Polarization of Light by Mr. Charis

Mr. A.CHARIS ISRAEL. M.Sc., B.Ed., (Ph.D.
)
Sr. Lecturer of PHYSICS
Mobile No: +91-9269680853
PHYSICS-I UNIT –II POLARISATION OF LIGHT 2009-2010
UNIT – II
POLARIZATION
Unpolarized Light: Light which consists of an infinite number of waves, U n p o la r is e d L ig h t
each having its own direction of vibration is called unpolarized light.

Polarized Light: Light which acquired only one direction of vibration is P o la r is e d L ig h t w ith
called polarized light. v ib r a tio n s p a r a lle l to
th e p la n e o f p a p e r
(or)
Light which has acquired the property of one-sidedness is called P o la r is e d L ig h t w ith
polarized light. v ib r a tio n s p e r p e n d ic u la r
to th e p la n e o f p a p e r
Plane Polarized Light:
When the vibrations are confined to a single direction at right angles
to the direction of propagation, then light is called plane polarized light.
Plane of vibration, plane of polarization and direction of propagation:
Plane of Vibration: The “plane in which the vibrations of

the polarized light are confined” is called plane of plane of vibration d irectio n o f p ro p a g a tio n
vibration.
The plane of vibration contains the “direction of
propagation of wave” and “direction of vibration”.
Plane of Polarization: plane of vibration
The “plane passing through the direction of
propagation and perpendicular to the plane of vibration” is
known as plane of polarization. direction of propagation
(or) plane of polarisation
The “plane which has no vibrations of wave” is
called plane of polarization.
PLANE, CIRCULAR AND ELLIPTICALLY POLARISED direction of
propagation
LIGHT ON THE BASIS OF ELECTRIC VECTOR:
Light waves are “Electromagnetic waves”. plan e of
Electromagnetic wave: A transverse wave consisting of electric and polarisation
magnetic fields vibrating perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of propagation is an electromagnetic
wave. E lectric
The vibrating electric vector ‘E’ and the direction of wave V ector E plan e of
propagation constitute a plane called “plane of vibration”. vibration
The magnetic vector ‘H’ and the direction of propagation of wave M agnetic Vector , M
form a plane, called “plane of polarization”.
It is electric vector which is most effective in a light wave, so we always refer the light wave with electric
vector E, it is always perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.
(i) Plane polarized Light: During the propagation of
light, if the electric vector E vibrates parallel and E y Y Y E Ex or Ey = 0 Y E = iE + jE
∅=0 Ey x y
confined to a single plane perpendicular to the direction
B
of propagation, then the wave is said to be plane
θ
Ex = 0 X O Z X
polarized light. Ex
X E
If wave is propagating along Z-axis, then the
electric vector E appears linearly, if observed along Z-direction back towards origin as shown in figure. Therefore, the
plane polarized light is also called as “linearly polarized light”.
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If electric vector is oriented at an angle 'θ ' to the X-direction as shown in figure, then Ex and E y are the
components of ‘E’ along X and Y-axes respectively. Thus, E = iEx + jE y .
Therefore, a plane polarized light is a wave whose angle 'θ ' remains constant in time or ∅ = 0 and one of the
components of Electric vector ( E x (or ) E y = 0 ) is always zero.
(ii) Circularly Polarized Light: Suppose that the components Ex and E y and are equal in magnitude ( E x = E y ) but
differ in phase by ' π 2 ' i.e., ∅ = π 2 .
When such components superpose, the
Y E X Y ( Ex = E y ) Y
E ∅ =π 2 E
magnitude of the resultant vector E Ey θ Ey θ
B
θ X X
remains constant but rotates about the O O Ex O Ex
Z
direction of propagation such that it goes
on sweeping a circular helix in space as C ircu la rly p o la rised lig h t R ig h t C ircu la rly L eft C ircu la rly
shown in figure. Thus such a wave is m a kin g h elica l p a th p o la rised lig h t p o la rised lig h t
called Circularly polarized light.
In circular polarization, the electric vector E completes one revolution in space in a distance of one wave length.
If the point of observation is along the Z-axis, then the tip of Electric vector E traces a circle with the direction of
propagation as a center. If the rotation of the tip of electric vector is clockwise, then the light is said to be
Right-Circularly polarized light. If the rotation of the tip of electric vector is anti-clockwise, then the light is said to be
Left-Circularly polarized light.
(iii) Elliptically Polarized Light:
Suppose that the components and are not equal i.e., ( E x ≠ E y ) and also they differ in phase i.e., ∅ ≠ 0 . When
these two waves superpose, the magnitude
of their resultant vector E changes with Y E X Y ( Ex ≠ E y ) Y E
E ∅≠0
time and the vector E also rotates about Ey θ Ey θ
B
θ
the direction of propagation. The tip of the O Ex
X
O Ex
X
O
vector E sweeps a flattened helix in space Z
as shown in figure. Such a wave is called E llip tica lly p o la rised lig h t R ig h t E llip tica lly L eft E llip tica lly
Elliptically Polarized Light. m a kin g fla tten ed h elica l p a th p o la rised lig h t p o la rised lig h t
If the rotation of the tip of the
electric vector is clockwise, then the light is said to be Right-Elliptically polarized light. If the rotation of the tip of the
electric vector is anti-clockwise, then the light is said to be Left-Elliptically polarized light.
MALUS LAW:
Malus discovered a law regarding the Intensity of light transmitted by the analyzer.
Statement: When a completely plane polarized light beam is incident on the analyzer, the intensity of the polarized
light transmitted through the analyzer changes as the square of the cosine of the angle between the plane of
transmission of the analyzer and plane of transmission of the polarizer.
This law fails when the light is not completely plane polarized. P la n e o f
P o la r iz e r
Proof: Let OP = a, be the amplitude of the incident plane polarized light from the P
polarizer. OA be the plane of transmission of analyzer and θ be the angle between P la n e o f
A n a ly z e r
the planes of transmission of polarizer and analyzer. a
Now, the amplitude of incident plane polarized light can be resolved in two B A
components, one parallel to the plane of transmission of the analyzer OA ( a cos θ ) a sin θ θ a cos θ
and the other perpendicular to it along OB ( a sin θ ) . O
Hence, the component ( a cos θ ) is transmitted through the analyzer.
2
∴ Intensity of light transmitted through the analyzer is Iθ = ( a cos θ ) = a 2 cos 2 θ → (1)
If ‘I’ be the intensity of the incident polarized light, then I = a2 → (2)

∴ Iθ = I cos 2 θ (or) Iθ ∝ cos 2 θ → (3)
Hence, the intensity of light transmitted through an analyzer inclined at an angle θ with the plane of
transmission of polarizer is proportional to the square of cosine of the angle θ .
Case (i): When planes of transmission of polarizer and analyzer are parallel i.e., θ = 0,
Then Iθ = I i.e., the total intensity of light transmitted through polarizer is transmitted through the analyzer.
Case (ii): When planes of transmission of polarizer and analyzer are perpendicular i.e., θ = 90o ,
Then Iθ = 0 i.e., no light is transmitted through analyzer.
DOUBLE REFRACTION:
Principle: When a light ray is incident on a transparent anisotropic crystal, it is divided into two refracted rays with
different velocities and in different directions. This phenomenon is called Double refraction.
Ex: Calcite, Quartz, mica etc exhibit double refraction.
Calcite Crystal:
Calcite crystal is a colorless transparent crystal, chemically called as B lu nt C o rn ers
Optic
Hydrated Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). The structure of a Calcite crystal belongs Axis
to the hexagonal system, a rhombo-hedral. The six faces of a rhombo-hedron are A
parallelograms each having angles of 101o 55 ' and 78o 5 ' as shown in figure. o
78 5 '
o
1 0 1 55 '
o B1 0 1 55 '
o
There are two opposite corners A and B where the three obtuse angles (101 55 ') o
1 0 1 55 '
meet together. These corners are known as Blunt Corners. Calcite is a Uni-axial C alcite
Negative Crystal.
Optic Axis: A line passing through the blunt corners and making equal angles with three faces which meet at this blunt
corner, locate the direction of the Optic axis.
(i) A ray of light propagating along the optic axis does not suffer double refraction.
(ii) Optic ray divides the crystal into two symmetrical parts. So, optic axis is the axis of symmetry of a crystal.
(iii) Any line in the crystal which is parallel to optic axis is also an optic axis.
Principal Section: Any plane in a crystal, which contains optic axis and is perpendicular to two opposite faces is called
a principal section.
Ordinary ray (or) o-ray: The refracted ray, which always obeys the ordinary laws of refraction (Snell’s law) and
having vibrations perpendicular to the principal section is known as o-ray.
(i) The o-ray travels with the constant velocity in all directions in the crystal.
(ii) The refractive index ' µ o ' of o-ray is also constant, throughout the crystal.
(iii) An o-ray is a plane polarized light.
(iv) Along Optic axis an o-ray has constant velocity.
Extra-ordinary ray (or) e-ray: A refracted ray which does not obey the laws of refraction (i.e., does not obey snell’s
law) and having vibrations parallel to the principal section is called as e-ray.
(i) The e-ray has different velocities in different directions of the crystal.
(ii) The refractive index of e-ray varies with direction of incidence ray.
(iii) An e-ray is also a plane polarized light.
(iv) Along the Optic axis of a crystal, an e-ray travels with constant velocity.
Principal Section of o-ray:
The plane of a crystal containing optic axis and o-ray is called Principal section of o-ray.
Principal section of e-ray:
The plane of a crystal containing optic axis and e-ray is called Principal section of e-ray.
Uni-axial crystals: A crystal which contains only one direction along which the two refracted rays (o-ray and e-ray)
travel with the same velocity is called Uni-axial crystal.
(or)
A crystal with one optic axis is called Uni-axial crystal.
Ex: Calcite, Quartz, Tourmaline, etc.

Bi-axial Crystal: A crystal which contains two directions along which the two refracted rays (o-ray & e-ray) travel
with the same velocity is called Bi-axial crystal.
(or)
A crystal with two optic axes is called Bi-axial crystal.
Ex: Mica, Topaz, Aragonite etc.
Negative crystals: A crystal in which the refractive index ' µ o ' of ordinary ray is greater than the refractive index ' µ e '
of e-ray is called Negative crystal i.e., µ o > µ e .
In Negative crystals e-ray travels faster than the o-ray i.e., ve > vo .
Ex: Calcite.
Positive Crystals: A crystal in which the refractive index ' µ e ' of e-ray is greater than the refractive index ' µ o ' of o-ray
is called a positive crystal i.e., µ e > µ o .
In positive crystals ordinary ray moves faster than extra-ordinary ray i.e., vo > ve .
Ex: Quartz, ice, etc.
Bifringence ' ∆µ ' : Bifringence of a crystal is defined as, ∆µ = µ e − µ o .
If µ e > µ o , ' ∆µ ' is a positive quantity, so for positive crystals, Bifringence is positive.
If µ o > µ e , ' ∆µ ' is a negative quantity, so for negative crystals, Bifringence is negative.
Refracted rays (o-ray & e-ray) in Calcite:
A Calcite crystal comes under the category of Uni-
axial Negative crystals. N 109o
When a light ray AB is incident on a Calcite crystal at B e − ray
an angle of incidence ‘i’ with the normal N as shown in ∠ i
figure, the ray breaks up (refracts) into ordinary and extra- C
ordinary rays. A 71 o
∠ro ∠re
D o − ray
The ordinary ray travelling along BD makes an angle
of refraction ∠ ro and extra-ordinary ray travelling along BC makes an angle of refraction ∠ re with the normal N.
sin i sin i
In Calcite ∠ro < ∠re , so, refractive index of o-ray and e-ray are given as, µ o = and µ e = .
sin ro sin re
Q In Calcite ∠ro < ∠re , so, µ o > µ e . Hence velocity of o-ray is less than the velocity of e-ray i.e., vo < ve.
So, in Calcite crystal the relation between refracting angles, refractive indices and velocities of o-ray and e-ray
are as follows:
∠ro < ∠re , µ o > µ e and vo < ve .
NICOL PRISM:
Nicol prism is a device for producing and analyzing a plane polarized light.
Principle: The ordinary ray (o-ray) produced in the Calcite crystal is eliminated by the Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
from the crystal by splitting the crystal into two pieces and then pasted with a thin film of Canada Balsam. So, only
e-ray which is completely plane polarized light transmits the P Q
Nicol prism. Canada Balsam
Construction: A Calcite crystal whose length is three times it N 90o
B
width is taken and the end faces are grounded so that principal ∠i
o o
section will have 68 and 112 , to increase the field of view. A 90o e − ray
Now, the principal section is cut into two pieces along N'
PR and QS, polished and then cemented together by Canada R o − ray S
Balsam. O
The refractive index (µC ) of Canada Balsam is related as, µe < µC < µo .
For sodium D lines, µo = 1.658, µc = 1.55 and µe = 1.486
Working: When an unpolarised light AB is incident on the face PR of the prism, it is doubly refracted into ordinary ray
and extra-ordinary ray.
From the values of refractive indices of Canada balsam, o-ray and e-ray, Canada balsam acts as a rarer medium
for o-ray and as a denser medium for e-ray. Also, the dimensions of the crystal are chosen such that the angle of
incidence of o-ray is greater than the critical angle. Under these conditions, the o-ray can be eliminated from the prism
by Total Internal Reflection at the surface of the Canada balsam.
But e-ray is moving from rarer to denser medium so does not obey TIR and is transmitted through the Canada
balsam and emerges out of QS of Nichol prism. Because e-ray is a plane polarized light, having vibrations parallel to
the principal plane, the light emerging from the Nichol prism is plane polarized.
Limitations: Nichol’s prism can be used as both polarizer and analyzer.
HUYGEN’S THEORY OF DOUBLE REFRACTION:

According to Huygen’s theory, each point on a wavefront acts as a fresh source of wave and generates
secondary wavelets. This theory as such could not explain the phenomenon of double refraction. So, Huygen extended
his theory of secondary wavelets to explain double refraction in uni-axial crystals.
According to this theory, in Calcite
(i) When any wavefront strikes a double refracting crystal, every
point of the crystal becomes a source of two wavefronts.
(a) Ordinary wavefront, since o-ray has constant velocity in all
directions, the o-wavefront is spherical.
(b) Extra-ordinary wavefront, since e-ray has different
velocities in different directions, the e-wavefront is ellipsoid, o − wavefront Optic Axis e − wavefront
with optic axis as the axis of revolution.
(ii) The sphere and ellipsoid touch each other along the optic axis of
the crystal, because the velocities of both o-ray and e-ray are
equal along optic axis.
(iii) In negative crystals, ellipsoid lies outside the sphere as shown in
figure, because in negative crystals e-ray moves faster than o- in Quartz
ray.
(iv) In positive crystals, sphere lies outside the ellipsoid as shown in figure, because in positive crystals o-ray
moves faster than e-ray.
Theory:
Consider a beam of plane polarized light obtained from Nicol prism falls normally on a Calcite crystal cut with
its optic axis parallel to its faces P Q
as shown in figure. Canada Balsam p o la rised
Let ‘A’ be the maximum N 90o L ight
B
amplitude of incident light which U n p o la rised ∠i
makes angle θ with optic axis. L ight 90o e − ray
The plane polarized light on N '
A
entering the crystal is split up into R Nichol o − ray S Calcite Crystal
two components o-ray and e-ray, O
with amplitude components ( A sin θ ) along o-ray i.e.,
PO and ( A cos θ ) along e-ray i.e., PE. O A
According to Huygen’s theory of double A sin θ
refraction the o-ray and e-ray move with different P E
velocities and in same direction. After the rays transmit A cos θ
the Calcite crystal, they have a phase difference δ
depending upon the thickness ‘t’ of crystal.
The equations for such waves can be written as

x = A cos θ sin(ω t + δ ) for e − ray → (1)
y = A sin θ sin ω t for o − ray → (2)
Let A cos θ = a and A sin θ = b, then
x = a sin(ω t + δ ) → (3)
y = b sin ω t → (4)
y
From eqn.(4) sin ω t = → (5)
b
 y2 
∴ cos ω t =  1 − 2  → (6)
 b 
Expanding eqn.(3) by using eqn’s (5)&(6), we have
 2
  2

⇒ x = y cos δ +  1 − y2  sinδ ⇒ x − y cos δ =  1 − y2  sinδ
x = a (sin ω t cos δ + cos ω t sin δ )
a b  b  a b  b 
by squaring and expanding the above eqn, we have
x2 y 2 2xy cos δ y2 2 x2 y 2 2xy cos δ
⇒ 2
2
+ 2 cos δ − 2
= sin δ − 2 sin δ ⇒ 2
− 2 (sin 2 δ + cos2 δ ) − = sin 2 δ
a b ab b a b ab
2 2
x y 2xy cos δ
⇒ 2
+ 2− = sin 2 δ → (7)
a b ab
The above eqn.(7) is the General equation of Ellipse.
Case (1): When δ = 0, sin δ = 0 and cos δ = 1 δ =0
∴ from eqn.(7), b
2
x y b
2 2
x y 2xy x y a
2
+ 2− =0 ⇒  −  =0 ⇒ − =0 ⇒ y = x → (8)
a b ab a b a b a
This is the equation of straight line. Therefore the light will be plane polarized light with vibrations in the same plane
as in incident light.
π π π π
Case (2): When δ = (2n +1) , n = 0,1,2,.... i.e., δ = ,3 ,5 ,........
2 2 2 2
then sin δ = 1 and cos δ = 0 π π
δ =3
Then eqn.(7) reduces to b δ =
2 b 2
2
x y 2
a a
⇒ + =1 → (9)
a 2 b2
This represents the equation of a symmetrical ellipse. Thus the emergent light in this case will be Elliptically polarized
light. π
δ =
π 2
Case (3): When δ = and a = b, then
2 a
Eqn.(7) becomes a
⇒ x2 + y 2 = a2 → (10)
This represents a circle. Thus the emergent light will be Circularly polarized light.
PHASE RETARDATION PLATES:

Phase retardation plates are used to change the state of polarization of an incident light.
Working: When plane polarized light is incident on a phase retardation plate, it splits the light into o-ray and e-ray,
which are plane polarized, vibrating perpendicular to one another and one wave lags behind the other by a known
quantity. Now, when these two waves emerge out of crystal and superimpose, then the resultant wave is of a different
state of polarization.
Ex: Quarter-wave plate and Half-wave plate are the important phase retardation plates.
Quarter-wave plate (QWP):
A crystal plate which introduces a phase difference of π 2 radians or a path difference of λ 4 between o-ray
and e-ray is called a Quarter-wave plate (QWP).
Construction of QWP:
A Calcite plate is cut with optic axis parallel to the surface. The thickness ‘t’ of such a plate can be calculated as
below.
If µo and µe be the refractive indices of the crystal for o-ray and e-ray, then the
optical path difference between o-ray and e-ray is,
∆ = µot − µet = (µo − µe )t (Q µo > µe in Calcite)
But a Quarter-wave plate introduces a path difference of ∆ = λ t
4
∴ µo t − µet = λ 4
λ Optic Axis
t=
4 ( µ o − µe )
λ π
∴ If the thickness of a uni-axial Calcite crystal is , then the plate introduces a phase difference of or a
4 ( µo − µ e ) 2
path difference of λ 4 between o-ray and e-ray.
λ
For positive crystals µ e > µ o , so, t = .
4 ( µe − µo )
Since a Quarter-wave plate introduces a phase difference of 90o, it is used to produce circular and elliptically
polarized light.
Half-Wave Plate (HWP):
A uni-axial crystal plate which introduces a phase difference of ' π ' or a path difference of λ between o-ray
2
and e-ray, then it is called a Half-Wave Plate.
Construction of HWP:
A Calcite plate is cut with optic axis parallel to the surface. The thickness ‘t’ of such a plate can be calculated as
below.
If µo and µe are the refractive indices of o-ray and e-ray, then the path difference between o-ray and e-ray is given by,
∆ = µot − µet = (µo − µe )t (Q µo > µe in Calcite)
But a half-wave plate introduces a path difference of ∆ = λ
2
∴ µo t − µet = λ
2
λ
t= ( for uni − axial crystals )
2 ( µo − µe )
λ
For positive crystals, t = (Q µe > µo in positive crystals )
2 ( µ e − µo )
PRODUCTION OF CIRCULARLY AND ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED LIGHT ( USING QWP ):

Production of Elliptically polarized light using QWP:
Let a ray of plane polarized light be incident on a Quarter-wave plate such that the electric vector ‘E’ makes an
angle θ with the optic axis. Now the ray is divided into o-ray and e-ray of different amplitudes E2 and E1 which are
equal to ( E sin θ ) and ( E cos θ ) respectively. The rays move along the same path but with different velocities. The ray
having its vibrations parallel to the optic axis is e-ray and the other having vibrations normal to the optic axis is o-ray.
The two waves are coherent and start in phase at the front face of the quarter-wave plate, but progressively get
out of phase as they propagate through the crystal. When the two rays reach the rear face and emerge out of the crystal
plane, they will have a phase difference of π 2 .
If δ = π 2 , then cos δ = 0 and sin δ = 1
Then according to the equation, θ
2 2
 Ex   E y  2 Ex E y
  +  − cos δ = sin 2 δ
 E1   E2  E1 E2
Plane Elliptically
2 2 Polarized
 Ex   E y  light Optic axis Polarized
light
We have  +
   = 1 QWP
 E1   E2 
The above equation represents an Ellipse. Therefore the resultant of the rays (o-ray & e-ray) is Elliptically
polarized light.
Production of Circularly polarized light using QWP:
Let the plane polarized light be incident on the quarter-wave plate such that the electric vector ‘E’ makes an
angle θ = 45o with the optic axis.
E E
Now, E1 = E cos θ = E cos 45o = and E 2 = E sin θ = E sin 45o =
2 2
E
i.e., E1 = E2 = = E0
2
Now, the two rays are coherent and start in phase at the point of entry and emerge out at the rear face of the
crystal with a phase difference δ = π 2.
π
Substituting E1 = E2 = E0 and δ = in the following equation
2 θ = 45o
2 2
 Ex   E y  2 Ex E y
  +  − cos δ = sin 2 δ
 E1   E2  E1 E2
2 2 Plane Circularly
E  E  Polarized Optic axis Polarized
Then we have  x  +  y  =1 light light
 E0   E0  QWP
⇒ Ex + E y
2 2
= E02
The above equation represents a circle. Therefore, the resultant ray coming out of QWP is a Circularly
polarized light.
Thus, we can produce circularly or elliptically polarized light by using a quarter-wave plate depending upon the
angle of incident electric vector ‘E’ with the direction of the optic axis of the quarter –wave plate.
Action of the QWP on Elliptically and Circularly polarized light:
Let us consider elliptically polarized light incident on a quarter-wave plate. Elliptically polarized light may be
viewed as made up of two coherent plane polarized waves of different amplitudes and differing in phase of π 2. The
quarter-wave plate introduces an additional phase difference of 90o leading to a total phase difference of ' π ' between
the waves at the rear face of QWP.
Consequently, both the component waves will vibrate in the same plane, which result in a plane polarized light.
Similarly, the action of a quarter-wave plate on circularly polarized light is to convert it into plane polarized light.
DETECTION OF PLANE, CIRCULARLY AND ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED LIGHT:

( USING POLARISER AND QWP )
Light may exhibit any one of the three types of polarizations or may be unpolarized or partially polarized. The
polarization of the light can be detected by using a polarizer and a Quarter-wave plate.
The following steps are used in the detection of the type of polarization.
1) A polarizer is placed into the path of the light of I
unknown type of polarization. On rotating the
polarizer through on full rotation, if the transmitted Unknown Plane
light intensity is extinguished twice, then the polarization 0 0 Polarized
light
incident light is plane polarized.
polarizer I
I max 2) If the intensity of the transmitted light varies
Elliptically
Unknown between a maximum value and a minimum value but
Or
polarization I min I min Partially does not become extinguished in any position of the
Polarized polarizer, then the incident light is either partially
light polarized or Elliptically polarized.
polarizer I max
I
Unknown Circularly
3) On rotation of the polarizer, if the intensity of the Or
polarization I I Unpolarized
transmitted light remains with equal intensity in all
positions, then the incident light is either circularly light
polarized or unpolarized. polarizer I
To distinguish between the Elliptically polarized and partially polarized light or Circularly and
unpolarized light, we use a quarter-wave plate. Light is allowed to pass through Quarter-wave plate first and
then through the polarizer.
I 4) If the incident light is Elliptically polarized,
Elliptically the quarter-wave plate converts it into a plane
Or Elliptically polarized beam which on rotation of the polarizer be
Partially 0 0 Polarized extinguished twice.
Polarized light
light
QW P polarizer I I max
Elliptically
On the other hand, if the transmitted Or Partially
light varies between a maximum and a Partially I min I minPolarized
minimum without becoming zero, then the Polarized light
incident light is partially polarized. light
QW P polarizer I max
I
Circularly 5) If the incident light is circularly polarized,
Or Circularly the quarter-wave plate converts it into plane
Unpolarized 0 0 Polarized polarized light on one complete rotation of the
Polarized light
light
polarizer, the light would be extinguished twice.
QW P polarizer I
I
Circularly
On the other hand, if the intensity of Or Unpolarized
the transmitted light remains constant on Unpolarized I I Polarized
Polarized light
rotation of the polarizer, then the incident
light is unpolarized light. light
QWP polarizer I
OPTICAL ACTIVITY
Optically Active material: Materials having the ability of rotating the plane of polarization or the plane of vibration of a
plane polarized light on passing through them are called as Optically active materials.
Ex: Optically active Crystals: Quartz, Cinnabar, etc.
Optically active liquids: Turpentine, Tartaric acid, Nicotine, aqueous solution of sugar, etc.
Optical Activity: The property of a material, which rotates the plane of vibration or the plane of polarization of a plane
polarized light about an axis parallel to its direction, when allowed to pass through them is called optical activity. The
angle through which the plane of vibration is rotated is called as Angle of rotation.
LAW OF OPTICAL ROTATION:

According to this law,
“The amount of rotation θ of plane of polarization of a plane polarized light is directly proportional to
the concentration ' C ' of the liquid and the length ' l ' of the path of the light travelled through the solution”.
Mathematically it can be written as,

θ ∝ l and θ ∝ C
θ ∝l C
θ =S l C
where ‘S’ is the constant of proportionality called as Specific rotation.
Some observed facts about Optical Rotation:
Biot observed the following facts about Optical rotation.
1) There are two types of optically active substances.
(i) The substances which rotate the plane of polarization in Clock-wise direction are called as
Dextro-rotatory or right handed substances.
(ii) The substances which rotate the plane of polarization in Anti-clock-wise direction are called as
Laevo-rotatory or left handed substances.
2) The rotation varies inversely as the square of the wavelength of the light used.
1
θ∝ 2
λ
Thus angle of rotation is least for Red and greatest for Violet.
3) The total rotation θ produced by a number of optically active substances is the algebraic sum of the rotations
(θ1 , θ 2 , θ 3 ,......) produced by the individual specimens.
∴ θ ∝ (θ1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + ......)
The rotation in the anti-clockwise direction is taken as positive and that in the clockwise direction as negative.
SPECIFIC ROTATION:
The specific rotation of a substance at a particular temperature and for a given wavelength of light used may be
defined as,
“the rotation 'θ ' of plane of polarization of plane polarized light produced by one decimeter length ' l ' of the
solution when the concentration ' C ' is 1gm. per c.c.”
θ
Thus, Specific Rotation, S =
l ×C
where 'θ ' is the angle of rotation in degrees, ' l ' is the length of solution in decimeter and ' C ' is
the concentration of solution in gm. per c.c.
Measurement of Specific Rotation of a given liquid:
1) LAURENT’S HALF-SHADE POLARIMETER:

Polarimeter is an instrument used to determine the optical rotation of solution. It can also be used to find the
Specific rotation of sugar solution or if the specific rotation is known, then we can find its concentration.
Construction:
The essential parts of a
Laurent’s polarimeter are as shown in Convex lens ' L '
Analyzer
Polarizer
the figure. S is a monochromatic source
S
and L is a convex lens which makes the
N2 Telescope
incident rays into parallel beam. N1 and N1 Glass Tube ' T '
monochromatic Half − shade Circular
N2 are two Nicol Prisms. N1 acts as a Source , S device ( H .S .) Scale ( C .S .)
Polarizer and N2 acts as an Analyzer. N2 F ig . L a u ren t ' s H a lf − sh a d e P o la rim eter
is capable of rotating about an axis
through N1 and N2. The rotation of the analyzer can be read from the graduated circular scale C.S. The light after
passing through the N1 is allowed to pass through half-shade device (H.S.) and then through a glass tube T which holds
the optically active substance (here sugar solution). The glass tube T is a hallow tube having a large diameter in the
middle so that no air bubble may be in the path of the light when filled with liquid. It is also closed at the ends by over-
slips and metal covers. The ray after passing through the N2 is viewed by a telescope.
Half-shade device: The Laurent’s half-shade plate consists of a semi-circular half-wave plate ABC of quartz
(cut parallel to the optic axis) so that it introduces a phase change of ' π ' between e-ray and o-ray passing through it and
a semi-circular glass plate ADC as shown in the figure. These two plates are cemented along the diameter AC. The
thickness of the glass plate is such that it absorbs the same amount of light as the Quartz plate.
Action of Half-shade device: Let the plane of vibration of A
Y
the plane polarized light incident normally on half-shade plate is R
P R L P
along PQ. Here PQ makes an angle θ with AC. The light emerges θ θ
θ θ
from glass plate along PQ whereas in quartz plate, the light is
divided into two components – one o-ray along XX’ and the other D B
X ' N O P X
e-ray along YY’. Now the o-ray moves faster than e-ray and on
emergence a phase difference of ' π ' is introduced between o-ray S
Q Y'
and e-ray. Due to this phase difference the direction of o-ray is
Glass C Quartz
reversed i.e., if the initial position of o-ray is OM then the final
position is ON. So, the resultant of e-ray along OL and o-ray along ON will be OR which makes an angle 'θ ' with the
Y-axis. Thus the vibration of the beam emerging out of quartz will be along RS.
If the principal plane of the analyzing Nicol is parallel to PQ, then light from glass plate will pass without
obstruction, and the light passing through quartz is obstructed. Due to this, the glass half will appear brighter than the
quartz half.
If the principal plane of analyzing Nicol is parallel to RS, the light from the quartz half will be pass without
obstruction, and the light passing through the glass half will be obstructed. Due to this, the Quartz half will appear
brighter than the glass half.
If the principal plane of analyzer is parallel to AC, it is equally inclined to the two plane polarized lights and
hence the field of view will be equally bright.
Determination of Specific Rotation: To determine the Specific rotation ‘S’ of a substance, a solution of known
concentration is prepared. The length of the solution is measured directly and the value of 'θ ' is determined as follows:
1) The glass tube is filled with water and placed in its proper position.
2) The telescope is focused on the half-shade and analyzer is rotated till equal bright position is obtained and
the reading of the vernier on the circular scale is noted as 'θ1 ' .
3) Now the glass tube is filled with the optically active solution whose concentration is known and placed in its
proper position. The field of view in this stage will not be equally bright.
4) The analyzer is rotated and is brought to a position so that the field of view is equally bright and the reading
of the vernier on the circular scale is noted as 'θ 2 ' .
5) The difference between θ1 and θ 2 gives the angle of rotation (θ = θ1 ~ θ 2 ) produced by the solution.
6) The experiment is repeated with different known concentrations of the solution.
7) A graph is then plotted between concentrations and the angle of rotation, which results a straight line.
8) From the graph the ratio 'θ C ' is determined. Substituting these values, the specific rotation is calculated by
θ
using the formula, S = .
l ×C
2) BI-QUARTZ POLARIMETER:
Bi-Quartz polarimeter is an accurate instrument which is more sensitive than half-shade polarimeter.
The experimental set-up is same as that of half-shade polarimeter except tha half-shade device is replaced by
Bi-quartz device and monochromatic
light is replaced by white light. Convex lens ' L '
Polarizer Analyzer
Construction: The essential parts
of a Bi-quartz polarimeter are as shown S
N2
in the figure. S is a white light source N1 Glass Tube ' T '
Telescope
W hite Light Bi − quartz
and L is a convex lens which makes the Source , S device ( H .S .)
Circular
Scale ( C .S .)
incident rays into parallel beam. N1 and
F ig . B i − q u a rtz P o la rim eter
N2 are two Nicol Prisms. N1 acts as a
Polarizer and N2 acts as an Analyzer. N2 is capable of rotating about an axis through N1 and N2. The rotation of the
analyzer can be read from the graduated circular scale C.S. The light after passing through the N1 is allowed to pass
through Bi-quartz device (B.Q.) and then through a glass tube T which holds the optically active substance (here sugar
solution). The glass tube T is a hallow tube having a large diameter in the middle so that no air bubble may be in the
path of the light when filled with liquid. It is also closed at the ends by over-slips and metal covers. The ray after
passing through the N2 is viewed by a telescope.
Bi-quartz Device: It consists of two semi-circular plates of quartz (one of left-handed quartz ‘L’ and other
right-handed quartz R) each of thickness 3.75mm. Both are cut perpendicular to the optic axis and joined together
along the diameter PQ’ as shown in figure. The thickness of each plate 3.75mm rotates the plane of polarization for
yellow light by 90o.
Action of Bi-quartz device: When white light after passing the polarizer travels through the bi-quartz normally,
the phenomenon of rotator dispersion occurs in both Bi-quartz plates because the plane of P
R
polarized light is travelling along optic axis. The planes of vibration of different colours R
o
are rotated through different angles. The rotation of Yellow colour is 90 and hence YOY is o
a straight line. 90 o O 90
Y
If the principal plane of the analyzer is parallel to POQ, the Yellow light will not Y
be transmitted through the analyzer and the appearance of the two halves is grayish violet G G
tint, called as sensitive tint. When the analyzer is rotated to one side from this position one
B B
half appears Blue while the other appears Red.
V Q V
If the analyzer is rotated in opposite direction, then the colours are altered i.e., the
first Blue-half appears Red and the Red-half appears Blue. This position of sensitive tint is very sensitive and is used
for the accurate determination of optical rotation.
Determination of Specific Rotation: To determine the Specific rotation ‘S’ of a substance, a solution of known
concentration is prepared. The length of the solution is measured directly and the value of 'θ ' is determined as follows:
1) The glass tube is filled with water and placed in its proper position.
2) The telescope is focused on the Bi-quartz device and analyzer is rotated till Yellow colour position is
obtained and the reading of the vernier on the circular scale is noted as 'θ1 ' .
3) Now the glass tube is filled with the optically active solution whose concentration is known and placed in its
proper position. The field of view in this stage will not be Yellow but a grayish violet tint is observed.
4) The analyzer is rotated and is brought to a position so that the field of view is Yellow and the reading of the
vernier on the circular scale is noted as 'θ 2 ' .
5) The difference between θ1 and θ 2 gives the angle of rotation (θ = θ1 ~ θ 2 ) produced by the solution.
6) The experiment is repeated with different known concentrations of the solution.
7) A graph is then plotted between concentrations and the angle of rotation, which results a straight line.
8) From the graph the ratio 'θ C ' is determined. Substituting these values, the specific rotation is calculated by
θ
using the formula, S = .
l ×C

Polarization of Light by Mr. Charis

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Mr. A.CHARIS ISRAEL. M.Sc., B.Ed., (Ph.D.

each having its own direction of vibration is called unpolarized light.

Plane of Vibration: The “plane in which the vibrations of

confined to a single plane perpendicular to the direction

If ‘I’ be the intensity of the incident polarized light, then I = a2 → (2)

Ex: Calcite, Quartz, Tourmaline, etc.

HUYGEN’S THEORY OF DOUBLE REFRACTION:

The equations for such waves can be written as

PHASE RETARDATION PLATES:

PRODUCTION OF CIRCULARLY AND ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED LIGHT ( USING QWP ):

DETECTION OF PLANE, CIRCULARLY AND ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED LIGHT:

LAW OF OPTICAL ROTATION:

Mathematically it can be written as,

Measurement of Specific Rotation of a given liquid:

1) LAURENT’S HALF-SHADE POLARIMETER:

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