Motherboard Study Guide

By the time you are finished with this study unit you will have gained quite a bit of knowledge,
become very familiar with how a computer works, and understand how the motherboard is the
main factor in determining the computers performance and abilities.
Please be patient while this study units page loads. (This study unit is a large file and will
take a while to download with slower Internet connections.) Some images can be viewed by
clicking on them to a larger format for clarity.
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What is a Motherboard?
Naming Convention: Motherboard, Mainboard, System Board. The name Motherboard is used
in this study unit, however you need to be familiar with the knowledge that the three names
above are all the same thing. The motherboard is likened to the mother of the PC (Personal
Computer), or caretaker/controller/holder/connection point of everything needed to run a PC.
The motherboard is the main PCB (Printed Circuit Board) in a PC that enables the
integration and control of all other components and devices in a complete computer
system. A motherboard can be compared to a large city with many neighborhoods, individual
stores and shopping centers, storage companies, repair shops, banks, etc. The motherboard has
a built in transportation system, just as a city has connected streets, roads and highways that
are used for transportation. Data and information is transported on a motherboard, via the bus,
which can have numerous components branching into its roadways. In a city, we have traffic
lights, stop signs and other ways of controlling vehicles and people who use the transportation
system to get from place to place. If we did not incorporate ways to control traffic, we could get
lost, end up with traffic jams, accidents, or other undesirable misfortunes. The motherboard
incorporates a similar system to keep data and information flowing smoothly to its correct
designation, and hopefully without error. (Also see BUS below.)
Usually, when you purchase a motherboard it will already contain the CPU, memory,
BIOS and basic controllers that are needed for the system to operate. Some of these
components can be upgraded as newer technologies evolve, but only to a point. It is better to
purchase a new motherboard if you are considering a major upgrade for improved and faster
performance. Note: Not all CPU's, memory, BIOS, etc, will work in all motherboards.
In fact, motherboards are built and designed with a limited range of specific components that can
be used in them, which are dependent upon the manufacturers design.
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What does a Motherboard look like?

Pictured here is a typical

Pentium-class 430HXchipset motherboard
(Asus P55T2P4), which
is labeled for identifying
parts. Although this is an
older board, it contains
most of the components
and technologies that
have been used, and that
are studied in this lesson.
It is a good example for
learning what is
incorporated into
motherboards, and what
everything looks like.
Use it to compare its
individual components
when working on your
computer projects, or to
learn more about the
structure and framework
of a motherboard. An
important fact to
remember is that all
motherboards are not the
same. They may
integrate some of the
same technologies, but
the way those
technologies work
together may be
completely different in
nature. Some can appear
to be very similar, yet
have hidden differences. Their appearances can vary in circuit board size, shape, design and
configuration. Many manufacturers and developers use a similar blank circuit board to start
(depending on the generation or form factor), but each manufacturer designs their motherboards
differently, incorporating different components, parts, layouts, configurations and technologies.
(Click HERE or on image for full-sized view of the motherboard without labeling.)
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Motherboard Differences
Each motherboard is different. They can be different in design, size, shape,
capabilities and configuration possibilities. Some may look the same and have subtle
differences. These differences are dependent upon the form factor and manufacturer.
Back in the early days of the industry, when computers were first beginning to be
introduced in the market, there were very few differences, and actually very few

motherboards available. As the industry progressed, the computer began to take on

popularity for many different reasons. As with any product, when popularity begins to rise, so
does its demand. Demand for a product produces competition, and if the product continues to
stay popular, the competition increases. This is what happened with computers, and with the
motherboard. Home-user versions were complete and out-of-the-box, and upgradeable
motherboards were not available. As the industry continued to grow in popularity, newer
versions were popping up faster than most could keep up with.
Soon, a new idea led to upgradeable computers, with manufacturers coming into the
ring with upgradeable parts, for upgrading the computer as close as possible to the
latest and greatest technologies. This especially came into play, many years later, with the
advent of the Internet. New processors, memory and systems began to change as often as
monthly, and the motherboard became the best way to upgrade a computer without replacing
the entire unit. Complete, out-of-the-box systems continued to stay popular, but a new breed of
computer users began to spring from out of nowhere, many being self-taught, that began to
experiment with the insides of a computer, fixing or replacing parts to avoid having to purchase a
new system, and trying to find ways to increase performance and speed. This soon led to the
popularity of "build-your-own computer" users, and the new words such as TECHIE and GEEK
were born into the dictionary, and those wearing the titles have come to be known as an elite
and popular group.
Today, whether you are a techie, or if you hire someone to do it for you, the best and
least expensive way to upgrade a computer, and get what you really want, is to
purchase a new motherboard, and re-use the existing devices to make the unit
complete. The other option is to buy everything new, and build a computer specific to your
desires. Devices and peripherals are now individually upgraded in the same way. A slightly older
computer can be dramatically changed by upgrading piece-by-piece as needed, and can also be a
great pocket saver if funds for a new system are not available.
However, there are two problems that can arise from this. One is the fact that the
motherboard may not fit in the existing case. The second is that the case needs to be
compatible with the motherboards AT (Advanced Technologies) or ATX (Advanced Technologies
Extended) standards, mainly because of connector differences, and the power supply. A few
motherboards were manufactured that incorporated both AT and ATX connectors into their
boards (only one, either the AT or the ATX, could be used and was dependent on the case), but
the case form factor layout still had to be considered in the upgrade. As ATX became the
standard, the AT began to phase out, and most motherboards were sold as only ATX. Pictured
below are AT & ATX power supply to motherboard connectors and sockets. With the
ATX there is only one connector as opposed to using 2 connectors in an AT
motherboard.

ATX Power Supply to Motherboard

AT Power Supply to Motherboard

Connector (Female) - notice that the
black wires must meet in the middle
when connected.

Connector (Female)

ATX Power Socket at

Motherboard (Male)

AT Power Socket at
Motherboard (Male)

With many manufacturers and dealers competing with each other, motherboard prices came
down, and each one was professed to have the latest, greatest and fastest technologies. No
longer were there just a few alternatives to choose from. In order to upgrade a system with a
new motherboard, one needs to keep up with technology and industry news, and do a bit of
research. Since the components and parts of a motherboard can vary from minor differences to
great ones, the need to understand what a motherboard consists of is important. The next set of
sections in this study unit will delve into the main components that a motherboard consists of,
uses, or is integrated with.
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Motherboard Components
Real Time Clock
Real Time Clock (RTC) - used for all timing purposes in the
computer. It is powered by the onboard battery, and continues to
run even if the computer is turned off and unplugged. The RTC is
sometimes referred to as the System Clock: The motherboard
contains a clock to synchronize the operation of the bus and other components.
Some motherboards incorporate specific jumpers on the motherboard which allow a user to set
different clock rates to work with the CPU. However, not all jumpers on a motherboard are used
for controlling the system clock, and not all motherboards have this ability enabled. Power users
will usually purchase a motherboard that contains the ability to set the clock rate so that they can
try to improve the systems speed and performance. This is called over-clocking, or making
changes to the recommended settings for the motherboard and system. Over-clocking can
destroy a computer, and is not recommended for those not experienced or familiar with how it
works and what it does.
NOTE: The RTC is not to be confused with the operating system clock in Windows. The OS
clock is a software component of the Windows operating system, and uses the RTC to display
and even adjust the date and time, but it is not the Real Time Clock.
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ROM BIOS
ROM BIOS (Read Only Memory / Basic Input Output System) - Sometimes the ROM
BIOS chip is called Onboard ROM, but more often than not, just plain BIOS. For
simplicity, we will refer to it as just BIOS, but make sure that you remember its real

name. (Always remember, the meaning is almost always in the name.)

The BIOS chip is not permanently soldered to the motherboard, but since
it plays a major role in being able to use the motherboard, it is included
within this study unit. In fact, after installing a motherboard or
adding to it, you need to access the BIOS/CMOS setup to make
sure that everything is found and recorded, and set up the HDD if
it has not previously been done. At the very least, you need to make sure that everything is
set up correctly.
Even if you are an experienced tech, this is one of those times that you hold your
breath, cross your fingers, and hope that everything goes smoothly as you hit that
magic entrance key, and watch the window of setup open. Additionally, you experience a
bit of anticipation of new settings or motherboard features that you will encounter. Finally, as
you press the keys to "SAVE CHANGES AND EXIT", and if all has gone well, you will breathe a
sigh of relief and pat yourself on the back for a job well done.
When the computer is first booted, one of the first things you see written on the
display screen is the name of the BIOS used in the computer. You will see names such as
AMIBIOS, AWARD BIOS, and PHOENIX BIOS. With modern, energy compliant computers, you
will additionally see a logo, which is sometimes animated. Pictured to the left is the AWARD
Energy Star logo seen at boot-up. Each of BIOS' above, have their own unique, built-in, readonly software that resides in the chip. The chip resides in a socket on the motherboard, and is
much slower than your motherboards RAM. ROM is usually copied to RAM each time the PC is
booted, because ROM is faster, and can handle moving the data and instructions faster than RAM
can.
The BIOS built-in software contains specific information about the computer and
motherboard it was designed for. If this information were to be stored on the hard drive
instead of on a ROM chip, and the hard drive stopped working, the computer could not function.
The system would react as if it had sudden and permanent amnesia, and everything would come
to a halt, quicker than you could bat an eyelash. The only fix would be a replacement.
The initial responsibility of the BIOS is to:
Provide a basic set of instructions to boot the computer.
Run POST (Power On Self Test)
Effect a workable routine with either an FDD boot-up disk or the HDD, through an interface, so
that the computer can be accessed.
Provide an interface between the motherboard and all other hardware, via a library of interrupt
handlers, for the operating system, so they can all work together.
During the first boot of the computer, after the motherboard and required hardware
and devices are physically installed, BIOS begins to record all that it finds, and sends
it to be stored in CMOS RAM. (Refer to CMOS RAM in the next section for more information.)
If on subsequent boots, devices or other important details in the computer change, so does the
record within CMOS. Therefore, ROM BIOS and CMOS RAM must both be present on the
motherboard, and be able to work together for the system to function. Sometimes, you have to
manually key-in changes and information about your system.
To manually key-in changes in the CMOS record, you need to press a specific key or
combination of keys on the keyboard, just after POST is finished, but before the

operating system is loaded. This will bring up a menu for your BIOS/CMOS
settings. You usually only have a few seconds to accomplish this, and the keys or
key sequence required are usually displayed on the screen. You will know when to
press the key or keys, because you will see instructions like <Press F10 to access Setup> or
<Press Delete to access Setup> when it is time. If for some reason you do not see the
instructions, you can use another computer to look it up on the Internet. Some of the key
combinations used with various BIOS chips are: DELETE or DEL, CTRL/ESC, CTRL/ALT/ESC, F10,
and F2.
ROM BIOS is read-only and cannot be changed by normal means. However, most
modern computers now come with FLASH ROM BIOS, which is upgradeable by special software
updates from the manufacturer, by any user, and without any special equipment. Of course the
user would have to know what they were doing. Even so, this lends to a tremendous advantage.
Permanently stored information about the hardware and system, could now be rectified or fixed
when bugs or problems were found. One only has to download the BIOS update from the
manufacturers web site, make a special back up of the old BIOS information to a floppy disk,
create a separate installation disk with the update that you downloaded, and then install the
updated information.
Prior to Flash BIOS, you only had one choice if something went wrong. If newer devices
were not compatible with the BIOS, or if the BIOS had no knowledge of newer devices and
components that you added to a computer, you were basically stuck. The only reasonable
alternative available was to replace the BIOS with a newer one. A big round of applause is due
to the inventors and implementers of Flash BIOS, for making our lives a little bit easier!
NOTE: Unless you are experienced and knowledgeable with updating the BIOS, DO
NOT attempt to update it. If done incorrectly, you can render the computer completely
unusable, or worse yet, permanently damaged. Even experienced technicians make a special
backup of the original BIOS before doing a flash update, because they know things can
sometimes go wrong. One more important note --- motherboard manufacturers purchase a
specially programmed BIOS chip from a BIOS manufacturer, that is specific to the motherboard it
will reside on. The BIOS is written with specific information for the motherboard, and cannot be
used in other motherboards, unless it is exactly the same as the one it came from. For instance,
AMI (American Megatrends Inc.) motherboards use AMI BIOS, but so do other motherboards
made by different manufacturers. If you tried to update your BIOS with the AMI BIOS update for
the AMI motherboard, and you had a different motherboard, you would most likely damage your
motherboard and its components. This would happen because it would not contain the correct
information and instructions needed for your particular motherboard.
Some motherboard BIOS configurations can be set to boot the computer, turn it off
(or on) at specific times or dates, or wake it up if a condition arises such as a FAX
coming in. However, this feature or ability is not available on all motherboards. The
determining factor is the motherboard manufacturer, and what was programmed into the BIOS
for the motherboard. Some motherboard manufacturers program their BIOS chips to
enable more user setup and configuration details than others. Many manufacturers
purposely hide many of the setup options to prevent accidental damage, because the settings are
extremely critical. Also read CMOS RAM (next) for more information on BIOS, as they both work
together.
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CMOS RAM
CMOS RAM (Memory for storing the hardware system information and setup.) It is powered by
the onboard battery, and continues to run even if the computer is turned off and unplugged. It
contains all the special settings for the particular motherboard, including system devices and
components that are connected to, or reside on the motherboard. When the PC is first booted or
turned on, the BIOS runs a special diagnostic check of the system to make sure that everything is
still there and working correctly, and also to see if anything new has been added or changed.
This check is called POST (short for Power On Self Test). POST happens every time you turn the
computer back on (cold or hard boot) and each time you reboot the computer by the reset
button (warm or soft boot).
In order for BIOS to run this check, it needs to know the specific detailed information
about the motherboard and system, and somehow keep a record for the next time the
PC is turned off and on. This task is accomplished by CMOS RAM. Its duty is to keep track of
everything connected to the motherboard in the PC, and to store it, so that it is there whenever
the information is needed. Additionally, the CMOS RAM information is needed during the entire
time that the computer is in use, so that every device and component can work seamlessly
together in harmony.
Therefore, when you turn the computer on, BIOS asks CMOS what is inside of the
computer, what is connected to the motherboard, and any special settings that are
required to make them all work together. CMOS replies with the answers, and then BIOS
checks to see if the detailed information that CMOS sent is correct, changed, or if anything new
has been added. If everything is in order, and the same as the previous time the computer was
on, then a normal boot occurs and the operating system is then loaded. If anything has changed
or was added, then either an automatic record is sent to CMOS to store for future use, or a
CMOS prompt pops up for you to accept or make configuration changes. If something is seriously
wrong, BIOS will halt the computer system and nothing further will be permitted to happen.
For instance, let's say that the keyboard was not connected when you turned on the computer.
BIOS would halt the computer, and tell you that there is a keyboard error. Additionally, you
would hear a BIOS BEEP CODE specific to the error encountered. (See BIOS Beep Code Study
Unit for more details.) If you tried to plug in the keyboard without first turning the computer off,
you could cause some serious damage to the controller, and since you cannot tell the computer
what to do without the keyboard input device, the BIOS decides that this is serious enough to
warrant termination of any further actions.
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CMOS & RTC Battery

CMOS & RTC Battery for the RTC and CMOS memory which is usually longlasting. If the battery does die, either the original can be replaced or a special
adapter which uses standard batteries can be installed. Special pins reside on
the motherboard for this purpose. If you find yourself having to reset the time
on your PC each time you shut it down and restart, or keep losing saved changes
to your CMOS setup configuration, then a dead battery is the most likely culprit. (NOTE: CMOS
(Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) is actually a misnomer in modern PC's, due to
the fact that these chips are no longer used. Everything is now contained in the BIOS. However,
you still need to have the ability to set up the system in the same way you did when there was a
separate CMOS chip. Since the purpose is the same, the name CMOS Setup is still used.)

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Plug & Play Motherboards

Modern PnP (Plug and Play) motherboards use a ROM BIOS that is also Plug and Play
compatible. PnP was developed by Intel in 1994, and eventually led to the improved UPnP
(Universal Plug and Play) in 1999. The ability to utilize PnP devices and features is dependent
upon the motherboard, which must have 32-bit technology, and the operating system, which also
must have 32-bit technology and be PnP compliant. If you tried to use a PnP device with a nonPnP BIOS or OS, you would have to install special device drivers that would need to be loaded
after POST has run. The drivers would have to be manually set up in the boot-up system
configuration files in order for the device to be recognized and work.
With PnP technology, each time the computer reboots or starts up, it is searched for
any new or changed devices in the computer. If found and recognized, the devices are
automatically configured for settings such as IRQ, DMA, and memory addressing, without
conflicting with other devices. Additionally, the device drivers should already be known and
available by the OS. PnP is supposed to enable devices to be connected to a motherboard
without having to set up individual settings or load special device drivers. The information about
the PnP device is kept on the device itself, and the operating system (Windows 95 and above)
are supposed to be able to recognize them. However, this is not always the case, and sometimes
you end up treating the device the same as non-PnP. It is because of this, and the fact that
troubleshooting buggy PnP devices is usually a difficult task, that Plug and Play
gained the title of Plug and Pray. (Meaning - Plug it in and Pray that it works.)
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RAM
RAM (Random Access Memory) sockets - The motherboard contains sockets for RAM (memory),
and can have more than one type of socket utilized for enabling different types of RAM to be
used in the system. RAM is upgradeable and comes in various sizes, types, and amounts. More
memory is always better, and the new RDRAM (RAMBUS Dynamic RAM) is extremely fast and
more reliable. If upgrading your motherboard, first check to see if your existing memory can still
be used in the new board. If not, you will need to purchase this separately, as your PC will not
run without RAM.
Every motherboard manual should and usually does contain information concerning
the correct type of memory to use for your system. In rare cases you may have to
research this information via the Internet or by contacting the manufacturer. Usually there are
various combination layouts and choices, depending on how much memory you wish to install on
your motherboard. Make sure you know the type of memory before making the purchase, and its
parity (set by an extra bit - odd or even, and used as the method for detecting errors in binarycoded data) It's a good idea to bring your manual with you, so that you do not purchase the
wrong kind. Some vendors will not accept a return of your purchase once you walk out the door.
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BUS

BUS - Various BUS slots that are used for attaching devices to the motherboard's BUS, which
includes the etched wire circuits throughout the motherboard. Every device needs an I/O
(Input/Output) address to be able to communicate. (Refer to the IRQ, DMA, & I/O Memory
Addresses Study Unit for more information on addressing.) The BUS is the communication transit
system on the motherboard, and the means by which everything communicates with each other.
There are usually four BUSES on modern computer systems. These include the Processor BUS,
Memory BUS, Cache BUS, Standard I/O BUS, Local I/O BUS. Connected to the BUS is the AGP
(Accelerated Graphics Port), which is a separate and newer branch (technically a port), similar to
the other BUSES, but is only used for video, whereas the other four are shared by all devices and
components.
One mistake that is commonly made with many people, is thinking that the adapter
card slots are the BUS. The BUS does include the adapter card BUS slots, but it also
encompasses the entire array of etched paths and wires on and around the complete circuit
board. Think of the BUS as a BUS route in a town or city, where a BUS vehicle travels along all
of the roadways, picking up and dropping off passengers. On the motherboard this is
synonymous to data and information traveling from place to place, including the BUS slots, but
not limited to them only. If the data and information was stuck in park, never moving from the
adapter slot BUS area, then anything not positioned in those slots would ever receive information
being sent between them.
In order for the BUS to work correctly, the devices and components in a computer
need addresses, just like in a city. (See the introduction in the first section of this study unit,
above for more about this analogy concerning the BUS.) In a city or town, the postmaster needs
to know the addresses of where to deliver mail. In the computer, the various devices and
components need addresses so that data and information can be delivered back and forth to
each other, in an accurate and errorless way. The bus is determined by its bit-width, or how
wide in bits it is, which therefore determines how much data or information can be transferred at
the same time. (bit-widths - 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit)
In order for a device to gain access to the BUS on the motherboard, it needs a
controller. Every I/O device in a computer is managed by a controller, which in addition to other
duties handles bus access operations for that device. The CPU pauses whenever the controller
requests an interrupt. Once this happens, a service called an interrupt handler proceeds to check
for errors, and then notifies the operating system when the I/O is finished with the request.
The bus can contain various adapter slots and types: The following table consists of the
type of adapter card slots and types that reside on a motherboard, which are connected to the
BUS. As the computer age progresses forward at lightening speed, new slots and types are
added and older generation types are removed from motherboards. Therefore, you will not see
all of the types listed below in every motherboard, as their inclusion is dependent upon the
manufacturer and design.
SLOT
ISA

NAME / YEAR

INFORMATION

1980's - Uses an 8 bit and 16 bit path.

Industry Standard Architecture
Originally developed for 8088, for 8bit
1984
computers. (pronounced eye-sa)

MCA

Micro Channel Architecture

1987

(IBM PS/2 system bus) - uses a 32 bit

path with 64 contacts.

EISA

Extended Industry Standard

Uses a 32 bit path. It is actually an

Architecture
1988

VLB
VL-BUS
VESA Local Bus

Video Electronics Standards

Association
1992

PCI

Peripheral Component
Interconnect
1993

AGP

AMR
ACR
CNR

Accelerated Graphics Port

(see previous)
1997

Extended ISA and was used for 80286

through 80486 computers. (pronounced
ee-sa)
32 bit path - About 4 inches longer than
ISA, and extends from one end of the
motherboard to the other end. If you ever
wondered what those extra grooved plates
were on the inside front of the computer
case, they are for lining up and keeping a
VL-BUS card stable. (pronounced veesa)
Pentium-based PC - provides a highbandwidth data channel - Uses a 64 bit
path - 33MHz - clocked 132 MB
throughput usually white in color, as
opposed to the other slots being brown.
64 bit path - 64 contacts- clocked [(2X
mode)33 MHz = 66MHz} = 528 MB
throughput (4X mode = 1066 MB/s) - for
true 3D - developed for fast video cards.
High speed video slightly shorter than a
PCI slot.

A low-cost solution designed to combine

Audio Modem Riser
audio, modem, and networking
Advanced Communications Riser
(broadband) technologies onto one card,
Communications Network Riser
but lacked PnP abilities. Uses software to
Late 1990's
replace hardware components to operate.
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BUS Slot Images

<<<< 8-bit ISA slot & 16-bit
ISA slot - notice how the 8bit
slot looks identical to the
first section of the 16bit slot.
8-bit slots were used in the
first generation of
computers, and were phased
out. An 8-bit card can fit in
the first section of a 16-bit
slot.

ISA Slot - 16-bit

AGP Slot

PCI Slot

AGP & PCI Slots as seen on motherboard - notice how the AGP is slightly set back.

ISA & PCI as seen on motherboard - notice the length differences and how PCI slot
is set back further than the ISA slot.
VLB Slot - Vesa Local Bus - The VLB slot extended the entire length of the board.
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CPU & Socket

CPU socket or slot - (Older systems (386 & older) had
a separate processor and math coprocessor, called the
ALU (arithmetic Logic Unit). However, modern systems,
beginning with the 486 and Pentiums, incorporate both in
the same chip. The CPU (Central Processing Unit) slot is
usually centrally located on the motherboard, and this
microprocessor is usually referred to as the brains of the computer. A
computer cannot operate without the CPU. It is one of the most important
components, if not the most important, that determines the speed and
capability of the motherboard and computer system. There are basically two
different types of CPU sockets that have been used on the motherboard.
These are the (1) LIF (Low Insertion Force) and (2) ZIF (Zero Insertion
Force).
The basic ZIF and LIF socket types are further broken down into several
variations. These variations are dependent upon the year and generation of the processor. A
complete table of the CPU Socket Types are listed in the CPU Study Unit. The list will not be
repeated here, however, a quick review of the socket types is a good idea when studying the
motherboard. On the left is a ZIF CPU socket. In the center square of the socket,
soldered to the motherboard, is a thermo resister, which is used to measure the
temperature of the CPU.
Keeping the motherboard CPU cool is extremely important, especially considering the
amount of heat they give off with current speed increases in CPU technology. Besides
the necessity of using a heat sink and fan to cool the CPU, it has become very important to
monitor it. This is accomplished by a thermo resister, and a special fan connection on the
motherboard for the fan, which uses one more wire in addition to the 2 wires used on ordinary
case fans. The information obtained from the thermo resistor is interlinked with the
motherboards monitoring system. If the CPU begins to get hotter, the system can speed up the
fans RPM (revolutions per minute). Additionally, it can let you know what is going on, and even

help to shut the system down to prevent CPU damage.

One word of caution needs to be mentioned here in the CPU section. If you are going to
upgrade your CPU, make absolutely sure of the processors that your current motherboard will
support. The CPU is one of the most expensive components on the motherboard, and you will
not be able to bring it back to the vendor/dealer once you walk out the door. Additionally, if your
processor is of the LIF types, the pins can be easily damaged when trying to insert it into the
socket. Now that you understand these two important points, be careful, or you could end up
with a loss instead of better PC. On the right are the front and back views of an AMD
Athlon CPU. (See the CPU Study Unit for more detail on the CPU.
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Cooling
Most modern motherboards incorporate special connector pins for attaching wires of
strategically located Fans inside the PC case, including the CPU Fan with its attached
heat sink (See CPU note below). These pins are used for distributing power to the fans, which
eliminates the necessity to connect to the power supply cabling, and leaves more power supply
cabling available for other devices. Additionally, these motherboard pins can include the ability
for controlling the fan functions. Not much explanation is needed about the purpose of a fan
which is used with one purpose in mind --- COOLING! With every technology upgrade, geared
towards faster-running computers, comes the unwanted desire of increased heat. Since it is one
of the major destruction factors in a PC, the problem of heat has led to the necessity of more
than just the power supply and CPU fans for heat dispersion and removal away from the
motherboard, chips and other components. Additional strategically located fans are added to the
case which houses the motherboard, for the purpose of keeping the killer heat down.
Some newer motherboards, such as ASUS Athlon series, use the combined pin connector function
and design for the CPU fan, power supply fan, and other case cooling fans, so that they can be
monitored and controlled for optimum performance and lifespan. Usually, software is also
included (needs to be installed) to work with the OS (operating system) to enable these special
features, including the fans RPM (Revolutions Per Minute). Some of these will even page you
when you are away, to let you know that something is wrong, and can also shut the system
completely down if a major problem occurs, to prevent damage.)
CPU NOTE: The heat sink is attached securely to the CPU, and is used to draw the heat out of
and away from the CPU. In turn, a fan is then attached to the heat sink to draw the heat from
the CPU via the heat sink. Without these, the CPU would most certainly burn out. For the
purpose of monitoring capabilities, the CPU fan is connected directly to special motherboard pins,
instead of to the power supply. (See the CPU Study Unit for more detail on the CPU heat sink and
fans.)
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Onboard CACHE RAM

Onboard CACHE RAM (pronounced cash) - Motherboards contain slots or sockets that
the CACHE is inserted into. Cache is sometimes upgradeable to larger capacities
depending on the motherboard design and limitations, and is usually included in the
purchase of the motherboard. However, newer systems are now being
manufactured with the cache RAM soldered to the motherboard, and
therefore are not upgradeable, as seen in the picture to the left. Barebones
motherboard purchases usually contain the minimum amount required, whereas more
expensive specialized motherboard purchases will contain more. Depending on your
available purchasing funds, having more is always better. Onboard CACHE is extremely
fast (faster than RAM) and is used for temporary and recently used data memory
storage. This helps to speed up the system performance.
There are two types, called L1 (Level 1) & L2 (Level 2). L1 (primary cache) is built into the CPU,
and L2 (secondary cache) is external and resides on the motherboard. The CPU checks L1 (the
fastest memory) first for data, and if it cannot be found there, it checks L2 (slower than L1, but
still very fast - also called SRAM - Static RAM). If the CPU cannot find the data in L1 or L2, it
begins to search in the PC's slowest memory, which is called RAM.
TAG RAM was a memory component, used for a while on some motherboards (old boards with
Intel's 430HX chipset), to increase the cacheable area of RAM. Its main purpose was to store the
memory addresses and helped to increase the processing of data by the CPU. Since the
limitations of speed were overcome with newer CPU versions, it is no longer used. Tag Ram
can be seen in the picture above. It is the smaller chip located below the L2 cache
chip.
COAST RAM - (CACHE ON A STICK) Some older motherboards had an additional extension
socket for adding more CACHE RAM, in the form of a plug-in module. This was used, and only
included if the motherboard had very little CACHE RAM. Almost all modern motherboards come
with factory installed onboard CACHE RAM.
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Jumpers & Pins

Jumpers (see Cables & Connectors Study Unit) incorporate the use of pins on a motherboard,
and are like switches that are used to enable or disable functions, or to make necessary
management changes that are needed for specific devices or components that you add to a PC.
They are used to change the parameters of a motherboard, and can only be set to on or off.
For example, you may have purchased a motherboard with onboard video. (This is where the
video card is actually integrated into the motherboard itself.) Later on, you may decide to
purchase a new video card because of its special or latest features. In
order for you to be able to use the newer video card, you will need to
disable the existing onboard video. This is usually accomplished by a
jumper. Additionally, you may need to make changes in the BIOS
setup. Onboard sound, memory, voltage, features, and other
components can be controlled by jumpers also, and in the same way.
The pins will have specific labels for what they do, and your
motherboard manual will have a breakdown of what each
jumper is for. You can easily see which pins on the motherboard use

jumpers, by looking for imprinted letter/number labels next to them, such as J4, J6 or J11, and
so forth. Sometimes more than one set of jumper pins, set in the on or off position, are needed
to enable or disable one function. The newer generations of motherboards use less jumpers than
the older ones did, especially in motherboards that are plug and play capable. Pictured here is
a 2 pin configuration. The jumper is hanging off of pin 2 for illustrative purposes.
Some motherboards may incorporate physical pins and jumpers for setting the IRQ (Interrupt
Request Line) and DMA (Direct Memory Access) options for ports, but usually this is only done
(but not always) on motherboards that have these ports integrated into the motherboard itself.
Pin Connectors - In addition to utilizing pins on the motherboard for on/off switches with
jumpers, there are various other pins used for additional purposes. Their location and layout is
dependent upon the motherboard, case, and manufacturer designs. The motherboard manual
will contain diagrams and information on how to connect to these pins, and the case should
contain information on how to connect it to the motherboard.
Included in this list are:
LED's -( Light Emitting Diodes) which are used as light indicators for on/off or in-use
conditions.
Power on/off switch and indicator
Keylock switches -locks and disables the keyboard, thereby disabling the use of the
computer.
Internal PC speaker connector
Power provision connectors (including fans - see above)
Reset switch and related LED indication connector
HDD (Hard Disk Drive) - ATA and IDE activity LED indicator. (ATA - Advanced Technology
Attachment, IDE - Integrated Drive Electronics)
Additionally, there may be a Turbo switch connector and its related LED indicator, but these are
older standards that were used in past generations of AT (Advanced Technology) and XT
(Extended Technology) computers for changing the speed of the processor. Back when the
computer and processor speed of computers began to increase significantly, older software
programs and applications would not work properly because they could not keep up with the
speed. To fix this problem, turbo switching was incorporated which would slow down the speed
to enable the software to work. Modern cases and motherboards have phased out the use of the
turbo button, and if it is included, it is only there for compatibility with older form factor
components. Usually included, in addition to the turbo switch and its on/off indicator were LED
speed indicator panels. These panels had numerous jumpers on the back which had to be set
according to the two speed abilities of the computer. They were supposed to indicate the speed,
in numeric value, that the computer was running at, but did not have the ability to register
accurate speeds. They only indicated a high or low condition for the two preset numbers coded
into the LED panel by jumpers.
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Keyboard Controller
Obviously, the computer could not function without a means to INPUT information and
commands by the user. The keyboard is the main input device used to accomplish this, and a
computer will not run without one. It has a controller which interfaces with the motherboards

corresponding controller. The motherboards keyboard controller is also used for providing access
to PS/2 mice (Personal System/2 originated with IBM) and the HMA (High Memory Area), which
is not to be confused with UMA (Upper Memory Area).
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Super I/O Controller

In the original and older PC motherboards, microprocessor control chips were not
used to control input and output. The I/O control was accomplished through a
special I/O card, which in turn, was inserted into one of the BUS adapter card
slots on the motherboard. Individual I/O devices and components connected to
this card for interfacing with the motherboard (both internally and externally).
Prior to the inception of the Super I/O Controller, individual chips were used to
control each of the input and output functions in a computer, and were imbedded into the
motherboard. The newer enhanced Super I/O controller is a special chip that is used to
control more than one device. This newer controller incorporates many of the individual
chips into a single chip, which not only saves on production cost, but additionally improves and
simplifies input and output control. This controller is becoming the standard for controlling
computer input and output.
Generally, it incorporates controller chip functions for the:
Floppy Disk
Parallel Port
Serial Port
Depending on the chip and manufacturer, this controller may be plug and play
compliant, and may include the controller for the keyboard, PS/2 mouse, tape drives,
power interfaces, and many more. Additionally, this controller can incorporate Wake-Up
technology (the ability for a device to wake up the computer from a standby or sleep mode, such
as when a FAX arrives via the communication port).
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Internal Connectors
In addition to the motherboard pin connectors listed
above, there are other internal connectors that are
used to connect devices to the motherboard, such as
the connectors pictured here.
These include the:
Primary IDE HDD connector
Secondary IDE HDD connector
Floppy Drive Connector (FDD)
USB (Universal Serial Bus) and IrDA (Infrared Data Association) mini add-in circuit board

connectors
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External Connectors
To enable the connection of external peripherals to the motherboards internal connectors, or
directly to the motherboard there are external connectors. With the exception of the keyboard
connector, the external connectors are usually connected to the motherboard via a flat ribbon
interface cable, unless they are coming directly off of an adapter card.
These include:
Serial port connectors - D-shell - 9-pin (female) or 25 pin (male)
Parallel port connectors - D-shell 25-pin (female)
Keyboard connector (either a PS/2 type - DIN-6 Mini, DIN-9 Mini, or the larger DIN-5 type.)
Mouse connector (either a (PS/2 type - DIN-6 Mini or DIN-9 Bus mouse type) Since the serial
mouse is connected to the serial port it is not listed in this item.
Video Display connector - (D-shell 15-pin, three-row female connector)
Game / Midi Port connector - (D-shell 15-pin, two-row female connector)
Power connector - (standard 3 prong wall-outlet type connector)
Firewire connectors - (6 wire jack, shaped like an oval-arched doorway or window shaped jack)
Telephone and Network connectors - (RJ-11 and RJ-45) (RJ - Registered Jack)
USB connectors - (uses a small rectangular female jack, for the corresponding male connector
cable) (also used for infrared device connection) USB was developed by INTEL, in 1996, and
enabled the connection of portable devices and peripherals to computers without having to
open the case to install it. USB uses Hot-Swappable technology, which means devices and
peripherals can be connected as needed, externally, via a special USB cable, and not have to
reside permanently inside the case. It also enables easy sharing of devices with other
computers. However, the device must be installed the first time, if it is not recognized by the
OS. Once it is recognized, the OS will auto-open any applications needed as soon as you plug
in the device, and without the need to shut down and reboot the computer. Although there
really does not seem to be a logical reason at present, the USB interface allows up to 127
peripherals or devices to plug sequentially into a single external port, using just a
single interrupt and port address.
For more detailed information about connector and cable types, see the Cables & Connectors
Study Unit.
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Connector Images

Motherboard External I/O connectors

25 Pin External Serial/Com Port

(enlarged - approximately the same size
as the Parallel Port connector, but is a
male connector as opposed to female.)
External Midi/Joystick
& Audio Connectors
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Performance Factors
The bus architecture and type of components incorporated in the motherboard
determine a computers performance. A motherboard comes pre-defined with what can
connect to it, clocking ability, amount and type of memory it can use (including ROM and RAM),
the type of power supply it can use, CPU type and speed, voltage limits, and the type of case
that it can fit in. When a computer or motherboard is purchased without any special frills or
extras, it is described as "bare bones."
If you are trying to build a computer for a specific purpose, and are planning on adding your
special preference of components and devices so that it will work with your needs in mind, then
you should start out with a bare bones system and add to it. If you are going to build a system,
including a new motherboard, then you should buy one with the latest technologies and
capabilities that fit your needs, so that it can be used for a couple of years before you need to
upgrade again.
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A Few Words Of Caution!

Before we continue any further, a few words of caution need to be brought up which falls under
the category of "Caveat Emptor" which means let the "BUYER BEWARE". Be especially
careful of purchasing bargain specials that seem too good to be true. Many times, these
bargains are older systems that are "glorified". This means that an older motherboard has been
modified with just enough changed components or parts to legally be able to classify it as a
newer model. However, the bus and many other changed designs that are incorporated in a

genuine, brand name newer system will not be present, and the performance will not be as good
as you would expect.
This does not mean that all specials or bargains are not a good buy. There are times when
special promotions of a new product are offered at an incredibly low price. Once you begin to
understand what the motherboard and system consist of, and how everything works, you will be
able to decipher the difference between a true bargain and a glorified older machine. Believe it
or not, there are some exceptional systems and components available at incredibly low prices.
You just need to look for them.
Additionally, always make your purchases from a reliable and trusted vendor/dealer or store, do
your pre-purchase research, and compare before you buy. Use the Internet, retail stores, and
Computer Show & Fairs for your comparison shopping. Specific monthly Assessments are
included within the PC Technology Workshop to help you learn how to research, shop and
compare when making complete PC purchases, or building your own system component-bycomponent.
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Motherboard Form Factor

The motherboard form factor plays a large role in:
Type of case can be used to house it
Drive bay line-up
Keyboard and port connector line-up
Adapter Card lineup
Power supply type
Wiring and connections used, especially power supply and switch connectors, and the
difference between AT and ATX form factors
Location of mounting holes
Hardware used (nuts, bolts, screws, washers, risers, insulators, metal and plastic standoffs, slot
covers, etc.) In the NLX quick-remove motherboards, nuts and bots were used at a minimum or
not at all.
There are a few additional minor differences, but those listed above are the major ones to be
concerned with when trying to match a motherboard to a case. Many have found a fantastic
case at a great price, only to come home and find out that the motherboard and case will not line
up or work together. This can present a very awkward and frustrating situation. However, if you
understand the differences between form factors, you will be less likely to not make the above
mistake.
Form factors for motherboards are related to the year they were made, the
manufacturer, the design built into the motherboard (shape, size, layout), type and
layout of adaptor ports, AT or ATX form, and power distribution. The AT form factor
introduced the first PS/2 computer. Since then, there are basically two different styles that have
been used, the AT and ATX. There are many motherboards within these two styles, which
contain modifications and variations from the original. However, they basically still categorized
with either the AT or ATX.

The style and design of the Baby AT led to the ATX, introduced by Intel in
1995, and is the major form factor standard used today. Essentially, it is an
improved Baby that presented a lot of advantages over the original Baby AT. The
changes were developed to reduce cost, provide support for current and new
technologies, set a defined standard, and provide for a more user friendly design
and setup.
The two
images, in this paragraph, show side-by-side form
factor
similarities and differences in the Baby AT and the
ATX
motherboards. The back of each motherboard, with the
I/O
connections, are both located on the left side of each
motherboard
picture. Notice the change in length x width dimensions, yet
the similarities in the actual size of the motherboards. Additionally, the CPU was moved from
behind the BUS slots in the Baby AT, and completely over to the other side, by the RAM slots in
the ATX. This improved clearance for adapter cards in the BUS slots, and also gave the CPU a
cooler, less crowded area to breathe in.
The form factor table in the next section does not list all of the motherboard &
computer models throughout the history of computing. Those listed are for the
purpose of representing Form Factor changes and differences.
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FORM FACTOR TABLE

Form Factor

Model

Year

Footprint
width x length

XT
First Personal
Computer

IBM PC

1981

12" x 13.8"

XT
Extended
Technology

IBM XT

1983

12" x 13.8"

Full AT
Advanced
Technology

IBM PC AT

1984

12" x 13.8"

Baby AT

IBM 286 onward

1984
1989

8.57" x 13.04"
9" x 10"

LPX

Western Digital

1987

9.00" x 13.00"

ATX
Advanced
Technology
Extended

INTEL

1995

12" x 9.6"

Mini ATX

INTEL

1997

11.2" x 8.2"

Micro ATX

INTEL

1998

9.6" square

LPX/Micro ATX
Combo

---

1998

9.00" x 13.00"

NLX

INTEL

1998

8.0" x 10.0"
(minimum)
9.0" x 13.6"
(maximum)

WTX
Workstation
Technologies
Extended

INTEL

1998

14"x16.75"
(maximum)

Flex APX

INTEL

1999

9" x 7.5"

Flex APX
(Revised)

VIA Technologies

2000

8.5" x 7.5"

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More Form Factor Information

Many components that were originally difficult to connect and mount in the AT were
changed in the ATX. The changes and additional information not listed in the form factor table
(above) are listed here.
Some of these changes were the actual integration of components into the motherboard,
that previously were connected as individual parts to the motherboard, and mounted to the
outside openings in the case. These included I/O connectors, and the PS/2 mouse and
keyboard connector.
This led to the idea of integrating sound and video into the motherboard, thereby
cutting cost and eliminating the need for separate adapter cards.
The CPU location was moved on the motherboard, away from the BUS slots, and
reduced interference with adapter cards, which enabled a more efficient use of full-sized cards.
Cooling became more efficient by changing the direction that air flowed in and out of
the case, which also aided the problem of dust build-up.
Power supply to motherboard connector modified - The AT had two main power supply
connectors, and the ATX changed this to one, which made it less confusing and easier to plug
in to the motherboard.
Power consumption was reduced by changing the motherboard design to use 3-volts
coming from the power supply instead of the original 5-volts in the AT.
Finally, the size (width and length) was reduced, making it easier to work with the
motherboard while it was in the case, and leaving more room for air-flow and management of
cables and devices.
LPX - This board was designed with a relocation of expansion slots for adapter cards.
Expansion slots were removed from the motherboard and in its place was a single riser slot,
usually located in the middle of the board. Instead of all adapter cards residing on the
motherboard, they resided in slots located on the riser expansion card. This enabled a smaller
case size, accomplished by having the adapter cards to be inserted and lay horizontally, and
parallel to the motherboard. The downfall of the LPX was that less adapter cards could be used
(usually only two or three), and they are not easy to expand or upgrade.
Mini ATX (Same as ATX, but with an approximate 7/8" cut in length and width size)
Micro ATX (addressed newer technologies, higher AGP graphics solutions, and a smaller
motherboard and power supply.)
Flex APX (As in its name, it added more flexibility towards developer creation of new designs,
which was seen in all-in-one computer systems, LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) portable
computers, and also in desktop computer systems.)

WTX (Developed by Intel for PC based workstations and servers.) The Extended ATX (EATX)
was developed for high-end performance, prior to the WTX, and was used primarily in
workstations and servers.
NLX - An LPX motherboard with changes, including the
move of the riser card to the edge of the board with
more slots added for adapter cards, the inclusion of
newer technologies including Intel's AGP (1997) and PCI
(1993), rearrangement of the layout of memory and
other tall components so that there was no interference
with the adapter cards, stacking of integrated I/O ports
externally and closer together in rows, and incorporating
quick-remove motherboards (usually no screws).

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Chipset Manufacturers
The chipset controls the flow of data bits between the motherboard bus, CPU and
RAM. The chipset has been likened to the heart of the computer, in the same way that the CPU
is like the computer brain. Since each succeeding CPU is different in the way it handles data and
information transfer, the chipset used in a motherboard must match the processor generation
and the way it works and handles instructions. Additionally, the chipset for the motherboard
must be able to keep up with the speed of the CPU.
The motherboard chipsets must also be aligned to work and interface efficiently with the
motherboards:
Onboard Cache (see L1, L2)
Memory (see RAM)
Timing and Flow Control (see RTC)
Peripheral and I/O BUS Control (see BUS & PCB)
Power Management of the Motherboard. (APM - Advanced Power Management)
The following table contains a list of chipset manufacturers and their home page URL. You will
need to browse their site for information about the individual chipsets, support and related
downloads.
NOTE: Before you check for downloads or specifications from a chipset manufacturer, you
should first check with the motherboard manufacturer. The reason for this is the same as for the
BIOS. Chipsets are designed and programmed for the specific motherboard that they are to be
used in. Therefore, different motherboards will have different chipsets than others, even if they
appear to be identical. Downloading the wrong drivers, can cause irreparable harm to your
computer, or at the very least cause you a lot of frustration and time to fix the errors.

Manufacturer

Home Page

ALi
(Acer Laboratories Inc.)

http://www.ali.com.tw/

AMD
(Advanced Micro Devices Inc.)

http://www.amd.com/us-en/

Intel

http://www.intel.com/

OPTi

http://www.opti.com

SiS
(Silicon Integrated Systems)

http://www.sis.com.tw/

UMC

http://www.umc.com.tw/

VIA Technologies, Inc.

http://www.via.com.tw/

Browse to this link for Additional access to Chipset Manufacturers.

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Motherboard Manufacturers
The following table contains a list of motherboard manufacturers and their home page URL.
Since motherboard manufacturers change as technologies advance, it would be a daunting task
to try and keep them all listed here, as well as their corresponding URL. Listed below are as
many as currently possible, as of this writing. If you need to find drivers or other motherboard
information, this is the place to go. Additionally, in the previous section, there is a list of chipset
manufacturers.
NOTE: Read the paragraph preceding the chipset manufacturer table before downloading any
drivers. This warning is additionally mentioned here, due to the important and serious
differences between chipsets and the motherboards they reside on.
To identify the motherboard manufacturer for your computer, you need to reboot your computer
and write down the BIOS ID string, which will appear at the bottom of your monitor's display
screen when your computer first boots up. You will need to press the PAUSE/BREAK key as
soon as you see the number appear (usually during the POST memory check), or the computer
will continue booting before you can record the number. The sixth and seventh digits (alpha and
numeric) are the code number for your motherboard manufacturer. This list is provided for your
convenience.
Manufacturer

Home Page

ABIT Computer Corp.

http://www.abit-usa.com/

AMI
(American Megatrends Inc.)

http://www.megatrends.com/

AOpen
(Acer Open)

http://www.aopen.com.tw/

ASUStek

http://www.asus.com.tw/

Chaintech

http://www.chaintech.com.tw/

DataExpert

http://www.dataexpert.com.tw/

DFI
(Diamond Flower Electric Instrument Company
Inc.)

http://www.dfi.com/

ECS
(Elitegroup Computer Systems)

http://www.ecs.com.tw/

EPoX Computer

http://www.epox.com/

FIC
(First International Computer Inc.)

http://www.fic.com.tw/

FREETECH
(Flexus Computer Technology Inc.)

http://www.freetech.com/

Gigabyte

http://www.giga-byte.com/

INTEL

http://www.intel.com/

I-WILL
(aka SIDE)

http://www.iwillusa.com/home/home.asp

J-Mark

http://www.j-mark.com/

Microstar

http://www.msi.com.tw/

Microway

http://www.microway.com/

Octek
(aka Ocean)

http://www.octek.com.hk/

PC Chips

http://www.pcchips.com/

QDI

http://www.qdigrp.com/

Shuttle

http://www.spacewalker.com/

Soyo

http://www.soyo.com/

SuperMicro

http://www.supermicro.com/

Tyan

http://www.tyan.com/

Zida

http://www.zida.com