Acute Liver Failure in Adults: An EvidenceBased Management Protocol for Clinicians

Heather Patton, MD, Michael Misel, PharmD, and Robert G. Gish, MD

Dr. Patton is an Assistant Clinical

Professor of Medicine in the Division
of Gastroenterology at the University
of California (UC) San Diego School of
Medicine; she is also affiliated with the
Center for Hepatobiliary Disease and
Abdominal Transplantation (CHAT) in
the UC San Diego Health System, both
in San Diego, California. Dr. Misel is an
Assistant Clinical Professor at the UC
San Diego Skaggs School of Pharmacy
& Pharmaceutical Sciences; he is also a
Pharmacist Specialist in Hepatobiliary
Disease and Abdominal Transplant at
CHAT in the UC San Diego Health
System. Dr. Gish is Chief of Clinical
Hepatology and a Professor of Clinical
Medicine in the Division of Gastroenterology at the UC San Diego School of
Medicine; he is also Medical Director
of CHAT in the UC San Diego Health
System.
Address correspondence to:
Dr. Heather Patton
200 West Arbor Drive, MC 8413
San Diego, CA 92103;
Tel: 619-543-2470;
Fax: 619-543-2766;
E-mail: [email protected]

Keywords
Acute liver failure, liver transplantation, fulminant
liver failure, hepatic encephalopathy, acute-onchronic liver failure, intracranial hypertension,
coagulopathy

Abstract: With the goal of providing guidance on the provision

of optimal intensive care to adult patients with acute liver failure (ALF), this paper defines ALF and describes a protocol for
appropriately diagnosing this relatively rare clinical entity and
ascertaining its etiology, where possible. This paper also identifies the few known therapies that may be effective for specific
causes of ALF and provides a comprehensive approach for anticipating, identifying, and managing complications. Finally, one of
the more important aspects of care for patients with ALF is the
determination of prognosis and, specifically, the need for liver
transplantation. Prognostic tools are provided to help guide the
clinician in this critical decision process. Management of patients
with ALF is complex and challenging, even in centers where staff
members have high levels of expertise and substantial experience.
This evidence-based protocol may, therefore, assist in the delivery
of optimal care to this critically ill patient population and may
substantially increase the likelihood of positive outcomes.

ue to the complexity of clinical care for patients with acute

and chronic liver disease, evidence-based protocols provide
a means to improve delivery of care. This is particularly
true when multiple specialties are involved in the care team, when
physician coverage may change day-to-day or week-to-week, and
when trainees (medical students, residents, and fellows) comprise
part of the care team. The goal of the following protocol is to guide
the provision of optimal intensive care to adult patients with acute
liver failure (ALF), both fulminant and subfulminant, who are being
managed in hospital wards and in the intensive care unit (ICU).
The protocol is designed to help clinicians to define and recognize
ALF; to promptly identify its cause, when possible; to identify common complications associated with ALF and appropriate strategies
to prevent or manage these complications; and to rapidly triage
ALF patients for liver transplantation evaluation and listing, where
appropriate. This protocol is intended for the adult patient with
ALF. Important differences may exist in management of the pediatric population, who may present with other signs of ALF without
overt hepatic encephalopathy (HE); readers are directed to reviews
specific to this patient population.1,2

Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012 161

PAT T O N e t a l

ALF (fulminant and subfulminant) is a rare but

serious clinical syndrome characterized by sudden
loss of hepatic function in a person without evidence
of preexisting liver disease.3 Exceptions to this definition include Wilson disease, reactivation of hepatitis B
virus infection, and autoimmune hepatitis.4 ALF affects
approximately 2,0003,000 Americans each year.5
Causes of ALF include drug-induced or toxin-induced
liver disease, viral hepatitis, metabolic diseases, and
vascular and/or ischemic liver disease; 1520% of cases
have no identifiable cause (Table 1).
Acetaminophen (APAP) is the leading cause of
ALF. Patients who are at increased risk for APAPinduced ALF include those with concomitant alcohol
use, malnutrition, or use of medications known to
induce CYP450 enzymes (eg, phenytoin, carbamazepine, or rifampin). In 308 consecutive patients from
17 tertiary care centers participating in the US Acute
Liver Failure Study Group, APAP was identified as
the etiology of ALF in 40% of patients.6 The other
etiologies identified, in ascending order of prevalence,
were malignancy (1%), Budd-Chiari syndrome (2%),
pregnancy (2%), Wilson disease (3%), hepatitis A virus
infection (4%), autoimmune hepatitis (4%), ischemic
hepatitis (6%), hepatitis B virus infection (6%), and
idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (13%); 17% of
cases were found to be indeterminate.
Definition of Acute Liver Failure
ALF is manifest by the presence of coagulopathy (international normalized ratio [INR] >1.5) and any degree of
encephalopathy occurring within 24 weeks of the first
onset of symptoms in patients without underlying liver
disease.7,8 The particular timing and severity of clinical
presentation may be divided into hyperacute, acute, and
subacute; the former 2 categories encompass fulminant
hepatic failure, while subacute is also termed subfulminant. These categories can provide clues as to the underlying cause and prognosis of ALF (Table 2). Paradoxically,
patients with HE that occurs within 8 weeks of the onset
of symptoms (fulminant hepatic failure) have a lower
mortality than those with a more gradually evolving
course. Multiorgan failure is the most common cause of
death (>50%) from ALF, with intracranial hypertension
(ICH) and infection accounting for most of the other
deaths in this patient population.9
Diagnosis of Acute Liver Failure
In patients with suspected ALF (those presenting with
coagulopathy and HE in the absence of known underlying
liver disease within a time frame compatible with ALF), the

following evaluation is recommended to help determine the

etiology of liver failure. Determination of etiology assists in
directing therapy and estimating prognosis.
Medical History
First, clinicians should obtain a detailed medical history
from the patient and/or family, including first onset of
symptom(s); all medications used over the last 6 months,
including prescription medications, over-the-counter
agents, herbal supplements, wild mushrooms, or other
alternative/complementary therapies; a detailed history of
current and prior substance use; current or prior depression
(including assessment of suicidality), anxiety, psychosis, or
other mental illness; viral prodrome; and recent travel.
Physical Examination
Second, a complete physical examination should be performed. Particular attention should be paid to the assessment
of mental status, the neurologic examination, and the fundoscopic examination in patients with HE of stage 2 or greater.
Laboratory Tests
Third, a number of laboratory tests are recommended for
the purposes of establishing an etiology and determining
prognosis. Tests that should be performed on presentation
are listed in Table 3.
Additional Tests to Consider
In patients with ALF of unknown etiology (sero
negative ALF), additional laboratory studies to consider include autoimmune marker tests (antinuclear
antibody, anti-actin antibody, quantitative immunoglobulins, and antisoluble liver antigen); hepatitis E
virus immunoglobulin (Ig)M testing (in patients with
compatible travel history); and hepatitis C virus polymerase chain reaction (PCR) if risk factors are present.
If Wilson disease is suspected, tests to consider include
serum ceruloplasmin, serum copper level, 24-hour
urine collection for quantitative copper, and slit-lamp
ophthalmologic evaluation for the presence of KayserFleischer rings (these tests should be done in all young
patients with ALF and in those with Coombs-negative
hemolytic anemia, low alkaline phosphatase levels,
or splenomegaly). If a viral syndrome is identified or
suspected, consider testing for herpes simplex virus
1/2 IgM (PCR also available), Epstein-Barr virus PCR,
cytomegalovirus PCR, adenovirus PCR, and varicellazoster virus IgM (in the setting of vesicular rash).
There are other diagnostic tests that may also be
useful. A diagnostic transjugular liver biopsy should be
considered for all unknown or non-APAP cases. Histology has not been shown to predict outcomes, although
the liver biopsy may help to strategize immunosuppres-

162 Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012

A c u t e Liv e r F ai l u r e in A d u lt s

Table 1. Differential Diagnosis of Acute Liver Failure (ALF)

Category

Etiology of ALF

Examples and/or common clinical features

Viruses

Hepatitis A virus

Rare in the United States; usually hyperacute in presentation; ALF is

more common in older patients or those with underlying liver disease

Hepatitis B virus delta virus

Less common following widespread vaccination

Hepatitis E virus

Occurs in those with a history of travel to endemic areas or direct

exposure to those who have traveled to such areas, as well as those with
exposure to porcine farm animals; has a higher risk during pregnancy,
especially in the 3rd trimester

Herpes simplex virus

Occurs in immunocompromised patients and rarely in those who have

normal immune systems

Varicella zoster virus

Manifested by a vesicular rash

Cytomegalovirus

Rare and controversial as to the potential for causing ALF

Epstein-Barr virus
Human herpesvirus-6

Drugs

Vascular diseases

Toxins

Adenovirus, Coxsackie B virus,

hemorrhagic fever virus

Rare causes of ALF

Idiosyncratic reactions

Isoniazid, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, carbamazepine

Dose-dependent hepatotoxicity

Acetaminophen, sulfonamides, tetracycline

Herbal supplements

Patients families must be asked explicitly about use.

Right heart failure

Sinusoidal obstruction syndrome

Most common following systemic chemotherapy in preparation for

bone marrow transplantation

Budd-Chiari syndrome

May not have classic presentation

Ischemic hepatitis (shock liver)

Ischemia must be prolonged (such as with sepsis).

Amanita phalloides toxin

More common in Europe than in the United States; gastroenteritis,

renal failure, and pancreatitis are common features

Bacillus cereus toxin

A foodborne illness (fried rice syndrome)

Carbon tetrachloride

Very rare

Yellow phosphorus
Metabolic diseases

Wilson disease

Most common in younger patients; typical findings include Coombsnegative hemolytic anemia, hypouricemia, and a low alkaline
phosphatase level with a high bilirubin level

Reye syndrome

Occurs in young children with viral syndrome and salicylate ingestion

Acute fatty liver of pregnancy

Associated with defects in fetal and maternal mitochondrial long-chain

3-hydroxyacyl coenzyme A dehydrogenase62

Malignant
infiltration

Metastatic breast cancer

The most common solid organ metastasis to cause liver failure

Lymphoma

More common than leukemic infiltration

Autoimmune
diseases

Autoimmune hepatitis

Accounts for approximately 5% of cases in the US ALF Registry

sion following liver transplantation in patients with

autoimmune hepatitis. An abdominal ultrasound with
Doppler can be used to confirm portal and hepatic vein
patency. For patients with grade 3/4 HE, a noncontrast

computed tomography (CT) scan of the head should

be considered. If the patient is a potential candidate
for liver transplantation, both an echocardiogram and
electrocardiogram should be done.

Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012 163

PAT T O N e t a l

Table 2. Timing and Severity of Clinical Presentation and Clinical Prognosis in Patients with Acute Liver Failure
Hyperacute (fulminant)

Acute (fulminant)

Subacute (subfulminant)

Time from jaundice to

encephalopathy

01 week

14 weeks

412 weeks

Severity of coagulopathy

+++

++

Severity of jaundice

++

+++

Degree of ICH

+++

++

+/

Likelihood of survival without

liver transplantation

Good

Moderate

Poor

Typical cause(s)

Acetaminophen, HAV, HEV

HBV

Nonacetaminophen drug toxicity

=none; +=low severity; ++=medium severity; +++=high severity; HAV=hepatitis A virus; HBV=hepatitis B virus; HEV=hepatitis E virus; ICH=intracranial
hypertension.
Adapted with permission from Bernal W, et al.63

Table 3. Recommended Laboratory Tests for Establishing Etiology and Determining Prognosis of Acute Liver Failure
Hepatic panel
Complete blood count with differential
Prothrombin time/international normalized ratio
Metabolic panel
Magnesium level
Phosphorus level
Amylase and lipase levels
Toxicology screen (including acetaminophen and
salicylate levels)
Factor V level64
a
 -fetoprotein level
A
 rterial lactate level65
Arterial blood gas level
Arterial ammonia level (in patients with stage 2 or
greater hepatic encephalopathy)

Viral hepatitis serologies:

-Hepatitis B surface antigen (hepatitis delta immuno
globulin (Ig)G if surface antigen is positive)

-Hepatitis B core IgM

-Hepatitis A IgM

-Hepatitis E IgG (if positive, ribonucleic acid testing should
be ordered in select patients)

-Hepatitis C antibody
HIV antibody
Blood and urine cultures
Urinalysis
Blood type
Serum pregnancy test (for patients with childbearing potential)
Thromboelastogram47

Treatment and Management of Complications

As shown in Table 4, there are only a few identified
therapies that may be effective for specific causes of ALF.
In addition to determining the need for liver transplantation, clinicians need to anticipate, identify, and manage
complications of ALF in order to achieve optimal outcomes in these patients.
Hepatic Encephalopathy
Hyperammonemia plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of HE and cerebral edema (CE), although venous
ammonia level has a poor correlation with clinical
status. Measurement of arterial ammonia level can be
used very selectively, due to high cost and painful sampling; a level above 200 g/dL is associated with a higher

risk for cerebral herniation.10 The role of conventional

treatments for HE in chronic liver disease (lactulose
and/or rifaximin [Xifaxan, Salix Pharmaceuticals] or
sodium benzoate) remains unclear but can be considered on a case-by-case basis, with treatment guided by
clinical assessment of encephalopathy severity rather
than blood ammonia level. For assessment of severity,
the West Haven criteria for encephalopathy separate
symptoms related to altered mental status into 5 grades:
Grade 0 (no abnormality detected); Grade 1 (trivial lack
of awareness, euphoria or anxiety, shortened attention
span, impairment of addition or subtraction); Grade 2
(lethargy or apathy, disorientation to time, obvious
personality change, inappropriate behavior); Grade 3
(somnolence to semistupor, responsiveness to stimuli,
confusion, gross disorientation, bizarre behavior); and

164 Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012

A c u t e Liv e r F ai l u r e in A d u lt s

Table 4. Etiology-Specific Therapy for Patients with Acute Liver Failure

Etiology

Therapy

Reference(s)

Acetaminophen

Oral NAC: 140 mg/kg loading dose, then 70 mg/kg every 4 hours until
discontinued by hepatology or transplantation surgery attending physician

Smilkstein MJ, et al66

Smilkstein MJ, et al67

IV NAC: 150 mg/kg loading dose, then 50 mg/kg IV over 4 hours, then
100 mg/kg IV over 16 hours as a continuous infusion until discontinued
by hepatology or transplantation surgery attending physician

Buckley NA, et al68

Keays R, et al69

Amanita phalloides
(mushroom intoxication)

Charcoal: via NGT every 4 hours alternating with silymarin

Penicillin G: 1 g/kg/day IV and NAC (Dosing as for acetaminophen
overdose.)
Silymarin: 300 mg PO/NGT every 12 hours
Legalon-SIL: 5 mg/kg/day IV (given in 4 divided doses) or 5 mg/kg IV
loading dose followed by 20 mg/kg/day via continuous infusion

Broussard CN, et al70

Floersheim GL, et al71

Herpes simplex virus

Acyclovir: 10 mg/kg IV every 8 hours (using IBW) adjusted for kidney

function

Peters DJ, et al72

Cytomegalovirus

Ganciclovir: 5 mg/kg IV every 12 hours (using IBW) adjusted for kidney

function

Autoimmune hepatitis

Methylprednisolone: 60 mg/day IV

Hepatitis B virus

Entecavir (taken on an empty stomach) or tenofovir at standard renaladjusted doses

AFLP/HELLP

Delivery of fetus

Kessler WR, et al73

Mabie WC74
Castro MA, et al75

AFLP/HELLP=acute fatty liver of pregnancy/hemolysis-elevated liver enzymes-low platelet syndrome; IBW=ideal body weight; IV=intravenous;
NAC=N-acetyl cysteine; NGT=nasogastric tube; PO=by mouth.

Grade 4 (coma).11,12 Neomycin should never be used to

treat HE in patients with ALF due to risk for ototoxicity
and nephrotoxicity. Accepted dosing recommendations
for conventional treatments are listed below.
Lactulose Lactulose should be administered at a dose
of 3060 mL given orally (PO) or via nasogastric tube
(NGT) every 26 hours, titrated to maintain 34 soft
stools (approximately 800 mL liquid stool) daily. In
patients without good response to oral lactulose or those
in whom there is clinical concern for ileus, an alternative
approach is to administer lactulose via 150-mL enema
plus 350 mL of tap water every 68 hours. Particular caution should be used to avoid overdistention of the bowel
in ALF patients in need of liver transplantation to reduce
the risk of surgical complications.

the highest incidence in patients with more acute

presentations (shorter jaundice-to-encephalopathy
intervals).7,13 Risk factors for development of ICH
include younger age, renal dysfunction, and need for
inotrope support.10
Suggested Plan for Management of All Adult Patients
with Acute Liver Failure
To lessen the risk for development or worsening of CE, consideration of the following is appropriate for all ALF patients.
Adjust Head Position Elevate the head of the bed 30,
and maintain the head in a neutral position.14,15 Avoid
having the patients head lying to the side. Sandbags can
be placed around the head in order to minimize lateral
movements and keep the neck straight.

Rifaximin Doses of 550 mg of rifaximin can be given

PO or via NGT every 12 hours.

Avoid Fluid Overload and Excessive Stimulation Minimize suctioning and other noxious stimuli.

Sodium benzoate Doses of 5 g of sodium benzoate can

be given PO every 12 hours (not widely available).

Correct Hypercapnia and Hypoxia The goal is a

carbon dioxide partial pressure of 3040 mmHg,
although achieving this goal is likely beneficial only in
the first 48 hours.

Management of Cerebral Edema and Intracranial

Hypertension
ICH due to CE remains one of the primary causes of
morbidity and mortality in patients with ALF, with

Treat Fever Aggressively Cooling blankets, fans, or

other noninvasive devices may be used. However, avoid

Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012 165

PAT T O N e t a l

the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and

APAP, both of which are not recommended. Mild spontaneous hypothermia (3536.5C), such as that observed
during continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT),
should not be treated, as it may be therapeutic.
Assess the Patient for Infection A full work-up for infection
is imperative, and careful use of antibiotics is advised, ideally
with guidance from an infectious disease (ID) consultant.
Perform a Head Computed Tomography Scan A
head CT scan is recommended in patients who progress
to stage 3/4 HE or who experience an acute change in
mental status. Clinicians should recognize that CT scans
are relatively insensitive to ICH.16,17
Consider an Intracranial Pressure Monitor However,
the indication for placement of an intracranial pressure
(ICP) monitor remains one of the most contentious issues
in managing patients with ALF, as there are no randomized,
controlled studies to guide management. The risk of bleeding from ICP monitors is reported to range from 4% to
20%, depending on the depth of insertion, and the use of
an ICP monitor has resulted in death in up to 5% of cases.18
ICP monitor placement should only be undertaken in
centers with appropriate support, including an experienced
neurosurgical service and the ability to aggressively manage
coagulopathy. Placement of an ICP monitor is typically
only considered in patients listed for liver transplantation
with stage 3/4 HE, although some centers also insert ICP
monitors in nontransplantation candidates with advancedstage HE in whom intensive medical management offers a
reasonable likelihood of spontaneous survival (eg, patients
with APAP-induced ALF).
Suggested Plan for Management of Patients with Intracranial Hypertension
For patients with clinically suspected or proven ICH, the
following treatments can be considered.
Mannitol Boluses of mannitol (0.250.5 g/kg via an
intravenous [IV] route) should be administered when
ICP is 25 mmHg or above for longer than 10 minutes
in patients with preserved renal function. Check serum
osmolality every 6 hours. Mannitol boluses may be
repeated if ICP remains above 25 mmHg and serum
osmolality is below 310 mOsm/L.
Induced Moderate Hypothermia Moderate hypothermia may decrease ICP in ALF patients with ICH
refractory to mannitol and may stabilize ICP during
liver transplantation.19-21 While data for this therapy are
promising, further controlled trials are needed to confirm

benefit, better quantify risk, and determine the ideal target

population for this intervention.19-22 Moderate hypothermia may be achieved with a surface cooling device or via
direct core cooling using an endovascular heat-exchange
catheter (according to institution-specific availability and
expertise). The risks of moderate hypothermia include
cardiovascular instability, shivering, bleeding, and/or
infection. In order to minimize the risk of worsening
coagulopathy, the recommended target range for cooling
is 34.535C.23,24 Management of shivering with therapeutic hypothermia is paramount to avoid an iatrogenic
increase in ICP. At our institution, a protocol for management of shivering has been developed in conjunction with
our institutions neurocritical care specialists; a similar
approach would be recommended whenever therapeutic
hypothermia is to be used.
The patient should be gradually rewarmed (at a rate
of 0.20.5C per hour) to the goal temperature of 37C at
the time of surgery. When direct core cooling is employed,
surgeons should be aware of the risk of significant bleeding from the endovascular catheter site during liver transplantation. Consider leaving the sheath in place until after
reperfusion of the liver and resolution of coagulopathy,
which may be preferable to removal of the catheter and
sheath in the operating room by the transplantation surgery team. Correction of coagulopathy can be assessed by
thromboelastogram (TEG).
Hypertonic Saline Boluses of hypertonic saline (HTS)
have been increasingly used with efficacy similar or
superior to mannitol.25-28 Many HTS preparations and
dosing strategies have been employed to treat CE, including 23.4% saline (30 mL) and 7.5% saline (2.0 mL/kg)
boluses repeated every 23 hours.28 Serum sodium levels
should be monitored every 6 hours. HTS has also been
administered prophylactically as a constant infusion (a
30% solution at a rate of 520 mL/hr) to ALF patients
with high-grade encephalopathy. For this purpose, use of
3% sodium chloride to achieve a serum sodium level of
145155 mmol/L is recommended. In 1 small, randomized trial, the incidence and severity of ICH was reduced
in patients with induced hypernatremia.29 To reduce the
risk of osmotic demyelination, do not correct or change
serum sodium more than 12 mmol/L in 24 hours or
16 mmol/L in 48 hours.
Barbiturate Coma Barbiturate coma is now rarely used
and has been replaced by propofol sedation. The risks
of induced coma include hypotension, hypothermia,
immunosuppression, hypokalemia, prolonged coma, and
ventilator-associated pneumonia. Vasopressors can be
used to maintain cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) above
50 mmHg and are usually required.

166 Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012

A c u t e Liv e r F ai l u r e in A d u lt s

Sedation and Analgesia

Controlling pain (analgesia) and minimizing agitation
(anxiolysis) are important in controlling ICP.30,31 Propofol
is relatively short-acting, decreases cerebral blood flow,
and lowers ICP.32 Given these benefits, propofol is generally the preferred agent when sedation of ALF patients is
necessary. Bispectral index monitoring is advised in this
patient population.
Seizure Prophylaxis and Surveillance
Nonconvulsive seizure activity has been documented in
a high proportion of patients with ALF and advanced
stages of HE.33 Clinicians should consider performing
an electroencephalogram (EEG) for the following indications: grade 3/4 HE; sudden, unexplained deterioration
in neurologic examination; and myoclonus.34 Continuous EEG monitoring, where available, may be considered
in cases where there are intermittent, unexplained neurologic findings that may be missed with standard EEG.
In a single study evaluating prophylactic use of
antiepileptic medications in the setting of ALF, CE and
survival were no different among patients treated with
phenytoin versus controls; however, we believe this area
deserves further investigation.34 Given the noninvasive
nature of EEG examinations and the potential benefit
of identification and management of seizure activity in
this patient population, we advocate a low threshold for
performing EEGs, pending further research.
Mechanical Ventilation
High levels of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) may
increase ICP and decrease hepatic blood flow in patients
with ALF.35 In neurocritical care patients, however, the effects
of PEEP on ICP are inconsistent and not always clinically
important.36 In general, the lowest PEEP that achieves adequate oxygenation should be applied in patients with ALF.
Treatment of Circulatory Dysfunction
Ensuring adequate volume resuscitation is important.
The indications for vasopressors are systolic blood pressure below 90 mmHg (mean arterial pressure [MAP]
<65 mmHg), or when needed to maintain a CPP of
5080 mmHg. (CPP=MAPICP.) Norepinephrine is the
preferred vasopressor in this population since it may provide a more consistent and predictable increase in cerebral
perfusion than other inotrope agents.37
A trial dose of hydrocortisone should be considered
in patients with ALF who have persistent hypotension
despite volume challenge and norepinephrine treatment.
Hydrocortisone (50 mg IV every 6 hours or 100 mg IV
every 8 hours) has been shown to improve the vasopressor
response to norepinephrine in hypotensive patients with
sepsis and ALF.38,39

Vasopressin and vasopressin analogues are not

recommended because they directly cause cerebral vasodilation and may exacerbate ICH.39 Epinephrine is also
not recommended; it has been shown to decrease mesenteric blood flow in patients with severe septic shock
and, therefore, may compromise hepatic blood flow in
patients with ALF.40,41
Infection Prophylaxis and Surveillance
Infection remains one of the principal causes of death
in patients with ALF and may be subtle in its clinical
presentation.42 Even in the absence of signs or symptoms of infection, patients with ALF who are being
considered for liver transplantation should have cultures
taken daily from blood and urine, plus cultures taken
every 3 days (at minimum) from other sites (sputum,
stool, and radiographically identified fluid collections).
Additionally, it is ideal to have the patient followed by
a transplant ID specialist, when available, for ongoing
evaluation and management.
Prophylactic parenteral and enteral antimicrobial
regimens are not generally recommended because
they have not been shown to improve outcomes or
survival in patients with ALF, although key studies
may have been underpowered.43 When surveillance
cultures reveal significant isolates, anti-infective
medications should be initiated based on the isolated
organism, as directed by the ID consultant.42 Empiric
administration of antibiotics is recommended when
infection or likelihood of impending sepsis is high.
Specifically, empiric antibiotics should be administered if any 1 of the following conditions are met:
progression of, or advanced (stage 3/4) HE; hypotension; or presence of 2 or more systemic inflammatory
response syndrome components (temperature >38C
or <36C, white blood cell count >12,000/mm3 or
<4,000/mm3, pulse >90 beats/min, respiratory rate of
>20 breaths/min, or an arterial carbon dioxide tension
level of <32 mmHg).44,45
For patients hospitalized less than 72 hours, empiric,
broad-spectrum antimicrobial coverage may include
piperacillin/tazobactam (3.375 g IV every 8 hours infused
over 4 hours) plus vancomycin (2025 mg/kg IV loading
dose followed by 1 g IV every 12 hours, adjusted by the
pharmacy to maintain a trough concentration of approximately 15 mg/L) and fluconazole (a single dose of 200 mg,
administered PO or IV, followed by 100 mg/day administered PO or IV). For patients hospitalized longer than
72 hours and/or those with a complex medical history,
ID consultation should be requested (with a transplantation ID specialist, if available, or the general ID consult
service). Any central IV lines placed at an outside hospital
should be removed and replaced.

Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012 167

PAT T O N e t a l

Figure 1. Using results from thromboelastogram (TEG) analysis, the TEG decision tree is used to arrive at a coagulopathy
diagnosis and to distinguish between primary and secondary fibrinolysis and between platelet-induced versus enzymatic
hypercoagulability. Comparing the patients TEG analysis results to the decision tree depicted above allows clinicians to
assess the patients net coagulation profile and, in cases of increased risk for bleeding, to target the correct type of blood
products for management.
Reprinted with permission from Griffiths M, Cordingley J, Price S, eds. Cardiovascular Critical Care. 1st ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell;
2010:93.

Correction of Bleeding Diathesis

By definition, patients with ALF are coagulopathic, but
spontaneous, clinically significant bleeding is uncommon (<10%).46 TEG is recommended to best characterize coagulopathy in this patient population so as to target
appropriate factor administration and minimize transfusions that may result in unnecessary IV volume, expense,
and risk of complications. TEG measures the time to
initial fibrin formation, the rate of clot formation, the
quality/strength of the clot, and clot lysis. A schematic of
TEG results is shown in Figure 1.
Stravitz and colleagues recently published their
experience using TEG to assess coagulation profiles
among patients with acute liver injury (defined as INR
1.5; n=37) and ALF (acute liver injury + HE; n=14).47
Despite the fact that the mean INR value in this study
population was 3.4 (range, 1.59.6), mean and median

TEG parameters were within normal limits for the entire

study population. TEG has also been reported to decrease
the requirement for fresh frozen plasma (FFP) transfusion
during liver transplantation.48
Prophylactic FFP transfusion to improve coagulopathy in patients with ALF is not recommended, as it
does not reduce the risk of significant bleeding or transfusion requirements; it obscures the trend of INR as
a prognostic marker; and it risks volume overload.49,50
However, in the setting of profound coagulopathy
(INR >7 with TEG confirming marked prolongation
in the rate of clot formation), FFP transfusion to maintain INR between 5 and 7 is advised. Cryoprecipitate
is administered to keep fibrinogen in the low-normal
range and can be adjusted according to TEG results.
The recently published study by Stravitz and colleagues
also suggested that thrombocytopenia, when present,

168 Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012

A c u t e Liv e r F ai l u r e in A d u lt s

may be the most significant contributor to a coagulopathic state identified by TEG.47

Factor VII Protocol for Active Bleeding or Invasive
Procedure Recombinant activated Factor VII (rFVIIa)
is preferred in patients who require correction of coagulopathy for clinically significant bleeding or invasive procedures. Administration of rFVIIa (40 mcg/kg) is recommended prior to an invasive procedure with a high risk
of bleeding (eg, transjugular liver biopsy or placement
of an ICP monitor) in circumstances where FFP transfusion has failed to correct prothrombin time (PT)/INR
to an acceptable level or the patient has become volume
overloaded.51 A baseline coagulation panelincluding
PT/partial thromboplastin time (PTT) ratio, INR,
fibrinogen, calcium, and magnesiumshould be drawn
if INR is above 1.5. The use of blood products may be
indicated in patients with coagulopathy (PT, INR, or
activated PTT [aPTT] >1.5 baseline [ie, PT of 15 sec
and/or aPTT >45 sec] or fibrinogen level <150 mg/dL)
and surgery or bleeding requiring transfusion of red
blood cells postoperation. rFVIIa may be used as rescue
therapy for severe bleeding when correction of coagulopathy with FFP and/or other products has failed.
rFVIIa should be administered as a 1-mg IV bolus
over 25 minutes. For the best results, it should
be given 90 minutes prior to the procedure. A repeat
coagulation panel should be drawn within 1 hour of
rFVIIa administration. If INR does not decrease to
baseline or INR is above 1.5, consider repeating the
dose. The use of prophylactic rFVIIa is not generally
recommended.
Stress Ulcer Prophylaxis
The incidence of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in
ALF patients has been shown to be decreased by gastric
acid suppression.52 Proton pump inhibitors (IV or PO)
are recommended.
Plasmapheresis
Plasmapheresis is a treatment that is now reserved for
patients with Wilson disease who do not respond to
standard interventions, including chelation therapy
and supportive care. Plasmapheresis has been used successfully for rapid removal of copper.53 Most, if not all,
patients with ALF due to Wilson disease require liver
transplantation, without which they will remain at risk
of death; nonetheless, supportive interventions are critical as a bridge to transplantation. Important supportive
interventions include management of hyperglycemia or
hypoglycemia and, possibly, more intensive management of neurologic complications, since some patients
may have preexisting neurologic disease.

Nutrition
ALF is a catabolic state. Nutritional support, preferably administered via an enteral route, is recommended.
Approximately 80100 g of protein per day should be
administered unless there is profound coma.54 Addition of IV intralipids is recommended to supplement
caloric intake when enteral feeding does not meet
goals. Alternatively, all nutrition may be provided
via a parenteral route in the case of ileus, bowel
obstruction, or other situations where the enteral route
is inaccessible.
Serum Glucose Control
Hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia should be avoided in
patients with ALF. Glucose should be monitored every
26 hours. If the glucose level is below 100 mg/dL, begin
D10 infusion and maintain a serum glucose level above
100 mg/dL and less than 140180 mg/dL.
Renal Replacement Therapy: Management of Fluids
and Electrolytes
The superiority of CRRT versus intermittent renal
replacement therapy (IRRT) is an area of some controversy in the literature.55 However, there are specific
conditions in which CRRT has been proposed as the
preferred modality, including combined acute renal
and hepatic failure (because of the beneficial impact of
CRRT on cardiovascular stability and ICP) and acute
brain injury (because of the ability of CRRT to prevent
CE).56-60 Patients with ALF who have suspected or
proven CE should be treated with CRRT rather than
IRRT due to the risk for worsened CE with IRRT (even
in hemodynamically stable patients).57,61
During CRRT, heparin anticoagulation should be
avoided because of the risk of bleeding, and citrate is
recommended, although ionized serum calcium must
be carefully monitored. Bicarbonate buffer solutions
are recommended since citrate and lactate both require
biotransformation to bicarbonate in the liver. A dedicated, double-lumen catheter inserted into the internal jugular vein is recommended unless the patient
has significant ICH, in which case the femoral
route is preferred. Catheters should be locked with
saline or citrate.
Hyponatremia should be strictly avoided, as it
may exacerbate CE. Phosphorus should be monitored
regularly (every 6 hours) and repleted aggressively.
Continuous infusion of sodium phosphate should be
considered in most patients but should be avoided
in patients receiving CRRT. Use caution when creatinine clearance is less than 50 mL/min. Sodium
phosphate should be mixed to a concentration of
100 mEq in either 1,000 mL of sterile water or D5W

Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012 169

PAT T O N e t a l

Table 5. Proposed Schemes for Assessing Prognosis and the Need for Orthotopic Liver Transplantation in Patients with Acute Liver Failure
Scheme

Etiology

Criteria for liver transplantation*

Reference(s)

Kings College
criteria

APAP

Arterial pH <7.30
OR
All of the following:
PT >100 sec (INR >6.5)
Creatinine level >3.4 mg/dL
Grade 3/4 encephalopathy

OGrady JG, et al76

Non-APAP

PT >100 sec (INR >6.5)

OR
Any 3 of the following:
NANB/drug/halothane etiology
Time from jaundice to encephalopathy >7 days
Age <10 years or >40 years
PT >50 sec (INR >3.5)
Bilirubin level >17.4 mg/dL

Viral

Age <30 years: factor V <20%

OR
Any age: factor V <30% and
grade 3/4 encephalopathy

Bernuau J, et al78

Factor V

Bernuau J, et al77

Factor VIII/V ratio

APAP

Factor VIII/V ratio >30

Pereira LM, et al79

Liver biopsy

Mixed

Hepatocyte necrosis >70%

Donaldson BW, et al80

Severity index

HBV, NANB

See reference.

Takahashi Y, et al81

Arterial phosphate
level

APAP

>1.2 mmol/L

Schmidt LE,
Dalhoff K82

Arterial lactate level

APAP

>3.5 mmol/L

Bernal W, et al65

Arterial ammonia
level

Mixed

>150200 mol/L

Clemmesen JO, et al83

APACHE II score

APAP

Score >15

Mitchell I, et al84

MELD/MELD
score

APAP

MELD score >33

Schmidt LE,
Larsen FS85

BiLE score

MELD score >0.4

Mixed

Bilirubin level (mmol/L)/100 + lactate level (mmol/L)

+ etiology (+4 indeterminate etiology, Budd-Chiari
syndrome, or phenprocoumon toxicity; +2 APAP
toxicity; +0 all other etiologies)

Kremers WK, et al86

Hadem J, et al87

Score >6.9 predictive of death or need for liver

transplantation
APACHE II=Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II; APAP=acetaminophen; BiLE=Bilirubin-Lactate-Etiology; HBV=hepatitis B
virus; INR=international normalized ratio; MELD=Model for End-Stage Liver Disease; Mixed=mixed etiologies; NANB=non-A, non-B viral
hepatitis; PT=prothrombin time.
*Times of data collection vary among studies. See individual references.

(10 mEq/100 mL). The infusion should be started

at a rate of 30 mL per hour and titrated to maintain a serum phosphate goal level of 34.5 mg/dL.

Other electrolyte concentrations (phosphate, magnesium, and bicarbonate) should be kept within
the normal range.

170 Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012

A c u t e Liv e r F ai l u r e in A d u lt s

Suggested Daily Monitoring

In addition to routine daily laboratory testing, the following assessments are recommended for close monitoring of patients with ALF: arterial blood gas (daily),
lactate testing (twice daily), TEG (daily), and electrolyte
testing (24 times daily; goal serum sodium level is
145155 mmol/L, as described above).
Although the recommendation for daily monitoring
via TEG is not evidence-based, per se, it is supported by
recent data.47 Also, in our experience, performing TEG
daily may help to avoid unnecessary blood product transfusions and associated intravascular volume overload.
Prognosis and Criteria for Liver
Transplantation
One of the most important, yet difficult, aspects of care
for patients with ALF is determination of the need for
urgent liver transplantation. We recommend early and
rapid evaluation for transplantation candidacy, but the
final decision regarding whether to list a patient with
a Status 1A priority should be made based on input
from multiple members of the liver transplantation
care team (hepatologists, surgeons, social workers,
and, in some cases, psychiatrists). Current United Network for Organ Sharing criteria for Status 1A listing
include: (1) age 18 years or greater, (2) life expectancy
without liver transplantation of less than 7 days,
(3) onset of HE within 8 weeks of the first symptoms
of liver disease, (4) absence of preexisting liver disease,
(5) residence in an ICU, and (6) at least 1 of the following criteria: ventilator dependence, requirement for
renal replacement therapy, or INR above 2.0. Patients
with decompensated Wilson disease may also be listed
for Status 1A because of their universally poor prognosis for spontaneous recovery.
Kings College criteria should be used to aid in the
assessment of prognosis (Table 5). These criteria have a
positive predictive value of approximately 90% and a
negative predictive value of 5060%, meaning that they
are better able to predict patients with a poor prognosis
than those with a good prognosis. Other criteria for estimation of prognosis are also shown in Table 5.
Conclusions
Management of patients with ALF, even in busy transplantation centers, is complex and challenging. An
evidence-based protocol may therefore assist in delivery
of optimal care to this patient population. This protocol
has been reviewed by the entire transplantation team
at the University of CaliforniaSan Diegos Center for
Hepatobiliary Disease and Abdominal Transplantation,

and it serves as a reference for all members of the care

team involved in care of individuals with ALF. This
protocol will be periodically reviewed and updated as
new data are published and/or as experience with this
protocol brings to light areas that may be improved.
References
1. Devictor D, Tissieres P, Afanetti M, Debray D. Acute liver failure in children.
Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol. 2011;35:430-437.
2. Squires RH Jr. Acute liver failure in children. Semin Liver Dis.
2008;28:153-166.
3. Trey C, Davidson CS. The management of fulminant hepatic failure. Prog Liver
Dis. 1970;3:282-298.
4. Polson J, Lee WM. AASLD position paper: the management of acute liver
failure. Hepatology. 2005;41:1179-1197.
5. Hoofnagle JH, Carithers RL Jr, Shapiro C, Ascher N. Fulminant hepatic failure:
summary of a workshop. Hepatology. 1995;21:240-252.
6. Ostapowicz G, Fontana RJ, Schiodt FV, et al. Results of a prospective study of
acute liver failure at 17 tertiary care centers in the United States. Ann Intern Med.
2002;137:947-954.
7. OGrady JG, Schalm SW, Williams R. Acute liver failure: redefining the syndromes. Lancet. 1993;342:273-275.
8. OGrady JG, Williams R. Classification of acute liver failure. Lancet.
1993;342:743.
9. Lee WM. Acute liver failure in the United States. Semin Liver Dis. 2003;23:
217-226.
10. Bernal W, Hall C, Karvellas CJ, Auzinger G, Sizer E, Wendon J. Arterial
ammonia and clinical risk factors for encephalopathy and intracranial hypertension in acute liver failure. Hepatology. 2007;46:1844-1852.
11. Blei AT, Cordoba J. Hepatic encephalopathy. Am J Gastroenterol.
2001;96:1968-1976.
12. Ferenci P, Lockwood A, Mullen K, Tarter R, Weissenborn K, Blei AT. Hepatic
encephalopathydefinition, nomenclature, diagnosis, and quantification: final
report of the working party at the 11th World Congresses of Gastroenterology,
Vienna, 1998. Hepatology. 2002;35:716-721.
13. Ware AJ, DAgostino AN, Combes B. Cerebral edema: a major complication
of massive hepatic necrosis. Gastroenterology. 1971;61:877-884.
14. Herrine S, Northrup B, Bell R. The effect of head elevation on cerebral perfusion pressure in fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology. 1995;22:289A.
15. Mavrocordatos P, Bissonnette B, Ravussin P. Effects of neck position and head
elevation on intracranial pressure in anaesthetized neurosurgical patients: preliminary results. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2000;12:10-14.
16. Munoz SJ, Robinson M, Northrup B, et al. Elevated intracranial pressure and
computed tomography of the brain in fulminant hepatocellular failure. Hepatology. 1991;13:209-212.
17. Lidofsky SD, Bass NM, Prager MC, et al. Intracranial pressure monitoring
and liver transplantation for fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology. 1992;16:1-7.
18. Blei AT, Olafsson S, Webster S, Levy R. Complications of intracranial pressure
monitoring in fulminant hepatic failure. Lancet. 1993;341:157-158.
19. Jalan R, Olde Damink SW, Deutz NE, Hayes PC, Lee A. Moderate hypothermia in patients with acute liver failure and uncontrolled intracranial hypertension.
Gastroenterology. 2011;127:1338-1346.
20. Dmello D, Cruz-Flores S, Matuschak GM. Moderate hypothermia
with intracranial pressure monitoring as a therapeutic paradigm for the
management of acute liver failure: a systematic review. Intensive Care Med.
2010;36:210-213.
21. Jalan R, Olde Damink SW, Deutz NE, et al. Moderate hypothermia
prevents cerebral hyperemia and increase in intracranial pressure in patients
undergoing liver transplantation for acute liver failure. Transplantation.
2003;75:2034-2039.
22. Jalan R, Damink SW, Deutz NE, Lee A, Hayes PC. Moderate hypothermia for uncontrolled intracranial hypertension in acute liver failure. Lancet.
1999;354:1164-1168.
23. Martini WZ. Coagulopathy by hypothermia and acidosis: mechanisms of
thrombin generation and fibrinogen availability. J Trauma. 2009;67:202-208.
24. Heinius G, Hahn RG, Sonden A. Hypothermia increases rebleeding during
uncontrolled hemorrhage in the rat. Shock. 2011;36:60-66.

Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012 171

PAT T O N e t a l

25. Harutjunyan L, Holz C, Rieger A, Menzel M, Grond S, Soukup J. Efficiency

of 7.2% hypertonic saline hydroxyethyl starch 200/0.5 versus mannitol 15%
in the treatment of increased intracranial pressure in neurosurgical patientsa
randomized clinical trial [ISRCTN62699180]. Crit Care. 2005;9:R530-R540.
26. Battison C, Andrews PJ, Graham C, Petty T. Randomized, controlled
trial on the effect of a 20% mannitol solution and a 7.5% saline/6% dextran
solution on increased intracranial pressure after brain injury. Crit Care Med.
2005;33:196-202.
27. Munar F, Ferrer AM, de Nadal M, et al. Cerebral hemodynamic effects of
7.2% hypertonic saline in patients with head injury and raised intracranial pressure. J Neurotrauma. 2000;17:41-51.
28. Horn P, Munch E, Vajkoczy P, et al. Hypertonic saline solution for control of
elevated intracranial pressure in patients with exhausted response to mannitol and
barbiturates. Neurol Res. 1999;21:758-764.
29. Murphy N, Auzinger G, Bernel W, Wendon J. The effect of hypertonic
sodium chloride on intracranial pressure in patients with acute liver failure. Hepatology. 2004;39:464-470.
30. Rhoney DH, Parker D. Use of sedative and analgesic agents in neurotrauma
patients: effects on cerebral physiology. Neurol Res. 2001;23:237-259.
31. Citerio G, Cormio M. Sedation in neurointensive care: advances in understanding and practice. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2003;9:120-126.
32. Wijdicks EF, Nyberg SL. Propofol to control intracranial pressure in fulminant hepatic failure. Transplant Proc. 2002;34:1220-1222.
33. Ellis AJ, Wendon JA, Williams R. Subclinical seizure activity and prophylactic
phenytoin infusion in acute liver failure: a controlled clinical trial. Hepatology.
2000;32:536-541.
34. Bhatia V, Batra Y, Acharya SK. Prophylactic phenytoin does not improve cerebral edema or survival in acute liver failurea controlled clinical trial. J Hepatol.
2004;41:89-96.
35. Bonnet F, Richard C, Glaser P, Lafay M, Guesde R. Changes in hepatic flow
induced by continuous positive pressure ventilation in critically ill patients. Crit
Care Med. 1982;10:703-705.
36. McGuire G, Crossley D, Richards J, Wong D. Effects of varying levels of
positive end-expiratory pressure on intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion
pressure. Crit Care Med. 1997;25:1059-1062.
37. Steiner LA, Johnston AJ, Czosnyka M, et al. Direct comparison of cerebrovascular effects of norepinephrine and dopamine in head-injured patients. Crit Care
Med. 2004;32:1049-1054.
38. Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, et al. Effect of treatment with low doses
of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock.
JAMA. 2002;288:862-871.
39. Harry R, Auzinger G, Wendon J. The effects of supraphysiological doses of
corticosteroids in hypotensive liver failure. Liver Int. 2003;23:71-77.
40. Holmes CL. Vasoactive drugs in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Crit Care.
2005;11:413-417.
41. De Backer D, Creteur J, Silva E, Vincent JL. Effects of dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine on the splanchnic circulation in septic shock: which is
best? Crit Care Med. 2003;31:1659-1667.
42. Rolando N, Philpott-Howard J, Williams R. Bacterial and fungal infection in
acute liver failure. Semin Liver Dis. 1996;16:389-402.
43. Rolando N, Gimson A, Wade J, Philpott-Howard J, Casewell M, Williams R.
Prospective controlled trial of selective parenteral and enteral antimicrobial regimen in fulminant liver failure. Hepatology. 1993;17:196-201.
44. Vaquero J, Polson J, Chung C, et al. Infection and the progression of hepatic
encephalopathy in acute liver failure. Gastroenterology. 2003;125:755-764.
45. Rolando N, Wade J, Davalos M, Wendon J, Philpott-Howard J, Williams R.
The systemic inflammatory response syndrome in acute liver failure. Hepatology.
2000;32:734-739.
46. Gazzard BG, Clark R, Borirakchanyavat V, Williams R. A controlled trial of
heparin therapy in the coagulation defect of paracetamol-induced hepatic necrosis.
Gut. 1974;15:89-93.
47. Stravitz RT, Lisman T, Luketic VA, et al. Minimal effects of acute liver injury/acute
liver failure on hemostasis as assessed by thromboelastography. J Hepatol. 2012;56:129-136.
48. Wang SC, Shieh JF, Chang KY, et al. Thromboelastography-guided transfusion decreases intraoperative blood transfusion during orthotopic liver transplantation: randomized clinical trial. Transplant Proc. 2010;42:2590-2593.
49. Gazzard BG, Henderson JM, Williams R. Factor VII levels as a guide to prognosis in fulminant hepatic failure. Gut. 1976;17:489-491.
50. Gazzard BG, Henderson JM, Williams R. Early changes in coagulation following a paracetamol overdose and a controlled trial of fresh frozen plasma therapy.
Gut. 1975;16:617-620.

51. Shami VM, Caldwell SH, Hespenheide EE, Arseneau KO, Bickston
SJ, Macik BG. Recombinant activated factor VII for coagulopathy in fulminant hepatic failure compared with conventional therapy. Liver Transpl.
2003;9:138-143.
52. Macdougall BR, Williams R. H2-receptor antagonist in the prevention of
acute upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage in fulminant hepatic failure: a controlled
trial. Gastroenterology. 1978;74:464-465.
53. Asfaha S, Almansori M, Qarni U, Gutfreund KS. Plasmapheresis for hemolytic crisis and impending acute liver failure in Wilson disease. J Clin Apher.
2007;22:295-298.
54. Chase RA, Davies M, Trewby PN, Silk DB, Williams R. Plasma amino acid
profiles in patients with fulminant hepatic failure treated by repeated polyacrylonitrile membrane hemodialysis. Gastroenterology. 1978;75:1033-1040.
55. Vanholder R. Pro/con debate: continuous versus intermittent dialysis for
acute kidney injury: a never-ending story yet approaching the finish? Crit Care.
2011;15:204.
56. Davenport A, Bramley PN. Cerebral function analyzing monitor and visual
evoked potentials as a noninvasive method of detecting cerebral dysfunction in
patients with acute hepatic and renal failure treated with intermittent machine
hemofiltration. Ren Fail. 1993;15:515-522.
57. Davenport A, Will EJ, Davison AM. Effect of renal replacement therapy
on patients with combined acute renal and fulminant hepatic failure. Kidney Int
Suppl. 1993;41:S245-S251.
58. Davenport A. Renal replacement therapy for patients with acute liver failure
awaiting orthotopic hepatic transplantation. Nephron. 1991;59:315-316.
59. Davenport A. Renal replacement therapy in the patient with acute brain
injury. Am J Kidney Dis. 2001;37:457-466.
60. Davenport A. Dialysate and substitution fluids for patients treated by continuous forms of renal replacement therapy. Contrib Nephrol. 2001;132:313-322.
61. Mehta RL. Continuous renal replacement therapy in the critically ill patient.
Kidney Int. 2005;67:781-795.
62. Ibdah JA, Bennett MJ, Rinaldo P, et al. A fetal fatty-acid oxidation disorder as
a cause of liver disease in pregnant women. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1723-1731.
63. Bernal W, Auzinger G, Dhawan A, Wendon J. Acute liver failure. Lancet.
2010;376:190-201.
64. Izumi S, Langley PG, Wendon J, et al. Coagulation factor V levels as a prognostic indicator in fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology. 1996;23:1507-1511.
65. Bernal W, Donaldson N, Wyncoll D, Wendon J. Blood lactate as an early
predictor of outcome in paracetamol-induced acute liver failure: a cohort study.
Lancet. 2002;359:558-563.
66. Smilkstein MJ, Douglas DR, Daya MR. Acetaminophen poisoning and liver
function. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1310-1311.
67. Smilkstein MJ, Knapp GL, Kulig KW, Rumack BH. Efficacy of oral N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of acetaminophen overdose. Analysis of the national
multicenter study (1976 to 1985). N Engl J Med. 1988;319:1557-1562.
68. Buckley NA, Whyte IM, OConnell DL, Dawson AH. Oral or intravenous N-acetylcysteine: which is the treatment of choice for acetaminophen
(paracetamol) poisoning? J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1999;37:759-767.
69. Keays R, Harrison PM, Wendon JA, et al. Intravenous acetylcysteine in
paracetamol induced fulminant hepatic failure: a prospective controlled trial. BMJ.
1991;303:1026-1029.
70. Broussard CN, Aggarwal A, Lacey SR, et al. Mushroom poisoningfrom
diarrhea to liver transplantation. Am J Gastroenterol. 2001;96:3195-3198.
71. Floersheim GL, Eberhard M, Tschumi P, Duckert F. Effects of penicillin and
silymarin on liver enzymes and blood clotting factors in dogs given a boiled preparation of Amanita phalloides. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1978;46:455-462.
72. Peters DJ, Greene WH, Ruggiero F, McGarrity TJ. Herpes simplexinduced fulminant hepatitis in adults: a call for empiric therapy. Dig Dis Sci.
2000;45:2399-2404.
73. Kessler WR, Cummings OW, Eckert G, Chalasani N, Lumeng L, Kwo PY.
Fulminant hepatic failure as the initial presentation of acute autoimmune hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2004;2:625-631.
74. Mabie WC. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Crit Care Clin. 1991;7:799-808.
75. Castro MA, Fassett MJ, Reynolds TB, Shaw KJ, Goodwin TM. Reversible
peripartum liver failure: a new perspective on the diagnosis, treatment, and cause
of acute fatty liver of pregnancy, based on 28 consecutive cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999;181:389-395.
76. OGrady JG, Alexander GJ, Hayllar KM, Williams R. Early indicators of
prognosis in fulminant hepatic failure. Gastroenterology. 1989;97:439-445.
77. Bernuau J, Goudeau A, Poynard T, et al. Multivariate analysis of prognostic
factors in fulminant hepatitis B. Hepatology. 1986;6:648-651.

(Continued on page 212)

172 Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012

PAT T O N e t a l

(Continued from page 172)

78. Bernuau J, Samuel D, Durand F, Saliba F, Bourlier M, Adam R. Criteria for
emergency liver transplantation in patients with acute viral hepatitis and factor V
below 50% of normal: a prospective study. Hepatology. 1991;14:49A.
79. Pereira LM, Langley PG, Hayllar KM, Tredger JM, Williams R. Coagulation
factor V and VIII/V ratio as predictors of outcome in paracetamol induced fulminant hepatic failure: relation to other prognostic indicators. Gut. 1992;33:98-102.
80. Donaldson BW, Gopinath R, Wanless IR, et al. The role of transjugular liver
biopsy in fulminant liver failure: relation to other prognostic indicators. Hepatology. 1993;18:1370-1376.
81. Takahashi Y, Kumada H, Shimizu M, et al. A multicenter study on the
prognosis of fulminant viral hepatitis: early prediction for liver transplantation.
Hepatology. 1994;19:1065-1071.
82. Schmidt LE, Dalhoff K. Serum phosphate is an early predictor of outcome
in severe acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity. Hepatology. 2002;36:659-665.

83. Clemmesen JO, Larsen FS, Kondrup J, Hansen BA, Ott P. Cerebral herniation in patients with acute liver failure is correlated with arterial ammonia concentration. Hepatology. 1999;29:648-653.
84. Mitchell I, Bihari D, Chang R, Wendon J, Williams R. Earlier identification
of patients at risk from acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure. Crit Care Med.
1998;26:279-284.
85. Schmidt LE, Larsen FS. MELD score as a predictor of liver failure and death
in patients with acetaminophen-induced liver injury. Hepatology. 2007;45:789-796.
86. Kremers WK, Van IJperen M, Kim WR, et al. MELD score as a predictor
of pretransplant and posttransplant survival in OPTN/UNOS status 1 patients.
Hepatology. 2004;39:764-769.
87. Hadem J, Stiefel P, Bahr MJ, et al. Prognostic implications of lactate, bilirubin, and etiology in German patients with acute liver failure. Clin Gastroenterol
Hepatol. 2008;6:339-345.

Now follow us on our

new Blog and Twitter feed!
Get the latest news and info from Gastroenterology & Hepatology
on our new blog and connect with us on Twitter.

Find us at @clinadvances or
www.clinicaladvances.wordpress.com
212 Gastroenterology & Hepatology Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2012