Syllabus

for
Secondary
and
Higher
Secondary
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44
BIOLOGY BIOLOGY
(CLASSES XI XII)
In the present attempt of the NCERT to revise the Biology syllabus of the Classes XI and XII,
several documents like Learning without Burden, the National Curriculum Framework 2005,
the report of the National Focus Group on Teaching of Science as well as reports of several
external and internal reviews carried out, helped to decide the main focus of the revision. Hence,
the revised syllabus aims primarily at reducing the information load while ensuring at the same
time that ample opportunities and scope for learning and appreciating basic concepts of Biology
continues to be available within the framework.
The Biology Syllabus reinforces the ideas introduced in the lower classes while the children learn
new concepts besides getting an exposure to contemporary areas of Biology. This syllabus aims also
at emphasising the underlying principles that are common to both animals and plants, as well as
highlighting the interrelationships of Biology with other areas of knowledge. The format of the
syllabus allows a simple, clear, sequential flow of concepts without any jarring jumps. The empirical
experience gained and practical exercises carried out during the course would prepare the student to
handle Biology easily at higher levels in case she/he opts to continue further studies in this area.
The revised syllabus stresses the connection of the study of Biology to real life problems
use of biological discoveries/innovations in everyday life in environment, industry, medicine,
health and agriculture.
Since it was important that the quality of Biology education at the higher secondary level was
not compromised in any way, the reduction in load from the syllabus required a very careful
selection of topics to be taught. The Committee chose to leave topics out if: the question about
why the child needs to study the topic at the particular stage could not be answered; if the topic
had no direct relevance to the child i.e. was not contextual; if the content was repetitive across
stages with no change in expected understanding, and if any topic was in isolation with no evident
horizontal or vertical linkages. The need for a network of ideas and cross-linking between the
areas being identified was deemed very important. While deciding on the units/topics and the
depth of each topic for the higher secondary level, a holistic view of the syllabus across all stages
from the primary to the higher secondary and beyond was taken. Reducing the use of too many
technical terms and avoiding very large numbers of examples will also help to make the content
a little lighter. The importance of careful selection of illustrations and their use to make the
concepts more explicit was stressed; in Biology the quality of illustrations can make or mar any
attempt at good textbooks/teaching.
The principal objective at this stage would be to explore the variations amongst the living and
developing respect for the diversities, and to appreciate that the most complex biological phenomena
are also built on essentially simple processes. Learning Biology should uncover these elementary
aspects and illustrate their linkage to more complex phenomena. It was also felt that the contributions
of scientists (women scientists in particular) that led to critical and important discoveries in Biology
should be highlighted, not merely through a chronological listing, but through brief biographical
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Syllabus
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discussions, in an effort to bring out the processes that led to the discovery of principles and ideas
in Biology. These would stimulate critical and creative thinking. Besides, the proposed course at the
higher secondary stage provides substantial orientation to the students to professional/career
opportunities available in medicine, agriculture, research, teaching and industry.
The syllabus also takes up issues pertaining to environment, health and other ethical issues that arise
with any interference of human beings in the natural processes, which have great relevance from the
societal point of view. A discussion on these in the prescribed syllabus would help tackle prevalent
misconceptions and empower the student to play a rational, responsible and informed role in society.
In each unit after giving the various sub topics, key points for developing subject matter are given
in the form of bulleted sentences. These, we believe, will serve as a guide for the flow of
concepts while developing the unit in the class as well as in the textbook. The teaching time in
terms of number of periods available is indicated for each unit (total 180 periods). These key
points, along with the number of classes allocated for each unit, provide a reasonable guide to the
depth at which each unit is to be taught. These should be especially considered at the book
writing stage to avoid overburdening and expansion beyond available teaching time.
Each unit in the theory course carries suggestions for practicals. It is expected that the practical
aspects will be integrated into the chapters in the textbook such that the rationale for doing them
is evident and the understanding gained from them would help in furthering the understanding of
the concepts. These experiments should be in the form of investigative reporting and be given
along with the text.
The young student would get an exposure to the various branches of Biology in a more
contextual and friendly manner as they studied various units in the syllabus; each unit could also
provide a glimpse of the career opportunities in the particular area. After studying any unit, the
child gets an opportunity to think more deeply and to form informed opinions. The description
of the diverse/various tools and techniques used in the study of Biology have not been collated
to form a distinct unit in the syllabus. It is envisaged that the teachers who teach this syllabus and
the textbooks prepared based on it, will discuss techniques in a contextual manner rather than
distanced from real experimental situations.
The committee faced a dilemma while considering the topic of
animal physiology: whether to deal with animal or human
physiology. But the moment the focus of discussion shifted - from
the subject dictated one to the child - and the available time was
considered, it was evident that human physiology was more appropriate
at this stage. The student is closest to herself and is curious about the functioning
of the human body. The science understood after a study of human physiology
could be meaningfully applied to other organisms.
The students should be encouraged to do at least one project,
may be in Class XI. The basic objective of these projects should
be to provide the child with an exposure to what it means to
carry out an investigation, what research methodologies are,
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how data is analysed and presented and, how to interpret data and draw conclusions. The project
should provide space for the child to choose a theme in the area of her interest, think independently,
allow autonomous working and also provide freedom to present the project in any format of
her/his choice, thus improving her/his communication skills.
The syllabus committee hopes that the spirit of the exercise is carried forward to the textbooks
and the classrooms, across the country, ultimately meeting our objective of reducing the burden
on the child while making learning Biology exciting. Teaching should emphasise on ways of
acquiring knowledge rather than on conveying knowledge.
BIOLOGY CLASS XI
I. Diversity in Living World
Diversity of living organisms.
Classification of the living organisms (five kingdom classification, major groups and principles
of classification within each kingdom).
Systematics and binomial system of nomenclature.
Salient features of animal (non chordates up to phylum level, and chordates up to class level) and
plant (major groups; Angiosperms up to subclass) classification.
Botanical gardens, herbaria, zoological parks and museums. (Periods 25)
Key points for developing subject matter
The meaning of being alive.
Living organisms show a very large diversity in form and structure ranging from unicellular to
very large multicellularwell-differentiated bodies.
For ease of study, they have been organized into categories and this is called classification.
Principally, all living organisms can be placed in one or the other of five kingdoms.
Each kingdom is further subdivided; there are several levels of organisation, the lowest in the
hierarchy being the species.
The Binomial system, literally two names, of classification is followed, where each organism
has a Latin generic name with a specific epithet.
Zoological parks, Botanical gardens, Herbaria and Natural museums serve as Taxonomical aids.
Practicals
Study the large variation of living organisms in the neighbourhood, note their behaviour,
characteristics, and categorize them into groups based on some common features. Study
preserved specimens, at least one representative of each group, to understand correlations
between the characteristics of organisms and their systematic position. Learn how to collect,
press, dry and prepare plant specimens with labels (common and weedy species) for the
herbarium/museum.
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II. Structural Organisation in Animals and Plants
Tissues in animals and plants.
Morphology, anatomy and functions of different parts of flowering plants: Root, stem, leaf,
inflorescence, flower, fruit and seed.
Morphology, anatomy and functions of different systems of an annelid (earthworm), an insect
(cockroach) and an amphibian (frog). (Periods 30)
Key points for developing subject matter
Light and electron microscopes are used as tools for the study of tissues, cells and cell
organelles.
Higher organisation of animals and plants is achieved through assembly of thousands/millions
of cells into specialised tissues that in turn form organs and organ systems.
The organisation of the living body shows division of labour.
Organisms show increasing complexity in structure and function as we move from the lower
to the higher levels.
Plants and animals exhibit a wide range of organisation from a simple level to the complex.
Floral characteristics form the basis of classification and identification of Angiosperms. This
can be illustrated through semi-technical descriptions of families using suitable examples of
wild and cultivated plants.
The structure of the animal body shows a wide range in morphology and anatomy.
Practicals
Study different types of tissues in plants and animals (temporary preparations and permanent
slides). Prepare and study transverse section of roots and stems to identify different tissues. Study
of locally available plants and animals for their external morphology. Description of three common
flowering plants in semi-technical terms (Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Liliaceae) and try to group
them based on flower characteristics. Study the anatomy of roots, stems (through hand sections)
and leaves (through permanent slides). Study of one vertebrate and one invertebrate for their
morphology and internal organisation (through charts and models).
III. Cell: Structure and Function
Cell : Cell wall, cell membrane and cell organelles (plastids, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies/ dictyosomes, ribosomes, lysosomes,
vacuoles, centrioles) and nuclear organisation.
Mitosis, meiosis, cell cycle.
Basic chemical constituents of living bodies.
Structure and functions of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
and nucleic acids.
Enzymes : Types, properties and function. (Periods 40)
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Key points for developing subject matter
The cell organelles are designed to perform tasks such as synthesis, breakdown, respiration
and transport.
Essential processes of cell division mitosis and meiosis are similar in animals and plants.
Living bodies contain different categories of micro and macro-molecules.
Macromolecules are of four broad categories.
Proteins, the major macro group besides providing structural support, mediate many
physiological functions like catalysis, defence, transport, and sensing.
Enzymes are an important class of proteins responsible for all metabolic activities of the cell.
Carbohydrates are major energy reserves, and also serve the function of providing structural
support to majority of living organisms.
Lipids serve as major components of membranes, as energy reserves and some hormones.
The DNA has a double helical structure.
Nucleic acids are the genetic material, and are responsible for determining the protein synthesis.
Practicals
Observe suitable animal and plant cells (sections and smears) to highlight similarities and differences.
Study of mitosis in onion root tip and animal cells (permanent slides). Test for carbohydrates
(glucose and starch), proteins and fats, and their detection in suitable plant and animal materials.
Study the activity of the enzyme amylase/ trypsin/ papain (using milk powder as substrate).
IV. Plant Physiology
Movement of water, food, nutrients and gases.
Plants and water.
Mineral nutrition.
Respiration.
Photosynthesis.
Plant growth and development. (Periods 40)
Key points for developing subject matter
Cell to cell movement of water, food, gas and nutrients is dependent principally on concentration
gradients and diffusion.
Substances are moved against a concentration gradient through active transport.
The plants lose water through their stomata.
Transport of water over larger distances in plants depends on transpiration pull.
Root pressure is responsible for movement of water up short distances and for guttation.
Plants require a variety of mineral nutrients for their growth and development.
Some plants are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Green plants use the C3 pathway to fix carbon dioxide and synthesize simple sugars in the
presence of sunlight.
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Some plants have the C4 pathway.
Sugars are oxidised by all living organisms to release energy.
Some organisms derive energy from food anaerobically.
This energy is trapped as ATP and utilised for all metabolic activities.
Growth regulators regulate growth and development in plants.
Practicals
Demonstrate requirement of chlorophyll and light for photosynthesis. Separate plant pigments using
paper chromatography. Study rate of respiration in different plant materials. Demonstrate anaerobic
respiration. Study transpiration in plants using Cobalt Chloride method. Study imbibition of water by
seeds or raisins. Study plasmolysis and osmosis. Study the effect of apical bud removal on plants.
V. Human Physiology
Digestion and absorption.
Breathing and respiration.
Body fluids and circulation.
Excretory products and elimination.
Locomotion and movement.
Control and coordination. (Periods 45)
Key points for developing subject matter
Food is broken down enzymatically in stages and nutrients absorbed as they pass through the
alimentary canal.
The process of exchange of gases takes place at organ, tissue, cell and organelle levels leading
to oxidation of sugars in the cells.
Gases, nutrients as well as waste products are transported in the body through the vascular system.
The various components of the blood are involved in diverse functions.
Metabolic wastes produced in the body are eliminated by excretory system.
The kidneys play an important role in osmoregulation.
Movement and locomotion involves interaction of the skeletal and muscular system; the skeleton
also protects many parts of the body.
Control and coordination require functional integration of neural and endocrine systems in
the body.
Sense organs are specialised to receive different stimuli and transmit them to the brain.
Practicals
Study diversity of food habits in different parts of the country and discuss the sources of
carbohydrates, proteins, fats and other nutrients. Test different food items for macro-nutrients.
Effect of temperature and pH on activity of salivary amylase. Study of permanent slides of
human blood cells. Testing urine for urea and sugar. Study of the human skeleton, types of joints.
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BIOLOGY CLASS XII
VI. Sexual Reproduction
Pollination and fertilisation in flowering plants.
Development of seeds and fruits.
Human reproduction: Reproductive system in male and female, menstrual cycle.
Production of gametes, fertilisation, implantation, embryo development, pregnancy and parturation.
Reproductive health birth control, contraception and sexually transmitted diseases.
(Periods 35)
Key points for developing subject matter
Plants show vegetative, asexual and sexual reproduction.
In Angiosperms, the flowers contain the reproductive organs. They may be unisexual or bisexual.
There are multitudes of ways of bringing together pollen and the carpel (pollination).
In nature, pollination is subject to many uncertainties; often barriers to pollination and
incompatibility have to be overcome for successful pollination and fertilisation.
The male gametes are produced in the pollen tube, while the female gamete is produced in the
embryo sac.
Double fertilisation leads to the formation of embryo and the endosperm.
The ovules in the ovary turn into seed after fertilisation. The ovary turns into a fruit.
In animals, testes produce sperms and ovaries produce ova.
Both male and female gametes production is under hormonal regulation; production of ova
is a cyclic process.
During fertilization, sperms migrate through the genital tract to fuse with the ova.
The genetic makeup of the sperm determines the sex of the unborn child.
The fertilised egg implants in the uterine wall where it remains connected with the mother
till birth.
The zygote undergoes cleavage, and then passes through different stages of development
leading to the formation of three germinal layers.
After completion of the gestation period, a fully developed baby is delivered.
Contraceptive methods interfere with one or more of the following: gamete production,
ovulation, sperm delivery, fusion of gametes and implantation. These methods of birth control
thus help in family planning.
In IVF the ova is fertilised using a donor sperm outside the body and the
fertilised ova is implanted in the female body for further development.
Abortion is legal, but not recommended for birth control;
prenatal sex determination (usually associated with
selective female foeticide) is illegal.
Safe sex can help to prevent sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS.
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Practicals
Study of flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insects). Study of the
reproductive parts of unisexual and bisexual flowers. Study of pollen germination on a slide and
pollen tube growth on the stigma. Study of tissue sections of mammalian testis and ovary to
identify stages of gamete development. Study fruits and seeds of any common fruit (e.g. legume)
at different stages of development.
VII. Genetics and Evolution
Mendelian inheritance.
Chromosome theory of inheritance, deviations from Mendelian ratio (gene interaction- Incomplete
dominance, co-dominance, complementary genes, multiple alleles).
Sex determination in human beings: XX, XY.
Linkage and crossing over.
Inheritance pattern of haemophilia and blood groups in human beings.
DNA: replication, transcription, translation.
Gene expression and regulation.
Genome and Human Genome Project.
DNA fingerprinting.
Evolution: Theories and evidences. (Periods 45)
Key points for developing subject matter
Plants and animals show Mendelian inheritance.
Organisms may also show cytoplasmic inheritance.
DNA carries information from one generation to the next.
Human inheritance pattern can be exemplified by pattern of inheritance of blood groups and
haemophilia.
Genes on the same chromosomes show linkage and are inherited together unless crossing
over occurs.
The Lac operon exemplifies a typical model of gene regulation.
Sequencing of Human DNA under the Human Genome Project aims at finding solutions for
genetic disorders and several health problems.
DNA fingerprinting is also used for identification and crime detection.
Diversity in animals and plants arises out of variations in the genetic material.
Mutation is an important source of variation.
Further, variations in genetic material would affect the entire population over generations to
give rise to new species and, therefore, lead to evolution.
The process of evolution is explained by various theories (Lamarckism, Darwinism and Neo-
Darwinism). Different types of evidences support the theories.
Practicals
Study mitosis in onion root tips and animal cells (grasshopper) and meiosis in onion buds and
grasshopper testis (permanent slides). Stain tissue section for nucleic acids (aceto carmine stain).
Study Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colours/sizes of any plant. Prepare pedigree
charts for genetic traits such as rolling of tongue, blood groups, widows peak, colour blindness.
Study analogous and homologous organs in various plants and animals.
VIII. Biology and Human Welfare
Animal husbandry.
Basic concepts of immunology, vaccines.
Pathogens, Parasites.
Plant breeding, tissue culture, food production.
Microbes in household food processing, industrial production, sewage treatment and energy generation.
Cancer and AIDS.
Adolescence and drug/alcohol abuse. (Periods 35)
Key points for developing subject matter
Traditionally farm animals have been bred for increased productivity, disease and pest resistance.
The human body has its own defence mechanism.
The defence system is constantly under attack from diverse sources pollutants, chemicals and
infectious organisms.
Our body is capable of producing millions of types of antibodies to trap/remove and
overcome the adverse effects of these foreign bodies/chemicals.
However, against some infectious organisms we need to develop antibodies in advance, i.e.
acquired immunity.
Vaccination can help in developing immunity to specific diseases.
Genetically engineered micro organisms are serving as bioreactors for production of vaccines
and drugs.
Infectious organisms like helminths (Ascariasis, Filaria), protozoa (Amoebiasis, Malaria), bacteria
(Typhoid, Pneumonia), viruses (common cold, AIDS) and fungi (Ring worm) attacks specific
systems of our body and produce characteristic symptoms.
Each infectious organism, therefore, requires individual preventive measures.
Some of these preventive measures demand improved personal hygiene and living conditions.
Traditional plant breeding has been the method of creating varieties that are high on yield,
resistance to pests and diseases and adapted to a given climatic condition. This has been the
source of green revolution in India.
New methods of propagation using tissue culture and genetic alteration using rDNA technology
provide novel methods of crop improvement, horticulture, pest resistance.
Microbes thrive by degradation/conversion of organic and inorganic compounds.
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These characteristics of microbes can be exploited to produce household products (yoghurt/
vinegar), for industrial production, treatment of sewage and energy generation.
Diseases like cancer and AIDS the major cause of death in the modern world need
adequate preventive/control measures.
Some people who are unable to handle the emotional stress and strain of growing up find
apparent relief in actions like drug and alcohol consumption; in reality a non-solution since it
leads to severe repercussions like physiological and emotional disorders.
Practicals
Exercise on controlled pollination emasculation, tagging and bagging. Identify common disease
causing organisms such as Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, ring worm. Comment on the symptoms
of the diseases that they cause.
IX. Biotechnology and its Applications
Recombinant DNA technology.
Applications in Health, Agriculture and Industry.
Genetically modified (GM) organisms; biosafety issues.
Insulin and Bt cotton. (Periods 30)
Key points for developing subject matter
DNA is a long polymer that can be edited by cutting and joining in any desired way. The
edited DNA molecule (recombinant DNA) can be reintroduced into microbes, animals or
plants to create genetically modified (GM) organisms or transgenics.
rDNA technology is the very basis of many applications in biotechnology for example to
produce desired drugs and for gene therapy.
rDNA technology has also played a major role in production of GM foods which have the
advantage of high yields, pest and disease resistance.
Use of GM food and crops has raised several questions regarding its bio-safety from the
point of human consumption, environment and other social issues.
A combination of classical breeding with rDNA technology and genetic modification has
great potential for animal breeding.
While cloning has been in use for plants since several decades, use of the technique in animals,
particularly human cloning, raises several ethical and other issues.
rDNA technology (gene therapy) can provide effective remedies for several genetic disorders.
Bioreactors have been developed for production of vaccines and drugs.
Practicals
Stain tissue section for nucleic acids (aceto-carmine staining). Make a model of DNA. Observe
the quality and shelf life etc of fruits/seeds available in the market.
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XI
X. Ecology and Environment
Ecosystems: Components, types and energy flow.
Species, population and community.
Ecological adaptations.
Centres of diversity and conservation of biodiversity, National parks and sanctuaries.
Environmental issues. (Periods 35)
Key points for developing subject matter
The living organisms in their environment form a structural and functional unit in terms of
energy flow (ecological pyramids).
The biotic and abiotic components within an ecosystem interact with each other.
Several types of ecosystems can be classified and identified in nature depending on the climate,
habitat, energy flow pattern and the physiognomy.
In nature, organisms do not occur singly but exist as populations and communities.
Plants and animals are adapted to their habitats such as in deserts and in water.
Several factors affect biodiversity including natural and anthropogenic activities.
In India, women have played a major role in conservation of plants, animals and natural resources.
The need of the present day is to conserve biodiversity for a sustainable living; several
conservation methods have been adopted.
Conservation of biodiversity may be in situ or ex situ.
The Silent Valley as a case study, to understand the value of environmental impact assessment
and the role of peoples participation.
Introduction to the idea that new products, processes and ideas related to biodiversity can be
patented (Intellectual Property Rights, IPR).
Pollution, deforestation, global warming, ozone layer depletion, underground water level and threat
to biodiversity (with special reference to wild life) are some among many environmental concerns.
Practicals
Collect soils from different sites and study them for texture, moisture content and pH. Correlate
with the kinds of plants found in them. Study plants and animals found in dry and aquatic
conditions. Collect water from any water bodies around you and study them for pH, clarity, and
presence of any living organisms. Study the amount of SPM (suspended particulate matter) in air
at two widely separated sites.
LIST OF PRACTICALS CLASS XI
1. Study parts of a compound microscope.
2. Study of the specimens and identification with reasons Bacteria, Oscillatoria, Spirogyra,
Rhizopus, mushroom. Yeast, liverwort, moss, fern, Pinus, one monocotyledon and one
dicotyledon and one lichen.
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3. Study of specimens and identification with reasons Amoeba, Hydra, Liverfluke, Ascaris,
leech, earthworm, prawn, silk worm, honeybee, snail, star fish, shark, rohu, frog, lizard,
pigeon and rabbit.
4. Study of tissues, and diversity in shapes and sizes of plant and animal cells (e.g. palisade cells,
guard cells, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem, phloem, squamous epithelium,
muscle fibres and mammalian blood smear) through temporary/permanent slides.
5. Study of mitosis in onion root tip cells and animal cells (grasshopper)(permanent slides).
6. Study of different modifications in root, stem and leaves.
7. Study and identify different types of inflorescences.
8. Study and describe three common flowering plants (Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Liliaceae).
9. Preparation and study of t.s dicot and monocot roots and stems (normal).
10. Study external morphology of earthworm, cockroach and frog through models.
11. Study of osmosis by potato osmometer.
12. Study of plasmolysis in epidermal peels (e.g. Rhoeo leaves).
13. Study of imbibition in seeds/raisins.
14. Study of distribution of stomata in the upper and lower surface of leaves.
15. Comparative study of the rates of transpiration in the upper and lower surface of leaves.
16. Test for the presence of sugar, starch, proteins and fats. Detect them in suitable plant and
animal materials.
17. Separate plant pigments through paper chromatography.
18. Study rate of respiration in flower buds/leaf tissue and germinating seeds.
19. Observation and comments on the experimental set up on:
(a) Anaerobic respiration.
(b) Phototropism.
(c) Apical bud removal.
(d) Suction due to transpiration.
20. Study effect of different temperature salivary gland amylase on starch.
21. To test the presence of urea in urine.
22. To detect the presence of sugar in urine/blood sample.
23. To detect the presence of albumin in urine.
24. To detect the presence of bile salts in urine.
25. To study human skeleton and different types of joints.
LIST OF PRACTICALS CLASS XII
1. Study of the reproductive parts of different flowers.
2. Study of flowers adapted to pollination by different
agencies (wind, insect).
3. Study of per cent pollen germination on a slide.
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REPORT
4. Study pollen tube growth on the stigma.
5. Study fruits and seeds of any common fruit (e.g. legume) at different stages of development.
6. Study and identify stages of gamete development in t.s.testis and t.s. ovary.
7. Study mitosis in onion root tips (preparation).
8. Study meiosis in onion bud cells and grasshopper testis (permanent slides).
9. Study of t.s. of blastula through permanent slide.
10. Study Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colours/size of any plant.
11. Prepare pedigree charts for genetic traits such as rolling of tongue, blood groups, widowss
peak, colourblindness.
12. Exercise on controlled pollination emasculation, tagging and bagging.
13. Stain tissue section for nucleic acids (aceto carmine stain).
14. To identify common disease causing organism like Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, ring worm.
Comment on the symptoms of the diseases that they cause.
15. Collect and study soil from different sites and study them for texture and moisture content.
16. Study the pH and water holding capacity of soil. Correlate with the kinds of plants found
in them.
17. Study plants and animals found in dry conditions. Comment upon on their adaptations/
ecosystems.
18. Study plants and animals of aquatic conditions. Comment upon on their adaptations/
ecosystems.
19. Collect water from different water bodies around you and study them for pH, clarity and
presence of any living organisms.
20. Study the amount of suspended particulate matter in air at the two widely different sites.
21. Study of plant population density by quadrat method.
22. Study of plant population frequency by quadrat method.
23. Study analogous and homologous organs in various plants and animals.
PROJECT REPORT
Students are also expected to carry out one investigatory project that would engage them for
about a week in actual experimentation. They would be expected to submit a project report of
the same that would include a presentation of the results obtained in their investigation.