Audubon Birdhouse Book

DeDicationS
To my husband, Adam,
thank you for your
kindness and patience,
as well as tech support,
nonstop cheering on, and
happinesses. Lets put up
more nest boxes together.
Margaret A. Barker
Thanks to my husband,
Steve, and daughter,
Liliana Pearl, for adding
sweetness to my life that
soars higher than the birds.
Your wondrous presence
makes my Ithaca-based
nest box cavity complete.
Elissa Wolfson
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Birdhouse
Book
Building, Placing, and
Maintaining Great Homes
for Great Birds
By Margaret A. Barker and Elissa Wolfson

Foreword by Stephen W. Kress, vice president for
bird conservation for the National Audubon Society
Carpentry by Chris Willett
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Contents
ForEWord:
WooDPeckerS: tHe oriGinal
BirDHouSe BuilDerS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
acknoWleDGMentS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
ChAPTEr 1:
Many BirDS neeD a HelPinG HanD . . . . . .10
ChAPTEr 2:
BuilD HoMeS to Benefit BirDS . . . . . . . . . . . .18
ChAPTEr 3:
BirDS in BoxeS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Wrens (Bewicks, carolina, House)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Warblers (Prothonotary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Bluebirds (eastern, Western, Mountain)
. . . . . . . 46
flycatchers (ash-throated, Great crested) . . . . . 57

Swallows (tree, Violet-green)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
titmice (tufted, oak, Juniper,

Black-crested)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
owls (Barred) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
owls (eastern Screech, Western Screech) . . . . . . 71
flickers (northern) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
owls (Barn)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
kestrels (american) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
chickadees (Black-capped, carolina,
Mountain)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Ducks (Wood Duck) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Mergansers (Hooded)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
112
Swallows (Purple Martin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
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ChAPTEr 4:
BirDS outSiDe of BoxeS . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Doves (Mourning) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Swallows (Barn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
robins (american)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
129
finches (House) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Phoebes (eastern, Says) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
owls (Burrowing)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
loons (common) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Swifts (chimney) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Herons (Great Blue) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
ospreys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
ChAPTEr 5:
HoW to HelP tHe BirDS . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
BiBlioGraPHy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
inDex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
aBout tHe teaM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
List of
BuiLding
pLans
carolina Wren nest box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Prothonotary Warbler nest box . . . . . . . . . . . 42
xbox (for bluebirds, flycatchers,
swallows, and titmice) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Barred owl nest box
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Screech-owl nest box

Bower flicker box
66
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
Barn owl nest box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

american kestrel nest box
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
chickadee nest box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Wood Duck nest box (for Wood Ducks
and Hooded Mergansers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Purple Martin gourd rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Mourning Dove nest basket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Barn Swallow l-shaped platform . . . . . . . . . 128
V-shaped shelf (for american robins,
House finches, and Phoebes) . . . . . . . . . . 130
covered shelf (for american robins,
House finches, and Phoebes) . . . . . . . . . . 132
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f o r e Wo r D
WoodpeCkers:
t H e o ri G i n al B ir D Ho u S e B u il D e r S
uilding a nest box for wild birds can be one of the

most gratifying projects a person can undertake.
When placed in the proper habitat, a nest box or birdhouse may be occupied, defended, and filled with eggs
almost immediately. The best nest boxes are simple,
without elaborate detail, void of paint and embellishment.
The first nest box builders and skilled construction pros
were woodpeckers, making homes by excavating cavities
in tree trunks. By observing woodpecker homes, we can
learn much about avoiding predators, preventing drainage issues, and locating a nest to minimize the effects of
extreme weather. When building a nest box, try to think
like a woodpecker.
Woodpeckers help other cavity-nesting birds because
of their talent for building ideal homes. A woodpecker
pair typically remains together for years, but the male
and female chisel separate sleeping places. When nesting season arrives, rather than reuse a previous home,
they excavate a new nesting cavity. In this way, each pair
typically creates three tree cavities per year for roosting
and nesting, all of which they vacate at the end of the
breeding cycle. Many other bird species later depend
on these various-sized holes, created by different-sized
woodpeckers, for their own sleeping and nesting needs.
Cavities excavated by Downy Woodpeckers are ideal for
chickadees and nuthatches, flicker nest cavities are a good
fit for American Kestrels, and Pileated Woodpeckers can
hammer out housing large enough for Bufflehead Ducks.
Unfortunately, the young forests that prevail over much of
North America are not ideal for woodpeckers, as they too
often lack large, dead, standing trees required for woodpecker drumming. The housing shortage is furthered by
nonnative House Sparrows and European Starlings that
compete for scarce housing.
Margaret Barker and Elissa Wolfson have provided a

much-needed, updated volume on nest boxes by researching and gathering previously scattered recent innovations
and some of the most classic designs for birdhouse
design and current best practices for placement, mounting, and maintenance. This is important, not just for
birdhouse species such as bluebirds and martins, but also
for the many species that nest outside of boxes, including Ospreys, loons, American Robins, Mourning Doves,
Chimney Swifts, and even Burrowing Owls. In this book,
one can find tips for pruning trees and shrubs to make
them more appealing for nest builders such as goldfinches,
vireos, and most warblers.
With care, woodworkers can provide housing that is
nearly as good as natural nesting cavities. In some habitats, everything a bird needs, including food, shelter, and
singing posts, may be availableexcept for a suitable
nesting cavity. By installing nest boxes in such otherwiseideal habitats, people can help to increase the carrying
capacity of the land for these birds.
Some birds are now totally dependent on human
housing, in part because natural housing is scarce, but
also because young birds tend to look for familiar housing. Bluebirds, Purple Martins, and Chimney Swifts
now make their nests almost entirely in human-created
housing. The responsiveness of these species to humanprovided nest boxes has encouraged the formation of
organizations, websites, publications, and most important, passionate and creative birdhouse builders who are
constantly tinkering, with the goal of building increasingly better nest boxes.
The boxes and nesting structures described here are
the results of decades of caring field-testing, sometimes
by groups of amateur carpenters and bird aficionados,
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culminating in designs such as the Xbox, a recent stateof-the-art bluebird box. This innovative design challenges
some of the classic rules of birdhouse building, such as
required drainage holes. New methods provide adjustable
ventilation depending on season, location, and latitude.
Other new ideas shared here are based on astute observations of bird behavior, such as Dick Tuttles clever kestrel
box with pseudo-holes on two side walls to help attract
cavity-seeking birds from varied angles, an idea that may
eventually prove useful for other species as well. These
latest plans offer significant improvements over older
designs; many are easier to build, install, and clean. Most
important, they offer housing that is more adaptable to
extreme weather and safer from predators.
Just as there are advances in basic birdhouse design,
technology is also providing new ways to attract, study, and
conserve birds. Social attraction, a method developed for
attracting seabirds to nesting islands, is now being used to
attract songbirds to backyards. In this way, playback recordings of Purple Martin dawn songs, coupled with martin
decoys, can help to advertise new housing. Likewise, Barn
and Cliff Swallows are also responsive to audio calls, encouraging nesting in otherwise unoccupied barns and eaves. Like
seabirds, these birds nest in colonies, but there is increasing
evidence that most young songbirds looking for new homes
will recognize songs of their own species and choose to nest
nearby, providing they find suitable habitat.
Technology is also allowing remarkable views of birds
within their nests. This book includes information on
nest cameras that offer intimate views of birds ranging
from hummingbirds to eagles. High-definition bird cams
reveal details about the family lives of birds previously
hidden in nest boxes, from the treetop nests of owls to
the underground burrows of puffins on remote islands.
These nest cams are enabling citizen scientists everywhere to watch and record the details of nesting behavior
and report them to groups like Audubon and the Cornell
Lab of Ornithology. By gathering information about
the timing of bird breeding and even the kinds of foods
delivered to chicks, these observations help us understand climate change, and ultimately, the state of our
planets health.
Certainly the process of improving nest boxes and
nesting structures, and watching the birds within them,
will continue. For example, while testing the construction
methods presented in this book, master birdhouse builder

Chris Willett designed a wooden chickadee box shaped like
a tree stump. This elegant nest box will likely prove popular
with chickadees, titmice, nuthatches, and wrens, and its all
because woodpeckers inspired Willetts thinking.
Stephen W. Kress
Vice president for bird conservation
for the National Audubon Society
Ithaca, New York
foreWord
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Acknowledgments
O
ver the course of researching and writing the

Audubon Birdhouse Book, it has been our good
fortune to encounter many generous and passionate
people working on behalf of birds. Bird landlords,
those who offer housing and keep watch on their birds,
conservationists, woodworkers, researchers, nest box
designers, and photographersall have shared their skills
and knowledge to inform this book.
Speaking first with North American Bluebird Society
(NABS) board member Dan Sparks of Indiana was an
invaluable stepping-off point that led to contacts with
other veteran bluebirders, including NABS president
Sherry Linn and current NABS board members Bet
Zimmerman and Tom Comfort, who were patient and
candid in answering our many questions.
Other NABS members and bluebirders who
passed along bird wisdom include Vicki Butler, Steve
Gilbertson, and Steve Eno of Bluebirds Across Nebraska.
Keith Kridler, co-author of the Bluebird Monitors Guide,
was always there with a Texas perspective. Myna Pearman
weighed in with Mountain Bluebird advice and beautiful photographs. Keith Radel of the Bluebird Recovery
Program of Minnesota provided valuable input and
historical views. Georgia woodworker and Xbox plan
draftsman Fred Stille shared woodworking tips and nest
box building stories.
Besides the X-Men, who designed the bluebird
XboxKevin Berner, Tom Comfort, Steve Eno, Steve
Gilbertson, Keith Kridler, Keith Radel, and Dan
Sparkswe highlight other nest box designers. Retired
science teacher and bluebirder Dick Tuttle provided
the American Kestrel nest box design and educated us
about his kestrel work in Ohio, even in late-night phone
calls. From him, we heard about the late Bob Orthweins
design for Carolina Wrens and Allen Bowers design for
Northern Flickers. Phone conversations with Allen were
always instructive and his detailed notes and snail mail
letters most appreciated.
The Purple Martin Conservation Association (PMCA)

steered us to our two Purple Martin housing designers,
just the kinds of designs we had been hoping for. Ron
Seekamps Purple Martin house woodworking plans focus
on larger nesting compartments but fewer of them per
house. Chuck Abares simple wooden gourd rack design
accommodates both natural and modern plastic gourds.
The PMCA staff was generous with their time, especially
executive director John Tautin, Louise Chambers, and
Tara Dodge.
We found nest boxes for three owl species. California
woodworker and bird-bander extraordinaire Steve
Simmons, who designed the Barn Owl nest box, has also
been busy helping Ash-throated Flycatchers, Western
Bluebirds, Burrowing Owls, and Wood Ducks over the
past four decades. Rob Bierregaard has introduced North
Carolina students and others to the wonders of the suburban Barred Owl. He refined his nest box design to study
how Barred Owls survive and make a living in suburbia.
Fred Gehlbach, who wrote the Eastern Screech-Owl species account for Birds of North America Online, has studied
both Eastern and Western Screech-Owls. His nest box
design is the result of investigating natural tree cavities.
Long-term Prothonotary Warbler studies begun in the
1980s along the James River near Richmond, Virginia,
have shown these warblers use nest boxesand how!
Today, more than 600 Prothonotary Warbler nest boxes
are set up there, designed by professor Bob Reilly of
Virginia Commonwealth University.
Our Wood Duck nest box design was created around
1990 by the late Don The Duckman Helmeke, a
Minnesota outdoorsman. Wood Duck Society director
Roger Strand graciously shared great insights into Wood
Duck behavior.
We were privileged to have Canadian Chickadee
researchers Ken Otter and Dan Mennill review our
chickadee text. Ken edited The Ecology and Behavior of
Chickadees and Titmice (2007) and Dan coauthored the
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Birds of North America Online species account for

the Black-capped Chickadee. Both Ken and Dan,
professors at universities in British Columbia
and Ontario, respectively, are encouraging their
students to study and test nest box design.
To find examples of how to help birds that nest
out of the box, we tapped into the Audubon
familylocal chapters working for birds. Each
of our contacts is a story unto itself. For conveying to us
your work in the field, we send special thanks to
the following:
Ascutney Mountain Audubon Society (Vermont):
Marianne Walsh and Sam Gordon Gurney
Audubon Minnesota: Ron Windingstad
Golden Gate Audubon Society (California):
Ilana DeBare
Lake County Audubon Society (Illinois):
Jack Nowak and Chris Geiselhart
Los Angeles Audubon Society (California):
Eleanor Osgood
Madison Audubon Society (Wisconsin): Pat Ready
Maine Audubon: Susan Gallo
Santa Clara Valley Audubon Society (California):
Bob Power
Other institutions provided invaluable assistance. The
Cornell Lab of Ornithologys Diane Tessaglia-Hymes
and Barry Bermudez made sure we got range maps for
our species accounts. Charles Eldermire provided Bird
Cam images, and NestWatch project leader Jason Martin
reviewed copy. Hawk Mountain Sanctuarys Keith Bildstein
and Mary Linkevich provided insights and images from
their long-term kestrel nest box research. John Sauer
and David Ziolkowski Jr. of the U.S. Geological Survey
explained North American Breeding Bird Survey results.
Lynda Garrett of the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
library located historic documents.
Others who provided key information include Barbara
Boyle of the Althea R. Sherman project, George Petrides
of the Wild Bird Centers of America, Eric Hanson of
the Vermont Center for Ecostudies, Scott Artis of the
Burrowing Owl Conservation Network, Steve Parren
and John Buck with the Vermont Fish and Wildlife
Department, Pat and Bill Stovall of Stovall Products,
Clifton Brown and Linda Wiley of the Maryland Wood
Duck Initiative, James A. Barker, Jr., Janet Fries, Chris

W. Johnson, and Dan Hutchings.
Sincere thanks go out to our talented photographers.
Three in particular came to the fore when most needed:
Ashok Khosla, David Kinneer, and Mark Musselman.
Aaron Ward of the Maryland Wood Duck Initiative sent
us a CD with several hundred of his remarkable images.
We are grateful to our editors, Dennis Pernu and
Elizabeth Noll, for their vision, commitment, and support to see this project through. Their calm and steady
presence kept things moving forward.
Chris Willett, our master woodworker and book
project team member, rocks! His bird and woodworking
smarts are evident throughout the build sections and final
products. We especially appreciated his flexibility when
challengedand the fact that he was fun to work with all
along the way.
National Audubons Stephen Kress provided invaluable guidance throughout the process, which was much
welcomed and appreciated.
Our sincere apologies if we have made errors of any
sort, or overlooked any individual or organization that
helped along the way.
Finally, we learned that though there are differing and
sometimes strong opinions about nest boxes and nesting
structures, everyone we spoke to had the same goals in
mind: to do whatever it takes to ensure the health, safety,
and continued future of wild birds. It is our hope that this
work will serve to inform and inspire others to build
great homes for birds who need them, to carefully place
those homes in good habitat, to protect them from
predators, to take landlord responsibilities seriously, and
especially, to learn from and enjoy the birds in your care.
aCknoWLedgments
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c Ha P t e r 1
many Birds n e e D
a heLping hand
I doubt if it ever occurs
to the average person that
birds are actually in need
of nesting sites.
Ernest Harold Baynes
n indomitable bird enthusiast of the early 1900s, Ernest Harold Baynes

recognized that most people put up nest boxes simply to have birds around
them, to enjoy their song and beauty. Others in his day placed nest boxes in
orchards and near field crops in the hopes that bird parents would feed their
chicks a steady diet of agricultural pests, thus keeping the insects off the crops.
Nearly a century later, many birds do need help finding suitable places to raise
their young. Due to both natural and human impacts, those places can be
hard to find.
natural iMPactS on BirDS
a flicker feeds its young in a Berlepsch

nest box, a rustic design that originated
from nesting studies conducted by Baron
hans von Berlepsch in germany. the 1915
photo is from the book Wild Bird Guests by
ernest harold Baynes (1915).
Severe weather is one of the biggest natural threats birds face. Although some
storms create positive changes for birdssuch as removing vegetation for
birds like terns that require open sand for nestingthe same hurricanes can
blow migratory birds way off course and have lasting negative impacts on their
habitats. In 1989, Hurricane Hugo decimated the Red-cockaded Woodpeckers
old-growth forest habitat in South Carolina when it snapped trees in half.
A Canadian Wildlife Service study found that Chimney Swift populations
dropped by half the spring following October 2005s Hurricane Wilma, the
most powerful hurricane on record in the Atlantic Basin. The full picture of how
birds fared during Hurricane Sandy in 2012 may not emerge for some time. In
a recent National Geographic.com Daily News report, Bryan Watts of the Center
for Conservation biology in Williamsburg, Virginia, points out that birds have
high mortality rates during events like Hurricane Sandy; those that are migrating are most at risk. He adds that Hurricane Sandys most lasting effect will
likely be coastal reshapingthe inundation and subsequent flattening of
sand dunes and barrier islands inhabited by coastal bird species. Storms can also
connect former islands to the mainland, creating passageways for bird predators
like raccoons.
Heavy snow during migration can be devastating. A report in the January
1907 issue of The Auk, a publication of the American Ornithologists Union,
described how thousands of birds caught in a snowstorm while migrating
across Lake Huron drowned when blown into the water. As many as 5,000
dead birds were counted along the shoreline, including robins, sparrows, and
juncos. A more recent northeastern blizzard in March 1993, locally dubbed
the blizzard of the century, affected twenty-six states and eastern Canada,
with snow accumulations of up to three feet over several days. Such late winter
and early spring storms occur at a time when many birds are beginning to
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H un g ry f o r a p e s t I c Id e - fr e e p l a n et
Birds can be victims of pesticide poisoning, or they
can provide an alternative to pesticide. One innovative
group, the California-based Hungry Owl Project (HOP)
distributes a safe rodenticidelive birds. Started in
2001, HOP promotes the use of Barn Owls and other
beneficial predators for natural pest control, eliminating the need for toxic chemicals and pesticides.
In partnership with the wildlife rehabilitation center
WildCare, HOP encourages these predators by building and installing nest boxes and raptor perches. We
believe there are no safe rodenticides, says HOPs
Alex Godbe. One poisoned rodent, fed to a nest of
Barn Owl chicks, can wipe out the entire nest.
Alternatively, a family of five owls can consume 3,000

rodents in a breeding season. HOP includes school
children by making presentations and soliciting their
help in building owl boxes. So far, more than 1,000
nest boxes have been installed at ranches, farms,
vineyard, and private homes. HOP works with the landowners, putting up and maintaining nest boxes, once
the owners agree to stop setting out poisons. Many
vineyards are now growing organically, and owl nest
boxes can be an important element of their pest control, says Godbe. Our goal is to educate and provide
alternative methods when possible and help create a
win, win situation for all. Visit hungryowl.org.
young members of
the Cornfield Bird
Club in Cornish,
new hampshire,
proudly display their
homemade nest
boxes in this photo,
circa 1915. Boys and
girls in classrooms
and bird clubs were
encouraged to
make nest boxes
and food houses for
the benefit of local
birds. (From Wild
Bird Guests, ernest
harold Baynes, 1915)
nest and many others are still migrating back

to their summer breeding grounds. It is also
when food for birds is particularly scarce, as
most insects have not yet begun to emerge, and
plants have not yet begun to grow. What little
food remains for the birds can get buried in ice
and snow, which can lead to starvation. Other
severe weather, such as droughts and flooding,
also makes life hard for birds.
Human Impact on BIrds

The list of human-created problems for birds
is a long one. By far the largest killer of birds in
America is the loss of bird habitat to development. This, along with large-scale agricultural
land use, has taken a toll on birds, reducing their
usable habitat dramatically in some places across
North America. Land, water, and air pollution, collisions with windows, cars, cell towers,
and power lines, oil spills at sea, and human
Many Birds need a helping hand
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disturbances at nesting sites, all pose additional

major threats to bird populations. The effects of
climate change, too, may be substantial.
All of this helps to explain why about a quarter of the 836 species of birds protected under
the Migratory Bird Treaty Act are currently
in decline. For a third of the remaining birds,
there is insufficient information to determine
the health of their populations. Although there
may not be much individuals can do to effect
direct change on global issues, other issues
around the home are more easily addressed.
Pesticides
According to the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), agriculture accounts for about
80 percent of all pesticide use each year in the
United States (680 million pounds in 2007),
and industry and government an additional 12
percent. Individuals in their homes and gardens
use about 8 percentor 66 million pounds
of pesticides annually. Children and pets, due
to their smaller body sizes and tendency to play
on the ground, have a greater risk of pesticide
exposure than adults. Indeed, studies show
traces of garden chemicals found in 99 percent
of the children tested. In addition, according to
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, pesticides
directly kill 72 million birds each year. An even
larger number may ingest the poisons and die
later or leave orphaned chicks to perish.
People can help bring these numbers down
by following a few simple steps. Consider using
compost rather than commercial fertilizers to
help plants grow. Mulch or black plastic sheets
can be used instead of herbicides to block weed
growth. Nontoxic techniques, such as sticky
tapes, pheromone traps, and biological controls can be used against a variety of unwanted
insects. Where possible, buy produce from local
Domestic cats
are good human
companions, but they
are still predators. To
protect nesting birds,
consider keeping
cats indoors.
Keith Kridler
12
and organic farmers who grow food without

harmful chemicals. For additional helpful
information, and downloadable posters, go to
athome.audubon.org.
introduced sPecies
Three introduced species in particular can
wreak havoc on bird life. They are domestic
cats, House Sparrows, and European Starlings.
outdoor cats
One of the biggest threats to North American
birds and other wildlife is outdoor cats.
Although recent studies about birds and cats
have drawn attention to it, the issue is not
new. The cat question was discussed often
and passionately in the pages of Bird-Lore, the
predecessor of Audubon magazine. In a 1910
issue of Bird-Lore, a Missouri gentleman wrote
in to complain about cats catching some of his
Purple Martins. Similar stories could be found
in every issue. Editorials of the day advocated
for laws against vagrant cats, and suggested
taxes on house cats.
Government publications, too, mentioned
the cat-bird problem in the early twentieth century. In the U.S. Department of Agricultures
Farmers Bulletin 609: Bird Houses and How to
Build Them (1914), biologist Ned Dearborn
stated, Cats and large snakes are enemies of
birds, the former perhaps killing more birds
than any other mammal. A significant study
in the late 1980s from ecologist Stan Temple at
the University of Wisconsin-Madison showed
each outdoor cat killed an average of five to
six birds a year. Yet through the years and with
even more studies, the problem of wild birds
and domestic cats remains unresolved.
In 2013, scientists from the Smithsonians
Conservation Biology Institute and the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Institute found that outdoor
cats kill a median of 2.4 billion birds in the
United States annuallya mortality rate higher
than previously thought. Nesting birds, including migratory birds that may travel thousands
of miles to breed near our homes, are especially
vulnerable. So are stunned, but still living birds
that have collided with windows and fallen to
the ground, within reach of outdoor cats.
To keep birds in nest boxes as safe as possible
from outdoor cats, it may be necessary to use
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predator guards (explored further in Chapter

2). Other recommendations include educating
neighbors about the impacts of roaming cats,
making sure backyard feeder and nest box birds
have nearby brush piles and trees into which
birds can escape, keeping areas directly under
nest boxes mowed and free of hiding places,
and spaying or neutering all cats, particularly
those allowed outside. Cat fences and enclosures, too, can dissuade and prevent cats from
visiting nest boxes (see details on cat enclosures
in Chapter 2).
HouSe SParroWS anD
euroPean StarlinGS
Much has been said, written, and uttered in
expletives about two nonnative birds that have
changed the avian world in North America: the
House Sparrow and the European Starling.
The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)
arrived here first. Formerly called the English
Sparrow, it is actually not a sparrow but a
weaver finch, native to Asia, North Africa,
Europe, and the British Isles. More than 200
years ago, there were no House Sparrows
in North America. Today, their population in
North America is estimated to be more than
150 million.
The bird was first brought to the United
States in 1850 and released by well-meaning
people who had heard that the English
Sparrow might control insects. The population took hold in 1851, when Nicholas
Pike, then-director of the Brooklyn Institute,
brought House Sparrows back from a trip
to Liverpool, England. Half were released
somewhere in New York City upon arrival; the
other half was set free in the citys Greenwood
Cemetery in 1852. Other releases followed
across the county, and by the end of the
century, the House Sparrows population was
already considered a threat to native birds.
The first volume of Bird-Lore magazine, published in 1899, carried many references to the
problem of House Sparrows. In that issue,
the Connecticut Audubon Society reported
that its next years work would include the
consideration of a practical method for destroying the English Sparrow, as a bird distinctly
injurious to song birds and others having
agricultural value. In the magazines next
issue, a Connecticut reader described his new

rough board sparrow-proof bluebird house.
Massachusetts ornithologist Edward Howe
Forbush, in his state-produced publication Bird
Houses and Nesting Boxes (1915), predicted,
The European House Sparrow is the greatest
and most ubiquitous enemy of all native birds
that nest in bird houses and nesting boxes.
After peaking in the 1920s, House Sparrow
populations began to decline, especially in
cities. The birds had been feeding abundantly
on spilled grain meant for carriage horses, but
now automobiles were beginning to replace
horses for transportation. Today, House
Sparrow populations are steady and widespread
across North America. They out-compete many
native species for places to nest, including birds
in nest boxes and other artificial nesting structures. House Sparrows are aggressive and highly
protective of their chosen nest site. They can
kill adult birds and nestlings and destroy eggs.
in 2005, the u.s.

and Canadian
starling population
was estimated
to be 140 million
birdsnearly half of
the global total of
310 million. these
introduced birds,
named for their
starry plumage, can
be dissuaded from
using nest boxes
meant for native
birds by creating
access holes smaller
than the one-and-ahalf-inch diameter
they need to enter.
Ashok Khosla
a male house
sparrow. these
small birds can
cause big problems
for native cavity
nesters. the first
house sparrows
introduced to
north america
from england were
released in new
york City in the
early 1850s; they
are now one of the
most abundant birds
in north america.
Ashok Khosla
many Birds need a heLping hand
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nonnative species, neither House

Sparrows nor starlings are protected
by the federal Migratory Bird Treaty
Act.
HuMan HelPerS
Liberty hyde Bailey,

a professor at Cornell
university, introduced
Teachers Leaflets
into rural schools.
pictured here, The
Birds and I: Teachers
Leaflet No. 10, may
1898. several of the
nest boxes depicted,
while well meaning
and instructive, are
now known to be
poor designs. they
lack the drainage
and ventilation
holes important in
some regions. all
designs also include
perches, which make
nest boxes easy for
predators to access.
Eugene Schieffelin is creditedand

blamedfor bringing the European Starling
(Sturnus vulgaris) to North America. Apparently,
Schieffelin, a theater fan, wanted to bring every
bird mentioned in Shakespeares entire works
to the United States. He wasnt successful in
establishing populations of other birds mentioned by Shakespeare, but the starlings thrived.
In 1880 Schieffelin brought in eighty starlings
and released them in Central Park. The next
year he released forty more. By 1950, starlings
were reported in every U. S. state and Canadian
province. Today, studies estimate this birds
numbers at 140 million.
Male starlings can be very aggressive when
staking out nesting sites, taking over nest boxes
even when they are already occupied. Starting
in late summer and continuing until breeding
time, starlings roost in large groups that can
number more than 150,000. As introduced,
14
The concept of caring for birds in

ones own backyard by offering them
food at feeders, and shelter in artificial nesting structures, became widespread in the late nineteenth century.
Such practices were fueled in part by
the bird protection movement and
a growing interest in nature. Many
people worked to stop the slaughter
of birds for feathers that embellished
ladies hats at that time. Literature
associated with this movement
included ways to protect birds by
offering them food and shelter. Many
books were dedicated to attracting
bird neighbors. Around the same
time, the introduction of cameras and
early binoculars allowed people to
study birds without killing them.
Notable government publications
from the U. S. Bureau of Biological
Survey focused on making homes for
birds. In biologist Ned Dearborns
Farmers Bulletin No. 609 (1914), he
states, . . . no attraction for summer
birds is more effectual than a series of houses
suited to the needs and habits of the various
kinds of house birds. Dearborn then outlined various nest box designs, called House
Plans, including gourds and houses for Purple
Martins, nesting shelves, bluebird, flicker,
and sparrow hawk houses. In 1925, E. R.
Kalmbach and W. L. McAtee wrote Farmers
Bulletin No. 1456: Homes for Birds. Some
designs were again included, but this publication contained much more information about
predators, in a section called Protection Against
Enemies. By this time, the European Starling
had been added to the list of such enemies.
The nest box idea caught on, especially as a
way to help bluebirds. In the 1930s, Thomas
Edgar Musselman, a Quincy, Illinois-based
educator and naturalist, first called attention to
bluebird declines. While working at his familys
business college, after having studied natural
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cHI mne y s w If t He r oI n e ,
a H e ad o f H e r t Im e
Nearly a century ago Althea Rosina Sherman
became the first person to build a Chimney Swift
tower and the first human ever to witness and document the birds entire nesting cycle. Sherman had
thought about building such a tower for years, but
this vision did not become a reality until she was
sixty-two years old. In 1915, a Chimney Swift tower
of her own design was built at her home in National,
Iowa. A staircase wound up and around all four floors
of the chimney; small windows allowed her to peek
in on the birds without frightening them. By studying
living birds, Sherman broke ranks with the researchers of the day, most of whom studied dead birds. She
kept meticulous notes on her observations within the
twenty-eight-foot-high tower from 1918 to 1936. Her
findings were published posthumously in Birds of an
Iowa Dooryard (1952) in the chapter, The Home Life

of the Chimney Swift.
In 2009 a group called Friends of the Sherman Swift
Tower finished building a historically accurate replica
of Shermans tower near her gravesite in Garnavillo,
Iowa. By the summer of 2012, Chimney Swifts were
once again raising their young inside a Shermandesigned tower.
Shermans original Chimney Swift tower eventually
fell into disrepair and was about to be torn down. In
1992, it was rescued and moved to Iowa City. The
Althea R. Sherman Project (althearsherman.org) began
restoration on the tower in March 2013. Plans for the
site include a bird sanctuary, museum, and environmental education center.
althea sherman (third from left) teaches neighbors about Chimney swifts. her Chimney swift tower, pictured in the background,
was made from pine, white oak, and native cottonwood. This twenty-eight-foot-tall, nine-foot-square wooden tower enclosed a twofoot-square artificial chimney, which protruded through the roof. Althea R. Sherman Collection, the Althea R. Sherman Project
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Bl ue B i r D H e r o
As a Minnesota teenager, Lawrence Zeleny was captivated
by bluebirds, which he envisioned as symbols of love, hope,
and happiness. Accounts of his bluebird observations began
to appear in bird-related journals. Although he later became
a biochemist, his passion for bluebirds remained. By the late
1970s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service considered Eastern
Bluebirds rare throughout much of their original range.
In 1976, the now-retired dr. Z wrote a book called The
Bluebird: How You Can Help Its Fight for Survival, followed
by an article in National Geographic magazine. The response
to this article, and the belief that research would help address bluebird conservation issues, lead Zeleny to found the
North American Bluebird Society (NABS) in 1978. Zeleny,
along with his wife, olive, dedicated the remainder of his life
to providing nest boxes, managing his own bluebird trail in
Maryland, and tirelessly promoting bluebirds. After retiring
as NABS president, Zeleny continued to serve as the groups
bluebird guru, until his death in 1995 at the age of ninetyone. Today, the North American Bluebird Society has grown
to be a strong conservation voice, not only for bluebirds but
also for all native cavity-nesting birds.
history at the University of Illinois, he noticed

a paucity of local bluebirds. His observations
led him to conclude that bluebirds simply had
insufficient places to nestfewer cavities in
wooden fence posts or trees and more competition for these fewer sites from House Sparrows
and European Starlings. During the 1930s,
using a downy woodpecker cavity as his model,
he built nearly 100 experimental bluebird nest
boxes of many shapes and sizes, placing them
on trees and fence posts along county roads
and highways. He called his route a trail.
Eventually he set up as many as 1,000 nest
boxes around his hometown. In a 1934 article
in Bird-Lore magazine, which gained considerable attention, Musselman advocated for the
establishment of bluebird trails throughout
the country. Lawrence Zeleny, founder of the
North American Bluebird Society, credited
Musselman with being the originator of the
bluebird conservation movement.
The Wood Duck was another bird helped
by the use of nest boxes. In the early 1900s,
it was on the brink of extinction. By 1937,
16
there were active government efforts to

increase populations, including one involving nest boxes. In that year, nearly 500 barkcovered wooden boxes were set up by the U.S.
Bureau of Biological Survey (now the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service) in central Illinoiss
Chautauqua National Wildlife Refuge. To
test the wildlife management potential of nest
box use for Wood Duck recovery, over the
next several years biologist Art Hawkins and
ornithologist Frank Bellrose made nearly 700
more Wood Duck nest boxes out of roughcut cypress and placed them across Illinois.
Wood Ducks nested in half the nest boxesan
encouraging sign. Hawkins and Bellrose would
later be credited with providing the research
that was largely responsible for restoring Wood
Duck populations.
These are but a few examples of how nest
boxes and artificial nesting structures have
been developed and promoted for conservation purposes throughout the years. Designing,
experimenting, testing, studying, and building
for birds all continue today.
The Audubon Birdhouse Book contains detailed
accounts on selected bird species, designs for
nest boxes and other nesting structures from
dedicated people who work directly with the
birds, plus step-by-step building instructions.
All but one of the designs have been field-tested
by many, many birds. Still being trialed is a
wooden version of a popular and successful PVC
chickadee nest box used to help study chickadee
biology for many years. It was designed by Chris
Willett, the woodworker who has been involved
with this book. Some of the featured nest boxes
attract a host of different species, not just the
one for which it is named. A bluebird nest box
can also be used by wrens, chickadees, swallows,
titmice, or flycatchers. Wood Duck nest boxes
can also become Hooded Merganser nest boxes.
And the list goes on.
Human-built structures have become critical
to the survival of some bird species, including several cited in the Audubon Birdhouse
Book. Chimney Swifts and Purple Martins
fit into this category. For these birds particularly, humans bear a responsibility not only
to provide proper housing but also to teach
young people about these birds, ensuring that
Chimney Swifts, Purple Martins, and other
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wo o dw o r kIn g f or B I r d s
At midlife, Bill Stovall left his pet food sales job and
moved to a small cabin on Michigans Fair Lake.
There he set up a woodshop and, with the encouragement and designs of ornithologist friend Dick
Schinkel, started making nest boxes. At the time, in
the mid-1980s, many commercial bird homes werent
built with bird safety in mind. Things I found on the
market were stapled together, recalls Stovall. I
wanted to be a good-quality manufacturer.
At first, Stovall distributed the homes himself
throughout the Great Lakes region. Today, Wild
Bird Centers of America and Wild Birds Unlimited,
as well as lawn and garden centers nationwide, sell
nest boxes and bat boxes made by Stovall Products
(stovallproducts.com). The birdhousesmade from
western red and northern white cedarare still made
in his own Michigan backyard by a staff of eight.
A lifelong birdwatcher, Stovall recalls making his
first birdhouse from plans found in Boys Life magazine. At Michigan State University and elsewhere, he
and his wife, Pat, regularly host workshops about the
needs of breeding birds. Stovall outlines some basics:
First, dont cut down old trees. Second, birds need
healthy habitat, sources of water, and a safe environment to raise their young. Third, lets make it safe for
the birds.
birds will be part of their future. Other species

presented here, such as owls and bluebirds, all
benefit on a local level from safe and wellplaced human-provided homes.
More important, the Audubon Birdhouse Book
covers essential best practices for establishing
safe and dependable bird housing, including
placement in the right habitats, protection
from predators, proper mounting of nest boxes
and artificial platforms, and maintenance of
bird homes throughout the year. Vital to being
a responsible birdhouse landlord in the
Bill stovall, founder of stovall products, teaches a grandparents

workshop at the pierce Cedar Creek institute in hastings,
Michigan. Pat Stovall
twenty-first century is regularly checking in on

the tenants to see how theyre doing. Keeping
watch over the birds that choose to live in your
nest box, or on another nesting site you have
provided, is a commitment that puts you in
the good company of those working for bird
conservation. Your efforts will pay off in beauty,
perhaps even insect control, and most important, the knowledge that you are lending birds a
helping hand.
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c Ha P t e r 2
BuiLd homes
t o Benefit Birds
As a home builder for
humans and a home builder
for birds, Ive learned that the
basic rules apply to both sets
of customers: Keep em
high and dry.
Chris Willett, woodworker for
the Audubon Birdhouse Book
n excellent first step toward building a great nest box or creating a reliable nesting structure for birds is to figure out what constitutes a poorly
designed, ill-made one. Examples are all too easy to find at stores, garage sales,
and sometimes even at school and community birdhouse-building events.
A checklist of bad featuressome of which may be eye-catching or even
advertised as beneficialmostly applies to nest boxes for smaller birds. It
includes the following:
heaviLy painted and LaCquered nest Boxes: Even though
nontoxic, low-VOC paints are available, plenty of premade birdhouses on

the market may contain toxic, including lead, paints. Another problem with
brightly painted housing, especially dark colors, is that it can create oven-like
conditions inside a nest box placed in the sun. Birds see color, but it is unclear
what message colors may convey. In the wild, nesting sites are primarily brown
this eastern screech-owl and its gehlbach-designed nest

box both blend into their surroundings. Fred Gehlbach
a Wood duck hen, incubating within her nest box, checks out a nest-checker.
Aaron Ward, courtesy of the Maryland Wood Duck Initiative
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these rustic bird

homes could do
birds more harm than
good. the porch
perches invite
predators. the roof
construction invites
rain. they are
stapled together.
tree holes and ledges, not highly colored miniature human houses.
perChes on nest Boxes: Perches under
entry holes allow predators, especially avian
predators, to gain a foothold into the nest box
and its contents. These are also used by House
Sparrows to lay claim to nest boxes.
generiC-sized entry hoLes: Nest box
entry holes should be designed to let certain

birds in and keep other kinds of birds out.
Entry holes that are too large may allow predators to come into the box. Entry holes that
are too small could trap birds or damage their
feathers. Feather wear occurs when birds
make frequent trips into and out of nest boxes
that have entry holes with tight fits or are rough
or splintery. Entry holes should be appropriately sized, smooth, and well-sanded.
shoddy ConstruCtion: Nest boxes that
are merely stapled together may be less expensive, but they will soon fall apart. Galvanized
steel screws or exterior screws (i.e., decking
screws) are the way to go.
inCorreCt fLoor ConstruCtion:
Avoid removable floors, which can dump

nest contents, and floors nailed flush to
the sides, which allow rain into the seams.
Nonremovable, one-quarter-inch minimum
recessed floors are recommended.
nest Boxes made from paper
miLk Cartons, pLastiC miLk jugs,
Corrugated CardBoard, or
Coffee Cans: The idea of recycling materi-
als for nest boxes sounds like a good one. But

many of these materials, sometimes used to
make nest boxes with children, are flimsy, not
insulated, easy targets for prey, and quickly
saturated by rain or, in the case of plastic jugs
and coffee cans, prone to overheating. They do
not provide optimum safe shelter for birds,
especially featherless chicks that can become
wet and chilled and die of hypothermia.
nest Boxes for WarBLers and
goLdfinChes: Although the male American
Goldfinch and bright, good-looking warblers
do make for colorful advertising, these birds are

not cavity nesters and do not use nest boxes.
Steer clear of nest boxes designed
for them.
Often the most bedazzling birdhouses for
sale are the most dangerous for birds. Especially
hazardous may be artistically crafted birdhouses
that resemble miniature human homes. Buying
a birdhouse as a work of art is fine. But enjoy
this object inside your home. Do not put it
outside for wild birds.
HoMeBuilDinG BaSicS
Generally speaking, wood remains the best
building material to use for nest boxes. It keeps
birds insulated from heat and cold extremes and
severe weather and substitutes for the sheltering
wood of tree cavities. Certain wood types and
thicknesses are recommended above others.
Natural gourds that are solid and mature
can provide durable housing. In some cases,
recycled plastic polyethylene can make a suitable nest box as well.
nest Box Woods: Cedar, cypress, pine,
reclaimed barn wood, and newer, less-toxic

exterior grades of nonpressure-treated plywood
are all recommended woods.
Western red cedar and cypress are rot- and
insect-resistant. They dont need painting or
BuiLd homes to Benefit Birds
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restoring natural habitat is key to birds survival. Nest boxes on trees

simply replace the old trees that birds would naturally nest in. So many old
trees have been cut down, the unsightly ones especially, that once offered
Screech-owls nesting sites in their breaks and disfigured places.
Frederick R. Gehlbach, designer of the Screech-Owl nest box
an assembly of
tools and other
items used by
woodworker Chris
Willett to make
nest boxes for the
Audubon Birdhouse
Book. Chris Willett
staining. One drawback to cedar is that it is

very soft and is easily remodeled by squirrels, especially at entry holes. A welcome
recent development is that plywood manufacturers now offer greener forms of exterior
plywood. The woods used for nest boxes
featured in the Audubon Birdhouse Book are
cypress, white pine, and nonpressure-treated
CDX exterior grade plywood.
Wood should be at least three-quarter-inch
thick. This can be confusing when purchasing wood because board references are traditionaland inaccurate. Typically wood is sold
as one-by boards. But a one-inch (thick) by
four-inch (wide) board is in reality three-quarters inch thick and three and a half inches wide.
Fortunately, three-quarter-inch thick pieces of

lumber are ideal for building nest boxes.
Exterior plywood comes in varying sizes.
Recommended plywood thickness for nest
boxes is three-quarter inch or at least twentythree thirty-seconds of an inch. The latter
measurement is often used for plywood.
tooLs: Nest boxes are usually simple projects,
using few tools. A general list includes the
following items recommended by woodworker
Chris Willett:
Eye and ear protection
Dust mask (some dust can be toxic)
Saws (table saw)
Hammer
Various screwdrivers
Small carpenters square or T-square
Electric drill (cordless)
Drill bits (assorted)
Impact driver (cordless)
Tape measure
Pencil
Clamps
Sand paper (orbital sander)
Wire cutters (for working with screening
or hardware cloth)
Willetts references to specific tools he used
to create certain nest boxes can be found in
Chapter 3. Become familiar with woodworking
safety rules and follow them every time.
fasteners: Galvanized screws such as
exterior-grade deck screws are recommended

for nest boxes.
Nails can be used, but only the ring-shanked,
spiral, or cement-coated varieties. Two-inch
(6d) nails are advised.
Common nails should not be used. They can
split wood or back out over time. Brad nails
and staples should never be used as the main
fasteners in a nest box.
20
Chapter 2
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hinges, door pivots, and CLosure

naiLs: Several nest boxes featured in this book
use hinges on nest box access doors or panels.

Others use galvanized screws to serve as door
pivots. For most of the nest boxes, Willetts
closure nail, which keeps the nest box securely
closed between nest checks and cleaning, is a
galvanized finish nail, bent about one-half inch
at the head into an L shape. This allows people
to open nest box doors in the field by simply
pulling the nail partly out. To close things
up, push the nail back into its hole. No tools
required. Some paint the closure nail head a
bright color, or attach it with wire or string to
the nest box to avoid losing it.
above: improperly
placed under tree
branches, this Wood
duck nest box
became an invitation
to squirrels, not
ducks. Aaron Ward,
Maryland Wood Duck
Initiative
CauLks and gLues: Weather-resistant latex
or painters caulk is used for the inner roof of

the Xbox. Some urethane-based Gorilla Glue is
used on the Barn Owl nest box.
finishes: Nest box roofs are particularly
vulnerable to wear and tear and deterioration.

They will last longer if sealed and finished.
Modern low-VOC semi-transparent deck
stains are good choices. One such stain was
used to cover Dick Tuttles Raptor On! Kestrel
nest box. Plywood should be stained to
increase its durability; however, only use light
colors that blend into the surroundings. In
areas prone to extreme heat, very light colors,
including whites used traditionally for Purple
Martin housing, can help reduce the heat. A
2011 Texas Bluebird Society study showed
that as nest boxes darken with age, interior
temperatures can increase. The society now
recommends painting darkened nest boxes
exposed to hot temperatures with white or
light-colored paint.
One rule applies to every nest box: If
finishes are used, use them only on the nest
box exterior. Never use paints or other finishes
Left: this kestrel

nest box hangs on
a freestanding pole;
a winch will bring it
safely to the ground
for nest checking
and cleaning. this
nest box is located in
great kestrel habitat:
wide-open views
all around, perches
galore, and plenty
of space to hunt.
Richard M. Tuttle
on the insides of nest boxes. Birds that live in

nest boxes deserve a nontoxic home.
neCessary features: Nest boxes should
have the following features:

Proper ventilation: Good ventilation is
essential to maintaining a dry nest box and to
The low, pole-mounted technique for Wood duck nest boxes, coupled
with the use of effective cone predator guards . . . keeps the hens safe
from climbing mammalian predators, and as an important benefit, allows
students to safely follow the nesting cycleno ladders needed!
Roger Strand, executive director of the Wood Duck Society
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S t e Ve G i l B e rtS o n :
t H i nki n G Di f fe r e n t ly f or t H e B ir D S
Much to the delight of some avian landlords, there
is a simple, effective way to mount light- to mediumweight nest boxes. Called the Gilbertson polemounting system, its modest Minnesota designer,
Steve Gilbertson, says he was moved to figure out
how to stop raccoons from preying on his bluebirds
at night. Eventually he came up with the idea of
mounting a nest box on its own polea slick and
skinny pole at that. The system is constructed of a
five-foot section of half-inch conduit (a metallic tube).
A similar length of half-inch rebar is attached to the
conduit end with a coupler and hammered into
the ground as an anchor. Gilbertson calls the system,
simple, easy, and cheap. It doesnt rust. It doesnt
need cones and baffles. But it does do the job of
keeping climbing predators away from nest boxes.
There is some evidence it might help thwart snakes,
too. Gilbertson recommends cleaning the pole with
steel wool at the start of every breeding season and

then spraying it, just once each season, with cheap
furniture polishbut never grease! Gilbertson, a
friend and protg of the late bluebird champion
dick Peterson, says he was always impressed with
Petersons compassion for birds and his dedication
to figuring out better ways to help them. Admirers
of Gilbertsonwho also invented the Gilwood nest
box and the Gilbertson PVC nest boxsay the same
thing about him. The designers of the bluebird Xbox
recommend using the Gilbertson pole system. Keith
radel of the Minnesota Bluebird recovery Group
says Gilbertson and his pole system have changed
everything for the better for the birds.
A step-by-step tutorial on the Gilbertson pole
mounting system is available at nestboxbuilder.com/
pdf/Conduitrebar.pdf. See a photo of the Xbox
mounted on a Gilbertson pole system on page 56.
prevent the heat from accumulating in the nest

box in the hotter months. Entry holes provide
some ventilation, but extra ventilation holes or
slots are sometimes needed to keep moisture
and heat away. The need for ventilation varies
depending on regional differences and even
day-to-day weather conditions. To avoid cold
and rain, some northern nest box landlords
use no ventilation holes, or very small ones,
especially for nest boxes that may get used in
early spring. Keeping birds warm and dry is a
top priority. Nest box landlords in southern
states may increase the size and number of vent
holes as needed over the course of the breeding
season and hot summer days. Some people drill
vent holes into their nest boxes but plug them
with items like wine corks or weather-stripping
putty until the vents are needed. Others drill
holes at an upward angle to keep rain from
blowing in.
Drainage holes: There are differing opinions
about the need for drainage holes. The bluebird
Xbox, for example, does not have drainage holes
in the plans because designers say its protective
inner roof makes them unnecessary. Keeping
with Willetts advice to keep em high and dry,
drainage holes may be necessary for many other
22
nest box designs. Drill holes at the four corners

of the nest box floor. Alternatively, woodworkers
simply can cut off all four corners of the floor by
three-eighths to five-eighths inch.
Easy access: Nests need to be checked and nest
boxes need to be cleaned. Make sure nest boxes
have at least one good way to peek inside and
tidy things up. Side or front openings are typical.
Some nest box plans featured in the Audubon
Birdhouse Book show top openings. Whether
a door pivots or hinges on the top, bottom,
or side of a panel is a matter of preference.
Whichever way a nest box door opens, however, it
should do so in a manner that keeps bird residents
most protected. The Xbox opens on the front and
pivots outward from the bottom.
Overhanging roof: Ideally, roofs should overhang at least two inches in the front and one
inch to two inches on the sides. Not only does
this keep out water, but it provides shade too.
SettinG uP anD SettlinG in

A well-built nest box wont do the intended
bird residents any good if it is improperly
placed. In fact, it could do them harm. A
good rule to follow is to locate nest boxes so
that food, water, and shelter are nearby. Tom
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Comfort of the North American Bluebird

Society says, Remember that food is a birds
first criteria. They nest near their source of
food. But different species have different food
and habitat needs, and it is important for the
health and safety of the birds to know what
those are. For example, Purple Martins need
a ready supply of flying insects; Wood Ducks
require a nearby body of water; Burrowing
Owls depend on premade tunnels for their
nesting burrows.
Care should be taken to observe sun and
shade during certain times of the day and
locate nest boxes appropriately. Note which
direction bad weather arrives from, then make
sure nest box entry holes are not aimed that
way. Keep nest boxes away from overhanging
trees and places that give pests and predators
including squirrels that prey on bird eggs
easy access to the nest site. Mount nest boxes
at levels where they can easily and regularly be
checked. Mounting methods are discussed later
in this chapter.
Nest boxes and nesting sites for certain birds
may not be complete without adding nesting
materials such as white pine wood chips (found
in pet stores as small animal bedding) to nest
boxes or adding nesting sticks to platforms.
Other birds may appreciate bowls of pine
needles or feathers with which to line their
nests. Muddy sites close by are welcomed by
several bird species, including Barn Swallows.
Find out which species require which materials
to help them settle in.
keePinG tHeM Safe

PreDator GuarDS
Opinions and methods vary on the best
ways to keep birds safe. Experimentation is
ongoing, especially by those in the field. A
variety of both homemade and commercially
available predator guards can be used to deter
both snakes and mammalian predators such
as cats and raccoons. On poles or trees, metal
cone baffles, cylindrical stovepipe baffles, and
metal flashing can be quite effective, as is the
Gilbertson pole system. One good option
for nest box entry holes is the Hutchings
predator guard.
catS
Some of the same methods used to thwart raccoons will work for cats, too, especially predator guards on poles and entry-hole guards, but
cats do more than climb. They can jump five to
six feet high on average. Once on top of a nest
box, they need only put an exploratory paw
into an unprotected entry hole and pull out
whats inside. If cats are a problemvanished
nestlings, broken eggs, and piles of feathers are
cluessome simple methods might help.
Place nest boxes higher than a cat can leap.
Mount the nest box eight to ten feet high.
Telescoping pole systems that can be raised
and lowered will keep nesting birds out of cats
leaping range, but will also allow nest boxes to
be lowered for regular nest checks.
A cone-shaped baffle at least thirty inches in
diameter and placed on top of a cylindrical or
stovepipe baffle might sound like overdoing
things, but according to the Michigan Bluebird
Society and other sources, it keeps cats from
getting to a nest box.
A large overhanging and even slanted roof
might make it more difficult for cats to access
nest boxes.
Keep areas under nest boxes free of anything
that could serve as a hiding place for cats that
might ambush birds flying into and out of
nest boxes.
inDoor or outDoor cat?
outdoor enclosures Provide
a little of each
Throughout the years, cat owners have had just
two choices of primary habitat for their feline
Cat enclosures
may incorporate an
outside screen door
to allow the humans
in and may connect
to the house via a
cat door, so cats
can come and go as
they please. such
enclosures keep
both cats and birds
safe from harm.
CatsOnDeck.com
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don H ut cH I n gs
pre dat o r g ua r d
Don Hutchings knows about smart raccoons. About 20
years ago, one raccoon repeatedly attacked a quarter-milelong section of his bluebird trail at night, killing adult birds
in ten of the nest boxes. Hutchings had been thrilled to get
his first bluebirds a few years earlier, and to see them being
killed by raccoons didnt sit well with him. So he started designing and testing one device after another. In the end, he
discovered that a six-inch-long tunnel attached to the nest
box directly over the nest box entry hole worked best. That
meant raccoons, whose arms stretch about six inches long,
could only reach in as far as the end of the tunnel, but no farther. Bird occupants would remain safe. A six-inch-long section of PVC pipe, four inches in diameter, creates the tunnel.
The light at the end of the tunnel comes from a speciesspecific entry hole drilled into the tunnels cap. Hutchings
says hes had no raccoon problems since he perfected his
design, and hes gotten similar feedback from other people
who use it too. Says Hutchings, I might have figured out
one way to outsmart raccoons.
Hutchings predator guard plans are available at: nestboxbuilder.com/nestbox-predator-controls.html
companions: confining them to the house or

letting them roam outdoors. Many indoor
cats can and do live happy lives, particularly
if thoughtful owners provide a stimulating
environment of toys, catnip, places to climb,
scratching posts, and lots of attention. But
indoor cats also require extra house cleaning
and, sometimes, extra reupholstering. Come
springtime, owners may find themselves at
odds with cats that want to slip out the door at
every opportunity.
If they succeed in escaping, besides posing
threats to local bird populations, outdoor cats
face serious threats themselves. Lurking around
every corner are pesticides, antifreeze, and
other poisons, as well as diseases, fleas, ticks,
dogs, cat fights, and especially cars, all of which
could make veterinary bills go up and a cats
life expectancy go down. Outdoor cats also kill
small rodents. That might seem like a good
thing, but their prowess eliminates a critical
food source for owls and hawks.
There is a third option for cats that are as
desperate to go out as you are to have them
24
stay in. You may be able to compromise with a

roofed-in outdoor enclosure. Such enclosures
allow cats to experience the joys of the great
outdoors without the hazards. You can make
your outdoor enclosure even more appealing
by furnishing it with tree limbs and stumps,
ladders, tires, hanging toys, ledges to perch on,
and boxes to hide in. Tarps over a screened roof
can provide shade and protection from rain.
Enclosures can range from the simplelike a
screened-in porchto the sublime. The latter
may be complete with live trees inside to serve as
huge scratching posts. From the safety of their
outdoor sanctuary, cats can monitor the dogs
and squirrels outside, perch on ledges, sleep in
the sun, run up and down trees or ladders, and
stalk any moth or grasshopper that makes the
fatal error of wandering into their realm.
some assemBly requIred
Buy or Build your own cat enclosure
To build a basic outdoor kitty enclosure, attach
six-foot-high wire fencing (available in green
vinyl coating) to metal or wooden fence posts
of equal height, pounded well into the ground.
Unless youre adding a roof, bend the top two
feet of fence at least forty-five degrees inward.
People without the time or tools to construct a
cat enclosure can order one. C&D Pet Products
(cdpets.com) and Cats on Deck (catsondeck.
com) both offer prefabricated kits for varioussized enclosures.
raccoons
The highly adaptable raccoon is a common
predator of nest boxes and other nesting
The raccoon, one of the biggestand smartestof bird

predators. United States Fish and Wildlife Service
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sites. Once these dexterous mammals succeed

at snatching eggs, young, or adult birds, they
are likely to return to the scene for future
meals. Trained or educated raccoons
can destroy a bluebird trail or a backyard
full of nest boxes. Such destruction was the
inspiration for the Gilbertson pole-mounting
system and the Hutchings predator guard
featured in this chapter.
Clearly, where raccoons are abundant, some
sort of control is essential for the safety of birds
in nest boxes. Otherwise, nest boxes simply
become raccoon feeders. Typically, raccoons
climb up to the nest box, hang on to the front
or park themselves on the roof, reach into the
entry hole, and start feasting. It helps to know
that the reach of an adult raccoon is at least
six inches. This is why overhanging roofs and
entry hole guards like the Noel hardware cloth
guard and the six-inch-long Hutchings predator guard make sense: They keep the nest box
contents out of raccoon reach. Pole baffles, such
as metal cones or stovepipes placed just under
nest boxes, may keep raccoons from climbing
up to the nest box in the first place. Metal flashing attached onto trees under owl nest boxes
and onto utility poles under kestrel boxes can
accomplish the same thing.
Stovepipe baffles that can be made to wobble
make it even harder for raccoons to hold on.
And very large stovepipe bafflesmore than a
foot in diameter or morework even better at
keeping raccoons off nest boxes. Raccoons just
cant shimmy up them.
SnakeS
Snakes can pose big problems at nest boxes,
especially in the southern states. Predator
guards such as metal cones or stovepipes placed
under nest boxes can help deter snakes, but
make sure the guards fit tightly around whatever kind of pole is used. Snakes can crawl
through very small spaces. The top of stovepipe
guards should be blocked. One method fastens
hardware cloth across the top but just inside the
guard; however, studies show that snakes longer
than five feet can probably make it around most
any baffle.
Snake traps, such as the Krueger, are made
from galvanized wire and garden netting.
Trapped snakes can then be released unharmed
above: predator
guards, like this
metal cone guard,
must fit snugly
against support
posts or poles.
otherwise a gap, like
the one shown here,
can be space enough
for a snake to slip
through. Aaron
Ward, courtesy of
the Maryland Wood
Duck Initiative
Left: a black rat
snake, covered
in bright green
duckweed, tries
to reach a Wood
duck nest box set
up on top of the
post in a marsh
along marylands
eastern shore. these
versatile snakes,
more active at night
and in summer, are
excellent climbers.
Aaron Ward,
courtesy of the
Maryland Wood
Duck Initiative
from the mesh elsewhere. As with baffles, they

are affixed just below the nest box.
euroPean StarlinGS anD
HouSe SParroWS
House Sparrows may raise two to three broods,
and starlings three to four broods per year
often within a human-provided nest box. Both
of these species may kill young and adult native
birds and then take over their nest boxes. There
are many stories about landlords going to
check on their native nesting birds, only to find
a House Sparrow nest built not only on top of
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Avoid human populations: Nest box placement

may be key. Both House Sparrows and starling
populations thrive near humans. Placing a
nest box far away from human habitation and
known starling and House Sparrow populations
might improve the chances of it being occupied
by a native bird.
Members only: Another method is not to put
out nest boxes until a preferred species arrival
date or breeding period, or to keep nest box
entrances boarded up until that time. The idea
is that House Sparrows in particular, which have
year-round territories, wont be able to claim the
nest box first. But it will be available when the
more desirable bird shows up seeking a nest site.
Exclude them: Usually, a one-and-a-half-inch
entrance hole will exclude starlings but allow
Eastern Bluebirds, swallows, titmice, chickadees, and others easy passage. Unfortunately,
one of those others are House Sparrows. They
can be excluded by a one-and-a-quarter-inch
entry hole; however, this protects only very
small cavity nesters.
above: a starling
(top) and an eastern
Bluebird (bottom)
fight over a nest
box, an all-toocommon sight in
some areas.
David Kinneer
right: a sparrow
spooker, pictured
here, is a normal
part of these
young bluebirds
new world. the
fluttering mylar
streamers scare off
house sparrows
but not other birds.
attaching the
sparrow spooker
after the desired
birds first egg has
been laid seems
to work best.
homemade for
years, sparrow
spookers are
now commercially
available.
David Kinneer
26
a native birds nest but on top of the victims

themselves. Discovering such events can be disturbing and heartbreaking but can also provide
the inspiration to take back control from the
more aggressive sparrows and starlings.
Over the years, the idea of both passive
and active control for nonnative starlings and
House Sparrows has come into play.
PaSSiVe control
Passive controls involve ways to outsmart
House Sparrows and starlings without removing
them. Some passive methods follow:
Move the nest box: If a nest box is up and
starlings or House Sparrows take over, move it
somewhere else. Many people have success with
this simple method; however, some point out
that this rule also limits the chances of native
birds nesting in a particular area.
SreHS
Anyone dabbling in Purple Martin circles soon
learns the acronym SREH. It stands for
starling-resistant entry hole, and the device
has been a valuable asset in the fight against
starlings. In the late 1980s, Charles McEwen
of New Brunswick, Canada, weary of starling
havoc in his martin colony, began experimenting with ways to keep them out of the compartments. Working through many trials, he came
up with a solution: a half-moon, crescentshaped entry hole, three inches long and one
and three-sixteenth inches high. Purple Martins
can get through these holes, but starlings
cannot. McEwens design works for both martin
gourds and houses; crescent-shaped adapters can
be placed over older-style entry holes. Purple
Martin landlord Chuck Abare of Alabama
reports that SREHs come with a bonus. Not
only do they work to foil starlings, but they
also keep out jays, crows, owls, gulls, squirrels, and raccoons, which also attack martins.
SREHs have completely changed my Purple
Martin colony, says Abare. It is now starling
free. For his contributions, the Purple Martin
Conservation Association named Charles
McEwen Landlord of the Year in1992.
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In 1968, when I was first getting started with bluebirds, my best mentors
were raccoons and house Sparrows. They taught me that I had to outsmart
and control their behavior in order to help cavity nesting birds.
Dick Tuttle, designer of the Raptor On! Kestrel nest box
multiple layers of house sparrow nests built over

time fill this bluebird nest box. house sparrow nests
are bulky balls of grasses, human detritus, and seed
heads, lined with feathers, hair, and string. even when
nests are removed, the male house sparrow may be
relentless in his efforts to reclaim the nesting site.
Bet Zimmerman, sialis.org
a male house Wren has built a dummy nest of sticks

on top of an eastern Bluebirds nest. the bluebirds have
departed, and the dummy nest has no eggs.
Bet Zimmerman, sialis.org
actiVe control
Sometimes sparrow and starling populations
are so high, and the birds so aggressive against
native species, active control may be the most
realistic way to reduce their numbers and give
cavity-nesting birds a chance to reproduce.
Because starlings and House Sparrows are not
protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act,
it is legal to remove their nests and eggs. The
male House Sparrow, bonded more to a nest
site than to his mate, often begins rebuilding
a nest immediately. Although the adults may
eventually moveand try to oust other native
birds from nesting sites elsewherecontinuous nest removal may discourage the birds and
result in them giving up a claimed nest box.
Ironically, in recent years, both House
Sparrows and European Starlings have been
listed as threatened in the United Kingdom
from where they were first imported to North

America. Because these two native U.K.
garden birds have declined dramatically,
conservation plans are in effect to help restore
their populations. Exactly why these bird numbers have dropped is a mystery; however, it is
known that House Sparrows have suffered from
a shortage of insects during breeding months,
especially in urban areas like London. Starlings
have been affected by the loss of old meadows.
HouSe WrenS: occaSional
HoMe WreckerS
The beautiful song of the House Wren may
not seem so beautiful after it has ransacked a
nest box, destroying eggs by puncturing them.
A pile of sticks on top of the victims nest
is another telltale sign the House Wren has
visited. Proper nest box placement may prevent
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a hornet nest
takes over a Wood
duck nest box.
Aaron Ward,
Maryland Wood
Duck Initiative
concept is the same: out of wren sight, out of

wren mind. Guards should be attached when
native birds have laid a first egg but removed a
few days before young birds fledge.
Six-leGGeD neSt Box PeStS
Blowfly larvae
Adult blowflies lay their eggs in nest boxes,
and their larvae feast on young birds, usually
attaching to soft parts like the face and feet.
One action to take is to install a simple threeeighths-inch square hardware cloth blowfly
trap. Bend wire about one inch from each end
to create a kind of table so the trap covers the
entire nest box floor. The nest is lifted slightly
off the floor, allowing blowfly larvae to fall
underneath during daylight when they move
away from the light that enters the box. They
can then be cleaned out easily. Designed by the
late Ira Campbell of Virginia.
Blowfly larvae are

common in many
nest boxes. the
female blowfly lays
eggs in bird nests.
the larvae then
attach to the soft
parts of young birds,
feeding mostly
at night. in large
enough numbers,
they can harm and
even kill nestlings.
Bet Zimmerman,
sialis.org
this havoc. Keep nest boxes far away from

brushy areas that wrens seem to prefer. Another
preventative measure is to install an Orthwein
wren guard. The late Bob Orthwein invented a
simple guard to block wrens views of nest box
entry holes. A thin, L-shaped piece of wood as
wide as the box, is tacked onto the front edge
of the roof, hanging down a few inches so it
covers sight of the entry hole. A space of two to
three inches between the guard and the entry
hole allows nest box birds to enter and leave.
Variations have since been created, but the
Paper wasps
Both native and more aggressive European
paper wasps build nests in nest boxes and under
baffles, but they can be dissuaded. Before birds
return to nest, rub the ceiling and inner walls
of the nest box with unscented Ivory or FelsNaptha soap. If birds are present, temporarily
cover the nests while soaping the insides.
Birds may abandon nests if wasps are inside
the nest box. Because wasps can make nests
under nest boxes and inside predator guards,
approach these areas with caution.
Gnats, black flies, and more
Black flies, also called buffalo gnats, kill nestlings by feeding on them, causing anemia or
shock. Remedies are few and unproven. Some
people spray vanilla or mouthwash around nest
boxes as a nontoxic pesticide-free way to ward
them off. Fortunately, black flies usually are
only active for a few weeks in spring
Interacting with my martins by doing nest checks, keeping invasive

sparrows and starlings under control, and just simply being around the
birds has helped immensely in growing my colony. Purple Martins are
people lovers and Ive got over one hundred pairs to prove it!
Chuck Abare, designer of Chucks Simple Wooden Gourd Rack Design
28
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Building a nest box and putting it up is the easy part. Monitoring and
maintaining nest boxes over the years is the hard part. But really, its the
most important work youll do.
Steve Simmons, designer of the Barn Owl nest box
Other pests can infest nest boxes, too, including ants, bees, yellow jackets, hornets, and even
queen bumblebees. Fire ants are a particular
problem in southern states. Small insects, such
as lice and fleas, and arachnids, such as mites
and ticks, may infect and live on bird hosts.
Never use insecticides to control the pests, as
birds will suffer.
cHeckinG in
As the late bluebird hero Dick Peterson
advised, Weekly nest checks tell you everything. It is recommended that those who put
up nest boxes or artificial nesting structures
check in with nesting birds at least once a
week during the breeding season to see how
they are getting along. Nest checksas simple
as a quick peek into the nestcan reveal
birds in trouble. Aim to make these checks
last less than a minutehalf a minute if you
canand deal with problems quickly. Many
problems are easy to solve. Nest-checking
affords a good way to get to know the birds
you are giving homes.
Some general rules to follow are provided
by the Cornell Lab of Ornithologys
NestWatch program:
Look around for potential nest predators,
such as crows, blue jays, and house cats, before
approaching active nests. These predators can
easily learn from you where to find a snack. If
predators are present, it is best to delay the nest
check until another time.
Do not check early in the morning. Most
female birds lay their eggs in the morning.
Also, because parent birds usually leave the
nest during a check, on cold mornings, their
untended eggs and nestlings can become
cold quickly.
Avoid nest checks during the first days
of incubation.
Avoid nest checks during bad weather. If the
day is cold, damp or rainy, postpone the check
until another day.
above: sometimes,
nest checks reveal
unexpected birds
and unexpected
beauty. this tree
swallow is nesting in
a bluebird nest box,
its lovely nest lined
with feathers that curl
over the eggs.
Bet Zimmerman
this Wood duck
nest box is easy to
open and to check,
a requirement for
any nest box.
Aaron Ward,
Maryland Wood
Duck Initiative
Bluebirder Bet
zimmerman checks
a gilfort bluebird
nest box, quickly
and quietly.
Doug Zimmerman,
sialis.org
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a male bluebird
(left) watches over
his seventeen-dayold chick as it takes
its first flight.
David Kinneer
Do not check nests around or after dusk,

when parents are returning to the nests for the
night. Owls are the exception to this rule; owl
parents leave their nests at dusk.
Do not approach nests when young are close
to fledging. Disturbances can make the birds
fledge early. That is when they are most likely
to fall victim to predators. If you are unsure of
the average fledge date, a good rule to follow is
to stop nest checks ten days after hatching.
Avoid handling healthy nests, eggs, and
nestlingsall are fragile and all are protected by
law. In addition, eggs touched by humans may
pick up oil and make them less porous.
Basic tools for nest checking include plastic
bags, rubber or leather gloves, and a tool like
a trowel, spatula, or putty knife. Clothes with
deep pockets or an apron to hold all these items
will keep your hands free. Wear a good hat.
Some people use a mechanics mirror to help
see inside nest boxes.
It is best to wait for adult birds to leave before
checking in on the nest. Wood Duck hens
make things easy. They seem to have regular
times, twice a day, when they leave the nest
to forage. If it is unclear if adults are present,
walk toward the nest box making slight sounds
to alert any birds inside, then stand to the side
of the nest box and rap lightly on the front
panel. Birds that are still inside will often fly
out. Then, proceed to slowly open the nest
30
box before peeking in. When done, walk away

quickly. On occasion, nest boxes can hold
surprises, like snakes or stinging insects.
A mental checklist can be helpful: Are there
signs that predators have visited? Are there
unhatched eggs, dead chicks, or dead adults
that need to be removed? Their prompt removal
prevents them from attracting pests and
predators and creating unsanitary conditions.
Are young birds tangled in nesting materials
like strings or plastic fishing lines? Any indications of invading starlings or House Sparrows?
Do you see small pests or parasites? Anything
unusual at all? Nest boxes and nesting structures can age, sometimes less than gracefully.
Do repairs need to be made? If the answers are
all negative, all may be well.
Nest checkers want to avoid frightening or
stressing the birds. Bluebirder Bet Zimmerman
points out that different species seem to have
different tolerance levels for humans. Bluebirds
and Tree Swallows seem to be nonplussed by
checks. Many females even remain on their eggs
during nest checks, but birds like titmice may
be more timid.
Remain calm at the nest site and try to avoid
being startled by the birds themselves. Tree
Swallows may fly close to a checker as a way to
protect their nest, but thats about all theyll do.
Chickadees may vocalize loudly, uttering their
scold call.
Chapter 2
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in missouri, this
eastern Bluebird
pair investigates an
xbox in february.
putting up nest
boxes early in the
year gives some
birds an advantage.
Leisa Nesbit
Although it is recommended to stop nest

checks a few days before birds fledgeand
those dates vary with the speciesyou can
watch them at a distance. Pay special attention
and with luck you might witness a priceless
event: a fledglings first flight.
Many nest checkers take notes on their birds:
how many eggs, how many nestlings, signs
of blowflies, and so on. Some people keep
their own personal records over the years. In
California, Steve Simmons nest-checking data
goes back forty years, a record that is now a
valuable resource for some bird population
studies. People also submit their records to the
Cornell Lab of Ornithologys NestWatch program, which uses data from many nest checkers
to study the nesting success and failures of
breeding birds in North America.
HouSekeePinG
Nest boxes should be cleaned thoroughly at
least once at the end of the breeding season to
make the site available for birds looking for a
winter roost. A cleaned-out nest box also helps
control other pests and parasites. It is illegal
to remove the active nest of a protected bird
speciesthat is, a nest that is clearly in use,
but you can remove the inactive nests of native
birds once the nesting season is over.
For nest boxes that shelter more than one
brood per season, many advocate cleaning out
nests soon after young birds fledge in order
to prevent parasites from affecting the next
brood. Another practical reason to remove
these nests is that adults might build a new
nest on top of the first one. That means the
next brood is closer up to the entry hole, where
they could become easier pickings for predators such as raccoons.
If possible, wear rubber gloves and a mask
when performing cleaning chores, to avoid
contact with dust and dried feces. Use a metal
spatula, putty knife, or ice scraper to lift out the

old nest. A stiff outdoor grill brush is a great
tool for sweeping out bits of the nest, including
the remains of old wasp nests. This is also the
time to clean out any clogged drainage holes. If
there were feather lice or other parasites from
the previous nesting, consider disinfecting the
nest box with a 10 percent chlorine-free bleach
solution, sprayed inside the nest box. Then
leave the nest box open to thoroughly dry.
Many people keep nest boxes up all winter to
serve as roosting sites for birds. If you do, make
sure to check the nest box and clean it out once
again before the start of the breeding season.
Even if you cleaned things out well at summers
end, mice may still have built nests in the fall.
If you find mouse nests come spring, don gloves
and mask, remove the grassy nest, and disinfect
once again. Then you are ready for the new
nesting season to begin.
Construct a safe, dry environment for birds; mount nest boxes properly
with predators in mind; and above all, take responsibility for nest box
tenants. Check nest boxes throughout the nesting season. Keep watch
over your birds.
Sherry Linn, president, North American Bluebird Association
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Birds
in
c Ha P t e r 3
Boxes
Great neSt BoxeS for Great BirDS
irds that take most readily to nest boxes generally fall

into two groups: primary cavity nesters and secondary
cavity nesters. Woodpeckers, chickadees, and nuthatches
are in this first category. They chisel out and customize
nesting spaces inside trees or wooden posts. In contrast,
bluebirds seek out prefabricated homes, those made by
primary cavity nesters or formed naturally by funguses or
weather-related events.
Rotting trees suitable for excavation by the primary
group have become increasingly hard for these birds
to find, and ready-made nesting cavities for the secondary
above: a Carolina
Chickadee checks
out an xbox. this
new and innovative
bluebird nest box
is a good one
for chickadees,
flycatchers,
swallows, and
titmice, too.
David Kinneer
right: a pair of
house finches
seems to be
inspecting a
weathered bluebird
house. house
finches are not that
particular where
they nest. this
might make a good
home for them.
David Kinneer
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this Carolina Chickadee has completed nest cavity excavation in the francis Beidler forest of south Carolina, an audubon sanctuary.
Mark Musselman
group are even scarcer. Nest boxes can help fill

this availability gap.
The nest box designs chosen for this book
have been guided by nest sites found in the
wild. They have been tested and tweaked by
those experienced with using nest boxes to help
birds. The plans are arranged according to build
difficulty, from easy to more complex.
Nest box designs are always changing, and
with good reason. These structures are inherently artificial, but ongoing research and fieldtesting are helping a variety of birds to accept
nest boxes and behave naturally within them.
And although perfect nest boxes do not
exist, some are far safer and more effective
than others. The nest boxes featured here are
designed, first and foremost, with the health
and safety of the birds in mind.
To please the birds is a good rule of thumb
to follow when making nest boxes, whether
you are participating in a large-scale citizen
science project, or simply keeping tabs on
your nest box guests for your own records. The
following pages will provide you with information, woodworking plans, and tips to create
great nest boxes for great birds.
in the spring valley

Wildlife area of
ohio, a female
prothonotary
Warbler pauses
in front of her
nest site with a
beakful of nesting
materials. premade
dwellings such as
this, chiseled out
by a primary cavity
nester, have become
rare commodities.
Ruhikanta Meetei
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Wrens
Bewicks Wren
Thryomanes bewickii
Like the Carolina Wren, Bewicks Wren has a distinctive long white
eyebrow. Ashok Khosla
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
Wintering
orest fragmentation and increased bird feeding in this

century have benefited Carolina Wrens and House
Wrens; however, Bewicks Wrens have virtually disappeared
in the East and declined in the western parts of their
range. The egg- and nest-destroying House Wren may be
partly responsible. Wherever House Wrens have expanded,
Bewicks Wrens have declined. Carolina Wrens have been
wintering farther north, possibly due to climate change.
smaller, and House Wrens are even smaller. The lightbrown, chestnut, and cinnamon coloration is similar.
Bewicks and Carolina Wrens have a bold white stripe
above the eyes; Bewicks has white tail spots. House Wrens
lack both and are overall drabber birds. Wrens are identifiable by their distinctive habit of cocking their tails up over
their backs.
voiCe: Wrens sing extremely varied songs, filled with
range: Bewicks Wrens inhabit drier habitats in the U.S.
Southwest and coastal California. It is rare and endangered in parts of its eastern range. Carolina Wrens are
most common in southern states but are found throughout the eastern United States and Central America. House
Wrens breed across Canada, down to the tip of South
America, and into the West Indiesthe broadest latitudinal range of any native songbird.
fieLd marks: Carolina Wrens are the largest of these
wrensabout five and a half inches long with a sevenand-a-half-inch wingspan. Bewicks Wrens are slightly
34
churrs, buzzes, rattles, and bubbling liquid trills. Carolina

Wrens sing a clear, three-syllabled tea-kettle, tea-kettle, teakettle. Bewicks Wrens also have a three-part song. House
wren song is described as long and bubbly. All three
species utter harsh scold notes.
feeding: These small insectivores eat beetles, cotton-
boll weevils, stink bugs, leafhoppers, scale insects, crickets, millipedes, snails, sow bugs, and grasshoppers, as well
as occasional lizards and fruits. Carolina Wrens may visit
bird feeders.
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Carolina Wren
the Carolina Wren sings teakettle, tea-kettle, tea-kettle.

David Kinneer
Thryothorus ludovicianus
this Carolina Wren

demonstrates the tail-up pose
characteristic of all wrens.
David Kinneer
Year-round
house Wren
Troglodytes aedon
Breeding
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
despite its small size, the house Wren can be aggressive toward
many other species during the nesting season, including bluebirds.
Ashok Khosla
Wintering
Birds in Boxes
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tHe nest sIte

The wrens insect-eating habits make them friends of gardeners. Build a brush pile in a backyard corner to attract
insects for them. Plant pines, bayberries, and sweet gum.
Because of House Wrens destructive habits, put up standard wren houses for Bewicks Wrens only where House
Wrens are rare or absent. Remove House Wren nest boxes
during nonbreeding seasons. Wren houses for Bewicks
and House Wrens can be found at the following website,
courtesy of the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center:
npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/wildlife/ndblinds/ndblinds.pdf.
nesTing: Wrens nest in tree cavities and upturned tree
roots but also in an odd assortment of human-provided

housing, including flowerpots, mailboxes, and even
trouser pockets on clotheslines. Bewicks Wrens construct
a nest of leaves, sticks, and spider-egg cases, lined with
feathers, wool, and plant down. The Carolina Wrens
bulky nest consists of grass, bark, leaves, moss, feathers,
and snakeskin. House Wrens make multiple dummy
nests, filling entire nest cavities with sticks.
eggs: range from four to eight, but usually five

white eggs with rusty brown spots. Bewicks eggs are
paler overall.
egg-laying: One egg per day.
inCuBaTion: Twelve to fourteen days.
Female incubates; both parents feed young.
days To Fledge: Twelve to fourteen days.
plaCing The nesT Box: Carolina Wrens frequent
backyard gardens with dense shrubs and forested areas

with underbrush and fallen trees, especially near water.
Place their nest boxes in protected areas, especially
under overhanging roofs. Both Bewicks and House
Wrens nest just about anywhere, even in old boots,
buckets, and flower pots. Keep House Wren nest boxes
far away from other nesting birds.
MounTing: Use nails, screws, rope, or
wire to secure the Orthwein nest box within
a sheltered place.
heighT: Place the Orthwein nest box and
other wren nest boxes five to ten feet high.
Be H I nd t H e d es I gn
The late Bob Orthwein of Ohio is perhaps best known
in bluebird circles for his wren guards. He also designed nest boxes, including one for Carolina Wrens.
He had observed Carolina Wren nests . . . under
roofs of open porches, open barns, or open sheds
places that obliged the bird to fly in and then up to
36
the nest site. With these clues, Orthwein went to work

designing a comfortable, simple-to-make shelter that
was easier for the birds to fly directly into. In winter
1997, his Carolina Wren nest box plans were unveiled
in a cheerily titled article written for the Ohio Bluebird
Societys newsletter: Finally, Carolina Wrens!
ChapTer 3
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CaroLina Wren nest Box

DeSiGneD By BoB ortHWein
materiaLs
1x8x30 cypress (used
here) or cedar (actual size
is 3/4 thick x 7 wide)
Fourteen to eighteen
2 exterior grade
decking screws
1
Cut pieces out according to the drawings. make kerf cuts on the underside of the roof piece
(3/8 in from edge and 1/4 deep), along the front and two sides. these shallow grooves, used
in many nest box plans, are usually made with a table saw. they help prevent rainwater from
collecting underneath the roof and getting inside the nest box.
38
the build
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Cut approximately 3/4 off each corner of the floor piece to create
drainage holes.
assemble the pieces. the front panel can be secured with as few as
four screws.
predrilling is recommended to avoid splitting the wood.
recess the floor piece slightly to help keep the floor dry. secure
sides to floor, then front to the sides. drill out the mounting screw
hole locations. hang the Carolina Wren box under roofs or eaves.
Birds in Boxes
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waRbleRs
Prothonotary Warbler
Protonotaria citrea
a male Prothonotary warbler, with a mouthful of insects, pauses

en route to the expectant chicks back at its nest box along the
lower James River in Virginia. The metal band on its right leg helps
researchers understand more about the birds life history. within its
bill are a crane fly, assassin bug, caterpillar, mayfly, and two beetles.
James R. Reilly
Breeding
Local breeding
Wintering
Range: Abundant in woodland swamps in the south-
eastern United States, along the East Coast from Canada

to Florida, and west into Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas.
Scattered populations exist elsewhere.
Field maRks: Males are a brilliant yellow-orange on
the head and breast, with blue-gray wings and a greenish back. Females are duller. Both sexes show white on
the belly and under the tail. During breeding season,
Prothonotaries long, pointed bills are black; these turn
paler come fall.
Female Prothonotary warblers are slightly less colorful than males.
both have relatively long bills. Mark Musselman
he only eastern warblers to nest in tree cavities, these

stunningly bright yellow birdsonce called Golden
Swamp Warblershave declined considerably throughout
their range over the past four decades. Reasons include
rapidly disappearing mangrove swamp habitat in the
Caribbean and in Central and South America where the
birds overwinter, along with degradation and fragmentation of their breeding grounds. Prothonotary nests can
also be parasitized by cowbirds.
40
Voice: The loud notes of Prothonotariesa classic tweet,

tweet, tweetare sung at the same pitch.
Feeding: Prothonotaries hop on the ground or on tree
bark while foraging for insects like beetles, spiders, and

caterpillars. They also visit feeders.
The NesT siTe

Prothonotaries return from wintering areas in early
spring. Though mostly insectivorous, these warblers
sometimes eat feeder treats like grape jelly, suet, and
hummingbird nectar. They also use birdbaths and nest
cHaPTeR 3
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boxes. The health of Prothonotary populations

depends largely on the preservation of their
breeding and wintering grounds.
nesting: Prothonotaries prefer nesting in
woodpecker holes near wooded swamps, but

they also set up house in nest boxes, as well as
odd places like sneakers, tin cans, and jacket
pockets. Males build dummy moss nests in
several different sites. The female selects one
nest and finishes it with more moss, plant
down, grasses, leaves, and rootlets.
eggs: Range from three to seven white to
pinkish eggs with rusty-brown to lavender
spots. Up to three broods per season.
egg-Laying: One egg per day.
inCuBation: About two weeks.
days to fLedge: About eleven days.
Both parents care for young up to thirtyfive days after first flight.
pLaCing the nest Box: Place nest boxes
in shaded areas near lakes, swamps, slowmoving rivers, and thick deciduous understory.
Nest boxes placed over water and kept free of
brush and branches may help deter predators.
If over water, face entry hole toward land. If on
land, face toward water.
mounting: Place nest box on top of
three-quarter-inch diameter metal conduit
pole with a one-quarter-inch hole drilled
near one end to accept single bolt through
box and pole. Use of single bolt allows box
angle to be adjusted if pole leans off vertical a bit. If in water, sink pole at least two
feet into lake bottom for stability. Place ten
to twenty feet away from the bank to deter
predators. Include predator guards, both
on land or in water.
height: Make sure height is convenient
for nest checking, especially if checking
by boat. If over water, the bottom of the
nest box should be at least two feet above
the highest potential water level. Allow for
tidal swings.
springs return stirs this male prothonotary Warbler to sing. Mark Musselman
B e Hin D t He D e S i Gn
Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) professor Bob reilly
claims that come spring, Prothonotaries are just everywhere along the lower James river near richmond, Virginia.
reilly supervises banding efforts for VCUs long-term study
of Prothonotary Warbler breeding biology. Since the studys
start in the mid-1980s, researchers have banded more than
35,000 warblers. With help from richmond Audubon Society
volunteers, more than 650 pine nest boxes are readied each
year for the Prothonotaries return. one of reillys key design
modifications was to reduce the entry hole to one and a
quarter inches, which makes it a tight fit for cowbirds and
competitive Tree Swallows. he notes that the James river
birds seem wary of brand new nest boxes, preferring homes
that are plain and weathered. Even though the pine wood
homes only last about five years, he adds, We want our nest
boxes to please the birds, not ourselves.
Birds in Boxes
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the BuiLd
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Birds in Boxes
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3.3.0.eps
98.6%
@<Nodatafromlink>dpi
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predrill all exterior screw holes with a 1/8 drill bit. predrill hinge screw
sites with a 1/16 drill bit. drill hole for front piece latch nail. attach latch
nail to front piece. drill four holes () in floor for drainage. assemble
and attach all pieces except the side door.
Finally, drill the 1 screw into the side door to use as a door
handle. Test-fit the door. attach it to the back piece with
the hinge. The side door should open freely. The finished
prothonotary Warbler nest box was bolted through the back
onto a u-channel signpost (opposite page). a stovepipe baffle
provides protection from predators.
qu Ick t I p
Properly sized drill bits and hole saws can make
precision cuts for entry holes. One way to prevent
splitting when making the entry hole is to drill only
halfway through the front piece. Then, flip the front
over and finish the job from the other side. Always
sand entry hole edges smooth.
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BLueBirds
Clockwise from
far top left:
a female eastern
Bluebird will eat this
holly berry whole.
David Kinneer
this male mountain
Bluebird brings food
to his young in a
natural tree cavity.
Russ Amy
Brightly colored
Western Bluebirds
(the male is
pictured here) have
been successfully
reintroduced to the
san juan islands,
where nest boxes
were provided for
them. Ashok Khosla
n the natural world, all three species of North American

bluebirdsthe Eastern, Western, and Mountain
Bluebirdsseek tree cavities or woodpecker holes for
nesting sites. But today, natural cavities can be hard to
find. Competition for these limited sites is a huge problem, especially in early spring. Old and rotting trees often
are removed. Not long ago, many bluebirds nested in
wooden fence posts, especially around farms. Many of
those have been removed or replaced with treated wood,
plastic, or metal posts. A well-built and well-placed bluebird nest box in your own backyard or nearby park can
help boost local populations.
Even with nest boxes in place, bluebirds must compete
with both introduced and native species that also want
to call these nest boxes their home. Knowing where to
place and where not to place bluebird nest boxes is critical.
Chickadees and titmice, for example, prefer nest boxes
near or under mature trees or within woodlands and
forests. By contrast, bluebirds like nest boxes out in the
open; even a small yard with open spaces will suit a bluebird. Most important, bluebirds need to live near a ready
supply of insect food.
46
Since bluebirds defend large feeding territories around

their nestsone or two acres in early springthey dont
want to nest close to other bluebirds. Tree Swallow pairs
wont nest close to one another either. So reduce competition by installing pairs of bluebird nest boxes no more
than fifteen to twenty feet apart. Bluebirds may nest in
one, and swallows, chickadees, or titmice in the other.
This peaceable kingdom occurs for practical reasons:
These bird neighbors, by and large, do not share the same
food supply. But the nest box pairing idea is not without differing opinions. Some people believe it encourages
other species more than it accommodates bluebirds.
Others put up a second box nearby only when a nonbluebird species has claimed a nest box first.
Ironically, the cutting of Eastern forests, especially pine
woods, for agriculture in the nineteenth century may have
actually benefited Eastern Bluebirds by creating additional
foraging and nesting habitat. More recently, however, their
populations have been affected by loss of habitat and tree
cavities, unusually cold winters in the 1960s and 1970s,
egg and chick predation, and competition for nesting sites
by introduced House Sparrows and European Starlings.
Chapter 3
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Eastern Bluebird
Sialia sialis
This eastern Bluebird is communicating using behavior known as

wing-waving. David Kinneer
range: Eastern Bluebirds are year-round residents in the
southern United States. They typically begin nesting as

early as January in the south and in March in the northern
United States and southern Canada. They are also found in
parts of Mexico, Central America, and Bermuda.
Field marks: Males are bright blue above and rusty
orange below with a white belly. Females look similar but
have a blue-gray back and lighter orange underparts. Both
sexes are seven inches long and stout billed. In flight, look
for short blue wings and tail.
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
Wintering
a young eastern
Bluebird tests
its wings.
David Kinneer
Voice: The call is a musical chur-wi or tru-ly. The song is
a series of three or four soft musical notes, often described

as a warble.
Feeding: Keen-eyed Eastern Bluebirds feed on
ground-dwelling insects, including beetles, crickets,

grasshoppers, and caterpillars, which they can spot while
perched as far as 150 feet away. They pounce upon their
insect prey, then fly to a perch and strike it against a hard
surface before feedingor they just catch and eat insects
in the air. Adults also feed juicy, high-protein spiders to
nestlings. Wild berries are also eaten, especially in colder
months. At feeders, offer raisins, currants, suet mixes,
and mealworms (live or freeze-dried).
eastern Bluebird
hatchlings already
begging for food.
David Kinneer
Birds in Boxes
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Western Bluebird
Sialia mexicana
a male (left) and a female (right) Western Bluebird. Ashok Khosla
Western Bluebird populations have declined, although

they were once common in the Pacific Northwests
Cascade Range and the Sacramento Valley. A five-year
reintroduction project successfully re-established a
breeding population on San Juan Island, Washington.
Mainland bluebirds were translocated to the islands and
provided with nest boxes. Similar reintroduction efforts
are ongoing on Canadas Vancouver Island.
Breeding
Breeding
Breeding and wintering

wintering
Wintering
Wintering
range: Western Bluebirds are found in southwestern
Canada, Mexico, and many western U.S. states. They are

medium- to short-distance migrants that winter in the
southern part of their range and begin nesting in early April.
fieLd marks: Adult males have cobalt blue wings and
tails as well as an all-blue head, chin, and throat, and a

white belly. The upper breast is chestnut with varying patterns of blue and gray. The back may be partly or entirely
chestnut. Females are a paler, grayer version of the male.
a female Western Bluebird keeps its hatchlings warm in a humanprovided nest box. Steve Simmons
voiCe: The song is a series of call notes described as few
or kew. Chatter calls sound like cut-cut-cut. Soft tch-tchtch calls can also be heard.
feeding: Western Bluebirds eat insects in warm
weather, and fruits and berries in winter. Mistletoe and

juniper berries are favorites, and they love mealworms at
feeders. They are often seen fly catching or foraging on
the ground, using low branches as a jumping-off place.
48
Chapter 3
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Mountain Bluebird
Sialia currucoides
above: a female
(left) and male (right)
mountain Bluebird.
The female is carrying
nesting material, a
sign that this pair is
beginning to make a
nest. Russ Amy
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
Wintering
right: mountain
Bluebirds often arrive
so early on their
breeding grounds
that they are caught
in spring snowstorms.
This male, looking
none too pleased,
is huddled to keep
warm. Jim Potter
Voice: The Mountain Bluebirds call is a low few

or chur, described as a soft burry chortle. The males
short, subdued warbling song has been called
hauntingly beautiful.
Feeding: Mountain Bluebirds feed on insects, including
Like their Eastern Bluebird cousins, Mountain Bluebirds

have difficulty outcompeting nonnative species that reside
near farms and ranches year-round. By springtime the nonnatives may already have claimed nesting sites. As their name
suggests, Mountain Bluebirds will nest at high elevations but
are more common at lower elevations.
weevils, wasps, beetles, bees, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and

crickets. They often hover hunt like kestrels when foraging, or hunt from low perches before dropping or darting
upward to capture prey. In late winter, they rely on native
berries of mistletoe, hackberries, juniper, and hollies.
range: Mountain Bluebirds are found primarily in the
western mountains from east-central Alaska to southcentral Mexico, migrating to the northern parts of their
range to begin nesting in late April.
Field marks: Breeding males have a turquoise-blue
back, a paler blue breast, and white belly and under tail
coverts. Females and juveniles are gray above and have
pale blue wings and tail and a buffy chest. The adults are
slightly larger and thinner-billed than other bluebirds;
their wings are proportionately longer than the other
bluebird species.
a female mountain Bluebird keeps her hatchlings warm at ellis

Bird Farm in alberta, canada. she will continue to brood them for
the next few days. mountain Bluebirds may lay fewer clutches per
breeding season, but their clutches include more eggs than those of
either eastern or Western Bluebirds. Myrna Pearman
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tHe nest sIte

In southern states, bluebirds may start looking for nesting
sites as early as January, so have nest boxes ready for them.
However, this may be two to three months later at their
northern limit. During the breeding season, check nests at
least once a week. Since bluebirds typically lay eggs in the
morning, the ideal time to check nests is in the afternoon.
Include perches in your bluebird landscape. Both adult
and newly fledged bluebirds like to sit on small trees or
fence posts from which they can scout for insects on the
ground. Bluebirds are mostly insectivorous, but they
also eat wild berries. Offering mealworms near nesting
sites, and planting berry-producing grapes, blackberries,
dogwood, elderberries, and serviceberries, might induce
bluebirds to stay around your property. Supply fresh water
for both drinking and bathing.
Many bluebirders remove old nesting material from a
nest box right after the young have fledged; this task can
a typical clutch of eastern Bluebird eggs. The nests inner lining on top
is more tightly woven than the outer base. Bet Zimmerman, sialis.org
be repeated several times during the nesting season. At the

end of the nesting season, clean out the nest box one last
time and make any needed repairs. Bluebirds and other
species often use nest boxes for roosting in cold weather.
nesTing: Female bluebirds build tight cup nests atop a
looser built base. Thin bark strips, pine needles, and dry
grasses are typical nesting materials. The inner nest cup
may be lined with softer, finer materials.
eggs: Range from two to seven pale blue and, very
seldom, white eggs. First clutches average five to
six eggs; second clutches average four to five eggs.
Eastern Bluebirds typically have two clutches a year,
but in warmer climates, three clutches are common.
In the northern part of their range, Mountain
Bluebirds are known to lay larger but fewer clutches
than Eastern or Western Bluebirds.
egg-laying: Typically one egg each day until the
clutch is complete.
inCuBaTion: Female incubates for twelve to fifteen
days. Male feeds incubating and brooding female.
Fledging: Fledge dates for Eastern and Western
Bluebirds may vary from sixteen to nineteen days.
Mountain Bluebirds typically fledge within seventeen
to twenty-one days.
posT-Fledging: Within a protected wooded area,
both bluebird parents feed the fledglings after they
leave the nest and while the young are practicing
their flying skills. This period may last up to a few
weeks after the young learn to fly. The male may
continue to assist fledglings while the female begins
building a second nest a week or so after the first
brood has fledged. First-brood young sometimes help
feed their second-brood siblings.
In the 1960s, self-taught naturalist Dick Peterson
noticed the decline of local bluebirds. As a way to
help them, he designed a wooden bluebird box to
replace their preferred but scarce natural tree holes.
His unique Peterson nest box, with its signature
sloping roof to thwart predators, is credited with
helping restore bluebird populations in Minnesota
and elsewhere. In the late 1970s, Peterson received
an outpouring of letters and requests for nest box
plans following a widely read Minneapolis Star Tribune
article on his bluebird work. Inspired by this surge of
50
interest, in 1979 Peterson partnered with the National

Audubon Societys Minneapolis chapter and formed
the Bluebird Recovery Program (BBRP) of Minnesota
the nations first state bluebird organization. Keith
Radel, a BBRP coordinator who knew Peterson, says
his legacy extends beyond designing a nest box
and founding the organization: Dicks real influence
was teaching people responsible ways to keep birds
safehow to identify and then fix problems at the
nest box. His insistence on weekly nest checks has
been critical to bluebird recovery.
ChapTer 3
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Be H I nd t H e d e s I gn :
tH e X- me n an d t H e I r X B o X
In 2010, Dan Sparks, a board member of the North
American Bluebird Society (NABS) saw the need for a
new kind of bluebird nest box, especially designed for
those monitoring multiple nest boxes along bluebird
trails. He, along with many other veteran bluebirders,
believed that most common traditional nest boxes
could be improved. Some had roofs that tended
to warp and leak, others were difficult to open for
weekly nest checks; still others were complicated for
inexperienced woodworkers to build. Sparks gathered
together bluebirders with extensive collective
knowledge of nest box design and construction: Kevin
Berner, Tom Comfort, Steve Eno, Steve Gilbertson,
Keith Kridler, and Keith Radel.
NABS board member Tom Comfort recalls, The
committee was enthusiastic, and what could have
been a long and laborious process actually moved
swiftly. Even though regional differences of weather
and predators meant that one nest box couldnt fit all
needs, most agreed on the basic requirements of a
simple new nest box.
A plan emerged: To come up with nest box that

was attractive to bluebirds, simple in design and
construction, easy to monitor, and resistant to
inclement weather and predators. Nest boxes
are often named for their designers or creators,
observed Comfort. So how to name this nest box,
designed by a committee? Box X became the
Xbox, a simple, inexpensive, easy-to-build frontopening nest box with an inner roof that provides
a second level of protection.
Southern bluebirder Fred Stilleengineer by
trade, woodworker by obsessionwas pleased to
put his skills to work by drawing up the X-Mens
woodworking plans. My motive is to help the birds,
by helping people help the birds, Stille says.
The committee seems to have met its goal. So
far, the Xbox is reportedly providing a dry, safe
nesting environment in a variety of different regions.
I believe that the Xbox is making history,
Comfort says.
plaCing The nesT Box: Eastern Bluebirds prefer
forest clearings and semi-open country with scattered

trees. Big yards, orchards, and cemeteries are good nest
box sites. The preferred nesting habitats for Mountain
Bluebirds consist of short grass areas interspersed by a few
trees. Western Bluebirds can be found in woodland edges
and open, park-like forests, including those that have
been thinned or lightly logged. Space individual or paired
bluebird nest boxes at least 300 feet apart or out of the
line of sight from the nearest bluebird nest box.
MounTing: The Xbox is designed to be mounted
onto a half-inch conduit/rebar pole, called the
Gilbertson system (described in more detail in
Chapter 2). Avoid mounting nest boxes on fences or
trees where climbing mammals or snakes are present.
Use predator guards to further block nest box access.
heighT: Bluebirds nest within a wide range of
heights, from two to fifty feet. Mounting at eye level
provides easy checking; however, if cats or other
predators are problems, hang nest boxes at least six to
eight feet from the ground.
Western Bluebird chicks huddle together inside the nest box.

Steve Simmons
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xBox BlueBird nest Box

designed By dan sparks and the X-Men
Materials
Lumber: cypress (used here), white cedar,
hemlock, or local weather-resistant wood with
low toxicity
One 1x10x11 (roof)
Four 1x6x10 (front, sides, and back)
Two 1x6x4 (floor and inner roof)
One 2x2x9 (pole-mounting block)
Exterior screws: twelve 15/8 (basic construction);
two to six 11/4 (roof to inner roof); and two
2 (pole mounting block to back)
Caulk or sealant (sealing between top and
inner roof)
One 21/2 galvanized nail (bent, latch nail)
Mounting: One 1/2x5 galvanized metal
conduit, one 1/2x45 steel rebar (for stake),
and one conduit coupler (see Gilbertson
sidebar, page 22)
54
1
hole saws were used for the xbox entrance and ventilation
holes, as well as the mounting block. a table saw with its blade
lowered was used for the drip kerfs on the underside of the
roof and for the ladder kerfs on the inside of the front.
the build
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2
the back piece of the xbox is attached to
the inner roof. two deck screws (15/8) are
installed with an impact driver.
4
top of sides are attached to the inner roof
above the entry hole.
6
one galvanized nail (21/2) is bent to create
the latch nail. drill the latch nail hole
slightly downward.
3
test-fit the attached back, unattached sides and inner roof. use a pencil to mark the
placement of the recessed floor. drive in screws.
5
Pivot screws, driven into the front piece from the bottom of both sides, allow the front to
open easily for checking and cleaning.
7
the mounting block for the gilbertson pole system is installed on the back of the xbox with
two exterior deck screws (2). note the predrilled hole on the mounting block.
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8
apply a bead (line) of all-purpose low Voc
caulk to the top of the inner roof prior to
installing the exterior roof.
9
the gilbertson pole system is easy to
assemble. drive rebar into the ground,
leaving two feet above ground. attach
conduit coupler to end of conduit. tighten
upper, shorter screw against conduit. slip
coupler over rebar. tighten lower, longer
screw against rebar. clean pole with steel
wool and coat it with furniture polish. add
baffle if needed.
56
the xbox is placed onto the gilbertson conduit/rebar pole, ready to become home for
bluebirds and others.
the build
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FlyCAtChers
Ash-throated Flycatcher
Myiarchus cinerascens
Breeding
Breeding and
and winter
winter
Breeding
An Ash-throated Flycatcher in Palo Alto, California. Ashok Khosla
Winter
Great Crested Flycatcher
?
?
Myiarchus crinitus
Breeding
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
A Great Crested Flycatcher catches the sun in Great Falls, Virginia.

Ruhikanta Meetei
Wintering
Wintering
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ome Southern California Ash-throated Flycatcher

populations have been greatly reduced by habitat
loss. Conversely, Great Crested Flycatchers have benefited
from deciduous forest fragmentation, which has increased
the woodland edges where they hunt for insects. Logging
and development have made nesting cavities scarce for
both species.
the nest site
range: Ash-throated Flycatchers reside throughout
nesting: Where natural tree cavities are limited,
the Southwest, California, and as far north as central

Washington, Idaho, Wyoming, and south into Mexico.
They overwinter in Mexico and Central America. Great
Crested Flycatchers are summer residents throughout
southern Canada and the eastern United States. Most
winter from Mexico to South America.
flycatchers take to nest boxesalong with mailboxes,

rain gutters, and other inventive places. Nests contain
dry grasses, leaves, hair, fur, feathers, rootlets, string,
small twigs, bark, paper, crinkly materials such as plastic
wrappers, and occasionally, especially in Great Crested
Flycatcher nests, shed snakeskins. Rabbit fur often lines
Ash-throated Flycatcher nests.
eggs: Four to eight creamy white to pinkish eggs
with brownish or purplish streaks and blotches. Ashthroated eggs are less streaked.
egg-laying: One per day.
incuBation: Thirteen to fifteen days. Female
incubates; both parents feed chicks.
days to Fledge: Thirteen to fifteen days.
Field Marks: Great Crested Flycatcher adults are
almost 9 inches long, with a 13-inch wingspan, bright

yellow belly and under tail, olive-gray underparts,
cinnamon-rufous wings and tail, pale wing bars, and
a prominent raised crest. Ash-throated Flycatchers are
slightly smaller, paler versions of the Great Crested.
Protecting forest edges, preserving tall trees and dead

snags, and installing nest boxes all enhance flycatcher
territory and potential nest sites. Researcher Michael
Morrison notes a marked preference for hanging or swinging boxes, which are less subject to predation or starling
invasion than stationary boxes.
Voice: Great Crested Flycatchers are easier to hear than
to see. Their distinctive police whistle call is a strong,

rising wee-eep or queEEEEP! Ash-throated Flycatchers
have a short, abrupt bik or kaBRIK call.
Feeding: Flycatchers hunt primarily in the tree canopy
for large insects and small fruits. They glean insects from
leaves and tree bark, drop down to capture insects on
the ground, or fly from perch to perch to catch airborne
flying insects, a maneuver called sallying.
Placing the nest Box: These two species prefer
different habitats: arid brush country for Ash-throated

Flycatchers and open deciduous woodlands for the
Great Crested.
nesting Materials: Add small amounts (one to
two inches) of wood chips to the nest box.
Mounting: Mount onto a half-inch conduit/rebar
pole, called the Gilbertson system. Avoid mounting
nest boxes on fences or trees where climbing mammals or snakes are present. Use predator guards to
further block nest box access.
height: Mounting at eye level provides easy
checking; however, if cats or other predators are
problems, hang nest boxes at least six to eight feet
from the ground.
the Build
Flycatchers will nest in an Xbox: see pages 5253 for
the plan. Ideal entry hole sizes are one and one-half inches
for Ash-throated Flycatcher and one and three-quarters
inches for Great Crested Flycatcher.
a varied collection of materials within a Wood duck nest box
cushions these purple-streaked great crested Flycatcher eggs. a
parasitic Brown-headed cowbird laid the middle egg. Aaron Ward,
courtesy of the Maryland Wood Duck Initiative
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sWalloWs
Tree Swallow
Tachycineta bicolor
the young female tree swallow (left) is less colorful than the male
(right). With age, female tree swallows become less drab and brown
and more closely resemble males. David Kinneer
Summer / Breeding
Nonbreeding
Violet-green Swallow
Tachycineta thalassina
Breeding
Year-round
Nonbreeding
Violet-green swallows are aerial feeders, subsisting primarily on a

diet of flying insects. Ashok Khosla
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ree Swallows are common and widespread, but their

populations have declined recently, which may be
due to loss or degradation of nesting habitat. Violet-green
Swallow populations are stable. Both species are readily
attracted to bluebird nest boxes, though some people
recommend roomier houses.
Range: Unlike other swallows that winter in South
America, Tree Swallows migrate to the southern United

States and Mexico. This shorter migration enables an
earlier return to the northeastan advantage in claiming
nest sites. Violet-green Swallows breed in western North
America from central Alaska and western Canada, south
to Mexico.
Field maRks: Tree Swallows are steely blue or green
above with glistening white underparts. They are about
five and a half inches long with a fourteen and a half-inch
wingspan; wingtips reach the tail tip. In flight, this small,
broad-winged bird has a white underside and forked tail
and glides in circles. Three or four quick flaps are often
followed by a short climb. Violet-green Swallows have
emerald-green backs and white above the eye. Wings are
narrower; tails are shorter. In both species, females are
duller and browner.
Voice: The call is a liquid twittering cheet or chi-veet.
Song resembles weet, trit, weet, with variations.

Feeding: Both Tree Swallows and Violet-green Swallows
feed on flying ants, beetles, flies, and occasionally, bees,

wasps, and grasshoppers. These adaptable birds also land
on beaches to pick tiny insects and crustaceans from the
sand. In cold weather, when insects are scarce, they switch
to fruits like bayberry, or seeds from bulrush, sedge, and
smartweed.
The NesT siTe

In early spring, mount pairs of clean, bluebird-sized nest
boxes about twenty feet apart, to provide for a pair of both
swallows and bluebirds. Research shows that swallow nests
with an ample feather lining have better chick survival
than those without. Provide chicken feathers in a hanging
basket or toss feathers to the wind and let the swallows
snatch them from the air.
nesting: Originally woodpecker cavity nesters,
swallows readily use nest boxes. Females build their nests

using fine grasses with a feather lining that insulates eggs
in chilly early spring weather. Males may have two mates
simultaneously.
eggs: Four to six white eggs.
incubation: Thirteen days. Female incubates;
both parents feed young.
days to Fledge: About twenty days.
Placing the nest box: Cluster nest boxes in the
center of a large open field. Rural areas near buggy

wetlands are a plus. Placing nest boxes far from buildings, woods, or hedgerows allows swallows to spot
incoming predators at a distance and use their flying
ability to escape.
mounting: Mount onto a half-inch conduit/rebar
height: Mounting at eye level provides easy
checking; however, if cats or other predators are
problems, hang nest boxes at least six to eight feet
from the ground.
The build
Tree Swallows and Violet-green Swallows will nest in an
Xbox: See page 5253 for plans. Nestlings rely on the
kerf ladder of the Xboxif theres no ladder, they can
get trapped inside. Ideal entry hole size is one and onehalf inches.
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titMice
Tufted Titmouse
Baeolophus bicolor
Year-round
Year-round
note the characteristic black feathers just above this tufted

titmouses bill. David Kinneer
itmice are common, grayish, small-crested birds

whose populations seem to be thriving. They are yearround residents. Over the last half-century, Tufted Titmice
have expanded their range farther north, perhaps due to
warming climates, the reversion of farmlands to forests,
and increased bird feeding.
eyes, and a small square of black feathers on the forehead

just above the black bill. Juveniles have a pale face and lack
the dark facial feathers. Black-crested Titmice are similar
to the Tufted, except for the darker crest. Oak and Juniper
Titmice are nearly identical. They are smaller and duller
brown than the Tufted and Black-crested Titmice.
range: Tufted Titmice are common in most eastern

states in deciduous forests below 2,000 feet in elevation.
The Black-crested Titmouse of Texas and northeastern
Mexico has recently been given separate species status.
These two species overlap in central Texas. The Oak
Titmouse is found from southern Oregon to Baja
California. The Juniper Titmouse inhabits the Great
Basin region, west of Texas, and as far north as southeastern Oregon.
Voice: Tufted Titmice calls are wheezy and nasal, similar to chickadees. The song is a low, loud, clear whistle:
peter, peter, peter, or here, here, here! Black-crested sounds
like Tufted but may sing a higher pitch and at a faster
pace. Oak Titmice repeat strong whistled phrases. Juniper
Titmice sing lower-pitched songs that lack the pure
whistle quality.
Field Marks: At six inches long, with a ten-inch wingspan, the Tufted Titmouse is all gray above, whitish below,
with pale rust-colored flanks, a tufted crest, large black
Feeding: Frequent feeder visitors, these birds favor
acorns, beechnuts, and caterpillars in the wild. They also

eat a variety of insects and fruit, especially blackberries,
blueberries, elderberries, junipers, mulberries, wild cherries, sumac, poison ivy, and bayberries.
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Oak Titmouse
Juniper Titmouse
Baeolophus inornatus
Baeolophus ridgwayi
the oak titmouse is gray-brown all over. Ashok Khosla
a Juniper titmouse sings in its namesake tree. Ashok Khosla
the nest site

Set out nest boxes to attract titmice in early spring. As a
further enticement, offer nesting materials like dog and
cat fur. Plant berry bushes at the forest edge; provide
peanuts, sunflower seeds, and suet at the feeders. Clean
out nest boxes after the nesting season. Keep them up all
winter for roosting titmice.
nesting: At nesting time, males court females with gifts
of food; her high-pitched calls are accompanied by begging behavior. Females build the nest, although males help
gather materials. Nests are made with mostly moss, leaves,
and bark and are lined with a variety of softer materials,
including feathers, fur, wool, and hair.
eggs: Usually five to seven, but they can range from
four to nine creamy, brown-speckled eggs.
incuBation: Thirteen to fourteen days for Tufted
and Black-crested; fourteen to sixteen days for Oak
and Juniper Titmice. Female incubates.
days to Fledge: Fifteen to eighteen days for
Tufted and Black-crested; a few days longer for the
western titmice. May be cared for by parents three to
four weeks past fledging.
Oak Titmouse
Titmouse
Oak
Juniper
Juniper Titmouse
Titmouse
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Black-crested Titmouse
Baeolophus atricristatus
The Black-crested Titmouse is found in Texas, oklahoma, and east-central Mexico. Ashok Khosla
plaCing The nesT Box: Place the nest box in a
forested area. Tufted Titmice have adapted to urban areas,

too, particularly those with large oak and beech trees.
MounTing: Mount onto a half-inch conduit/rebar
heighT: Mounting at eye level provides easy
checking; however, if cats or other predators are problems, hang nest boxes at least six to eight feet from
the ground.
q u Ic k t I p
Specific-sized entry holes, as well as optional entry
hole reducers or restrictors can protect small
birds (like titmice and chickadees) that are already
using a bluebird nest box. Smaller entry holes
obstruct larger birds like starlings and bluebirds,
which will aggressively compete for nest boxes.
tHe BuIld
These species of titmice will nest in an Xbox: see pages
5253 for plans. Ideal entry hole size is one and onequarter inches.
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oWls
Barred Owl
Strix varia
Year-round
Year-round
this Barred owl is

well camouflaged
within the oldgrowth cypresstupelo swamplands
of audubons
Francis Beidler
Forest in south
carolina.
Mark Musselman
arred Owls originally resided mostly in mature,

moist, undisturbed forests in eastern North America;
they have since suffered from deforestation that removed
large nesting trees. During the past century, these birds
have spread north and west. They now reside in coniferous Pacific Northwest forests, where they compete with
the threatened Spotted Owl. Barred Owls are preyed upon
by Great Horned Owls, and those that nest in suburbia
are at risk from car collisions.
heads, large dark brown eyes, and orange-yellow bills.

Brown vertical stripes or bars on the belly give the bird
its common name.
Voice: The Barred Owl has a distinctive eight- or ninenote hooting call, often described as Who cooks for you?
Who cooks for you-all? Courtship calling between males
and females can turn into loud, cackling duets.
Feeding: Barred Owls are nocturnal sit-and-wait
range: These nonmigratory owls are widely distributed
throughout the United States and Canada.

Field Marks: Barred Owls average eighteen and a half
inches long with forty-inch wingspans. Large and stocky,

these mottled gray-brown and white owls have rounded
64
predators, looking and listening from an elevated

perch, then flying silently to capture prey. Their varied
diet includes mice, voles, squirrels, chipmunks, small
birds, and young rabbits, as well as fish, amphibians,
reptiles, and invertebrates.
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tHe nest sIte

Eggs may be laid in January in the deep South, but
typically later in northern regions. Practices that benefit
Barred Owls include allowing some trees to reach maturity, retaining nesting snags, and providing nest boxes.
nesTing: Barred Owls are monogamous and prefer
large, unfragmented forests, which support a higher
diversity of prey; larger, taller trees are also more likely to
have natural cavities for nesting. Nest sites are usually near
water, in deciduous trees, broken snags, or human-made
nest boxes.
eggs: Two to five, with an average of three
white eggs; single brood.
egg-laying: One to three days between first and
second egg; two to four between second and third.
inCuBaTion: Twenty-eight to thirty-three days;
female incubates.
Two-week-old Barred owlsmostly beaks and fluff.

Rob Bierregaard
days To Fledge: Four to five weeks; parents

continue to feed fledglings.
plaCing The nesT Box: Attach securely to a large,
deciduous tree in a mature forest, near water if possible.
Prey availability may influence nest-site selection.
nesTing MaTerials: Line nest box with several
inches of hard wood mulch, pine straw, or leaves.
MounTing: Use caution when mounting these
large, heavy boxes. Face box opening sideways for
easy access.
heighT: Fifteen to twenty feet.
a Barred owl roosting in a nest box in Charlotte, north Carolina, in

late February. Brad Kuntz
Be H I nd t H e d e s I gn
Rob Bierregaard credits the community service program at New Yorks Millbrook High School for steering him toward a career in ornithology. There, he was
put in charge of caring for Shakespeare, the campus zoos Barred Owl. Years later, while teaching at
the University of North Carolinas Charlotte campus,
he established a Barred Owl project to study the locally abundant suburban populations. Over the years,
the nest box design he used with students evolved
into a McMansion a one-family home with plenty

of room for the youngsters and easy access for the
adults. The true success of his design is in the data: to
date, the project nest boxes have produced fledglings from more than 100 nests. In addition to studying Barred Owls, Bierregaard uses satellite telemetry
to research osprey migration and nesting. He is also
editor of two books on his research on Amazon rain
forest ecology and conservation.
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Barred oWl nest Box

designed By richard o. Bierregaard
1
cut the pieces out according to the diagrams. youll have five pieces
24x19. these will be the four sides of the box plus the top. cut the
19x171/2 floor out of the second sheet of plywood.
Materials
One sheet of 3/4"x4'x8' exterior CDX,
untreated plywood. Cut the 3/4"x4'x8'
exterior CDX sheet in half lengthwise, to
create two pieces, each 3/4"x 2'x8'
Mark the 10x10 entrance door. cut with a circular saw, a jigsaw, or
a handsaw.
Roughly thirty 2" exterior-grade

deck screws.
Exterior wood glue
3
an optional fledgling perch (11/2x11/2x171/2) can be added to the
interior of the box, just below the door. at this stage, all exterior
pieces can be stained with a low Voc wood preservative. the roof
of a plywood box wears better with a finish.
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qu Ick t I p s
Hanging this heavy nest box can be tricky. Its a good
idea to do this job with several people. One way is to
secure a long rope around the box. Tie a weight on the
end of the loose rope and throw it over a branch, just
above where you want to put the box. Pull up box to
desired site. Designer Rob Bierregaard advises using a
rope and pulley system to get the box up into the tree.
Unlike most tree-hung nest boxes, the entry door of
the Barred Owl nest box faces sideways, with one of
the sides of the nest boxnot the backresting on
the tree. Position the nest box accordingly. This way, a
ladder can be steadied against the tree, not the nest
box, a safer method for accessing a nest box fifteen to
twenty feet high. Note: Since this nest box does not
have a side or top that opens, all necessary accessto
remove squirrel nests in fall, for exampleis through
the large entry door.
Once the box is in place, hang it securely. A preferred method passes a 3/16 to diameter vinylcoated wire rope through two predrilled upper corner
3/8 holes on the side that leans against the tree trunk.
Loop wire rope over a strong branch or pre-positioned,
half-driven 3/8 diameter, 6 long lag screw on opposite
side of the tree trunk. Clamp the ends of the wire rope
together around the tree.
Test-fit sides. Then predrill all screw locations. Just before

assembling, glue all edges that will attach to each other. gluing
edges adds strength and water tightness.
dont spare the screws, especially around the sides. place them
every four to six inches. Make sure no screws protrude into the box,
where they might injure the birds.
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6
Recess the floor ". Drill four or five 1
diameter drainage holes into the floor.
Note the roof overhang, an important

feature for all nest boxes.
If youre going to use hexhead lag screws

to mount the box to the tree, drill four or
five holes near the middle of the side (not
the back) of the box you will attach to the
tree. The holes should be the size of your
lag screws. Use a washer between the box
and lag screw, and dont tighten them hard
against the tree. As the tree grows, it can
push a box right off the screws. Leave
or of play in a couple of the lag screws
to account for the trees growth. If youre
going to use wire cable to hang the box,
drill two to four holes at the top of the side
of the box that will be against the tree. Pass
the cable through the holes and clamp the
ends of the wire together around the tree.
Option: Stain all the exterior sides with a
deck preservative before assembly.
Drill four vent holes (1diameter) on the side of the Barred Owl nest box that will not be
against the tree, and mount it appropriately.
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owls
Eastern Screech-Owl
Otus asio
Year-round
Year-round
Gray phase of the eastern screech-owl, looking a little bit sleepy.

Mark Mussleman
Western Screech-Owl
Otus kennicottii
Year-round
This western screech-owls plumage keeps it well-camouflaged

amidst tree bark. Ashok Khosla
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Four eastern screech-owl fledglings out on a limb in central texas. they range in age from twenty-five to twenty-eight days old.
Chris W. Johnson
heir small size, excellent camouflage, unfussy nesting

habits, and varied diet make Eastern and Western
Screech-Owls successful survivors. The eastern birds
adjust well to human presence. In fact, suburbs may provide more prey, milder climates, and fewer predators than
rural areas. Western Screech-Owls choose higher, drier
habitats. Territories of these two species, formerly classified as one, can overlap. The two species are also known
to hybridize. Both Barred Owls and Great Horned Owls
prey on the much smaller screech owls.
range: Eastern Screech-Owls reside year round primar-
ily east of the Rocky Mountains. Western Screech-Owls

are found in the southwestern, western, and northwestern
states up into Alaska.
Field Marks: These diminutive owls are about nine
inches tall with twenty-inch wingspans and strongly

barred underparts. Females are slightly larger than males.
Characteristic ear tufts are lacking in the young. Although
Eastern and Western Screech-Owls closely resemble each
other, the bills are yellow-greenish in eastern owls and
black in western owls. Eastern owls are gray or reddishbrown; western owls are gray or brown.
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B e hin d t he d esign
Although biologist Fred Gehlbach also studies
Western Screech-Owls in Arizona, he knows Eastern Screech-Owls best. Upon moving to central
Texas to teach at Baylor University in the early
1960s, he was intrigued by a pair of owls popping
out of a fox squirrel box. He has been studying the
nesting habits of rural and suburban screech owls
and telling their stories ever since. Gehlbach examined the owls natural tree cavity nests, created
three different nest box designs, and tested them
all. Outdoor plywood, pine, and cedar all worked
well: The more weathered the better, notes
Gehlbach, and an eight-inch-square floor size was
just fine. Gehlbach also found that these owls
fare better in suburbia than rural areas. Life is easier there, he explains. Spacious lawns and open
spaces are good places to hunt, and backyard bird
feeders offer up small-feathered prey. Gehlbachs
book, Eastern Screech Owl: Life History, Ecology,
and Behavior in the Suburbs and Countryside, is in
its second printing (2008).
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this red phase eastern screech-owl pair made a Wood duck nest box their home.
Voice: Eastern birds utter a mournful tremulous,

descending trilling call, described as a whinny. Western
birds emit a series of short whistles described as a bouncing ball call. Both birds bark when alarmed.
incuBation: Twenty-six days. Female

incubates; both parents feed young.
days to Fledge: Twenty-eight days
after hatching.
Feeding: Screech owls begin feeding after dusk. These
Placing the nest Box: Shaded areas in sparse
nocturnal generalists eat night-flying insects, small mammals, and birds alike, then regurgitate pellets of feathers,
fur, and bones.
woods, streamside forests, farmland, suburban backyards,

and city parks. Avoid facing the nest box north. Face the
entry hole east or south where possible, as the birds like
to sit in the entranceway (even during the day) to soak
up sunlight.
nesting Materials: Add a couple of inches
of wood chips or dry leaves.
Mounting: Attach to straight trees wider than
the box or install on posts or buildings.
height: About ten feet high.
the nest site

Eastern Screech-Owls begin nesting in February in southern states but may wait until July in far northern habitats.
Provide birdbaths for drinking and bathing and nest boxes
for seasonal nesting, as well as for roosting and storing
prey year-round. Western Screech-Owls use nest boxes less
readily than their eastern counterparts.
(Data are for the more widely studied Eastern Screech-Owl)
nesting: Males bring food to females at potential nest
sites. Once chosen, the male guards and defends the area
surrounding the nest site.
eggs: Usually four to five white or
cream-colored eggs.
egg-laying: The first few eggs are often laid two
days apart, then one per day.
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screech-oWl nest Box

designed By Fred gehlBach
1
cut pieces according to the drawing. Measure and cut out the 3
entrance hole on the front piece (be certain you measure up from
the bottom 10 to the bottom of the hole). Make four or five kerf
cuts on the exterior of the box, the same width as the entrance
hole. cuts are 1/2 apart and 1/4 deep.
Materials
One 1x10x8 cypress (used
here) or cedar board (3/4 thick)
Two 11/2x11/2 exterior hinges
with hinge screws
Approximately thirty 2
exterior-grade deck screws
2
drill out 1/4 drain holes on the floor piece. start assembly of pieces
by laying out the back piece and placing the sides on it. Mark and
predrill pieces accordingly. attach sides to the back piece. Predrill
the floor piece and screw to sides.
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Be certain to recess the floor piece 1/2 from the bottom,

to prevent water seepage into the nest cavity.
5
Place the roof piece on top of the sides and
make sure its centered.
attach the predrilled front piece to the sides and floor.

Be sure that the front piece is aligned with the angle of
the sides, as this allows for a tight fit of the roof.
attach the hinges to the roof so that they

are equal distance apart (approximately
11/2 in from the edge of the roof). attach
the hinge to the back piece. drill mounting
holes in the back piece.
the screech-owl nest box is ready to hang

onto a tree or post or building. opposite
page: the nest box was attached to a tall,
straight pine with two diameter, 4
long galvanized lag screws driven into the
back piece, with a washer between screws
and board.
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Flickers
Northern Flicker
Colaptes auratus
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
Male red-shafted northern Flickers sport a red mustache.

Ashok Khosla
Wintering
Wintering
licker populations have been declining since the late

1960s, which is a matter of concern, as these antloving woodpeckers play an important role in woodland
communities. In the soft wood of dead or dying trees,
they excavate cavities that are later used by other birds.
Competition with House Sparrows and starlings for nest
cavities, and the development of fields and open land,
have made this once-abundant bird less common.
range: Northern Flickers occur in sparsely wooded
regions across North America. Birds that breed far north

migrate south and east.
Field Marks: Brownish overall, this thirteen-inch long
bird has a twenty-inch wingspan, a gray-brown crown,

black chest patch, and spotted beige breast. Once considered two species, yellow-shafted Northern Flickers east
of the Rockies show yellow underwings; red-shafted
flickers, west of the Rockies, show red. Adult males have a
red (east) or black mustache (west). All show conspicuous
white rumps in flight.
Voice: Call is a loud, descending klee-yer, and a rapid,
a female yellow-shafted northern Flicker. Flickers spend much of
their time on the ground looking for ants, this species favorite
meal. Ashok Khosla
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squeaky flick-a, flick-a, flick-a. A soft wik-a-wik-a-wik-a

is made by nesting adults. Males drum on trees or other
objectsincluding housesto defend their territory.
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a male yellow-shafted northern Flicker feeds a youngster at a

Michigan nest box. Males can be identified by a black mustache.
long cuts on the outer nest box surface help flickers keep a firm
hold. Allen Bower
this flicker nest box contains nine glossy white eggsa high
number for this woodpecker. notice the kerfs all around the inside
of the nest box. Allen Bower
Feeding: Flickers are often on the ground, hammering
nesting: Both sexes excavate tree cavities or nest boxes
ant hills and lapping up ants and ant eggs with their long,
sticky tongues. Wood-boring beetles, beetle larvae, wasps,
grasshoppers, crickets, berries, and other fruits are on the
menu, too.
filled with soft wood chips. The nest consists of a bed of

wood chips.
eggs: Usually five to eight glossy white eggs. High
numbers of eggs could be the result of nonrelated
females dumping eggs into another females nest.
incuBation: Eleven to fourteen days. Both parents incubate and feed young.
days to Fledge: Twenty-three to twentyeight days.
the nest site

Flickers adapt well to living near humans and are more
likely to use nest boxes than other woodpeckers. Hang
flicker nest boxes by February. Pack the entire nest box,
especially the entry hole, with softwood chips to discourage sparrows and starlings, and encourage flickers to
excavate a cavity, just as they would naturally. If flickers abandon a nest box taken over by starlings, refill the
nest box with wood chips. Birds may use nest boxes as
winter roosts, too. Leave dead and dying trees standing
for natural cavity nest sites. Plant elderberry, serviceberry,
and dogwood trees. Suet and hulled sunflower seeds may
entice flickers to feeders.
Placing the nest Box: Place in shade, near sparsely
scattered trees, but out of jumping range of squirrels. Face

nest boxes south with an open flyway if possible; avoid
hot afternoon sun.
Mounting: Mount on trees, metal poles, or wood
posts. Tilt box forward about fifteen degrees to make
it easier for parents to feed young.
height: Ten to fourteen feet.
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BoWer FliCker Box

desIgned By allen Bower
1
The four corner pieces are cut from the two side scraps. see drawing. Carefully cut these
pieces at a 45 degree angle, using a table saw. Trim each of the four corner pieces to 21.
MaTerials
One 2x10x10 piece of
pine (used here) or Douglas
fir (actual size is 1
thick x 9)
Twenty-four 2 exterior
deck screws
White pine animal bedding
(wood shavings)
2
To create the 3 tall by 2 wide oval
entry hole, mark the oval with pencil lines,
then align a drill bit at the top mark and
drill the first hole. next, align the bit with
the bottom mark and drill the second hole.
Chisel out leftover wood between holes to

create the oval. sand the entry hole smooth.
Allen Bowers nicknameFlickermanis well earned. In
1990, the Michigan native saw flickers nesting in a hollow limb of his backyard box elder tree. Curious about
the nest site, Bower climbed nearly twenty feet up to it
and started measuring. The entry hole was well worn,
about two and a half inches wide and three and a quarter inches high. The cavity was eighteen inches deep.
From these findings Bower made a flicker nest box,
which hatched eight young the first year. Uniquely, his
82
design calls for small cuts or kerfs all around the inside
of the boxjust like those made by birds chiseling out
a tree cavity. Flickers have returned to his nest boxes
nearly every spring. If the birds are happy, says Bower,
theyll come back. Bower published his research on
flicker egg-dumping in Wilson Bulletin (March 2004).
He is a lifelong member of several bluebird organizations and received a North American Bluebird Society
Conservation Award in 2003.
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Make kerf cuts on the interior front, back, and sides, 1/2 to 3/4 apart, 1/4
deep and 3 from all top and bottom edges. as per drawings, make kerf
cuts 31/2 wide on the center of the front and back and 5 wide on the
sides. Make kerf cuts on the angled corner pieces as well. Birds will use
the kerf cuts as footholds. cut 3/4 off floor corners for drainage holes.
Predrill front, back, and roof. space four holes evenly along
each long side of front and back. Predrill roof in four places,
ensuring a screw will contact each side. three of these screws
will be removed when checking and cleaning. the fourth will
serve as a pivot.
6
attach two kerf-cut corner pieces to the
front with finish nails or small screws. Be
sure they are flush with the top of the box
to allow drainage to the corners. install the
floor on the three sides. recess the floor
up from the bottom 1/4 to prevent water
seepage. nail the remaining two corner
pieces to the back piece so that it will fit into
the nest cavity of the box (refer to drawing).
assemble the back to the sides using

the predrilled holes. Be sure to attach
one screw through the back into the
floor as well.
attach roof through predrilled holes. Fill

the entire nest box with softwood chips.
northern Flickers will excavate those
chips if they choose your nest box.
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oWls
Barn Owl
Tyto alba
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
a female Barn owl in an almond orchard in californias central

Valley. Steve Simmons
arn Owls are among the most widespread of all land

birds, but they are nonetheless declining over much
of North America, particularly in the Midwest. Key
factors include loss of nesting sites (such as large, hollow
trees and old barns) and development of agricultural fields
and grasslands where these owls hunt. Rodenticides kill
Barn Owls indirectly, since rodents are their main food.
Because they fly near the ground when hunting, these
owls are especially susceptible to vehicle collisions.
Nonbreeding
Voice: Unlike the hoots of other owls, Barn Owls
produce a long, harsh, raspy call. A softer versionor

purring callis used in courtship. Barn Owls and their
owlets also hiss loudly at nest predators.
Feeding: On nighttime hunts, Barn Owls fly low over
eight United States, parts of Hawaii, southern Canada,

and much of the world. Adults are nonmigratory.
open habitats, using their night vision and remarkable

hearing to find prey like rats, mice, voles, gophers, bats,
rabbits, and small birds. Their hearing is so keen, they
can capture prey in total darkness. Like other owls, prey
is swallowed whole; undigested parts are coughed up as
pellets. Nesting Barn Owls may cache (store) prey at the
nest site to feed young.
Field Marks: These midsized, round-headed, long-
the nest site
legged owls are about fourteen inches in length, with a

whitish chest and belly, a short, squared-off tail, and
a three-foot wingspan. The Barn Owls dark eyes contrast with its white satellite-dish and heart-shaped face.
Nicknames like Ghost Owl and Monkey-faced Owl are
descriptive. Females are bigger than males and may
be darker.
If birds are present, nest boxes can boost local populations. Clean out nest boxes in early fall and position them
by November. Barn Owls use their nest boxes for winter
roosting and may nest in the same box year after year.
Avoid using rodenticides and pesticides.
range: Barn Owls reside across most of the lower forty-
nesting: Barn Owls nest and roost in existing quiet
cavities in hollow trees, cliffs, caves, or human-made

structures such as nest boxes, barns, and church steeples.
Females create a nest cup of their own shredded pellets.
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a female Barn owl rests with young, eggs, and abundant prey in the larder, courtesy of
the male. When these chicks are hungry, a meal will be close by. Steve Simmons
Wide open spaces with abundant rodents

are perfect settings for Barn owl nest boxes.
Steve Simmons
Generally monogamous, these owls sometimes produce

more than two broods a year.
eggs: Two to eighteen; average of seven dull
white eggs.
egg-laying: Two- to three-day intervals.
incuBation: Twenty-nine to thirty-four days;
incubating female relies on male for food.
days to Fledge: Fifty to fifty-five days.
Placing the nest Box: Mount box near hunt-
ing grounds, including large open marshes, grasslands,

agricultural fields, orchards, and vineyards, far from roads
and train tracks. Space boxes at least eighty yards apart. If
heat is a problem, plant boxes white.
nesting Materials: Add three-quarters of an
inch of wood shavings to nest box floor.
Mounting: Attach to a ten-foot metal pole thats
one and a half to two inches wide. Stabilize pole by
placing it two feet deep into cement or onto ground
socket. Make sure the nest box is level. Can also be
mounted on barns and trees.
height: Eight to ten feet above ground.
a female Barn owl stares at the intruding photographer.
Steve Simmons
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Barn oWl nest Box

designed By steve siMMons
Materials
One sheet of 3/4x4x8 CDX exterior-grade
untreated plywood
Seventy 15/8 to 2 exterior No. 8 deck screws
Four 2 square bend screws or L screws
Two pairs of hinges 11/2x11/2 (exterior grade)
with hinge screws
Exterior-grade wood glue, nontoxic variety
(Tite-Bond II)
Two 1/2 metal flux brushes
Q u ic k t ip
L screws have a practical advantage over a traditional screw in that a trail monitor need merely twist the
L screws about a quarter turn with a pair of pliers
to release the door. An additional advantage of L
screws over conventional screws is that L screws are
never lost in the field, since they are not removed
from the box.
Qu i ck t i p
Glue all pieces before assembly. Attach as soon
as possible. An air nailer can quickly tack pieces
together. This keeps everything in line and square
before predrilling. Next, assemble all pieces. Wait
until glue has dried before applying any stain.
Remove any excess glue with a razor blade, or
sand it off.
1
cut all pieces according to the diagrams. Predrilling is
recommended when using plywood. the nest box is put together
using no. 8 exterior deck screws and waterproof glue. Predrill 5/32
clearance holes for the screws 3/8 from the edge of the top, front,
sides, and back at the spots indicated in the drawings and photos.
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B e HIn d t H e desI gn
2
Cut out the elliptical entrance hole using a jigsaw. use a router with
a 3/8 straight bit to cut out three or four grip grooves below the
entrance hole on the exterior side. note two slots made in each of the
top door and clean-out door pieces. These are for the l screws.
In four decades of studying birds around Californias

Central Valley, former high school woodshop
teacher Steve Simmons has banded more than
14,000 Barn Owls. He got involved with owls when
he and his students turned agricultural waste
damaged plywood prune cratesinto simple
Barn Owl boxes. As the design evolved, Simmons
added an elliptical entry hole to deter raccoons
and Great Horned Owls. Another unique owltested feature is an inside divider that creates two
chambers, so predators cant see the young and
vice versa. Simmons nest boxes are popular with
farmers and ranchers. When they learn a family of
owls consumes about seventy pounds of rodents
in eight weeks, they welcome my nest boxes, says
Simmons, adding, Barn Owls are the best natural
pest control around. In 2006, Simmons was named
a Field and Stream Heroes of Conservation finalist
for his Wood Duck restoration work.
3
The box is assembled using deck screws
(no. 8, 15/8 to 2 long) and exterior glue.
deck screws are preferred since they are
more weather resistant than other screws.
any surface on this box held together
with screws should also be glued. using
the small metal brush, coat both surfaces
before assembly.
4
attach the divider to the front. drill eight diameter drain holes in the floor.
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5
glue together the front, back, and floor.
7
attach the clean-out door using hinges.
insert the clean-out door l-screws (use 3/32
pilot bit).
6
one side is attached to front, back, and floor.
8
attach top door with hinges. insert top door l screws on upper edge of clean-out door side.
use a 3/32 pilot bit. tighten l screws until snug. if desired, after assembly, finish with low
Voc semi-transparent stain.
hang the Barn owl nest box on
a metal pole, a barn, or a tree.
this nest box (see page 88)
was bolted onto an angle iron
frame that was welded to a 11/2
diameter metal pole.
9
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kestrels
American Kestrel
Falco sparverius
Breeding
Breeding and winter
a close-up of a captive female american kestrel. Paul Spurling,

courtesy of the Peregrine Fund/Americana Kestrel Partnership
rom the late nineteenth century until about the

mid-1930s, kestrels (formerly called sparrow hawks),
along with other birds of prey, were hunted in huge
numbers during fall migration.
Today, although the birds are no longer hunted,
nesting habitat for American Kestrels can be hard to
find. This small falcon hunts in open farmlands and
grasslands, yet it favors nest sites like old woodpecker
tree cavities and protected rock
ledges. Although declining in parts
of their range, kestrels accept nest
boxes, a practice that helps increase
local populations.
Wintering
Winter
are paler, rustier, and larger. Look for tail-flicking when

perched and hover-hunting in the air.
Voice: Sharp call is a series of klee notes or
killy-killy-killy.
Feeding: Hunts in open country for ground-dwelling
insects, frogs, snakes, and rodents, especially voles.
range: Breeds throughout North
America up into Alaska and northern

Canada, and south into Mexico and
South America.
Field Marks: The smallest and
most colorful falcon in the Americas.

The males pointy wings and large
round head are slate-blue, with black
vertical lines on a white face, a rustyred tail and back, black band near the
tail tip, and pale undersides. Females
this male american kestrel is on the lookout for prey at the hawk Mountain sanctuary in
eastern Pennsylvania. kestrels will stash extra food in bushes, tree limbs, and elsewhere,
storing it for future use. Courtesy of the Hawk Mountain Sanctuary
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H aw k m o un ta I n s a n c t u a ry
Photos of a raptor slaughter in 1932 at what was
called Hawk Mountain in eastern Pennsylvania caught
the attention of conservationist Rosalie Edge. She
later bought the property. In time it became Hawk
Mountain Sanctuary, the first refuge for birds of prey.
Hawk Mountain Sanctuary curator Alex Nagy helped
pioneer nest box use for kestrels in the early 1950s.
Today, research at the sanctuary and elsewhere is
attempting to identify reasons for recent kestrel declines
in New England, the Great Lakes, and California.
Seeks prey while perched on utility poles or in hovering

flight. Can catch small birds in the air. Ultraviolet vision
enables kestrels to see urine trails that may lead to prey,
especially voles. Male feeds female during much of the
breeding season.
tHe nest sIte

In northern states, set up new nest boxes in early
March, before kestrels return. Also check and clean out
established nest boxes at that time. Young can be found
in the nest as late as August. Nest boxes may also be
cleaned out in the fall once nesting season is over. Most
Scarcity of nesting sites, prevalence of environmental

toxins, predation by raccoons, and in some areas,
Coopers Hawks, may be contributing to these declines.
Keith Bildstein, director of conservation science for
the Hawk Mountain Sanctuary, says as many as 5,000
kestrels have been hatched and banded at Hawk
Mountain since the nest box program began. By
monitoring kestrels in nest boxes over a long period
of time, we have learned much about their breeding,
wintering, and migratory habits, he notes.
kestrels migrate, but some use nest boxes as

winter roosting boxes.
nesTing: Male finds nest site such as an old wood-
pecker hole, rock crevice, or human-built nest box

and attracts the female to the site where she makes an
oval scrape in existing nest materials or supplied pine
wood shavings.
eggs: Usually four to five creamy, yellowish, or
reddish-brown elliptical eggs with brown, gray, and
burgundy splotches. The last egg laid is usually
lightest in color.
Two spots at
the back of the
kestrels neck,
called eyespots,
resemble large eyes
to startle intruders.
This female is
raising four downy
chicks, about ten
days old.
Richard M. Tuttle
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egg-laying: About one egg every other day. The

clutch is usually completed within nine days.
inCuBaTion: The female incubates about thirty
days; hatching takes three to four days. The female
then broods nestlings for about ten days.
days To Fledge: Twenty-eight to thirty-one days.
The young depend on parents for two weeks after
fledging, returning to the nest at night to roost.
plaCeMenT: Open country, such as farmland, near
grassy foraging areas and perches. Because kestrels can
prey on small birds, do not locate kestrel boxes near bird
feeders or nonkestrel nest boxes. Also avoid placing boxes
near woods where Coopers and other bird-eating hawks
can prey on young kestrels.
nesTing MaTerials: Place two to three inches
of small pine wood chips or small animal bedding on
the nest box floor to cushion the kestrel eggs.
MounTing: Nest boxes have been successfully
attached to stop signs, barns, or electric company
utility poles (with written permission from the utility
company). Wrap long aluminum flashing, at least
twenty inches wide, around utility poles just under
the nest boxes. Winches, pulley systems, ropes, straps,
and carabiners all can help to safely raise and lower
kestrel boxes.
spaCing: At least a half mile from other kestrel
nesting sites.
heighT: Eight to thirty feet high.
This kestrel nest box hangs on a freestanding pole; a winch will bring
it safely to the ground for nest checking and cleaning. This nest
box is located in great kestrel habitatwide-open views all around,
perches galore, and plenty of space to hunt. Richard M. Tuttle
Retired science teacher Dick Tuttle of Ohios Delaware
County Bird Club spent forty-plus years on bluebird
nest box projects. He was the first education director
for the North American Bluebird Society. Tuttles bird
world expanded in the mid-1990s to include American
Kestrels. He currently makes fifty-mile rounds with
fellow teacher Dick Phillips to check eighteen kestrel
nest boxes, most on utility poles. The 2012 season
produced record numbers of kestrels. Tuttles unique
kestrel nest box design features decoy entry holes on
the sides, which help encourage kestrels to explore
the nest box and choose this one. Another design

feature is a hinged rooftop opening, which enables
quick, safe nest checking. Top-down peeking greatly
reduces the chance of spooking the birds, says
Tuttle. They might be annoyed by our visits, but byand-large, we lift up the lid, get our data, lower the
lid, and the birds stay in the box. Spurred to educate
others about Americas smallest falcon, Tuttles
motto is Raptor on! In 2009, Dick Tuttle received
Columbus Audubons Song Sparrow Award for his
work helping cavity-nesting birds.
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AmericAn Kestrel nest Box

Design by Dick TuTTle
1
cut all pieces according to the list specifications. sand pieces to
remove sharp edges. sand the inner roof piece enough that it will fit
into the nest chamber and allow for some expansion due to humidity.
mAteriAls
One 1x12x16" pine (used here),
cypress, or cedar
One 1"x10"x 8' pine (used here),
cypress, or cedar
2
lay out the entrance hole and two decoy holes. only one hole
should be cut or drilled out; the others can just be marked. make
sure they are all at the same level from the top.
About thirty 21/2" exterior grade

decking screws
Six 11/4" exterior grade deck screws
Two 3" galvanized strap hinges
One hook and eye closure
3
make the kerf cut on the underside of the roof piece for water
diversion. make a 3/16-deep cut around the perimeter of the underside
of roof piece 3/8 from edge. Be sure the crown is down to allow the
proper warping of the wood over time. inside the front piece, or
entrance hole piece, make the fledgling ladder by cutting horizontal
kerfs 3/16 deep every 1/4 to 1/2. start the cuts approximately 1 from
the bottom and continue to just under the entrance hole. Just like the
rungs on a ladder, this helps the fledgling to reach the entrance hole.
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4
Mark three vent holes on what is considered
the exterior of each of the two sides. locate
the vents 11/2 down from the top. the two
end vents are 2 from the edge. Place the
center vent midway between them. drill all
six vents with a 3/8 bit at a slightly upward
angle. this angle helps prevent intrusion of
water in high wind and rain.
start the assembly by predrilling the

front and back pieces. there will be
five screws per each long edge of
the front and back. starting from
the bottom edge, make a mark at
approximately 1, 41/4, 71/2, 103/4,
and at 14; these will all be 3/8 in from
the edge. Predrill those locations.
Predrill the inner roof piece as well, one hole at each corner
approximately 3/4 in and two near the center. center the inner roof
piece and place it 13/4 from the back edge. attach the inner roof to
the top roof piece using 11/4 screws.
assemble the nest chamber by attaching the front to the sides,

then the back to the sides using 2 exterior grade screws in the
predrilled locations. Be sure all edges are tight and even.
9
8
install the bottom piece. Be sure to recess the floor 3/8 from the
bottom edge, to reduce the risk of water infiltration. Predrill and
install using 2 screws per sides.
attach the roof to the front by placing the inner roof (which is
attached to the main roof piece) into the nest chamber. using two
strap hinges (zinc coated is preferred for durability), secure into
place. Be certain the hinges are attached to the front of the box
above the entrance hole so that the back is what lifts off. install
hook and eye closure. the eye is left of the vent near the back and
the hook is above it, under the roof.
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10
11
Finish the exterior with a low-to-no Voc exterior water-based semitransparent solid color stain. do not stain any interior areas. it is
especially important to give the roof a few extra coats, as this is the
most exposed part of the box.
allow the stain to completely dry, and then paint the decoy holes
marked earlier with a flat exterior black paint.
to hang the american kestrel nest box on

a utility pole (see page 96), drill two holes
in the sides near the fulcrum. string a vinylcoated wire rope through the holes. Make
a loop, clasp it, and hang over lag bolt or
roofing nail. attach a bolt snap hook to the
ends of the wire rope for easy box removal.
12
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chickadees
Black-capped Chickadee
Poecile atricapilla
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
Nonbreeding
a Black-capped chickadee sings a spring song at Queens university

Biological station in eastern ontarioa strong, clear fee-bee.
Dan Mennill
Carolina Chickadee
Poecile carolinensis
Year-round
Year-round
Figure 1.
insects like this small green caterpillar provide protein for Blackcapped and other chickadees during the breeding season.
chickadees also eat black-oil sunflower seeds at feeders all year
long. Ashok Khosla
Distribution of the Carolina Chickadee.
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Mountain Chickadee
Poecile gambeli
Year-round
Year-round
chickadee identification gets tricky when the distinctive white stripe

above the Mountain chickadees eyes wears away to black. From
april into august, the three chickadee species look much alike.
Ashok Kholsa
even chickadee species can be found in North

America. The closely related Black-capped, Carolina,
and Mountain Chickadees are the most widespread. Due
in part to these diminutive birds remarkable adaptations
for thriving in extreme weather, chickadee populations are
doing well. Some forest fragmentation can benefit chickadees by increasing forest edge, but deforestation eliminates
tree stumps that chickadees excavate for nesting. House
Wrens and mice are also formidable nest site competitors.
range: The nonmigratory Black-capped Chickadee is
found coast to coast, throughout the northern two-thirds

of the United States up into Alaska and Canada. Carolina
Chickadees reside in the southeastern United States but
are expanding northward. Mountain Chickadees live in
the high-elevation coniferous forests of southern Arizona,
Baja California, British Columbia, and the Yukon. Where
these species overlap, they may hybridize.
Field Marks: The five-inch-long Black-capped
Chickadee has a wingspan of eight inches, a relatively long

tail, black cap and bib, and large, white cheek patches.
Carolina Chickadees are slightly smaller than the other
two species. Mountain Chickadees sport a seasonal white
stripe over the eyes.
100
Voice: All three chickadees produce a chick-a-dee-dee-dee

or dee-dee-dee call with slight variations. The Blackcapped Chickadee sings a clear, plaintive fee-be-be or
fee-bee, with the first note higher. Carolina sings three to
five varying notes of see bee see bay. Mountain Chickadee
songs are longer than Black-cappeds.
Feeding: Chickadees survive cold winters by gathering
insects, seeds, and berries, consuming as many calories by

day as they lose by night. Black-capped Chickadees may
cache hundreds of seeds daily and remember cache locations for weeks. Although conspicuous at feeders, feeder
foods comprise only one-fifth of the chickadees diet.
In warm weather, chickadees consume large amounts of
insects and spiders.
the nest site

Feeders stocked with black oil sunflower seeds and
suet can enhance chickadee survival. Planting willow,
alder, and birch trees provides future nesting habitat.
Chickadees also use nest starts to excavate nesting
cavities; help them by drilling (one and one-eighth inches
wide) starts in dead forest trees. Nest boxes or artificial
tree snags made from wood or PVC tubes are likely
to be accepted by all seven chickadee species, especially
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In the mid-1990s, Ohio State University researchers
Tom Grubb and Cindy Bronson began studies of
central Ohios chickadees by testing artificial nesting
structures they called snags. These snags were tenfoot-tall, four-inch-diameter PVC tubes that became
known as Grubb stakes. Ten years later, researchers
at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology wondered if upstate
New York chickadees might prefer these PVC snags
over typical square wooden nest boxes. They were
right. Three seasons of data showed chickadees
nested more often in wood-chipfilled snags than in
where natural nest sites are rare. Mount nest boxes by

early February in the south and by April elsewhere, and
fill boxes with wood chips up to the entry hole before
breeding season begins. Chickadees may also use bluebird
nest boxes. Clean out nest boxes in the fall and spring.
Chickadees also use nest boxes for roosting during cold
winter nights.
nesTing: Both parents excavate a six- to eight-inch-deep
nest cavity in a tree snag or use abandoned woodpecker

holes or nest boxes. The nest, made of moss, pine needles
and strips of bark, can fill the entire cavity; it is lined with
softer plant fibers and animal hair.
eggs: Usually six to eight, but range from five to
ten white eggs with reddish spots.
egg-laying: One egg per day, in the morning.
boxes. Chickadees may like the snag design for its

entrance hole, which is high up and less accessible to
mice and predators. Canadian chickadee researchers
Ken Otter and Daniel Mennill shortened the Grubb
stake to about fourteen inches for easier use in the
field. In response to environmental concerns over
PVC, as well as moisture levels inside the vinyl tube,
woodworker Chris Willett created a wooden version
of the shortened snag, which is currently under review
by the chickadees.
inCuBaTion: Eleven to thirteen days. Female

incubates; both parents feed chicks.
days To Fledge: Fourteen to eighteen days
after hatching.
plaCing The nesT Box: Place artificial snags or nest
boxes in shady areas in woodlands with open spaces;

suburban locales are acceptable as well.
nesTing MaTerials: Fill nest box with wood
chips up to the level of the entrance.
MounTing: Hang on a metal or wooden pole
with predator guards. Hanging directly on a favorite chickadee tree, with predator guards, may also
increase nesting success.
heighT: Hang at heights that permit easy checking.
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ChiCkadee Nest Box

DesigneD by Chris Willett
baseD on the researCh of Ken otter anD Daniel Mennill
MateRials
One 1x4x371/4 cypress board
One 1x6x311/4 cypress board
One 2x4x4 cypress board
One 1x8x6 cypress board
Thirty 2 exterior-grade deck screws
1
Cut out thirteen pieces total. Predrill mounting blocks with
diameter holes. on front piece, make deep kerf cuts on front
interior, 3/8 from edges, every (from bottom to just below
entry hole). Cut from the sides, four interior corner supports
(45-degree cutoffs), creating four beveled edges. trim supports
to 13 each. Predrill to avoid splitting wood, and countersink all
screws. Refer to drawing.
Four 11/4 exterior-grade deck screws (used

to attach inner roof to the main roof)
Three 2 galvanized finish nails (bend
heads 90 degrees for latch nail)
Optional light-colored, water-based
exterior stain
Air-nailer with 1 brads (hand nails will
also work)
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Place inner supports below the top edge of

the front and back (space for inner roof) and 1 up
from the bottom (space for recessed floor). With
an air-nailer, attach supports with 1 brads or use
small 1 hand nails. The corners create a rounded
effect in the nest chamber.
Before assembly of the nest

chamber, attach the mounting
blocks from what will be the inside
of the nest chamber through the
back piece (use four 21/2 screws on
eachand predrill).
4
Assemble the nest chamber by predrilling
and attaching the sides to the front and
back. refer to the drawing.
5
With the crown down, make kerf cuts on
the underside of the main roof piece (3/8 in
from all edges, deep). Mark where the
inner roof will be attached: equal distance
from the outside edges. Predrill carefully.
Do not go all the way through the main
roof. Use 1 screws to attach the inner
roof to the main. set the inner roof into the
nest chamber. it may have to be sanded
slightly to fit. Make a distinguishing mark
toward the front: This will aide with aligning
the roof in the future. Use a 1/8 drill bit
and drill through the two sides and the
front into the inner roof. These holes will
accommodate the bent-head galvanizedfinish nails, which will secure the roof to
the nest chamber. install the floor with 2
screws. Be sure to predrill and to recess the
floor approximately 3/8 from bottom. The
floor piece may have to be sanded slightly
to fit. optional: two to four drain holes
in the floor.
6
Latch nails make roof removal easy. Thread
vinyl-coated wire rope through mounting
blocks and attach clasps. opposite page:
this chickadee nest box is attached to a
paper birch tree, a chickadee favorite.
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ducks
Wood Duck
Aix sponsa
?
?
male and female Wood ducks often swim and house hunt
together. Where a nest box is available, they will check it out in
tandem. Ashok Khosla
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
Wintering
range: Wood Ducks are permanent residents in much
of their southern and northwestern breeding range; they

migrate south from more northern breeding grounds.
field marks: Breeding males have a purple-green iri-
close-up details of a male Wood ducks spectacular plumage.

Ashok Khosla
hese colorful ducks of forested wetlands were overharvested for food and feathers throughout the
nineteenth century. The Wood Ducks steep decline was
hastened by the draining of wetlands for development and
harvesting of mature timber. Although this species is still
hunted, bird-protection laws, hunting restrictions, and
the use of nest boxes have helped it rebound.
descent head, long crest, red eyes, and ornate white stripes
on the head, neck, and body. Females are gray-brown
with white patches around the eyes. Wood Ducks average
twenty inches long with a twenty-seven-inch wingspan
and are recognizable in flight by long, rectangle-shaped
tails (which they use as a woodpecker-like prop when
clinging to their nest trees). Although most often seen on
water, these sharp-clawed ducks can fly through forests
and perch on trees.
Voice: The males whistles are a rising and falling jeeb.
The females whistle calls of oo-eeek, oo-eek are often made
when the duck is disturbed or taking flight.
feeding: The omnivorous Wood Duck feeds in water
or on land, eating nuts, seeds, fruits, and aquatic insects.

Wood Ducks can be found in fields eating corn and in
forests feeding on acorns, a favorite food.
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more than one Wood duck hen has been laying eggs in this nest
boxa process known as egg dumping.
Aaron Ward, courtesy of the Maryland Wood Duck Society
a female Wood duck settles into a nest made from her own down
feathers. Steve Simmons
the nest site

Egg-laying can begin in late January in the South. In the
North, birds return when the ice melts; egg-laying begins
soon afterward. Inspect and clean Wood Duck nest boxes
before and after breeding season.
nesting: Wood Ducks seek out hollow trees, old wood-
pecker holes, or nest boxes for nesting. Females select the

nest site. Males guard females until eggs are near hatching.
Southern Wood Ducks can produce two broods per year.
eggs: Typically six to fifteen white, tan, or
olive eggs. Unusually large clutchesas many as
forty eggsconsist of eggs deposited or dumped
by other Wood Duck hens, Hooded Mergansers,
or Common Goldeneyes.
egg laying: One per day.
incuBation: Twenty-eight days. More if large
clutch. Females incubate and tend young.
days to fledge: One day after hatching, on
Jump Day, a mother Wood Duck calls to the
young below the nest box. Chicks then leap and glide
from nest to the ground or into water, sometimes
dozens of feet down. The female leads ducklings to
water to swim and feed. Flight occurs at two months.
Placing the nest Box: Wooded swamps, marshes,
streams, beaver ponds, and small lakes are ideal. Place the
nest box where entry flyway is clear, in or near fresh water,
but away from trees. If placed on land, face the entry hole
toward water.
male Wood ducks are characterized by their spectacular coloration.

this male cruises over a lake near cincinnati, ohio. Ruhikana Meetei
nesting materials: Add four inches of

wood chips. The hen makes a cup-like depression
for the eggs and lines the nest with her own soft
down feathers.
mounting: Place nest boxes on sturdy poles
such as eight-foot-long metal highway signposts or
four-by-four-inch wooden posts with a predator cone
below the nest box. Space nest boxes fifty feet apart.
height: On land, place nest box six feet high.
In water, place nest box three feet above historic
high water levels.
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don the duckmans

Wood duck nest Box
designed By don helMeKe
1
cut out all the pieces according to the drawing.
materials
One 1x10x10 cypress
(used here) or cedar
One 1x12x13 cypress
(used here) or cedar
Thirty-five to forty 2
exterior-grade deck screws
One galvanized screen door
propeller latch
mark the entrance (an elliptical

hole 3 high x 4 wide) and cut
it out. attach the 4x12 metal
mesh to interior of the front
piece with a staple gun about
1 below the entry hole. Be
certain there are no sharp edges
protruding, which can hurt the
adults and youngsters alike.
start attaching front and back

pieces to side and floor, as
shown. check angle at top
of side to ensure proper roof
alignment. install floor and
recess it from bottom
edges. drain holes are not
used in this design.
One 4x12 wire mesh (1/4)

or metal lathe (for fledgling
exit ladder)
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sand the edges

on the top portion
of the door so it
will operate nicely.
mark the location
using a square 1
down from the
top of the front
piece and transfer
the mark to the
opposite side. Put
the door in so that
it closes tightly with
the 45-degree cut.
drill the holes for
the pivot screws,
install two deck
screws, and see
how it works.
adjust if needed.
4
make a 45-degree angle cut in second side, 6 from the bottom.
the longer piece will be a pivoted door. the angle keeps out
water when door is closed. test-fit these pieces. affix smaller side
piece through front and back. screw into floor.
using a wood rasp, make a finger groove

so that the door can be opened easily.
install the propeller closure. refer to the
drawing.
install the roof. overhang is largest on front,

off the back, and 1 on each side. Predrill
and screw the roof into place. Be certain to
not screw into the door side of the box.
a strip of wood serves as a mounting

support. the nest box can be hung onto
a pre-positioned lag screw through the
keyhole.
Beh i n d t h e d e s ign
In the 1980s, the late Don Helmeke, a Minnesota outdoorsman and
conservationist, worked long and thoughtfully on Wood Duck nest box
plans. His design has withstood the test of time. Its success at creating
a safe haven for nesting birds led to its recommendation by both the
Minnesota Waterfowl Association and the Wood Duck Society. Its a
woodworking design that makes sense, says Wood Duck Society director Roger Strand. The low heightjust 6 feet from the groundand
Dons side opening makes for easy, ladder-free nest checking and less
disturbance to the hen. Another bonus: Kids can get nose-to-nose
with eggs, which creates a fun learning experience.
9
Wood ducks will welcome a kerf cut ladder
or a rough surface made by a rasp, just
below the entry hole.
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mergansers
Hooded Merganser
Lophodytes cucullatus
a female hooded merganser in her element. Ashok Khosla
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
Nonbreeding
sexual dimorphism is apparent in male (left) and female (right)

hooded mergansers. Ashok Khosla
ooded Mergansers are fairly common on small

ponds, rivers, and streams, with stable populations
across their breeding range. This species was overhunted
in the early to mid-twentieth century; simultaneously,
logging and alteration of many forests where they nested
reduced breeding populations. Fortunately, Hooded
Mergansers take readily to nest boxes and are often found
in nest boxes built for Wood Ducks. Reduced hunting
and restoration programs in several states have increased
local populations.
range: Hooded Mergansers breed in forested
112
prominent large white patch that expands when the crest

is raised, usually during courtship. Females and immatures are gray-brown with a yellow bill and dark eyes;
their cinnamon-colored heads also have a distinctive crest.
Their legs are set far back on their bodies, which makes
them awkward on land. They fly with shallow, rapid
wing beats.
Voice: Hooded Mergansers are usually silent, but
during courtship, males make a deep, frog-like sound,

and females produce a hoarse gack. Females calling in
flight or to newly hatched ducklings produce a rough
croo-croo-crook.
feeding: Hooded Mergansers dive and locate their
prey underwater by sight. Prey includes aquatic insects,

crayfish, amphibians, mollusks, and small fish, which the
birds seize with their serrated bills.
wetlands throughout the eastern half of North America

and the Pacific Northwest. They are resident to mediumdistance migrants.
the nest site
field marks: These small ducks have long, rounded

tails, thin bills, and heads that appear oversized due to the
fan-shaped crest on top. Adult males are black above, with
a white breast and chestnut flanks. Their black head has a
Property owners can improve habitat for nesting Hooded

Mergansers by leaving dead trees standing and by stocking
ponds with shiners and fat-headed minnows. Well-placed,
appropriately sized nest boxes, too, can help boost local
populations, particularly if sited near wetlands.
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the male hooded merganser on the left is displaying his showy head crest. Ashok Khosla
incuBation: Twenty-six to forty-one days;

female incubates
days to fledge: Day-old ducklings leap more
than fifty feet to the forest floor, then walk with their
mother to the nearest body of water.
Placing the nest Box: Mergansers breed in forested
a hooded merganser hen has repurposed an old squirrels nest.

hooded merganser eggs are unusually round, like ping pong balls
with thick shells.
wetlands but may also nest in treeless wetlands where nest

boxes have been placed.
nesting materials: Small amounts of
wood chips
mounting: Place nest boxes on sturdy poles
such as eight-foot-long metal highway signposts or
four-by-four-inch wooden posts with a predator cone
below the nest box. Space nest boxes fifty feet apart.
height: On land, six feet high. In water, place nest
box three feet above historic high water levels.
nesting: In summer, these small ducks nest in cavities,
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either in live or dead trees, often near freshwater ponds or

rivers. Females choose the nest site and create a shallow
bowl within existing nesting material, adding their own
down once egg-laying begins. Like other cavity-nesting
ducks, female Hooded Mergansers may exhibit egg
dumpinglaying their eggs in other females nests.
eggs: Five to thirteen white, nearly spherical eggs;
single brood
egg-laying: One egg every other day.
Hooded Mergansers will nest in a Wood Duck nest box:

see pages 108109 for plans.
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sWalloWs
Purple Martin
Progne subis
this glossy Purple martin male holds tight to his insect prey as he
surveys his northern alabama territory. Chuck Abare
Breeding
range: After wintering in South America, Purple
Martins slowly spread throughout their North American

breeding range, from Florida up into Canada.
field marks: The largest swallows in North America,
a female Purple martin returns to her plastic gourd house with a

beak full of dragonfly. Chuck Abare
ost Purple Martin populations west of the Rockies

still nest in woodpecker holes or natural cavities like
rock crevices. Others in the Pacific Northwest have begun
to nest in gourds and single-room nest boxes, especially
over water; however, in eastern North America, where
most martins occur, martins have become totally dependent on human-provided housing, either in multifamily
martin houses or in natural or plastic gourds. Today,
martins returning to nest in the East face competition
from nonnative species. At summers end, martins gather
in spectacularly huge flocks in preparation for the long
trip back to their South American wintering grounds.
Protecting these wintering grounds, including Brazils
Amazon region, is one key to this species survival.
114
Purple Martins are about eight inches long with an

eighteen-inch wingspan. Long, pointed wings let these
aerial acrobats flap, soar, and glide in circles. Their large,
wide triangular mouths are good for catching flying
insects. Males acquire their all-over iridescent blue-black,
purplish plumage in their second year. Female adults
are gray-purple above, with purple iridescence and lighter
gray undersides.
Voice: Males produce a low-whistled call and a low,
rich gurgling song. Male dawn song consists of seven to

nine notes uttered while flying high above the colony or
perched nearby. Western martin calls are higher pitched.
feeding: Martins forage from the air by day on a
variety of flying insects. Dragonflies are a favorite food.

Contrary to conventional wisdom, apparently the result
of a marketing campaign decades ago by martin house
manufacturers, martins do not consume huge numbers
of mosquitoes.
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Behind the design

The Audubon Birdhouse Book features Alabama
computer designer and Purple Martin landlord
Chuck Abares Simple Wooden Gourd Rack design.
While traveling for his job in the mid-1980s, Abare
met a Tennessee man who introduced him to Purple
Martins. From the get-go, Abare was amazed at the
birds flying skills and wanted to help them survive
on their breeding grounds. Learning that Purple
Martins are dependent on humans for housing, he
set out to build houses and provide colonies with
natural and plastic gourds that martins could trust
as good homes. Martins seem to know you are
there to help, Abare says. Giving them good, safe
homes is a real way to show them you care.
People have been making gourd birdhouses
to attract martins for a long time. Centuries ago,
martins in North America nested in hollowed-out
gourds provided by Native Americans. These first
Americans hung clusters of gourds in trees near
their gardens.
The relationship between Purple Martins and
humans is mutually beneficial. Humans provide the
nest sites; martins provide the cheery calls and purple-sheened sightings so welcome in many backyard gardens. As an added benefit, they eat lots of
flying insects. A variety of Purple Martin houses and
plastic gourd options are commercially available,
but some martin fans prefer to save money by creating homes out of natural gourds or even growing
their own gourds.
Whether a swinging gourd cluster is better for
a martin colony than a multifamily martin house
depends largely upon the house and gourd in
question. A good gourd is certainly better than a
bad house and vice versa. Martin gourds need to
be relatively large and thick, at least nine inches in
diameter, with walls at least one-quarter-inch thick.
Southwestern gourds tend to better fit this description, since the growing season there is longer. Today,
the consensus among martin experts is that gourds
that are properly sized, dried, cleaned, prepared, and
maintained, make excellent martin homeswith the
added advantage of being completely biodegradable, naturally beautiful, and affordable.
For detailed instructions, visit Abares website,
chuckspurplemartinpage.com.
a simple Purple martin gourd rack stands over a small appalachian

farm and orchard in the great smoky mountains of tennessee, circa
1935. E. E. Exline Archives: Great Smoky Mountains National Park
the nest site

Martins return to North America between January and
May and sometimes into June. Older birds, called scouts,
return first. Martin decoys and prerecorded dawn songs
may help attract martins to nest boxes or gourds. During the
first three weeks of nesting, conduct weekly nest checks for
missing birds, eggs, signs of predators, and pests like mites.
Offer supplemental foods like meals worms and crickets
during cold snaps. Clean out and repair gourds and houses
in fall. Block entry holes until the martins return in spring;
otherwise, sparrows and starlings may claim the territory.
nesting: As colonial nesters, Purple Martins like living
in large groups. Martin houses have multiple compartments; each compartment houses one mated couple and
their chicks. The Purple Martin Conservation Association
suggests that compartments measuring seven inches by
twelve inches and five to seven inches high, may offer
better protection against predators and weather than
smaller, old-style housing. Females build a nest far back in
the room or bowl of the gourd. Both sexes gather nesting
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Be h i nd t h e d es ign
Ron Seekamp, a retired project engineer and tool
designer, built his first martin house from scrap
lumber. Over the years, his design evolved as he
learned more about martin needs and his own.
He discovered advantages to providing smaller
houses with fewer but larger rooms, which had
not been the norm. Larger rooms meant a greater
chance of 100 percent martin occupancy. And
smaller houses were easier to raise and lower.
Seekamp, a member of the Minnesota Purple Martin Working Group, was named the Purple Martin
Conservation Associations 1999 Landlord of the
Year. His martin house plans, meant for moderately
experienced woodworkers, are available through
the Purple Martin Conservation Associations
Martin Market Place, shop.purplemartin.com.
come spring, Purple martins arrive in waves from their south

american wintering grounds. this chart shows average arrival dates.
Courtesy of the Purple Martin Conservation Society
materials, including dried grasses, pine needles, leaves,

twigs, mud, and fresh green leaves. The leaves, used to
cover eggs when parents go out to feed, may keep the
eggs humidified.
eggs: Three to eight pure white eggs.
egg-laying: One per day, usually in the morning.
incuBation: Fifteen to eighteen days. Female
incubates; both parents feed young.
days to fledge: Twenty-six to thirty-one days
after hatching.
Placing the martin house or nesting
gourds: To ensure a clear flight path, erect housing in
a female Purple martin arrives in arroyo city, texas, in early april

2008. she has likely just made the long journey from south america
to return to her summer home. Ashok Khosla
a male and female Purple martin sit on a tiny porch outside their
minnesota condo. a female (at right) flies in with nesting materials.
smaller martin houses with bigger rooms, like this one, may offer
advantages over larger martin houses. Ron Seekamp
116
the center of the most open spot available, at least sixty to

one hundred feet away from human dwellings and away
from trees taller than the house. Keep areas under martin
homes clear of bushes, shrubs, and vines. Boat docks are
good locations for martin houses and gourd racks.
nesting materials: Offer dried pine needles
and short pieces of wheat straw on raised platforms
near the nest for birds to pick and choose from. Place
one to two inches of nesting material in each compartment at the start of the season.
mounting: Install metal or wooden poles at least
forty feet from overhanging trees or buildings. Make
sure housing is easy to raise and lower for frequent
nest checks; pulleys and winches are often used.
Thwart climbing predators with pole guards and
avian predators like crows, hawks, and owls with
gourd or martin house owl guards. Details available
at purplemartin.org.
height: Place housing at least ten to twenty
feet high.
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PurPle martin Wooden gourd rack

designed By ChuCK aBare
cut the 4 wide board for the four-piece tube

slide. each is 2 wide and 24 long. make
initial cuts in the 8 wide board for eight arms.
assemble tube slide. it should fit over a

1-diameter galvanized steel pipe with
1/8 to spare, making room for a doublepulley system. or the tube can be affixed
directly onto the pipe.
materials
One 1"x4"x8 cypress
(used here) or cedar board
One 1"x8"x8 cypress
(used here) or cedar board
About fifty 2 or 2
exterior deck screws
3
use a table or a circular saw to cut the arms at an angle, thinning each of them as per
dimensions. one gourd will be attached to the end of each arm.
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make 5/16 holes at end of arms. Wire goes through these to hang
the gourds. if using pulley system, drill a 3/8 hole in one of the arms.
Predrill all deck screw holes.
use some sand paper to take any sharp edges off the arms.
(optional: round the top edge of each arm with a router. this helps
shed water and looks nicer.)
6
finally, attach the arms to the slide. look at the photos to visualize the assembly. stand the
tube on end on the workbench, and, taking one arm, screw it to the bottom of the tube, as
shown in photos.
8
use either plastic gourds or
natural gourds that have been
pre-dried, hollowed, and
cleaned out. to prepare natural
gourds, measure and cut two
holes: one for the entrance and
one for cleaning access.
turn the tube 90 degrees and add the

second arm. repeat with the other arms.
keep the arms level. if staining, do it now.
9
drill a small hole near the top, through both sides, for the
hanging wire. use caulk to secure the cleaning-hole cover
in place. Paint the gourd whitethis helps keep the
interior cooler by reflecting light.
10
using natural or plastic gourds, or both,
attach the gourds to the rack by stringing
wire through the holes at the ends of the rack
arms. for easy removal and maintenance,
place pole into suitable ground socket, preset in concrete. now just wait for the joyful
songs and graceful flight of Purple martins.
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Ch ap t e r 4
C ha p t e r 4
Birds outside
N
ot all birds nest inside tree cavities or nest boxes. Some

build nests on the boughs and limbs of trees, in the
forks of trees, or in the branches of shrubs. Still other birds
create homes within natural rock crevices and under rocky
overhangs. These days, such places can be scarce.
The following pages will introduce you to some birds
that live outside the boxthose that, when faced with
a lack of nesting sites, might choose instead to use either
intentionally or unintentionally placed human structures.
These might be sheltered places under building eaves,
underneath bridges near bodies of water, or even on top
of power line distribution poles out in the open. Many of
these birds welcome artificial structures designed and built
with them in mind; some now nest almost exclusively on
such structures.
Small, easily constructed nesting shelves or platforms
appeal to American Robins, Barn Swallows, and phoebes.
House Finchesa well-named birdare known to build
nests in house gutters and even decorative door wreaths,
much to the surprise of the human residents. They can be
encouraged to nest on shelves too. Mourning Doves, with
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their haunting song, can be enticed to nest in specially

made hardware cloth cones in backyard trees.
Higher up on the complexity scale are the large nesting platforms that Great Blue Herons and Ospreys need
to raise families. People working together can also create
artificial chimneys for Chimney Swifts, and artificial loon
islands, or rafts, to provide safe havens for Common
Loons. Burrowing Owls can be helped by the installation
of artificial underground nesting burrows.
Human-provided nesting platforms are credited with
helping the recovery of Bald Eagles and Ospreys in the
last half of the twentieth century; they have proven to
be a successful wildlife management conservation tool.
Supplemental nesting sites can make a real and positive
difference today, too, especially where natural structures
are scarce.
More important, no matter how wonderful the nesting
structure is, birds will only nest and successfully breed
there if they can find sufficient food, water, and cover
nearby. Maintaining healthy ecosystems for birds is key to
their preservation.
Pictured here,
osprey juveniles
sky and sibley
test their wings
upon the artificial
nest platform
constructed for
them, just prior to
fledging in august
2012. Watch nesting
ospreys and
atlantic Puffins
theres even a Puffin
Burrow camplus
more birds on
audubons website:
projectpuffin.
audubon.org/
audubon-live-cams.
Derrick Z. Jackson
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t re e p r unI n g f or n e s t s
Trees are not ornaments; they are living organisms and will naturally become a host
for other living things. Guide to Bird-Friendly Tree and Shrub Trimming, (c) 2009,
Los Angeles Audubon Society
When spring arrives, many people give their property extra care. Often that includes pruning and
trimming trees; however, a better time to trim trees
and shrubs is during fall and winter, when many trees
are dormant.
Spring and summer pruning can spread diseases
from tree to tree. In addition, the warmer months are
when trees and shrubs are most essential to breeding
animals, including birds. As the Los Angeles Audubon
Society points out, Nests may be found at every level
of the tree, from the crown to the understory; they
may be near the crotch, between branch and trunk, or
out toward the end of a branch.
Many species, including wrens, juncos, and finches,
build their nests in shrubby thickets near the ground
or in shrubs and bushes. American Robins build mud
and grass nests in the forks of trees. Orioles and
vireos suspend their nests from branches. Woodpeckers hammer out nest cavities in trees that bluebirds,
swallows, and other cavity-nesting birds may later
use. Great Blue Herons build loose stick nests in the
treetops. Hummingbirds and gnatcatchers weave their
camouflaged nests onto tree branches.
During annual spring bird walks through local
parks and campuses, members of the Los Angeles
Audubon Society noticed groundskeepers pruning
and trimming shrubs and trees where birds were
nesting, or could potentially nest. They saw a need
to educate public works departments, land developers, and the general public about the unintentional
harm that cutting woody plants can inflict on birds
during nesting season. So, in 2009, group members
wrote Guide to Bird-Friendly Tree and Shrub Trimming. The free guide is available at
losangelesaudubon.org.
Members also speak to garden clubs and other
groups, encouraging people to view shrubs and
treesincluding those in their own backyardsas
Vireos use cobwebs to attach their hanging nests to forked

twigs on low trees and shrubs. such forks can be created
simply with a pair of pruning shears. Mark Musselman
homes for birds and to manage their land to benefit

nesting birds.
Waiting until fall to prune shrubs and trees and
leaving dead or rotting trees standingunless they
are a threat to people or propertycreates a multitude of bird homes, yet requires nothing in terms
of time, money, hammers, or nails. It is an easy and
natural way to help birds.
Yet another way to help nesting warblers, vireos,
thrushes, finches, and sparrows is to prune your trees
with birds in mind. Pruning can help create tree forks
that will best support their nests. Where three or more
branches arise from one location, snip off branches
growing vertically rather than horizontally, so that the
tree fork lies in a flat plane, creating a natural nest
platform. Also, by snipping branches within a fork that
are growing too close to one another, you can create
a V shape that will allow a nest to hang in between.
Birds are selective in choosing branch arrangements
that support their nests. With a pair of pruners and
a few minutes, you can encourage them to choose
nesting branches in your yard.
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doVes
Mourning Dove
Zenaida macroura
a young mourning dove rests on a south carolina deck.

Mark Musselman
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
Nonbreeding
he mournful-sounding, fast-flying Mourning Dove

is found in every state, from Alaska to Mexico. These
birds live in small flocks and begin nesting in early spring,
sometimes before the snow has melted. It is estimated
that more than twenty million Mourning Doves are shot
during hunting season each year, and as ground foragers,
they can get lead poisoning from eating fallen lead shot.
Despite this, Mourning Dove populations are stable or
increasing in most areas.
field marks: These foot-long, gray-brown birds have
an eighteen-inch wingspan, buffy belly, pale blue ring

surrounding dark eyes, plump body, small head, and black
spots on the back. In flight, look for gray underwings and
a long, pointed tail with large white spots.
122
?
?
Voice: The doves are named for their distinctively
mournful calla soft, drawn-out coah, coo, coo, coo.

feeding: Mourning doves feed almost exclusively on
the ground, on small weed seeds and grains, providing

economic benefits to farmers by controlling weed populations. These birds also visit platform feeders for cracked
corn, sunflower seeds, and especially millet.
the nest site

helP throughout the seasons: Plant conifers or
shrubs for nesting and offer special artificial nesting cones

or baskets attached to the forks of trees. Provide platform
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one of the most abundant and widely hunted birds in the united states, mourning doves are sometimes compared to the now-extinct
Passenger Pigeon, thought to have numbered in the billions in the mid-1800s. dna studies show these birds were not closely related, but
the story of the once-plentiful Passenger Pigeon flocks provides a cautionary tale. Linda Cortelyou
seed feeders or scatter seeds on the ground. Keeping cats

indoors helps protect Mourning Doves and other vulnerable ground-feeding birds from predation.
nesting: Mourning doves frequent open areas, includ-
ing backyards, fields, deserts, and open forests, as well as

human structures like rain gutters and windowsills. Their
loose stick-and-pine needle nests are often built in the
forks of conifer trees, or in shrubs, or even on the ground.
The male gathers materials while the female weaves the
nest. These birds are prolific, often raising more than
three small broods each season.
eggs: Two unmarked white eggs.

egg-laying: About one and a half days apart.
incuBation: Fourteen to fifteen days. Both
parents incubate (males by day, females by night)
and feed chicks.
days to fledge: Twelve to fourteen days.
Placement: Secure nesting cones or baskets in
forked conifer branches with wire at a height of five to

twenty-five feet.
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Mourning dove nest Basket

Materials
One 12x12 square of
galvanized metal hardware
cloth, with 1/4 or 3/8 mesh
Galvanized wire,
approximately 16
1
With a pair of tin snips cut a 12x12 piece
of galvanized hardware cloth.
5
fold the top of the cone over so no sharp
edges face the nest basket area. Hang in an
appropriate location in the crotch of a conifer
tree branch by wiring it to the branch in
several places.
Cut a 12 diameter circle out of the piece. Be

sure to trim off any sharp protruding wires.
fold the circle to make a cone, and

sew it together with a wire at the
seam.
3
Cut a piece of pie out: 21/2 wide on the
crust side.
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sWalloWs
Barn Swallow
Hirundo rustica
male and female Barn swallows differ only slightly in appearance.

the females tail is shorter than the males; she is also paler and less
glossy. its unclear whether this bird is a male or female.
Ashok Khosla
arn Swallows soar over open country with effortless

grace in pursuit of flying insects. Since they have long
used human structures as nest sites, populations of this
species expanded as settlers spread across North America.
Barn Swallows have one of the longest land bird migrationsup to 7,000 miles from Alaska to Argentina.
Breeding
Breeding & wintering
Wintering
range: The Barn Swallows huge range includes Asia,
Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

field marks: These swallows are about seven inches
long, blue-black above, and cinnamon or orange below,
with a dark throat, long, slender, pointed wings spanning
fifteen inches and a long, deeply forked, white spotted
tail. Males have longer tail feathers and darker orange
underparts than females.
Barn swallows collect mud pellets, which theyll use to build a nest.
Vishnevskly Vasily
Voice: Call is a soft witt or witt-witt. Song is a long
the nest site
musical warble, often ending in su-seer.
helP throughout the seasons: Barn Swallows
feeding: Barn Swallows feed on insects caught in
flight; they can eat, drink, and bathe on the wing.

They may also fly behind tractors, catching displaced
grasshoppers and crickets.
126
live in close association with humans and are often

welcomed for their insect-eating habits. To attract them
to your property, install a six-inch-square nesting platform
in a garage or shed with an open door or window. Barn
Swallows prefer unpainted, rough-cut wood, as their
mud nests will not adhere well to smooth surfaces. Keep
a small area in your yard muddy or offer a tray of mud
near the building entrance near the swallows nest. This
will save the birds the time-consuming chore of traveling
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Barn swallows are

superb aerialists,
making quick turns
and dives. in flight
the bird may spread
its distinctive
swallow tail,
revealing showy
white dots.
Ashok Khosla
to a distant stream for each beakful of mud. If you do not

have an established breeding site, play prerecorded Barn
Swallow songs to encourage colonization.
nesting: Although they once nested in caves, cliffs, and
rock crevices, these colonial nesters now use the shelter

of barns, sheds, porches, boat docks, and even the undersides of Osprey nests. Nests are usually built on a vertical
surface just below a ceiling, allowing little overhead space.
The cup nest is made of mud mixed with fine grass, plastered to a surface, and lined with horsehair and feathers.
eggs: May be two to seven, usually four to five

white eggs speckled with brown.
egg-laying: One per morning.
incuBation: Thirteen to seventeen days. Both
parents incubate and feed young.
days to fledge: Eighteen to twenty-three days.
Placement: Install L-shaped nesting shelves or platforms
under an overhead roof. Ideal nearby habitats include open
pastures, farm fields, and meadows with abundant flying
insects, preferably near water.
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l-shaPed Platform for Barn sWalloWs
1
cut a 1x6x12 pine, cedar, or cypress
board according to the drawing. make two
keyhole attachments on top of back piece.
Predrill four holes at the bottom, and attach
the floor with four 1 exterior screws.
materials
One 1x6x12" cedar,
cypress, or pine board
Four 2" exterior grade
deck screws
2
hang appropriately.
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the build
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roBins
American Robin
Turdus migratorius
Breeding
robins are often visible when foraging on the ground, but catch
most of their insect prey on tree foliage or in the air. Ashok Khosla
merican Robins are ubiquitous across North

Americain parks, backyards, golf courses, fields,
and forests. Although most are resident or short-distance
migrants, birds that breed farther north often fly south
in fall. Come winter, these members of the thrush family
may form flocks of hundreds and beyond, gathering in
trees to roost and feed. In summer, when foraging on
lawns, their vulnerability to pesticide poisoning makes
robins important pollution indicators.
range: Widespread throughout the United States
and Canada.
Breeding
wintering
Breeding &
& wintering
Wintering
Wintering
feeding: Robins eat different foods in different sea-
sons. In autumn and winter, they eat mostly fruits and

berries. Fruit supplies are also important in early spring,
when snow cover prevents ground feeding. When days
grow warm in spring and summer, they switch to soft
invertebrates like earthworms. Although they appear to
be listening, the robins habit of cocking their heads to
one side enables them to better see the earthworms. It is
common to see robins on the ground after a rain or water
sprinkling. Thats when the worms come out and make
easy pickings for the birds.
the nest site
field marks: This midsized bird, the largest of the

North American thrushes, is about ten inches long, with a
seventeen-inch wingspan, dark gray back, brick-red breast,
and dark head, nape, and tail. The female is paler overall.
In flight, look for a white patch on the belly and under
the tail, and smooth, flicking wing beats.
helP throughout the seasons: Plant cherries
Voice: Song is a clear, musical caroling with short rising
nesting: Robins require mature trees for nesting and
and falling phrases, often the first bird song heard on

spring mornings. Calls include tyeep and tut-tut-tut.
singing. Early spring nests are typically built in protected

conifers; later nests are built in deciduous trees. Others
for summer food; black gum, and flowering dogwood for

fall food; and sumac, crabapple, and hawthorn trees for
good winter sustenance. Robins can be attracted to feeders with mealworms. Offer birdbaths; these birds seem to
enjoy a good splash.
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nest in unintended human structures, including rain

gutters and eaves, as well as intentional nesting structures
such as shelves. Females build nests from grass, twigs,
paper, feathers, rootlets, and moss, then reinforce it with
mud and line it with fine dry grass. Robins are highly territorial when nesting. They may produce three broods
per year.
eggs: Three to five sky-blue or blue-green eggs.
incuBation: Twelve to fourteen days. Female
incubates; both parents feed.
days to fledge: Thirteen to fifteen days.
Placement: Place nesting shelves under the eaves
of porches and barns.
like the bluebirda fellow member of the thrush familythe robins

breast is speckled when young. Ashok Khosla
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V-shaPed shelf for roBins,

PhoeBes, and house finches
materials
One 1x8x15"
cedar, cypress, or
pine board
Eight to ten 2" exterior
grade deck screws
2
cut a 20-degree angle along the 8-long
side of one edge of each of the floor pieces.
4
attach the 2x6 reinforcement piece to the
front of the tray with several screws. drill
three or four 1/4 weep holes in the bottom of
the tray. set the tray down on the back and
trace the shape; this can then be predrilled
for screw placement. doing this will help you
with accuracy, as the tray is screwed in from
the back. attach the tray to the back piece,
approximately 1 up from bottom.
1
start with a 1x8x15 pine, cedar, or cypress
board. cut to the specifications on the
drawing. make two keyhole attachment
points at the top of the back piece.
3
attach together with four 11/4 exteriorgrade screws. Predrill to avoid splitting the
wood (see drawing).
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the Build
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coVered shelf for roBins,

PhoeBes, and house finches
2
attach the sides to the bottom and back,
and then attach the roof to the sides and
back. Be sure to predrill to avoid splitting
the wood. make two keyhole hangers in the
back piece to attach to a wall or eave area.
hang appropriately.
1
start with a 1x8x27 pine, cedar, or cypress board. cut out pieces
according to the drawing. cut 20-degree angles at the top of the two
sides and on one edge of the roof piece, which attaches to the back
(see drawing). cut a half circle out of the side pieces (note the drawing)
using a jigsaw. attach the floor to the back piece; be sure to predrill
four locations evenly, so that the screws points will not be exposed
in circle cutouts. attach with 11/4 exterior screws. Be sure to recess
approximately 1/4 from the bottom.
materials
One 1x8x27" cedar,
cypress, or pine board
Ten to twelve 2" exterior
grade deck screws
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finches
House Finch
Carpodacus mexicanus
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
to discover a house finch nest near your home, try and follow the
bird as it flies away from your feeders. it just might be heading back
to the nest. Mark Musselman
riginally a bird of southwestern deserts and grasslands, House Finches were introduced to the eastern
United States in 1939. When threatened with prosecution under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, pet
store vendors in Long Island, New York, released illegal
stocks of caged California-caught Hollywood Finches.
The first eastern House Finch nest was found in Babylon,
New York, in 1944. A half-century later, the western and
eastern populations met. Soon after, the birds expansion
was slowed by disease: West Nile virus, avian pox, and
avian conjunctivitis (a potentially fatal, bacteria-caused
eye disease). Despite these challenges, House Finches are
one of the most commonly seen feeder birds.
range: Widespread across the continental United States
and on all of the Hawaiian Islands.

field marks: This five-and-a-half-inch-long bird has
a slightly notched tail, which looks long in comparison
134
Nonbreeding
to its short, rounded wings. Males have a bright red to

orange or yellowish head, neck, and breast, a brownish
back, and streaked flanks. Males with a more diverse
diet tend to be more colorful. Females, which are a dull
grayish-brown and lack head stripes, prefer the more
colorful males.
Voice: Bright, loose, rapid, cheery warble, frequently
ending in a nasal che-urrr. Males sing loud, continuous
courtship songs.
feeding: Although House Finches have a notorious
appetite for sunflower seeds, their principal foods are

weed seeds like thistle and dandelion. They also eat
pigment-rich fruits and berries, from which males derive
their color. In Hawaii, they are known as the papaya
bird because of their penchant for that fruit. Unlike
most chicks, House Finch nestlings are fed exclusively
plant foods.
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the nest site

helP throughout the seasons: As their name
implies, House Finches benefit from their association

with people and their houses. They nest behind gutters,
light fixtures, or other building protrusions, as well as
in ivy growing on buildings, and in suitable objects
around houses, including hanging plant pots, small
baskets, and evergreen wreaths. Provide fresh water in
birdbaths, and stock feeders with black oil sunflower
seeds. Keep feeders and birdbaths clean to help prevent
diseases from spreading.
nesting: Male courtship displays in early spring
house finches are creative when it comes to nesting sites. the
center of this hanging fern contains a cup nest filled with newly
hatched house finches (below). Mark Musselman
include a back-and-forth swaying close to the female. The

females build grass nests around houses, porches, barns, or
garages, often incorporating hair, string, cotton, and wool.
Brown-headed Cowbirds often lay eggs in House Finch
nests, but the finches vegetarian diet may not be adequate
for cowbird young.
eggs: Four to five pale gray-green eggs spotted with
purple, brown, and black.
egg-laying: One egg per day.
incuBation: Twelve to fourteen days. Female
incubates; both parents feed.
days to fledge: Twelve to nineteen days.
Placement: House Finches seek nesting sites with a
a hanging-fern home seems to suit these down-covered nestlings.

house finch pairs seek nest sites under covered areas.
Mark Musselman
roof overhead. A hanging plant, wreath, or easy-to-build

nesting platform offers a ready-made home for a House
Finch family. Place such objects away from doors and
other high-traffic areas.
the Build
House Finches will nest on a platform: see pages 130132
for plans.
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PhoeBe
Eastern Phoebe
Sayornis phoebe
eastern Phoebes were likely the first birds ever banded in north
america. in 1804, when little was known about bird migration,
John James audubon tied silver threads around the legs of eastern
Phoebe nestlings near his Pennsylvania home. the following spring,
a phoebe with a silver leg bracelet returned to the same yard
from where it had hatched. Ashok Khosla
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
Nonbreeding
Says Phoebe
Sayornis saya
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
Wintering
says Phoebes eat mainly insects year-round. Ashok Khosla
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this eastern Phoebe has chosen an exposed perch from which

to dart out for insect prey. Phoebes will often return to the same
hunting spot. another characteristic trait of phoebes is flicking the
tail and wings in a nervous, twitchy manner. Ashok Khosla
Just like an eastern Phoebe, this says Phoebe will flycatch from
the perch and snatch insects in mid-air. Ashok Khosla
the nest site
astern Phoebes once nested along stream-bank cliffs

and overhangs, but these adaptable birds now usually
nest on porches, under house eaves and bridges, on barns
and sheds, and even in active doorways. Says Phoebes
have also benefited from nesting in and around humanmade structures and have a wide breeding range. Because
nesting sites are plentiful, phoebe populations are stable in
most areas.
range: Eastern Phoebes breed throughout eastern
North America up into some western Canadian provinces

and generally winter in the southeastern United States or
Mexico. Says Phoebes are found in the West, from Alaska
to Mexico, and are short to medium-distance migrants.
field marks: Eastern Phoebes are gray-brown and
about seven inches long, with a ten-and-a-half-inch wingspan. While perched in silhouette, they can be identified
by their upright posture and tail-wagging behavior. Says
Phoebe is larger but more slender, with brownish-gray
upper parts and a buffy orange belly.
Voice: The Eastern Phoebe sings its two-part name, a
burry, well-enunciated fee-bee. Its call is a sharp peep or
chip. A common Says Phoebe song is phee-ur.
feeding: Phoebes use their wide, flat bills for catch-
ing flying insects or gleaning insects from foliage, often

making short flights from a perch to capture beetles,
wasps, and bees. Eastern Phoebes eat berries and seeds
in winter. Says Phoebes are more insectivorous, eating
mostly insects year-round.
helP throughout the seasons: Phoebes like
nesting in wooded yards and in human-made structures,

wherever they might find a sheltered ledge. Even in northern areas, Eastern Phoebes can start building nests in late
March, while Says Phoebes in Alaska might not complete
their nests until late May. Both depend on shrubs for
gleaning insects and small trees for perches. Providing
abundant understory plants, including berry and insectattracting plants, improves habitat for these birds.
nesting: Eastern Phoebes may renovate previously used
phoebe or Barn Swallow nests. Their substantial mudand-grass nests are covered with moss, and the circular
nest cup is lined with hair and fine grasses. Phoebe nests
are often parasitized by Brown-headed Cowbirds. Says
Phoebes rarely use mud to construct nests.
eggs: Usually four to five white eggs with spots.
Two or three broods per year.
egg-laying: One per day, usually in the morning
incuBation: Sixteen days. Female incubates; both
parents feed chicks.
days to fledge: Fifteen to sixteen days.
Placement: A six-by-six-inch wooden shelf can serve
as a nesting platform, especially if secured under an
eave or overhang. Says Phoebes are less likely to nest on
artificial shelves.
the Build
These phoebes will nest on a platform: see pages 130132
for plans.
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oWls
Burrowing Owl
Athene cunicularia
Burrowing owls outside their burrow at southern californias salton

sea national Wildlife refuge. Ashok Khosla
Breeding
Year-round
Year-round
Nonbreeding
range: Found in grasslands and arid regions of western
North America, Florida, and the Caribbean.

field marks: Burrowing Owls are small for owls
about nine and a half inches long, with a twenty-two-inch

wingspan. Their coloration is brown and white with
whitish spots on the back and barring on front. They
have long legs and short tails. Their eyes are bright yellow.
Eyebrows are white and prominent. They lack ear tufts.
Males and females are similar in size and appearance.
a Burrowing owl perched on a cattle ranch fence near Jeremoabao,
Brazil. the owls are widespread throughout mexico and central and
south america. Ashok Khosla
s the name suggests, Burrowing Owls nest underground, typically in burrows excavated by other
animals. These diminutive owls are endangered in
Canada, threatened in Mexico, and declining in many
areas, including Florida and the western United States
primarily due to prairie dog extermination programs,
habitat loss, and car collisions, as well as outdoor cats and
unleashed dogs. Populations are increasing in deforested
areas of the Amazon, however.
138
Voice: A two-note coo coooo song. Also utters a series of
rattling, clucking, and chattering calls.

feeding: Burrowing Owls hunt at night, using their
night vision and hearing as they swoop down or fly up

to catch flying insects or chase prey across the ground on
foot. Their varied diet includes small insects like beetles
and earwigs, large insects, small rodents, birds, amphibians, and reptiles. A University of Florida study suggests
that Burrowing Owls may also bait their burrows with
dung to attract beetles.
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a cinder-block entrance to a Burrowing owl nest helps stabilize the artificial burrow below and protects against predators. coyotes in
particular may dig up burrows in search of prey; cinder blocks make it harder for them to do that. Scott and Heather Artis
the nest site

helP throughout the seasons: Burrowing
Owls often inhabit human landscapes, such as airports,

fields, and golf courses. They readily use artificial nest
sites, whether in unintentionally buried pieces of pipe
or specially designed plastic and wooden burrows with
easy access to the surface; the latter were first tested in
California in the 1970s. Clean and repair artificial burrows before nesting begins. Heaping a small amount of
soil around the tunnel entrance may help attract owls. On
ranches, burrows should be strong enough to withstand
the weight of livestock that might stand on nesting sites.
Because Burrowing Owls sometimes have a primary

burrow and a satellite burrowadult male owls will often
use the satellite burrow to store food for chicksinstall
artificial burrows in pairs where space permits.
nesting: Nesting burrows are usually pre-excavated by
animals such as ground squirrels, prairie dogs, armadillos,
or tortoises. Owls can excavate too, by kicking back soil
with their feet and digging with their beaks. Burrows are
often reused for several consecutive years. Natural burrows
can be several convoluted yards long. Owl treasures like
bark, uneaten frogs, cigarette butts, tin foil, paper, and
plastic have been found at the entrance holes of burrows
in California and Florida.
eggs: Four to twelve, usually nine, white
round eggs.
egg-laying: Every one or two days.
incuBation: Three to four weeks. Female incubates; both parents feed chicks.
days to fledge: Four weeks; usually only
half the chicks survive.
Placement: Burrowing Owls are at home in pastures,
in florida and california, some Burrowing owls place treasures in

front of their entrance holes. at this Burrowing owl entrance hole,
many pieces of bark, as well as a corncob, paper, and a shell have
been collected. Scott and Heather Artis
cemeteries, agricultural fields, and deserts; however, any

open, dry area with low vegetation may suffice. Artificial
burrows should be located in high, well-drained areas to
avoid flooding.
mounting: Place artificial burrows several feet
underground, with entry holes at ground level.
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savIng san francIsco Bays BurrowIng owls

In California, Santa Clara Valley Audubon Society
volunteers are working with the city of Mountain View
to enhance and manage a local urban park to benefit
Burrowing Owls. Shoreline Park is a closed landfill on
the San Francisco Bays south side. The owls there
face a shortage of prey and nesting sites. So, native
perennial plants are routinely planted to attract the
insects and rodents that the owls feed on. An insect
called the earwig is the number-one prey item, followed by beetles, grasshoppers, and then higher
quality food, including pocket gophers, mice, and
California voles.
Ground squirrels are welcome at the park, since

they excavate natural burrows later used by the owls.
Artificial nesting burrows are installed too. Six-inchdiameter plastic corrugated pipes, angled at forty-five
degrees for an entryway, work best in Shoreline Park,
says Mountain View biologist and Burrowing Owl specialist Phil Higgins. He opens the pipes at the bottom
by cutting out two-inch pieces. The birds seem to
like having soil under their feet while going in and out
of their home, he says. That home is a small plastic
open-ended box placed about four feet underground
and connected to the entryway.
This artificial burrow, installed by birder and photographer steve

simmons, uses a strong plywood box with a handled lid for easy
access. it is placed two feet underground and attached to an eightfoot-long corrugated plastic pipe, which is connected to a smaller
box at the entry. Backhoes are first used to dig out the soil.
Steve Simmons
The steel pipe affixed to this removable nest box lid allows the
photographer to drop a camera into the burrow. Steve Simmons
tHe BuIld
Several artificial burrow plans are contained in a guide that can be
downloaded from the Burrowing Owl Conservation Network:
burrowingowlconservation. org/publications.html.
Users Guide to Installation of Artificial Burrows for Burrowing Owls, David H.
Johnson, Donald C. Gillis, Michael A. Gregg, James L. Rebholz, Jeffrey L. Lincer,
and James R. Belthoff. Selah, Wash.: Tree Top Inc., August 2010.
A Burrowing Owl nest tunnel plan can be found in Woodworking for Wildlife, by Carrol L.
Henderson. St. Paul, Minn.: Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 2009.
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loons
Common Loon
Gavia immer
young loons can swim shortly after hatching. they often hitch a ride
on a parents back. at just eight weeks, they are diving to find their
own food, including small minnows, leeches, and aquatic insects.
they will spend most of their lives on water. June LeDuc
Breeding
Wintering
Wintering
or many, the nocturnal echoing of Common Loon

calls across clear lakes is a symbol of the northern
woods. Although well adapted to water, loons are awkward on land and typically come ashore only to nest.
Regional population declines have occurred, due in part
to acid rain, mercury from coal-burning plants, ocean
oil spills, heavily developed shorelines, and the birds
susceptibility to flooding and human disturbance. Dogs,
motorboats, canoes, and kayaks can all cause loon parents
to abandon their nest or young if they get too close. In
New England, the ingestion of discarded or lost lead fishing weights kills more loons than any other cause.
location. Male loons also produce a signature territorial

yodel, which may change if the territory changes.
feeding: Made less buoyant by solid bones and pro-
pelled by powerful feet, loons submerge silently and

pursue fish rapidly, swallowing their prey underwater. In
northern lakes, small fish such as perch and sunfish make
up most of their diet.
the nest site
range: Common Loons breed throughout Canada and
helP throughout the seasons: Because
parts of the northern United States. They are considered

mid-distance migrants and winter in coastal marine areas.
they are so close to water, loon nests are vulnerable to

flooding. Wooden or PVC artificial nesting platforms
or rafts act as floating islands and allow the birds
to ride out fluctuations in water levels. These rafts
must be properly anchored, checked, and maintained.
Common Loons require lakes clean enough to see prey
underwater and about a quarter mile of open water as
a runway for takeoff. Lakes with sheltered coves and
islands provide refuge from predators during nesting
season, typically May to July. Keep garbage far away
from nesting sites to help loons avoid egg predators like
skunks and raccoons. When stressed at the nest site,
loons will put their heads down, a sign that it is time to
leave the area.
field marks: These large waterbirds have long bodies,
short tails, and dagger-like bills. Their legs are set far back
on the body, restricting movement on land but helping
them swim efficiently. In flight, the feet protrude beyond
the tail. Summer adults are distinctive, with a blackand-white checker pattern on the back and wings, and a
partial white collar. In winter, they turn gray above and
white below.
Voice: A single loons haunting wail may be answered
by a chorus of other loons, as the birds announce their
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c r e at I n g l o o n f r I e n d ly Ha B Itat
loons seek concealed lakeside settings in which to build their wellcamouflaged grass nests. The nest at this idyllic Maine pond site
took the loon pair about a week to build. Maine audubon suggests
the best way to watch nesting loons is with binoculars from a spot
that is a respectful distance from the nest. June LeDuc
nesTing: Mated loon pairs build a nest together in late
spring, in a quiet, hidden lakeshore area, creating a nest

mound camouflaged to look like a clump of dead marsh
grass. They then climb atop the mound and shape a nest
depression about two feet wide. Nesting pairs often refurbish a previous nest rather than build a new one.
eggs: Usually two brown eggs with dark splotches.
One brood per year.
egg-laying: About two days apart.
inCuBaTion: Twenty-six to twenty-nine days
days To Fledge: Chicks are able to swim and
ride on parents back soon after hatching, but cant fly
for another six to eight weeks.
Since 1983, Audubons Maine Loon Project has

worked to monitor the states loons. On the third
Saturday of every July, citizen scientists from
all over Mainenearly a thousand in 2012rise
early in the morning, settle themselves near a lake
or pond at 7 a.m., and spend the next half hour
counting loons. Their data forms are then compiled
to reveal the health of Maines loon populations.
Says project director Susan Gallo, Volunteers
spend countless hours, not just on loon count day
but throughout the summer, monitoring how well
loon pairs are doing, how many chicks they raise,
and the quality of nesting habitat on their lakes.
plaCeMenT: Place artificial nesting platforms on clear

lakes with coves, islands, and abundant small fish.
adding vegetation (like shrubs) to the cedar rafts provides cover for
the loons, especially from boaters and predators. Emily Sloan
tHe BuIld
arTiFiCial nesTing plaTForMs For CoMMon
loons: Maine Audubons Loon Project offers loon-
friendly tips and several artificial nesting platform designs

on its website: maineaudubon.org/wildlife-habitat/
the-maine-loon-project.
The Vermont Loon Recovery Project offers more information about artificial nesting platforms. To download the
booklet Guidelines for Use of Artificial Nesting Rafts for
Common Loons, go to: vtecostudies.org/loons.
Learn more about loon projects from The Loon Network,
at loonnetwork.org.
142
Cedar logs are used to build loon rafts for the

Vermont loon recovery project. Members
of the Vermont youth Conservation Corps
notch the cedar logs and fit them together
lincoln-log style. Eric Hanson, courtesy of the
Vermont Center for Ecostudies
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sWifts
Chimney Swift
Chaetura pelagica
the chimney swifts dark color, cylindrical body, and short stubby
tail have inspired some to dub the birds flying cigars.
Rebecca Field, Audubon Minnesota
efore the development of eastern North America,

Chimney Swifts probably nested in hollow trees and
caves. After European settlement, they took advantage of
chimneys for nesting and roosting and populations grew.
More recently, these birds have declinedsome populations by halfthroughout their range. Possible reasons
include deforestation in the birds Amazonian winter
grounds, along with the deterioration and capping of
older chimneys, and changes in design that render new
chimneys less hospitable. Like many insect-eating long
distance migrants, they are also vulnerable to pesticides
throughout the year and to migration hazards, including
collisions with lighted cell towers.
Breeding
vertical surfaces. A similar but smaller Pacific Northwest

species is Vauxs Swift. Both birds have inspired conservation efforts.
Voice: Call is a loud, rapid, ticking or high-pitched twit-
tering. Soft cheeps from nestlings often alert homeowners

to the birds presence in a chimney.
feeding: The Chimney Swifts large mouth opens
range: Chimney Swifts breed throughout the eastern

United States into southern Canada. By November, they
have migrated thousands of miles south to overwinter in
South America. A portion of the Chimney Swifts wintering grounds were discovered in 1943 when bands from
thirteen swifts banded in North America were recovered
in Peru.
field marks: Described as cigars with wings, these
cylindrical five-inch-long birds are outstanding aerialists
that glide along between bursts of rapid, erratic flight.
The name swift fits: These birds are built for speed, with
long, pointed wings, tiny beaks and feet, and stiff, stubby
tails. Except for nesting and evening roosting, they rarely
land. Unlike other birds, they cannot perch on wires
or branches but are well adapted for clinging to rough
in flight to capture a wide range of flying insects,

including flies, beetles, and termites, as it forages over
open areas. The birds fondness for insects makes them
beloved by humans.
the nest site

helP throughout the seasons: Before the
Chimney Swifts early spring arrival, remove chimney caps

and close dampers. Clean chimneys of creosote and other
debris. Avoid cleaning chimneys or using fireplaces during
the birds nesting season; heat and toxic gases can be fatal.
Keep metal chimneys capped at all times. They can trap
swifts and other creatures. Conservation efforts focus on
building artificial nesting towers as chimney substitutes.
Because swifts are often confused with bats, identification
is another important part of swift conservation.
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t o w e rIng e f fo rt s f or c HIm n e y s w Ifts

Audubon Minnesota has been working to restore
Chimney Swift populations since 2009. The organizations multipronged approach includes building
wooden Chimney Swift nesting towers, saving historic
old chimneys, and organizing community events such
as A Swift Night Out in late summer, when observers
watch and count the number of birds funneling back
into their homes at night to roost. Ron Windingstad of
the Audubon At Home program says retired woodworkers, especially, have stepped up to build towers
for Minnesotas Chimney Swifts. Many have donated

considerable skills and shop time, as well as becoming mentors for young people, he says. One of the
highlights of his career has been to witness groups
of young and old teaching each other about woodworking and birds, as together they craft a hands-on
bird conservation project, he says. Of course, another
highlight for the entire group is when Chimney Swifts
begin to call these towers home.
a Chimney swift flies head first into an artificial nesting tower at

the gulf Coast Bird observatory in lake Jackson, Texas. The towers
replicate older-style chimneys, which over many years, Chimney
swifts grew used to nesting in. Michael L. Gray, courtesy of the Gulf
Coast Bird Observatory
nesTing: Chimney Swifts grab twigs from tree branches
in Minnesota, more than two hundred Boy scouts built thirty-seven

wooden Chimney swift towers in just two years. Johnny her, an
eagle scout, was awarded a grant to build many of these towers.
here, he attaches a sun-collar top to the eighteen-foot tower while
other scouts steady the ladder; still others mix cement to pour into
the wooden form at the base. The towers four steel feet will rest
in the concrete foundation, providing stability for the structure.
Ron Windingstad, Audubon Minnesota
144
with their feet while in flight, then transfer them to

their mouths. Using their glue-like saliva, the birds then
construct a small, cup-like twig nest, and attach it to the
nesting structures inner wall.
eggs: Usually four to five white eggs with
brown speckles.
egg-laying: Every other day.
inCuBaTion: Nineteen to twenty-one days.
days To Fledge: Twenty-eight to thirty days.
Chicks stay in the nest longer than most similarsized birds.
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chimney swifts are silhouetted in early

evening as they swarm around their
nighttime roostan old-style brick chimney.
such structures are disappearing with
changing times, but specially designed
towers may help take their place.
Jim Williams, Audubon Minnesota
a chimney swift rests after being rescued

from a sweltering hospital attic in texas.
about a hundred of the birds were brought
to the gulf coast Bird observatory, where
they scooped up fresh water from nearby
wetlands before circling up high and flying
away. Michael L. Gray, courtesy of the Gulf
Coast Bird Observatory
Placement: Place towers in areas free of vegetation
and vines. Space at least ten feet apart where possible.

mounting: Towers should be secure enough to
withstand strong winds.
height: Typically twelve feet high.
the Build
chimney sWift toWer Plans: Chimney Swift
towers are described as mini-chimney replicas that

function as both nest sites and nighttime shelters. Despite
their twelve-foot height, the average sixteen-by-sixteeninch base means they also fit well into small backyards.
Building a Chimney Swift tower is a good community
this free-standing 12-foot-tall chimney

swift tower with a kiosk below was built at
minnesotas orono schools nature center
as one Boy scouts project.
Ron Windingstad, Audubon Minnesota
project. Groups like bird clubs and scout troops often

build them in public places such as schools and parks.
Chimney Swift tower woodworking plans can be found in
the book Chimney Swift Towers: New Habitat for Americas
Mysterious Birds by Paul D. Kyle and Georgean Z. Kyle
(2005). Another book by the Kyles, Chimney Swifts:
Americas Mysterious Birds above the Fireplace (2005),
focuses on chimney swift biology and conservation.
For more information, including how-to videos
on Chimney Swift tower construction, go to
ChimneySwifts.org.
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herons
Great Blue Heron
Ardea herodias
Breeding
Year-round
Nonbreeding
Nonbreeding
the dark stripe above the great Blue herons eye extends into
slender black plumes. heron plumes were prized by hunters during
the feather trade era of the late 1800s to early 1900s. Ashok Khosla
disturbances that disrupt nesting colonies, including

vehicle traffic, logging, and motorboats.
range: Widespread throughout most of North America
except at high elevations. This partial migrant usually

leaves northern areas in winter.
field marks: This largest North American heron
great Blue herons can be identified in flight by their tucked necks

and extended legs. Ashok Khosla
n the late nineteenth century and early twentieth

century, Great Blue Herons were slaughtered for their
showy plumes, which were used to adorn womens hats
and clothes. Populations were drastically reduced but
subsequently recovered following protective legislation.
Today, the heron population is again declining, particularly where pesticides, mercury, and other pollutants have
contaminated the herons wetland feeding areas. Great
Blue Herons are also vulnerable to habitat loss and human
146
stands three to four feet tall, with a wingspan of almost

six feet. Blue-gray feathers cover most of its body. It has
a long, pointed yellow bill, black stripe over the eye, and
long legs. In breeding season, shaggy plumes appear on
the back and neck. An all-white subspecies resides in
southern Florida. In flight, look for an S- shaped neck and
legs that extend beyond the tail.
Voice: Herons produce a harsh croaking or squawking
call. They are most vocal during the breeding season.
feeding: Great Blue Herons wade slowly through shal-
low water, typically around dawn and dusk. They strike

with lightning speed, quickly plucking up frogs, reptiles,
small mammals, insects, and other birds.
chaPter 4
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a foggy morning at
the almond marsh
forest Preserve
heron rookery in
illinois. the birds
are nesting on both
natural and artificial
trees. Allison
Frederick, courtesy
Lake County Forest
Preserves
the nest site
Placement: Great Blue Herons live in both freshwater
helP throughout the seasons: Great Blue
and saltwater habitats, nesting in swamps or islands near

forested marshes, rivers, lakes, seashores, and ponds. They
are colonial nesters and like company. Place platforms at
least thirty feet apart.
mounting: Artificial platforms of wood or metal
can be mounted onto utility poles, tall four-by-fourinch wooden posts, or three lengths of ten-foot-long,
two-and-one-quarter-inch-wide galvanized metal
pipe coupled to create a thirty-foot pole. A set of
three metal poles forms a sturdy tripod.
height: Place as high up as possible.
Herons arent typical backyard visitors, but sometimes

will visit yards with fishponds. Although these herons
nest mainly in trees, they also use human-provided structures such as duck blinds, channel markers, or artificial
nest platforms. Installing nest platforms in local wetlands
can be an excellent community project, especially where
heron populations are in decline.
nesting: Great Blue Herons raise their young in
rookeries consisting of several dozen mated pairs. The

same group of trees with multiple large stick nests in
each treetop is often reused year after year. Nests may
eventually reach four feet in diameter. Male herons
gather sticks from the ground and nearby trees, as well
as from other nests. Females weave the nest and line
it with softer materials, including pine needles, moss,
reeds, and dry grass.
eggs: Three to six pale bluish-green to pale olive
eggs; usually one brood.
egg-laying: Typically every two days.
incuBation: Twenty-seven to twenty-nine days.
Female starts incubating after the first egg is laid; in
a clutch of five, the first chick hatched could be ten
days older than the last.
days to fledge: First flight at seven to eight
weeks. Parents may continue feeding chicks for
another three weeks.
the Build
great Blue heron nesting Platform Plans:
The Lake County Audubon Society in Illinois has

prepared a downloadable step-by-step booklet for building Great Blue Heron metal tripods and platforms. Its
available at lakecountyaudubon.org.
The USGS Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center
offers woodworking plans for Great Blue Heron nesting platforms at npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/wildlife/
ndblinds/gbheron.htm. (The plans are from the booklet
Building Nest Structures, Feeders and Photo Blinds by Chris
Grondahl and John Dockter.)
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r o o k e r y r e s t o r at I o n I n I l l I n o I s
Dwindling Great Blue Heron populations at the Almond
Marsh Forest Preserve in Grayslake, Illinois, concerned
members of the local Lake County Audubon Society
(LCAS). The birds nesting trees had been rotting and
falling down. To help restore the heron rookery, LCAS
members decided, as a test, to build and install one
human-made nesting platform. The Ascutney Mountain
Audubon Society in Vermont provided them with
metal tripod and nest basket plans. In February 2009,
volunteers stood on the frozen marsh in the bitter cold
and slowly raised an artificial tree, a thirty-foot-tall
metal pipe tripod topped with a basket platform and

sunk deep into the marsh for stability. By spring, a
Great Blue Heron pair had not only claimed the new
site but also successfully fledged five chicks. In later
years, eleven more nesting platforms were added, and
in 2013, more platforms were fastened underneath
several tripods. LCAS board member Jack Nowak
notes that the platforms, blend well into the marsh
surroundings. You can hardly see them. But come
spring, they are welcome sights to the fortunate herons
that make the marsh their summer home.
immature great
Blue herons.
Ashok Khosla
audubon volunteers trekked out onto the ice again in early 2013
to add more nesting platforms in hopes of attracting even more
great Blue herons to the rookery.
Matt Enquist, courtesy of Conserve Lake County
148
a great Blue
heron sits on its
nest atop a dead
tree in a northeast
Texas lake.
Linda Cortelyou
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osPreys
Osprey
Pandion haliaetus
sharp toes and talons help ospreys hold on tight to fish, upon
which they dine almost exclusively. Ruhikanta Meetei
eginning in the early 1950s, Ospreys fell victim to

pesticide poisoning that left their eggshells too thin to
incubate. Populations plummeted. After the United States
banned the pesticide DDT in 1972, coastal populations
began to rebound. Today, chick deaths from entanglement in plastic fishing line and baling twine (used to
bind bales of hay), which parent birds use as nesting
materials, are increasingly common. Logging and shoreline development have made nesting sites scarce in some
areas. Human-made nesting structures are crucial to many
Osprey populations. Osprey reintroduction programs,
which involve moving chicks from healthy populations to
areas with depleted populations, have been successful.
Breeding
Breeding and winter
Winter
feeding: The Osprey is the only North American raptor
that preys almost exclusively on live fresh and saltwater

fish. When searching for prey, Ospreys soar over water,
hovering briefly before plunge-diving, feet first, to grab
a fish. With long, sharp toes and talons, they position
the slippery fish head forward to avoid wind resistance
in flight. In Chesapeake Bay, menhaden is a key food; in
Maine, mackerel and flounder make up most of the diet.
range: Ospreys are found on all continents except
the nest site
Antarctica. Most North American birds overwinter along

the Gulf Coast and in Central and South America. The
Chesapeake Bay, sometimes called Osprey Garden,
contains the highest density of breeding birds.
helP throughout the seasons: Ospreys read-
ilyand in some areas exclusivelybuild nests on human

structures, including telephone poles, channel markers,
duck blinds, and specially designed open nesting platforms. Such structures play a vital role in restoring Osprey
populations. People can also help prevent osprey chick
deaths from entanglement by picking up and cutting up
improperly discarded plastic twine and fishing line.
field marks: These large, lanky fish hawks are

brown above and white below, with slender bodies, long,
narrow wings, and a white head with a broad brown stripe
through the eye. Bent wings in flight appear M-shaped.
Females are larger than males.
nesting: Ospreys nest in exposed areas that provide
Voice: The Ospreys high-pitched, whistling call is

often given in a seriescommonly kyew-kyew-kyew
that may rise in intensity as a threat increases. Ospreys
are highly vocal.
an easy fly-in, including cliffs, tall snags, and treetops

near open water. Unable to dive deeply, Ospreys prefer
shallow fishing grounds. Males select the site and gather
the many twigs, bark strips, grasses, and other detritus
needed to construct the large stick nest. Females arrange
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Cradle-shaped osprey platforms are a

common sight at the Blackwater national
Wildlife refuge on Marylands Chesapeake
Bay. nesting platforms have helped sustain
osprey populations in this region, which
supports the largest known concentration
of ospreys in the world; it is sometimes
called the osprey garden. Mary Konchar
an osprey adds sticks to its nest. The

platform and utility pole were donated
and constructed by the Baltimore gas and
electric Company as a way to keep ospreys
off the companys power lines. The new
nest site is safer for the birds.
Michael S. Fitzpatrick, Baltimore
Gas and Electric Company
pro j e ct o s p r e y:
BIr ds and p e o p l e l Iv I n g t o ge t H e r
In spring 2012, the city of Stoughton, Wisconsin, had
to act quickly. Ospreys were nesting atop a light pole
in Mandt Park and had woven sticks in between the
megawatt sports lights. These sticks could act like
kindling once the lights were turned on for baseball
games. The mayors office, city parks, fire department, utility company, and residents came up with a
plan to save the Ospreys from their hazardous home.
While the Ospreys were away from the nest, a donat-
150
ed four-by-four-foot wooden platform was placed five

feet away from the lights and filled with the Ospreys
own nesting sticks. Madison Audubon member and
Wild Birds Unlimited employee Pat Ready consulted
on the project and said it was a team effort. The city
of Stoughton and its individuals were responsive to
Osprey needs, Ready says. We all came together
for the birds. The reward? The Osprey pair fledged
two chicks.
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the nesting material. Reused nests may eventually reach

six feet in diameter.
eggs: One to four, usually three, beige to cinnamon,
reddish-brown spotted, hen-sized eggs. One brood
per season.
egg-laying: One or two days apart.
incuBation: Thirty-six to forty-two days. Birds
hatch in the order laid.
days to fledge: Fifty to fifty-five days. If food
is abundant, all chicks may survive; if not, younger
chicks may starve.
Placement: Ospreys prefer nesting in the tallest
this osprey pair was determined to build a nest on top of a
megawatt light post in a busy Wisconsin city park. Patrick Ready
trees, near water with abundant fish supplies. They are

found near shallow coastal waters. Inland, they nest in
and around lakes, rivers, and reservoirs.
mounting: Attach platforms to wooden utility
poles or metal tripods.
height: Ospreys have successfully nested on cell
phone towers as high as 150 feet. Place nesting platforms as high as possible.
the Build
osPrey artificial nesting Platform Plans:
Many state natural resources departments provide Osprey

nesting platform plans.
to help out the ospreys and prevent a potential fire, the stoughton,
Wisconsin, fire department installed a new nesting platform for the
ospreys, a safe distance away from the hot lights. Patrick Ready
A simple Osprey platform construction drawing is

available on the Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources website, dnr.wi.gov/files/pdf/pubs/er/er0680.pdf.
the new nesting platform suits the ospreys just fine. in spite of the
noisy baseball games and carnivals below, the ospreys managed to
fledge two chicks. Patrick Ready
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C ha p t e r 5
hoW to helP t he Birds

T
oday, those interested in helping nesting birds

have more company than ever. Using the
power of the Internet, scientists are making use of
willing volunteers, called citizen scientists, to
collaborate across the continents in making ornithological observations. Citizen scientists record
their data and submit it online, often achieving
a breadth of observations that could never be
attained by research teams alone. Many bird organizations are using citizen science to supplement
their research efforts. Having a multitude of data
on hand puts scientists and policy makers in a
better position to advocate for legislative changes
that will help birds.
reality tv for the Birds
seen in this screen shot, a heron adult, its beak low to

the nest, awaits the hatching of its chicks. hundreds of
thousands of people from more than 160 countries have
tuned in to the cornell lab of ornithologys heron
cam since it debuted in spring 2012. Viewers have
witnessed little-known events such as heron courtship
and watched live as five tiny great Blue herons, over
the course of several days, pipped themselves out
of their shells. a great horned owl attack early one
morning recorded rarely heard heron defensive screams
that seemed to keep the owl at bay. the labs Bird
cams program includes other species, too. to watch
the shows, visit allaboutbirds.org/cams. Courtesy of the
Cornell Lab of Ornithology
in collaboration with explore.org, this osprey

cam (upper left) was added to the artificial nesting
platform during the summer of 2012 at the hog
island audubon camp in maine (hogisland.audubon.
org). though campers viewed the nest platform itself
from a respectable distance on camp property, they
also gathered regularly around the osprey cams tV
monitor in the dining hall. that way they got up-close
views of the osprey chicks as they progressed from
eggs to fledglings. thousands of people across the
globe kept up with the chicks at their own computers.
Stephen W. Kress
One recent tool now enhancing many birders

enjoyment of their favorite subjects is the bird
cam, a specialized video camera fitted inside
a nest box or near an active nesting platform.
Bird cams allow first-hand viewing of nesting
birds over the Internet or closed circuit monitorsa kind of avian reality TV. They are a
great way to get up close and personal with bird
families and to learn more about nesting bird
behavior as well as the challenges nesting birds
face each breeding season. Many bird organizations, including the Cornell Lab of Ornithology
and National Audubon Society, host bird cams.
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Although bird cam websites continually change over time

as cameras are added or taken down, the home pages on
the websites of hosting organizations are good places to
find links to up-and-running bird cam sites. YouTube
videos taken from bird cams also provide a twenty-first
century peek into the lives of nesting birds.
Bird Conservation
organizations
american Bird conserVancy:
aBcBirds.org, 540-253-5780
The American Bird Conservancys focus is the protection of native bird species and their habitats throughout
the Americas. The groups Cats Indoors program
designed to help reduce bird mortality caused by
outdoor catswas developed as part of a larger effort
to reduce threats to birds.
Bird studies canada:
Birdscanada.org, 888-448-2473
Canadas national charitable organization for bird science

and conservation, Bird Studies Canada, advances the
understanding, appreciation, and conservation of wild
birds and their habitats. Each year, more than 30,000
volunteers participate in this organizations citizen science initiatives. Programs include Project FeederWatch,
the Christmas Bird Count, the Great Backyard Bird
Count, the Canadian Lakes Loon Survey, regionally based
breeding bird atlases, nocturnal owl surveys, and marshmonitoring programs.
cornell laB of ornithology:
Birds.cornell.edu, 800-843-2473
Founded in 1915, the Cornell Lab of Ornithologys mission

is to interpret and conserve the Earths biological diversity
through research, education, and citizen science focused
on birds. Lab-sponsored citizen science programs, including eBird, YardMap, Project FeederWatch, NestWatch,
Celebrate Urban Birds, and the annual Great Backyard
Bird Count, engage the general public in hands-on learning
experiences, while collecting valuable data for ornithological
research. The Lab also hosts Birds of North America Online,
bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna, available by subscription.
This comprehensive, continuously updated collection of
researcher-written species accounts includes more than 700
birds that breed in the United States and Canada.
haWk mountain sanctuary:
haWkmountain.org, 610-756-6961
The Hawk Mountain Sanctuary in Kempton,

Pennsylvania, is a scientific research center focusing on
raptor conservation and education. It is also one of the

best places in the eastern United States to watch the fall
hawk migration. Early work using nest boxes to study
American Kestrels started at Hawk Mountain and continues today. Sanctuary founder Rosalie Edges vision is
reflected in a quote often cited by the sanctuary: The
time to protect a species is while it is still common.
national auduBon society:
auduBon.org, 800-876-0994
Named for John James Audubon, who painted and

described numerous North American birds nearly two
centuries ago, the National Audubon Society was incorporated in 1905. Today, Audubon is made up of more
than 500,000 members and nearly 500 local chapters,
where people interested in birds can work together for
their benefit. State offices, sanctuaries, education centers,
and summer camps are all part of the organizations
education and conservation mission. The real-time,
online bird checklist program, eBird, is co-sponsored
by Audubon and the Cornell Lab of Ornithology. The
Audubon Christmas Bird Count, begun on December
25, 1900, is perhaps North Americas oldest citizen science effort, producing continuous, vital information on
bird populations.
organizations for speCifiC Birds

Mentioned in this BooK
Bluebirds
north american BlueBird society:
naBlueBirdsociety.org
Since 1978, the North American Bluebird Society

(NABS) has promoted the prosperity and recovery of
bluebirds and other cavity-nesting birds throughout
North America. The group awards education, conservation, and research grants that further this mission.
NABS offers online guidelines for safely maintaining
nest boxes and fostering healthy birds, an online catalog
of books and educational materials for sale, and the
quarterly journal Bluebird. Their annual conference
is co-hosted each year by one of its fifty-eight affiliate groups, which include many state and provincial
bluebird organizations.
purple Martin
PurPle martin conserVation association:
PurPlemartin.org, 814-833-7656
Founded in 1987, the Purple Martin Conservation

Association (PMCA) is dedicated to the conservation and
scientific study of Purple Martins. Specific research projects look at martin colony locations, biology, and habitat
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a young kestrel protests the banding process; however, leg bands are a valuable
research tool. the bird will soon be released to soar over this Pennsylvania
farmland. Courtesy of Hawk Mountain Sanctuary
requirements. The Purple Martin Mentor program

connects martin newbies with veteran Purple Martin
landlords, and an online forum keeps landlords in touch
with each other. The online Martin Market Place sells
recommended martin housing and accouterments.
Wood duck
Wood duck society:
Woodducksociety.com
The Minnesota-based Wood Duck Society works to

educate and promote sound management for Wood Duck
populations. Detailed methods for safe and successful
Wood Duck nest box installation and placement are
included in the online document Best Practices. The societys newsletter, The Wood Duck Newsgram, is published
three times a year.
Burrowing owl
BurroWing oWl conserVation netWork:
BurroWingoWlconserVation.org
This nonprofits mission is to promote Burrowing

Owl conservation and showcase successful, innovative
solutions that can be applied throughout Burrowing
Owl habitat in North America. Working with the
city of Antioch, California, the group established the
twenty-four-acre Prewett Family Park Burrowing Owl
Preserve in 2008. At the time, no owls occupied the site.
In 2012, five owl pairs successfully fledged twenty-six
chicks. Today, the preserve includes both natural and
artificial burrows, a weed-management program, interpretive signs, and an education and field trip program
for local students.
154
a male and female eastern Bluebird start to build a

nest in the xBox. David Kinneer
Chimney swift
the driftWood Wildlife association:
chimneysWifts.org
The Driftwood Wildlife Association (DWA), located in

Austin, Texas, promotes public education about Chimney
Swifts, preservation of their existing habitat, and the
creation of new nesting and roosting sites. Directors
Georgean and Paul Kyle founded Travis Audubons
Chaetura Canyon Bird Sanctuary, where Chimney Swift
research has taken place since the 1980s. DWAs website
contains news about Chimney Swift research projects,
links to Chimney Swift tower construction videos, and
listings for events such as A Swift Night Out.
Common loon
the loon PreserVation committee:
loon.org
One of the first U.S. groups to work for loon conservation, the Loon Preservation Committee was founded in
1975 in response to dramatically declining loon populations. The groups research focuses on how human
activities impact loons, with the goal of restoring New
Hampshires loon populations.
Citizen sCienCe projeCts

involving nesting Birds
american kestrel PartnershiP:
Peregrinefund.org, 208-362-3716
The American Kestrel Partnership, a project begun in

2011 by the Peregrine Fund, promotes the use of kestrel
nest boxes by people all over the country. These nest boxes
not only enhance kestrel habitat but also create valuable
chaPter 5
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these Barred owlets, just more than a month old, are on an out-of-nest box adventure. each bird
will be banded as part of a research project. they will return to the nest box for another week or
so, until the urge to leave becomes strong. Rob Bierregaard
study sites. The group seeks to discover the causes of

regional kestrel declines; they believe data from kestrel
nest box observers may help reveal answers. The projects
interactive website offers training and social networking
opportunities with like-minded kestrel watchers.
cornell laB of ornithologys nestWatch:
nestWatch.org
NestWatch is the place to go to learn more about

nesting birds, as well as monitor bird nests for science. Participants in this nationwide program, called
NestWatchers, collect information on when nesting
occurs, numbers of eggs laid, egg hatch rates, and chick
survival rates. Participation is free and online instructions
are provided. Studies based on NestWatch data are yielding clues about breeding bird populations and how they
are changing over time due to factors including climate
change and habitat degradation.
north american Breeding Bird surVey:
www.pwrc.usgs.gov/BBs
This survey, a collaboration begun in 1966 between the U.S.

Geological Surveys Patuxent Wildlife Research Center and
the Canadian Wildlife Service, monitors the status of North
American bird populations. At the peak of every breeding
season, more than 2,500 skilled birders, who are able to
identify local birds by sound, collect data along thousands of
randomly established roadside routes throughout the continent. Survey coordinators, researchers, and statisticians then
compile and deliver population data and population trend
analyses on more than 400 bird species, for use by conservation managers, scientists, and the general public.
an artificial chimney swift tower.

Kelly Applegate
PurPle martin conserVation

associations ProJect martinWatch
and scout-arriVal study:
PurPlemartin.org/main/research.html
Project MartinWatch is a continentwide venture in which

active Purple Martin landlords are provided with nest
record forms to fill out as they conduct weekly nest
checks on the martins breeding in their houses or gourds.
Another project, the Scout-arrival Study, tracks the northward migration of Purple Martins across the continent
each spring. Landlords send in the date that scoutsthe
oldest martins that are first to return to their breeding
groundsare first seen.
to learn more aBout Building nest Boxes:
nestBoxBuilder.com
Georgia woodworker Fred Stille puts bird-approved nest

box construction plans and woodworking tips all in one
place on this sitejust what he was looking for when he
first got into building for birds.
to learn more aBout caVity-nesting Birds:
sialis.org
Connecticut bluebirder Bet Zimmermans popular

website includes information about cavity-nesting birds,
nest and egg identification, and bird-oriented online
forums and listservs, as well as good advice for bluebird emergencies.
to learn nesting Bird songs:
BirdJam.com
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BiBliograPhy
Baicich, Paul J., Colin J. O. Harrison. A Guide to the Nests,
Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds. 2nd ed.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005.
Kress, Stephen W. The Audubon Society Guide to

Attracting Birds. New York: Charles Scribners
Sons, 1985.
Baynes, Ernest Harold. Wild Bird Guests: How to Entertain

Them. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1915.
The Audubon Society Guide to

Attracting Birds: Creating Natural Habitats for
Properties Large and Small. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 2006.
Berger, Cynthia, Keith Kridler, and Jack Griggs.

The Bluebird Monitors Guide. New York: Harper
Collins, 2001.
Dearborn, Ned. Bird Houses and How to Build
Them. Farmers Bulletin 609: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, 1914.
Forbush, Edward Howe. Useful Birds and Their Protection.
Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, 1907.
Henderson, Carrol L. Woodworking for Wildlife: Homes
for Birds and Animals. 3rd ed. St. Paul, MN: State of
Minnesota Department of Administration, Materials
Management Division, 2009 (third edition).
Kalmbach, E. R., W. L. McAtee. Homes for Birds. Farmers
Bulletin 1456: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1930.
Schutz, Walter E. Bird Watching, Housing and

Feeding. Milwaukee, WI: The Bruce Publishing
Company, 1963.
Sorlie, Kip, and Richard Schinkel. Building for Birds.
Berrien Springs, MI: White-throat Images, 1988.
Stokes, Donald W., Lillian Q. Stokes. The
Complete Birdhouse Book. Boston: Little,
Brown and Company, 1990.
Terres, John K. Songbirds in Your Garden. Chapel Hill,
NC: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1994.
Trafton, Gilbert H. Methods of Attracting Birds. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1910.
online sources
All About Birds, Hugh Powell, editor, 2013,
Ithaca, NY: Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology,
allaboutbirds.org.
The Birds of North America Online. A. Poole, editor,
Ithaca, NY: Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, 2005,
bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/
Homes for Birds, Department of the Interior: U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service: Conservation Library, 2010,
library.fws.gov/bird_publications/house.html
National Geographic: Backyard Birding,

Animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birding
North American Bluebird Society, 2013,
nabluebirdsociety.org.
Purple Martin Conservation Association, 2013,
purplemartin.org.
Stille, Fred, NestboxBuilder.com, 2013,
nestboxbuilder.com.
Zimmerman, Elizabeth A., Sialis.org, 2013,
sialis.org.
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index
Page numbers in italics after a bird species indicate the profile pages for that species. Page numbers in italics after a nest box name indicate the
plans for that nest box.
Abare, Chuck, 26, 115, 117119
Aix sponsa (Wood Duck), 16, 21, 30,
106107
Althea R. Sherman Project, 15
American Bird Conservancy, 153
American Kestrel, 9193, 154155
American Kestrel nest box, 21, 27, 9495,
9698
American Kestrel Partnership, 154155
American Ornithologists Union, 10
American Robin, 120, 121, 129130
ants, 29
Ardea herodias (Great Blue Heron), 120, 121,
146147
Ascutney Mountain Audubon Society
(Vermont), 148
Ash-throated Flycatcher, 5758
Athene cunicularia (Burrowing Owl), 120,
138139
Audubon, John James, 153
Audubon Minnesota, 144
Baeolophus atricristatus (Black-crested
Titmouse), 63
Baeolophus bicolor (Tufted Titmouse), 61
Baeolophus inornatus (Oak Titmouse), 62
Baeolophus ridgwayi (Juniper Titmouse), 62
baffles. See predator guards
Bald Eagle, 120
Barn Owl, 11, 8485
Barn Owl nest box, 29, 8687
Barn Swallow, 120, 126127
Barred Owl, 6465
Barred Owl box, 6667, 6870
Baynes, Ernest Harold, 10
bees, 29
Bellrose, Frank, 16
Belthoff, James R., 140
Berner, Kevin, 51
Bewicks Wren, 34
Bierregaard, Richard O., 6570
bird cams, 152153
birdhouse basics. See homebuilding basics
birdhouse flaws, 1819
birdjam.com, 155
Bird Studies Canada, 153
Black-capped Chickadee, 99101
Black-crested Titmouse, 63
black flies, 28
blowflies, 28
Bluebird Recovery Program (BBRP) of
Minnesota, 50
bluebirds, 14, 16, 30, 32, 4656, 121, 153
bluebird Xbox, 22, 5253, 5456, 58,
60, 63
Eastern Bluebird, 16, 46, 4749
Mountain Bluebird, 46, 49

nest site/placement, 5051
Western Bluebird, 46, 4849
Bower, Allen, 8083
Bower Flicker box, 8081, 8283
Bronson, Cindy, 101
buffalo gnats, 28
Burrowing Owl, 120, 138139, 154
Burrowing Owl Conservation Network,
140, 154
Canadian Wildlife Service, 155
Carolina Chickadee, 99101
Carolina Wren, 3435
Carolina Wren nest box, 36, 37, 3839
Carpodacus mexicanus (House Finch), 120,
134135
cats, 1213, 23
outdoor enclosures for, 2324
predator guards for, 23
as predators, 1213
caulks, 21
Center for Conservation Biology
(Williamsburg, VA), 10
Chaetura pelagica (Chimney Swift), 10, 15,
16, 120, 143145
Chickadee nest box, 102103, 104105
chickadees, 16, 30, 32, 46, 99105
Black-capped Chickadee, 99101
Carolina Chickadee, 99101
Chickadee nest box, 102103, 104105
Mountain Chickadee, 100101
Chimney Swift, 10, 15, 16, 120, 143145
Chimney Swift towers, 145
The Driftwood Wildlife Association
(DWA), 154
nest site/location, 143145
Chucks Simple Purple Martin Rack, 117,
118119
closure nails, 21
Colaptes auratus (Northern Flicker), 7879
Comfort, Tom, 51
Common Loon, 120, 141142, 154
Connecticut Audubon Society, 13
construction
of floors, 19
types of poor, 19
construction flaws, 19
Cornell Lab of Ornithology, 29, 31, 101,
152, 153, 155
Covered shelf for American Robins, 132, 133
cowbirds, 41
Dearborn, Ned, 12, 14
Delaware County Bird Club, 93

Dockter, John, 147
Don The Duckmans Wood Duck Nest
Box, 108109, 110111, 113
door pivots, 21
doves, 122125
Mourning Dove nest basket, 124, 125
drainage holes, 22
The Driftwood Wildlife Association
(DWA), 154
ducks, 106111
Don The Duckmans Wood Duck Nest
Box, 108109, 110111
Wood Duck, 16, 21, 30, 106107, 154
Eastern Bluebird, 16, 46, 47
Eastern Phoebe, 136137
Eastern Screech-Owl, 7173
Eastern Screech-Owl nest box, 7475,
7677
English Sparrow. See House Sparrow
Eno, Steve, 51
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 12
European Starling
active controls for, 27
passive controls for, 26
as predators, 12, 14, 16, 2526, 46
SREHs, 26
Explore.org, 152
Falco sparverius (American Kestrel), 9193
feeders, 14
finches, 121, 134135
House Finch, 120, 134135
finishes
for homebuilding, 21
not recommended, 1819
fire ants, 29
fleas, 29
flicker, 7883
Bower Flicker box, 8081, 8283
nest site/location, 79
Northern Flicker, 7879
flycatcher, 16, 5758
Ash-throated Flycatcher, 5758
Great Crested Flycatcher, 5758
Forbush, Edward Howe, 13
Friends of the Sherman Swift Tower, 15
Gallo, Susan, 142
Gavia immer (Common Loon), 120, 141142
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Gehlbach, Frederick R., 20, 72, 7477

Gilbertson, Steve, 22, 51
Gilbertson pole system, 22, 23, 51, 58, 60
Gilbertson PVC nest box, 22
Gillis, Donald C., 140
Gilwood nest box, 22
glues, 21
gnatcatchers, 121
Goldfinches, 19
Great Blue Heron, 120, 121, 146147
Great Crested Flycatcher, 5758
Great Horned Owl, 89, 152
Gregg, Michael A., 140
Grondahl, Chris, 147
Grubb, Tom, 101
Grubb stakes, 101
Hawkins, Art, 16
Hawk Mountain Sanctuary, 153
Helmeke, Don, 108111
Henderson, Carrol L., 140
Her, Johnny, 144
herons, 146148
Great Blue Heron, 120, 121, 146147
nesting platforms, 147
Higgins, Phil, 140
hinges, 21
homebuilding basics
access, 22
caulks and glues, 21
drainage holes, 22
fasteners, 20
finishes, 21
hinges, pivots, and closure nails, 21
overhanging roofs, 22
placement of nest boxes, 2223
tools, 20
ventilation, 2122
woods for, 1920
Hooded Merganser, 16, 112113
hornets, 29
House Finch, 120, 134135
housekeeping, 31, 45
House Sparrow
active controls, 27
passive controls for, 26
as predators, 12, 1314, 16, 2526, 46
House Wren, 2728, 3435
humans
as helpers for birds, 1417, 121
as threats to birds, 1112
hummingbirds, 121
Hungry Owl Project (HOP), 11
hurricanes, 10
Hutchings, Don, 24
Hutchings predator guard, 2324
insect pests, 2829, 31
Johnson, David H., 140
juncos, 121
Juniper Titmouse, 62
Kalmbach, E. R., 14
kestrel, 9198
American Kestrel, 9193, 154155
American Kestrel nest box, 21, 27, 9495,
9698
Kress, Steve, 128, 130133
Kridler, Keith, 51
Kyle, Georgean Z., 145
Kyle, Paul D., 145
Lake County Audubon Society (Illinois),
147148
lice, 29
Lincer, Jeffrey L., 140
Linn, Sherry, 31
The Loon Network, 142
The Loon Preservation Committee, 154
loons, 141142
Common Loon, 120, 141142, 154
Lophodytes cucullatus (Hooded Merganser),
112113
Los Angeles Audubon Society, 121
L-shaped platform for Barn Swallows, 128
Madison Audubon, 150
Maine Loon Project (Audubon), 142
McAtee, W. L., 14
McEwen, Charles, 26
Mennill, Daniel, 101
mergansers, 112113
Hooded Merganser, 112113
Michigan Bluebird Society, 23
Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 12, 27
Minnesota Bluebird Recovery Group, 22
Minnesota Purple Martin Working
Group, 116
Minnesota Waterfowl Association, 111
mites, 29
Mountain Bluebird, 46, 49
Mountain Chickadee, 100101
Mourning Dove, 120, 122123
Mourning Dove nest basket, 124, 125
Musselman, Thomas Edgar, 14, 16
Myiarchus cinerascens (Ash-throated
Flycatcher), 5758
Myiarchus crinitus (Great Crested Flycatcher),
5758
National Audubon Society, 152, 153
natural threats to birds, 1011
nest box basics. See homebuilding basics
nestboxbuilder.com, 155
nest checks, 2931
NestWatch (Cornell Lab of Ornithology),
155
Noel hardware cloth guard, 25
North American Bluebird Association, 31
North American Bluebird Society (NABS),

16, 51, 82, 153
North American Breeding Bird Survey, 155
Northern Flicker, 7879
Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center
(USGS), 124125, 147
Nowak, Jack, 148
nuthatches, 32
Oak Titmouse, 62
Ohio Bluebird Society, 36
orioles, 121
Orthwein, Bob, 3639
Osprey, 120, 149151
artificial platforms, 151
nest site/placement, 149, 151
Project Osprey (Stoughton, WI), 150151
Otter, Ken, 101
Otus asio (Eastern Screech-Owl), 7173
Otus kennicottii (Western Screech-Owl),
7173
owls, 30, 6477, 8490, 138140
Barn Owl, 8485
Barred Owl, 6465
Barred Owl box, 6667, 6870
Burrowing Owl, 120, 138139, 154
Eastern Screech-Owl, 7173
Great Horned Owl, 89, 152
nest site/placement, 65, 73, 8485, 139
Screech-Owl nest box, 7475, 7677
Western Screech-Owl, 7173
painting, 1819
Pandion haliaetus (Osprey), 120, 149151
paper wasps, 28
parasites, 29, 31
Passer domesticus (House Sparrow), 12,
1314, 16, 2526
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
(U.S.Geological Survey), 155
perches, 19
pesticides, 11, 12
Peterson, Dick, 22, 29, 50
Phillips, Dick, 93
phoebes, 120, 130133, 136137
Eastern Phoebe, 136137
Says Phoebe, 136137
Pike, Nicholas, 13
Poecile atricapilla (Black-capped Chickadee),
99101
Poecile carolinensis (Carolina Chickadee),
99101
Poecile gambeli (Mountain Chickadee),
100101
predator guards, 13, 23
predators
cats, 1213, 23
checking for, 2930
European Starlings, 12, 14
House Sparrows, 12, 1314
House Wrens, 2728
raccoons, 22, 2425
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snakes, 12, 22, 25

squirrels, 26
Progne subis (Purple Martin), 16, 21, 26,
114116
Project MartinWatch, 155
Prothonotary Warbler, 40
Prothonotary warbler nest box, 4245
Protonotaria citrea (Prothonotary
Warbler), 40
pruning, 121
Purple Martin, 16, 21, 26, 114116,
153154
Purple Martin Wooden Gourd Rack, 117,
118119
Purple Martin Conservation Association,
115, 153154, 155
Purple Martin Wooden Gourd Rack, 117,
118119
raccoons, 22, 2426
Radel, Keith, 22, 50, 51
Raptor On! Kestrel nest box, 21, 27, 9495,
9698
Ready, Pat, 150
Rebholz, James L., 140
recycled materials, nest boxes from, 19
Red-cockaded Woodpecker, 10
Reilly, Bob, 4145
Richmond Audubon Society, 41
robins, 129133
American Robin, 120, 121, 129130
Covered shelf for American Robins, 132,
133
V-shaped shelf for American Robins, 130,
131
Santa Clara Valley Audubon Society, 140
Sayornis phoebe (Eastern Phoebe), 136137
Sayornis saya (Says Phoebe), 136137
Says Phoebe, 136137
Schieffelin, Eugene, 14
Schinkel, Dick, 17
Scout-arrival Study (Purple Martin
Conservation Association), 155
Screech-Owl, 20
Screech-Owl nest box, 7475, 7677
Seekamp, Ron, 116
Sherman, Althea Rosina, 15
Sialia currucoides (Mountain Bluebird), 46, 49
Sialia mexicana (Western Bluebird), 46, 48
Sialia sialis (Eastern Bluebird ), 16, 46, 47
sialis.org, 155
Simmons, Steve, 29, 31, 8690, 89, 140
Simple Wooden Gourd Rack, 115
Smithsonian Conservation Biology
Institute, 12
snakes
predator guards for, 25
as predators, 12, 22
traps for, 25
snow, 1011
Sparks, Dan, 5156

sparrows, 121
squirrels, 26
SREHs, 26
Stille, Fred, 51, 155
Stovall, Bill, 17
Strand, Roger, 21
Strix varia (Barred Owl), 6465
Sturnus vulgaris (European Starling), 12, 14,
16, 2526
swallows, 16, 46, 5960, 121, 126128
Barn Swallow, 120, 126127
L-shaped platform for Barn Swallows, 128
nest site/placement, 60, 126127
Tree Swallow, 30, 41, 46, 5960
Violet-green Swallow, 5960
Tachycineta bicolor (Tree Swallow), 30, 41, 46,
5960
Tachycineta thalassina (Violet-green Swallow),
5960
Temple, Stan, 12
Texas Bluebird Society, 21
threats to birds
human, 1112
from introduced species, 1214
natural, 1011
thrushes, 121
Thryomanes bewickii (Bewicks Wren), 34
Thryothorus ludovicianus (Carolina Wren),
34, 35
ticks, 29
titmice, 16, 30, 46, 6166
Black-crested Titmouse, 63
Juniper Titmouse, 62
Oak Titmouse, 62
Tufted Titmouse, 61
tools
for homebuilding, 20
for nest box maintenance, 31
for nest checks, 30
tree pruning, 121
Tree Swallows, 30, 41, 46, 5960
Troglodytes aedon (House Wren), 2728,
3435
Tufted Titmouse, 61
Turdus migratorius (American Robin), 120,
121, 129130
Tuttle, Dick, 21, 27, 9398
Tyto alba (Barn Owl), 8485
V-shaped nest for American Robins, 130, 131

warblers, 19, 4045, 121
location/placement, 4041
Prothonotary Warbler, 40
Prothonotary warbler nest box, 4243,
4445
Watts, Bryan, 10
Western Bluebird, 46, 48
Western Screech-Owl, 7173
WildCare, 11
Willett, Chris, 16, 2022, 101105, 128,
130133
Windingstad, Ron, 144
Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources, 151
Wood Duck, 16, 21, 30, 106107, 154
Wood Duck nest box, 108109, 110111,
113
Wood Duck Society, 21, 111, 154
woodpeckers, 32, 121
woods, 1920
woodworking
Stovall birdhouses, 17
wrens, 16, 3439, 121
Bewicks Wren, 34
Carolina Wren, 3435
Carolina Wren nest box, 37, 3839
House Wren, 2728, 3435
Xbox, 22, 5253, 5456, 58, 60, 63
yellow jackets, 29
Zeleny, Lawrence, 16
Zeleny, Olive, 16
Zenaida macroura (Mourning Dove), 120,
122123
Zimmerman, Bet, 30, 155
U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey, 14

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 12
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Institute, 12
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 12, 16
U.S. Geological Survey, 155
Vauxs Swift, 143
ventilation, 2122
Vermont Loon Recovery Project, 142
Violet-green Swallow, 5960
vireos, 121
Index
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aBout the team
Woodworker chris Willett attaches a

predator guard baffle to a nest box pole.
authors elissa Wolfson (l) and margaret a. Barker carry chucks simple Wooden gourd rack
for purple martins.
margaret a. Barker is a writer and educator in the
stePhen kress, author of The Audubon Society
Chesapeake Bay region. Following a broadcast journalism

career in the Southeast, she received a masters degree in
environmental education. She served as coordinator of the
Cornell Laboratory of Ornithologys Project FeederWatch
and later managed the Kids Growing Food school garden
program for Cornell University Department of Education.
She wrote the Backyard Birding column for the Ithaca
Journal newspaper for seven years and co-authored (with
Jack Griggs) The FeederWatchers Guide to Bird Feeding
(HarperCollins, 2000). Her work has appeared in publications such as Birdwatching (formerly Birders World) and
Bird Watchers Digest.
Guide to Attracting Birds, is vice president for bird conservation for the National Audubon Society and director of the Hog Island Audubon Camp. He also teaches
a popular birding course at the Cornell Laboratory of
Ornithology. As director of Audubons Project Puffin,
he has restored puffins and other rare and endangered
seabirds to islands on the Maine coast and other locations worldwide. Taking his interest in bird restoration
to backyards and larger habitats, he has developed
methods for creating bird-friendly habitats using nest
boxes and native plants.
elissa Wolfson is a freelance writer and editor for a
chris Willett is a craftsman and contractor in
variety of science, environmental, botanical, ornithological,

and animal-related publications. After receiving a bachelors
degree from Cornell University, she worked as an environmental educator for nearly a decade prior to receiving
a masters from Montclair State College and transitioning
into environmental journalism. Editorial clients have
included the National Audubon Society, Cornell University
Laboratory of Ornithology, and Cornell University College
of Veterinary Medicine. She is the author of the book 101
Cool Games for Cool Cats (Rockwell House, 2007)and a
former editor of E: The Environmental Magazine and Cornell
Plantations Magazine.
upstate New York, specializing in green building

techniques, energy efficiency, and solar technologies.
His academic work in environmental studies at Ithaca
College has included researching the effects of avian
malaria on native Hawaiian bird populations, working to protect and preserve the endangered Marianas
Crows habitat in the Northern Marianas Islands, and
banding raptors throughout New York state. He is currently developing a new business, Bird Brain Bungalows
(www.bird-brain-bungalows.com), in order to create
ecologically sound and efficient homes for many avian
species, as well as flying mammals and honeybees.
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First published in 2013 by Voyageur Press, an imprint of MBI Publishing Company,

400 First Avenue North, Suite 400, Minneapolis, MN 55401 USA
2013 Voyageur Press
All rights reserved. With the exception of quoting brief passages for the purposes
of review, no part of this publication may be reproduced without prior written
permission from the Publisher.
The information in this book is true and complete to the best of our knowledge.
All recommendations are made without any guarantee on the part of the author or
Publisher, who also disclaims any liability incurred in connection with the use of this
data or specific details.
We recognize, further, that some words, model names, and designations mentioned
herein are the property of the trademark holder. We use them for identification
purposes only.
Voyageur Press titles are also available at discounts in bulk quantity for industrial or
sales-promotional use. For details write to Special Sales Manager at MBI Publishing
Company, 400 First Avenue North, Suite 400, Minneapolis, MN 55401 USA.
To find out more about our books, visit us online at www.voyageurpress.com.
ISBN: 978-0-7603-4220-6
Digital edition: 978-1-6278-8083-1
Softcover edition: 978-0-7603-4220-6
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Barker, Margaret A.
Audubon birdhouse book : building, placing, and maintaining great homes for great
birds / by Margaret A. Barker and Elissa Wolfson.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7603-4220-6 (softcover)
1. Birdhouses--Design and construction. 2. Bird attracting--United States. I.
Wolfson, Elissa. II. Title.
QL676.5.B257 2013
728.927--dc23
2013018947
Editor: Elizabeth Noll
Design Manager: James Kegley
Layout: Diana Boger
Design: Karl Laun
Front matter photos (in order from frontispiece): male Prothonotary Warbler, Mark Musselman;
male Eastern Bluebird, David Kinneer; one-day-old Wood Duck chick, Roger Strand,
courtesy of the Wood Duck Society; American Kestrel nest box, Richard M. Tuttle;
Ash-throated Flycatcher, Steve Simmons; Loon chick and parent, Derrick Z. Jackson;
male Pileated Woodpecker male and chick, Ruhikanta Meetei; Eastern Bluebird male
and fledgling, David Kinneer
Front cover photo: David Kinneer
Back cover photos (top to bottom): male Mountain Bluebird, Myrna Pearman, courtesy of
Ellis Bird Farm, Alberta, Canada; male Hooded Merganser, Ashok Khosla; female American
Kestrel, Paul Spurling, courtesy of the Peregrine Fund/Americana Kestrel Partnership
Range maps provided by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
Printed in China

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DeDicationS

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book

By Margaret A. Barker and Elissa Wolfson

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book7/18/13

Wrens (Bewicks, carolina, House)

flycatchers (ash-throated, Great crested) . . . . . 57

titmice (tufted, oak, Juniper,

Ducks (Wood Duck) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Swallows (Purple Martin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book7/18/13

finches (House) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

loons (common) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Screech-owl nest box

Barn owl nest box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

chickadee nest box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book7/18/13

uilding a nest box for wild birds can be one of the

Margaret Barker and Elissa Wolfson have provided a

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book7/18/13

methods presented in this book, master birdhouse builder

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book7/18/13

ver the course of researching and writing the

The Purple Martin Conservation Association (PMCA)

07-C69695 #175 Dtp:225 Page:8

Birds of North America Online species account for

Duck Initiative, James A. Barker, Jr., Janet Fries, Chris

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book7/18/13

n indomitable bird enthusiast of the early 1900s, Ernest Harold Baynes

natural iMPactS on BirDS

a flicker feeds its young in a Berlepsch

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book7/18/13

Alternatively, a family of five owls can consume 3,000

nest and many others are still migrating back

Human Impact on BIrds

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book

disturbances at nesting sites, all pose additional

and organic farmers who grow food without

07-C69695 #175 Dtp:225 Page:12

predator guards (explored further in Chapter

issue, a Connecticut reader described his new

in 2005, the u.s.

many Birds need a heLping hand

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book7/18/13

nonnative species, neither House

Liberty hyde Bailey,

Eugene Schieffelin is creditedand

The concept of caring for birds in

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book7/18/13

Iowa Dooryard (1952) in the chapter, The Home Life

Many Birds need a helping hand

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book

history at the University of Illinois, he noticed

there were active government efforts to

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book7/18/13

birds will be part of their future. Other species

Bill stovall, founder of stovall products, teaches a grandparents

twenty-first century is regularly checking in on

Many Birds need a helping hand

(Fogra 39)Job:07-30980 Title:MBI-Audubon Birdhouse Book

nontoxic, low-VOC paints are available, plenty of premade birdhouses on