ACCA F5 December 2015 Lecture Notes

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December 2015 Examinations
ACCA F5 1
Content
1.
Activity based costing
2.
Target costing
11
3.
Life-cycle costing
17
4.
Environmental Management Accounting
21
5.
Throughput accounting
25
6.
Limiting factors
31
7.
Pricing
37
8.
Cost Volume Profit Analysis
47
9.
Short-term decision making
55
10.
Risk and Uncertainty
63
11.
Budgeting
71
12.
Quantitative analysis in budgeting
81
13.
Standard Costing and Basic Variance Analysis
87
14.
More variance analysis
95
15.
Financial Performance Measurement
105
16.
Non-financial performance measurement
111
17.
Divisional performance measurement
115
18.
Transfer Pricing
123
19.
Performance in the not-for-profit sector
133
20.
Performance Management Information Systems
137
21.
Performance Management Systems, Measurement and Control
139
22.
Answers to Examples
143
23.
Answers to Tests
175
24.
Practice Questions
181
25.
Practice Answers
193
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Formulae Sheet
Formulae Sheet
Learning curve
Y = axb
Where Y = cumulative average time per unit to produce x units
a = the time taken for the first unit of output
x = the cumulative number of units produced
b = the index of learning (log LR/log2)
LR = the learning rate as a decimal
Demand curve
P = a bQ
b=
change in price
change in quantity
a = price when Q = 0
MR = a 2bQ
End of Question Paper
ACCA F5 3
ACCA F5
ACCA F5 5
Chapter 1
ACTIVITY BASED COSTING
1. Introduction
The traditional method of dealing with overheads is to split them between variable overheads and
fixed overheads. If we are using absorption costing we then decide on a suitable basis for absorption
(e.g. labour hours) and absorb the overheads on that basis.
Activity Based Costing (ABC) attempts to absorb overheads in a more accurate (and therefore more
useful) way.
2. The steps to be followed are as follows:
identify the major activities that give rise to overheads (e.g. machining; despatching of orders)
determine what causes the cost of each activity the cost driver (e.g. machine hours; number
of despatch orders)
calculate the total cost for each activity the cost pool (e.g. total machining costs; total costs of
despatch department)
calculate an absorption rate for each cost driver
calculate the total overhead cost for each product manufactured
calculate the overhead cost per unit for each product
ACCA F5
Example 1
Una manufactures three products: A, B, and C.
Data for the period just ended is as follows:
A
20,000
25,000
2,000
$20
$20
$20
Material cost (per unit)
$5
$10
$10
Labour hours (per unit)
2 hours
1 hour
1 hour
Production (units)
Sales price ( per unit)
(Labour is paid at the rate of $5 per hour)

Overheads for the period were as follows:
Set-up costs
90,000
Receiving
30,000
Despatch
15,000
Machining
55,000
$190,000
Cost driver data:

A
2
B
2
C
2
Number of set-ups
10
13
Number of deliveries received
10
10
Number of orders despatched
20
20
20
Machine hours per unit
(a)
Calculate the cost (and hence profit) per unit, absorbing all the overheads on the basis of labour
hours.
(b)
Calculate the cost (and hence profit) per unit absorbing the overheads using an Activity Based
Costing approach.
ACCA F5 7
3. Advantages of, and problems with, activity based costing.
ACCA F5
ACCA F5 9
Test
1
Open Ltd produces two products: X and Y.

The monthly production is 20,000 units of X, and 50,000 units of Y.
Product X is produced in batches of 1,000 units each time. Product Y is produced in batches of 5,000
each time.
The total set-up cost is $30,000 each month, and Open plc uses Activity Based Costing with the
number of production runs as the cost driver.
What is the set-up cost for each unit of product X?
A
B
C
D
$0.10 per unit

$0.05 per unit
$1.00 per unit
$0.02 per unit
Which if the following statements about Activity Based Costing is/are true?
1.
Traditional absorption costing tends to under-allocate overhead costs to low-volume products
2.
A cost driver is any factor that causes a change in the cost of an activity.
A
B
C
D
Statement 1 only
Statement 2 only
Statements 1 and 2
Neither statement
A company manufactures two products, P and Q, for which the following information is
available:
Budgeted production (units)
Labour hours per unit
Number of production runs required
Number of inspections during production
Total production set up costs
Total inspection costs
Other overhead costs
Product P
2,400
8
13
5
Product Q
9,600
10
15
3
$336,000
$192,000
$230,400
Other overhead costs are absorbed on the basis of labour hours

Using ABC, what is the budgeted overhead cost per unit of product Q?
A
B
C
D
$46.25
$43.84
$131.00
$140.64

4
Which of the following is NOT an advantage of activity based costing?

A
B
C
D
ACCA F5
It facilitates a good understanding of what drives an overhead

It may be impossible to allocate all overheads to specific activities
It can lead to a reduction in total overheads
It is concerned with all overheads - both production and non-production
Which of the following statements is/are true?

1.
When using Activity Based Costing, there may be some overheads for which there is no clear
cost driver.
2.
The costs of using Activity Based Costing may be greater than the benefits.
A
B
C
D
Statement 1 only
Statement 2 only
Both statements
Neither statement
10
ACCA F5 11
Chapter 2
TARGET COSTING
1. Introduction
An important reason for calculating the cost of the product or service is in order to decide on a selling
price. There is a chapter later in these notes that covers pricing decisions in detail, but traditionally a
very common approach to determining a selling price has been to take the cost and then add on a
profit percentage.
One problem with this approach is that it can clearly result in a price that is unacceptable to customers
and at the same time provides no direct incentive to cut costs.
Target costing is a more modern and more market driven approach.
2. Target costing
2.1. The steps involved are:
From research of the market determine a selling price at which the company expects to achieve
the desired market share (the target selling price)
Determine the profit required (e.g. a required profit margin, or a required return on investment)
Calculate the maximum cost p.u. in order to achieve the required profit (the target cost)
Compare the estimated actual costs with the target cost. If the actual cost is higher than the
target cost then look for ways of reducing costs. If no way can be found of meeting the target
cost then the product should not be produced.
Example 1
Packard plc are considering whether or not to launch a new product. The sales department have determined
that a realistic selling price will be $20 per unit.
Packard have a requirement that all products generate a gross profit of 40% of selling price.
Calculate the target cost.
Example 2
Hewlett plc is about to launch a new product on which it requires a pre-tax ROI of 30% p.a..
Buildings and equipment needed for production will cost $5,000,000.
The expected sales are 40,000 units p.a. at a selling price of $67.50 p.u..
Calculate the target cost.
ACCA F5
12
ACCA F5 13
3. The use of the target cost

Once the target cost has been determined, it will be compared with the estimated actual cost of
production. The excess of the actual cost over the target cost is known as the target cost gap, and the
company will then be looking for ways of closing this gap.
4. Possible ways of attempting to close the target cost gap
ACCA F5
5. Target costing in service industries

It is much more dicult to use target costing in service industries due to the characteristics of service
businesses.
5.1. The five major characteristics that distinguish services from manufacturing are:
Intangibility
Inseparability / Simultaneity
Variability / heterogeneity
Perishability
No transfer of ownership
14
ACCA F5 15
Test
1
The selling price of a product has been set at $450 per unit, and at that price the company expects to
sell 1,000 units per month.
The required profit margin is 20% of sales, and the expected production cost is $400 per unit.
What is the target cost gap?
A
$30
B
$40
C
$25
D
$35
sell 1,000 units per year.
The company requires a return of 20% p.a. on its investment of $1,250,000 in the product.
What is the target cost per unit?
A
B
C
D
$250
$300
$50
$60
The following are all steps in the implementation of target costing:

1.
Calculate the target cost
2.
Calculate the estimated current cost of production
3.
Determine the required profit
4.
Decide on a selling price
5.
Calculate the target cost gap
Which of the following represents the correct order of steps if target costing is being
A
B
C
D
4
(1), (2), (3), (4), (5)

(2), (3), (4), (1), (5)
(4), (3), (1), (2), (5)
(4), (5), (3), (1), (2)
The following information is available for a product:

Target selling price
$20 per unit
Target profit margin
30%
Estimated production cost
$16 per unit
What is the target cost gap for this product?

A
B
C
D
$0
$1
$2
$4
used?

5
ACCA F5
sell 5,000 units per month.
The required mark-up is 20% of cost, and the expected production cost is $520 per unit.
What is the target cost gap?
A
B
C
D
$40
$20
$25
$30
16
ACCA F5 17
Chapter 3
LIFE-CYCLE COSTING
1. Introduction
The costs involved in making a product, and the sales revenues generated, are likely to be dierent at
dierent stages in the life of a product. For example, during the initial development of the product the
costs are likely to be high and the revenue minimal i.e. the product is likely to be loss-making.
If costings (and decisions based on the costings) were only to be ever done over the short term it
could easily lead to bad decisions.
Life-cycle costing identifies the phases in the life-cycle and attempts to accumulate the costs over the
entire life of the product.
2. The product life cycle

2.1. The product life cycle may be divided into five phases:
Development
Introduction
Growth
Maturity
Decline
ACCA F5
The eect of these can be illustrated diagrammatically as follows:

Sales and
profits
Sales revenue
Profit
Time
Development
Introduction
Growth
Maturity
Decline
2.2. Maximising the return over the product life cycle
Design costs out of products
Minimise the time to market
Minimise breakeven time
Maximise the length of the life span
18
ACCA F5 19
Example 1
A company is planning a new product. Market research suggests that demand for the product would last for
5 years. At a selling price of $10.50 per unit they expect to sell 2,000 units in the first year and 12,000 units in
each of the other four years.
The company wishes to achieve a mark up of 50% on cost.
It is estimated that the lifetime costs of the product will be as follows:
1.
2.
3.
Manufacturing costs - $6.00 per unit

Design and development costs - $60,000
End of life costs - $30,000
Calculate:
(a)
the target cost for the product.
(b)
the lifecycle cost per unit and determine whether or not the product is worth making.
It has been further estimated that if the company were to spend an additional $20,000 on design, then the
manufacturing costs per unit could be reduced.
(c)
If the additional amount on design were to be spent, calculate the maximum manufacturing
cost per unit that could be allowed if the company is to achieve the required mark-up.
ACCA F5
Test
1

1.
Lifecycle costing aims to ensure that a profit is generated over the entire life of the product
2.
Lifecycle costing takes into account all costs over the life of a product, with the exception of
costs already spent on the design and development.
A
B
C
D
Statement 1 only
Statement 2 only
Both statements
Neither statement
The following costs have been identified in relation to the production of a product:
(i)
Production costs
(ii)
End of life disposal costs
(iii)
Distribution costs
(iv)
Design costs
Which of the above items should be included in calculating the life cycle costs of a product?
A
B
C
D
3
All of the above

(i) only
(i), (ii), and (iv) only
(i), (ii), and (iii) only
A company is developing a new product and expects to sell 20,000 units per year over a period of 5
years.
The lifetime costs of the product are:
1.
Design and development
$50,000
2.
Manufacturing
$5 per unit
3.
End of life costs
$10,000
What is the life cycle cost per unit?
A
B
C
D
$5 per unit
$5.50 per unit
$7.50 per unit
$8 per unit
20
ACCA F5 21
Chapter 4
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
ACCOUNTING
1. Introduction
Environmental management accounting (EMA) focuses on the ecient use of resources, and the
disposal of waste and euent.
In this chapter we will discuss the types of costs faced by businesses, and describe the dierent
methods a business may use to account for these costs.
2. The importance of considering environmental costs

If a company is wasteful in its use of resources, or alternatively causes pollution, then this impacts in
three ways:
1.
there is the direct cost to the company of spending more than is needed on resources, or having
to spend money cleaning up the pollution
2.
there is the damage to the reputation of the company consumers are becoming more and
more environmentally aware
3.
there are possible fines or penalties as a result of breaking environmental regulations.
For all of the above reasons it is important for the company to attempt to identify and to manage the
various costs involved.
4. Typical environmental costs

The cost that comes to the mind of most people immediately are those relating to dealing with waste.
However there are many other costs that are likely to be just as important.
For example:
The amount of raw materials used in production. A publisher should consider ways of using less paper
(or recyclable paper) as a way of saving costs for themselves as well as helping the environment.
Transport costs. Consideration of alternative ways of delivering goods could perhaps reduce costs and
reduce the impact on the environment.
Water and energy consumption. EMA may help to identify ineciencies and wasteful practices and,
therefore, opportunities for cost savings.
ACCA F5
5. Different methods of accounting for environmental costs

Although you cannot be required to perform any calculations for this section of the syllabus, you
should be able to explain briefly four methods that have been suggested as ways of accounting for
environmental costs.
(a)
Inflow / Outflow analysis

This approach balances the quantity of resources that is input with the quantity that is output
either as production or as waste. Measuring these in physical quantities and in monetary terms
forces the business to focus on environmental costs.
(Resources includes not simply raw materials but also energy and water. i.e. all resources)
(b)
Flow cost accounting

This is really inflow/outflow analysis (as described above) but instead of applying simply to the
business as a whole, it takes into account the organisational structure. Resources input into the
business are divided into three categories:
Material: the resources used in storing raw materials and in production
System: the resources used in (for example) storing production and quality control
Delivery and disposal: resources used in delivering to the customer and in disposing of any
waste.
As in (a), the aim is to reduce the quantities of resources used, which saves costs for the
company and leads to increased ecological eciency.
(c)
Lifecycle costing
This has been discussed in an earlier chapter. The relevance to EMA is that it is important to
include environmentally driven costs such as the costs of disposal of waste. It may be possible to
design-out these costs before the product is launched.
(d)
Environmental Activity Based Costing

Activity Based Costing has been discussed in an earlier chapter. Its application to environmental
costs is that those costs that are environment-related (e.g. costs related to a sewage plant) are
attributed to joint environmental cost centres.
As with ABC in general, this focusses more attention on these costs and potentially leads to
greater eciency and cost reduction.
22
ACCA F5 23
Test
1
Which of the following statements about environmental accounting is/are true?

1.
Flow cost accounting divides material flows within an organisation into three categories;
material flows; system flows; and delivery and disposal flows
2.
The majority of environmental costs are already captured within a typical organisations
accounting system. The diculty lies in identifying them.
A
B
C
D
Statement 1 only
Statement 2 only
Both statements
Neither statement
Which of the following is not a method that may be used to account for the environmental costs
of a business?
A
Input / output analysis
B
Throughput accounting
C
Life-cycle costing
D
Which of the following environmental accounting techniques would be relevant when

considering the costs of dismantling machines at the end of a project?
A
B
Life cycle costing
C
Input / output analysis
D
Flow cost accounting
ACCA F5
24
ACCA F5 25
Chapter 5
THROUGHPUT ACCOUNTING
1. Introduction
Key factor analysis deals with the situation where several products are being made but where there
are limited resources available.
In this chapter we will look at key factor analysis first, and then explain how this may be adapted in a
modern environment to perhaps a more meaningful approach known as throughput accounting.
2. Key Factor Analysis

In a situation where we are manufacturing several products, all of which use the same limited
resource, then we need to decide on how best to use the limited resource in production.
The standard key factor approach is to rank the products on the basis of the contribution earned per
unit of the limited resources.
Example 1
Pi plc manufactures 2 products, A and B.
The cost cards are as follows:
A
25
B
28
Materials
20
Labour
Other variable costs
Fixed costs
23
26
$2
$2
Selling price
Profit
Machine hours p.u.
Maximum demand
2 hrs
20,000 units
1 hr
10,000 units
The total hours available are 48,000.

Calculate the optimum production plan and the maximum profit using conventional key factor
analysis
ACCA F5
3. Throughput Accounting
The key factor approach described in the previous section is very sensible, and the throughput
approach is eectively the same. However, there are two main concepts of throughput accounting
which result in us amending the approach.
3.1. The main concepts of throughput accounting are:
in the short run, all costs in the factory are likely to be fixed with the exception of materials costs
in a JIT environment then we should be attempting to eliminate inventories. Use of a limited

resource in production of inventories should be avoided and therefore any work-in-progress
should be valued at only the material cost
4. Definitions:
Throughput
sales revenue material cost
Total factory costs
all production costs except materials
Return per factory hour =
Cost per factory hour =
Throughput accounting ratio =
Throughput
Time on key resource
Total factory cost
Total time available on key resource
Return per factory hour
Cost per factory hour
26
ACCA F5 27
4.1. Target for decision making:

The TA ratio should be greater than 1 if a product is to be viable. Priority should be given to those
products which generate the highest TA ratios.
Example 2
Pi plc manufactures 2 products, A and B.
The cost cards are as follows:
A
25
28
Materials
20
Labour
Other variable costs
Fixed costs
23
26
$2
$2
2 hrs
1 hr
Selling price
Profit
Machine hours p.u.
Maximum demand
20,000 units
10,000 units
The total hours available are 48,000.

(a)
Calculate the optimum production plan and the maximum profit, on the assumption that in the
short-term only material costs are variable i.e. using a throughput accounting approach
(b)
Calculate the Throughput Accounting ratios
ACCA F5
Test
1
Which of the following defines the throughput accounting ratio?

A
B
C
D
Throughput / bottleneck hours

Throughput per hour / factory costs per hour
Factory costs per hour / throughput per hour
Throughput per unit / factory costs per unit
A company manufactures several products. One of them has a selling price of $60 per unit;material
costs of $15 per unit; and labour costs of $10 per unit.
The labour budget for the year is 100,000 hours at a cost of $5 per hour.
The machine time for this product is budgeted at 0.2 hours per unit, and it is machine time that is the
bottleneck resource with a total of 5,000 hours available per year.
Factory overheads are $250,000 per year.
What is the throughput accounting ratio for this product?
A
B
C
D
1.50
0.67
1.17
4.50
A company makes two products - X and Y - for which the following details are available:
Selling price
Material
Direct labour
Assembly time
Maximum demand
$50
$10
$20
20 mins
1500 units
$32
$6
$15
15 mins
1000 units
The total assembly time is limited to 600 hours.

Using throughput accounting, how many units of Y should be produced?
A
B
C
D
100 units
400 units
1,000 units
2,400 units
28

4
ACCA F5 29
The cost card per unit for a product is as follows:

Materials
Labour (1 hour)
Other production costs
9
6
8
$23
The selling price is $30 per unit, and each unit requires 6 minutes of machine time.
Machine time is the bottleneck resource.
What is the return per factory hour (in a throughout accounting environment)?
A
B
C
D
5
$21
$70
$150
$210
Which of the following is NOT an assumption made when using throughput accounting?
A
B
C
D
All resources are limited resources

All costs except materials are fixed in the short-term
No inventories are held
Profit is maximised when the throughput contribution per unit of the limited resource is
maximised
ACCA F5
30
ACCA F5 31
Chapter 6
LIMITING FACTORS
1. Introduction
We have already looked at how to deal with one limited resource key factor analysis and throughput
accounting.
In this chapter we will look at the situation where there is more than one limited resource, and a
technique known as linear programming.
2. Linear Programming
If there are two or more scarce resources then we are unable to use the Key Factor approach. Instead,
we must use Linear Programming.
2.1. The steps are as follows:

1.
Define the unknowns in terms of symbols
2.
Formulate equations for the constraints
3.
Formulate an equation for the objective
4.
Graph the constraints and the objective
5.
Find the optimum solution
ACCA F5
Example 1
Peter makes two types of chair the Executive and the Standard.
The data relating to each as follows:
Materials
Labour
Contribution
Standard
Executive
2 kg
4 kg
5 hours
6 hours
$6
$9
There is a maximum of 80 kg of material available each week and 180 labour hours per week. Demand for
Standard chairs is unlimited, but maximum weekly demand for Executive chairs is 10.
Find the optimal production plan and the maximum contribution that this will generate.
32
ACCA F5 33
3. Spare capacity
In the previous example, there were limits on the resources available. However, there was no
requirement to use all of the resources only that we could not use more than the maximum
available.
If the optimum solution results in using less that the maximum available of a particular resource, then
we have spare capacity of that resource or slack.
Example 2
Using the information from example 1, calculate the slack for each of the constraints i.e. for materials,
for labour, and for demand for Executive chairs.
ACCA F5
4. Shadow prices
In real life there are unlikely to be any truly limited resources it will almost always be possible to get
more, but we are likely to have to pay a premium for it. For example, the supply of labour may be
limited by the length of the normal working week, but we can get more hours if we are prepared to
pay overtime.
The shadow price (also known as the dual price) of a limited resource is the most extra that we would
be prepared to pay for one extra unit of the limited resource. We calculate it by calculating the extra
profit that would result if we have one extra unit of the limited resource.
Example 3
Using the information from example 1, calculate the shadow price of each of the contraints i.e. for
materials, for labour, and for demand for Executive chairs.
34
ACCA F5 35
Test
1
A company currently makes two products, X and Y.

Both products use material Z which is in limited supply, and current production levels are using the
entire weekly supply.
Product X uses 5 kg of Z per unit; Product Y uses 5 kg of Z per unit.
Material Z is costing currently $3 per kg, and the shadow price for material Z has been calculated as
$3.70 per kg.
The supplier of material Z is prepared to increase the weekly supply by 10kg.
What is the most per kg that the company should be prepared to pay for the extra material?
A
B
C
D
$3.70
$6.70
$3.00
$0.70
ACCA F5
36
ACCA F5 37
Chapter 7
PRICING
1. Introduction
An important decision for the management accountant is that of fixing a selling price.
In this chapter we will consider the practical considerations that are likely to apply, and also some
theoretical calculations that you need to know.
2. Factors influencing selling price

Many factors are relevant when considering what price to charge.
2.1. The main areas to be considered are the following:
costs
competitors
customers
ACCA F5
3. Cost plus pricing

Using cost-plus pricing, the selling price is calculated by estimating the cost per unit of a product and
adding an appropriate percentage mark-up.
A primary consideration will be as to what is to be regarded as the cost full cost, marginal cost, or
opportunity cost.
3.1. Full cost plus

Full cost includes a share of overheads and also often includes non-production costs.
advantages
disadvantages
3.2. Marginal cost plus

The price of the product is determined by calculating the marginal (or incremental) cost of producing
a unit and adding a mark-up.
advantages
disadvantages
38
ACCA F5 39
3.3. Opportunity cost plus

This is a marginal cost approach but also includes within the cost any opportunities foregone. It is a
relevant costing approach.
Example 1
A new product is being launched, and the following costs have been estimated:
Materials
$10 per unit
Labour
$8 per unit
Variable overheads
$5 per unit
Fixed overheads have been estimated to be $50,000 per year, and the budgeted production is 10,000 units
per year.
Calculate the selling price based on:
(a)
full cost plus 20%
(b)
marginal cost plus 40%
ACCA F5
4. Optimal pricing tabular approach

One major disadvantage of a cost plus approach to pricing is that it completely ignores the possible
eect of the selling price on the level of demand.
For many products (but not all) it is the case that a higher selling price will result in lower demand, and
vice versa.
It could therefore be worthwhile to reduce the selling price and sell more provided of course that
this resulted in a higher total profit.
Example 2
Kennedy plc has established that the price demand relationship is as follows:
S.P. p.u.
16
15.5
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
Demand
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
They have also established that the cost per unit for production of jars of coee is as follows:
Quantity
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Cost p.u.
14.0
13.9
13.8
13.7
13.6
13.5
13.4
13.3
13.2
Determine the optimal selling price in order to maximise profit

S.P. p.u.
Demand
Cost p.u.
Total
Revenue
Total
Cost
Total
Profit
Marginal
Revenue
Marginal
Cost
40
ACCA F5 41
Whichever way you choose to calculate the optimum selling price in the above example, do be
aware that it occurs at the point where marginal revenue = marginal cost. You could be specifically
asked to use this fact in the examination.
5. Price elasticity of demand

In the previous example, a reduction in the selling price results in an increase in demand (and vice
versa). This is true of many products, but the eect of selling price on demand will be dierent for
dierent products. The eect of selling price on demand is also likely to be dierent for the same
product at dierent levels of selling price.
A measure of the size of the eect on demand of a change in selling price is called the price elasticity
of demand.
% change in demand
Price elasticity of demand (PED) =
% change in price
A high PED means that the demand is very sensitive to changes in price, or elastic.
A low PED means that the demand is not very sensitive to changes in price, or inelastic.
Example 3
Using the figures from example 2, calculate the price elasticity of demand
if the current selling price is $16 per unit
if the current selling price is $15 per unit
ACCA F5
6. Optimal pricing equations

In section 4, we were presented with the price/demand relationship as a table, and used these figures
to calculate the optimum level of selling price from those available.
In principle, it would be possible to have an equation relating the selling price to the demand, and to
then solve the problem algebraically.
6.1. Price/demand equation

In the exam you could be asked to derive the price/demand equation yourself from information given,
or alternatively you could be given the equation. If you were asked to derive the equation yourself,
then it would always be on the basis that the relationship was linear (as is the case in example 2, from
inspection).
($)P
Q (units)
The equation would therefore be of the form:

P = a bQ
where:
P = selling price
Q = quantity demanded at that price
a = theoretical maximum price (if the price is set at a or above, then the demand will be zero)
b = the change in price required to change demand by 1 unit (the gradient of the line)
Example 4
A company sells an article at $12 per unit and has a demand of 16,000 units at this price.
If the selling price were to be increased by $1 per unit, it is estimated that demand will fall by 2,500 units.
On the assumption that the price/demand relationship is linear, derive the equation relating the
selling price to the demand.
42
ACCA F5 43
6.2. Optimal selling price

Having identified the price/demand relationship, it is easy to derive the equation for the revenue at
any level the total revenue will be equal to PQ.
We could then show on a graph the total revenue and total costs for any level of demand. It would be
of this sort of shape:
($)
(units)
Our objective is to maximise profit. We can do this by calculating the Marginal Revenue and Marginal
Cost, and using the fact that the profit is maximised when the two are equal.
Example 5
A company currently has a demand for one of its products of 2000 units at a selling price of $30 per unit.
It has been determined that a reduction in selling price of $1 will result in additional sales of 100 units.
The costs of production are $1000 (fixed) together with a variable cost of $20 per unit.
(Note: see the note at the top of the next page)
Calculate the selling price p.u. at which the profit will be maximised.
ACCA F5
Note:
you cannot be required to dierentiate in the examination, and therefore the formula
for the marginal revenue is given on the formula sheet: MR = a 2bQ
Example 6
At a selling price of $100 p.u. the company will sell 20,000 units p.a..
For every $2 change in the selling price, the demand will change by 2,000 units.
The costs comprise a fixed cost of $100,000, together with a variable cost of $5 p.u..
Calculate the selling price p.u. that will result in maximum profit p.a., and the amount of that profit.
44
ACCA F5 45
7. Pricing strategies
In particular circumstances, for particular reasons, the company may decide on a special strategy with
regard to its pricing policy.
You should be aware of the following common strategies, and be able to give examples of
circumstances where they may be considered.
Penetration pricing
Price skimming
Product-line pricing
Complementary products
Price discrimination
Volume discounting
ACCA F5
Test
1
A product has a materials cost of $10 per unit, a labour cost of $8 per unit, variableoverheads of $3,
and fixed overheads of $5 per unit.
The company uses absorption costing and has a policy of pricing so as to make a gross profit margin
of 20%
What should be the selling price per unit for the product?
A
B
C
D
$25.20
$32.50
$31.20
$26.25
At a selling price of $25 per unit, the demand for a product is 20,000 units.
The demand will change by 2,000 units for every $5 change in the selling price.
Which of the following is the correct price demand equation for this product?
A
B
C
D
P = 30 - 0.0025Q
P = 30 + 0.0025Q
P = 75 - 0.0025Q
P = 75 + 0.0025Q
At a selling price of $200, the demand will be 100,000 units per annum.
The demand will change by 10,000 units for every $30 change in the selling price.
The fixed costs are $60,000 per annum, and the variable costs $8 per unit.
At what selling price per unit will the profit be maximised?
A
$245 per unit
B
$254 per unit
C
$300 per unit
D
$426 per unit
A company selling soft drinks runs a promotional campaign, during which they sell their products at a
large discount. The campaign will last for 2 weeks.
This is an example of which of the following pricing policies?
A
B
C
D
Penetration pricing
Price skimming
Dierential pricing
Volume discounting
A computer manufacturer gives a discount to customers who are in full-time education.

This is an example of which of the following pricing policies?
A
B
C
D
Penetration pricing
Price skimming
Dierential pricing
Volume discounting
46
ACCA F5 47
Chapter 8
COST VOLUME PROFIT ANALYSIS
1. Introduction
Cost-volume-profit analysis considers how costs and profits change with changes in the volume or
level of activity.
2. Breakeven
Breakeven is the level of activity which gives rise to zero profit. Since profit is the dierence between
total contribution and fixed costs, breakeven is where the total contribution equals total fixed costs.
Breakeven volume =
Fixed costs
Contribution per unit
Example 1
Product X has variable costs of $2 per unit, and selling price of $6 per unit.
The fixed costs are $1,000 per year
(a)
If budgeted sales and production are 300 units, what is the budgeted profit (or loss) for the
year?
(b)
What is the breakeven point (in units)?
(c)
What is the breakeven revenue?
(d)
How many units need to be sold to achieve a target profit of $300 per year?
ACCA F5
3. Margin of safety
The Margin of Safety measures the %age fall in budgeted sales that can be allowed before breakeven
is reached.
Margin of safety =
Budgeted sales - breakeven

Budgeted sales
100%
It is useful in identifying how big a problem any inaccuracy in the budgeted sales is likely to be.
Example 2
Calculate the margin of safety for example 1
48
ACCA F5 49
4. Contribution to sales ratio

The contribution to sales ratio (or C/S ratio) is calculated as follows:
C/S ratio =
Contribution in $
Sales in $
Since the contribution and the sales revenue both vary linearly with the volume, the C/S ratio will
remain constant.
[Note: the C/S ratio is sometimes called the profit to volume (or P/V ratio)].
Example 3
Calculate the C/S ratio for example 1
What sales revenue is needed to generate a target profit of $320?
ACCA F5
5. Breakeven chart
The breakeven chart plots total costs and total revenues at dierent levels of volume, and shows the
activity level at which breakeven is achieved.
Example 4
Draw a breakeven chart for example 1
Cost and
revenue
($)
Output (units)
6. Profit-volume chart
The profit volume chart shows the net profit or loss at any level of activity
Example 5
Draw a profit-volume chart for example 1
Profit ($)
Sales units)
Loss ($)
50
ACCA F5 51
7. Multi-product CVP analysis

In practice a company is likely to make several products, each with dierent CS ratios.
They are still likely to be interested in the break-even sales revenue (in order to cover the fixed
overheads), but the existence of several products makes it less certain and all we can really do is
calculate breakeven on the assumption that the mix of products remains as per the budgeted mix
even if total sales are lower.
However, as will be illustrated in the following example, the company could reach the breakeven
position sooner if it were to sell the product with the highest CS ratio first.
Example 6
A company produces and sells three products: C, Vand P.
The budget information for the coming year is as follows:
Sales (units)
Selling price (p.u.)
Variable cost (p.u.)
Contribution (p.u.)
C
4,800
$5
$3.75
$1.25
V
4,800
$6
$5.25
$0.75
P
12,000
$7
$4.35
$2.65
The total budgeted fixed overheads for the year are $8,000
(a)
Calculate the CS ratio for each product individually
(b)
Calculate the average CS ratio (assuming that the budget mix of production remains
unchanged)
(c)
Calculate the breakeven revenue (assuming that the budget mix of production remains
unchanged)
(d)
Construct a PV chart (assuming that the budget mix of production remains unchanged)
ACCA F5
Assuming that the products are produced in order of their CS ratios, construct a table showing the
cumulative revenue and cumulative profits
Calculate the breakeven sales revenue on this basis
Add the information to the P/V chart already produced for Example 6
8. Limitations of CVP analysis
The selling price per unit is assumed to remain constant at all levels of activity
The variable cost per unit is assumed to remain constant at all levels of activity
It is assumed that the total fixed costs remain constant
It is assumed that the level of production is equal to the level of sales (i.e. that there are no
changes in the levels of inventory)
52
ACCA F5 53
Test
1
A company manufactures and sells a single product for which the variable cost is $28 per unit.
The CS ratio (contribution to sales) is 30%, and the company has fixed costs of $21,600 per year.
How many units does the company need to sell in order to achieve a target profit of $60,000 (to
the nearest unit) ?
A
B
C
D
32,281 units
6,800 units
1,300 units
5,500 units
A company manufactures and sells a single product for which the variable cost is $12 and the CS ratio
(contribution to sales) is 40%.
The fixed costs are $80,000 per year.
They are budgeting on selling 12,000 units per year.
What is the margin of safety?
A
B
C
D
400%
120%
16.67%
20%

1.
A multi-product profit-volume chart may be drawn that shows the contribution of each product
as against the breakeven sales volume
2.
A multi-product breakeven chart may be drawn only if a constant sales mix is assumed.
A
B
C
D
Statement (1) only

Statement (2) only
Both statements
Neither statement

4
ACCA F5
E co makes two products - X and Y - budgeted details of which are as follows:

X
Y
$
$
Selling price
24.00
19.20
Cost per unit:
Direct materials
8.40
9.60
Direct labour
3.60
2.40
Variable overhead
1.44
0.96
Fixed overhead
2.88
2.40
Profit per unit
7.68
3.84
Budgeted production and sales for the year ended 31 December 2015 are:
Product X
Product Y
10,000 units
12,500 units
The fixed overheads included in X relate to an apportionment of general overhead costs only.
However, Y also includes specific fixed overheads totalling $6,000.
If only product X were to be made, how many units (to the nearest unit) would need to be sold in
order to achieve a profit of $144,000?
A
B
C
D
5
25,625 units
19,205 units
18,636 units
26,406 units
A company has budgeted to sell 100,000 units of its product at a price of $25 per unit. The
contribution to sales ratio (CS ratio) is 25%, and the fixed costs are $375,000.
What is the breakeven sales revenue, and What is the margin of safety?
A
B
C
D
Breakeven $500,000; margin of safety 1.5%

Breakeven $500,000; margin of safety 80%
Breakeven $1,500,000; margin of safety 40%
Breakeven $1,500,000; margin of safety 60%
54
ACCA F5 55
Chapter 9
SHORT-TERM DECISION MAKING
1. Introduction
This chapter looks at various techniques for the making of decision in the short-term. You should be
already familiar with them from your previous studies. First we will revise the terminology and then
revise the techniques by way of examples.
2. Terminology
2.1. Variable costs
These are costs where the total will vary with the volume. In the case of production costs, the total will
vary with the level of production, whereas in the case of selling costs the total will vary with the level
of sales.
Normally, the variable cost per unit will be constant, although this is not always the case. In the case of
materials cost, it may be that the cost per unit falls with higher quantities due to discounts being
received. In the case of labour, again the cost per unit may fall with higher production due to the
learning eect (covered in a later chapter).
The total of the variable production costs is also called the marginal cost of production.
2.2. Fixed costs

These are costs where the total will not vary with volume. An example perhaps is factory rent, where
the same total rent is payable whether we produce 1 unit or 1,000 units.
2.3. Contribution
The contribution per unit is the dierence between the selling price and all variable costs per unit. (Or,
alternatively, the profit before charging any fixed costs).
The contribution is of fundamental importance in decision making, because it is this element of profit
that will vary with volume the fixed costs, by definition, staying fixed.
2.4. Avoidable (or discretionary) fixed costs

These are the specific fixed costs of an activity or sector of a business which would be avoided if that
activity or sector did not exist. These costs are usually associated with decisions as to whether or not
to shut down a sector. If we were to shut down a sector, then any contribution from that area would
be lost, but any avoidable fixed costs of that area would be saved.
Note that not all fixed costs are avoidable by shutting down an area. For example, there may be head
oce fixed costs that remain payable in full even if one sector of the business were to be closed.
ACCA F5
2.5. Sunk costs

These are costs that have already been incurred. They are irrelevant for decision making. The reason
for this is that in any decision we will be concerned with whether or not the future benefits from the
decision will outweigh the future costs. Any costs already incurred will remain payable whatever
decision we make.
2.6. Relevant costs

A relevant cost is simply a cost that is relevant to the decision being made. A sunk cost is not a relevant
cost for the reasons stated above.
2.7. Opportunity cost

This is the value of a benefit sacrificed when one course of action is taken in preference to an
alternative.
For instance, one factor that might be involved in deciding whether or not to launch a new product
could be that sales of another existing product may fall. If, as a result we would lose (say) $20,000 of
existing contribution, then for the purpose of making the decision about the new product we would
consider the $20,000 as being a cost of the new product. (The new product will only be worthwhile if
the revenue from it covers not only any direct costs of production but also the $20,000 that we would
be losing.)
2.8. Incremental costs

Incremental means extra, or additional. These are any extra costs which would be incurred as a result
of the decision and will therefore be relevant to the decision.
3. Shutdown problems
This sort of question is asking for a decision as to whether or not to close part of the business.
Example 1
(a)
A company manufactures three products, Pawns, Rooks and Bishops. The present net annual income
from these is as follows:
Sales
Less variable costs
Contribution
Less fixed costs
Profit/loss
Pawns
$
50,000
30,000
20,000
17,000
3,000
Rooks Bishops
Total
$
$
$
40,000 60,000 150,000
25,000 35,000 90,000
15,000 25,000 60,000
18,000 20,000 55,000
(3,000)
5,000
5,000
The company is considering whether or not to cease selling Rooks. It is felt that selling prices cannot
be raised or lowered without adversely aecting net income. $5,000 of the fixed costs of Rooks are
direct fixed costs which would be saved if production ceased. All other fixed costs would remain the
same.
(b)
Suppose, however, that it were possible to use the resources released by stopping production of
Rooks to produce a new item, Crowners, which would sell for $50,000 and incur variable costs of
$30,000 and extra direct fixed costs of $6,000.
Consider whether the company should cease production and sale of Rooks under each of the
scenarios in (a) and (b) above.
56
ACCA F5 57
4. Relevant costing
This sort of question is really testing that you can determine what information in the question is
relevant to the decision, and what information (for example, sunk costs) is irrelevant.
This is not a topic for which you can really learn rules. The main thing is to understand the thought
process involved and then to read questions very carefully and to state the assumptions you have
made where relevant.
Example 2
The managing director of Parser Ltd, a small business, is considering undertaking a one-o contract and has
asked her inexperienced accountant to advise on what costs are likely to be incurred so that she can price at
a profit. The following schedule has been prepared:
Costs for special order:
Direct wages
Notes
1
$
28,500
Supervisor costs
11,500
General overheads
4,000
Machine depreciation
2,300
Machine overheads
Materials
18,000
34,000
98,300
Notes:
1.
Direct wages comprise the wages of two employees, particularly skilled in the labour process for this
job, who could be transferred from another department to undertake work on the special order. They
are fully occupied in their usual department and sub-contracting sta would have to be bought-in to
undertake the work left behind. Subcontracting costs would be $32,000 for the period of the work.
Dierent subcontractors who are skilled in the special order techniques are available to work on the
special order and their costs would amount to $31,300.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ACCA F5
A supervisor would have to work on the special order. The cost of $11,500 is comprised of $8,000
normal payments plus $3,500 additional bonus for working on the special order. Normal payments
refer to the fixed salary of the supervisor. In addition, the supervisor would lose incentive payments in
his normal work amounting to $2,500. It is not anticipated that any replacement costs relating to the
supervisors work on other jobs would arise.
General overheads comprise an apportionment of $3,000 plus an estimate of $1,000 incremental
overheads.
Machine depreciation represents the normal period cost based on the duration of the contract. It is
anticipated that $500 will be incurred in additional machine maintenance costs.
Machine overheads (for running costs such as electricity) are charged at $3 per hour. It is estimated
that 6000 hours will be needed for the special order. The machine has 4000 hours available capacity.
The further 2000 hours required will mean an existing job is taken o the machine resulting in a lost
contribution of $2 per hour.
Materials represent the purchase costs of 7,500 kg bought some time ago. The materials are no longer
used and are unlikely to be wanted in the future except on the special order. The complete inventory
of materials (amounting to 10,000 kg), or part thereof, could be sold for $4.20 per kg. The replacement
cost of material used would be $33,375.
Because the business does not have adequate funds to finance the special order, a bank overdraft
amounting to $20,000 would be required for the project duration of three months. The overdraft would be
repaid at the end of the period. The banks overdraft rate is 18%.
The managing director has heard that, for special orders such as this, relevant costing should be used that
also incorporates opportunity costs. She has approached you to create a revised costing schedule based on
relevant costing principles.
Adjust the schedule prepared by the accountant to a relevant cost basis, incorporating appropriate
opportunity costs.
58
ACCA F5 59
5. Make or Buy decisions

In order to overcome problems of limited resources, a firm may buy in a product instead of making it
itself.
Where incremental costs of manufacture are less than those of buying in, the firm should make
assuming that there are not limited resources.
Where resources are limited, the firm should concentrate on making those products which give the
greatest saving (over buying in) per unit of the scarce resource.
To decide which products should be made and which should be bought, we calculate the saving per
unit of scarce resource from making the product rather than buying it in.
ACCA F5
Example 3
The availability of Material B is limited to 8,000 kg
Product
Demand (units)
Variable cost to make ($ per unit)
Buy-in price ($ per unit)
Kg of B required per unit
2,000
2,500
4,000
10
13
12
17
14
16
(included in variable cost)

Which products should the company make and which should it buy?
60
ACCA F5 61
Test
1

1.
Sunk costs are relevant costs for decision making
2.
Opportunity costs are relevant costs for decision making
A
B
C
D
Statement 1 only
Statement 2 only
Both statements
Neither statement
A company needs 2,000 kg of material for a contract it has been asked to quote for.
They currently have 1,500 kg in inventory, and the material is in regular use.
The inventory originally cost $8 per kg., the current cost is $10 per kg., and the material could be sold
for $9 per kg..
What is the relevant cost for the material required for the contract?
A
B
C
D
$17,000
$18,500
$20,000
$18,000
A company needs 5,000 hours of labour for a contract they have been asked to quote for.
The work currently being carried out by our employees is generating a contribution of $12 per hour,
although there is currently a substantial amount of idle time.
Our workers are paid at the rate of $8 per hour.
What is the relevant cost of the labour required for the contract?
A
B
C
D
$ NIL
$40,000
$60,000
$100,000
A company needs 2,000 kg of material for a contract it has been asked to quote for.
They currently have 1,500 kg in inventory, and the material has no other use.
The inventory originally cost $8 per kg., the current cost is $10 per kg., and the material could be sold
for $9 per kg..
What is the relevant cost for the material required for the contract?
A
B
C
D
$17,000
$18,500
$20,000
$18,000

5
ACCA F5
A company needs 5,000 hours of labour for a contract they have been asked to quote for.
The work currently being carried out by our employees is generating a contribution of $12 per hour,
and using them on the contract will mean taking them away from their other work,
Our workers are paid at the rate of $8 per hour.
What is the relevant cost of the labour required for the contract?
A
B
C
D
$ NIL
$40,000
$60,000
$100,000
62
ACCA F5 63
Chapter 10
RISK AND UNCERTAINTY
1. Introduction
Decision making involves making decisions now which will aect future outcomes which are unlikely
to be known with certainty.
Risk exists where a decision maker has knowledge that several possible outcomes are possible
usually due to past experience. This past experience enables the decision maker to estimate the
probability or the likely occurrence of each potential future outcome.
Uncertainty exists when the future is unknown and the decision maker has no past experience on
which to base predictions.
Whatever the reasons for the uncertainty, the fact that it exists means that there is no rule as to how
to make decisions. For the examination you are expected to be aware of, and to apply, several dierent
approaches that might be useful.
2. Risk preference
As will be illustrated by an example, the approach taken to make the decision will depend on the
decision-makers attitude to risk.
A risk seeker will be interested in the best possible outcome, no matter how small the change that
they may occur.
Someone who is risk neutral will be concerned with the most likely or average outcome.
A risk avoider makes decisions on the basis of the worst possible outcomes that may occur.
ACCA F5
Example 1
John has a factory capacity of 1,200 units per month.
Units cost him $6 each to make and his normal selling price is $11 each. However, the demand per month is
uncertain and is as follows:
Demand
400
500
700
900
Probability
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.1
He has been approached by a customer who is prepared to contract to a fixed quantity per month at a price
of $9 per unit. The customer is prepared to sign a contract to purchase 300, 500, 700 or 800 units per month.
The company can vary production levels during the month up to the maximum capacity, but cannot carry
forward any unsold units in inventory.
(a)
Calculate all possible profits that could result
(b)
Determine for what quantity John should sign the contract, under each of the following criteria:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
(c)
expected value
maximin
maximax
minimax regret
What is the most that John would be prepared to pay in order to obtain perfect knowledge as to
the level of demand?
64
ACCA F5 65
ACCA F5
3. The limitations of expected values.

Although we say that someone who is risk neutral would take an expected value approach to decision
making, there are two serious limitations of this approach:
66
ACCA F5 67
4. Decision Trees
A decision tree is a diagrammatical representation of the various alternatives and outcomes. It is
relevant when using an expected value approach and where there are several decisions to be made
it makes the approach more understandable.
Example 2
Combi plc are having problems with one of their oces and have decided that there are three courses of
action available to them:
(a)
shut down the oce, raising proceeds of $5 million
(b) have an expensive refurbishment of the oce costing $4,000,000
(c)
have a cheaper refurbishment of the oce at a cost of $2,000,000
If they do the expensive refurbishment, then a good result will yield a return of $13,500,000 whereas a poor
result will yield a present value of only $6,500,000.
If they alternatively decide to do the cheaper refurbishment, then a good result will yield a return of
$8,500,000 whereas a poor result will yield $4,000,000.
In either case, the probability of the refurbishment achieving a good result has been estimated to be 2/3.
An independent company has oered to undertake market research for them in order to identify in advance
whether the result of refurbishment is likely to be good or poor. The research will cost $200,000 and there is
a 68% probability that it will indicate a good result.
Unfortunately, the research cannot be guaranteed to be accurate. However, if the research indicates a good
result, then the probability of the actual result being good is 91%.
If the survey indicates a poor result, then the probability of the actual result being good is 13%.
Combi have already decided that if they do have market research, and if the research indicates a poor result,
then they will only be prepared to consider the cheaper refurbishment.
Use a decision tree to recommend what actions should be taken.
ACCA F5
Note: In this example, the market research is not guaranteed to be accurate. This is likely to be the case in
real life and is an example of imperfect knowledge
68
Test
1
Which of the following statements is/are correct?

1.
Risk-averse decision makers will use the expected value approach to decision making.
2.
In a one-o decision, the expected value is a value that can not actually occur.
A
B
C
D
Statement 1 only
Statement 2 only
Both statements
Neither statement
Which of the following approaches to decision making is a risk-seeking approach?

A
B
C
D
Expected values
Maximin
Maximax
Minimax regret
ACCA F5 69
ACCA F5
70
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Chapter 11
BUDGETING
1. Introduction
Budgeting is an essential tool for the management accounting in both planning and controlling future
activity. In this chapter we will discuss the benefits of budgeting, the types of budget, and the
preparation of budgets.
2. Benefits of budgeting
Planning
Co-ordination
Control
Authorising and delegating
Evaluation of performance
Communicating and motivating
3. Principal budget factor

The principal budget factor is the factor that limits the activity for the budget period. Normally this is
the level of sales and therefore the sales budget is usually the first budget to be prepared and this
leads to the others.
However, it could be (for example) a limit on the availability of raw materials that limits activity. In this
case Raw Materials would be the principal budget factor, and this would the first budget to be
prepared.
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4. The preparation of budgets

Sales Budget
Production Budget
Raw materials
Labour
Factory overheads
Cost of goods sold budget
Selling and distribution

expenses
General and administrative

expenses
Budgeted Income Statement
Cash Budget
Capital expenditure budget
Budgeted Statement of
Financial Position
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Example 1
The XYZ company produces three products, X, Y, and Z. For the coming accounting period budgets are to be
prepared using the following information:
Budgeted sales
Product X
2000 units at $100 each
Product Y
Product Z
Standard usage of raw material

Wood
Varnish
(litres per unit)
2
2
1
$4
(kg per unit)

5
3
2
$8
Product X
Product Y
Product Z
Standard cost of raw material
Inventories of finished goods

Opening
Closing
X
500u
600u
Y
800u
1000u
Z
700u
800u
Inventories of raw materials

Opening
Closing
Wood
21,000
18,000
Varnish
10,000
9,000
Labour
X
Standard hours per unit
4
Labour is paid at the rate of $3 per hour
Y
6
Z
8
Prepare the following budgets:

(a)
Sales budget (quantity and value)
(b)
Production budget (units)
(c)
Material usage budget (quantities)
(d)
Material purchases budget (quantities and value)
(e)
Labour budget (hours and value)
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5. Types of budget
Fixed budget
Flexed budget
Rolling budget
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Example 2
A company has prepared the following fixed budget for the coming year.
Sales
Production
10,000 units
10,000 units
Direct materials
Direct labour
Variable overheads
Fixed overheads
$
50,000
25,000
12,500
10,000
$97,500
Budgeted selling price $10 per unit.

At the end of the year, the following costs had been incurred for the actual production of 12,000 units.
Direct materials
Direct labour
Variable overheads
Fixed overheads
$
60,000
28,500
15,000
11,000
$114,500
The actual sales were 12,000 units for $122,000

(a)
Prepare a flexed budget for the actual activity for the year
(b)
Calculate the variances between actual and flexed budget, and summarise in a form suitable for
management. (Use a marginal costing approach)
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6. Methods of budgeting
6.1. Incremental budgeting
This approach is to take the previous years results and then to adjust them by an amount to cover
inflation and any other known changes.
It is the most common approach, is a reasonably quick approach, and for stable companies it tends to
be fairly accurate.
However, one large potential problem is that it can encourage the continuation of previous problems
and ineciencies.
The reason for this is that the budget is a plan for the coming year not simply a financial forecast.
If we require a wages budget, we will probably ask the wages department to produce it and they
(using an incremental approach) will assume that our workers will continue to operate as before. They
will therefore simply adjust by any expected wage increases.
As a result, the plan for our workers stays the same as before. Nobody has been encouraged to
consider dierent ways of operating that may be more ecient. It is at budget time that we perhaps
should be considering dierent ways of operating.
6.2. Zero-based budgeting

With zero-based budgeting we do not consider the previous period. Instead, we consider each activity
on its own merits and draw up the costs and benefits of the dierent ways of performing it (and
indeed whether or not the activity should continue).
We then decide on the most eective way of performing each activity.
Clearly any changes to the way an activity is performed may require funding, and there may not be
sucient funding available for all changes proposed, and therefore they are ranked to decide which
changes are made.
Although this approach is in principle a much better approach to budgeting, it is time-consuming and
also requires much more expertise than incremental budgeting. For this reason, it is often restricted
just to a few activities each year in order that training and help may be given to the people involved.
Other activities are budgeted using the incremental approach.
7. Behavioural aspects
7.1. Participation
If the budget process is not handled properly, it can easily cause dysfunctional activity. It is therefore
necessary to give thought to the behavioural aspects.
Top-down budgeting
This is where budgets are imposed by top management without the participation of the people
who will actually be involved for implementing it.
Bottom-up budgeting
Here the budget-holders do participate in the setting of their own budgets.
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Advantages and disadvantages
7.2. Target setting and motivation

Targets can assist motivation and appraisal if they are set at the right level.
if they are too dicult then they will demotivate
if they are too easy then managers are less likely to strive for optimal performance
ideally they should be slightly above the anticipated performance level
Good targets should be:
agreed in advance
dependant on factors controllable by the individual
measurable
linked to appropriate rewards and penalties
chosen carefully to ensure goal congruence
7.3. Responsibility accounting

A system of accounting that separates revenues and costs into areas of separate responsibility, which
can then be assigned to specific managers
7.4. Management by objectives

A system of management incorporating clearly established objectives at every level of the
organisation.
Here there is less emphasis on monetary budgets and more emphasis on taking action which helps
the business to achieve its objectives.
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Test
1
Which of the following statements is/are correct?

1.
Rolling budgets are always prepared for the following twelve-month period
2.
Rolling budgets are always prepared using a zero-base approach
A
B
C
D
Statement 1 only is correct

Statement 2 only is correct
Both statements are correct
Neither statement is correct
Which of the following are likely to be included in the master budget?

1.
A budgeted Statement of profit or loss
2.
A cash flow budget
3.
A capital expenditure budget
4.
A budgeted Statement of financial position
A
B
C
D
(1) and (4) only

(1), (2) and (4) only
(1), (3) and (4) only
All of them
Which of the following is the name given to a method of budgeting where the budgets are
prepared centrally and then imposed on the managers?
A
B
C
D
Incremental budgeting
Top-down budgeting
Bottom-up budgeting
Zero-based budgeting
As one step in the budgeting process of a business, they have prepared a production budget, detailing
the number of units budgeted on being produced each month during the coming year.
What name is given to this budget?
A
B
C
D
Functional budget
Rolling budget
Incremental budget
Flexible budget
Which of the following is not one of the aims of the budget process?
A
B
C
D
Planning
Forecasting
Controlling
Motivating
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Chapter 12
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS IN
BUDGETING
1. Introduction
In this chapter we will look at two numerical techniques that can be useful in the preparation of
budgets.
One is the high-low method of cost estimation, which should be revision from Paper F2. The other is
something known as learning curves.
(Note that although you are expected to have heard of time series and regression analysis from
Paper F2, you cannot be asked calculations on these in Paper F5.)
2. High-low method
We assume always that there are two types of costs variable costs and fixed costs.
In practice, there are many costs which are semi-variable, i.e. part of the cost is fixed and part variable.
For budgeting purposes it is important to identify the variable and the fixed elements.
The high-low method is a very quick and simple approach to identifying the variable and fixed
elements of costs.
This approach assumes that there is a linear relationship and uses just the highest and lowest
observations in order to calculate the costs.
Example 1
The following table shows the number of units produced each month and the total cost incurred:
Units
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
100
400
200
700
600
500
300
Cost
($)
40,000
65,000
45,000
85,000
70,000
70,000
50,000
Estimate the variable cost per unit, and the fixed cost per month
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This approach is very simplistic. It assumes that the relationship is perfectly linear.
3. Learning curves
The high-low method assumes that the total variable cost is reasonably linear that the variable cost
per unit is fixed.
In the case of labour, this is very often not the case in the early stages of a new product. If we were
intending to start production of a new product, then the obvious thing to do would be to produce a
prototype in order to assess how long it would take to produce each unit. However, this would be
dangerous because as we were to produce more and more units it is likely that the time taken for each
unit would reduce as the workers gained experience. This reduction in time per unit is known as the
learning eect.
3.1. Conditions
The theory of learning curves will only hold if the following conditions apply:
1.
There is a significant manual element in the task being considered.
2.
The task must be repetitive.
3.
Production must be at an early stage so that there is room for improvement.
4.
There must be consistency in the workforce.
5.
There must not be extensive breaks in production, or workers will forget the skill.
6.
Workforce is motivated.
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6.1. Theory
As cumulative output doubles, the cumulative average time per unit falls to a given percentage of the
previous average time per unit.
Example 2
The time taken to produce the first unit is 100 hours.
There is a learning rate of 75%.
How long will it take to produce an additional 7 units?
6.2. Steady State

Eventually, the time per unit will reach a steady state where no further improvement can be
made.
6.3. Cessation of learning effect

Practical reasons for the learning eect to cease are:
(a)
When machine eciency restricts any further improvement
(b)
The workforce reach their physical limits
(c)
If there is a go-slow agreement among the workforce
6.4. Formula
y = axb
where
y = cumulative average time per unit

x = cumulative output
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a = time taken for 1st

b = a learning factor which is given by the formula
log r
log 2
r = learning rate expressed as a %.
Example 3
Flogel Ltd has just produced the first full batch of a new product taking 200 hours.
Flogel has a learning curve eect of 85%.
(a)
How long will it take to produce the next 15 batches?
(b)
Flogel expects that after the 30th batch has been produced, the learning eect will cease.
From the 31st batch onwards, each batch will take the same time as the 30th batch.
What time per batch should be budgeted?
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Test
1
A company is intending to produce a new product.

They have produce two test units, the first of which took 18 hours to make whereas the second took
only 10 hours.
What is the learning rate (to the nearest %) ?
A
B
C
D
56%
78%
18%
28%
A company is starting to produce a new product.

The first unit takes 42 hours to produce, and the company has identified a learning rate of 80%.
How long will it take to produce an additional 7 units (to the nearest hour) ?
A
B
C
D
172 hours
130 hours
22 hours
294 hours
The following table shows the total overheads for a company over the last 5 months and the total
number of units produced in each of the months:
Month
Number of units
1
2
3
4
5
19,200
22,080
21,600
21,120
20,160
Total overheads
$
885,120
960,000
936,000
956,160
883,200
Applying the high low method to the above information, which of the following equations
could be used to forecast the total overheads from the number of units produced (where x is the
number of units produced)?
A
B
C
D
385,920 + 26x
174,720 + 37x
76,800 + 40x
174,720 - 26x

1.
A multi-product profit-volume chart may be drawn that shows the contribution of each product
as against the breakeven sales volume
2.
A multi-product breakeven chart may be drawn only if a constant sales mix is assumed.
A
B
C
D
Statement (1) only

Statement (2) only
Both statements
Neither statement

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Which of the following is not a potential advantage of bottom-up (or participative) budgeting?
A
B
C
D
Increased motivation
Budget preparation is faster
More accurate information is input
Managers have increased understanding of the budgets
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Chapter 13
STANDARD COSTING AND BASIC
VARIANCE ANALYSIS
1. Introduction
In an earlier chapter we stated that one important use that is made of budgets is that of controlling. As
the company progresses through the year, the budget gives us something to which we can compare
the actual results in order to help identify any problems. Having identified problems we can then
investigate as to whether or not these problems can be controlled in the future.
In this chapter we will look at the setting of standard costs for these purposes and also revise from
your earlier studies the calculations of variances (or dierences) between actual and budgeted results.
NOTE: You will not be asked full questions calculating basic variances, but you can be examined
on them as part of an advanced variances question (see the next chapter) and you are expected
to understand them.
2. Standard costs
Standard costing is a system of accounting based on pre-determined costs and revenue per unit
which are used as a benchmark to assess actual performance and therefore provide useful feedback
information to management.
Illustration 1
Standard cost card for Product X
$ per unit
Sales price
Materials
(2 kg @ $20/kg )
Labour
(1.5 hrs @ $2/hr )
Variable o/h
(1.5 hrs @ $6/hr)
Fixed o/h
(1.5 hrs @ $10/hr)
Standard cost of production
Standard profit per unit
100
40
3
9
15
67
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2.1. Uses of standard costing
inventory valuation (for internal and/or external use)
as a basis for pricing decisions
for budget preparation
for budgetary control
for performance measurement
for motivating sta using standards as targets
2.2. Limitations of standard costing
accurate preparation of standards can be dicult
it may be necessary to use dierent standards for dierent purposes (see next section)
less useful if not mass production of standard units
traditional standards are based on companys own costs a more modern approach is
benchmarking, where the practices of other organisations are taken into account
the use of standard costing can lead to an over-emphasis on quantitative measures of

performance at the expense of qualitative measures (e.g. customer satisfaction; employee
morale)
2.3. Types of standards

Ideal standard
Calculated assuming that perfect conditions apply.
E.g. 100% eciency from men and from machines.
Could form the basis for long-term aims, but not useful for variance analysis because unattainable.
Basic standard
This is a long-run underlying average standard.
It is only really of use in very stable situations where there are unlikely to be fluctuations in prices, rates
etc..
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Expected standard
This is a standard expected to apply to a specific budget period and is based on normal ecient
operating conditions.
This is used for variance analysis routine reporting. However, it may be too easy to be used as a target.
Current standard
This is the current attainable standard which reflects conditions actually applying in the period under
review.
This should be used for performance appraisal, but the calculation of a fair current standard can be
complicated and time-consuming.
3. Variance analysis
In the chapter on budgeting, we looked at the comparison between the actual results for a period and
the flexed budget. The dierences between the two are know as the variances.
In this section we will repeat the exercise, and then analyse them into their dierent components. If
we are to investigate variances properly and use them for control, then it is important that we should
analyse the reasons for their occurrence.
3.1. Total variances

Example 1
A company has prepared the following standard cost card:
Materials (4 kg at $4.50 per kg)

Labour (5 hrs at $5 per hr)
Variable overheads (5 hrs at $2 per hr)
Fixed overheads (5 hrs at $3 per hr)
$ per
unit
18
25
10
15
$68
Budgeted selling price $75 per unit.

Budgeted production
Budgeted sales
There is no opening inventory
8,700 units
8,000 units
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The actual results are as follows:

Sales:
8,400 units for $613,200
Production:
8,900 units with the following costs:
Materials (35,464 kg)

Labour (45,400 hrs paid, 44,100 hrs worked)
Variable overheads
Fixed overheads
163,455
224,515
87,348
134,074
Prepare a flexed budget and calculate the total variances
3.2. Analysis of variances

The total variance that we have calculated for materials indicates that the actual expenditure on
materials was not $18 per unit. However, this could be either because we used the wrong amount of
materials (which should have been 4 kg per unit) or that we paid the wrong price (which should have
been $4.50 per kg). More likely of course, it would be a combination of the two.
We will therefore analyse this and the other variances in as much detail as possible.
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Example 2
Using the data from example 1, analyse the variances and use them to produce on Operating
Statement reconciling the budgeted profit with the actual profit.
3.3. Marginal costing

In the previous example, the company had been using absorption costing. They could alternatively
have used marginal costing. The variances will be calculated in very much the same way, but when
using marginal costing the focus is on contribution (rather than profit) and the fact that we will not be
absorbing fixed overheads means that any fixed overhead volume variance is not relevant.
Example 3
Using data from example 1
(a)
prepare the original fixed budgets using marginal costing
(b)
prepare an Operating Statement using a marginal costing approach
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3.4. Interpretation of variances

Example 4
In the previous example there was a materials price variance.
Suggest possible reasons for its occurrence.
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No Tests
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Chapter 14
MORE VARIANCE ANALYSIS
1. Introduction
In this chapter we will look more at variances and several ways of making them more useful to
management.
Planning and Operational variances involve further analysis of the variances to assist management in
deciding where more investigation should be focussed; whereas Mix and Yield variances looks at a
specific situation where conventional variances might be misleading; and finally we will take another
look at labour idle time variables.
2. Planning and Operational variances

We discussed in the previous chapter that the purpose of variance analysis is to assist management in
exercising control by identifying areas where perhaps there are operational problems.
We also discussed possible reasons for variances. Although these included factors such as ineciency
of the workforce a factor that perhaps may be controlled for the future they also included factors
such as an increase in raw material prices and an incorrect standard having been used in the budgets.
These last two are examples of factors that certainly can not be controlled and where it would be silly
to waste time re-investigating each month. It would make more sense to compare actual results with a
standard that reflects any changed conditions and is therefore realistic.
2.1. Planning variance (or revision variance)

This is a classification of variances calculated by comparing the original budget (or ex ante budget) to
a budget revised for any permanent changes to a more realistic budget (ex post budget).
Operational variance
This is a classification of variances calculated by comparing actual performance with a revised (or ex
post) budget. These variances are worth investigating more as they are variances caused by operating
factors that potentially might be controllable.
Example 1
Original budget:
Standard cost of materials:
10 kg at $5 per kg
Budget production:
10,000 units
Actual results:
Production:
11,000 units
Materials:
108,900 kg at $4.75 per kg
Since preparation of the budget the price per kg has changed to $4.85 and the usage to 9.5 kg per unit.
Calculate the expenditure and usage variances, and analyse each into planning and operational
variances.
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Example 2
Original budget:
Standard cost of labour:
8 hrs at $4 per hour
Budget production:
20,000 units
Actual results:
Production:
24,000 units
Labour:
190,000 hrs for $769,500
Since preparation of the budget the price per hour had increased to $4.10 and the time had been revised to
7.5 hrs per unit.
Calculate the rate of pay and eciency variances, analysed into planning and operational variances.
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3. Mix and Yield variances

3.1. It is quite common in practice for one product to use several different materials.
For example, a desk may use wood for the top and metal for the legs.
For each of the materials we can calculate price and usage variances in the normal way, and usually
this is sucient for our purpose.
However, suppose we were manufacturing a mixed fruit juice that contained a mixture of strawberry
juice and banana juice. To calculate usage variances for each material separately would be of little use
if we used less strawberry juice than budgeted, we would automatically use more banana juice. We
would therefore end up with one variance favourable and one adverse, and yet the overall eect on
costs could be either favourable or adverse depending on which juice was the most expensive.
In this situation, when the materials may be substituted for each other (or are substitutable) then we
look at all the materials together and analyse the usage variance into the following variances:
mix variance
this shows the eect of changing the proportions of the mix of materials input into the process
yield variance
this shows the dierence between the actual and expected output or yield from the process
Example 3
The standard material cost per unit of a product is as follows:
$
Material X
2 kg @ $3 per kg
Material Y
1 kg @ $2 per kg
2
8
The actual production during the period was 5,000 units and the materials used were:
Material X
9,900 kg costing $27,000
Material Y
5,300 kg costing $11,000
Calculate the total materials cost variance; the materials price variance; the materials usage variance;
the mix variance; and the yield variance.
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3.2. Other mix variances

Although the calculation of mix variances most commonly relates to materials, exactly the same sort
of situation could be relevant for labour if there were more than one grade (paid at dierent rates) that
were substitutable.
The approach would be exactly the same as for materials.
Slightly less obvious (although essentially the same approach) is the situation where sales are
substitutable.
For example, suppose a company sold two types of desk which although similar had dierent profit
margins. Clearly the company would hope for higher sales, but they would also be interested in the
mix of sales it would be better if customers bought more of the desks giving higher profit p.u., even
if it were to mean selling fewer of the desks that gave lower profit p.u..
Again, in this situation, the approach used for materials may be useful.
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Example 4
Olga plc sells three products A, B and C.
The following table shows the budget and actual results for these products:
A
Budget:
Sales (units)
Price (p.u.)
Cost (p.u.)
200
$20
$17
100
$25
$21
100
$30
$24
Actual:
Sales (units)
Price (p.u.)
Cost (p.u.)
180
$22
$16
150
$22
$18
170
$26
$25
Calculate the total sales margin variance, and analyse into the sales price variance; the sales mix
variance; and the sales quantity variance.
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4. Advanced Idle Time variances

When we looked at labour variances in the previous chapter, we said that any dierence between the
hours paid and the hours worked was Idle Time.
However, since there is likely to be some idle time in almost every business, it would be more sensible
to build some idle time into the budget and then an idle time variance would only occur if the actual
idle time were more or less than budgeted.
We will look at the rules with an example.
Example 5
A company budgets that each unit will take 7.6 hours to make.
It budgets on paying workers at the rate of $5.70 per hour, and that 5% of the hours paid for will be idle.
The actual results (for production of 1000 units) are:
Hours paid:
8,200 hours at a cost of $50,020
Hours worked:
7,740 hours
(a)
Calculate what will appear on the standard cost card as the labour cost per unit
(b)
calculate the eective standard cost per hour worked
(c)
calculate the total labour variance
(d)
Analyse the total variance into rate of pay, idle time, and eciency variances.
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5. Activity Based Costing Variances

You will remember from an earlier chapter that ABC is a way of allocating overheads to products using
cost drivers.
The main reason for doing this was not just to encourage cutting the total cost of the overhead, but
also to encourage more ecient use of the overhead.
For example, we may have had an overhead cost for despatch of $100,000 and a total of 5,000
despatches. This would mean that it was costing $20 per despatch. We could reduce the cost per
despatch by either cutting the total cost (an expenditure variance) or by increasing the number of
despatches (an eciency variance).
Example 6
The following information is available for a period:
Production
Activity level
Total overhead cost of despatching
Budget
48,000 units
2,000 despatches
$120,000
Actual
50,400 units
2,200 despatches
$126,720
Calculate the total overhead variance for despatching, and analyse into the expenditure and
eciency variances.
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6. The application of standard costing (and variance analysis) in the

modern environment.
Modern management places great emphasis on quality - Total Quality Management (TQM), and on
increasing eciency and reducing waste - Just In Time (JIT).
However, traditional standard costing tends to make allowances for waste and for idle time, which is
contrary to the TQM and JIT culture.
Traditional variance analysis focuses on quantity rather than quality. This could mean, for example,
using lower quality material to save money. This would again be contrary to the TQM and JIT culture.
Another element of the TQM culture is the idea of trying to achieve continuous improvement.
Traditional variance analysis does not really accomodate this.
ACCA F5
Test
1

1.
A favourable mix variance will usually result in a favourable yield variance
2.
A favourable mix variance will mean that a higher proportion of a cheap material is being used
instead of a more expensive one
A
B
C
D
Statement 1 only
Statement 2 only
Both statements
Neither statement
A company produces units that should take 1.5 hours to make. The standard rate of pay is $15 per
hour. Idle time is expected to be 10% of hours paid.
They actually produce 20,000 units. They pay $520,000 for 38,000 hours, of Which 3,000 hours are idle.
What is the labour eciency variance (to the nearest $) ?
A
B
C
D
$83,333 (adverse)
$75,000 (adverse)
$120,000 (adverse)
$80,000 (adverse)
A company has budgeted on selling 7,000 units of product X at a selling price of $30 per unit, and
3,000 units of product Y at a selling price of $40 per unit.
The standard contribution per unit is 30% of selling price for both products.
They actually sell 8,000 units of X and 7,000 units of Y.
What is the sales quantity contribution variance?
A
$49,500 (adverse)
B
$48,500 (favourable)
C
$57,000 (adverse)
D
A company has budgeted on selling 7,000 units of product X at a selling price of $30 per
and 3,000 units of product Y at a selling price of $40 per unit.
The standard contribution per unit is 30% of selling price for both products.
unit,
They actually sell 8,000 units of X and 7,000 units of Y.

What is the sales mix variance?
A
B
C
D
5
$7,500 (adverse)
$7,500 (favourable)
$49,500 (adverse)
Which of the following describes an expected standard within the context of

budgeting?
A
B
C
D
A standard set at a level which makes no allowance for waste and machine downtime
A standard which is kept unchanged over a period of time
A standard which is based on current price levels
A standard which assumes an ecient level of operation, but which includes an allowance for
factors such as waste and machine downtime.
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Chapter 15
FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENT
1. Introduction
Financial statements are prepared to assist users in making decisions. They therefore need
interpreting, and the calculation of various ratios makes it easier to compare the state of a company
with previous years and with other companies.
In this chapter we will look at the various ratios that you should learn for the examinations.
2. The main areas

When attempting to analyse the financial statements of a company, there are several main areas that
should be looked at:
Profitability
Liquidity
Gearing
The importance of each area depends on whose behalf that we are analysing the statements.
We will work through an example to illustrate the various ratios that you should learn under each
heading.
ACCA F5
3. Worked example
Example 1
Statements of Financial Position as at 31 December
2007
$
ASSETS
Non-current assets
Tangible assets
Current assets
Inventory
Trade receivables
Cash
2006
$
1,341
1,006
948
360
826
871
708
100
2,314
3,655
TOTAL ASSETS
LIABILITIES AND CAPITAL
Capital and reserves
$1 ordinary shares
Retained profit
1,200
990
Non-current liabilities
10% loan 2015
Current liabilities
Trade payables
Tax payable
Dividends payable
1,679
2,505
720
681
2,190
1,401
500
400
653
228
84
516
140
48
965
3,655
TOTAL LIABILITIES AND CAPITAL
704
2,505
Income statement for the year ended 31 December
Cost of sales
2007
$
7,180
5,385
2006
$
5,435
4,212
Gross profit
1,795
1,223
335
670
254
507
790
50
462
52
Company tax expense
740
262
410
144
Profit after taxation
478
266
Dividends
169
309
95
171
Revenue
Distribution costs
Administrative expenses
Profit from operations
Finance costs
Profit before taxation
Retained profit for the period
You are required to calculate the profitability, liquidity and gearing ratios.
106
ACCA F5 107
Profitability
Profit before interest and tax
Net profit margin
Gross profit margin
Return on capital employed
Revenue
Gross profit
Revenue
Profit before interest and tax

Total long term capital
(= capital + reserves + long-term liabilities)
Revenue
Asset turnover
Total long term capital
NB: ROCE = asset turnover net profit margin
ACCA F5
Liquidity
Current assets
Current ratio
Quick ratio (or acid test)
Current liabilities
Current assets Inventory

Current liabilities
Inventory
Inventory days
Average collection period

(receivables days)
Average payment period

(payables days)
Cost of sales
365 days
Trade receivables
=
Revenue
365 days
Trade payables
=
Purchases
365 days
Gearing
Long term liabilities
Gearing
Shareholders funds
108
ACCA F5 109
4. Limitations of ratio analysis

You must learn the various ratios, however, it is important that you are able to discuss briefly the
relevance of the various ratios, and also their limitations.
Very few of the ratios mean much on their own most are only useful when compared with the ratios
for previous years or for similar companies.
Many of the ratios use figures from the Statement of Financial Position. These only represent the
position at one point in time, which could be misleading. For example, the level of receivables could
be unusually high at the year end, simply because a lot of invoicing was done just before the year end.
Perhaps more sensible in that sort of case would be to use the average for the year. Normally in the
examination you will be expected simply to use Statement of Financial Position figures at the end of
the year, but do be prepared to state the problem if relevant.
No Tests
ACCA F5
110
ACCA F5 111
Chapter 16
NON-FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENT
1. Introduction
We have looked separately at measures of financial performance. However, it is important to have a
range of performance measures considering non-financial as well as financial matters. This is
particularly important in the case of service industries where such things as quality are of vital
importance if the business is to grow in the long-term.
In this chapter we will consider the various areas where performance measures are likely to be
needed.
Various authors have summarized the areas in dierent ways the two that you are expected to be
aware of are Fitzgerald and Moons building blocks; and Kaplan and Nortons Balanced Scorecard.
2. Fitzgerald and Moon

Fitzgerald and Moon focussed on performance measurement in service businesses. They suggested
the following areas needing measures of performance:
Financial performance
Competitive performance
Quality
Flexibility
Resource utilisation
Innovation
ACCA F5
3. Kaplan and Nortons Balanced Scorecard

The balanced scorecard (developed by Kaplan and Norton 1992) views the business from four
perspectives and aims to establish goals for each together with measures which can be used to
evaluate whether these goals have been achieved.
3.1. Possible Measures

Perspective
Question
Possible Measures
Customer Perspective
What do existing and potential

customers value from us?
% Sales from new customers

% On time deliveries
% Orders from enquiries
Customers survey analysis
Internal
Business Perspective
Unit cost analysis

What process must we excel at to
achieve our customer and financial Process/cycle time
objectives?
Value analysis
Efficiency
Learning and Growth

Perspective
How can we continue to improve

and create future value?
Number of new products

introduced
Time to market for new products
Financial Perspective
How do we create value for our

shareholders?
Profitability
Sales growth
ROI
Cash flow/liquidity
112
ACCA F5 113
Test
1
A company has a call centre to handle complaints from customer, and is concerned about the average
time that it takes to deal with customers.
As part of its balanced scorecard, it has set a target for reducing the average time per call.
Such a target would relate to which one of the four balanced scorecard perspectives?
A
B
C
D
Which of the following is not one of Fitzgerald and Moons dimensions of performance?
A
B
C
D
Competitiveness
Learning
Quality
Financial
Which of these statements is/are true?

1.
They should be measurable in financial terms
2.
The should only measure factors over Which the relevant manager has control or influence.
A
B
C
D
Statement 1 only
Statement 2 only
Both statements
Neither statement
Which of the following is not a perspective associated with the balanced scorecard?
A
B
C
D
Customer perspective
Financial perspective
Innovation and learning perspective
Internal business perspective
Financial success
Quality
Growth
Process eciency
As one of its key performance indicators, a restaurant measures the amount of food that is wasted.
Under which perspective would this appear on a balanced scorecard?
A
B
C
D
Financial success
Customer satisfaction
Learning and innovation
Process eciency
ACCA F5
114
ACCA F5 115
Chapter 17
DIVISIONAL PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENT
1. Introduction
In this chapter we will consider the situation where an organisation is divisonalised (or decentralised)
and the importance of proper performance measurement in this situation.
We will also consider the possible problems that can result from the use of certain standard
performance measures.
2. The meaning of divisionalisation

Divisionalisation is the situation where managers of business areas are given a degree of autonomy
over decision making i.e. they are given the authority to make decision without reference to senior
management. In eect they are allowed to run their part of the business almost as though it were their
own company.
2.1. Advantages of divisionalisation:
2.2. Problems with divisionalisation:
ACCA F5
3. The use of performance measures to control divisional managers

If managers are to be given autonomy in their decision making, it becomes impossible for senior
management to watch over them on a day-to-day basis this would remove the whole benefit of
having divisionalised!
The way to control their performance is to establish in advance a set of measures that will be used to
evaluate their performance at (normally) the end of each year.
These measures provide a way of determining whether or not they are managing their division well,
and also communicate to the managers how they are expected to perform.
It is of critical importance that the performance measures are designed well.
For example, suppose a manager was simply given one performance measure to increase profits.
This may seem sensible, in that in any normal situation the company will want the division to become
more profitable. However, if the manager expects to be rewarded on the basis of how well he achieves
the measure, all his actions will be focussed on increasing profit to the exclusion of everything else.
This would not however be beneficial to the company if the manager were to achieve it by taking
actions that reduced the quality of the output from the division. (In the long-term it may not be
beneficial for the manager either, but managers tend to focus more on the short-term achievement of
their performance measures.)
It is therefore necessary to have a series of performance measures for each division manager. Maybe
one measure will relate to profitability, but at the same time have another measure relating to quality.
The manager will be assessed on the basis of how well he has achieved all of his measures.
We wish the performance measures to be goal congruent, that is to encourage the manager to make
decisions that are not only good for him but end up being good for the company as a whole also.
In this chapter we will consider only financial performance. However, non-financial performance is just
as important and we will consider that in the next chapter.
4. Controllable profits
The most important financial performance measure is profitability.
However, if the measure is to be used to assess the performance of the divisional manager it is
important that any costs outside his control should be excluded.
For example, it might be decided that pay increases in all division should be fixed centrally by Head
Oce. In this case it would be unfair to penalise (or reward) the manager for any eect on the
divisions profits in respect of this cost. For these purposes therefore an income statement would be
prepared ignoring wages and it would be on the resulting controllable profit that the manager would
be assessed.
5. Investment Centres and the problem with measuring profitability.

As stated earlier, divisionalisation implies that the divisional manager has some degree of autonomy.
In the case of an investment centre, the manager is given decision making authority not only over
costs and revenues, but additionally over capital investment decision.
In this situation it is important that any measure of profitability is related to the level of capital
expenditure. Simply to assess on the absolute level of profits would be dangerous the manager
might increase profits by $10,000 and be rewarded for it, but this would hardly be beneficial to the
company if it had required capital investment of $1,000,000 to achieve!!
The most common way of relating profitability to capital investment is to use Return on Investment as
a measure. However, as we will see, this can lead to a loss of goal congruence and a measure know as
Residual Income is theoretically better.
116
ACCA F5 117
6. Return on Investment (ROI)

ROI is defined as: Controllable division profit expressed as a percentage of divisional investment
It is equivalent to Return on Capital Employed and this is one of the reasons that it is very popular in
practice as a divisional performance measure.
Example 1
Arcania plc has divisions throughout the Baltic States.
The Ventspils division is currently making a profit of $82,000 p.a. on investment of $500,000.
Arcania has a target return of 15%
The manager of Ventspils is considering a new investment which will require additional investment of
$100,000 and will generate additional profit of $17,000 p.a..
(a)
Calculate whether or not the new investment is attractive to the company as a whole.
(b)
Calculate the ROI of the division, with and without the new investment and hence determine
whether or not the manager would decide to accept the new investment.
In the above example, the manager is motivated to accept an investment that is attractive to the
company as a whole. He has been motivated to make a goal congruent decision.
ACCA F5
Note that in this illustration we have used the opening Statement of Financial Position value for capital
invested. In practice it may be more likely that we would use closing Statement of Financial Position
value (which would be lower because of depreciation). There is no rule about this in practice we
could do whichever we thought more suitable. However, in examinations always use opening
Statement of Financial Position value unless, of course, you are told to do dierently.
However, there can be problems with a ROI approach as is illustrated by the following example:
Example 2
The circumstances are the same as in example 1, except that this time the manager of the Ventspils division
is considering an investment that has a cost of $100, 000 and will give additional profit of $16,000 p.a.
(a)
Calculate whether or not the new investment is attractive to the company as a whole.
(b)
Calculate the ROI of the division, with and without the new investment and hence determine
whether or not the manager would decide to accept the new investment.
In this example the manager is not motivated to make a goal congruent decision. For this reason, a
better approach is to assess the managers performance on Residual Income.
7. Residual Income (RI)

Instead of using a percentage measure, as with ROI, the Residual Income approach assesses the
manager on absolute profit. However, in order to take account of the capital investment, notional (or
imputed, or pretend) interest is deducted from the P&L profit figure. The balance remaining is known
as the Residual Income.
(Note that the interest charge is only notional, and is only made for performance measurement
purposed).
Example 3
Repeat examples 1 and 2, but in each case assume that the manager is assessed on his Residual
Income, and that therefore it is this that determines how he makes decisions.
118
Note that in both cases the manager is motivated to make goal congruent decisions.
ACCA F5 119
8. ROI vs RI
In practice, ROI is more popular than RI, despite the fact that RI is technically superior.
8.1. Reasons for using ROI:
8.2. Reasons for using RI:
ACCA F5
120
ACCA F5 121
Test
1
Which of the following is not a feature of the Return on Investment performance measure?
A
B
C
D
It motivates the division manager to try to improve the companys target rate ofreturn
It enables the comparison of the performance of divisions of dierent sizes
It motivates the manager to improve the return of the division
It is an accounts-based measure of performance
Alpha Co has two divisions, X and Y. Each division is considering the following separate projects:
Division X
Division Y
Capital required
$78.24 million
$53.28 million
Sales to be generated
$34.56 million
$21.12 million
Operating profit margin
30%
24%
Cost of capital
12%
12%
Current return on investment of division
16%
10%
If residual income is used as the basis for the investment decision, which Division(s) would
choose to invest in the project?
A
B
C
D
Which of the following items should not be included in the calculation of the controllable profit
of a profit centre?
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
A
B
C
D
Division X only
Division Y only
Both Division X and Division Y
Neither Division X nor Division Y
the revenue of the division

an allocation of head oce expenses
depreciation of machines
wages of employees of the division
(i), (ii) and (iii)
(i), (iii) and (iv)
(ii) and (iii)
(i) and (iv)
The following information relates to an investment that is being considered by a division.

Sales
$230,000 per year
Capital investment required
$500,000
Operating profit margin
30%
Cost of capital
10%
What is the residual income for this investment?

A
B
C
D
$19,000
$46,000
$100,000
127,000

5
ACCA F5
The following information relates to an investment that is being considered by a division:

Sales
$230,000 per year
Capital investment required
$500,000
Return on investment
15%
Cost of capital
10%
What is the residual income for this investment?

A
B
C
D
$19,000
$25,000
$46,000
$125,000
122
ACCA F5 123
Chapter 18
TRANSFER PRICING
1. Introduction
In a previous chapter we looked at divisionalisation. When a company is divisionalised it is very
common to have the situation where one division supplies goods or services to another division.
If we are measuring the performance of each division separately then it becomes important that
divisions are able to charge each other for goods or services supplied.
In this chapter we will explain the importance of this, and also the importance of divisions charging
each other sensible transfer prices.
2. What is a transfer price?

The transfer price is the price that one division charges another division of the same company for
goods or services supplied from one to the other. It is an internal charge the sale of one division is
the purchase of the other. Although it will be reflected in the results for each division individually,
there is no eect in the accounts of the company as a whole.
Example 1
Division A produces goods and transfers them to Division B which packs and sells them to outside
customers.
Division A has costs of $10 per unit, and Division B has additional costs of $4 p.u.. Division B sells the goods
to external customers at a price of $20 p.u.
Assuming a transfer price between the divisions of $12 p.u., calculate:
(a)
the total profit p.u. made by the company overall
(b)
the profit p.u. made by each division
ACCA F5
3. Why have a transfer price?

The reason for having a transfer price is to be able to make each division profit accountable. If, in the
previous example, there was no transfer price and goods were transferred free of charge between the
division, then the overall profit for the company would be unchanged. However, Division A would only
be reporting costs, and Division B would be reporting an enormous profit. The problem would be
compounded if Division A was selling the same product externally as well as transferring to Division B.
4. Cost-plus transfer pricing

A very common way in practice of determining a transfer price is for the company to have a policy that
all goods are transferred at the cost to the supplying division plus a fixed percentage.
Example 2
Division A has costs of $15 p.u., and transfer goods to Division B which has additional costs of $5 p.u..
Division B sells externally at $30 p.u.
The company has a policy of setting transfer prices at cost + 20%.
Calculate:
(a)
the transfer price
(b)
the profit made by the company overall
(c)
the profit reported by each division separately
5. Goal congruence
If we are properly divisionalised, then each divisional manager will have autonomy over decision
making. It will be therefore the decision of each manager which products are worth producing in their
division (for these purposes we assume that each division has many products and therefore stopping
production of one product will not be a problem).
124
ACCA F5 125
A cost-plus approach, which easy to apply can lead to problems with goal congruence in that in
some situations a manager may be motivated not to produce a product which is in fact to the benefit
of the company as a whole.
Example 3
The company has a policy of setting transfer prices at cost + 20%.
Calculate:
(a)
the transfer price
(b)
the profit made by the company overall
(c)
the profit reported by each division separately
Determine the decisions that will be made by the managers and comment on whether or not goal
congruent decisions will be made.
6. Sensible transfer pricing to achieve goal congruence.

The previous example illustrates that unless care is taken to set the transfer price sensibly, decisions
may be made that are not goal congruent.
In the examination you can be asked to suggest sensible transfer prices. (As we will illustrate, you will
normally be asked to state a range rather than one specific price.)
There is a rule that may be applied. However, it is dangerous to simply learn a rule without fully
understanding the logic. We will therefore build up the rule using a series of small examples, and then
state the rule at the end.
ACCA F5
Example 4
Determine a sensible range for the transfer price in order to achieve goal congruence.
Example 5
Division A has costs of $15 p.u., and transfers goods to Division B which has additional costs of $10 p.u..
A can sell part-finished units externally for $20 p.u.. There is limited demand externally from A, and A has
unlimited production capacity.
126
ACCA F5 127
Example 6
A can sell part-finished units externally for $20 p.u.. There is unlimited external demand from A, and A has
limited production capacity.
Example 7
Determine a sensible range for the transfer price in order to achieve goal congruence, if Divison B can
buy part-finished goods externally for:
(a)
$14 p.u.
(b)
$18 p.u.
ACCA F5
7. The rule for sensible transfer pricing

The following rule summarises the results from the previous examples:
7.1. Minimum transfer price:
7.2. Maximum transfer price:
(Note: we always assume that both divisions are manufacturing many products and that discontinuing
one product will have no eect on the fixed costs. It is therefore only the marginal costs that we are
interested in when applying the above rules.)
8. Capacity limitations
In one of the previous examples there was a limit on production in one of the divisions. This problem
can be made a little more interesting, although the same rule as summarised in Section 7 still applies.
Example 8
A is capable of making two products, X and Y.
A can sell both products externally as follows:
X
Variable costs
80
60
100
70
Contribution p.u.
20
30
External selling price
A has limited labour available.

The labour hours required for each product are
X: 5 hours p.u., Y: 10 hours p.u.
A has unlimited external demand for both products.
Division B requires product Y from Division A.
Calculate the minimum transfer price that should be charged by A for supply of Product Y to
Division B.
128
ACCA F5 129
ACCA F5
Test
1
A company has two divisions. Division A manufactures the product and transfers them to Division B
which sells the product.
There is an external market in which A can sell the product and an external market in which B can buy
the product.
Which of the following states the rule for determining the minimum transfer price?
A
B
C
D
The marginal cost to A, plus any lost contribution to A

The marginal cost to A, less any lost contribution to A
The lower of the net marginal revenue to B and the external purchase price
The higher of the net marginal revenue to B and the external purchase price
Epsilon has two divisions, P and Q. Division P makes a component which it can only sell to Division Q.
Current information for Division P is as follows:
Marginal cost per unit
$240
Transfer price of the component
$396
Total production and sales per year
4,000 units
Specific fixed costs of Division P
$24,000 per year
Alpha Co has oered to sell the component to Division Q for $350 per unit. If Division Q accepts this
oer, Division P will be closed.
If Division Q accepts Alpha Cos oer, what will be the impact on profits per year for the group as
a whole?
A
B
C
D
3
Decrease of $416,000
Increase of $184,000
Decrease of $440,000
Increase of $160,000
A division of a company is capable of making two products - X and Y.

They can sell both products externally as follows:
X
Y
External selling price
100
130
Variable cost
80
100
20
30
Labour hours per unit
5 hours
10 hours
The company has limited labour hours available, and another division requires product Y.
What is the minimum transfer price that should be charged by the division in order to
goal congruence?
A
B
C
D
$100
$110
$130
$140
achieve
130

4
ACCA F5 131
Division A has costs of $30 per unit, and transfers goods to Division B which has additional costs of
$20 per unit. Division B sells externally at $70 per unit.
Division A can sell part-finished units externally for $40 per unit.
There is limited demand externally from A, and A has unlimited production capacity.
What are the minimum and maximum transfer prices in order to achieve goal congruent
decisions?
A
B
C
D
Minimum $30; Maximum $70

Division A has costs of $30 per unit, and transfers goods to Division B which has additional costs of $20
per unit. Division B sells externally at $70 per unit.
Division A can sell part-finished units externally for $40 per unit.
There is unlimited demand externally from A, and A has limited production capacity.
What are the minimum and maximum transfer prices in order to achieve goal congruent
decisions?
A
B
C
D

ACCA F5
132
ACCA F5 133
Chapter 19
PERFORMANCE IN THE NOT-FORPROFIT SECTOR
1. Introduction
Non-profit seeking organisations are those whose prime goal cannot be assessed by economic means.
Examples would include charities and state bodies such as the police and the health service.
For this sort of organisation, it is not possible or desirable to use standard profit measures. Instead (in
for example the case of the health service) the objective is to ensure that the best service is provided
at the best cost.
In this chapter we will consider the problems of performance measures and suggestions as to how to
approach it.
2. Problems with performance measurement

2.1. Multiple objectives
Even if all objectives can be clearly identified, it may be impossible to identify an over-riding objective
or to choose between competing objectives
2.2. The difficulty of measuring outputs

An objective of the health service is obviously to make ill people better. However, how can we in
practice measure how much better they are?
2.3. Financial constraints

Public sector organisations have limited control over the level of funding that they receive and the
objectives that they can achieve.
2.4. Political, social and legal considerations

The public have higher expectations from public sector organisations than from commercial ones, and
such organisations are subject to greater scrutiny and more onerous legal requirements.
2.5. Little market competition and no profit motive.
ACCA F5
3. Value for money

Non-profit organisations, such as the health service, are expected to provide value for money.
This can be defined as providing a service in a way which is economical, ecient and eective.
3.1. Performance should be assessed under each of these 3 Es
Economy
Attaining the appropriate quantity and quality of inputs at the lowest cost
Eciency
Maximising the output for a given input (or, for a given output achieving the minimum input).
Eectiveness
Determining how well the organisation has achieved its desired objectives.
134
ACCA F5 135
Test
1
Which of the following performance measures for a state run hospital would be a measure of
eectiveness?
A
B
C
D
If a police service were to measure the percentage of reported crimes solved, this would be an
example of assessing under which of the following criteria?
A
B
C
D
The average length of stay in hospital

The average number of patients per nurse
Comparison of cost per patient with the previous year
The percentage patients returning within a specified period, with the same condition
Economy
Eciency
Eectiveness
Value
Which of the following would not be a performance measure in respect of quality for a railway
company?
A
B
C
D
The percentage of trains arriving at their destination within 15 minutes of the scheduled time.
The number of accidents per 1,000 journeys
A survey of customer satisfaction
The number of complaints received per 1,000 passengers
ACCA F5
136
ACCA F5 137
Chapter 20
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
1. Introduction
The purpose of the information system in a business is to provide management with the information
that they need in order to make good decisions and in order to monitor the progress of the company.
In this chapter we will look at the dierent information needs of management for dierent levels of
decision making.
2. Levels of management and information requirements

2.1. Strategic planning
Strategic planning is deciding on the long-term (usually at least five years) direction of the business
and making decisions on how to follow this strategy. The sorts of decisions that may be considered
are, for example, what new products to launch, or which new markets to enter.
Information is required mainly from external sources (for example, information about competitors,
and information about government policies insofar as they may aect the business), and also from
internal sources (for example, overall profitability forecasts, and capital spending requirements).
2.2. Management control

Management (or tactical) control is managing the implementation of the strategic plan in the shortterm - generally around twelve months. Short-term budgets will be prepared and operations
measured against the budgets.
Information will be required from both external and internal sources, and will include such things as
variance analysis reports and productivity measurements.
2.3. Operational control

Operational control is concerned with monitoring and controlling the day-by-day performance of the
business
The information required will be primarily be internal to the business and will include such things as
hours worked by employees, raw material usage and wastage reports, and quality control reports.
3. Information systems used by management

In order to make decisions at the various levels outlined in the previous paragraph, management need
information systems to supply the information they require and to present it in a way that is useful for
them.
You should be aware of the following types of information processing system, and the level of
management that benefits from them.
3.1. Transaction processing systems

Transaction processing is the recording of the daily routine transactions of the business. This includes
recording all the financial transactions, keeping records of inventory, the processing of orders etc..
The information provided is used mainly for operational control.
ACCA F5
3.2. Management information systems

The purpose of the management information system is to convert data into information that is useful
for managers at all levels, but is particularly useful at the level of management control.
For example, the transaction processing system will provide a list of all receivables on a given day, but
the management information system can process the transactions and provide information as to sales
per customer and as to the trends in sales.
Similarly, it is the management information system that can process the transaction information and
produce reports of variances.
3.3. Executive information systems

Whereas the a tradition management information system can produce reports as outlined above,
these reports tend to be standard reports and need planning for in advance (for example, it may be
programmed to produce a standard variance report each month).
An executive information system enables the user to access the data and produce flexible nonstandard reports. They are designed to be easy to use - the user can request a report without any
programming knowledge, there is an emphasis on presenting the information graphically, and there is
the ability to drill-down (the information is initially presented very much in summary, but by clicking
on the graphs it is possible to get more and more detail as required).
These systems are mainly for the use of top management and are more for the strategic level of
decision making.
3.4. Enterprise resource planning systems

The word planning here gives the wrong impression in that these systems are not really anything
directly to do with planning!
These systems integrate all departments and functions into a single computer system. Instead of the
accounting department having their own system, separate from (for example) the system used by the
warehouse, there is a single system serving all the departments.
The system runs o a single database so that the various departments can more easily share
information.
As an example of its usefulness, an order received from a customer will be entered into the system and
its status will be updated by the relevant department as it progresses (the warehouse will update
when it is despatched, the accounts department will update when it is invoiced for, and so on.)
If implemented well, it means greater eciency, less duplication, greater accuracy, and the ability of
any department to access information related to other departments.
3.5. Open and closed systems

Open systems are systems that can respond to changes external to the company, whereas closed
systems follow a fixed set of rules and do not change.
For example, basic accounting system is a closed system in that it follows fixed rules. However,
businesses do need to change in response to changes in external factors such as the actions of
competitors and changes in the economic environment. As a result, although there may be subsystems that are closed, the overall information system needs to be an open system in that
information requirements will change as the business itself changes.
Closed systems are easier to control and maintain because they do not change. Open systems provide
flexibility and can provide better information, but are harder to control and maintain because of the
changes made.
No Tests
138
ACCA F5 139
Chapter 21
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS, MEASUREMENT AND
CONTROL
1. Introduction
In order to manage performance the relevant managers need information. These days most of that
information is held on computers. In this chapter we consider the type of information needed, the
dierent programs available to help manage the information, and the types of controls needed.
2. Information requirements
Dierent information is required for dierent types of decisions. There are three levels of decision
making and control:
Strategic:
These are long-term decisions - typically five to ten years - regarding the long-term direction of
the company.
For example: a decision as to whether or not to enter into a new market.
Tactical:
These are shorter-term decisions typically for the coming year - planning to achieve the
strategic objectives.
For example: setting selling prices for the coming year.
Operational:
These are day-to-day decisions implementing the short-term plans.
For example: which customers need chasing for payment.
The information required at each level diers.

At the strategic level, the information needed will tend to be more external, be more long term
forecasts, and be less detailed.
For example, information about competitors and information regarding forecasts for the economy.
At the operational level, the information needed will be internal, be immediate, and will be detailed.
For example, an aged list of customers balances.
At the tactical level the information will be a combination of internal and external, and will be medium
term.
For example, information about general wages in our industry and information about our workers
productivity in order to make decisions about pay rises for the coming year.
ACCA F5
3. Sources of information
Possible external sources of information include:
government statistics
industry publications
competitors financial statements
the internet
Possible internal sources of information include:
receivables ledger
payables ledger
payroll system
4. Types of information systems (software)

You should be aware of the following types of software that are available to provide/assist with
information.
Transaction processing systems (TPS)

This is software that processes the day-by-day transactions of the business.
For example, the software that produces and records sales invoices.
Management information systems (MIS)

This is software that converts data (from the transaction processing systems) into information
for the benefit of managers.
This may include, for example, monthly summaries of the sales by product.
Executive information systems (EIS)

This is software that enables the user to obtain information on an ad hoc basis (as opposed to
the standard reports that will be produced by the MIS).
For example, the MIS may be programmed to produce a monthly report on the sales by region.
However, a manager may require instant information analysing the sales in one particular
region. An executive information system enables the manager to access the databases directly
and access the information required immediately. The software is easy to use - questions may be
entered using normal language as opposed to programming languages. The information
generated is produced in an easy-to-use format - typically graphically.
Enterprise resource planning systems (ERP)

An enterprise resource planning system is software that integrates all the applications within
the business and uses a common database. The same system is used for processing transactions
and providing management information.
140
ACCA F5 141
5. Direct data capture

Traditionally, data was input into the systems manually using a keyboard. However, it is here that
errors are likely to be made and it is inevitably time consuming. More and more use is being made of
direct ways of capturing data that remove the need for entering via a keyboard.
Examples of direct data capture methods include:
Barcodes
these can be read directly using a scanner (although they do require pre-printing which might
not always be feasible)
RFID (radio frequency identification)

a chip embedded in a product that can be read electronically. Similar in use to a barcode, but
can be read simply by being close to a reader (as opposed to having to be correctly positioned
under a scanner)
OMR (optical mark reader)

bubbles that are filled in on a pre-printed form that can be read automatically by a machine (as
used by the ACCA on the front sheet of their exams).
OCR (optical character recognition)

similar to OMR except that the scanning machine can read the characters as opposed to simply
marks. Again, it needs pre-printed forms.
ICR (intelligent character recognition)

similar to OCR except that it does not need pre-printed forms. For example, it can be trained to
find (and input) that VAT number on invoices received from suppliers.
6. Direct user input

Here the input is made using a keyboard, but instead of an operator copying in the data, the supplier
of the data inputs it directly.
For example, if employees are required to complete timesheets, then instead of them filling in a form
which is then entered by an operator, the employees enter the data directly into the system
themselves.
A further extension of this is to allow customers direct access via the internet. For example, instead of
sending an order on paper which then requires an operator to copy it into the system, the customer
can access the system directly and enter it themselves.
Other examples include the booking or airline tickets online, and, of course, internet banking.
ACCA F5
7. Controls
It is important that controls exist on:
input
to prevent so far as possible input errors, and to prevent

the wrong people inputting data.
processing and storage
to prevent data being changed without authorisation, and

to comply with legislation (in particular the data
protection laws that exist in most countries)
and, output
to ensure that only authorised people are allowed to

access information
The types of controls that should be considered include:
input
passwords
to only allow authorised users to input and also to keep a

record of who has entered data
range tests
to help ensure input is accurate. For example, only allow

hours worked per week to be within the range 0 to 50.
format checks
to help ensure input is accurate. For example, employees

names should be all characters (not numbers).
processing and storage

passwords
only authorised users are able to change data
audit trails
a record is kept within the software of all changes made to

data (and by whom)
data protection ocer
an employee with the responsibility of making sure that

data protection laws are complied with
output
passwords
only authorised users are allowed to access data
No Tests
142
ACCA F5 143
Paper F5
ANSWERS TO EXAMPLES
Chapter 1
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
(a)
Total overheads
Total labour hours
A 20,000
B 25,000
C 2,000
O.A.R. =
190,000
67,000
$190,000
2=
1=
1=
40,000
25,000
2,000
67,000hours
= $2.836 per hour
Cost cards:
Materials
Labour
Overheads (at $2.84 per hr)
Selling price
Profit / Loss
(b)
A
5
10
5.68
20.68
20
$(0.68)
B
10
5
2.84
17.84
20
$2.16
C
10
5
2.84
17.84
20
$2.16
Total
90,000
36,000
46,800
7,200
30,000
13,636
13,636
2,728
15,000
5,000
5,000
5.000
55,000
23,404
29,256
2,340
190,000
78,040
20,000
$3.90
94,692
25,000
$3.79
17,268
2,000
$8.63
Set-up costs
(Cost per set up = )
Receiving
(Cost per delivery = )
Despatch
(Cost per order = )
Machining
(Cost per machine hour: )
Number of units
Overheads p.u.
ACCA F5
Costings:
A
5
10
3.90
18.90
20
$1.10
Materials
Labour
Overheads
Selling price
Profit / Loss
B
10
5
3.79
18.79
20
$1.21
C
10
5
8.63
23.63
20
$(3.63)
Chapter 2
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
Selling price = $20 p.u.
Target return = 40% of selling price
Target Cost = $12 p.u.
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
Target return = 30% 5M = $1.5M p.u.
Expected revenue = 40,000 $67.50 = $2.7M
Target cost =
2.7M 1.5
= 30 p.u.
40, 000
Chapter 3
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
(a)
plus:
equals:
Cost
Mark-up
Selling price
(100%)
(50%)
(150%)
7.00
3.50
10.50
The target cost is $7.00 per unit

(b)
Estimated total sales = 2,000 + ( 4 x 12,000 ) = 50,000 units

Total lifecycle cost = ( 50,000 x 6 ) + 60,000 + 30,000 = $390,000
Lifecycle cost per unit = 390,000 / 50,000 = $7.80
This is above the target cost per unit, and therefore it would not be worthwhile making the product.
(c)
The maximum lifecycle cost per unit = the target cost = $7.00
The part caused by the design and end of life costs :
(60,000 + 20,000 + 30,000) / 50,000 = $2.20
Therefore, the maximum manufacturing cost per unit would have to fall from $6.00 to ($7.00 - $2.20) =
$4.80 per unit
Chapter 4
NO EXAMPLES
144
ACCA F5 145
Chapter 5
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
A
25
B
28
8
12
20
4
20
24
Contribution p.u.
Machine hrs p.u.
$2.50
$4
Selling price
Materials
Other variable
Contribution per hour

Production
units
10,000 1 hr =
19,000 2hrs =
B:
A:
hours
10,000
38,000
48,000hours
Profit
A:
19,000 $5
B:
10,000 $4
$
95,000
40,000
135,000
less
Fixed costs:
[A: 20,000 $3
B: 10,000 $2]
Profit
80,000
$55,000
ACCA F5
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
A
25
8
28
20
Throughput p.u.
$17
$8
Machine hrs p.u.
$8.50
$8
(2)
(1)
Selling price
Materials
Production
units
hours
A:
20,000 2hrs =
B:
8,000 1hr =
40,000
8,000
48,000 hours
Profit
$
A:
20,000 $17
B:
8,000 $8
340,000
64,000
404,000
less
fixed costs:
[A: 20,000 $15
360,000
B: 10,000 $6]
Profit
$44,000
360,000
Cost per factory hour =
$48,000
= $7.50
Throughput accounting ratios:

A:
B:
8.50
7.50
8
7.50
= 1.13
= 1.07
Chapter 6
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
Let
S = number of standard chairs produced per week

E = number of executive chairs produced per week
Constraints:
Materials:
2S + 4E 80
Labour:
5S + 6E 180
146
ACCA F5 147
Demand:
E 10
Non-negativity:
S 0; E 0
Objective:
Maximise
C = 6S + 9E
S
40
Feasible area:
A, B, C, D, 0
A
30
20
10
D
0
20
10
30
40
Maximum contribution occurs at point B (using the objective function).

At B,
2S + 4E = 80
(1)
5S + 6E = 180
(2)
(1) 2.5:
5S + 10E = 200
(3) (2):
4E = 20
(3)
E=5
In (1):
2S + 20 = 80
2S = 60
S = 30
C = 6S + 9E
= 180 + 45
= $225
Produce 5 Executive chairs and 30 standard chairs per week.

Maximum contribution is $225 per week.
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
There is no spare material or labour
The spare demand for executive chairs is 5 chairs (10 5)
ACCA F5
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 3
(a)
If there was 1 more kg of material available, then the material constraint becomes:
2S + 4E 81
Point B will still be the optimum solution, and therefore this will be when:
2S + 4E = 81
(1)
5S + 6E = 180 (2)
(1) 2.5 5S + 10E
(3) (2) 4E
= 202.5 (3)
= 22.5
E = 5.625
in (1)
2S + 22.5
2S
= 81
= 58.5
C = 6S +9E
= 175.5 + 50.625
= 226.125
Shadow price of material = extra contribution

= 226.125 225
= $1.125 per kg
(b)
If there was 1 more hour of labour available, then the labour constraint becomes: 5S + 6E 181
Point B will still be the optimum solution, and therefore this will be when:
2S + 4E = 80
(1)
5S + 6E = 181 (2)
(1) 2.5 5S + 10E
(3) (2) 4E
= 200 (3)
= 19
E = 4.75
in (1)
2S + 19 = 80
2S
= 61
S = 30.5
= 6S +9E
= 183 + 42.75
= 225.75
Shadow price of labour = 225.75 225

= $0.75 per hour
The shadow price of demand for executive chairs is $0, because there is already spare demand.
148
ACCA F5 149
Chapter 7
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
(a)
Materials
10
Labour
Variable o/h
5
5
Fixed o/h (50,000 10,000)

Full cost
28
Profit
5.60
$33.60
Selling price
(b)
Materials
10
Labour
Variable o/h
8
5
Marginal cost
23
Profit
9.20
$32.20
Selling price
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
Demand
Cost p.u.
16
100
14.0
Total
Revenue
1,600
1,400
200
Marginal
Revenue
1,600
15.5
200
13.9
3,100
2,780
320
1,500
1,380
15
300
13.8
4,500
4,140
360
1,400
1,360
14.5
400
13.7
5,800
5,480
320
1,300
1,340
14
500
13.6
7,000
6,800
200
1,200
1,320
13.5
600
13.5
8,100
8,100
1,100
1,300
13
700
13.4
9,100
9,380
(280)
1,000
1,280
S.P. p.u.
Total cost Total profit
Optimum selling price is $15 per unit
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 3
(a)
200 100
PED = 100 = 32
15.5 16
16
400 300
300
(b) PED =
= 10
14.5 15
15
Marginal
cost
1,400
ACCA F5
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 4
Minimum price is 12 +
P = 18.40
1
2,500
16,000
x 1 = 18.40
2,500
(or P = 18.40 0.0004Q)
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 5
1
Q
P = 50 0.01Q
100
R = PQ = 50Q 0.01Q 2
dR
Marginal revenue =
= 50 - 0.02Q
dQ
dC
Total cost=
=20
dQ
P = 50
For maximum profit, MR = MC

50 0.02Q = 20
Q = 1,500
When Q = 1,500
P = 50 0.01Q = $35 p.u.
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 6
P = 120 0.001Q
MR = 120 0.002Q (given)
MC = variable cost = $5
For maximum profit,
MR = MC
120 0.002Q = 5
0.002 Q = 115
Q = 57500 units
P = 120 0.001Q = 120 (0.001 57,500)
= 120 57.5
= $62.50 per unit
Total contribution =
Less: Fixed costs
Maximum profit
57,500 (62.50 5) =
3,306,250
(100,000)
$3,206,250
150
ACCA F5 151
Chapter 8
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
$
6
2
4
Selling price
Variable costs
Contribution
(a)
$
1,200
(1,000)
$200
Total contribution (300u $4)

Fixed costs
Profit
(b)
(c)
Fixed costs
Breakeven =
Contribution p.u
1,000
4
= 250 units
Breakeven revenue = 250 u $6p.u. = $1,500
(d)
$
300
1,000
$1,300
Target profit
Fixed costs
Target contribution
Number of units
Target contribution
Contribution p.u
1,300
4
= 325 units
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
Budgeted sales
300 units
Breakeven
250 units
300 250
Margin of safety =
100
300
= 16.67%
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 3
C/S ratio =
Target profit
Fixed overheads
Target contribution
Contribution
Sales
4
6
= 0.67
$
320
1,000
$1,320
Sales revenue required = Target contribution C/S ratio = 1320 4/6 = $1,980
ACCA F5
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 4
Cost & revenue
($)
3,000
Total
revenue
Total cost
2,000
}
}
1,000
250
500
variable
cost
fixed cost
output
(units)
breakeven
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 5
Profit
($)
1,000
500
Sales (units)
breakeven
(250 units)
1,000
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 6
(a)
(b)
CS ratios:
C = 1.25 / 5.00 = 0.25
(or 25%)
V = 0.75 / 6.00 = 0.125
(or 12.5%)
P = 2.65 / 6.00 = 0.379
(or 37.9%)
Average CS ratio:
Based on budget sales,
152

Total revenue
ACCA F5 153
= (4800 x 5) + (4800 x 6) + (12000 x 7)

= $136,800
Total contribution = (4800 x 1.25) + (4800 x 0.75) + (12000 x 2.65)

= $41,400
Average CS ratio = 41400/136800 = 0.303 (or 30.3%)
(Alternatively, the average CS ratio may be calculated by taking the weighted average of the individual
CS ratios, weighting by the budgeted sales revenues.)
(c)
Breakeven sales revenue
= fixed overheads / CS ratio

= 8000/0.303
= $26,400
(d)
See graph below

Profit ($)
+ 40,000
+ 30,000
C
+ 20,000
+ 10,000
50,000
100,000
150,000
10,000
Sales ($)

(e)
ACCA F5
P has the highest CS ratio, followed by C, followed by V.

Cumulative
Sales
84,000
((12,000 2.65) 8000)
Cumulative
Profit
23,800
(12,000 7 =)
(4,800 5 = 24,000)
108,000
(4,800 1.25 = 6000)
29,800
(4,800 6 = 28,800)
136,800
(4,800 0.75 = 3600)
33,400
(f )
Breakeven sales for P are 8000/0.379 = $21,108
Chapter 9
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
(a)
Lost contribution from Rooks
(15,000)
Save fixed overheads

Net loss from ceasing Rooks
5,000
10,000
Therefore, should continue production of Rooks.

(b)
Lost contribution from Rooks

Save fixed overheads
Extra contribution from Crowners
Extra fixed costs of Crowthers
Net gain from ceasing Rooks
(15,000)
5,000
20,000
(6,000)
4,000
Therefore, should cease production of Rooks and produce Crowners instead.
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
Revised costs for special order:
Notes
1
$
31,300
Supervisor costs
1,000
General overheads
1,000
Machine maintenance
500
Machine overheads
22,000
Materials
31,500
Interest costs
900
88,200
Subcontractor costs
Notes:
1.
The choice lies between the two subcontractor costs that have to be employed because of the
shortage of existing labour. The minimum cost is to have subcontractors employed who are skilled in
the special process.
2.
Only the dierence between the bonus and the incentive payment represents an additional cost that
arises due to the special order. Fixed salary costs do not change.
3.
Only incremental costs are relevant.
4.
Depreciation is a period cost and is not related to the special order. Additional maintenance costs are
relevant.
154

5.
ACCA F5 155
The relevant costs are the variable overheads ($3 6000 hours) that will be incurred, plus the
displacement costs of $2 2000 hours making a total of $22,000.
Since the materials are no longer used the replacement cost is irrelevant. The historic cost of $34,000 is
a sunk cost. The relevant cost is the lost sale value of the inventory used in the special order which is:
7,500 kg $4.20 per kg = $31,500.
Full opportunity costing will also allow for imputed interest costs on the incremental loan. The correct
interest rate is the overdraft rate since this represents the incremental cost the company will pay.
Simple interest charges for three months are therefore: (3/12) $20,000 18% = $900.
6.
7.
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 3
Buy-in price
Cost to make
Saving (p.u.)
Kg of B
Saving per kg
RANKING
X
13
10
$3
Y
17
12
$5
Z
16
14
$2
$1
3
$2.50
1
$2
2
Units
Y
Z
MAKE
MAKE
2,500
3,000
Z
X
BUY
BUY
1,000
2,000
Material B
(kg)
5,000
3,000
8,000 kg
Chapter 10
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
(a)
(b)
Demand
Contract size
300u
500u
700u
800u
(i)
400u
2,900
3,500
4,100
4,400
500u
3,400
4,000
4,600
4,400
700u
4,400
5,000
4,600
4,400
900u
5,400
5,000
4,600
4,400
Expected value if contract size =

300 units = (0.22,900) + (0.3 3,400) + (0.4 4,400) + (0.1 5,400) = $3,900
500 units = (0.2 3,500) + (0.3 4,000) + (0.5 5,000) = $4,400
700 units = (0.2 4,100) + (0.8 4,600) = $4,500
900 units = $4,400
Sign contract for 700 units

(ii)
ACCA F5
maximin
Worst outcome from:
300 units = $2,900
500 units = $3,500
700 units = $4,100
800 units = $4,400
(iii)
Best outcome from

300 units = $5,400
500 units = $5,000
700 units = $4,600
800 units = $4,400
(iv)
Regret table:
400u
500u
700u
900u
1,500
1,200
600
500u
900
600
400
700u
300
400
800
800u
200
600
1,000
Demand
Contract size
300u
Worst regret for

300 units = $1,500
500 units = $900
700 units = $800
800 units = $1,000
(c)
With perfect knowledge of the level of demand, the payos would be as follows:
Result of perf.
know.
400
Decision
Contract
800u
Payo
$
4,400
500
700u
4,600
700
500u
5,000
900
300u
5,400
The expected return with perfect knowledge =

(0.2 4,400) + (0.3 4,600) + (0.4 5,000) + (0.1 5,400) = $4,800
The expected return without perfect knowledge (from (b)(i) is $4,500

So the most to pay for perfect knowledge
= 4,800 4,500
= $300
156
ACCA F5 157
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
13.5M
5M
G
d
oo
2/3
shu
t
ive
ens
(4M
exp
Bad
6.5M
1
8.5M
(2M
che
ap
)
od
2/3
13.5M
Go
o
Go
Bad
Market
research
(0.2M)
4M
(4M
sive
n
e
p
Bad
ex
Good result
0.68
.91
0.0
6.5M
2
(2M
)
che
ap
shut
Ba
0.3 d re
2 sul
Bad
3
8.5M
0.91
d
o
Go
0.0
5M
4M
ch
eap
(2M
shu
5M
.13
d0
Goo
8.5M
Ba
d0
.87
4M
Expected values:
at A
B
C
D
E
(2/3 13.5M)
(2/3 8.5M)
(0.91 13.5M)
(0.91 8.5M)
(0.13 8.5M)
+
+
+
+
+
(1/3 6.5M)
(1/3 4M)
(0.09 6.5M)
(0.09 4M)
(0.87 4M)
=
=
=
=
=
11.17M
7M
12.87M
8.095M
4.585M
Decisions
at 2: choose expensive, 8.87M (12.87 4)
at 3: choose shut, 5M
Expected value at F, (0.68 8.87M) + (0.32 5M) = 7.63M
Decision at 1: choose market research, 7.43M (7.63 0.2)
ACCA F5
Chapter 11
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
(a)
Sales budget
X
Y
Z
(b)
2,000u
4,000u
3,000u
$100
$130
$150
Production budget
X
2,000
(500)
600
2,100 u
Sales
Opening inventory
Closing inventory
Production
(c)
2,100u
4,200u
3,100u
Wood
10,500
2
12,600
2
6,200
1
29,300 kg
5=
3=
2=
Z
3,000
(700)
800
3,100u
Varnish
4,200
8,400
3,100
15,700
litres
Materials purchases budget

Wood
29,300
(21,000)
18,000
26,300 kg
$8
$210,400
Usage
Opening inventory
Closing inventory
(e)
Y
4,000
(800)
1,000
4,200u
Material usage budget

X
Y
Z
(d)
=
=
=
$
200,000
520,000
450,000
$1,170,000
Varnish
15,700
(10,000)
9,000
14,700 litres
$4
$58,800
Labour budget
X
Y
Z
2,100u 4
4,200u 6
3,100u 8
=
=
=
hours
8,400
25,200
24,800
58,400 hours
$3
$175,200
158
ACCA F5 159
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
Sales
Production
Sales
Materials
Labour
Variable o/h
Contribution
Fixed o/h
Profit
Flexed
12,000u
12,000u
120,000
60,000
30,000
15,000
105,000
15,000
10,000
$5,000
Actual
12,000 u
12,000 u
122,000
60,000
28,500
15,000
103,500
18,500
11,000
$7,500
Variances
2,000
1,500
(F)
1,000
$2,500
(A)
(F)
(F)
Statement
Original budget contribution
Sales volume variance
Sales price variance
Labour variance
Actual contribution
Fixed overheads
Budget
Variance
Actual profit
$
12,500
2,500 (F)
15,000
2,000 (F)
1,500 (F)
18,500
(10,000u $1.25)
(2,000 $1.25)
10,000
1,000 (A)
11,000
$7,500
Chapter 12
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
High
Low
Variable cost =
45,000
600
u
700
$
85,000
100
600u
40,000
$45,000
= $75
For high:
Total cost =
Variable cost (700u @ $75)
Fixed cost
85,000
52,500
$32,500
ACCA F5
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
y
xy
x2
y2
40
40
1,600
65
260
16
4,225
45
90
2,025
85
595
49
7,225
70
420
36
4,900
70
350
25
4,900
50
425
150
1,905
9
140
2,500
27,375
xy
x2
y2
28
x
b=
n xy x y
n x 2 ( x )
71,90528425
7140282
1, 435
=
= 7.321
196
y b x
a=
n
n
425 7.32128
=
= 31.430
7
7
=
y = 31.430 + 73.21x
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 3
r=
n xy x y
2
x2 ( x) n y2 ( y)
(71,905)(28425)
(((7140)(28) )((727,375)(425) ))
2
1,435
= 0.977
19611,00
160
ACCA F5 161
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 4
Moving
Average
2000
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
2001
2002
80
87
82
90
90
95
93
102
105
112
103
116
84.75
87.25
89.25
92
95
98.75
103
105.5
109
Trend
Seasonal
Variation
% variation
86
88.25
90.62
93.5
96.87
100.87
104.25
107.25
-4
+ 1.75
- 0.62
+1.5
- 3.87
+1.13
+0.75
+4.75
95.3
102.0
99.3
101.6
96.0
101.1
100.7
104.4
2000
-4
+ 1.75
2001
2002
- 0.62
+ 0.95
+ 1.5
+ 4.75
- 3.87
-
+ 1.13
-
Total
+ 0.13
+ 6.25
- 7.87
+ 2.88
Averages
+ 0.06
+ 3.12
- 3.93
+ 1.44
2000
95.3
102.0
2001
2002
99.3
100.7
101.6
104.4
96.0
-
101.1
-
Total
200
206
191.3
203.1
100%
103%
95.6%
101.5%
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 5
Averages
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 6
Average
time
100
75
150
56.25
225
42.1875
337.5
units
Total time
100
hours
Time for 8
337.5
Time for first
100
Time for additional 7
237.5
hours
ACCA F5
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 7
(a)
log 0.85
b=
log 2
-0.2345
y = axb
for 16 batches y = 200 16-02345 = 104.3912
Total time for 16 = 16 104.4
1,670 hours
Time for first
200 hours
Time for next 15
1,470 hours
(b)
Average time for 30 = 200 30-0.2345 = 90.08

Total time for 30 = 30 90.08 = 2,703 hours
Average time for 29 = 200 29-0.2345 = 90.80
Total time for 29 = 29 90.80 = 2,633 hours
Time for 30th = 2,703 2,633 = 70 hours
Chapter 13
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
Sales (units)
Production (units)
Sales
Materials
Labour
Variable o/h
Fixed o/h
Closing inventory
Profit
Original Fixed
Budget
$
8,000
8,700
Flexed
Budget
$
8,400
8,900
600,000
156,600
217,500
87,000
130,500
591,600
(47,600)
544,000
$56,000
630,000
160,200
222,500
89,000
133,500
605,200
(34,000)
571,200
$58,800
Actual
Variances
$
8,400
8,900
613,200
163,455
224,515
87,348
134,074
609,392
(34,000)
575,392
$37,808
16,800
3,255
2,015
1,652
574
(A)
(A)
(A)
(F)
(A)
20,992
(A)
162
ACCA F5 163
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
Materials
Expense variance
Actual purchases
35,464kg
at actual cost
163,455
at standard cost
($4.50)
159,588
$3,867 (A)
Usage variance
kg
Actual usage
Standard usage for actual production
(8,900 u 4kg)
35,464
35,600
136 kg
at a standard cost ($4.50) = $612 (F)

Labour
Rate of Pay variance
Actual hours paid at actual cost
45,400 hours at standard cost ($5)
224,515
227,000
$2,485
(F)
Idle Time Variance

Actual hours paid
Actual hours worked
45,400
44,100
1,300 hrs
at a standard cost ($5) = $6,500 (A)
Eciency variance
Actual hours worked
Standard hours for actual production
(8,900 u 5hrs)
44,100
44,500
400 hrs
at a standard cost ($5) = $2,000 (F)

Variable overheads
Expenditure variance
Actual hours worked
44,100
at actual cost
at standard cost
87,348
88,200
$852
(F)
ACCA F5
Eciency variance
Actual hours worked
(8,900u 5hrs)
44,100
44,500
400 hrs
at a standard cost ($2) = $800 (F)

Fixed overheads
Actual total
Original budget total
134,074
130,500
$3,574 (A)
Capacity variance
Actual hours worked
Budget hours (8,700u 5hrs)
44,100
43,500
600 hrs
Eciency variance
Actual hours worked
(8,900u 5hrs)
44,100
44,500
400 hrs

Operating Statement
Original budget profit
Sales
volume variance
Sales
price variance
Materials
expense variance
usage variance
rate of pay variance
idle time variance
eciency variance
expense variance
eciency variance
expense variance
capacity variance
eciency variance
Labour
Variable o/hs
Fixed o/hs
Actual profit
$
56,000
2,800 (F)
58,800
(16,800) (A)
(3,867)
612
2,485
(6,500)
2,000
852
800
(3,574)
1,800
1,200
$37,808
(A)
(F)
(F)
(A)
(F)
(F)
(F)
(A)
(F)
(F)
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 3
No Answer
164
ACCA F5 165
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 4
No Answer
Chapter 14
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
Actual usage at actual cost:
108,900 $4.75
517,275
Actual usage at standard cost:
108,900 $5.00
544,500
Variance:
27,225 (F)
Planning variance:
Actual usage at revised cost:
108,900 $4.85
528,165
Actual usage at standard cost:
108,900 $5.00
544,500
Planning variance:
16,335 (F)
Operational variance:
Actual usage at actual cost:
108,900 $4.75
517,275
Actual usage at revised cost:
108,900 $4.85
528,165
Operational variance: 10,890 (F)

Usage variance:
Actual usage:
Standard usage:
108,900 kg
11,000 10kg
1,100 kg $5
110,000 kg
=
$5,500 (F)
Planning variance:
Revised usage:
11,000 9.5 kg
104,500 kg
Standard usage:
11,000 10 kg
110,000 kg
5,500 kg $5
$27,500 (F)
Actual usage:
Revised usage:
108,900 kg
11,000 9.5 kg
4,400 kg $5
104,500 kg
=
$22,000 (A)
ACCA F5
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
Rate of pay variances
Planning variance:
Actual hours at revised cost:
190,000 $4.10
779,000
Actual hours at standard cost:
190,000 $4.00
760,000
Planning variance:
19,000 (A)
Actual hours at actual cost:
Actual hours at revised cost:
769,500
190,000 $4.10
779,000
Operational variance: 9,500 (F)

Eciency variance:
Planning variance:
Revised hours:
24,000 7.5 hours
180,000 hours
Standard hours:
24,000 8 hours
192,000 hours
12,000 hours $4 = $48,000 (F)

Actual hours:
Revised hours:
190,000 hours
24,000 7.5 hours
10,000 hours $4
180,000 hours
=
$40,000 (A)
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 3
Total materials cost variance
Actual total cost (27,000 + 11,000)
Standard total cost (5,000 $8)
Total cost variance
38,000
40,000
$2,000 (F)
Materials price variance
X
Y
Actual
Actual cost
purchases
kg
$
9,900
27,000
5,300
11,000
38,000
Actual
purchases
kg
9,900
5,300
Standard
cost
$
29,700
10,600
40,300
Price variable = 38,000 40,300 = $2,300 (F)
166
ACCA F5 167
Mix variance
X
Y
Actual
purchases
kg
9,900
5,300
15,200kg
Standard
cost
$
29,700
10,600
40,300
Standard mix
Standard cost
kg
10,133
5,067
15,200 kg
()
()
$
30,399
10,134
40,533
Mix variance = 40,300 40,533 = 233 (F)

Yield variance
Standard mix
X
Y
(actual total)
kg
10,133
5,067
15,200 kg
Standard
mix
kg
10,000
5,000
15,000 kg
Standard cost
$
30,399
10,134
40,533
Standard
cost
$
30,000
10,000
40,000
Yield variance = 40,533 40,000 = 533 (A)

(Usage variance = Yield variance + Mix variance = 533 (A) + 233 (F) = 300 (A))
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 4
Note: throughout this answer we use standard costs because cost variances are calculated separately in the
usual way
Total sales margin variance
Budget profit:
A
B
200u
100u
(20 17)
(25 21)
100u
(30 24)
600
400
600
1,600
Actual profit (using standard costs):

A
B
180u
150u
(22 17)
(22 21)
107u
(26 24)
900
150
340
1,390
Total variance = 1,390 1,600 = $210 (A)

Sales price variance
Actual sales
A
B
C
units
180
150
170
Actual selling
price
22 =
22 =
26 =
Actual sales
$
3,960
3,300
4,420
$11,680
units
180
150
170
Standard selling
price
20 =
25 =
30 =
$
3,600
3,750
5,100
$12,450
ACCA F5
Sales price variance = 11,680 12,450 = $770 (A)

Sales mix variance
A
B
C
Actual total
sales
units
180
150
170
500
Actual selling
price
$3 =
$4 =
$6 =
$
540
600
1,020
$2,160
(2/4)
(1/4)
(1/4)
Actual total
sales
units
250
125
125
500
Standard
profit p.u.
$3 =
$4 =
$6 =
$
750
500
750
$2,000
Mix variance = 2,160 2,000 = $160 (F)

Sales quantity variance
A
B
C
Actual total sales Standard

standard mix
Profit
units
250
$3 =
125
$4 =
125
$6 =
500
Budget sales
$
750
500
750
$2,000
units
200
100
100
400
Standard
profit
$3 =
$4 =
$6 =
$
600
400
600
$1,600
Quantity variance = 20,000 1,600 = $400 (F)
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 5
(a)
(b)
c)
Each unit takes 7.6 hours to make, and therefore the company expects to need to pay for 7.6/.95 = 8
hours of labour.
8 hours at the rate of $5.70 per hour gives a standard cost of $45.60 per unit
Each unit should take 7.6 hours to produce, and should cost $45.60 for labour. Therefore, the eective
standard cost per hour worked is 45.60 / 7.6 = $6.00
Total labour variance:
Actual cost of production:
Standard cost of actual production
(1,000 units at $45.60)
Total variance
d)
Rate of pay variance:

Actual amount paid
Standard cost of actual hours paid
(8,200 hours at $5.70)
Total variance
50,020
45,600
4,420 (A)
50,020
46,740
3,280 (A)
Idle time variance:

Actual idle hours (8,200 7,740)
Standard idle time (8,200 5%)
Excess idle time
Idle time variance: 50 hours at $6.00 =
460 hours
410 hours
50 hours
$300 (A)
168
ACCA F5 169
Eciency variance:
Actual hours worked
Standard hours worked for actual
Production: 1000 units 7.6 hours =
Idle time variance: 50 hours at $6.00 =
Eciency variance: 140 hours $6 =
7,740 hours
7,600 hours
140 hours
$840 (A)
(Check:
Rate of pay
Excess idle time
Eciency
Total
3,280 (A)
300 (A)
840 (A)
$4,420
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 6
Total variance:
Actual total expenditure
Standard cost for actual production
(50,400 120,000/48,000)
$
126,720
126,000
720 (A)
Expenditure variance:
Actual total expenditure
Standard cost for actual despatches
(2,200 120,000/2,000)
$
126,720
132,000
5,280 (F)
Eciency variance:
Actual number of despatches
Standard number of despatches for actual production
(50,400 2,000/48,000)
Despatches
2,200
2,100
100
Variance
= 100 despatches standard cost per despatch

= 100 120,000/2,000 = $6,000 (A)
ACCA F5
Chapter 15
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
2007
2006
Net profit margin
790
7,180
11%
8.5%
Gross profit margin
1,795
7,180
25%
22.5%
Return on capital
790
2,690
29.4%
25.7%
Asset turnover
7,180
2,690
2.67
3.02
Current ratio
2,314
965
2.4
2.4
Quick ratio (or acid test)
1,308
965
1.36
1.15
Inventory turnover
1,006
365
5,385
68.2 days
75.5 days
Receivables days
948
365
7,180
48.2 days
47.5 days
Payables days
653
365
5,385
44.3 days
44.7 days
Gearing ratio
500
2,190
22.8%
28.6%
Chapter 16
NO EXAMPLES
170
ACCA F5 171
Chapter 17
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
17,000
Return from new project =
(a)
= 17%
100,000
For company:
17% > 15% (target)
Therefore company wants to accept
(b)
For division
ROI (without project)
ROI (with project)
82,000
= 16.4%
500,000
82,000 + 17,000
= 16.5%
500,000 + 100,000
ROI of division increases therefore divisional manager motivated to accept.
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
Return from new project =
(a)
16,000
= 16%
100,000
For company: 16% > 15%

Company wants to accept
(b)
For division:
ROI (without project)
ROI (with project)
=16.4%
82,000 + 16,000
500,000 + 100,000
= 16.3%
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 3
(1)
RI (without project)
Profit
Less: Interest
15% 500,000
RI (with project)
Profit
Less: Interest
15% 600,000
82,000
(75,000)
$7,000
99,000
90,000
$9,000
$9,000 > $7,000 manager motivated to accept

(2)
ACCA F5
$7,000
RI (without project)
ROI (with project)
Profit
Less: Interest
15% 600,000
98,000
90,000
$8,000
$8,000 > $7,000 manager motivated to accept

In both cases the decisions are goal congruent
Chapter 18
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 1
(a)
Selling price
Costs:
20
A
B
10
4
14
$6
Profit
(b)
Total Profit
Cost
Profit
A
12
10
$2
Selling price
Total Profit
Costs
Profit
B
20
12
4
16
$4
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 2
(a)
(b)
Transfer price = 15 1.2 = $18 p.u.

Selling price
Costs:
30
A
B
Profit
(c)
Total Profit
Cost
Profit
A
18
15
$3
15
5
20
$10
Selling price
Total Profit
Costs
Profit
B
30
18
5
23
$7
172
ACCA F5 173
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 3
(a)
Transfer price = 20 1.2 = $24 p.u.
(b)
Selling price
Costs:
30
A
B
20
8
28
$2
Profit
(c)
A
24
20
$4
Total Profit
Cost
Profit
Selling price
Total Profit
Costs
Profit
B
30
24
8
32
$(2)
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 4
For A: T.P.
> 20
For B:
T.P.
< 30 - 8
< 22
Sensible T.P. between $20 and $22 p.u.
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 5
For A: T.P.
> 15
For B:
T.P.
< 35 - 10
< 25
Sensible range between $15 and $25 p.u.
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 6
For A: T.P.
> 20
For B:
T.P.
< 25 (as in previous example)
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 7
(a)
For A: T.P.
>8
For B:
T.P.
< 14

(b)
For A: T.P.
>8
For B:
T.P.
< 20 4
< 16
ACCA F5
ANSWER TO EXAMPLE 8
Contribution
Hours
X
$20
Y
$30
5
$4
10
$3
Therefore, if no transfers to B then A would sell exactly and generate $4 per hour contribution.
To make transfers of Y worthwhile, A need to charge at least 70 + (10 4) = $110 p.u.
Chapter 19
NO EXAMPLES
174
ACCA F5 175
ANSWERS TO TESTS
CHAPTER 1
1
C
Total number of setups = 20,000/1,000 + 50,000/5,000 = 30
Cost per set-up = 30,000/30 = $1,000
Total cost for Product X = (20,000/1,000) x $1,000 = $20,000
Cost per unit of product X = $20,000 / 20,000 units = $1.00 per unit
B
Traditional absorption costing tends to over-allocate costs to low-volume products
Total overheads for Q:

Set-up costs:
Inspection costs:
15 x $336,000/28 =
180,000
3 x $192,000/8 =
72,000
Other overheads:
96,000
x $230,400/115,200 =
Total:
192,000
$444,000
Overheads per unit for Q: $444,000 / 9,600 = $46.25

4
Chapter 2
1
B
The required profit is 20% x $450 = $90
Therefore the target cost = 450 - 90 = $360
The cost gap = 400 - 360 = $40
A
The total required profit is 20% x $1,250,000 = $250,000 or 250,000/1,000 = $250 per unit
The target cost = 300 - 250 = $50.
C
The required profit = 30% x $20 = $6
Therefore the target cost is 20 - 6 = $14 per unit
The cost gap = 16 - 14 = $2
B
The target cost = 100/120 x $600 = $500
The cost gat = 520 - 500 = $20
Chapter 3
1
A
Lifecycle costing takes account of all costs over the life of the product
A
Lifecycle costing takes account of all costs over the life of the product
D
Total costs - 50,000 + (20,000 x 5) + 10,000 = $160,000
Cost per unit = 160,000 / 20,000 = $8
Chapter 4
1
Chapter 5
1
A
Throughput contribution = 60 - 15 = $45 per unit
Throughput contribution per hour of machine time = 45 / 0.2 = $225
Total factory costs = 250,000 + (100,000 hrs x $5 per hour) = $750,000
Factory costs per hour of machine time = 750,000 / 5,000 = $150
Throughput accounting ratio = 225 / 150 = 1.50
B
Throughput contribution per hour for X = (50 - 10) / (20/60) = $120
Throughput contribution per hour for Y = (32 - 6) / (15/60) = $104
Make 1,500 of X first, which uses 1,500 x (20/60) = 500 hours.
Use the remaining 100 hours to make Y.
Therefore make 100 / (15/60) = 400 units of Y
D
Throughput per unit = 30 - 9 = $21
Throughput contribution per hour (return per factory hour) = 21 / (6/60) = $210
Chapter 6
1
B
The most to pay is the current cost per kg plus the shadow price per kg
ACCA F5
176
Chapter 7
1
B
Total absorption cost = 10 + 8 + 3 + 5 = $26 per unit
Selling price = 100/80 x $26 = $32.50 per unit
C
b = 5 / 2,000 = 0.0025
a = 25 + (0.0025 x 20,000) = 75
B
b = 30 / 10,000 = 0.003
a = 200 + (0.003 x 100,000) = 500
P = 500 - 0.003Q
MR = 500 - 0.006Q
Maximum profit occurs when MR = MC
500 - 0.006Q = 8
Q = 492 / 0.006 = 82,000
P = 500 - (0.003 x 82,000) = 254 per unit
Chapter 8
1
B
Contribution required = 60,000 + 21,600 = 81,600
Selling price per unit = 28 / 70% = $40
Contribution per unit = 40 - 28 = $12
Units to sell = 81,600 / 12 = 6,800 units
C
For breakeven, total contribution = $80,000
Total revenue required = 80,000 / 0.4 = $200,000
Selling price = 12 / 60% = $20 per unit
Budgeted revenue = 12,000 x $20 = $240,000
Margin of safety = ((240,000 - 200,000) /240,000) x 100% = 16.67%
(Alternatively, the same answer can be arrived at by working in units instead of sales revenue)
C
Budgeted fixed costs = (10,000 x 2.88) + (12,500 x 2.40) = $58,800
If only X is made, then fixed costs are 58,800 - 6,000 = $52,800
Therefore required contribution = 144,000 + 52,800 = $196,800
Contribution per unit from X = 7.68 + 2.88 = $10.56
Therefore need to sell 196,800 / 10.56 = 18,636 units
C
For breakeven, total contribution = $375,000
Therefore breakeven revenue = 375,000 / 25% = $1,500,000
Budgeted revenue = 100,000 x $25 = $2,500,000
Margin of safety = (2,500,000 - 1,500,000) / 2,500,000 = 40%
ACCA F5 177
ACCA F5
Chapter 9
1
C
2,000 kg x $10 per kg = $20,000
B
Since there is a substantial amount of idle time, there will be no addition cost involved of using the
workers on the contract.
B
From inventory: 1,500 kg x $9 = $13,500
Purchased: 500 kg x $10 = $5,000
13,500 + 5,000 = $18,500
D
5,000 hours x (12 + 8) = $100,000
Chapter 10
1
D
(although for a one-o decision, the expected value is not a value that is likely to occur, it is possible
that it is equal to one of the possible values)
Chapter 11
1
D
Although rolling budgets are usually prepared for twelve-month periods, they can be for any length of
period.
They are usually prepared using an incremental approach, but any approach may be used.
Chapter 12
1
B
Average time per unit for the first two units = (18 + 10) / 2 = 14 hours
Learning rate = 14/18 = 78%
B
Average time per unit for 8 units = 42 x 0.83 = 21.504 hours
Total time for 8 units = 8 x 21.504 = 172.032 hours
Time for additional 7 units = 172.032 - 42 = 130.032 hours
A
Variable cost per unit = (960,000 - 885,120) / (22,080 - 19,200) = 26
Fixed costs per month = 885,120 - (19,200 x 26) = 385,920
178

4
Chapter 13
No Tests
Chapter 14
1
A
Standard hours for actual production = 20,000 x 1.5 = 30,000 hours
Actual hours worked = 38,000 - 3,000 = 35,000 hours
Ecience variance = (35,000 - 30,000) x $15 x 100/90 = $83,333 (adverse)
B
Total sales = 15,000 units
Actual sales at standard mix =
( 7/10 x 15,000 x (30% x $30)) + (3/10 x 15,000 x ((30% x $40) = $148,500
Budget sales = (7,000 x (30% x $30)) + (3,000 x (30% x 40) = $99,000
Sales quantity variance = 148,500 - 99,000 = $49,500 (favourable)
B
Actual sales at standard mix =
( 7/10 x 15,000 x (30% x $30)) + (3/10 x 15,000 x ((30% x $40) = $148,500
Actual sales at actual mix =
(8,000 x (30% x $30)) + (7,000 x (30% x $40)) = $156,000
Sales mix variance = 148,500 - 156,000 = $7,500 (favourable)
Chapter 15
No Tests
Chapter 16
1
ACCA F5 179
Chapter 17
1
A
Residual income of X = (30% x $34.56M) - (12% x $78.24M) = + $0.9792M
Residual income of Y = (24% x $21.12M) - (12% x $53.28M) = + $1.3248M
Xs project gives a positive residual income and so will be accepted.
Ys project gives a negative residual income and so will not be accepted.
A
Residual income = (30% x $230,000) - (10% x $500,000) = $19,000
B
Residual income = (15% x $500,000) - (10% x $500,000) = $25,000
Chapter 18
1
A
Extra costs if buy from Alpha: 4,000 x (350 - 240) = $440,000
Saving if closing division P = $24,000
Net impact on profits = decrease of $416,000 (440,000 - 24,000)
D
Contribution per hour from X = 20 / 5 = $4
Contribution per hour from Y = 30 / 10 = $3
Minimum transfer price = $100 + (10 hours x $4) = $140
Chapter 19
1
Chapters 20 and 21
No Tests
ACCA F5
180
ACCA F5 181
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Melns
Melns Limited currently uses traditional absorption costing, absorbing overheads on a machine hour basis.
They are now considering using Activity Based Costing.
Details of the four products and relevant information are given below for one period.
Product
120
100
80
120
Costs per unit:
Direct material
40
50
30
60
Direct labour
28
21
14
21
Output in units
Machine hours (per unit)
The four products are similar and are usually produced in production runs of 20 units and sold in batches of
10 units.
The production overhead is currently absorbed by using a machine hour rate, and the total of the
production overhead for the period has been analysed as follows.
$
Machine department costs
10,430
Set up costs
5,250
Stores receiving
3,600
Inspection/quality control
2,100
Materials handling and despatch
4,620
You have ascertained that the cost drivers to be used are as listed below for the overhead costs shown:
Cost
Cost driver
Set up costs
Number of production runs
Stores receiving
Requisitions raised
Inspection/quality control
Number of production runs
Materials handling and despatch
Orders executed
The number of requisitions raised on the stores was 20 for each product and the number of orders executed
was 42, each order being for a batch of 10 of a product.
Requirements
(a)
Calculate the cost per unit for each product if all overhead costs are absorbed on a machine
hour basis.
(b)
Calculate the total costs for each product, using activity based costing.
ACCA F5
2. Edward
Edward Co assembles and sells many types of radio. It is considering extending its product range to include
digital radios. These radios produce a better sound quality than traditional radios and have a large number
of potential additional features not possible with the previous technologies (station scanning, more choice,
one touch tuning, station identification text and song identification text etc).
A radio is produced by assembly workers assembling a variety of components. Production overheads are
currently absorbed into product costs on an assembly labour hour basis.
Edward Co is considering a target costing approach for its new digital radio product.
Required:
(a)
Briefly describe the target costing process that Edward Co should undertake.
(b)
Explain the benefits to Edward Co of adopting a target costing approach at such an early stage
in the product development process.
(c)
Assuming a cost gap was identified in the process, outline possible steps Edward Co could take
to reduce this gap.
A selling price of $44 has been set in order to compete with a similar radio on the market that has
comparable features to Edward Cos intended product. The board have agreed that the acceptable margin
(after allowing for all production costs) should be 20%.
Cost information for the new radio is as follows:
Component 1 (Circuit board) these are bought in and cost $410 each. They are bought in batches of 4,000
and additional delivery costs are $2,400 per batch.
Component 2 (Wiring) in an ideal situation 25 cm of wiring is needed for each completed radio. However,
there is some waste involved in the process as wire is occasionally cut to the wrong length or is damaged in
the assembly process. Edward Co estimates that 2% of the purchased wire is lost in the assembly process.
Wire costs $050 per metre to buy.
Other material other materials cost $810 per radio.
Assembly labour these are skilled people who are dicult to recruit and retain. Edward Co has more sta
of this type than needed but is prepared to carry this extra cost in return for the security it gives the
business. It takes 30 minutes to assemble a radio and the assembly workers are paid $1260 per hour. It is
estimated that 10% of hours paid to the assembly workers is for idle time.
Production Overheads recent historic cost analysis has revealed the following production overhead data:
Total production
overhead
$
Total assembly labour

hours
Month 1
620,000
19,000
Month 2
700,000
23,000
Fixed production overheads are absorbed on an assembly hour basis based on normal annual activity levels.
In a typical year 240,000 assembly hours will be worked by Edward Co.
Required:
(d)
Calculate the expected cost per unit for the radio and identify any cost gap that might exist.
182
ACCA F5 183
3. Genesis
(a)
Genesis plc make and sell two products R and S, each of which passes through the same production
operations. The following estimated information is available for period 1:
i.
Product unit data
R
40
Variable production overhead cost ($)
28
Overall time per unit (minutes)
15
Direct material cost ($)
ii.
Production/sales of products R and S are 120,000 units and 45,000 units respectively. The selling
prices per unit for R and S are $60 and $70 respectively.
iii.
Maximum demand R and S are 144,000 and 54,000 respectively.
iv.
Total fixed production overhead cost is $1,470,000. This is absorbed by products R and S at an
average rate per hour based on the estimated production levels.
Using net profit as the decision measure, show why the management of Genesis plc argues that
it is indierent on financial grounds as to the mix of products R and S which should be produced
and sold, and calculate the total net profit for period 1.
(b)
One of the production operations has a maximum capacity of 3,075 hours which has been identified
as a bottleneck which limits the overall production/sales of products R and S. The bottleneck time
required per unit for products R and S are 1.2 and 0.9 minutes respectively.
All other information detailed in (a) still applies.
Calculate the mix (units) of products R and S which will maximise net profit and the value ($) of
the maximum net profit, using a marginal costing approach.
(c)
The bottleneck situation detailed in (b) still applies. Genesis plc has decided to determine the profit
maximising mix of products R and S based on the Throughput Accounting principle of maximising the
throughput return per production hour of the bottleneck resource. This may be measured as:
Throughput return per production hour = (selling price material cost)/bottleneck hours per unit.
All other information detailed in (a) and (b) still applies, except that the variable overhead cost as per
(a) is now considered to be fixed for the short/intermediate term, based on the value ($) which applied
to the product mix in (a).
i) Calculate the mix (units) of products R and S which will maximise net profit and the value of
that net profit.
ii)Calculate the throughput accounting ratio for product S which is calculated as: throughput
return per hour of bottleneck resource for product S/overall total overhead cost per hour of
bottleneck resource.
ACCA F5
4. Cameron
George Cameron, a self employed builder, has been asked to provide a fixed price quotation for some
building work required by a customer. Camerons accountant has compiled the following figures, together
with some notes as a basis for a quotation.
$
Direct materials
Bricks 200,000 at $240 per thousand
48,000
200,000 at $288 per thousand
57,600
Other materials
note 1
12,000
note 2
Skilled
7,680 hours at $12 per hour
92,160
note 3
Unskilled
4,800 hours at $6 per hour
28,800
note 4
Machine hire
8,400
note 5
Depreciation of own machinery
4,800
note 6
12,480
4,800
note 7
Other costs
General overheads 12,480 hours at $1 per hour

Plans
Total cost
Profit
Suggested price
269,040
67,260
note 8
note 9
$336,300
Notes
1.
The contract requires 400,000 bricks, 200,000 are already in inventory and 200,000 will have to be
bought in. This is a standard type of brick regularly used by Cameron. The 200,000 in inventory were
purchased earlier in the year at $240 per 1,000. The current replacement cost of this type of brick is
$288 per 1,000. If the bricks in inventory are not used on this job George is confident that he will be
able to use them later in the year.
2.
Other materials will be bought in as required; this figure represents the purchase price.
3.
Cameron will need to be on site whilst the building work is performed. He therefore intends to do
1,920 hours of the skilled work himself. The remainder will be hired on an hourly basis. The current cost
of skilled workers is $12 per hour. If George Cameron does not undertake the building work for this
customer he can either work as a skilled worker for other builders at a rate of $12 per hour or spend
the 1,920 hours completing urgently needed repairs to his own house. He has recently had a
quotation of $28,000 for labour to repair his home.
4.
George employs several unskilled workers on contract guaranteeing them a 40 hours week at $6 per
hour. These unskilled labourers are currently idle and would have sucient spare time to complete the
proposal under consideration.
5.
This is the estimated cost of hiring a machine.
6.
George estimates that the project will take 20 weeks to complete. This represents 20 weeks straight
line depreciation on the equipment used. If the equipment is not used on this job it will stand idle for
the 20 week period. In either case its value at the end of the 20 week period will be identical.
7.
This represents the rental cost of Georges store yard. If he does not undertake the above job he can
rent the space out to a competitor who will pay him rent of $1,200 per week for the 20 week period.
8.
This is the cost of the plans that George has already had drawn for the project.
184

9.
ACCA F5 185
George attempts to earn a mark up of 25% on cost on all work undertaken.
George is surprised at the suggested price and considers it rather high. He knows that there will be a lot of
competition for the work.
Required
(a)
Explain how each item in the accountants estimate should be treated
(b)
Using relevant costing principles, calculate the lowest price that George could quote for the
customers building work.
(c)
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of full cost-plus pricing.
5. Pricing
A company produces a single product and operates in a market where it has to lower the selling price of all
units if it wishes to sell more.
The costing and marketing departments have provided the following information:
The current demand is 1,000 units per month, at a selling price of $10 per unit.
It is estimated that for every $1 change the in the selling price, the demand will change by 100 units.
The variable costs of production are $0.60 per unit, and the fixed costs are $5,000 per month.
Required:
(a)
Derive the price/demand equation
(b)
Calculate the optimal selling price per unit to achieve maximum profit, and the amount of that
profit.
(Note: The marginal revenue is given by 20 0.02Q where Q is demand.
ACCA F5
6. Joker
Joker Club specialises in the provision of exercise and dietary advice to clients. The service is provided on a
residential basis and clients stay for whatever number of days suits their needs.
Budgeted estimates for the year ending 31 December 2010 are as follows:
(i)
The maximum capacity of the centre is 50 clients per day for 350 days in the year.
(ii)
(iii)
Clients will be invoiced at a fee per day. The budgeted occupancy level will vary with the client fee
level per day and is estimated at dierent percentages of maximum capacity as follows:
Client fee
per day
Occupancy level
Occupancy as percentage of
maximum capacity
$180
High
90%
$200
Medium
75%
$220
Low
60%
Variable costs are also estimated at one of three levels per client day. The high, most likely and low
levels per client day are $95, $85 and $70 respectively.
The range of cost levels reflects only the possible eect of the purchase prices of goods and services.
Required:
(a)
Prepare a summary which shows the budgeted contribution earned by Joker Club for the year
ended 31 December 2010 for each of nine possible outcomes.
(b)
State the client fee strategy for the year to 31 December 2010 which will result from the use of
each of the following decision rules: (i) maximax; (ii) maximin; (iii) minimax regret.
Your answer should explain the basis of operation of each rule. Use the information from your
answer to (a) as relevant and show any additional working calculations as necessary.
(c)
The probabilities of variable cost levels occurring at the high, most likely and low levels provided in
the question are estimated as 01, 06 and 03 respectively.
Using the information available, determine the client fee strategy which will be chosen where
maximisation of expected value of contribution is used as the decision basis.
186
ACCA F5 187
7. Light Plc
Light plc makes a range of equipment. When producing the budget for 2011 the company realises that its
principle budget factor is sales and forecasts the following sales:
Product name:
Bronze
Silver
Gold
Sales
1,000
2,000
500
Selling price
$50
$75
$100
The unit direct costs of manufacturing each type of equipment are:
Bronze
Silver
Gold
Materials
Plastic
(@ 10c/m)
5m
6m
7m
Metal
(@ $2/kg)
1.2kg
1.3kg
1.4kg
(@ $2/hr)
(@ $3/hr)
1/2hr
1/2hr
3/4 hr
1/2hr
1 hr
1 hr
Labour
Unskilled
Skilled
The company has inventory levels of finished goods of 200 Bronze, 200 Silver and 100 Gold and raw
materials inventory of 1,000m of plastic and 500kg of metal. It feels that 2011s sales figures could well be
repeated in 2012 and wishes to have sucient inventory of finished goods to cope with 10% of this demand
and raw materials to cope with 20% of this demand.
Produce the following budgets:
(a)
Sales budget
(b)
Production budget (in numbers of Bronze, Silver and Gold)
(c)
Materials usage budgets (for plastic and metal in m or kg)
(d)
Materials purchases budgets (in quantities and $s)
(e)
Labour utilisation budget.
8. Budgeting
(a)
Three of the various uses of budgets are performance evaluation, resource allocation and
authorisation. Demonstrate your understanding of each of these in the contexts given below,
providing an example in each case:
I)
II)
III)
(b)
performance evaluation, in the context of a private sector manufacturing company

resource allocation, in the context of a private sector service company
authorisation, in the context of a public sector organisation.
Assess what benefits may be achieved by an organisation adopting a zero-based approach in its
budgetary process and what diculties may be encountered.
ACCA F5
9. Judi
Judi Limited manufacturing has received a special order from Windsor Ltd to produce 225 components to be
incorporated into Windsors product. The components have a high cost, due to the expertise required for
their manufacture. Judi produces the components in batches of 15, and as the ones required are to be
custom-made to Windsor specifications, a prototype batch was manufactured with the following costs:
$
Materials
4 kg of A, $7.50/kg
30
2 kg of B, $15/kg
30
Labour
20 hrs skilled, $15/hr
5 hrs semi-skilled, $8/hr
300
40
Variable Overhead
25 labour hours, $4/hr
100
500
Additional information with respect to the workforce is noted below:

Skilled
virtually a permanent workforce that has been employed by Judi for a long period
of time. These workers have a great deal of experience in manufacturing
components similar to those required by Windsor, and turnover is virtually nonexistent.
Semi-Skilled
hired by Judi on an as needed basis. These workers would have had some prior
experience, but Judi management believe the level to be relatively insignificant.
Past experience shows turnover rate to be quite high, even for short employment
periods.
Judis plans are to exclude the prototype batch from Windsor order. Management believes a 80% learning
rate eect is experienced in this manufacturing process, and would like a cost estimate for the 225
components prepared on that basis.
Requirements
(a)
(b)
Prepare the cost estimate, assuming an 80% learning rate is experienced, and
Briefly discuss some of the factors that can limit the use of learning curve theory in practice.
188
ACCA F5 189
10. Zatler Plc

Zatler plc produces a single product.
The standards set for the month of May were as follows:
Production and sales
16,000 units
Selling price (per unit)
$140
Materials
Material X
6 kilos per unit at $12.25 per kilo
Material Y
3 kilos per unit at $3.20 per kilo
Labour
4.5 hours per unit at $8.40 per hour
Overheads (all fixed)
$86,400 per month, they are not absorbed into the product costs.
The actual data for the month of May, is as follows:
Produced 15,400 units which were sold at $138.25 each.
Materials
Used 98,560 kilos of material X at a total cost of $1,256,640 and used 42,350 kilos of material Y at a total cost
of $ 132,979.
Labour
Paid an actual rate of $8.65 per hour to the labour force. The total amount paid out, amounted to $612,766.
Overheads (all fixed) $96,840
Required:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Prepare a standard cost card, and calculate the budgeted profit.

Prepare a statement of the variances which reconciles the actual with the budgeted profit.
Explain briefly the possible reasons for inter-relationships between material variances and
labour variances.
ACCA F5
11. Zohan plc

Zohan plc makes a product using two materials, A and B, in the production process. A system of standard
costing and variance analysis is in operation. The standard material requirement per kg of mixed output is
60% material A at $30 per kg and 40% material B at $45 per kg, with a standard yield of 90%.
The following information has been gathered for the three months January to March:
January
February
March
810
765
900
A (kg)
540
480
700
B (kg)
360
360
360
32,400
31,560
38,600
Output achieved (kg)

Actual material input:
Actual material cost (A plus B) ($)
The actual price per kg of material B throughout the January to March period was $45.
Required:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Prepare material variance summaries for each of January, February and March which include
yield and mix variances in total plus usage and price variances for each material and in total;
Prepare comments for management on each variance including variance trend.
Discuss the relevance of the variances calculated above in the light of the following additional
information:
The company has an agreement to purchase 360 kg of material B each month and the perishable nature of
the material means that it must be used in the month of purchase and additional supplies in excess of 360
tonnes per month are not available.
190
ACCA F5 191
12. Coffee Nation

The owners of the Coee Nation Cafe have diversified business interests and operate in a wide range of
commercial areas. Since buying the restaurant they have carefully recorded the data below.
Recorded Data for the Coee Nation Cafe
2007
2008
2009
2010
3,750
5,100
6,200
6,700
Regular customers attending weekly
11
15
26
Number of items on oer per day
Reported cases of food poisoning
Special theme evenings introduced
13
380
307
187
126
10
17
29
38
Contracts won to cater for special events
15
25
Complimentary letters from satisfied customers
Average number of customers at peak times
18
23
37
39
Average service delay at peak times (mins)
32
47
15
35
Maximum seating capacity
25
25
40
40
Weekly opening hours
36
36
40
36
12
14
14
570
540
465
187
16
27
11
Financial Data
Average customer spend on wine
83,000
124,500
137,000
185,000
2,000
13,000
25,000
55,000
11,600
21,400
43,700
57,200
1,700
1,900
3,600
1,450
895,000
1,234,000
980,000
1,056,000
Total meals served
Annual operating hours with no customers

Proposals submitted to cater for special events
Written complaints received

Idle time
New meals introduced during the year
Total Turnover
Turnover from special events
Profit
Value of food wasted in preparation
Total turnover of all restaurants in locality
Assess the overall performance of the business and submit your comments to the owners. They
require your comments to be grouped into the key areas of performance such as those described by
Fitzgerald and Moon.
ACCA F5
13. New Project

A large conglomerate with diverse business activities is currently considering whether it should commence a
new project and has gathered the following data:
1.
An initial investment of $108 million will be required on 1 January of year 1. The project has a three
year life with a nil residual value. Depreciation is calculated on a straight line basis.
2.
The project is expected to generate annual revenue flows of $160m in year 1, $180m in year 2 and
$200m in year 3. These values may vary by 5%.
3.
The incremental costs will be $100m in year 1, $120m in year 2 and $140m in year 3. These may vary
by 10%.
Additional information:
Use the written down value of the asset at the start of each year to represent the value of the asset for the
year.
The cost of money is estimated to be between 8%p.a. and 13% p.a.
Note: Ignore taxation
(a) Prepare two tables showing net profit, residual income and return on investment for each year
of the project for:
i)
The BEST OUTCOME;
ii)
The WORST OUTCOME.
(b)
Explain the distinctive features of Residual Income and Return on Investment in measuring
financial performance. Your answer should include a mention of the strengths and weaknesses
of each measure.
14. Transfer pricing

A company operates two divisions, Eezy and Peezy.
Eezy manufactures two products, X and Y. Product X is sold to external customers for $42 per unit.
The only outlet for product Y is Peezy.
Peezy supplies an external market and can obtain its semi finished supplies (product Y) from either Eezy or
an external source. Peezy currently has the opportunity to purchase product Y from an external supplier for
$38 per unit. The capacity of division Eezy is measured in units of output, irrespective of whether product X,
Y or a combination of both are being manufactured. The associated product costs are as follows:
Variable costs per unit

Fixed overheads per unit
Total unit costs
32
35
37
40
Using the above information, provide advice on the determination of an appropriate transfer price for
the sale of product Y from division Eezy to division Peezy under the following conditions:
(a)
(b)
When division Eezy has spare capacity and limited external demand for product X;
When division Eezy is operating at full capacity with unsatisfied external demand for product X.
192
ACCA F5 193
PRACTICE ANSWERS
1. Melns
(a)
Machine hour basis

P
$/unit
$/unit
$/unit
$/unit
Direct materials
40
50
30
60
Direct labour
28
21
14
21
80
148
60
131
40
84
60
141
Total
Direct material (120 units $40 etc)
4,800
5,000
2,400
7,200
19,400
Direct labour (120 units $28 etc)
3,360
2,100
1,120
2,520
9,100
3,851
2,407
1,284
2,888
10,430
1,500
1,250
1,000
1,500
5,250
900
900
900
900
3,600
600
1,320
500
1,100
400
880
600
1,320
2,100
4,620
Total cost
16,331
13,257
7,984
16,928
54,500
Per unit (120 units etc)
136.09
132.57
99.80
141.07
Production overhead (W1)

Total cost per unit
(b)
Production overhead (W2):

Machine department costs
(120 units 4 hrs $8,023 etc)
Set up costs (6:5:4:6)
Stores receiving (20:20:20:20)
Inspection/quality control (6:5:4:6)
Materials handling and despatch (12:10:8:12)
Workings
1
hrs
Total machine hours:
A (4 hrs 120 units)
480
B(3hrs 100 units)
300
C (2 hrs 80 units)
160
D(3hrs 120 units)
360
1,300
Total production overhead per question: ($10,430 + $5,250 + $3,600 + $2,100 + $4,620) = $26,000
Rate per machine hour: ($26,000 /1,300) = $20

2
ACCA F5
Overhead costs will be divided in the following ratios, depending upon the number of production
runs, requisitions or orders per product.
A
Requisitions raised
20
20
20
20
Orders executed (10 units each) (120 units 10 etc)
12
10
12
Production runs (20 units each) (120 units 20 etc)
Machine department costs can be assumed to have machine hours as a cost driver
...
Costs
Machine hours
$10,430
1,300(W1)
= $8.023
2. Edward
(a)
Target costing process.

Target costing begins by specifying a product an organisation wishes to sell. This will involve extensive
customer analysis,considering which features customers value and which they do not. Ideally only
those features valued by customers will be included in the product design.
The price at which the product can be sold at is then considered. This will take in to account the
competitor products and the market conditions expected at the time that the product will be
launched. Hence a heavy emphasis is placed on external analysis before any consideration is made of
the internal cost of the product.
From the above price a desired margin is deducted. This can be a gross or a net margin. This leaves the
cost target. An organisation will need to meet this target if their desired margin is to be met.
Costs for the product are then calculated and compared to the cost target mentioned above.
If it appears that this cost cannot be achieved then the dierence (shortfall) is called a cost gap. This
gap would have to be closed, by some form of cost reduction, if the desired margin is to be achieved.
(b)
Benefits of adopting target costing
The organisation will have an early external focus to its product development. Businesses have
to compete with others(competitors) and an early consideration of this will tend to make them
more successful. Traditional approaches (by calculating the cost and then adding a margin to
get a selling price) are often far too internally driven.
Only those features that are of value to customers will be included in the product design. Target
costing at an early stage considers carefully the product that is intended. Features that are
unlikely to be valued by the customer will be excluded. This is often insuciently considered in
cost plus methodologies.
Cost control will begin much earlier in the process. If it is clear at the design stage that a cost
gap exists then more can be done to close it by the design team. Traditionally, cost control takes
place at the cost incurring stage, which is often far too late to make a significant impact on a
product that is too expensive to make.
Costs per unit are often lower under a target costing environment. This enhances profitability.
Target costing has been shown to reduce product cost by between 20% and 40% depending on
product and market conditions. In traditional cost plus systems an organisation may not be fully
aware of the constraints in the external environment until after the production has started. Cost
reduction at this point is much more dicult as many of the costs are designed in to the
product.
It is often argued that target costing reduces the time taken to get a product to market. Under
traditional methodologies there are often lengthy delays whilst a team goes back to the
drawing board. Target costing, because it has an early external focus, tends to help get things
right first time and this reduces the time to market.
194

(c)
ACCA F5 195
Steps to reduce a cost gap

Review radio features
Remove features from the radio that add to cost but do not significantly add value to the product
when viewed by the customer. This should reduce cost but not the achievable selling price. This can be
referred to as value engineering or value analysis.
Team approach
Cost reduction works best when a team approach is adopted. Edward Limited should bring together
members of the marketing, design, assembly and distribution teams to allow discussion of methods to
reduce costs. Open discussion and brainstorming are useful approaches here.
Review the whole supplier chain
Each step in the supply chain should be reviewed, possibly with the aid of sta questionnaires, to
identify areas of likely cost savings. Areas which are identified by sta as being likely cost saving areas
can then be focussed on by the team. For example, the questionnaire might ask are there more than
five potential suppliers for this component? Clearly a yes response to this question will mean that
there is the potential for tendering or price competition.
Components
Edward Limited should look at the significant costs involved in components. New suppliers could be
sought or dierent materials could be used. Care would be needed not to damage the perceived value
of the product. Eciency improvements should also be possible by reducing waste or idle time that
might exist. Avoid, where possible, non-standard parts in the design.
Assembly workers
Productivity gains may be possible by changing working practices or by de-skilling the process.
Automation is increasingly common in assembly and manufacturing and Edward Limited should
investigate what is possible here to reduce the costs. The learning curve may ultimately help to close
the cost gap by reducing labour costs per unit.
Clearly reducing the percentage of idle time will reduce product costs. Better management, smoother
work flow and sta incentives could all help here. Focusing on continuous improvement in production
processes may help.
Overheads
Productivity increases would also help here by spreading fixed overheads over a greater number of
units. Equally Edward Limited should consider an activity based costing approach to its overhead
allocation, this may reveal more favourable cost allocations for the digital radio or ideas for reducing
costs in the business.
(d)
Cost per unit and cost gap calculation

Component 1
$ per unit
410 +
Component 2
$2,400
4,000 units
(25/100 0.5 100/98)
Material - other
Variable production overhead

Fixed production overhead
(30/60 $12/hr)
Total cost
Desired cost
Cost gap
0128
810
(30/60 $12.60/hr
100/90)
(30/60 $20/hr)
Assembly Labour
470
700
1000
600
35928
($44 08)
3520
0728
ACCA F5
Working 1
Production overhead cost
Using a high low method
Extra overhead cost between month 1 and 2
Extra assembly hours
4,000
Variable cost per hour
$20/hr
$80,000
Monthly fixed production overhead $700,000 (23,000 $20/hr)

Annual fixed production overhead ($240,000 12)
FPO absorption rate
$2,880,000
240,000 units
$240,000
$2,880,000
$12/hr
3. Genesis
(a)
Fixed production overhead is absorbed at an average rate per hour.

Total hours = 120,000 025 + 45,000 015 = 36,750
Absorption rate per hour = $1,470,000/36,750 = $40
Net profit per product units may be calculated as:
Direct material cost

Variable production overhead cost
Fixed production overhead (025 $40)
Total cost
Selling price
Net profit
Product R
$
2
28
10
$40
$60
$20
(015 $40)
Product S
$
40
4
6
$50
$70
$20
Genesis will be indierent on financial grounds to the mix of products R and S since net profit per unit
is the same for both products.
Total net profit = 120,000 $20 + 45,000 $20 = $3,300,000
(b)
Using the figures from (a) the contribution per product unit (selling price variable cost) may be
calculated as:
R = $60 (2 + 28) = $30
S = $70 (40 + 4) = $26
We have:
Bottleneck hours per unit
Contribution per bottleneck hour
R
$30
002
$1,500
S
$26
0015
$1,733
Ranking the products on the basis of contribution per bottleneck hour we should produce and sell
product S up to its maximum demand and then product R with the remaining capacity.
Maximum demand of product S = 54,000 units
Bottleneck hours required for S = 54,000 0015 = 810 hours
Bottleneck hours available for R = 3,075 810 = 2,265 hours
Output of product R which is possible = 2,265/002 = 113,250 units
196
ACCA F5 197
The maximum net profit may be calculated as:

$
Contribution product R
113,250 $30
Contribution product S
54,000 $26
Total contribution
3,397,500
1,404,000
Less: Fixed overhead cost:
4,801,500
1,470,000
Net profit
3,331,500
(c)
(i)
Return per bottleneck hour

= (selling price material cost)/ bottleneck hours per unit
Product R = (60 2)/002 = $2,900
Product S = (70 40)/0015 = $2,000
Genesis should sell product R up to its maximum demand and then product S using the
remaining capacity.
Maximum demand of product R = 144,000 units
Bottleneck hours required for R = 144,000 002 = 2,880 hours
Bottleneck hours available for S = 3,075 2,880 = 195 hours
Output of product S which is possible = 195/0015 = 13,000 units
The maximum net profit may be calculated as:
$
Throughput return product R 144,000 ($60 2)
Throughput return product S 13,000 ($70 40)
8,352,000
390,000
Total throughput return
8,742,000
Less:
Overhead cost:
Shown as variable in (a) (120,000 $28 + 45,000 $4)
(3,540,000)
Fixed
(1,470,000)
3,732,000
Net profit
(ii)
Throughput return per bottleneck hour for product S (as calculated above)
= (70 40)/0015 = $2,000
Cost per bottleneck hour = ($3,540,000 + $1,470,000)/3,075 = $1,62927
Throughput accounting ratio for product S = $2,000/$1,62927 = 12275
ACCA F5
4. Cameron
(a)
The relevant costs which should be used for arriving at the minimum contract price are those future
cash flows that will arise as a direct consequence of the decision to undertake the contract.
As bricks are used in the course of business, any used in this contract will need to be replaced. The
relevant cost is therefore the replacement cost of $288 per 1,000.
Other materials are costed at their purchase price.
George Camerons labour is charged at the opportunity cost, ie the benefit foregone as a result of
working on the contract (or best alternative use). The best alternative use would be a saving of
$28,000 by repairing his own house. The remainder of the skilled labour, after deducting Georges
hours, is charged at the incremental cost of $12 per hour.
(b)
1.
Unskilled labour would have been incurred irrespective of the decision to undertake the project.
The relevant cost is therefore nil.
2.
The relevant cost is the cost of hiring the machine.
3.
Depreciation is not a cash flow. The general purpose machinery is already owned by George
Cameron and is not purchased specifically for this contract. Its value is unaected by the
contract.
4.
The relevant cost is the best alternative use of the space.
5.
The cost of the plans is a sunk cost and therefore not relevant to the pricing decision.
6.
No profit is included as the price calculated is the minimum price which George can quote in a
competitive environment.
Minimum price to be quoted for building work

Direct materials:
Bricks (400,000 @ $288 per thousand)
Other materials (at purchase price)
$
115,200
12,000
Direct labour:
George Cameron s time
28,000
Skilled labour 5,760 @ $12 per hour
69,120
Unskilled
Other costs:
Machine hire (at the incremental cost)
8,400
Depreciation of general purpose machinery
General overheads
Opportunity cost of using space

Plans
Total cost
24,000
Profit
256,720
Minimum price
256,720
A minimum price would leave the business no better or worse o than if George did not do the job. It
is unlikely that a minimum price would actually be charged because if it were, it would not provide the
business with any incremental profit.
198
(c)
ACCA F5 199
Advantages of full cost-plus pricing
It is a quick, simple and cheap method of pricing which can be delegated to junior managers.
This may be particularly important with jobbing work where many prices must be decided and
quoted each day.
A price in excess of full cost should ensure that a company working at normal capacity will cover
all of its costs and make a profit.
There may be no readily identifiable market for the product, for example, a jobbing engineering
company makes products to customers specific specifications. In such cases it will be dicult to
determine a suitable starting point for pricing other than full cost.
Disadvantages of full cost-plus pricing
It fails to recognise that since demand may be determining price, there will be a profitmaximising combination of price and demand.
There may be a need to adjust prices to market and demand conditions.
Budgeted output volume needs to be established. Output volume is a key factor in the
overhead absorption rate.
A suitable basis for overhead absorption must be selected, especially where a business
produces more than one product.
5. Pricing
change in price
(a)
b=
change in quantity
1
=
a = price when Q = 0
100
= 0.01
= 10 + 0.01 1,000 = 20
P = 20 0.01Q
(b)
Optimal selling price occurs when marginal revenue (MR) equals marginal cost (MC)
MC = variable cost p.u. = 0.60
MR = 20 0.02Q (from question)
20 0.02Q
= 0.60
0.02Q
= 19.40
= 19.40 / 0.02
= 970 units
From demand of 970 units,

P = 20 0.01Q
= 20 0.01 970
= $10.30 per unit
Maximum profit:
Total contribution (970 (10.30 0.60))
Less: fixed costs
9,409
5,000
Maximum profit:
$4,409
ACCA F5
6. Joker
(a)
Budgeted Net Profit/Loss outcomes for year ending 31 December 2010.

Client Fee per Client
Days
day
$
(b)
Variable cost per Contribution per client Total contribution per

client day
day
year
$
$
$
15,750
180
95
885
1,338,750
15,750
180
85
95
1,496,250
15,750
180
70
110
1,732,500
13,125
200
95
105
1,378,125
13,125
200
85
115
1,509,375
13,125
200
70
130
1,706,250
10,500
220
95
125
1,312,500
10,500
220
85
135
1,417,500
10,500
220
70
150
1,575,000
The maximax rule looks for the largest contribution from all outcomes. In this case the decision maker
will choose a client fee of $180 per day where there is a possibility of a contribution of $1,732,500.
The maximin rule looks for the strategy which will maximise the minimum possible contribution. In
this case the decision maker will choose client fee of $200 per day where the lowest contribution is
$1,378,125. This is better than the worst possible outcome from client fees per day of $180 or $220
which will provide contribution of $1,338,750 and $1,312,500 respectively.
The minimax regret rule requires the choice of the strategy which will minimise the maximum regret
from making the wrong decision. Regret in this context is the opportunity lost through making the
wrong decision.
Using the calculations from part (a) we may create an opportunity loss table as follows:
Client fee per day strategy
State of variable cost
$180
$200
$220
High
39,375
65,625
Most likely
13,125
91,875
26,250
157,500
39,375
26,250
157,500
Low
Maximum regret
Example of the workings: at the low level of variable costs, the best strategy would be a client fee of
$180. The opportunity loss from using a fee of $200 or $220 per day would be $26,250 (1,732,500
$1,706,250) or $157,500 (1,732,500 1,575,000) respectively.
The minimum regret strategy (client fee $200 per day) is that which minimises the maximum regret
(i.e. $26,250 in the maximum regret row above).
(c)
The expected value of variable cost

= $95 01 + $85 06 + $70 03 = $81.50
For each client fee strategy the expected value of budget contribution for the year may be calculated:
fee of $180 : 15,750 (180 8150) = $1,551,375
fee of $200 : 13,125 (200 8150) = $1,555,31250
fee of $220 : 10,500 (220 8150) = $1,454,250
Hence choose a client fee of $200 per day to give the maximum expected value contribution of
$1,555,31250. Note that there is virtually no dierence between this and the contribution where a fee
of $180 per day is used.
200
ACCA F5 201
7. Light plc
(a)
Sales budget
Bronze
Silver
Gold
Total
1,000
2,000
500
3,500
$50
$75
$100
$50,000
$150,000
$50,000
$250,000
Bronze
Silver
Gold
Total
Closing inventory (W1)
1,000
100
2,000
200
500
50
3,500
350
Opening inventory
1,100
(200)
2,200
(200)
550
(100)
3,850
(500)
900
2,000
450
3,350
Bronze
Silver
Gold
Total
Plastic - (m)
4,500
12,000
3,150
19,650
Metal - (kg)
1,080
2,600
630
4,310
Metal
Total
Quantities
Unit selling price
Revenue
(b)
Production budget
Sales
Production
(c)
(d)
Materials usage
Materials purchases
Plastic
m
kg
19,650
4,100
1,965
410
4,310
900
8,620
1,800
10,585
2,210
23,750
2,375
5,210
10,420
12,795
Opening inventory
(1,000)
(100)
(500)
(1,000)
(1,100)
Purchases
22,750
2,275
4,710
9,420
11,695
Unskilled
Skilled
Total
(hours)
(hours)
(hours)
Bronze (900 units)
450
450
900
Silver (2,000 units)
1,500
1,000
2,500
Gold ( 450 units)
450
2,400
450
1,900
900
4,300
$2
$4800
$3
$5,700
$10,500
Usage
Closing inventory (W2)
(e)
Labour utilisation budget
Hourly rate
Total cost
Workings
(W1) Closing inventory of finished goods = 10% of 2012 demand
e.g. Bronze 10% 1,000=100
(W2) Closing inventory of raw materials = 20% of materials required for 2012 demand
Plastic requirements for 2012 demand
Bronze: 5m 1,000 + Silver: 6m 2,000 + Gold: 7m 500 = 20,500 m
ACCA F5
Closing inventory @ 20% = 4,100m

Metal requirements for 2012 demand:
Bronze: 1.2kg 1,000 + Silver: 1.3kg 2,000 + Gold: 1.4kg 500 = 4,500 kg
Closing inventory @ 20% = 900 kgs
8. Budgeting
(a)
Budget uses
(i)
Performance evaluation
Budgets are plans, they set targets for the organisation or sub-units of it (departments or
divisions). The achievement of the budget is often delegated to managers in these departments.
It is therefore possible to measure the extent to which budget targets are met by managers and
in this way they are measures of the managers performance. It must be understood that there
may be dimensions of performance not captured by the budget, but it is a convenient device
and it oers relative ease of measurement. However, this may result in the less easily measured
dimensions of performance not being measured.
If a person is to be evaluated using budget data, it is important that they have an opportunity to
influence budget content but not to bias it in their favour. A department manager of a
manufacturing company will be required to achieve a certain number of units of output with a
given expenditure on direct material. The variance between actual material cost and the flexible
budget (based on actual output) is one way of evaluating how the department has been
supervised, machines been set and material controlled, etc.
(ii)
Resource allocation
Budgets enable the business to estimate the amount of physical and financial resources
available over a future period. Information can also be collected on the environment in which
the business operates in order to identify any strengths, opportunities etc, which may exist. It is
then possible for managers of the organisation to discuss how these resources can be allocated
to dierent parts of the business in order to create an optimal plan.
The management of a bank engage in resource allocation decisions when they decide to
undertake more business by phone/mail from a regional oce rather than dealing with
customers in their individual branches. In their eorts to reduce costs, perhaps to improve on
last years budget, the relocation of some sta/resources into large regional oces and closure
of some small branches is an example of resource allocation in this sector.
(iii)
Authorisation
In some budget systems expenditure which has passed through the budget review procedure
automatically becomes approved for commitment without additional formality. In other words,
the identification of an expense for a particular budget centre is the formal approval that the
head of the centre may go ahead and incur such an expense. No further detailed control in
relation to this would occur until the actual expenditure was reported as part of the financial
control system:
A public sector organisation is, for example, the departments of a local authority, social services,
housing, education. When the authority meet to set their annual budget this is often based on
their assessment of spending need in each area. Once the budget, and its division into each area
is set, the ocers of the local authority are in a position to incur expenditure in line with budget.
The budget is their authorisation to spend up to that amount in providing services to the
community.
(b)
Benefits and diculties of ZBB

Traditional budgeting, sometimes called incremental budgeting, takes a current level of spending
almost without examination and discussion takes place on any extra expenditure. Zero-based
budgeting (ZBB) is an approach which takes nothing for granted. It requires that each budget centre
makes a detailed case for all of its budget allocation each year. As a result all spending is subject to
202
ACCA F5 203
scrutiny, not just incremental spending. This technique would not suit expenditure planning in line
departments of a manufacturing company because clear relationships of input and output will exist
and be defined by standard values. In less clearly defined areas such as service departments or service
orientated industries, both private and public sector, it might have some value if selectively applied.
It is possible that economies and increased eciency could result if departments were to justify all,
not just incremental, expenditure. It is argued that if expenditure were examined on a cost/benefit
basis a more rational allocation of resources would take place. Such an approach would force
managers to make plans and prioritise their activities before committing themselves to the budget. It
should achieve a more structured involvement of departmental management and should improve the
quality of decisions and management information.
It could be expensive however, in time and eort to analyse all expenditure and dicult to establish
priorities for the activities or decision packages. Managers are often reluctant to commit themselves to
it because they believe they already do it. Critics have asserted that no real change in fund allocation
takes place as a result of the exercise.
Any system which encourages managers to examine and communicate about their spending and
performance levels must be useful providing it does not prevent individuals fulfilling their other duties
and responsibilities.
9. Judi
(a)
Cost estimate for 225 components is based upon the following assumptions:
1.
the first batch of 15 is excluded from the order (and total cost for first batch is likewise
excluded); and
2.
the 80% learning rate only applies to the skilled workforce, (and related variable overhead) due
to their high level of expertise/low turnover rate.
Cumulative Batches
Cumulative Units
Total Time
Cumulative time/batch
15
20 hr
20 hr
30
32 hr
16 hr
60
51.2hr
12.8hr
120
81.92hr
10.24hr
16
240
131.072hr
8.192hr
Total cost for 16 batches (240 components)

$
Material A
$30 batch
480
Material B
$30/batch
480
Labour
Skilled 131.072 hr @ $15/hr
Variable overheads
1,966
Semi-skilled $40/batch
640
131.072 hr @ $4/hr
524
320
5 hr/batch at $4/hr
Less: Cost for 1st batch (15 components)
...cost for 225 components
4,410
(500)
3,910

(b)
ACCA F5
The limited use of learning curve theory is due to several factors:
the learning curve phenomenon is not always present;
it assumes stable conditions at work (eg of the labour force and labour mix) which will enable
learning to take place. This is not always practicable (eg because of labour turnover).
it must also assume a certain degree of motivation amongst employees;
extensive breaks between production of items must not be too long, or workers will forget and
the learning process would have to begin all over again;
it is dicult to obtain enough accurate data to decide what the learning curve is;
there will be a cessation to learning eventually, once the job has been repeated often enough.
10. Zatler plc

(a)
Profit statements
Original budget
$
$
2,240,000
Sales (at $140)
Less: Costs
Materials
Mat. X
(6 kilos 16,000) = 96,000 $12.25
(at
$138.25) 2,129,050
1,176,000
1,256,640
(given)
Mat. Y
(3. kilos 16,000) = 48,000 $3.20
153,600
132,979
(given)
Labour
(4.5 hours 16,000) = 72,000 $8.40
604,800
612,766
(given)
96,840
(given)
Fixed overheads
Profit
86,400
(given)
Actual
$
2,020,800
219,200
2,099,225
29,825
204

(b)
ACCA F5 205
Operating statement
$
219,200
Original budget profit (as above)

Variance
Sales volume (600u $19.10)
Sales price
Standard - Actual
($2,156,000 - $2,129,050)
Materials
Mat. X usage
(Standard - Actual) Standard price
(92,400 - 98,560) $12.25**
Mat. Y 90 usage
(Standard - Actual) Standard price
(46,200 - 42,350) $3.20
Mat. X Price
(Actual quantity Actual price)
(Actual quantity Standard price)
Favourable (+)
$
Adverse ()
$
11,460
26,950
75,460
12,320
1,256,640
1,207,360
49,280
Mat. X Price
(Actual quantity Actual price)
(Actual quantity Standard price)
132,979
135,520
2,541
Labour
Eciency
(Standard hours - Actual hours) Standard rate
(69,300 - 70,840) = 1,540 $8.40
Rate
(Standard Actual) Actual hours
($8.40 - 8.65) = $0.25 70,840
12,936
17,710
Overheads
Fixed overheads
Standard - Actual
($86,400 - $96,840)
14,861
10,440
204,236
Actual profit
(c)
$612,766
$8.65
-189,375 (A)
29,825
= 70,840 hours
Inter-relationships
Variances may be inter-related (eg the reason why one variance is favourable could also help explain
why another variance is adverse).
Using poor quality materials could result in a favourable price variance because of paying a lower
price. The poor quality material could be the cause of an adverse material usage variance and an
ACCA F5
adverse labour eciency variance (eg materials more dicult to work with, more rejects/spoilt work,
more waste).
If a higher grade of labour was used, compared with that which was planned, there would most
certainly be an adverse labour rate variance. The higher skill level employed could well be the reason
for a favourable labour eciency variance and a favourable material usage variance (eg a lower
number of rejects and less waste of materials.
11. Zohan
(a)
Material variance summaries

Material A
60% @ $30
18
Material B
40% @ $45
100%
18
36
Standard loss
10%
Standard yield
90% =
$36
= $40 per kg
90%
Price variance:
Material B
Material A:
Total material cost
Less: Cost of B 360 $45
Actual cost of material A
Standard price @ Actual quantity:
540 $30
480 $30
700 $30
Price variance
January
$
Nil
February
$
Nil
March
$
Nil
32,400
16,200
31,560
16,200
38,600
16,200
16,200
15,360
22,400
16,200
14,400
21,000
1,400
960 A
Nil
Material variance summaries

Product:
Mix variance
Actual quantity
@ Actual mix
Actual quantity
@ Standard mix
Mix variance
January
A
B Total
February
A
B
March
Total
Total
540 360
900
480
360
840
700
360
1,060
540 360
900
504
336
800
636
424
1,060
24 @ $30
Nil = $720 F
24@
$45=
$1,080A
64@$30= 64@$45=
360 A $1,920 A $2,880 F
$960 F
Yield variance
Actual quantity @
Standard mix
540 360 900
Std quantity for actual
810
production
100/90
@ Standard mix
540 360 = 900
504
336
800
636
765 100/90
510
340
= 850
424
1,060
900 100/90
600
400 = 1,000
206
Yield variance
ACCA F5 207
36@$30 24@$45 $2,160 A

Nil 6@$30 = 4@$45 $360 F
$180 F =$180 F
=$1,080 A =$1,080 A
Usage variance
Actual quantity
@ Actual mix
540 360
Std quantity for actual
production @ Std mix 540 360
Usage variance
(b)
480
$Nil
510
30@$30
= $900 F
360
340
20@
$45= Nil
$900 A
700
360
600
400
100@$30 40@$45=
=$3,000 A $1,800 F $1,200 A
Comments
Production in January is exactly according to standard. The price of B has remained at standard for the
1, 400
960
whole period. The price of A is $2
and
and in excess of standard in February and March.
480
700
If this continues the standard price of A will need to be increased. The proportion of A in the mix
700
4, 400
changed to
= 57%and
= 66% March respectively.
840
1,060
The cost increase in February, shown as an adverse mix variance of $360, is caused by dearer B being
used instead of cheaper A. There is an improvement in yield in February. The increased yield could be
viewed as an abnormal gain of 9kg (840 90% = (756 765) $40 = $360). There is also a reduction in
volume produced in February.
In March the significant increase in the proportion of A (which is cheaper) used has caused a
favourable mix variance and may have contributed to the large adverse yield variance. Production in
March is considerably higher than for January and February - this may be a reason for the adverse
yield variance.
Overall there appears to be a link between mix and yield. If the proportion of B is increased, causing
adverse mix variance as B is more expensive, the yield is improved - as occurred in February; the
opposite took place in March.
There could also be a link between yield and the volume of production - in February production is low
and yield is high, whereas in March production is high and yield is low.
(c)
Relevance of the variances

This information helps to explain the increased proportion of B used in February - if not used B would
be wasted, which could involve disposal costs. It could therefore be argued that the adverse mix
variance on B of $1,080 in February is a sunk cost ie, using a greater proportion of B has not increased
the purchase quantity. Using more of B has improved yield.
In March the restriction on B has resulted in adverse yield arising from the increased proportion of A
needed to increase production volume - this has resulted in an overall adverse usage variance of
$1,200. This excess cost should be included in the evaluation of decisions to try to obtain more of B by,
for example, paying a premium price.
It would be necessary to ascertain whether and how quality of the final product is aected by changes
in mix and whether the quality is then acceptable to customers.
ACCA F5
12. Coffee Nation

The performance can be categorised into the following key areas: Financial, Competitiveness, Resource
Utilisation, Quality of Service and Innovation/Flexibility.
Financial:
Continuous turnover growth with a 123% increase over the period.
Annual compound growth rate
An even faster growth in profit approximate five fold increase
Profits growing faster than turnover creates an increasing net profit margin from 14% in 2007 to 309% in
2010. This may have arisen from improved resource utilisation (see below) resulting in a gradual decrease in
the ratio of fixed costs to revenues.
Competitiveness:
Concerned with market share and growing new business areas.
Market share measured by the rate of restaurant turnover to the turnover of all restaurants in the locality.
This commences with 92% in 2007 and continually increases to 175% in 2010. There is also a rapid growth
in the proposals submitted for new events (10 to 38), and even more significantly, is the faster growth in
contracts won. The success rate increases from 20% in 2007 to 66% in 2010. The restaurant is therefore
competing increasingly successfully in this developing business area. The restaurant is becoming
increasingly price competitive.
Quality of service
The increasing number of regular customers would suggest that many customers are satisfied with the total
package that the restaurant oers. This may be partly due to service quality or other factors such as price
competitiveness. The growth in complaints, complimentary letters, reported cases of food poisoning and the
service delivery data would suggest rather a mixed situation. It is dicult to provide a definitive comment
regarding the quality of service over the period, especially as the number of customers nearly doubled over
the period. Even additional calculations, such as those involving key service quality data per 100 customers
would not provide the basis for an overall conclusive comment.
Innovation/Flexibility
The restaurant has fared quite well in this respect when we consider:
Increase in the number of dishes on offer
The introduction of theme evenings
The development of the catering activities for special events
The restaurant is prepared to try new dishes although the extent of its experimentation varies considerably
from year to year.
Also, the fluctuating and somewhat unsatisfactory service delays suggest that they are not managing to flex
their resources adequately to meet peak demand levels.
Resource Utilisation
The business activity level continually increased over the period (meals served) with a decline in nonproductive time and the hours of operation with no customers. All these suggest an improvement in
resource utilisation. We do not know whether the increase in seating capacity in 2009 arose from extending
the floor area available or from the provision of more seating within a constant space. Although this capacity
increase permitted more customers to be fed at peak times, it did result in a fluctuation in the annual
number of meals served at each seat, 150 (2007), 204 (2008), 155 (2009), 167 (2010). A brief attempt was
made in 2009 to extend the opening hours and increase the hourly utilisation of the premises.
208
ACCA F5 209
13. New Project

(a)
(i)
Best outcome
Year
1
$m
168
90
78
36
42
8.64
33.36
108
Revenues
Less direct costs
= net cash flow
Less depreciation
= Profit
Less imputed interest (8%)
= Residual Income
NBV
42
ROI
(ii)
108
3
$m
210
126
84
36
48
2.88
45.12
36
45
100 = 39%
72
48
100 = 62.5%
36
100 = 133%
Worst outcome
Year
$m
$m
$m
Revenues
152
171
190
Less direct costs
110
132
154
= net cash flow
42
39
36
Less depreciation
36
36
36
Less imputed interest (13%)
14.08
9.36
4.68
= Residual Income
(804)
(636)
(468)
108
72
36
= Profit
NBV
ROI
(b)
2
$m
189
108
81
36
45
5.76
39.24
72
6
108
100 = 5.6%
3
72
100 = 4.2%
0
36
100 = 0%
Residual Income:
This measures net income after deducting an imputed interest charge on the capital employed. It is
intended to ensure that the decision making and performance assessment process incorporates the
finance (interest) cost of securing funds for a project. It prompts the question is this project a good
use for scarce and costly funds?
Strengths
Signals to project sponsors that funding of projects involves finance costs.
Can be used to discriminate between projects that generate returns above and below the cost
of capital.
Is a flexible tool as projects carrying diering risks can have separate rates of interest imputed.
Weaknesses
It does not facilitate comparison between projects that vary in size because it is an absolute
measure of surplus.
Many diculties can arise in deciding an appropriate and accurate measure of the capital
employed on which to base the imputed interest charge (see further comments on ROI).
ACCA F5
Return on Investment:
It gauges the eciency of the project to generate outputs (profits) from resources input (required
investment). It can be used to assess short and long term decisions.
Strengths
It is directly related to the standard accounting process and is widely understood.
It appeals to investors who are interested in assessing the percentage return on an investment.
It permits comparison to be drawn between projects that dier in their absolute size.
It permits the performance of semi-autonomous business units to be compared with each other
and with an aggregated figure.
Weaknesses
It can be dicult to identify the appropriate value of the investment there are problems
associated with the valuation of assets in relation to their earning power. What are assets?
Many costs are expensed, R&D for example, and do not form part of the asset base of an
organisation but nevertheless make a significant contribution to the earning power of the
entity. On the other hand, intangibles like brands and customer lists can be regarded as
legitimate assets in a Statement of Financial Position but are notoriously dicult to value.
Both recorded profit figures and asset values are subject to unscrupulous manipulation by
senior managers in an attempt to artificially enhance the ROI performance of their organisations
candidates should be given credit for referring to recent (2002) scandals within large US
companies.
It is not easy to compare the performance of investment centres if they have calculated their
depreciation in dierent ways or have assets that vary in their age profile.
The ROI is likely to increase as assets depreciate and therefore this may deter necessary asset
replacement if managers are assessed on short run ROI performance short term ROI
performance indicators may discourage long term optimal decisions being taken.
Where a conglomerate sets a common ROI target that has to be achieved for all new projects, it
may present problems in assessing performance fairly where:
the target return makes no allowance for projects with varying risk.
where the various parts of the business operate in differing business environments.
(c)
Issues to consider may include:
The anticipated project risk is it known and can it be measured?
Does the project represent the commencement of a much larger and longer term plan? An
apparently poor performing project in the short term may proceed because of the long term
prospects.
The synergy and relationship between dierent projects may need to be considered the role
of the project within the corporate plan.
The potential for an individual project to alter the overall risk of a companys business activities
e.g. a single project has the potential, if combined with certain other projects, to lower overall
risk, and consequently the corporate cost of capital.
When will the project commence now or later? Is postponement feasible? Is this project an
integral element of a broader plan?
14. Transfer pricing

(a)
When division Eezy has spare capacity the incremental cost to the company of producing Y is $35. The
cost of the external supply is $38. Therefore it is cheaper for the company if division Eezy supplies Y.
The transfer price should be fixed at a price above $35, to provide an incentive for Eezy to supply and
generate a contribution towards the recovery of fixed costs, and below $38 to encourage Peezy to
210
(b)
ACCA F5 211
buy. The price should be set so that both divisions, acting independently and in their own interests,
choose to trade at the set price.
The situation now requires a consideration of the opportunity cost of diverting resources away from
the supply of external customers. For every additional unit of Y produced and supplied to Peezy, Eezy
will have to sacrifice indirectly $10 in lost contribution from external sales ($42 $32). So the relevant
cost of making a unit of Y in these circumstances is $35 plus $10 i.e. $45. $45 represents the real cost
of supplying division Peezy with one unit of product Y. It is therefore better for the company to
purchase product Y from the external supplier for $38. We can ensure this happens by fixing the
transfer price of Y above $38, to discourage Peezy from buying it from Eezy. At a price of $40, Peezy
would not choose to buy from Eezy, and it would not be in the interest of Eezy to sell to the other
division.
ACCA F5
212

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December 2015 Examinations

Activity based costing

Environmental Management Accounting

Cost Volume Profit Analysis

Short-term decision making

Risk and Uncertainty

Quantitative analysis in budgeting

Standard Costing and Basic Variance Analysis

More variance analysis

Financial Performance Measurement

Non-financial performance measurement

Divisional performance measurement

Performance in the not-for-profit sector

Performance Management Information Systems

Performance Management Systems, Measurement and Control

December 2015 Examinations

End of Question Paper

December 2015 Examinations

December 2015 Examinations

2. The steps to be followed are as follows:

calculate an absorption rate for each cost driver

calculate the total overhead cost for each product manufactured

calculate the overhead cost per unit for each product

December 2015 Examinations

Material cost (per unit)

Labour hours (per unit)

(Labour is paid at the rate of $5 per hour)

Cost driver data:

Number of deliveries received

Number of orders despatched

Machine hours per unit

December 2015 Examinations

December 2015 Examinations

3. Advantages of, and problems with, activity based costing.

December 2015 Examinations

Open Ltd produces two products: X and Y.

$0.10 per unit

Traditional absorption costing tends to under-allocate overhead costs to low-volume products

Other overhead costs are absorbed on the basis of labour hours

December 2015 Examinations

Which of the following is NOT an advantage of activity based costing?

It facilitates a good understanding of what drives an overhead

Which of the following statements is/are true?

December 2015 Examinations

December 2015 Examinations

December 2015 Examinations

3. The use of the target cost

4. Possible ways of attempting to close the target cost gap

December 2015 Examinations

5. Target costing in service industries