THE BYSTANDER’S DILEMMA

The Banality
of HEROISM
Circumstances can force almost anyone to be a bystander to evil,
but they can also bring out our own inner hero. Zeno Franco and
Philip Zimbardo show how we’re all capable of everyday heroism.
thirty-five years ago, one of us scheduled to last two weeks, ended abrup- the permeability of that line. Some people
(Philip Zimbardo) launched what is known tly after six days. are on the good side only because situa-
as the Stanford Prison Experiment. Twen- As we have come to understand the tions have never coerced or seduced them
ty-four young men, who had responded to psychology of evil, we have realized that to cross over.
a newspaper ad calling for participants in such transformations of human character This is true not only for perpetrators
a study, were randomly assigned roles as are not as rare as we would like to believe. of torture and other horrible acts, but for
“prisoners” or “guards” in a simulated jail in Historical inquiry and behavioral science people who commit a more common kind
Stanford University’s psychology depart- have demonstrated the “banality of evil” of wrong—the wrong of taking no action
ment. The “prisoners” were arrested at their —that is, under certain conditions and when action is called for. Whether we con-
homes by real police officers, booked, and social pressures, ordinary people can com- sider Nazi Germany or Abu Ghraib prison,
brought to the jail. Everything from the mit acts that would otherwise be unthink- there were many people who observed
deliberately humiliating prison uniforms to able. In addition to the Stanford Prison what was happening and said nothing. At
the cell numbers on the laboratory doors to Experiment, studies conducted in the 1960s Abu Ghraib, one photo shows two soldiers
the mandatory strip searches and delousing by Stanley Milgram at Yale University also smiling before a pyramid of naked pris-
were designed to replicate the depersonal- revealed the banality of evil. The Milgram oners while a dozen other soldiers stand
izing experience of being in a real prison. experiments asked participants to play the around watching passively. If you observe
The men who were assigned to be guards role of a “teacher,” who was responsible for such abuses and don’t say, “This is wrong!
were given khaki uniforms, mirrored administering electric shocks to a “learner” Stop it!” you give tacit approval to contin-
glasses, and billy clubs. when the learner failed to answer test ques- ue. You are part of the silent majority that
The idea was to study the psychology tions correctly. The participants were not makes evil deeds more acceptable.
of imprisonment—to see what happens aware that the learner was working with In the Stanford Prison Experiment, for
when you put good people in a dehuman- the experimenters and did not actually instance, there were the “good guards” who
izing place. But within a matter of hours, receive any shocks. As the learners failed maintained the prison. Good guards, on
what had been intended as a controlled more and more, the teachers were instruct- the shifts when the worst abuses occurred,
experiment in human behavior took on a ed to increase the voltage intensity of the never did anything bad to the prisoners,
disturbing life of its own. After a prisoner shocks—even when the learners started but not once over the whole week did
rebellion on the second day of the experi- screaming, pleading to have the shocks they confront the other guards and say,
ment, the guards began using increasingly stop, and eventually stopped responding “What are you doing? We get paid the
degrading forms of punishment, and the altogether. Pressed by the experiment- same money without knocking ourselves
prisoners became more and more passive. ers—serious looking men in lab coats, out.” Or, “Hey, remember those are college
Each group rapidly took on the behaviors who said they’d assume responsibility for students, not prisoners.” No good guard
associated with their role, not because the consequences—most participants did ever intervened to stop the activities of the
of any particular internal predisposition not stop administering shocks until they bad guards. No good guard ever arrived a
or instructions from the experimenters, reached 300 volts or above—already in the minute late, left a minute early, or publicly
but rather because the situation itself so lethal range. The majority of teachers deliv- complained. In a sense, then, it’s the good
powerfully called for the two groups to ered the maximum shock of 450 volts. guard who allowed such abuses to happen.
assume their new identities. Interestingly, We all like to think that the line between The situation dictated their inaction, and
even the experimenters were so caught up good and evil is impermeable—that people their inaction facilitated evil.
in the drama that they lost objectivity, only who do terrible things, such as commit But because evil is so fascinating, we
terminating the out-of-control study when murder, treason, or kidnapping, are on the have been obsessed with focusing upon and
an objective outsider stepped in, reminding evil side of this line, and the rest of us could analyzing evildoers. Perhaps because of
them of their duty to treat the participants never cross it. But the Stanford Prison Ex- the tragic experiences of the Second World
humanely and ethically. The experiment, periment and the Milgram studies revealed War, we have neglected to consider the flip

30 Greater Good Fall / Winter 2006-07

 believe it has become necessary to revisit
the historical meanings of the word, and
to make it come alive in modern terms. By
concentrating more on this high watermark
of human behavior, it is possible to foster
what we term “heroic imagination,” or the
development of a personal heroic ideal.
This heroic ideal can help guide a person’s
behavior in times of trouble or moral
uncertainty.

What is heroism?
Frank De Martini was an architect who
had restored his own Brooklyn brown-
stone. He enjoyed old cars, motorcycles,
sailing, and spending time with his wife,
Nicole, and their two children.
After the hijacked planes struck the
World Trade Center on September 11, 2001,
De Martini, a Port Authority construc-
tion manager at the Center, painstakingly
searched the upper floors of the North
Tower to help victims trapped by the attack.
De Martini was joined by three colleagues:
Pablo Ortiz, Carlos DaCosta, and Pete
Negron. Authors Jim Dwyer and Kevin
Flynn piece together the movements of De
Brad Aldridge Martini and his colleagues in their book,
102 Minutes: The Untold Story of the Fight to
side of the banality of evil: Is it also possible tendencies. The first is to ascribe very rare Survive Inside the Twin Towers. The evidence
that heroic acts are something that anyone personal characteristics to people who suggests that these four men were able to
can perform, given the right mind-set and do something special—to see them as save 70 lives, moving from problem to prob-
conditions? Could there also be a “banality superhuman, practically beyond com- lem, using just crowbars and flashlights—the
of heroism”? parison to the rest of us. The second is the only tools available. There are indications
The banality of heroism concept sug- trap of inaction—sometimes known as the that De Martini was becoming increasingly
gests that we are all potential heroes wait- “bystander effect.” Research has shown concerned about the structural integrity of
ing for a moment in life to perform a heroic that the bystander effect is often motivated the building, yet he and his men continued
deed. The decision to act heroically is a by diffusion of responsibility, when differ- to work to save others rather than evacuat-
choice that many of us will be called upon ent people witnessing an emergency all ing when they had the chance. All four men
to make at some point in time. By con- assume someone else will help. Like the died in the collapse of the tower.
ceiving of heroism as a universal attribute “good guards,” we fall into the trap of inac- These were not men who were known
of human nature, not as a rare feature of tion when we assume it’s someone else’s previously as larger-than-life heroes, but
the few “heroic elect,” heroism becomes responsibility to act the hero. surely, most of us would call their actions
something that seems in the range of pos- In search of an alternative to this inac- on September 11 heroic. But just what is
sibilities for every person, perhaps inspiring tion and complicity with evil, we have been heroism?
more of us to answer that call. investigating the banality of heroism. Our Heroism is different than altruism.
Even people who have led less than initial research has allowed us to review Where altruism emphasizes selfless acts
exemplary lives can be heroic in a particu- example after example of people who have that assist others, heroism entails the
lar moment. For example, during Hurricane done something truly heroic, from indi- potential for deeper personal sacrifice.
Katrina, a young man named Jabar Gibson, viduals who enjoy international fame to The core of heroism revolves around
who had a history of felony arrests, did those whose names have never even graced the individual’s commitment to a noble
something many people in Louisiana con- the headlines in a local newspaper. This purpose and the willingness to accept the
sidered heroic: He commandeered a bus, has led us to think more critically about the consequences of fighting for that purpose.
loaded it with residents of his poor New definition of heroism, and to consider the Historically, heroism has been most
Orleans neighborhood, and drove them to situational and personal characteristics that closely associated with military service;
safety in Houston. Gibson’s “renegade bus” encourage or facilitate heroic behavior. however, social heroism also deserves
arrived at a relief site in Houston before any Heroism is an idea as old as humanity close examination. While Achilles is held
government sanctioned evacuation efforts. itself, and some of its subtleties are becom- up as the archetypal war hero, Socrates’
The idea of the banality of heroism ing lost or transmuted by popular culture. willingness to die for his values was also a
debunks the myth of the “heroic elect,” Being a hero is not simply being a good heroic deed. Heroism in service to a noble
a myth that reinforces two basic human role model or a popular sports figure. We idea is usually not as dramatic as heroism

Fall / Winter 2006-07 Greater Good 31

THE BYSTANDER’S DILEMMA

All Stanford Prison Experiment photos: Philip G. Zimbardo, Inc.

that involves immediate physical peril. Yet peril or a profound social sacrifice. The his execution by the British army. There
social heroism is costly in its own way, physical risks that firefighters take in the was nothing to be done in that moment
often involving loss of financial stability, line of duty are clearly heroic in nature. except to decide how he submitted to
lowered social status, loss of credibility, Social sacrifices are more subtle. For death—with fortitude or with fear. The
arrest, torture, risks to family members, example, in 2002, Tom Cahill, a researcher words he uttered in his final moments
and, in some cases, death. at the University of California, Davis, risked (borrowed from Joseph Addison’s play
These different ways of engaging with his credibility as a career scientist by call- Cato), “I regret that I have but one life to
the heroic ideal suggest a deeper, more ing a press conference to openly challenge give for my country,” are remembered
intricate definition of heroism. Based on the EPA’s findings that the air near Ground more than two centuries later as a symbol
our own analysis of many acts that we Zero was safe to breathe in the aftermath of strength.
deem heroic, we believe that heroism of the September 11 attacks. His willing- Finally, heroism can be a sudden, one
is made up of at least four independent ness to “go public” was challenged by the time act, or something that persists over a
dimensions. government and by some fellow scientists. longer period of time. This could mean that
First, heroism involves some type of Like Cahill, whistleblowers in government heroism may be an almost instantaneous
quest, which may range from the preserva- and business often face ostracism, physical reaction to a situation, such as when a self-
tion of life (Frank De Martini’s efforts at threat, and the loss of their jobs. described “average guy” named Dale Sayler
the World Trade Center) to the preserva- Third, the heroic act can either be pas- pulled an unconscious driver from a vehicle
tion of an ideal (Dr. Martin Luther King, sive or active. We often think of heroics as about to be hit by an oncoming train.
Jr.’s pursuit of equal rights for African a valiant activity, something that is clearly Alternatively, it may be a well thought-out
Americans). observable. But some forms of heroism series of actions taking place over days,
Second, heroism must have some form involve passive resistance or an unwilling- months, or a lifetime. For instance, in 1940,
of actual or anticipated sacrifice or risk. ness to be moved. Consider Revolutionary a Japanese consul official in Lithuania,
This can be either some form of physical War officer Nathan Hale’s actions before Chiune Sugihara, signed more than 2,000

32 Greater Good Fall / Winter 2006-07

 Many of the guards in the Stanford Prison Experiment didn’t speak see this line while others are blind to it?
out when they witnessed disturbing abuse by their fellow guards; Why do some people take responsibility
nearly 30 years later, guards at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq acted in for a situation when others succumb to the
nearly the same way. bystander effect?
Just as in the Stanford Prison Experi-
ment and the Milgram studies, the situation
and the personal characteristics of each

Under certain
person caught up in the situation interact in
unique ways. We remain unsure how these
personal characteristics combine with the

conditions
situation to generate heroic action, but we
have some preliminary ideas. The case of
Sugihara’s intervention on behalf of the

and social
Jews is particularly instructive.
Accounts of Sugihara’s life show us that
his efforts to save Jewish refugees was a

pressures,
dramatic finale to a long list of smaller
efforts, each of which demonstrated a
willingness to occasionally defy the strict

ordinary
social constraints of Japanese society in
the early 20th century. For example, he
did not follow his father’s instructions to

people can
become a doctor, pursuing language study
and civil service instead; his first wife was
not Japanese; and in the 1930s, Sugihara
resigned from a prestigious civil service

commit acts position to protest the Japanese military’s

treatment of the Chinese during the
occupation of Manchuria. These incidents

that would suggest that Sugihara already possessed

the internal strength and self-assurance
necessary to be guided by his own moral

otherwise be compass in uncertain situations. We can

speculate that Sugihara was more willing

unthinkable.
to assert his individual view than others
around him who preferred to “go along to
get along.”
Also, Sugihara was bound to two differ-
visas for Jews hoping to escape the Nazi bystanders, situations also have immense ent codes: He was a sworn representative
invasion, despite his government’s direct power to bring out heroic actions in people of the Japanese government, but he was
orders not to do so. Every morning when who never would have considered them- raised in a rural Samurai family. Should he
Sugihara got up and made the same deci- selves heroes. In fact, the first response of obey his government’s order to not help
sion to help, every time he signed a visa, he many people who are called heroes is to Jews (and, by extension, comply with his
acted heroically and increased the likeli- deny their own uniqueness with statements culture’s age-old moré not to bring shame
hood of dire consequences for himself and such as, “I am not a hero; anyone in the on his family by disobeying authority)? Or
his family. At the end of the war he was same situation would have done what I should he follow the Samurai adage that
unceremoniously fired from the Japanese did,” or, “I just did what needed to be done.” haunted him, “Even a hunter cannot kill a
civil service. Immediate life and death situations, such bird which flies to him for refuge”? When
as when people are stranded in a burning the Japanese government denied repeated
What makes a hero? house or a car wreck, are clear examples requests he made for permission to assist
Our efforts to catalogue and categorize of situations that galvanize people into the refugees, Sugihara may have realized
heroic activity have led us to explore the heroic action. But other situations—such as that these two codes of behavior were in
factors that come together to create heroes. being witness to discrimination, corporate conflict and that he faced a bright-line ethi-
It must be emphasized that this is initial, corruption, government malfeasance, or cal test.
exploratory work; at best, it allows us to military atrocities—not only bring out the Interestingly, Sugihara did not act
propose a few speculations that warrant worst in people; they sometimes bring impulsively or spontaneously; instead, he
further investigation. out the best. We believe that these situa- carefully weighed the decision with his
We have been able to learn from a body tions create a “bright-line” ethical test that wife and family. In situations that auger
of prior research how certain situations can pushes some individuals toward action in for social heroism, the problem may cre-
induce the bystander effect, which we men- an attempt to stop the evil being perpe- ate a “moral tickle” that the person can
tioned earlier. But just as they can create trated. But why are some people able to not ignore—a sort of positive rumination,

Fall / Winter 2006-07 Greater Good 33

THE BYSTANDER’S DILEMMA

where we can’t stop thinking about some-

thing because it does not sit right with us.
Yet this still leaves the question, “What
prompts people to take action?” Many
people in similar positions recognize the
ethical problems associated with the situ-
ation and are deeply disturbed, but simply
decide to ignore it. What characterizes the
final step toward heroic action? Are those
who do act more conscientious? Or are
they simply less risk averse?
We don’t know the answer to these vital
questions—social science hasn’t resolved

Sylvia Wright/UC Davis News Service

them yet. However, we believe that an
important factor that may encourage heroic
action is the stimulation of heroic imagina-
tion—the capacity to imagine facing physi-
cally or socially risky situations, to struggle
with the hypothetical problems these
situations generate, and to consider one’s
actions and the consequences. By consider-
ing these issues in advance, the individual
becomes more prepared to act when and Two everyday heroes: Researcher Tom Cahill (above) and New Orleans resident Jabar Gibson (opposite
if a moment that calls for heroism arises. page) both acted to help others when they witnessed a crisis.
Strengthening the heroic imagination may more demanding forms of this ideal. We Third, we must remain aware of an
help to make people more aware of the do not have to challenge ourselves to see if, extended time-horizon, not just the present
ethical tests embedded in complex situa- when faced with a situation that called for moment. We should be engaged in the
tions, while allowing the individual to have courage, we would meet that test. In prior current situation, yet also be able to detach
already considered, and to some degree generations, words like bravery, fortitude, part of our analytical focus to imagine
transcended, the cost of their heroic action. gallantry, and valor stirred our souls. Chil- alternative future scenarios that might
Seeing one’s self as capable of the resolve dren read of the exploits of great warriors play out, depending on different actions or
necessary for heroism may be the first step and explorers and would set out to follow failures to act that we take in the present.
toward a heroic outcome. in those footsteps. But we spend little time In addition, we should keep part of our
thinking about the deep meanings these minds on the past, as that may help us
How to nurture the words once carried, and focus less on
trying to encourage ourselves to consider
recall values and teachings instilled in us
long ago, which may inform our actions in
heroic imagination how we might engage in bravery in the the current situation.
Over the last century, we have witnessed social sphere, where most of us will have Fourth, we have to resist the urge to
the subtle diminution of the word “hero.” an opportunity to be heroic at one time or rationalize inaction and to develop justifi-
This title was once reserved only for those another. As our society dumbs down hero- cations that recast evil deeds as acceptable
who did great things at great personal risk. ism, we fail to foster heroic imagination. means to supposedly righteous ends.
Gradually, as we have moved toward mech- There are several concrete steps we can Finally, we must try to transcend antici-
anized combat, especially during and after take to foster the heroic imagination. We pating negative consequence associated
the Second World War, the original ideals can start by remaining mindful, carefully with some forms of heroism, such as being
of military heroism became more remote. and critically evaluating each situation we socially ostracized. If our course is just,
At the same time, our view of social hero- encounter so that we don’t gloss over an we must trust that others will eventually
ism has also been slowly watered down. emergency requiring our action. We should recognize the value of our heroic actions.
We hold up inventors, athletes, actors, try to develop our “discontinuity detec- But beyond these basic steps, our society
politicians, and scientists as examples of tor”—an awareness of things that don’t fit, needs to consider ways of fostering heroic
“heroes.” These individuals are clearly role are out of place, or don’t make sense in a imagination in all of its citizens, most
models, embodying important qualities we setting. This means asking questions to get particularly in our young. The ancient
would all like to see in our children—curi- the information we need to take respon- Greeks and Anglo Saxon tribes venerated
osity, persistence, physical strength, being a sible action. their heroes in epic poems such as the Iliad
Good Samaritan—but they do not demon- Second, it is important not to fear inter- and Beowulf. It is easy to see these stories
strate courage or fortitude. By diminishing personal conflict, and to develop the per- as antiquated, but their instructions for the
the ideal of heroism, our society makes sonal hardiness necessary to stand firm for hero still hold up.
two mistakes. First, we dilute the impor- principles we cherish. In fact, we shouldn’t In these stories, the protagonist often
tant contribution of true heroes, whether think of difficult interactions as conflicts encounters a mystical figure who attempts
they are luminary figures like Abraham but rather as attempts to challenge other to seduce the hero away from his path.
Lincoln or the hero next door. Second, we people to support their own principles and In our own lives, we must also avoid the
keep ourselves from confronting the older, ideology. seduction of evil, and we must recognize

34 Greater Good Fall / Winter 2006-07

 A STORY OF HEROISM

The Prison Guard’s Dilemma

BY JASON MARSH

T hirty years after the Stanford Prison

Experiment ended abruptly, its findings
resonated in the photos that escaped from
Abu Ghraib prison: prisoners with hoods over
their heads, put in humiliating positions;
young guards pandering to the camera as they
abused their subjects. The soldiers at Abu
Ghraib were ordinary young men and women
thrown into an environment in which abusive
and degrading behavior became the norm.
But if Abu Ghraib revealed the banality of

Photo: Houston Chronicle

evil, it also exposed the banality of heroism.
While the culture of the prison persuaded
everyone else to perform or accept prisoner
abuse, Sergeant Joseph Darby, a 24-year-old
Army reservist, saw what his fellow soldiers
were doing, and he acted to stop it.
that the seduction will probably be quite video gaming grows, can the power of this Another soldier gave Darby a CD with
ordinary—an unethical friend or coworker, entertainment form be used to educate chil- photos of the abuses on them. “It was amus-
for instance. By passing a series of smaller dren about the pitfalls of following a herd ing at first,” he said in a recent interview with
tests of our mettle, we can cultivate a per- mentality? Could these games help children ABC News. “[But] after I’d looked at all the
sonal habit of heroism. develop their own internal compass in mor- pictures, I realized I had a decision to make.”
Epic poems also often tell of the hero ally ambiguous situations? Or perhaps even Darby decided to turn in the CD to a
visiting the underworld. This metaphori- help them think about their own ability superior. The military initiated an investiga-
cal encounter with death represents an to act heroically? And as we plow ahead tion but didn’t disclose who at Abu Ghraib had
acceptance and transcendence of one’s own in the digital era, how can the fundamen-
reported the abuses. For a month and a half,
mortality. To this day, some forms of hero- tal teachings of a code of honor remain
Darby lived in a perpetual state of fear, hoping
ism require paying the ultimate price. But relevant to human interactions?
we can also understand this as a hero’s will- If we lose the ability to imagine our- his identity as the whistle blower wouldn’t be
ingness to accept any of the consequences selves as heroes, and to understand the revealed, sleeping with a gun under his pillow.
of heroic action—whether the sacrifices are meaning of true heroism, our society will But he remained convinced that he had done
physical or social. be poorer for it. But if we can reconnect his duty as a solider.
Finally, from the primeval war stories of with these ancient ideals, and make them “[The abuse] violated everything I person-
Achilles to Sugihara’s compelling kind- fresh again, we can create a connection ally believed in and all I’d been taught about
ness toward the Jewish refugees in World with the hero in ourselves. It is this vital, the rules of war,” he said during a pretrial
War Two, a code of conduct served as internal conduit between the modern work- hearing for one of the perpetrators. “It was
the framework from which heroic action a-day world and the mythic world that more of a moral call.”
emerged. In this code, the hero follows a can prepare an ordinary person to be an
In the two years since the photos first came
set of rules that serves as a reminder, some- everyday hero.
to light, eight soldiers have been punished for
times even when he would prefer to forget,
that something is wrong and that he must Zeno Franco is a Ph.D. candidate in clinical their role in the abuses, and Darby has been
attempt to set it right. Today, it seems as psychology at Pacific Graduate School of hailed as a hero. He has also been vilified
if we are drifting further and further away Psychology in Palo Alto, California. He by people in and out of the military. Vandal-
from maintaining a set of teachings that recently completed a three year U.S. Depart- ism and threats against his wife and mother
serve as a litmus test for right and wrong. ment of Homeland Security Fellowship. Philip forced them to move from their Pennsylvania
But in a digital world, how do we con- Zimbardo, Ph.D., is a professor emeritus of home; Darby went into protective custody, and
nect ourselves and our children to what psychology at Stanford University, a two-time now lives in hiding. Still, he has expressed
were once oral traditions? Hollywood has past president of the Western Psychological no regrets about blowing the whistle on Abu
accomplished some of these tasks. The Association, and a past president of the Ghraib.
recent screen version of J.R.R. Tolkien’s American Psychological Association. The
“It had to be done,” he told ABC News.
The Lord of the Rings brought us a classic idea of the banality of heroism was first
story that is based on the epic tradition. Yet presented in an essay he wrote for Edge
how many of us have stopped and talked (www.edge.org), where he was one of many
with our children about the deeper mean- scholars who replied to the question, “What
ings of this tale? As the sophistication of idea is dangerous to you?”

Fall / Winter 2006-07 Greater Good 35