INTERIOR DESIGN AND PLANNING

A professional interior designer is one who is qualified by education,

examination and experience to identify research and creatively solve
problems

relative

environments.

to

the

function

and

quality

of

peoples

interior

The course of study in interior design leads to a first

professional degree.
The program focuses on improving the quality of life and protecting human
health and safety through design of interior environment. Students study
design fundamentals, theory, process, communication, research and
technology to identify and solve problems for a wide range of physical
interior environments for all individuals regardless of socioeconomic
background.
Students learn how to approach design problems through a methodology
that includes data gathering, product specification, identification of details,
contractual documents and design business procedures.

PRINCIPLES OF INTERIOR DESIGN

1. GROUND RULES FOR GOOD DESIGN
The basic rule of good design is first to get the framework of a space right
and only then to look after the contents. It means first assessing the space
available and then making decisions about how to manipulate it whether
cosmetically, by purely decorative means, or structurally to its best
advantage.
Design is also about understanding how scale and balance contribute to
making a room look comfortable and inviting. It is about handing light,
whether natural or artificial; the way a colour is chosen and mixed, matched
or contrasted to its greatest effect; and the way mixtures of texture and
pattern can be assembled and built up. These are the essential ingredients
which are dealt with in this section. All must be taken into consideration if

the design of a home is to be given a firm basis and create a lasting

impression.
Good Use of Space
Lack of space, lack of rooms, lack of wherewithal to expand, there are
perennial problems shared by almost everyone. Yet a curiously large number
of people seem just to accept them. To alter the feeling of spaciousness in a
place you do not necessarily have to change its basic structure. And the
feeling is what most space is about, not the actual footage. Ironically, people
who actually have too much space find it just as awkward to arrange
comfortably as those with too little. With personal experience of booth, I
have found it far easier to sit people sensibly in a small sitting room than in
a very large, L shaped room.
Multi-purpose rooms
At the simplest level, a home that is owned, as opposed to a rental, could be
improved by the elementary expedient of changing the functions of various
rooms, or by altering the layout. Almost any room can be made multi
purpose. A kitchen, if it is large enough, can also be used for a general
eating and family room. A dining room or a guest room can also double as a
study; bedrooms can always be made into bed/sitting/work rooms just by
adding appropriate furniture. It often happens that in the reshuffle you gain
an extra room.
In every house, there is usually space being wasted somewhere that can be
utilized: landing and corridor space; the area under the stairs; blank walls;
odd corners. Used with imagination, these spaces can often relive congestion
else-where. The secret is to be flexible, to question convention and to have
no rigid ideas when it comes to the function of a room.
2. ALTERING SPACE COSMETICALLY
Limited space can be expanded or too much space lessened by thoughtful
decoration. Knowing how to juxtapose height and width, when to use large

patterns and when small, when to offset an angle with a curve, or vice versa,
all are important when it comes to achieving well-designed and proportioned
rooms. The following guidelines should be useful for when it comes to
redecorating problem areas.
Expanding Space
Since pale colours recede, the lighter the wall and floor colours, the larger a
room will seem. If a ceiling seems too low, you can raise it visually with a
coat of light paint. Shiny, reflecting surfaces always seemingly make for a
sense of space in a room, so use glossy paint to push back walls. The
removal of a picture moulding or chair rail will also help make room seem
less constricted and cramped.
There is no doubt that patterns with a strong geometric or directional feel
can appear to push out and extend floors and walls. Patterned carpets or
wall coverings with a light background give a feeling of depth and patterns
on a dark background do tend to enclose.
Lessening Space
Strong, dark colours seem to move in, so if a ceiling seems too high in
proportion to the rest of the room, an intense colour will help bring it down
visually. To make a room seem more compact, add a continuous band or
stripe of colour, or a contrasting picture moulding round a room, soft, matt
surfaces diminish a sense of space, so use non-shiny paint for the walls of
an over large room.
Learning about scale
At first, it always helps to look at possessions in other peoples homes.
Remember what furniture is used to enlarge an area, and what dwarfs it.
Notice which colours, textures and patterns complement or contrast with
each other.

Aim to balance solidity with delicacy, softness with hardness, height with
depth. Furniture kept at much the same level makes for a greater sense of
space. But remember that the effect of a continuous low level is enhanced by
one or two judiciously placed objects; a rangy plant, or an arrangement of
paintings.
A good sense of scale is quite easy to acquire if you always remember to look
at closely and learn from other peoples rooms which particularly please you.
3. USING MIRRORS
It is always useful to know how to create a feeling of depth in a room. How to
achieve the illusion of extra space.
Creating a three- dimensional effect
Think consciously, first of all, of creating a foreground, middle ground and
back- ground, a definite, three- dimensional effect. The can be drawn out
and along by diagonal or geometric lines painted on door are walls, or by
similar geometric or directional patterns on the floor. Any rectangular room
can be made to look wider if the

floor or ceiling boards or tiles are run

at an angle.
A mirror on a table or mantelpiece with plants or some small objects in front
of it will also give depth. As will a hinged screen in a corner behind a sofa or
table.
Using mirror
Mirrored surfaces will always give added length, depth and width to a room.
Mirror tiles are less expensive than whole sheets of mirror, but although
there are no distracting divisions with whole sheets, bear in mind the size of
vast expanses of mirror when it comes to getting them through doorways
and around corners. It is always wise to consider the possibility of expensive
waste when a sheet of mirror is cracked during installation-unfortunately
not such a rare occurrence these days.

Where to use mirror

If the space could do with doubling, use mirror to cover an entire wall, if it
can be afforded and fit it form floor to ceiling, extending it right into the
corners. If plain mirror seems unsubtle, one compromise is to insert metal
supports between lengths of mirror to hold glass or Perspex shelves for
books and small objects.
To help lose definition at the edges of a small room, and add extra sparkle,
use thin strips of mirror to edge the top of the walls, just below the ceiling.
Mirror alcoves; mirror between long windows; mirror backs of doors; mirror
the side wall of a narrow staircase; mirror the ceiling of a small room. If you
windows have wide embrasures, mirror them to both double the reflected
light and maximize the view outside.
Even the bases of sofas, seating units or chairs can be mirrored so they
appear to float; tall screens can be mirrored for an illusion of extra height.
And remember that etched or patterned mirror has a decorative quality all of
its own, quite apart from its reflective value.
4. CREATING SPACE STRUCTURALLY
The simplest and least expensive structural alterations can be made to
doors. They can be adjusted to swing in the opposite direction so extra
furniture can be fitted into a space. Old doors can be blocked off or new,
more conveniently placed ones can be cut into the walls. If the space is
minimal, but a door is necessary, put in a folding door or narrow swing
doors. If a new partition wall is being put up anyway, it might be possible to
put in a door which slides into it.
Internal windows
Long, thin slits can be cut in walls to give extra light and depth to room and
small, narrow windows set either side of a fireplace will add new views, give
slivers of extra light and take up very little wall space. Remember that
internal windows can be opened up between rooms for extra light and depth.

Non-structural partition wall can be cut halfway to the floor, or to seating

level.
Modifying the ceiling always make an enormous difference to the space style
and interest of a room. It can be lowered all round at the perimeter so that
the central space seems to soar, or the central area of the ceiling can be
lowered, perhaps over a dining table, for greater intimacy.
Changing levels
For many people, a flexible change in levels is seen as the best way of
making the best of a small space. Multi-levels are especially useful for oneroom living, and can be sued to divide off the various areas without the
space seeming muddled and confused.
Even if a room is of ordinary height, it is usually possible to build in a
variety of platforms-depending on where the room is situated in a building
and on the latters structure. The extra weight is seldom any more than the
normal furnishings and seating which it replaces.
5. FURNITURE ARRANGEMENTS
It lack of spaces is a problem the first basic thing to remember is that
tables. Desks and chairs made of glass or Perspex, or pieces of furniture
that are surfaced in mirror, look much lighter and less bulky than more
solid pieces, Two small couches always look neater than four chairs, and
likewise, two small seating units pushes together will take up less room
than a couple of chairs. Large articles of furniture should be kept against a
wall.
Corners can be used more; beds placed on the diagonal make a room look
much more interesting; cupboards and desks also look particularly effective
straddling corners, storage all down one side of a room can look neater than
separate desks, bookshelves liquor cabinets or other kinds of cupboards.

One-room living
In a once-room apartment, a double bed can look too obvious and bulky.
Use a pair of day- beds or chaises instead, and pile them high with pillows.
By day these can be used for seating and by night they can be pushed
together to make a bed. Pare down as much as possible to avoid clutter, but
beware of discard pieces of furniture to the extent that all character and
individuality is lost
6. LIGHTING: LAMPS AND FITTINGS
Significant lighting parameters
The radiated power of light, as perceived by the eyes, is measured in terms
of the luminous flux . The luminous flux radiated per solid angle in a
defined direction is referred to as the light intensity. The intensity of a light
source in all directions of radiation is given by the light intensity
distribution, generally represented as a light intensity distribution curve.
The light intensity distribution curve characterizes the radiation of a light
source as being narrow, medium or wide, and as symmetrical or
asymmetrical.
The luminous flux per unit area is the lighting intensity or illuminance E.
Typical values:
Global radiation (clear sky)
Global radiation (cloudy sky0
Optimum sight
Minimum in the workplace

Max. 100000 Ix
Max. 20000 Ix
2000 Ix
200 Ix

Lighting orientation

20 Ix

Lighting orientation

10 Ix

Moonlight

0.2 Ix

The lighting density L is a measure of the perceived brightness. For lamps it

is relatively high and results in glare, which necessitates shielding for lights

in indoor areas. The lighting density of room surfaces is calculated using

the lighting intensity E and the degree of reflection.
Lamps
Lamps convert electrical power (W) into luminous power (lumen, lm) The
light yield (lm/W) is a measure of efficiency. For internal room lighting,
filament and discharge lamps are used.
Filament lamps typically provide warm white light that is flicker free can be
dimmed without restriction and give very good colour of halogen bulb, and
their compact size allows small lighting outlines and very good focusing
characteristics (e.g. spotlights).

However, filament lamps also have a low

lighting efficiency (lm/W) and a relatively short bulb life of between 1000
and 3000 hours.
Discharge lamps usually operate with a ballast device and sometimes an
ignition system, and offer high lighting efficiency with relatively long life
(between 5000 and 15000 hours). The colour of the light depends on the
type of lamp: warm white, neutral white or daylight white. Colour rendering
is moderate to very good but it is only possible to dim the lamps to a limited
extent.

Flicker-free operation can only be achieved by the use of an

electronic ballast device.

General lighting symbols

for architectural plans

Standard lighting symbols

for architectural plans

Diagrams of lamp types

Different Lamp types

Allocation of lamp types and lighting types

Light fittings and light distribution

LIGHTING ARRANGEMENT
Lighting Quality Characteristics
Any good lighting design must meet functional and ergonomic requirements
while taking cost effectiveness into account.

In addition to the following

quantativesuality criteria, there are qualitative in particular architectural,

criteria which must be observed.
Level of illumination
A mean level of between 300lx (individual offices with daylight) and 750lx
(large rooms) is required in work areas. Higher illumination levels can be
achieved in uniform general lighting through the addition of lighting at
workplace positions.
Light direction [Refer Fig. 1]
Ideally, light should fall on a working position from the side. The
prerequisite for this is awing-shaped light distribution curve.
Limitation of glare [Refer Fig. 2 & 3]
Direct glare, reflected glare and reflections from monitor screens should all
be limited. Limiting direct glare is achieved by using lights with shading
angles 300.
Limiting reflected glare is achieved by directing light from the side onto the
working position, in conjunction with the use of matt surfaces on the
surrounding areas.
Limiting reflections from monitor screens requires the correct positioning of
the screen. Lighting which nevertheless still reflects on a screen must have
a luminance of 200 cd/m2 in these areas.

Distribution of luminance
The harmonic distribution of luminance is the result of a careful balance of
all the degrees of reflection in the room, Table - 7. Luminance due to indirect
lighting must not exceed 400 cd/m2.
Colour of light and colour rendering
The colour of the light is determined by the choice of lamp. A distinction is
made betweenthree types: warm white light (colour temperature under
3300k), neutral white light (3300-5000 K) and white daylight (over 5000 K)
in offices, most light sources are chosen in the warm white or neutral white
ranges. For colour rendering, which depends on the spectral composition of
the light, stage 1 9 very good colour rendering) should generally be sought.
Calculation of point illuminance levels [Refer Table 6]
The illuminance levels (horizontal Eh vertical Ev) which are generated by
individual light sources, can be determined from the luminous intensity and
the spatial geometry (height h, distance d and light incidence angle ) using
the photometric distance principle.

7. CHOOSING COLOUR SCHEMES

Planning a colour scheme often seems an insurmountable task to the
inexperienced. One way to begin is to take a colour in depth. Take green, for
example, and think of trees through the seasons; the different greens of
herbs, from the sharp freshness of parsley
Or chives to the gray green of sage and blue green of rosemary. Or try
thinking of precious stones; or the striated, cool, green of some slates. Think
of moss and lichen, algae and seaweed, variegated ivy and honeysuckle, the
browny-greens of ponds and the clear, blue-green of sea struck by sun.
Natural combination like these can be used to build up interesting,

monochromatic schemes, especially when contrasted or accented with other

colours that set them off quite naturally.
Ideas for colour schemes
In a white scheme for example, the walls and curtains might be a pale string
colour, the carpet would be white, white, with sofa in honey and chairs a
silver gray; cushions and plants or flowers would also be white for a brown
scheme, the walls would be a white.
For a brown scheme, the walls would be a coca-cola colour, the curtains
would be chestnut brown and the carpet black or brown; the sofa would be
white and the chairs natural-coloured, with scarlet cushions and shocking
pink flowers as accents. In rooms with pale beige walls, the curtains would
match, the carpet would be dark brown and the sofa would be the chairs
natural coloured, with scarlet cushions and shocking pink flowers as
accents. In rooms with pale beige walls, the curtains would match, the
carpet would be dark brown and the sofa would be the colour of milk
chocolate; any chairs would be Chinese yellow, the cushions would be white
and flowers, orange or yellow. In a gray scheme, the walls might be a pale
gray, the curtains white and the carpet yellow; there would be a dark gray
sofa and black chairs with lemon cushions; any flowers would be yellow.
Where the wall are very pale pink, the curtain could be white and the carpet
a sand colour; the sofa would be moss green, with shocking pink cushions
and scarlet flowers to spike the pastels. These are just some ideas;
remember that texture is an important ingredient and will affect the impact
of any colour. And remember, too, that pale colours tend to look good in
sunny rooms, while north facing ones always look more cheerful if warm,
luminous colours are used.
A space will always seem more cohesive if more or less the same colours are
used throughout. Ideas about continuing a feeling throughout a house or
apartment are dealt with in the Room- by- Room Guide.

8. USING TEXTURE AND PATTERN

If sure use of colour is absolutely basic to good decorating, a feeling for
texture and pattern is the refinement or gloss and should be considered just
as seriously as the whole process of building up colours in a room. Colours
can be so radically changed or modified by cleverly used texture and
pattern, that through its subtlety of finish , even a one-colour room can be
made to look just as lively and interesting as a more vividly coloured
counterpart. And just as good juxtapositions of colour add immediate
interest in a room, so thoughtful contrasts of texture and pattern, or both,
can add to the overall visual effect, but in a gentler less obvious way.
Textural build- up
Interestingly, textures are often as evocative as colours. Take, for example,
these well- known finishes; boarding, brick, Hessian, brass, cane, ceramic,
coir matting corduroy, cotton , cork, denim, felt, glass, lace, lacquer, leather,
linen, marble, mirror, plaster, Perspex, rush, sailcloth, satin, silk, sisal,
sheepskin, slub, slate , steel , stone, suede, terracotta, travertine, trellis,
velvet, wicker, wood (natural and polished), wood slats, wool, wool cord. If
you isolate each one in your mind, you can practically feel as well as see its
surface. Imagine how each one would look appropriately applied to floors or
ceilings, walls, furniture, windows and accessories. Contrast the varying
qualities of the possibilities inherent in intelligent mixing of textures, the
ability to build up comfort, or hard with soft, smooth with rough, matt with
shine.
Clearly, some textures seem to go better together than others, but this is
mainly a matter of taste and practicality. Look at the sample for ideas, and
look around for samples of carpet, matting, fabrics, vinyls, wallpapers, wall
coverings and various tiles so you can see the possibilities for yourself. But
rather than just colour matching or contrasting, find out which ones make
the most interesting combinations, and which textures seem actually to
enhance something else.

Most people know that rough textures probably mix well with smooth ones,
that matt goes well with gloss, but which rough surfaces should be mixed
with which smooth ones, what matt juxtaposed with what gloss? As a
general rule, coarse fabrics like Hessian or tweed usually look far better in
rooms with rough, brick walls than more refined materials like silk or stain;
lacquered furniture will look far more effective against velvet- covered walls
than the same pieces made from Perspex. Which of your furnishing
accessories, for example, has a particular softness, or depth, or gleam to it,
and what can you put beside it to make those qualities stand out?
Will the introduction of a plant or a vase of flowers help soften the shiny,
hardedged effect of a collection of silver or ceramics; or can a large, solid
piece of sculpture be

offset by a tall, yet insubstantial plant? Further

information about building up pleasing arrangements of objects and mixing

and matching textures and patterns.
Unusual paint techniques
Remember, too, the various methods for painting walls. Each type of finish,
whether lacquered or glazed, rag-rubbed or dragged, combed or flat will, to a
greater or lesser degree, alter the feel of a textural build-up. For more
information about the more unusual painting techniques.
Even when a room seems finished, the introduction of one more texture
could make the same difference to its interest and vitality as a sudden and
unexpected injection of colour. A chance incident might point something
out: a basket left on a floor; a heavy woolen cardigan thrown over a chair; a
brass container lying on a table, suddenly, a quite unexpected surface
seems so right, so delineating of the other surface and colours in a room,
that one cannot imagine why it was not thought of in the beginning. This
gradual, relaxed accretion of experience, ideas and possessions is what
decoration is about, after all.

Mixing patterns
Mixing patterns can be a daunting exercise to the uninitiated, who may fear
the distracting effect pattern piled on pattern can have. Historically, of
course, people have always mixed pattern and ornament, if not with
abandon, at least with a fine air of certainly. Think of the cornices, fabrics
and rugs of Europe in the seventeenth century; the elaborate ceilings,
damask wall coverings, mouldings, chair coverings and carpets of the
eighteenth century; the stripes and silks, Turkey rugs, mathogany, figured
velvets and lace antimacassars of the 1900s, the jazzy mixtures of the
Twenties.
GOOD USE OF PATTERN
Grouping similar tones
Mixing patterns is really a question of achieving the right scale, colour and
balance. If you put together a number of prints which share much the same
colouring or tones, some will appear to work, together much better than
others, and, as with textures, these might actually enhance one another
(especially if linked by areas of a plan colour predominant in the pattern). It
is all too easy to under estimate the intricate patterning of accessories such
as plants and books, pictures, objects, and ceramics, and the shapes of
furniture, even before you think of the choice of fabrics and wallpapers,
rugs, carpets, wall coverings and tiles.
Massed ethnic prints
Or think of the way a mass of Indian printed cottons can look effortlessly
harmonious, their patterns all very much the same size and in good
proportion with each other. Look at how their colours intermingle and repeat
each other, and you begin to understand the principle of mixing and
matching and will begin to feel more confident of putting it into practice.
Even the flimsiest of sheers can be used in the build-up of patterns in a
room if they are chosen with a similar or matching design to the curtains.

The pattern could be simply white on white, or in a toned- down version of

the main colours, or it could be a simplified version of the curtain motif, in
one colour on white. The effect will be less interesting than less subtle
combinations.
Play with pattern
A play of pattern, properly manipulated, can be very beneficial to a room,
influencing as it does the whole balance of colour. And sensitively worked,
pattern can often give the illusion of added depth and therefore space to a
room, as well as giving it a recognizable personality. Many of the hazards of
experimentation are taken out of ones hands these days now that
manufactures are producing coordinated ranges of fabrics, wall papers, wall
covering, tiles and sometimes carpets all designed to be mixed and matched
according to taste, space and circumstances.
As ever, the only way to learn is to observe and experiment, to find patterns
and combinations that appeal and then try them out for yourself. Give them
as much careful consideration as you would colour, and aim to avoid
choosing overtly fashionable patterns which can make a room seem dated in
no time at all.

ANTHROPOMETRIC STANDRADS
Mans Dimensional Relationships
The calculations for a mans body were based on the lengths of heads, faces
or feet. These were then subdivided and brought into relationship with each
other, so that they were applicable throughout general life. Even within our
own lifetimes, feet and ells have been in common use as measurements.
h

= the whole of the top half of the body, from the crotch
upwards.

= leg length from the ankle to the knee and from the chin to
the navel

1/6

= length of foot

1/8

= head length from the hair parting to the bottom of the chin,
distance between the nipples

1/10

h = face height and width (including the ears), hand length to the
wrist

1/12

h = face width at the level of the bottom of the nose, leg width

(above the ankle) and so on.

The sub-divisions go up to

1/40

h.

During the last century, A. Zeising, brought greater clarity with his
investigations of the dimensional relationship of mans proportions.

He

made exact measurements and comparisons on the basis of the golden

section.

MAN DIMENSION AND SPACE REQUIREMENTS

Body measurements

[In accordance with normal measurements and energy consumption]

Space Requirements

MAN SMALL SPACES

Dimensions for Railway Carriages

MAN AND HIS HOUSING

The function of housing is to project man against the weather and to provide
an environment that maintains his well-being.

The required inside

atmosphere comprises gently moving (i.e. nor draughty), well oxygenated air,
pleasant warmth and air humidity and sufficient light.

To provide these

conditions, important factors are the location and orientation of the housing
in the landscape as well as the arrangement of spaces in the house and its
type of construction. The prime requirements for promoting a lasting feeling
of well-being are an insulated construction, with appropriately sized
windows placed correctly in relation to the room furnishings, sufficient
heating and corresponding draught-free ventilation.
The need for air
Man breathes in oxygen with the air and expels carbon dioxide and water
vapour when he exhales.

These rays in quantity depending on the

individuals weight, food intake, activity and surrounding environment.

It has been calculated that o average human beings produce 0.020m3/h of
carbon dioxide and 40 g/h of water vapour.
A carbon dioxide content between1 and 3 % can stimulate deeper breathing,
so the air in the dwelling should not, as far as possible, contain more than 1
%. This means, with a single change of air per hour, a requirement for an
air space of 32 m3 per adult and 15 m3 for each child. However, because the
natural rate of air exchange in free-standing buildings, even with closed
windows, reaches 1 to 2 times this amount, 16 24 m3 is sufficient
(depending on the design) as a normal air space for adults and 8 12 m3 for
children. Expressed another way with a room height 2.5 m, a room floor

area of 6.4 9.6 m2 for each adult is adequate and 3.2 4.8 m2 for each
child. With a greater rate of air exchange, e.g. sleeping with a window open,
or ventilation via ducting), the volume of space per person for living rooms
can be reduced to 7.5 m3 and for bedrooms to 10 m3 per bed.
Where air quality is likely to deteriorate because of naked lights, vapours
and other pollutants (as in hospitals or factories) and in enclosed spaces
(such as you in an auditorium), rate of exchange of air must be artificially
boosted in order to provide the lacking oxygen and remove the harmful
substances.
Space Heating
The room temperature for humans at rest is at its most pleasant between
180 and 200C, and for work between 150 and 180C, depending on the level of
activity. A human being produces about 1.5 kcal/h per kg of body weight.
An adult weighing 70 kg therefore generates 2520 kcal of heat energy per
day, although the quantity produced varies according to the circumstances.
For instance it increases with a drop in room temperature just as it does
with exercise.
When heating a room, care must be taken to ensure that low temperature
heat is used to warm the room air on the cold sie of the room. With surface
temperatures above 70 - 800C decomposition can take place, which may
irritate the mucous membrane, mouth and pharynx and make the air feel to
dry. Because of this, steam heating and iron stoves, with their high surface
temperatures, are not suitable for use in blocks of flats.
Room Humidity
Room air is most pleasant with a relative air humidity of 50 60 %; it
should be maintained between limits 40 %and 70 %.room air which is too
moist promotes germs, mould, cold bridging, rot and condensation (Fig. 6).
The production of water vapour in human beings varies in accordance with
the prevailing conditions and performs an important cooling function.
Production increases with rising warmth of the room, particularly when the
temperature goes above 370C (blood temperature).

4. Harmful accumulation of Industrial gases

Tolerable
for
Several Hours (%)

Iodine Vapour
Chlorine Vapour
Bromine Vapour
Hydrochloric Acid
Sulphuric Acid
Hydrogen Sulphide
Ammonia
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Disulphide
Carbon dioxide

0.0005
0.001
0.001
0.01
0.1
0.2
10

Tolerable for
upto 1 h (%)

0.003
0.004
0.004
0.05
0.05
0.2
0.3
0.5
1.5*
80

Immediately
dangerous (%)

0.05
0.05
0.05
1.5
0.5
0.6
3.5
2.0
10.0*
300
* mg per litre

5. Human expenditure of energy

Activity

Energy Expenditure (kJ/h)

At rest in bed (basal metabolic rate)

Sitting and writing
Dressing, washing, shaving
Walking at5km/h
Climbing 5 cm stairs
Running at 8 km/h
Rowing at 33 strokes/min

250
475
885
2050
2590
3550
4765

6. Room humidity

Temperature
(0C)

Water content
(g/m3)

50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

82.63
78.86
75.22
71.73
68.36
65.14
62.05
59.09
56.25
53.52
50.91
48.40
46.00
43.71
41.51
39.41
37.40
35.48
33.64
31.89
30.21
28.62
27.09
25.64
24.24
22.93
21.68
20.48
19.33
18.25
17.22
16.25
15.31
14.43
13.59
12.82
12.03
11.32
10.64
10.01
9.39
8.82
8.28
7.76
7.28
6.82
6.39
5.98
5.60
5.23
4.89
4.55
4.22
3.92
3.64
3.37
3.13
2.90
2.69
2.49
2.31
2.14
1.98
1.83
1.70
1.58
1.46
1.35
1.25
1.15
1.05
0.95
0.86
0.78
0.71
0.64

Maximum water content of

one cubic metre of air (g)

1. Factors that affect thermal comfort

Physical conditions
Air movement (draughts)
Relative humidity
Ambient surface temperature
Air temperature
Atmospheric charge
Air composition and pressure
Room occupancy
Optical/acoustic influences
Clothing
Physiological conditions
Sex
Age
Ethnic influences
Food intake
Level of activity
Adaptation and acclimatization
Natural body rhythms
State of health
Psycho sociological factors

1. Heated walls

2. Heated walls

3. Field of comfort

4. Field of comfort

5. Field of comfort

6. Human heat flows

7. Field of comfort

8. Field of comfort

9. Humidity values for air we breathe

Water content of
the air (g/kg)

Suitability for breathing

Sensation

05

Very good

Light, fresh

58

Good

Normal

8 10

Satisfactory

Still bearable

10 25

Increasingly bad

Heavy, muggy

Over 25

Becoming dangerous

Very humid

41

Water content of the

breathed out270C (100 %)

Over 41

Water condensesin pulmonary

alveoli

air

10. Comparative relative humidity values

Absolute water
content (g/kg)

Relative
humidity (%)

Temperature
(0C)

50

Fine winters day

climate for lungs

100

Fine autumnal day

40

18

Very good room climate

50

21

Good room climate

10

70

20

Room climate too humid

28

100

30

Tropical rain forest

Description

healthy

Temperature regulation and heat loss from the body

The human body can raise or lower the rate at which it loses heat using
several mechanisms: increasing blood circulation in the skin, increasing the
blood circulation speed, vascular dilation and secreting sweat. When cold,
the body uses muscular shivering to generate additional heat.
Heat is lost from the body in three main ways: conduction, convection and
radiation. Conduction is the process of heat transfer from one surface when
they are in contact (e.g feet in contact with the floor). The rate of heat
transfer depends on the surface area in contact, the temperature differential
and the thermal conductivities of the materials involved.

Copper, for

example, has a high thermal conductivity while that of air is low making it a
porous insulating material. Convection is the process of body heat being
lost as the skin warms the surrounding air. This process is governed by the
velocity of the circulating air in the room and the temperature differential
between the clothed and unclothed areas of the body. Air circulation is also

driven by convection: air warms itself by contact with hot objects (e.g.
radiators), rises, cools off on the ceiling and sinks again. As it circulates the
air carries dust and floating particles with it.

The quicker the heating

medium flows (e.g. water in a radiator), the quicker is the development of

circulation. All objects, including the human body, emit heat radiation in
accordance to temperature difference between the body surface and that of
the ambient area. It is proportional to the power of 4 of the bodys absolute
temperature and therefore 16 times as high if the temperature doubles. The
wavelength of the radiation also changes with temperature: the higher the
surface temperature, the shorter the wavelength.

Above 5000C, heat

becomes visible as light. The radiation below this limit is called infrared/heart radiation. It radiates in all directions, penetrates the air without
heating it, and is absorbed by (or reflected off) other solid bodies are
warmed. This radiant heat absorption by the body (e.g. from tile stoves) is
the most pleasant sensation for humans for physiological reasons and also
the most healthy.
Other heat exchange mechanisms used by the human body are evaporation
of moisture from the sweat glands and breathing.

The body surface and

vapour pressure differential between the skin and surrounding areas are key
factors here.
Recommendations for Internal climate
An air temperature 20-240C is comfortable both in summer and in winter.
The surrounding surface areas should be differ by more than 2-30C from
the air temperature. A change in the air temperature can be compensated
for by changing the surface temperature (e.g. with decreasing air
temperature, increases the surface temperature).

If there is too great a

difference between the air and surface temperatures, excessive movement of

air takes place. The main critical surfaces are those of the windows.
For comfort, heat conduction to the floor via the feet must be avoided (i.e.
the floor temperature should be 170C or more). The surface temperature of

the ceiling depends upon the height of the room. The temperature sensed
by humans is somewhere near the average between room air temperature
and that of surrounding surfaces.
It is important to control air movement and humidity as far as possible. The
movement can be sensed as draughts and this has the effect of local cooling
of the body. A relative air humidity of 40 50 % is comfortable. With a
lower humidity (e.g. 30 %) dust particles are liable to fly around.
To maintain the quality of the air, controlled ventilation is ideal. The CO2
content of the air must be replaced by oxygen. A CO2 content of 0.10 % by
volume should not be exceeded, and therefore in living rooms and bedrooms
provide for two to three air changes per hour. The fresh air requirement of
humans comes to about 32.0 m3/h so the air change in living rooms should
be 0.4 0.8 times the room volume per person/h.
THE EYE: PERCEPTION
1. Black areas and objects appear smaller than those of the same size
which are white: the same applies to parts of buildings

2. To make black and white areas look equal in size, the latter must be
drawn smaller

3. These vertical rules are actually parallel but appear to converge

because of the oblique hatching

4. Lengths a and b are equal as are A-F and F-D, but arrowheads and
dissimilar surrounds make them appear different

5. Although both are equal in diameter, circle a looks larger when

surrounded by circles that have a smaller relative size

6. Two identical people seem different in height if rules of perspective are

not observed

7. The colour and pattern of clothing can change peoples appearance (a)
thinner in black (black absorbs light); (b) more portly in white (white
spreads light); (c) taller in vertical stripes; (d) broader in horizontal
stripes; (e) taller and broader in checked patterns

8. Dynamic effect

9. Static effect

10. Vertical dimensions appear disproportionately more impressive to

the eye than horizontal ones of the same size

11 14. The perception of scale is changed by the ratio of the window

area to the remaining area of wall as well as by architectural
articulation (i.e. vertical, horizontal or mixed 10; glazing bars
can contribute substantially to this

15 17. The positioning of windows, doors and furnishings can give a

room different spatial appearances: 15. long and narrow; 16.
Seems shorter with the bed across the rooms, or the table below
the

window;

17.

With

windows

opposite

the

door

and

appropriate furniture, the room seems more wide than deep

18. A structure can appear taller if viewed from above; there is a greater
feeling of certainty when looking up

19. The walls slanting suitably inward seem vertical; steps, cornices and
friezes when bowed correctly upwards look horizontal

Interpretation
The activity of the eye is divided into seeing and observing. Seeing first of
all serves our physical safety but observing takes over where seeing
finishes; it leads to enjoyment of the pictures registered through seeing.
One can differentiate between a still and a scanned picture by the way
that the eye stays on an object or scans along it.

The still picture is

displayed in a segment of the area of a circle, whose diameter is the same

as the distance of the eye from the object. Inside this field of view the
objects appear to the eye at a glance Fig. 3. The ideal still picture is
displayed in balance. Balance is the first characteristic of architectural
sense the sense of balance or static sense that underpins the sense of
beauty we feel with regard to symmetrical, harmonious things and
proportions or when we are faced with elements that are in balance.
Outside this framework, the eye receives its impressions by scanning the
picture.

The scanning eye works forward along the obstacles of

resistance which it meets as it directs itself away from us in width or

depth. Obstacles of the same or recurring distances are detected by the
eye as a beat or a rhythm, which has the same appeal as the sounds
received by the ear from music.

Architecture is Frozen Music.

This

effect occurs even when regarding a still or scanned picture of an

enclosed area Fig. 1 and 2.
A room whose top demarcation (the ceiling) we recognize in the still
picture gives a feeling of security, but on the other hand in long rooms it
gives a feeling of depression. With a high ceiling, which the eye can only
recognize at first by scanning, the room appears free and sublime,
provided that the distance between the walls, and hence the general
proportions, are in harmony.

Designers must be careful with this

because the eye is susceptible to optical illusions

1. The perception of a low room is gained at a glance (i.e. still picture)

2. In higher rooms, the eyes must scan upwards (i.e. scan picture)

3. The human filed of vision (head still, moving the eyes only) is 540
horizontally, 270 upwards and 100 downwards

4. The filed of view of the normal fixed eye takes in a perimeter of 10

(approx. the areas of a thumbnail of an outstretched hand)

5. The eye can resolve detail within a perimeter of only 01 (the field of
reading), thus limiting the distances at which objects and shapes can
be distinguished accurately 6.

6. To be readable at a distance of say 700 m the width w of the letters

must be: > 7x 0.000291 = 0.204; height h is usually 5 w;
5 x 0.204 = 1.020 m

7. As in the previous examples, the size of structural parts which are

differentiable can be calculated using the viewing distance and
trigonometry

8. Street widths play an important role in the level of detail which is

perceived from ground level

9. Parts of buildings meant to be seen but sited above projections must

be placed sufficiently high up.

MAN AND COLOUR

Colours have a power over humans. They can create feelings of well-being,
unease, activity or passivity, for instance. Colouring in factories, offices or
schools can enhance or reduce performance; in hospitals it can have
appositive influence on patients health.

This influence works indirectly

through making rooms appear wider or narrower, thereby giving an

impression of space, which promotes a feeling of restriction or freedom
Fig. 5 to 7. It also works directly through the physical reactions or impulses
evoked by the individual colours Fig. 2 and 3. The strongest impulse effect
comes from orange; then follow yellow, red, green, and purple. The weakest
impulse effect comes from blue, greenly blue and violet (i.e. cold and passive
colours).
Strong impulse colours are suitable only for small areas in a room.
Conversely, low impulse colours can be used for large areas. Warm colours
have an active and stimulating effect, which in certain circumstances can be
exciting. Cold colours have a passive effect claming and spiritual. Green
causes nervous tension.

The effects produced by colour also depend on

brightness and location.

Warm and bright colours viewed overhead have a spiritually stimulating
effect; viewed from the side, a warming, drawing closer effect; and, seen
below, a lightening, elevating effect.

Warm and dark colours viewed above are enclosing or dignified; seen from
the side, embracing; and, seen below, suggest safe to grip and to tread on.
Cold and bright colours above brighten things up and are relaxing; from the
side they seem to lead away; and, seen below, look smooth and stimulating
for walking on.
Cold and dark colours are threatening when above; cold and sad from the
side; and burdensome, dragging down, when below.
White is the colour of total purity, cleanliness and order.

White plays a

leading role in the colour design of rooms, breaking up and neutralizing

other groups of colours, and thereby creates an invigorating brightness. As
the colour of order, white is used as the characteristic surface for
warehouses and storage places, for road lines and traffic markings.

1. Goethes natural colour circle: red blue yellow triangle ae basic colors
(from which all colours can be mixed): green-orange-violet triangle shows
colour mixtures of the first.

2. Bright and dark colours and their effect on humans.

3. Light and heavy colours (not the same as bright and dark colours [Fig.2];
create a heavy feeling.

4. The colour circles twelve segments

5. Dark colours make a room heavy: rooms seem to be lower, if ceilings are
heavily coloured

6. Bright colours give a lift: rooms seem higher with emphasis on walls and
light ceilings

7. Long rooms seem shorter if end cross walls stand out heavily

8. White as a dominant colour, e.g. in laboratories, factories etc.

9. Dark elements in front of a bright wall give a powerful effect

10. Bright elements in front of a dark background seem lighter, particularly

when over-dimensioned

Brightness of Surfaces
Values between theoretical white (100%) and absolute black (0 %)
White paper
Chalky white
Citron yello
Ivory
Cream
Gold yellow, pure
Straw yellow
Light ochre
Pure chrome yellow
Pure orange
Light brown
Pure beige
Mid beige
Mid brown
Salmon pink
Full scarlet
Deep violet
Light blue
Deep sky blue
Turquoise blue, pure

84
80
70
approx. 70
approx. 70
60
60
60
50
25-30
approx. 25
approx. 25
approx. 15
approx. 40
16
10
approx. 5
40-50
30
15

Grass green
Limegreen, pastel
Silver grey
Grey lime plaster
Dry concrete, grey
Plywood
Yellow brick
Red brick
Darkclinker
Mide stone colour
Asphalt, dry
Asphalt, wet
Oak, dark
Oak,light
Walnut
Light spruce
Aluminium foil
Galvanized iron sheet

Reinforced concrete staircase unit

approx.
approx.
approx.
approx.
approx.
approx.
approx.
approx.

20
50
35
42
32
38
32
18
10
35
approx. 20
approx. 5
approx. 18
approx. 33
approx. 18
approx. 50
83
16

Modular Systems
International agreements on the planning and execution of building work
and for the design and manufacture of building components and semifinished products are incorporated into national standards.

The modular

system is a means of coordinating the dimensions applicable to building

work.
The term coordination is the key, indicating that the modular layout
involves an arrangement of dimensions and the spatial coordination of
structural components. Therefore, the standards deal with geometrical and
dimensional requirements.

The modular system develops a method of

design and construction which uses a coordinate system as a means of

planning and executing building projects.

A coordinate system is always

related to specific objects.

Geometric considerations
By means of the system of coordinates, buildings and components are
arranged and their exact positions and sizes specified.

The nominal

dimensions of components as well as the dimensions of joints and inter

corrections can thereby be derived. [Fig. 1 6, 13]
A coordinate system consists of planes at right angles to each other, spaced
according to the coordinate measurements. Depending on the system, the
planes can be different in size and in all three dimensions.
As a rule, components are arranged in one dimension between parallel
coordinate planes so that they fill up the coordinate dimension, including
the allowance allocated to the joints and also taking the tolerances into
account. Hence a component can be specified in one dimension in terms of
its size and position.
[Fig. 7 to 12]

This is referred to as boundary reference.

In other cases, it can be advantageous not to arrange a component between

two planes, but rather to make the central axis coincide with one planes,
but rather to make the central axis coincide with one plane of the coordinate
system. The component is initially specified in one dimension with reference
to its axis, but in terms of position only [Fig. 7 to 2]
A coordinate system can be divided into sub-systems for difference
component groups, e.g. load-bearing structure, component demarcating
space, etc. [Fig. 8]
It

has

been

established

that

individual

components

need

not

be

modularized, e.g. individual steps on stairways, windows, doors, etc.

[Fig. 14]
For non-modular components which run along or across the whole building,
a so-called non-modular zone can be introduced, which divides the
coordinate system into two sub systems.

The assumption is that the

dimension of the component in the non-modular zone is already known at

the time of setting out the coordinate system, since the non-modular zone
can only have completely specified dimensions. [Fig. 9]
Further possible arrangements of non-modular components are the
so-called

centre

[Fig. 10 to 11].

position

and

edge

position

within

modular

zones.

INTERIOR DESIGN FOR RESIDENTIAL STRUCTURES

LIVING ROOMS [Hall]
Exactly what style of living room suits you best will depend on a number of
factors, not least of which is whether is to be for single, a couples of family
use. Will you, or other member of the household, ever need to work there, or
will the living room only ever be used for relaxing in, for reading, talking,
listening to music perhaps, or watching television?
Pay particular attention, first of all, to making an interesting framework for
the living room. Decorate the walls and windows with care, for even the best
furniture and accessories will look poor against a shabby background.
Generally speaking, colours should be result without being insipid,
interesting but never frenetic.
When it comes to the style of a room, remember that while a room furnished
all of a period rarely looks anything but dull, mixing a great many styles
demands experience and a great sureness of taste. On a general level, a
collection of con temporary art will look good in an otherwise antique room,
and just one or two old things will make a vast difference to a roomful of
modern furniture and contemporary fabrics.
The first rule here is to put practically before aesthetics. Even if you have no
children or animals at the present time, it is always as well to plan a room
bearing in mind future visits by one or other, or both together. And if you do
have children, there is no reason why a stylish room cannot be evolved
which will comfortably accommodate them as well as the adults. Just avoid
using fragile furniture and accessories, and choose fabrics and carpeting
that are easily cleaned.
The second rule is to be realistic, to plan a room that reflects, first of all,
your needs, your tastes and your interests, but which, at the same time
must be as comfortable and relaxing for guests as it is for you and your
family.

Living Room Furniture

The choice and arrangement of furniture for a living room is, to a great
extent, predetermined by the face that the space will probably be used for a
variety of activities. As well as general seating, therefore, you may also have
to find room for a worktable or desk, and perhaps, a dining table.
For the young and impecunious, modular seating, which can be added to
and moved around as necessary, makes a good start. Open armchairs, or
occasional chairs with upholstered backs and seats, whether traditional or
modern in style, dont look bulky and are particularly useful for adding
accents of colour in a monochromatic scheme. Fully upholstered sofas, day
beds, chesterfields and so on are certainly more expensive and altogether
more bulky.
A good general rule is to balance a sofa with two occasional chairs, or
another sofa, set at right angles to it; aim to provide table surfaces with in
easy reach of each seating place. A sturdy coffee table will not only
accommodate all the usual family impedimenta, but can also be used for
serving an occasional meal.
Whatever arrangement you choose, keep a sense of balance and proportion.
Small-scale furniture in a small space, for instance, will make the area seem
larger, where as a good-sized room can absorb bulkier items.
Living Room Flooring
If you have children, lead a fairly gregarious life, or cannot afford close
carpeting, you might just as well have a plain wood or ceramic tiled floor,
softened by area rugs. If, however You prefer carpeting, and even if you can
afford the best quantity wool or wool and nylon mixture, remember that
interestingly textured matting, sisal or wool cord is sometimes more
effective. Where different textures or colours meet at doorways, the effect is
neater if a threshold strip is inserted between the two. This will both protect
the edges of the materials and dedicate the areas.

A Specious Living Room

City living rooms can look dark and drab by day. Especially in a built-up
area, but any room with long windows and good natural light can be made
to look bright. This particular room overlooking a garden square is so light
and spacious it could be in the country. The first scheme, based on
honeysuckle motifs, creates a warm, result effect; the second is based on
clear, fondant colours, making the room bright and airy, and the third takes
advantage of the space and nineteenth century detailing.

A High-Ceiling Room
Although huge soaring living spaces might seem an ideals situation to
cramped apartment dwellers, the fact remains that too much space is as
difficult to manipulate as too title. The answer generally lies in thoughtful
arrangement and a clever use of colour. The scheme opposite has a cool,
sophisticated look achieved with a distinguished use of monotones. The
second tames the space with colour and pattern, while in the third, an
indoor-outdoor effect is created using natural textures, plants and
generously comfortable seating.

A Living Room with Period Detail

Small, square living rooms lend themselves to a variety of different colour
schemes, arrangements and treatments which depend on taste and pocket.
They have the advantage of not swallowing up too much furniture, although
it if often difficult to decide, how best to arrange possession and seating in
these confined spaces. The scheme opposite is simple and undemanding
and takes the rooms natural assets as focal points. The scheme, right , uses
mirror to prevent the space closing, in while the vivid colours of the
upholstery in the third one make for a permanently summery effect.

A Featureless Living Room

So many modern apartment rooms are like featureless boxes with, perhaps,
a large expanse of windows as their main asset. To give them some
individuality therefore, they have to be injected with a style of their ownsometimes by a striking use of colour, pattern or texture, sometimes with
accessories, more often than not with a mixture of both. In the scheme
opposite, a western interior has been given an oriental feel with low,
modular seating and translucent sliding blinds. The second scheme, while
less extravagant in its use of colour, still maintains interest and has
textures and pattern as the focus. The third scheme gives the room a
summery look with sky blue, pinks and greens.
A Small Square Living Room
Old fashioned apartments can be given gleam and gloss as much by clever
use of colour and texture as by furnishings. In this room, whose main assets
are its large expanse of leaded glass window and ornate fireplace, the
scheme opposite is all lavender and gray, spiked by the shiny chrome
furniture and flowers. The second uses sunset colours for a year-round
glow, and the third, with its updated wood paneling, uncarpeted floor and
firm fabrics, achieves a cool, textured look.
A Long Beamed Room
Beams are such a dominant feature in any room, teaching to make the
space seem long and row, that they need special treatment if they are not to
overwhelm a space. In two of the three schemes, the beams are kept as an
intrinsic decorative feature; in one they tone in with the background, while
in the other, they from their own graphic design. In the third scheme, right,
they have been paneled over, and the ceiling is kept pale to make the room
seem light and airy. The lowered ceiling also allows lights to be recessed into
the wood. This obviates too much interruption of the surface. And the
geometric pattern of the carpet tends to make the space seem a good deal
wider than it actually is.

A Large Square Living Room

Large rooms can be much more difficult to furnish and arrange satisfactorily
than smaller areas. Informal, yet uncluttered, an easy grouping of modular
seating against a pale background solves the problem in the scheme
opposite; in the scheme right the spacious feeling is maintained with pale
upholstery and a geometric carpet. In the scheme below, the fireplace and
moldings are accentuated against a more traditional background colouring.
A Living Room with a View
Town houses and apartments often have rectangular living rooms which,
failing interesting treatment can look plain and uninspired. Here, all three
rooms take the unusual window as their focal point, but there the similarity
ends. The scheme opposite is bleached and polished, allowing the foliage to
dominate; the second has been turned into one large garden room, and the
third has a definite Moorish theme.

A Long Narrow Living Room

The long narrow living areas which result from two rooms being knocked
together limit variations in furniture arrangement. Since daylight seldom
penetrates beyond the centre of this area, much of it is in perpetual twilight,
but by clever use of colour and concealed lighting, it is possible to
surreptitiously boost the ration of daylight. One scheme depends in a
relaxed way on subtle colours; another turns the room into an extravaganza
of red and exotic objects, and in the op art scheme, all illusion of space is
created by using arches and mirrors.

A Studio Flat
City studio apartments which are basically one room, with sometimes, the
additional bonus of a separate bed room, are invariably exercises in
ingenuity with three aims in mind: to make the anonymous space look as
interesting, seem as large, and hold as much as possible. The room on this
page has much the same features or lack of them as the room opposite: the
same large window at one end; the same shape, the same lack of basic
detail. Here, however, although the aims are similar, the treatments are
totally different.

A Narrow Studio Flat

The schemes on this page have the same aims as those opposite to make the
space seem as large and as interesting as possible. The first room is made
crisp and pretty, simply by using clear cut colours and extensive mirror to
maximize light and space. The strongly patterned vinyl floor and panels of
wood and mirror give the scheme below a sturdy character where none
existed before.

One Room Living

In this large, well organized space, sleeping, eating and work areas are kept
separate. The bed, which is tucked away at the narrow end of the room, is
partly screened by a workable, and there is another table which can also be
used for work or eating; the living area is in the foreground. The light airy
scheme opposite relies to a large extent on natural textures, with massive
plants which act as room dividers. Bright colour coordinates the different
areas, right, and in the scheme below, subtle unity is provided by
understated variations of one colour.

A Dine in Living Room

As city space becomes increasingly rare, multi purpose rooms become
correspondingly more necessary. By thoughtful planning, living rooms can
be used for dinning as well as providing room for the occasional guest.
Oblong rooms, often found in city apartments, lend themselves particularly
well to just such treatment. The scheme opposite, with its eclectic use of
prints and its eye catching carpet, looks fresh and unstudied; the garden
scheme uses a trellised arch to separate the living and dining areas, and the
third uses batik cotton to achieve a warm and mildly exotic effect.

Living Room Lighting

Plenty of general background light is obvious necessary and this should be
boosted by task lighting and well controlled highlighting for interesting
arrangements of plants, Paintings and objects.
Ultimately, the colours, and textures you use, the pieces of furniture you
finally decide on, and what kind of accessories you amass, are very much a
question of taste, and pocket. The varied rooms shown in this section cover
a cross-section of ideas and styles and can be adopted and adapted to suit
whatever type and size of space you have.

BED ROOM
The general consensus is that whether double or single, bedrooms should be
restful rather than dramatic, capable of looking both warm and cool,
depending on the season, and as personal as the occupants prefer. Many
people consider comfort to be of key importance; for others, a certain spare
ness and simplicity may be the chief requirement.
Planning a Bedroom
If the room is only to be used for sleeping, you will probably only need a bed
and a system for storing clothes. On the other hand, if it is also to be used
for relaxing or working in, you will need a space large enough for these
activities.
An ideal main bedroom would be large enough to include a pair of
comfortable chairs or a small sofa and there would also be room for an
occasional table for books and magazines and perhaps, the odd meal.
Ideally, a guest bedroom should be both welcoming and comfortable,
interesting without being too strongly personal. If space is available, include
a capacious dressing table, which can double for a desk, as well as a
comfortable chair and good lighting.
It is obviously foolish to buy furniture for small childrens rooms that will
suit one age group admirably and be redundant the next, so look for sturdy
pieces that will grow with the child. Fabrics should be tough enough to

withstand childish onslaughts, yet cheerful enough to stimulate and satisfy

the most colourconscious youngster. Flooring should be as sound proof
and dirt resistant as it is possible to find.
Adolescents should have rooms of their own on which to impose their
developing tastes. Let them choose the decoration and accessories for
themselves as far as possible, or at least let them make some decisions in
your presence. Their rooms should, if possible, include a bed, a worktable
cum dressing table, at least one chair, shelves for books and other
possessions, and good storage. If there is room, provide extra beds so they
can entertain friends.
Bedroom Storage
A bed can be built in with storage to seem all of a piece, or it space is very
confined; drawers can be fitted under or bought with the bed. Built-in
closets and small dressers or lowboys can be used instead of bedside tables.
If there is no room for a separate desk or worktable, a long top placed across
a pair of low dressers will give adequate writing, sewing and make-up space,
and room underneath for extra storage.

THE FINAL TOUCHES

Choice of curtains, covers, blinds and accessories will depend on taste,
budget and the style of the room. Soft pile carpeting or at least one or two
rugs by the side of each bed will provide an atmosphere of ease and comfort
in a bedroom. The following pages show bedrooms of every style and
description for every sort of situation. Most of the schemes can be adapted
to suit different sized rooms.

TYPES OF BEDROOMS
A Bedroom / Dressing Room
Sometimes it is necessary to try and get more or less separate sleeping and
dressing room areas out of one space. In this case, a half partition wall is
raised between bed head and dressing space, leaving passage way either
side so that the room, though effectively divided, still maintains its feeling of
spaciousness. The scheme opposite is somberly distinguished, with gray
flannel, mirror and excellent lighting. Another takes as it cue the wooded
view outside the window for a fresh green and white effect. And the third is
rather more sumptuous, with more silk walls, a delicate sweet, pea fabric
and toning carpet border and accessories.

A Large well-proportioned Bedroom

Turn-of-the-century

rooms,

with

their

graceful

windows

and

good

proportions, can absorb quiet disparate pieces, and even if allowed to

remain comparatively empty of furniture, they can still look interesting and
sometimes memorable.
In the first scheme, the painted brass bed is a good vehicle for the chaste
linen coverings; and in the second, the four poster with sheer calico
hangings makes a pretty, all-white, room within a room. In complete
contrast, the third scheme uses brightly coloured sheeting to transform the
space into a warm, sophisticated area.

A Rectangular Bedroom
In most new blocks the bedrooms are often economically designed square or
rectangular shapes with few natural assets except perhaps for the view, as
in this room. To add internal interest, the scheme opposite depends on
cleverly angled plat forming; the second is based on a whim; centered on the
palm motif, and the third turns the space into a prettily traditional room.

A Large Bedroom / Sitting Room

Large bedrooms are often quite big enough for relaxed sitting as well. This
one is enviable for its generous proportions, its windows and balcony and
splendid city view. Indeed, the only problem is how scheme is calm but
idiosyncratic; another is cool and chic; the third is parrot-coloured and
bucolic, in direct contrast to the grays and browns of the view through the
long windows.

A Dark Bedroom
Many houses and apartments contain dark, badly lit rooms which seem
impossible to decorate with any sort of flair. But while the light may be poor,
the windows are often of a good shape and size and can at least be used as
focal points. Rich, warm colours are used in two of these schemes, while the
light, fresh tones of the one below make the space seem lighter than it
actually is.

A Simple Bedroom
Modern apartment buildings tend to contain anonymous rooms which have
few, if any, architectural details or embellishments. Giving character to
these spaces is a good exercise in cosmetic decoration; how best to use
pattern, colour and accessories. This is well demonstrated in the scheme
opposite, which depends on horizontal and diagonal lines in crisp, fresh
colors to achieve a bright, airy effect. In another, the pastel shades of both
walls and fabrics add warmth to the pale walls and floor as a backdrop for
sculptural shapes.

A Guest Bedroom / Study

This is really bedroom-a good, airy space with an exceptionally high ceiling
and long graceful windows: a country room, or a room in a large, old
fashioned apartment block. The scheme opposite, with its lavish use of
muslin, is soft and deliberately feminine: another is cool and tailored, with
shiny floor tiles and a play of grays; the third has fruit and flowers as its
central design motif.

A Tiny, Low Bedroom

The charm of narrow country cottage rooms with their sloping ceilings
sometimes fades when it comes to fitting in furniture. A minimal,
uncluttered approach is generally wisest. The scheme opposite imposes
focus on the space by treating the window like a painting, the primary
colour of the frame taken up and echoed elsewhere in the room. In the
scheme below, a dimension is added to the room by the creation of a
curtained alcove. The third scheme uses matching wallpaper and fabric to
visually expand the space.

A Tiny, well-proportioned Bedroom

The height of a room has a considerable effect on the amount or furniture
that will look good in the space. You can fit more for instance, into a wellproportioned, tiny room, like this one in a summer home, than in a similar
sized area with a high ceiling. The room also had deep windows overlooking
a harbour and nice, battered old pine doors and stutters. The first scheme
takes every advantage of these natural assets, while in the second, rather
more sophisticated approach, the space is tinged with colour and the view
outside exaggerated by covering the window embrasures with mirrors

A Tiny, High-Ceiling Bedroom

Small rooms with high ceiling may at first seem too cramped or badly
proportioned either for any visual appeal or for real comfort. But even a tiny
room can be given unexpected distinction by an interesting bed treatment to
provide the focal point, plus minimal furniture and a good use of colour. The
first scheme centres on the cheerful colours of a pretty stenciled bed set
against a background of quiet wallpaper. In second, pale fabric is used
lavishly all around the room, creating a softer, but no less interesting feet.

A Teenagers Bedroom
Most teenage rooms need to have sleeping, sitting and studying space and
an area for listening to music and entertaining friends. There most,
therefore, be some subtle, or not so subtle division, so the space does not
look too cluttered, and some attempt at soundproofing so that noise does
not permeate the house,. The scheme opposite is dominated by the super
graphics in the living part of the room; in another, the division is intensified
by textural contrasts and crisp lines, and in the third, the paper in the
sleeping part is contrasted with a solid colour to break up the areas.

A Childs Bedroom
Small childrens rooms need both practical furniture that will see them
through several stages of development and an adaptable treatment to suit
their developing tastes. Colour is among the most important elements to
consider, and interesting schemes can easily be achieved with a paintbrush,
paper cut-outs, and a little imagination. For younger children, vividly
coloured, yet robust furniture combined with bold decoration is ideal. The
first two schemes are based on fantasy and use bright colours to great
effect. The scheme below with bunk beds is suitable for slightly older
children.

BATHROOMS
Clearly, the prime purpose of a bathroom is to able to wash, bathing and
shower in comfort. But, whether this means the room should be
clean-looking and functional or luxurious and relaxing depends on personal
taste. A simple, well, lit, clean-cut tiled or wood lined spaced suits one sort
of person; a carpeted lounging spaced, possibly an extension of a bedroom,
is the luxurious ideal of another.
Planning a bathroom
If you are starting to plan a bathroom from starch, or going to make major
changes in an existing room, the layout needs a good deal of thought,
especially if the room is to he shared be several people of different
generations. Given adequate space, you will probably want to include a
bathtub and /or shower; a washbasin; a toilet, if it is not separate; a bidet; a
well-lit mirror; storage; at least one chair or stool; a towel rail, preferably
heated; practical flooring, such as tilling or water-resistant carpet; and a
generous splash back area. You may well also plan to use the bathroom for
laundry, in which case a space for washing machine should also be
considered.
Whatever the arrangement of equipment chosen, you should bear in mind
the occasions when more than one person wants to use the bathroom at the
same time. If there is space, there is no reason why you should not put in
two basins (if they are side by side, they can share, a large mirror) and two
cupboards or cabinets.
Bathtubs come in many sizes and shapes, so it is worth shopping around to
find the one that suits you best. Sunken baths can look dramatic and have
a luxurious feel, but they are relatively expensive to install. Whirlpool baths
or Jacuzzis are also becoming increasingly popular. They, too, are available
in a wide number of sizes, shaped and colours and give a body a soothing
massage with underwater jets. A-free-standing tub looks good if the
bathroom is really large. It could either be installed in the middle of the
room or perhaps raised up on a platform. Or it could be centred against one

wall with units or shelves built either side, an arrangement which allows for
interesting treatments with shower curtains.
Improving an existing bathroom
Even if you cannot afford new plumbing or radical rearrangement of fittings,
it is quite possible to transform the smallest, dreariest, most badly planned
space into a cheerful place of relaxation, for it is usually fairly easy to treat a
bathroom cosmetically, that is by purely decorative means.
On the simplest level appropriately coloured towels and shower curtains can
improve a room that is totally tiled or laminated in an uninspiring colour. A
small, all-white bathroom can be given a totally different feel by massing it
with plants. While a dark room can be enlivened with a contrasting trim and
brightly coloured towels. The trick is to take the base colour and make it
look more vibrant by spicing it up with sharper accent colours. Pastelcoloured fittings are enlivened by bolder, richer tones of the base tone for
towels, bathmats or facecloths. Tiles can be given a new looking by painting
them a more pleasing shade with a special tile or deck paint. Plain walls
(even plasticlaminated ones) can be painted a warm, dark colour and
massed with prints, photographs, paintings, or china.
To make an immediate transformation, waterproof wallpaper can be used on
ceilings, pasted on bathtub panels, and taken over flush doors and secured
by beading. Paper that is not already waterproofed can be over-painted with
a clear lacquer or varnish. To make a space seem more luxurious, carpet or
wood paneling is ideal for covering the side of bathtub or under-basin
cupboards.
Storage in the bathroom
Open shelves can be stashed with neatly folded towels in good colors for
decorative effect, of filled with collectibles for interest. Bathrooms used by
children should definitely have extra storage space squeezed in, wherever
practical, or the room will be in perpetual disorder. In a largish area,
washbasins look better and are more practical, surrounded by a vanity unit
with storage space underneath.

Lighting in the bathroom

While small rooms probably only need a central ceiling light, down lights are
effective in bathrooms, whatever the size, and one over the bath is worth
considering. Good lighting for shaving and make-up is best provided by light
at the sides or around the mirror rather than just above, but it should be
backed by good general light.
Aim to avoid the problems caused by condensation by steady warmth and
good ventilation. If a heated towel rail or radiator does not seem enough to
heat the room, extra warmth can be provided with a wall-mounted fan or
infrared heater.
THE FINAL TOUCHES
If your bathroom is overlooked, there are a number of alternatives to ugly,
opaque glass in window. Tightly stretched voile screens between narrow rods
or wires can be fitted to the frame, or fabric roller or Venetian blinds can be
used to filter light and block out the view. Another alternative would be to fix
glass shelves across the window frame and fill them with plants, or plants
interspersed with collections of bric a brac. The walls can be massed with
pictures and prints, collected absurdities or words of advice, for humour in
decoration add that extras levity that makes a room memorable. Long
windows in a bathroom can be hung with curtains and, perhaps, blinds as
well. Use a practical fiber like toweling if the windows are near the bath or
shower, ordinary cotton or some lightweight material, if not. Over the
following 18pages we give a variety of different schemes which can be
adapted for bath rooms of all types and sizes to give some idea of the
potential for decorating these spaces. None of these involves structural
alterations or vast expense, but all succeed in modifying or transforming the
existing rooms to a greater or lesser extent.

TYPES OF BATHROOMS
A Square bathroom
It is usually possible to decorate smallish bathrooms like this one without
resort to structural alteration or enormous expense. In the scheme opposite,
for example, indoor plants repeat the colour of the carpet, and the collection
of pictures echoes the lines of the bare window panes; the overall effect is
simple and restful, yet effective. In the coordinated scheme, to the right,
patterned walls are teamed with a bright carpet and matching window blind.
The brightly coloured mosaic which dominates the scheme below is used to
add a touch of grandeur to the small space.

A Long bathroom
A narrow room with a window at one end may tend to look tunnel-likeespecially a bathroom, where equipment is standard and necessarily difficult
to move around unless decorated expressly to avoid this pitfall. In the room
opposite, mirrors and striking tiles are used to visually expand the width.
Another scheme uses geometric wallpaper and coordinating carpet, again to
seemingly push out the walls as much as possible. And in the third, the eye
is distracted from the general feeling of narrowness by edging plain paint
with a border and adding a collection of pictures.

A Large Period bathroom

Most turn-ofthe-century bathroom were really converted bedrooms space
invariably came second to the novelty of a working bath with running water.
Today, the reverse is true and generous space is more of luxury than the
actual equipment. One design uses the sort of unpretentious furnishings
that suit the young and impecunious; the second uses Edwardian colours
and mahogany for an altogether more grand effect, while in the third
scheme, the design on the bath is used as a base on which to built-up the
background colours.

A Small Square bathroom

Bathroom in the apartment buildings are usually far from large, and very
little can be done to alter their structure without incurring enormous
expense. The only way to improve these spaces is cosmetically in general,
there is little scope for change except in the ceiling and untiled areas of wall.
This scheme uses coordinating paper and border to offset the hygienic effect
of the white tiles. In the one below tongue-and-groove boarding and tiles
create a neat, efficient space.

A Small Rectangular bathroom

This room is very similar in size and shape to the bathroom opposite. The
strength of these small spaces is that they are usually inexpensive to
redecorate: a little of anything goes a long way; their weakness is that they
can easily look dreary and bedraggled. With its simple ingredients and
minimal colour, the first scheme manages to make the room look both gentle
and glamorous; the one below expands the space into a kind of summer
terrace, with clever use of mirror, wood and plants.

A Bathroom / Dressing Room

The main problem with this practical bathroom cum dressing area was how
to fit in plenty of storage while still keeping a sense of light and space. In the
scheme opposite, in which the colours were kept fresh and light, the
solution was a full-length cupboard one end of the bathtub. A more tailored,
masculine scheme has matching cupboards both ends of the bath, while the
scheme below is altogether softer and more feminine in effect, with its
looped back curtains emphasized by the mirrored wall at the back of the
bath.
A Bathroom under roof
Bathrooms often have to be fitted into the most awkward spaces and this
cramped room with its sloping ceiling is no exception. The general feeling of
pokiness is disguised well in each of the three schemes. One is a strong,
two-colour scheme which uses tongue-and-groove boarding for the panel of
the bath as well as most of walls; another fills the room with colour by
painting bold rainbow strips on the walls, ceiling and bathtub. The third
uses mylar wallpaper to make the space seem larger as well as to give it a
certain dash of character.
A Bathroom on a landing
In old apartment blocks and buildings, bathrooms are often fitted wherever
they can be squeezed. Here, there is just room to fit a bathtub under the fine
arched window with not a millimeter to spare. The scheme opposite achieves
casual elegance, while the paneled scheme, right, takes advantages of the
window with a dramatic, plant-strung background for the bath. Painted
glass is substituted for plain in the one below, to make the most of the
window with out loss of privacy.
A Tiled bathroom
Even if the walls of a bathroom are extensively tiled, there are still ways of
altering the look of the space. Quite reasonable changes can be effected by
adding or changing the casing of the both or basin; by replacing the floor
covering and re-colouring and tiled areas with special paint; and by

choosing different accessories. These three schemes illustrate how, despite

the apparent lack of scope, comparatively inexpensive alterations can
completely change the look of a bathroom.
A Shower room
For those who prefer a straightforward shower, one major factor governs the
choice of decoration; the space must be well waterproofed if the surrounding
areas are to remain reasonably dry. This shower room opens off a bedroom
and the WC and basin in two of the schemes are trucked away behind a
sliding door, designed to match the back of the shower itself. All three
schemes aim to be practical and yet pleasing to the eye. The one opposite
uses tiles and wood for visual interest; another aims for a more glamorous
look with mosaic tiles and mirrors, while the scheme below, with its simple,
contrasting colours, is clean looking and timeless.

DINNING ROOMS
Rooms used for the sole purpose of dining are getting rarer and rarer.
Instead people increasingly have living-dining rooms, kitchen-dining rooms;
they have dining areas in the hall or the guest room. All are moderately easy
to furnish since it is only necessary to fit a table and chairs which dont
usually interfere with the other purposed of the room.
Planning a Dining Room
If you do have a proper dining room it is easier to decorate if you bear in
mind that its main purpose is to provide an area for relaxed and enjoyable
eating. This is an obvious, but nevertheless important point, for dining
rooms have a woeful habit of looking formal and often stereotyped, as if
eating was a duty rather than a pleasure. Colours, then should be chosen as
a background for the food, the china and glass. Dark rich colours are
particularly successful, therefore, although more vivid colours can also look
handsome.
Wherever you end up eating, what table you choose depends very much on
the shape of the area. Round tables are usually more sociable and hold

more people in less space. They can double up for use in a living room,
study, or even guest bed room. If you have a very narrow room, you could
try placing a long table set up against a mirrored wall seemingly doubles in
size.
It is often difficult to find just the right round table. One good solution is to
fix a circle of block board, cut to the right size, to a base of the right height,
which can then be covered permanently with a floor-length cloth. You can
change the look of it with the help of a series of different over cloths. The
same principle of improvisation also applies when it comes to enlarging any
table if you have the room to store a spare top. Remember that any money
saved on such makeshift tables can be spent on better chairs, especially if
you have a room solely for dining in.
On the whole, carpets are not a good idea in any dining area, particularly if
you have children. Food gets dropped, drinks get spilled, candles leak
melted wax. It is easier to have some surface that is easily cleanable and
which will stand the strain of chairs being scraped back and forth. If your
dining table is in part of the living room, you could position it on a rug
which can always be cleaned more easily than an entire carpet. On the
whole, though, more practical surfaces for a dining room floor would be
stripped and polished boards, or ceramic, vinyl or cork tiles, all of which can
be easily wiped or swept clean.
Storage in the Dining Room
Nowadays, few people have the spaces for a conventional sideboard. Many
store glass and china in the kitchen or in built in storage units in the living
or dining room itself. Make sure that any surface you serve from is heatresistant; if it isnt protect it with a mat.

A Small Square Dining Room

Old country houses are often full of small square rooms leading from one to
another. The problem is how to make them look as personal and
idiosyncratic as possible without cluttering them up or being too clichd. In
the scheme opposite the ingredients are traditional, but interestingly
arranged so that the room is a series of small vignettes. In the second, a
patterned fabric wall covering makes the room seem fresh and bright, while
in the scheme below, a wash of colour on the walls, striped cotton on the
table, different chairs, accessories and plants make the room seem warm
and comfortable.

A Square Dining Room

Rooms with distinctive characteristics (this one has long beams and a
shallow window down one side) pose their own problems when it comes to
redecoration. One solution is to focus on the distinguishing features
themselves. The scheme opposite is kept very simple: a basically white space
with a strongly patterned end wall. But the two rooms on this page alter the
mood radically, one with graphic use or colour which effectively emphasize
the beams, and the other which uses a gamut of soft rose tones for a much
more traditional feeling.

A Rectangular Dining Room

The problem here is how to give interest to the sort of characterless room
which is often of difficult to furnish without monotony. In the scheme
opposite, the room has been given a rustic feel, with brick walls and floor
and old pine furniture. The scheme below is much more sophisticated and
soign, with soft, dark walls, an interesting floor, and a polished round
table. In the third scheme, the room has been made a base for some
splendid early furniture and portraits-although any interesting furniture
would look good with this quiet background and subtle lighting.

A Narrow Low-Ceiling Room

Lack of space in this room is further compound by a low ceiling and the fact
that
theme

one wall is entirely taken up by window. In the scheme opposite, the

is

uncompromisingly

20th

century

with

almost

de

rigueur

contemporary prints on the wall. Another plays on reds so effectively that it

entirely distracts from constrictions of the area. And in the scheme below, a
much more traditional feel is achieved, with painted paneling, polished
floorboards and period furniture.

A Bed Room / Dining Room

The problem of fitting sleeping, sitting and eating space into one small area
is a perennial one. This room is particularly small and so long and narrow
that without care, the space could look hopelessly jumbled, in the scheme
opposite, the section at the end of the room containing the bed can be
screened off when not it in use. In the second scheme, the walls are softened
with fabric to distract the eye from the lack of space, and in the third, mirror
is used extensively to push out the walls.

KITCHEN
Kitchens are probably the most complicated rooms of all to plan, varying in
function as they do from straight preparation, cooking, washing up and
dining areas to general family rooms. Small spaces, force majeure, come in
to the first category; large kitchens tend to fall into the second. For must
people, the decision about how actually to use the room is dictated by the
existing design: equipment, once built in is difficult, and certainly expansive,
to shirt. But even if you are moving into a house or apartment in which the
kitchen is already planned and full of equipment, you can still imprint your
own personality on the area by changing the colour of walls, by altering
window treatments, by adding accessories, and, if you can afford it by,
replacing counter tops and floor coverings or finishes.
Planning a Kitchen
If you are planning the room from the beginning and are not quite sure what
equipment you will nee, or what style of kitchen you prefer, these questions
will help rationalize your thoughts on the subject: what kind of meals are
you likely to cook, for how many, and how often? Will you present situation
remain static as far as you can tell or will the family expand? Is the kitchen
solely for meal preparation and is not all, of the time? Do you work all day,
or live far from stores so that you need more than the average amount of
storage space? Are you happier with a warm country feeling, natural
textures and everyday functional objects on open display, or do you prefer
easy care surfaces and enclosed storage? Or do you like a judicious mixture
of both?
Ideally, the layout of a kitchen should follow a work programme based on a
logical sequence of operations, so think about usual working routine. Give
each task its own special area. Cooking usually involves a good deal of
doubling back to and from the refrigerator, sink, stove and different
preparation areas. Each one needs careful planning so that all necessary
equipment and food stuffs are at hand. Try to plan for a work surface next
to each appliance: so the sequence goes work surface then sink, work

surface than stove, work surface, and so on. You should allow a minimum
or three feet (915mm) for each preparation area, and for dirty washing up;
allow two and a half feet (762mm) for draining clean crockery if you do not
have a dishwasher; set aside two feet (610mm) by the stove for dishing up
and serving food, one and a quarter feet (381mm) of free work area beside
the refrigerator. the cook top should be no more than six feet (1m 829mm)
from the sink, and the passage width between fixtures at least four feet
(1m219mm).if you live alone, you can usually make do with one foot
(305mm) less room.
Kitchen walls generally take quite a battering, so they should be painted in
washed semi- gloss or gloss paint. Or they can be covered in a vinyl or
washable blinds.
Kitchen floors also have to withstand a great deal of wear and tear and
should be though, waterproof, grease-alkali-and acid-rejecting, and easy on
the feet. Vinyl (whether in sheet or tile from) and vinyl covered cork meet
most of these conditions and area easy maintain. Terracotta, tiles, brick,
flagstone, slate, terrazzo and non-slip ceramic tiles are all durable,
impressive and good to look at, but they are inclined to be expensive. They
are also heavy and are therefore probably only suitable for use at ground
floor level or where floors are particularly strong.
Whether you choose to store all the paraphernalia of cooking hidden behind
closed doors or prefer to have things out on display is a matter of taste.
Some cooks like to have things with in easy reach- pots and pans hanging
from rails or butcher hooks; implements or ingredients on pegboard or metal
grilles; plates, cups and saucers on open shelves other like the streamlined
clean-cut appearance of conventional kitchen units.
Two types of lighting are useful in kitchens: general area light preferably
controlled on a dimmer switch and specific task light over work surfaces and
tables. Spotlights on tracks, down lights and wall washers make good
background light, or general diffusing lights can be fixed to the ceiling.
Fluorescent strips are always useful, concealed behind pelmets, under wall

storage units, they shine light onto the work surface below, and strips can
be fitted inside onto the light up automatically when the doors are opened.
The next few pages show a variety of kitchen styles for every shape and style
of room, most of which can be adapted to suit most rooms. But whatever
style you eventually decide upon, remember that first and foremost, it is a
space for the preparation of food, the more the background serves to
encourage and enhance this task, the better.
A Large Kitchen / Dining Room
Large kitchen dining rooms seem an ideal but it is important to have plenty
of dumping space if the detritus of cooking is not to interface with the
pleasure of eating. In the scheme opposite, tiled walls and simple units
make an inconspicuous background for the focal points of long refectory
table and pots, pans and baskets hanging from the ceiling beams. The
scheme on the right has a striking checkerboard theme, and in the third,
neat matchstick blinds attached to beams can hide left- over cooking
preparations.
A Narrow Kitchen / Dining Room
At first glance, this room seems to have a lot in common with the kitchendining area opposite, but the likeness is fairly superficial, since this space
resembles a shoebox in proportion, while the other is generously wide.
Natural assets such as plenty of light and greenery are used to distract from
any narrowness in the first scheme, while in the below, every effort has been
made to expand the space visually using most of the tricks of the trade
(except expensive mirror).

A Small Kitchen
Windows set right up to one wall (often as a result of remodeling an old
building) can look awkward. One way of overcoming this problem in a
kitchen is to install slick, built-in units to restore the balances, as in the
scheme opposite. Or the whole feeling of the space can be changed with
clever use of colour and pattern, as in the second scheme so that any
awkwardness is lost in the general design. The third scheme uses a
sympathetic arrangement of collectibles and gently patterned fabric to
distract from the less sympathetic proportions.

A Rectangular Kitchen
Faced with the problem of making a kitchen out of a rectangular room with
one high window and sloping ceiling, what are the alternatives? If the space
is big enough for eating in, it should obviously be treated with maximum
imagination to make it both aesthetically and practically viable. The odd
proportions of the space merge into the general whiteness of the scheme
opposite and any colour stands out with intensity. In the third, dark shiny
paint and butcher block tops give their own solidity and distinction to the
space.

A Spacious Kitchen
One wall that is really all windows might sound ideal for a large family
kitchen, but it does curtain preparation and storage space. This problem
has been accepted in the scheme opposite, and the room treated as a good,
old fashioned kitchen-family room with preparation and work counter kept
to one end of the room. The scheme below is much more of a working
kitchen and part of the generous window space is scarified for more storage
and preparation space including an island unit. In the scheme, right, the
area is much more streamlined, but allows for eating space as well as
providing ample work tops.

A Wide Kitchen / Dining Room

A kitchen-dining room with a useful arched division like this one is a
natural for the sort of comfortable, rustic feel achieved in the first scheme.
But this space can equally well be given quite different, urban feelings as
proved in the scheme below. Here, the combination of practical hi-tech
components and everyday utensils chosen especially for their colours,
makes for an interesting room with very define panache.

A Roof-Top Kitchen
Penthouses, which often have vast expanses of glass, present their own, very
particular problems. The glass ceiling in this roof-top kitchen, for example,
is both its main asset and main liability: the sun can beat down as fiercely
in the summer as the rain and snow in winter; slides open the glass and city
grime settles mercilessly. The scheme opposite plays it cool, filtering the
elements with a diagonally striped cotton blind which also visually expands
the width. The scheme below with its trellis of plants treats the space like a
proper greenhouse, while the third uses bright colours so that whatever the
weather outside, the effect indoors is always bright and welcoming.
An Open-Plan Kitchen
One of the more rewarding urban legacies of the late twentieth century must
be the restoration of the upper floors of old commercial buildings for
residential use. The decoration of such areas must be planned to cope with
and divide up abundant space, without destroying the impact of natural
details like wood floors, beams and nature plasterwork. Cooking, sitting,
dining, working and sleeping areas are easily combined in this room with no
tangible barriers. The first scheme exploits spare, high-top components in a
modern, but nonetheless warm treatment. The second divides up the space
in a similar way, but uses built-in-units to blur the edges and create a softer
overall effect, while in the third; the area is transformed to resemble a
country farmhouse by extensive use of wood and natural accessories like
herbs and plants.

A Small Island Kitchen

Restricted kitchen space is certainly not atypical in modern houses or
apartments, so it is all the more important to be able to fit in the basic
equipment. To save on the cooks energy, as well as decoration costs, the
layout of this rectangular kitchen is planned around a peninsular unit of
food preparation, cooking and eating, leaving a U-shaped walkway. The
room is well lit, with windows on two walls for natural light, built-in
overhead lighting and a range lit by a concealed spot under the ventilating
hood. It is still possible to produce very different effects with decoration
without going to the expanse of changing the pine island unit. The three
treatments given here are natural, French provincial and warm-toned.
A Large Island Kitchen
Generous window space, though good for natural light, can actually be
rather a nuisance if a lot of storage space is required. In the room opposite
which could be in town or country, storage units are built right round the
glass so that the window becomes an integral part of this pleasing, practical
arrangement of white paint and natural wood with two-toned hexagonal
tiles. In the scheme, right, rich, plum-coloured walls and units are teamed
with aluminium tiles and a dark slate floor for a much slicker look. In the
scheme below, the space is made more traditional in appearance by the use
of dark wooden units and caf curtains at the window.
A Galley Kitchen
When the scheme is particularly small it is important to make it as
appealing as possible and, of course, as functional. This room still manages
to include all the amenities of a working kitchen without any sense of
crowding. Horizontal beams across the ceiling in the scheme, right, a
streamlined effect is achieved with industrial wire shelving, butcher-block
worktops; galvanized sheet metal splash backs help exaggerate the width
almost as much as mirror. All sense of boundaries is lost in the scheme
below, in which walls, ceiling and units are all covered in the same dark,

glossy paint. Against such a background, kitchen accessories and any other
colours stand out with great intensity.
A Small Irregular-Shaped Kitchen
Small apartments which are carved out of old houses and apartment
buildings built for a more spacious age, often contain awkwardly-shaped
rooms with cramped space and difficult angels. The major priority in
decorating is to make those angles work, in whatever way is the most
practical, without at the same time losing valuable floor area. The scheme
opposite is purely cosmetic, almost emphasizing the angular character of the
space and taking advantage of the greenery beyond the window. The second
effectively loses the irregularity by clever use of colour, and the third relies
on the collection of kitchen accessories to distract the eye from the shape of
the room.

LANDSCAPING
SPACE
Landscaping concentrates on special design, a sound conception of space is
necessary. Activities such as construction, agriculture and horticulture
involve defining space for human use. Erecting a fence and construction of
bunds are intended to define space. Likewise, a building or a room therein
encloses and defines space (Fig. 1). Architects design space for human use
in a variety of ways by adopting construction techniques.

The materials

used by them will consist of steel, bricks and mortar.

In landscape

gardening also, the aim is to define space for human use including
recreation and relaxation. The basic materials used here are plants, water
and rocks.

In grouping them in simulated landscapes, beauty will be

combined with utility.

LAND
In the discussion on space, the importance of land has been indicated.
Land is the solid crust of the earth. It is surface on which the landscape

designs are executed. Therefore, it requires added consideration to under

stand bring out its importance to the designer.
In a manner of speaking, land may include the soil, rocks, water resources,
vegetation, minerals and anything else that may stand upon it.

For

purposes of design, it is considered in terms of topography and soil. The

physical characteristics and conspicuous surface features of land make
possible its classification into landforms as plains, plateau, hills and
mountains. Plains have very little altitude and slope. The land here is level.
Most part of peninsular India lies in the plains.

Fig. 1: A house defines space by its roof, walls and floor. The landscape
garden has also its roof, walls and floor.
A plateau is an elevated land. The two plateaus in the subcontinent are the
Tibetan and Deccan plateaus.

The Tibetan plateau lies at an altitude of

2600 m and the Deccan plateau 1000-1300 m above the sea level. It has
little slope.

Mountains and hills are rugged land with very little level

surface. The difference between mountain and hill is a question of degree.

Mountain is generally rugged, the peaks and cliffs are very high. In hills,
they are on a low scale.

Much of rugged lands in south India are

constituted by the mountain ranges of the Western Ghats and to a smaller

extent the Eastern Ghats.

Fig. 2: The Mountain 1. the ridge, 2. the peak, 3. the valley, 4. the floor of
the valley, 5. the stream, 6. the shola. The outline of valley in crosssection. Man-made valleys should have smooth curves
The hill or mountain has a ridge at the crest (Fig. 2). This ridge may be wide
enough for land use or it may be very narrow and wind-affected. Most of the
mountain ridges are rocky. This feature makes it impossible to have large
vegetation forms such as trees.

However, the ancient Hindus knew the

aesthetic potential of flat ridges. The hilltop temple at palani is an example

of such use. In some cases, the hill takes a conical shape, the apex of which
almost tapers to a point, with no land at the top. To large extent, the land in
the hill lies in its valley. A valley is a sloping land, hemmed in by rising
mountains. The slope is measured in terms of ascent made for a known

distance of slope. Thus 1 in 10 is one foot (30.48 cm) of climb for every 10
feel; 1 in 25 is 1 foot of climb for every 25 feet. This can be expressed in
percentage also.

A slope of 1 in 10 will make 10 percent, 1 in 25, is 4

percent.
The floor of the valley will normally carry the stream, perennial or seasonal.
It is the moistest region in the hill country. The bed bordering the stream is
most likely to have deep fertile soils which can support lush vegetation.
Within a major landform, there are possibilities for considerable variation in
regard to topography, resulting in micro-landforms.

This should also be

taken into consideration while assessing landforms.

Shaping Land
Land in any situation will require shaping as a prelude to planting.

The

shaping operation essentially consists of excavation and filling. In the hill

areas, these are done with view to obtain level surfaces for beds, lawns and
buildings. In level country also shaping land is necessary to form ponds,
mounds and drains. Hill gardens permit planting at various levels which
add to their graphic beauty.

Generally speaking, a flat piece of land is

featureless, and one with natural slopes is distinctive in character and

pleasing to the eye, comparable to the undulating lines made by a danseuse.
In preparing rolling lands, both concave and convex surfaces are created. In
an imaginary cross-section of these surfaces, the curve formed should be
smooth. In actual practice, visual alignment is sufficient to form the desired
curves in a landscape garden, though to treat large areas the aid of leveling
instruments is essential.
The statement at the beginning indicates that an important concern in
organizing space with grouped plants (as well as rock and water) is
aesthetics.

This necessitates a close examination of the term and the

concept behind it.

AESTHETICS
Aesthetics has its origin in the Greek word Aisthetikos originally suggesting
sense perception. The perceptive senses are sight, smell, hearing, taste and
touch. To the early Greeks, it meant perception of goodness, beauty and
character.

In the final stages of evolution of this word, its meaning,

however, is restricted to perception of beauty alone. The Hindu concept of

Rasa-asvadana or aesthetic theory as applied to art would also mean the
same.
The components of beauty of landscape are colour, shape, texture, pattern,
line and point.

These are chiefly concerned with visual perception and

appreciation. The beauty of sound, movement and smell play an important

though subsidiary role. Enchanting movements are appreciated by the eye,
sound is a subject of auditory perception and the beauty of the scent
enjoyed through the olfactory sense. Perception of beauty by individuals is
highly subjective.

Age, sex, culture aesthetic values among the peoples,

both ancient and modern.

The national characters of landscaping have been influenced by culture and
civilization of people. It is true to say that the style of landscaping reflects
the ethos of the people.

BEAUTY COMPONENTS
Colour
The visual sensation produced by rays of decomposed light is colour. The
light decomposing to a spectrum gives violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
orange and red (VIBGYOR Fig. 3). White is total effect produced by rays of
unrecompensed light and black is the absence of light or the effect produced
by a surface reflecting no rays. Blue, yellow and red are primary colours, all
others having been derived from them serving as mixtures. Thus, blue and
yellow combine to form green, yellow and red to form orange and red and

blue to form violet.

Green, orange and violet so formed are secondary

colours. The intermediate colours are formed by admixtures of two colours

in the spectrum, such as bluish green and reddish yellow.

Fig. 3: The colour wheel: violet, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. Blue,
yellow and red are primary colours. Violet, green and orange are
secondary colours.
The quality of every one of these primary, secondary and intermediate
colours is referred to as hue. If to a certain hue white is gradually added,
progressive tints of it are formed by dilution.

Instead, addition of black

results in shades, indicating its depth. Addition of grey, which is black and
white in equal proportion, causes the formation of tones of the particular
hue.

When the surface reflecting the colour allows light rays to pass

through partially, it is translucent.

It is called opaque when the surface

does not show this property. Red, yellow and orange are referred to as hot
or bright while green, blue and white are cool and light colours. Sometimes,
colours are identified by their association with well-known objects and
phenomena, as sky blue, marine blue, lemon yellow and emerald green.
Natural sky blue, terracotta, beige and jungle green are referred to as earth
colours. These are important in a deign as background foil to more showy
ones used as design elements.
Colour is an important component in landscape deign.

The predominant

colour in nature, of which designed landscape is an imitation, is green. The

green is a cool, soothing colour. The green is a cool, soothing colour. The
green colour of plants id due to a pigment called chlorophyll. It plays an
important

role

in

photosynthesis,

the

process

of

manufacture

of

carbohydrates in leaf cells from the simple elements, carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. The intensity of green colour is not uniform in all plants. In some
cases it is very dark green and in others a light green.

There is also a

difference between young and mature leaves. In many species like Madhuca
longifolia, the tender leaves are shining copper which gradually become
chlorophyllous the maturity. Even though the brilliant autumn colours of
temperate trees are not exhibited by tropical trees, there are a few species
which show warm colours in older leaves. Threes belonging to the genus
Terminalia show bright red foliage colour during the short deciduous period.
Another phenomenon is variegated leaves in trees and shrubs. The trees
show areas of white, yellow, red and many other colours and combinations
in beautiful patterns. Codiaeum, Achalypha and Aphelandra are some of the
genera exhibiting beautiful combinations of leaf pigments. Plants owe these
colours to anthocyanins and xanthophylls.
The major contribution of colour in landscape design is by flowers.
floral colours are more appealing than man-made ones.

The

The range of

colours obtained in flowers is very vast. Black colour is absent in flowers.

The eyes in petals of Hibiscus and such others, is a shade of blue rather
than black. Green flowers are common in Annonaceous plants.
Monochromatic colour schemes using a single colour, though possible, may
result in monotony. There are, however, exceptions. In moon gardens to
be enjoyed at night, species with white flowers blooming after sunset are
planted with beautiful effect. This is a good example of successful use of a
single colour. In a dichromatic arrangement, two opposing colours of the
colour wheel are employed to contrast with each other. Such contrasts can
also be obtained by using a dark and light colour, a hot and cool colour and
a bright and dull colour.

In triads or trichromatic colour schemes,

alternating colours in the wheel, yellow-red-bleu and orange-violet-green are

employed.

In a polychromatic scheme various colours are used.

In this

case, rhythmic repetition of colours is necessary for unity of design. The

order and sequence of colours in any such arrangement need not follow a
rigid dogmatic pattern. Further, providing sufficient contrast by juxtaposing
opposite colours will avoid a tiresome visual effect. A bright sun and a clear
blue sky a backdrop permit the liberal use of bright colours in South Indian
landscape. For perception of colours, light is essential. Subdued light of the
moon makes white enjoyable.

But perception of colour in the garden is

influenced no only by light but also by shade, distance and neighbouring

hues.
Shape
Shape refers to the outline or configuration of an object. Solids fill space
and have a mass.

This mass has an outline or configuration.

The total

effect given by the mass and its outline is shape. Liquids like water take the
shape of the container in which they are held.

Trees and shrubs take

definite shapes, which though subject to time and growth, are constant at
any point of time. These shapes are the total effect of the trunk, branches
and foliage. Man changes their shape by pruning and training. Climbing
shrubs take the shape of the support on which they grow. The beauty of
any given shape consists in the line, curves and volume.
Symmetry or the lack of it is another interesting factor.

Particularly the

palms and some species of trees show near or total symmetry.

The

travellers tree (Ravenala Madagascariensis) shows symmetry only in a

single plane owing to the fan-shaped arrangement of leaves. Symmetrical
shapes are not uncommon in trees.

This may be seen in slanting or S-

shaped boles topped by canopies which are perfectly balanced against the
pull of gravity. These asymmetrically balanced trees are more graphic than
symmetrical trees. Interesting shapes can also be met with in the organs
such as leaves, flowers and fruits.

Texture
Texture refers to the surface structure. Appreciable differences in texture
can be noticed in tree species with reference to leaves, flowers, bark and
other organs. The tree form offers various textures which may be described
as fine or bold, coarse or soft, velvety or leathery and downy or hairy.
Generally spading, small needle-shaped leaves provide a fine texture; the
effect of large broad leaves is coarse. It is well worth remembering that used
in proper context; both the textures are effective in design.

The massed

effect of the small leaflets of the tamarind and similar trees having pinnate
leaves is fine in textural quality. Trees in bloom provide a velvet-like, downy
or hairy look.

The leathery quality is associated with leaves of certain

species of Cordia and a kind of waxiness with Calophyllum. The texture is

referred to as loose when the canopy of leaves is light and sparse (Acacia
and Eucalyplus). The tufted look of the canopy of Ailanthus excelsa with its
leaves cluttered at the tips of branches is another textural variation. The
bark also offers interesting variability in texture. The smooth, rough, split,
peeling or spiny bark is interesting and provides visual contrasts.
Pattern
Pattern is the scheme or model which one finds in the natural arrangement
of plant parts.

The feathery leaves of the coconut palm, the fan-

arrangement of leaves in travellers tree and the tiered branching of the

Terminalia offer interesting patterns.

Repetition of pattern is a feature of

plants and their organs.

BEAUTY PRINCIPLES
The aesthetic components by themselves do not convey beauty. It comes
apparent when these components are admixed, virtually correlated and
juxtaposed with one another adopting certain principles, namely, balance,
rhythm, proportion, scale and harmony.

Balance
The balance in landscape design is a visual equilibrium of different garden
elements. In the formal garden, this is achieved by positioning plants and
other landscape objects at equal distance from a real or imaginary plane or
axis. The equal arms of a balance with a central fulcrum will illustrate this
point. In this principle of the fulcrum, if one of the arms is longer than the
other, two unequal weights would match each other.

The smaller weight

counterpoising the longer arm would balance the heavier weight on the
shorter arm.

Visual matching of garden elements to simulate the above

mentioned phenomenon can be arranged.

For illustration, a large tree

stands counter-balanced with a group of shrubs by adjusting the distance or

arm in each case from the imaginary point or arms. Again, to go back to the
fulcrum. In an instance with two equal arms, a kilogram of iron filings with
higher specific gravity will be balanced by an equal weight of cotton, but
possessing a higher volume than the iron filings owing to its low specific
gravity.

To cite a garden example, a large mass of white, yellow or blue

flowers will be balanced by a relatively low volume of red or orange flowers.

The balancing in design is purely visual. In the informal and naturalistic
designs, balancing is mainly a neutralizing effect.

For clarity, a few

examples from lifes day-to-day experiences will be helpful. Paired opposites

like joy and sorrow, night and day and pleasure and pain neutralize one
another.

Garden components are also designed to obtain a similar yet

neutralizing effect of balance.

Opposite colours in the colour wheel,

contrasting textures, different numbers, shapes, forms line and pattern are
cleverly employed to neutralize one another.
The above account adequately conveys the contrasting and neutralizing role
of balance. The composition of a picture depicting a mother with child in
her arms attains balance by the contrasting effect.

Similarly a wrinkled,

toothless old man sharing a joke with a chubby tow-year old child conveys
balance in composition.

A tree laden with fruit and a gnarled old tree

supporting a climbing shrub in bloom also give the same balanced look. The
visual metaphors in them may also be noted.

Fig. 4: A Balance: 1. The arms of equal length and the weight also equalsymmetrical balance. 2. The arms are unequal and
the weights are also unequal-total asymmetry. The
principles of physical balance can be extended to
natural phenomenon.
Proportion
Proportion refers to the share of the different parts or components to the
whole.

To obtain a composite whole, proportional allocation to different

architectural and planting schemes should be aimed. In other words, the

relationship between the buildings, roads and footpaths, arboretum,
shrubbery, water garden and other features should have as assigned share
in proportion to the design considerations and requirements. This is not to
say that the extent, size and content of the features should be equal, unless
otherwise required in the introduction of formalism in the design. On the
other hand, they should occupy a position in proportion to their importance
and in definite ratio to each other. For further clarity, it may be stated here

that proportion refers to all ingredients being mixed in right measure, not
essentially in equal measure.
Scale
Scale is a relative dimension. The height and spread of trees and shrubs
and the spread of the water garden are determined by adopting a scale, as
one might adopt a scale in preparing a map. To make it clear, it may be
noted that a small reflecting pool underneath a large tree will be dominated
by the tree and render the pool ineffective, owing to the difference in their
dimensions. To get the right picture of a tree beside a pool we should adopt
a ratio between the size of the three and pool as is obtained in nature.
Nature is often very lavish. The large rivers, high mountains and rushing
waterfalls are created on an elaborate scale. Man, in copying them, in his
designed landscapes, reduces them in scale and relates them to a size
convenient and acceptable to him.

Appropriate adoption of scales and

proportionate measurements are the success of imitative naturalistic garden

art.
Rhythm
Rhythm is measured cyclic repetition.

Nature has its own rhythm.

The

unfailing repetition of day and night, the measured beat of the heart, the
seasonal occurrence of spring and the annual setting in of the monsoon are
rhythmic. One may also note the similarity of the Sanskrit word rtu and
rhythm.

The periodic growth, flowering fruiting seasons of trees have a

repetitive charm, which does not loss its appeal for being repetitive.

In

music rhythm is the result of varying tones. According to the intensity of

the pitch ascending and descending rhythms are achieved. In dance also
ascending and descending rhythms are artistically employed in both music
and movement. The Tillana and Kalasam of Bharathanatyam pertain to
change in rhythm. When rhythm is not apparent, the dance music become
monotonous due to a lack of variety.

In Indo-Saracenic architecture, the

symmetrical, repetitive use of the onion-shpaed domes serves the purpose of

breaking the monotony of the horizontal roof outline of the structure. The
use of Kalasam in temple Gopuram, the entrance tower, also serves the
same purpose.

In landscape designs, rhythm of the performing arts and

architecture are effectively copied.

The commonest form is to vary the

heights

domes

of

hedges

reinforcements.

by

providing

and

simulated

pillars

and

The rhythm of cleverly repeated colours and shape and

wavy, repetitive outlines of tree groups viewed against the sky help to break
monotony.
Harmony
Harmony is the pleasing effect obtained due to an apt arrangement and
collation of the various garden features. Every part of the landscape must
unobtrusively merge into a whole. To borrow an illustration from literature,
a novel may consist of a large number of characters and a plot and subplots
involving them. But the narrative will progress to a composite whole story.
In the same way, designed landscape features should culminate in an
integrated picture. No individual part should detract the value of the others.
One should strive for harmony not only among the garden parts, but also
between the garden and the building which it is to complement. Ultimately
these should harmonize with the natural landscape beyond the boundaries
of the treated plot.
Unity
A designer takes recourse to the aesthetic principles of balance, rhythm,
proportion and harmony to give unity to the composition. Without it chaos
will prevail. To sustain changing interest and variety, diverse features are
necessary. The designer, therefore, aims at both unity and diversity, which
though

apparently

antagonistic,

are

not

difficult

to

accomplish

in

landscapes. In garlands, flowers of various kinds are used. The string used
to weave them together unites them into one pleasing whole. In the same
way, effectively laid out paths, a stream, grouped trees, an expanse of lawn,
rhythmic repetition of colours and many other features are incorporated in

landscape design to attain unity in diversity. Another means of achieving

unity is to have a central theme for the composition.
The phenomena described below are important in creating visual illusions in
the landscape. The also form essentially a part of the garden aesthetics.
Perspective
As already discussed, designing is done in three dimensional space. Objects
situated away from the viewer look smaller in size. In a train, turning a
curve, the bogies towards the rear look smaller in size than the proximal
ones. To consider another example, the two parallel lines of the rail tract
seem gradually to converge with distance.

These visual phenomena of

shrinking size and co verging lines (Fig. 11) are known as perspective.

GARDEN STRUCTURES OR CONSTRUCTED FEATURES

ROADS AND PATHS
Convenient roads (drive) footpaths (walk) are necessities in the garden from
the functional standpoint. The path helps to direct the flow of pedestrian
traffic and the road does the same for vehicular moment. But, too many
paths and roads cutting across the landscape actually give the impression of
a far diminished area and size of the garden looks smaller than it actually is.
They also give an impression of artificiality in the landscape. On the other
hand, the absence of path and road would lead to avoidable wear by foot
beaten tracks.

A compromise is the only solution.

Therefore, a

consideration of their layout and formation is pertinent here.

Road
The road connects important points in a garden or in a small home site, the
street and the garage (car shed) and carport. Long, winding roads can be a
feature in extensive landscape designs, but not on small home sites.

An

important consideration in layout is to form an easily negotiable way with no

sharp turns and bends. The maximum slope or gradient of 1 in 12 has to be

adopted, out of necessity dictated by the terrain.

The width of the road

should be 5.0 m or in any case, a minimum of 3.5 m.

There should be

gutters on either side of the road for free drainage of rain water.

The

earthen surface on which the road is formed is known as the formative

surface. Over this, for metalling, broken granite and quartz of 3.5 cm gauge
or kankar of 5 cm or broken ferruginous laterite of 5 to 7 cm should result
in heavy dust and a short road life on constant use. Hard metals will not be
amenable to good binding resulting in an uneven surface. We should not
mix two different kinds of metals. The metal is packed firm by hand using
hammer and road rollers. The interspaces are filled in. Finally a coating of
sand to a thickness of 0.5 cm is given. Sufficient rolling, on being wetted
with water, should follow. The finished road is convex in cross-section.
The road surface may also be black-topped over broken granite or gravel. A
concrete surface is still better from the standpoint of easy upkeep and
maintenance. Short roads can be paved with flag stones.
Footpath
Footpaths are formed to a width of 1 1 m. It is ordinarily made of gravel
spread to a thickness of 5 cm. The gravel requires compacting frequently.
The edges of the path should be made of concrete or cut stone to hold the
gravel in position without being splashed or scattered.
with bricks or concrete is more effective and permanent.

Paving the paths

In high rainfall

areas, the danger of a slippery surface due to slimy, algal growth should be
avoided. This is done by giving a coarse finish to the surface and also by
scrubbing it with sand.
Winding ways, both drive and walk, with shrubbery in the bay conceals the
view ahead. This helps to generate curiosity to know what is further on and
brings about an air of mystery.

To prevent being tantalized we should

provide a pond, flower bed or at least a bench in the concealed bay.

In

informal and picturesque designs, this feature is exploited to the full.

Straight and level walkways will prod the pedestrian to move on, with an
easy, steady flow of traffic. An ascent o n its way will make the traffic flow
hesitant of onward movement. A descent, on the other hand, will speed up
pedestrians.

A level stretch after an ascent or descent tends to collect a

crowd thereon.

In public gardens, this influence of the gradient on

pedestrian movement can be utilized in crowd regulation and smooth flow of

traffic.

In sleep ascents and descents, steps should be provided from a

practical point of view.

The central or approach roads and paths in a garden are laid out either in
circular or spinal fashion (Fig. 5).
dispersal of traffic.

A circular road is very efficient in the

A spinal road with lateral ones in a herring-bone

arrangement also serves the same purpose. The manner in which traffic
circulation is solved will depend on the terrain and the volume of traffic
anticipated.

Fig. 5: The approach road in a garden is eighter circular or spinal:

Suitable combinations and modifications of the two are also
possible.

Bridges
Bridges across steams and embankments are necessity in a garden. These
bridges should be harmonious with the landscape in both the design and
the material used. In a picturesque design, rustic looking material is more
appropriate than formal one. In any case, the colour and texture of the
material used can be discretely employed to bring unity with the building
and other structural features in the property. The practical considerations
are that the bridges should be functional and structurally sound to
withstand the weight it is expected to stand. In hill districts or in floodprone areas, suspension bridges of wood, stone or reinforced cement
concrete linking pathways across streams will add to the look and
naturalness of the garden.
Steps
Steps are required for easy ascent or descent from two different levels in the
garden.

They connect paths at two different levels and are intended for

pedestrian use. The total width should conform to the width of the footpath
which the flight of steps is joining at either end.

The height will depend

upon the difference in level of plots. But for ease of climb, the tread or
horizontal surface of step should be 40 cm wide and the riser or vertical
face, 15 cm high. While constructing a flight of steps, start from the lower
end and work upwards.

The materials for construction are stones and

bricks properly cemented in place.

Wherever irregular, unchiselled cut

stones are used, plastered over with cement mortar. Use of flagstones to
construct steps is a traditional practice adopted in this country. A flight of
steps built with flags are sturdy and stand for centuries. Give a smooth or
rough finish to the steps according to the demands made by landscape
design and style of architecture.

The steps when recessed have an

advantage in that they do not project out into the garden features at the
lower end.

A graduated flight of steps is desirable in places where the

approach to it is from different angles, through diagonal footpaths.

Greenhouse Conservatory and Glasshouse

These are special plant growing structures. A greenhouse properly
constructed provides a cool, airy humid place to grow plants which would
thrive under these special environs. The roof and the supporting features
are of stone, concrete wood or angled iron with the whole structure enclosed
in wire-mesh. Provision of benches inside is a necessity to display plants
mostly raised in containers. Partially cover the greenhouse with spreading
climbers for shade. A glasshouse develops high temperature inside, but in
the warms plains only and not in the hills. This is not conducive to plant
growth.

Provision of inbuilt, shallow but expansive tanks with a large

surface for evaporation of water, will help to increase the humidity inside the
greenhouse and glasshouse.
Thatched Huts
In a relatively large garden, construction of thatched, comfortable huts will
serve as retreats from noise, head and dust. These huts should be in a
relatively isolated corner and suitably camouflaged with foliage and flowers,
to be out of sight in order to ensure privacy from unknown intruders.
Bandstand
The bandstand is a circular or hexagonal structure open on all sides with a
solid roof for shelter from rain and sun.

it may be seen in the typical

English gardens of our hill stations. They served, in formal receptions and
other ceremonial functions organized by administrative dignitaries, as locale
for the band to play.

They also provided shelter to visitors from the

elements at other times.

Gazebo and Gatehouse
A gazebo is a tower intended to provide an aerial view of the entire garden
from an elevated place.

It is very suitable for an English garden.

More

characteristically, a gatehouse matches well with the Indian garden scenery.

In ancient days gatehouses were necessity for feudal houses as defence

against marauders. A tasteful adaptation of this will be an added attraction
at the entrance to the garden.
A discerning designer has much to choose from the architectural tradition of
the country in regard to garden structures. The mandapam built according
to traditional architecture using stone, bricks and wood is both beautiful
and functional. As far as garden structures are concerned, limit the use of
cement to functional purposes since it is an unsympathetic material where
garden art is involved. More effective are wood, stone and metals like brass
and bronze in naturalistic designs.
A word about the final finish to the garden structures. They should be given
either a manicured or rustic look as is desired an intermediate, partly
finished look is also acceptable. But mixing the three, that is manicured,
rustic and intermediate finish is not compatible.

NATURAL ELEMENTS IN LANDSCAPING

For spatial design, the important natural elements used in contrast to the
aesthetic components discussed earlier are rocks, water and plant.

ROCK
According to legend rock is root of cloud. Weathered natural rocks with
latent beauty in them, in convenient sizes, can be seen in different locations
in beds of rivers rushing down in mountain country and also in dry regions
in the exposed knolls. They are scarce in deltaic districts. These rocks are
valued in garden design for their interesting shapes.

The range and

variability of shapes and size give them a sculptural quality.

Those with

natural curves and smooth outlines are more valuable than others. Their
surface texture is another attractive feature. Cobbles and pebbles found in
water courses are generally smooth. A coarse texture in varying degrees is
seen in weather-worn boulders which have a statuesque beauty. It is a good

practice to retain natural outcrops of rocks or exposed bedrocks whereer

available and to incorporate them in landscape design. The elephant Rock
bordering the estate of the Agricultural College, Madurai is a monumental
instance of a natural outcrop of a monolith.

It is about a kilometer in

length, with a height often reaching 30 m. When viewed from the south-east
direction, it gives the pleasing picture of a humped elephant sitting on its
haunchesan imposing prospect.

Similar monoliths, including the

Elephant Rock have attracted the attention of early Hindus, Buddhist

mendicants and Jain monks, the cave temples and sculptures being proof
for this. They considered them sacred. The permanency of rock adds to
their value.
Granite stones are available in nature as little round blocks and boulders.
Smooth granite domes and mono rocks are also interesting features of the
countryside. The natural arrangement of these rocks can be simulated in
the garden. In nature, they are commonly seen in blocks, arranged one over
the other vertically or in scattered groups of boulders.

Boulders perched

over a mono rock and stream beds strewn over by them are also commonly
seen. A pillar rock is a tall protruding one among the surrounding hills.
Rock overhangs and caves are also appealing and are often successfully
incorporated in gardens.

Naming rocks from their appearance or

resemblance as Nagamalai (snake rock), Pasumalai (cow rock) and

Annamalai (Elephant Rock) is common.

These are suggestive words

pictures. Interestingly, this has been a practice in all countries.

The colour of granite varies from grey, dark grey or grey tinged red. Some of
them may have clear horizontal lamination, desirable feature for the
designer. Laterite stones from areas of heavy rainfall have a dark red colour
being brick red on recently exposed surface. They are relatively soft. The
surface is coarse and the shape also may not be well defined, as in the case
of weathered granite. Sandstone available in some localities is another good
choice. The quartz crystals make a beautiful addition to gardens and the
appeal is mainly due to their luster. Their shape is irregular and may have

sharp angular projections.

They are easily stained when they come into

contact with the iron oxides of red soil. Chunks of lime stones excavated in
dry belts, locally known as odakkal have rough surface and grey-brown
colour.
After locating suitable stones, transporting them to the site will require
practical consideration.

A cubic metre of granite may weigh 2.5 tonnes.

Handling them by experienced quarry workers will be necessary to ensure

the integrity of the stone and safety of men. In fixing them in a place, the
stones should be anchored sufficiently deep. Bury a stone to half its length
on its broader end.

Give variation in height and composition.

In these

cases, the height of the rock should not exceed the maximum height of the
level of the land. Any possibility of the rock getting dislodged due to topweight is to be avoided. Stones can be displayed in combination with water,
sand, grass and Japanese gardens. The Japanese take immense pains to
choose the right kind of stone. Aptness in the choice of stones cannot be
overemphasized.

Arrange and weather-worn rocks in dry association.

Properly chosen, they add to the picturesque quality of the garden. Rocks
have a key place in rockeries and rock gardens.

In a rockery, the rocks

dominate over plants while in a rock garden grouped plants are more
conspicuous than rocks. In all situations no set rules can be formulated to
group stones, the aesthetic principles enunciated earlier being the sole
guide.
The smooth course always is to use local rocks owing to their easy
availability. They will also blend with the surrounding landscape with ease.
Where special effects are required or in the absence of a local supply, as in
deltaic districts, procuring them from other regions can be resorted to.

WATER
Beauty of water in the garden is primarily due to its property of being a
reflective surface. Still water reflects trees and buildings. Inverted images
play on human imagination. The mobility of water is another aspect of its

attraction.

Running streams and billowing waves have tickled human

sensibilities in every civilization. Besides, man-made fountains and pools

have been sources of un-alloyed pleasure from ancient times.
Water has the property of flowing from a higher to a lower level. When held
in containers or the flow is arrested, it is immobile. The mobility of water
may be near horizontal as in river.

In falls and cascades, water rushes

downward. In downward movements, the pull of gravity is the motive force.

But water can be made to move upwards. Water, because of its fluidity, if
forced through a narrow opening such as a nozzle under pressure, can be
made to move vertically upward, as in fountain.

In nature, such a

phenomenon is rarely found except in artesian wells. In garden practice,

still water as swell as water in motion has their place.
Water is used in the garden primarily in three ways. In the first instance, a
large body of water envelops a garden or structure. A natural or excavated
lake envelope a garden or a structure which is located in an island n the
midst of water. The Teepakulam with a Mandapam in the midst of it is an
ancient use of water in this way. The Golden Temple in Amritsar is in the
midst of a man-made lake.

Water is used here as reflective surface.

meandering river bisecting a city or a running stream traversing through a

garden is another instance. Madurai is bisected by the river Vaigai. The
appeal of water here is due to its mobility. Water in ponds and pools as a
central feature forms a way of water use, different from the other two
mentioned above. The movement, if any, is only vertical in the form of a
fountain. Combining running water with a pool either as its source or end is
also a pleasing possibility.
The prominent instances of water having been put to aesthetic use in south
Indian landscapes are the placid lakes at Ootacamund, Yercaud and
Kodaikanal. All of them were made in the early 19th century by obstructing
the free flow of streams by masonry dams at the narrowest point along their
courses. A smaller but still very attractive lake can be seen at the Sims
Park, Coonoor. The lake is situated in a saucer-shaped valley. The stream

feeding the lake and the overflow from it skirts the valley.

The stream

feeding the lake and the overflow from it skirts the valley. All these lakes
depend on rainfall for replenishment of water. There is no natural lake in
this part of the country.
Rushing water in scenic spots is highly appreciated.
Courtallam (Tirunelveli district) are famous.

The waterfalls at

At Hogenakkal, literally

Smoking Rock, in Dharmapuri district turbulent river Kaveri comes

through gorges in a precipitous terrain. Silver Cascade and Fairy-falls at
Kodaikanal are also part of the delightful scenery in this hill resort. These
cascades, falls and rushing streams are a major feature in the hill country.
In the plains they are slow, taking meandering or sinuous course, for want
of incline in the landform. The palm-fringed lagoons and backwaters in the
coastal districts are also beautiful.
The major river systems form another important source of water.

These

rivers along with the lakes and tanks which they feed have contributed
much to the landscape. In the dry districts also the innumerable percolation
tanks fed by nullahs, seasonal or perennial, have added to the scenic
beauty.

These tanks have immensely contributed to the creation of the

cultural landscape in south India and Sri Lanka almost from the 1st century
BC. A large body of water like rivers and lakes permits recreational use,
mainly boating and fishing besides providing relief from extremes of
temperatures.

Water was used extensively in Moghul gardens and

architecture, and inner courtyard gardens in dwelling in the desert regions

of Rajasthan.
The constructed garden pools may serve entirely a reflective function. They
are also useful to grow hydrophytic plants. There is, however, a warning. In
large water expanses, growing plants will naturally end up in their not being
useful for recreational purposes such as boating.

This is due to the

obstruction, created by the vegetation. The extensive irrigation tanks in the

southern districts of Madurai and Ramnad served by the river Vaigai is
sometimes used for raising lotus. Though this does not limit their irrigation

and fishing potential, it does not permit any water sports, owing to the
matted spiny growth.
In the hills, where ponds are made by tapping underground water or
damming perennial streams, waterproofing the pool is not necessary. In the
coastal regions also, where water can be found at near surface levels, there
is no need for it.
sufficient.

Construction of masonry walls to prevent a collapse is

In lowland dry regions where water supply is seasonal and

precious, the tanks, ponds and pools should be properly lined with
waterproofing material, to prevent water seepage.

A concrete floor with

masonry walls will often be enough. Concrete pools re-inforced with wire
mesh laid over 800 gauge polyethylene sheets will be durable.

The large

tanks, as is the practice, should be excavated to the level of the bedrock.

The embankments formed to hold water require lining with slabs.

The

ancient practice of lining them with cut and chiseled stones will add more
visual appeal than cement slabs. The stone interspaces are then painted
with a mortar of cement and sand. The shape and size of these tanks will be
dictated by the gradient of the land and the volume of water it is expected to
hold.

Fig. 6: Shapes of Pools: 1. A formal pool. In formal pools various welldefined geometrical designs are adopted. 2 & 3. Natural pools with
inlets and bays. 4. A natural pool with islands.

The formal shapes of pools bear resemblance to star, cross or other

geometrical shapes like square, rectangle and hexagon to suit the layout and
architecture (Fig. 6). The different shapes in which framed mirrors come are
worth copying here. In natural designs, the beauty of the curve is exploited
by designing curvilinear and other natural shapes, often with the inclusion
of tortoise-backed islets. Here, the surrounding landform is shaped into a
rolling one sloping away from the water feature. To add to the natural look,
the pool is constructed in the normal way, but by providing sufficient width
to accommodate natural rocks to line the walls. The irregular inter-space
between the wall and the rocks is then filled with silt and sol to grow marsh
and swamp plants. As has been stated earlier, tanks are filled with water
from well, river or stream. In the hills filling pools with gravitational flow of
water is sometimes feasible. In the dry regions, a pumping arrangement is
necessary for this purpose.
Another aspect to consider is the depth of water. The large tank is around
3-5 m deep at the deepest point. A reflecting garden pool is preferably
shallow with a depth of 25-30 cm. If hydrophytic plants are to be grown,
varying depths have to be provided in the same pond, which may range from
15 to 90 cm, the deepest portion allotted to lotus and water lilies. In shallow
pockets and galleries, swamp plants such as Typha and Cyperus are
accommodated.

Salvinia, Pistia and other floating plants may be

conveniently added to this grouping. Provision is necessary to prevent rain

water and through it silt entering into the pool. A slightly raised rim to a
height of 10 cm will be helpful in this regard. Provision to drain the pool by
providing an outlet at its floor level will help to clean it, as often as is
necessary.

PLANTS
As will be seen in the ensuing pages, plants constitute the most important
natural element in designing landscapes.

Plant Association
The present-day approach to landscaping is deeply influenced by ecology
and environmental science. Ecology is the study of organisms (plants and
animals), in relation to their environment. It is necessary here to have a
concept of the environment or external conditions and influences moulding
the life of organisms.
The environment consists of physical and biotic factors.

Non-living

materials like soil, water and air and the forces of solar isolation and gravity
constitute

the

physical

environment.

The

biotic

environment

is

characterized by the inter-relationship of living organisms. The organisms

encounter these physical and biotic factors through life. The developmental
cycle of life is co-coordinated to fit their organic needs in relation to the sum
of all external conditions and influences referred to earlier, above.
In a landscape, plants are important tools in the hands of the designer. In
the successful use of plants for this purpose, he creates an appropriate
habitat or natural home for the plants to live in. In designed landscape, the
aim is to group plants, rather than display individual specimens.

The

grouping of plants should be natural, of mutually tolerant species. It should

be remembered that plants live in established communities. The nature of
the community is determined by the habitat. Thus there are hydrophytic
communities in or

near water, xerophytic communities in desert situations

and mesophytic communities which prefer a situation different from the two
extremes mention above.

There are specialized communities of epiphytes

which live high up on other woody vegetation but do not draw nourishment
from their support.

The halophytes live in salt marshes.

There are also

xeromorphic halophytes which are salt-tolerant plant species living in arid

situations. The association of plants in these communities is determined by
ecological considerations of climatic, edaphic and biotic factors.

A brief

discussion of these factors is necessary to understand their role in making

plant communities.

Climate
The climate of peninsular India is generally warm.

The maximum

temperature may reach 35-400C and minimum 15-200C. This is, however,
considerably modified by the influence of large bodies of water, the Arabian
sea is the west coast and the Bay of Bengal on the east coast.

In these

coastal regions the diurnal variations of temperature are reduced, the

difference between the day and night temperature being around 30 to 40
only.

For the same reason, the difference in summer and winter

temperatures is small, resulting in no distinct winter season.

In

mountainous regions such as the Nilgiris, Shevroys and Pulneys, the climate
is cool with relatively low mean temperature. This is due to the influence of
altitude.
Soil
Soils play an important role in the formation of vegetation found in
particular area. Soil is the uppermost layer of the earth. It is formed by
continuous weathering of parent rocks for millennia. Under the soil lies the
sub-soil. The soil and sub-soil support plant growth not only as a stratum
for anchorage but also as a store-house of nutrients and water for the plants
to draw upon. Besides weathered rock, the soil is also composed of living
organisms such as bacteria and fungi, the soil micro flora. The soil of fine
particles like clay and silt and coarse particles of sand and gravel. A grading
of soil by mechanical analysis of these particles is given below: Sandyless
than 10 percent of fine particles (clay + silt), loam 20 to 30 percent, clay
loam 30 to 50 percent, clay more than 50 percent.
contains more than 5 percent of calcium carbonate.

Calcareous soil

When more than 5

percent of organic matter is present, it is known as humus soil. A gravelly

soil will contain considerable amounts of gravel.
Soils are generally classified for common purposes as black, red, sandy
laterite and alluvial.

Black soils are highly clayey, dark grey, with good

moisture retention capacity. Red sol contains considerable iron oxides from

which the colour is derived. Red soil is rich in available plant nutrients. It
does not rack or split when dry, as does the black soil.

Sandy soils are

found in beaches and courses of rivers and streams. The sandy soil has a
very low water retaining capacity, loosely structured and poor in plant
nutrients. Beach sands contain sodium chloride (common salt) to a level
injurious to many plant species. An alluvial soil found in the deltaic regions
is a transported soil, rivers being the vehicle of transportation. These soils
are loamy with equal proportions of clay and coarse particles. They are well
enriched with plant nutrients.
The acidity of the sol is an important aspect in plant adaptation. Acidity is
measured in a scale known as pH (hydrogen ion concentration).

In this

scale a reading above pH 7.0 indicates alkalinity due to the presence of

carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium, potassium and
sodium. A reading elbow 7.0 indicates an acidic reaction. Soil classification
based on pH reading is as follows:
Acidity

Range of pH

Alkalinity

Range of pH

High

4.0 5.0

Slight

7.0 7.5

Fair

5.0 6.0

Fair

7.5 8.0

Slight

6.0 6.5

High

8.0 9.0

Neutral

6.5 7.0

Plants for their optimum growth have specific adaptations to pH ranges.

TREE FORMS
The form of trees is an important design feature. The form here refers to
shape and size (Figs. 7 to 9). There are two basic shapes recognizable in
trees, of vertical growth or upright habit and the horizontal or spreading. In
the first instance, the height dominates over spread and in the second, the
spread is more than height. A few recognizable shapes coming under these
broad categories are, however, identifiable.

Look at the distinct but characteristic shape of the mast tree (Polyalthia
longifolia pendula). The tree is tall with little spread. The shape here is
referred to as columnar. In fastigate trees, the shape is the same except
for the fact that the tip is rounded.

Full grown Millingtonia hortensis

assumes this shape. The tall umbrella shape is characteristic of the palm.
Its large leaves radiate from a crown or growing point which is at the apex of
a monopodial trunk. The spreading umbrella shape of Acacia planifrons is
also distinct in nature.
In horizontal growth habit, the laterals are sufficiently long to indicate
spread.

The oval and the round are the most common among them.

Peltophorum pterocarpum and Samanea saman are the common trees

assuming these shapes.

In the two genera Terminalia and Ceiba, the

branches arise in horizontal tiers and are distributed rather uniformly along
the trunk. The tiered, whorled branching goes with a conical shape. In the
open shape, the trees have alternate branches which have individual but
discontinuous canopies. In this instance, there will be open sub-spaces in
the tree outline.

Old trees of Syszygium jambolanum and Terminalia

paniculata take to this shape. In the weeping trees, the branches droop. In
some conifers and willows, this shape can be seen. In the warmer parts of
south India, Polyalthia longifolia pendula cited earlier shows weeping
growth. It is both columnar and weeping. Callistemon citrinus is another
tree which has long drooping branches.
Picturesque shape is one which is asymmetrically balanced against the pull
of gravity and odds of nature. It is shaped by natural forces like rocky soil
and incessant wind. They are suitable for specimen planting and in the
design of natural gardens. These interesting shapes have inspired bonasai
enthusiasts the world over. Tree is living sculpture. The sculptural value of
a tree is determined by its form that is its shape and size. The form of trees
when cleverly exploited give contrast and a softening effect to the harsh
architectural lines of buildings. Shape and size of trees can also be modified
by training and pruning to sit the architectural needs.

Tree shape is not static. With time and age, the shape changes. The woody
species may often take 20 years or more to assume a distinct shape often
one may come across intermediate shapes also, defying categorization. The
environmental factors such as wind, competition for light and interference
by man and animals have determinate influence on shape.
time, trees have a time-worn look.

In course of

These old trees are a synthesis of

anguish and primeval strength, that is to say, they become venerable and
assume an antique value.

Fig. 7: Shapes of trees: 1. The spreading tree. Here the line a b is longer than c d.
2. The upright tree. The line a b is shorter than c d. A columnar tree. 4.
The umbrella shape of the palm. 5. The conical tree. 6. The round-headed
tree. 7. The picturesque tree.

Trees, is closely planted groups, do not express their sape in full.

The

outline of individual trees may be lost by two or more crowns merging to give
common canopy. In horizontal groups, even colunar and fastigate shapes
merge into a continuous, horizontal, wavy line.

This is often cleverly

exploited to soften the harsh jagged lines of mountains and their cliffs.

Fig. 8: Some more picturesque shapes: 1. The S-shaped tree. 2. The twisted
trunk. 3. A buttressed tree.

4. Slanting tree.

5. Twin-branched.

6. Three-trunk tree.
The size of trees is expressed in terms of height and spread. Some trees are
very tall with a height of 30 m or more.
malabarica are examples.

Antiaris toxicaria and salmalia

Trees like albizia moluccana and Terminalia

arjuna reaching height of 20 m are tall. Trees that reach 10 to 20 m are

medium tall. Most of the common trees planted come under this category.
Peltophorum pterocarpum and Holoptelia integrifolia are medium-tall in

stature. Short trees have a height of 5 to 10 m. The stature of Guaiacum

officinale and Citharexylum spinosum qualifies them for inclusion in this
group. Any woody perennial below the height of 5 m is a shrub. Shrubs
may also be grouped, in turn, tall (4-5 m), medium tall (2-4 m) and short
(below 2 m).

Fig. 9: Picturesque shapes: 1. Cascade, 2. Exposed root, 3. Coppiced tree,

4. Lopped tree. Similarly, wide variations are also noticeable in the
spread of trees and shrubs.

Availability of space for planting is an important consideration in the notice

of tree form. Columnar and fastigate trees will fit in narrow spaces. It is
difficult to accommodate large spreading trees like the Banyan in the limited
space of home landscape, but in vast public parks, large trees are most
suitable.

PHENOLOGY
One good consideration in the choice of trees is the beauty of their flowers.
The visual effect of these flowers is a result of colour, texture and contrast
and also the display they make of them. Some critics hold a different view.

They allege that flowering trees have a shortcoming in that the colour
spread is not adequate as compared to, say, annuals. But then trees are
not esteemed for their flower alone. There are definite seasons when flower
emerge, giving an impressive dramatic effect. The study of the response of
trees to climate and seasonal changes with regard to flowering and fruiting
is known as phonology.
TREE AS DESIGN ELEMENT

Trees define space, as arranged furniture would define a hall or roof and
walls, a building. As a result, spaces appear vast and open or shrunken and
enclosed, bodily exciting, or mentally peaceful, stimulatingly warm or
restfully cool.

The grouping of trees for this purpose is done in different

ways. A short account of this is given below.

Direction
Trees define roads and paths, when planted along their margin. This is
known as avenue planting and helps to direct traffic. This can also be done
by raising hedges on either side of the road. When the distance of a road or
path is very short, shrubbery borders are more appropriate than avenue
trees or hedges. To avoid traffic hazards, trees should not be planted close
to the inside of curves or near road junctions where they could obscure
vision.
Screening
Grouped trees serve the purpose of screening objectionable sights, glares
and even sound.
strong winds.

Tree screens also provide privacy and protection from

The density and position of the screen will determine its

effectiveness. The angle of the afternoon sun and the direction of wind are
taken cognizance of in placing trees.

Emphasizer
Location of a sign-board, statue (Fig. 10) or an entrance can be emphasized
by appropriate grouping of trees. The grouping will be very effective when it
contrasts well with the object it is to emphasize and also the way it stands
out in the surroundings.
Fence, Barrier and Boundary Line
Hedges are traditionally used as physical barriers to prevent men and
animals encroaching into a property. Low hedges under 60 cm demaracate
a boundary but will not act as a barrier. A hedge of 1.5 to 2 m is a good
barrier. To give a screening effect, a h eight of 3 m and above is required at
times. Trellis-trained bougainvillea above low compound walls, commonly
seen in our residential areas serve the purpose of screening, while also
serving as an effective barrier. The purpose of planting a screen, trellis and
fence is to enclose space.

Fig. 10: The tree emphasizes the statue. The sign-board is emphasized by
the group planting.
The garden and the building thereon belong to each other. The house is
built first.

The landscape designer comes into the picture after the

construction is completed or when it is about to be completed. The designer

then must see that the tree grouping and the house are inseparable and
blend with each other. Under no circumstances should the plant groups
look like an after-thought, though in truth it is so. The house and garden

should then imperceptibly merge with the surrounding scenery, of which

they form a part.

PLANTING IN RELATION TO BUILDING

In

grouping

trees

in

the

vicinity

of

structures,

certain

important

considerations need emphasis. Trees are planted for formal effects in large
formal gardens, in tree borders and also informal approaches to houses.
Trees planted to form groves and clumps are effective in natural designs.
Further, trees with appropriate forms and right spacing, accentuate the
lines of building by strong contrast in form or by enlarging the effect by
repeating a form. Conical trees repeat turrets and gables of Indo-European
style mansions and places of worship. Round-headed and spreading trees,
on the other hand, contrast with turrets and minarets. As a general rule,
where historicity of a building is not in consideration, contrasting form is
desirable, conical and columnar form to contrast with horizontal forms of
architecture and round-headed trees to contrast with strong vertical accent
in buildings.

However, it should be borne in mind that resort to over

contrast in composition will disturb the feeling of tranquility and peace.

In structures and constructions which are a significant part of history such
as forts and antique buildings, apt association should be worked out. Here
propriety demands that endemic and indigenous trees which have formed a
part of our culture alone should find a place.
Scale or the right ratio between the size of tree group and house is also
important. Large trees make the house look smaller and more snug. Small
trees framing a house make it look large and stately.

A few suggested

methods for planting in relation to building are given below.

Planting Climbers
Climbers trained on or against walls unite or tie-down the building and the
land. The climbing shrub so planted need not be in contact with the wall.
By providing a suitable framework of wrought iron or bamboo to train it, the

contact with the wall and the inconvenience caused to annual whitewashing and colour-washing can be avoided. A climber should be planted in
corner or against a pillar, at least a metre away from the foundation. The
choice of a particular climber will depend upon the decorative value of its
flowers and foliage. The shelter and protection given by it from hot sun and
prevailing wind are additional considerations.

Fruit trees and flowering

trees trained as espaliers and fans against walls also serve the same
purpose.
Foundation Planting
Grouping of shrubs and small trees to conceal the raised foundation is
known as foundation planting or basement planting.

The best effect is

obtained with unsheared plants, when their foliage, flowers and berries
merge into the outline of one another. They can also serve the purpose of
providing a screen that does not obstruct ventilation.

Shrubs below

windows can be deliberately kept low by pruning or by choice of a species

with the correct form.

By repeating a few plants (rhythm) for visual

continuity, a design can emphasize the unity.

Shrubbery Borders or Mixed Shrubberies
Like annual or herbaceous borders, shrubs can also be grouped to define
margins and boundaries or to define space in a garden.

In addition to

ornamentation, they form a good screen or barrier. We often call this mixed
shrubbery in the current terminology, but the term shrubbery border will be
more appropriate in the present context.
Building as Central Point
When the architecture of a building is an object of admiration as in an
ancient monument or in an ultra modern structure, the aim of planting
should be to display their value in full. No screening should be done here.
The formal planting in Moghul gardens serves this purpose. By keeping an

open centre and a straight long approach, a view is created with the building
as the centre of attraction.
View from the Building
In a majority of cases, the buildings around us have no architectural value
to boast of. Screening the building for privacy and shelter is needed here.
While so doing, sufficient opining should be left in the border groups to have
a pleasing view of the near or distant scenery. The rising and setting sun, a
pastoral countryside, a mountain, the surging and billowing sea or a
waterfall will give a pleasing view from the verandah of the house or any
other point in the garden. In an urban surrounding where nothing other
than steel and concrete or unsightly slums are in sight, it is better to shut
out these objectionable views and to concentrate on the internal beauty of
the garden.
Any tree planting very close to a building is considered unsafe. When the
roots

are

strong

and

aggressive,

damage

to

the

foundation

and

superstructure is bound to occur. Precaution to avoid this, by planting a

little away from the structure is necessary.
When the area around the house is too small to accommodate a tree, raising
trees in planters should be taken advantage of.
Trees as a Backdrop
A group of trees as a backdrop to the house will help to highlight or
emphasize its architectural features.

The outline of the canopy of trees

should rise far above that of the building (Fig. 11). The colour, texture and
pattern of the trees will serve as a foil and will give interesting contrast to it.
The extent of planting should be sufficient enough to give depth to the
designed landscape.

In very formal treatments in this country, trees are

planted at the corner of buildings. Vertical forms of trees so planted are

likely to accentuate its height whereas horizontal forms would give an
expansive look. A house nestling in woodland, with groups of trees alround,

will be enjoyable for many reasons, one among them being the cooling effect
of trees on ambient temperature. Concealment of the house partly or in full,
by low-headed trees is a possibility here. In such case, keeping trunks of
trees free of low limbs and foliage to a height of 2 to 2.5 m will improve
visibility either way. Trees carefully placed in relation to the house also give
a partly concealed, framed view of the house. The scenic effect of many of
the rural houses, in wooded districts, arises from this fact.

Fig. 11: Trees frame building

Free-standing Trees
A tree-standing tree is one placed in comparative isolation, usually near a
house to shield it from the piercing rays of the sun and such other
considerations. Properly trained, it also gives a framed view of the house.
Being near the equator, the radiation of suns heat is beyond the tolerance
level in our country.

Therefore shade, where only reflected light is cast

without direct exposure to sun, is welcome throughout the year.

LANDSCAPING RESIDENTIAL CASE STUDIES

A Small Natural Garden in a House Site
The land available is a small flat strip by the side of the house. Slope the
land into an undulating one, if necessary with transported soil. To prevent
future silting of the pool, the top 5 cm thick layer is made up of sharp sand.
Plant with a good soil-binding grass, Hariali, (Cynadon dactylon) for
instance. In this particular location, there is an existing large tree at the
corner.

A row of Polyalthia longifolia along the boundary wall is also an

existing feature. These are retained. The pool is of cement-concrete, wire

mesh being used for reinforcement. Provision has been made for an island.
Water is pumped into the pool.

Arranging for this pumping and also to

drain it immediately after periodical cleaning are essential.

Water worn

stones and weathered rocks will add a touch of realism to the landscape.

A Small Natural Garden in a House Site

A Large House
Note the space available in relation to the house. A garden at the frontage
adorns the house. The entrance is on the left. A large free standing tree
offers shade and defines parking space for any additional cars that may
come.

The lawn is bordered by shrubs on the north and west and an

annual or herbaceous border on the east.

The kitchen garden is in the

backyard where the cowshed also is located. The space between the kitchen
garden and house is the childrens play area. Of course they encroach upon
the lawn also at play time. The indulgent parents tolerate it.

A Large House

A Medium Sized House

This house has approaches from north and west. Large existing street trees
cast welcome shade, screening a western sun. A private area, on the east of
the house is created by constructing the wall at a tangent to the house. The
wall is covered with Ficus pumila. Being on the eastern side and enclosed by
walls and trees it is cool even in the hottest afternoons. The enclosure with
regular watering helps to grow humidity-loving house plants, for decoration
in the verandah. An oval lawn diagonally placed in front is noteworthy.

A Medium Sized House

A Large Guest House

Many government and private organizations maintain guest houses for the
casual stay of their administrators, technical advisers and V.I.P. guests.
The plan given here is for a large guest house with two blocks. The trees
planted behind, frame the main block. The two blocks are united by the
forked road. The third fork is a narrower footpath. In the middle of the
central lawn, a screen (a climber on a 2 m high wire trellis) is placed for
privacy though it may partially obstruct the view. The palms lining the road
and trees and shrubs are carefully selected to suit an arid region, even
though they are maintained under irrigation. The maintenance of a lawn in
this zone is labour-intensive and expensive, but rewarding.
gardener can maintain the garden.

A Large Guest House

One hired

Landscaping a Hotel
It has twin approach road, to regulate incoming and outgoing traffic. These
are separated by a small raised bed of roses. The traffic island found in
front of the building is treated in a formal way. An expensive lawn, screened
on one side with pergolas, serves as a place for entertainment in the cool
evenings. The hotel is set in woodland.

Landscaping a Hotel