Sampling and Sample Size Determination

Sampling and Sample
Size Determination
Terms
Sample
Population
Population element
Census
Why use a sample?
Cost
Speed
Accuracy
Destruction of test units
Steps
Definition of target population

Selection of a sampling frame (list)
Probability or Nonprobability sampling
Sampling Unit
Error
Random sampling error (chance
fluctuations)
Nonsampling error (design errors)
Target Population
(step 1)
Who has the information/data you

need?
How do you define your target
population?
- Geography
- Demographics
- Use
- Awareness
Operational Definition
A definition that gives meaning to a

concept by specifying the activities
necessary to measure it.
- Eg. Student, employee, user, area, major
news paper.
What variables need further definition?
(Items per construct)
Sampling Frame
(step 2)
List of elements
Sampling Frame error

Error that occurs when certain sample
elements are not listed or available and
are not represented in the sampling
frame
Probability or
Nonprobability (step 3)
Probability Sample:
A sampling technique in which every
member of the population will have a
known, nonzero probability of being
selected
Non-Probability Sample:
Units of the sample are chosen on the
basis of personal judgment or
convenience
There are NO statistical techniques for
measuring random sampling error in a
non-probability sample. Therefore,
generalizability is never statistically
appropriate.
Classification of Sampling
Methods
Sampling
Methods
Probability
Samples
Systematic
Cluster
Nonprobability
Stratified
Simple
Random
Convenience
Judgment
Snowball
Quota
Probability Sampling
Methods
Simple Random Sampling

the purest form of probability sampling.
Assures each element in the population
has an equal chance of being included in
the sample
Random number generators
Sample Size
Probability of Selection = Population Size
Advantages
minimal knowledge of population needed
External validity high; internal validity
high; statistical estimation of error
Easy to analyze data
Disadvantages
High cost; low frequency of use
Requires sampling frame
Does not use researchers expertise
Larger risk of random error than stratified
Systematic Sampling
An initial starting point is selected by a
random process, and then every nth
number on the list is selected
n=sampling interval
The number of population elements
between the units selected for the
sample
Error: periodicity- the original list has a
systematic pattern
?? Is the list of elements randomized??
Advantages
Moderate cost; moderate usage
Simple to draw sample; easy to verify
Disadvantages
Periodic ordering
Stratified Sampling
Sub-samples are randomly drawn from
samples within different strata that are
more or less equal on some characteristic
Why?
Can reduce random error
More
accurately reflect the

population by more proportional
representation
Advantages
minimal knowledge of population needed
Easy to analyze data
Disadvantages
High cost; low frequency of use
Does not use researchers expertise
Larger risk of random error than stratified
Systematic Sampling
An initial starting point is selected by a
random process, and then every nth
number on the list is selected
n=sampling interval
The number of population elements
between the units selected for the
sample
Error: periodicity- the original list has a
systematic pattern
?? Is the list of elements randomized??
Advantages
Moderate cost; moderate usage
Simple to draw sample; easy to verify
Disadvantages
Periodic ordering
Stratified Sampling
Sub-samples are randomly drawn from
samples within different strata that are
more or less equal on some characteristic
Why?
Can reduce random error
More
accurately reflect the

population by more proportional
representation
How?
1.Identify variable(s) as an efficient
basis for stratification. Must be known
to be related to dependent variable.
Usually a categorical variable
2.Complete list of population elements
must be obtained
3.Use randomization to take a simple
random sample from each stratum
Types of Stratified Samples

Proportional Stratified Sample:
The number of sampling units drawn

from each stratum is in proportion to
the relative population size of that
stratum
Disproportional
Stratified Sample:
The number of sampling units drawn

from each stratum is allocated
according to analytical considerations
e.g. as variability increases sample
size of stratum should increase
Types of Stratified Samples

Optimal allocation stratified sample:
The number of sampling units drawn from
each stratum is determined on the basis of
both size and variation.
Calculated statistically
Advantages
Assures representation of all groups in
sample population needed
Characteristics of each stratum can be
estimated and comparisons made
Reduces variability from systematic
Disadvantages
Requires accurate information on
proportions of each stratum
Stratified lists costly to prepare
Cluster Sampling
The primary sampling unit is not the
individual element, but a large cluster of
elements. Either the cluster is randomly
selected or the elements within are
randomly selected
Why? Frequently used when no list of
population available or because of cost

Ask:
is the cluster as heterogeneous as

the population? Can we assume it is
representative?
Cluster Sampling example

You are asked to create a sample of all
Management students who are working in
Lethbridge during the summer term
There is no such list available
Using stratified sampling, compile a list of
businesses in Lethbridge to identify
clusters
Individual workers within these clusters
are selected to take part in study
Types of Cluster Samples

Area sample:
Primary sampling unit is a

geographical area
Multistage
area sample:
Involves a combination of two or more

types of probability sampling
techniques. Typically, progressively
smaller geographical areas are
randomly selected in a series of steps
Advantages
Low cost/high frequency of use

Requires list of all clusters, but only of
individuals within chosen clusters
Can estimate characteristics of both cluster and
population
For multistage, has strengths of used methods
Disadvantages
Larger error for comparable size than other

probability methods
Multistage very expensive and validity depends
on other methods used
Classification of Sampling
Methods
Sampling
Methods
Probability
Samples
Systematic
Cluster
Nonprobability
Stratified
Simple
Random
Convenience
Judgment
Snowball
Quota
Non-Probability Sampling
Methods
Convenience Sample
The sampling procedure used to obtain
those units or people most conveniently
available
Why: speed and cost
External validity?
Internal validity
Is it ever justified?
Advantages
Very low cost
Extensively used/understood
No need for list of population elements
Disadvantages
Variability and bias cannot be measured
or controlled
Projecting data beyond sample not
justified.
Judgment or Purposive Sample
The sampling procedure in which an

experienced research selects the sample
based on some appropriate characteristic
of sample members to serve a purpose
Advantages
Moderate cost
Commonly used/understood
Sample will meet a specific objective
Disadvantages
Bias!
justified.
Quota Sample
The sampling procedure that ensure that

a certain characteristic of a population
sample will be represented to the exact
extent that the investigator desires
Advantages
moderate cost
Very extensively used/understood
No need for list of population elements
Introduces some elements of
stratification
Disadvantages
Variability and bias cannot be measured
or controlled (classification of subjects0
justified.
Snowball sampling
The sampling procedure in which the

initial respondents are chosen by
probability or non-probability methods,
and then additional respondents are
obtained by information provided by the
initial respondents
Advantages
low cost
Useful in specific circumstances
Useful for locating rare populations
Disadvantages
Bias because sampling units not
independent
justified.
Determining Sample Size
What data do you need to consider

Variance or heterogeneity of population
The degree of acceptable error
(confidence interval)
Confidence level
Generally, we need to make judgments

on all these variables
Variance or heterogeneity of
population
Previous studies? Industry expectations?
Pilot study?
Sequential sampling
Rule of thumb: the value of standard
deviation is expected to be 1/6 of the
range.

Formulas:
Means
Proportions
Percentiles
n = (ZS/E) 2
n = Z2 pq/ E2
n = pc (100 pc) Z2/ E2
Z at 95% confidence = 1.96

Z at 99% confidence = 2.58
Sample Size (Mean)

Exercise 1
We are about to go on a recruitment drive to hire
some auditors at the entry level. We need to
decide on a competitive salary offer for these new
auditors. From talking to some HR professionals,
Ive made a rough estimate that most new hires are
getting starting salaries in the $38-42,000 range
and the average (mean) is around $39,000. The
standard deviation seems to be around $3000.
I want to be 95% confident about the average
salary and Im willing to tolerate an estimate that is
within $500 (plus or minus) of the true estimate. If
were off, we can always adjust salaries at the end
of the probation period.
What sample size should we use?
Sample Size (Proportion)

Exercise 2
Weve just started a new educational TV program
that teaches viewers all about research methods!!
We know from past educational TV programs that
such a program would likely capture 2 out of 10
viewers on a typical night.
Lets say we want to be 99% confident that our
obtained sample proportion of viewers will differ
from the true population proportions by not more
than 5%.
What sample size do we need?
Sample size (Percentage)

Exercise 3
We wish to determine the required sample
size with 95% confidence and 5% error
tolerance that the percentage of Canadians
preferring the federal Liberal party.
A recent poll showed that 40% of Canadians
questioned preferred the Liberals.
What is the required sample size?

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Sampling and Sample

Why use a sample?

Definition of target population

Who has the information/data you

A definition that gives meaning to a

Sampling Frame error

Simple Random Sampling

accurately reflect the

accurately reflect the

Types of Stratified Samples

The number of sampling units drawn

The number of sampling units drawn

Types of Stratified Samples

population available or because of cost

is the cluster as heterogeneous as

Cluster Sampling example

Types of Cluster Samples

Primary sampling unit is a

Involves a combination of two or more

Low cost/high frequency of use

Larger error for comparable size than other

Judgment or Purposive Sample

The sampling procedure in which an

The sampling procedure that ensure that

The sampling procedure in which the

Determining Sample Size

What data do you need to consider

Generally, we need to make judgments

Determining Sample Size

Determining Sample Size

Z at 95% confidence = 1.96

Sample Size (Mean)

Sample Size (Proportion)

Sample size (Percentage)

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