Original Scientiic Article

Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism:

A Case Study of Dubrovnik
Aleksandar Radi

PhD student, Singidunum University, Belgrade

[email protected]

Purpose he main purpose of this research was to investigate the existence of

crisis management within Dubrovnik stakeholders of cruise tourism.
Design/Methods/Approach In this paper, the author decided to use two paradigms: pragmatism and positivism, which are usually followed by quantitative
techniques of data collection. A structured questionnaire enabled the author to
collect quantitative data that were processed by descriptive statistics.
Findings/ Practical implications From this research we have determined that
most of the Dubrovnik stakeholders of cruise tourism do not have a developed
system of crisis management and have not developed leadership in crisis management either. Taking into account the information that we obtained in this study,
the authors opinion is that it is necessary to ofer a strategic framework of leadership in crisis management that could be used by small and medium-sized cruise
tourism stakeholders in Dubrovnik.
Research limitations he main limitations of this research paper were that only
one cruise company was interviewed and that the author of this research paper
was not able to verify whether there was indeed a crisis management strategy in
the organizations that claimed to have one.
Originality/value his article depicts current trends in crisis management
among Dubrovnik stakeholders of cruise tourism and ofers a strategic framework for leadership in crisis management that could be used by small and medium Dubrovnik stakeholders of cruise tourism.
Key words: Cruise tourism in Dubrovnik, Crisis management, Crisis leadership

Introduction

Cruise tourism as known today has its roots in 1966

when Ted Arison, a young Israeli colonel and former ighter in the Arab-Israeli wars, immigrated to
the United States and started a business venture that
would many years later be known as the Carnival
Corporation (Dickinson & Vladimir, 2008, p. 20). In
1970, cruise tourism recorded around 500,000 tourists (Berger, 2004, p. 3), who used cruises as a form of
their vacation; over four decades later, in 2014, that
number was 22.1 million tourists (CLIA, 2015a, p. 6).
Although in the beginning cruise tourism was mainly focused on the North American market and des-

tinations that are located in the Caribbean Sea, todays cruise tourism has a wider global distribution
in which Mediterranean cruises account for 19.5% of
the worlds cruise tourism (CLIA, 2015b, p.1).
Although cruise tourism is extremely vulnerable to business risks and impacts of adverse events
that may lead to crisis, this topic remains quite unexplored. Operational risks that can lead to negative economic consequences for cruise tourism have
been examined by London (2010), who, in an interesting way, in the case of cruise tourism in New Zealand, presented ive risk management strategies: Establishment of a committee for the co-ordination of

Academica Turistica, Year 8, No. 2, November 2015 | 29

Aleksandar Radi

cruise tourism, Cruise culture development, Education and training, Creation of national cruise manuals, and Creation of trust and recognition of cruise
brand. Hoogkamer (2013) wrote about the challenges of preserving cities of historical importance (using the example of Charleston, South Carolina, USA)
under the inluence of cruise tourism. In her work,
she drew attention to the threats that are the consequences of cruise tourism: pollution by ships, uncoordinated development of destinations under the
pressure of the cruise industry, and the loss of intangible heritage inluenced by the mass inlux of tourists from cruise ships (ibid.).
he newly established situation of cruise tourism
in Dubrovnik carries a number of hidden threats that
could lead to crisis situations with negative consequences. Dubrovnik has a signiicant economic beneit from cruise tourism, which is relected in direct
spending of tourists from cruise ships in Dubrovnik
as well as indirect beneits that are relected in the
spread of awareness about Dubrovnik as a desirable
cultural and historical destination. Bearing in mind
that rapid success carries hidden risks and dangers
that may, under unfavourable combinations of circumstances, lead to crises, the author of this paper
believes that Dubrovnik cruise tourism stakeholders
are inadequately prepared for managing crisis situations.
Cruise Tourism in a Cultural and Historical
Destination (Dubrovnik)

Data on the physical traic of cruise tourism in

Dubrovnik is oicially monitored and published by
the Dubrovnik port authority; according to their
data, in 2014, Dubrovnik recorded 806,588 tourists
brought by cruisers during their 463 arrivals (www.
portdubrovnik.hr, 2014). he economic contribution
of cruise tourism in Dubrovnik is extremely important, so IZTZG (Institute for Tourism, Zagreb, 2007,
p. 75) estimates that 599,462 tourists from cruise ships
produced income between 20 and 23 million euros
in 2006. If we assume that the dynamics of the consumption of tourists from cruise ships was the same
in 2014, it appears that 806,588 tourists from cruise
ships produced revenues of around 29 million euros.
As one of the leading cruise destinations in the
Mediterranean, Dubrovnik faces challenging impacts of cruise tourism, so it is not surprising that

Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism

many authors from diferent viewpoints have written

about the impact of cruise tourism there. hus, IZTZG (2007) and later Benic (2011) described the impacts of cruise tourism on the economy, society, and
environment. he negative impact of cruise ships on
the environment has been investigated by several authors (Milosevic & Jurjevic, 2004; Jelavic & Kurtela,
2007; IZTZG, 2007; Caric, 2010; Benic, 2011; Peric &
Orsulic, 2011), while the problem of the overcrowding of Dubrovnik by tourists from cruise ships has
been processed by Raguz Perucic and Pavlic (2012).
he challenge of setting the limits of cruise tourism
capacity, or its development and carrying capacity is taken up by Ban, Perucic, and Vrtiprah (2014).
By summarizing all of the above research studies we
come to several recommendations which are necessary for the quality management and sustainable development of Dubrovnik: setting a maximum daily
capacity of visitors from cruise ships (8,000 per day);
the implementation of the integrated management
system in the port of Dubrovnik; better coordination
and management of all stakeholders of Dubrovnik
cruise tourism; creating a center for the coordination
and management of cruise tourism in Dubrovnik;
fairer distribution of cruisers or the demand during
a year / week / day in order to keep the attractiveness
of the destination to the satisfaction of local residents
and all tourists; review of legal regulation for the protection of the environment due to the extreme sensitivity of ecosystems; constant monitoring and adaptation of business strategies.
The Fragility of Cruise Tourism in a Cultural
and Historical Destination (Dubrovnik)

Cruise tourism in Dubrovnik takes place around its

cultural and historical heritage and is closely linked
to cultural tourism. Cultural heritage is always in
danger of war; sudden, violent natural disasters; political and economic pressures as well as the everyday
impact of slow decay, wear and neglect (Stovel, 1998,
p. 17). he dynamics of everyday life in which we live
constantly increase the potential of threats that can
develop into crises of cruise tourism in Dubrovnik.
In the not so distant past, Dubrovnik experienced
negative consequences for its entire tourism sector
under the inluence of conlicts, wars, political and
economic pressures and in the distant past the catastrophic impact of natural forces. Marx (1851) stat-

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Aleksandar Radi

Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism

ed that: History tends to repeat itself, irst as a tragedy and then as a farce. Stovel (1998, p. 13) notes
that there are passive resistance and a lack of interest in conservative communities regarding the planning and preparation for emergency events. It follows
that it is the utmost duty of Dubrovnik cruise tourism stakeholders to create a culture of open and constructive dialogue that would bridge the diferences
between themselves and those who are directly responsible for planning emergency events and those
that must provide support during emergencies.
Crises and Crisis Management in Tourism

Faulkner (2001, p. 135) argues that we live in a world

prone to disasters and that the number of disasters
and crises afecting the tourism industry is growing. In recent years, global tourism has, in fact, experienced a number of crises and disasters, including terrorist attacks, political instability, epidemics,
natural disasters and economic recessions (Ritchie,
2004, p. 669). Glaesser (2006) notes that the development and prosperity of the tourism industry are
from time to time threatened under the inluence of
negative events (terrorist attacks in Egypt, Bali, New
York; SARS; the tsunami in Asia). Tourism is unable
to isolate itself from external inluences, and unforeseen events may cause crises in tourism (Henderson,
2007, p.1). Contemporary crises do not recognize and
disrespect national boundaries and do not restrict
themselves in speciic legislative areas so that smaller
crises in one part of the world can cause signiicant
impacts in other parts of the world, due to the globalization of the tourism market (Maditinos & Vassiliadis, 2008, p. 68).
Crisis and Crisis Attributes

Many authors have attempted to deine crisis to better understand this phenomenon; however, even today we are surprisingly in a situation in which we still
have no generally accepted deinition of a crisis, and
the very concept of the crisis is overused (Pauchant
& Mitrof, 1992; Ritchie, 2004). Pauchant and Mitrof (1992, p. 12) believe that the crisis is disruption that
physically afects a system as a whole and threatens
its basic assumptions, its subjective sense of self, its
existential core. One of the irst comprehensive deinitions was developed by Pearson and Clair (1998)
who claims that an organizational crisis is a rather

unlikely, strong-shock event that threatens the further feasibility of the organization and is characterized by the dimness of causes and outcomes as well as
by a deep belief that decisions must be made quickly (see in Crandall, Parnell & Spillan, 2010). he crisis is a sudden or developed change, which results in
a problem that must be addressed immediately (Harvard Business School Essentials 2004).
Santana (2003) points out that a crisis is a process that starts from events that, if not properly addressed, have the potential to evolve and cause an adverse outcome. Taking into account, the duration of
a crisis, Pearson (1996) lists three types of crises: a
sudden crisis, successive crisis, and prolonged crisis.
Exploring the roots of crises, Henderson (2007) inds
that the causes of most crises in tourism are located in the economic, political, socio-cultural, environmental and technological domains. Indeed, crises and disasters are a universal reality, and they are
an inseparable part of the human condition (Mitrof 2004, p.33). Acknowledging the fact that most crises are not deined by one event or that causes may
arise repeatedly overlapping with the initial and inal
stages of the cycle of a crisis (Heifetz & Linsky, 2002,
see Braden et al. 2004), Braden et al. (2004) have created a model that gives us a clear insight into the cycle of crises.
Crisis life-cycle Model

he crisis life-cycle is framed by time and degree disequilibrium (Braden et al. 2004, p. 5). he vertical axis
illustrates the amount of stress or chaos felt by members of the organization and it can be divided into a
comfort, learning and danger zone (Saar, 2004, see in
Braden et al. 2004, p. 5). he comfort zone is considered to be the status quo, and this is where most of
the organizations or bureaucracy wants to stay. Unfortunately, organizations that remain locked in a
comfort zone hold their values, culture, and operational paradigm in a static state in relation to an environment that is forever changing (Braden et al.,
2004). Above the comfort zone, there is a critical area
bordered by a learning zone and danger zone. he
line above the comfort zone has been described as the
minimum amount of stress that is needed in order
to change the organization. he size of the learning
zone is directly related to the organizational ability
to manage stress. Crossing over the line of the learn-

Academica Turistica, Year 8, No. 2, November 2015 | 31

Aleksandar Radi

Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism

they are still in the introductory phase or in the crisis

preparation phase (Fink, 2000). Ritchie (2004) ofers
a strategic framework for the management of crises
and catastrophes in the public and private sectors of
the tourism industry, and his model consists of three
main stages: prevention and planning; implementation; and evaluation and suggestions.
Crisis and Disaster Management:
a Holistic Strategic Approach
Crisis and Disaster Prevention and Planning
Figure 1
Source

Crisis life-cycle model

Braden et al. (2004, p. 6)

ing zone, we enter the danger zone. he line between

the learning zone and the danger zone is the limit at
which too much stress can cause organizational collapse. Crises typically cause a situation where the organizational stress level jumps into the danger zone.
One quite challenging task of leadership is to create a
suicient amount of instability that will keep the organization in the learning zone but outside the danger zone (Braden et al., 2004).
Crisis Management in Tourism

Crisis management can be observed from the functional and institutional aspect. Institutional crisis
management refers to a group of people who are responsible for the activities of crisis management, and
they are the bearers of functional crisis management,
which is related to the tasks and processes changes
in the time at which a crisis occurs (Glaesser, 2006,
pp. 21-22, Popesku, 2011). Indeed, understanding the
type of crisis to which the destination is receptive
greatly inluences the development and implementation of strategies for crisis management (Ritchie,
2004, p. 675).
Strategic framework of Crisis Management
in Tourism

he interweaving of human and natural systems has

led to an extremely complex situation in which all of
todays organizations and tourist destinations, during their life cycle, may be confronted at some point
with inevitable changes that may lead to a crisis or
disaster (Faulkner, 2001). All businesses are on the
brink of chaos, and leaders must accept the fact that
although their businesses are currently not in crisis,

During the phase Pre-event and Prodromal stage,

there is a number of activities that can be undertaken by the private and public sector regarding developing strategies and plans to prevent or mitigate the
impact of a crisis or disaster (Ritchie, 2004, p. 674).
Proactive, strategic planning signiicantly reduces
risks, failures in communication, improves the management of resources and mitigates the manifested effects of a crisis (Heath, 1998, p. 17).
Strategic Implementation

When a negative event begins to develop into a crisis,

for managers this is a clear signal that they are entering the Prodromal stage phase of the crisis cycle (Ritchie, 2004, p. 675). Ritchie (ibid., pp. 675-679) argues
that if managers are aware of the impending crisis,
and in this regard during the earlier stages have developed clear contingency or emergency procedures,
then the following steps lie ahead:
- Strategic evaluation and strategic control boil
down to the quick choice of strategies and their
implementation to limit the harm caused by the
crisis.
- Crisis communication and control is a communication strategy prepared in detail that is primarily engaged in providing accurate and consistent
information to the public, with the empowerment
of the image of an organization that has faced the
crisis.
- Resource management of a destination or organization is nothing more than the process of reorganizing and reconiguring all existing resources. It is very important that the standard bureaucratic management structure is replaced by a freer structure that provides greater lexibility.

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Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism

FLEXIBILITY, EVALUATION AND MODIFICATION OF STRATEGY

CRISIS/DISASTER PREVENTION AND PLANNING

Figure 2
Source

Proactive planning and strategy formulation: environmental scanning; issues analysis; scenario
planning; strategic forecasting; risk analysis.
Scanning to planning: developing plans from scanning and issues analysis; contingency and emergency
planning.

STRATEGIC IMPLEMENTATION
Strategy evaluation and strategic control: formulation of strategic alternatives, evaluation of
alternatives, selection of appropriate strategies; making effective decisions quickly; influence or control
over crises/disasters.
Crisis communication and control: control over crisis communication; development of crisis
communication strategy including use of a public relations plan; appointment of a spokesperson; use of
crisis communication to recover from incidents; short versus long term crisis communication strategies.
Resource management: responsive organisational structures; redeployment or generation of financial
resources; leadership styles and employee empowerment.

1. Pre-Event Stage
Action taken to
prevent disasters

2. Prodromal
Apparent a
crisis/disaster is about
to hit
3. Emergency
Incident hits; damage
limitation and action
needed

4. Intermediate
Short term needs dealt
with; restoring services

Understanding and collaborating with stakeholders: internal ( employees, managers, shareholders ) and
external ( tourists, industry sectors, government agencies, general public, media ) stakeholders; need for
collaboration between stakeholders at different levels to resolve crises or disasters.
5. Long term (recovery)
Longer term clean up;
repair; reinvestment;
post mortem

RESOLUTION, EVALUATION AND FEEDBACK

Resolution and normality: resolution and restoration of destination or organisation to pre-crisis
situation; reinvestment strategies and resourcing; crises/disasters as agents of change.
Organisational learning and feedback: organisations or destinations may reassess and take stock of
themselves; evaluating effectiveness of strategies and responses; feedback to prevent planning; levels of
learning depend on single or double loop learning.

6. Resolution
Normal or improved
state created

CLASSIFYING/UNDERSTANDING CRISES AND DISASTERS

Aleksandar Radi

Crisis and disaster management: a holistic strategic approach

Ritchie (2004, p . 674).

- Understanding and collaborating with stakeholders is essential in order to successfully plan and
manage crises in the tourism industry. he logic of this relationship lies in a strong interrelation
between individuals and groups within the tourism industry, and their need to develop a successful strategy for resolving crises when they occur.
Resolution, Evaluation, and Feedback

Strategically speaking, the last phase takes place while

the organization or destination are recovering from the
crisis and returning to normal activities (Ritchie, 2004,
p. 679). he improved state of an organization and a
destination is possible only if the organization gains
new knowledge from the crisis, changes its procedures
and modiies strategies that have not proven to be efective; it is these actions that are pillars of the prevention
and proactive planning (Ritchie, 2004, p. 679).
Crisis Communication and Crisis Communication Strategies

Communication is an extremely important instrument during all phases of crisis management.

herefore, it is of great importance to communicate

through the media to accurately frame the crisis in
the public perception (Harvard Business School Essentials, 2004, p. 94). Crisis communication is the
management of the perception of the reality that
takes place, and it has the function of retelling the
public what is happening (or what you want the public to know what is happening); essentially, crisis
communication shapes public opinion (Fink, 2013,
p. 8).
Many authors have written about the importance of
crisis communication strategies (Pauchant and Mitrof, 1992; Coombs, 2007a, 2011; Crandall, Pranell &
Spillane, 2010; Fink, 2013); however, Crandall, Pranell
and Spillane (2010, p. 150) argue that an efective crisis communication strategy is necessary to successfully manage the crisis. Indeed, various crises require diferent crisis communication strategies; for
this reason, organizations must, irst of all, understand exactly in what kind of crisis it is possible to
apply the appropriate crisis communication strategy
(Fink 2013, p. 180). Via the conceptualization of the

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Aleksandar Radi

phenomenon, Coombs (2006, 2007b, p. 170) proposes four strategies of crisis communication (three primary and one secondary) depending on the perception of responsibility for a crisis that has occurred:
Primary
1. Denial: frames the group of communication strategies which aims to prove the absence of a crisis
or to separate all connections between the organization afected by the crisis and the crisis. hree
tactics are used in the framework of this strategy: Attacking the accuser, Denial and the Role of
scapegoat.
2. Reduction: is a communication strategy that is
used when an organization accepts the existence
of a crisis and when it tries to show that it has very
little control over the crisis that has occurred. he
tactics used on this occasion are Excuse and Justiication.
3. Reconstruction: is a communication strategy that
is used when an organization afected by a crisis
attempts to rebuild its legitimacy and protect its
reputation, while Compensation and Apology are
two tactics used on this occasion.
Secondary
4. Bolstering: is a group of strategies that show the
organization and its relationship with stakeholders in a positive light. When using Bolstering
strategy, the tactics used are Reminding, Ingratiation, and the Victim.
Events That May Adversely Afect Cruise Tourism
in Dubrovnik

Glaesser (2006, p. 16) deines a negative event as an

incident within an organizational environment that
can threaten, weaken and destroy the competitive
advantages or signiicant goals of the organization.
In many ways, this view of a negative event and its
potential is reminiscent of Gleicks (1987) theory of
chaos, in which the state of chaos can be explained as
a phenomenon with a hidden pattern, whereby chaotic systems have sensitive connections with the initial state and are unpredictable in their outcome.
Lorenz (1993) further notes how even a small change
in the initial data input can lead to very diferent outcomes. He metaphorically calls this event the butterly efect and argues that the behaviour of chaot-

Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism

ic systems cannot give long-term predictions but at

best can only give accurate short-term forecasts. Several authors believe that the chaos theory is extremely useful for understanding complex systems, such as
crisis events, because chaos theory views the world
as a complex system of constant motion and change
(Kiel, 1995; Morgan, 1997; Sellnow et al. 2002, see in
Crandall, Pranell & Spillane, 2010).
In the spirit of the preceding, cruise tourism in
Dubrovnik as a system has the characteristics of constant movement and change; therefore, it carries a
certain level of predisposition to crises. Because of
the speciic aspects of cruise tourism in Dubrovnik,
negative events that may lead to a crisis are numerous, but most of them can be grouped into several types according to the cause: terrorism (state terrorism, bio-terrorism, religious terrorism, nuclear terrorism and cyber-terrorism); political (political instability, social unrest, the strengthening of ultra-right and ultra-let structures, a war in the region, relations between NATO and Russia (the crisis in Ukraine)); economic (stock market crash, inlation, currency luctuations, recession and credit contractions); health and epidemiological (acute gastroenteritis caused by Norwalk virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Ebola, avian lu (H5N1)
and Legionnaires disease) and environmental (elevated air temperature, sea pollution by wastewater from
cruisers, a devastating magnitude earthquake (natural disaster), drought and air pollution by cruise
ships).
Crisis Leadership

he concept of crisis leadership is based on thinking

the unthinkable, where the unthinkable is the event
with an extremely low probability but with very high
consequences, and the events that are leading up to
the crisis (Mitrof, 2004, p. 14). Mitrof (ibid., p. 10)
argues that Crisis leadership is a much more successful way to manage the crises because of its proactive
character as opposed to Crisis management, which is
essentially of a reactive nature as it deals with crises
only ater they occurred.
Characteristics of the leaders of Crisis leadership

In the irst written scientiic study on the strategies

of war, von Clausewitz (1832) noted that, before each
battle started, great military leaders like Napoleon

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Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism

Bonaparte, irst visualize what is needed to be accomplished in order to win, and then follow their
intuition, adapting their activities along the way to
the unexpected events they encounter (see in Pfeifer,
2013). George (2009), making a parallel between crises and wars, argues that both have very uncertain
outcomes, which is why the generals and leaders of
organizations during crises and wars are at the limits
of their abilities while they are forced to use all their
wisdom and courage to successfully move the organization out of the crisis, that is, to win the war.
During crises, the leaders are greatly tempted; indeed, Boin et al. (2005) observe that the success or
failure of leaders depends on the results of their confrontation with ive critical tasks: giving a meaning to
a crisis; decision making during a crisis; giving significance to a crisis; ending a crisis; and learning from a
crisis. Recognizing morals and lessons from previous
crises is one of the most important features that separate the successful from the unsuccessful crisis leaders (George, 2009)
Characteristics of Crisis leadership

Lagadec (1993, p. 54) points out that success in managing the crises lies with the structures developed
before the occurrence of the crisis. Weick and Sutclife (2007) state several features that adorn the organizations with Crisis leadership; they call those organization Resilient organizations. Such organizations are built on a well thought-out basis that lies
on ive fundamental principles being: failure preoccupation, resistance to simplifying, sensitivity during
activity, commitment to lexibility and respect for expertise (Weick & Sutclife, 2007). he signiicance of
lexibility in organizations that cultivate the culture
of the Crisis leadership is seen by McCann and Selsky (2012). he main attributes of the organizations
of Crisis leadership are: appropriateness, awareness,
orientation towards action, resourcefulness, and
connections (McCann & Selsky, 2012)
Strategies of Crisis leadership

Ater analysing many historical crises, Braden et al.

(2004, p. 16), developed seven essential strategies of
Crisis leadership, shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3
Source

Strategies of crisis leadership

Braden et al. (2004, p. 17)

Strategies of Crisis leadership

Lead From the Front

During crises, people express a desire for a strong, reliable, and visibly engaged leader (Harvard Business
School Essentials, 2004, p. 86). At the very least, the
leader of the Crisis leadership must be visible, balanced, brave, dedicated and attentive (Braden et al.,
2004, p. 24); during the crisis, he must exhibit the following characteristics:
- visibility and image are what the most efective
leaders (e.g. Winston Churchill, Lee Iacocca, Rudolph Giuliani) demonstrate during crises (Harvard Business School Essentials, 2004, p. 87);
- to demonstrate courage is a very important aspect
of being a leader, in which he/she continues to act
despite feeling fear (Collins, 2003, p. 54);
- to show commitment is the ability of a leader to
show his determination to carry out all the tasks
in the work (Braden et al. 2004, p. 27);
- to maintain perspective is the ability of a leader
not to lose the ultimate goal of his sight regardless of the phase of the cycle of crisis in which he
is found (Braden et al., 2004, p. 27).
Focusing on Core Purpose

During his stay in Auschwitz and other Nazi concentration camps, Frankl (1985, p. 95) the creator of
logotherapy, observed that people who have faith in
a better future also have a greater chance of surviv-

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Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism

al. Braden et al. (2004) summarize several key principles of this strategy:

36). Braden et al. (2004) distinguish the following

processes of continuous planning:

- know and understand core purpose: happens

when the leader of the Crisis leadership accepts
that identifying the organizations higher purpose is of colossal importance because it provides the foundation for every decision and action within a crisis plan;

- identify risks and potential crises: the environment is analysed, and the main risks in the operating environment are recognized and avoided
(Harvard Business School Essentials, 2004, p. 2);

- to instil value and align with reality: it is the duty

of a leader to close all gaps between organizational values, organizational behaviour and the reality in which the organization is (Heifetz & Linsky,
2004, see in Braden et al. 2004, p. 33);
- to provide vision and embody values is the instrument of uniication that the leader uses to stabilize the employees of the organization during the
crisis;
- to consistently assess and update purpose is when
the leader updates the organizations higher purpose and values to ensure the relevance of the
current and future environment (Braden et al.,
2004).
Build the Team

In order to successfully survive the crisis, it is of great

importance that a leader builds quality teams diagonally in and outside the organization, paying attention to:
- nurturing relationship: since the personal ties are
structural elements of all teams;
- internal team building: is the process in which the
leader provides feedback to employees during the
crisis and in return gets an emotional connection from which he derives beneits such as loyalty, support, patience and cooperation of employees (Klann, 2003, p. 33);
- external team building: is the next step where a
leader must not forget the external stakeholders
of the organization (Braden et. al., 2004).
Conduct Continuous Planning

Continuous planning boils down to inding and executing a large number of decisions before a crisis occurs (Harvard Business School Essentials, 2004, p.

- establish and monitor sensors: a necessary step for

the simple reason that all crises send early warning signs;
- develop a crisis action plan: the process of the formation of the detailed document that provides a
methodology for crisis management;
- test the plan: the obligation of a leader that should
not be neglected under the inluence of the assumption that untested crisis action plan works
in reality as conceived and written on paper
(Braden et. al., 2004).
Mitigate the Threat

Braden et al. (2004) recommend the following measures that lead to successful mitigation of a crisis:
- take the action: at the moment immediately after the impact of the crisis when the leader must
identify the problem and determine the measures
aimed at stabilizing the situation (Harvard Business School Essentials, 2004, p. 67);
- being on scene is the responsibility of leaders
sending a strong, clear message that they fully
understand the seriousness of the situation (Harvard Business School Essentials, 2004, p. 69);
- consultation with a team expert: is common when
a leader is looded by sensitive decisions because
of which he needs help (Braden et. al., 2004).
Tell the Story

Efective communication is critical for leaders when

framing the story in the perception of public opinion
(Harvard Business School Essentials, 2004, p. 94). In
the framework of this strategy, Braden et al. (2004)
state the following needs:
- spokesman: is a role that is at the position assigned to the leader who possesses inner discipline and balance;

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Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism

- timely and honest communication: is essential

to successful crisis management; a leader must
promptly provide all available information (i.e.
his message) must be truthful and accurate during the crisis (Harvard Business School Essentials, 2004, p. 94);
- shaping the message: is the virtuosity of leaders
during which they decide on a principled message that they want to convey through their stories (Braden et. al., 2004).
Profit From a Crisis

Strong links that were created during the early phase

of the cycle of crisis become more accentuated as
the crisis drags on; consequently, it is the duty of the
leaders to take a step towards a rapid resolution of the
crisis (Harvard Business School Essentials, 2004, p.
80). Braden et al. (2004) provide the following tactical steps to end the crisis:
- normalization of business: beginning immediately ater the leader pulled the organization from
the danger zone;
- learning from the crisis: acting soon ater the completion of the crisis; all participants in the crisis
should distinguish what went well during the crisis and what did not, or what can be learned from
the crisis (Harvard Business School Essentials,
2004, p. 114);
- adjustment of the organization: is the ideal opportunity for the leader to show the necessity of reinventing the organization itself and the danger of
returning organizational operations to the status
quo (Braden et. al., 2004).
Research Methodology

he aim of the research was to investigate the existence of crisis management within the stakeholders of
cruise tourism in Dubrovnik as well as the diferences in the perception of negative events that may lead
to a crisis in Dubrovnik cruise tourism. To fulil the
objective of the research it is necessary to answer the
following questions:
1. Is there crisis management within the stakeholders of cruise tourism in Dubrovnik, and is there a
readily appointed leadership (organizational philosophy, responsible person, and organization-

al structure) in crisis management within stakeholders of cruise tourism in Dubrovnik?

2. Are there any diferences (among stakeholders
of cruise tourism in Dubrovnik) in the perception of negative events that could lead to crises
of cruise tourism in Dubrovnik, regarding specific demographic variables including sex, age, level of education, occupation and the role of cruise
tourism in Dubrovnik (cruise company - destination)?
In this paper, the author decided to use two paradigms: pragmatism and positivism, which are usually followed by quantitative and qualitative techniques of data collection. he review of existing literature indicates that many authors have written speciically in tourism but not about crisis management
in cruise tourism. he research strategy was based on
an active research since the author, because of the nature of his work, is directly involved in cruise tourism and during the preparation of this work had the
opportunity to observe social developments in cruise
tourism, both on the ship and on land. In addition to
the research, an established theory in order to better understand certain behaviours was used. A structured questionnaire enabled the author to collect
quantitative data that were processed with descriptive statistics. In addition to the structured questionnaire, secondary data and personal observations of
the author were also used. Archival research was also
used in this study to acquire the necessary data from
archived reports and documents. he time design of
the research had a transversal character, and transversal studies mostly use a questionnaire as a strategy (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008, Robson 2002, cited Saunders et al., 2009, p. 155). In this paper, the author used the quick snapshot method to investigate certain phenomena in a given period. Using the
obtained answers to the research questions, the authors observations and the help of relevant literature, the author will present a strategic framework
for the leadership of crisis management for small and
medium stakeholders of Dubrovnik cruise tourism.
Research Results

Ater exponential growth, cruise tourism in

Dubrovnik has consolidated and become an indispensable segment of tourism activities relying on a

Academica Turistica, Year 8, No. 2, November 2015 | 37

Aleksandar Radi

growing number of stakeholders in Dubrovnik. Although cruise tourism in Dubrovnik is located in the
mature stage of the life cycle of the destination, crisis management, both as an abstract concept and in
the full sense of the word, is still unknown to the vast
majority of stakeholders.
Designing the Questionnaire
and Statistical Methods

In this research, the author used a semi-structured

questionnaire that is designed to provide with the
data on the perception of negative events that could
lead to a crisis in cruise tourism in Dubrovnik. he
questionnaire also gave us information as to whether there is crisis management with stakeholders of
cruise tourism in Dubrovnik or whether there is
leadership in crisis management with stakeholders
of cruise tourism in Dubrovnik. he questionnaire
is designed under the strong inluence of Hendersons (2007) typology of threats that can lead to crises in tourism but also under the inluence of Beirmans (2003) and Lepp & Gibsons (2003) similar factors. Taking into account the work of the above-mentioned authors, the current geopolitical situation in
the world, as well as the authors many years of experience with 14 cruise ships on which he worked as
the head of the business unit, the author of this work,
through dialogue with his colleagues in the cruise
industry, and with his close acquaintances from the
Dubrovnik cruise sector, decided on a questionnaire containing 25 adverse events that may lead to
a crisis in cruise tourism in Dubrovnik. he negative events cited were grouped into ive dimensions
(terrorism, political events, economic impact, health /
epidemiological impacts and climate / environmental
impacts). he perception of individual adverse events
was measured with a Likert scale from one (strongly disagree) to ive (strongly agree). he total values
of individual dimensions were obtained by summing
the values of negative events within the speciied dimensions.
he second part of the questionnaire used a Likert scale from one (strongly disagree) to ive (strongly agree) to measure the agreement with the indings
relating to the existence of crisis management and
the degree of agreement with the statement whether there is leadership in the crisis management with
stakeholders in cruise tourism in Dubrovnik.

Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism

he third part of the questionnaire was used to

obtain the basic demographic characteristics of respondents. All quantitative data obtained through
a structured questionnaire were analysed using the
statistical sotware package SPSS 21. Descriptive data
analysis was performed to determine the intensity of
mean values and standard deviations of agreement
with the statements of the respondents. Ater descriptive analysis of the data, there was a more intensive analysis using an independent t-test of mean values, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey post
hoc test. Each dimension of the questionnaire has a
minimum value of 5 points and a maximum value of
25 points.
The Sampling of Respondents and Collecting Data

he target population of this study were the leading Dubrovnik stakeholders of cruise tourism in
Dubrovnik, as well as employees in the Disney Cruise
Line company. he research was quite challenging
because Dubrovnik cruise tourism is extremely fragmented and broad; consequently, the author decided
to include the leading tour operators who serve approximately 70% of the cruise companies, followed
by the largest hotel chains in Dubrovnik, the tourism
community of Dubrovnik, the Dubrovnik port authority, the city council, the well-known restaurants,
a few guides as well as two professors from the local
university (RIT). he author also thought it would be
useful to include the representatives of the cruise industry, for which he chose the employees on the Disney Magic cruise ship who stayed on board during
his visit to Dubrovnik. Taking into account the circumstances of the research, the author distributed
100 questionnaires in the period from 11 March 2015
to 10 April 2015. he irst completed questionnaires
were returned to the author on 13 March 2015; by 17
April 2015, a total of 76 completed questionnaires had
been collected, which amounts to a 76% of the selected target population.
Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

he obtained demographic data will provide a better

understanding of the speciicity of the sample when
viewing the test results. Demographic characteristics
of the sample are shown in Table 1.
he total sample consisted of 76 respondents, and
the gender representation was fairly equal. he age

38 | Academica Turistica, Year 8, No. 2, November 2015

Aleksandar Radi

Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism

Demographic characteristics of the sample

Table 1

Demographic Variable

Demographic Variable

Valid%

Gender
Male

42

55%

Female

34

45%

30-40

45

59%

41-50

18

23%

51+

13

18%

Age

Cruise company vs Dubrovnik stakeholders

Valid%

Tour operators

10

13%

Tourism community

6%

Guides

13

17%

of the sample was dominated by a group made up of

respondents aged 30-40 years. Dubrovnik stakeholders were represented with 68% in the sample, and the
education level of respondents was evenly distributed except for respondents with secondary education,
who were in the minority and account for only 10%
of the sample. he sample broadly covered the occupations of respondents, so in Table 1 we note that the
perceptions of senior managers, clerks, and executives of organizations are leading followed by junior
managers with 14% and inally the owners with 6%.
he role within cruise tourism of respondents relected the current image of Dubrovnik cruise tourism, in
that the cruise companies are represented with 32%
of the respondents, followed by hoteliers and guides
with 17% and tour operators with 13% of respondents.

Cruise company

24

32%

Dubrovnik stakeholders

52

68%

High school (secondary school)

10%

Associate degree

21

28%

Bachelor's degree

28

36%

Master's degree and doctoral degrees

20

26%

Owner

6%

Executive

10

13%

Steering committee member

8%

Senior manager in business unit

18

24%

Junior manager in business unit

11

14%

Table 2 is a clear indication of the fact that crisis management is very poorly represented among
stakeholders of Dubrovnik cruise tourism; however,
those respondents who claimed that their organizations have crisis management have also agreed that
there is a crisis management leadership within their
organizations.

Clerk in business unit

14

18%

Table 2

Tourist guide

11

14%

Human resource/teacher/ professor

3%

Level of Education

Occupations

The Existence of Crisis Management

with Stakeholders of Dubrovnik Cruise Tourism

he existence of crisis management in cruise

tourism stakeholders

he existence of crisis management

Yes

Cruise company

Role within cruise tourism

Cruise company

24

32%

he city council

4%

Human resource

3%

Port authority

3%

Restaurants

5%

Hoteliers

13

17%

No
24

he city council

Human resource

Port authority

Restaurants

Hoteliers

13

Tour operators

10

Tourism community

Academica Turistica, Year 8, No. 2, November 2015 | 39

Aleksandar Radi

Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism

he existence of crisis management

Yes

No

Guides

13
Agreement with the statement about whether
there is leadership in the crisis management

Cruise company

Without answer

he city council

Agree

Human resource

Agree

Port authority

Agree

Restaurants

Without answer

Hoteliers

Without answer

Tour operators

Without answer

Tourism community

Without answer

Guides

Without answer

The Ratio of Respondents Perceptions

on the Dimensions of Negative Events that May
Lead to a Crisis in Cruise Tourism in Dubrovnik
and Speciic Demographic Variables

Perceptions of Respondents on the Dimensions

of Negative Events that Could Lead to a Crisis
in Cruise Tourism in Dubrovnik
Table 3

media with extremely active reporting frequently using explicit pictures and videos. In contrast, the lowest mean value of Climate / environmental dimension
can be explained by the low interest for understanding problems and by a low level of information of respondents on negative events clustered around Climate / environmental dimension.

Mean values of the perceived dimensions of

negative events that may lead to crises of cruise
tourism in Dubrovnik

Perceived dimensions
of negative events

Mean
(M)

Std.
Deviation (SD)

Health / epidemiological

76

16.63

4. 86

Economic

76

15.48

3. 98

Climate / environmental

76

14.61

4. 21

Terrorism

76

18.64

4. 49

Political events

76

17.44

3. 98

From Table 3, it can be concluded that the respondents perceived the negative events clustered around
the dimensions Terrorism (M = 18.64) to be the highest potential risk, while negative events grouped
around Climate / environmental dimension were
perceived as a threat with the lowest potential (M =
14.61). he highest mean value of the dimension Terrorism can be easily understood when taking into account the current circumstances in which terrorist
attacks of all kinds have become a commonplace in

We obtained the answer to this research question using an independent t-test, variance analysis (ANOVA) and Tukey post hoc test. he results of the independent t-test showed only signiicant diferences in
the perception of negative events that may lead to a
crisis in cruise tourism in Dubrovnik with a group
of male and female respondents for the Health / epidemiological dimension. he male respondents had
a higher value of mean values than the female respondents did. his data may be explained by the fact
that male respondents were more common at higher
managerial positions in this study, whereby they had
the opportunity to come into contact with multiple
sources of information and thus to develop a bolder
perception of potential dangers hidden in the Health
/ epidemiological dimension.
he perception of negative events that may lead
to crises with stakeholders of cruise tourism in
Dubrovnik is tested using the independent t-test and
variance analysis (ANOVA); however, with the remaining groups of speciic demographic variables,
signiicant diferences in the perception of negative
events that may lead to operations crisis in cruise
tourism in Dubrovnik were not observed.
Conclusion

he main purpose of this research was to investigate

the existence of crisis management within stakeholders of cruise tourism in Dubrovnik. Before addressing the potential dangers that are hidden behind the
successful image of cruise tourism in Dubrovnik,
it was of paramount importance to understand the
general life cycle of a crisis, mainly because of the
very delicate nature of the industry. A literature review on crisis management in tourism brings to our
attention the fact that the main foci in crisis manage-

40 | Academica Turistica, Year 8, No. 2, November 2015

Aleksandar Radi

Figure 4
Source

Crisis Management in Cruise Tourism

he strategic framework of leadership in crisis management for small and medium-sized cruise tourism stakeholders Dubrovnik
ater Faulkner (2001, p. 144), Ritchie (2004, p. 674), Braden at el. (2004, p. 17), Rossi (2008, p. 11).

ment had reactive characteristics. he author of this

paper understands that this type of management is
very oten an accepted reality; however, it is absolutely necessary to challenge this paradigm in order to
understand that pro-active leadership is the key aspect of successful crisis management.
From this research, we determined that most of
Dubrovnik stakeholders of cruise tourism do not
have a developed system of crisis management and
do not have developed leadership in crisis management either. Taking into account the information
obtained in this study, the authors opinion is that
it is crucial to ofer a strategic framework of leadership in crisis management that could be used by
small and medium-sized cruise tourism stakeholders in Dubrovnik. he proposed strategic framework
shown in Figure 4 is derived from existing models
developed by Faulkner (2001), Ritchie (2004), Braden
et al. (2005) and Rossi (2008).

he proposed strategic framework for the leadership in crisis management for small and medium-sized cruise tourism stakeholders in Dubrovnik
shown in Figure 4 was developed under the strong
inluence of Ritchie (2004) and Braden et al. (2004)
whose models were described in detail and presented in Sections Strategic framework of crisis management in tourism and Strategies of Crisis leadership.
Bearing in mind the importance of cruise tourism
in Dubrovnik and the current turbulent context in
which we live and in which tourism business activities
take place, it is of decisive importance for Dubrovnik
stakeholders of cruise tourism to place crisis management at the very core of their organizations. By
developing leadership in crisis management as an
organizational philosophy, appointing well-trained
individuals with correct attitudes as crisis management leaders and placing a crisis management at the
center of the organization itself, Dubrovnik stakeholders of cruise tourism would have the leadership

Academica Turistica, Year 8, No. 2, November 2015 | 41

Aleksandar Radi

in crisis management with all its pro-active properties. By adopting leadership in crisis management,
small and medium-sized cruise tourism stakeholders
in Dubrovnik can avoid many crises and, in the case
of those that are inevitable, leadership in crisis management can achieve control and management when
addressing the state of emergency, or a fast recovery
and organizational learning at the end of the crisis.
It would be beneicial for future studies to investigate crisis management and especially leadership in
crisis management in cruise companies and port of
calls that have experienced negative events that lead
to the crisis. In the case of the Carnival Corporation,
a case study approach would be very valuable in determining the efectiveness of strategic frameworks
and leadership concepts that were used during their
crisis (induced by the Costa Concordia shipwreck).
Another interesting study would be a critical analysis
of crisis management strategies within stakeholders
of Dubrovnik cruise tourism who are claiming that
they have such strategies. It is hoped that this pioneering study of crisis management in cruise tourism
will encourage further academic research due to the
limited literature on this topic. It is also hoped that
practitioners and managers in cruise tourism will
recognize the beneits of leadership in crisis management and that they will welcome such approach.
If the cruise tourism stakeholders embrace negative
events that can lead to crisis and establish leadership
in crisis management as part of their organizational culture, then they will be able to reduce potentially negative impacts on cruise tourism and the local
communities in ports of call in general.
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