of pace do you
think your world runs on? Which pace would you rather it ran on?
There is a common tie-in between the faster-paced countries of the world. Usually, what is found in
these studies is that the more industrialized and economically developed a country is, the more fastpaced it will be. Less developed or developing countries tend to have slower paced lifestyles. (Levine
and Norenzayan). As the world continues moving forward, both technologically and economically,
faster paced lifestyles are working their way into more and more countries and cultures. Still, many
people who live in a fast paced society should keep in mind that it is important to slow down every
once in a while. A healthy balance of fast-pace and slower-pace may be key to a happier, healthier
and more smoothly run daily life.
Time in Our Lives: The Role of Time in Various Cultures
Not everyone in the world views the concept of time in the same way. In fact, some cultures dont
even make time a part of their lives. Some cultures are wary of time passing by, while others run
their lives by the clock. Imagine for a moment what would happen if you took someone living in a
hectic society controlled by time and let them switch lives with a second person living in a culture
without time. How do you think the two individuals would react? Would the first person be able to
function without a schedule? Would the second be able to function with one? This article explores
three distinct versions of cultures and their views on time: cultures run by time, cultures without
time, and cultures with unique perspectives on time. Each category gives two examples of specific
cultures
which
represent
that
category.
Cultures Run by Time
The United States of America: It would be safe to say that, very often, the cultures that are run by
time are those which appear to have the fastest pace. The United Statesas one of the fastest paced
societies of the worldfits this idea completely. (To learn more about the pace of life in different
cultures, see our article on pace). Most people from the United States can honestly say that they often
feel rushed. This may be partly due to the fact that many Americans strive for the American
Dream,the epitome of success, luxury and happiness. The concept is often regarded as an illusion;
yet but pressuring its citizens to constantly do more, earn more, and consume morein order to
achieve morethe ideals of American society drive people to constantly be in a hurried state of
mind. Time decides when Americans make their appointments, when they do their work, and even
how they spend their leisure time. For many Americans the free moments that once glued a busy
life together have almost disappeared (Whybrow 159). In the United States, time is undoubtedly in
11

control

of

the

everyday

lives

of

most

people.

Japan: The Japanese live lives that are run by time, as do the Americans. Still, the Japanese tend to
feel less rushed and frustrated with this fact than the Americans do; they seem to have achieved a
greater handle on time management and extremely efficient lifestyles. The Japanese run on time
because of their extremely low tolerance for tardiness and delay. If American deadlines and meeting
times are said to be strict, than the same aspects in Japanese culture would be even stricter. A great
example of this rigid view toward promptness can be seen in the Japanese train system.
In most European railway systems, a delay is defined as 10-15 minutes behind schedule. In other
words, for example, 14 minutes behind schedule is still counted as on time. This is how European
railway companies are able to obtain high punctuality. On the other hand, the definition of delay in
Japan is more severe; only trains with less than a minutes delay is defined as on time. (Mito)
30.

Cultural intelligence

The simplest definition of cultural intelligence is a persons ability to adapt effectively to a new
cultural context. Thomas and colleagues (2008) provided a more complete definition of cultural
intelligence as a system of interacting knowledge and skills, linked by cultural metacognition that
allows people to adapt to, select and shape the cultural aspects of their environment. Cultural
intelligence includes three key components: knowledge (both general knowledge of how culture
plays a role in behavior and specific knowledge about the cultural characteristics of the host
country); skills (perceptual skills such as open-mindedness and being non-judgmental, relational
skills such as flexibility and adaptive skills such as exhibiting culturally appropriate behavior); and
metacognition (knowledge of and control over ones thinking and learning) . The metacognition
allows that the person actively reflects on available knowledge and skills regarding, say, gift giving,
monitors how this relates to intended outcomes (e.g. pleasing the co-worker) and, if need be,
regulates behavior by formulating alternative course of behavior. It involves conscious monitoring
and regulating ones behaviors and emotions.
31.

If I were to start anew, I would start from culture (Jean Monnet)

You certainly know the words erroneously ascribed to Jean Monnet: "if I were to start anew, I would
start from culture." These words are quoted more and more often to suggest that the fathers and
founders admitted to themselves late in life that they had taken the wrong road. They are invoked as
a denunciation of a materialist Europe, a Europe without soul, without flesh and without savour. This
is the Europe of merchants, the Europe of grocers. One often hears such expressions.
The words of J. Monnet have led me to two conclusions. The first is that we should congratulate
ourselves that the construction of Europe has started from culture: it is good we have started from
economy in the construction of Europe, and it would have been presumptuous of us to have started
with culture. It would have been presumptuous, for Europe and culture are not things merely to be
invented. We had to wait until after the Second World War to lay the foundations of a single
European culture. That culture exist as long as there are intellectuals, novelists, and artists. Let it
suffice here to remind you that our culture has had two peak periods. I refer first to the Europe of
medieval universities. No Parisian student of the 13th century would have been surprised at having a
German supervisor, Albert the Great, or an Italian, Thomas Acquinas. I have in mind as well the
Europe of the Enlightenment, that "immense republic of cultivated spirits" of which Voltaire spoke,
of which the Prince of Ligne would have been an archetype. Closer to us, Stefan Zweig embodies
that European culture which, after the dark ages, was the glory of Paris and Vienna.
Therefore it was necessary to reconstruct the European economy on a continent ruined by the war
and hatred, and to teach people to speak once again to one another and to exchange. The latter itself
was a means to find again the Europe of culture.
Summing up, we should not be surprised that the treaty of Rome was a bit verbose in the matters of
culture; its authors were not barbarians, nor uncultured diplomats, and they should not be regarded as
12

mere technocrats in love with the rate of growth and strong money. On the contrary, perhaps they
were too well-versed in history to think that political authority carries any real weight in matters of
culture. Rather, their almost complete silence regarding culture should not be seen as a sign of
wisdom.
The phrase that legend now ascribes to J. Monnet expresses a conviction, but also raises a doubt, and
this is my second conclusion. The premonitory conviction was only one stage in the European
construction: the stage where it was a rather elitist venture, concerned with economics, with the
prosaic task of economics, when what was necessary was to arouse enthusiasm, to mobilize all the
resources of those who loved Europe. The conviction was that it was necessary to adopt a strategy of
small steps towards a true political and culture project. The intention was not limited to adding a
cultural section to the economical assembly, as people add sugar to diminish the bitterness of potion,
or, if you prefer, as people put cherry on a cake.
As to the doubt, it depends on my understanding of the cultural influence of Europe. J. Monnet
certainly knew what Paul Valry said about the Europe of yesterday, in his famous phrase that I
remember, "No other part of the world possesses that unique physical power: the most intense power
of mission united with the most intense power to absorb. Everything has come to Europe and
everything in it has come true".
32.

Definitions of culture

Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or
category of people from another. Hofstede 1994: 5
Culture ... is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and
any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Tyler (British
anthropologist) 1870: 1; cited by Avruch 1998: 6
Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behaviour acquired and transmitted by
symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiment in
artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected)
ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as
products of action, on the other, as conditional elements of future action. Kroeber & Kluckhohn
1952: 181; cited by Adler 1997: 14
Culture consists of the derivatives of experience, more or less organized, learned or created by the
individuals of a population, including those images or encodements and their interpretations
(meanings) transmitted from past generations, from contemporaries, or formed by individuals
themselves. T.Schwartz 1992; cited by Avruch 1998: 17
... the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people, but different for
each individual, communicated from one generation to the next. Matsumoto 1996: 16
Culture is a fuzzy set of basic assumptions and values, orientations to life, beliefs, policies,
procedures and behavioural conventions that are shared by a group of people, and that influence (but
do not determine) each members behaviour and his/her interpretations of the meaning of other
peoples behaviour. Spencer-Oatey 2008: 3
33.

Managers roles across cultures

Roles the perception of the managers role differs considerable around the world, consider the
conversation between the American and Greek
Nonverbal Communication behavior communicated without words; even minor variations in body
language, speech rhythms, and punctuality can cause mistrust
13

Language an inability to speak the local language, and a poor or too literal translation are often
causes for mistrust
Pepsis slogan Come Alive with Pepsi translated into German as Come out of the grave.

34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.

Phases of going global

Sources of cross-cultural misinterpretation
Cultural variations in decision-making
Ethics across cultures
Perspective in culture
Cultures of shame/ cultures of guilt

"Trial by media" is very much a feature of political life at the moment, and it works largely because
it seems that the public has different standards of proof for misdemeanours among those in public
life from those it maintains for private citizens. In public life it is enough to be "tainted" with
suspicion for one's future to be blighted
In other words, the rules about responsibility and blame are not the same across cultures or even
across different sectors of the same culture. Clichs about there being "no smoke without fire" and
"mud sticks" on the one hand, and being "innocent until proven guilty" on the other, for example,
represent fundamentally different assumptions.
A useful distinction for articulating these different assumptions and rules is that between "shame"
culture and "guilt" culture.
Guilt culture: Western culture, Shame culture: Japan ex.

14

40.
GLOBE study-p. 163
GLOBE was initiated to investigate one fundamental question: How is culture related to societal,
organizational, and leader effectiveness?
The research project measured culture in different segments (country, industry, and organization)
exploring both current practices and values. Its results are based on data from about 17,300 middle
managers from 951 organizations in the food processing, financial services, and telecommunications
services industries in 58 countries.
GLOBE also measured culturally different ideas of the characteristics of outstanding leaders, thereby
providing the largest information base for cross-cultural leadership ever.
Its results are used to compare cultures in terms of their values and practices, and in terms of
the leadership styles that are endorsed in different cultures.
GLOBE findings offer a range of practical advice for cross-cultural business and leadership, e.g.,
GLOBE found that some aspects of leadership are culturally dependent, while charismatic and teamoriented leadership are universally desirable styles.
-when in Rome do as the Romans
Below, the six styles are listed in the order of least cultural variation to most cultural variation. We
also indicate the range of ratings each style received in the different countries.
1.
The charismatic/value based style (4.5 6.5) stresses high standards, decisiveness, and
innovation; seeks to inspire people around a vision; creates a passion among them to perform; and
does so by firmly holding on to core values. This includes the facets of visionary, inspirational, selfsacrificial, integrity, decisive, and performance-oriented.
2.
The team-oriented style (4.7 6.2) instills pride, loyalty, and collaboration among
organizational members; and highly values team cohesiveness and a common purpose or goals. This
style includes the facets of collaborative team orientation, team integrator, diplomatic, (reverse
scored) malevolent, and administratively competent.
3.
The participative style (4.5 6.1) encourages input from others in decision making and
implementation; and emphasizes delegation and equality. This style includes the facets of (reverse
scored) autocratic and (reverse scored) non-participative.
4.
The humane style (3.8 5.6) stresses compassion and generosity; and it is patient, supportive,
and concerned with the well-being of others. This style includes the facets of modesty and humaneoriented.
5.
The self-protective (2.5 4.6) style emphasizes procedural, status-conscious, and 'facesaving' behaviors; and focuses on the safety and security of the individual and the group. This style
includes the facets of self-centered, status-conscious, conflict inducer, face saver, and procedural.
6.
The autonomous style (2.3 4.7) includes only one facet concerned with autonomy. It is
characterizedbyanindependent,individualistic,andself-centricapproachto leadership.
15

HOFSTEDES 5 DIMENSIONS
POWER DISTANCE
(The degree to which power differentials within society and organizations are accepted.) Large
Power Distance societies are characterized by:

centralized authority

autocratic leadership

paternalistic management style

many hierarchical levels

large number of supervisory staff

acceptance that power has its privileges

an expectation of inequality and power differences

Small Power Distance societies are characterized by:

decentralized authority and decision making responsibility

consultative or participative management style

flat organizational structures

small proportion of supervisory staff

lack of acceptance and questioning of authority

rights consciousness

tendency toward egalitarianism

UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
(The degree to which members of a society are able to cope with the uncertainty of the future without
experiencing undue stress. According to Hofstede & Bond, 1988, this is a uniquely Western value.)
Weak UA characterized by:

risk taking

tolerance of differing behaviors and opinions

flexibility

organizations with a relatively low degree of structure and few rules, promotions based on
merit
Strong UA characterized by:

avoidance of risk

organizations that have clearly delineated structures, many written rules, standardized
procedures,
promotions based on seniority or age

lack of tolerance for deviants

strong need for consensus

need for predictability hence, planning is important

respect for authority

INDIVIDUALISM - COLLECTIVISM
INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES

foster contractual relationships that are based on the principles of exchange. They calculate
profit and loss before engaging in a behavior.

focus on self or at most on close loved ones, are concerned with the relationship between their
behaviors and their own needs, interests & goals.

value independence & self-sufficiency place self interests above collective interests accept
confrontation as an attribute

emphasize pleasure, fun & personal enjoyment more than social norms and duties belong to
many in- groups that exert little influence on their lives

believe that their beliefs are unique

give precedence to horizontal relationships (e.g. spouse-spouse) over vertical relationships

(e.g. parentchild)
COLLECTIVISTIC CULTURES 16

behave according to social norms that are designed to maintain social harmony among
members of an in- group

consider implications of their actions for wider collective

share resources and are prepared to sacrifice personal interest for collective interests

favor certain in-groups (e.g. family, friends). The Chinese culture, for example, believes that
ones elfesteem and future are tied to ones in-groups such as parents, siblings, friends.

belong to a small number of in-groups that influence their lives have a greater tendency
toward conformity than individualists

are very concerned about in-group members and are indifferent or hostile toward out-group
members

emphasize hierarchy and harmony within group

regulate behavior through group norms

41.

Convergence-divergence in cross-cultural management

42.

Personal space

The study of personal space is sometimes referred to as proxemics

Personal space refers to that invisible bubble we all carry around with us which defines how close we
will approach to other people and how close we will allow other people to approach us. To a very
large extent it is a function of our relationship with the people involved and the society or culture to
which we are accustomed. To some extent the terminology is misleading since in fact what we are
considering is interpersonal space. It only becomes important when we interact with others. In
addition we need to be aware that the bubble can expand or shrink. In essence we all have a
construction of the amount of personal space that is appropriate between ourselves and other people
in a range of situations. We only become aware of our personal space when it is invaded. It is
something which maintains an invisible control over our behaviour with others most of the time.
Different cultures tend to have different sizes of personal space bubbles. For example middle eastern
peoples tend to tolerate closer distances than people from Britain.
Research also suggests that the personal space bubble is not circular, but elliptical, so we will tolerate
people coming closer to us at the side than in front or behind.
Personal space (or interpersonal distance) is a mechanism of communication and as such it cannot be
understood independently of other aspects of nonverbal communication such as orientation, touch
and eye-contact. For example, on a crowded train we may be forced to allow others to invade our
personal space for periods of time. However, consider the difference between having to stand very
close to someone in front of you who turns slightly to one side, tries to avoid touching you, and
avoids eye contact, as opposed to someone who faces you head on, makes no attempt to avoid
squashing against you, and looks you straight in the eye.
43.
Differences in leadership styles across cultures
17

In participative leadership, the leader turns to the team for input, ideas and observations instead of
making all decision on his or her own. Thats not to say the leader doesnt have the ultimate decision
making task; this is to say that the leader understands the team may have skills and ideas that could
benefit the decision making process.
Participative leadership involves the entire team. This is a leadership style in which the leader works
closely with team members, focusing on building relationships and rapport. On the flip side of this
leadership coin you have the autocratic leadership style, in which the leader tends to be more issuefocused and makes most decisions without input from the team.

44.
Culture vs. nature/ culture vs. civilization
45.
Social rules

Seating: many cultures have strict rules about who should sit where. For example, seating
can be organized by age or seniority.

Utensils: some cultures use utensils in certain ways, while others don't use them at all.

Conversation: acceptable topics of conversation during dinner vary from culture to culture.
For example, should you talk about business while eating, or is this bad form? Are some subjects offlimits?

Body language and gestures: some people eat while sitting on the floor, while others find it
distasteful to touch food with their hands.

Arrival and departure: should you arrive early, on time or slightly late? Acceptable arrival
and departure times vary, as well as mealtimes: it's common to eat dinner in some cultures at 10:00
p.m., while others start at around 6:00 p.m.
Common Cross-Cultural Differences

In Australia , a lot of relationship-building takes place in local pubs after work. Missing
your turn to "shout for a round," or pay for drinks, will make a bad impression. In Japan , teams
often strengthen relationships with drinks and karaoke at the end of the day.
18


In France , you'll make a good impression by being enthusiastic about the food being served.
Enjoy your meal, be vocal about it, and then talk about business. In Germany , on the other hand,
it's common to discuss work before you eat.

India is home to Hindus, who don't eat beef, and Muslims, who don't eat pork. Both of these
groups expect you to handle food with your right hand only, as the left is considered "unclean."

In Italy , it's common to be invited to a late dinner, which it's considered rude to decline.

In some countries, including Israel, people may only be permitted to consume kosher foods
that conform to Jewish food law, or "kashrut."

Food is central to Malaysian culture; the common greeting "chiah pa bue" literally
translates as "have you eaten?" However, a dinner invitation here might be slow to come. Show
patience and wait, and avoid hosting your own meal until you've been a guest at someone else's.

Alcohol is an important part of relationship building in many cultures, especially in Russia

and South Korea . Here, you'll strengthen your reputation and impress your colleagues by "holding
your own," but avoid drinking more than you feel comfortable with! Alcohol is only served in
restaurants in countries like the United Arab Emirates , and it's illegal in Saudi Arabia .

The quality of food also matters in many cultures. In Spain , for example, knowledge of
gourmet food is often expected. You'll impress your colleagues by inviting them to an excellent
restaurant, and by holding informed conversations about food and wine. However, in the United
States and United Kingdom , food is often less important, and many professionals eat lunch at
their desks.
Social touching differs from one culture to another. Each culture has unspoken rules about which
touches are considered socially acceptable. Some cultures have strict rules about who can touch
whom where.
Patting a child on the head is considered an affectionate gesture in many Western countries, but in
some Asian countries such as Thailand, its considered offensive since the head is seen as the seat of
the soul.
Two men holding hands would be seen as a sign of friendly affection in countries such as Saudi
Arabia, India, Egypt, or Morocco, while in other countries, they would be seen as gay lovers.
In high-contact countries such as France, people might greet each other by kisses on the cheek, while
in low-contact country, it would be considered presumptuous.
46.

Culture iceberg

47.

Culturally bizarre behaviors

48.
Career success vs. quality of life
CAREER SUCCESS AND QUALITY OF LIFE OR Masculinity AND Femininity
CAREER SUCCESS (Masculine) CULTURES
1.
gender roles are clearly distinct
19

2.
men are supposed to be assertive, tough and focused on material success
3.
do not place great importance on benevolence
4.
places importance on the value of mastery (of job, nature, people, etc)
5.
the women considered health, wealth & understanding as desirable characteristics of a
husband
6.
the women considered personality, affection, intelligence & sense of humor as desirable
characteristics of a
boyfriend
QUALITY OF LIFE (Feminine) CULTURES
7.
social gender roles overlap
8.
both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender and concerned with the quality of
life
9.
desired traits in husbands were the same as desired traits in boyfriends (Hofstede, September,
1996,
Journal. Cross Cultural Psychology)
10.
emphasize non-materialistic aspects of success
49.
Cross-cultural misinterpretations
commercials

communication:
https://global.duke.edu/sites/default/files/images/NancyAdlerCrossCultComm..pdf

20