Acquiring and Managing Global Power

1. Introduction
On May 1, 1901, the Pan-American Exposition opened in Buffalo, New York.
The exposition was designed to highlight the achievements of the nations of the
Western Hemisphere. But coming just three years after the Spanish-American
War, it also heralded the emergence of the United States as a great power. A
Triumphal Bridge served as the entrance to the fair and a symbol of American
triumph.
The exposition presented a
glowing demonstration of
progress at the dawn of the
20th century. It showcased
new developments in
transportation, agriculture,
and industry. It also featured
performances of Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show, which
reminded spectators of the vanishing "western frontier." The
main attraction was the Electric Tower. Nearly 400 feet high,
it was built to celebrate the relatively new invention of
electricity. Visitors thrilled when the tower's many thousands
of light bulbs blinked on every night, creating a magical
atmosphere.
Most of the exhibits focused on advances in the United States.
Latin American countries were not as well represented.
Nevertheless, the exposition was meant to promote a spirit of
cooperation and goodwill between the United States and the
other nations of the hemisphere. The fair's logo symbolized
this spirit. It showed two young women in the forms of North and South America. Their arms were extended in
friendly embrace across Central America.
The exposition did not end on a positive note. On September 5, 1901, President William McKinley visited the
fair and gave a speech. The following day, a young anarchist approached the president and shot him twice at
point-blank range. McKinley died a week later, and Vice President Theodore Roosevelt assumed office. Under
Roosevelt and the next two presidents, William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson, the United States embarked
on a new era in foreign policy marked by increased intervention in Latin America and other parts of the world.

2. Three Presidents, Three Foreign Policies

By going to war with Spain and acquiring overseas possessions, President McKinley had set the stage for a
more aggressive foreign policy. The next three presidentsRoosevelt, Taft, and Wilsonpursued their own
policies. But all three gave the United States an even greater role in world affairs.
Although their foreign policies differed, each president intervened abroad to pursue American goals. Some
goals were realist, such as controlling access to foreign resources. Other goals were idealist, such as promoting
democracy. In developing foreign policy, the guiding principle for all three presidents was to serve the national
interest [national interest: the political, economic, military, and cultural goals that a nation considers
important] . This is the set of goalspolitical, economic, military, and culturalthat a nation considers
important. Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson carried out foreign policies they believed would advance American
interests.
Roosevelt Expands U.S. Involvement Overseas
Theodore Roosevelt applied an energetic spirit to
foreign policy. He wanted to make the United States a
great power that could exert influence around the
world. He believed that the country must meet any
challenge to its national interest abroad.
Roosevelt once wrote, "I have always been fond of the
West African proverb: 'Speak softly and carry a big
stick; you will go far.'" He believed in working quietly
and patiently to achieve goals overseas but using force
if necessary. Roosevelt's strong-arm approach to
foreign affairs became known as the Big Stick Policy
[Big Stick Policy: President Theodore Roosevelt's
strong-arm approach to foreign affairs, emphasizing diplomacy backed by force] .
In 1904, Roosevelt formalized this policy in a major address to Congress. He reminded his audience that the
Monroe Doctrine was designed to prevent European meddling in the Americas. Yet he noted that nearly a
century later many countries in the hemisphere were still too weak to defend themselves. He asserted that the
United States therefore must use "international police power" to preserve peace and order in the hemisphere and
protect American interests. He claimed that this power would help protect weak nations and was a direct
extension of the Monroe Doctrine. For that reason, his statement became known as the Roosevelt Corollary
[Roosevelt Corollary: President Theodore Roosevelt's assertion that, as a direct corollary of the Monroe
Doctrine, the United States could intervene to preserve peace and order in the Western Hemisphere and
protect U.S. interests] to the Monroe Doctrine. A corollary is a proposition that is a logical extension of a
principle.
Over the next several decades, the United States intervened repeatedly in Latin America and the Caribbean. It
sent troops to suppress unrest and prop up rulers who supported U.S. interests. Roosevelt and his successors
claimed that these actions were necessary to promote stability in the region, but many critics saw them as an
exercise of imperial power.
Roosevelt also used diplomacy to help bring peace to a foreign region. In 1905, he mediated a conflict between
Japan and Russia, which were fighting to control Korea and Manchuria. For his efforts in ending the war, he
won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906. However, the treaty left both Japan and Russia dissatisfied and resentful of
the United States.

Taft Advances U.S. Economic Interests After

becoming president in 1909, William Howard Taft
continued the main thrust of Roosevelt's foreign policy
but shifted to economic goals. His policy, which
became known as Dollar Diplomacy [Dollar
Diplomacy: President William Howard Taft's
approach to foreign policy, focusing on encouraging
and protecting U.S. trade and investment in Latin
America and Asia] , was to encourage and protect
American trade and investment in Latin America and
Asia. Taft believed that a strong economic presence
abroad would advance American interests.
Taft claimed that Dollar Diplomacy would limit the
use of force overseas. But the United States continued
to intervene militarily. In Nicaragua, for example, it
supported a revolt that brought a pro-U.S. leader into
power in 1911. American banks then provided loans to
the new government. The government was corrupt and
unpopular, however, and a new revolt broke out in
1912. Taft sent marines to put it down and to protect
American business interests. The United States kept
troops in Nicaragua almost continuously until 1933.
Wilson Champions Democracy Around the Globe
When Woodrow Wilson became president in 1913, he
tried to take a moral approach to foreign relations. He
called this policy Moral Diplomacy [Moral
Diplomacy: President Woodrow Wilson's approach
to foreign policy, focusing on promoting democratic ideals abroad] . It was based on democratic ideals,
rather than on economic investment or the use of force. The United States should use its power to aid "the
development of constitutional liberty in the world," Wilson said, by basing its foreign policy on "human rights,
national integrity, and opportunity, as against national interests."
Wilson also introduced a concept called self-determination [self-determination: the right of people of other
nations to determine their own government, free of outside influence] into American foreign policy. By this
he meant the right of other peoples to determine their own government, free of outside influence.
In dealing with the countries of Latin America, Wilson said, "We must prove ourselves their friends and
champions upon terms of equality and honor . . . whether it squares with our own interest or not." His principles
were tested by more turmoil in Latin America. In 1915, a revolt in Haiti prompted him to send marines to
protect American lives and investments. It was not until 1934 that the United States withdrew its troops from
Haiti. In 1916, Wilson sent troops to the Dominican Republic, where they stayed for 12 years. Wilson
eventually intervened more than either Taft or Roosevelt.

3. U.S. Involvement in Latin America

In the early 1900s, Latin America and the Caribbean were a special focus of U.S.
foreign policy. The United States viewed this region as its own "backyard" and
therefore a good place to exert its power and influence. In addition to Nicaragua,
Haiti, and the Dominican Republic, the United States intervened in other Latin
American countries, notably Panama, Mexico, and Puerto Rico.
The U.S. Helps Panama Overthrow Colombian Rule The United States became
interested in Panama in the mid-1800s. Various nations wanted to build a canal
across Central America as a shortcut between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Such
a canal would have enormous commercial and military value. During the SpanishAmerican War, the battleship USS Oregon had to travel almost 14,000 miles
around the tip of South America to get from California to Cuba. A canal would
shorten the journey to just under 5,000 miles.
The narrow Isthmus of Panama was part of Colombia.
The Roosevelt administration tried to lease land in
Panama for a canal, but the Colombian government
turned down the offer. In 1903, the United States
encouraged a revolt in Panama. Roosevelt sent
warships to prevent Colombian troops from
intervening. The revolt succeeded, and the United
States quickly recognized Panama as an independent
nation.
The Panama Canal: An Engineering Feat The new
government soon signed a treaty allowing the United
States to build the Panama Canal [Panama Canal:
the canal built by the United States through the
Isthmus of Panama to connect the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans] . The 51-mile canal was a marvel of engineering. At least 40,000 workers carved the "Big
Ditch" through mountains, rainforests, and swamps. Thousands of workers fell prey to tropical diseases such as
malaria and yellow fever. One worker complained that the mosquitoes were so thick "you get a mouthful with
every breath."
After 10 years of construction, the canal opened to great fanfare on August 15, 1914. Roosevelt called it "the
most important action I took in foreign affairs."
Although the canal helped to improve international trade, Roosevelt's actions in Panama angered many Latin
Americans. In 1921, the United States tried to undo some of this damage by paying Colombia $25 million.
Colombia's government also had special access to the canal. For most of the 1900s, however, the United States
treated the canal as its own property. Not until 1999 did it return control of the canal to Panama.

U.S. Businesses Invest

Heavily in Mexico The
United States also played
a strong role in Mexico in
the early 1900s. Since
1884, the dictator
Porfirio Daz had ruled
the country with a heavy
hand. Most Mexicans
remained poor, while a
handful of landowners,
businesspeople, and foreign investors grew very rich.
Americans were among the chief investors. By 1910,
U.S. businesses had invested around $2 billion in
Mexico, buying up land, banks, mines, and other
properties.

Revolution was brewing, though. In 1910, Francisco

Madero attempted to lead a revolt. Madero failed to
gain enough support, but another uprising ousted Daz in 1911. Madero took power but could not control the
country. One of his generals, Victoriano Huerta, overthrew him and had him killed. Other countries then
recognized the Huerta government. American business interests wanted President Wilson to do the same. They
believed that Huerta would stabilize the country and protect their investments.
Wilson was horrified by Madero's murder, however. He wanted to promote democracy in Mexico and refused to
recognize what he called "a government of butchers." Instead, he backed Huerta's chief opponent, General
Venustiano Carranza, who he hoped would support democratic reform.
The U.S. Nearly Goes to War with Mexico Tensions between Wilson and the Huerta government almost led to
war. In 1914, Wilson sent troops to Veracruz, a port on the Gulf of Mexico, to keep weapons from reaching
Huerta's army. In the battle with Huerta's soldiers in the streets of Veracruz, about 90 Americans and at least 300
Mexicans were killed or wounded. Much to Wilson's surprise, most Mexicansincluding Carranzaopposed
the U.S. action. Other Latin American countries also criticized the intervention. Wilson hastily pulled the forces
out, saying that he was only trying to help Mexico. Several months later, Huerta resigned and Carranza gained
power.
But the Mexican Revolution continued. Two rebel leaders, Emiliano Zapata and Francisco "Pancho" Villa, rose
up against Carranza. Villa, in particular, aroused American concern. Hoping to force a U.S. intervention, he
ordered attacks on American citizens in Mexico and the United States. In one cross-border raid in 1916, Villa
was responsible for the killing of 17 Americans in New Mexico. Wilson sent troops to capture him, but Villa
eluded the American forces, drawing them deeper into Mexico. This military action alarmed the Mexican
people, who feared a U.S. invasion. Carranza insisted that the American troops leave. At that point, the United
States was nearing entry into World War I. Recognizing the failure of the intervention, Wilson withdrew from
Mexico.
Puerto Rico Remains a U.S. Possession The United States also became deeply involved in Puerto Rico. After
the Spanish-American War, it instituted a military government that began to develop Puerto Rico's
infrastructure. It set up schools and a postal service. It also built roads and improved sanitation. In 1900, the
United States established a civilian government led by an American governor. Puerto Ricans formed political
parties and organized a legislature. But the island remained an American possession.

Over the next two decades, Puerto Ricans grew increasingly frustrated with
American rule. They were neither U.S. citizens nor an independent nation. The
United States recognized Puerto Rico's strategic value in the Caribbean, however,
and wanted to maintain control over the island.

making Puerto Rico a U.S.

granted all the rights of
or vote in U.S. elections.
Puerto Rico's Status
integrated into the U.S.
into sugar production,
The sugar industry
most Puerto Ricans in
$122, one fifth of the U.S.
investments in
migrated to the United
opportunity in New York

In 1917, President Wilson signed the Jones Act,

territory. Puerto Ricans became citizens but were not
citizenship. They could not elect their own governor
Evolves Over time, Puerto Rico became more
economy. At first, American investors poured money
which became the island's main economic activity.
produced great wealth for a small minority but left
poverty. In 1930, the average annual income was just
average. Later on, Americans would make large
manufacturing plants. Still, many Puerto Ricans
States. Many moved to the East Coast, seeking
and other cities.

A series of reforms brought political change. In 1948, Puerto Ricans elected their governor for the first time. In
1952, the island became a U.S. commonwealth. This status gave Puerto Rico control over its own laws and
finances but left decisions on defense and tariffs in U.S. hands. Although most Puerto Ricans welcomed this
change, some wanted more control over their affairs. They argued that the island would be better off as either a
U.S. state or an independent nation. In several elections held after 1967, however, voters chose to remain a
commonwealth.

4. U.S. Involvement in Asia and the Pacific

After the Spanish-American War, the United States became a colonial power in Asia. Less than 500 miles of
open sea separated the American-controlled Philippines from China, the largest country in Asia. By holding on

to the Philippines, the United States would have greater access to Chinese trade
and more influence in Chinese affairs. The United States wanted to ensure free
trade in the Asia-Pacific region.\
The Philippines Fight for Independence from the U.S. During the SpanishAmerican War, the United States captured the Philippines with the help of Filipino
leader Emilio Aguinaldo. After the war, Aguinaldo called for independence. He
claimed that the United States had promised freedom for the islands.
The United States decided not to grant independence, however. President
McKinley believed that the Filipinos were not ready for self-government. He said
that he wanted to "uplift and civilize and Christianize" the Filipino people. He also
wanted to maintain American control over the islands to prevent another nation
from seizing power.
Still, the Filipinos moved ahead with their plans for independence by writing a constitution and electing
Aguinaldo president. But the United States refused to recognize the new government. In February 1899,
fighting broke out between Filipino and American forces. The United States sent hundreds of thousands of
soldiers to the Philippines to put down the revolt. In battle after battle, the Filipino army was defeated.
Aguinaldo then switched to guerrilla tactics, launching quick strikes on American troops. The United States
responded with brutal force, destroying villages and herding civilians into prison camps. Mark Twain, one of
many Americans who opposed the U.S. policy toward the Philippines, wrote bitterly, "We have pacified . . . the
islanders and buried them; destroyed their fields; burned their villages; and turned their widows and orphans
out-of-doors . . . And so . . . we are a World Power."
In 1901, the United States finally captured Aguinaldo. A year later, the fighting was over. The war had lasted
more than three years, at great human cost. More than 200,000 Filipinos and about 5,000 Americans had died.
After the war, the United States set up a central government for the islands. The United States built schools and
made improvements to Philippine harbors. It also established local governments and encouraged Filipinos to
participate in them. The United States controlled the Philippines for the next half-century, finally granting
independence on July 4, 1946.
U.S. Businesses Prosper in Hawaii The Hawaiian Islands had been a focus of American interest long before
the Spanish-American War. Known as the "Crossroads of the Pacific," Hawaii was
an important stop for ships crossing the Pacific Ocean. In 1820, Protestant
missionaries arrived in Hawaii. Within decades most Hawaiians had converted to
Christianity.
By the late 1800s, the United States regarded Hawaii as an economic asset. The
economy of the islands centered on the export of tropical crops, especially
sugarcane and pineapple. White American planters controlled the industry,
shipping most of their crops to the United States and becoming wealthy and
powerful in the process.
At the time, Hawaii was still a kingdom ruled by a constitutional monarch. In 1891, Liliuokalani became queen
of Hawaii. She was a strong leader who resented the dominance of the wealthy white minority on the islands.
She established a new constitution that gave more power to native Hawaiians. But a small group of white
planters refused to accept the constitution and called on the American government for help. In 1893, U.S.
military forces landed and helped the planters overthrow the queen.

The U.S. Annexes the Hawaiian Islands After the

revolt, the white planters controlled the government.
They applied to Congress for annexation [annexation:
the taking control of a territory and adding it to a
country] , hoping to make Hawaii part of the United
States. President Benjamin Harrison agreed to the
islands' annexation. Then a new president, Grover
Cleveland, assumed office. After discovering the
circumstances of the revolt, Cleveland withdrew the
annexation treaty and called on the planters to return
Queen Liliuokalani to her throne. The planters refused
and instead proclaimed Hawaii an independent republic.
Throughout the 1890s, Americans continued to debate
the question of annexing Hawaii. Those in favor
stressed the importance of Hawaii's location and the value of controlling the islands. They also hoped to
continue spreading Christianity and the American way of life in Hawaii. Those opposed to annexation pointed
out that colonization often caused problems. Some feared the introduction of new races and cultures into the
United States. Others thought it was un-American to deprive a people of their sovereignty.
The American intervention in Hawaii produced deep resentment among native Hawaiians. Nevertheless, during
the Spanish-American War in 1898, Hawaii was annexed as Congress recognized its importance as a port for the
navy. Hawaii became a U.S. territory two years later. In 1959, it became a state, the only one that is not part of
North America.
U.S. Interest in China In the late 1800s, the United States also focused its attention on China. This huge nation
was rich in resources and offered a potentially large
market for American goods.
In the 1890s, the United States and other foreign
powers watched with interest as China and Japan
engaged in a war over Korea. This war revealed that
China was neither strong nor stable. Russia, France,
and Germany supported China at the war's end and
demanded favors in return. These powers, along with
Britain and Japan, began to carve out spheres of
influence [spheres of influence: areas in which a
single nation controlled trading rights, as foreign
powers did in China during the 1890s] from Chinese
territory. These were areas in which a single nation
controlled trading rights. In some cases, the foreign
powers also demanded land for military bases. As a
result, much of China was soon carved into pieces of
foreign-dominated territory.
The United States wanted to prevent foreign
colonization of China in order to maintain its own
access to Chinese markets. With this goal in mind,
Secretary of State John Hay issued several foreign
policy statements, which became known collectively as the Open Door Policy [Open Door Policy: a U.S.
policy issued in 1899 stating that foreign nations must allow free trade in China] . The first statement, in

1899, called on foreign nations to allow free trade in China. Although some foreign
powers gave vague replies, Hay boldly announced that the Open Door Policy was
"final and definitive."
The U.S. Fights to Keep an Open Door to China The Chinese were deeply
ashamed of their nation's weakness. They were proud of their ancient heritage and
furious with other countries for controlling China and undermining Chinese
traditions. Some Chinese tried to persuade their government to implement reforms
so that China could compete in the modern world and resist western influence.
One Chinese group eventually took up arms in an effort to restore national control. This group, called the
Righteous and Harmonious Fists, was commonly known as the Boxers. In 1900, the Boxers led an insurrection
[insurrection: a rebellion] , rising up to try to expel the "foreign devils" from China. The Boxers killed
hundreds of foreigners, including Christian missionaries, along with thousands of Chinese Christians. Within a
few months, however, the United States, Japan, and European powers had banded together to crush the uprising.
Secretary of State Hay feared that foreign powers would attempt to use the Boxer Rebellion as an excuse to take
stronger control over China. He therefore issued a firmer statement of the Open Door Policy, insisting that
foreign nations not only allow free trade, but also respect Chinese independence. The other nations did not
object, mainly because they did not want to fight each other over China. As a result, China remained open to
American trade and influence.
Summary

At the start of the 20th century, the United States was an imperialist nation with overseas possessions.
Three presidentsRoosevelt, Taft, and Wilsondeveloped foreign policies designed to expand American
power and protect American interests.
Roosevelt Corollary President Roosevelt followed the Big Stick Policy in foreign affairs. In 1904, he issued
the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. This policy called on the United States to use "international
police power" to promote order and security in the Western Hemisphere. The use of force became a key element
of foreign policy.
Dollar Diplomacy President Taft's Dollar Diplomacy focused on economic goals overseas. He emphasized the
spread of American influence through economic activity. But he also sent troops to protect American interests.
Moral Diplomacy President Wilson favored a moral approach to foreign policy. He wanted to spread
democratic ideals overseas. Yet he also used force to uphold American interests.
Latin America The United States became deeply involved in Latin America in the early 1900s. It helped
Panama gain independence and built the Panama Canal. It intervened in Mexico. It made Puerto Rico a U.S.
possession.
Asia and the Pacific The Philippines became a U.S. possession, and the United States put down an
independence movement there. It annexed Hawaii after white planters overthrew the native monarchy. In China,
it applied its Open Door Policy to limit foreign control and maintain access to Chinese markets.