Bpweldti
Bpweldti
Bpweldti
WELDING TITANIUM
A DESIGNERS AND USERS HANDBOOK
TIG
THE
TITANIUM
INFORMATION
G R O U P
25.00
TWI
TWI is based at Abington, near Cambridge, UK and is one of Europes largest independent contract research and
technology organisations. Over 400 staff, with a unique blend of technical backgrounds, international experience
and language skills, work with industry world-wide to apply joining technology effectively. Some 2500 member
companies in over 50 countries benefit from TWI services.
TWIs knowhow and expertise covers:
Engineering - design, structural integrity, fracture, NDT.
Materials - steels, non-ferrous alloys including titanium, plastics, composites, ceramics.
Welding and joining- arc, electron beam, laser, resistance and friction welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive
bonding, fastening.
Surfacing - arc cladding, friction, high velocity oxyfuel, laser, arc spraying.
Cutting - flame, plasma, water jet, laser.
Manufacturing - project management, production/manufacturing engineering, decision support, manufacturing
systems, health and safety, quality assurance.
Industrys objectives are TWIs objectives
Reduce costs.
Market effectively.
Continuously improve quality and reliability.
Innovate.
TWI, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge, CB1 6AL, UK
Tel: +44 (0)1223 891162 Fax: +44 (0)1223 892588
Web: http://www.twi.co.uk
email: [email protected]
The data and other information contained herein are derived from a variety of
sources which TIG and TWI believe are reliable. Because it is not possible to
anticipate specific uses and operating conditions TIG and TWI urge you to
consult with the sales or technical service personnel as appropriate of the
individual companies.
Written by: Lee S Smith, Philip Threadgill and Michael Gittos TWI
Editor: David Peacock Titanium Metals Corporation
Data available in literature available from TWI, TIMET and other members of TIG and
TWI is incorporated in this publication.
May 1999
INTRODUCTION
The high strength, low weight and outstanding corrosion resistance possessed by titanium and titanium alloys have
led to a wide and diversified range of successful applications in aerospace, chemical plant, power generation, oil
and gas extraction, medical, sports, and other industries. There is a common question which links all of these
applications, and that is how best to join titanium parts together, or to other materials to produce the final component
or structure. The variety of titanium alloys, and the vastly greater number of engineering metals and materials
requires that there should be a versatile selection of joining processes for titanium if the metal is to be capable of
use in the widest range of applications. Although mechanical fastening, adhesives, and other techniques have their
place, welding continues to be the most important process for joining titanium. Welding of titanium by various
processes is widely practised, and service performance of welds is proven with an extensive and continuously
extending record of achievements. Newer methods adaptable for titanium are further advancing the science,
technology and economics of welding. Application of this technology to the design, manufacture and application of
titanium is as relevant to first time users as to committed customers. For many applications, choosing the welding
process is as important a step in design as the specification of the alloy.
This handbook, the sixth in a series, is produced jointly by the Titanium Information Group and TWI World
Centre for Materials Joining Technology. The aim of this edition remains as with its predecessors, to bring together
key elements of widely dispersed data into a single source book. Use of this handbook will enable those responsible
to select welding processes that will be appropriate to the titanium alloy, the component, and the application. In
this way the most demanding goals for reliability, maintainability and safety can be achieved, together with the
lowest overall cost for components and systems of the highest performance and integrity.
CONTENTS
Introduction
Why use Titanium
Properties of Titanium and its Alloys
Joining Titanium and its alloys
TIG welding
MIG welding
Plasma and fluxed welding
Laser and EB welding
Resistance welding
Friction welding processes
Diffusion bonding
Forge welding processes
Brazing and soldering
Adhesive bonding and mechanical fastening
Joining titanium to other metals
Workshop practice
Open air welding
Preparation of the joint for welding
Welding techniques
Evaluation of weld quality
Visual inspection
Repair of defects
Distortion and stress relief
The dos and donts of welding
Standards and specifications
For further help
TIG members
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
25
26
28
29
30
31
32
33
Typical mechanical properties and physical properties of titanium and titanium alloys (100MPa = approx. 15 ksi)
Designation
Alloy Type
0.2% Proof Stress MPa
Tensile Strength MPa
Elongation %
Tensile Modulus GPa
Torosion Modulus GPa
Hardness HV
Density kg/1
Thermal Expansion 10-6/C
Conductivity W/mK
Specific Heat J/kg/C
Commerically
Pure Titanium
Medium
Strength
Alloys
High
Strength
Alloys
Highest
Strength
Alpha
Alpha-Beta
Alpha-Beta
Beta
345 - 480
480 - 620
20 - 25
103
45
160 - 220
4.51
8.9
22
525
480 - 550
600 - 650
15 -20
104
43
200 - 280
4.48 - 4.51
8.3
8.0
544
725 - 1000
830 - 1100
8 - 15
110 - 120
40 - 48
300 - 400
4.43 - 4.60
8.9
6.7
565
1100 - 1400
1200 - 1500
6 - 12
69 - 110
38 - 45
360 - 450
4.81 - 4.93
7.2 - 9.5
6.3 - 7.6
490 - 524
ASTM Grades
1,2,3,4,7,11,12,13
14,15,16,17,26,27
9,18,28
5,23,24,29
21
6,6ELI
Weldability
Comments
Excellent
Excellent
Fair-good
Excellent
Good-excellent
Alloy
Weldability
Comments
Ti-6A1-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo
Fair-good
Ti-6A1-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo
Beta III
Ti-15V-3A1-3Sn-3Cr
Limited
Excellent
Excellent
TIG (GTAW)
Advantages
Manual or mechanised process
All position capabilty
Capable of producing high quality welds
Significant industrial experience
No weld spatter
Disadvantages
Low productivity
Tungsten inclusions if electrode touches
weld pool
Higher productivity variants of the TIG process have
been applied to titanium. Hot wire TIG enables a greater
fill rate to be achieved, improving productivity on
multipass welds required for heavier section thicknesses.
Activated TIG (A-TIG) achieves deeper penetration
through the use of a special flux sprayed onto the joint
surfaces prior to welding. The latter process has had
particular success for welding stainless steels, but its
potential application to titanium joints has yet to be fully
exploited.
Tensile Strength
(MPa)
Proof Stress
(MPa)
Elongation (%)
Alloy
Grade 2
Ti-6A1-4V
Ti-3A1-2.5V
Parent
460
1000
705
Parent
325
900
670
Parent
26
14
15
Weld
510
1020
745
Weld
380
880
625
Weld
18
8
12
MIG (GGAW)
Advantages
Manual or mechanised process
All position capabilty
Better productivity than TIG welding
Disadvantages
Weld Spatter
Tensile Strength
(MPa)
Proof Stress
(MPa)
Elongation
(%)
987
979
934
848
17
8
Base
Metal
Weld
Metal
987
934
17
0.017
50.8
979
848
8
0.044
71.4
PAW
Advantages
Faster than TIG
Single pass welds possible in material up to
18mm thick
Greater immunity to weld metal porosity
than any other fusion process
Disadvantages
Lmited positional capability
certainly possible, but requires a controlled slope-down
of the plasma gas flow rate and arc power to avoid any
porosity defects at the stop position.
Laser Welding
Advantages
Automated process
High welding speed
Fibre optic beam delivery with Nd-YAG
Disadvantages
Expensive equipment
Thickness limited with Nd-YAG
Weld Spatter
RESISTANCE WELDING
INTRODUCTION
SEAM WELDING
Resistance Welding
Advantages
Automated process
Low distortion
Spot welds do not require gas shielding
Disadvantages
Poor fatigue strength
Limited to sheet material
SPOT WELDING
Spot welding is performed using copper alloy
electrodes with a spherical face, a current of 5-10kA
(increasing with sheet thickness) and an electrode force
of several kiloNewtons. Inert gas shielding is not required
for spot welding since the thermal cycle resulting from
the brief electrical pulse is extremely rapid, minimising
local oxidation.
10
Tensile Strength
(MPa)
Proof Stress
(MPa)
Elongation
(%)
949
994
834
854
15
11
Region
Base Metal
Ring (as-received)
Ring (as-welded)
Cross-weld
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
Proof
Stress
(MPa)
Elongation
(%)
910
885
1055
900
840
795
925
820
14
11
9
9
The process will be used extensively in the aeroengine industry, in particular for joining compressor
blades to disks, but has not been taken up by other
industrial sectors for joining any metal. However, a close
variant of the process, vibration welding, is used
extensively in several industries for joining
thermoplastics.
11
12
DIFFUSION BONDING
CONVENTIONAL DIFFUSION BONDING
Titanium is the easiest of all common engineering
materials to join by diffusion bonding, due to its ability
to dissolve its own oxide at bonding temperatures.
Conventional diffusion bonding is a slow process, and
requires careful control of temperature, and joint face
alignment. The process also needs to be undertaken in
a vacuum. Under ideal conditions a bond of very high
quality can be made with no flash formation. However,
the process is slow, and requires considerable precision,
making it unattractive for field use, although it has been
widely used in the aerospace industry, in particular in
conjunction with superplastic forming. The process,
including superplastic forming, is also used in the
Rolls Royces SPFDB front fan blade for the Trent 800
13
HOMOPOLAR WELDING
Homopolar welding is a new method currently under
development in the USA, where it has been developed
primarily for welding pipes. Kinetic energy stored in a
flywheel is rapidly converted to a high direct current low
voltage electrical pulse using a homopolar generator, and
The explosive bonding process
14
EXPLOSIVE BONDING
Explosive bonding should be considered for
applications when a thin uniform lining of titanium is
required on a base metal. The technique is regularly used
for the production of high pressure tubeplates for tube
and shell heat exchangers, reaction vessels, chlorine
generators, and for lined plant and ductwork subject to
negative pressure. In the process, thin titanium sheet is
placed at a closely controlled distance on top of a backing
plate. Explosive spread uniformly on top of the titanium
is detonated from a single point, the explosion driving
the titanium down across the air gap to impact on the
backing metal. A jet of surface oxides is expressed from
the apex of the collapse angle formed, and this removes
any residual contamination from the mating surfaces,
producing a metallurgical bond of wave-like form and
guaranteed shear strength. The continuity of the bond
can be confirmed ultrasonically. All low to medium
strength titanium grades, (ASTM 1, 2, 7, 11, 12, 16, 17,
26, 27), can be bonded typically down to 2mm (.08
inch) thick onto a variety of ferrous or non ferrous backing
plates, nominally 12.7mm (.5 inch) or thicker. Plates have
been produced up to 3.5 metres (137 inch) diameter or
15 sq. metres area (160 sq. ft.).
BRAZING
CONVENTIONAL BRAZING
Titanium alloys have been brazed successfully using
silver, aluminium and titanium alloy braze metals.
Although there are many variants, only vacuum brazing
has significant application for titanium due to the
requirement to protect the base metal from oxidation.
However, development work has been performed in the
use of sliver chloride-lithium fluoride fluxes and TIG
brazing has proven successful in some applications. Silver
alloy brazes were the first to be applied to titanium and
commercially pure silver, silver alloys with copper and
manganese, and silvercopper alloys with zinc and tin
have all shown some success. Although joints tend to
have good ductility, strength is poor at elevated
temperatures and corrosion resistance is poor in
chloride-containing environments. However, the silver
alloy braze metals have liquidus temperatures below the
beta transus of alloys such as Ti-6Al-4V, thus the brazing
cycle will have little or no effect on the base metal
microstructure and properties. The use of aluminiumsilicon fillers also enables low temperature brazing to be
performed, with the added benefit of decreased weight.
It is crucial, however, to maintain as short a braze cycle
as possible to minimise the formation of brittle
intermetallics.
Brazing
Advantages
Complex geometrys can be joined
Dissimilar metal joints are possible
Disadvantages
Slow, unless batch processing is possible
Must be performed in a vacuum
Galvanic corrosion may limit application
SOLDERING
Titanium is extremely difficult to solder because of
the same properties that confer its superb corrosion
resistance - the tenacity and stability of its surface oxide.
Conventional soldering methods depend on aggressive
fluxes to allow the solder alloy to wet the surface of the
base metal. None of the conventional fluxes is effective
for titanium and so the surface is typically precoated
with a more compatible metal, such as copper, by PVD
or sputter coating. It is also possible to tin the surface
of the titanium by extended immersion in a molten tin
bath at 600C (1110F); the titanium oxide is adsorbed
by the base metal, allowing the tin to wet a non-oxidised
surface. Some success has also been reported in the
use of molten silver or tin halides, which react with the
oxide surface to produce a tin or silver coating; and in
the use of conventional fluxes whilst disrupting the
surface oxide with an ultrasonic soldering iron.
15
ADHESIVE BONDING
Adhesive Bonding
Close up of joint
Advantages
Rapid
Titanium to polymer/composite joints are
possible
Disadvantages
Poor performance in peel
Application is limited for most corrosive
environment
MECHANICAL FASTENING
Mechanical joining processes for titanium include all
types of fastener, many of which are routinely
manufactured in titanium and widely used in the
aerospace industry. Non-titanium fasteners in materials
of lower corrosion resistance compared to titanium may
be used where no danger of galvanic corrosion is present,
or where the fastening is totally isolated from the
corrosive environment.In environments which pose a risk
alloys.
Selection of titanium bolts, fasteners and captive nuts
16
Joining processes that may be capable of forming sound joints between titanium and other materials.
Steel
Stainless Steel
Nickel alloy
Refractory
metals
Copper
Aluminium
Cobalt alloy
Ceramics
Polymer
composites
EB
Laser
Friction1
Adhesives
Explosive
bonding
Resistance
welding
Brazing
Notes 1 Does not indicate that all friction processes are appropriate for a given dissimilar joint.
CAUTION: GALVANIC CORROSION Titanium is highly corrosion resistant, and can accelerate the corrosion of dissimilar
metals when coupled to a less noble metal. In addition to accelerated corrosion, when such a galvanic couple exists,
hydrogen can be taken up by the titanium, leading in some circumstances to hydride cracking and failure. Alloys which
occupy a similar position in the galvanic series as titanium may be safely coupled to titanium in environments which
would not ordinarily lead to corrosion of the uncoupled base metal. For example duplex and super-austenitic stainless
steel, and Ni-Cr-Mo alloys can often be safely coupled to titanium. However, it is recommended that specific technical
advice is sought for any given operating environment and dissimilar joint. Further details on simple mechanical couplings
can be found in TIG Data Sheet No 6.
SELECTION OF A WELDING
PROCESS
The foregoing sections have provided a brief
summary of the characteristics of the various joining
processes that can be used to weld titanium structures.
Most fabrication is performed by TIG welding and this
is unlikely to change, however it is crucial to the
production of low cost titanium components that higher
productivity, more cost effective processes be
considered where possible. For example, PAW often
17
17
WORKSHOP PRACTICE
IN-CHAMBER WELDING
WORKSHOP LAYOUT
It is preferable for a separate area to be set aside for
titanium fabrication, provided that there is sufficient work
to justify the additional expense. If this is not possible,
extreme care should be taken to segregate materials.
Titanium is similar in appearance to stainless steel and
the consequences of using a ferrous filler wire in a
titanium joint could be very costly. The entire working
area should be kept clean to avoid any contamination
during welding. Likewise, the working space should be
absolutely dry. Water is a potential source of oxygen and
hydrogen and all equipment, jigs, fixtures etc. should be
free from moisture. If equipment is found to be wet, the
safest means of drying out is to use a hot air blast or a
volatile solvent such as acetone. The fume produced
when titanium is welded is not harmful to health.
Consequently, extraction systems should be designed
to keep the general area clean without producing
noticeable draughts at the point of welding. Screens or
curtains should be used to reduce draughts locally.
18
19
MACHINING
The following techniques are suitable for the preparation
of titanium joints:
(a) Turning, milling and planing: The surface obtained by
conventional machining processes such a latheturning, milling and planing are suitable for welding
with no additional cleaning other than degreasing to
remove cutting lubricants. Care is needed to ensure
that the metal is not overheated during the machining
operation and that other (non machined) surfaces
to be welded are not oxidised.
(b) Grinding: This technique is widely used for preparing
the edges of medium and thick material for welding.
The aim should be to produce the smoothest, most
regular profile possible with the scratch lines running
along the line of the weld and never across it. If
overheating of the material occurs it will be evident
from discoloration. Whenever practicable, grinding
should be followed by draw filing, or any other
technique which improves the smoothness and
profile of the weld and ensures that any grinding
particles are removed.
(c) Linishing: Belt or disc finishers are suitable for edge
preparation of medium gauge components. A 100
grit grade of paper can be used for most purposes.
Linishing is a relatively slow operation which produces
fine dust and is expensive on consumables. However,
it is very flexible and can give excellent results.
(d) Draw filing: Preparations made by grinding can be
improved by draw filing. A fine toothed flat file is
drawn repeatedly along the metal surface, an
operation which removes minor irregularities. Filing
requires skill and the use of a clean file or it can
worsen rather than improve the surface
(e) Scratch brushing: Surfaces can be scratch brushed
to remove any residual contamination. With stainless
steel brushes there is a slight risk of iron pick up and
titanium brushes should be used for critical
applications.
CUTTING
Any thickness of titanium can be cut with
conventional flame cutting equipment. However, it must
be remembered that contamination of the metal with
oxygen will result in hardening of the metal adjacent of
the cut edges. Thus a size tolerance of +6mm, (.25)
should be allowed for subsequent cleaning up. Plasma
arc cutting or the use of lasers are possible alternative
techniques to the oxyacetylene process. As-cut surfaces
should not be welded before the joint faces are finished
using a machining technique capable of giving a noncontaminated good quality surface. As-guillotined joint
20
PICKLING
Acid pickling can be used to remove oxygen
contaminated metal from the surface of titanium. It is
also useful for removing any surface iron contamination
that may be present from machining. Pickling solutions
are typically aqueous solutions of hydrofluoric (48%
concentration) and nitric acid (70% concentration). The
acid ratio should always be maintained between 1:5 and
1:9 (5%HF/35%HNO3 has been found to be an effective
solution). Pickling should be carried out at room
temperature, for 1-5 minutes depending on the activity
of the bath. If the surface of the metal is dirty or oily,
degreasing or aquablasting must precede pickling or the
acid dissolution will be non-uniform producing a pitted
effect.
PREWELD CLEANING
The surface of the weld preparation and adjoining
metal is critical to the quality of the joint and should be
scrupulously clean prior to welding. The surface should
be inspected to see whether a final hand finishing
operation is necessary, e.g. to smooth out rough
machining marks and remove slivers of metal. The
smoothness of abutting edges is particularly important
for reduced porosity in arc welds and diffusion bonds.
Vapour and liquid degreasing methods are applicable for
titanium alloys.
(a) Vapour: Immersion tanks based on trichlorethylene
vapour are effective in removing grease, oil,
TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE
The choice of electrode composition and diameter
is no different than for TIG welding stainless steels and
is influenced by the requirements for electrode longevity,
ease of arc initiation and stability. A simple 60 cone
gives satisfactory results for most manual TIG welding.
With angles less than 40 there is a greater risk of
21
SHIELDING GASES
For most purposes, the commercial grade of argon
may be used for welding titanium, although productivity
can be enhanced through the use of argon-helium
mixtures or pure helium. The use of helium-containing
gases has particular advantages for MIG welding since
spatter can be reduced considerably. Commercially
available cylinders of welding grade argon and helium
are of sufficient purity for all welding operations, however
care should be taken to ensure that non-permeable hoses
are used for all attachments to ensure that moisture is
not incorporated into the shielding gas. If cylinders are
used it is inevitable that they will contain a small amount
of moisture. This level is extremely low when the gas
cylinder is full, but as the pressure in the cylinder drops,
so the moisture content rises. There is some justification
for using gas from a cylinder for welding titanium only
until the pressure has fallen to ~25bar, after which it
Suggested welding parameters for automatic TIG and MIG welding titanium (1/16 = 1.6mm)
Gauge, in
Electrode diameter, in
Filler wire diameter, in
Wire feed rate, ipm
Voltage, V
Amps, A
Nozzle ID, in
Torch shield, cfh
15Ar
15Ar
20Ar
TIG (GTA)
0.060
1
/16
1
/16
22
10
120-130
15Ar
20Ar
4Ar
10
DCEN
40Ar
5Ar
12
DCEN
30Ar
4Ar
10
DCEN
50Ar
5Ar
10
DCEN
with filler
0.090
1
/16-3/32
1
/16
22
12
200-210
20Ar
50Ar
6Ar
12
DCEN
0.125
3
/32-1/8
1
/16
20
12
220-230
20Ar
50Ar
6Ar
10
DCEN
MIG (GMA)
0.125
0.250
1
1
/16
/16
200-225 300-320
20
30
250-260 300-320
-1
-1
50Ar+
50Ar+
15He
15He
50Ar
50Ar
30Ar
50Ar
15
15
DCEP
DCEP
0.500
/16
375-400
40
340-360
-1
50Ar+
15He
60Ar
60Ar
15
DCEP
1
0.625
/16
400-425
45
350-370
-1
50Ar+
15He
60Ar
60Ar
15
DCEP
1
Thickness
in.
mm
0.008
0.015
0.125
0.188
0.250
0.313
0.390
0.500
0.20
0.38
3.18
4.78
6.35
7.95
9.92
12.7
Notes:
Melt-in
Melt-in
Keyhole
Keyhole
Keyhole
Keyhole
Keyhole
Keyhole
Orifice and
shielding gas
Nozzle Orifice
Diameter
in.
mm
Flow
cfh
l/min
0.030
0.030
0.136
0.136
0.136
0.136
0.136
0.136
0.5
0.5
9
10-12
16
15
32
27
2.3
2.3
42
47-57
76
71
151
127
0.76
0.76
3.45
3.45
3.45
3.45
3.45
3.45
**
22
Welding
technique
Ar
Ar
Ar
Ar
Ar
Ar
He+25Ar
He+50Ar
Welding
Arc
current, A* voltage, V
5
6
150
175
160
172
225
270
24
30
30
30
38
36
Travel speed
ipm
mm/s
ipm
5
5
15
15
12
12
10
10
2.1
2.1
6.3
6.3
5.1
5.1
4.2
4.2
40
42
45
48
-
mm/s
16.9
17.8
19
20.3
-
O
0.10
0.10
0.10-0.15
0.15-0.25
0.15
0.12
0.10
0.15
0.10
0.25
H
0.008
0.008
0.008
0.008
0.008
0.008
0.005
0.008
0.005
0.008
Composition, wt.%
N
Al
V
0.012
0.020
0.020
0.020
0.020
0.020
2.5-3.5
2.0-3.0
0.012
2.5-3.5
2.0-3.0
0.020
5.5-6.75 3.5-4.5
0.012
5.5-6.75 3.5-4.5
0.020
-
Fe
0.10
0.20
0.20
0.30
0.20
0.25
0.15
0.25
0.15
0.30
Other
Ti
Rem.
Rem
Rem
Rem
Pd 0.12-0.25
Rem
Rem
Rem
Rem
Rem
Mo 0.2-0.4
Ni 0.6-0.9
Rem
Notes:* This classification of filler metal restricts the allowable interstitial content to a low level so that the high toughness required for cryogenic applications and other special uses can be obtained in the deposited weld metal.
23
TACK WELDING
Tack welds are used to fix parts into the correct
relative position before welding. Since the tack is
eventually incorporated into the weld, it must be shielded
to the same high standard as the weld itself. Tacks may
be used in conjunction with a root gap i.e. where the
edges of the weld are deliberately set slightly apart to
assist in achieving uniform penetration. A tapering root
gap, wider at the finish end, can be set to counteract
the scissor effect caused by weld contraction.
MULTIPASS WELDING
The initial pass of a multipass weld will generally be
autogenous with only minor filler additions to correct
for small variations. It is advisable to X-ray the weld at
this stage if work is being carried out to radiographic
standards since porosity and lack of fusion defects are
more often associated with this first pass than with
subsequent runs.
Bright silvery coloured welds which have been
correctly shielded do not require any attention before
laying subsequent passes onto them.
Heat build up from previous weld runs can lead to
surface contamination on subsequent passes. In extreme
cases, the only solution may be to leave the work to
cool before further welding is carried out. Another
approach is to make any long welds in shorter sections.
In addition to helping with cooling, sequence welding
can also be effective in reducing distortion. Interpass
temperatures up to 500oC, depending on circumstances,
can be used for commercial purity titanium and Ti-6Al4V. This ensures that heat build up of the work piece
does not reduce the effectiveness of the shielding
arrangements, which are typically based on single pass
welds.
0.035
0.062
0.070
0.093
/8
60
60
60
60
10
12
16
60
60
60
60
600
1500
1700
2400
5500
10600
11500
12500
600
1000
1850
2100
1720
5000
6350
8400
Ratio C-T/T-S
0.35
0.20
0.29
0.25
0.255
0.359
0.391
0.431
0.331
87.3
/8
3.1
0.0047
0.0087
0.0079
0.0091
Notes: Electrode type : 3 (75mm) spherical radius, 5/8 (15.9mm) dia, class 2 copper
24
RADIOGRAPHY.
Radiography is one of the more useful weld inspection
techniques for titanium and its application does not differ
substantially from the radiography of other metals, either
in execution or interpretation. Allowance must be made
for the lower absorption of X-rays than is found with
iron or copper. One minor difficulty is that a titanium
image quality indicator (IQI) is not available: the
aluminium IQI is probably the best choice rather than
iron or copper.
Radiography will reveal: tungsten inclusions as sharp white spots
porosity which shows up as dark spots that usually appear
circular
lack of root or sidewall fusion indicated as a dark line or
area, often with associated porosity
cracking, which is evident as a dark line, sometimes angular
and sharp
DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
The principles used in approval and qualification
testing of other metals apply equally to titanium but some
provision is necessary for assessing contamination.
Colour should certainly be noted, but is an inadequate
indicator on its own. Transverse tensile tests normally
will not show contamination, since the weld is usually
stronger than the parent metal. For plates that are
sufficiently thick, results of side bend tests will give a
guide. For thinner plate or sheet, the longitudinal bend
test is preferable to the transverse, since this gives a
direct comparison with base metal performance. Some
care is needed, because the weld zone will usually be
less ductile even in the absence of contamination,
particularly with some alloys. Comparison should be
made between the weld and HAZ (rather than parent),
so as to account for hardening that occurs during the
weld thermal cycle. Finally, the oxygen and nitrogen
content of the welds may be analysed to provide a direct
measure of any contamination.
ASTM
Grades
Alloy type
Minimum
bend radius
2t
3t
4t
10-12t
8-10t
5t
16-18t
25
VISUAL INSPECTION
Most elements of visual inspection are not unique to
titanium welding: weld bead location, size, shape,
uniformity and penetration. Visual inspection is also
critical for assessing if sufficient flash has been generated
in a friction weld. However, the major application of visual
inspection for titanium weldments is the assessment of
the success or otherwise of the gas shielding
arrangements.This approach makes use of the
interference colours generated by thin layers of surface
oxide in the weld zone. The observed colour changes
with oxide thickness and this effect is utilized to give an
indication of the oxidizing potential of the shielding
arrangements.
Colour
Intepretation
Silver
Correct shielding, satisfactory
Light straw Slight contamination, but acceptable
Rule of thumb classification of titanium weld colour
Dark straw Slight contamination, but acceptable
Dark blue
Heavier contamination, but may be acceptable
depending on service
Light blue
Heavy contamination, unlikely to be acceptable
Grey blue
Very heavy contamination, unacceptable
Grey
Very heavy contamination, unacceptable
White
Very heavy contamination, unacceptable
26
TIG welds in commercially pure titanium sheet made with successively greater air contamination of the shielding gas.
27
REPAIR OF DEFECTS
LOCALISED MINOR REPAIRS
Defects in titanium welds such as isolated tungsten
inclusions and porosity are quite easy to repair. The
affected area is removed by drilling or grinding and
cleaned prior to filling the hole or depression with the
appropriate filler material, taking care that any metal
added is properly fused into the existing weld metal.
SEAM REPLACEMENT
Where a line of pores is found by radiography, the
weld can be re-melted up to a maximum of, say, 3 times
subject to a satisfactory contamination check after each
stage. This re-melt will require a higher current than that
used on the original weld but can potentially remove all
or most of the porosity. Should this fail, however, or if
the defect is of a more serious nature, the entire weld
bead must be removed by machining or grinding and
then rewelded. These types of major weld repairs are
usually slow and costly and consideration should be given
to patching or even complete replacement of the items.
REPAIR OF DETAILS
28
DISTORTION
Because welding involves highly localised heating of
joint edges to fuse the material, non-uniform stresses
are set up in the component. Initially, compressive
stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent metal
when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal
expansion of the hot metal (heat affected zone) adjacent
to the weld pool. However, tensile stresses arise on
cooling when the contraction of the weld metal and the
immediate heat affected zone is resisted by the bulk of
the cold parent metal. If the stresses generated from
thermal expansion/contraction exceeded the yield
strength of the parent metal, localised plastic
deformation of the metal occurs. Plastic deformation
causes a permanent distortion in the structure.
The main factors affecting the type and degree of
distortion, are parent material properties, amount of
restraint, joint design, part fit-up and welding procedure.
RESTRAINT
If a component is welded without any external
restraint, it distorts to relieve the welding stresses. So
methods of restraint such as strong backs in butt welds
can prevent movement and reduce distortion. It should
be noted, however, that restraint produces higher levels
of residual stress in the material.
JOINT DESIGN
Both butt and fillet joints are prone to distortion. It
can be minimised in butt joints by adopting a joint type
which balances the thermal stresses through the plate
thickness. For example, a double-sided in preference to
a single-sided weld. Double-sided fillet welds should
eliminate angular distortion of the upstanding member,
PART FIT-UP
Fit-up should be uniform to produce predictable and
consistent shrinkage. Excessive joint gap can also increase
the degree of distortion by increasing the amount of weld
metal needed to fill the joint. The joints should be
adequately tacked to prevent relative movement between
the parts during welding.
WELDING PROCEDURE
This influences the degree of distortion mainly through
its effect on the heat input. As welding procedure is
usually selected for reasons of quality and productivity,
the welder has limited scope for reducing distortion. As
a general rule, weld volume should be kept to a minimum.
Also the welding sequence and technique should aim to
balance the thermally induced stresses around the neutral
axis of the component.
STRESS RELIEF
As for welds in any other metal, postweld heattreatments are performed to reduce the residual stresses
encountered in the weld zone and improve fatigue
performance. Residual stresses in ferrous fabrications
can equal the yield stress of the alloy, but residual stresses
in titanium are typically lower. For example a maximum
residual stress of approximately 85% of yield can be
encountered in Ti-6Al-4V in highly restrained metal, such
as typical for repair welds. Postweld heat treatments of
different durations are required for stress relief of the
various titanium alloy grades. Heat-treatment schedules
for weldable higher strength alloys are commonly
combined so that postweld heat-treatment relieves
residual stresses and ages the parent material.
Postweld heat-treatment may be performed in a
vacuum or argon atmosphere to prevent the formation
of contaminated layers. Adsorbed oxygen forms a brittle
surface, or alpha case, and is best avoided. Heat
treatment in air is possible provided that the oxidised
surface is removed by pickling, grinding or blasting and
descaling.
Welded fabrications in commercially pure titanium,
including pipe and fittings, will not normally require stress
relief. Alloy fabrications, however, typically do require
stress relief. One to two hours at 600C (1110F) max is
usually adequate for both CP and Ti-6Al-4V, to reduce
residual stress to manageable levels whilst avoiding
excessive thermal oxidation. Indeed, higher temperatures
should be avoided, since microstructural ageing can
reduce toughness and ductility. Suppliers should be
consulted for a suitable heat treatment cycle for welded
alloys requiring postweld solution treatment and ageing.
29
Machining: The practical points of successful machining are principally those of observing the different mechanical
and surface characteristics of titanium. Fire safety procedures must be applied for handling and control of titanium
fines and turnings.
Do: Use rigid set ups, correct speeds, feeds and tooling.
Use flood lubrication.
Use roller steadies and running centres.
Regularly remove turnings from machines.
Employ special closeable containers for titanium turnings.
Fabrication: The practical points of successful fabrication are principally those of good housekeeping and clean
practice in the workshop.
Do not: Heat treat titanium in a reducing atmosphere, it
Do: Use the correct weld preparation and remove all
will absorb hydrogen and become embrittled.
burrs.
Use methyl alcohol (methanol) as a cleaning fluid, dry
Remove all grease, oil, paint and dirt before welding or
methanol can cause stress cracking.
heat treatment.
Use sulpho-chlorinated or sulphurised cleaning fluids.
Clean weld areas with acetone on a lint-free cloth or use
Apply cleaning fluid with tissue paper, wool or rags.
stainless steel or titanium wire brushes.
Wire brush with mild steel brushes.
Dry titanium surfaces before welding.
Use hydorgen containing shielding gases.
Use clean dry titanium filler wire of the correct grade.
Ensure that the top and back face of the weld and weld
areas are adequately shielded with argon gas.
Surface Treatment: The practical points of successful surface treatments are the those of knowing the problem to
be solved and deciding the appropriate treatment.
Do: Confirm that any side effects are accounted for in
the design and application.
Ensure that surface preparation is appropriate to the
coating selected.
Provide the specified grade of lubrication.
Installation: The practical points of successful installation are principally those of observing the different mechanical
properties, corrosion resistance and surface characteristics of titanium.
Do: Allow for the lower modulus of titanium in struts
and support spans.
Provide surface treatment for titanium parts in sliding
contact, or on bearing surfaces.
Coat external surfaces of exposed titanium structures in
areas where dynamically induced sparking is a defined
hazard.
30
STANDARDS AND
SPECIFICATIONS
ASME provides the only international non-aerospace
standard for weldment qualification in titanium. For
pressure vessel construction, the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code details procedure and performance
tests which must be met for coded grades 1, 2, 3, 7, 9,
and 12. Tensile and bend tests on trial welds made under
conditions intended for production are the acceptance
criteria. Impact or notch tensile tests may also be
required, particularly for low temperature applications.
Once good procedures are established, as evidenced
by tensile and bend tests, they should be strictly followed
in subsequent production welding. Although weld colour
should certainly be included in any welding qualification
GLOSSARY
TIG:
EB:
electron beam
RPEB: reduced pressure electron beam
Nd-YAG (laser) Neodymium-yttrium-agate-garnet
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
31
TIMET UK LTD
P.O. Box 704,
Witton,
Birmingham B6 7UR UK
Tel : +44(0)121-356-1155
Fax: +44(0)121-356-5413
32
Tecvac Limited
Buckingway Business Park
Swavesey
Cambridge CB4 5UG
Tel: 01954 233700
Fax: 01954 233733
Surface treatment of titanium
particularly nitriding
Titanium Mill Products Ltd
Lwe House
1 Ranmoor Crescent
Sheffield S10 3GU
Tel: 01142 308 855
Fax: 01142 302 832
Stockists of titanium wrought products
Alba AS
Lilleakerveien 23
N-0283 Oslo
Norway
Tel: 47 22 50 00 20
Fax: 47 22 50 01 11
Titanium castings
Deutsche Titan GmbH
Altendorfer Strasse 104
45143 Essen
Germany
Tel: 00 49 0201 188 2593
Fax: 49 0201 188 3520
Manufacturer of a wide range of titanium
mill products
Rolls Royce Plc
P.O. Box 2000
Derby DE21 7XX
Tel: 01332 661461
Fax: 01332 622948
Fabrication and design of components for
marine power systems
Aeromet International Plc
Watchmead
Welwyn Garden City
Hertfordshire AL7 1LT
Tel: 01795 415000
Fax: 01795 415050
Fabricator specialising in super plastic
forming and diffusion bonding
Azko Nobel
Permascand AB
Box 42
S-840 10 Ljungaverk
Sweden
Tel: 0691 35500
Fax: 0691 33040
Titanium fabricators
Euro-Titan Handels AG
Katternberger Strasse 155-159
Solingen 42655
Germany
Tel: 02 12 248 16-0
Fax: 02 12 248 16-16
Stockist of titanium mill products
33
TITANIUM
TITANIUM is the fourth most abundant structural metal in the earths crust, and the ninth industrial metal. No
other engineering metal has risen so swiftly to pre-eminence in such a wide range of critical and demanding
applications.