A Review of Biopesticides

and Their Mode of Action Against

Insect Pests
Sengottayan Senthil-Nathan

Abstract

Biopesticides, including entomopathogenic viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and plant secondary metabolites, are gaining increasing importance
as they are alternatives to chemical pesticides and are a major component
of many pest control programs. The virulence of various biopesticides
such as nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV), bacteria, and plant product
were tested under laboratory conditions very successfully and the selected
ones were also evaluated under field conditions with major success.
Biopesticide products (including beneficial insects) are now available
commercially for the control of pest and diseases. The overall aim of
biopesticide research is to make these biopesticide products available at
farm level at an affordable price, and this would become a possible tool in
the integrated pest management strategy. Moreover, biopesticide research
is still going on and further research is needed in many aspects including
bioformulation and areas such as commercialization. There has been a
substantial renewal of commercial interest in biopesticides as demonstrated by the considerable number of agreements between pesticide companies and bioproduct companies which allow the development of effective
biopesticides in the market. This paper has reviewed the important and
basic defection of major biopesticides in the past. The future prospects for
the development of new biopesticides are also discussed.

S. Senthil-Nathan (*)
Division of Biopesticides and Environmental
Toxicology, Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Excellence
in Environmental Sciences, Manonmaniam
Sundaranar University, 627 412 Alwarkurichi,
Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [email protected];
[email protected]

Introduction

1.1

Biopesticides

Biopesticides are developed from naturally occurring living organisms such as animals, plants, and
microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, fungi, and viruses)
that can control serious plant-damaging insect
pests by their nontoxic eco-friendly mode of

P. Thangavel and G. Sridevi (eds.), Environmental Sustainability,

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2056-5_3, Springer India 2015

49

S. Senthil-Nathan

50

actions, therefore reaching importance all over the

world. Biopesticides and their by-products are
mainly utilized for the management of pests injurious to plants (Mazid et al. 2011).
Biopesticides are classified into three different
categories: (1) plant-incorporated protectants, (2)
microbial pesticides, and (3) biochemical pesticides. They do not have any residue problem,
which is a matter of substantial concern for consumers, specifically for edible fruits and vegetables. When they are used as a constituent of
insect pest management, the efficacy of biopesticides can be equal to that of conventional pesticides, particularly for crops like fruits, vegetables,
nuts, and flowers. By combining synthetic pesticide performance and environmental safety,
biopesticides execute efficaciously with the tractability of minimum application limitations and
with superior resistance management potential
(Kumar 2012; Senthil-Nathan 2013).
Copping and Menn (2000) reported that
biopesticides have been gaining attention and
interest among those concerned with developing
environmentally friendly and safe integrated crop
management (ICM)-compatible approaches and
tactics for pest management. In particular, farmers adoption of biopesticides may follow the
recent trend of organically produced food and
the more effective introduction of biologically
based products with a wide spectrum of biological activities against key target organisms, as well
as the developing recognition that these agents
can be utilized to replace synthetic chemical pesticides (Menn and Hall 1999; Copping and Menn
2000; Chandrasekaran et al. 2012; SenthilNathan 2013).
Insecticides from microorganisms extend a
unique chance to developing countries to
research, and they have possessed to develop
natural biopesticide resources in protecting crops.
The utilization of biopesticide programs would
be required to prevent the development of resistance in target insect pests to synthetic chemical
pesticides and toxins from biopesticides (Copping
and Menn 2000; Senthil-Nathan 2006; SenthilNathan et al. 2006, 2009).
Compared with chemical pesticides, biopesticides do not present the same regulatory prob-

lems seen with chemical pesticides. Biopesticides

are frequently target specific, are benign to
beneficial insects, and do not cause air and water
quality problems in the environment, and also
agricultural crops can be reentered soon after
treatment. Microorganisms from nature can also
be used in organic production, and risks to human
health are low. In addition, the usage of biopesticides has other several advantages; e.g., many
target pests are not resistant to their effects
(Goettel et al. 2001; EPA 2006).
Biopesticides derived from bacteria like
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a large array of fungi,
viruses, protozoa, and some beneficial nematodes
have been formulated for greenhouse, turf, field
crop, orchard, and garden use (Hom 1996; Butt
et al. 2001a, b; Grewal et al. 2005; EPA 2006).
Biocontrol microbials, their insecticidal metabolic products, and other pesticides based on
living organisms are sorted as biopesticides by
the EPA. There are hundreds of registered products
enlisted in EPA (2013).

Microbial Pesticides

2.1

Bacteria

2.1.1 Bacillus thuringiensis

Beginning in the 1980s and continuing to the
present, a different molecular approach has been
employed to develop market acceptance of
biopesticides. Earlier, several efforts were
aimed at establishing microbial insecticides,
like Bt, which has been used commercially over
40 years (Gelernter and Schwab 1993). Later,
some Bacillus species such as Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis Bti and Bacillus sphaericus
2362 (Bs) were found particularly effective
against mosquito (Revathi et al. 2013) and other
dipteran larvae. Bti was first discovered to have
increased toxicity against mosquito larvae in
1975 (Goldberg and Margalit 1977).
Various bacterial species and subspecies,
especially Bacillus, Pseudomonas, etc., have
been established as biopesticides and are primarily used to control insect and plant diseases. Most
salient among these are insecticides based on

A Review of Biopesticides and Their Mode of Action Against Insect Pests

51

Fig. 1 Mode of action

of Bt toxin against
lepidopteran insects

several subspecies of Bacillus thuringiensis

Berliner. These include B. thuringiensis ssp.
kurstaki and aizawai, with the highest activity
against lepidopteran larval species; B. thuringiensis israelensis, with activity against mosquito
larvae, black fly (simuliid), and fungus gnats; B.
thuringiensis tenebrionis, with activity against
coleopteran adults and larvae, most notably the
Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata); and B. thuringiensis japonensis strain
Buibui, with activity against soil-inhabiting
beetles (Carlton 1993; Copping and Menn 2000).
Bt produces crystalline proteins and kills few
target insect pest species like lepidopteran species.
The binding of the Bt crystalline proteins to insect
gut receptor determines the target insect pest
(Kumar 2012).

Toxicity of Bti and some other toxic strains is

commonly imputed to the parasporal inclusion
bodies (-endotoxins) which are produced during
sporulation time. These endotoxins must be
assimilated by the larvae to accomplish toxicity.
Bt and their subspecies produce different insecticidal crystal proteins (-endotoxins), and their
toxicity was determined (Chilcott et al. 1983;
Aronson and Shai 2001). These toxins, when
ingested by the larvae, can damage the gut tissues, leading to gut paralysis. After that, the
infected larvae stop feeding and finally they die
from the combined effects of starvation and midgut epithelium impairment (Fig. 1) (Betz et al.
2000; Zhu et al. 2000; Darboux et al. 2001).
Some other microbial pesticides act by outcompeting insect pest organisms. Microbial

S. Senthil-Nathan

52

pesticides need to be continuously supervised to

ensure that they do not become capable of injuring nontarget organisms, including humans
(Mazid et al. 2011). In previous studies, the
microbial pesticide advance has resulted in a significant decrease of synthetic chemical insecticide usage (James 2009).
Gray et al. (2006) reported Bt toxins produced
by plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, which
also develop bacteriocin compounds of insecticidal attributes. Bt is marketed worldwide for the
control of different important plant pests, mainly
caterpillars, mosquito larvae, and black flies.
Commercial Bt-based products include powders
containing a combination of dried spores and
crystal toxins. They are applied on leaves or other
environments where the insect larvae feed. Toxin
genes from Bt have been genetically engineered
into several crops.

Fungi

3.1

Metarhizium anisopliae

M. anisopliae Sorokin var. anisopliae is an

essential entomopathogenic fungus. It propagates worldwide in the soil, demonstrating a
wide range of insect host species. This subspecies was first described in 1879 by Metschnikoff,
under the term Entomophthora anisopliae, as a
pathogen of the wheat cockchafer, and later it

was termed M. anisopliae by Sorokin in 1883

(Tulloch 1976).
Several entomopathogenic fungi and their
derivatives are also used as microbial pesticides. M.
anisopliae are hyphomycete entomopathogenic
fungi most widely used for insect pest control and
are ubiquitous worldwide. This species comprises
a huge number of different strains and isolates of
various geographical origins and from different
types of hosts (Roberts and St. Leger 2004).
Under natural conditions, Metarhizium are
found in the soil, where the moist conditions permit filamentous growth and production of infectious spores, called conidia, which infect
soil-dwelling insects upon contact (Fig. 2). M.
anisopliae has the potential to be used as a biocontrol agent, particularly for malaria vector species, and is also a suitable candidate for further
research and development (Mnyone et al. 2010).
Driver et al. (2000) reevaluated the taxonomy of
the genus Metarhizium using sequence data from
ITS and 28S rDNA D3 regions and also using
RAPD patterns, revealing ten distinguishable
clades. M. anisopliae var. anisopliae represents
clade 9. These entomopathogenic fungi have been
viewed as safe and regarded as an environmentally
satisfactory alternative to synthetic chemical pesticides (Domsch et al. 1980; Zimmermann 1993).
Recently, these entomopathogenic fungi have been
registered as microbial agents and are also under
commercial development for the biological control
of several pests (Butt et al. 2001a, b).

Fig. 2 Mode of action of entomopathogenic fungi against lepidopteran insects

A Review of Biopesticides and Their Mode of Action Against Insect Pests

M. anisopliae strains are obtained from different

geographical localities (Fegan et al. 1993), as suggested, among others, by extremely variable toxicities (Goettel and Jaronski 1997). M. anisopliae have
been used on a large scale in countries like Brazil,
where 100,000 ha of sugarcanes are treated every
year (Faria and Magalhes 2001). They are released
in the field after thorough assessment of strains.
Consorting to Goettel et al. (2001) have reported
that the growth and application of fungi as microbial agents for biocontrol of insect pest involve tests
with mammalian models to evaluate possible
human and animal health risks.

Virus

4.1

Baculovirus

Baculoviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses

present in arthropods, mainly insects. Baculoviruses
are usually highly pathogenic and have been used
efficaciously in their natural form as biocontrol
agents against numerous serious insect pests

53

(Moscardi 1999). Even so, the application of

baculoviruses is still limited in the field of agriculture and horticulture where the thresholds for pest
damage tend to be minimized. In Lepidoptera, i.e.,
the primary group where baculoviruses have been
isolated, they only cause mortality in the larval
stage (Cory 2000).
Baculoviruses need to be ingested by the larvae to initiate infection. After ingestion, they
enter the insects body through the midgut and
from there they spread throughout the body,
although in some insects, infection can be limited
to the insect midgut or the fat body (Fig. 3). Two
groups of baculoviruses exist: the nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPVs) and granuloviruses (GVs).
In NPVs, occlusion bodies comprise numerous
virus particles, but in GVs, occlusion bodies
ordinarily contain just one virus particle. A
common feature of baculoviruses is that they are
occluded, i.e., the virus particles are embedded
in a protein matrix. The presence of occlusion
bodies plays an essential role in baculovirus
biology as it allows the virus to survive outside
the host (Cory 2000).

Fig. 3 Mode of action of baculoviruses against lepidopteran insects

S. Senthil-Nathan

54

Recently, it has been substantially demonstrated

that baculoviruses are not infectious to vertebrates
and plants. Also within the insects, their host range
is restricted to the order from which they were isolated. Genetic engineering of baculoviruses has so
far been restricted to isolates from Lepidoptera
(Kolodny-Hirsch et al. 1997). Baculoviruses vary
in the number of hosts that they can infect; some
seem to be particular to one species and hence are
very unlikely to be a hazard when genetically modified, whereas others infect a range of hosts (Barber
et al. 1993; Richards et al. 1999; Cory et al. 2000).
The majority of new baculovirus recombinants now employ insect-selective toxins.
Genetic modification has been mostly carried
out on the alfalfa looper, Autographa californica NPV (AcNPV)-the virus for which most
molecular information is available, including
the complete DNA sequence, which permits
precise insertion of foreign genes. Recently, the
development of genetically modified baculoviruses has expanded to other strains of commercial or regional interest (Popham et al. 1997;
Cory 2000).
Baculovirus-infected insect larvae have primarily initiated a cascade of molecular and cellular appendages finally the larva enters into the
death and the development of huge amounts of
polyhedral occlusion bodies comprising rodshaped virions (Miller 1997). Lately, a naturally
occurring baculovirus (Agrotis ipsilon multiple
nucleopolyhedrovirus, family Baculoviridae,
AgipMNPV) was indicated to have hope as a
microbial insecticide for controlling A. ipsilon in
turf (Prater et al. 2006).
Numerous viral formulations are available primarily for the control of caterpillar pests. For
instance, Certis has recently registered Madex,
an increased-potency codling moth granulosis
virus (GV) that also affects oriental fruit moth
(OFM). Certis also deals Cyd-X, which also
contains the codling moth GV and which can be
an efficient tool for codling moth management
(Arthurs and Lacey 2004; Arthurs et al. 2005).
Aside from Madex and Cyd-X, Certis markets
Gemstar, which contains Heliothis zea NPV,
and Spod-X, which contains beet armyworm
NPV. Gemstar is also registered for the control of

lepidopteran pests, like the cotton bollworm and

budworm, caterpillars that are mainly dangerous
insect pests of corn, soybean, and other vegetables (Arthurs et al. 2005). Furthermore, Certis
has registered a celery looper (Syngrapha falcifera) NPV and an alfalfa looper (Autographa
californica) NPV (EPA 2006).

Nematodes

5.1

Steinernema (Rhabditida)

One of the new hot products in biopesticide is

nematodes. Pest nematodes can be supervised
with cover crops, crop rotation, and internalization of organic material into the soil (McSorely
1999). In the early 1990s, various effective entomopathogenic nematodes from two genera,
namely, Steinernema and Heterorhabditis
(Nematoda: Rhabditida), were discovered and
established as a biocontrol agent against insects
(Copping and Menn 2000).
Insect-parasitic nematodes may encroach
upon soil-dwelling stages of insects and kill them
within 48 h through the expulsion of pathogenic
bacteria. After the host dies, the infectious stages
of the nematodes become adults and a modern
generation of infective juveniles (IJs) develops
(Fig. 4). Entomopathogenic nematodes are commonly available for plant protection from serious
insect pests and diseases, and also there have
been various efforts to biocontrol insect pest populations in the field by employing IJs via spraying. Nevertheless, little is known about the ability
of indigenous nematodes to influence insect pest
populations (Peters 1996).
In nematodes, the parasitic cycle is initiated
by the third-stage IJs. These nonfeeding juveniles
infest suitable insect host and enter through the
insects natural body openings like the anus,
mouth, and spiracles (Grewal et al. 1997). Once
they have entered inside the host, nematodes
infest the hemocoel and then release their symbiotic bacteria into the intestine. After that, the bacteria cause septicemia, killing the host within
2448 h (Fig. 4). The uptake of IJs is rapidly
manipulating by the bacteria and decomposed the

A Review of Biopesticides and Their Mode of Action Against Insect Pests

55

Release of
bacteria

Host finding
Infection
Infective juvenile

Host Killed
Development

Infective Juvenile Emergence

Heterorhabditidae
Adult stage

[Inside Egg]
Reproduction

Steinernematidae
Adult stage

Fig. 4 Mode of action of entomopathogenic nematodes against lepidopteran insects

host tissues. Almost two to three generations of

the nematodes are finished within the host
cadaver (Pomar and Leutenegger 1968; Bird and
Akhurst 1983).
In previous research studies, it has been
clearly indicated that entomopathogenic nematodes can be effective biocontrol agents against
some of the major insect pest families found in
stored goods like Pyralidae (Shannag and
Capinera 2000) and Curculionidae (Duncan and
McCoy 1996; Shapiro and McCoy 2000). Earlier,
Morris (1985) had demonstrated the susceptibility of insect pests found in stored products,
including Ephestia kuehniella Zeller and
Tenebrio molitor L., to an increased concentration of nematodes. Georgis (1990) had also advocated a field concentration of >2.5 billion
nematodes/ha against some of the major insect
pests of row crops, but concentrations few times
higher (715 billion/ha) are demanded to accomplish the control of pest population (Loya and
Hower 2002).

Protozoa

6.1

Nosema

In previous studies, protozoan diseases of

insects are ubiquitous in nature and constitute
an essential regulatory role in insect populations
(Maddox 1987; Brooks 1988). Microsporidia,
such as Nosema spp., are generally host specific
and slow acting, most frequently producing
chronic infections. The biological activities of
most entomopathogenic protozoa are complex.
They grow only in living hosts and some species necessitate an intermediate host.
Microsporidia species are among the most
commonly observed, and their main benefits
are persistence and recycling in host populations and their debilitating effect on reproduction and overall fitness of target insects. As
inundatively utilized microbial control agents,
some species have been moderately successful
(Solter and Becnel 2000).

S. Senthil-Nathan

56

Some protozoan species are pathogenic like

Nosema locustae for grasshoppers, which is the
only species that has been registered and established commercially (Henry and Oma 1981). N.
bombycis, the first reported microsporidium, is a
pathogen of silkworm pbrine, which persisted in
Europe, North America, and Asia during the
mid-nineteenth century (Becnel and Andreadis
1999). Pbrine is still an epidemic and causes
heavy economic losses in silk-producing countries such as China (Cai et al. 2012).
Almost 1,000 protozoan species, mainly microsporidia, attack invertebrates, including numerous
insect species like grasshoppers and heliothine
moths. Virtually renowned insect-pathogenic protozoan species are Nosema spp. and Vairimorpha
necatrix. Protozoans produce spores, which are
the infectious phase in several susceptible insects.
Nosema spp. spores are assimilated by the host
and develop in the midgut. Germinating spores are
released from the sporoplasm and invade host target cells, inducing massive infection and demolishing organs and tissues. Sporulation process
begins again from the infected tissues and, upon
expulsion and ingestion by a susceptible host,
induces an epizootic infection. Naturally, parasitoids and insect predators commonly act as vectors
distributing the disease (Brooks 1988).

Botanical Insecticides

Since ancient times, natural compounds from

plants were used, more or less efficaciously to
give security from insect pests. In the nineteenth
century, these compounds became scientifically
established and widely utilized in the earlier
period of the twentieth century (Morgan 2004).
Plants and some insects have coexisted on the
earth for almost three and a half million years,
which has allowed lots of time for both to develop
offensive and defensive strategies. Plants have
developed many strategies to assist themselves
from being assaulted by predators. An example
of such plant strategy is developing compounds
that are highly toxic to insects (Warthen and
Morgan 1985; Arnason et al. 1989; Morgan and
Wilson 1999; Nisha et al. 2012).

7.1

Neem

In Asia, neem has an extensive history of use

mainly against household and storage pests and,
to some extent, against insect pests of crops.
Nevertheless, a breakthrough in the insecticidal
application of neem was attained by Pradhan
et al. (1962) who successfully protected the crops
from insects by applying them with low concentration of 0.1 % neem seed kernel suspension
during a locust invasion. The Indian neem tree
(Azadirachta indica) is one of the most important
limonoid-producing plants from the Meliaceae
family. Several components of its leaves and
seeds show marked insect control potential, and
due to their relative selectivity, neem products
can be recommended for many programs on crop
pest management (Schmutterer 1990). Neem
product activity has been assessed against 450
500 insect pest species in different countries
around the world, and from that, 413 insect pest
species are reportedly susceptible at various concentrations (Schmutterer and Singh 1995).
In India alone, neem activity has been assessed
against 103 species of insect pests, 12 nematodes,
and several pathogenic fungi (Singh and Kataria
1991; Arora and Dhaliwal 1994). Some recent
reviews on the potential of neem in pest management include those of Singh (1996, 2000), Singh
and Raheja (1996), Naqvi (1996), Saxena (1998),
and Dhaliwal and Arora (2001). Most works have
focused on azadirachtin (Fig. 5) richly from neem
seed extracts which act as both strong antifeedants and insect growth regulators. Azadirachtin
affects the physiological activities of insects
(Mordue (Luntz) and Blackwell 1993) and does
not affect other biocontrol agents. Further, neem
products are biodegradable and nontoxic to nontarget organisms (Senthil-Nathan 2013).
In several Asian countries, numerous studies
have measured neem activity alone or in combination with established insecticides and other
biocontrol agents of damaging insect pests in
agricultural crop system (Abdul Kareem et al.
1987; Senthil-Nathan et al. 2005a, 2006). In
Indian field trials carried out, neem treatments
were determined to be effective against some
insect species like green leafhopper, yellow stem

A Review of Biopesticides and Their Mode of Action Against Insect Pests

O
O

C-OCH3

OH
OH

CH3C - O

OH
C

CH3O

Fig. 5 Structure of azadirachtin

borer, rice gall midge, rice leaffolder, and grasshopper (Dhaliwal et al. 1996; Nanda et al. 1996;
Senthil-Nathan et al. 2009).

7.2

Melia azedarach

The promotion of botanicals as eco-friendly pesticides, microbial sprays, and insect growth regulators has been a major concern amid the presence
of other control measures like beneficial insects,
all of which demand an integration of supervised
insect pest control (Ascher et al. 1995). Plantbased insecticides are developed naturally from
plant chemicals extracted for use against serious
insect pests. As a result of concerns about the
ecological continuity of synthetic pesticides and
their potential toxicity to humans, nontarget beneficial insects, and some domestic animals, there
is a regenerated interest in natural products to
control insect pests. From this conclusion, the
development of biopesticides seems to be a logical choice for further investigation. Meliaceae
and Rutaceae species have received much attention due to the fact that they are a rich source of
triterpenes known as limonoids (Connolly 1983).
The Meliaceae plant family is known to hold
an assortment of compounds with insecticidal,
antifeedant, growth-regulating, insect-deforming,
and growth-modifying properties (Champagne
et al. 1989; Schmutterer 1990; Mordue (Luntz)
and Blackwell 1993; Senthil-Nathan and
Kalaivani 2005, 2006; Senthil-Nathan 2006;
Senthil-Nathan et al. 2004, 2005a, b, c).

57

M. azedarach, otherwise known as chinaberry

or Persian lilac tree, is a deciduous tree that originates from northwestern India, and it has been
recognized for its insecticidal properties, which
are still to be entirely analyzed. This tree grows in
the tropical and subtropical parts of Asia, but
nowadays it is also cultivated in other warm
places of the world because of its considerable
climatic tolerance. The leaves of M. azedarach
are used for their insecticidal activity, whereas
the fruit extracts of M. azedarach produce a variety of effects in insects, such as growth retardation, reduced fecundity, molting disorders, and
behavior changes (Ascher et al. 1995).
The antifeedant and insect growth-regulating
effects of M. azedarach extracts are known for
many insects (Connolly 1983; Saxena et al. 1984;
Champagne et al. 1992; Schmidt et al. 1998; Juan
et al. 2000; Carpinella et al. 2003; Senthil-Nathan
2006; Senthil-Nathan and Sehoon 2006), the latter
effect being the most essential physiological effect
of M. azedarach on insects (Ascher et al. 1995).
As previously mentioned, the Meliaceae plant
family has been known as a potential source for
insecticide properties. Also, several extracts from
neem and other plant seeds and leaves have excellent insecticidal properties against vectors and are
at the same time very eco-friendly (Schmutterer
1990; Senthil-Nathan et al. 2005a, b, c). The efficaciousness of these neem products on mosquitoes was also demonstrated (Chavan 1984; Zebitz
1984, 1986; Schmutterer 1990; Su and Mulla
1999; Senthil-Nathan et al. 2005d).
Without a doubt, plant-derived toxicants are a
valuable source of potential insecticides. Plants
and other natural insecticides may play a vital
role in mosquito control programs as well as in
other major insect control programs (Mordue
(Luntz) and Blackwell 1993).

Biochemical Pesticides

8.1

Pheromones

Insects produce chemicals called pheromones to

stimulate a certain behavioral reaction from other
individuals. These pheromones have numerous

S. Senthil-Nathan

58

effects and are named according to their evoked

response, for example, sex pheromones, aggregation pheromones, alarm pheromones, etc. A few
pheromones function as sex attractants, permitting individuals to detect and locate mates,
whereas others induce trail following, oviposition, and aggregation in other congeners.
Pheromones have become essential tools for
monitoring and controlling agricultural pest populations, and as such, a huge collection of over
1,600 pheromones and sex attractants has been
reported (Witzgall et al. 2004).
In the past decades, there has been a significant
volume of literature on insect pheromones and
new opportunities have arisen to explore the use
of semiochemicals in managing insect pest problems. Insect control by pheromones alone has precincts, but they can be applied in integrated
control in combination with other practices
(Howse et al. 1998; Reddy and Guerrero 2004).
Plant volatiles are recognized as an integral part
of the pheromone system of various Coleopteran
species studied so far. How the combinations of
pheromones and plant volatiles are incorporated
into the insects olfactory systems so that they can
discriminate pheromone molecules alone and
pheromone plus odor plume strands and react
behaviorally to these signals is a question of
increasing importance (Baker and Heath 2004).
Recently, the pest management system has
undergone an intentional shift from calendarbased, broad-spectrum insecticide applications to
more holistic, integrated, and high-efficacy
approaches. Furthermore, environmental conservation, food safety, and resistance management
are a few of the key components guiding current
pest management policies in commercial agriculture (Witzgall et al. 2010).
Kogan and Jepson (2007) had reported that
meeting the necessities of the quickly expanding
global population while incorporating sustainability and ecological stewardship is a major
challenge facing modern agriculture. In agricultural fields, the application of pheromones and/or
allelochemicals as behavioral manipulation tools
can replace or complement existing pest management programs (Witzgall et al. 2008), resulting in
a decreased rate of broad-spectrum use.

Nowadays, pheromones and other semiochemicals are applied to monitor and control
pests in millions of hectares. There are several
advantages of utilizing pheromones for monitoring pests, including lower costs, specificity, ease
of use, and high sensitivity (Wall 1990; Laurent
and Frrot 2007; Witzgall et al. 2010). Insect pest
monitoring by using pheromone lures can profit
management conclusions such as insecticide
application timing (Leskey et al. 2012; Peng et al.
2012).
Pheromones produced by insects are highly
species specific. Virgin female insects are developing sex pheromones when expecting for a mate
and males along the concentration slope for the
female producer. Aggregation pheromones are
released by insects such as wood-invading beetles to show to others the presence of a good food
source (Copping and Menn 2000).
Some of the alarm pheromones are developed
by insects that are beneath approach from a predator and this contributes to a movement of the
insect pest aside from the production source and,
therefore it becomes dangerous. Plants and its
derived attractants are also known that interact
with the insects to a valuable food source and,
while combine with insect-derived attractants
will be developed a potent attraction to some
insect pests (Copping and Menn 2000).
In previous studies, Mayer and McLaughlin
(1991) proposed that all insects produce approximate form of pheromone and companies subsist
that synthesize a pheromone for any customer.
Recently, 30 mating-disruption pheromonebased products are registered by the US EPA as
biocontrol agents of lepidopteran pest species
that can cause agricultural damage (Copping and
Menn 2000).

Conclusion

The utilization of natural products with commercial value is directly manifested by the
numerous compounds present in the market and
that have remained there in many cases after
many years. These values of natural products
are considered as a source of new mechanisms

A Review of Biopesticides and Their Mode of Action Against Insect Pests

and their consequent incorporation into high-output

screens is hard to evaluate. Recently, several
works have been exercised and extend to be
undertaken to enhance the shelf life, immediate
death, the biological scheme, efficient in the
field and dependability, and the effect of cost of
living systems and there have been some notable
successes in situations where some disruption to
the crop is acceptable.
Acknowledgments This book chapter was supported by
the grants from the Department of Biotechnology,
Government of India (BT/PR12049/AGR/05/468/2009). I
would like to thank my lab members, Dr. Kannan Revathi,
Dr. Rajamanickam Chandrasekaran, and Venkatraman
Pradeepa, for their help during the preparation of this
book chapter. Also, I extend my thanks to K. Karthikeyan
for his help.

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