The Free High School Science Texts: A Textbook

for High School Students Studying Chemistry.

FHSST Authors1

June 12, 2005

1
See http://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/fhsst
Copyright ° c 2003 “Free High School Science Texts”
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this docu-
ment under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Ver-
sion 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foun-
dation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section
entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”.

i
Contents

I MATTER AND MATERIALS 1

1 Classification of Materials (Grade 10) 2

2 What is matter made of ? (Grade 10) 3

3 The Atom (Grade 10) 4

3.1 Models of the atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1.1 The Plum Pudding Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1.2 The Bohr Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1.3 The Wave Model / Quantum Mechanical Model . . . . . 5
3.2 Atomic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2.1 The Electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2.2 The Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Energy quantization and electron configuration . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.5 Periodicity of ionization energy to support atom arrangement in
Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.6 Successive ionisation energies to provide evidence for arrange-
ment of electrons into core and valence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 Atomic combinations, Molecular structure, Chemical Bonding

(Grade 11) 10
4.1 Chemical Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 What is a molecule? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2.1 Van Der Waals forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.2 Bonding and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3 Types of bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3.1 Covalent bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3.2 Ionic bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3.3 Metallic bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.4 Representation of molecular structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5 Atomic nuclei (Grade 11) 17

5.1 What is the atom made of? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2 Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.1 Proton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.2 Neutron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.3 Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

ii
 5.3 Nuclear force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4 Binding energy and nuclear masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.4.1 Binding energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.4.2 Nuclear energy units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.4.3 Mass defect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.4.4 Nuclear masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5 Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.5.1 Discovery of radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.5.2 Nuclear α, β, and γ rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.5.3 Danger of the ionizing radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.5.4 Decay law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.5.5 Radioactive dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.6 Nuclear reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.7 Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.7.1 Geiger counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.7.2 Fluorescent screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.7.3 Photo-emulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.7.4 Wilson’s chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.7.5 Bubble chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.7.6 Spark chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.8 Nuclear energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.8.1 Nuclear reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.8.2 Fusion energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.9 Elementary particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.9.1 β decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.9.2 Particle physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.9.3 Quarks and leptons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.9.4 Forces of nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.10 Origin of the universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

6 Thermal Properties & Ideal Gases (Grade 11) 50

6.1 Boyle’s Law : Pressure and volume of an enclosed sample of gas . 50
6.2 Charles’s Law: Volume and temperature of an enclosed sample
of gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.3 Avogadro’s Hypothesis: The link between number of gas particles
and volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.4 Two General Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.5 Overview of the Kinetic Theory of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

7 Organic Chemistry: Molecules (Grade 12) 58

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.1.1 What is organic chemistry? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.1.2 Unique properties of carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.1.3 Special properties of organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.1.4 Classification of organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.1.5 Functional groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.2 Naming and Representation of Organic Compounds . . . . . . . 61
7.2.1 Naming of organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.2.2 Representation of organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.2.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

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 7.3 Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.3.1 Alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.3.2 Alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.3.3 Alkynes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.4 Alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.4.1 Alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.4.2 Oxidation reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.4.3 Carboxylic acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.4.4 Esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

8 Organic Chemistry: Macromolecules (Grade 12) 68

II CHEMICAL CHANGE 69
9 Physical and Chemical Change (Grade 10) 70

10 Representing Chemical Change (Grade 10) 71

10.1 Writing Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
10.2 Balancing Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

11 Quantitative Aspects of Chemical Change (Grade 11) 76

12 Energy and Chemical Change (Grade 11) 77

13 Reaction Types (Grade 11) 78

13.1 Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
13.2 Types of Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
13.3 Ionic reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
13.3.1 What are ionic reactions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
13.3.2 Precipitation reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
13.3.3 Formation of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

14 Reaction Rates (Grade 12) 80

14.0.4 Factors affecting reaction rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
14.1 Energy changes in chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
14.1.1 Exothermic and endothermic reactions . . . . . . . . . . . 81
14.2 Chemical equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
14.2.1 Reversible reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
14.2.2 Dynamic equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
14.2.3 The equilibrium constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
14.3 The common ion effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
14.3.1 Equilibrium in solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
14.3.2 The solubility product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

15 Electrochemical Reactions (Grade 12) 89

15.1 Reduction and Oxidation Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
15.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
15.2.1 Oxidation and reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
15.2.2 Redox reagents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
15.3 Balancing redox reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

iv
 15.3.1 The ion-electron method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
15.4 The Cu-Zn electrochemical cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
15.4.1 Direct electron transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
15.5 Standard electrode potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15.5.1 The cell potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15.5.2 The standard hydrogen electrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
15.6 Examples of electrochemical cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
15.6.1 The dry cell (Leclanche cell) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
15.6.2 The alkaline dry cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
15.6.3 The lead-acid accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
15.6.4 The fuel cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
15.7 Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
15.7.1 The Chlor-alkali Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
15.7.2 The Downs process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
15.8 Electrolysis of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
15.9 Extraction of Aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
15.10Electro-refining of copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.11Electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.12Faraday’s laws of electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

III CHEMICAL SYSTEMS 107

16 The Water Cycle (Grade 10) 108

17 The Nitrogen Cycle (Grade 10) 109

17.1 Nitrogen and Nitrogen Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
17.2 Nitrogen Gas (N2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
17.2.1 Industrial Preparation of N2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
17.2.2 Uses of Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
17.3 Ammonia (N H3 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
17.3.1 Laboratory Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
17.3.2 Industrial Preparation of N H3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
17.3.3 Properties of N H3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
17.3.4 Uses of N H3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
17.4 Ammonium Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
17.4.1 Preparation of Ammonium Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
17.4.2 Properties of Ammonium Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
17.4.3 Uses of Ammonium Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
17.5 Nitrogen Dioxide (N O2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
17.5.1 Laboratory Preparation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
17.5.2 Equilibrium between N O2 and N2 O4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
17.6 Nitric Acid (HN O3 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
17.6.1 Laboratory preparation of HN O3 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
17.6.2 Industrial preparation of HN O3 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
17.6.3 Reactions of Nitric Acid: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
17.6.4 Uses of Nitric Acid: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
17.7 Nitrates: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

18 The Hydrosphere (Grade 10) 116

v
19 The Lithosphere: Exploiting the Earth’s crust (Grade 11) 117

20 The Atmosphere (Grade 11) 118

21 The Chemical Industry: Resources, Needs and the Chemical

Connection (Grade 12) 119

Essay 1 : Synthetic Polymers 120

A GNU Free Documentation License 123

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 Part I

MATTER AND
MATERIALS

1
Chapter 1

Classification of Materials
(Grade 10)

Observing, describing, Classifying and using materials (a macroscopic view)

• The material(s) of which an object is composed

• Mixtures

– Heterogeneous mixtures
– Homogeneous mixtures

• Pure substances:elements and compounds

• Names and formulae of substances

• Metals, semimetals and nonmetals

• Electrical conductors, semiconductors and insulators

• Thermal conductors and insulators

• Magnetic and nonmagnetic materials

2
Chapter 2

What is matter made of ?

(Grade 10)

• Atoms and molecules (simple and giant)

• Material structures and properities: Linking macroscopic properties of

materials to micro(particle) structure

• Intermolecular and intramolecular forces (chemical bonds). Physical state

and density explained in terms of these forces. Particle kinetic energy and
temperature. (NOTE TO SELF: (some is covered already but not all))

3
Chapter 3

The Atom (Grade 10)

• Energy quantization and electron configuration

• The Periodic Table of the Elements: Periodicity of ionization energy to

support the arrangements of the atoms in the Perodic Table Successive
ionization energies to provide evidence for the arrangement of electrons
into core and valence electrons

Atoms are the building blocks of matter. They are the basis of all the struc-
tures and organisms in the universe. The planets, the sun, grass and trees, the
air we breathe, and people are all made up of different combinations of atoms.

The idea of atoms was invented by two Greek philosophers, Democritus and
Leucippus in the fifth century BC. The Greek word ατ oµoν (atom) means indi-
visible beacause they believed that atoms could not be broken down into smaller
pieces. However, the discovery of the fact that an atom is actually a complex
system and can be broken into pieces was the most important step and pivoting
point in the development of modern physics!

3.1 Models of the atom

Nowadays, we know that atoms are made up of a positively charged nucleus in
the centre surrounded by orbiting negatively charged electrons. However, in
the past, before the structure of the atom had been discovered, scientists came
up with lots of different models or pictures to describe what atoms look like.

3.1.1 The Plum Pudding Model

After the electron was discovered (by J.J. Thomson in 1897), people realised
that atoms were made up of even smaller particles and the plum pudding model
was proposed. In this picture, atoms are thought of as the negative electrons
floating in a soup of positive charge like plums in a pudding or raisins in a fruit
cake!

4
 3.1.2 The Bohr Model
Some years later, it was discovered (by Rutherford in 1911) that atoms have a
positively charged nucleus (centre) with the negative electrons moving around
it. This proved that the plum pudding model was wrong and scientists then
pictured the atom like a mini solar system where the electrons orbit the nucleus
like planets orbiting around the sun. There were some problems with this model.
For example it could not explain the very interesting observation that atoms
only emit light at certain wavelengths or frequencies. Niels Bohr solved this
problem by proposing that the electrons could only orbit the nucleus in certain
special orbits with particular energies i.e. energy levels. The exact energies
of the orbitals depends on the type of atom, for example Helium has different
energy levels to Carbon. If an electron jumps down from a higher energy level
(or orbital) to a lower energy level, then light is emitted from the atom. The
energy of the light emitted is the same as the gap in the energy between the
two energy levels!

InIn teresti ing Light has the properties of both a particle and a wave! Einstein dis-
teresti ing
Fact:
Fact: covered that light comes in energy packets which are called photons.
When an electron in an atom changes energy levels, a photon of light
is emitted. This photon has the same energy as the difference between
the two electron energy levels!

Once an electron is in its lowest orbit, it cannot go down any further. Bohr
calculated the size of the Hydrogen atom (nucleus plus one electron) by calcu-
lating the distance between the nucleus and the electron in its lowest energy
level. This distance is known as the Bohr radius.

Definition: The Bohr radius, a0 , is the radius of the lowest energy

electron orbit in the Hydrogen atom.
a0 = 5.29177210810−11 m

3.1.3 The Wave Model / Quantum Mechanical Model

The fact that Bohr’s electron energy levels could only take certain energy values
was a hint that some new physics was at play in the atom. Today we use what
is called quantum mechanics or wave mechanics to describe the behaviour of
very small particles at very small distances. In quantum mechanics, particles
can be described as waves instead of little billiard balls. (We discussed earlier
that light can be thought of as a wave, or as a particle called the photon.) Then
the properties of the particle, for example its position or velocity, are described
by probabilities.

5
 Aside: Probabilities describe the chance of something happening or
of being true. They usually have a value between 0 and 1 or 0%
and 100% where 0 means no chance at all and 1 means definite.
Probabilities are used when the state of something is uncertain. For
example, probabilities are often used when predicting the weather
e.g. there is a 50% (=0.5) chance of rain.

In the quantum mechanical model of the atom, you can imagine the electron
as a wave. Then the electron does not move along a specific path in its orbit, but
rather along all imaginable paths with different probabilities. If we were trying
to catch this electron, after many attempts we would discover that the electron
can be found anywere around the nucleus, even very close to and very far from
it. However, the probabilities of finding the electron at different distances from
the nucleus would be different.

If you picture the electron as a cloud around the nucleus then in some places
this cloud will be denser (thicker) while in other places it will be less dense
(thinner). The density of the cloud corresponds to the probability of finding
the electron in a particular place! Quantum mechanics is very useful because
one can use it to calculate the probability of finding the electron at any point
in space around the nucleus. The results of such a calculation for the hydrogen
atom are shown in Fig. 5.1. On the y-axis is the probability of finding the
electron and on the x-axis is the distance away from the center of the nucleus.
You can see that the most likely distance (highest point on the curve) is the
same as the Bohr radius!

P (r)

r
RBohr

Figure 3.1: Probability density P (r) for finding the electron at a distance r from
the proton in the ground state of the hydrogen atom.

Its mass is very tiny compared to the total mass of the atom. This is because
most of the mass of the atom is due to the nucleus! In the silicon atoms that
are the main component of the rocks around us, all 14 electrons make up only
0.027% of the mass. When holding a heavy rock in your hand, you actually feel
the collective weight of all the nuclei that are inside it!

6
3.2 Atomic Structure
So far, we have discussed that atoms are made up of a nucleus surrounded by
one or more electrons.

3.2.1 The Electron

The electron is a very light particle. It has a mass of 9.11 x 10−31 kg! Currently,
scientists believe that the electron can be treated as a point particle or elemen-
tary particle meaning that it cannot be broken down into anything smaller.

3.2.2 The Nucleus

Unlike the electron, the nucleus can be broken up into smaller building blocks:
protons and neutrons. Collectively the protons and neutrons are called nu-
cleons.

The Proton
In the early 1920’s Rutherford and other physicists performed many experi-
ments, changing one element into another by striking them with energetic he-
lium nuclei. They noticed that every time hydrogen nuclei were emitted in the
process. It was apparent that the hydrogen nucleus played a fundamental role
in nuclear structure and was a constituent part of all other nuclei. By the late
1920’s physicists were regularly referring to the hydrogen nucleus as the proton.

So it was established that atomic nuclei consisted of protons. Each proton

carries a positive charge of +1. Therefore the total positive charge of a nucleus
is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus! Since we know that atoms
are electrically neutral, i.e. do not carry any extra charge, then the number of
protons in an atom has to be the same as the number of electrons to balance
out the postive and negative charge to zero!

The Neutron
However, only having protons in the nucleus leads to some problems. For exam-
ple, if there were only positively charged protons in the nucleus, then it should
break into bits due to the repulsive electrostatic forces between the protons! An-
other problem was that the protons in the nucleus were not enough to account
for the measured mass of different atoms! For example, if protons were the
only particles in the nucleus, then a helium nucleus (atomic number 2) would
have two protons and therefore only twice the mass of hydrogen. However, it
is actually four times heavier than hydrogen. This suggests that there must be
something else inside the nucleus in addition to protons.

Therefore Rutherford predicted (in 1920) that another kind of particle must
be present in the nucleus along with the proton to help hold the nucleus together
and add to its mass. To ensure the atom remains electrically neutral this particle
had to be neutral itself. In 1932 James Chadwick discovered the neutron and
measured its mass, which turned out to be almost the same, but slightly larger
than that of the proton.

7
 3.3 Isotopes
The chemical properties of an element are determined by the charge of its atomic
nucleus, i.e. by the number of protons. This number is called the atomic num-
ber and is denoted by the letter Z . The mass of an atom depends on how many
nucleons its nucleus contains. The number of nucleons, i.e. the total number of
protons plus neutrons, is called the atomic mass number and is denoted by
the letter A.

Standard notation shows the chemical symbol, the mass number and the
atomic number as follows:

number of nucleons

A
ZX
chemical symbol

number of protons

For example, the iron nucleus which has 26 protons and 30 neutrons, is denoted
as
56
26 Fe ,

where the total nuclear charge is Z = 26 and the mass number A = 56. The
number of neutrons is simply the difference N = A − Z. Since the type of
element is linked directly to the number of protons in the nucleus (Z), the lower
index is sometimes omitted and you may see notation like 56 Fe.

If we add or remove a few neutrons from a nucleus, the chemical properties

of the atom will remain the same because its charge is still the same. This
means that such an atom should remain in the same place of the Periodic table.
For example, no matter how many neutrons we add or subtract from a nucleus
with 6 protons, that element will always be called carbon (see the Table of
Elements). Atoms which have the same number of protons, but a different
number of neutrons, are called isotopes.

InIn teresti ing In Greek, “same place” reads as ὶσoς τ òπoς (isos topos). This is why
teresti ing
Fact:
Fact: atoms which have the same number of protons, but different numbers
of neutrons, are called isotopes!

The different isotopes of a given element have the same atomic number Z
but different mass numbers A since they have different numbers of neutrons N .
The chemical properties of the different isotopes of an element are identical, but
they will often have great differences in nuclear stability. For stable isotopes of
the light elements, the number of neutrons will be almost equal to the number

8
of protons, but for heavier elements, the number of neutrons is always greater
than Z and the neutron excess tends to grow when Z increases. This is because
neutrons are kind of glue that keeps repelling protons together. The greater the
repelling charge, the more glue you need.
interesting fact: the neutrons and protons are not elementary particles. They
are actually made up of even smaller particles called quarks. Both protons and
neutrons are made of three quarks each. There are all sorts of other particles
composed of quarks which nuclear physicists study using huge detectors - you
can find out more about this by reading the essay in Chapter ??.

3.4 Energy quantization and electron configura-

tion
3.5 Periodicity of ionization energy to support
atom arrangement in Periodic Table
3.6 Successive ionisation energies to provide ev-
idence for arrangement of electrons into core
and valence

9
Chapter 4

Atomic combinations,
Molecular structure,
Chemical Bonding (Grade
11)

• A chemical bond as the net electrostatic force between two atoms sharing
electrons.

• Oxidation number of atoms in molecules to explain their relative ‘richness’

in electrons.

• Multiple bonds
• Molecular shape as predicted using the Valence Shell Electron Pair Re-
pulsion (VSEPR) theory

4.1 Chemical Bonding

4.2 What is a molecule?
All matter consists of atoms, the most basic element of life. When two or more
atoms combine or bond they form a molecule. These molecules are neutral
and behave as a unit in a chemical reaction.
e.g. two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom can combine to form one
water molecule: H + H + O = H2 O
Most substances are composed of molecules. However, they can also be made
up of atoms or ions. The noble gases (group VIII of the periodic table) are very
stable and therefore prefer not to form bonds. So they are made up of a single
atom and are sometimes called monatomic molecules. Most other gases, e.g. O 2
and Cl2 , are diatomic molecules.
Neutral salts like NaCl consist of ions and don’t have any formal bonds to
make up a molecule. The ions make up a so-called giant molecule.

10
4.2.1 Van Der Waals forces
There are three types of intermolecular forces which are classified as Van Der
Waals forces. These are iondipole, dipole-dipole and London forces.

Ion-dipole forces: These occur when an ionic substance dissolves in a polar

liquid, e.g. KCl in H2 O. The positive and negative poles of the polar liquid
attract the negative and positive ions of the ionic substance, respectively.

Dipole-dipole forces: These forces occur when polar molecules arrange them-
selves such that their oppositely charged ends can attract each other, e.g.
H2 O and NaOH.

London forces: These occur between nonpolar molecules. The molecules are
neutral but when two approach one another, the protons and electrons
from different particles attract one another slightly. The electron clouds
of these molecules then become distorted and result in a weak dipole. This
is the weakest of the Van Der Waals forces and so all such substances have
low melting points, e.g. CH4 and CCl4 .

4.2.2 Bonding and energy

The potential energy of two atoms is zero when they are far apart since there
is no attraction or repulsion between them. As the atoms approach each other,
the negatively charged electron clouds and the positively charged nuclei repel
each other. But the electron cloud and the nucleus of different atoms can also
attract each other. The atoms move closer together until the lowest possible
energy state is reached. Bonding energy has a negative value since energy
is required to break a bond. The energy needed to break a bond is called
dissociation energy.

4.3 Types of bonding

4.3.1 Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding occurs between atoms of nonmetals. Two halffilled orbitals
of atoms overlap and an electron pair is shared between the atoms. The shared
electrons must have opposite spins to comply with Pauli’s Exclusion Principle.
Electronegativity is the extent to which an atom pulls a shared electron
pair towards it. It is useful to remember that electronegativity increases from
left to right across a period and from top to bottom down a group in the periodic
table.

Polar and non-polar covalent bonds

Electronegativity can be used to explain the difference between two types of
covalent bonds. Non-polar covalent bonds occur between two identical non-
metal atoms, e.g. H2 , Cl2 and O2 . Since the two atoms have the same elec-
tronegativity, the electron pair in the covalent bond is shared equally between
them. However, if two different non-metal atoms bond then the shared electron
pair will be pulled more strongly by the atom with the highest electronegativity.

11
This will result in the formation of a polar covalent bond in which one atom
will have a slightly negative charge) and the other a slightly positive charge, e.g.
H+ Cl− .

Shape of molecules
Molecules with covalent bonds can exist in several shapes which depends on the
number of atoms and whether there are lone pairs on these atoms.

Shape Composition Bond angle Example

Linear 2 atoms 180◦ HBr : H Br
180o


O



Angular 3 atoms : 2 lone pairs 104.5◦ H2 O :

H 104.5o H
N̈ 107.3o
Pyramidal 4 atoms : 1 lone pair 107.3◦ NH3 :
H H
H
H
109.5o
Tetrahedral 5 atoms 109.5◦ CH4 : C
H H
H

Table 4.1: Shapes of Molecules

Polar molecules
Some molecules with polar covalent bonds are polar molecules, e.g. H 2 O.
However, although CO2 has two polar covalent bonds (between C+ atom and
the two O− atoms), the molecule itself is not polar. The reason is that CO2
is a linear molecule and is therefore symmetrical. So there is no difference in
charge between the two ends of the molecule. So we can say that polar molecules
must contain polar covalent bonds and they must be asymmetrical. The greater
degree of polarity increases with the difference in electronegativity between two
atoms.

4.3.2 Ionic bonding

Ionic bonding occurs between a metal and a non-metal atom. The difference
in electronegativity of the atoms is more than 1.7 and so the electron pair is
transferred from the metal electron donor to the non-metal electron acceptor.
The metal will gain a positive charge and the non-metal a negative charge,
resulting in an electrostatic force of attraction between the two atoms, e g.
Na+ Cl− . The metal must have a low ionisation energy so that it can readily
give up an electron pair. The non-metal must have a high electron affinity to
readily accept the electron pair.
Ionic substances are actually a combination of lots of ions bonded together
into a giant molecule. The arrangement of ions in a regular, geometric structure
makes up a crystal lattice. The arrangement depends on the relative size of

12
the ions and also their charge. So in fact NaCl does not contain one Na and one
Cl ion, but rather a lot of these two ions arranged in a crystal lattice where the
ratio of Na to Cl ions is 1:1. The crystal lattice is shown in the figure below.


$%

&' ()

 

*+

 



! "#

 



 

 



Energy involved in ionic bonding

Let us consider the example of a KBr molecule. There are several steps involved
in the formation of the ionic bo-nd between K and Br.

• Sublimation energy: this is the energy required for K metal to change to

the gaseous state.

• Dissociation energy: this is the energy required for a Br2 molecule to

divide into separate Br atoms.

• Ionisation energy: this is the energy required for a K atom to donate an

electron, resulting in the formation on a K+ ion.
• Electron affinity: this is the energy released when a Br atom accepts an
electron to form a Br− ion.

• Lattice energy: this is the energy released when K+ and Br− ions arrange
in a crystal lattice.

The difference between the energy required and the energy released during the
bonding process is called the bonding energy.

Properties of ionic compounds

Ionic compounds usually have high bonding energies due to the strong forces
between their ions. This means that the bonds are very strong and they have
high melting and boiling points. Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity
in the solid phase but they do in their molten phase. They are also hard and
brittle.

13
Charge associated with ions and polyatomic ions
The charge on an ion is related to its group number in the periodic table. There
are two general rules:

• Cations carry a maximum charge equal to their group number (since the
group number equals the number of valence electrons, this is the maximum
number of electrons that the atoms can donate)

• Anions carry a maximum charge equal to (8their group number) (since the
group number equals the number of valence electrons and the maximum
number of electrons that an atom can be surrounded by is 8, the difference
is the maximum number of electrons that the atom can receive)

e.g.

Group I Li+

Group II Ba2+

Group III Al3+

Group V N3−

Group VI O2−

Group VII Br−

The overall charge of an ionic compound will always be zero and so the
negative and positive charge must be of equal magnitude. It is therefore possible
to determine the chemical formula of a compound knowing the charge on the
individual ions.
e.g.

PbO Pb2+ (Group II). . . 2+ charge and O2− (Group VI). . . 2- charge one Pb2+
ion and one O2− ion are needed to make up a neutral PbO molecule

CaCl2 Ca2+ (Group II). . . 2+ charge and Cl− (Group VII). . . 1- charge one
Ca2+ ion and two Cl− ions are needed to make up a neutral CaCl2 molecule

K2 O K+ (Group I). . . 1+ charge and O2− (Group VI). . . 2- charge two K+ ions
and one O2− ions are needed to make up a neutral K2 O molecule

Na3 N Na+ (Group I). . . 1+ charge and N3− (Group V). . . 3- charge three Na+
ions and one N3− ions are needed to make up a neutral Na3 N molecule

Al2 S3 Al3+ (Group III). . . 3+ charge and S2− (Group VI). . . 2- charge two Al3+
ions and three S3− ions are needed to make up a neutral Al2 S3 molecule

Some groups of atoms behave as a unit and therefore we need to learn the
charge associated with these ion groups.
More examples of ionic formulae:
BaCO3 , K2 Cr2 O7 , (NH4 )2 SO4 , Ca3 (PO4 )2

14
 Negative Ions Positive Ions
ClO3− Chlorate CO3 2− Carbonate NH4+ Ammonium
CN− Cyanide CrO4 2− Chromate H 3 O+ Oxonium
CH3 COO− Ethanoate (acetate) Cr2 O7 2− Dichromate
HCO3− Hydrogen carbonate MnO4 2− Manganate
HSO4− Hydrogen sulphate SO4 2− Sulphate
OH− Hydroxide SO3 2− Sulphite
IO3− Iodate SiO3 2− Silicate
NO3− Nitrate S2 O3 2− Thiosulphate
NO2− Nitrite
MnO4 − Permanganate
CNS− Thiocyanate

Table 4.2: Ions

4.3.3 Metallic bonds

All metals have crystal structures and are arranged in a lattice structure (similar
to ionic compounds). The valence electrons are delocalised, leaving behind
positively charged metal ions also referred to as the atomic kernel. These are
surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons which are electrostatically attracted
to the atomic kernels this constitutes a metallic bond. The arrangement of
metals in a crystal lattice is only determined by the size of the atoms.
Metals have several unique properties as a result of this arrangement:

• Good electrical and thermal conductors: electrons are loosely bound and
are able to move from areas of high potential/temperature to low poten-
tial/temperature

• Malleable and ductile: bonds are not spatially directed so atoms can easily
slide over one another, making metals easy to shape and mould or draw
into threads

• High density: atoms are packed closely together and therefore metals are
dense Metallic luster: loosely bound electrons are able to absorb light
energy and reflect light at all frequencies, giving metals a highly polished
appearance

The figure below shows the arrangement of the atomic kernel and the sea of
delocalised electrons in a crystal lattice.

15
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+
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+
BC

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PQ RS

+
q
67

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+
89 :;

+
TU


b

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VW XY
d

+
<=

+
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,- ./

+
p HI

+
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+
JK LM

+
01

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23 45

+
NO

4.4 Representation of molecular structure

There are two forms of notation used to represent covalent bonding. Lewis
notation uses dots and crosses to represent electrons on different atoms.

xx xx
x
e.g. H• + x Brx → H•x Brxx
xx xx

Only the electrons involved in the bond between H and Br are shown with
Couper notation but these are shown with a line (one for each covalent bond)
instead of dots and crosses.

xx
x
e.g. H• + x Brx → H−Br
xx

16
Chapter 5

Atomic nuclei (Grade 11)

• nuclear structure and stability

• radioactivity

• ionising radiation

• fission and fusion and their consequences

• nucleosynthesis - the sun and stars

• age determination in geology and archaeology

Amazingly enough, human mind that is kind of contained inside a couple of

liters of human’s brain, is able to deal with extremely large as well as extremely
small objects such as the whole universe and its smallest building blocks. So,
what are these building blocks? As we already know, the universe consists of
galaxies, which consist of stars with planets moving around. The planets are
made of molecules, which are bound groups (chemical compounds) of atoms.

There are more than 1020 stars in the universe. Currently, scientists know
over 12 million chemical compounds i.e. 12 million different molecules. All this
variety of molecules is made of only a hundred of different atoms. For those who
believe in beauty and harmony of nature, this number is still too large. They
would expect to have just few different things from which all other substances
are made. In this chapter, we are going to find out what these elementary things
are.

5.1 What is the atom made of ?

The Greek word ατ oµoν (atom) means indivisible. The discovery of the fact
that an atom is actually a complex system and can be broken in pieces was the
most important step and pivoting point in the development of modern physics.

It was discovered (by Rutherford in 1911) that an atom consists of a posi-

tively charged nucleus and negative electrons moving around it. At first, people

17
tried to visualize an atom as a microscopic analog of our solar system where
planets move around the sun. This naive planetary model assumes that in the
world of very small objects the Newton laws of classical mechanics are valid.
This, however, is not the case.

P (r)

r
RBohr

Figure 5.1: Probability density P (r) for finding the electron at a distance r from
the proton in the ground state of hydrogen atom.

The microscopic world is governed by quantum mechanics which does not

have such notion as trajectory. Instead, it describes the dynamics of particles
in terms of quantum states that are characterized by probability distributions
of various observable quantities.

For example, an electron in the atom is not moving along a certain trajectory
but rather along all imaginable trajectories with different probabilities. If we
were trying to catch this electron, after many such attempts we would discover
that the electron can be found anywere around the nucleus, even very close to
and very far from it. However, the probabilities of finding the electron at differ-
ent distances from the nucleus would be different. What is amazing: the most
probable distance corresponds to the classical trajectory!

You can visualize the electron inside an atom as moving around the nucleus
chaotically and extremely fast so that for our “mental eyes” it forms a cloud.
In some places this cloud is more dense while in other places more thin. The
density of the cloud corresponds to the probability of finding the electron in a
particular place. Space distribution of this density (probability) is what we can
calculate using quantum mechanics. Results of such calculation for hydrogen
atom are shown in Fig. 5.1. As was mentioned above, the most probable dis-
tance (maximum of the curve) coincides with the Bohr radius.

Quantum mechanical equation for any bound system (like an atom) can have
solutions only at a discrete set of energies E1 , E2 , E3 . . . , etc. There are simply
no solutions for the energies E in between these values, such as, for instance,
E1 < E < E2 . This is why a bound system of microscopic particles cannot have
an arbitrary energy and can only be in one of the quantum states. Each of such

18
states has certain energy and certain space configuration, i.e. distribution of
the probability.

A bound quantum system can make transitions from one quantum state to
another either spontaneously or as a result of interaction with other systems.
The energy conservation law is one of the most fundamental and is valid in
quantum world as well as in classical world. This means that any transition
between the states with energies Ei and Ej is accompanied with either emission
or absorption of the energy ∆E = |Ei − Ej |. This is how an atom emits light.

Electron is a very light particle. Its mass is negligible as compared to the

total mass of the atom. For example, in the lightest of all atoms, hydrogen,
the electron constitutes only 0.054% of the atomic mass. In the silicon atoms
that are the main component of the rocks around us, all 14 electrons make up
only 0.027% of the mass. Thus, when holding a heavy rock in your hand, you
actually feel the collective weight of all the nuclei that are inside it.

5.2 Nucleus
Is the nucleus a solid body? Is it an elementary building block of nature? No
and no! Although it is very small, a nucleus consists of something even smaller.

5.2.1 Proton
The only way to do experiments with such small objects as atoms and nuclei,
is to collide them with each other and watch what happens. Perhaps you think
that this is a barbaric way, like colliding a “Mercedes” and “Toyota” in order to
learn what is under their bonnets. But with microscopic particles nothing else
can be done.

In the early 1920’s Rutherford and other physicists made many experiments,
changing one element into another by striking them with energetic helium nuclei.
They noticed that all the time hydrogen nuclei were emitted in the process. It
was apparent that the hydrogen nucleus played a fundamental role in nuclear
structure and was a constituent part of all other nuclei. By the late 1920’s
physicists were regularly referring to hydrogen nucleus as proton. The term
“proton” seems to have been coined by Rutherford, and first appears in print
in 1920.

5.2.2 Neutron
Thus it was established that atomic nuclei consist of protons. Number of protons
in a nucleus is such that makes up its positive charge. This number, therefore,
coincides with the atomic number of the element in the Mendeleev’s table.

This sounded nice and logical, but serious questions remained. Indeed, how
can positively charged protons stay together in a nucleus? Repelling each other
by electric force, they should fly away in different directions. Who keeps them

19
together?

Furthermore, the proton mass is not enough to account for the nuclear
masses. For example, if the protons were the only particles in the nucleus,
then a helium nucleus (atomic number 2) would have two protons and therefore
only twice the mass of hydrogen. However, it actually is four times heavier than
hydrogen. This suggests that it must be something else inside nuclei in addition
to protons.

These additional particles that kind of “glue” the protons and make up the
nuclear mass, apparently, are electrically neutral. They were therefore called
neutrons. Rutherford predicted the existence of the neutron in 1920. Twelve
years later, in 1932, his assistant James Chadwick found it and measured its
mass, which turned out to be almost the same but slightly larger than that of
the proton.

5.2.3 Isotopes
Thus, in the early 1930’s it was finally proved that atomic nucleus consists
of two types of particles, the protons and neutrons. The protons are positively
charged while the neutrons are electrically neutral. The proton charge is exactly
equal but opposite to that of an electron. The masses of proton and neutron
are almost the same, approximately 1836 and 1839 electron masses, respectively.

Apart from the electric charge, the proton and neutron have almost the same
properties. This is why there is a common name for them: nucleon. Both the
proton and neutron are nucleons, like the man and woman are both humans. In
the literature, the proton is denoted by letter p and the neutron by n. Some-
times, when the difference between them is unimportant, it is used the letter N
meaning nucleon (in the same sense as using the word person instead of man or
woman).

Chemical properties of an element are determined by the charge of its atomic

nucleus, i.e. by the number of protons. This number is called the atomic number
and is denoted by letter Z. The mass of an atom depends on how many nucleons
its nucleus contains. The number of nucleons, i.e. total number of protons and
neutrons, is called the atomic mass number and is denoted by letter A.

Standard nuclear notation shows the chemical symbol, the mass number and
the atomic number of the isotope.

number of nucleons

A
ZX
chemical symbol

number of protons

20
For example, the iron nucleus (26-th place in the Mendeleev’s periodic table of
the elements) with 26 protons and 30 neutrons is denoted as
56
26 Fe ,

where the total nuclear charge is Z = 26 and the mass number A = 56. The
number of neutrons is simply the difference N = A − Z (here it is used the same
letter N as for nucleon, but this should not cause any confusion). Chemical
symbol is inseparably linked with Z. This is why the lower index is sometimes
omitted and you may encounter the simplified notation like 56 Fe.

If we add or remove few neutrons from a nucleus, the chemical properties of

the atom remain the same because its charge is the same. This means that such
atom should remain in the same place of the Periodic table. In Greek, “same
place” reads ὶσoς τ òπoς (isos topos). The nuclei, having the same number of
protons, but different number of neutrons, are called therefore isotopes.

The different isotopes of a given element have the same atomic number Z
but different mass numbers A since they have different numbers of neutrons N .
The chemical properties of the different isotopes of an element are identical, but
they will often have great differences in nuclear stability. For stable isotopes of
the light elements, the number of neutrons will be almost equal to the number
of protons, but for heavier elements, the number of neutrons is always greater
than Z and the neutron excess tends to grow when Z increases. This is because
neutrons are kind of glue that keeps repelling protons together. The greater the
repelling charge, the more glue you need.

5.3 Nuclear force

Since atomic nuclei are very stable, the protons and neutrons must be kept
inside them by some force and this force must be rather strong. What is this
force? All of modern particle physics was discovered in the effort to understand
this force!

Trying to answer this question at the beginning of the XX-th century, physi-
cists found that all they knew before, was inadequate. Actually, by that time
they knew only gravitational and electromagnetic forces. It was clear that the
forces holding nucleons were not electromagnetic. Indeed, the protons, being
positively charged, repel each other and all nuclei would decay in a split of a
second if some other forces would not hold them together. On the other hand,
it was also clear that they were not gravitationl, which would be too weak for
the task.

The simple conclusion was that nucleons are able to attract each other by
yet unknown nuclear forces, which are stronger than the electromagnetic ones.
Further studies showed that this hypothesis was correct.

Nuclear force has rather unusual properties. Firstly, it is charge independent.

This means that in all pairs nn, pp, and np nuclear forces are the same. Secondly,
at distances ∼ 10−13 cm, the nuclear force is attractive and very strong, ∼ 100

21
times stronger than the electromagnetic repulsion. Thirdly, the nuclear force
is of a very short range. If the nucleons move away from each other for more
than few fermi (1 fm=10−13 cm) the nuclear attraction practically disappears.
Therefore the nuclear force looks like a “strong man with very short hands”.

5.4 Binding energy and nuclear masses

5.4.1 Binding energy
When a system of particles is bound, you have to spend certain energy to
disintegrate it, i.e. to separate the particles. The easiest way to do it is to
strike the system with a moving particle that carries kinetic energy, like we
can destroy a glass bottle with a bullet or a stone. If our bullet-particle moves
too slow (i.e. does not have enough kinetic energy) it cannot disintegrate the
system. On the other hand, if its kinetic energy is too high, the system is not
only disintegrated but the separated particles acquire some kinetic energy, i.e.
move away with some speed. There is an intermediate value of the energy which
is just enough to destroy the system without giving its particles any speed. This
minimal energy needed to break up a bound system is called binding energy of
this system. It is usually denoted by letter B.

5.4.2 Nuclear energy units

The standart unit of energy, Joule, is too large to measure the energies associated
with individual nuclei. This is why in nuclear physics it is more convenient to
use a much smaller unit called Mega-electron-Volt (MeV). This is the amount
of energy that acquires an electron passing between two charged plates with the
potential difference (voltage) of one million Volts. Sounds very huge, isn’t it?
But look at this relation

1 MeV = 1.602 × 10−13 J

and think again. In the units of MeV, most of the energies in nuclear world can
be expressed by values with only few digits before decimal point and without
ten to the power of something. For example, the binding energy of proton and
neutron (which is the simplest nuclear system and is called deuteron) is

Bpn = 2.225 MeV .

The simplicity of the numbers is not the only advantage of using the unit MeV.
Another, more important advantage, comes from the fact that most of experi-
ments in nuclear physics are collision experiments, where particles are acceler-
ated by electric field and collide with other particles. From the above value of
Bpn , for instance, we immediately know that in order to break up deuterons,
we need to bombard them with a flux of electrons accelerated through a voltage
not less than 2.225 million Volts. No calculation is needed! On the other hand,
if we know that a charged particle (with a unit charge) passes through a voltage,
say, 5 million Volts, we can, without any calculation, say that it acqures the
energy of 5 MeV. It is very convenient. Isn’t it?

22
5.4.3 Mass defect
Comparing the masses of atomic nuclei with the masses of the nucleons that
constitute them, we encounter a surprising fact: Total mass of the nucleons is
greater than mass of the nucleus! For example, for the deuteron we have

md < m p + m n ,

where md , mp , and mn are the masses of deuteron, proton, and neutron, re-
spectively. The difference is rather small,

(mp + mn ) − md = 3.968 × 10−30 kg ,

but on the nuclear scale is noticeable since the mass of proton, for example,

mp = 1672.623 × 10−30 kg

is also very small. This phenomenon was called “mass defect”. Where the mass
disappears to, when nucleons are bound?

To answer this question, we notice that the energy of a bound state is lower
than the energy of free particles. Indeed, to liberate them from a bound com-
plex, we have to give them some energy. Thinking in the opposite direction, we
conclude that, when forming a bound state, the particles have to get rid of the
energy excess, which is exactly equal to the binding energy. This is observed
experimentally: When a proton captures a neutron to form a deuteron, the ex-
cess energy of 2.225 MeV is emitted via electromagnetic radiation.

A logical conclusion from the above comes by itself: When proton and neu-
tron are bounding, some part of their mass disappears together with the energy
that is carried away by the radiation. And in the opposite process, when we
break up the deutron, we give it the energy, some part of which makes up the
lost mass.

Albert Einstein came to the idea of the equivalence between the mass and
energy long before any experimental evidences were found. In his theory of
relativity, he showed that total energy E of a moving body with mass m is

mc2
E=r , (5.1)
v2
1− 2
c
where v is its velocity and c the speed of light. Applying this equation to a not
moving body (v = 0), we conclude that it possesses the rest energy

E0 = mc2 (5.2)

simply because has mass. As you will see, this very formula is the basis for
making nuclear bombs and nuclear power stations!

All the development of physics and chemistry, preceding the theory of rela-
tivity, was based on the assumption that the mass and energy of a closed system

23
are conserving in all possible processes and they are conserved separately. In
reality, it turned out that the conserving quantity is the mass-energy,

Ekin + Epot + Erad + mc2 = const ,

i.e. the sum of kinetic energy, potential energy, the energy of radiation, and the
mass of the system.
In chemical reactions the fraction of the mass that transformes into other
forms of energy (and vise versa), is so small that it is not detectable even in
most precise measurements. In nuclear processes, however, the energy release
is very often millions times higher and therefore is observable.

You should not think that mutual transformations of mass and energy are the
features of only nuclear and atomic processes. If you break up a piece of rubber
or chewing gum, for example, in two parts, then the sum of masses of these parts
will be slightly larger than the mass of the whole piece. Of course we will not be
able to detect this “mass defect” with our scales. But we can calculate it, using
the Einstein formula (5.2). For this, we would need to measure somehow the
mechanical work A used to break up the whole piece (i.e. the amount of energy
supplied to it). This can be done by measuring the force and displacement in
the breaking process. Then, according to Eq. (5.2), the mass defect is

A
∆m = .
c2
To estimate possible effect, let us assume that we need to stretch a piece of
rubber in 10 cm before it breaks, and the average force needed for this is 10 N
(approximately 1 kg). Then

A = 10 N × 0.1 m = 1 J ,

and hence
1J
∆m = ≈ 1.1 × 10−17 kg.
(299792458 m/s)2
This is very small value for measuring with a scale, but huge as compared to
typical masses of atoms and nuclei.

5.4.4 Nuclear masses

Apparently, an individual nucleus cannot be put on a scale to measure its mass.
Then how can nuclear masses be measured?

This is done with the help of the devices called mass spectrometers. In
them, a flux of identical nuclei, accelerated to a certain energy, is directed to a
screen where it makes a visible mark. Before striking the screen, this flux passes
through magnetic field, which is perpendicular to velocity of the nuclei. As a
result, the flux is deflected to certain angle. The greater the mass, the smaller
is the angle (because of inertia). Thus, measuring the displacement of the mark
from the center of the screen, we can find the deflection angle and then calculate
the mass.

24
 particle number of protons number of neutrons mass (MeV)

e 0 0 0.511

p 1 0 938.272

n 0 1 939.566
2
1H 1 1 1875.613
3
1H 1 2 2808.920
3
2 He 2 1 2808.391
4
2 He 2 2 3727.378
7
3 Li 3 4 6533.832
9
4 Be 4 5 8392.748
12
6C 6 6 11174.860
16
8O 8 6 14895.077
238
92 U 92 146 221695.831

Table 5.1: Masses of electron, nucleons, and some nuclei.

Since mass and energy are equivalent, in nuclear physics it is customary to

measure masses of all particles in the units of energy, namely, in MeV. Exam-
ples of masses of subatomic particles are given in Table 5.1. The values given in
this table, are the energies to which the nuclear masses are equivalent via the
Einstein formula (5.2).

There are several advantages of using the units of MeV to measure particle
masses. First of all, like with nuclear energies, we avoid handling very small
numbers that involve ten to the power of something. For example, if we were
measuring masses in kg, the electron mass would be me = 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg.
When masses are given in the equivalent energy units, it is very easy to calculate
the mass defect. Indeed, adding the masses of proton and neutron, given in the
second and third rows of Table 5.1, and subtracting the mass of 21 H, we obtain
the binding energy 2.225 MeV of the deuteron without further ado. One more
advantage comes from particle physics. In collisions of very fast moving particles
new particles (like electrons) can be created from vacuum, i.e. kinetic energy
directly transformes into mass. If the mass is expressed in the energy units,
we know how much energy is needed to create this or that particle, without
calculations.

25
5.5 Radioactivity
As was said before, the nucleus experiences the intense struggle between the
electric repulsion of protons and nuclear attraction of the nucleons to each
other. It therefore should not be surprising that there are many nuclei that
are unstable. They can spontaneously (i.e. without an external push) break in
pieces. When the fragments reach the distances where the short range nuclear
attraction disappears, they fiercely push each other away by the electric forces.
Thus accelerated, they move in different directions like small bullets making
destruction on their way. This is an example of nuclear radioactivity but there
are several other varieties of radioactive decay.

5.5.1 Discovery of radioactivity

Nuclear radioactivity was discovered by Antoine Henri Becquerel in 1896. Fol-
lowing Wilhelm Roentgen who discovered the X-rays, Becquerel pursued his
own investigations of these mysterious rays.

The material Becquerel chose to work with contained uranium. He found

that the crystals containing uranium and exposed to sunlight, made images on
photographic plates even wrapped in black paper. He mistakingly concluded
that the sun’s energy was being absorbed by the uranium which then emitted
X-rays. The truth was revealed thanks to bad weather.

On the 26th and 27th of February 1896 the skies over Paris were overcast and
the uranium crystals Becquerel intended to expose to the sun were returned to a
drawer and put over the photographic plates. On the first of March, Becquerel
developed the plates and to his surprise, found that the images on them were
clear and strong. Therefore the uranium emitted radiation without an external
source of energy such as the sun. This was the first observation of the nuclear
radioactivity.

Later, Becquerel demonstrated that the uranium radiation was similar to the
X-rays but, unlike them, could be deflected by a magnetic field and therefore
must consist of charged particles. For his discovery of radioactivity, Becquerel
was awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize for physics.

5.5.2 Nuclear α, β, and γ rays

Classical experiment that revealed complex content of the nuclear radiation,
was done as follows. The radium crystals (another radioactive element) were
put at the bottom of a narrow straight channel made in a thick piece of lead
and open at one side. The lead absorbed everything except the particles moving
along the channel. This device therefore produced a flux of particles moving in
one direction like bullets from a machine gun. In front of the channel was a
photoplate that could register the particles.

Without the magnetic field, the image on the plate was in the form of one
single dot. When the device was immersed into a perpendicular magnetic field,

26
the flux of particles was split in three fluxes, which was reflected by three dots
on the photographic plate.

One of the three fluxes was stright, while two others were deflected in op-
posite directions. This showed that the initial flux contained positive, negative,
and neutral particles. They were named respectively the α, β, and γ particles.

The α-rays were found to be the 4 He nuclei, two protons and two neutrons
bound together. they have weak penetrating ability, a few centimeters of air
or a few sheets of paper can effectively block them. The β-rays proved to be
electrons. They have a greater penetrating power than the α-particles and can
penetrate 3 mm of aluminum. The γ-rays are not deflected because they are high
energy photons. They have the same nature as the radio waves, visible light,
and the X-rays, but have much shorter wavelength and therefore are much more
energetic. Among the three, the γ-rays have the greatest penetrating power
being able to pass through several centimeters of lead and still be detected on
the other side.

5.5.3 Danger of the ionizing radiation

The α, β, and γ particles moving through matter, collide with atoms and knock
out electrons from them, i.e. make positive ions out of the atoms. This is why
these rays are called ionizing radiation.

Apart from ionizing the atoms, this radiation destroys molecules. For hu-
mans and all other organisms, this is the most dangerous feature of the radiation.
Imagine thousands of tiny tiny bullets passing through your body and making
destruction on their way. The nuclear radiation harms the cells of the body and
thus can make people sick or even kill them. Illness can strike people years after
their exposure to nuclear radiation. For example, because the ionizing particles
can randomly modify the DNA (long organic molecules that store all the infor-
mation on how a particular cell should function in the body). As a result, some
cells with wrong DNA may become cancer cells.

Fortunately, our body is able to repair some damages caused by radiation.

Indeed, we are constantly bombarded by the radiation coming from the outer
space as well as from the inner parts of our own planet and still survive. How-
ever, if the number of damages becomes too large, the body will not cope with
them anymore.

There are established norms and acceptable limits for the radiation that are
considered safe for human body. If you are going to work in contact with ra-
dioactive materials or near them, make sure that the exposure dose is monitored
and the limits are adhered to.

You should understand that no costume can protect you from γ-rays! Only a
thick wall of concrete or metal can stop them. The special costumes and masks
that people wear when handling radioactive materials, protect them not from
the rays but from contamination with that materials. Imagine if few specks of
radioactive dirt stain your everyday clothes or if you inhale radioactive atoms.

27
They will remain with you all the time and will shoot the “bullets” at you even
when you are sleeping.

In many cases, a very effective way of protecting yourself from the radiation
is to keep certain distance. Radiation from nuclear sources is distributed equally
in all directions. Therefore the number n of dangerous particles passing every
second through a unit area (say 1 cm2 ) is the total number N of particles emitted
during 1 second, divided by the surface of a sphere
N
n= ,
4πr2
where r is the distance at which we make the observation. From this simple
formula, it is seen that the radiation intensity falls down with incresing distance
quadratically. In other words, if you increase the distance by a factor of 2, your
exposure to the radiation will be decreased by a factor of 4.

5.5.4 Decay law

Unstable nuclei decay spontaneously. A given nucleus can decay next moment,
next day or even next century. Nobody can predict when it is going to happen.
Despite this seemingly chaotic and “unscientific” situation, there is a strict or-
der in all this.

Atomic nuclei, being microscopic objects, are ruled by quantum probabilistic

laws. Although we cannot predict the exact moment of its decay, we can calcu-
late the probability that a nucleus will decay within this or that time interval.
Nuclei decay because of their internal dynamics and not because they become
“old” or somehow “rotten”.

To illustrate this, let us imagine that yesterday morning we found that a

certain nucleus was going to decay within 24 hours with the probability of 50%.
However, this morning we found that it is still “alive”. This fact does not mean
that the decay probability for another 24 hours increased. Not at all! It remains
the same, 50%, because the nucleus remains the same, nothing wrong happened
to it. This can go on and on for centuries.

Actually, we never deal with individual nuclei but rather with huge numbers
of identical nuclei. For such collections (ensembles) of quantum objects, the
probabilistic laws becomes statictical laws. Let us assume that in the above
example we had 1 million identical nuclei instead of only one. Then by this
morning only half of these nuclei would survive because the decay probability
for 24 hours was 50%. Among the remaining 500000 nuclei, 250000 will decay
by tomorrow morning, then after another 24 hours only 125000 will remain and
so on.

The number of unstable nuclei that are still “alive” continuously decreases
with time according to the curve shown in Fig. 5.2. If initially, at time t = 0,
their number is N0 , then after certain time interval T1/2 only half of these nuclei
will remain, namely, 21 N0 . Another one half of the remaining half will decay
during another such interval. So, after the time 2T1/2 , we will have only one

28
 N (t)

N0

1
2 N0

1
4 N0
1
8 N0

0 T1/2 2T1/2 3T1/2 4T1/2

Figure 5.2: The time T1/2 during which one half of the initial amount of unstable
particles decay, is called their half-life time.

quarter of the initial amount, and so on. The time interval T1/2 , during which
one half of unstable nuclei decay, is called their half-life time. It is specific for
each unstable nucleus and vary from a fraction of a second to thousands and
millions of years. Few examples of such lifetimes are given in Table 5.2

5.5.5 Radioactive dating

Examining the amounts of the decay products makes possible radioactive dat-
ing. The most famous is the Carbon dating, a variety of radioactive dating
which is applicable only to matter which was once living and presumed to be
in equilibrium with the atmosphere, taking in carbon dioxide from the air for
photosynthesis.

Cosmic ray protons blast nuclei in the upper atmosphere, producing neu-
trons which in turn bombard nitrogen, the major constituent of the atmosphere.
This neutron bombardment produces the radioactive isotope 146 C. The radioac-
tive carbon-14 combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and is incorporated
into the cycle of living things.

The isotope 146 C decays (see Table 5.2) inside living bodies but is replenished
from the air and food. Therefore, while an organism is alive, the concentration
of this isotope in the body remains constant. After death, the replenishment
from the breath and food stops, but the isotopes that are in the dead body

29
 isotope T1/2 decay mode
214
84 Po 1.64 × 10−4 s α, γ
89
36 Kr 3.16 min β−, γ
222
86 Rn 3.83 days α, γ
90
38 Sr 28.5 years β−
226
88 Ra 1.6 × 103 years α, γ
14
6C 5.73 × 103 years β−
238
92 U 4.47 × 109 years α, γ
115
49 In 4.41 × 1014 years β−

Table 5.2: Half-life times of several unstable isotopes.

continue to decay. As a result the concentration of 146 C in it gradually decreases

according to the curve shown in Fig. 5.2. The time t = 0 on this Figure corre-
sponds to the moment of death, and N0 is the equilibrium concentration of 146 C
in living organisms.

Therefore, by measuring the radioactive emissions from once-living matter

and comparing its activity with the equilibrium level of emissions from things
living today, an estimation of the time elapsed can be made. For example, if
the rate of the radioactive emissions from a piece of wood, caused by the decay
of 146 C, is one-half lower than from alive trees, then we can conclude that we are
at the point t = T1/2 on the curve 5.2, i.e. it is elapsed exactly one half-life-time
period. According to the Table 5.2), this means that the tree, from which this
piece of wood was made, was cut approximately 5730 years ago. This is how
physicists help archaeologists to assign dates to various organic materials.

5.6 Nuclear reactions

Those of you who studied chemistry, are familiar with the notion of chemical re-
action, which, in essence, is just regrouping of atoms that constitute molecules.
As a result, reagent chemical compounds are transformed into product com-
pounds.

In the world of nuclear particles, similar processes are possible. When nuclei
are close to each other, nucleons from one nucleus can “jump” into another one.
This happens because there are attractive and repulsive forces between the nu-
cleons. The complicated interplay of these forces may cause their regrouping.
As a result, the reagent particles are transformed into product particles. Such
processes are called nuclear reactions.

30
 For example, when two isotopes 32 He collide, the six nucleons constituting
them, can rearrange in such a way that the isotope 42 He is formed and two
protons are liberated. Similarly to chemical reactions, this process is denoted
as
3 3 4
2 He + 2 He −→ 2 He + p + p + 12.86 MeV . (5.3)
The same as in chemical reactions, nuclear reactions can also be either exother-
mic (i.e. releasing energy) or endothermic (i.e. requiring an energy input). The
above reaction releases 12.86 MeV of energy. This is because the total mass on
the left hand side of Eq. (5.3) is in 12.86 MeV greater than the total mass of
the products on the right hand side (you can check this using Table 5.1).

Thus, when considering a particular nuclear reaction, we can always learn if

it releases or absorbs energy. For this, we only need to compare total masses on
the left and right hand sides of the equation. Now, you can understand why it
is very convenient to express masses in the units of energy.

Composing equations like (5.3), we should always check the superscripts and
subscripts of the nuclei in order to have the same number of nucleons and the
same charge on both sides of the equation. In the above example, we have six
nucleons and the charge +4 in both the initial and final states of the reaction.
To make the checking of nucleon number and charge conservation easier, some-
times the proton and neutron are denoted with superscripts and subscripts as
well, namely, 11 p and 10 n. In this case, all we need is to check that sum of super-
scripts and sum of subscripts are the same on both sides of the equation.

5.7 Detectors
How can we observe such tiny tiny things as protons and α-particles? There is
no microscope that would be able to discern them. From the very beginning of
the sub-atomic era, scientists have been working on the development of special
instruments that are called particle detectors. These devices enable us either
to register the mere fact that certain particle has passed through certain point
in space or to observe the trace of its path (the trajectory). Actually, this is
as good as watching the particle. Although the particle sizes are awfully small,
when passing through some substances, they leave behind visible traces of tens
of centimeters in length. By measuring the curvature of the trajectory of a
particle deflected in electric or magnetic field, a physicist can determine the
charge and mass of the particle and thus can identify it.

5.7.1 Geiger counter

The most familiar device for registering charged particles is the Geiger counter.
It cannot tell you anything about the particle except the fact that it has passed
through the counter. The counter consists of a thin metal cylinder filled with
gas. A wire electrode runs along the center of the tube and is kept at a high
voltage (∼ 2000 V) relative to the cylinder. When a particle passes through the
tube, it causes ionization of the gas atoms and thus an electric discharge between

31
the cylinder and the wire. The electric pulse can be counted by a computer or
made to produce a “click” in a loudspeaker. The number of counts per second
tells us about intensity of the radiation.

5.7.2 Fluorescent screen

The very first detector was the fluorescent screen. When a charged particle hits
the screen, a human eye can discern a flash of light at the point of impact. In
fact, we all use this kind of detectors every day when watching TV of looking at
a computer (if it does not have an LCD screen of course). Indeed, the images on
the screens of their electron-ray tubes are formed by the accelerated electrons.

5.7.3 Photo-emulsion
Another type of particle detector, dating back to Becquerel, is the nuclear pho-
tographic emulsion. Passage of charged particles is recorded in the emulsion in
the same way that ordinary black and white photographic film records a pic-
ture. The only difference is that nuclear photoemulsion is made rathe thick in
order to catch a significant part of the particle path. After the developing, a
permanent record of the charged particle trajectory is available.

5.7.4 Wilson’s chamber

In the fields of sub-atomic physics and nuclear physics, Wilson’s cloud chamber
is the most fundamental device to observe the trajectories of particles. Its basic
principle was discovered by C. T. R. Wilson (UK, 1869 - 1959) in 1897, and it
was put to the practical use in 1911.

The top and the side of the chamber is covered by glasses, and of a diameter
of several centimeters. At the bottom of the chamber, a piston is placed. The
air filled in the chamber is saturated with vapor of water. When pulling down
the piston quickly, the volume of the chamber would be expanded and the
temperature goes down, and then the air inside would be supersaturated with
the vapor. If a charged particle enters into such a supersaturated state to
form ions, the vapor of water would condense along the line of the ions, which
is the path of the charge. Thus we can observe the trace, and also take a
photograph. To make clear the trace, a light is sometimes illuminated from the
side. When placing the cloud chamber in a magnetic field, we can obtain various
informations about the charged particle by measuring the curvature of the trace
and other data. The bubble chamber and the spark chamber have taken place
of the cloud chamber which is nowadays used only for the educational purposes.
Wilson’s cloud chamber has however played a very important role in the history
of physics.

5.7.5 Bubble chamber

Bubble chamber is a particle detector of major importance during the initial
years of high-energy physics. The bubble chamber has produced a wealth of
physics from about 1955 well into the 1970s. It is based on the principle of bubble
formation in a liquid heated above its boiling point, which is then suddenly

32
expanded, starting boiling where passing charged particles have ionized the
atoms of the liquid. The technique was honoured by the Nobel prize award
to D. Glaser in 1960. Even today, bubble chamber photographs provide the
aesthetically most appealing visualization of subnuclear collisions.

5.7.6 Spark chamber

Spark chamber is a historic device using electric discharges over a gap between
two electrodes with large potential difference, to render passing particles visible.
Sparks occurred where the gas had been ionized. Most often, multiple short gaps
were used, but wide-gap chambers with gaps up to 40 cm were also built. The
spark chamber is still of great scientific value in that it remains relatively simple
and cheap to build as well as enabling an observer to view the paths of charged
particles.

5.8 Nuclear energy

Nuclei can produce energy via two different types of reactions, namely, fission
and fusion reactions. Fission is a break up of a nucleus in two or more pieces
(smaller nuclei). Fusion is the opposite process: Formation of a bigger nucleus
from two small nuclei.

A question may arise: How two opposite processes can both produce energy?
Can we make an inexhaustible souce of energy by breaking up and then fusing
the same nuclei? Of cousre not! The nergy conservation law cannot be cir-
cumvented in no way. When speaking about fusion and fission, we speak about
different ranges of nuclei. Energy can only be released when either light nuclei
fuse or heavy nuclei fission.

To understand why this is so, let us recollect that for releasing energy the
mass of initial nuclei must be greater than the mass of the products of a nuclear
reaction. The mass difference is transformed into the released energy. And why
the product nuclei can loose some mass as compared to the initial nuclei? Be-
cause they are more tightly bound, i.e. their binding energies are lager.

Fig. 5.3 shows the dependence of the binding energy B per nucleon on the
number A of nucleons constituting a nucleus. As you see, the curve reaches the
maximum value of ∼ 9 MeV per nucleon at around A ∼ 50. The nuclei with such
number of nucleons cannot produce energy neither through fusion nor through
fission. They are kind of “ashes” and cannot serve as a fuel. In contrast to
them, very light nuclei, when fused with each other, make more tightly bound
products as well as very heavy nuclei do when split up in lighter fragments.

In fission processes, which were discovered and used first, a heavy nucleus
like, for example, uranium or plutonium, splits up in two fragments which are
both positively charged. These fragments repel each other by an electric force
and move apart at a high speed, distributing their kinetic energy in the sur-
rounding material.

33
B/A, (MeV)
10 10

8 | {z } 8
| {z }
| {z }
6 - . 6
↑ ← fission ←
4 fusion 4

2 % 2

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
number of nucleons, A

Figure 5.3: Binding energy per nucleon.

In fusion reactions everything goes in the opposite direction. Very light

nuclei, like hydrogen or helium isotopes, when approaching each other to a
distance of a few fm (1 fm = 10−13 cm), experience strong attraction which
overpowers their Coulomb (that is electric) repulsion. As a result the two nuclei
fuse into a single nucleus. They collapse with extremely high speeds towards
each other. To form a stable nucleus they must get rid of the excessive energy.
This energy is emitted by ejecting a neutron or a photon.

5.8.1 Nuclear reactors

Since the discovery of radioactivity it was known that heavy nuclei release energy
in the processes of spontaneous decay. This process, however, is rather slow and
cannot be influenced (speed up or slow down) by humans and therefore could
not be effectively used for large-scale energy production. Nonetheless, it is ideal
for feeding the devices that must work autonomously in remote places for a
long time and do not require much energy. For this, heat from the spontaneous-
decays can be converted into electric power in a radioisotope thermoelectric
generator. These generators have been used to power space probes and some
lighthouses built by Russia. Much more effective way of using nuclear energy is
based on another type of nuclear decay which is considered next.

Chain reaction
The discovery that opened up the era of nuclear energy was made in 1939 by
German physicists O. Hahn, L. Meitner, F Strassmann, and O. Frisch. They
found that a uranium nucleus, after absorbing a neutron, splits into two frag-

34
ments. This was not a spontaneous but induced fission

n + 235 140 94
92 U −→ 54 Xe + 38 Sr + n + n + 185 MeV (5.4)

that released ∼ 185 MeV of energy as well as two neutrons which could cause
similar reactions on surrounding nuclei. The fact that instead of one initial
neutron, in the reaction (5.4) we obtain two neutrons, is crucial. This gives us
the possibility to make the so-called chain reaction schematically shown in Fig.
5.4.

n
t

Un
t t

Un Un
t t t t

Un Un Un Un
t t t t t t t t

Figure 5.4: Chain reaction on uranium nuclei.

In such process, one neutron breaks one heavy nucleus, the two released neu-
trons break two more heavy nuclei and produce four neutrons which, in turn,
can break another four nuclei and so on. This process develops extremely fast.
In a split of a second a huge amount of energy can be released, which means
explosion. In fact, this is how the so-called atomic bomb works.

Can we control the development of the chain reaction? Yes we can! This is
done in nuclear reactors that produce energy for our use. How can it be done?

Critical mass
First of all, if the piece of material containing fissile nuclei is too small, some
neutrons may reach its surface and escape without causing further fissions. For
each type of fissile material there is therefore a minmal mass of a sample that
can support explosive chain reaction. It is called the critical mass. For example,
the critical mass of 235
92 U is approximately 50 kg. If the mass is below the critical
value, nuclear explosion is not possible, but the energy is still released and the
sample becomes hot. The closer mass is to its critical value, the more energy is
released and more intensive is the neutron radiation from the sample.

The criticality of a sample (i.e. its closeness to the critical state) can be
reduced by changing its geometry (making its surface bigger) or by putting inside
it some other material (boron or cadmium) that is able to absorb neutrons. On

35
the other hand, the criticality can be increased by putting neutron reflectors
around the sample. These reflectors work like mirrors from which the escaped
neutrons bounce back into the sample. Thus, moving in and out the absorbing
material and reflectors, we can keep the sample close to the critical state.

How a nuclear reactor works

In a typical nuclear reactor, the fuel is not in one piece, but in the form of sev-
eral hundred vertical rods, like a brush. Another system of rods that contain a
neutron absorbing material (control rods) can move up and down in between the
fuel rods. When totally in, the control rods absorb so many neutrons, that the
reactor is shut down. To start the reactor, operator gradually moves the control
rods up. In an emergency situation they are dropped down automatically.

To collect the energy, water flows through the reactor core. It becomes
extremely hot and goes to a steam generator. There, the heat passes to water
in a secondary circuit that becomes steam for use outside the reactor enclosure
for rotating turbines that generate electricity.

Nuclear power in South Africa

By 2004 South Africa had only one commercial nuclear reactor supplying power
into the national grid. It works in Koeberg located 30 km north of Cape Town.
A small research reactor was also operated at Pelindaba as part of the nuclear
weapons program, but was dismantled.

Koeberg Nuclear Power station is a uranium Pressurized Water Reactor

(PWR). In such a reactor, the primary coolant loop is pressurised so the water
does not boil, and heat exchangers, called steam generators, are used to trans-
mit heat to a secondary coolant which is allowed to boil to produce steam. To
remove as much heat as possible, the water temperature in the primary loop
is allowed to rise up to about 300 ◦ C which requires the pressure of 150 atmo-
spheres (to keep water from boiling).

The Koeberg power station has the largest turbine generators in the south-
ern hemisphere and produces ∼10000 MWh of electric energy. Construction of
Koeberg began in 1976 and two of its Units were commissioned in 1984-1985.
Since then, the plant has been in more or less continuous operation and there
have been no serious incidents.

Eskom that operates this power station, may be the current technology
leader. It is developing a new type of nuclear reactor, a modular pebble-bed
reactor (PBMR). In contrast to traditional nuclear reactors, in this new type of
reactors the fuel is not assembled in the form of rods. The uranium, thorium or
plutonium fuels are in oxides (ceramic form) contained within spherical pebbles
made of pyrolitic graphite. The pebbles, having a size of a tennis ball, are in a
bin or can. An inert gas, helium, nitrogen or carbon dioxide, circulates through
the spaces between the fuel pebbles. This carries heat away from the reactor.

36
 Ideally, the heated gas is run directly through a turbine. However since the
gas from the primary coolant can be made radioactive by the neutrons in the
reactor, usually it is brought to a heat exchanger, where it heats another gas,
or steam.

The primary advantage of pebble-bed reactors is that they can be designed

to be inherently safe. When a pebble-bed reactor gets hotter, the more rapid
motion of the atoms in the fuel increases the probability of neutron capture by
238
92 U isotopes through an effect known as Doppler broadening. This isotope does
not split up after capturing a neutron. This reduces the number of neutrons
available to cause 235
92 U fission, reducing the power output by the reactor. This
natural negative feedback places an inherent upper limit on the temperature of
the fuel without any operator intervention.

The reactor is cooled by an inert, fireproof gas, so it cannot have a steam

explosion as a water reactor can.

A pebble-bed reactor thus can have all of its supporting machinery fail, and
the reactor will not crack, melt, explode or spew hazardous wastes. It simply
goes up to a designed ”idle” temperature, and stays there. In that state, the
reactor vessel radiates heat, but the vessel and fuel spheres remain intact and
undamaged. The machinery can be repaired or the fuel can be removed.

A large advantage of the pebble bed reactor over a conventional water reac-
tor is that they operate at higher temperatures. The reactor can directly heat
fluids for low pressure gas turbines. The high temperatures permit systems to
get more mechanical energy from the same amount of thermal energy.

Another advantage is that fuel pebbles for different fuels might be used in
the same basic design of reactor (though perhaps not at the same time). Pro-
ponents claim that some kinds of pebble-bed reactors should be able to use
thorium, plutonium and natural unenriched Uranium, as well as the customary
enriched uranium. One of the projects in progress is to develop pebbles and
reactors that use the plutonium from surplus or expired nuclear explosives.

On June 25, 2003, the South African Republic’s Department of Environ-

mental Affairs and Tourism approved ESKOM’s prototype 110 MW pebble-bed
modular reactor for Koeberg. Eskom also has approval for a pebble-bed fuel
production plant in Pelindaba. The uranium for this fuel is to be imported
from Russia. If the trial is successful, Eskom says it will build up to ten local
PBMR plants on South Africa’s seacoast. Eskom also wants to export up to 20
PBMR plants per year. The estimated export revenue is 8 billion rand a year,
and could employ about 57000 people.

5.8.2 Fusion energy

For a given mass of fuel, a fusion reactions like
2
1H + 31 H −→ 42 He + n + 17.59 MeV . (5.5)

37
yield several times more energy than a fission reaction. This is clear from the
curve given in Fig. 5.3. Indeed, a change of the binding energy (per nucleon
nucleon) is much more significant for a fusion reaction than for a fission reac-
tion. Fusion is, therefore, a much more powerful source of energy. For example,
10 g of Deuterium which can be extracted from 500 litres of water and 15 g of
Tritium produced from 30 g of Lithium would give enough fuel for the lifetime
electricity needs of an average person in an industrialised country.

But this is not the only reason why fusion attracted so much attention from
physicists. Another, more fundamental, reason is that the fusion reactions were
responsible for the synthesis of the initial amount of light elements at primordial
times when the universe was created. Furthermore, the synthesis of nuclei con-
tinues inside the stars where the fusion reactions produce all the energy which
reaches us in the form of light.

Thermonuclear reactions
If fusion is so advantageous, why it is not used instead of fission reactors? The
problem is in the electric repulsion of the nuclei. Before the nuclei on the left
hand side of Eq. (5.5) can fuse, we have to bring them somehow close to each
other to a distance of ∼ 10−13 cm. This is not an easy task! They both are
positively charged and “refuse” to approach each other.

What we can do is to make a mixture of the atoms containing such nuclei

and heat it up. At high temperatures, the atoms move very fast. They fiercely
collide and loose all the electrons. The mixture becomes plasma, i.e. a mixture
of bare nuclei and free moving electrons. If the temperature is high enough, the
colliding nuclei can overcome the electric repulsion and approach each other to
a fusion distance.

When the nuclei fuse, they release much more energy than was spent to
heat up the plasma. Thus the initial energy “investment” pays off. The typical
temperature needed to ignite the reaction of the type (5.5) is extremely high.
In fact, it is the same temperature that our sun has in its center, namely, ∼15
million degrees. This is why the reactions (5.3), (5.5), and the like are called
thermonuclear reactions.

Human-made thermonuclear reactions

The same as with fission reactions, the first application of thermonuclear reac-
tions was in weapons, namely, in the hydrogen bomb, where fusion is ignited by
the explosion of an ordinary (fission) plutonium bomb which heats up the fuel
to solar temperatures.

In an attempt to make a controllable fusion, people encounter the problem

of holding the plasma. It is relatively easy to achieve a high temperature (with
laser pulses, for example). But as soon as plasma touches the walls of the con-
tainer, it immediately cools down. To keep it from touching the walls, various
ingenious methods are tried, such as strong magnetic field and laser beams di-

38
rected to plasma from all sides. In spite of all efforts and ingenious tricks, all
such attempts till now have failed. Most probably this straightforward approach
to controllable fusion is doomed because one has to hold in hands a “piece of
burning sun”.

Cold fusion
To visualize the struggle of the nuclei approaching each other, imagine yourself
pushing a metallic ball towards the top of a slope shown in Fig. 5.5. The more
kinetic energy you give to the ball, the higher it can clime. Your purpose is to
make it fall into the narrow well that is behind the barrier.

Coulomb
barrier
¡
Veff ¡
ª

projectile
¾
x
R

Figure 5.5: Effective nucleus–nucleus potential as a function of the separation

between the nuclei.

In fact, the curve in Fig. 5.5 shows the dependence of relative potential
energy Veff between two nuclei on the distance R separating them. The deep
narrow well corresponds to the strong short-range attraction, and the ∼ 1/R
barrier represents the Coulomb (electric) repulsion. The nuclei need to over-
come this barrier in order to “touch” each other and fuse, i.e. to fall into the
narrow and deep potential well. One way to achieve this is to give them enough
kinetic energy, which means to rise the temperature. However, there is another
way based on the quantum laws.

As you remember, when discussing the motion of the electron inside an atom
(see Sec. 5.1), we said that it formed a “cloud” of probability around the nu-
cleus. The density of this cloud diminishes at very short and very long distances
but never disappears completely. This means that we can find the electron even
inside the nucleus though with a rather small probability.

39
 The nuclei moving towards each other, being microscopic objects, obey the
quantum laws as well. The probability density for finding one nucleus at a dis-
tance R from another one also forms a cloud. This density is non-zero even
under the barrier and on the other side of the barrier. This means that, in con-
trast to classical objects, quantum particles, like nuclei, can penetrate through
potential barriers even if they do not have enough energy to go over it! This is
called the tunneling effect.

The tunneling probability strongly depends on thickness of the barrier.

Therefore, instead of lifting the nuclei against the barrier (which means ris-
ing the temperature), we can try to make the barrier itself thinner or to keep
them close to the barrier for such a long time that even a low penetration prob-
ability would be realized.

How can this be done? The idea is to put the nuclei we want to fuse, inside
a molecule where they can stay close to each other for a long time. Further-
more, in a molecule, the Coulomb barrier becomes thinner because of electron
screening. In this way fusion may proceed even at room temperature.

This idea of cold fusion was originally (in 1947) discussed by F. C. Frank
and (in 1948) put forward by A. D. Sakharov, the “father” of Russian hydrogen
bomb, who at the latest stages of his career was worldwide known as a prominent
human rights activist and a winner of the Nobel Prize for Peace. When working
on the bomb project, he initiated research into peaceful applications of nuclear
energy and suggested the fusion of two hydrogen isotopes via the reaction (5.5)
by forming a molecule of them where one of the electrons is replaced by a muon.

The muon is an elementary particle (see Sec. 5.9), which has the same
characteristics as an electron. The only difference between them is that the
muon is 200 times heavier than the electron. In other words, a muon is a heavy
electron. What will happen if we make a muonic atom of hydrogen, that is a
bound state of a proton and a muon? Due to its large mass the muon would be
very close to the proton and the size of such atom would be 200 times smaller
than that of an ordinary atom. This is clearly seen from the formula for the
atomic Bohr radius
~2
RBohr = ,
me2
where the mass is in the denominator.

Now, what happens if we make a muonic molecule? It will also be 200 times
smaller than an ordinary molecule. The Coulomb barrier will be 200 times thin-
ner and the nuclei 200 times closer to each other. This is just what we need!
Speaking in terms of the effective nucleus–nucleus potential shown in Fig. 5.5,
we can say that the muon modifies this potential in such a way that a sec-
ond minimum appears. Such a modified potential is (schematically) shown in
Fig. 5.6.

The molecule is a bound state in the shallow but wide minimum of this
potential. Most of the time, the nuclei are at the distance corresponding to

40
 probability density
¡
Veff ª
¡

x R

Figure 5.6: Effective nucleus–nucleus potential (thick curve) for nuclei confined in
a molecule. Thin curve shows the corresponding distribution of the probability for
finding the nuclei at a given distance from each other.

the maximum of the probability density distribution (shown by the thin curve).
Observe that this density, though is rather small, is not zero under the barrier
and even at R = 0. This means that the system can (with a small probability)
jump from the shallow well into the deep well through the barrier, i.e. can
tunnel and fuse.

Unfortunately, the muon is not a stable particle. Its lifetime is only ∼

10−6 sec. This means that a muonic molecule cannot exist longer than 1 mi-
crosecond. As a matter of fact, from a quantum mechanical point of view, this
is quite a long interval.

The quantum mechanical wave function (that describes the probability den-
sity) oscillates with a frequency which is proportional to the energy of the sys-
tem. With a typical binding energy of a muonic molecule of 300 eV this fre-
quency is ∼ 1017 s−1 . This means that the particle hits the barrier with this
frequency and during 1 microsecond it makes 1011 attempts to jump through it.
The calculations show that the penetration probability is ∼ 10−7 . Therefore,
during 1 microsecond nuclei can penetrate through the barrier 10000 times and
fusion can happen much faster than the decay rate of the muon.

Cold fusion via the formation of muonic molecules was done in many lab-
oratories, but unfortunately, it cannot solve the problem of energy production
for our needs. The obstacle is the negative efficiency, i.e. to make muonic cold
fusion we have to spend more energy than it produces. The reason is that muons
do not exist like protons or electrons. We have to produce them in accelerators.
This takes a lot of energy.

41
 Actually, the muon serves as a catalyst for the fusion reaction. After help-
ing one pair of nuclei to fuse, the muon is liberated from the molecule and can
form another molecule, and so on. It was estimated that the efficiency of the
energy production would be positive only if each muon ignited at least 1000
fusion events. Experimentalists tried their best, but by now the record number
is only 150 fusion events per muon. This is too few. The main reason why
the muon does not catalyze more reactions is that it is eventually trapped by a
4
He nucleus which is a by-product of fusion. Helium captures the muon into an
atomic orbit with large binding energy, and it cannot escape.

Nonetheless, the research in the field of cold fusion continues. There are
some other ideas how to keep nuclei close to each other. One of them is to
put the nuclei inside a crystal. Another way out is to increase the penetration
probability by using molecules with special properties, namely, those that have
quantum states with almost the same energies as the excited states on the
compound nucleus. Scientists try all possibilities since the energy demands of
mankind grow continuously and therefore the stakes in this quest are high.

5.9 Elementary particles

In our quest for the elementary building blocks of the universe, we delved inside
atomic nucleus and found that it is composed of protons and neutrons. Are the
three particles, e, p, and n, the blocks we are looking for? The answer is “no”.
Even before the structure of the atom was understood, Becquerel discovered
the redioactivity (see Sec. 5.5.1) that afterwards puzzled physicists and forced
them to look deeper, i.e. inside protons and neutrons.

5.9.1 β decay
Among the three types of radioactivity, the α and γ rays were easily explained.
The emission of α particle is kind of fission reaction, when an initial nucleus
spontaneously decays in two fragments one of which is the nucleus 42 He (i.e.
α particle). The γ rays are just electromagnetic quanta emitted by a nuclear
system when it transits from one quantum state to another (the same like an
atom emits light).

The β rays posed the puzzle. On one hand, they are just electrons and
you may think that it looks simple. But on the other hand, they are not the
electrons from the atomic shell. It was found that they come from inside the
nucleus! After the β-decay, the charge of the nucleus increases in one unit,
A A
Z (parent nucleus) −→ Z+1 (daughter nucleus) + e ,

which is in accordance with the charge conservation law.

Thre was another puzzle associated with the β decay: The emitted electrons
did not have a certain energy. Measuring their kinetic energies, you could find
very fast and very slow electrons as well as the electrons with all intermediate
speeds. How could identical parent nuclei, after loosing different amount of en-
ergy, become identical daughter nuclei. May be energy is not conserving in the

42
quantum world? The fact was so astonishing that even Niels Bohr put forward
the idea of statistical nature of the energy conservation law.

To explain the first puzzle, it was naively suggested that neutron is a bound
state of proton and electron. At that time, physicists believed that if something
is emitted from an object, this something must be present inside that object
before the emission. They could not imagine that a particle could be created
from vacuum.

The naive (pe) model of the neutron contradicted the facts. Indeed, it was
known already that the pe bound state is the hydrogen atom. Neutron is much
smaller than the atom. Therefore, it would be unusually tight binding, and
perhaps with something elese involved that keeps the size small. By the way,
this “something elese” could also save the energy conservation law. In 1930,
Wolfgang Pauli suggested that in addition to the electron, the β decay involves
another particle, ν, that is emitted along with the electron and carries away
part of the energy. For example,
234 234
90 Th −→ 91 Pa + e− + ν̄ . (5.6)

This additional particle was called neutrino (in Italian the word “neutrino”
means small neutron). The neutrino is electrically neutral, has extremely small
mass (may be even zero, which is still a question in 2004) and very weakly
interacts with matter. This is why it was not detected experimentally till 1956.
The “bar” over ν in Eq. (5.6) means that in this reaction actually the anti-
neutrino is emitted (see the discussion on anti-particles further down in Sec.
5.9.2).

5.9.2 Particle physics

In an attempt to explain the β decay and to understand internal structure of
the neutron a new branch of physics was born, the particle physics. The only
way to explore the structure of sub-atomic partcles is to strike them with other
particles in order to knock out their “constituent” parts. The simple logic says:
The more powerful the impact, the smaller parts can be knocked out.

At the beginning the only source of energetic particles to strike other parti-
cles were the cosmic rays. Earth is constantly bombarded by all sort of particles
coming from the outer space. Atmosphere protects us from most of them, but
many still reach the ground.

Antiparticles
In 1932, studying the cosmic rays with a bubble chamber, Carl Anderson made
a photograph of two symmetrical tracks of charged particles. The measurements
showed that one track belonged to an electron and the other was made by a
particle having the same mass and equal but positive charge. These particles
were created when a cosmic γ quantum of a high energy collided with a nucleus.

43
 The discovered particle was called positron and denoted as e+ to distinguish
it from the electron, which sometimes is denoted as e− . It was the first an-
tiparticle discovered. Later, it was found that every particle has its “mirror
reflection”, the antiparticle. It is used “bar” over a particle symbol to denote
an antiparticle. For example, p̄ is the anti-proton, which has the same mass as
an ordinary proton but a negative charge.

When a particle collides with its “mirror reflection” they annihilate, i.e.
they burn out completely. In this collision, all their mass is transformed into
electromagnetic energy in the form of γ quanta. For example, if an electron
collides with a positron, the following reaction may take place

e− + e+ −→ γ + γ , (5.7)

where two photons are needed to conserve the total momentum of the system.

In principle, stable antimatter can exist. For example, the pair of p̄ and e+
can form an atom of anti-hydrogen with exactly the same energy states as the
ordinary hydrogen. Experimentally, atoms of anti-helium were obtained. The
problem with them is that surrounded by ordinary matter, they cannot live
long. Colliding with ordinary atoms, they annihilate very fast.

There are speculations that our universe should be symmetric with respect
to particles and antiparticles. Indeed, why should preference be given to matter
and not to anti-matter? This implies that somewhere very far it must be equal
amount of anti-matter, i.e. anti-universe. Can you imagine what happens if
they meet?

Muon, mesons, and the others

In yet another cosmic-ray experiment a particle having the same properties as
the electron but ∼207 times heavier, was discovered in 1935. It was given the
name muon and the symbol µ. For a long time it remained “unnecessary” parti-
cle in the picture of the world. Only the modern theories harmonically included
the muon as a constituent part of the matter (see Sec 5.9.3).

The same inexhaustible cosmic rays revealed the π and K mesons in 1947.
The π mesons (or simply pions) were theoretically predicted twelve years before
by Yukawa, as the mediators of the strong forces between nucleons. The K
mesons, however, were unexpected. Furthermore, they showed very strange be-
haviour. They were easily created only in pairs. The probability of the inverse
process (i.e. their decay) was 1013 times lower than the probability of their
creation.

It was suggested that these particles possess a new type of charge, the
strangeness, which is conserving in the strong interactions. When a pair of
such particles is created, one of them has strangeness +1 and the other −1, so
the total strangeness remains zero. When decaying, they act individually and
therefore the strangeness is not conserving. According to the suggestion, this
is only possible through the weak interactions that are much weaker than the

44
strong interactions (see Sec. 5.9.4) and thus the decay probability is much lower.

The golden age of particle physics began in 1950-s with the advent of parti-
cle accelerators, the machines that produced beams of electrons or protons with
high kinetic energy. Having such beams available, experimentalists can plan the
experiment and repeat it, while with the cosmic rays they were at the mercy of
chance. When the accelerators became the main tool of exploration, the particle
physics acquired its second name, the high energy physics.

During the last half a century, experimentalists discovered so many new

particles (few of them are listed in Table 5.3) that it became obvious that they
cannot all be elementary. When colliding with each other, they produce some
other particles. Mutual transformations of the particles is their main property.

family particle symbol mass (MeV) Lifetime T1/2 (s)

photon photon γ 0 stable
electron e − , e+ 0.511 stable
muon µ − , µ+ 105.7 2.2 × 10−6
leptons tau τ −, τ + 1777 10−13
electron neutrino νe ∼0 stable
muon neutrino νµ ∼0 stable
tau neutrino ντ ∼0 stable
pion π+ , π− 139.6 2.6 × 10−8
pion π0 135.0 0.8 × 10−16
+
kaon K , K− 493.7 1.2 × 10−8
kaon KS0 497.7 0.9 × 10−10
hadrons kaon KL0 497.7 5.2 × 10−8
eta meson η0 548.8 10−18
proton p 938.3 stable
neutron n 939.6 900
lambda Λ0 1116 2.6 × 10−10
sigma Σ+ 1189 0.8 × 10−10
sigma Σ0 1192 6 × 10−20
sigma Σ− 1197 1.5 × 10−10
omega Ω , Ω+
−
1672 0.8 × 10−10

Table 5.3: Few representatives of different particle families.

Physicists faced the problem of particle classification similar to the problems

of classification of animals, plants, and chemical elements. The first approach
was very simple. The particles were divided in four groups according to their
mass: leptons (light particles, like electron), mesons (intermediate mass, like
pion), barions (heavy particles, like proton or neutron), and hyperons (very
heavy particles).

Then it was realized that it would be more logical to divide the particles in
three families according to their ability to interact via weak, electromagnetic,
and strong forces (all particles experience gravitational attraction towards each

45
other). Except for the gravitational interaction, the photon (γ quantum) partic-
ipates only in electromagnetic interactions, the leptons take part in both weak
and electromagnetic interactions, and hadrons are able to interact via all forces
of nature (see Sec. 5.9.4).

In addition to conservation of the strangeness, it were discovered several

other conservation laws. For example, number of leptons is conserving. This
is why in the reaction (5.6) we have an electron (lepton number +1) and anti-
neutrino (lepton number −1) in the final state. Similarly, the number of barions
is conserving in all reactions.

The quest for the constituent parts of the neutron has led us to something
unexpected. We found that there are a hundred of different particles that can
be “knocked out” of the neutron but none of them are its parts. Actually, the
neutron itself can be knocked out of some of them! What a mess! Further
efforts of experimentalists could not find an order, which was finally discovered
by theoreticians who introduced the notion of quarks.

5.9.3 Quarks and leptons

While experimentalists seemed to be lost in the maze, the theoreticians groped
for the way out. Using an extremely complicated mathematical technique, they
managed to group the hadrons in such families which implied that all known
(and yet unknown) hadrons are build of only six types of particles with frac-
tional charges. The main credit for this (in the form of Nobel Prize) was given
to M. Gell-Mann and G. Zweig.

At first, they considered a subset of the hadrons and developed a theory with
only three types of such truly elementary particles. When Murray Gell-Mann
thought of the name for them, he came across the book ”Finnegan’s Wake”
by James Joyce. The line ”Three quarks for Mister Mark...” appeared in that
fanciful book (in German, the word “quark” means cottage cheese). He needed
a name for three particles and this was the answer. Thus the term quark was
coined.

Later, the theory was generalized to include all known particles, which re-
quired six types of quarks. Modern theories require also that the number of
different leptons should be the same as the number of different quark types.
Thus, the world is constructed of just twelve types of elementary building blocks
that are given in Table 5.4. Amazingly enough, the electron that was discovered
before all other particles, more than a century ago, turned out to be one of them!

5.9.4 Forces of nature

The interactions in the Universe are governed by four forces (strong, weak,
electromagnetic and gravitational).

46
 family elementary particle symbol charge mass (MeV)
electron e− −1 0.511
muon µ− −1 105.7
leptons tau τ− −1 1777
electron neutrino νe 0 ∼0
muon neutrino νµ 0 ∼0
tau neutrino ντ 0 ∼0
up u +2/3 360
down d −1/3 360
quarks strange s −1/3 1500
charmed c +2/3 540
top t +2/3 174000
bottom b −1/3 5000

Table 5.4: Elementary building blocks of the universe.

Force Relative Strength Range

Strong 1 Short

Electromagnetic 0.0073 Long

Weak 10−9 Very Short

Gravitational 10−38 Long

Physicists are trying to find one theory that would describe all the forces in
nature as a single law. So far they have succeeded in producing a single theory
that describes the weak and electromagnetic forces (called electroweak force).
The strong and gravitational forces are not yet described by this theory.
Grand unification

5.10 Origin of the universe

Nowadays, the most popular theory, describing the history of the universe, is the
so–called Big-Bang model. The diagram given in Fig. 5.7, shows the sequence
of events which led to the creation of matter in its present form.
Nobody knows what was before the Big Bang and why it happened, but it is
assumed that just after this enigmatic cataclysm, the universe was so dense and
hot that all four forces of nature (strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravita-
tional) were indistinguishable and therefore gravity was governed by quantum
laws, like the other three types of interactions. A complete theory of quantum
gravity has not been constructed yet, and this very first “epoch” of our history
remains as enigmatic as the Big Bang itself.

47
 ? ? ?
? ? ? ?
? ? BIG BANG ? ?
0
quantum gravity
1032 K 10−43 sec
quarks, X
1028 K 10−35 sec
hadrons, leptons, Z, W
1015 K 10−10 sec
+
n+ν → p+e , −
p+ ν̄ → n+e
1010 K 1 sec
4
p+n → d+γ, d+d → He+γ
109 K 10 sec
pp–chain
7
10 K 500 sec
∼ ∼
2.9 K today 15 × 109 years

? ?
temperature time

Figure 5.7: Schematic “history” of the universe.

The ideal “democracy” (equality) among the forces lasted only a small frac-
tion of a second. By the time t ∼ 10−43 sec the universe cooled down to ∼ 1032 K
and the gravity separated. The other three forces, however, remained unified
into one universal interaction mediated by an extremely heavy particle, the so-
called X boson, which could transform leptons into quarks and vice versa.

When at t ∼ 10−35 sec most of the X bosons decayed, the quarks combined
in trios and pairs to form nucleons, mesons, and other hadrons. The only sym-
metry which lasted up to ∼ 10−10 sec, was between the electromagnetic and
weak forces mediated by the Z and W particles. From the moment when this
last symmetry was broken (∼ 10−10 sec) until the universe was about a second
old, neutrinos played the most significant role by mediating the neutron-proton
transmutations and therefore fixing their balance (neutron to proton ratio).

Already in few seconds after the Big Bang nuclear reactions started to occur.
The protons and neutrons combined very rapidly to form deuterium and then
helium. During the very first seconds there were too many very energetic pho-
tons around which destroyed these nuclei immediately after their creation. Very
soon, however, the continuing expansion of the universe changed the conditions
in favour of these newly born nuclei. The density decreased and the photons
could not destroy them that fast anymore.

During a short period of cosmic history, between about 10 and 500 seconds,
the entire universe behaved as a giant nuclear fusion reactor burning hydrogen.
This burning took place via a chain of nuclear reactions, which is called the pp-
chain because the first reaction in this sequence is the proton-proton collision
leading to the formation of a deuteron. But how do we know that the scenario

48
was like this? In other words, how can we check the Big–Bang theory? Is it
possible to prove something which happened 15 billion years ago and in such a
short time? Yes, it is! The pp-chain fusion is the key for such a proof.

p+p → 2
H + e+ + ν
pp-chain: −
e +p + p → 2
H+ν
p + 2H → 3
He + γ
3
He + 3 He → 4
He + p + p
3
He + 4 He → 7
Be + γ

. &
e−+ 7 Be → 7 Li + ν p + 7 Be → 8 B + γ
p + 7 Li → 8 Be + γ 8
B → 8 Be∗ + e+ +ν
8
Be → 4 He + 4 He 8
Be∗ → 4 He + 4 He

As soon as the nucleosynthesis started, the amount of deuterons, helium

isotopes, and other light nuclei started to increase. This is shown in Fig. 5.8
for 2 H and 4 He. The temperature and the density, however, continued to de-
ρ/ρp
6
1
10−2 helium
10 −4
deuterium
10−6
10−8
10−10
10−12 -
2 3 4
10 10 10 10 t (sec)

Figure 5.8: Mass fractions (relative to hydrogen) of primordial deuterium and

helium versus the time elapsed since the Big Bang.

crease. After a few minutes the temperature dropped to such a level that the
fusion practically stopped because the kinetic energy of the nuclei was not suf-
ficient to overcome the electric repulsion between nuclei anymore. Therefore
the abundances of light elements in the cosmos were fixed (we call them the
primordial abundances). Since then, they practically remain unchanged, like a
photograph of the past events, and astronomers can measure them. Comparing
the measurements with the predictions of the theory, we can check whether our
assumptions about the first seconds of the universe are correct or not.

49
Chapter 6

Thermal Properties & Ideal

Gases (Grade 11)

• Motion of particles

• Kinetic theory of gases

• Temperature, Heat and Pressure

• Ideal Gas Law

Our interest in this chapter is to describe the behaviour of gases and to

develop a simple mathematical model that allows us to predict and calculate
how they behave.
We begin this development looking at the classic laws of gas behaviour,
Boyles Law, Charless Law and Avogadros Hypothesis. Unfortunately,
these laws only give accurate predictions in a small range of physical situations.
We look at how these macroscopic laws (i.e. laws that relate to everyday human
scale) are linked to the microscopic world of atoms and molecules. Using this
approach we then develop the so-called Ideal Gas Model of gases. We then try
to explain why these laws do not work in all situations.

6.1 Boyle’s Law : Pressure and volume of an

enclosed sample of gas
If you have ever tried to force in the plunger of a syringe or a bicycle pump
while sealing the opening with a finger you will know that there is some sort of
inverse relationship between the force you apply and how far in you can push it.
Greater and greater forces are needed to push the plunger further and further
in. In other words, the smaller you make the volume of the enclosed air, the
bigger the pressure of that enclosed air.
Scientific progress is closely related to technological development : they feed
and support each other. No real progress could be made in the study of gases
until the 17th century when the first effective vacuum pumps were developed.
An Englishman named Robert Boyle designed some excellent vacuum pumps

50
which allowed him to take very accurate measurements over a good range of
pressures and volumes. He discovered the startlingly simple fact that the pres-
sure and volume are not just vaguely inversely related, but are exactly inversely
proportional.

Definition: Boyle’s Law: The pressure of a fixed quantity of gas

is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies so long as the
temperature remains constant.

The standard modern laboratory version of his apparatus consists of a ver-

tical glass tube sealed at the top end, with the other end filled up to a certain
point with oil. This end is attached to an oil reservoir, which in turn has a
layer of air above it (which the oil keeps separate from the trapped air.) The
air trapped in the tube by oil is then subjected to various pressures (usually
a bicycle pump is used to pump in air through a non-return valve) which are
registered by a Bourdon gauge. As the air pressure above the oil inside the
reservoir is increased, the pressure of the oil on the trapped air increases. The
change in volume of the air in the tube can be read off on a scale next to it.
(NOTE TO SELF: Include a diagram here!!!)
We may write this symbolically as

p ∝ 1/V

which becomes the equation

p = a/V
where a is a proportionality constant. These two relations can be interpreted
in two ways:

1. p ∝ 1/V and pV = a
Here we relate p and V and view the relationship between them as inverse
proportion : p is inversely proportional to V ; this yields a hyperbolic graph
if we plot p against V

2. p ∝ 1/V and p = a(1/V )

Here we relate p and 1/V and view the relationship between them as direct
proportion : p is directly proportional to 1/V ; this yields a straight line
(through the origin) of gradient a if we plot values of p against values of
1/V .

Note that the law requires two conditions. First that the amount of gas
stay constant. Clearly, if you let a little of the air escape from the syringe,
the force you need to apply to push the plunger in further suddenly becomes
less, and the inverse proportion is broken. Second, the temperature must stay
constant. Cooling or heating matter generally causes it to contract or expand.
If you were to heat up the gas in the syringe, it would expand and force you
to apply a greater force to keep the plunger at a given position, and again
the proportionality would be broken. (The idea of temperature was not well
understood in Boyles time, and in any case he did not include this condition;
however, his results were still very good because his apparatus stayed at a more-
or-less constant room temperature.)

51
 The parameter a (a parameter is a variable constant i.e. it is constant in a
particular set of situations, but in two different sets of situations it has different
constant values) is therefore clearly a function of temperature and amount of
gas (moles of gas). These two factors are covered by the other two laws.

Worked Example 1 : Ideal Gas Laws I

Question: A sample of helium occupies 160 cm3 at 100 kPa and 25

C. What volume will it occupy if the pressure is adjusted to 80 kPa
and if the temperature remains unchanged ?
Answer:
1. Since T and n are fixed, the conditions for Boyles Law are met.
Thus p ∝ 1/V . Since the pressure has changed by a factor of
80/100 = 0.8, volume must change by a factor of 1/0.8 = 1.25.
Thus the new volume must be 1.25 160 cm3 = 200 cm3 .
2. Since pV = a where a is constant (it depends on T and n, and
is thus constant), we have
p2 V 2 = p 1 V 1
(where 1 and 2 represent the initial and final states of the gas).
Thus,
(80).V2 = (100).(160)
V2 = 100.160/80
= 200cm3
Note that SI units were not used, but that this is allowed here,
because the conversion factor cancels out. The first method uses the
meaning of inverse proportion directly, while the second sets up an
equation that links the two states of the gas (before and after the
change has been made.)
Assignment:
Here are some of Boyles original data. Plot graphs of p versus V and of p versus
1/V. Does the law follow from these data ?
Note that the volume is given in terms of arbitrary marks (evenly made),
and that the pressure is measured using a mercury manometer, in which the
enclosed air supports a column of mercury. A gas at STP (standard temperature
and pressure) can support a column of mercury that is 76 cm long i.e. 101.325
kPa is equivalent to 760 mm mercury (sometimes this is given the unit torr
after Torricelli, a 17th century Italian Physicist and Mathematician.) Can you
prove that the pressure is directly proportional to the length of the column of
mercury ? (Hint : p = F/A)

6.2 Charles’s Law: Volume and temperature of

an enclosed sample of gas
About a hundred and fifty years after Boyles discovery, the Frenchman Jacques
Alexandre Charles found the Law that carries his name :

52
 Volume Pressure Volume Pressure
(graduation mark) (inches mercury) (graduation mark) (inches mercury)
48 29 2/16 23 61 5/16
46 30 9/16 22 64 1/16
44 31 15/16 21 67 1/16
42 33 8/16 20 70 11/16
40 35 5/16 19 74 2/16
38 37 18 77 14/16
36 39 5/16 17 82 12/16
34 41 10/16 16 87 14/16
32 44 3/16 15 93 1/16
30 47 1/16 14 100 7/16
28 50 5/16 13 107 13/16
26 54 5/16 12 117 9/16
24 58 13/16

Table 6.1:

Definition: Charless Law : The volume of an enclosed sample of

gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature provided the
pressure is kept constant.

In symbols :
V ∝T
or
V = bT
which yields a straight line graph through the origin with a gradient of b. Now,
b is a function of the two parameters of pressure (p) and molarity (n).
Again, you can imagine the apparatus to be a gas syringe containing a certain
amount of air that is linked to a Bourdon gauge via a rubber pipe. However,
now the plunger must be able to move freely in and out as you heat or cool the
syringe in a water bath (with a thermometer in it.) In this way you can take
pressure and temperature readings.

InIn teresti ing Charless Law is also known as Gay-Lussacs Law. This is because Charles
teresti ing
Fact:
Fact: did not publish his discovery, and it was rediscovered independently by
another French Chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac some years later.

Worked Example 2 : Ideal Gas Laws II

53
 Question: Ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide are allowed
to react. The released ammonia is collected in a gas syringe and
sealed in. This is allowed to come to room temperature which is
32o C. The volume of the ammonia is found to be 122 ml. It is now
placed in a water bath set at 7o C. What will be the volume reading
after the syringe has been left in the bath for a good while (assume
the plunger moves completely freely) ?
Answer:
1. Since V = bT and b is fixed (since it depends on p and n, both
of which are constant here) we have that
V2 /T2 = V1 /T1
Thus
V2 /280 = 122/305
V2 = 112ml.
2. Since
V ∝T
(p and n are constant, therefore Charless Law holds) and since
the temperature changes by a factor of 280/305, it follows that
the volume must change by the same factor. Therefore the new
volume must be:
122(280/305) = 112ml
Note that here the temperature must be converted to Kelvin (SI)
since the change from degrees Celcius involves addition, not multi-
plication by a fixed conversion ratio (as is the case with pressure and
volume.)

6.3 Avogadro’s Hypothesis: The link between

number of gas particles and volume
Around the same time Charless younger Italian contemporary Amedeo Avo-
gadro hypothesized that if you have samples of different gases, of the same
volume, at a fixed temperature and pressure, then the samples must contain
the same number of freely moving particles (i.e. atoms or molecules). His pro-
posal came a few years after Daltons ground-breaking insights into the atomic
nature of matter (until the early 19th century atoms were not at all understood
in the way we do now.)

Definition: Avogadros Hypothesis: Equal volumes of gases

kept at the same pressure and temperature contain the same number
of independent units.

This essentially states that the volume occupied by any kind of gas is directly
proportional to the number of gas atoms or molecules. Symbolically we can write
this as
V ∝n

54
for p and T constant. As an equation we have

V = cn

where c is a parameter depending on p and T.

Calculations very similar to the previous worked examples can be done.
Heres a more advanced application :

Worked Example 3 : Ideal Gas Laws III

Question: Suppose 5 dm3 of oxygen at a certain pressure and tem-

perature reacts completely with excess sulphur dioxide. The result-
ing sulphur trioxide is and allowed to return to the initial pressure
and temperature conditions (assume these to be such that the sul-
phur trioxide is gaseous.) What volume will it occupy?

Answer: The balanced reaction equation is :

2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3

Thus 1 mol of oxygen produces 2 mol of sulphur trioxide. Since

Avogadros Hypothesis holds, the volume must change by the same
factor as the number of moles yielding 25dm3 = 10dm3 .

6.4 Two General Equations

The three laws we have done can be summarized as follows :

p ∝ 1/V i.e. pV = a for n and T constant

V ∝ T i.e. V = bT for p and n constant
V ∝ n i.e. V = cn or p and T constant

We can combine these three relations into one as

pV ∝ nT

or as an equation :
pV = nRT
R is called the universal gas constant and has the value of 8.3143 J.K.mol −1 .
This is essentially a constant for all gases within a certain range of physical
situations. It is also sometimes written as

pV = mRT /M

using n = m/M .
Note that any of the three laws can be obtained from this equation by keeping
two of p, V , n or T constant. For example, if n and T are kept constant then

pV = nRT = a.

55
A forth relation emerges if we keep V and n constant:

p = (nR/V )T
= dT

where d is a constant yielding p ∝ T . This would be quite easy to test practically.

Can you come up with a design for a set of apparatus for this purpose ?
One other important equation emerges. If only n is kept constant i.e. if you
have a fixed amount of gas which can change p, V or T then you have

pV = kT

or as a proportionality
pV ∝ T.
Now you can relate two states by saying that

p2 V2 /T2 = p2 V2 /T2 .

Worked Example 4 : Ideal Gas Laws IV

Question: Calculate the number of air particles in a 10 m by 7 m

by 2 m classroom on a day when the temperature is 230 C and the
air pressure is 98 kPa.
Answer: The volume of the classroom is 1072 = 140 m3 . The
absolute temperature is 296 K. The pressure in SI is 981000 = 9.8
104 Pa. Thus we can calculate the number of moles of air particles :
(9.8104).(140) = n.(8.31).(296) which yields n = 5.6 103 mol. Then
the number is given by N = nNA = (5.6103).(6.0221023) = 3.31027.

Worked Example 5 : Ideal Gas Laws V

Question: Calculate the molar volume of a gas at STP.

Answer: You should know at this stage that one mole of a gas at
STP occupies 22,4 dm3. It is easy to show

Vm = V /n
= RT /p
= (8.314).(273)/(1.013105)
= 2.2410 − 2m3 .

6.5 Overview of the Kinetic Theory of Matter

There are two very basic postulates (assumptions) that underlie the Kinetic
Theory :
1. The particles of matter are in continuous motion i.e. they have kinetic
energy. This motion is apparent to us as heat : when matter gains heat
energy, the average speed of the particles increases and vice-versa.

56
 2. There are forces of attraction and repulsion between the particles
This model allows us to explain phase changes for instance. In the solid
phase the particles mostly vibrate about fixed points. Most have too little
kinetic energy to loosen from the lattice. As the temperature increases, they
vibrate faster and faster until most have enough Ek to overcome the forces of
attraction keeping them in the lattice : the solid begins to melt and they now
move about each other, but most still have too little Ek to separate from the
liquid. Only when the temperature becomes high enough (at boiling point) do
most begin to separate to form a gas. In fact absolute temperature is defined
as being directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles in
an object :
2
T ∝ Ekaverage ∝ vaverage
since Ek = 21 mv 2 Also, it allows us to explain what is meant by pressure of a
fluid (a gas or liquid). Pressure is a ratio of force to area

p = F/A

and each collision applies a small force to the walls of the container. If there
are more collisions (when volume is made smaller), or if the collisions are more
powerful (when the temperature is higher) then the pressure must increase.
THE IDEAL GAS MODEL :

57
Chapter 7

Organic Chemistry:
Molecules (Grade 12)

• Organic molecular structures functional groups saturated and unsatu-

rated structures, isomers
• systematic naming and formulae, structure physical property relation-
ships
• substitution, addition and elimination reactions
(NOTE TO SELF: NOTE: I have changed the headings given in your chapter
outline.)

7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 What is organic chemistry?
Organic substances all contain carbon atoms and organic chemistry can there-
fore be thought of as the chemistry of carbon compounds. All organic com-
pounds also contain hydrogen. Compounds that contain only C − C and C − H
bonds are also called hydrocarbons. In addition to carbon and hydrogen, or-
ganic compounds can also contain oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus and
halogen atoms. The main sources of carbon, and therefore organic compounds,
are fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. (NOTE: If you’re going to
have an essay, this fact could go in the essay and be left out here.)

7.1.2 Unique properties of carbon

Carbon has some unique properties that are important to the understanding of
organic chemistry.
• Carbon has four valence electrons and is therefore found in Group IV of
the periodic table. Carbon forms mainly covalent bonds which means that
most organic compounds are non-polar in nature. In fact, the difference
in electronegativity between carbon (2.5) and hydrogen (2.1) is so small
that C-H bonds are almost purely covalent.

58
 • Carbon atoms can form up to four covalent bonds with other carbon
atoms. This means that long chain structures and also ring structures
may be formed. The chain structures can either be (a) straight or (b)
branched:
INSERT INSERT
(a) (b)

7.1.3 Special properties of organic compounds

There are several interesting properties of organic compounds which will help
explain their reactions.

• Organic compounds can have the same molecular formula but different
structural formula. These substances are called structural isomers and
they have different names and chemical properties.
Worked example 1: Draw two structural isomers with the molecular for-
mula C4H10. (You won’t know how to name these compounds yet, but
remember to come back later and name the isomers.) INSERT

• Most organic compounds are non-polar and so there won’t be many colli-
sions between compounds. So according to the collision theory, the rates
of reactions will be slow and therefore the yields of organic reactions are
usually quite low.

• Since most organic compounds are non-polar, they are usually insoluble
or only slightly soluble in water.

• The majority of organic compounds are gases or liquids which implies that
their intermolecular forces are not very strong.
• Most organic reactions are non-stoichiometric. This means that the mass
of the reactants will not equal the mass of the products and it can be
explained by the poor yields of oganic reactions described above.

• Two or more of the same molecule can bond together to form a long chain
or polymer. The type of reaction is called polymerisation.
Worked example 2: List the dimer (two molecules) and polymer of the
monomer ethene (C2H4).

Monomer: H2 C = CH2 (ethene)

Dimer: CH3 CH2 CH = CH2
Polymer: CH3 CH2 (CH2 CH2 )n CH = CH2 (polythene, where n is the
number of ethene molecules)

7.1.4 Classification of organic compounds

There are so many organic compounds, due to the ability of carbon to bond
to itself, that it is necessary to subdivide organic compounds into categories
and give names to compounds with particular properties. Organic compounds

59
that contain only single bonds are called saturated (e.g. alkanes). Compounds
that contain at least one double (e.g. alkenes) or triple bond (e.g. alkynes) are
called unsaturated. The unsaturated compounds may also contain single bonds.

Hydrocarbons can be divided into two main categories.

• Aliphatic hydrocarbons have mainly long chain structures (it is possible

for aliphatics to have ring structures too but we will not consider these
here; they will have similar properties to the long chain structures though).
The acylic aliphatic compounds can be further subdivided into alkanes,
alkenes and alkynes, as shown in the diagram below.

• Aromatic hydrocarbons all have unsaturated ring structures. An example

of such a compound in benzene, but we will not consider aromatics in this
syllabus.
Hydrocarbons
Aliphatic Aromatic (not part of syllabus)
Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes

7.1.5 Functional groups

All organic compounds have a particular bond or group of atoms which we call
its functional group. This group is important in determining the reactivity of
the compound and also the way in which it is named. A series of compounds
with the same functional group is called a homologous series.

A few letters in the name of the examples has been written in bold. This
shows the name ending which is used for a particular functional group (this will
be more clear when you read the next section on naming of compounds).

INSERT FIGURES IN TABLE Homologous series Functional group Sim-

plest example
Alkane
methane
Halo-alkane
X = F, Cl, Br, I
bromomethane
Alkene
ethene
Alkyne
ethyne
Alcohol
methanol
Aldehyde
methanal
Ketone
propanone
Carboxylic acid
methanoic acid

60
 Ester
(R=alkyl group; eg. CH3)
methyl methanoate

7.2 Naming and Representation of Organic Com-

pounds
7.2.1 Naming of organic compounds
A lot of rules have been drawn up to allow us to name the many organic com-
pounds. Before we consider all of these rules, there are two important things
that you must learn.

1. You must learn how to recognise a compound’s functional group. We

have already discussed this in the previous section.

2. You must learn the prefixes that we use to indicate the number of carbon
atoms in a main or branched chain. If the carbon atoms are in a main chain,
the prefix will get an ending which shows the compound’s functional group (eg.
methane). If the carbon atoms form part of a branched group, then the prefix
will be given the ending ”yl” (eg. methyl).

No. of carbons Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes Substituents 1 methane methene

methyne methyl 2 ethane ethene ethyne ethyl 3 propane propene propyne propyl
4 butane butene butyne butyl 5 pentane pentene pentyne pentyl 6 hexane hex-
ene hexyne hexyl 7 heptane heptene heptyne heptyl 8 octane octene octyne octyl
9 nonane nonene nonyne nonyl 10 decane decene decyne decyl

Now we are ready to consider the rules for naming of organic compounds.
The rules are drawn up by on organisation of chemists called IUPAC and so we
sometimes refer to the IUPAC nomenclature for a compound.

We will concentrate on the naming of hydrocarbons. The rules below will

be illustrated with the following example:

INSERT
1. Identify the functional group of the compound. This will determine the
ending of the name.
Example: The compound is an alkene so the ending will be ”ene”.

2. Find the longest continuous carbon chain (it won’t necessarily be a

straight chain) and think of the prefix for this number of carbon atoms. If
there is a double or triple bond, this must be part of the longest chain.
Example: The longest chain has 9 carbons (in this example they are in a straight
line). We use the prefix ”non” for nine carbon atoms.

3. Number the longest carbon chain. If there are double or triple bonds,
start numbering so that these have the lowest possible number. If there are only
single bonds, start at the end nearest the first branched group. The branched

61
groups should have the lowest numbers possible but this does not take priority
over the number of the double or triple bond.
Example: The numbering must begin closest to the double bond. This means
that the double bond is at carbon 2 and the compound name will end with
”2-ene”.
4. Name the branched groups according to the number of carbons atoms that
they contain, and give them a number according to their position along the
longest carbon chain.
Example: There is a branched group at carbon number 2 which has one carbon
atom (methyl). There are 2 branched groups attached to carbon number 5 and
they both have 3 carbon atoms (propyl).

5. Use the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra- and penta- to show the presence of 2, 3,
4 or 5 identical branched groups, or identical double and triple bonds.
Example: There are 2 propyl branched groups so they will be listed as ”dipropyl”.

6. Arrange the names of the branched groups alphabetically. Separate num-

bers and letters by hyphens and separate numbers by commas. When listing
the branched groups in alphabetical order, ignore the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-
and penta-.
Example: The branched groups will be listed as: 2-methyl-5-dipropyl.

7. Combine the elements of the name into a single word in the following
order: branched groups, prefix, name ending according to the functional group
and its position along the longest carbon chain.
Example: The name of the compound is: 2-methyl-5,5-dipropylnon-2-ene.

Note: Although the above rules have been illustrated for hydrocarbons, the
same rules will apply to other organic compounds. The main difference will
be the ending of the name, which will depend on the functional group (see the
table in section 18.1.5).

7.2.2 Representation of organic compounds

There are several ways to represent organic compounds. You should be familiar
with all of these as you may be given any one of them and asked to name the
compound.

The example 2methylpropane will be used to illustrate the three represen-

tations.

• Molecular formula: list the number of each atom as a subscript following

the atomic symbol, e.g. C4 H10
• Structural formula: all of the bonds between atoms must be shown, e.g.
INSERT
• Condensed structural formula: each carbon atom and the hydrogens bonded
directly to it are listed as a molecular formula, followed by a similar molec-

62
 ular formula for the neighbouring carbon atom, etc; branched groups are
shown in brackets after the carbon atom to which they are bonded, e.g.
CH3 CH(CH3 )CH3 Sometimes you may see a combination of the struc-
tural and condensed structural formula used, as it is more convenient not
to show all of the C − H bonds, e.g.
INSERT

7.2.3 Examples
INSERT FIGURES BELOW

Worked Example 1

Naming Organic Compunds

Question: Name the following compounds according to the IUPAC

nomenclature:

a) f)
b) g)
c) h)
d) i)
e)
Answer: a) 2-chloro-3-methylbutane;
b) 6-ethyl-4-methylnon-2-ene;
c) butan-2-ol;
d) 3-methylpentanoic acid;
e) 4,4-bromochlorohexan-2-ol;
f) 3-methylbutan-2-one;
g) ethanal;
h) 2,2-dichloro-3-methylpentanol;
i) 1,2,3-propantriol

Worked Example 2

More

Question: Give three representations for each of the following com-

pounds. a) 1,2-dibromoethane, b) hex-2-yne, c) 1,3-pentadiene, d)
2-butanol
Answer: Compound Molecular formula Structural formula Con-
densed structural formula a
b

63
 c
d

7.3 Hydrocarbons
7.3.1 Alkanes
These hydrocarbons have only single covalent bonds. This means that they are
unsaturated which makes them quite unreactive. The general formula for an
alkane is Cn H2n+2 where n is the number of carbon atoms.

Here are the first three alkanes in the series:

? methane - CH4 or C(1)H2(1)+2 H-C-H INSERT

? ethane - C2H6 or C(2)H2(2)+2 H-C-C-H INSERT
? propane - C3H8 or C(3)H2(3)+2 H-C-C-C-H INSERT

Substitution reactions
Substitution reactions involve the removal of a hydrogen atom which is replaced
by a halogen atom (F , Cl, Br or I). The product is therefore called a halo-
alkane. Since alkanes and not very reactive, heat (∆) or light (hf) is needed to
start the reaction.
?/ hf e.g. CH4 + Br2 ? CH3Br + HBr ? CH2Br2 ? CHBr3 ? CBr4

Oxidation reactions
When alkanes are burnt in air, they react with the oxygen in the air and heat is
produced. This is called an oxidation or combustion reaction. Carbon dioxide
and water are given off as products. Heat is also given off which tells us that
these reactions are exothermic (and the heat of enthalpy ∆H will be negative).
e.g. CH4 + 2O2 ? CO2 + 2H2O + heat

7.3.2 Alkenes
Alkenes have the general formula Cn H2n . They contain at least one double bond
and since these are less stable than single bonds, alkenes are more reactive than
alkanes.

Here are the first three alkenes in the series:

? ethene - C2H4 or C(2)H2(2) C=C INSERT

? propene - C3H6 or C(3)H2(3) C=C-C-H INSERT
? butene - C4H8 or C(4)H2(4) C=C-C-C-H INSERT

64
 If the position of the double bond is not specified in the IUPAC name of
the compound, then you can assume that it at carbon number 1. These are the
structures that have been shown above. However, another structural isomer is
possible for the molecular formula C4 H8 :

H3C-C=C-CH3 (prop-2-ene) INSERT

Addition reactions
Alkenes can undergo additional reactions since they are unsaturated. They
readily react with hydrogen, water and halogens. The double bond is broken
and a single, saturated bond is formed. A new group is then added to one or
both of the carbon atoms that previously made up the double bond.

H2 /Pt e.g. H2C=CH2 ? H3C-CH3 (hydrogenation reaction; a catalyst such

as Pt is needed) HBr ? H3C-CH2Br (halogenation reaction) H2O ? H3C-CH2OH

7.3.3 Alkynes
Alkyne compounds have a triple covalent bond and they are unsaturated. Triple
bonds are weaker than double bonds which makes alkynes highly reactive. The
general formula for alkynes is Cn H2n−2 . We will only consider the reactions
of ethyne for the syllabus. Ethyne is prepared by dripping water onto calcium
carbide, the source of the 2 carbon atoms in ethyne:

CaC2 + 2H2O ? HC?CH + Ca(OH)2

Oxidation reaction
When ethyne is burnt, it reacts with the oxygen in the air and produces carbon
dioxide and water. As for the oxidation of alkanes, the reaction is exothermic.

2HC?CH + 5O2 ? 4CO2 + 2H2O + heat (?H ¡ 0)

7.4 Alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters

7.4.1 Alcohols
Alcohols (or alkanols) are hydroxyl derivatives of hydrocarbons. This means
that they are hydrocarbons which have an OH group in place of a H or alkyl
group. The presence of the OH group makes alcohols polar and so they are
soluble in water.

The simplest example of an alcohol is methanol:

H-C-OH or CH3OH. INSERT

65
7.4.2 Oxidation reactions
Alcohols can easily be oxidized by KM nO4 or K2 Cr2 O7 which act as oxidizing
agents. The product will be an aldehyde. If an excess of the oxidizing agent is
added, then a carboxylic acid is formed.

e.g. 5CH3-CH2-OH + MnO4- + 3H+ ? 5CH3-CHO + Mn2+ + 4H2O

ethanol (purple) ethanal (colourless)

5CH3-CH2-OH + 4MnO4- + 12H+ ? 5CH3-CHO + 4Mn2+ + 11H2O

ethanol ethanoic acid

If K2 Cr2 O7 is used as the oxidizing agent, then the orange colour of Cr2 O72−
changes to green with the formation of Cr 3+ ions.

7.4.3 Carboxylic acids

Carboxylic acids all contain a COOH group, also called a carboxyl group. They
are weak acids which is shown by their low Ka values (ionisation constants). So
carboxylic acids only ionise partially in water as shown below and the equilib-
rium will lie far to the left:
e.g. H3C-COOH + H2O H3C-COO- + H3O+

The simplest carboxylic acids are methanoic acid and ethanoic acid:

H-C-OH H-C-C-OH INSERT

7.4.4 Esters
Esters are the products of a reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid.
They all contain the functional group COOR where R can be any alkyl group
(e.g. CH3 or CH2 CH3 ).

The simplest example of an ester is methyl methanoate. But since this is

already shown in the table of functional groups (section 18.1.5), here we will
show you the reaction to produce ethyl methanoate:

H3C-CH2-OH + H-C-OH ? H3C-C-O-C-H + H2O INSERT

ethanol methanoic acid ethyl methanoate

Notice that when naming an ester, the prefix of the name is derived from the
alcohol and the suffix is derived from the name of the carboxylic acid.

More Worked Examples

Here are some more examples to help you test your knowledge of organic chem-
istry.

66
Worked Example 3

More

Question: 1. Write down the full and condensed structural formula

for:
a) 2,4-dimethylhex-2-ene b) 3-ethylpentanoic acid.
2. Answer the following questions with regard to the compound be-
low.
H2C=CH2
a) Name the homologous series to which the compound belongs.
b) Give the general formula for this homologous series.
c) Give the product of the above compound with water.
d) Name the type of reaction described in (c).
e) With reference to the above compound and the product in (c),
state whether the two compounds are saturated or unsaturated.
3. Write a balanced equation for the oxidation of propane.
4. a) Name the two organic compounds which, when reacted with
each other, will produce the ester ethyl propanoate.
b) Give structural formulae for the two reactants and the ester prod-
uct.
5. Give structural formula and names for the structural isomers of
C 4 H8 .

Answer: INSERT

1a) b)
H-C-C=C-C-C-C-H H-C-C-C-C-C-OH
CH3C(CH3)CHCH(CH3)CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH(CH2CH3)CH2COOH
2a) alkenes d) addition reaction b) CnH2n e) alkene is unsaturated;
c) compound (c) is saturated H-C-C-OH
3) C3H8 + 5O2 ? 3CO2 + 4H2O
4a) ethanol and propanoic acid b)
H-C-C-OH H-C-C-C-OH H-C-C-O-C-C-C-H
5) From the molecular formula, we can tell that this compound is
an alkene since the number of carbons and hydrogens agree with
the formula CnH2n. This is helpful in determining the possible
structures, the most obvious of which should be butene.
but-1-ene but-2-ene 2-methylprop-1-ene

67
Chapter 8

Organic Chemistry:
Macromolecules (Grade 12)

8.1 Plastics and Polymers

• thermoplastic and thermoset

8.2 Biological Macromolecules

These substances are natural polymers much the same as synthetic plastics are.
Both are composed of long molecular chains, the links of which can either be
one chemical or several different chemicals. If several chemicals make up the
macromolecule, the entire chain can be used to encode information, based on the
sequence of the links. The general term for natural or synthetic macromolecules
is the term polymer, the links of the chain are known as monomers.

8.2.1 Polysaccharides
These are the simplest of the biological macromolecules, most are composed of
only 1 kind of chemical link, a sugar. There are a number of different sugars
but the two most important are glucose and fructose. Sugars are known as car-
bohydrates, the general chemical formula is (CH2 O) and most of them form
five or six member rings. Single sugar molecules are known as monosaccharides;
linking two together results in a disaccharide. The most common disaccharide
is ordinary white sugar, known chemically as sucrose. It is a combination of
glucose and fructose. Linking three or more sugars results in a polysaccharide
and the most important ones are all based on the sugar glucose.
Animals use polysaccharides as an energy source and store glucose in the
form of the polysaccharide glycogen. Plants polymerize glycogen further into
starch. The most important polysaccharide is cellulose which plants use as a
building material. Cellulose is indigestible to most animals due to the way it
is polymerized by plants. In the carbohydrate chain, every other molecule of
glucose is inverted. Fungi and some protozoa can metabolize cellulose however,
and many larger animals such as termites and cows use these protozoa to break
down cellulose into glucose. The metabolism of glucose is known as respiration.

68
In aerobic respiration, oxygen is used to break sugars down into carbon dioxide
and water. In anaerobic respiration, sugars are broken down into alcohols in
environments without oxygen. Plants use the energy of sunlight to turn carbon
dioxide and water back into carbohydrates, a process known as photosynthesis.
Plants thus recycle carbon dioxide and manufacture food for animals.

8.2.2 Polypeptides
These are the most complex of biological macromolecules, and in fact act like
tiny machines. The polypeptide chains are composed of substances known as
amino acids. There are around 20 different kinds of amino acids but they all are
composed of a central carbon atom with an amine group, a carboxylate group,
a hydrogen and one of 20 different chemical groups. Because this carbon atom
has four different chemical groups attached to it it is known as a ”chiral center”
and amino acids all have what are known as ”stereo isomers”. A stereoisomer
is rather like a pair of hands. Each is nearly identical except they are mirror
images of one another. The importance of this is that all life on earth can
only metabolize amino acids with an ”L” configuration. Likewise, it can only
metabolize glucose with a ”D” configuration.
Amino acids are linked together by combining the amine group on one end
with the carboxylate group on the other amino acid.

(amino acid)−NH2 +HCO2 −(amino acid) → (amino acid)−NHCO2 −(amino acid)+H2 O

The chain still has an amine group on one end and a carboxyl ate group
on the other end and thus, can be polymerized further. As the chain grows in
size, it begins to twist into a spiral structure. This is held together by weak
attachments known as ”hydrogen bonds” which form between hydrogen atoms
and atoms such as oxygen or nitrogen. The chain itself is known as the protein’s
primary structure. The spiral is called an ”alpha helix” and is known as the
”secondary structure” of the protein. Finally, the helix itself can bend and
twist into a particular three-dimensional shape known as the protein’s tertiary
structure.
Proteins can be used in a number of ways. Structural proteins perform what
cellulose did in plant cells, giving animal cells strength and protection. Keratin
is a very common structural protein found in the animal kingdom. It is what
horns, hooves, hair and scales are composed of. Natural silk is another example
of this class of proteins. When proteins are used as chemical catalysts, they
are known as enzymes. A catalyst is a chemical which speeds up a chemical
reaction, but remains unchanged itself. Enzymes are essentially what makes
cells alive. These proteins are responsible for all the chemical reactions which
result in cellular functions like respiration, photosynthesis and reproduction.
Enzymes are composed entirely of amino acids, but most enzymes have another
non-protein compound known as a coenzyme. The coenzyme is frequently an
organic compound containing a metal atom like iron, magnesium or zinc. In the
enzyme hemoglobin, heme is the coenzyme and contains iron.

69
8.2.3 Polynucleotides
This polymer is known chemically as deoxyribonucleic acid and it has 4 different
chemicals which form the links in its chain. Each link is known chemically as
a nucleotide. Like proteins, the chain is twisted into an alpha helix but each
DNA molecule is composed of two chains held together by hydrogen bonds.
The outer part of the chain is composed of simple sugars and phosphate groups.
To this chain are attached one of four ring like structures containing nitrogen
atoms. Hydrogen atoms from the ring on the opposite helix form hydrogen
bonds, and each type of ring pairs only with another particular type of ring. In
DNA the ring structures are known as adenine (’A’), thiamine (’T’), cytosine
(’C’), and guanine (’G’). Adenine only pairs with thiamine and cytosine only
pairs with guanine. The order of ring structures along the DNA chain is used by
cells to encode information regarding the sequence of amino acids in proteins.
Every three links encode a single type of amino acid. The order of the links
therefore is precisely correlated to the structure of proteins. Unlike proteins
however, DNA can replicate itself. To do so, the two chains of DNA come apart
and two new chains are created. Since each ring structure only bonds to 1 of
the other three structures (both form what are known as ”base pairs”), the
result is two identical molecules of DNA. Since DNA can contain billions of
base pairs, sometimes mistakes are made during replication. This is known as
a ”mutation”. Most mutations are fatal, but sometimes they can be beneficial.
Beneficial mutations accumulate over time and this is how new species evolve.
Simple organisms like bacteria have a single strand of DNA in a loop struc-
ture. Multicelled animals and plants have their DNA compacted into structures
known as ”chromosomes”. When new enzymes need to be made, a section of a
chromosome opens up, exposing its DNA. This is known as gene ”activation”.
In multicelled animals and plants, the DNA is contained in a special area of the
cell known as the nucleus. This protects the DNA from being damaged. Actual
protein synthesis is accomplished by another polynucleotide known as RNA, or
ribonucleic acid. It contains the sugar ribose and has a ring structure known
as uracil instead of thiamine. The enzyme RNA polymerase copies sections of
RNA from the DNA chain in the cell nucleus. The RNA then travels out of the
nucleus to a structure known as a ribosome. The RNA strand and ribosome
then assemble protein chains using amino acids. RNA is used this way because
if it is damaged it can easily be replaced. It is possible to replace RNA and
defective proteins, but if the DNA itself is damaged, it is impossible to repair.

8.2.4 Fats and Waxes

These are the smallest biological macromolecules, consisting primarily of long
hydrocarbon chains. Fats are composed of fatty acids, three of which are at-
tached to a molecule of a carbohydrate known as glycerin. The carboxylic group
on the fatty acid links to the hydroxyl group on the glycerol:
(fatty acid)-CO2H + HO-(glycerol) -¿ (fatty acid)CO2(glycerol) + H2O
The combination of a carboxylic acid and the hydroxyl group of an alcohol
is known as esterification, the result being an ”ester”. Unlike polysaccharides,
polypeptides and ploynucleotides, fats don’t necessarily polymerize any further
once they become esters. Fats with especially long hydrocarbon chains are
known as waxes. The presence of double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain is used

70
to classify fats. ”Saturated fats” have few, if any double bonds. ”Polyunsatu-
rated fats” have many double bonds. Fats are important to cells as components
of the cell membrane. This barrier functions as the cell’s skin, protecting its
interior from harmful chemicals. When used as a membrane, one or more phos-
phate groups are linked to the glycerin, forming a ”phospholipid”. Phospholipids
are polar molecules, the phosphate attracting water and the long hydrocarbon
chain repelling it. The cell membrane is composed of a double layer of phospho-
lipid molecules, their hydrocarbon tails pointing inwards and their polar heads
pointing outward. Polar molecules like water are attracted to the outside of
the cell, but cannot penetrate the non-polar hydrocarbon barrier. Floating in
this layer of phospholipids are large proteins known as surface enzymes. Half
the enzyme is outside the cell and the other half inside. Some of these enzymes
are hollow, but functioning like machines, allow only certain molecules to enter
the cell. Because of this, the cell is said to have a ”semipermeable membrane”.
Other surface enzymes are more sophisticated. When encountering a specific
molecule outside the cell, the enzyme changes its shape and this triggers a chain
of chemical reactions inside the cell which can involve the cell’s DNA, activat-
ing genes. This is how a living cell reacts to its environment and is responsible
for thingssuch as cell differentiation in multicelled animals, and also primarily
howthe immune system functions.
Thus, it is seen how important biological macromolecules are to life and how
large structures are sequentially built up from smaller molecules. Most biolog-
ical macromolecules are composed primarily of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and
nitrogen, the chemical elements themselves being recycled with energy supplied
either from the sun or as heat from the earth.

71
 Part II

CHEMICAL CHANGE

72
Chapter 9

Physical and Chemical

Change (Grade 10)

• Microscopic interpretation of macroscopic changes (for example changes

in conductivity and temperature)

• Separation of particles in decomposition and synthesis reactions

• Conservation of atoms and mass

• Law of constant composition

• Conservation of energy

• Volume relationships in gaseous reactions

73
Chapter 10

Representing Chemical
Change (Grade 10)

10.1 Writing Chemical Equations

A chemical equation is an equation that expresses a chemical reaction using sym-
bolic representation of the chemical formulae. Simply put: a chemical equation
represents a chemical reaction and each molecule is represented by a chemical
formula e.g. H2O represents water.
The first equations of the Oswald Process will be used to explain how to
read a chemical equation. This equation is written as:

4N H3 + 5O2 → 4N O + 6H2 O
As stated earlier each compound represents a different molecule e.g. NH3
represents Ammonia, O2 represents oxygen, NO represents nitrogen oxide H2O
represents water. Compounds on the left of the arrow are called the reactants
and the compounds on the right are called the products. A reactant is a com-
pound that is needed for the reaction to occur, in this case the reactants are
NH3 and O2. What is formed from the reaction is called a product. The prod-
ucts in this reaction are NO and H2O. The coefficients for each of the molecules
represent the relative number of reactants needed and products formed. In this
case four ammonium molecules will react with five oxygen molecules to form
four nitrogen oxide molecules and six water molecules.
Occasionally a catalyst is added to the reaction. A catalyst is a substance
that speeds up the reaction without undergoing any net change to itself. This
is represented in the chemical equation by placing the chemical formula of the
catalyst above the arrow. In this example, platinum is added as the catalyst
and the equation then becomes:
Pt
4N H3 + 5O2 −−→ 4N O + 6H2 O
To show that heat was required for the reaction to take place, a Greek
delta (∆) is placed above the arrow in the same way as that of a catalyst.
For example, when calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes to form calcium
oxide and carbon dioxide as shown in the following equation.

74
 ∆
CaCO3 −→ CaO + CO2
The state of the compounds can also be expressed in the chemical equation.
This is done by placing the correct label on the right hand side of the formula.
There are only four labels that can be used, these are:
1. (g) for gaseous compounds,
2. (l) for liquid compounds,
3. (s) for solid compounds, and
4. (aq) for aqueous (water) solution.
The decomposition of calcium carbonate can now be written as:
∆
CaCO3 (s) −→ CaO(s) + CO2 (g)

10.2 Balancing Chemical Equations

In a chemical reaction no elements are created or destroyed, they are merely
rearranged. Hence, for an equation to be balanced, the elements of each atom
on the left hand side of the arrow are equal to the elements of each atom on the
right hand side. Consider the production of water from hydrogen and oxygen:

2H2 + O2 → 2H2 O
One oxygen molecule (O2) contains two O atoms. Thus the left hand side of
the equation has two O atoms. Water (H2O) contains one O atom. However,
there are two water atoms on the right hand side. Thus there are two O atoms
on the right hand side. The O atoms are now balanced on both sides. Hydrogen
(H2) consists of two H atoms and since there are two hydrogen molecules, there
are four H atoms on the left hand side. Using the same method, there are four
H atoms on the right hand side. Since all elements are equal on both sides, the
chemical equation is said to be balanced.

Worked Example 6 : Balancing Chemical Equations I

Question: Solid zinc metal reacts with aqueous hydrochloric acid

to form an aqueous solution of zinc chloride and hydrogen gas. Write
a balanced equation.
Answer:
Step 1 : Identify the reactants and products and their chemical for-
mula:
The reactants are zinc (Zn) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). The prod-
ucts are zinc chloride (ZnCl2 ) and hydrogen (H2 ).
Step 2 : Place the reactants on the left hand side and the products
on the right hand side of the arrow:

Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

75
Step 3 : Balance the equation:
You will notice that the zinc atoms balance but the chloride and
hydrogen atoms do not. Since there are two chloride atoms on the
right and only one on the left, we will give HCl a coefficient of two so
that there would be two chloride atoms on each side of the equation.

Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Step 4 : Recheck the balancing of the equation:
By re-examing the equation you will notice that all the atoms are
now balanced.
Step 5 : Ensure all detail was added:
We were told initially that Zinc was a metal, hydrochloric acid and
zinc chloride were in aqueous solutions and hydrogen was a gas.

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Worked Example 7 : Balancing Chemical Equations II -

The first reaction of the Oswald process

Question: You are told that ammonia reacts with oxygen over a
platinum catalyst to produce nitrogen oxide and water. Produce a
balanced equation.
Answer:
Step 1 : Identify the reactants and products and their chemical for-
mula:
The reactants of this equation are ammonia (N H3 ) and oxygen (O2 ).
The products are nitrogen oxide (N O) and water (H2 O).
Step 2 : Place the reactants on the left hand side and the products
on the right hand side of the arrow:

N H3 + O 2 → N O + H 2 O
Step 3 : Balance the equation:
You can start balancing any atom you choose, but all the atoms have
to be balanced. Usually it is best to start with atoms that appear
only once on each side, in this case that will be the N and H atoms.
Starting with the N atoms, there is one on the left hand side and
one on the right hand side. The N atoms are balanced.
There are three H atoms on the left and only two on the right. The
H atoms are not balanced. To balance the equation we will have to
give NH3 a coefficient of two and H2O a coefficient of three. This
will give six H atoms on both sides of the arrow. The equation now
looks like this:
2N H3 + O2 → N O + 3H2 O
Step 4 : Recheck the balancing of the equation:
We now know that the H atoms balance, but on closer examination
you will notice that the N atoms now do not balance. There are
two on the left and only one on the right. It is important to

76
note that when any change has been made to the equation
all atoms have to be rechecked to ensure that they still
balance. To balance the N atoms, the NO molecule will have to be
given a coefficient of two, hence:

2N H3 + O2 → 2N O + 3H2 O

Count each of the elements again, the N and H atoms balance but
the O atoms do not. There are two O atoms on the left and five on
the right. To balance the equation, O2 will need a coefficient of 2.
However, since we do not like working with fractions, all molecules
will be multiplied by two.

4N H3 + 5O2 → 4N O + H2 O

Again we have to check each of the atoms individually in the same

manner as earlier. After doing this, you will notice that each of the
atoms are balanced.
Step 5 : Ensure all detail was added:
We were told that platinum was used as a catalyst, we add P t (sym-
bol for platinum) to the reaction above the arrow.
Pt
4N H3 + 5O2 −−→ 4N O + 6H2 O

Worked Example 8 : Balancing Chemical Equations III

- Complex reaction

Question: Balance the following equation:

(N H4 )2 SO4 + N aOH → N H3 + H2 O + N a2 SO4

In this example steps one and two are not necessary as the reactants
and products have already been given.
Answer:
Step 1 : Balance the equation:
With a complex equation it is always best to start with atoms that
appear only once on each side i.e. Na, N and S atoms. Since the S
atoms already balance, we will start with Na and N atoms. There
are two Na atoms on the right and one on the left. We will add a
second Na atom by giving NaOH a coefficient of two. There are two
N atoms on the left and one on the right. To balance the N atoms
NH3 will be given a coefficient of two. The equation will now look
as follows:

(N H4 )2 SO4 + 2N aOH → 2N H3 + H2 O + N a2 SO4

Step 2 : Recheck the balancing of the equation:

N, Na and S atoms balance, but O and H atoms do not. There are
six O atoms and ten H atoms on the left and five O atoms and eight
H atoms on the right. We need to add one O atom and two H atoms

77
on the right to balance the equation. This is done by adding another
H2O molecule on the right hand side. Now we need to recheck the
balance again.

(N H4 )2 SO4 + 2N aOH → 2N H3 + 2H2 O + N a2 SO4

On re-examination of the equation we see that all atoms balance!

78
Chapter 11

Quantitative Aspects of
Chemical Change (Grade
11)

• Atomic weights

• molecular and formula weights

• determining the composition of substances

• amount of substance (mole) molar volume of gases, concentration

• stochiometric calculations (in progress)

79
Chapter 12

Energy and Chemical

Change (Grade 11)

• energy changes in reactions related to bond energy changes

• exothermic and endothermic reactions

• activation energy

80
Chapter 13

Reaction Types (Grade 11)

• acid-base and redox reactions

• substitution, addition, and elimination
• Reactions (needs some work)
• Acids and Bases (in progress)

13.1 Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions are also known as chemical changes. This refers to the
changes in the structure of molecules. Such reactions can result in molecules at-
taching to each other to form larger molecules, molecules breaking apart to form
two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangements of atoms within molecules.
Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds. A
chemical reaction does not involve or change the nucleus of the atom in any way.
Only the electron clouds around the atoms, involved in the reaction, interact.
A chemical reaction can result in:
• molecules attaching to each other to form larger molecules
• molecules breaking apart to form two or more smaller molecules
• rearrangements of atoms within molecules
A chemical reaction almost always involves a change in energy, conveniently
measured in terms of heat. The energy difference between the ”before” and
”after” states of a chemical reaction can be calculated theoretically using tables
of data (or a computer). For example, consider the reaction CH4 + 2 O2 ?
CO2 + 2 H2O (combustion of methane in oxygen). By calculating the amounts
of energy required to break all the bonds on the left (”before”) and right (”af-
ter”) sides of the equation, we can calculate the energy difference between the
reactants and the products. This is referred to as ∆H, where ∆ (Delta) means
difference, and H stands for enthalpy, a measure of energy which is equal to
the heat transferred at constant pressure. ∆H is usually given in units of kJ
(thousands of joules) or in kcal (kilocalories). If ∆H is negative for the reaction,
then energy has been released. This type of reaction is referred to as exothermic

81
(literally, outside heat, or throwing off heat). An exothermic reaction is more
favourable and thus more likely to occur. Our example reaction is exothermic,
which we already know from everyday experience, since burning gas in air gives
off heat.
A reaction may have a positive ∆H. This means that, to proceed, the reac-
tion requires an input of energy from outside. This type of reaction is called
endothermic (literally, inside heat, or absorbing heat).

13.2 Types of Chemical Reactions

There are various types of chemical reactions that can occur. The main groups
of reactions are:

• acid-base
• redox - REDuction and Oxidation

• substitution, addition and elimination

13.3 Ionic reactions

13.3.1 What are ionic reactions?
Ionic reactions are based on the idea that opposites attract. An ionic reaction
occurs when two ions, a negatively charged anion and a positively charged cation
combine to form a neutral compound. Ionic reactions usually take place in a
solution where the element or compound with the higher electronegativity loses
an electron to become a cation and an element or compound with a high electron
affinity captures the free electron to become an anion.
Ions can be single atoms, as in common table salt (sodium chloride), or
more complex groups such as calcium carbonate. But to be considered ions,
they must carry a positive or negative charge due to an imbalance in the ratio
of protons to electrons.
Ionic reactions occurs between metals and non-metals. The atom that loses
electron(s) is usually a metal whilst the atom that gains is usually a non-metal.
Some examples of cations and anions Li+ + F − − > Li+ F −

13.3.2 Precipitation reactions

When some soluble element or compound react in water, an insoluble salt is
formed. These insoluble salts are known as precipitates.

13.3.3 Formation of gases

In some reactions, the product is not a salt or a precipitate but a gas, which
escapes from the solution.

82
Chapter 14

Reaction Rates (Grade 12)

• measuring rates of reaction

• mechanism of reaction and of catalysis

• application of equilibrium principles

Chemical reactions proceed at different speeds depending, for example, on

the temperature or the nature of the substances which are reacting with each
other. We call the substances which are undergoing the reaction, the reactants.
The substances which are formed as a result of the reaction are called the
products.

Definition: The reaction rate of a reaction

describes how quickly reactants are used up or products are formed.
The units are: mols/second

For example:

2M g(s) + O2 → 2M gO(s)

This reaction rate depends on the rate at which the reactants, solid magne-
sium and oxygen gas, are used up, or the rate at which the product magnesium
oxide is formed.
The average rate of a reaction is expressed in terms of the number of mols
of reactant or product divided by the total reaction time. Using the same
magnesium reaction as shown above:

Ave rate = mols Mg/reaction time(s)

or
Ave rate = mols O2 /reaction time(s)
or
Ave rate = mols MgO/reaction time(s).

83
14.0.4 Factors affecting reaction rates
Several factors affect the rate of a reaction. It is important to know these
factors so that reaction rates can be controlled, e.g. to improve product yields
and efficiency in industrial processes:

1. nature of reactants: substances have different chemical properties and

therefore react differently and at different rates

2. concentration (or pressure in the case of gases): as the concentration

of reactants increases, so does the reaction rate

3. temperature: depending on the type of reaction (i.e. endothermic or

exothermic) increasing the temperature can speed up (endothermic) or
slow down (exothermic) the reaction rate

4. catalyst: adding a catalyst will increase the reaction rate

5. surface area of solid reactants: increasing the surface area of the

reactants (e.g. if a solid reactant is finely broken up) will increase the
reaction rate because there is more area for the reactants to touch and
react with each other

14.1 Energy changes in chemical reactions

14.1.1 Exothermic and endothermic reactions
Energy changes occur during a chemical reaction. In some cases, heat energy is
used up during the reaction and so the solution will cool down (endothermic
reaction). In other reactions, heat energy is given off and the solution of
products will be hot (exothermic reaction). If a reaction doesn’t happen
spontaneously, energy (e.g. heat or light) may need to be added. The difference
in energy between the reactants and the products is known as the heat of the
reaction and is represented by the symbol ∆H, where:

∆H = Eprod − Ereact

It is possible to draw an energy diagram to show energy changes that take

place during a particular reaction. Let’s consider an example:

H2 (g) + F2 (g) → 2HF (g)

84
 [H2 F2 ] (activated complex)

activation
energy
Potential energy

H2 + F2
reactants
∆H = −268
k.J.mol−1 2HF
products

Time

The reaction between H2 (g) and F2 (g) needs energy in order to proceed,
called activation energy. An in-between, temporary state is then reached in
which the two reactants combine to give H2 F2 - this compound is called the
activated complex. The final product is HF and it has a lower energy than
the reactants. Thus ∆H is negative and the reaction is exothermic.
In an endothermic reaction, the products have a higher energy than the
reactants. An energy diagram is shown below for the endothermic reaction
XY + Z → X + Y Z.

[XYZ]
Potential energy

X + YZ
products
∆H > 0
XY + Z
reactants

Time

Energy diagrams are useful to illustrate the effect of a catalyst on reac-

tion rates. Catalysts decrease the activation energy required for a reaction to
proceed (shown by the smaller “hump” on the energy diagram below), and
therefore decrease the reaction rate. When the activated complex H2F2 decom-
poses to form the final product, the catalyst is released unchanged. Therefore
the catalyst affects the reaction rate but not whether the reaction will occur.

85
 activated complex

activation
energy
Potential energy

products

activation energy
with a catalyst

reactants

Time

Worked Example 9 : Reaction Rates I

Question: 2N O2 (g) ⇔ 2N O(g) + O2 (g) and ∆H > 0 How will the

rate of the reverse reaction be affected by:
1. a decrease in temperature?
2. the addition of a catalyst?
3. the addition of more NO gas?
Answer:
1. The rate of the reverse reaction will decrease since temperature
is directly proportional to the reaction rate. So will the forward
reaction since temperature affects both directions.
2. The rate of the reverse (and the forward) reaction will increase.
3. The rate of the reverse (and the forward) reaction will increase
since the pressure of a substance is directly proportional to the
reaction rate.

Worked Example 10 : Reaction Rates II

Question:
1. Write a balanced equation of the exothermic reaction between
Zn(s) and HCl.
2. Name 3 ways to increase the reaction rate between hydrochloric
acid and zinc metal.
Answer:
1. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⇔ ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
2. A catalyst could be added, the zinc solid could be ground into
a fine powder to increase its surface area, the HCl concentra-
tion could be increased or the reaction temperature could be
increased.

86
14.2 Chemical equilibrium
14.2.1 Reversible reactions
Some reactions can take place in two directions. In one direction the reactants
combine to form the products - called the forward reaction. In the other, the
products react to regenerate the reactants - called the reverse reaction. A spe-
cial kind of double-headed arrow is used to indicate this type of reversible
reaction: XY + Z ⇔ X + Y Z

14.2.2 Dynamic equilibrium

When the rate of the forward reaction (XY + Z → X + Y Z) and the reverse
reaction (X +Y Z → XY +Z) are equal, the system is said to be in equilbrium.
Macroscopic changes do not occur at this point, but the forward and reverse
reactions continue to take place and so microscopic changes occur in the system.
This state is called dynamic equilibrium.

14.2.3 The equilibrium constant

An equilibrium constant, shown by Kc, can be computed for a reversible
reaction in a closed system at a constant temperature. Consider the follow-
ing reaction: A + B eqm C + D. Then, Kc = ([C][D])/([A][B]) where the
concentrations are in mol.dm−3 .
In the case of a gas, pressure is used instead of concentration in the above
formula. Solids and liquids do not affect Kc.

e.g. N H3 (g) + HN O3 (l) ⇔ N H3 N O3 (s)

Kc = [N H3 N O3 ]/[N H3]

If the equation requires balancing, you will need to take into account the
molar ratios of reactants and products.

e.g. aA + bB ⇔ cC + dD
Kc = ([C]c [D]d )/([A]a [B]b )

So it is important to first balance an equation before calculating Kc.

Significance of Kc values
The formula for Kc has the concentration of the products in the numerator and
concentration of reactants in the denominator. So a high Kc value means that
the concentration of products is high and the reaction had a high yield. We can
also say that the equilibrium lies far to the right. The opposite is true for a low
Kc value. This implies a low yield and that the equilibrium lies far to the left.

Factors that affect equilibrium

Three factors can influence which direction the equilibrium of a reaction lies.
These are:
1. temperature

87
 2. concentration
3. pressure

A catalyst can influence how quickly equilibrium is reached (since it influ-

ences the reaction rate) but not the state of equilibrium. So if we wanted to
increase the yield of an important chemical process, we could force the forward
reaction to be favoured by manipulating reaction conditions.

Le Chatelier’s principle
Le Chatelier’s Principle helps to predict what a change in temperature, con-
centration or pressure will have on the position of the equilibrium in a chemical
reaction. It states: When the equilibrium of a closed system is disturbed, the
equilibrium will shift to cause the opposite effect and so cancel the change. In
other words the system will try to get back to equilibrium.

Concentration: If the concentration of a substance is increased, the equi-

librium will shift so that this concentration decreases. Since Kc is fixed for a
reaction at a particular temperature, if [reactant] were increased then Le Chate-
lier would want to shift the equilibrium to decrease [reactant].

e.g. CoCl42− + 6H2 O ⇔ Co(H2 O)2+

6 + 4Cl
−
| {z } | {z }
blue pink

(NOTE TO SELF: Get colours here - check original)

Observation:If we add water, the solution will turn pink. However, if we add
hydrochloric acid (which contain Cl- ions) then the solution will turn blue.
Explanation:If water is added, the equilibrium will shift to use up water and
therefore the forward reaction will be favoured. So the solution will turn pink.
Addition of excess Cl- ions will favour the reverse reaction in which Cl- ions are
used up. Therefore the solution will turn blue.

Temperature: If the temperature of a reaction mixture is increased, the

equilibrium will shift to decrease the temperature. So it will favour the reaction
which will“use up” heat energy, namely the endothermic reaction. The opposite
is true if we decrease the temperature, namely the exothermic reaction will be
favoured.

e.g. N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇔ 2N H3 (g) and ∆H = −92kJ

Observation:If we increase the temperature then the yield of NH3 will de-
crease.
Explanation:The above reaction is exothermic, so heat if given off in the
forward direction. Heat is used up in the reverse direction. So an increase in
temperature will favour the endothermic reverse reaction. Since this reaction
uses up NH3, its yield will decrease.

88
 Pressure: n the case of gases, we refer to pressure instead of concentration.
A similar principle applies as that described before for concentration.

e.g. 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇔ 2SO3 (g)

Observation:If we increase the pressure on the closed system, more SO3 will
be produced.
Explanation:The equilibrium will shift to decrease the pressure and since
pressure is directly proportional to the number of moles (because pV = nRT),
it will shift in the direction of the least number of moles of gas. The RHS
contains 2 mols of gas compared with 3 mols of gas on the LHS. So the forward
reaction will be favoured and more SO3 will be produced.

14.3 The common ion effect

A decrease in solubility of a substance when a solute containing a common
ion is added is called the common ion effect. It can be explained using Le
Chatelier’s Principle.

e.g. KCl(s) ⇔ K + (aq) + Cl− (aq)

If we add a few drops of HCl (which contains Cl − ions) the equilibrium will shift
to the left to use up the excess Cl − ions. So more KCl solid will be produced
and its solubility therefore decreases.

Worked Example 11 :

Question: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇔ 2N H3 (g)

1. Write an equation for the equilibrium constant.
2. Calculate the equilibrium constant if the equilibrium concentra-
tions are: [N H3 ] = 0.03mol.dm−3 , [N2 ] = 0.40mol.dm−3 , [H2 ] =
0.5mol.dm−3 .
Answer:
1. Kc = [N H3 ]/([N2 ][H2 ])
2. Kc = 0.03 / (0.4 x 0.5) = 0.15

Worked Example 12 :

Question: S(s) + O2 (g) ⇔ SO2 (g)

1. Write an equation for the equilibrium constant.
2. Calculate the equilibrium concentration of O2 if Kc=6 and
[SO2 ] = 3mol.dm−3 at equilibrium.
Answer:
1. Kc = [SO2 ]/[O2 ]

89
 2. 6 = 3 x [O2 ]
∴ [O2 ] = 2mol.dm−3

Worked Example 13 :

Question: H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇔ 2HI(g)

When 0.496mol H2 and 0.181mol I2 are heated at 450o C, the equi-
librium mixture is found to contain 0.00749mol I2 . Calculate the
equilibrium constant for the reaction at 450o C.
Answer:

H2 (g) I2 (g) 2HI(g)

Mols start 0.496 0.181
Mols used 0.17351 0.17351
Mols eqm 0.32249 0.00749 0.34702

1.

Worked Example 14 :

Question: 2N O2 (g) ⇔ 2N O(g) + O2 (g) and ∆H > 0

1. State how the following changes would affect the amount of
NO2 at equilibrium:
(a) Increase in temperature
(b) Increase in pressure
(c) More NO is added
(d) Catalyst is added.
2. Explain your answer to (1a) using Le Chatelier’s Principle.
Answer:
1. (a) decrease
(b) increase
(c) increase
(d) no effect
2. The forward reaction will be favoured since it is endothermic
and will therefore use up the heat energy and lower the tem-
perature. Thus the equilibrium will shift to the right and the
amount of N O2 will decrease.

Worked Example 15 :

Question: How could N H4 Cl and KOH be separated in solution?

Answer: Add hydrochloric acid which has a common ion to N H4 Cl,
namely Cl- ions. This will decrease the solubility of N H4 Cl and thus

90
 it will precipitate out of the solution and can then be separated from
KOH by filtration.

14.3.1 Equilibrium in solution

14.3.2 The solubility product

91
Chapter 15

Electrochemical Reactions
(Grade 12)

• relation of current and potential to rate and equlibrium

• understanding of the processes and redox reactions taking place in cells

standard electrode potentials

15.1 Reduction and Oxidation Reactions

15.2 Introduction
(Grade 10) Chemical reactions involve the exchange of electrons between two or
more atoms or molecules. The species involved, exchange electrons which, leads
to a change in the charge of both of the atoms of that species. This change
in the charges of atoms (change in the atom’s oxidation number) by means of
electron exchange is defined as a Reduction-Oxidation (Redox) reaction.

15.2.1 Oxidation and reduction

Oxidation

Definition: The oxidation number of an atom is the indicator

as to what the atom’s charge is. The oxidation number of
M g 2+ is +2 whereas the oxidation number of Cl − is -1.

Definition: Oxidation is defined as the process whereby an atom

experiences an increase in its oxidation number.

The process whereby the atom involved loses electrons, is called Oxidation.
Electrons have negative charges and thus the atom attains a more positive
charge. An atom of magnesium is oxidized when it reacts with chlorine, i.e

92
 M g + 2Cl → M g 2+ + 2Cl− (15.1)

can be written as 2 half reactions:

Mg → M g 2+ + 2e−
2Cl + 2e− → 2Cl−

In the process of exchange of electrons when the two species react, the mag-
nesium becomes oxidized.

Reduction

Definition: Reduction is defined as the process in which an atom

experiences a decrease in its oxidation number.

The other species involved in the Redox reaction with the magnesium, is
the chlorine. The chlorine atoms each gain an electron and in so doing, get a
negative charge. This process of ‘accepting’ or gaining electrons is known as
reduction.

15.2.2 Redox reagents

In the reaction 15.1 above, the magnesium is being oxidized by the chlorine,
and the chlorine is being reduced by the magnesium. The magnesium undergoes
oxidation and the chlorine undergoes reduction.
Therefore Chlorine is the Oxidizing agent! An oxidizing agent causes the
other species with which it is reacting to be oxidized. In this process, the
oxidizing agent accepts electrons and thus becomes reduced.
Magnesium is the Reducing agent! A Reducing agent causes the other
species with which it is reacting to be reduced. In this process, the reducing
agent donates electrons and thus becomes oxidized.
To summarise, magnesium is a reducing agent and in the reaction, it is
oxidized because it donates its electrons and increases its oxidation number (it
becomes more positive). Chlorine is an oxidizing agent and in the reaction, it
is reduced because it accepts electrons and decreases its oxidation number (it
becomes more negative).

15.3 Balancing redox reactions

(Grade 12) The reaction of species involves the transfer of electrons and involves
numerous steps and perhaps more than two atoms. The ion-electron method can
be used successfully to balance multi-atomic redox reactions involving numerous
electron transfers.

93
15.3.1 The ion-electron method

Worked Example 16 : Ion-electron I

The following process shows the ion-electron method which makes

use of the oxidation and reduction half reactions to attain a balanced
Redox reaction. We will perform this using the following reaction :-A
redox reaction between potassium permanganate and iron chloride
in HCl.

KM nO4 (aq)+F eCl2 (aq)+HCl(aq) → M nCl2 (aq)+F eCl3 (aq)+H2 O

(15.2)
Step 1 : (NOTE TO SELF: step is deprecated, use westep instead.)
Balancing the Oxidation half reaction:
The first step in balancing this equation is to consider what species
are being oxidized or reduced. This involves splitting the reaction
into 2 half reactions.

F e2+ → F e3+ + e− (15.3)

2+
The above equation involves the oxidation of the ferric ion (F e ) to
the ferrous ion (F e3+ ). The loss of the negatively charged electron
leads to an increase in the oxidation number and a more positive
charge. The addition of the electron to the right side of the equation
balances out the charges.
Step 2 : (NOTE TO SELF: step is deprecated, use westep instead.)
Balancing the Reduction half reaction:
M nO4− → M n2+ (15.4)
This reaction is an incomplete half reaction involving the reduction
of manganese.
1. Balancing Oxygen atoms with water:
The presence of the oxygen on the left needs to be balanced on
the right by adding 4 water molecules. See equation 15.2, the
reaction takes place in water (aqueous = in water).
2. Balancing Hydrogen atoms with H + ions:
This means that the hydrogen atoms on the right have to be
balanced as well:
M nO4− + 8H + → M n2+ + 4H2 ) (15.5)
It can be seen that the hydrogen, manganese and oxygen bal-
ance but the left side has a net charge of +7 and the right has
a charge of +2.
3. Balancing charge with electrons:
This unbalanced charge can be balanced by adding 5 negatively
charged electrons to the left hand side of the equation:
M nO4− + 8H + + 5e− → M n2+ + 4H2 O (15.6)

94
Step 3 : (NOTE TO SELF: step is deprecated, use westep instead.)
Combination and balancing of 2 half reactions:
The two balanced half reactions are, 15.3 and 15.6. When combined
they are as follows:

F e2+ → F e3+ + e−
M nO4− + 8H + + 5e− → M n2+ + 4H2 O

To balance the electrons for both equations when combined, the

equation 15.3 needs a factor of 5 by which it must be multiplied to
balance the electrons:

5F e2+ → 5F e3+ + 5e−

Combining both of the equations the resultant is as follows:

M nO4− +8H + +5e− +5F e2− → M n2+ +5F e3+ +4H2 O+5e− (15.7)

The two sides both have 5 electrons and these can be taken out to
simplify the equation. The spectator ions can also be added into the
final equation to complete the reaction.
Spectator Ions are those ions/species that do not take part in the
Redox reaction. They do not change their oxidation number, e.g.
the chloride ion Cl− stays as is and only swaps cations after the
redox reaction is complete. The same can be said for the potassium
ion K + which swaps its anions.

KM nO4 + 8HCl + 5F eCl2 → M nCl2 + 5F eCl3 + 4H2 O + KCl

(15.8)
Step 4 : (NOTE TO SELF: step is deprecated, use westep instead.)
The final species check:
The final check is to see if all species balance on both sides of the
equation.
Note: If the redox reaction occurs in a basic solution, the H + ions
can be substituted with OH − ions to balance the equations.

Worked Example 17 : Electron-Ion 2

Question: Try a few examples with the following reactions:

M nO4− (aq) + SO32− (aq) → M nO2 + SO42−

Zn(s) + N O3− (aq) → Zn2+ + N H4+

M nO4− (aq) + I − (aq) → M nO2 + IO3−

95
 HN O3 (aq) + I2 (l) → HIO3 + N O2

M nO4− (aq) + Cl− (aq) → M n2+ + Cl2

HN O3 (aq) + Cu2 O(s) → Cu(N O3 )2 (aq) + N O(g) + H2 O(l)

15.4 The Cu-Zn electrochemical cell

(Grades 10,12) The copper-zinc Daniel electrochemical cell is a perfect practical
example to illustrate the redox reactions that occur between two different metals
in ionic solutions due to their differing electrode potentials.

Definition: An electrochemical cell is a system comprised of elec-

trodes dipped into an electrolyte where a chemical reaction either
uses or generates electric current.

Definition: A voltaic/galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that

uses a chemical reaction between two dissimilar electrodes dipped in
electrolyte to generate an electric current. See the diagram below.

electron flow

+ salt -
+
Cu bridge Zn

CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq)

Note that the salt bridge acts as a transfer medium that allows ions to flow
through without allowing the different solutions to mix and react. The salt
bridge normally is a gel medium containing electrolyte species (usually aqueous
K + and Cl− ions).
Due to the different oxidation potentials of the two metals, the copper metal
is precipitated at the cathode as it collects the electrons donated by the zinc
anode. The zinc donates its electrons and in so doing, dissolves into solution.

96
The result is an increased concentration of ZnSO4 and a weaker solution of
CuSO4 .
The transfer of electrons between the connected electrodes is seen as a flow
of electric current. The electrons flow from the Zn anode to the Cu cathode.
The standard notation used for all voltaic/galvanic cells is:

anode|anode.electrolyte||cathode.electrolyte|cathode

For the typical Daniel Cell configuration:

Zn|Zn2+ ||Cu2+ |Cu

where

| = a phase boundary (solid/aqueous)

|| = the salt bridge

Definition: An electrolytic cell An electrolytic cell is an electro-

chemical cell that makes use of electricity to drive an otherwise
unspontaneous chemical reaction.

An example of this would be the electrolysis of brine (aqueous N aCl) to

produce chlorine gas. The direct electric current is used to drive the electro-
chemical breakup of N aCl and provides the mechanism where the chloride ions
(Cl− ) are able to donate their electrons at the anode and the electrons then
are provided to the N a+ cations which deposit on the cathode. The two half
reactions are as follows:

N a+ (aq) + e− → N a(s)at the cathode

2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e− at the anode

The direct current battery drives this unspontaneous reaction by providing an

electro-motive force (EMF).

15.4.1 Direct electron transfer

Direct electron transfer is the mechanism by which a Redox reaction occurs
between two species at the same site. For example, if a piece of metal zinc is
added to a solution of copper sulphate, the following reaction occurs:

Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → Cu + ZnSO4

This overall reaction comprises of 2 half reactions:

Zn(s) → Zn2+ + 2e−

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)

The copper oxidizes the zinc and in so doing deposits itself on the zinc metal
as the zinc dissolves. The result is solid copper and a solution of zinc sulphate.
Zinc loses its electrons more readily than copper and thus is oxidized.

97
Anodes and Cathodes
The following table explains the definitions of anode and cathode:

15.5 Standard electrode potentials

(Grade 12)

15.5.1 The cell potential

The electrochemical cell is comprised of two electrodes dipped in electrolyte
solutions, which due to the difference in oxidizing/reducing strength of the cell
electrodes, allows for a current to pass through the cell.
The cell has an Electromotive Force with is defined as the following:

Definition: The Electromotive Force (EMF) of a cell is defined as

the maximum potential difference between two electrodes or half
cells of a voltaic cell. EMF is the electrical driving force of the
cell reaction or any redox reaction. i.e. the higher the EMF, the
stronger the reaction.

0
Definition: The Standard EMF (Ecell ) is the EMF of a voltaic cell
operating under standard state conditions (solute concentrations =
1M), gas pressures = 1 atm, and temperatures = 298K. The symbol
0
denotes standard-state conditions.

0
Ecell = oxidation potential for half rxn + reduction potential for other half rxn
= Ecathode − Eanode

Thus for a Daniel cell: (Zn and Cu)

0
Ecell = ECu + (−EZn )
0
Ecell = ECu − EZn

From the redox reaction tables:

Zn2+ + 2e− → Zn(s) E0 = −0.76 V

Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu(s) E0 = +0.52 V

Thus the redox reaction of copper and zinc in a Daniel Cell will have a
standard EMF
0
Ecell = ECu − EZn
0
Ecell = 0.52 + (−0.76)
0
Ecell = −0.24 V

98
 Definition: Potential difference is the difference in electric po-
tential (electric pressure to move electrons) between two points. It
is measured in the S.I. units of Volts (V).

Definition: An electrode potential is one of the ‘half’ potentials

which comprise the EMF. In a Daniel cell (Zn/Cu), the EMF of
the cell is comprised of the electrode potentials of both the Zn and
Cu electrodes.

The anode of a voltaic cell has a higher negative potential than the cathode
and electrons flow from the anode to the cathode.
Because only the complete cell (EMF) can be measured (Any reduction must
have an oxidation reaction), the half-cell electrode potentials have to measured
against a standard or reference point. Thus the decision was made to create a
standard reference electrode.

15.5.2 The standard hydrogen electrode

Standard Reference Electrode
The reference point used to determine the electrode potentials of substances is
the hydrogen cell. It is set up under the following standard temperature and
pressure conditions. (T = 298K, Pressure = 1atm, Solute concentration = 1
Molar)

2H + (1 Molar) + 2e− → H2 (g, 1atm, at 298 K) E0 = 0.000 V

Using this standard, the various substances are linked up in a cell arrange-
ment with the hydrogen cell and the measured EMF gives the standard electrode
potential of the tested substance. The EMF measured under standard condi-
tions is labled as: E 0 .
As an example, the electrode potential of copper in acidic conditions is mea-
sured as follows:
At the anode: (At S.T.P. conditions)
H2 (g) → 2H + (1M ) + 2e−
At the cathode:
Cu2+ (1M ) + 2e− → Cu(s)
The combined reaction is as follows and the measured EMF of the hydro-
gen/copper voltaic cell is as follows Ecell = 0.337V. Thus it can be concluded
that the Standard electrode potential of copper is E O = 0.337V.
There are lists available for many of the standard electrode potentials of
substances/metals. They are measured either in acidic conditions (pH = 0 ,
[H + ]=1M) or under alkaline (pH=14, [OH + ]=1M) conditions.
The table of Standard Electrode Potentials is at the end of the chapter.

15.6 Examples of electrochemical cells

(Grades 10,12)

99
15.6.1 The dry cell (Leclanche cell)
The Lechlanche cell is a Zinc-Carbon dry cell battery used commercially as a
source of electrical power to drive radios, torches and walkmen. The battery
is set up so that the anode is the Zinc can, which act as the container (Outer
‘shell’) and the cathode s the graphite rod, which is immediately surrounded by
a paste of MnO2 and graphite carbon (carbon black).The rest of the Zinc can
is filled with a ZnCl2 and N H4 Cl paste.
The following reactions occur in this cell: At the anode:

Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e−

At the cathode:

2N H4+ (aq) + 2M nO2 (s) + 2e− → M n2 O3 (s) + H2 O + N H3 (aq)

The carbon acts as an electrode transfer point and allows the current to flow
between the Zn anode and the M nO2 /Chloride cathode.
electron flow

+
A -

e-
e-

zinc anode
electolytic paste

MnO2 MnO(OH) H+ NH4Cl

graphite
cathode Zn(NH3)2Cl2 Zn++

MnO2 MnO(OH) H+ NH4Cl

MnO4/graphite
paste

15.6.2 The alkaline dry cell

The alkaline dry cell is similar to the Lechlanche cell. The difference is that the
ammonium chloride (N H4 Cl) is replaced with potassium hydroxide (KOH). It
performs better under low temperature conditions, has a longer shelf life and
performs better under high current drain.
It isn’t exactly ‘dry’, because it contains aqueous paste solutions as follows:
The anode is Zinc powder and KOH paste surrounding a brass current collector.
The cathode is a paste of M nO2 and graphite carbon (carbon black).
The following reactions occur in this cell: At the anode’:

Zn(s) + 2OH − (aq) → Zn(OH)2 (s) + 2e−

At the cathode:

2M nO2 (s) + H2 O(l) + 2e− → M n2 O3 (s) + 2OH − (aq)

100
15.6.3 The lead-acid accumulator
The lead-acid battery is commonly known the 12 Volt car battery. The battery
is set up as follows: It consists of lead alloy grids bathed in a H2 SO4 solution.
The anode consists of spongy lead and the cathode consists of lead dioxide.
The following reactions occur in the cell:

P b(s) + HS)−
4 (aq) → P bSO4 (s) + H + (aq) + 2e−
P bO2 (s) + 3H + (aq) + HSO4− (aq) + 2e− → P bSO4 (s) + H2 O(l)

Both electrodes are coated with a white PbSO4 as the battery is used. The
cells each give a 2V EMF and thus 6 are combined to give a battery of 12V.
This battery can be recharged by means of electric currents which reverse the
above half reactions. In the recharging process, hydrogen and oxygen are pro-
duced and thus water needs to be periodically added to the battery to maintain
a supply of water which is vital in the operation of the battery.
The recharged battery allows for replacement of the PbO2 and Pb metal
and removes the PbSO4 covering. This reversal of the processes is termed
electrolytic reversal, ie electric current is used in the electrolytic cell, which
promotes the reverse reactions.
electrode connected electrode connected lead dioxide
to lead dioxide plates to spongy lead plates

H+ SO42- H+
H+
SO42-
H+
SO42-
SO42-
Banks of lead sulfuric acid
and lead
dioxide plates
spongy lead

15.6.4 The fuel cell

The fuel cell is essentially a battery but makes use of a continuous supply of
energetic reactants. The fuel cell facilitates the oxidation of a fuel by means of
air and uses the oxidation thereof to create an electric current.
For a hydrogen fuel cell (Hydrocarbon fuel cells are also in development) the
following reactions occur:
Hydrogen Oxidation:(anode)

2H2 (g) + 4OH − (aq) → 4H2 O(l) + 4e−

Oxygen Reduction:(cathode)

O2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + 4e− → 4OH − (aq)

The fuel cells normally use solid catalysts to facilitate the oxidation reaction.
The common catalysts are Platinum, Palladium and Silver. The expensive raw
materials and problems with handling potentially explosive hydrogen, has meant
that the technology has taken time to take off and become economically viable.

101
15.7 Electrolysis
(Grade 10) As discussed in section 15.4, an electrolytic cell is an electrochemical
cell that makes use of electricity to drive an otherwise unspontaneous chemical
reaction (bring about chemical change to species).
Industrial examples of electrolysis being used is the production of chlorine
gas from brine/sea water (N aCl) and the production of sodium metal by the
‘Downs’ process.

15.7.1 The Chlor-alkali Process

In the Chlor-alkali process, the electrolysis of aqueous brine takes place to pro-
duce chlorine gas and hydrogen. This takes place by means of the following
reactions:
At the anode two reactions can occur:

2Cl− → Cl2 (g) + 2e−

2H2 O(l) → O2 (g) + 4H + + 4e−

whereas at the cathode, the following happens:

N a+ + e − → N a(s)
2H2 O(l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH − (aq)

When the chloride concentration is high, the chloride oxidation is favoured

but in low concentration brines, the oxidation of water is favoured. The potential
products of this process, chlorine, hydrogen, sodium, N aOH and oxygen, are
all valuable industrial raw materials for other processes.

15.7.2 The Downs process

In the ‘Downs’ process, electric current is passed through molten NaCl salt (at
±900o C) and the resistive heating keeps the salt molten. The electric current
facilitates the production of sodium metal and chlorine gas. The redox reactions
are as follows:
At the anode:
2Cl− → Cl2 (g) + 2e−

2N a+ + 2e− → N a(l)
The electric current acts as a driving force for the redox reactions to occur.

15.8 Electrolysis of water

The electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen gas is practiced in regions where
electricity is cheap. This process is very energy intensive and requires large
amounts of electricity.
he process involves passing an electric current through a current carrying
ionic solution of water and NaOH or H2SO4. The dissolved ions act as current

102
carriers and facilitate the breakup of water to produce Hydrogen and Oxygen.
The following redox reactions occur:
At the anode:
2H2 O(l) → O2 (g) + 4H + + 4e−
At the cathode:
2H2 O(l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH − (aq)

15.9 Extraction of Aluminium

Aluminum metal is a commonly used metal in industrial uses where its light /
strong properties can be utilized. It is used in the manufacture of aeroplanes,
motor cars etc. The metal is present in deposits of bauxite which is a mixture
of silicas, iron oxides and hydrated alumina (Al2 O3 x H2 O).
Aluminum extraction makes use of a the ‘Bayer’ process. This involves the
following steps:
1. Bauxite is digested in hot sodium hydroxide under pressure
2. This forms Tetrahydroxoaluminate, N a[Al(OH)4 ] and leads to the pre-
cipitation of SiO2 in complex forms.
3. The iron oxides are insoluble and are filtered from the solution.
4. The pregnant alumina carrying solution is then diluted with water and
cooled.
5. The Al(OH)3 is then precipitated out and filtered.
6. Heat is then applied to drive off the water, leaving anhydrous Al2 O3 .
Another method uses electrolysis for the extraction of Aluminum. The ‘Hall’
process makes of the following process for extraction and produces 99% pure
aluminum:
1. Aluminum is melted along with cryolite (N a3 AlF6 ) which acts as the
electrolyte.
2. The anode carbon rods provide sites for the oxidation of O 2− and F −
ions. Oxygen and flourine gas are given off at the anodes and also lead to
anode consumption.
3. At the cathode cell lining, the Al 3+ ions are reduced and metal aluminum
deposits on the lining.
4. The AlF63− electrolyte is stable and remains in its molten state.
The basic electrolytic reactions involved are as follows: At the cathode:
Al+3 + 3e− → Al(s) (99%purity)
2O2− → O2 (g) + 4e−
At the anode:
2F − → F2 (g) + 2e−
2F − + C(s) → CF2 (g) + 2e−
2O2− + C(s) → 2CO(g) + 4e−

103
15.10 Electro-refining of copper
Copper plays a major role in the electrical reticulation industry as it is very
conductive and is used in electric cables. One of the problems faced are that
the copper must be pure if it is to be an effective current carrier.
One of the methods used to purify copper, is electro-winning. The copper
electro-winning process is as follows:

1. Bars of crude (impure) copper containing other metallic impurities is

placed on the anodes.

2. The cathodes are made up of pure copper with little impurities.

3. The electrolyte is a solution of aqueous CuSO4 and H2 SO4 .

4. areful control of the voltage and current allows the favorable electro-
winning and deposition of pure copper onto the cathodes as the copper
in the anodes slowly dissolves.

5. The other metal impurities (Zn, Au, Ag, Fe and Pb) do not dissolve and
form a solids sludge at the bottom of the tank or remain in solution in the
electrolyte.

he reactions occur as follows: At the anode:

Cu+2 (aq) + 2e− → Cu(s) (> 99%purity)

At the cathode:
Cu(s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e−

15.11 Electroplating
The most common industrial use of electroplating is the galvanizing of iron and
steel to protect it from the oxidizing atmosphere and to provide it with cathodic
protection . The most common galvanizing agent is zinc.
The process of zinc electroplating (Galvanising) is as follows:

1. A zinc salt is dissolved in an aqueous bath.

2. Prior to the electroplating, the steel structure is dipped in acid (usually

HCl) to pickle the metal and remove oxides that may prevent a good
electroplating finish.
3. The steel is then dried of the acid and then dipped in the zinc salt bath.

4. An electric current is provided to oxidize the zinc ions, which are reduced
and deposit on the steel structure.

5. The cathode half reaction is as follows:

At the cathode: Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− → Zn(s)
the solid zinc deposits onto the steel as a covering.

104
15.12 Faraday’s laws of electrolysis
The British chemist, Michael Faraday discovered the relationship of electric
current flow due to electron movement and the amount of substance that is
consumed/deposited at the electrodes of and electrochemical cell. Some exam-
ples:

1. In the electroplating of zinc, every atom of zinc deposited onto the steel
structure, requires 2 electrons to be donated to form an atom of deposited
zinc.

2. The same concept can be used when determining how many electrons will
be given off by the chloride ions at the anode in the Chlor-alkali process
to produce chlorine gas.

Definition: Faradays laws for Electrolysis:

1. The quantity of a substance liberated is directly proportional to
the quantity of electric charge that has flowed in the circuit.
2. For a given quantity of charge, the amount of metal that is
deposited is proportional to its equivalent weight (Equivalent weight
= Atomic Weight/Charge of metal ion)

Some more definitions to learn:

• Coulomb (C): A coulomb is the S.I. unit for electric charge. An electron
has the charge of 1.6022 x 10-19 Coulombs.

• Mole: 1 mole is equivalent to the number of atoms in 12g of carbon. 1

mole = Avogadros Number (6.022 x 1023 atoms).

• Faraday (F): A faraday is the charge contained in 1 mole of electrons.

1F araday = Avogadro0 sN umberxChargeof 1electron

= 6.0220x1023 x1.6022x10−19
= 9.6485x104 Coulombs/molee−

• Ampere (A): The ampere is the S.I. unit for current. It is defined as
follows:
1Coulomb
1Ampere =
1second
1A = 1Cs−1

Therefore, if 1 ampere of current travels in a conductor for 1 second, 1

coulomb of charge has passed.

Worked Example 18 : Faraday’s Laws:

Question: In Zinc electroplating the following example will help to

show the concept of the Faraday laws.

105
Step 1 : (NOTE TO SELF: step is deprecated, use westep instead.)
The cathode half reaction is:

Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− → Zn(s)

Thus for every atom of Zinc deposited, 2 electrons are required. For
1 mole of zinc to be deposited, the number of electrons required is:
= Number of atoms in 1 mole of zinc x 2
= Avogadro’s No x 2 = 1.2044 x 1024 electrons.
Step 2 : (NOTE TO SELF: step is deprecated, use westep instead.)
The charge to be passed to deposit 1 mole of zinc is:
= 1.2044 x 1024 e-/mole Zn x Charge of one electron
= 1.2044 x 1024 e-/mole Zn x 1.6022 x 10−19 C/e-
= 1.9297 x 105 C
= 2 Farads (1 Farad = 9.6485 x 104 C)

Step 3 : (NOTE TO SELF: step is deprecated, use westep instead.)

If 3 Amperes flow for 30s, the number of Zinc atoms deposited is: 1
A = 1 Coulomb/second
Thus 3A for 30s = 90 Coulombs
For 1 mole of zinc to be deposited, 1.9297 x 105 Coulombs must be
passed.
Therefore in that 30 seconds, (90 C/1.9297 x 105 C/mol Zn) moles
of zinc are deposited.
= 4.6639 x 10−4 moles are deposited
But 1 mole zinc = 6.0220 x 1023 atoms.
Therefore:- The number of zinc atoms deposited is:
= 4.6639 x 10−4 x 6.0220 x 1023
= 2.8086 x 1020

Worked Example 19 : Faradays Laws II

Question: Chlorine gas is given off at the anode in the Chlor-alkali

process as follows:
2Cl− → Cl2 (g) + 2e−
The complete half reaction shows that 2 electrons are required to be
removed from the anode for every molecule of chlorine gas generated.
If a current of 100 kA runs for 2 hours, what mass of gas is generated
at the anode?
Answer:

Step 1 : (NOTE TO SELF: step is deprecated, use westep instead.)

1 mole Chlorine gas (Cl2 ) requires 2 moles of e− to be deposited at
the anode. The charge deposited per mole of chlorine generated is:
= No electrons per mole Cl2 x Charge of 1 mole of electrons
= 2 x 1 Farad
= 2 X 9.6485 x 104 C

106
= 1.9297 x 105 C/ mole Cl2

Step 2 : (NOTE TO SELF: step is deprecated, use westep instead.)

The charge discharged when the current was operating is as follows:

100 kA = 100 x 1000 A

100 kA = 105 A

2 hours = 2 x 60 minutes/hour x 60 seconds/minute = 7200 seconds

1ampere = 1Coulomb / second
Therefore 100kA running for 7200 s is:

= 7200 s x 105 C
= 7.2 x 108 C

Step 3 : (NOTE TO SELF: step is deprecated, use westep instead.)

Thus the number of moles of chlorine generated is:
Charge discharged by current flow / (Charge deposited per mole of
Cl2 )

= (7.2 x 108 C)/(1.9297 x 105 C/moleCl2 )

= 7.2 x 108 /1.9297 x 105
= 3.73 x 103 moles of Chlorine

107
 Properties Anode Cathode
Reduction / Oxidation Oxidation Reduction
Cations (K + or N a+ )
Anions (Cl− or SO42− )
migrate to cathode in
migrate to anode in
Ionic behaviour solution of cell:
solution of cell:
e.g. Cu2+ receives e−
e.g.Zn donates easily
from cathode
Electrons leave Electrons enter
Electron flow
(donated-dissolve) (deposits)
Charge (Voltaic cell) Negative Positive
Charge (Electrolytic cell) Positive Negative

Table 15.1: Properties of anodes and cathodes

108
Half-Reaction E0V
Li+ + e− ­ Li -3.04
K + + e− ­ K -2.92
Ba2+ + 2e− ­ Ba -2.90
Ca2+ + 2e− ­ Ca -2.87
N a+ + e − ­ N a -2.71
M g 2+ + 2e− ­ M g -2.37
M n2+ + 2e− ­ M n -1.18
2H2O + 2e− ­ H2 (g) + 2OH − -0.83
Zn2+ + 2e− ­ Zn -0.76
Cr2+ + 2e− ­ Cr -0.74
F e2+ + 2e− ­ F e -0.44
Cr3+ + 3e− ­ Cr -0.41
Cd2+ + 2e− ­ Cd -0.40
Co2+ + 2e− ­ Co -0.28
N i2+ + 2e− ­ N i -0.25
Sn2+ + 2e− ­ Sn -0.14
P b2+ + 2e− ­ P b -0.13
F e3+ + 3e− ­ F e -0.04
2H + + 2e− ­ H2 (g) 0.00
S + 2H + + 2e− ­ H2 S(g) 0.14
Sn4+ + 2e− ­ Sn2+ 0.15
Cu2+ + e− ­ Cu+ 0.16
SO42+ + 4H + + 2e− ­ SO2 (g) + 2H2 O 0.17
Cu2+ + 2e− ­ Cu 0.34
2H2 O + O2 + 4e− ­ 4OH − 0.40
Cu+ + e− ­ Cu 0.52
I2 + 2e− ­ 2I − 0.54
O2 (g) + 2H + + 2e− ­ H2 O2 0.68
F e3+ + e− ­ F e2+ 0.77
N O3− + 2H + + e− ­ N O2 (g) + H2 O 0.78
Hg 2+ + 2e− ­ Hg(l) 0.78
Ag + + e− ­ Ag 0.80
N O3− + 4H + + 3e− ­ N O(g) + 2H2 O 0.96
Br2 + 2e− ­ 2Br − 1.06
O2 (g) + 4H + + 4e− ­ 2H2 O 1.23
M nO2 + 4H + + 2e− ­ M n2+ + 2H2 O 1.28
Cr2 O72− + 14H + + 6e− ­ 2Cr3+ + 7H2 O 1.33
Cl2 + 2e− ­ 2Cl− 1.36
Au3+ + 3e− ­ Au 1.50
M nO4− + 8H + + 5e− ­ M n2+ + 4H2 O 1.52
Co3+ + e− ­ Co2+ 1.82
109
F2 + 2e− ­ 2F − 2.87

Table 15.2: Standard Electrode Potentials

 Part III

CHEMICAL SYSTEMS

110
Chapter 16

The Water Cycle (Grade

10)

• Physical changes and energy transfers: The movement of water from the
ocean and land surfaces as controlled by energy in sunlight. Resevoirs for
water on earth.

• Macroscopic properties of the three phases of water related to their mi-

croscopic structure

111
Chapter 17

The Nitrogen Cycle (Grade

10)

• Chemical changes and energy transfers: The movement of nitrogen be-

tween interrelated biological and geological systems
• Industrial fixation of nitrogen

• Nitrogen and Nitrogen Compounds (in progress)

17.1 Nitrogen and Nitrogen Compounds

17.2 Nitrogen Gas (N2 )
Nitrogen is a colourless and odourless gas which constitutes about 78% of the
atmosphere. It is slightly soluble in water, and less dense than air. Nitrogen
gas occurs as diatomic molecules (N2 ), with a Lewis structure as follows:

(NOTE TO SELF: fill in electrons and bonds)

N N or N N

The Sp notation of nitrogen is:

2
7 N )1S 2S 2 2P 3

With three covalent bonds the molecule is stable and therefore nitrogen is
not very reactive.

17.2.1 Industrial Preparation of N2

Nitrogen gas is prepared by the fractional distillation of liquid air. Purified
air is liquefied at a very low temperature (below −200o C) and under very high
pressure. The temperature is then raised and as nitrogen has the lowest boiling

112
point (bp= −196o C) it is the first to boil off, it then cools and condenses and is
collected for storage. The liquid oxygen (bp= −183o C) and liquid argon (bp=
- 186o C) are left behind.

17.2.2 Uses of Nitrogen

• Liquid nitrogen is used for quick freezing food.
• Liquid nitrogen is used in medicine for the freezing of superficial skin
tumours and growths.
• Nitrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia (using the Haber process)
which is used in cleaning agents and fertilizers
• All proteins are made of nitrogen and therefore it is necessary for life.

17.3 Ammonia (N H3 )
Ammonia is a gas which is lighter than air, has a characteristic smell which takes
one’s breath away and is highly soluble in water. It has a pyramidal structure
and is therefore a polar molecule.
(NOTE TO SELF: insert figure here)

17.3.1 Laboratory Preparation

Ammonia can be prepared by heating any ammonium salt with a stable base, in
this case calcium hydroxide. The gas is collected by the downward displacement
of air.
2N H4 Cl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2N H3 + 2H2 O
Net: N H4+ (aq) + (OH)− (aq) → N H3 + H2 O
The gas jar in which the ammonia is collected is seen to be full when wet
indicator paper held at the mouth indicates the presence of an alkali (basic
solution), i.e. damp litmus paper will be turned blue.
This is seen in the reaction:

N H3 + H2 O → N H4+ + OH −
Note: It is the OH − which causes the indicator to change colour.

17.3.2 Industrial Preparation of N H3

The industrial preparation of ammonia is known as the ‘Haber Process’ or
‘Haber-Bosch Process’.

At a high pressure and a temperature of about 500o C and in the presence

of a suitable catalyst, nitrogen and hydrogen produce ammonia in a reversible
reaction.
(NOTE TO SELF: in equation below replace arrow with equilibrium arrow)

113
 N2 + 3H2 → 2N H3 + heat

Four considerations according to Le Chateliers principle:

• Decrease temperature: forward reaction is favoured to generate heat and

more ammonia is produced (decrease to 450o C)

• Increase pressure: forward reaction is favoured to decrease pressure (4mol →

2mol)

• Change concentration of the gases: If N H3 is removed as it is formed,

the forward reaction is favoured to make up for the decrease in N H3
concentration and more N H3 is formed.

• Catalyst: iron or iron oxide can be used to change the rate of the reaction,
not the amount of product formed.

17.3.3 Properties of N H3
N H3 is extremely soluble in water and ionizes to form an alkaline solution due
to the formation of OH − ions).

This can be demonstrated by the fountain experiment. The bromothymol

blue turns blue as a result of the basic property of ammonia.

(Insert diagram 1)
An example of an ionization reaction:

N H3 + H2 0 → N H4+ + OH −

17.3.4 Uses of N H3
• Preparation of fertilizers like (N H4 )2 SO4 and urea

• In cleansing and washing agents

• In cooling installations

• Preparation of wood pulp for preparation of paper

• The preparation of HN O3 (nitric acid) by the catalytic oxidation of am-

monia. This occurs in the presence of heated platinum or copper. (See
nitric acid section for details of the process)

4N H3 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4N O(g) + 6H2 O

2N O(g) + O2 (g) → 2N O2 (g)
3N O2 (g) + H2 O(l) → 2HN O3 (l) + N O(g)

114
 17.4 Ammonium Salts
An ammo-
17.4.1 Preparation of Ammonium Salts nium ion is
N H4+
Ammonium salts are formed when ammonia reacts with a strong acid. Below
are some examples of these reactions:

N H3 + HCl → N H4 Cl
N H3 + HN O3 → N H4 N O 3
N H3 + H2 SO4 → (N H4 )2 SO4

17.4.2 Properties of Ammonium Salts

• They are soluble in water and give off ammonia when heated with Ca(OH) 2 .
• They are thermally unstable (i.e. they decompose upon heating). An
example of this is as follows:

N H4 Cl + heat → N H3 (g) + HCl(g)

(Insert diagram no 2)

Note: The N H4 Cl sublimes on heating, i.e. it changes directly from a

solid to a gas.

17.4.3 Uses of Ammonium Salts

• N H4 Cl is used to clean metal surfaces before soldering and as an elec-
trolyte in dry cells

• (N H4 )2 SO4 is used as a fertilizer.

• N H4 N O3 is used as a fertilizer, as an explosive and in the preparation of

laughing gas.

17.5 Nitrogen Dioxide (N O2 )

Nitrogen Dioxide is a reddish brown gas.

InIn teresti ing N O is the culprit of smog as it creates a brown haze

teresti ing
2
Fact:
Fact:

115
17.5.1 Laboratory Preparation:
The laboratory preparation of nitrogen dioxide involves the reaction of concen-
trated nitric acid (HN O3 ) with copper. The gas can be collected by the upward
displacement of air or by liquefying the gas at a low temperature.

Cu + 4HN O3 → Cu(N O3 )2 + 2H2 O + 2N O2

blue reddish brown
(Insert diagram 3)
The liquefied gas (N O2 ) is a light yellow liquid.

17.5.2 Equilibrium between N O2 and N2 O4

N O2 is nitrogen dioxide and dark, reddish brown in colour. N2 O4 is dinitrogen
tetroxide and is light, yellowy brown in colour. So:

(NOTE TO SELF: in the reaction below replace the arrow with an equilib-
rium arrow)

2N O2 → N2 O 4 + heat
dark brown light brown
Effect of change of temperature:

The forward reaction is exothermic, i.e. it releases heat, and the reverse
reaction is endothermic, i.e. it consumes heat. Heating favours both reactions,
but the endothermic reaction is favoured more (as the excess heat will be used
up). Therefore an increase in temperature will lead to the formation of more of
the reddish brown nitrogen dioxide.

Cooling slows down both reactions, but the endothermic reaction is slowed
down more. Therefore cooling favours the formation of more yellowy brown
N2 O 4 .

Effect of change of pressure:

An increase in pressure (decreasing the volume) leads to the formation of less

molecules. Therefore the forward reaction is favoured and leads to the formation
of more N2 O4 . A decrease in pressure (increase in volume) favours the reaction
leading to more molecules. This favours the reverse reaction forming more N O 2 .

17.6 Nitric Acid (HN O3 )

Nitric acid is a colourless liquid which decomposes slowly at room temperature
giving off brown vapours of N O2 . The N O2 dissolves in the acid giving it a
yellow colour. HN O3 is an important industrial acid which ‘fumes’ strongly in
air and has a choking smell. It mixes well with water causing an increase in
temperature. It is highly corrosive when concentrated and must be treated with
caution.

116
17.6.1 Laboratory preparation of HN O3 :
Nitric acid is prepared in the laboratory by the action of concentrated H2 SO4
on a nitrate.

N aN O3 + H2 SO4 → N aHSO4 + HN O3

17.6.2 Industrial preparation of HN O3 :

The industrial preparation of nitric acid involves the catalytic oxidation of am-
monia (N H3 ) and is known as the Ostwald Process:

• A stream of pure N H3 and filtered air are passed over heated platinum
gauze which is a contact catalyst. This occurs at about 800o C as the
reaction is very slow at room temperature.

4N H3 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4N O(g) + 6H2 O

(oxidation of ammonia)

The N H3 is obtained when N H4 OH is heated and decomposes releasing

N H3 and water.
(NOTE TO SELF: triangle on arrow below)

N H4 OH → N H3 + H2 O

The N H3 then mixes with O2 and the reaction proceeds.

• The N O formed acts with the excess of atmospheric oxygen to form N O2

2N O(g) + O2 (g) → 2N O2 (g)

(oxidation of N O)

• The gases are cooled and led to absorption towers where the N O2 reacts
with H2 O.

3N O2 (g) + H2 O(l) → 2HN O3 (l) + N O(g)

(oxidation of N O2 )

17.6.3 Reactions of Nitric Acid:

Reaction upon heating

Nitric acid is thermally unstable and heating causes it to decompose forming

reddish brown N O2 .
(NOTE TO SELF: triangle on arrow below)

4HN O3 → 4N O2 (g) + 2H2 O + O2 (g)

117
 This reaction takes place slowly at normal room temperature hence the
yellow-brown colour of the nitric acid. This is also the reason that nitric acid
is stored in brown bottles in the laboratory, the dark colour of the glass keeps
out the sunlight avoiding decomposition.

Reactions with Copper

a. React copper with concentrated nitric acid

Cu + 4HN O3 → Cu(N O3 )2 + 2H2 O + N O2

b. React copper with dilute nitric acid (HG only)

3Cu + 8HN O3 → 3Cu(N O3 )2 + 4H2 O + 2N O

The colourless N O turns brown on contact with air

2N O + O2 → 2N O2
colourless reddish-brown

In both these reactions with copper HN O3 is acting as an oxidizing agent.

17.6.4 Uses of Nitric Acid:

• Preparation of explosives, for example T.N.T (trinitro-toluene) and nitro-
glycerine.

• Preparation of fertilizers, for example ammonium nitrate (N H4 N O3 ).

• Preparation of pigments.

• In the plastics industry nitric acid is used for the manafacture of basic
materials for the preparation of plastic articles.

• Preparation of nitrates for medicinal and industrial use.

17.7 Nitrates:
• All nitrates are soluble in water.

• Nitrates decompose on heating to form a nitrite and oxygen

nitrate + heat → nitrite + O2

2KN O3 + heat → 2KN O2 + O2
2N aN O3 + heat → 2N aN O2 + O2

118
Chapter 18

The Hydrosphere (Grade

10)

• composition and interaction with other global systems

• Ions in aqueous solution: their interaction and effects

– Electrolytes and extent of ionisation as measured by conductivity

– Precipitation reactions

119
Chapter 19

The Lithosphere:
Exploiting the Earth’s crust
(Grade 11)

• Mining and mineral processing gold, iron, phosphate (South Africa’s

strengths), environmental impact of these activities

• Energy resources and their use

120
Chapter 20

The Atmosphere (Grade

11)

• Atmospheric chemistry

• Global warming and the environmental impact of population growth

121
Chapter 21

The Chemical Industry:

Resources, Needs and the
Chemical Connection
(Grade 12)

122
Essay 1 : Synthetic Polymers
Author: Dean Govender

Dean Govender holds a Bachelor of Science degree (with honours) in Chemical

Engineering from the University of Natal, South Africa. He is currently employed
as a process engineer by Sasol and works in the Operations, Profitability and Im-
provement division. Moreover, he is responsible for business innovation, technology
optimisation and engineering support. Dean is currently pursuing a Bachelor of
Physiology and Biochemistry degree

Synthetic Polymers
Scientists throughout the world are constantly developing and searching for
compounds or materials that will add value to our everyday lives. Synthetic
(laboratory-made or man-made) polymers have made the biggest inroad into our
modern day living and today polymer chemistry has given rise to a multibillion-
rand industry. Pens, plastic bottles, food wrap, clothes, photographic film and
toys are just some of the diverse items that are made from synthetic polymers.
What is a polymer? A polymer is a macromolecule (large molecule) that is
formed by linking together many monomers (smaller and identical molecules or
units). The process of linking these molecules together is called polymerisation.
Imagine joining together identical paperclips to form a long chain. The chain
would represent the polymer and each paperclip would represent the monomer.
Polyethylene, a type of plastic that has many uses, is an example of a simple
polymer. Ethylene (CH2=CH2) is the monomer that makes up the many re-
peating units of polyethylene [-CH2-CH2-]n (n is the number of times that the
monomer is repeated in the polymer).
The applications of polymers are endless and you can probably see these ap-
plications by exploring your house or shopping mall. Some of these applications
are listed below:

Consumer goods
Polyethylene, poly(vinyl chloride) and polypropylene are just some of the many
polymers that are used in the manufacture of everyday products such as film,
squeeze bottles and toys respectively. Packaging, food containers and hot drink
cups are made from polystyrene while Teflon provides non-stick surfaces for
dishes and clothes. Synthetic polymers are also used in the manufacture of car-
pets, blankets and clothing.

Medicine
In addition to artificial joints, heart valves and surgical gowns synthetic poly-
mers have also played a major role in tissue engineering.

Industry
Many of the parts found in trucks and cars are made from synthetic polymers.
Poly(vinyl chloride) is used in the fabrication of piping that is used extensively
in industry. Further, polymers have also been used in space shuttle nose cones
and in components found on aircrafts.

123
Sport
Synthetic polymers possess incredible strength and heat resistance and are used
in the manufacture of many types of sporting equipment such as tennis racquets
and hi-tech bicycles. Nylon is not only used in the clothing industry but is also
used to make fishing line and ropes. Kevlar is used in the manufacture of skis.
In addition, the strength of Kevlar is greater than steel and is used in bullet-
proof vests, flame-resistant clothing and helmets.

Sir Isaac Newton (a very famous scientist) once said, If I have seen further it
is by standing on the shoulders of giants. The pioneers of polymer chemistry and
their revolutionary work and discoveries paved the way for future scientists to
make many astonishing discoveries and inventions of their own. Today, polymer
chemistry has become a sophisticated science that designs macromolecules for
almost every conceivable use.

Lets look at some of the major developments of polymer chemistry:

• 1839: Charles Goodyear discovered the process of vulcanization by serendip-

ity (an accidental discovery). He accidentally spilled a mixture of rubber
(a polymer) and sulphur on a stove. The resulting mixture had better and
improved properties than natural rubber. Goodyear named the process
after Vulcan, the Roman god of fire.
• 1887: Rayon, the first synthetic fibre, was developed by Count Hilaire de
Chardonnet.

• 1909: Leo Baekeland becomes the first person to develop the first syn-
thetic plastic called Bakelite.

• 1920: Hermann Staudinger proposes that polymers are actually long

chains that are made up of repeating units. Staudinger later received
the Nobel Prize for his research. X-ray crystallography later proved that
polymers are indeed made from smaller units called monomers.

• 1920: During the late 1920s Wallace Carothers and a team of scientists
at the Du Pont company in America began to synthesise many polymers
including nylon.

• 1939: The industrial production of polyethylene began.

• 1971: The production of Kevlar began.

Nowadays, making bigger and better polymers have become the norm. How-
ever, there are many scientists that have turned their attention to alleviating
environmental pollution. One such attempt is the production of polymers that
will degrade over time when subjected to ultraviolet light or when buried in the
soil.
The polymer industry generates huge turnovers in many countries and South
Africa is no exception. Sasol Polymers, a division of Sasols chemical business, is
South Africas leading producer of monomers and polymers. By 2006, Sasol Poly-
mers will be will be producing more than 1.5 million tons of polymers a year and
marketing these to a growing base of customers in Africa, Europe and Asia. The

124
two main polymer/monomer producing plants are based in Sasolburg and Se-
cunda and are responsible for the production of ethylene, propylene, low-density
polyethylene (LDPE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), polypropylene,
vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), as well as other
miscellaneous chemicals.
Together with joint venture partners, Sasol Polymers manages investments in
two large plants in Malaysia and are currently developing an integrated ethylene
and polyethylene production facility in Iran. In order to remain cost-competitive
and consistently reliable, Sasol Polymers have invested substantially in upgrad-
ing their technologies, including their catalysts, and the manner in which they
modify and refine their polymerisation reactors. Further, they have setup a
Polymers Technology Centre, which will play a key role in demonstrating Sasol
Polymers drive for continuing improvement in product and service output. At
the centre, the polymers undergo several tests to determine their suitability
for certain end-products and conversion processes. In addition, the centre will
also help improve plant technology, operational efficiencies and new product
offerings.
Sasol Polymers is truly a remarkable company as many of their products
are utilised in a vast array of applications such as: woven cloth, furniture,
automotive components, domestic ware, cable sheathing for electrical, electronic
and telecommunication applications, cling wrap, personal-care products, floor
tiles, piping, credit cards, smart cards, computer housing, footwear, wallpaper,
blood and transfusion sets and many other applications.
The future of polymer chemistry is very promising. Perhaps one day you will
become a famous scientist that discovers a new material that will revolutionise
our lives!

Chapter Sections:

• SASOL, fuels, monomers and polymers, polymerisation

• the Chloralkali industry (soap, PVC, etc)

• Fertiliser industry (NPK)

• Batteries, torch car etc.

125
Appendix A

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License

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document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU
General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software,
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unlimited in duration, to use that work under the conditions stated herein.

126
The “Document”, below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of
the public is a licensee, and is addressed as “you”. You accept the license if
you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission under
copyright law.
A “Modified Version” of the Document means any work containing the Doc-
ument or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or
translated into another language.
A “Secondary Section” is a named appendix or a front-matter section of
the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers
or authors of the Document to the Document’s overall subject (or to related
matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject.
(Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary
Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter
of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal,
commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them.
The “Invariant Sections” are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are
designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that
the Document is released under this License. If a section does not fit the above
definition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant.
The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not
identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.
The “Cover Texts” are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-
Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is
released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and
a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words.
A “Transparent” copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, rep-
resented in a format whose specification is available to the general public, that is
suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or
(for images composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some
widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters
or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text for-
matters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup,
or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent
modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent
if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy that is not “Transparent” is
called “Opaque”.
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII
without markup, Texinfo input format, LATEX input format, SGML or XML us-
ing a publicly available DTD and standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript
or PDF designed for human modification. Examples of transparent image for-
mats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats
that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or
XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally available,
and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word
processors for output purposes only.
The “Title Page” means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such
following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires
to appear in the title page. For works in formats which do not have any title
page as such, “Title Page” means the text near the most prominent appearance
of the work’s title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text.

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 A section “Entitled XYZ” means a named subunit of the Document whose
title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that
translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specific section
name mentioned below, such as “Acknowledgements”, “Dedications”, “Endorse-
ments”, or “History”.) To “Preserve the Title” of such a section when you mod-
ify the Document means that it remains a section “Entitled XYZ” according to
this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which
states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers
are considered to be included by reference in this License, but only as regards
disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers
may have is void and has no effect on the meaning of this License.

VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially
or non-commercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the
license notice saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in
all copies, and that you add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this
License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading
or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may
accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough
number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section A.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you
may publicly display copies.

COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed
covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document’s license
notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry,
clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover,
and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and
legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must
present the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and visible.
You may add other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes
limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and
satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you
should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover,
and continue the rest onto adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more
than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along
with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-
network location from which the general network-using public has access to
download using public-standard network protocols a complete Transparent copy
of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you must
take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies

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in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at
the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an
Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the
public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Doc-
ument well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a
chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.

MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the
conditions of sections A and A above, provided that you release the Modified
Version under precisely this License, with the Modified Version filling the role
of the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of the Modified
Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things
in the Modified Version:

1. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that
of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if
there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You
may use the same title as a previous version if the original publisher of
that version gives permission.

2. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities respon-
sible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together
with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all of its prin-
cipal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you from this
requirement.

3. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version,
as the publisher.

4. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.

5. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to

the other copyright notices.

6. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving

the public permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this
License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.

7. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and re-
quired Cover Texts given in the Document’s license notice.

8. Include an unaltered copy of this License.

9. Preserve the section Entitled “History”, Preserve its Title, and add to it
an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the
Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled
“History” in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and
publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item
describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.

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 10. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public
access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network
locations given in the Document for previous versions it was based on.
These may be placed in the “History” section. You may omit a network
location for a work that was published at least four years before the Doc-
ument itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to gives
permission.

11. For any section Entitled “Acknowledgements” or “Dedications”, Preserve

the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and
tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given
therein.

12. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text
and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered
part of the section titles.

13. Delete any section Entitled “Endorsements”. Such a section may not be
included in the Modified Version.
14. Do not re-title any existing section to be Entitled “Endorsements” or to
conflict in title with any Invariant Section.

15. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices

that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the
Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these sections as
invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the
Modified Version’s license notice. These titles must be distinct from any other
section titles.
You may add a section Entitled “Endorsements”, provided it contains noth-
ing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties–for example,
statements of peer review or that the text has been approved by an organisation
as the authoritative definition of a standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a
passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover
Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one
of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any
one entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the same cover,
previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are
acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one,
on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give
permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement
of any Modified Version.

COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this Li-
cense, under the terms defined in section A above for modified versions, provided

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that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the
original documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your
combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty
Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple
identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are
multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different contents, make
the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses,
the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a
unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled “History” in
the various original documents, forming one section Entitled “History”; likewise
combine any sections Entitled “Acknowledgements”, and any sections Entitled
“Dedications”. You must delete all sections Entitled “Endorsements”.

COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents
released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License
in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection,
provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each
of the documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it
individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into
the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding
verbatim copying of that document.

AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and in-
dependent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution
medium, is called an “aggregate” if the copyright resulting from the compila-
tion is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation’s users beyond what
the individual works permit. When the Document is included an aggregate,
this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not
themselves derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section A is applicable to these copies of the
Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the
Document’s Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document
within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is
in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket
the whole aggregate.

TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute transla-
tions of the Document under the terms of section A. Replacing Invariant Sec-

131
tions with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders,
but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to
the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation
of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty
Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this
License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a
disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or
a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled “Acknowledgements”, “Dedica-
tions”, or “History”, the requirement (section A) to Preserve its Title (section A)
will typically require changing the actual title.

TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sub-license, or distribute the Document except as
expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify,
sub-license or distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate
your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or
rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so
long as such parties remain in full compliance.

FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU
Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be
similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new
problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If
the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License “or
any later version” applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and
conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been
published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document
does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version
ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your

documents
To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License
in the document and put the following copyright and license notices just after
the title page:

Copyright ° c YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to copy,

distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU
Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version pub-
lished by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,

132
 no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the li-
cense is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation
License”.

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,

replace the “with...Texts.” line with this:
with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the Front-
Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.
If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combina-
tion of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recom-
mend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software
license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free
software.

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