Brains in the Flesh:

Prospects for a Neurophenomenology

Bernard Andrieu
UHP Nancy University and ACCORPS/CNRS, Archives Poincar
Translated from French to English with the assistance of Charles Wolf and Brent Robbins

Te relations between the neurosciences and phenomenology enable us to-
daythanks to the works of M. Merleau-Ponty, G. Simondon, F. Varela, A.R.
Damasio and V.S. Ramachandranto dene the brain as a biosubjective organ:
its constitution, its functioning, and its interactions prove that a description of
individuation can t in a cognitive neurophenomenology. In this framework,
the mental state acquires a subjective autonomy even if it is an illusion in regard
to the determining conditions of brain functioning.
Relations between phenomenology and the neurosciences, which
appear to be impossible in principle, have now focused on the question
of the cognitive body. Tis notion refers to the presence, in that part of
organized matter termed the body, of intentional elements for organizing
the treatment of information. Perception and action both belong to and
work on this cognitive body. Now, the development of these two disciplines,
phenomenology and the neurosciences, may have been independent and
even antagonistic, but the description of the bounds between body and brain
has now become an obligation for philosophy. In what she called neuro-
philosophy, Patricia Churchland (P.S. Churchland 1986) had proposed an
eliminativist solution: the neurosciences would be sucient to explain the
constitution of the body by means of the natural basis of the brain, without
any reference to phenomenology.
I critiqued this type of reductionist reasoning because another de-
scription of the construction of the body is possible: the interaction of the
body with its environment begins in the formation of the nervous system
by the dierent levels of plasticity (Andrieu, 1998). Neural plasticity is the
experimental proof that determinism is not strict in the development of the
body. Phenomenology performs the distinction between the lived body and
the subjective body and at the same time enables a new description thereof,
including biology and neurobiology.
Janus Head, 9(1), 135-155. Copyright 2006 by Trivium Publications, Amherst, NY
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
136 Janus Head
Te publication of the notes of Merleau-Pontys last lectures at the
Collge de France between 1956-1960 (F. Evans, S. Lawlor eds., 2000)
provides a new basis on which to launch a phenomenological approach to
the relations between the body, the brain and the world. Te 1957-58 lecture
on the concept of Nature examines the trends of modern biology. Coming
back to this analysis of behaviour, Merleau-Ponty uses the book by G.E.
Coghill, Anatomy and the problem of behavior in 1929, to set the principles
of dynamic anatomy against strict behaviorism.
Strict determinism would have summed up nervous conduction to a
univocal information. But after examination of the work on embryology,
which belongs to the model of neurobiology of development (M. Reuter,
1999, 73), Merleau-Ponty writes:
Te nervous system emerges from a preneural dynamic. Tus when
the nervous excitation occurs, it cant play an important role in the
organization of the nervous system. Tis organization is not so much
due to the functioning of the neuron as to the growth of the total or-
ganism. Te preneural system of integration strides across the nervous
functioning and it doesnt stop when it appears. So the nervous system
cant be the ultimate explanation. Ten we must admit an intrinsic
potentiality of growth, a dynamic system reacting to its surroundings
as an organism would do. It replaces the function of conduction as
being a consequence, not a principle of the system. (Merleau-Ponty,
1995, 192).
Merleau-Ponty emphasizes the reciprocal character of the notion of
body and the notion of behaviour whereas A.R. Damasio (1999) sets it
between the body and the brain.
In his last lecture, Nature and Logos: Te human body (1960),
Merleau-Ponty says the human body is the place where Nature emerges into
ontological layers. Te body is subject of movement and subject of percep-
tion. Tis theory of the esh formulates a coiling up of the body-object on
itself, thanks to which it is touching/touched, visible/invisible. Tus the
organism is not simply its psychochemical reality, because the esh of the
body could be understood from the modes of constitution of the human
body (A.F. Ashbaugt, 1978). Te neurophenomenology (F. Varela, 1996)
is a new perspective in the philosophy of embodied mind ( F. Varela, E.
Tompson, E. Rosch, 1991).


Bernard Andrieu 137
Te publication of Notes de cours conrms how much Merleau-Ponty
remained haunted by the link between biology and phenomenology (D.
Borrett, S. Kelly, H. Kwan, 2000). His translation of and comment upon
the Beilage XXII of the Krisis is the opportunity to nd in Husserl the in-
carnation of consciousness from biology.
What I propose to call the esh (A. Ainley, 1997) of the brain denes
the historic construction of the nervous system through the interaction of
the body with the world and the progressive embodiment of these incor-
porations. To think the body which enables me to think the body. Vicious
circle or badly put question? If we keep on distinguishing what enables us
to think the body from the thought object, then we wont be able to think
the body thinking. For we must admit as mans existential presupposition
that without the body, there is no thinking; we must come back to the de-
scription of the internal relationships of the body with its thought in order
to found dynamic materialism, but neurophilosophy (P.S. Churchland,
1986) has popularized a strictly reductionist version (Andrieu B., 1998).
I argue that we should instead have a philosophy of neuroscience (Gold,
I. & Stoljar, D. 1999, 827) because there is an epistemological distinction
between philosophy and neuroscience.
Te role of interaction
Te human body must be rst understood as in interaction with its
environment because it is itself the receptive matter both informed and
informing. Te human body is not a monad but has a temporal character
in phenomenology (Sara Heinmaa, 1999, 58). If isolated from the world,
it is unable to build itself up, for nature has only endowed it with poten-
tialities that have to meet the circumstances of an environment to become
actual. As an interface, the body doesnt remain passive: it doesnt obey the
orders of the nervous system in a servile manner, neither is it an objective
reection of the world. Failing to be this recording chamber, according to
the mechanical metaphor, the human body is the way in and out, through
which the inside communicates with the outside (and vice-versa). Tis cross-
ing is subjectifying in the sense that the matter of the body is the result of
this building up interaction. By subjectifying I mean the movement which
singularizes each human body by successive incorporations. Subjectivity is a
result, in continuous movement, of adaptation and regulation. Te human
body is subjectivized as soon as its conception by the mother and childs
interactions. Nothing completely objective can be known, thus making the
138 Janus Head
knowledge of the world relative to each human body. Each ones relativity
doesnt preclude scientists from approximately establishing a temporary
truth on the human body.
Tis knowledge remains approximate because of the very constitution
of the body: the sensation is felt through the nervous structure in the body so
that two human bodies can never feel the same intensity for the same object.
Psychometrics, modernized by electrophysiology, quanties the quality of
the experiences of what has been lived by the body: this method establishes
an objective knowledge by measuring the times of reaction, the thresholds
of perception. But the visualization of electric exchanges will never tell
anything about the way the body feels them in itself. If neurosciences have
a good knowledge of the bodys functioning, they describe the biological
side as being felt psychophysiologically or even exclusively psychologically
by the body itself.
Te distinction between levels of description does not lead to a new
dualism since one could not exist without the other. Should the body owe
its activities to the strict application of neuronal networks, nevertheless,
the contents of the thought make the subject believe in a natural illusion
of independence from the matter of his body. Our point is not to deny
the determining character of matter in body functioning but to refuse the
reduction of the organ to the function.
By the esthesiology of the body proper, two human bodies can never
feel the same intensity for the same object. Tis impossible intersubjectivity
holds the bodies (C. Lefort, 1991) out of themselves and each body in itself,
making it dicult to express linguistically what has been lived esthesiologi-
cally. Te lack of objectivity is constituent of any human bodys relations
with the world. At least any human body can be described from outside as
an objective structure but the neurobiology of development must describe
a process of subjective individuation rather than draw out a universal type
of incorporation.
Te notion of plasticity explains this adaptability of the human body
to its environment, each body being a single body. So the body appropriates
the information of its senses and the brain processes it. Te brain is not the
center of cognition but the necessary way to it. Does the physico-chemical
transformation of nervous information presuppose a reduction of quality?
Te conversion of what is felt into nervous material is nonstop: the sum of
the visual neurons produces the picture I see, the tips of my nger are nothing
but the polished surface of the sensitive nerves. Te human esh (D. Lever,


Bernard Andrieu 139
1990) works at transforming and giving a denite shape to the physico-
chemical matter of information. Te esh is proposed as a category, which,
standing between soul and body, grounds the possibility of their relation (J.
Mensch, 1994). But for the description of the esh, we must go beyond the
oppressive nature of binary terms, body and mind (D. Enns, 1995).
Which individuation?
Te physical and scientic dividuation is the opposite of what G.
Simondon called the psychic individuation. In describing ontogenesis, his
aim is to explain the individual through individuation. Tus individua-
tion is not an antecedent stage preceding the appearance of the individual
being. Psychic individuation could be understood as a means of ghting
against the physical dividuation of the human body. For, by oering the
shapes, modes and degrees of individuation to replace the individual into
the being, G. Simondon wants to renew the scattering of the being caused
by the development of human sciences. Tey multiply psychism but do
not manage to dene the movement through which the individual comes
out as a somato-psychic totality. Faced with the physical dividuation of
the human body, psychic individuation would take into account, from a
subjective point of view, the individuals capacity to perceive, know and feel
the worlds totality.
So, coming back to the Bergsonian opposition of time and space, Si-
mondon calls the physical individual what we have discovered as physical
dividuation. By losing all dynamic balance, his individuality analyses and
intervenes on physical elements but the individual cant produce a sucient
activity to stop the reduction of psychic totality to his physical parts.
Psychic individuation, relevant to understand the genesis of the indi-
vidual, cant resist physical dividuation. Simondons scientic model, used
through notions of potential, information, metastability and trans-
ductivity still depends on a biological presupposition whose metaphorical
limit was revealed by Jacob (1970). On the contrary, we think that if the
individual has problems today with his identity and his unity, the reason is
to be found in the change of an informative paradigm to a predictive and
programmatic paradigm.
140 Janus Head
Negative induction or pathological reasoning
Te study of dysfunctionings and other anomalies (P.J. Harisson, 1991)
is very helpful in understanding the etiologic modes of the body. For interac-
tive individuation depends on the quality of the successive incorporations:
if the reception of incorporations is impaired, the body itself is modied.
What is lacking for normal functioning is a guide for the description of the
constitutions of the body.
Pathological reasoning shows the cause/eect relation between this mat-
ter and these mental shapes. If destroyed or damaged, the physico-chemical
matter of our sensitivity cant provide the matter for thinking: or rather, there
is a proportional ratio between the quality of sensations and the qualities of
mental activities. Te body provides the matter for thinking even if the way
the thought pictures its mental states is perceived by it as independent.
Tis illusion of independence is well within the normal functioning of
the thinking body but this partial autonomy of thought doesnt prevent it
from having the illusion of its independence. While writing these words, I
dont feel the direct determination of matter. Are we to conclude, as reduc-
tionists have it, that the content of the thought would be the strict application
of the state of this matter? Is it because we dont know how the brain really
works that we keep the hypothesis of an independence of the thought or
does the thought as result of the brain always produce for itself the illusion
of this independence? I shall defend the second thesis, because the brain
produces thought as extra activity whose causes are complex because of the
number of networks involved.
Nobody can deny there is an element of determinism here: the slightest
illness conrms by a kind of negative induction the mutual implication of
the body and the mind states; the experience of pleasure or pain proves how
much the content of my thought can be invaded, even obsessed by the state
of my body: thus the erotic image would be caused by hormonal excita-
tion, as some biologies of the passions claim (e.g. J.-D. Vincent, 1986);
by caused we must understand that subjective imagination is oered with
this felt sensation the opportunity to be fanciful.
In the same way, the intensity of pain can be such that it forbids any
autonomy of thought as if the body dominated and imposed its whole ma-
terial content on thought. Extreme pain or pleasure are moments when the
continuity from body to mind is preserved almost in spite of us. Yet when
we go beyond subjective control, it shows the permanent character of this


Bernard Andrieu 141
continuity which we dont feel in normal life. However the unawareness
of the life of the body doesnt put us out of the body.
Tus, imagination leans on biological conditions through humours.
Te state of the body acts upon the representation and the aects by hor-
monal intensity. But the content of these dimensions of imagination isnt set
in hormones, contrary to what reductionists who favour brain medicine
put forward.
Te distinction of dierent levels of explanation acknowledges
against dualism the necessary complementarity between the brain and the
unconscious, but it poses the problem of the continuity between the two
of them. We cant recognize the determining role of biological processes
without analyzing the nature and the limit of this determination. Refusing
strict determinism because of the dierence of level or organization
of matter, our philosophy of the thinking body cant expect science to
exhaustively describe the functioning of mental states, on the one hand
because of the disposition of organic networks, on the other hand because
of the lack of an explanation for the change of quantity into quality. We
must admit that the complex organization of matter products a superior
level of reality, like in an emergence theory. Tis superiority, due to the
results of network activity, seems independent if the mind observes this
activity from itself whereas the superiority is just autonomous.
Mental autonomy
Tis feeling, favoured by the experience of thought, of being out of
the bod,y is actually a mental autonomy allowed by the functional coher-
ence of the body. Te body keeps on nding in the contents of thought
the modes of its representation of the world. It is not thought that thinks
itself, or considers itself independent from the body. Mental states produce
the natural illusion in Kants sense, of an independence of the mind from
the body. By natural we mean that the mind is not conscious of it, and that
the body is the cause of it.
However this continuity of oneself in one self doesnt show a homoge-
neity in levels. Organic dysfunctioning proves that thinking requires certain
neurobiological conditions to become conscious of the dierent levels. For a
long time, the criterion of the consciousness of oneself was considered as a
limit beyond which there would be no thought: thinking should be reserved
to the consciousness of the contents of ones thought (C. Smith, 2001).
142 Janus Head
But, without going so far as hemispheric division whose purpose is to
eliminate the concept of consciousness (the works on the split brain have as
their therapeutic aim to prevent the spreading of epilepsy from one hemi-
sphere to the other, and they gave the opportunity to neurophilosophers
(G.S. Stent, S.F. Spicker, 1990) to deny the mental unity of consciousness)
we must consider thinking less as a threshold in the cerebral organization
than as the very activity of the body.
Te notion of threshold, on this view, serves to retain of neurobiologi-
cal activity nothing but conscious intensity. But the body thinks conscious
and unconscious contents from implicit or explicit perceptions. Te crite-
rion of the threshold holds dualism where the corporeal matter organizes
dierent levels. Te reex should be understood as the natural unthought
of the body itself. From reex to mental representation, the distinction
traditionally made between the voluntary and the involuntary is a criterion
of the denition of the thought: what would be human would be set in
the voluntary activity of the mind, thus oering freedom and choice. Does
acknowledging a determinism of the reex prevent one from admitting the
existence of an unconscious thought of the body? Isnt the reex a content
of thought that we dont think, a corporeal knowledge unthought out and
yet determining?
Te reex is a material content unthought whereas reection is a mate-
rial content wholly thought. Te determinism of the one is necessary to the
freedom of the other. Yet it is the same body even if the levels of organization
of matter allow the presence or the absence of free activity of the thought.
How can one and the same matter (but is it the same matter?) produce
within itself an unthought content and pure thought? We must admit that
human matter has dierent degrees of complexity according to which mental
activity is more or less freed from strict natural determinism. Except probably
for the reex level, for which the body is subjected to natural determinism,
all the other degrees of the organization of matter depend in their constitu-
tion on an interaction between nature and culture.
Tinking matter
Te opposition between the innate and the acquired is renewed by
cellular and molecular embryology which species the conditions of the
programmed development and the limited possibilities of plasticity. Te


Bernard Andrieu 143
matter of which the human body is made becomes the human body as
successive incorporations take place (A.R. Damasio, 1994). Tis historical
dimension of any human body is a psychosocial propping up: any learning
requires a material support to be selected by living matter and thus be used
as the informative basis for mental activity.
Tis mental activity is autonomous for it is allowed by every human
body according to the development of its history: the thought goes through
the folds and layers of the subjective esthesiology and of the biopsychologi-
cal memory. Te subjective esthesiology depends on the perception of the
world, the latter being introduced into the body by the senses. Objective
knowledge doesnt exist as every human body must create for itself proto-
types built empirically.
Every thought is a coming back of the self to the self which results
from the central nervous system going through the body: yet if it is true
that every thought is an eect of the thinking body, its contents are not the
exact reproduction of the neuronal networks but their subjective produc-
tion. By subjective production we mean the eect of neuronal networks
inside the human body, historically built and with a material organization
providing a specic mental activity: incorporation cant be but subjective.
Its materialization cant be set in the brain. Cognitive activity is based on
maps, networks, neurofunctional areas rather than on single elements.
Te gregarious necessity of neuronal collections ensures the communication
necessary to the autonomous activity of the thought. When we think, we
are not aware of the neuronal networks which however are at work.
Tis unawareness of our brain gives thought an imaginary indepen-
dence as long as no damages limit or inuence this activity. Mental states
must be understood as forms crystallized at some time, chosen or not by the
thinking body. Te mental picture may as well come from mnesic recompo-
sition as from imaginary composition. It gives the thought its matter with
representations of words or things. Yet no materiality could be grasped since
the mental image is an immaterial form produced by matter, which seems
paradoxical in a materialistic position. How could some matter produce
something immaterial? Should the whole thing be dierent and superior
to the sum of the parts?
Maintaining a non-reductionist materialistic position presupposes that
one allows for the creation of forms by matterthis position can be described
as a dynamic materialism. Morphogenesis nds its reason and its dynamism
in the matter of the genes of development. In the same way, couldnt we
144 Janus Head
describe mental states as an endogenesis of the matter of the thinking body?
Trough its networks, the brain produces the form of thought whose content
is found in the connection and the conjunction of materials constituting
the thinking body. Te endogenesis of mental states is to a certain extent
(the problem comes from this proportion) similar to the morphogenesis
described by embryology. Te building of neuronal networks is submitted
to equal biological constraints and the propping up structures of mental
states. In order not to reduce the thought to the body, we must admit the
body is materially able to produce not only organic forms (body states) and
programmatic forms (children) but also ideal forms.
Tis endogenesis of ideal forms, as worked out by Gilbert Simondon,
presupposes their crystallization into a mental state for the thinking body
to be able to think them. Tis crystallization is the product, that we call
reection, of the real dynamics of matter. We must distinguish the subjective
representation of the matter of the thinking body from the objective descrip-
tion of it. Not because the subjective representation would be erroneous or
would not be able to know anything of the formal reality it has produced.
Not because the objective reality of the idea of the thinking body would be,
as far as quality is concerned, imperfect compared to the formal reality of its
cause: the thinking body itself. But the mental state is a synthetic form of the
material dynamics of the thinking body. Without this causality, it couldnt
exist, but conversely, without the mental state, the body couldnt be thought.
Tis functional complementarity doesnt introduce a qualitative leap of the
body to its thought. Te mental state makes the body think whereas the
living matter provides by the means of the body the thinking matter.
Mental autonomy is part of the logic of the living because the material
conditions of the living produce the conditions of mental representations.
Te liberation of the cortex-brain and its specic hypertrophy allows the
production of mental states.
Te illusion of mental localization
Te reason why not all neuroscientists will manage to localize the
change of the quantitative into the qualitative is that the neurofunctional
level of the mental state explains this change in its conditions but never in
its contents, except in the case of lesions. Te changing of a level of organi-
zation to another, whose quality seems heterogeneous in the previous level,
can be measured at the time of the visualization of neuronal networks, of
the intersynaptic communication of neurotransmitters (G. Edelman, 1987).


Bernard Andrieu 145
But this measurement nds a cause-eect relation between the organization
of living matter and what would be its eective result. Actually, a direct cau-
sality produces a mental state as its dysfunctioning disqualies the thought
of the body. But the thought cant be directly localized as it comes from a
dynamic process.
Te reductionist illusion consists in xing this process in several stages
or levels of material organization. Yet it is true that a certain level of orga-
nization of the matter is needed, below which the production of conscious
thought is impossible. Tus nature, in its dynamic evolution, has not pro-
duced the same degree of organization. Te distinction of nature between
animal and man is superseded; it is now time we acknowledged a dierence
of degree in the organization of the matter. Anthropologists endeavoured
to emphasize the role of the human body in the singularity of its mental
activity. Without the release of the hand by bipedy and the growth of the
brain volume, the interaction of the human body with surroundings wouldnt
have been able to create a sociocultural environment where education
and speech ensured the classic transmission. Te plasticity of ontogenesis
made the socialization of the human body possible because cultural factors
further collective integration and personal identication. Animals cant be
compared to us except if we establish a functional hierarchy. Teir bodies
manage to dene a very limited part of freedom even if the interaction with
the environment, provided in their degree of plasticity by Nature, ensures
a dynamic dimension.
Te specic dierence of the human body is to become a thinking
body: thinking doesnt lie in a localizable part of the body because the body
organizes itself, thinks itself in producing its level of mentalization that we
separate in an abstract way by instituting it as thought. Te humanization
of the body requires a continuous interactive elaboration between environ-
ment and body.
Brain plasticity and body construction

From its conception onwards, the human body is a person thanks to
the inuences it receives from its environment. By isolating consciousness
from body sensitivity, some would like to determine the movement of
birth of human identity. Yet, even during the forming in utero, the ftus
(Lecanuet J.P., Fifer W.P., Krasnegor N.A., eds., 1995) feels and reacts to the
food and aects his mother receives (P. Rochat, 2001). When we count the
146 Janus Head
age of a child from his birth, we forget stages already incorporated during
intra-uterine life. Te human body should be understood as soon as the
germinal movement of its matter.
Te nervous system, as the base of sensitivity, ceases its activity only
with cerebral death. Te continuity, from the conception of the body to
the destruction of its somato-psychic unity, renews the denition of per-
sonal history. Being born incomplete and indeterminate, the human body
has to incorporate the information coming from its environment. Tis
incorporation consists in a progressive determination throughout learning.
Genetic inheritance denes the structures and modes of the human body
functions.
But the opposition between innate and acquired becomes meaningless
when no potentiality becomes necessarily actual. Te human body nds a
form between personal identity and social existence. Plasticity of the brain
structures makes it possible: it would be wrong to think eyes see immediately
and naturally since David Hubel (1988) and his experiments with Torse
Wiesel prove that it is the interaction of light with visual neurons which
makes us see the world. Otherwise, the human body loses the capacity of
sight it has potentially in itself.
Nothing is naturally acquired. Human nature has to experience the
world in order to qualify (AQ). Te neurobiology of development, a new
version of the man without qualities, gives to the human subject the free-
dom of building itself up. But this construction turns out to be denitive:
the initial plasticity loses its suppleness with the myelenisation of nervous
bers (Spemann H., 1938) which preserves the information of successive
incorporations.
Language learning is a good example of this preserving specialization.
From intra-uterine life (Ph. Evrard, A. Minkowski, 1989), the human body
hears sounds to which it reacts by movements at birth; its relatives speak
to it in a language whose sound quality becomes more and more specic
to the ear. Ten language mastery (B. de Boysson-Bardies, S. de Schonen,
P. Jusczyk, P. MacNeilage & J. Morton, eds., 1993) is reached with the in-
denite repetition of the babble in which syllables are associated together.
Language, as conventional support between the signifying and the signied,
will be recognized at the end of this specialization. Each child must lose
an incredible linguistic potential when he becomes a French or an English
speaker. As he doesnt remain a polyglot, the human body cant express itself
without the language it kept on incorporating during the early years (J.
Mehler, Bertoncini J., Barrire M. & Jassik-Gershenfeld D., 1978).


Bernard Andrieu 147
It would be futile to limit the forming of the human body only to
the biological progress from childhood to adulthood. Troughout its life,
the human body keeps having dynamic interactions with its environment.
Te quantitative development of the brain does not last more than the rst
quarter of our biological life, yet the brain goes on receiving information
from its body. Tis information creates new connections between the dif-
ferent brain areas so that it increases the complexity of memory. Even if the
clinical descriptions of lesions fail to identify all the mnesic contents, P. Broca
taught us how much the state of the body determines the state of the brain
and conversely. Te brain incorporates what the body individualizes. Tis
double movement of incorporation of the world and of individualization of
the body can be understood only from a conception of living matter.
Incorporation and individuation

Any nervous lesion prevents the brain from using what it has incor-
porated. It causes a loss of identity as well as a functional imbalance. As a
disease weakens the body, the neurofunctional lesion prevents the subject
from exercising his cognitive autonomy. As long as the brain provides the
body with the means of its individuation, the authority called subject gets
the conditions of its exercise: then consciousness is freed thanks to the proper
functioning of the brain.
However, contrary to what those who support the notion of neuronal
man (J.-P. Changeux, 1983) think, the content of thought cant be com-
pletely determined by the matter of its brain. We may refuse to consider
the brain as the organ of thought, but we cant separate thought from its
neurophysiological conditions of activity. It would be a mistake to consider
brain and consciousness as opposites, like matter and thought, and fail to
see the embodied link which holds them together. Te distinction between
levels of functioning must not hide the representation and/or cause one to
believe in the scattering of the body.
Te human body has been scattered and reduced by the human sci-
ences which have studied it. Te body gives its brain sucient information
to enable it to embody its representations and feelings, and derives its role
as the main mediator as much from its phylogenesis as from its ontogenesis.
With its phylogenesis, the body can genetically use specializations transmit-
ted since the beginning of human mind. Te succession of species made our
body better and better adapted to its surroundings. In the absence of instinct,
148 Janus Head
technique had to provide the means of replacing natural surroundings by an
environment. Tis evolution has freed the body from servitudes in making
the cerebral organization complex enough to think this freeing. Nature has
produced a species likely to become completely cultural, including as genetics
and procreatics prove it in the production of its own body.
As far as ontogenesis is concerned, each human body is singular even if
the individual shares the same genetic inheritance with the other members of
the species. Te proteic synthesis of our genes is so peculiar that no individual
is identical. Helped by these singularities, each human body incorporates
every experience. So the esh of the human body could be dened as the
sum of all these experiences, forming many layers, networks and intertwin-
ings. Te brain, being incorporated, cant resist this subjective construction
of the matter: it takes the form of its body (N. Le Douarin, 1982).
But during its construction, the brain in turn determines the body (D.
Purves, 1988). Tis permanent retroaction provides a reciprocal limitation
to the brain and to the body. So the esh of the body chooses its modes of
constitution and its possibilities of incarnation. Incarnation is no longer the
appearance of the mind in the matter but the expression in the body and
by the body of its constituent layers. Either memory is stimulated by the
presence of something known, or creative imagination is activated by the
absence of something experienced. Our body, always present in the world
by its senses, conceals a great number of signs to be discovered. Out of its
prospect, this body is understood today as an indierent neutral matter. Yet
the human body becomes such only if it manages to incorporate its history.
We only know the outer world by means of our body.
Te role of the body
During its construction, the brain, following the model of interaction
rather than the internal model of emergence, denes its plasticity according
to the cultural forms which determine the body. Te brain has a singular
esh for each human body. Even if the natural elements are determined
by the genetic inheritance, the natural surroundings have to actualize and
direct the plastic potentialities of the brain in construction. Tis singular
development gives the human body the role of a determining, the transla-
tion of which will be eective in the neurobiological data. Ten the nervous
messages would not be prior to the esthesiologic activity of the body. Te
brain is not the condition of the body. It would mean mixing up cause and


Bernard Andrieu 149
eect. Tere is no neurobiological basis to corporeal consciousness since as
soon as intra-uterine life, it is the relation of the body with the world which
informs, directs and selects the nervous networks and circuits. If the human
being is born with an incomplete brain, it is precisely so that culture may be
the necessary element of its qualication. Te neurobiology of development
refuses to link the corporeal consciousness to the result of brain activity.
Te body is a mediator (R. Barbaras, 1999, 529-230) because it informs
the brain about sensitive data, because it conveys the communications of the
mind/brain, because it expresses a relational aectivity with its sociocultural
environment. Te physiological or psychoaective state of the body depends
of course on hormones, on the quantities of active neuronal networks, on
the quality of its genetic code. But the dierence between an animal body
and human body lies in the capacity of the latter to acquire learnings which
modify the consciousness of itself. Te link between the unconscious and
memory is founded in the brain which records and reorganizes the represen-
tations in as many neuronal associations. Of course the dream is the warden
of brain individuation but the historical involvement of a subject in the world
is more than the deterministic result of endocrine hormones.
So the human body is a place of conversion: it means that its form
retro-acts upon its matter. In the same way, its matter determines inde-
nitely its forming. So we must distinguish several subjective levels in order
to understand, if not objectively explain, the modes of relations with the
brain. Dualism as a real distinction of substances cant subsist for it admits
the relations only in intersection. A dierence of degree is necessary, where
each level corresponds to a level of representation for the human subject.
So the unconscious is the subjects intimate representation which can
be modied by the brain/mind with psychoanalysis or because of physi-
ological damages. Te human beings brain/mind enables him to represent
himself and develop representation by giving the thought a material support
during the subjects activity. Te esh (D. Enns, 1995) is a dimension of
aectivity where feelings and imagination feed the subjects experience in
the singularity of its geohistory. Te body proper is the image of the body,
resulting from the narcissistic representation of the subject such as he sees
himself or represents himself through others. Te objective body is this exte-
rior body, visible surface for others, organism objectied by the mechanisms
of techno-science (H.L. Dreyfus, 2000). Te world is not in front of the
subject because the subject is a being in the world.
150 Janus Head
Te consciousness of the brain
Te dualistic tradition has always supported the opposition between
mind and body: as the seat of thought, the mind had to maintain the com-
munication with the world to nd a meaning. Except for this allotted role,
the body was not important: even the passions of the soul found in animal
minds a mechanically determined matter. So the brain couldnt be under-
stood otherwise than as an organ of the body. Descartes, who discovered the
cogito, granted the brain the pineal gland in order to maintain the minimum
communication between body and mind. Te failure of subjective idealism is
due to the substantial isolation of the res cogitans. And Denis Kambouchner
(1995) shows that Descartes, in his 1649 treatise Te Passions of the Soul,
had to grant the body not only the determinism of animal but also modes
of series of objective and functional operations.
Tough medical description has found in biology its means of objec-
tifying the body, it would be ignorant to believe in functional monotypy.
Te biology of development takes the relational modes of the human body
so much into account that it considers interaction as a structuration mode
by incorporation. Tus, though not completely subjective, as Michel Henry
(1999) thinks, the human body biopsychologically builds its esh. Each body
is this historical esh, whose etiology has been embodied and shaped by the
interaction with environment. By its character yet to be determined rather
than undetermined, the human body contains all its history at the end of
life. If its matter is marked with traces, scars and symptoms, the exhaustion
of the esh is nevertheless translated into the modes of symbolic expression.
As Jean-Louis Chrtien (1990) shows, tiredness, as ontological condition of
embodied being, comes from the indenite gap between the human body
and its esh, a gap so wide it can never be lled.
Yet the fault of this mechanical model is the lack of mutual determina-
tion of mind and body. Te birth of biology at the beginning of the twen-
tieth century put natural surroundings in between: the surroundings have
become the environment in which the body has to develop. Rather than
dened as a creature, the human body must build itself in a double way: on
the one hand, it is a natural product nding in physical development the
means of acquiring a consciousness of itself, and on the other hand it is a
cultural result incorporating all the information from its environment and
thus increasing its degree of consciousness. Te human body cant remain
indierent to this double determination.


Bernard Andrieu 151
Consciousness cant be completely separated from the brain (D.C.
Dennett, 1991) because the human body builds cerebral connections in
establishing the sensitive qualities of information which will be coded by
the brain. Te brains organization in two hemispheres, presented by many
as a split brain, doesnt eliminate the unity of consciousness. Trough the
studies of lesions of the callous body linking up the two hemispheres, split
brain specialists have shown how much this cognitive lateralization owed to
neurofunctional specialization. Te wish to explain consciousness rather than
describe its activity derives its legitimacy from the progress of the neurosci-
ences. For this purpose, however, consciousness should have to be reduced
to its neurobiological conditions, since the slightest failure modies the
state of consciousness. And here is the main logical fault of this argument:
from the clinical acknowledgement of the link between lesion and state of
consciousness, one induces the necessary connection between brain and
matter, thus disqualifying consciousness. Memory would be a succession of
engrammes and programmes, perception would come to neuronal networks
of vision, imagination would have to create new networks, and desire would
nd its modes of regulation in the hormonal system.
To cope with this drifting, cognitive scientists have been tempted to
keep mental states of consciousness apart from neurobiological states of the
brain, which may be a temporary solution. For supporters of cognitivism,
mental states describe consciousness activities enough to be the specically
human level. Tis new humanism has however ignored the neurosciences,
renewing the phenomenological reection on consciousness. Neurophi-
losophers took advantage of this isolation to develop with hardly any real
opposition, a cerebral denition of consciousness. Te alternative between
cognitivists and neurophilosophers isnt based on a debate but on the mutual
exclusion of points of view. Ten how can we give the brain the material
principles of consciousness while acknowledging that the latter has its own
level of activity? Tis research, which can only be worked out in a dynamic
conception of matter, doesnt really aim at what is scientically correct but
at the description of the dierent levels of human embodiment.
Tough I grant that corporeal matter is the seat of the complex dif-
ferentiation of these levels, I feel that we must recognize that the brain has
a determining importance in the activity of consciousness. As all human
brains are the product of body/environment interaction (S. Todes, 2001),
consciousness then produced will be able to incarnate the incorporated neu-
ronal networks. But this incarnation, the successive layers of which amount
152 Janus Head
to its phenomenology, is an autonomous eld in which consciousness carries
on its subjective activity. Te objective determination of the incorporated
brain remains inuential through the quality of mental images according
to the variability of its neuronal networks.
Conclusion: Te interactionist thesis
Tis change from the brain of consciousness, which makes it relative,
to consciousness of the brain, which makes it believe in its subjective inde-
pendence, proves how much brain and consciousness are complementary.
As brain of consciousness, the incorporated brain provides information
and ways to become conscious. Ten this develops the consciousness of the
brain by determining the brain in order to achieve the cognitive command
of the thought:
Tought
autonomy of consciousness
Brain of Consciousness Consciousness of the Brain
Incorporated brain
Body in the world
Environment
Tis dialectical movement from the brain of consciousness to the con-
sciousness of the brain doesnt prevent consciousness from operating its own
reection: the process of thought. Tought is dierent from the conscious-
ness of the brain due to its functional autonomy: the mental state is able to
have a singular activity whereas the consciousness of the brain orders the
brain to fulll the orders of the will. With the consciousness of the brain, the
human body reexively thinks itself, thereby forgetting the relative autonomy
of the thinking consciousness from the brain of consciousness.
Tought turns real autonomy into a subjective independence, producing
mental states such as dreaming, imagination, ideation, representation and
intentionality. From the subjects point of view, his thought is free because
he can no longer see the determinism of the brain of consciousness. His
power on the body, through the means of the consciousness of the brain,
holds him in the illusion of his spiritual power on the matter. But from the


Bernard Andrieu 153
point of view of this matter, the modication of its states can always limit
the exercise of this freedom.
Human thought is produced by human bodies, but thought believes
in its freedom because of the natural illusion of forgetting its relative
autonomy. Yet this illusion has a real power over the body. Reducing
thought and brain, neurophilosophy has chosen to deny this essentially
human level of consciousness to institute a determinism where there is
nothing but determination.
References
Ainley, A. 1997. Te Invisible of the Flesh: Merleau-Ponty and Irigaray, J. of the British
Society for Phenomenology, 28 (1): 20-29.
Andrieu, B. 1993. Le corps dispers. Une histoire du corps au XXe sicle, Paris:
LHarmattan,3d ed 2000.
__________ 1998. La neurophilosophie, Paris: P.U.F.
__________, 2002. La chair du cerveau. Phnomnologie et biologie de la cognition,
Belgique: Ed. Sils-Maria.
__________, 2003. Le cerveau psychologique, Histoires et Modles, Paris: Ed. CNRS.
Ashbaugt, A.F. 1978. Te Philosophy of the Flesh and the Flesh of Philosophy, Res.
Phenomenology, 8: 217-223.
Barbaras, R., 1999. Te Movement of the Living as the Originary Foundation of
Perceptual Intentionality, trans. C.T. Wolfe, in J. Petitot, F.J. Varela, B. Pachoud, J.M. Roy,
(eds)., Naturalizing phenomenology. Issues in Contemporary Phenomenology and Cognitive
Science, pp. 525-538. Stanford: Stanford U.P.
Borrett, D., Kelly, S., Kwan, H., 2000. Bridging Embodied Cognition and Brain
Function: the Role of Phenomenology, Phil.Psych, 13, 2: 261-266.
Boysson-Bardies, B., de Schonen, S., Jusczyk P., MacNeilage P.and Morton J, eds.,
1993. Developmental Neurocognition: Speech and Face Processing in the First Year of Life,
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Changeux, J.P. 1983. LHomme neuronal, Paris: Fayard.
Churchland, P.S. 1986. Neurophilosophy. Toward a Unied Science of Mind-Brain,
Cambridge: M.I.T. Press.
Chrtien, J.L. 1990. La Voix nue. Phnomnologie de la promesse, Paris: Ed. Minuit
Damasio, A.R. 1994. Descartess Error. Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain, A.
Grosset/Putnam Books.
Damasio, A.R. 1999. Te Feeling of What Happens. Body and Emotion in the Making
of Consciousness, N.Y: Harcourt Brace & Compagny.
Davies, M. 2000. Interaction without reduction: Te Relationship between Personal
and Subpersonal Levels of Description, Mind & Society, 2, vol. 1: 87-105.
Dennett, D.C. 1991. Consciousness Explained, Little, Brown & Compagny.
Dreyfus, H.L. 2000. A Merleau-Pontyian Critique of Husserls and Searles Represen-
tationalist Accounts of Action, Proc. Aris. Soc., 100: 287-302.
154 Janus Head
Edelmann, G. 1987. Neural Darwinism: Te Teory of Neuronal Group Selection, N.Y.:
Basic Books.
Enns, D. 1995, We Flesh: Re-membering the Body Beloved, Philosophy Today
Celina, 39, 3: 263-279.
Evans F., Lawlor L. (eds). 2000. Merleau-Pontys Notion of Flesh, Albany: Suny Press.
Evrard, P., Minkowski, A., 1989. Developmental Neurobiology, Raven Press.
Gold, I., Stoljar, D. 1999. A Neuron Doctrine in the Philosophy of Neuroscience,
BBS, vol. 22: 809-830.
Harisson, P.J. 1991. Are Mental States a Useful Concept? Neurophilosophical Inu-
ences on Phenomenology and Psychopathology, J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., Jun, 179, 6: 309-316.
Heinmaa, S. 1999. Merleau-Pontys Modication of Phenomenology: Cognition,
Passion and Philosophy, Synthese 118: 49-68.
Henry, M. 1999. Incarnation, Paris: Le Seuil.
Hubel, D., 1988. Te Eye, Te Brain and the Vision, Scientic American Book.
Jacob F., 1970, La logique du vivant. Une histoire de lhrdit, Paris, Gallimard. (Eng.
trans. Te Logic of Life)
Kambouchner, D. 1995: LHomme des passions. Commentaires sur Descartes, Paris:
Albin Michel, 2 vols.
Lecanuet, J.P., Fifer, W.P., Krasnegor, N.A. (eds.), 1995, Fetal Development: A Psycho-
biological Perspective, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate Publishers.
Le Douarin, N. 1982. Te Neural Crest, Cambridge University Press.
Lefort C. 1991. Flesh and Otherness, in Johnson Galen A.(ed.), Ontology and Alterity
in Merleau Ponty, pp. 3-13. Evanston: Northwestern Univ. Pr.
Lever, D. 1990. Flesh and Blood: A Proposed Supplement to Merleau-Ponty, Human
Stud., 13, 3: 209-219.
Mehler, J., Bertoncini, J., Barrire, M. and Jassik-Gershenfeld, D. 1978. Infant Rec-
ognition of Mothers Voice, Perception, 7: 491-497.
Mensch, J. 1994. Te Mind-Body Problem: Phenomenological Reections on an
Ancient Solution, Amer. Cath. Phil. Quart., 68, 1: 31-56.
Merleau-Ponty, M. [1945]. Phenomenology of Perception, Transl., 1962, London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Merleau-Ponty, M. 1995, La Nature. Notes de cours du Collge de France, Paris: Le
Seuil.
Purves, D. 1988. Body and Brain: A Trophic Teory of Neural Connections, Harvard
University Press.
Reuter, M. 1999. Merleau-Pontys Notion of Pre-reective Intentionality, Synthese,
118: 69-88.
Rochat, P. 2001. Te Infants World, Te Developing Child Series, Harvard University
Press.
Simondon, G. 1989. Lindividuation psychique et collective la lumire des notions de
Forme, Information, Potentiel et Mtastabilit, Paris: Aubier.
Smith, C. 2001. Renatus renatus: Te Cartesian tradition in British Science and the
Neurophilosophy of J. Carrew Eccles, Brain Cognition, Aug., 46, 3: 364-372.
Spemann, H. 1938. Embryonic Development and Induction, New Haven: Yale Uni-
versity Press.
Stent, G.S., Spicker, S.F. 1990. Te Poverty of Neurophilosophy. Biological Research


Bernard Andrieu 155
and Reality, J. of Medecine and Philosophy, 15,5: 539-557.
Todes, S. 2001, Body and World,Cambridge: MIT Press.
Varela, F. 1979, Principles of Biological Autonomy, Amsterdam: North Holland.
Varela, F., 1996, Neurophenomenology: A Methodological Remedy for the Hard
Problem, J. Consc. Studies, 3: 330-350.
Varela, F., Tompson, E. and Rosch, E. 1991. Te Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science
and Human Experience, Cambridge: MIT Press.
Authors note: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Bernard Andrieu.
Email: [email protected].