Railway Technical Web Pages

Infopaper No. 4

One of a series of papers on technical issues published by RTWP from time to time.

Metro Operations Planning

by
Piers Connor1

Summary
Most thinking urban planners have long recognised that the use of high capacity,
electrically powered, rail systems is the optimum solution for long-term, sustainable
mass transportation in the urban environment. This recognition has been around a long
time. As far back as the 1880s, when the first electric powered tramway systems began
to appear, the efficacy of frequent, clean and reliable rail operation was recognised as
the best transport option for urban development and the safe movement of large
numbers of people around cities.
Figure 1 : Train of MF67
type on the Paris Metro,
Line 12. This line operates
on steel rails with steel
wheels but some lines in
Paris were converted to
rubber tyres running on
combined concrete/steel
guides. Photo by Bernd
Kittnedorf

The density of housing and commercial buildings in cities forced many urban rail
systems underground, since ground level systems were restricted by other traffic and
the early elevated systems were intrusive and noisy2. All three varieties of urban rail
systems exist today and, with some variations, are all operated on the same basic
principles. In this paper, I describe the major operating criteria for an urban railway
and show how they are applied in some examples around the world.

What is a Metro?
Its always a good idea to start any article on a specific subject with some definitions. In
our case, we should begin with a definition of the word metro. It actually comes from
the name of the first underground railway to be built in a city anywhere in the world.
This was the Metropolitan Railway of London, England. The title spread to another line
in London a few years later, the Metropolitan District Railway and was later adopted

1 PRC Rail Consulting Ltd.
2 Modern elevated systems are better but careful choice of location and design are essential.
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in New York City and Paris. During the twentieth century it was shortened to metro,
as a marketing term, first in Paris and later in many other cities.
The term metro has come to mean urban railway - underground, elevated or at
street level usually with a high frequency service, frequent stops and with electric
power as the means of traction. Generally, metros are separately operated from
traditional main line railways, even those with well-developed suburban networks but
there are some lines that share routes with main line railways and even some that share
management. In many locations, the operational techniques adopted by metros are
increasingly being adopted by main line railways, particularly suburban routes with
high levels of traffic.
Figure 2 : Light rail tram
car of S iemens Avanto S40
type on Main Street,
Houston Texas. The
system was opened in
2004. The trams use a
central reserved track for
much of the route. The
system is marketed as
Metro by the operators,
the Metropolitan Transit
Authority of Harris
County. Photo by Mike
Harrington.

Metros are sometimes referred to a heavy or light rail systems, according to the
volume of traffic or the size of the trains. The terms are not clearly defined and you will
see Londons Underground referred to as a heavy metro system and Manilas metro as a
light rail system, even though some of the Manila routes carry more passengers than
Londons.

Why Urban Rail?

Moving people around cities has always been a problem. From the time of the Romans,
when Julius Caesar is said to have banned wheeled traffic from the city on certain days3,
through the middle ages and the industrial revolution to the present day, people have
complained about congestion and overcrowding on urban streets.
In the 21st Century, journey lengths for work and leisure are growing and not many
passenger flows come in car-sized or even bus-sized chunks. The predictability of road
traffic is poor and the land-take needed in most cities for sufficient car parking is just
not sustainable. Finally, the noise and air pollution from road traffic is unfriendly and
ecologically unsound in the long term. The solution is guided mass transport in one
form or another.

Variations on the theme

As you might expect, there is a wide variety of metro designs around the world. They
range from single lines a few kilometres long to large networks like Shanghai, which has
over 400 kms. of route. The train lengths vary from 2-axle streetcars, like those seen in
Lisbon, Portugal to the 12-car heavy metro trains in Hong Kong. Systems use different
technologies, ranging from historic trams mixed with modern ones and normal road
traffic, like Milan, Italy or modern, driverless, fully automated trains like those recently

3 Traffic & Congestion in the Roman Empire, Cornelis van Tilburg, Routledge, 2007.
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introduced in Dubai. There are even non-rail guided systems like the trolleybus, the
kerb guided bus and the Translohr slot guided system.
You can get an idea of the range of systems and their capacities from Figure 3 below.
Note that the types of systems overlap, reflecting the wide variation and, some would
say, misuse of the names by some administrations.
Figure 3 : Graphic showing
the ranges of metro and light
rail system capacities. The
ranges cover people m overs,
light rail, light metro and
heavy metro systems. The
borders of the ranges are
fluid and the parameters vary
from city to c ity, largely as a
result of local custom and
political or financial
considerations. Drawing:
Author.

PPHPD
In Figure 3, I introduce the term pphpd. This is Passengers Per Hour Per Direction
and it is one of the most important criteria upon which we base the design and
operation of a metro. Many, usually imprecise and poorly understood numbers are
thrown about by politicians and consultants when metro capacity is described and it is
important to eliminate uninformed speculation and to understand clearly what capacity
really means and how it is defined. For example, the number of passengers using a
metro should refer to the number of passenger journeys. That means that a person
taking a trip into the city will usually go in and then return later that day. This is two
passenger journeys even though only one passenger is involved. After all we have to
provide capacity for him for both trips.
Passengers per day are sometimes used to define capacity but this is a useless number
in helping us calculate how many trains we need to run since the number of passengers
carried in the peak hour is normally 10-15% of the daily number. Thus, for a 250.000
journey/day metro system, you can expect the pphpd to be 25.000 or more4.
The capacity requirements for a metro will define its design and equipment, how it is
built and how it will perform when passengers use it. The pphpd of a system is the
maximum number of passengers that the route can carry in one direction along one
track. By definition this will be during the peak hour, usually in the morning, since the
evening peak tends to be more spread out and therefore lower than the mornings.
Once the number of pphpd is known, the number of trains per hour required to carry
that number can be calculated. From that, we can derive the facilities needed and the
systems required to operate our railway.

Metro planning
In order to get a reasonable estimate of the number of persons likely to use our metro,
we need to do surveys to find out where people want to go and when. We will also need
to get a reasonable estimate of the numbers of persons likely to use the stations at each
location. There are many specialised consultants who have sophisticated computer
programs that provide statistics for the number passengers likely to turn up to use our

4 Urban Transit Operation Planning & Economics, Vuchic R, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2005.
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system on a regular basis for work, pleasure or education. From one of these programs,
the route and the location of stations can, to some extent be confirmed.
One feature of metro station locations that arises when looking at them from a system
point of view is that most are planned on the basis that passengers are prepared to walk
up to 500-600m to reach a station. Any further and they tend to find alternative
transport or use another route. This drives station spacing to between 1000 and 1200
metres. Experience has shown that this distance just happens to match the ideal station
spacing for a conventional, block-based train control system with a line speed of around
27mph.
Once the numbers of people have been determined, the next jobs are to:

Set out route and stations;

Calculate train service frequency & the number of trains required;
Draft the timetable;
Prepare rolling stock and crew diagrams;
Determine the fare structure;
Set up the operating management structure.

Assuming we already know the route and stations, we can plan the service and calculate
the number of trains we need.

Service planning
If you dont like numbers, look away now but, if you want to understand the basics
features of metro capacity and how its calculated, read on.
To understand the basic calculation, we look at a simple, imaginary metro line called the
Forest Line. We consider how many passengers will use the system, how the trains will
operate and how many trains will be required to operate the system.
The line is a simple two-track railway (one track for each direction) with a simple two-
track terminal and crossover at each end (Figure 4 below). The stations are marked by
yellow rectangles and they are named after trees hence the "Forest Line. The
numbers of passengers expected between stations are listed together with a graph
showing how the numbers build up towards the city centre which, on our route, is
between Lime and Oak. This, being the busiest section, is the section that determines

Figure 4 : Diagram showing how metro train service levels are calculated for one direction, in this
case the eastbound direction. The route itself is a simple 2-track line with 7 intermediate stations
and two terminals. Each terminal h as a crossover to allow change of direction. The times for the
station to station sections include dwell times. The graph shows the build up of passengers between
each station toward the city centre between Lime and Oak stations and how it tails off as the train
moves away from the city to the eastern terminus at Plane. The service must be planned for the
maximum passenger numbers between Lime and Oak stations. Note how the trip times vary
between directions, due to gradient differences. Diagram by Author.

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our capacity requirements, so our calculations will be based on the total of 11.500
pphpd expected between Lime and Oak.
The next step is to calculate the time it takes for trains to do a round trip. For a new
metro, this will be done by simulation. We have the following figures to work with:

Ash to Plane = 869 seconds;

Plane to Ash = 871 seconds.

We have to allow time at the terminals for the train and, more important, its crew to
change ends. In our example, we allow 5 minutes at each end of the trip. The total
round trip time therefore works out at 869 + 871 + 300 + 300 = 2.340 seconds or 39
minutes.
Figure 5 : Lisbon tram
terminal in 2010 showing
4-wheeled trams at Plaza
Comrcio. Lisbon
operates over 40 trams of
this type. They were
rebuilt in the m id-1990s
from original vehicles
dating from the mid-
1930s. Photo by David
Gourlay.

In making the calculation, which we call round trip time, dont forget that the time is
from wheel start at the first terminus (in our case Ash) to wheel start at the same
terminus. Its easy to forget the second terminal dwell.

Train requirements
In order to work out how many trains must run to carry our 11.500 passengers over the
peak hour between Lime and Oak, we need to fix a capacity for a train. In our case, I
have chosen 700 as the crush loaded capacity. However, trains dont often load evenly
so we must apply a load factor to get a more realistic view of how many passengers will
actually be carried on each train. In our case we will use a factor of 85%, which will
reduce the total on each train to 595 passengers. The number of trains with this
capacity required to carry 11.500 passengers is 11.500/595 = 19.32 trains. This is
rounded up to 20 trains in an hour. This is equivalent to a train every three minutes,
what we usually refer to as a 3-minute headway.
Now that we have established that we need a train every three minutes during the peak
hour, we must calculate the number of trains actually needed to operate the service.
This is another simple exercise, where the round trip time (39 minutes) is divided by the
headway (3 minutes), giving a total of 13 trains5. We will add two more trains to allow a
couple of trains spare to cover maintenance requirements. This gives us a total of 15
trains we need to buy.

5 Although the traffic levels require a service of 20 trains per hour, we only need 13 trains to run it
because the round trip time is only 39 minutes. Thus, each train gets round to its starting point in less
than an hour, i.e. 39 minutes.
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Stabling requirements
Now we need somewhere to put our fleet a stabling area. Very often, there arent
enough spaces in one location for all the trains and sometimes trains have to be stabled
in odd locations away from the main depot.
In our example, we can stable 8 trains in the main depot at Ash, four in a set of sidings at
Elm and one train in another siding at Elm. To set up the service each day in
preparation for the morning peak, we must prepare a timetable that will use all the
trains stabled along the route.

Figure 6: Diagram of the Forest Line showing the stabling locations of the 13 trains required to
operate the peak hour train service. The main depot is at Ash, with four sidings at Elm and a siding
at Oak. The locations are important for the compilation of the timetable. Drawing by Author.

Timetables
Column

Train/Trip No.

1-2

Notes

Ety.

Ash

05:40

05:44

05:47

Plane

05:52

Platform

To Form

06:00

Train/Trip No.

1-1

1-3

1-4

Notes

Ety.

Plane

06:00

06:23

Ash Depot
Elm
Elm Sdgs
Oak
Oak Sdg

Most railways issue two timetables one for

the public and one for the staff. The public
timetable only covers those trips that the
public can use and some metros dont even
provide a full timetable, they just advertise
their trains as running, every few minutes or
2-3 minutes. For the staff, a Working
Timetable (WTT) is issued. This timetable
shows all details of all train movements,
including empty moves and times in and out of
depots. It shows each train or trip identity
and intermediate times for some, if not all
stations.
A typical trip might be shown as in the table
on the left. The WTT here is shown in two
halves, each half covering a direction of travel.
In our example, the top half covers trips from
Ash to Plane, while the bottom half shows
Plane to Ash trips. Depot and siding timings
are also shown.

In this example, trains are identified by a

two-part number; the first part identifies the
Oak

06:05 06:28 train, the second shows the trip number since
the train left the depot. Empty runs use italic
Elm Sdgs



text to distinguish them from passenger runs.
Elm

06:09 06:32
Platform occupation and the trains next trip is
also shown in the WTT.
Ash Depot 05:31


Ash
05:34 06:14 06:37 So, the first train of the day, No. 1 as shown in
the first column, starts its first trip (1-1)
Platform
1
1
2
empty from Ash depot to Ash station, using
To Form
05:40 06:23 06:43
Platform 1. It will form the 05:40 trip to Plane.
Oak Sdg

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Its second trip, 1-2 is started in column 2 and the train runs empty from Ash to Plane so
it can form the first passenger trip from Plane to Ash. This format continues until the
train returns to depot. A expanded version of this timetable can be found in Appendix 1.
There are variations on how timetables are displayed. Some railways use graphs, some
display trips horizontally and there are various forms of train ID.

Recovery Time
In order to "improve" timekeeping, railways have always provided recovery time in
timetables. This is extra time, above that usually required for a train to complete its trip
on time, allocated in case of a small delay or temporary speed restriction. Unfortunately,
it has become much abused in recent years in the UK and huge levels of recovery have
been built in - as much as 15% in some cases.
It does not make for good public relations when trains arrive at the outskirts of a city 10
minutes early and the passengers have to cool their heels in a stationary train knowing
that they are only a few minutes travel time from their destination. Recovery time
should be strictly limited and eliminated altogether when possible. It should not be
used as an excuse for bad timekeeping.

Rolling Stock Working

Its essential that we keep track of our trains. We need to know the duty that each train
will carry out each day so we can track its mileage and dates due for maintenance. We
also want to be able to rotate trains through the timetable so that all trains get back to
the main depot at Ash for cleaning and maintenance on a regular basis. Some railways
refer to rolling stock working as diagrams each train is said to work to a diagram.
The diagram is its duty for the day. Some railways include train diagrams in WTTs while
others issue them as separate documents confined to the rolling stock department.
Here is a typical British main line train diagram from the East Midlands Train company:
Diagram No. NL083
ECS

5C15

05:02 Neville Hill T&RSMD-Leeds

1C15

05:25 Leeds-St Pancras International

ECS

5C15

09:07 St Pancras International-Cricklewood CS

ECS

5M66

18:01 Cricklewood CS-St Pancras International

1M66

19:00 St Pancras International-Corby

1P79

20:42 Corby-St Pancras International

ECS

5P84

22:52 St Pancras International-Cricklewood

Source: http://www.thejunction.org.uk/index.htm
Notes: ECS = Empty Coaching Stock. The 4-digit train ID used as follows: The first
number is train type, the letter is the route destination for the passenger trip and the
final 2-digit number is the individual passenger trip number.
Train diagrams will also include coupling and uncoupling where train lengths have to be
changed. Nowadays, most metros keep train lengths the same throughout the day.

Terminal Occupation
Terminals are usually located in densely occupied areas and often date from an era
when land was cheaper than it is now. Opportunities for expansion are limited so, for
busy terminals, efficiency of operations is very important. It is essential that trains do
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not occupy a platform for any longer than necessary to unload the arriving train and
prepare it for departure.
For metro operations, terminals are usually small and can accommodate a much higher
frequency of trains. No dwell time is lost at peak times because of cleaning or
catering. A two-platform terminus with a scissors crossover of suitable speed (as
provided for Central, Hong Kong MTR) can allow a service of 34 trains per hour to be
reversed. A modern metro terminal will be designed for automatic reversing.
Figure 7: A 12-car train
of Hong Kong MTRC East
Rail stock near Fanlin on
the Kowloon Canton
Railway route. These
trains were rebuilt in the
late 1990s and are at the
heavy rail end of the
metro segment. Photo by
Rick W, Flickr 12th March
2006.

A Few Notes on Train Crewing

The basic working day for industry world-wide is 8 hours. A break in the middle of this
will usually be for at least 30 minutes. On a railway operating 18 to 24 hours a day,
traincrew will have more flexible working conditions which might extend the working
day to 12 hours with suitable rest breaks. Certainly, shift work is involved. Many
countries have laws which limit working hours and which determine minimum rest
periods.
Hours can now be a lot more flexible than used to be the case, since a lot of new
agreements have been worked out between staff and managers of the new breed of
commercially oriented railways. However, any disruption of the service can quickly
disrupt the crewing as well as the train positions and action must be taken to adjust
crews, working with the available staff.
It is necessary to keep some spare staff on duty at all times. Any level between a
minimum of 10% and a maximum of 25% for special circumstances might be considered
necessary. I have been amazed at the levels of spare crews allocated on some railways.
For an even interval service with peak and off peak frequencies, the number of crews
required to be employed can be calculated by the number of trains for the peak hour
times a factor of five. This allows for training, weekend cover, occasional days off, leave,
compensatory leave for working public holidays, sickness, shunting duties and spare
crews. Individual totals will vary with the service provided and the conditions of
employment and you might get that factor down to 4.5 or even 4 on smaller operations.

A Systems Approach
My paper covers a few essentials for metro operations planning but theres a lot more to
it than this. However, in any approach to metro planning, a systems approach is
essential to ensure all issues are covered. Some basic considerations are as follows:

Determine the traffic and route requirements;

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Calculate the train performance and run times;

Determine number of trains required, their stabling and diagrams;
Maximise train throughput in signalling design;
Decide on terminal layouts;
Ensure there is adequate infrastructure - communications, facilities, power;
Calculate crew duties and resources;
Ensure passengers and staff are properly managed.

This is not a comprehensive list but it offers a start for an operational planner. More
information is available here: http://www.railway-technical.com/tr-ops.shtml.

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Infopaper No. 4
Metro Operations Planning

Infopaper No. 4

High Speed Line Capacity

Bibliography
The Luso Pages http://www.luso.u-net.com/listrams.htm, accessed 10th September
2011.
Traffic & Congestion in the Roman Empire, Cornelis van Tilburg, Routledge, 2007.
Simplon Postcards, http://www.simplonpc.co.uk/T_Lisbon.html, accessed 11th
September 2011.
Urban Transit Operation Planning & Economics, Vuchic R, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2005.
The Junction.org at http://www.thejunction.org.uk/index.htm accessed 12th September
2011.
Railway Technical Web Pages: http://www.railway-technical.com.

Railway Technical Web Pages