The Principles of Hypnosis: CONTENTS

Dylan Morgan
THE BOOK is arranged in three parts: A, B and C. Part A, like the root system of a plant, is a foundation. t !rings into mind some of the materials that "ill !e needed for the remainder of the !ook. These #hapters are only loosely #onne#ted to ea#h other. Part B, like the stem of a plant, de$elops the #entral theme of the !ook, "hi#h is the key pro#esses in$ol$ed in Hypnotherapy. These #hapters are strongly #onne#ted and should !e read in order. Part C, like the lea$es or fruit of a plant, spreads out again. These #hapters are all de$elopments from the ideas of Part B, !ut are not other"ise #onne#ted strongly. They #an !e read in almost any order, and are intended to stimulate thought in a $ariety of ne" dire#tions. PA%T A ntrodu#tion. This des#ri!es the kind of !ook you are reading. t is a !ook "hi#h is de$oted to presenting a unified theoreti#al $ie" of the su!&e#t. n this "ay it is ne" and uni'ue. t does not present any ne" fa#ts, !ut rather arranges the fa#ts in a ne" light. t presents a ne" paradigm for Hypnosis. Chapter (: Clearing the )round. Here "e make sure that "e kno" "hat #ertain key "ords "ill mean in this !ook. The "ord Hypnosis "ill refer O*+, to the su!&e#t and not to some hypotheti#al state or #ondition. Chapter -: Hypnoti# Phenomena. Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy are parti#ular fields of human kno"ledge. .e may delimit su#h fields of kno"ledge !y their su!&e#t matter: the phenomena they deal "ith. A !rief o$er$ie" of some of the standard phenomena of Hypnosis is gi$en to remind the reader of "hat the su!&e#ts in$ol$e. Chapter /: ntrodu#ing 0ystems. A $ery important idea "hi#h is #entral to future de$elopment is that of systems, and parti#ularly organi# systems. This #hapter introdu#es some of the !asi# properties of

systems "hi#h "ill re#ur throughout the !ook, primarily their le$el of a#ti$ity, and the most !asi# "ays in "hi#h they might affe#t ea#h other. An important shorthand notation is also presented. Chapter 1: Other Theoreti#al Approa#hes. t is useful then to e2amine $arious other theoreti#al approa#hes "hi#h ha$e !een taken to the su!&e#t. This o$er$ie" "ill deepen the understanding of the ne"#omer. The range of theories is #lassified "ith an eye on the "ay in "hi#h they #an !e related to parti#ular organi# systems. t "ill !e seen that the systems approa#h gi$es a "ay of unifying dis#ussion and analysis of the "hole field. The primary #on#lusion is that pre$ious theoreti#al models ha$e !een !ased on noti#ing that Hypnoti# te#hni'ues #hange the fun#tioning of one parti#ular system of the mind or !ody and then e2trapolating to the idea that this parti#ular system or #hange is the key or definiti$e feature of Hypnosis. Ea#h theory therefore has some truth to tea#h, !ut none pro$ides a #omplete pi#ture. Chapter 3: nterlude 4 Analogous Pro#esses. n this #hapter the reader is reminded of many other organi# systems "ith "hi#h he or she is familiar, su#h as organisations, e#osystems, e#onomies and families. The purpose is to a#ti$ate in the mind #ertain patterns of organised thought5 #ertain dynami# images5 a #ertain organi# approa#h to a su!&e#t "hi#h is a useful one "hen "e de$elop the 67organi#6 approa#h to Hypnotherapy. Chapter 8: A 9irst Order Classifi#ation of 0u!systems useful in Hypnotherapy. n this #hapter "e take a rather #loser look at the #entral systems "ith "hi#h "e deal in Hypnosis, in order to perform a rough #lassifi#ation. There are those su!systems "hi#h interfa#e "ith the e2ternal en$ironment, "hi#h #an !e #lassified into a#ti$e, e.g. mus#ular, $o#al5 and responsi$e, e.g. $ision, hearing. Then there are those su!systems "hi#h deal "ith the internal en$ironment, e.g. emotions, internalised spee#h, $isualisation and a $ariety of maintenan#e and defen#e systems. mportant among this last #lass is the 6flight or fight6 pro#ess. This elementary #lassifi#ation is then used to illustrate the prin#iples along "hi#h Hypnotherapy #an pro#eed. Chapter :: Pro#esses. This !rief #hapter takes a #loser look at the matter of distinguishing processes as opposed to distinguishing stru#tures. t also #onsiders yet another #omple2 system as an e2ample of an organi# system: an or#hestra. The parti#ular $irtue of this e2ample is that it pro$ides us "ith a #on#rete image of "hat "e mean !y a pro#ess of a system: it is akin to the s#ore of an or#hestral "ork. Another $ery important point made, "hi#h is neatly illustrated !y this e2ample, is the distin#tion !et"een the kinematics of a pro#ess 4 how a thing pro#eeds 4 and the dynamics 4 why it pro#eeds as it does. *o amount of analysis of su!systems "ill in prin#iple ena!le us fully to understand an organi# pro#ess !y merely analysing its su!pro#esses: "e must also al"ays !e a"are of the influen#e of larger systems and pro#esses of "hi#h it is in turn a su!pro#ess.

Chapter ;: Tests. Anyone familiar "ith Hypnosis "ill kno" many 6tests6 of Hypnoti# responsi$eness. These are used in an attempt to determine ho" readily a potential su!&e#t "ill respond. The purpose of this #hapter is to re4e$aluate su#h tests "ithin a systems frame"ork as follo"s. The tests remain tests, !ut tests not of Hypnoti# responsi$eness !ut of ho" readily one system of the !rain or !ody a#ti$ates another in a gi$en indi$idual. Chapter <: ndu#tions. 6Hypnoti# indu#tions6 are traditionally thought of as pro#esses that the Hypnotist goes through in order to 6Hypnotise6 the 0u!&e#t. But they are mostly presented "ith little or no e2planation of ho" they "ork, or of "hat is the purpose of their $arious parts. 9rom a systems point of $ie" it !e#omes mu#h easier to see "hat the purpose of an indu#tion is, and e2amples are gi$en to illustrate this "ay of thinking. The result is a more pre#ise, fle2i!le and a##urate approa#h to this area "ithin the field of Hypnotherapy. PA%T B This #entral part of the !ook takes a $ery #lose look at the pro#ess of Hypnotherapy, in more or less the order that it arises in real life, starting "ith the initial diagnosis. n doing this the $alue of the systems approa#h and the notation "e ha$e outlined in Part A !e#ome more apparent and de$elop real strength, thro"ing further light on ho" a $ariety of Hypnoti# phenomena are produ#ed. Chapter (=: The Pro#ess of Hypnotherapy. 0tage (: Elements of >iagnosis. This #hapter starts to look at the pro#ess of diagnosis !y looking at the presented symptom. t then des#ri!es the first step in a pro#ess of diagnosis "hi#h in$ol$es looking at pre#ursors and resultants of the presented symptom. A pre#ursor is a system, a #hange in the a#ti$ity of "hi#h produ#es the symptom. A resultant is a system "hose a#ti$ity #hanges as a dire#t result of the symptom. n this "ay "e !uild up a #lear pi#ture of the dynami#s of the pro!lem. The typi#al pi#ture is a #hain of systems ea#h affe#ting the ne2t, "ith the pro!lem symptom some"here in the middle. A situation of #onsidera!le importan#e arises if the #hain forms a loop, #ollo'uially termed a $i#ious #ir#le. Chapter ((: 9eed!a#k +oops 4 an ntrodu#tion. The notion of a $i#ious #ir#le is part of a more general set of ideas "hi#h deal "ith "hat are kno"n as feed!a#k loops. These are of enormous importan#e in organi# systems, and this #hapter outlines their prin#iples. .e distinguish positi$e feed!a#k loops from negati$e feed!a#k loops, and in#reasing from de#reasing feed!a#k loops. Any of these #an at times #reate the pro!lem "e are supposed to !e resol$ing, or pre$ent a #hange "e "ant to make, or, on the other hand, !e the means !y "hi#h "e are remo$ing a pro!lem or ensuring that the #hanges "e make are permanent.

Chapter (-: The Pro#ess of Hypnotherapy. 0tage -: Conse'uen#es of 0ymptom %edu#tion. The ne2t step in diagnosis in$ol$es looking at the 'uestion of "hat "ould happen if the pro!lem symptom "ere to !e remo$ed. The importan#e of this #omes from the o!ser$ation that the pro!lem may "ell only remain in e2isten#e !e#ause of a negati$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h ensures that any redu#tion in the pro!lem leads to #onse'uen#es "hi#h start it up again. t is essential in su##essful therapy that su#h situations !e re#ognised. Chapter (/: 7aking Changes in Hypnosis. As a preliminary to de#iding "hat to do to #hange things for the !etter this very important chapter !uilds on the analysis of #y!erneti# pro#esses to emphasise a general and $ery #entral te#hni'ue of Hypnotherapy. .e start from the general prin#iple that amplifi#ation is in$ol$ed and the o!ser$ation that organi# systems are typi#ally pro$ided "ith a multitude of in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loops "hi#h a#t pre#isely like amplifiers. 7any Hypnoti# phenomena are sho"n to #entre around the prin#iple of deli!erately #reating and a#ti$ating su#h loops. As a se#ondary !ut still important prin#iple "e note that in many other #ases a pre4e2istent loop of this nature is present !ut is held in #he#k !y the a#ti$ity of another system. n su#h #ases it is enough to ina#ti$ate the #ontrolling system in order to tap into the a#ti$ating po"er of the loop. But e$en then the ina#ti$ation is likely to !e a#hie$a!le !y means of esta!lishing a positi$e feed!a#k loop. Chapter (1: The Pro#ess of Hypnotherapy. 0tage /: Planning a Change. n this #hapter attention is fo#used on the pro#ess of de#iding a strategy in Hypnotherapy for redu#ing the pro!lem symptom. There is no one "ay of ta#kling a gi$en symptom, or helping a gi$en person. But there is a strategy "hi#h has a good #han#e of produ#ing a short list of the most effe#ti$e and effi#ient "ays. Chapter (3: %einfor#ing Changes. n the #onte2t of Hypnotherapy it is important to ensure that #hanges to the Client are reinforced !y fa#tors in the en$ironment. This amounts to ensuring that there "ill !e an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop to make the #hange gro" in strength. This is #ontrasted "ith a form of therapy in "hi#h any ne" !eha$iour is reinfor#ed only !y the therapist, "hi#h #an result in undue dependen#e. The prin#iple is that 6+ife must pro$ide the reinfor#er6. PA%T C n this third part of the !ook ea#h #hapter is relati$ely independent. Ea#h takes up one parti#ular aspe#t of our su!&e#t and looks at it from the perspe#ti$e of the prin#iples that ha$e !een de$eloped. Chapter (8: >ynami# %e!ound and Paired 0ystems.

n this #hapter "e fo#us on a parti#ular and $ery important prin#iple of organi# systems. This is the fa#t that to maintain homeostasis 4 a reasona!le e'uili!rium 4 there e$ol$e pairs of systems "hi#h a#t in opposite dire#tions to maintain any important parameter "ithin range. f one in#reases, then the other de#reases. This is #oupled to the prin#iple that if "e attempt to o$er4ride a system it "ill tend, o$er a fe" #y#les, to strengthen. .e may then often find that the most effe#ti$e strategy in dealing "ith a pro!lem is analogous to $a##ination: "e a#t in the short term to produ#e the $ery thing "hi#h "e are trying to pre$ent in the long term, "ith the aim of strengthening a natural system "hi#h "ill produ#e the re'uired #hange. The #on$erse of this is that a direct attempt to #hange a system is more analogous to drug therapy: it #an !e $ery effe#ti$e in the short term, !ut in the long term "eakens a natural system "hi#h "ould do the same &o!, thus #reating potential long4term pro!lems. Chapter (:: >isso#iation. This #hapter dra"s attention to the general point that in any #omple2 system there are su!systems "hi#h may or may not affe#t ea#h other. f t"o ha$e no dire#t effe#t on ea#h other they may !e #alled totally disso#iated. f the effe#t is only one "ay "e may #all it a partial disso#iation. The disso#iation may also !e "eak or strong 4 in the latter #ase there "ill !e some third or higher system "hi#h a#ts so as to pre$ent the strongly disso#iated systems from affe#ting ea#h other. E2amples are gi$en of these phenomena and an interesting point is made regarding the differen#e in emphasis !et"een Hypnotists, "ho tend to #reate disso#iation, and Hypnotherapists, "ho tend to eliminate it. Chapter (;: ndire#t ?uestions. The asking of appropriate 'uestions is a theme "hi#h runs through the "hole !ook. One parti#ular aspe#t of this is asking 'uestions of the Client. Pro!lems #an arise "hen "e "ant to kno" things a!out su!systems of "hi#h there is no #ons#ious a"areness. This #hapter deals "ith some of the te#hni'ues spe#ifi# to Hypnotherapy "hi#h deal "ith su#h a situation. n !rief they in$ol$e !ypassing the $er!al system and #onne#ting the system of interest to some other system @using the #hara#teristi# Hypnoti# te#hni'ues of eliminating distra#tions, amplifying responses !y means of feed!a#k loops, et#.A. The alternati$e systems are usually the $isual imagination or the motor or emotional systems. E2amples are gi$en to illustrate this. Chapter (<: E2perimental Hypnotherapy. This #hapter underlines the $alue of the $ery #lear theoreti#al stru#ture presented in this !ook "hen it #omes to making meaningful e2periments. 0in#e it has pro$ed impossi!le to find an agreed o!&e#ti$e ans"er to the 'uestion, 6.hen is a person HypnotisedB6 the e2perimentalist "ho "ishes to !e s#ientifi# is "orking on shaky foundations. .ithin our frame"ork, ho"e$er, the !asi# 'uestion as to "hether a parti#ular system is a#ti$e or not is mu#h more tra#ta!le and ans"era!le. t should then !e possi!le to !uild a strong e2perimental stru#ture on the !asis of #learly defined e2periments on the #omponent parts of Hypnoti# pro#edures. Chapter -=: 9amily Therapy.

9amily therapy is an area of human psy#hology "hi#h has already in#orporated to some e2tent a systems "ay of thinking. The !a#kground to this is presented for the sake of its similarities to our systemati# approa#h to Hypnotherapy. 0ome e2amples are used to illustrate the fa#t that the approa#h and notation de$eloped in earlier #hapters #ontinue to !e pre#isely as $alua!le "hen the primary system is a family and not an indi$idual. The general point is made that the pra#ti#e of a therapist is #hara#terised !y the choice of systems he recognises as important. The different fields of family therapy are asso#iated "ith different assumptions as to the su!systems of importan#e. The same holds for Hypnotherapists: the su!systems they regard as important #hara#terise and at times limit them. Chapter -(: 0#hools of Psy#hotherapy. >ifferent s#hools of psy#hotherapy tend to fo#us their attention on different su!systems of the human mind, and apply different te#hni'ues to them. This #hapter $ery !riefly outlines some of the ma&or approa#hes in order to pro$ide an idea of the #onte2t of Hypnotherapy. t is #on#luded that Hypnotherapy, in the sense of this !ook, is !roader than most forms of psy#hotherapy as it may deal "ith systems of many kinds and all le$els from the #omparati$ely simple refle2es of the ner$ous system up to so#ial systems. t in$ol$es a pres#ripti$e diagnosti# pro#ess, a #risp theoreti#al frame"ork, a sense of the dynami#s of feed!a#k systems and a "ide $ariety of pro#edures to #hange them. Chapter --: A#ti$ity. This #hapter presents a pre#ise s#ientifi# definition of the key notion of activity "hi#h has run through this !ook. The a#ti$ity of a system is defined as the rate at "hi#h it in#reases the entropy of the uni$erse 4 a 'uantity "hi#h is in prin#iple al"ays measura!le or #al#ula!le. t also has the property of al"ays !eing positi$e. t is appro2imately proportional to the po"er output of the system in "atts. f "e "ish to e2trapolate the notion of a#ti$ity to so#io4e#onomi# systems @"hi#h are also organi#A then a more useful measure "ill !e the rate at "hi#h money is spent: CDse#. Chapter -/: Analogies and 7etaphors The use of analogies or metaphors in Hypnotherapy is #ommon and important. n this #hapter their use is related to the general prin#iples running through the !ook. The key idea is that the prin#iples allo" us to un#o$er the a!stra#t dynami# pattern of the pro!lem and solution. The same a!stra#t pattern may !e em!odied in many parti#ular forms, ea#h of "hi#h there!y pro$ides an analogy for all the others. n helping a Client "e generate an analogy "hi#h dra"s on his or her e2perien#e, and present the #hange that is re'uired to resol$e the pro!lem in terms of the related #hange in the analogy. These ideas also thro" some further light onto the nature of the theory of this !ook: although many analogies ha$e !een presented for Hypnoti# phenomena, their purpose is to ena!le the reader to grasp the general or abstract prin#iples "hi#h are in$ol$ed in !oth Hypnosis and the other fields from "hi#h the e2amples or analogies are dra"n. Chapter -1: Cons#iousness.

This !rief #hapter gi$es an outline of an approa#h to the $ery diffi#ult 'uestion of #ons#iousness. The essen#e of the approa#h is the theme, "hi#h runs through this !ook, of the t"in perspe#ti$e on any system !oth as !eing part of a larger system or systems and also as #ontaining su!systems. The point is made that "hen "e ask of a system a 'uestion !ased on 6Ho"B6, then "e are looking for an ans"er in terms of its su!systems. On the other hand "hen "e ask a 'uestion !ased on 6.hatB6 "e are looking for ans"ers in terms of its supersystem or supersystems. Anything like a full understanding of a system #an only !e o!tained !y ans"ering both the 6Ho"B6 and the 6.hatB6 'uestions. Applying these prin#iples to human #ons#iousness, "hi#h is taken to in$ol$e the highest order of systems "ithin the indi$idual !rain, leads ine$ita!ly to the #on#lusion that although resear#h has gone a long @though not the "holeA "ay to"ards ans"ering the 6Ho"B6 'uestions, the ans"ers to the 6.hatB6 'uestions must lie in a higher system, "hi#h must at least in#lude $ery many other human !eings. The fa#t that traditionally the 6.hatB6 'uestions regarding human life ha$e !een ans"ered in terms of higher systems than the indi$idual human !eing is therefore a##epted to !e the right approa#h in prin#iple. Chapter -3: 7athemati#s. This !rief #hapter points to"ards the "ay in "hi#h the analysis of Hypnoti# phenomena promoted in the !ody of the !ook #ould !e de$eloped in su#h a "ay that it "ould #onne#t up "ith the large e2isting !ody of mathemati#al theory of #y!erneti# and !iologi#al systems. A single $ery small e2ample of mathemati#al modelling is gi$en in the hope that e$en the non4mathemati#ian may get an idea of the potential of su#h an approa#h.
CONCLUSION

B B+ O)%APH, Home E Prin#iples E Top of page

PART A

The Principles of ypnosis! INTRODUCTION

This describes the kind of book you are reading. It is a book which is devoted to presenting a unified theoretical view of the subject. In this way it is new and unique. It

does not present any new facts, but rather arranges the facts in a new light. It presents a new paradigm for Hypnosis. .HAT K *> of !ook is thisB This 'uestion is an important one. n order to get the !est out of a !ook "e need to approa#h it "ith the right mind4set. This !ook is a paradigm4#hanging !ook: it aims to present a fresh "ay of looking at the field of Hypnotherapy. t "as in (<8- that Kuhn introdu#ed the notion of a paradigm shift to des#ri!e a pro#ess that has happened in many fields of s#ien#e at many times. The se#ond edition of his !ook "ill !e found in the list of %eferen#es under Kuhn @(<:=ABi!. t #on#erns a fundamental #hange in the "ay in "hi#h the phenomena of the field are $ie"ed, and #onse'uently in the "ay things are done. n KuhnFs $ie" su#h a #hange has the nature of a re$olution. His !ook itself introdu#ed a paradigm shift in the field of the theory of s#ientifi# ideas. A good sur$ey of his ideas and of those of others "ho do not agree "ith him is gi$en !y Casti @(<;<ABi!. 0in#e this !ook presents a paradigm shift it is a !ook of ideas. t "ill therefore stand or fall on the su##ess of these ideas. They "ill !e a su##ess if they help others to make sense of Hypnotherapy. .e may #ontrast this "ith some !ooks "hi#h it is *OT. t is *OT a !ook "hi#h #laims to present any ne" 9ACT0 a!out Hypnosis. f it "ere it "ould #ontain a num!er of detailed a##ounts of spe#ifi# ne" e2periments and their results: it does not. t is *OT a #ompendium or en#y#lopaedia of kno"n fa#ts a!out Hypnotherapy. f it "ere, it "ould #ontain thousands of referen#es to the "ork of thousands of other "orkers and "hat they ha$e dis#o$ered: it does not. t "ould also !e a great deal thi#ker. t is *OT a history. f it "ere it "ould deal e2#lusi$ely "ith ideas and pra#ti#es from the past. t does not. t is *OT a hand!ook of te#hni'ues. Although $arious te#hni'ues "ill !e mentioned, they are there only to illustrate and illuminate the theory. A hand!ook "ould aim to gi$e e2tensi$e lists of te#hni'ues. This does not. t is *OT a 6Tea#h yourself Hypnotherapy6 !ook. Although you "ill learn a lot a!out Hypnotherapy, this !ook "ill not, in itself, 'ualify you to !e a Hypnotherapist. That re'uires in addition a lot of pra#ti#al e2perien#e and a lot of detailed information that you "ould need to a#'uire from the kinds of !ooks mentioned a!o$e. t is *OT one of those Eli2ir of +ife !ooks "hi#h #laims to ha$e found some totally ne" and remarka!ly simple method of sol$ing all human ills.

t is none of those things. t 0 a !ook "hi#h aims to #hange in a fundamental and useful "ay the manner in "hi#h "e think a!out the su!&e#ts of Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy. Books of this nature are rare 4 and they are e2#iting. *ot only does it gi$e a ne" perspe#ti$e, it generates ne" insights into the pro#esses used. 9urthermore it leads to a #lear and original des#ription of the pro#ess of diagnosis in Hypnotherapy 4 something "hi#h is nota!ly a!sent in other !ooks on the su!&e#t. The asso#iation of Hypnosis "ith therapy is not ne". By that name it "as first used !y the 0#ottish do#tor, Games Braid, then pra#tising in 7an#hester, in the (;1=s. %elated pra#ti#es, under other names, "ere used in healing !y 7esmer and his follo"ers in the (:th #entury and !y priest and shaman as far !a#k as the da"n of re#orded history. O$er the #enturies many !ooks ha$e !een "ritten a!out Hypnosis in the #onte2t of therapy. The #ommon #hara#teristi# of all these !ooks is that they deal e2tensi$ely "ith HO. to #reate the many phenomena "e asso#iate "ith Hypnotism !ut gi$e $ery little idea of .H, the methods "ork. There is $ery little theory. They are therefore of little help "hen a method does *OT "ork, "hi#h is a matter of some importan#e to the pra#titioner of Hypnotherapy. The early days of most s#ien#es are marked !y this same feature. Early #hemistry #onsisted of a #olle#tion of re#ipes, 6 f you add this to that then the follo"ing happens...6 There "as no real understanding of .H, or HO. it happened. Early medi#ine "as the same. t had a large #olle#tion of pro#edures and treatments, !ut only $ague ideas as to HO. they "orked @"hen they didA. n the light of our present understanding, moreo$er, "e #an see that the theoreti#al ideas they did ha$e 4 su#h as the Hippo#rati# idea of Humours 4 "ere inade'uate and faulty in the e2treme, leading for e2ample to 'uite unne#essary and potentially dangerous !loodletting on a massi$e s#ale. .hen a s#ien#e has rea#hed a #ertain degree of maturity, as a result of the a##umulated e2perien#es of many "orkers, there #omes a stage in "hi#h partial, and hard4"on, e2perien#es may #oales#e to form one uniform pi#ture "hi#h makes sense of a "hole field. An e2ample of this "as the introdu#tion into #hemistry of the atomi# theory !y >alton @(;=;ABi!, "hi#h "as a !ig paradigm shift and the foundation of all su!se'uent understanding in the field. It is the contention of this "oo# that ypnotherapy has come of age$ an% that it is no& possi"le to %escri"e in some %etail a theoretical frame&or# &ithin &hich ypnotic phenomena can "e pro%'ce% an% 'n%erstoo% in a systematic &ay( This !ook is "ritten "ith three #lasses of readers in mind. The #entral #lass #onsists of students: people "ho are learning the skills of Hypnotherapy. There are in#reasing num!ers of these as this form of therapy !e#omes more popular. They #an e2pe#t to find this !ook a uni'ue aid to understanding "hat it is that they are learning to do. On one side of these are indi$iduals "ho already ha$e an e2tensi$e understanding of Hypnotherapy, "hether as pra#titioners or as e2perimentalists. 9or these indi$iduals

this !ook may !e seen as a #odifi#ation of ideas that are floating in the pool of #ommon #ons#iousness of Hypnotherapists in this day and age: it #rystallises these ideas5 it makes them more definite and #lear5 it unites them in a #ommon pattern. 0ome of the ideas presented here ha$e already !een pu!lished in &ournals read !y professionals and found a ready response. The paradigm shift in$ol$ed does not in$ol$e the shattering of e2isting ideas for most professionals. t is more a matter of dra"ing together all that "e kno" and do in a systemati# "ay and then !uilding on that foundation a strong ne" understanding. On the other side of the #entre is the group of intelligent readers "ho "ant to kno" "hat Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy are all a!out, though "ith no intention of using them in person. This "ill in#lude students of psy#hology and medi#ine, !ut also many of the millions of people "ho like to kno" 6ho" things "ork6, and in parti#ular 6ho" people "ork6. Hypnotherapy is intimately in$ol$ed "ith the "ays in "hi#h peopleFs minds and !odies "ork: argua!ly the most fas#inating su!&e#t for e$eryone outside their o"n spe#iality. .ith this readership in mind the language has !een kept #omparati$ely simple. A minimum le$el of spe#ialised $o#a!ulary is used, and a minimum amount of prior kno"ledge assumed. Ha$ing said that, it has !een my e2perien#e that the #on#epts are grasped most readily !y men and "omen "ho are "orking at the higher le$els of many fields su#h as management, edu#ation or #onsultan#y. They seem naturally to think in terms of systems and pro#esses: an a!ility that suppose is #orrelated "ith degree of intelligen#e. t may "ell !e then that a #ertain le$el of intelligen#e is a prere'uisite to grasping the ideas in their a!stra#t form. Ho"e$er, ha$e supplied many #on#rete e2amples to minimise this pro!lem. The theoreti#al frame"ork des#ri!ed here, although proposed as a !asis for understanding Hypnotherapy, is in fa#t ri#h and po"erful enough also to pro$ide a fresh perspe#ti$e on a $ery mu#h "ider arena of human !eha$iour, "hether indi$idual or in groups su#h as families or organisations. t is hoped that it "ill open up ne" "ays of thinking to others as it has to the author. t "ill seem to outsiders that the Hypnotherapist does not hold a #entral position in the "orld of ideas: #ertainly thought so myself at one time. But ha$e gradually #ome to realise that in terms of understanding ho" people "ork it is a position se#ond to none. This is !e#ause it #om!ines the ma2imum opportunity for o!ser$ation "ith the ma2imum opportunity for making #hanges and seeing the results. The Hypnotherapist sees people from all ranks of life. People open up and dis#lose their innermost feelings and thoughts to the Hypnotherapist, so that a full pi#ture emerges of the entire #ourse of peopleFs li$es. The Hypnotherapist is not restri#ted to "orking "ith people in "hom there is a se$ere mental malfun#tion as are Psy#hiatrists for the most part. He or she is instead often "orking "ith healthy and typi#al people "ho "ant help "ith a single pro!lem in an

other"ise satisfa#tory life or to impro$e their performan#e in some "ay. Conse'uently the Hypnotherapist #an form a #lear idea of the range of "ays that people normally deal "ith life: there is not the Psy#hiatristFs e2#lusi$e emphasis on se$ere malfun#tion. Compared "ith many other related fields su#h as #ounselling or psy#hoanalysis, the Hypnotherapist is e2pe#ted to a far greater degree actively to change things: a $ariety of things in a $ariety of people. This seems to me to !e of far4rea#hing importan#e. The s#ientifi# re$olution "hi#h !egan around the se$enteenth #entury "as a result of men "ho "ere not, in the )reek tradition, restri#ted to #ontemplation and refle#tion in the pursuit of truth, !ut "ho had hands-on e perience. There is nothing like trying to make a #hange and failing, to dri$e home the fa#t that you do not understand "hat you are doing. .hen your li$elihood depends on making su##essful #hanges it #on#entrates the mind still !etter. f, on the other hand, it is possi!le to take an i$ory4to"er approa#h and to !uild a theory on the !asis of "hat has !een merely read, then there is little #han#e of any immediate feed!a#k to pro$e the theory "rong. +ater on in this !ook "e "ill find mu#h on the importan#e of feed!a#k loops. n the present #onte2t "ill o!ser$e that impro$ement in any skill or a!ility depends on a feed!a#k loop in "hi#h e2e#ution is follo"ed !y an assessment of ho" su##essful that e2e#ution has !een, "hi#h is follo"ed !y an appropriate modifi#ation and further e2e#utions. That is ho" the .right !rothers learned to fly. That is ho" anyone learns to play golf. That is ho" !a!ies learn to #o4ordinate their lim!s. That is ho" s#ien#e has gro"n. The Hypnotherapist is in the position of ha$ing immediate feed!a#k, perhaps "ithin minutes, 'uite usually "ithin an hour and al"ays "ithin days to test ho" su##essful he or she has !een in effe#ting a #hange. As a matter of #ontrast, many Psy#hoanalysts "ork o$er periods of years "ith a Client. The feed!a#k is so slo", "onder it #an e$er ha$e any effe#t on pra#ti#e. %esear#h Psy#hologists are dis#iplined to "ork "ith a $ery small area of human psy#hology5 ea#h e2periment #an take months or years, and #an lead only to kno"ing a lot a!out $ery little. Psy#hologists "ho !uild theories on the results of the "ork of su#h painstaking resear#h ine$ita!ly spend most of their li$es in li!raries and la!oratories: they ha$e little #han#e to get any feed!a#k !y putting their ideas into any kind of pra#ti#e. 7any #ounsellors are #onstrained !y present #on$entions to !e non4dire#ti$e: that is to say they are supposed *OT to make dire#t #hanges, !ut rather to someho" #reate an en$ironment in "hi#h the Clients "ill make #hanges for themsel$es. 0in#e there is so little a#tion, there is limited s#ope for feed!a#k also. n addition, many su#h professionals are "orking in salaried positions: "hi#h has t"o dra"!a#ks. One is that they in$ol$e e2tensi$e #osts in terms of the time that has to !e spent on the organisation 4 the #ommittees, the paper"ork, the administration, et#. 4 "hi#h redu#es either or !oth of the time a$aila!le for original thought and the time spent dealing "ith #lients or patients. The se#ond is that sin#e the salary #he'ue is only $ery, $ery loosely #onne#ted "ith su##ess at helping people as #ontrasted

"ith making a good impression on the 0ystem, there is not the same dire#t and immediate in#enti$e to impro$e at the #utting edge of the "ork. The Professional Hypnotherapist 4 !y "hi#h mean an intelligent man or "oman "ho de$otes his or her "hole life to the field, not someone "ho is a professional in some other field like medi#ine and does a little Hypnosis on the side 4 is, !y #ontrast, in a perfe#t position to de$ote A++ his or her time to studying and #hanging the fun#tioning of other people "ith ample and immediate feed!a#k a$aila!le. This is the optimum position to !e in in any field. , personally, ha$e adopted and then discarded because they failed me in practice, hundreds of different partial theoreti#al stru#tures !efore finally e$ol$ing that "hi#h is presented in this !ook, "hi#h has passed the hard test of day4to4day "ork and also e2posure to my professional peers. 7y initial training and do#torate "ere in 7athemati#s "ith a strong leaning to Theoreti#al Physi#s. These for#e you to think #learly and deeply and honestly a!out the stru#tures and dynami#s of things. deas must !e as #risp as possi!le: "oolliness of thought is a sin. .hen plunged into the "orld of Hypnotherapy, found none of the pre#ision of thought "as used to, no systemati# approa#h, no theory "orthy of the name. also found my ego $ery !adly hit e$ery time failed to help someone. 9urthermore had no salary: Clients are not reim!ursed !y Health nsuran#e Poli#ies for Hypnotherapy as yet5 neither #an they get it free on the *ational Health 0er$i#e. .hen Clients are paying "ith their o"n money, they re'uire e$iden#e that the ser$i#e is "orth it. And this is e$en more true in ,orkshire. The fa#t that if you make no progress then you make no money #on#entrates the mind "onderfully, find. f an idea does not "ork you re&e#t it at on#e. Those that sur$i$e and e$ol$e in this tough en$ironment are fit and strong and lean and healthy. hope you "ill find these 'ualities throughout this !ook. 9inally #ome to a small matter of ho" to refer to the approa#h to Hypnotherapy "hi#h has e$ol$ed in this "ay. n my first arti#les for the European Gournal of Clini#al Hypnosis, referred to it as a 60ystems4oriented Paradigm for Hypnoti# Phenomena6. This is a !it of a mouthful, and the Gournal used, as a more useful la!el, the phrase, 6the 7organ Proposition6. *either of these lends itself to the formation of a useful ad&e#ti$e: 6systemati#6 is a possi!le one, !ut this is too general a "ord. As you read the !ook, you "ill find that #entral to the approa#h is the notion of the fun#tioning of comple organic systems. An alternati$e ad&e#ti$e #ould therefore !e 6organi#6, !ut this again is too general. 9inally stum!led on an ad&e#ti$e "hi#h is #on#ise, reminds us of this aspe#t of the theory, is spe#ifi# and easily memora!le: 67organi#6. 0o "hen, from time to time, it is ne#essary to distinguish !et"een the approa#h of this !ook and other approa#hes "ill use this #oined "ord as a #on$enient shorthand. Home E Contents E *e2t Chapter

C APT)R *
Clearing the +ro'n%

Here we make sure that we know what certain key words will mean in this book. The word Hypnosis will refer !"#$ to the subject and not to some hypothetical state or condition.

OH% TOO+0 for understanding are ideas and "ords. To do a good &o! tools must !e #lean and #lear. This short #hapter does some of this ne#essary preparation. +et us !egin "ith the "ord 6hypnosis6. t has !een used in a num!er of senses. t is sometimes said that a person is 6in hypnosis6. Or it might !e used in a phrase su#h as 6e2perimental hypnosis6 to mean a field of e2pertise. In this "oo# the &or%s ,hypnosis, an% ,hypnotherapy, &ill refer ONL- to fiel%s of #no&le%ge an% s#ill( They are in the same #lass as the "ords 6#hemistry6, 6medi#ine6 @as a dis#iplineA, 6physi#s6, et#. The reasons "hy this is important "ill !e#ome #learer later. Briefly it is !e#ause the other use #on&ures up a pi#ture of a su!&e#t in a uni'ue 6state of hypnosis6. >etailed e2periments ha$e failed to esta!lish any "ay of defining su#h a state or distinguishing it from other, 6non4hypnoti# states6. 9or the same reason the phrase 6an hypnoti# tran#e6 "ill not !e used. On the other hand a field of kno"ledge is #omparati$ely easy to define. t is #hara#terised !y an interest in a #ertain #lass of phenomena. The field defined !y interest in the "eather #an !e la!elled 6meteorology6, of interest in the past, 6history6, in !ooks, 6literature6, in the ner$es, 6neurology6 and so on. *oti#e that it is the phenomena that define the su!&e#t and not the theories or the practices. 9or e2ample, the te#hni'ues used in #hemistry ha$e $aried enormously o$er time. 7odern e'uipment is $astly different from nineteenth #entury e'uipment: Bunsen didnFt start using his !urner until (;33I Chemi#al theories ha$e also #hanged enormously o$er time: >altonFs atomi# theory only goes !a#k to the !eginning of the nineteenth #entury. n a similar "ay !oth the ideas that people ha$e had a!out the field of Hypnosis and the methods they ha$e used ha$e #hanged #onsidera!ly, !ut the phenomena of interest ha$e remained relati$ely fi2ed. .hat the Hypnotist is interested in is a #ertain #lass of changes in the functioning of the mind and body brought about in a non-physical and naturalistic way. +ater on "e "ill list in more detail most of the #ommon su#h #hanges, !ut here "e "ill note a fe" su#h things: analgesia 4 a loss of a sense of pain5 amnesia 4an indu#ed forgetfulness5 in$oluntary mo$ements indu#ed !y suggestion alone5 and distortion of the messages of the senses, in "hi#h a lemon may !e made to taste like an apple, a #learly $isi!le o!&e#t may not !e per#ei$ed, or an o!&e#t may !e 6seen6 though not present. The Hypnotherapist is more interested in a rather different #lass of #hanges, su#h as re#o$ery of lost memories, remo$al of old ha!its or patterns of thought, elimination of tensions, #hanges in per#eptions to !ring them more in line "ith reality, #hanges in mood and so on: in !rief to #hange things "hi#h are per#ei$ed as 6pro!lems6.

.hen "e say that these #hanges are to !e produ#ed in a non-physical "ay, it implies that the #hanges are *OT produ#ed !y the appli#ation of drugs, ele#tri#ity, magnetism or other physi#al agen#y. To say that the #hanges are produ#ed in a naturalisti# "ay implies that neither are they produ#ed !y some strange or unnatural for#e, po"er or phenomenon. Hypnoti# phenomena are a result of using the natural modes of fun#tioning of the mind and !ody, !ut in fo#used or parti#ular or unusual "ays, to produ#e the desired #hanges. t is !e#ause "e are using only modes of fun#tioning "hi#h #an e2ist naturally that no hard line #an !e dra"n !et"een a 6state of hypnosis6 and any other 6state6 or mode of fun#tioning of a person. 9or many people this point #annot !e emphasised too mu#h. n the uninformed mind there is a simple pi#ture that !eing 6under hypnosis6 is rather like going 6under6 an anaestheti#: a sudden and dramati# departure of #ons#iousness. .hile the stage Hypnotist "ill at times "ork @"ith his !etter 0u!&e#tsA to appro2imate to this state of affairs, it has !een found !y #areful e2periment that the same phenomena "hi#h #an !e produ#ed under those #onditions #an also !e produ#ed under #onditions "here there is no su#h dramati# #hange. A related error #an !e typified !y a re#ent en'uiry to me: 6Can Hypnosis !e used to impro$e my memory, so that #ould pi#k up and learn a telephone dire#toryB6 This is effe#ti$ely e'ui$alent to !eing a!le effortlessly to !e a #hess 7aster, a s#rat#h golfer, et#. The normal rules of fun#tioning of the mind and !ody demand that pra#ti#e, and a lot of it, is ne#essary to de$elop su#h skills. Hypnoti# te#hni'ues may !e used to in#rease moti$ation, to redu#e distra#ting thoughts and to optimise the results of pra#ti#e, !ut they are al"ays "orking on natural systems "hi#h ha$e their o"n rules and therefore limitations. ,ou #annot make a silk purse out of a so"Fs ear. There is a lot of po"er and potential in Hypnoti# te#hni'ues, !ut they are not magi#: not #ontrary to the la"s of physi#s, #hemistry or neurology. t is easily possi!le to get a person to feel themsel$es too hea$y to get off a #hair. But it "ill not result in any e2tra pressure on the #hair. T"o other "ords that "ill !e used in this !ook are S'".ect and Client. The former "ill normally refer to a person "hose fun#tioning is !eing #hanged !y a Hypnotist, and the latter !y a Hypnotherapist. 0ome Hypnotherapists use the term Patient in pla#e of Client. SUMMARH,P*O0 0 is the area of kno"ledge #on#erned "ith #ertain naturalisti# #hanges in the fun#tioning of the mind and ner$ous system. H,P*OTHE%AP, is the appli#ation of su#h kno"ledge to help indi$iduals "ith a related #lass of pro!lems. .e "ill not use the #on#ept of a 6state of hypnosis6 in this !ook. Home E Contents E ntrodu#tion E *e2t Chapter

C APT)R /
ypnotic Phenomena
* O%>E% TO )ET a #learer $ie" of the 0u!&e#t matter of Hypnosis "e "ill ne2t look at some of the more #ommon phenomena "hi#h ha$e !een relia!ly produ#ed in #ertain people in an e2perimental setting as "ell as !y Hypnotherapists or stage Hypnotists. There is no real disagreement a!out the e2isten#e of these phenomena. Others may !e added to the list !elo" and there #an !e disagreement o$er the pre#ise nature of "hat is happening in them and also a!out theories designed to e2plain ho" they are happening. But there is general agreement that the phenomena do #hara#terise the field of Hypnosis. n ea#h of these e2amples it must !e remem!ered that no #laim is made that the parti#ular phenomenon #an !e produ#ed "ith e'ual ease in e$eryone, nor that it "ill !e possi!le in e$eryone. %emem!er that "e are dealing "ith naturalistic phenomena. The fa#t that some indi$iduals are #olour !lind does not in$alidate the phenomenon of full #olour $ision in others. The fa#t that some indi$iduals ha$e poor memories and take a lot of time to learn things does not negate the a#hie$ements of #ertain indi$iduals "ho #an memorise enormous amounts 'ui#kly. The fa#t that not e$ery!ody #an run a mile in under 8 minutes does not affe#t the fa#t that a great num!er #ould, "ith pra#ti#e, or that there are many "ho #an run it in under 1 minutes. *either does the fa#t that the "orld re#ord time has !een redu#ing allo" us to dedu#e that a - minute mile "ill some day !e possi!le. The general prin#iples of A++ human !eha$iour or a#hie$ement are that there is a range in the #apa#ity of different indi$iduals to produ#e #ertain !eha$iour5 that anyoneFs #apa#ity #an !e impro$ed !y proper pra#ti#e5 and that there are natural limits to "hat #an !e done. f Hypnosis dealt "ith phenomena "hi#h did *OT o!ey these prin#iples it "ould !e a $ery strange 0u!&e#t indeed. Conse'uently in reading the follo"ing, remem!er al"ays that ea#h e2ample is something that #an !e produ#ed to a high degree 'uite easily in some people, to a lesser degree andDor in more time in others, and finally to no signifi#ant e2tent in any reasona!le time "ith yet others. t is also a fa#t that there is only a loose #orrelation !et"een an indi$idualFs #apa#ity to produ#e one phenomenon and another, rather in the "ay that if you are $ery good at geography there is a !etter than a$erage #han#e that you "ill also !e good at history, !ut it is far from #ertain. The stage Hypnotist "orks "ithin these #onstraints of nature !y sele#ting from the audien#e, !y means of $arious tests, those indi$iduals in "hi#h the phenomena of interest #an !e produ#ed most easily. The Hypnotherapist, "ho has to "ork "ith a

"ider range of indi$iduals, "ill tend to use more time and a $ariety of methods in order to offset the limitations that may arise in a parti#ular indi$idual. Some ypnotic Phenomena

n the follo"ing list the phenomena are grouped into those areas of the !rain or ner$ous system or !ody "hi#h they in$ol$e. JO+H*TA%, 7H0CH+A% 0,0TE7 At one time it "as a popular part of a demonstration of stage Hypnotism for the Hypnotist to get a 0u!&e#t to go #ompletely rigid. 0o great "as this rigidity that the 0u!&e#t #ould !e supported on t"o #hairs !y his head and heels alone. And as if this "ere not enough the Hypnotist "ould !e a!le to sit or stand on the supported !ody "ith no #omplaint from the 0u!&e#t or yielding of his !odyI This has no" !een !anned in the HK !y the Hypnotism A#t of (<3-, as it #ould lead to physi#al damage. At the opposite e2treme from this, it is #omparati$ely easy to indu#e in those same large mus#les of the !ody an e2treme limpness or rela2ation "hi#h is so great that the 0u!&e#t feels una!le to mo$e them. n !et"een these e2tremes there are a $ariety of phenomena in "hi#h a large group of mus#les 4 those of an arm, perhaps 4 "ill mo$e in response not to the per#ei$ed "ill of the 0u!&e#t, !ut rather in response to $er!al suggestions from the Hypnotist. *JO+H*TA%, 7H0CH+A% 0,0TE7 There are many mus#les in the !ody "hi#h "e do not normally e2pe#t to !e a!le to #ontrol at "ill. These in#lude the heart, "hi#h is one !ig mus#le, the small mus#les "hi#h e2pand and #ontra#t to #ontrol the flo" of !lood through $eins and arteries, and the mus#les of the stoma#h and alimentary system "hi#h push the food along its "ay. Hypnoti# te#hni'ues ha$e !een sho"n to !e a!le to affe#t these. Heart rate may !e in#reased 'uite a lot, and redu#ed to a lesser e2tent. The flo" of !lood #an !e altered so that, for e2ample, it #an !e in#reased to "arm the feet or de#reased to #ool them. The flo" of !lood to the fa#e #an !e altered in order to indu#e or redu#e !lushing. And so on. 0E*0O%, 0,0TE70 Another popular phenomenon for the stage Hypnotist is to get a 0u!&e#t to eat an onion under the impression that it is an apple. n order for this to !e possi!le 4 and "ith e$ery indi#ation of en&oyment 4 there must ha$e !een #hanges in that personFs per#eption of taste, smell and also $ision. n general it is possi!le to #hange the messages from any sense. The sense of tou#h #an !e altered either so that a #ertain kind of num!ness results in "hi#h a tou#h #annot !e felt at all, or, #on$ersely, so that it reports the presen#e of a stimulus "hi#h has no !asis in reality 4 for e2ample, that an inse#t is #ra"ling o$er the skin. )lo$e

anaesthesia is a term often used in Hypnotherapy to des#ri!e a situation in "hi#h nothing is felt in one or !oth hands up to the "rist 4 as if a thi#k glo$e is !eing "orn "hi#h makes it impossi!le to feel things. The related sense of pressure #an like"ise !e affe#ted, all the "ay from feeling no sensation of the pressure of the !ody on the #hair to a great sensation of pressure on the #hest "hi#h has no out"ard #ause, for e2ample. The sense of smell may !e affe#ted either to produ#e anosmia 4 the a!sen#e of all sensation of smell 4 or to #hange the per#eptions so that one smell !e#omes interpreted as another. A pleasant s#ent #an !e made to smell like hydrogen sulphide 4 rotten eggs 4 or ammonia like a rose. The related sense of taste #an like"ise !e affe#ted to #hange either the 'uality of the taste or its intensity. 0"eet #an turn to sour and $i#e $ersa, or #an simply $anish. The sense of hearing #an !e affe#ted so that the 0u!&e#t fails to respond at all to a #ertain #lass of sounds, "hile remaining a"are of others 4 for e2ample, he may remain a"are of the HypnotistFs $oi#e, !ut una"are of anyone else or any !a#kground noise. The sense of sight #an !e affe#ted in a similar "ay so that things "hi#h are there may not !e noti#ed and things "hi#h are not present are $isualised as $i$idly as if they "ere there. A popular stage tri#k is to gi$e the 0u!&e#t 6K4ray glasses6 "hi#h seem to !e a!le to see through the #lothes of anyone looked at. The sense of orientation may !e altered so that, for e2ample, a feeling of lying at a steep angle #an !e indu#ed in a person lying horiLontally, or a feeling of falling in someone "ho is standing $erti#ally. The sense of temperature may !e affe#ted so that a part or "hole of the !ody is per#ei$ed as !eing either hotter or #older than it is in reality, though there is no #hange measura!le !y a thermometer. The sense of pain, though it is so mu#h more a#ute than the other senses, follo"s the same pattern. Be#ause of its importan#e it has re#ei$ed a great deal of e2perimental attention and the !asi# fa#ts ha$e !een esta!lished #on#lusi$ely. t is indeed true that a person #an !e indu#ed !y Hypnoti# pro#edures to !e #ons#iously a"are of less pain in a gi$en #ir#umstan#e, or, on the other hand, of more. HAB THA+ 0,0TE70 A typi#al ha!it is a #omple2 pattern of !eha$iour "hi#h is #arried out automati#ally "ith little or no #ons#ious thought. Although it may in$ol$e the same groups of mus#les that are in$ol$ed in the phenomena mentioned a!o$e, it is really a higher order phenomenon of the ner$ous system. 0u#h ha!its are regulated primarily !y a part of the !rain #alled the #ere!ellum 4 and altering ha!its is therefore altering the fun#tioning of a part of the !rain.

9or the stage Hypnotist the task is often to esta!lish a new ha!it, su#h as standing and de#laiming something "hen a #ertain pie#e of musi# plays. 9or a Hypnotherapist the task is the more diffi#ult one of pre$enting a long4esta!lished ha!it, su#h as smoking or nail4!iting, from #ontinuing. E7OT O*A+ 0,0TE70 The emotions tend to shade into ea#h other more gradually than do the senses: it is hard to put a #lear line !et"een a pleasure and happiness in the "ay that "e #an distinguish tou#h and pain, for e2ample. But the prin#iples "e ha$e seen a!o$e in the senses #ontinue to hold in the sphere of the emotions. .hether "e #onsider lo$e, liking, e2#itement, pleasure, happiness, or fear, anger, grief, guilt, depression or any other shade of feeling, it is true that they #an !e indu#ed or suppressed or altered in 'uality. Although feelings do not seem to us to !e lo#alised, in terms of our physiology they are primarily a fun#tion of a #ertain stru#ture in the !rain #alled the lim!i# system. 0o in altering emotions "e are again dealing "ith a part of the !rain. This part is in dire#t #onta#t "ith a small gland in the !rain #alled the thalamus, "hi#h produ#es hormones "hi#h in turn affe#t other endo#rine glands in the !ody. The !est kno"n of these are the adrenal gland and the o$aries or testes. f a person is indu#ed !y some Hypnoti# te#hni'ue to feel fear or e2#itement then the adrenal glands respond as a part of the pro#ess. This underlines the fa#t that Hypnoti# te#hni'ues #an also affe#t the fun#tioning of the endo#rine system. Another e2ample might !e the arousal or suppression of se2ual feelings, "hi#h "ould !e a##ompanied !y #hanges in the le$el of se2ual hormones. %E+AT O*0H P0 Of $ery great importan#e to most people are their relationships "ith others. A relationship is a #omple2 pattern of feelings and ha!itual a#tions and responses in t"o or more people, so it in$ol$es systems "hi#h ha$e !een mentioned a!o$e. Jery often the pro!lem presented to the Hypnotherapist lies in this area, and the task is to sort out "hat parts of the #omple2 pattern it is !est to #hange in order to impro$e matters. nsofar as it is possi!le to alter feelings and a#tions !y Hypnoti# te#hni'ues, it is !y the same token possi!le to alter the #ourse of a relationship. 77H*E 0,0TE7 0#attered through the literature on the su!&e#t there are a##ounts of the use of Hypnoti# te#hni'ues to influen#e the !odyFs a!ility to rea#t to a "ide range of illnesses, in#luding #an#er. Perhaps the !est e$iden#e underpinning the $alidity of these reports is the $ery "ell4attested fa#t of the Pla#e!o %esponse. This simply says that for $irtually any illness there "ill !e a #ertain proportion of sufferers "ho "ill re#o$er signifi#antly !etter if they are gi$en something that they believe "ill "ork, e$en if it is totally neutral medi#inally. nsofar as Hypnoti# te#hni'ues #an e$idently #hange an indi$idualFs !elief a!out all manner of things, as "e ha$e seen, there is e$ery reason to suppose that it #an a#t as "ell as, if not !etter than the !eliefs in$ol$ed in the Pla#e!o %esponse to help peopleFs !odies to heal themsel$es.

7E*TA+ 0,0TE70 .e ha$e seen that emotions and ha!its are !oth properly seen to !e fun#tions of the !rain, though they may not !e thought to !e so !y the man in the street. .e "ill no" #onsider a fe" more fun#tions of the !rain "hi#h are more o!$iously so. 7emory is a parti#ular fun#tion of the !rain "hi#h has also !een demonstra!ly affe#ted !y Hypnoti# pro#edures. t, also, #an !e enhan#ed, inhi!ited, made sele#ti$e or falsified. On the stage a popular alteration is to make the 0u!&e#t forget some 'uite simple thing, like the name of a #olour or the num!er :. The 0u!&e#t may struggle $ery hard to re#all the missing fa#t !ut fail totally. An alternati$e is to get him to !elie$e that something is true or has happened "hi#h has not. f a 0u!&e#t is indu#ed to 6remem!er6 that another person has #heated him in some "ay, he "ill start to a#t in a "ay "hi#h is amusing to the audien#e. But the serious side to this is that #ertain indi$iduals #an !e influen#ed to !elie$e that they ha$e remem!ered episodes or early se2ual a!use "hi#h ne$er in fa#t happened. The pro!lems that #an arise from this are termed the 9alse 7emory 0yndrome. Con#entration is another high4order mental fa#ulty "hi#h #an !e intimately affe#ted !y Hypnoti# te#hni'ues. t is not un#ommon to #ome a#ross #ases in "hi#h the 0u!&e#t responds e2#lusi$ely to the $oi#e of the Hypnotist, and seems totally o!li$ious to all else. This is a parti#ular #ase of total #on#entration. E'ually it #an !e possi!le to make #on#entration on any su!&e#t $ery diffi#ult. 7ore generally the entire mental frame"ork #an !e altered, as "hen a 0u!&e#t #an !e indu#ed to imagine himself to !e El$is Presley, or some other person, and a#t, respond and ans"er 'uestions from the $ie"point of that person. 0in#e this !ook is not en#y#lopaedi# there is no need to list A++ possi!ilities. Enough has no" !een said to indi#ate something of the range of #hanges that ha$e !een re#orded. SUMMARHypnoti# pro#edures ha$e !een demonstrated in la!oratories and else"here to produ#e a "ide range of #hanges in the fun#tioning of human !eings. 0omething of the range has !een listed a!o$e. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of Hypnosis: C APT)R 0

Intro%'cing Systems

% very important idea which is central to future development is that of systems, and particularly organic systems. This chapter introduces some of the basic properties of systems which will recur throughout the book, primarily their level of activity, and the most basic ways in which they might affect each other. %n important shorthand notation is also presented. * THE +A0T CHAPTE% the "ord 6system6 fre'uently arose. n our gro"ing understanding of the fun#tioning of !ody and !rain, s#ientists ha$e #ome to re#ognise the nature and modes of fun#tioning of many systems in the !ody. There are the ner$ous system, the digesti$e system, the #ardio$as#ular system, the lim!i# system, the endo#rine system, the immune system, the mus#ular system and so on. Ea#h of these systems has an identifia!le str'ct're( The ner$es are the physi#al stru#ture of the ner$ous system5 the heart plus $eins and arteries and their asso#iated small mus#les form the stru#ture of the #ardio$as#ular system, and so on. But e'ually, if not more, important are the processes "hi#h the system undergoes. The e2isten#e of the heart has !een kno"n sin#e prehistori# time. But the fa#t that it #ir#ulates the !lood only !e#ame understood "ith .illiam Har$ey @(3:;4(8/:A in the early se$enteenth #entury. The e2isten#e of the ma&or planets of our solar system "as also kno"n from prehistori# times, !ut the prin#iples of their mo$ements "ere only properly des#ri!ed !y *e"ton @(81-4(:-:A in the latter half of the se$enteenth #entury. To get any proper idea of a system "e must kno" ho" it "orks5 "hat kinds of pro#esses it undergoes5 "hat are the prin#iples go$erning those pro#esses. The differen#e is related to the differen#e !et"een seeing a thing in static terms and dynamic terms. This great #hange has taken pla#e in a multitude of s#ien#es, and ea#h time has heralded a great in#rease in understanding. >ar"inFs Theory of E$olution is an e2ample of a #hange from a $ie" "hi#h held that spe#ies "ere fi ed to one in "hi#h they changed in #ertain "ays for spe#ifi# reasons. The theory of #ontinental drift has similarly transformed geology. As a simple analogy illustrating this matter from another angle, #onsider the position of a #ar me#hani#. He might "ell !e a!le to put 'uite a fe" things right !y follo"ing a fe" tried and tested pro#edures that he has found to !e effe#ti$e in some instan#es. But unless he understands the prin#iples go$erning the fun#tion of the $arious parts of the ma#hine, his a!ility is going to !e stri#tly limited: he "ill ha$e no real idea of "hy the #hanges he makes are effe#ti$e, and so his "ork "ill remain rather hit and miss. He has to kno" ho" and "hy the parts mo$e or operate in order to understand things properly. t "ill !e #lear from the last #hapter that the field of interest of Hypnotherapy is intimately in$ol$ed "ith the fun#tioning of effe#ti$ely all the ma&or systems of the mind and !ody. n order to understand "hat "e are doing "e are therefore force% to gi$e thought to understanding the nature of these organi# systems, and in parti#ular to understanding their modes of fun#tioning and intera#ting. There is no option. The phenomena are #lear. That they in$ol$e #hanges to systems of the !ody is #lear. That the #hanges are not to their stru#ture @"e are not surgeonsA is #lear. That "e #hange the !eha$iour is #lear. Conse'uently "e are dealing "ith the %ynamics of comple1 organic systems( f "e are to form an idea of the prin#iples of Hypnosis

"e are therefore for#ed to start "ith a pi#ture, ho"e$er simple, of the dynami#s of the organi# or !iologi#al su!systems of human !eings. The study of the dynami#s of organi# systems in general is a gro"th area: it is highly rele$ant to e#onomi#s, e#ology, so#iology and !iology, and has !een approa#hed from all those areas. ha$e not !een a!le to find an e2isting approa#h, ho"e$er, "hi#h is "ell4adapted to the kinds of systems and dynami#s in$ol$ed in Hypnosis. The follo"ing language and methodology is therefore designed spe#ifi#ally to !e useful in our field, though it #an !e generalised to others. Ho" does one start to design a dynami#al theoryB t is a tried and trusted prin#iple that one should as far as possi!le "ork "ith o"serva"les( To !ase a theory on uno!ser$a!les is to !e "orking in the dark: there is no "ay of $erifying if the theory is right or "rong and no "ay of refining it. .hat o!ser$a!les therefore #an "e say are appli#a!le to all the systems of mind and !ody in "hi#h "e are interestedB The ans"er "hi#h "ill adopt is: the level of activity. t is possi!le, !y means of $ery fine ele#trodes, to measure 'uite pre#isely the le$el of a#ti$ity of a single neuron @ner$e #ellA. t is easily possi!le to measure the mean a#ti$ity of the heart 4 the heart rate. t is possi!le to get a good measure of the le$el of a#ti$ity of a mus#le !y means of seeing "hat for#e it #an resist, or !y its o2ygen #onsumption. The o$erall le$el of a#ti$ity of a region of the !rain #an !e estimated !y measuring the rise in temperature of that region @a method used o$er a #entury agoA or more modern methods in$ol$ing measuring ele#tri#al a#ti$ity @EE)A or lo#al !lood flo" and meta!olism 4 positron emission tomography @PETA and magneti# resonan#e imaging @7% A. The a#ti$ity of $arious glands #an !e estimated !y measuring the #on#entration of the hormones they produ#e in the !lood. And so on. Although the fun#tions of the $arious systems are of #ourse distin#t, "e #an in ea#h #ase form at last a 'ualitati$e and $ery often a pre#ise 'uantitati$e measure of its a#ti$ity at a gi$en time, and hen#e ho" its a#ti$ity is #hanging "ith time. +ater, in Part C, "e "ill dis#uss a more e2a#t definition of a#ti$ity, appli#a!le to all systems, !ut at this introdu#tory le$el it is enough to note that the intuiti$ely #lear notion of a#ti$ity is something that is in prin#iple o!ser$a!le for systems of the !ody. .e "ill therefore !ase our theory on the notion of the activity of a system( +et us no" take a $ery !rief look at a simple Hypnoti# pro#ess "ith this idea in mind. A fairly typi#al Hypnoti# indu#tion as used !y a Hypnotherapist today may pro#eed as follo"s. 9irst of all the 0u!&e#tFs eyes may !e indu#ed to #lose, !y one of a num!er of methods "hi#h usually in$ol$e fi2ing the gaLe on some point, and some form of $er!al suggestion that eyes "ill get tired until they #lose. Ho"e$er it is done, it is #lear that the res'lt must !e a great reduction in the activity of the "hole of the part of the $isual system in$ol$ed in $ie"ing the e2ternal "orld. .ith the eyes #losed all the ner$es from the retinas to the $isual #orte2 "ill !e#ome 'uies#ent. A typi#al se#ond step is to en#ourage physi#al rela2ation. This again may !e a##omplished in a $ariety of "ays: ea#h group of mus#les may first !e tensed so that there "ill !e a natural re!ound into a more rela2ed state5 there may simply !e a fo#us of attention on groups of mus#les and a suggestion of rela2ation5 there may !e the

#reation of an imaginary s#enario su#h as a "arm !ea#h, "hi#h is designed to indu#e rela2ed feelings. But ho"e$er it is done the res'lt is a great reduction of the activity of the main $oluntary mus#les, and $ery often the in$oluntary ones as "ell. t "ill !e noti#ed that a typi#al indu#tion pro#ess is a one4"ay affair. Hnless a 'uestion is asked, the Client does not talk. This is usually a##omplished !y the Hypnotist maintaining a steady flo" of spee#h in "hi#h there are no #ues for the 0u!&e#t to respond $er!ally. But ho"e$er it is done, the res'lt is that the a#ti$e spee#h4produ#ing system often !e#omes very inactive. The pattern is #lear. The Hypnotherapist is redu#ing the a#ti$ity of nearly all systems one !y one. Higher4order fa#ulties "hi#h are harder to o!ser$e, su#h as an internal $er!al analysis of "hat is going on and a #riti#al analysis of its #ontent, are typi#ally also redu#ed. There is, ho"e$er, at least one e2#eption to the general rule that systems are ina#ti$ated: and that is the aural system. The 0u!&e#t must #ontinue to !e a!le to hear the Hypnotherapist. deally this system should !e#ome more active than usual: the intention is for the listener to respond more than usual to "hat is said !y the Hypnotherapist. This may !e a##ompanied !y a redu#tion of attention to other sounds. Another possi!le e2#eption "ill !e a parti#ular other system that the Hypnotist is aiming to #hange: it may "ell !e that the goal is to enhan#e its a#ti$ity. The Hypnotherapist may, for e2ample, !e aiming to enhance a memory or to activate the imagination. 0o the total pattern of "hat the Hypnotherapist is doing #an !e #harted in reasona!le detail !y noting the le$els of a#ti$ity of $arious systems and "hether their a#ti$ity is tending to in#rease or de#rease. t may !e useful to some readers to pi#ture things as follo"s. +et e$ery ma&or system of the !rain and !ody !e represented !y a large dial, and an ad&a#ent kno!. Beneath ea#h large dial #an !e pla#ed a #olle#tion of smaller ones indi#ating the le$el of a#ti$ity of the su!systems. Through the #ourse of a normal day the needles on the dials are fli#kering, and most of the time indi#ating 'uite large le$els of a#ti$ity for most of the systems. The a!o$e Hypnoti# indu#tion #an then !e pi#tured in terms of the Hypnotherapist slo"ly turning kno! after kno!, turning do"n all those systems "hi#h are not rele$ant to the task in hand, and turning up those "hi#h are. This !rief e2ample should illustrate the rele$an#e of the le$el of a#ti$ity of systems in the #onte2t of Hypnotherapy. t should sho" "hy it is "orth"hile #onsidering the dynami#s of organi# systems at a more a!stra#t le$el. n a general form the !asi# 'uestion "hi#h underlies understanding any #omple2 thing is, 6 f #hange this, ho" "ill it affe#t thatB6 .e m'st !e a!le to gi$e at least a 'ualitati$e ans"er to 'uestions of this form if "e are to #laim to understand "hat "e are dealing "ith. As an e2ample of this, *e"tonian physi#s is !ased on the t"in o!ser$a!les of for#e and a##eleration. The !asi# rule of the dynami#s is that, 6 f #hange the for#e on a parti#le, then #hange the a##eleration instantaneously in e2a#t proportion: i.e. if the one dou!les, then so does the other.6

n our present theoreti#al stru#ture the only dynami#al $aria!le "e ha$e so far is the le$el of a#ti$ity. The #entral 'uestion "e need to ans"er is therefore, 6 f #hange the le$el of a#ti$ity of this system, ho" "ill it alter the le$el of a#ti$ity of that systemB6 n general, su#h is the #omple2ity of the systems "ith "hi#h "e are dealing, "e "ill !e una!le to gi$e a 'uantitati$e ans"er to this 'uestion. But "hat "e may at least !e a!le to do is to dis#o$er "hether an in#rease or de#rease in the a#ti$ity of one system a#ts so as to in#rease or de#rease the a#ti$ity of another. n other "ords "e may simplify our #entral 'uestion to !eing one of sign. )i$en any t"o systems A and B, in a gi$en indi$idual, "e "ould like to kno" "hether an in#rease in the a#ti$ity of A leads to an in#rease or de#rease in B or has no effe#t. +ike"ise "e "ould like to kno" the effe#t on B of a de#rease in the a#ti$ity of A. t might !e supposed that if an in#rease in the a#ti$ity of A leads to an in#rease in the a#ti$ity of B, then a de#rease "ill lead to a de#rease in its a#ti$ity. Ho"e$er this is not ne#essarily the #ase "hen "e #onsider !iologi#al systems. .e may take as an amusing and illustrati$e e2ample the analysis in &arkinson's #aw @Parkinson @(<3:ABi!A of the figures for su#h organi# systems as the Colonial Offi#e or the *a$y. t is understanda!le that as the empire in#reased or the num!er of ships in#reased then there should !e a #orresponding in#rease in the administrati$e staff. But the #orresponding assumption that the reduction of the siLe of the empire, or a reduction in the num!er of fighting ships "ould also lead to a reduction of the administrators turns out to !e 'uite "rong. f anything the fa#ts suggest that their num!ers #ontinued to increase even faster( .ithin the human !ody, an in#rease in the a#ti$ity of the ner$es running to a mus#le typi#ally produ#e a 'ui#k in#rease in the a#ti$ity of the mus#le, "hi#h "ill #ontra#t. A redu#tion of the a#ti$ity of the ner$es does *OT #ause the mus#le to e2pand again. To re$erse the effe#t of that mus#le, another mus#le has to !e #alled into play. That is "hy "e see the general prin#iple of pairs of opposing mus#les throughout the !ody. There is, for e2ample, a mus#le to turn our eyes right, and another to turn them left5 one to turn them up and another to turn them do"n. Other pairs handle diagonal mo$ements. As another e2ample, the thought of going for a "alk may a#ti$ate the pro#ess of "alking. The mere fa#t that this thought is then displa#ed !y another does not stop the "alk. t has to !e stopped !y a#ti$ation of the thought, 6Time to stop6. n the most general terms "e may say that the most fundamental organi# a#ti$ity is that of growth. )ro"th may !e a#ti$ated, and that strongly and e2ponentially @i.e. dou!ling repeatedly in a #hara#teristi# inter$al of timeA, if a fa$oura!le en$ironment is pro$ided. On the other hand a remo$al of that pro$ision does not ne#essarily lead to an e'ually rapid de#line in the system, for it is the nature of organi# systems to !e self4preser$ing. A )o$ernment may indu#e a#ti$ity in an area of the e#onomy !y putting some money into it. But "hen they stop doing so, that area "ill not immediately #ease a#ti$ity. ndeed it may respond to the #hallenge and !e#ome e$en more a#ti$e.

.ithin the human !ody a sight of danger leads to an immediate fear response. The remo$al of that sight does not immediately indu#e rela2ation. There is a strong asymmetry. t may e$en !e the #ase that the remo$al of the sight a#tually in#reases the fear, on the grounds that it is !etter to !e a!le to see a danger than to ha$e it re4 appear une2pe#tedly. Although this point has !een emphasised in the #ase of organi# systems, the prin#iple is familiar e$en in #ertain me#hani#al #onte2ts. 7otor $ehi#les ha$e a !rake and an a##elerator, one to slo" you do"n and the other to speed you up. 0imply taking your foot off the a##elerator does $ery little indeed to stop you. 0imply taking your foot off the !rake does not #ause you to a##elerate at all. And noti#e that in order to dri$e a #ar you need only kno" "hi#h pedal is "hi#h. ,ou only need to kno" the sign of their effe#ts. The e2a#t mathemati#al e2pression for ho" the $elo#ity of the #ar $aries "ith the pressure on the pedals is immaterial to the !asi# operation. And this illustrates in the #onte2t of #ontrolling organi# systems "hy it is often enough to kno" the sign of the effe#t of one system on another. The ne2t step "e "ill !e taking is to streamline the dis#ussion. t is a $ery good prin#iple of thought, used e2tensi$ely in mathemati#s, that if a phrase or senten#e arises fre'uently, a shorthand e2pression should !e found for it. Our !rains are severely limite% in their #apa#ities. The compression of #on#epts makes the most of su#h #apa#ities as "e ha$e. This is a prin#iple personally find sadly la#king in appli#ation in !ooks "ritten !y psy#hologists "ho should kno" !etter. There are too many people "ho seem to reason as follo"s: 67u#h $alua!le "ork is hard to understand. Therefore "ork "hi#h is hard to understand must !e $alua!le. 9or my "ork to !e $alua!le it must !e hard for others to understand. "ill therefore make the synta2 and $o#a!ulary as a!struse and #omple2 as possi!le.6 t is as if they reasoned, 67ost stately homes are hard to find your "ay around in. Therefore houses "hi#h are hard to find your "ay around in must !e stately. 9or my home to !e stately it must !e hard for others to find their "ay around in it. "ill therefore fill it "ith large furniture, s#reens, "ardro!es, et#. "hi#h are all as large and diffi#ult to negotiate as possi!le.6 am a#utely a"are of the smallness of my mind, and so ha$e to "ork hard to keep it free from #lutter !y keeping things as simple as possi!le in finding my "ay around #ompli#ated things. 0o in pla#e of the phrase 6an in#rease in the a#ti$ity of system A6 "ill introdu#e the sym!ol 6 2A6. n pla#e of the phrase 6a de#rease in the a#ti$ity of system A6 "ill use 6 3A6. n pla#e of the senten#e, 6an in#rease in the a#ti$ity of system A leads dire#tly to an in#rease in the a#ti$ity of system B6 "ill use the e2pression 6 2A 4 2B6. Note! In the "oo# form it &as possi"le to 'se sym"ols &hich are not stan%ar% TML ones$ an% I 'se% an 'p arro& for 2$ a %o&n arro& for 3$ a hori5ontal arro& for 4( Trying to 'se those sym"ols le% to pro"lems on some "ro&ers an% so I have 'se% these alternative sym"ols 6&hich can also "e 'se% in email correspon%ence7(The sym"ol 8 &hich &ill appear "elo& &as a %o'"le hea%e% vertical arro&(

E2pressions su#h as 2A 4 2B, 3A 4 2B and 3A 4 3B #an then !e read easily. 0in#e it is useful to dis#uss situations in "hi#h a #hange in the a#ti$ity of one system leads to no #hange in the a#ti$ity of another, "ill also use the sym!ol 6 9B6 in pla#e of 6no #hange in the a#ti$ity of system B6. The final sym!ol "hi#h may o##asionally !e used is 6 8 6 "hi#h means 6an in#rease or de#rease6 i.e. some #hange, "here "e are not either sure or #on#erned a!out its dire#tion. f "e let 0 M Nsympatheti# ner$ous systemO and let P M Nparasympatheti# ner$ous systemO and H M NheartO then "e may say that the !asi# regulation of H follo"s the pattern that: 20 4 2H, 30 4 9H, "hile 2P 4 3H and 3P 4 9H. .e. the a#tion of the sympatheti# ner$ous system a#ti$ates the heart, "hile a redu#tion of the heart rate is produ#ed !y a dire#t a#tion of the parasympatheti# system @%athus @(<;:ABi!A. They are rather like a##elerator and !rake in a motor $ehi#le. t is "orth noting that the !asi# #on#epts introdu#ed so far ha$e a range of appli#a!ility from the le$el of indi$idual ner$e #ells 4 neurons 4 right up to the le$el of e#onomies or e#osystems. t is kno"n that the dire#t effe#t of one neuron on another "ith "hi#h it is in #onta#t is either to e2#ite it @in#rease its a#ti$ityA or to de#rease it @redu#e its a#ti$ityA. The rule does not #hange from moment to moment or day to day. The pattern of "orking of the !rain is dependent ultimately on the #omple2ity that #an arise from su#h !asi#ally simple intera#tions, "hen repeated !y the !illion. +ike"ise in an e#osystem in "hi#h "e may measure the mean a#ti$ity of a spe#ies !y its numeri#al strength, then the effe#t of a #hange in the a#ti$ity of one spe#ies on another is also fi2ed in time. 9o2es al"ays prey on ra!!its. %a!!its ne$er prey on fo2es. f 9 M Nfo2esO, % M Nra!!itsO then: 2% 4 29 4 3% 4 39 4 2% 4 ... "hi#h is shorthand for 6an in#rease in the num!er of ra!!its leads to an in#rease in the num!er of fo2es @sin#e they ha$e more to eatA, !ut an in#rease in the num!er of fo2es a#ts to de#rease the num!er of ra!!its @sin#e they are eatenA5 su#h a de#rease in the num!er of ra!!its "ill, in a "hile, lead to a de#rease in the num!er of fo2es @some star$e to deathA, and that in turn "ill allo" the num!ers of ra!!its to in#rease again. An in#rease in the num!er of ra!!its ....6 0u#h a pattern of intera#tion results in a #y#ling of the a#ti$ity of ea#h group. t is a#tually a negati$e feed!a#k loop of a kind "e "ill dis#uss in far more detail in Part B. t is kno"n from a #areful analysis of definite models of organi# systems that the result #an readily !e#ome chaotic, in the stri#t mathemati#al sense of the "ord @7urray @(<</ABi!A. %oughly speaking this means that e$en if "e kno" the pre#ise

form of the dynami#al e'uations it soon !e#omes impossi!le to predi#t "ith any a##ura#y the siLe of a population at a time in the future. And sin#e in pra#ti#e "e are unlikely to kno" either the e2a#t form of the e'uations, or the starting population a##urately, the diffi#ulty of e2a#t predi#tion !e#omes that mu#h harder. Conse'uently the analysis of pre#ise models may "ell tell us $ery little more than our simple model, "hi#h !y merely noting the sign of the effe#ts of #hange a#tually #ontains a lot of the useful 'ualitati$e dynami#s. These #onsiderations lead to the #on#lusion that "e ha$e found a strong and ro!ust foundation for our su!&e#t in the a!o$e simple #onsiderations. They are $ery general, !ut $ery #lear. They get to the heart of the matter. .e "ill !e !uilding on this foundation in Part B, to some effe#t. Important note on a""reviations( There may !e some readers "ho are put off !y the notation ha$e introdu#ed. Anything ne" #an !e hard to adapt to. Please note that it is only a form of shorthand. f you think of it as !eing like the use of a!!re$iations, su#h as *CPPH% for the *ational Coun#il of Psy#hotherapists and Hypnotherapy %egister, you may find it easier to understand "hat it is a!out. But shorthand does take a little time to master. suggest that "hen at first you see some you a$oid the temptation to let your eye skip o$er it and simply e2pand it into the full phrase or senten#e it represents until you !e#ome familiar "ith its meaning. n time you "ill then !e a!le to "ork simply "ith the shorthand. Compared "ith the task of a se#retary learning PitmanFs shorthand the time and effort in$ol$ed is $ery small indeed. The great strength of a shorthand lies in its simpli#ity and #ompa#tness. .e "ill find this useful "hen "e #ome to analysing different kinds of pro#esses "hi#h arise. re4 emphasise that e$en arithmeti# #ould not ha$e de$eloped "ithout the use of a good shorthand for the num!ers. But of #ourse the use of a shorthand in itself is not mathemati#s. The "eakness of a shorthand is that it has to !e accurate. A one letter mistake in the degree 7A #an make a 7aster of Arts into a >o#tor of 7edi#ine 4 7> 4 something that #annot !e a#hie$ed !y a one letter #hange to the full phrase. 9inally, for the sake of e2a#titude, "ill make e2pli#it a #on$ention that if a "ord or phrase is in N O it refers to the activity of a system, "hile if it is in @ A it refers to some 'uantity that is not. Thus it #an !e useful to "rite 2@temperatureA 4 2Ns"eatingO, "hi#h "ould !e shorthand for 6An in#rease in the temperature of a person leads to an in#rease in the a#ti$ity of the perspiration system6. The su!tly different e2pression 2 NtemperatureO 4 2@s"eatingA "ould mean 6An in#rease in the a#ti$ity of the sensory system "hi#h registers temperature leads to an in#rease in the measura!le s"eat produ#ed6. This distin#tion is not of great importan#e at the le$el of this !ook, !ut #ould !e important as the methods !e#ome in#reasingly pre#ise. 9or it is *OT al"ays the #ase that the per#ei$ed temperature is the same as the a#tual temperature and it may not !e the #ase that a gi$en le$el of a#ti$ation of the perspiration system al"ays leads to the same le$el of perspiration.

SUMMARThe notion of a system has !een ela!orated mainly through e2amples. The notion of the activity of an organi# system has !een introdu#ed, together "ith a notation "hi#h e2presses in a #ompa#t form the essential fa#ts regarding the "ay #hanges in the a#ti$ity of one system may affe#t the a#ti$ity of another. t is important to note the general prin#iple of organi# systems that re$ersing the #ause does not ne#essarily re$erse the effe#t. t has !een emphasised that Hypnoti# te#hni'ues ha$e the effe#t of altering the le$el of a#ti$ity of a $ery "ide $ariety of systems in the !rain and !ody, "hi#h is "hy this systems4oriented approa#h to the su!&e#t is in$alua!le if "e are to analyse "hat is happening. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R :

ypnosis!

Other Theoretical Approaches

It is useful ne t to e amine various other theoretical approaches which have been taken to the subject. This overview will deepen the understanding of the newcomer. The range of theories is classified with an eye on the way in which they can be related to particular organic systems. It will be seen that the systems approach gives a way of unifying discussion and analysis of the whole field. The primary conclusion is that previous theoretical models have been based on noticing that Hypnotic techniques change the functioning of one particular system of the mind or body and then e trapolating to the idea that this particular system or change is the key or definitive feature of Hypnosis. )ach theory therefore has some truth to teach, but none provides a complete picture. THE P%EJ OH0 CHAPTE% outlined the #on#ise and general frame"ork for theoreti#al Hypnosis "hi#h "ill !e used in this !ook. .e may no" take a look at earlier theories to see ho" they #an !e related "ithin this frame"ork. Although the Hypnoti# phenomena des#ri!ed in Chapter - ha$e !een o!ser$ed for a $ery long time 4 hundreds if not thousands of years in some #ases 4 the nature of "hat "as happening has !een understood in $ery different "ays. This #hapter "ill des#ri!e the $arious ideas of "hat is in$ol$ed. 9or #on$enien#e these ideas "ill fre'uently !e asso#iated "ith the names of their originators or #hief proponents. The order in "hi#h they are des#ri!ed "ill !e loosely #hronologi#al !ut the intention is not to gi$e a history !ut rather an o$er$ie" of the kinds of "ays in "hi#h our su!&e#t has

!een thought a!out o$er the years. n any #ase the histori#al de$elopment of ideas is seldom straightfor"ard. 0imilar ideas ha$e a "ay of arising in se$eral pla#es at the same time, and returning in modified forms at different times. 7any different ideas #an #oe2ist at the same time. 9or anyone "ho is interested in the detailed history of Hypnosis there are some e2#ellent !ooks no" a$aila!le @)auld @(<<-A, Cra!tree @(<</ABi!A. The main theoreti#al approa#hes #an !e summarised as follo"s: (. 0pirit possession. -. Jital energy effe#ts. /. *eurologi#al. 1. 0uggestion. 3. 0o#iologi#al. 8. nformation. *( Spirit possession( .hen "e look !a#k in time through the eyes of history "e find that most people most of the time had a total and un'uestioning !elief in all manner of disem!odied spirits. These #ould !e the spirits of the dead 4 humans or animals, ghosts, e$il spirits, good spirits, gods and demons. @E$en in this se#ular age the ma&ority of people meet seem to retain some form of !elief in su#h things.A n so#ieties "ith #omplete faith in su#h spirits there "ould !e indi$iduals "ho #laimed to ha$e spe#ial po"ers "ith regard to them. They might !e #alled shamans or priests or "it#h4do#tors or ora#les. 0ome of their early pra#ti#es foreshado"ed professions "hi#h ha$e sin#e !e#ome 'uite distin#t. Their pra#ti#e "ould often !e tied in "ith the mo$ements of the moon and planets, and so in that "ay they are the forerunners of astronomers. They "ould often "ork "ith the healing spirits they asso#iated "ith $arious su!stan#es 4 animal, $egeta!le and mineral 4 and in that "ay are forerunners of medi#ine and e$en #hemistry. n #reating theories of the origin and meaning of the uni$erse they "ere the forerunners of philosophers and #osmologists. n their use of musi# and dramati# ena#tment to enhan#e their effe#t they are also the forerunners of a#tors and musi#ians. t is not therefore surprising that their "ork also #ontained the seeds of Hypnotherapy. To our eyes it seems #lear that they often used a $ariety of means to indu#e in their listeners #ertain po"erful e2pe#tations "hi#h "ould then $ery often ha$e !een realised. n terms of healing, a modern interpretation of "hat they did "ould !e that they used a greatly enhan#ed pla#e!o response to great effe#t. f "e stand !a#k and look at the pattern that seems to run through the pra#ti#e of su#h people "e see the follo"ing.

The Pra#titioner goes through some pro#edure "hi#h he @or sheA #laims to lead to his or her possession !y some po"erful spirit. Today this might !e termed entering a tran#e. The usual personality disappears and another takes its pla#e 4 that of the spirit or god. This po"erful spirit then a#ts on the ClientFs !ehalf. %ather more pro!lems "ould !e ta#kled in this "ay than "e might #ontemplate today: they #ould in#lude not only health pro!lems !ut also di$ination or pro#uring good fortune or re$enge on an enemy. *oti#e that the "hole fo#us of attention is on the &ractitioner. Although "e #an e2pe#t that the Client "ill also !e#ome strongly e2pe#tant of #hange, and might at times !e a#ted upon to remo$e a supposed e$il spirit "hi#h might possess him or her, the fo#us of the a#ti$ity is the possession of the Pra#titioner !y a po"erful spirit. t should !e noti#ed that this approa#h to pro!lems has not died out in the "orld. There are many today "ho #ontinue to "ork "ithin this paradigm. 9or e2ample there are those "orking "ithin the healing ministry of $arious #hur#hes "ho are portraying themsel$es as #hannels through "hi#h the healing spirit of )od #an #ome do"n for others. E$en more similar are the mediums "ho go into a tran#e in "hi#h they might !e 6taken o$er6 !y the spirit of a %ed ndian )uide or the like, and it is that spirit "hi#h then supposedly ad$ises or helps. The only tra#e of this theme in modern Hypnotherapy is that the Pra#titioner "ill typi#ally adopt a professional persona "hile at "ork. This has a faint fla$our of the pra#ti#e of the shaman. t is saying non4$er!ally, 6 am no longer the ordinary person you meet in the street. am no" em!odying "isdom, kno"ledge and po"er to help you. These trans#end my personal self.6 t is "orth looking at a fe" phenomena from our field to see ho" they might look from a spirit4"orld perspe#ti$e. There is an esta!lished Hypnoti# phenomenon of automati# "riting. n some 0u!&e#ts it is not only possi!le to make a hand rise up into the air "ith no #ons#ious $olition, !ut also to get it to "rite "ords "hi#h seem to the 0u!&e#t to !e totally un"illed and unpremeditated. ndeed if the hand is hidden from $ie" there may !e no kno"ledge e$en that the hand has done any "riting @e.g. )auld @(<<-ABi!A. A natural spiritual possession interpretation of this is that #learly a foreign spirit has taken o$er the fun#tioning of the hand, and that the Hypnotherapist has simply a#ted in su#h a "ay as to fa#ilitate it. Another phenomenon "hi#h arises in the field of Hypnosis is that of Clients "ho seem $i$idly to re#all e$ents "hi#h are #learly set in times !efore they "ere !orn. The spiritual possession $ie" of these "ould naturally !e again that the !ody @like that of the mediumA has temporarily !een taken possession of !y the spirit of someone else "ho had li$ed that earlier life, and again that the Hypnotist has a#ted in a "ay to fa#ilitate this. Alternati$ely it may !e said that this phenomenon #on#erns only one spirit "ho first li$ed the past life and is no" li$ing the present one. This interpretation is fairly popular "ith many people today, and is termed Past +ife %egression. E2amples of instan#es of the use of Hypnoti# te#hni'ues to eli#it details of past li$es are pro$ided

!y $erson @(<:8ABi!. The !elief harmonises "ell "ith those Eastern philosophies and religions "hi#h !elie$e in repeated in#arnations of ea#h indi$idual soul. kno" of no attempt to distinguish !y e2periment or theory !et"een the a!o$e t"o interpretations. 7ost of the phenomena "hi#h today are interpreted as !eing the results of the fun#tioning of 6the su!#ons#ious6 "ould !e interpreted as !eing the results of the fun#tioning of 6the spirits6. .e see e#hoes of this in phrases su#h as 6he is sho"ing his animal spirits6, 6spirit of in'uiry6, 6she is inspired6, et#. The relief of some !ad feeling like a depression or &ealousy "ould !e seen as the remo$al or e2or#ism of a !ad spirit that "as possessing the person. The #ure of a disease "ould !e !y remo$ing the possessing spirit or !y pla#ating or neutralising the e$il po"er that "as #ausing it. A #ure of insomnia "ould !e seen as the remo$al of the 6"akeful spirit6 that "as indu#ing it, and so on. .e ha$e seen ho" some of the phenomena of our field look from the point of $ie" of someone "ho !elie$es in spirit possession. *o" let us see ho" that paradigm looks from the perspe#ti$e of our present systems approa#h. The starting point is the idea that the mind is #omposed of many su!systems. At times, as in the #ase of split personalities, these different su!systems #an !e distin#t and $ery #omple2, ea#h ha$ing its o"n memory and pattern of !eha$iour. .e "ill later meet other aspe#ts of this phenomenon, "hi#h go !y su#h names as disso#iation, 6the #hild "ithin6, 6the hidden o!ser$er6, et#.: all attest to the fa#t that for most of us the mind is !est seen as a #omple2 net"ork of intera#ting systems, many of #onsidera!le #omple2ity and often ha$ing a high degree of autonomy. n su#h #ases they #an fun#tion like su!4personalities. There is really $ery little differen#e in practical terms !et"een su#h a pi#ture and that of spirit possession. Any differen#es #entre around su#h essentially pragmati# 'uestions as, 6Ho" do su#h su!systems arise in the mind or !rainB6 One s#hool of thought "ill say that it #an only !e as a result of an ela!oration of physi#al information "hi#h has #ome through the normal senses or is impli#it in the genes. The s#hool of thought at the other e2treme "ill say that they #an arise !y some paranormal pro#ess: that a distin#t spirit, un!ounded !y spa#e and time, may enter the mind or !rain and take root. The systems paradigm #annot, of #ourse, resol$e this #onfli#t: that #an only #ome as a result of $ery #areful e2amination of the phenomena. .hat it does do is to pro$ide a #omparati$ely neutral language and frame"ork "hi#h #ould !e shared !y proponents of !oth $ie"s and "hi#h might lead to some agreed e2periments to determine the a#tual fa#ts. f, for e2ample, "e are e2amining a #ase of automati# "riting, then it #ould !e agreed !y !oth sides that there is a su!system of the person "hi#h is a#ting outside the s#ope of the normal personality. The #ontent of the "riting might then !e e2amined to see if it is e2pli#a!le on the !asis of pre$ious e2perien#e in this life, or not. f, as another e2ample, "e are dealing "ith a #ase of 6past4life regression6, it #ould !e agreed it in$ol$es a #omple2 su!system of the person "hi#h is fun#tioning in

some "ays like that of a person "ho li$ed in the past. @There is nothing too strange a!out this in itself: a#tors #an do it regularly.A t #an !e presumed that this su!system "ould ha$e some effe#ts on the present !eha$iour of the person, and that any #hanges a therapist might make to the 6past4life6 system, in#luding making it more #ons#ious, "ould ha$e some effe#t. 0u#h #hanges are $alid "hate$er the assumption made a!out the origin of the phenomenon. n prin#iple, ho"e$er, it might !e possi!le for some #riteria to !e agreed "hi#h might #larify the 'uestion of the origin of su#h systems. A #lear #ase in "hi#h a 6past4life6 report re$ealed a #omplete kno"ledge of the meaning of a "ritten language "hi#h up until then had !een totally o!s#ure "ould, for e2ample, !e strong e$iden#e for the transferen#e of a mental system of thought !y other than the "ays "e a##ept on a daily !asis: i.e. primarily through "hat "e ha$e seen or heard 4 at first hand or perhaps on the TJ, $ideo, radio or in a !ook. n !rief then, 9 it "ere to !e esta!lished as a pragmati# fa#t that spirit possession in the traditional sense takes pla#e, THE* "e "ould simply in#lude su#h systems and their "orkings "ithin the #urrent theoreti#al stru#ture of systems. This is parallel to the o!ser$ation that 9 it "ere to !e esta!lished that mental #ommuni#ation 4 telepathy 4 is possi!le !et"een minds then this "ould not affe#t the frame"ork of the theory, !ased as it is on the effe#t of one system on another: it "ould simply add an additional method !y "hi#h one mental system #an affe#t another 4 like the addition of radio or tele$ision. /( Life;force effects( 7esmer @(:/14(;(3A is one of the !est kno"n names in the history of Hypnotism @Burranelli @(<:3ABi!A. He #an !e taken to herald in a ne" paradigm. n this, the old idea of po"erful spirits "ith "ills, intelligen#es and feelings is displa#ed !y a !elief in po"erful life4for#es akin to gra$ity, magnetism and ele#tri#ity. 7esmer "as first influen#ed !y *e"tonFs theory of gra$itation. To !egin "ith he #alled the for#e animal magnetism, though he later #ame to regret the term sin#e too many people then #onfused it "ith ordinary magnetism. This for#e #ould !e stored in #ertain o!&e#ts. He, other things and other people #ould !e a #hannel for it. f its flo" "as !lo#ked in a person, it #ould lead to illness. Healing resulted from restoring the proper flo". 0u#h ideas are #ongenial to #ertain kinds of human minds in #ertain ages, it "ould seem, sin#e others independently arri$ed at similar theories, in "hi#h the for#e "as gi$en different names. A Baron $on %ei#hen!a#h @(:;;4(;8<A #laimed the dis#o$ery of "hat he #alled the Od for#e "ith similar properties. n Ameri#a the so4#alled Ele#tro4!iology of )rimes @(;/<ABi! had the same fla$our. n this #entury "e find %ei#h "ith his orgone energy "hi#h #ould like"ise !e stored and used. And to the present day the #on#ept of a life4for#e floats freely through *e" Age literature. .e also find notions of 6psy#hi# energy6, 6repressed @perhaps se2ualA energy6 and the like entering into some psy#hoanalyti#al "ritings and thought "ithout a great deal of attempt to pin do"n the notions pre#isely, so that they are s#ar#ely distinguisha!le from the other for#es mentioned a!o$e. am not a"are of a proponent of this "ay of thinking "ho has "orked the ideas out in detail. There seems a #ertain ne!ulous $agueness a!out the supposed for#e "hi#h is

mirrored in a similar $agueness of the thought a!out it. Thus 7esmer himself simultaneously sa" the 6magnetism6 as !eing #apa!le of passing through anything, !ut as !eing refle#ted from mirrors and also of !eing stored in #ertain thingsI n his list of -: propositions #on#erning animal magnetism "e find the follo"ing propositions @7esmer @(::<ABi!A: (/. E2perien#e sho"s a diffusion of matter so su!tle that it penetrates all other !odies, apparently "ithout any loss of poten#y. (3. t is like light in that it #an !e reinfor#ed and refle#ted !y mirrors. (:. ... @itA #an !e a##umulated, #on#entrated, and transported from one pla#e to another. This is su#h a strange #om!ination of properties that you "ould e2pe#t it to suggest all forms of 'uestions in the mind, !ut it did not to 7esmer. As an e2ample of ho" this theoreti#al approa#h might treat a typi#al phenomenon, "e may #onsider a fairly typi#al response of many of 7esmerFs patients "hi#h "as that at some stage in the pro#eedings they "ould go into some form of #on$ulsion 4 a #risis. This is not something that happens in modern Hypnotherapy, !ut then it is not e2pe#ted. f "e "ere to suggest it, then undou!tedly there "ould !e 0u!&e#ts "ho "ould respond in that "ay. @0tage Hypnotists ha$e !een kno"n to get people to respond as if they ha$e &ust re#ei$ed a strong ele#tri#al sho#k.A But to the 7esmerist this "as a #lear manifestation of a release of the !lo#ked energy. As another e2ample, #an say to someone: 6Hold your hands si2 in#hes apart. "ill no" pla#e mine one on either side of yours and a fe" in#hes a"ay from them. ,ou "ill then start to feel a po"erful for#e #oming from my hands for#ing yours together.6 And "hen do this it "ill normally "ork. f there is a !elief in the e2isten#e of some $ital for#e then this "ill seem to !e $ery strong #onfirmation that am produ#ing that for#e. Ho"e$er, all it really pro$es is the po"er of the idea and not the e2isten#e of the for#e, for it works equally well if simply say @and, usually, repeat until it happensA, 6Hold your hand si2 in#hes apart. Try to keep them that distan#e apart. They "ill in fa#t, "hate$er you do, !e dra"n together.6 n neither #ase "ill any flo" of energy !e measura!le from me to the Client. All ha$e done is to esta!lish a system of thought in the personFs mind. *oti#e that a Pra#titioner like 7esmer "ould still !e #redited "ith some po"er, though it is not no" the po"er of a possessing spirit, !ut some sort of po"er of his o"n to dire#t this life4for#e. t might !e manifest in his eyes or in his hands. He might "ell ha$e his effe#t !y mo$ing his hands o$er the patientFs !ody, "ith or "ithout tou#hing it. The norm in the pra#ti#e of 7esmerists seems to ha$e !een a great deal of #onta#t, "hi#h "as often $ery $igorous. There are #ertain 6healers6 in the present day "ho #laim some form of this same po"er. n the longer term the most $alua!le #onse'uen#e of the shift of perspe#ti$e that "e may asso#iate "ith 7esmer is that the phenomena #ame to !e thought of as things

that might !e analysed in a #ontrolled "ay. A !ig pro!lem "ith the old spirit4"orld pi#ture is that spirits are, of their nature, not easy to measure or #ontrol. On#e the phenomena are assumed to !e the result of something more like for#es they are open to e2amination. And it must !e said that "hen the notions of 7esmer were put to the test !y the %oyal Commission appointed in 9ran#e to look into his #laims, it "as found that his #laims for the e2isten#e of a for#e of 6animal magnetism6 "ere unsu!stantiated. 9or e2ample a patient "ho "ould rea#t appropriately to a tree "hen he had seen it !eing 6magnetised6, rea#ted at random to trees if he had not seen "hi#h one had !een treated. The Commission #on#luded that 7esmerFs results "ere a result of the !elief and e2pe#tation of people together "ith the fa#t that some spontaneous remissions are to !e e2pe#ted in any #ase @ *apport... @(:;1ABi!A. This report did not ha$e $ery mu#h effe#t on the #ontinuing use of 7esmeri# te#hni'ues "hi#h gradually #hanged in the hands of $arious people o$er the ne2t half #entury from the end of the eighteenth #entury into the nineteenth. O$er this period most of the #ommon Hypnoti# phenomena "ere !eing e$oked regularly, and it "ould appear that the repertoire of tra$elling 7esmeri# sho"men of the day "ould !e rather similar in #ontent and tone to that of many a modern stage Hypnotist, though their 6e2planation6 of "hat "as happening "ould !e different. <hat are &e to ma#e of vital energy e1planations= To the !est of my kno"ledge all properly #ondu#ted e2aminations of detailed predi#tions of this theory ha$e led to essentially the same #on#lusion as that of the %oyal Commission: there is no e$iden#e for a transfer of energy or of there !eing any $ital for#e or similar. But from the perspe#ti$e of our #urrent systems approa#h "e may perhaps !uild a !ridge to su#h theories as follo"s. .hat "e can #ertainly do is to a#ti$ate in another person a ne" pattern of thought. This, in itself, is not a pro#ess "hi#h is essentially energeti#. t has more to do "ith ordering, "ith #hanging the patterns of thought. But the ne" pattern of thought #an lead to an in#rease, or of #ourse a de#rease, in the a#ti$ity of a $ariety of su!pro#esses in the person. 9or e2ample, if a person is shouted at, it #an arouse strong feelings of anger or e$en a#tual $iolen#e. n su#h a #ase it #an look as if the person has re#ei$ed energy from the shouter. But an e$en stronger response #an !e e$oked !y a pie#e of paper, su#h as an n#ome Ta2 demand, "here there is negligi!le energy in$ol$ed, only information. 0o, "e transfer patterns, order, information, and this may lead to an a#ti$ation of energy out of all proportion to any minute amounts of energy that are a#tually in$ol$ed in the sound "a$es or other media "hi#h #on$ey the #hange. The amplification that this in$ol$es "ill !e made the su!&e#t of Chapter (/. 0( Ne'rological theories t is #on$enient to asso#iate the start of this approa#h "ith the name of Games Braid @(:<34(;8=A. n his !ook of (;1- he ga$e the "orld the results of "hat his rational 0#ottish mind had dis#o$ered a!out the 7esmeri# phenomena of the day. He also ga$e us the "ord Hypnosis @Braid @(;1-ABi!A.

The essen#e of his theoreti#al #on#eption is that he dis#o$ered that he #ould greatly depress or prodigiously e2alt @his termsA the arousal of sele#ted parts of the ner$ous system. The name he #hose to des#ri!e the phenomena "as, in full, *euro4 Hypnosis, or a sleep of the ner$es. This is a referen#e to the #ondition of greatly depressed a#ti$ity of most groups of ner$es in his 0u!&e#ts. But he "as 'uite #lear that this "as distin#t from normal sleep, and that it #ould !e #om!ined "ith a greatly e2alted #ondition of other groups of ner$es. n terms of the #on#epts that ha$e !een introdu#ed in this !ook, BraidFs idea "as that the le$el of a#ti$ity of parti#ular su!systems of the ner$ous system #ould !e in#reased or de#reased freely and dramati#ally. n this respe#t his ideas are #lear pre#ursors of those in this !ook. He also demonstrated that the standard phenomena of 7esmerism, "hi#h "ere supposedly a result of the po"er of animal magnetism, #ould !e produ#ed as readily "ith no passes, #onta#t from the Pra#titioner, et#. Braid, ho"e$er, also thought in terms of a Hypnoti# state. This is a natural #on#lusion from his e2perien#es. He used one and only one indu#tion pro#edure. He e2pe#ted the one form of response. .ith our present understanding it is not surprising that he should therefore ha$e dis#o$ered a seeming uniformity of response. n the one hundred and fifty years sin#e then, the notion of a unique Hypnoti# state has #ontinued to run through our su!&e#t. There ha$e !een many attempts in more re#ent years to find one single #lear defining #riterion for this supposed state "hi#h "ill effe#ti$ely distinguish it from other states 4 !ut to no a$ail. And indeed, surely the a priori assumption is that a single state is far too simple a #on#ept to e2plain the fa#t that the phenomena of Hypnosis #an arise in #onditions as different as the $ery rela2ed #alm offi#e of a modern Hypnotherapist and the emotionally #harged group sessions of 7esmer "hi#h "ere #hara#terised !y patients falling a!out in #on$ulsions and ha$ing to !e taken into ad&a#ent rooms to re#o$er from their #risesB Asso#iated "ith the notion of a single state has !een a more modern tenden#y to try to determine O*E neurologi#al stru#ture "hi#h is in$ol$ed in Hypnosis. 0ome "orkers ha$e !een in#lined to think that it depends on the inhi!ition of the a#ti$ity of the left @$er!alA hemisphere of the !rain and a simultaneous a#ti$ation of the right hemisphere @0hone @(<;/ABi!A. Clearly su#h a pro#ess #omes "ithin the definition of Hypnosis used here in that the a!o$e lateralisation of !rain a#ti$ity is one particular e ample of the general prin#iples of Hypnosis "hi#h in$ol$es a relati$e #hange in the a#ti$ities of $arious systems. But there is no #lear e$iden#e that this parti#ular #hange is either ne#essary or suffi#ient for the produ#tion of any other parti#ular Hypnoti# phenomenon. A modern refinement of this theory maintains that the !alan#e !et"een the hemispheres #an !e altered !y for#ed uninostril !reathing: !reathing through the right nostril tends to in#rease the a#ti$ity of the left hemisphere and $i#e $ersa. Another theory, "hi#h has also only !een presented in a superfi#ial "ay, is that the key system is the As#ending %eti#ular A#ti$ating 0ystem @%A0A in the !rain stem @.a2man @(<;(ABi!A. This is #ertainly in$ol$ed in general le$els of arousal or a#ti$ity

in the !rain, and presuma!ly any glo!al #hanges in mental a#ti$ity "ill in$ol$e the a#ti$ity of the %A0. 0o "hile it is 'uite #onsistent "ith the general prin#iples of Hypnosis that it should !e possi!le to affe#t the a#ti$ity of the %A0, there is again no e$iden#e that #hanges to it are either ne#essary or suffi#ient for the produ#tion of a gi$en phenomenon. .e ha$e already remarked on the fa#t that Hypnoti# phenomena may !e o!ser$ed in 0u!&e#ts "ith !oth $ery high and $ery lo" le$els of arousal. Closely related to this is the idea that Hypnosis in$ol$es simply a form of sleep, for there are #ertain key nu#lei in the !rain stem 4 the nu#lei of %aphe 4 "hose a#ti$ation "ill either s"it#h on sleep or s"it#h on arousal. This idea, in one form or another, goes !a#k a long "ay in the history of Hypnosis. The suggestion of sleep "as used as least as far !a#k as >e PuysQgur @Tintero" @(<:=ABi!A. *o" sleep may seem to !e a simple thing or state, !ut more re#ent resear#h has sho"n a num!er of things a!out it. The first thing is that it is not a state. 7easurements of !rain a#ti$ity sho" a #ontinuously #hanging pattern. .ithin this pattern there are episodes of dreaming in "hi#h there is #learly a lot of mental a#ti$ity of a parti#ular kind. n addition "e may note that it is during sleep that the le$el of gro"th hormones in the !rain is at its ma2imum, "hi#h strongly suggests that some pro#esses are $ery a#ti$e. Ha$ing said this it is also #lear that sleep is #hara#terised !y the almost total elimination of the a#ti$ity of #ertain high4order !rain fun#tions: those "e asso#iate "ith #ons#iousness. Thus it is "ithin the !ounds of the general prin#iples of Hypnosis that it is possi!le to #hange the pattern of a#ti$ity in similar "ays to those in sleep 4 and indeed "hen suggestions of sleep ha$e !een gi$en it has !een found possi!le to measure ele#tri#al "a$es in the !rain "hi#h are #hara#teristi# of sleep. But again "e must emphasise that this has not !een sho"n to !e either ne#essary or suffi#ient in order to produ#e any other Hypnoti# phenomenon. Attempts ha$e also !een made to dete#t other spe#ifi# #hanges in !rain "a$e patterns "hi#h #an !e asso#iated "ith a uni'ue 6state6 of Hypnosis. Again the "eakness of this approa#h is that an e2perimenter may "ell find it possi!le to re#ord #ertain #hanged patterns of a#ti$ity in the !rain in #ertain 0u!&e#ts, su#h as those mentioned a!o$e, sin#e, as ha$e #ontinually noted, the #hanging of the patterns of a#ti$ity is the #entral theme of Hypnosis. But there is again a la#k of e$iden#e that any particular #hange is either ne#essary or suffi#ient for the produ#tion of any other Hypnoti# phenomenon. Another theory in this area, promoted !y %ossi @(<</ABi!, in$ol$es linking Hypnoti# phenomena to the natural #y#les of "akefulness and sleepiness during the day 4 the diurnal #y#les. There are su#h #y#les, "hi#h are a #ontinuation of #y#les "hi#h ha$e !een o!ser$ed in sleep also, "hi#h ha$e a period of roughly <=4(-= minutes. %oughly speaking this means that the degree to "hi#h a person is more a#ti$e and out"ard looking as opposed to !eing more passi$e and in"ard looking "ill flu#tuate "ith time. 0in#e 'uite a lot of Hypnoti# phenomena in$ol$e a #ertain amount of in"ardness it is reasona!le to suppose that they #ould !e e$oked more easily at #ertain points on the #y#le than others. Ho"e$er this is a far #ry from esta!lishing that this parti#ular phenomenon is at the !asis of all Hypnoti# phenomena.

Another line of thought seems to go to the opposite e2treme from the sleep theories, and to emphasise the strong fo#us of attention "hi#h #an #hara#terise mental a#ti$ity in many Hypnoti# pro#edures. t #an !e noted that at times the attention of the 0u!&e#t #an !e narro"ed so that there is no a"areness of anything !ut the HypnotistFs $oi#e and the #urrent thought "hi#h it is generating. t is #ertainly true that this #an happen, and that many Hypnoti# pro#edures ha$e this as a goal. Braid himself thought on these lines and at one time attempted to #hange his nomen#lature and to drop the "ord Hypnosis in fa$our of mono4ideism, "hi#h is a referen#e to the single4mindedness #hara#teristi# of many 0u!&e#ts. The narro"ing of attention is often a $ery useful tool in the pra#ti#e of Hypnosis, and "e "ill #ome a#ross it often, parti#ularly "hen it is sharpened !y the #onstant use of the 'uestion, 6E2a#tly "hi#h systems is it !eing limited toB6 At the same time it is a fa#t that other Hypnoti# te#hni'ues and phenomena are aimed at !roadening of attention and e$en to a seeming elimination of any fo#used attention at all, so that "e #ould not define the su!&e#t entirely in terms of fo#used attention "ithout losing $alua!le material. f "e regard attention as an aspe#t of the fun#tioning of the !rain, then it is natural "ithin the systems paradigm to see Hypnosis as in$ol$ing the in#rease or decrease of attention to a parti#ular area a##ording to the needs of the task in hand. 9inally under this #lassifi#ation #omes one of the simplest pi#tures of "hat Hypnosis in$ol$es. This pi#ture sees the !rain in terms of #ons#ious plus su!#ons#ious. All fun#tions of systems of the !rain in$ol$ed in #ons#ious !eha$iour are lumped into one supposed entity, 6the #ons#ious mind6, and all those others of "hi#h there is not normally #ons#ious #ontrol or a"areness are lumped into another, 6the su!#ons#ious mind6 @#f. Bo"ers et al. @(<;1ABi!A. The pro#ess of Hypnosis is then seen as !eing the displa#ement of the #ons#ious mind 4 it is 6sent to sleep6 4 and the Hypnotist then speaks to the su!#ons#ious mind dire#tly. This idea is not one that #an !e #learly asso#iated "ith one person. t is impli#it in the "ork of PuysQgur and su!se'uent "orkers in our field, and it is pro!a!ly the #ase that it "as the #umulati$e e2perien#e of those "orking "ith Hypnoti# phenomena in the nineteenth #entury that led to the notion of the su!#ons#ious that no"adays is asso#iated "ith 9reud. There are other $ersions of this model "hi#h go !y the name of disso#iational theories. Anyone "ho has read the literature on #lear #ases of split or multiple personalities "ill !e familiar "ith the pi#ture of one !ody "hi#h seems to #ontain a num!er of personalities "hi#h are at $arian#e "ith ea#h other. >espite the fa#t that su#h e2treme #ases seem to !e $ery rare, they pro$ide a simple pi#ture "hi#h #an !e #arried o$er into thinking of people "ho do not suffer from any pro!lem. The most re#ent proponent of a form of disso#iational theory is Hilgard, an Ameri#an psy#hologist "ho has done some e2#ellent "ork on the use of Hypnosis in pain @Hilgard P Hilgard @(<:3ABi! A. 0ome of his e2periments demonstrated that it "ould !e possi!le for there to !e no conscious a"areness of pain in #ertain indi$iduals, !ut there "as #lear e$iden#e that it "as !eing per#ei$ed at some le$el of the mind. 0u#h theories are 'uite in harmony "ith a systems approa#h, the only differen#e !eing the amount of detail. A systems approa#h "ill e2pe#t there to !e a multitude of systems at many le$els. Hnder some #onditions the situation may simplify into effe#ti$ely t"o systems, &ust as a so#iety may at some times !e seen for simpli#ity as a go$erning #lass and a go$erned. But this $ie" of things "ill far more often !e too

naR$e and simplisti# to !e of uni$ersal $alue. Things are seldom this #lear #ut. 9or e2ample su#h a model of a nation has little to tell us a!out impro$ing the edu#ational system or the health system or the transportation system of a #ountry. 0imilarly the fa#t that there is no #ons#ious a"areness of a system says $ery little a!out it: it may in$ol$e a 6split personality6 or a repressed memory, or simply an automati# a#tion, or an automati# regulation of "eight. 9inally in this se#tion "e may mention a #ommon 6definition6 of the supposed 6state of Hypnosis6, i.e. as 6an alternati$e state of #ons#iousness6. The main thrust of this definition is that Hypnosis does not in$ol$e the 0u!&e#t !e#oming un#ons#ious. t does not say "hat the differen#e is !et"een a supposed 6normal6 state of #ons#iousness 4 is this the 6state6 of !eing in a rage, or in a ra#e, or "at#hing a $ideo or making lo$eB 4 and the 6alternati$e6 state 4 is this rela2ed, or doing the #an#an on stage, or e2pressing deeply repressed emotionsB Ho"e$er, this idea #an !e e2pressed rather more pre#isely in terms of the systems approa#h as follo"s. Hypnosis "ill generally in$ol$e a#ti$ating systems in a rather different pattern from those "hi#h are #ustomary for the indi$idual in order to a#hie$e the re'uired #hange. There "ill !e no O*E different pattern for ea#h person, !ut ne$ertheless the differen#e "ill !e per#ei$ed !y the indi$idual, and during the pro#ess of e2perien#ing this different pattern "e might loosely say that he or she 6has an altered #ons#iousness6. t should !e apparent !y no" that the theories mentioned in this se#tion #an !e seen to ha$e the follo"ing #ommon pattern. (. A phenomenon is o!ser$ed in the #ourse of some Hypnoti# pro#edure. -. t in$ol$es some parti#ular system or fun#tion of the !rain or ner$ous system 4 "hi#h "e "ill #all K. /. An un"arranted generalisation is made that A++ Hypnoti# phenomena are a result of K. The argument of this !ook is that all su#h o$ergeneralisations are in$alid. Ea#h of the systems mentioned #an, at #ertain times, !e rele$ant to the pra#ti#e of Hypnosis, !ut none #an !e seen as #entral. Of the theories mentioned a!o$e in this se#tion BraidFs is perhaps the least limited in that it #omes 'uite #lose to the per#eption of the multipli#ity of effe#ts "hi#h #an !e a#hie$ed, though of #ourse he did not kno" nearly as mu#h as "e do today a!out the "orkings of the $ery many #omple2 systems in the human !ody and ner$ous system. :( S'ggestion( The fourth ma&or approa#h to Hypnosis is !ased on the simple idea that all the phenomena are a simple result of suggestion. .e may asso#iate this idea "ith Bernheim @(;1=4(<(<A @Bernheim @(;;1ABi!A. .e may present the argument for this approa#h in the follo"ing "ay. t is a #ommonpla#e fa#t that "e generally a#t in a##ordan#e "ith our !eliefs. f, then, these !eliefs #an someho" !e #hanged, our !eha$iour "ill #hange. n this $ie" Hypnoti# phenomena are simply a result of #hanging !eliefs. nasmu#h as any thought is a mental pro#ess, the initiation of a ne" !elief in$ol$es the a#ti$ation of a parti#ular ne" and spe#ifi# pro#ess in the !rain. +ike"ise, sin#e

the a##eptan#e of a ne" !elief "ill often mean the re&e#tion of an old one, it "ill also !e ne#essary to inhi!it or redu#e the a#ti$ity of a se#ond system of thought. Therefore the pro#ess of suggestion #omes "ithin the frame"ork of Hypnosis "e are de$eloping in this !ook. By approa#hing things in this "ay "e #an a$oid futile dis#ussion a!out a supposed difference !et"een simple suggestion and Hypnosis. E$en Bernheim found that he #ould produ#e dramati# #hanges in peopleFs !eha$iour !y simple suggestion "ith no 6Hypnoti#6 indu#tion at all. He found, for e2ample, some indi$iduals "ho, if #harged #onfidently "ith a theft of "hi#h they "ere totally inno#ent, a#ted in e$ery detail as if they "ere guilty 4 e$en to seemingly re#alling the details of the in#ident. s it any "onder then that a stage Hypnotist #an find indi$iduals "ho #an !elie$e "ith total #on$i#tion the inno#uous, if unlikely, things he suggests to themB Proper e2periments ha$e, in fa#t, failed to produ#e e$iden#e of any in#ontro$erti!le differen#e !et"een 6simple6 suggestion and 6Hypnoti#6 suggestion. The sear#h for su#h a differen#e is largely moti$ated, #ons#iously or un#ons#iously, !y the #on#ept of a uni'ue Hypnoti# state. The limitations of a theory !ased entirely on the idea of suggestion are that (A it omits any details of ho" the suggestions lead to the desired results, and #onse'uently -A it #annot e2plain "hy some suggestions are effe#ti$e and some not. 9inally /A it does not ans"er the 'uestion of "hat suggestions should !e made other than the simple, 6The pro!lem "ill go6. By #ontrast the systems approa#h, as "ill !e#ome #learer in later #hapters, is in a position to determine a #ausal #hain !y "hi#h a suggested idea "ill lead to #hanges in other systems, "hi#h "ill in turn lead to further #hanges, until "e rea#h the system of interest. t #an indi#ate !etter "hat #hanges should !e suggested, and in "hi#h systems5 it #an also dis#riminate !et"een #ases in "hi#h dire#t suggestion #an !e e2pe#ted to !e effe#ti$e and those in "hi#h it #annot. >( Sociological. At the opposite e2treme from Braid, "ho sa" the phenomena as !eing essentially intrinsi# to the 0u!&e#t, "e find theories "hi#h are !ased on looking at the #om!ined system of 0u!&e#t plus Hypnotist. There are those su#h as 9eren#Li @(<(8ABi! "ho see "hat happens as !eing essentially that the relationship of the t"o indi$iduals !e#omes that of parent and #hild. The Hypnotist adopts the parental role and the 0u!&e#t a#ts like an o!edient and un'uestioning #hild. t is #ertainly possi!le for this sort of thing to happen. )i$en suita!le #ues it is relati$ely easy to e$oke a pattern of !eha$iour "hi#h "as #urrent at an earlier time. The standard Hypnoti# phenomenon of regression to an earlier age is a parti#ular form of this. n the language of systems "e may say that it is #ertainly possi!le for a #hildlike !eha$ioural system to !e e$oked in a 0u!&e#t, and that for the Hypnotist to adopt a suita!le parental role is one "ay of a#hie$ing this.

0o it is helpful to see #ertain aspe#ts of Hypnosis in this light. .hat "ould !e misleading, ho"e$er, "ould !e to see the "hole of the su!&e#t from this angle, sin#e there is no e$iden#e that it is either ne#essary or suffi#ient for a 0u!&e#t to enter into su#h a #hildlike relationship "ith the Hypnotist in order to e$oke any other Hypnoti# phenomenon. Another #ommon relationship "hi#h has !een used as a model for the Hypnotist4 Client system is that of se2ual lo$e. 9reud seems to ha$e thought on these lines for a "hile. t is true that if a person falls in lo$e "ith another, then she or he is at that time $ery open to the influen#e of the !elo$ed. Conse'uently if feelings of romanti# lo$e for the Hypnotherapist "ere to arise in a Client, then an in#rease in responsi$eness "ould !e likely: possi!ly this does arise in #ertain #ases. But this phenomenon is again really too limited to !e a suita!le foundation on "hi#h to ere#t a theory of our su!&e#t. t "ould make self4hypnosis $ery hard to e2plain and "ould lead to the e2pe#tation that Hypnoti# phenomena "ould arise only, or at the least far more easily, !et"een mem!ers of opposite se2es than of the same se2 4 an e2pe#tation "hi#h is not su!stantiated !y any e$iden#e ha$e #ome a#ross. There is a third signifi#ant so#ial phenomenon "hi#h has not, !elie$e, !een used e2pli#itly as a foundation for a ma&or theory, though it might ha$e !een, and "hi#h is in#luded here for #omparison and #ompleteness. This is that of the impli#it o!edien#e of an inferior to a superior in either the armed for#es or any other strongly hierar#hi#al part of so#iety. t is #ertainly the #ase that in the earlier days of this #entury !ooks on Hypnosis "ould say that mem!ers of the armed for#es made good su!&e#ts. The presumption is that they "ere so a##ustomed to o!eying orders "ithout 'uestion that it "as easy for the Hypnotist to !uild on this !asis an un'uestioning a##eptan#e of his suggestions. .e may surmise that some of the easy su##ess of early pra#titioners su#h as 7esmer and Braid may ha$e !een !ased on the fa#t that many of their patients "ould ha$e !een used to a##epting "hat their so#ial superiors said "ithout any 'uestion in a "ay "hi#h is far from #ommon today. nsofar as the Hypnotist "as of a higher #lass, it "ould ha$e !een #omparati$ely easy for him to o!tain many Hypnoti# phenomena "hi#h depend on a simple and un'uestioning a##eptan#e of the HypnotistFs statements. A fourth so#ial phenomenon @related to the a!o$e !ut "ithout the hierar#hi#al o$ertonesA, "hi#h has !een used as the !asis for an e2planation of Hypnoti# phenomena, is that of so#ial #omplian#e. This idea is usually asso#iated "ith the name of 0panos @(<;8ABi!. n essen#e this theory $ie"s Hypnoti# phenomena as !eing the a#ting out of a role !y the 0u!&e#t "hi#h "ill meet the e2pe#tations of the situation. The situation in#ludes the Hypnotist, !ut also any other people in$ol$ed and the physi#al situation. Thus the situation in a #onsulting room is different from that on a stage. n the latter situation the 0u!&e#t "ill ha$e an e2pe#tation that dan#ing the rum!a is only to !e e2pe#ted. n the former it "ould not !e. Conse'uently it "ould !e mu#h harder to eli#it su#h dan#ing in the #onsulting room. 7ore generally there are #ertain e2pe#tations of "hat Hypnosis in$ol$es "hi#h are diffused through so#iety and "hi#h #hange o$er time. An e2ample is the e2pe#tation of a 6#risis6 4 a going into #on$ulsions 4 "hi#h 7esmerFs patients did fre'uently !e#ause it "as e2pe#ted and "hi#h does not happen today !e#ause it is not.

t is #ertainly true that people "ill do 'uite e2traordinary things as a result of so#ial #omplian#e, as num!ers of psy#hologi#al e2periments ha$e pro$ed @7ilgram @(<:1A Bi!A. People will #hange their !eha$iour or ideas in response to the so#ial situation that they are in, though of #ourse this is not the same as saying that all people "ill do so e'ually. t must therefore !e regarded as one of the me#hanisms in$ol$ed in #ertain Hypnoti# phenomena. Ho"e$er this again seems far too limited a !asis to e2plain all the phenomena of Hypnosis. Perhaps "e may put all the so#ial theories into perspe#ti$e !y #onsidering a hypotheti#al intelligent ra#e "hi#h has no pair !onding, no nurturing, no hierar#hies and no so#ial groupings. 0ome form of intelligent reptile #omes to mind. .ould any form of Hypnosis !e possi!le in su#h a spe#iesB A proponent of ea#h of the a!o$e theories should say, 6*o. 0in#e the parti#ular form of intera#tion am assuming as the "hole !asis of Hypnosis is not present, nothing #an !e done.6 ,et there is e$ery reason to suppose that if you #arefully manipulated the #reatureFs imagination, you #ould produ#e many of the responses "e regard as Hypnoti#. 7any su#h phenomena are produ#ed in humans purely in response to pi#tures in the imagination. f, let us suppose, "e "ere to gi$e su#h a #reature a &ourney into a $irtual reality "orld "hi#h "e #ontrol, then !y manipulating the "orld appropriately "e #ould manipulate its thoughts and feelings and a#tions. By #reating pi#tures of the "orld as it "as "hen it emerged from its shell, it "ould seem that "e "ould ha$e a good #han#e of a#ti$ating #hildlike !eha$iour patterns, i.e. regression. f "e "anted to stop it smoking, "e should !e a!le to do some simple #onditioning in$ol$ing introdu#ing some painfulDfearful images "ith e$ery introdu#tion of the image of a #igarette, and so on. Pra#tising Hypnotherapists "ill see that this hypotheti#al s#heme reprodu#es mu#h of "hat they do "ithout the need for any #ommon language, or any so#ial #omplian#e fa#tor at all. 0o in prin#iple there "ould still !e a su!&e#t of Hypnosis as ha$e defined it e$en in the a!sen#e of so#ial fa#tors. On the other hand the e2isten#e of su#h fa#tors does make the su!&e#t ri#her and in many "ays easier. 0in#e the o!&e#ti$e of Hypnotherapy is to make some #hange in the fun#tioning of some internal system of the Client, it is going to !e mu#h fa#ilitated if, as a preliminary, the Client #an !e en#ouraged to a#ti$ate a re#epti$e and responsi$e mode to"ards the Hypnotherapist. To some e2tent su#h a pattern must !e !ased on relationships "hi#h the Client has kno"n in the past. They may !e parent4#hild, tea#her4pupil, man4"oman, friend4friend, shopkeeper4#ustomer, do#tor4 patient, et#. The art of Hypnotherapy lies in utilising "hate$er #apa#ities are present in order to a#hie$e a gi$en end, and a good Hypnotherapist has to ha$e a reasona!le degree of fle2i!ility in order to a#ti$ate su#h so#ial systems as are present and appropriate in the Client. .e should note also in this #onte2t the 9reudian notion of transference. This is the phenomenon "here!y a patient in therapy may transfer into his or her relationship "ith the therapist some of the feelings and #hara#teristi#s of an earlier relationship "ith a parent or other signifi#ant figure. This #an happen spontaneously and is dis#ouraged !y #ertain s#hools, "hile others en#ourage it. Clearly the me#hanism of transferen#e in$ol$es the stimulus of the therapistFs presen#e a#ti$ating a parti#ular pattern of feeling and !eha$iour in the patient, and is therefore a parti#ular aspe#t of the a!o$e.

This se#tion of theories may !e summarised as follo"s. They all regard the primary system of dis#ussion not as the indi$idual 0u!&e#t, !ut as the larger system of Hypnotist plus 0u!&e#t, or the e$en larger one of the so#iety "ithin "hi#h the t"o indi$iduals are a su!system. Ea#h theory tends to fo#us on one parti#ular aspe#t of su#h larger systems and to $ie" it as the #entral aspe#t of Hypnosis. The position taken in this !ook is that "hile all su#h aspe#ts #an !e of importan#e in the field of Hypnosis, none of them is either ne#essary or suffi#ient to the produ#tion of Hypnoti# phenomena. t should !e #lear, moreo$er, that the #on#ept of an organi# system "hi#h "e ha$e used as a foundation for our su!&e#t #an deal as naturally "ith systems #onsisting of t"o or more indi$iduals as it #an "ith t"o or more su!systems of the human ner$ous system. This aspe#t of the su!&e#t "ill !e de$eloped in more detail later, !ut here "e may note that the !asi# element of Hypnosis, #onsidered as an aspe#t of the t"o4 person system, is that of the a#ti$ation of some parti#ular pro#ess 44 "hi#h "e "ill la!el A 4 "ithin the repertoire of the Hypnotist, "hi#h leads to some re'uired #hange @an in#rease or de#reaseA in the a#ti$ity of some #orresponding pro#ess B in the +ubject: 2A 4 8B. A is typi#ally a linguisti# pro#ess, !ut may "ell ha$e !eha$ioural and affe#ti$e #omponents: i.e. the Hypnotist is primarily talking, !ut the !ody language and the emotional tone in "hat is said "ill also #ontri!ute. The su##essi$e appli#ation of this form of intera#tion leads in time to the #hange in the pattern of the mental and physi#al a#ti$ities in the 0u!&e#t "hi#h is aimed at !y the Hypnotist. ?( Information( A $ery re#ent theory of %ossi @(<</ABi! dis#usses Hypnosis in terms of information. This theory may !e presented as follo"s. .e ha$e o!ser$ed that there are many systems in the !ody. .here in this !ook "e are starting "ith the more elementary idea that ea#h may alter the a#ti$ity of another, an information4theoreti#al approa#h says that ea#h #an #ommuni#ate information to another. The effe#t of the #ommuni#ation of information "ill, of #ourse, !e to alter the a#ti$ity in some "ay. n his o"n "ords %ossi proposes that, 6The #y!erneti# @#ir#ularA flo" of information !et"een our psy#ho4so#ial "orld, mind and !ody do"n to the #ellular4geneti# le$el is the general domain of Hypnotherapy.6 Ho"e$er at its present stage of de$elopment the theory is !iassed to"ards sho"ing ho" #hanges at a mental le$el may !e #ommuni#ated $ia a hypothesised pro#ess of 6information transdu#tion6 to the #hemi#al pro#esses in$ol$ed in healing, and there is little de$elopment at the le$el of analysing Hypnoti# indu#tions, et#. The theory is also some"hat #onfused !y its asso#iation "ith the rather limiting #on#eption that Hypnotherapeuti# suggestion is 6the entrainment and utilisation of psy#hologi#al

rhythms generated !y the #y!erneti# loops of mind4!ody #ommuni#ation6 4 the theory in$ol$ing diurnal #y#les des#ri!ed a!o$e. By #ontrast the approa#h of this !ook is to !e in !road agreement a!out the domain of Hypnotherapy: that it does in$ol$e the many #y!erneti# systems at the so#ial, mental, physi#al and #hemi#al le$els. But "ithin this s#heme it unifies e2isting understanding rather than positing any ne" spe#ifi# prin#iples. .e "ill also find that it makes far #learer the dynami#s of the #y!erneti# pro#esses, in many different #onte2ts. Concl'sion t "ill !e apparent from the a!o$e !rief a##ounts ho" many different aspe#ts there are to our su!&e#t. Ea#h has a #ertain $irtue. But ea#h is largely in#ompati!le, as a theory, "ith the others !e#ause of its #laim to e2#lusi$ity. t is as if a #ontinent has !een sur$eyed !y a num!er of indi$iduals. Ea#h has dra"n a map of his o"n lo#ality and regards the lo#al terrain as ar#hetypal of the "hole #ontinent. They therefore regard the others as !eing su!stantially in error. But there #omes a time "hen it is possi!le to unite the maps in su#h a "ay that they add to ea#h other and help to form a #omposite map of the entire #ontinent. The uniting prin#iple is the fa#t that all of the theories deal "ith one or more organi# systems and their intera#tions. By using this prin#iple "e are a!le to make a #onsistent pi#ture of the "hole field. t pro$ides a "ay for the proponents of different theories to talk to ea#h other in a #ommon language, and therefore makes it possi!le to e2plore #ommon ground and differen#es #onstru#ti$ely. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R >

ypnosis!

Interl'%e! Analogo's Processes

In this chapter the reader is reminded of many other organic systems with which he or she is familiar, such as organisations, ecosystems, economies and families. The purpose is to activate in the mind certain patterns of organised thought, certain dynamic images, a certain organic approach to a subject which is a useful one when we develop the -.organic- approach to Hypnotherapy. AB0T%ACT P% *C P+E0 are often grasped !etter if they are em!odied in e2amples, analogies or metaphors.

This !rief #hapter #ontains a des#ription of different types of organi# systems from those normally found in Hypnotherapy. Though different in stru#ture, they are in many "ays similar in their pro#esses. They are therefore analogues "hi#h #an illuminate the general prin#iples of our su!&e#t. Consider first a large firm "ith many hundreds or e$en thousands of employees. They do not relate at random. There "ill !e a #onsidera!le degree of organisation. Typi#ally there "ill !e many departments and su!departments. 9or e2ample there are likely to !e groups "hose primary #on#ern is produ#tion or sales or a##ounts or maintenan#e or management or after4sales ser$i#e or ad$ertising or se#retarial or sto#k #ontrol or transport or re#ruitment. n a large #ompany these may !e further su!di$ided, perhaps !e#ause there are different sites, or !e#ause a task is so #omple2 that it is !est su!di$ided into smaller ones and smaller su!groups are used to deal "ith ea#h. Although all large #ompanies follo" this general prin#iple, they "ill ea#h !e different not only in the e2a#t pattern or mi2 of departments !ut also in the "ay that they fun#tion. Ea#h department is an organi# or !iologi#al system. ts structure #onsists of the people in it together "ith the !uildings and things they use. ts processes are the things that they do. n order to understand the fun#tioning of a !usiness it is ne#essary to ha$e a grasp of the departments and how they intera#t "ith ea#h other and also "ith any e2ternal fa#tors 4 typi#ally other !usinesses or other aspe#ts of so#iety. At the most elementary le$el this means !eing a!le to ans"er 'uestions like, 6 f department P @produ#tionA in#reases its a#ti$ity, "hat effe#t "ill this ha$e on department 0 @salesAB65 6 f department E @e2portsA redu#es its a#ti$ity, "hat effe#t "ill this ha$e on PB65 6>oes the a#tion of 7 @managementA on P in#rease or de#rease its a#ti$ityB65 6Ho" does the a#tion of the go$ernment @)A in raising JAT #hange the a#ti$ity of 0B6 and so on. f "e #anFt ans"er su#h !asi# 'uestions then "e #annot #laim to understand the fun#tioning of the #ompany at all. There are #ountless theories of management @#f. Kennedy @(<<(ABi!A !ut if they do not in#lude the a!ility to ans"er the simple 'uestions a!o$e, "hi#h in effe#t are, 6.ill a #ertain #hange make things !etter or "orseB6 then "ould argue that they #annot !e $ery useful. Of #ourse in a !usiness #onte2t the "ord 6a#ti$ity6 is not used, !ut instead money is generally used as a measure. E$ery a#ti$ity of e$ery department #an !e #osted "ith reasona!le a##ura#y. The #osts in$ol$e su#h things as salaries, ra" materials and a $ariety of o$erheads. The natural tenden#y of e$ery department is to in#rease its #osts 4 to gro" 4 &ust as the natural tenden#y of organi# systems generally is to gro". This gro"th is limited in a #ompany !e#ause there are limited finan#ial resour#es, and so the departments ha$e to #o4operate andDor #ompete. Any #hange in a#ti$ity of one department "ill therefore #hange that of the others. But some #hanges #an lead in the longer term to an o$erall in#rease of resour#es 4 normally !y in#reasing profits 4 "hi#h "ill !enefit ea#h department, and ea#h indi$idual in it. Other #hanges may lead to a redu#tion in resour#es for ea#h department 4 if they lead to a drop in profits. An intelligent analysis of the effe#t of ea#h department on ea#h other and of the

effe#t of fa#tors in the outside "orld 4 normally the market4pla#e 4 on ea#h department #an lead to impro$ements all round. *oti#e that the fa#t that t"o !usinesses ha$e the same formal structure is no guarantee that they "ill function identi#ally. There may !e e2#ellent relationships !et"een management and "orkfor#e in one firm and terri!le ones in another. n one, the a##ounts department may !e $ery #onser$ati$e and resist any re'uest for money to !e put into resear#h and de$elopment, "hile in another it may !e $ery #o4 operati$e. n one, the sales department is only #on#erned to feather its o"n nest, "hile in another the sales department is $ery mu#h part of the team. *oti#e that the a!o$e des#riptions are qualitative, not quantitative. Although some aspe#ts of the fun#tioning of a #ompany #an !e gi$en a useful finan#ial measure, the a!o$e thum!nail sket#hes sho" that the simple notions of "hether one department "ill resist or #o4operate "ith #hanges in another department #ould !e of far more importan#e in assessing a #ompany than the finan#ial a##ounts, ho"e$er e2a#t, of ea#h department. n an a!stra#t form, if "e let A and B !e t"o departments then the 'uestion of "hether: 2A 4 8B 4 2A or 2A 4 8B 4 3A is of great importan#e. 0pelled out in detail these t"o e2pressions des#ri!e situations in "hi#h an in#rease in the a#ti$ity of department A leads to a #hange in the a#ti$ity of department B @"hi#h #an !e either an in#rease or de#reaseA "hi#h in turn leads either to a further in#rease in the a#ti$ity of A or to a de#rease. n the former #ase B a#ts to help A, in the latter to resist it. The analogy "ith indi$iduals should !e #lear. T"o people might ha$e identi#al mental and physi#al stru#tures, !ut they #ould still !e fun#tioning in $ery different "ays: ha$e $ery different personalities. n one person, ad$antageous systems #ould !e #o4 operating and the o$erall person "ould ha$e inner harmony and do things "ith great effi#ien#y. n another person, inner systems #ould !e at $arian#e in su#h a "ay that the main result is internal stress. As a ne2t step in our analogy let us suppose that there is a pro!lem in the #ompany. t may ha$e !een simmering in the a"areness of some departments for some time, !ut it is unlikely that anything "ill !e done a!out it until it rea#hes the attention of the managerial system. Attempts may !e made at that le$el to sol$e it, !ut if that fails, re#ourse may !e had to a 7anagement Consultant. This is an analogy of the situation in "hi#h an indi$idual has some pro!lem "hi#h may !e simmering for some time "ithout its !eing #ons#iously re#ognised as one5 then an attempt is made to resol$e it5 then a Hypnotherapist is #alled in to help. The 7anagement Consultant "ill first spend some time "ith the 7anagement, hearing their interpretation of the pro!lem. But e$en at this stage he is finding out as mu#h as possi!le a!out the "ays in "hi#h the #ompany is organised, !oth in terms of

the stru#ture and also the fun#tioning5 i.e. he "ill !e asking 'uestions like those mentioned a!o$e. Be#ause he has e2perien#e of many other #ompanies, some good and some !ad, he "ill !e a!le at least to guess at the likely #ause of the trou!le, "hi#h is pro!a!ly lo#alised in &ust a fe" of the departments. He may then "ell "ant to #he#k out his guesses !y going and talking to the departments in$ol$ed. Broadly speaking the attitude of management to this may on the one hand !e #o4operati$e and they may !e prepared to let him get on "ith it, or on the other hand they may "ell "ant to !e "ith him all the time. A skilled #onsultant should !e a!le to handle either e2treme. f he operates like the #lassi#al or stage Hypnotist, he "ill attempt to eliminate any influen#e of the management and "ill "ant to take o$er the running of the #ompany all !y himself for a "hile. f he operates like a modern Hypnotherapist, he is more likely to !e happy to ha$e the 7anagement "at#hing and learning as he goes along. t is so $ery often the #ase that real pro!lems in life are only la!elled 6pro!lems6 !e#ause there is a failure to understand #ons#iously ho" to #ope "ith a situation. Conse'uently an approa#h in "hi#h there is #ons#ious #o4operation and #ons#ious learning is normally far !etter in a therapeuti# situation. n other "ords, although the 7anagement may per#ei$e the pro!lem as #oming from else"here in the organisation, the roots are often a managerial defi#ien#y. .hen it #omes to implementing a #hange in pra#ti#es, it should !e e$ident that this is likely to !e $ery diffi#ult at a time "hen e$ery department is stret#hed to #apa#ity. %etraining is normally !est done "hen there are fe" outside pressures. 0o ideally the 7anagement Consultant "ould like to de#lare a general holiday and send home all the "orkfor#e e2#ept those in the 6pro!lem6 departments. They "ill then !e a!le to #on#entrate totally on the task of #hanging their pra#ti#es. n a different language, "e may say that ideally the Consultant "ill a#t to redu#e the a#ti$ity of all !ut the key systems to a minimum, so that there "ill !e minimal interferen#e "ith them. At the same time he "ill introdu#e 'uite high le$els of a#ti$ity, !ut of a spe#ifi# kind 4 learning ne" pro#esses 4 in the key systems. This parallels the tenden#y in a typi#al Hypnotherapeuti# session to redu#e to a minimum the a#ti$ity of all ma&or systems of a#tion and per#eption and thought in the Client, other than those of importan#e to the pro!lem. Ho"e$er, please note that the a!o$e is not the only possi!le approa#h. t is 'uite #on#ei$a!le that a #ertain kind of Consultant #ould step in "ith su#h dynami# #onfiden#e that he "ill command the attention of all rele$ant departments, "hate$er else is going on. He might then #reate a ma&or uphea$al 4 an organisational #on$ulsion 4 and in that "ay disrupt dramati#ally any esta!lished pra#ti#es "hi#h are leading to pro!lems. 0u#h an approa#h "ould !e more akin to some of the pra#ti#es of the 7esmerists or e2or#ists, or might !e likened to the modern pra#ti#e of Ele#tro4 Con$ulsi$e Therapy in "hi#h #ertain serious mental pro!lems may !e relie$ed !y the rather drasti# pro#edure of deli$ering a series of ele#tri# sho#ks to the !rain. There is

little in the "ay of theoreti#al &ustifi#ation or understanding of this pro#ess, !ut "hen it "orks, it may "ork on the a!o$e prin#iple of: 6+et us disrupt the organisation and then hope that "hen it reorganises itself, it "ill do so in a !etter "ay.6 0o "e ha$e seen that some appli#ations of 7anagement Consultan#y in#lude the e2isting 7anagement systems among those to !e ina#ti$ated @ not in$ol$edA during the #hange, and some in#lude them among those to !e a#ti$ated @in$ol$edA. 0ome in$ol$e a gentle retraining, some may in$ol$e drasti# shake4ups. 0ome may in$ol$e a gentle holiday for most departments, some simply hold the attention of key departments so strongly that it does not matter "hat other departments are doing. But the &o! definition is the same: it is to produ#e #hange !y altering the patterns of a#ti$ity of the many su!departments of the organisation. 0ome appli#ations of Hypnosis in#lude #ons#ious systems among those to !e ina#ti$ated, and some in#lude them among those to !e a#ti$ated. 0ome in$ol$e a gentle learning pro#ess, others in$ol$e dramati# shake4ups of e2isting "ays of thinking. 0ome pro#eed $ia an initial #ondition of general rela2ation, others simply arouse or a#ti$ate key systems so strongly that it does not matter "hat other systems are doing. But the &o! definition is the same: it is to produ#e #hange !y altering the patterns of a#ti$ity of some of the many su!systems "ithin the person. n this analogy it should also !e o!$ious that to say that 6the #ompany is in a state of #onsultan#y6 is not $ery informati$e. There is no uni'ue defining #hara#teristi# of su#h a hypotheti#al 6state6, !e#ause #ompanies are so different and #onsultan#y styles are so different and the goals #an !e so different. But the a!sen#e of any su#h uni'ue 6state6 does not in$alidate #onsultan#y as a skill or e$en a s#ien#e. *o" let us #onsider a totally different #lass of organi# system: that "hi#h is #onsidered !y e#ology. n the #lassi# !ook !y Kre!s @(<<1ABi! e#ology is defined as 6the s#ientifi# study of the intera#tions that determine the distri!ution and a!undan#e of organisms6. Although e#ology is a #omparati$ely ne" s#ien#e 4 it #an perhaps !e dated from the "ork of Charles Elton @(<-:ABi! 4 its #on#epts ha$e permeated our "orld to su#h an e2tent that it #an !e supposed that "e all ha$e some idea of its !asi# ideas. ?uantitati$e e#ology is no" "ell4esta!lished in the A4le$el Biology #urri#ulum, for e2ample @)reen et al. @(<;1ABi!A. As an e2ample of a pro!lem fa#ed "ithin e#ology let us suppose that there is a pest in a #ertain area of the "orld, and that an e#ologist is asked to ad$ise on ho" it #an !e eliminated or at least mu#h redu#ed. Ho" does she go a!out her &o!B *oti#e that this goal #an !e approa#hed in different "ays. There is the #hemi#al method: find a poison "hi#h kills the pest5 apply it profusely5 if the pest returns, apply more poison. 0u#h a method is 'ui#k and "ill often produ#e remarka!le impro$ements in the short term. The pro!lems "ith it are (A the #ost of repeated doses, -A the fa#t that the poison may start to affe#t other organisms, in#luding people and /A the fa#t that the pest #an, if not totally eliminated, start to de$elop immunity so that e$er4in#reasing doses of #hemi#al are needed to #ontrol it. The more e#ologi#ally sound method is to pro#eed on the follo"ing general lines. The pest spe#ies is regarded as one su!system of the #omple2 e#osystem of the

region. The intera#tions !et"een the pest spe#ies and other spe#ies of animals and plants is then #arefully analysed. nterest is fo#used in parti#ular on those spe#ies "hi#h a#t as food for the pest and those "hi#h prey on the pest. n terms of our simple notation "e "ant to kno" all those spe#ies or systems K su#h that a #hange in the a#ti$ity of K #an lead to a #hange in the a#ti$ity of our pest P: 8K 4 8P. Typi#ally it is the #ase that: 2Predator 4 3Pest and 3Predator 4 2Pest, and 29ood 4 2Pest and 39ood 4 3Pest, though "e must remem!er that !ehind these simple, first4order ideas there may !e mu#h #omple2 detail. Of #ourse on#e the e#ologist has found the other spe#ies "hi#h ha$e a dire#t effe#t on the prey, she must go on and find out ho" those spe#ies themsel$es are affe#ted !y others, until she has a#hie$ed at least a fair "orking kno"ledge of the net"ork of intera#tions. *oti#e again that she is going to start "ith a qualitative pi#ture. t is going to !e $ery hard indeed to gain a quantitative one, though it is not out of the 'uestion. Her skill is then going to !e employed in using this kno"ledge to dis#o$er some "ay of #hanging things "hi#h "ill lead to a ne" and sta!le mi2 of spe#ies "hi#h "ill ha$e a lo"er le$el of the pest present. This is not a simple &o!. A naR$e approa#h is to introdu#e a ne" prey spe#ies. This may "ork. But there are instan#es "here this has !een disastrous !e#ause the #onse'uen#es ha$e not !een thought through. The ne" prey spe#ies may turn out to prefer to eat not the pest !ut another spe#ies "hi#h #ompetes "ith the pest for the same food supply. .e then ha$e the follo"ing simple pattern: 2*e" Prey 4 3Competing 0pe#ies 4 29ood 0upply 4 2Pest, and the result is the opposite from that desired. Ho"e$er, if this &o! is done "ell 4 and note that the e2a#t solution "ill !e different in ea#h #ase 4 it has the promise of !eing sta!le and long4term, "ith no further input of money or time !eing ne#essary. Another "ay of altering the e#osystem is to "ork "ith the inorgani# part: the physi#al en$ironment. f the pest has a lar$al stage "hi#h flourishes in s"amps, then the draining of the s"amps "ill largely eliminate the pest. @ 30"amps 4 3Pest.A Of #ourse this should not !e done "ithout thought, as there "ill !e other #onse'uen#es "hi#h should !e thought through. 9or e2ample, the s"amps "ill !e a ne#essary resour#e

for many other life4forms "hi#h may suffer if the s"amps are drained, and this may not !e an o$erall impro$ement. The e'ui$alent perspe#ti$e to the a!o$e in our field is as follo"s. The e'ui$alents of the different spe#ies are the different systems "ithin the !rain, ner$ous system and !ody. The e'ui$alent of the #hemi#al solution is drug therapy. The introdu#tion of a ne" thought or ha!it into a human mind has distin#t parallels to the introdu#tion of a ne" spe#ies into an e#osystem. t "ill ine$ita!ly affe#t the pre4e2isting thoughts or ha!its. t may !e that the ne" thought "ill not flourish 4 the ne" spe#ies "ill not !e a!le to sur$i$e. t may !e that it "ill thri$e $ery "ell !ut not ha$e the intended effe#t, e$en to ha$ing a #ontrary long4term effe#t to the one intended. The e'ui$alent of #hanging the physi#al en$ironment of an e#osystem is #hanging the physi#al en$ironment of a person. @This may not seem to ha$e mu#h to do "ith Hypnotherapy, !ut if it is the easiest "ay of sol$ing a personFs pro!lem, it should not !e o$erlooked on that a##ount.A The e'ui$alent of the #areful and intelligent e#ologist is the #areful and intelligent Hypnotherapist "ho $ery #arefully studies the personality of the Client until she has a good grasp of the #omple2 intera#tions of the $arious systems in$ol$ed !efore gently introdu#ing an e#ologi#ally sound #hange, i.e. one that "ill take root and thri$e, #hange things in the desired "ay and enri#h the inner en$ironment. *ote again that there is no real meaning to the phrase, 6the e#osystem is in a Sstate of e#ologyF6 to des#ri!e the pro#ess of !eing studied or #hanged !y an e#ologist, !ut this does not mean that su#h studies and pro#esses do not e2ist. The field of e#ology also tea#hes us that it is easy to make "hat on the surfa#e seems an ad$antageous #hange, only to find that it results in something "orse. As an e2ample "e may take the introdu#tion of the *ile per#h into +ake Ji#toria in (<8=. The Hnited *ations 9ood and Agri#ulture Organisation de#ided that these large fish "ould pro$ide a good sour#e of food, and introdu#ed them "ithout taking a##ount of "arnings !y s#ientists at the time. Here are some of the #onse'uen#es @7urray @(<</ABi!, p.;;A: 2NPer#hO 4 3NCi#hlid fishO 4 2Na'uati# snailsO 4 2Nhuman li$er4fluke diseaseO, 2NPer#hO 4 3Nfishing #at#hO, 2NPer#hO 4 3NTreesO. The me#hanisms are 'uite simple. The smaller #i#hlids "hi#h used to pro$ide the fishermen "ith their #at#h not only added up to a !igger #at#h o$erall: they also #ontrolled the a'uati# snails, "hi#h "ere #arriers of the li$er4fluke disease !ilharLia, "hi#h is in$aria!ly fatal in humans if not #aught in time. n addition the per#h are too oily to !e sun4dried like the #i#hlids, and so pre#ious trees ha$e to !e #ut and !urned in order to preser$e them !y smoking. 0o "hat "as supposed to !e a !enefi#ial #hange turned out to !e a disaster in more "ays than one.

The moral for us in Hypnotherapy is #lear. The internal intera#tions of the $arious systems in the human mind are also organised in #omple2 "e!s, and a #areless introdu#tion of a #hange "ithout thought of #onse'uen#es #ould also !e a disaster. Another field "ith "hi#h "e #an dra" analogies is e#onomi#s. Here the systems of interest are su#h things as the !uilding industry, the sto#k e2#hange, the transportation industry, the go$ernment, the media, the po"er industry and so on. The task here is to !e a!le to "ork out ho" #hanges in ea#h of these affe#t the others. f the go$ernment #hanges the !ank rate, ho" "ill this affe#t the a#ti$ity of $arious se#tors of industryB f manufa#turing in#reases, ho" "ill that affe#t the demand for po"er or #apitalB There are many su#h 'uestions that should !e ans"era!le if it is #laimed that the "orkings of the e#onomy are understood. E#onomists a#tually try to produ#e $ery detailed and 'uantitati$e models of an e#onomy. These #an !e #omple2 indeed, and #onse'uently the models #an only !e run on $ery large #omputers. As a result they gi$e little insight. The ans"ers, if a$aila!le, to the a!o$e simple qualitative 'uestions #an !e far more illuminating. .hat is of interest here is analogies !et"een #ertain patterns "ithin an e#onomy and "ithin an indi$idual. n an e#onomy there #an arise #onfli#t !et"een t"o se#tors or su!se#tors #ompeting for the same resour#es. This #an happen at many different le$els: !et"een #ompanies, !et"een #apital and la!our, !et"een industry and go$ernment, and so on. 0imilarly, "ithin an indi$idual there #an also arise #onfli#ts !et"een t"o systems or su!systems: !et"een a desire to smoke and a desire to stop, !et"een a need to eat and a desire to !e slim, !et"een a desire for rela2ation and a need for in#ome, !et"een an in#reasing sleepiness and an interest in the late night mo$ie, !et"een the pre$ious intention to "alk for"ard and the present per#eption that to do so "ill mean #olliding "ith another pedestrian, and so on. +arge #onfli#ts !et"een systems #an pro$e to !e a pro!lem !oth in an e#onomy and in an indi$idual. n re#ent years so#iety has !egun to generate num!ers of su!systems "hi#h are designed to resol$e su#h #onfli#ts, su#h as the Con#iliation and Ar!itration 0er$i#e in the HK. n many pro!lems "hi#h #ome to a Hypnotherapist, the role of the ar!itrator is taken !y the Hypnotherapist, "ho may speak to ea#h su!system separately and then find a "ay to !ring them together in a #o4operati$e "ay. t is "orth noti#ing in this #onte2t the differen#e !et"een short4term and long4term solutions. t may !e possi!le to make a short4term #hange !y thro"ing the "eight of the ar!itrator totally !ehind one of the sides, and o$erriding the other. But it is in the nature of organi# systems of all kinds to rea#t to atta#k !y in#reased defen#e, and although this pro#ess may often !e delayed, the long4term effe#t is that the side "hi#h "as o$erridden "ill #ome !a#k later e$en more determined than !efore to #ompete and resist. Thus for e2ample if there is an internal #onfli#t in a person a!out food "hi#h is 6resol$ed6 !y a dra#onian diet, then "hen the inner system 9 "hi#h is #on#erned "ith eating food gets half a #han#e it "ill seiLe the opportunity and !inge to e2#ess. But this in turn "ill lead to an in#rease in the dismay of the other system ., #on#erned "ith redu#ing "eight, and so "hen it gets its turn, it "ill !e#ome e$en more dra#onian in desperation.

n our shorthand: 2. 4 29 4 2. 4 29 and "e ha$e "hat is #ollo'uially #alled a $i#ious #ir#le: the stri#ter the diet, the greater the !inge, and the greater the !inge, the stri#ter the diet. @.e "ill !e finding out a lot more a!out su#h $i#ious #ir#les later.A .ithin an e#onomy or so#iety the same pattern #an arise in many "ays. f t"o firms K and , are #ompeting for the same market then K may in#rease its ad$ertising, "hi#h "ill result in , in#reasing its ad$ertising, "hi#h in turn leads to K in#reasing its ad$ertising, and the !udgets #an spiral e$er up"ards. The net effe#t is a larger ad$ertising industry and a more e2pensi$e produ#t. Or "e may find a #onfli#t !et"een different #ommunities, possi!ly of different ethni# origins, "hi#h #an similarly es#alate into in#reasing le$els of #onfli#t as ea#h rea#ts to aggression "ith yet higher le$els of aggression in return. As a final su!&e#t "hi#h parallels our o"n "e may #onsider an e2ample "hi#h is a little #loser to home: family therapy. Here the !asi# system is the family, #onsisting of parents and #hildren together "ith the more or less strong influen#es of grandparents or other related indi$iduals. Here again "e are looking at a dynami# system "ith re#ognisa!le su!systems: the indi$iduals in$ol$ed. There "ill !e some spe#ified 6pro!lem6 "hi#h is often presented as a pro!lem "ith a #hild. But in family therapy it is normally supposed today that the pro!lem is far more likely to !e a #onse'uen#e of the dynami#s of the family as a "hole. 0uppose that the symptom is tantrums @TA in a #hild. n a simple #ase it may !e dis#o$ered that the immediate #ause of the tantrums is a tenden#y for the parents to 'uarrel @?A "ith ea#h other. 0uppose also that a result of the tantrums is that they #all a tru#e for a "hile to deal "ith the tantrums. The presented symptom then is #learly impli#ated in the loop: 2? 4 2T 4 3?. Here "e see that the tantrums are a#tually useful in holding the family together !e#ause they limit the amount of 'uarrelling. ,ou #annot then remo$e the tantrums "ithout #onsidering the #onse'uent #hange in the pattern of 'uarrelling. t might !e, for e2ample, that in remo$ing the tantrums you "ill destroy the marriageI n a parti#ular #ase it might, ho"e$er, !e relati$ely easy to resol$e the #ause of the 'uarrels, and then the tantrums, la#king a dri$ing for#e, "ill 'uietly fade a"ay. The 9amily Therapist, in the pro#ess of handling ea#h situation, "ill often !e using prin#iples "hi#h are formally identi#al to some used !y Hypnotherapists. 0he may, for e2ample, send e$eryone else out of the room "hile talking to one indi$idual, "hi#h is e'ui$alent to the Hypnotherapist rendering ina#ti$e or 'uies#ent all su!systems !ut one in the indi$idual. 9or the other mem!ers of the family to !e present !ut listening is e'ui$alent in Hypnosis to a lo"er than normal le$el of a#ti$ity of other rele$ant systems. )etting the mem!ers of a family to rehearse ne" forms of !eha$iour is e'ui$alent in Hypnosis to getting a ne" form of !eha$iour imagined. )etting them to reli$e, in the TherapistFs presen#e, some earlier family trauma is

e'ui$alent to the Hypnotherapist getting an indi$idual to reli$e a traumati# e2perien#e, "ith #atharsis !eing the goal in ea#h #ase. There are many su#h parallels. n pra#ti#e the Hypnotherapist #an often !e dealing "ith an internalised family in the sense that an indi$idual "ill ha$e #hara#ter aspe#ts "hi#h dire#tly #orrespond to the dynami#s of the family in "hi#h she or he gre" up. 0o Hypnotherapy #an often !e likened to family therapy in "hi#h all the family is in the one headI As an e2ample there is the #ommonly used notion of 6the #hild "ithin6. t is not saying that an adult is al"ays #hildlike, !ut that there are "ithin most adults !eha$ioural and emotional su!systems "hi#h are essentially those they de$eloped in #hildhood, and "hi#h may influen#e life 'uite #onsidera!ly from time to time. The 6#hild "ithin6 "hi#h appears in the literature is usually unlo$ed and hurt. But this is ine$ita!le: anyone "ith a 6#hild "ithin6 "hi#h is a #onse'uen#e of a lo$ed and lo$ing #hildhood is unlikely to go to a therapist for help in that areaI Therapy is often aimed at dealing "ith the dynami#al intera#tion of an unlo$ed 6#hild "ithin6 and an internalised 6parent "ithin6 4 another mental su!system "hi#h perpetuates the unlo$ing attitudes to the person of a parent in #hildhood. n shorthand the typi#al pattern of su#h an intera#tion, "hether in a real family or an internalised one, is: 2Hpset of Child 4 2Anger of Parent 4 2Hpset of Child, "hereas in a lo$ing relationship "e ha$e: 2Hpset of Child 4 2+o$e from Parent 4 3Hpset of Child. The task of the 9amily Therapist or the Hypnotherapist is to #hange the former pro#ess for the latter. Chapter -= deals "ith 9amily Therapy in more detail. SUMMARThis #hapter has !een an e2er#ise in mind !roadening, "ith an emphasis on the #entral idea of the dynami#s of organi# systems. 9our e2amples of #omple2 systems ha$e !een referred to: the family, a #ompany, an e#onomy and an e#osystem. Ea#h has natural su!systems. The !asis of understanding the dynami#s of ea#h is to understand the #omple2 intera#tions !et"een these su!systems. A human !eing is like"ise a #omple2 organi# system "ith naturally arising su!systems 4 ea#h of "hi#h #an in turn !e analysed into su!systems do"n to the le$el of a single #ell and !elo". Ea#h human !eing #an also !e regarded as a su!system of larger systems: families, firms, #ountries or e#osystems. Ea#h organi# system has its o"n detailed language and e2pertise. But it is argued here that if "e put the language on one side and sti#k to the most essential features, "e are left "ith a theoreti#al frame"ork "hi#h is re#ognisa!ly the same in ea#h. n e$eryday language "e may say that understanding in ea#h area is !ased on asking

the key 'uestion, ,If the "ehavio'r of this system changes$ ho& %oes it affect the "ehavio'r of that=, ;though of #ourse there are many other 'uestions that #an !e asked, many of "hi#h $ary from su!&e#t to su!&e#t. This similarity has !een emphasised !y the use of a simple #ommon notation "hi#h #an !e applied in each of the #onte2ts. t is e2pe#ted also that the ne"#omer to the field "ill kno" more a!out at least one of the more familiar systems mentioned in this #hapter than a!out Hypnotherapy. 0in#e learning is often a matter of relating the ne" to the kno"n, this #hapter should ha$e helped many readers to start to think a!out Hypnotherapy in a $alua!le "ay. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R ?

ypnosis!

A @irst;Or%er Classification of S'"systems 'sef'l in ypnotherapy

In this chapter we take a rather closer look at the central systems with which we deal in Hypnosis, in order to perform a rough classification. There are those subsystems which interface with the e ternal environment, which can be classified into active, e.g. muscular, vocal, and responsive, e.g. vision, hearing. Then there are those subsystems which deal with the internal environment, e.g. emotions, internalised speech, visualisation and a variety of maintenance and defence systems. Important among this last class is the -flight or fight- process. This elementary classification is then used to illustrate the principles along which Hypnotherapy can proceed. * TH 0 CHAPTE% "e "ill look at some of the systems "hi#h are important in Hypnosis. This is not intended to !e a #omplete list, !ut rather to gi$e some familiarity "ith some of the more #entral ones and "ith the systems approa#h to the su!&e#t. t "ill also lead to an ela!oration of the simple pi#ture of a Hypnoti# pro#ess mentioned in Chapter /. A system #onsists of a stru#ture and a #olle#tion of pro#esses. .e "ill !egin !y fo#using attention on the stru#ture. .e are then normally a!le #learly to distinguish the system from its environment. .e may therefore gi$e meaning to the "ords interior and e1terior as applied to a system. There are times "hen there is a $ery #lear !oundary !et"een system and en$ironment: an indi$idual person and an indi$idual #ell are !oth #learly distinguisha!le from their en$ironment. On the other hand there is a #ertain ar!itrariness a!out "here "e dra" the line !et"een a heart and the $eins and

arteries "hi#h are atta#hed to it, or !et"een the !rain and the asso#iated ner$ous system. But su#h fuLLiness is ine$ita!le in most systems of #lassifi#ation 4 "here does red end and orange !eginB 4 and does not gi$e rise to large pro!lems. .ith this in mind let us ne2t #onsider the 'uestion of useful "ays of analysing the human !eing into ma&or su!systems for the purposes of Hypnosis. There is no one agreed "ay, !ut the follo"ing is a possi!le first4order appro2imation. .e ha$e noted that a system 0 #an !e distinguished from its e2ternal en$ironment E. Ho"e$er it is not independent of that en$ironment. t is #ontinually !eing a#ted on !y that en$ironment @ 8E 4 80A and in turn it is a#ting on it @ 80 4 8EA. n pra#ti#e in #omple2 organisms there are different su!systems "hi#h deal "ith these different aspe#ts: the a#ti$e and the responsi$e. A market resear#h department @"hi#h responds to the marketA is distin#t from sales @"hi#h a#ts on itA. 7ilitary intelligen#e @"hi#h is purely responsi$e to the state of the enemyA is distin#t from the fighting for#e @"hi#h is primarily a#ti$eA. n the human !eing "e may distinguish the sensory systems "hi#h respond to the en$ironment from the motor systems "hi#h a#t on it. These e2amples "ill moti$ate a first large analysis of the su!systems of any organi# system. There are those "hi#h interfa#e dire#tly "ith the e2ternal en$ironment and those "hi#h do not. .e #an di$ide the former into those that a#t on the en$ironment and those that respond to the en$ironment. The main systems in the human !eing "hi#h respond to the outside "orld are responsi$e to the follo"ing: sight, sound, tou#h, smell, taste and a##eleration and orientation in a gra$itational field, and #an !e identified "ith the eyes, ears, ner$es in the skin, nose, tongue and a me#hanism in the inner ear respe#ti$ely. The main systems "hi#h a#t on the outside "orld do so !y means of: for#e, sound, $isual signs and smell, and are normally identified "ith the ma&or mus#les, the $oi#e, the fa#ial mus#les together "ith !odily gestures and the pheromonal system respe#ti$ely. @The pheromonal system is #omparati$ely unimportant in humans #ompared "ith most land animals. t is a means of sending #hemi#al signals through the air in the form of s#ents to affe#t other mem!ers of the spe#ies. The lu#rati$e market in perfumes indi#ates that it is not totally irrele$ant to us, ho"e$er.A There are other systems in !oth #ategories "hi#h might !e mentioned !ut they are too slight to !e in#luded in our first4order list. There are, for e2ample, reports of animals and some people !eing sensiti$e to magneti# or ele#tri#al fields. 0ome animals #an generate ele#tri# fields strong enough to kill, and human !eings generate dete#ta!le ele#tri#al fields at the skin @they are "hat ena!le an EE) ma#hine to "orkA "hi#h might in prin#iple affe#t the en$ironment, !ut are generally too small and insignifi#ant to !e in#luded in our list. n the #onte2t of modern Hypnotherapy, though not of other su!&e#ts like gastronomy, the a!o$e lists #an !e simplified to four primary systems 4 t"o a#ti$e and t"o sensory.

The t"o main sensory systems are $ision and hearing "hi#h together gi$e us the greater part of our information a!out the "orld, "ith tou#h #oming a $ery poor third. @The modern Hypnotherapist does not usually tou#h the Client at all.A The t"o main a#ti$e systems of interest are the $o#al and the mus#ular, "ith the emphasis !eing on the !ody language aspe#t of mo$ement rather than on the mo$ing of o!&e#ts. At the !eginning of a Hypnotherapy session all four of these systems are a#ti$e in the Client. Broadly speaking, #urrent pra#ti#e is for the Hypnotherapist to redu#e the a#ti$ity of the ClientFs mus#les until rela2ation is nearly #omplete, to eliminate all e2ternal $ision !y indu#ing the eyes to #lose dire#tly or indire#tly and to eliminate $o#alisation either dire#tly or mu#h more often indire#tly. The only ma&or system that remains a#ti$e is therefore hearing, and this the Hypnotherapist "ishes to remain a#ti$e the "hole time as it has !e#ome the only #hannel of #ommuni#ation, though it may "ell !e narro"ed do"n to respond only to his or her $oi#e and nothing else. *oti#e that this #annot !e said of true sleep. *oti#e also that although the a!o$e is the #urrent pra#ti#e, it has not !een uni$ersal. At one time it "as thought that the gaLe of the HypnotistFs eye "as $ery important. t "as therefore important to keep the 0u!&e#tFs eyes open in order for this Hypnoti# gaLe to !e effe#ti$e. .e may note also that it "as on#e a #ommon pro#edure in stage Hypnosis to "ork first on the sense of orientation. The potential 0u!&e#t "as instru#ted to stand upright and rigid, and to gaLe up"ards. After a "hile suggestions of s"aying "ould !e made. These "ould tend to disorientate the 0u!&e#t, "ho !e#ame una!le to tell if he or she "as $erti#al or not. The result "as a falling against the Hypnotist, "ho "ould generally then gently lo"er the rigid !ody to the floor. @ ha$e heard of a similar pro#edure !eing used in #ertain #hur#hes, in "hi#h the resulting #ondition is #alled 6the sleep of the spirit6.A n #urrent Hypnotherapeuti# pra#ti#e $ery little use is made of the sense of tou#h in the Client. At most it enters negati$ely, in that suggestions are made to the effe#t that it "ill !e#ome impossi!le to feel the #hair, et#. n past times, parti#ularly in 7esmerism, tou#h "as used e2tensi$ely. 0tage Hypnotists today tend to use 'uite a lot of physi#al #onta#t, though of a different kind. n prin#iple the holding of a hand or a gentle stroking #ould, in the right #ir#umstan#es, !e used to ad$antage in Hypnotherapy to indu#e feelings of trust or rela2ation, !ut in the present so#ial en$ironment in the HK su#h gestures #ould !e taken amiss and tend therefore to !e a$oided in Hypnotherapy. The same so#ial #on$entions allo" them in Aromatherapy, ho"e$erI E'ually little use is made of the sense of smell, though some therapists might use a pleasant !a#kground s#ent in their #onsulting rooms. Ha$ing made this simple #lassifi#ation of su!systems "hi#h deal dire#tly "ith the e2ternal en$ironment, "e no" turn to a #lassifi#ation of su!systems "hi#h do not. 0u#h systems must !y definition respond to or a#t on only the internal en$ironment of the !ody. .e may say as a !road generalisation that the more #omple2 the organism

or organisation !e#omes, the greater, in proportion, !e#ome these purely internal systems. A large !usiness, "ith more departments, needs far more people de$oted entirely to maintaining the departments and regulating their intera#tions. A #omple2 so#iety de$elops a far larger ser$i#e se#tor as opposed to a primary produ#ing se#tor. This pro#ess has !een noti#ea!le in human so#ieties generally o$er re#ent #enturies. An organism as #omple2 as a human !eing de$elops many internal systems to keep e$erything in order. t is of o$er"helming importan#e to any organism that it should maintain its $ia!ility. An organism as #omple2 as a human !eing needs an enormous $ariety of su!systems "hose fun#tion is simply to keep things going. +et us #all these things 7aintenan#e and >efen#e @7P>A su!systems. They in#lude the immune system in all its #omple2ity, "hi#h ena!les the !ody to rea#t to and destroy an enormous num!er of in$ading pathogens. They in#lude the healing systems that dete#t and repair !reaks in !ones and lesions in most tissues. The pain system is !est seen as a part of this 7aintenan#e and >efen#e system, ser$ing to a#ti$ate a"areness of serious internal damage. The maintenan#e of !ody temperature, of !lood sugar le$els, fat reser$es, o2ygen le$els and the le$els of many other important su!stan#es su#h as salt, $arious hormones, et#. are $ital fun#tions "hi#h all in$ol$e some form of monitoring and #ontrol !y the ner$ous system. .e may in#lude the digesti$e and e2#retory systems under this heading insofar as they are in$ol$ed in the ne#essary maintenan#e &o! of maintaining energy le$els and remo$ing to2ins and ru!!ish. This list #an go on almost endlessly: skin has to !e kept in good #ondition !y means of #ontinuous rene"al from inside together "ith some oiling, the eyes ha$e to !e "ashed and s"ept #lean, the &oints ha$e to !e kept lu!ri#ated, !one strength and thi#kness is #ontinually !eing adapted to #onditions 4 thus in Lero gra$ity #onditions the !ody "ill lighten the !ones sin#e that additional strength is no longer ne#essary, red !lood #ell le$els ha$e to !e #ontinually topped up as the old #ells die, and so on. .e tend to take all these things for granted 4 until they go "rong. The amaLing thing is ho" "ell they "ork so mu#h of the time. 9or remem!er that not only must the !asi# systems mentioned a!o$e !e maintained, !ut there must !e other su!systems "hi#h a#t to maintain the $ia!ility of the first4order maintenan#e systems. Auto4immune diseases are &ust one e2ample of "hat #an happen if a system "hi#h has a maintenan#e fun#tion itself goes "rong. n the analogy of a so#iety, the fun#tion of a poli#e for#e is primarily to maintain a reasona!le fairness !et"een indi$iduals. But in order to pre$ent the poli#e for#e itself !e#oming #orrupt, it is ne#essary that it should itself !e #ontrolled. But that #ontrolling !ody #ould itself go "rong unless it also is #ontrolled. n a similar, though $astly more #omple2 "ay, "e should !e a"are in general, if not in detail, of amaLing nested systems "ithin the !ody "hi#h are !alan#ed against ea#h other, #he#king and #orre#ting ea#h other in a #easeless interplay of a#tion and rea#tion, or a#ti$ation and inhi!ition, follo"ing paths that ha$e !een laid do"n sometimes o$er !illions of years. n re#ent years a great deal of progress has !een made in the painstaking analysis of the simpler of these maintenan#e systems, and hen#e faults in them #an often !e #orre#ted. 9or e2ample, the pro#ess of !lood #lotting has !een dis#o$ered to !e a fourteen4stage pro#ess. Haemophilia is typi#ally a result of &ust one of those stages not "orking properly @fa#tor J A. This #an no" !e #ompensated for. *o dou!t "e "ill see mu#h more progress on these lines in the t"enty4first #entury, "hi#h "ill do$etail

"ith the systems approa#h to Hypnotherapy, as "e see e$er more #learly ho" the #omparati$ely high4order systems "hi#h are easily a##essi!le to Hypnoti# te#hni'ues #ontrol and intera#t "ith the lo"er4order maintenan#e systems su#h as those mentioned a!o$e. Although the maintenan#e systems are those "hi#h are of o$er"helmingly the greatest importan#e as regards the internal en$ironment of a person, they are not those "hi#h are most immediately affe#ted !y Hypnoti# te#hni'ues 4 though there is one ma&or e2#eption "hi#h "e "ill #ome to later. t is therefore more useful for us to start our #lassifi#ation as follo"s. .e "ill !egin "ith the internal $er!al system, the internal $isual system and the emotional system as !eing the three most dire#tly important internal su!systems in Hypnotherapy. The first t"o arise out of the #omple2ity of the systems "hi#h ha$e e$ol$ed to deal "ith the spoken "ord and "ith $ision. This #omple2ity has resulted in systems "hi#h #an !e#ome a#ti$e e$en in the a!sen#e of an immediate e2ternal stimulus. n e$eryday language this amounts to our !eing a!le to hold internal #on$ersations "ith oursel$es, or imaginary #on$ersations "ith others, and to !e a!le "ith more or less $i$idness to #all to mind imagined s#enarios 4 some of "hi#h are memories of past e2perien#es, some of "hi#h are imagined future e$ents and some of "hi#h are fantasy pure and simple. The third system is that of emotion "hi#h, as mentioned in Chapter -, is #entred in the lim!i# system of the !rain and is tightly #onne#ted to the hormonal system $ia the thalamus gland in the !rain. ha$e not in#luded it among the list of systems that deal dire#tly "ith the outside "orld, !ut it is normally a#ti$ated indire#tly in response to stimuli from the outside "orld "hi#h enter $ia one of the sensory systems mentioned a!o$e. .e re#ognise su#h feelings as fear, e2#itement, an2iety, hate, &ealousy, guilt, happiness, rage, se2ual e2#itement, lo$e, affe#tion, nostalgia and so on. Primarily they are responses to e2ternal stimuli, !ut again the #omple2ity of mental systems is su#h that they #an !e a#ti$ated spontaneously. The emotions ha$e a $ery #entral and po"erful position in the e#onomy of the !ody. 7ost of our de#isions are ultimately !ased on some feeling or other. f "e la!el internal $er!al pro#esses J, $er!al pro#esses "hi#h are purely re#epti$e of e2ternal $oi#es + @listeningA, the e2ternal $isual system 0 @sightA, the imagination system m and the emotional system E, then a $ery #ommon pro#ess in Hypnotherapy is to pro#eed as follo"s: 2+ 4 3J 2+ 4 30 4 2 m 4 2E. n "ords these shorthand senten#es stand for t"o pro#esses. The first is rather simple. By means of holding the 0u!&e#tFs attention on the HypnotherapistFs $oi#e, any internal $er!al spee#h is redu#ed or eliminated. This #an !e $ery important in some Hypnoti# pro#esses. As a $ery simple e2ample, if as part of an indu#tion a Hypnotist is repeating, 6,ou are feeling sleepier and sleepier6, !ut the 0u!&e#t is repeating to himself, 6 am getting more and more irritated !y this6, then the se#ond

suggestion "ill predominate. 7ore generally, internal $er!al a#ti$ity #an !e simply distra#ting: 6 "onder if should !e trying to feel more rela2edB6, 6 #an still hear the sound of traffi#6, 6.hat shall "e ha$e for lun#hB6, 6Perhaps "ill ha$e time to do some shopping on the "ay home6, 6.hen is he going to #ome to the pointB6, 6 s this going to "ork, "onderB6 All su#h thoughts are a hindran#e to the #hanges that are generally aimed at in Hypnotherapy. Of #ourse if the thoughts are fa$oura!le, then there is often no need to redu#e them: it depends then on the parti#ular goal. The se#ond shorthand senten#e e2pands into the pro#ess of first indu#ing the Client to listen primarily to the Hypnotherapist5 then of a#hie$ing eye #losure so that e2ternal sight is eliminated5 this in turn "ill make it easier to a#ti$ate the internal $isual system5 !y then using this to #reate images of emotionally signifi#ant s#enes, the appropriate emotions #an !e e$oked. As simple e2amples of this, it is #ommonpla#e to use images of rela2ing situations @a sunny !ea#h, perhapsA in order to produ#e pea#eful feelings. n treating pho!ias it is possi!le to indu#e the feeling of fear in a #ontrolled "ay !y suggesting images of the feared thing or situation, in order then to eliminate the pho!ia !y a standard method of progressi$e desensitisation. This in$ol$es e2posing the 0u!&e#t to in#reasingly intense e2perien#es of the @imaginedA thing feared in a #ontrolled "ay in order to redu#e the fear felt. f the agreed aim of therapy is to un#o$er repressed traumati# material @"hi#h results "hen an e2perien#e "as so emotionally painful that it #annot !e #ons#iously re#alledA, then using the imagination to set the s#ene of the e2perien#e "ill #ommonly !e enough to allo" in the asso#iated emotions. 9or many people the #at#h4all "ord 6su!#ons#ious6 refers almost e2#lusi$ely to pro#esses "hi#h are primarily to do "ith emotion, and "hen they think of 6Hypnosis getting through to the su!#ons#ious6, they are simply thinking of its po"er to influen#e feelings a!out things. .e may emphasise again at this stage the $ery important fa#t that in different indi$iduals the different systems #an fun#tion JE%, differently. There are, for e2ample, indi$iduals "ho are $ery poor at imagining things, e$en though they #an !e strongly influen#ed !y "hat they see around them 4 e.g. the TJ. t may !e that in a parti#ular person "ords are a far !etter "ay of a#ti$ating emotions than any amount of pi#tures. @A 'ui#k idea of the !alan#e !et"een the t"o #an !e o!tained !y asking the Client if she prefers a fi#tional !ook or a film for rela2ation or entertainment.A Although "e ha$e listed only the primary internal systems of imagination, internal $er!al thought and emotion, there is no suggestion that this list is more than a first appro2imation, appropriate as an introdu#tion to thinking in a systems4oriented "ay. .e #an also think in a kinaestheti# "ay, for e2ample: #an imagine the sense and feeling that go "ith lifting a spoon "ithout e$er $er!alising or $isualising it. 7usi# has not !een mentioned, !ut it #an !e a strong a#ti$ator of emotions, and some people #an #all it to mind at "ill as easily as a $isual memory. And "e #an think in more a!stra#t #on#eptual "ays "hi#h are of a higher order and harder to lo#ate as a #ere!ral fun#tion. And "e should !e a"are that ea#h of the a!o$e systems #an !e analysed into su!systems, and that they #an #om!ine in $arious "ays. This is not an en#y#lopaedi# !ook: it is intended to present a "ay of looking at things. The key idea is that pra#titioners in the field of Hypnosis should !e a"are of &ust "hat systems they

are a#ti$ating or ina#ti$ating at a gi$en time, and some sort of #lassifi#ation is useful to detail their ans"ers. *o" that "e ha$e looked at the main systems "hi#h are in$ol$ed in the early stages of a Hypnotherapy session, it "ill !e useful to return to the large #lass of 7aintenan#e and >efen#e systems, and look at one in parti#ular "hi#h looms $ery large in the "ork of the Hypnotherapist. The fun#tion of this system is to ena!le the !ody to respond to a per#ei$ed danger. t is defensi$e. The responses are often summarised !y the phrase 6fight or flight6. The presumed origin of this system "as in a more primiti$e "orld than our o"n, "hen most dangers #ould !e met either !y running a"ay from them or !y fighting the "ild animal or enemy "hi#h posed the threat. t "as seldom the #ase that threats #ould !e met !y dra"ing little marks on a "hite surfa#e, or !y 'uiet reason. t "as far more useful to ha$e the lungs dra"ing in reser$es of o2ygen, the heart !eating fast, adrenaline flo"ing, the mus#les ready for a#tion, the stoma#h andDor !o"els empty, perspiration starting to keep the !ody #ooled and so on. Pro!lems in$ol$ing this system "hi#h may !e presented to the Hypnotherapist in#lude an2iety, pani# atta#ks, e2amination ner$es, fear of flying, agorapho!ia, 6stress6, !erea$ement, fear of dentists, and so on endlessly. 7any #ases of se2ual malfun#tion, for e2ample, in$ol$e this same defensi$e response, !e#ause another aspe#t of it is that it tends to s"it#h off se2ual dri$e. Conse'uently the man "ho gets an2ious a!out his performan#e and therefore a#ti$ates this defensi$e pattern "ill further reduce his se2ual pro"ess. This "ill make things "orse and a $i#ious #ir#le !egins. n most of these #ases the pro!lem is that this parti#ular defensi$e system is a#ti$ated inappropriately. There are $ery fe" threats in modern life that #all for these kinds of emotional and physi#al #hanges. Typi#ally there is some sort of trigger 4 a pla#e, a feeling, et#. 4 "hi#h is interpreted !y a key mental system as >A*)E%OH0. This "ill immediately a#ti$ate the defensi$e 6fight or flight6 system. One #ommon strategy for the Hypnotherapist is to aim to #hange the first system so that it no longer regards the parti#ular trigger as !eing >A*)E%OH0. n prin#iple an alternati$e approa#h might !e for#i!ly to pre$ent it from a#ti$ating the defensi$e system, !ut although this might "ork in the short term, it is potentially fla"ed in that the "arning might later !reak through again. As an analogy, suppose that the a##ounts department of a #ompany is @rightly or "ronglyA saying, 6.e are in a finan#ially dangerous situation. .e must e#onomiseI6 The effe#t of this "ill run through the "hole !usiness. *o" "e may pre$ent the a##ounts department making e$eryone feel demoralised !y lo#king them up, or #utting their lines of #ommuni#ation. But not for long. 0ooner or later they "ill get out and shout all the louder as a result of not !eing heard !efore. As management te#hni'ue or Hypnoti# te#hni'ue that is !ad pra#ti#e. Corre#t pra#ti#e is to pay attention to the system "hi#h is reporting danger and then demonstrate to it that the situation does not #all for the drasti# le$el of response that is !eing suggested. There is e$iden#e that Hypnoti# te#hni'ues #an in fa#t affe#t the fun#tioning of 7aintenan#e and >efen#e systems "hi#h operate at a lo"er le$el, su#h as the immune system. %ossi P Cheek @(<;;ABi! present some details on the effe#t of

Hypnoti# te#hni'ues on healing. There is plenty of e$iden#e 4 vide the pla#e!o effe#t 4 that peopleFs !eliefs a!out their diseases #an affe#t their #ourse. But the e2a#t path"ay !y "hi#h the mental pro#ess affe#ts the physi#al one is not totally #lear. This is an area in "hi#h more resear#h "ould !e useful. t is to !e e2pe#ted that the theoreti#al approa#h !eing de$eloped here "ould help to formulate pre#isely the 'uestions that resear#h "ill ans"er. 9or e2ample, the useful 'uestion is not, 6>oes !eing Hypnotised #ure a patient of #an#erB6, !ut 6.hat systems #an the Hypnotherapist usefully a#ti$ate or ina#ti$ate in su#h a "ay that the internal en$ironment of the !ody is altered in su#h a "ay that the !odyFs defen#es against #an#er #an !e a#ti$ated more effe#ti$elyB6 .e #annot yet ans"er this in the "ay that "e #an see ho" Hypnoti# te#hni'ues #an redu#e high !lood pressure: high !lood pressure is one #onse'uen#e of an a#ti$e 6fight or flight response65 this system is a#ti$ated !y a sense of !eing under some form of atta#k. Hypnoti# te#hni'ues #an a#t on the per#eption of !eing threatened, to redu#e the a#ti$ity of the 6flight or fight6 system, "hi#h "ill in turn redu#e the fre'uen#y of high !lood pressure. CONCLUSION The first step or t"o on the path of methodi#ally listing systems appropriate in Hypnotherapy ha$e !een taken /less important ones in italics0. )1ternally oriente%! active! mus#ular, $o#al, pheromonal. responsive! sight, hearing, smell, taste, orientation. Internally oriente%! internalised spee#h, $isual imagination, emotions, kinaesthetic. Maintenance an% %efence! 69light or fight6, immune system. These really only s#rat#h the surfa#e !ut are enough for our present purpose, "hi#h is to understand the P% *C P+E0 of our su!&e#t. The prin#iple is that "e "ork methodi#ally "ith a $ariety of interlo#king systems to alter their fun#tioning, hopefully to #orre#t pro!lems. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R A
Processes

ypnosis!

This brief chapter takes a closer look at the matter of distinguishing processes as opposed to distinguishing structures. It also considers yet another comple system as an e ample of an organic system1 an orchestra. The particular virtue of this e ample is that it provides us with a concrete image of what we mean by a process of a system1 it is akin to the score of an orchestral work. %nother very important point made, which is neatly illustrated by this e ample, is the distinction between the kinematics of a process - how a thing proceeds - and the dynamics - why it proceeds as it does. "o amount of analysis of subsystems will in principle enable us fully to understand an organic process by merely analysing its subprocesses1 we must also always be aware of the influence of larger systems and processes of which it is in turn a subprocess. * CHAPTE% / "e sa" a $ariety of e2amples of organi# systems "hi#h "ere used to get our minds "orking on appropriate lines. This small #hapter looks at yet another e2ample, !ut "ith a spe#ifi# goal in mind: that is to ena!le us to get a #learer idea of HO. "e are to de#ide "hen t"o pro#esses are different. This is a part of the more general 'uestion, 6.hen are t"o systems differentB6 Be#ause "e ha$e defined a system as #onsisting of an underlying stru#ture and a set of possi!le pro#esses, "e may #on#lude that t"o systems are different if they ha$e E THE% different underlying stru#tures O% a different set of pro#esses, or, of #ourse, !oth. The #ase of different stru#tures presents no pro!lems: it is normally 'uite easy to distinguish stru#tures. There is no danger of #onfusing heart and lungs, or ner$es and mus#les, or the $isual #orte2 "ith the motor #orte2, or a s#hool "ith a garage, and so on. But pro#esses are more su!tle. One stru#ture #an !e in$ol$ed in many different fun#tions. The physi#al stru#ture "hi#h is a person #an, for e2ample, perform a seemingly endless $ariety of different a#tions. The different pro#esses "hi#h #an o##ur in the physi#al stru#ture of your !rain are kno"n to you to !e often $ery different, !ut ho" are "e going to go a!out defining this differen#e "ithin the theoreti#al stru#ture "e are de$elopingB A $ery natural definition "ould seem to !e the follo"ing: A parti#ular process of a system is identified "ith a parti#ular pattern of a#ti$ation of its su!stru#tures. T"o pro#esses asso#iated "ith a gi$en stru#ture "ill therefore differ if the pattern of a#ti$ation of its su!stru#tures is different in the t"o #ases. Thus "e "ould assume that ultimately the differen#e !et"een t"o thoughts @"hi#h are mental pro#essesA is that ea#h is asso#iated "ith a different pattern of a#ti$ation of neurons in the !rain. The differen#e !et"een t"o physi#al a#ti$ities is asso#iated "ith a different pattern of a#ti$ation of the mus#les, and so on.

n order to make these ideas some"hat #learer it "ill !e useful to look at the promised analogue: an or#hestra. .e #ould at any time measure the a#ti$ity of ea#h se#tion of the or#hestra 4 strings, "ood"ind, per#ussion, et#. 4 simply in terms of their loudness in the #ourse of a musi#al "ork. This is a $ery rough and ready "ay of measuring an or#hestral pro#ess @the playing of a "orkA, !ut it "ould !e more than ade'uate to distinguish !et"een most "orks. n order to identify a "ork more #ompletely "e "ould need to refine our analysis of the su!systems so that, for e2ample, "e measured the a#ti$ity of ea#h string on a $iolin, distinguished !et"een the a#ti$ity of a #larinet at different fingerings and so on: in other "ords "e start to dis#riminate !et"een different notes. A musi#al s#ore is a shorthand "ay "e ha$e of des#ri!ing a musi#al pro#ess. The musi#al s#ore is di$ided into time inter$als !y means of !ar lines. Ea#h ma&or su!system of the or#hestra has its o"n set of horiLontal lines 4 a sta$e 4 marked out !y the $erti#al !ar lines. f the s#ore is looked at from a distan#e, it is possi!le !y 'ui#kly #asting an eye do"n the page !et"een !ar lines to say "hi#h se#tions are playing @a#ti$eA and "hi#h are not, at a gi$en time. f "e look more #losely, so that "e #an analyse the pro#ess of ea#h se#tion in more detail, "e see the indi$idual notes, "hi#h amounts to a more detailed analysis of ea#h instrument into its su!systems @e.g. strings on a pianoA and of its pro#esses into patterns of a#ti$ation of those su!systems. .e might use this idea in order to portray the pattern of a#ti$ity of any !iologi#al system. .e "ould first de#ide on an analysis into large su!systems. Ea#h su!system gets its horiLontal line on the page. These lines are marked "ith time inter$als 4 se#onds perhaps. Along ea#h line "e might dra" a graph of the le$el of a#ti$ity of that su!system. At a distan#e all that "ill !e $isi!le is a rough idea of "hether there is a lot or a little or no a#ti$ity of a parti#ular su!system in a gi$en inter$al of time. This "ould !e enough to distinguish many pro#esses in the same "ay that "e #an distinguish many or#hestral pro#esses !y a distant glan#e at the s#ore. f "e "anted to analyse a pro#ess in more detail "e "ould ha$e to repla#e ea#h horiLontal line !y se$eral, #orresponding to a further analysis into su!systems, &ust as the sta$e is resol$ed into many lines. .e "ould then !e a!le to represent the le$el of a#ti$ity of ea#h of the su!systems of the ma&or su!systems, and #hara#terise a pro#ess in more detail. This pro#ess of #ontinual refinement #ould, if re'uired, !e #ontinued many times. Of #ourse, it is not !eing suggested that this has to !e done, nor has any pres#ription !een made a!out the !est "ay of representing the pattern on the a!o$e lines: "hether a graph @"hi#h is a s#ientistFs normal representation of a $aria!leA is !etter than the dis#rete notes of musi#, for e2ample. Ho"e$er some su#h representation is in prin#iple possi!le for most !iologi#al systems insofar as a le$el of a#ti$ity is measura!le. 9urthermore, and perhaps more importantly, it provi%es a 'sef'l mental image of &hat e1actly is meant "y a process of a system! one can thin# in a general &ay of the ,score,. T"o different pro#esses of the same system ha$e different 6s#ores6.

.e may no" refine the statement on "hen pro#esses #an !e distinguished as follo"s:4 T"o pro#esses "ill !e regarded as different relative to a given analysis into s'"systems if the differen#es !et"een the 6s#ores6 are signifi#antly greater than the e2perimental error in determining the le$els of a#ti$ity of the su!systems. f one "ished to take this musi#al analogy a little more poeti#ally, one #ould say that the Hypnotherapist is like the #ondu#tor rehearsing an or#hestra: the or#hestra of su!systems of the 0u!&e#t. He or she "ill !e !ringing up some se#tions of the or#hestra and 'uieting others. Perhaps the ClientFs pro!lem is only in one se#tion, in "hi#h #ase it is !est if all other se#tions are stilled and that one se#tion is 'uietly rehearsed !y itself. The tenden#y of the Hypnotist to repeat suggestions a num!er of times is akin to the #ondu#tor getting one se#tion to run o$er a little passage se$eral times until it has !e#ome smooth. 7ore lyri#ally yet, "e might o!ser$e that &ust as a #ondu#torFs skill is e$oking harmony from the or#hestra, &ust so does the Hypnotherapist "ork to a#hie$e an inner harmony "ithin the mind and heart and !ody of the ClientI Before "e end this #hapter "e "ill make a #ertain important distin#tion. The a!o$e des#ription of a pro#ess of a system is a kinematic one and not a dynamic one. t is a "ay of noting "hat does happen, and not why, in any sense, it does. The distin#tion is at least that !et"een a kinemati# des#ription of the solar system in terms of the #hanging dire#tions of the planets as seen from the earth, or in terms of their positions relati$e to the sun, and a dynami# des#ription in terms of *e"tonFs la"s. The or#hestral s#ore gi$es a kinemati# des#ription of a pro#ess. t tells us "hat a pro#ess is. There is nothing in it that #an tell us why the musi# is as it is. t is impossi!le to deduce the remainder of a s#ore from a fragment. .e may perhaps dedu#e #ertain partial la"s in the light of a detailed analysis of it in the form, 6A#ti$ation of this se'uen#e of notes is follo"ed in the ne2t !ar !y that se'uen#e of notes.6. But that #omes no"here near e2plaining the "hole. n order to !e a!le to do this "e "ould ha$e to mo$e to a mu#h larger system: the mind of the #omposer. .ithin the #onte2t of that larger system lie the #lues to many of the 'uestions "e might ask a!out the 2hy3 of the musi#. But e$en that is unlikely to !e a large enough system, and "e "ould need to mo$e into the system "hi#h in#orporates the musi#al taste of the #omposerFs #ulture. The !ig moral of this is that "e #annot e2pe#t the most detailed analysis of the pro#esses of an organi# system to pro$ide us "ith anything like a full understanding of "hy they are as they are. n prin#iple there "ill al"ays !e things a!out them "hi#h #an only !e understood in terms of larger pro#esses of larger systems of "hi#h the spe#ifi# system is a part. Though this prin#iple may not al"ays !e made e2pli#it in this !ook, it is a2iomati# to the approa#h that "hereas a pro#ess may !e analysed and described and distinguished !y means of looking at su!systems and su!pro#esses, it is ne#essary al"ays to look the other "ay 4 to the system of "hi#h they are a part 4 to gain anything like a full understanding of "hy they are as they are. The analogy of the

musi#al "ork represents this fa#t. 9urther remarks on this aspe#t of systems theory "ill !e found in the #hapter on #ons#iousness in Part C. CONCLUSION n this #hapter "e ha$e looked at the notion of a process in a little more detail, in order to #larify it. The stru#ture of a system is typi#ally something easy to define and indeed see. The pro#esses are more a!stra#t patterns of #hange. They ha$e !een defined in terms of the pattern of a#ti$ation of the su!systems. The analogy of a musi#al s#ore has !een used to illuminate the idea. This analogy also dra"s attention to the se$ere limitations of an analysis of su!systems "hen it #omes to understanding as opposed to des#ri!ing pro#esses. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R B
Tests

ypnosis!

%nyone familiar with Hypnosis will know many -tests- of Hypnotic responsiveness. These are used in an attempt to determine how readily a potential subject will respond. The purpose of this chapter is to re-evaluate such tests within a systems framework as follows. The tests remain tests, but tests not of Hypnotic responsiveness but of how readily one system of the brain or body activates another in a given individual. * 7O0T TEKTBOOK0 of Hypnosis it is possi!le to find a se#tion entitled 6Tests of Hypnoti# %esponsi$eness6 or similar. .ithin the theoreti#al approa#h of this !ook all su#h tests are retained as !eing of potential $alue, !ut the interpretation of "hat they are testing is #hanged, as follo"s. The tests ha$e !een e$ol$ed in an attempt to ans"er the 'uestion, 6 s this person a good Hypnoti# 0u!&e#tB6 n this #hapter the tests "ill !e seen as ans"ering 'uestions of the form, 6 n this person, does a#ti$ation of system A lead readily to a#ti$ation of system BB6. To illustrate this differen#e "e "ill look !riefly at the tests used in the 0tanford Hni$ersity Hypnoti# Clini#al 0#ale @0HC0A @Hilgard @(<:3ABi!A. Test 4. Arms are stret#hed out for"ards, palms fa#ing and a!out a foot apart. The indi$idual is then told to imagine a for#e attra#ting the hands together 4 "ith options of an imaginary elasti# !and or an imaginary magneti# for#e pulling them together. There is then further $er!al assertion that the hands "ill mo$e together.

A person s#ores a T on the 0HC0 if, in ten se#onds, the hands mo$e to "ithin si2 in#hes of ea#h other. That is to say, a positi$e s#ore is regarded as indi#ating a good Hypnoti# su!&e#t. *o" let us ask oursel$es "hat systems are in$ol$ed in that little e2periment. The simplest le$el of analysis in$ol$es the mus#ular system 7, "hi#h mo$es the arms and the system of the imagination . 9ormally "e are e2amining the strength of the intera#tion: 2 4 27. That is, "e are asking, 6>oes the a#ti$ation of the magination lead to the a#ti$ation of the #orresponding mus#les 7 in this indi$idualB6 Ho"e$er, things are seldom 'uite as simple as that, and "e should at least in#lude in our analysis the primarily $er!al system @JA in the !rain a#ti$ated !y the suggestion made !y the e2perimenter, so that "e are e2amining the #hain: 2J 4 2 4 27. *o" in the 0HC0 there is a preliminary step of running through a simple fi$e minute 6indu#tion6 of a rela2ation type. But it is important to note that in many people the process of moving the hands together will happen without any such preamble. 0o "hat is the point of the 6indu#tion6B >oes it make any differen#eB .e #an $ie" it in the follo"ing "ay. 0#ientifi# method as "ell as #ommon sense !oth say that the intera#tion !et"een any t"o systems "ill !e seen at its #learest and strongest if there is no interference from anything else. ,ou "ill find it mu#h harder to produ#e the a!o$e response in a man "ho has a deadline to meet, or in someone "ho is so #on#erned "ith some other matter that the "hole !usiness of holding out the arms seems pointless and irrele$ant. n su#h #ases other mental systems are $ery a#ti$e indeed and these systems #an interfere a lot. One key emphasis of Hypnosis @though not the only oneA, "hi#h distinguishes it #onsidera!ly from related su!&e#ts, is the "ay in "hi#h it in$ol$es the e2#lusion as far as possi!le of any irrele$ant a#ti$ity, so that any #hanges are made "ith the ma2imum ease. n the a!o$e e2ample of the test of hand mo$ement it is possi!le, as has !een mentioned, for the mo$ement to happen in some indi$iduals "ith no pream!le, !ut the response "ill !e readier and faster and generally more pronoun#ed if it takes pla#e in a person for "hom all other pro#esses are #omparati$ely ina#ti$e. The 0HC0 makes no attempt to #ompare responses "ith and "ithout the pream!le or 6indu#tion6. 0o there is really no measure of ho" effe#ti$e the preliminary pro#edure is in enhan#ing the response.

Test 5. This in$ol$es asking the 0u!&e#t to fall asleep and ha$e a real dream. This is not asked in a single senten#e !ut in some gentle senten#es lasting for a minute or t"o. The 0u!&e#t is then allo"ed one minute for the 6dream6, and is then re'uested to repeat it. The 0u!&e#t s#ores a T on this if an e2perien#e #ompara!le to a dream is reported, "ith e$iden#e of its not !eing under #ons#ious #ontrol. .hat are the key systems hereB One is that imaginati$e system "hi#h is a#ti$e in dreaming, "hi#h "e may again la!el m. Another is the system of #ons#ious #ontrol of our imaginings "hi#h "e may la!el C. The #hara#teristi# of a dream as opposed to an imagining is that in a dream C is inactive. Then "hat "e are testing in this #ase is the readiness "ith "hi#h the $er!al suggestion J of the e2perimenter #an lead to an in#rease in "ith an asso#iated de#rease in C, i.e. "e are looking at the #hains: 2J 4 2 m and 2J 4 3C. 9rom a s#ientifi# $ie"point it "ould ha$e !een $ery mu#h more systemati# if the 0HC0 had first asked for a response to a suggestion that the 0u!&e#t imagine something @ 2J 4 2 mA and then asked for it to ha$e the dreamlike 'uality of la#k of any #ons#ious #ontrol @ 2J 4 3CA. To in#lude T.O pro#esses in the one test is far less informati$e. A 0u!&e#t might not respond either !e#ause there is simply $ery little a!ility to produ#e a $i$id imagining or !e#ause there is $ery little a!ility to rela2 #ons#ious #ontrol. To a Hypnotherapist it #ould !e $ery important to kno" the differen#e. .e may note again that although there are some people "ho #an produ#e a positi$e response to this test at "ill, it is again the #ase that the response #an !e e2pe#ted to !e far stronger if no other mental systems are a#ti$e. This is perhaps e$en #learer in this #ase, as no one #an e2pe#t mu#h of a dream4like response in a person "ho is, for e2ample, preo##upied "ith hunger. Test 6. The 0u!&e#t is in$ited to return to a happy day at s#hool, "ith suggestions of !eing smaller and younger. This is an attempt to indu#e a form of age4regression. Jarious 'uestions are then asked a!out the memory or e2perien#e: 6.here are youB6, 6.hat are you doingB6, 6.ho is your tea#herB6, 6Ho" old are youB6, 6.hat are you "earingB6, 6.ho is "ith youB6 On this test a T is s#ored if there is, at a minimum, a feeling of reli$ing an e2perien#e, e$en if there is still a"areness of the present age5 !ut there is also an option of s#oring a T if the HypnotistFs assessment on the !asis of the ans"ers gi$en is that there has !een a 6good6 regression. 0o mu#h for "hat the designers of the 0CH0 are attempting. *o" let us see "hat systems are in$ol$ed in this test. The ma&or one is memory, "hi#h "e "ill #all 7. n general, memory is many4fa#eted. .e #an remem!er smells, sensations, feelings, "ords, fears, a#tions and so on: any system of the !ody may ha$e its o"n memory, and a total regression "ould in$ol$e all these su!systems. At the same time "e must noti#e that memory is organised not only in terms of su#h systems !ut also in terms

of the time and pla#e at "hi#h the remem!ered e$ent took pla#e. This test #learly in$ol$es an attempt to a#ti$ate in 7 a parti#ular #omple2 pro#ess 7 p, "hi#h is related to a parti#ular time in #hildhood and a parti#ular pla#e 4 s#hool. f "e let 0 !e the e2perimenterFs suggestion, then in shorthand "e are e2amining the strength of the pro#ess: 2J 4 27p. .e may again ask "hat signifi#an#e, if any, the initial 6indu#tion6 has in this test. The general idea is that the re#all #an $ery easily !e s"amped !y any #urrent a"areness or preo##upation. Conse'uently if it is possi!le to redu#e all a"areness of the present to a minimum, it "ill greatly enhan#e the a"areness of the past. t is perhaps "orth noting that the 0CH0 s#heme makes no attempt to en'uire if the memories are genuine. There is ample e$iden#e that people #an fa!ri#ate memories "ithout kno"ing that they are doing so. Thus if "e "ere testing a person in "hom the imagination is easily a#ti$ated, and the 6reality testing6 system 4 "hi#h normally #ross4#orrelates anything imagined "ith other memories to #he#k if it is real or imaginary 4 is easily dea#ti$ated, then "e #ould find a good response on this test, !ut it "ould not !e of memory, !ut of a day4dream !elie$ed to !e memory. Test 7. t is suggested that after the "hole set of e2periments are o$er the 0u!&e#t "ill feel an urge to #ough or #lear the throat "hen the e2perimenter taps on the ta!le "ith a pen#il. 0u#h a phenomenon is #alled a post4hypnoti# suggestion. The s#oring system gi$es a T if the Hypnotist de#ides that the 0u!&e#tFs response to the #ue of tapping on the ta!le is present, unless the 0u!&e#t says that the response "as $oluntary. *o" su#h a phenomenon #an happen in e$eryday life. Take as an e2ample a simple dire#tion su#h as, 6.hen you rea#h the #orner, turn left.6 9or many, !ut not of #ourse all, people, the pro#ess of turning left @the responseA "hen they later rea#h the #orner @the #ueA "ill !e effe#ti$ely automati#: they might !e thinking hard a!out something else at the time, for e2ample. 0o, as in all the phenomena of Hypnosis, there is nothing totally amaLing a!out the pro#ess of responding in$oluntarily to a #ue in a "ay di#tated !y something said at an earlier time. +et us see if "e #an again disentangle the main systems and pro#esses tested in this e2periment. f "e introspe#t "e find that "e normally #ough in response to a ti#kle in the throat. But "e #an also #ough "ithout it. This parti#ular e2periment "ould ha$e !een more informati$e if the 0u!&e#t had later !een asked if there "as a ti#kle in$ol$ed, in "hi#h #ase a sensory system T had !een a#ti$ated, or, instead, there "as simply a mus#ular urge to #ough, in "hi#h #ase it "as a motor system 7 that "as !eing primarily a#ti$ated. The additional system in$ol$ed in this #ase is the mental pro#ess "hi#h is a#ti$ated !y the #ue itself, "hi#h "e "ill #all C. .e should no" see that this e2periment is a#tually e2amining a rather #omple2 pro#ess "hi#h "e #an "rite sym!oli#ally: Either 2J 4@ 2C 4 2TA or 2J 4@ 2C 4 27A.

That is, the pro#ess either !y "hi#h the $er!al suggestion #an a#ti$ate a response system in "hi#h the #ue C "ill a#ti$ate a sensory ti#kle T, or !y "hi#h the suggestion #an a#ti$ate a response system in "hi#h the #ue C "ill a#ti$ate a motor me#hanism 7. t is at on#e apparent from the notation that the structure of this response is different from the others, and this underlines the fa#t that this Hypnoti# phenomenon is 'ualitati$ely different from the others. Here J is ha$ing to #reate a totally ne" system of response. As a result "e might "ell #on&e#ture that this test "ill !e signifi#antly harder than the rest. As a matter of fa#t this is !orne out in e2periments, "ith only one in four su!&e#ts @-:UA passing this test, #ompared "ith around t"o out of three @8=U 4 ;(UA for the earlier tests and t"o out of fi$e @1=UA in the final one !elo". Test 8. As part of the pro#ess of 6"aking6 the 0u!&e#t, it is suggested that the 0u!&e#t forget all that has !een done or said during the session. A T is s#ored if no more than t"o things are re#alled. *o" forgetting things is one of the #ommonest of e2perien#es, so the only unusual thing a!out su#h a response is the forgetting of 'uite re#ent e$ents 4 though e$en that is not so un#ommon, as most tea#hers "ill attest. n terms of systems "e are again dealing "ith an aspe#t of the memory 7 4 in this #ase a memory 7r of re#ent e$ents, and the simplest des#ription of the pro#ess !eing e2amined is: 2J 4 37r, i.e. the effe#ti$eness of the suggestion in redu#ing the a#ti$ity of the memory. The final s#ore a person a#hie$es on this 0HC0 s#ale is the num!er of items on "hi#h a T has !een s#ored, and this is supposed to !e a measure of 6Hypnoti# sus#epti!ility6. There has ne$ertheless !een found to !e a #onsidera!le $ariation in the per#entage of people "ho 6pass6 ea#h test, "hi#h ranges from o$er ;=U on the mo$ing hands to less than /=U on the posthypnoti# suggestion. 7oreo$er some indi$iduals may do !etter on a statisti#ally 6harder6 test and poorer on a statisti#ally 6easier6 one. hope that the a!o$e dis#ussion has sho"n that the systems approa#h to our su!&e#t pro$ides a far #learer pi#ture of "hat is going on in the a!o$e tests than is pro$ided !y a one4dimensional notion of some kind of 6Hypnoti# responsi$eness6, "ith its simplisti# impli#ation that "e are dealing "ith one aptitude. hope also that the $alue of this impro$ed pi#ture "ill !e#ome still #learer as "e pro#eed to see ho" su#h tests #an !e adapted to Clini#al Hypnosis or Hypnotherapy. n su#h a #onte2t "e might pro#eed in the follo"ing "ay. V Test /9 4 /Im, i.e. #an the imagination !e readily a#ti$atedB Metho%. Ask the person to pi#ture a familiar thing, su#h as a room in their house. Then en'uire if it is a $i$id pi#ture. Che#k !y asking detailed 'uestions as to #olours,

positions of ornaments, et#. f the pi#ture is *OT $i$id, then the person may !e asked to look again "ith #losed eyes. The ans"ers to these 'uestions #an $ary from total $agueness indi#ating a $ery poor $isual imagination up to a $i$idness, e$en "ith open eyes, s#ar#ely distinguisha!le from reality. They gi$e a good idea of the ease "ith "hi#h the $isual imagination may !e a#ti$ated. @But note the important point, often missed in e2perimental Hypnosis, that a parti#ular person "ill !e a!le to pi#ture some things !etter than others. A fanati#al gardener may !e a!le to pi#ture a priLe rose "ith amaLing #larity, and yet not ha$e the faintest idea of the furniture in the lounge.A : Test /9 4 3*, "here % represents the reality4testing me#hanism. Metho%( Ask the person to in#lude in the pi#ture something 'uite e2traordinary, su#h as a pig flying around the room. 0ome people "ill fail #ompletely on this. Others "ill pi#ture it readily and happily. : Test 29 4 2.d, "here 7d is a distant memory, as opposed to a memory of the familiar thing in the first test. Metho%( 0imply ask ho" mu#h the person #an remem!er !efore the age of (=. 9ollo" up "ith a fe" 'uestions to esta!lish ho" $i$id the memories are. : Test 29 4 2), i.e. ho" easily an idea #ou#hed in $er!al terms #an arouse a gi$en emotion. Metho%( Ask the person to tell you a!out a $ery happy or misera!le or angry time, "ith open eyes and no rela2ation or other indu#tion. Then ask, 6And ho" do you feel as you tell meB6 The ans"er to this, together "ith any signs of emotional arousal during the a##ount, "ill gi$e a good idea of ho" easily emotions #an !e aroused $er!ally. A#tually people seem to !e 'uite good at ans"ering 'uestions of the form, 6 f "e rate the intensity of the original emotion at (=, ho" strong is that emotion you are no" feelingB6 The num!er gi$en is a good measure of the ease "ith "hi#h an emotion #an !e aroused from the $er!al system. : Test 2Im 4 2), i.e. ho" easily #an an imagined situation arouse an emotionB Metho%. The eyes may !e #losed for this to enhan#e the $isual imagination. The person is then asked to picture a parti#ular e$ent "hi#h aroused a strong emotion 4 perhaps the same one as a!o$e 4 for a fe" minutes, "ithout talking a!out it. Then a rating for the intensity is gi$en. 9or many people the rating "ill !e far higher than in the pre$ious test, as the $isual imagination is #ommonly linked more dire#tly to emotion than is the $er!al system. 9or others the re$erse may !e true. : Test 2; 4 3I9, i.e. the ease "ith "hi#h the internal $er!al system @ JA #an !e ina#ti$ated !y some other system K, "hi#h may !e the e2ternal $er!al system, the internal $isual system, et#.

Metho%( Ask the person "hat they "ere thinking during the a!o$e tests. Ans"ers may range from, 6*othing 4 "as &ust listening and pi#turing "hat you asked me,6 to, 6 "as #onstantly analysing e$erything you said, and e$erything that "as happening.6 )enerally it "ill !e mu#h harder to ina#ti$ate the internal $er!al system of the latter. : Test 29 4 2*, i.e. the degree to "hi#h the person resists suggestions. Metho%( 0imply ask, 6>id you feel any relu#tan#e in any of those testsB6 At one e2treme there are people "ho may say, 6,es, thought you "ere impertinent to ask to see my house. did not "ant to sho" any emotion5 it is a sign of "eakness,6 et#. At the other e2treme are those "ho "ill ne$er display any relu#tan#e. t may !e o!&e#ted that a person may lie in ans"ering these 'uestions. But if the therapist makes it #lear that he or she is 'uite happy "ith any ans"er 4 they are !eing asked in the spirit of diagnosis, not #riti#ism 4 then there is not a great danger of this. 9urther tests may !e made in this !rief "ay. *aturally there is no need to test A++ possi!le systems in therapy. The a!o$e ha$e !een gi$en !e#ause they tend to !e important in all #ases. 0u#h things as the ease "ith "hi#h a#tions result from suggestion, like the hand mo$ement one in the 0CH0, are not all that likely to !e #entral to the resolution of a pro!lem. But e$en there note that it is more useful for you #learly to distinguish three approa#hes. n one you simply repeat, 6,our hands are going to mo$e6 for a minute and see and ask if there is any response. n another you repeat, 6&icture your hands !eing pulled together !y a po"erful elasti# !and.6 n the third you repeat, 6,ou "ill feel your hands filling "ith an o$er"helming desire to mo$e together. They lo$e ea#h other. They "ant to !e #lose to ea#h other.6 >ifferent people may respond in 'uite different "ays to these three approa#hes. ,ou are in this "ay esta!lishing "hether, if you "ant a motor response, it is !etter to pro#eed from the $er!al system or to go $ia the $isual system, or $ia the emotional system. *oti#e that all the a!o$e ha$e !een done "ith no use of indu#tions, no mention of Hypnoti# states, et#. They are simply esta!lishing a sort of !ase4line, the "ay in "hi#h the personFs mind "orks readily and naturally. .ith the a!o$e information in hand the Hypnotherapist may mo$e mu#h more s"iftly and surely to a#hie$e any parti#ular goal. .e may generally e2pe#t that anything that "orks "ell at the e$eryday le$el of these tests "ill !e enhan#ed under the #onditions typi#al of mu#h Hypnotherapeuti# pra#ti#e: "hen interferen#e from #ompeting systems is mu#h redu#ed !y systemati#ally ina#ti$ating them. And this #an in turn !e tested !y #omparing the speed or intensity of one of these repsonses !efore and after any gi$en 6indu#tion6 "hi#h #hanges the pattern of a#ti$ity of $arious su!systems. 9inally it is "orth remem!ering that a so4#alled Hypnoti# phenomenon, su#h as those represented !y the 0HC0 tests, may !e produ#ed !y some people "ith great ease and no pream!le, "hile others may only produ#e it after a great deal of "ork !y a Hypnotist to a#ti$ate the appropriate response. This is "hat makes the notion of a Hypnoti# state so intangi!le and elusi$e. f the phrase 6Hypnoti# tran#e6 is to ha$e

$alue "e must gi$e #riteria to determine "hen a person is 6in a tran#e6 and "hen not. .e must therefore apply tests. But any parti#ular test #an !e passed !y some people "hen they are, !y all #ommon4sense #riteria, in their normal 6state6. This is one reason "hy there has !een so little su##ess in rea#hing an agreed definition of 6Hypnoti# state6, and "hy this !ook does not use the notion. n this #onte2t it is "orth noting that there are s#ales in e2isten#e "hi#h are not designed in the #onte2t of Hypnotherapy, su#h as the Creati$e magination 0#ale of Bar!er P .ilson @(<:;ABi!. This in$ol$es ten simple tests in "hi#h the 0u!&e#t is in$ited to imagine a num!er of things and to report on ho" strong the resulting e2perien#e "as. 0u#h a test produ#es results "hi#h #orrelate positi$ely "ith Hypnoti# %esponsi$eness tests. t #an !e adapted easily to the present approa#h !y simply attempting to !e pre#ise in ea#h #ase as to "hat systems are in$ol$ed. SUMMARTests are a $ery important tool in Hypnosis. To !e of most $alue they should !e thought out #learly as a "ay of finding out ho" easily one system may a#ti$ate or dea#ti$ate another, in a given person. E2isting tests of 6Hypnoti# sus#epti!ility6 are generally presented "ith a far less #lear idea of "hat e2a#tly it is that they are testing @other than the a!ility to pass the test, of #ourseA. They may readily !e adapted to test the a#tion of one system on another, ho"e$er, as has !een demonstrated a!o$e. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R C
In%'ctions

ypnosis!

-Hypnotic inductions- are traditionally thought of as processes that the Hypnotist goes through in order to -Hypnotise- the +ubject. <ut they are mostly presented with little or no e planation of how they work, or of what is the purpose of their various parts. =rom a systems point of view it becomes much easier to see what the purpose of an induction is, and e amples are given to illustrate this way of thinking. The result is a more precise, fle ible and accurate approach to this area within the field of Hypnotherapy. THE CO77O* 7EA* *) of 6Hypnoti# indu#tion6 is a pro#ess "hi#h the Hypnotist goes through, the goal of "hi#h is 6to Hypnotise the 0u!&e#t6. 7ost !ooks on Hypnosis feature a se#tion on Hypnoti# indu#tions. This amounts to a shorter or longer #olle#tion of the authorFs fa$ourite re#ipes. Jery seldom is any parti#ular

reason gi$en for their #omponent parts. t is ne$er #lear "hi#h parts #ould !e #hanged "ithout pro!lem. *o reason is gi$en for not using other indu#tions. As "e #ome to analyse indu#tions it is useful to !ear in mind here the key idea of goal or purpose. n prin#iple if a person is doing anything #ons#iously and "ith understanding then the 'uestion, 6.hy are you doing thatB6 should re#ei$e an ans"er "hi#h re$eals a goal or purpose. 6.hy are you adding sugar to that #ake mi2, 7ummyB6 4 6To make it s"eet, dear.6 6.hy are you pres#ri!ing an anti!ioti#, >o#torB6 4 6 n order to kill the !a#teria "hi#h are #ausing your infe#tion, 7rs. Gones.6 f this key 'uestion re#ei$es ans"ers of the form, 6Be#ause it "orks,6 or 6Be#ause thatFs the "ay "as sho"n ho" to do it,6 or 6Be#ause say so,6 or some other general and $ague ans"er, "e #an dedu#e that the pra#titioner has no real understanding of the principles of his or her pra#ti#e. The greater the understanding, the greater the detail in the ans"ers to, 6.hy are you doing thatB6 f a !ook on Hypnosis presents a #hapter on indu#tions "ith no e2planation, then the effe#ti$e ans"er to our key 'uestion, 6.hy are you doing thatB6 is no more informati$e than, 6To indu#e Hypnosis,6 or 6To deepen Hypnosis,6 or 6Be#ause say so.6 The la#k of real information in su#h ans"ers should !e apparent. This !ook is different. t is designed to tea#h understanding of "hat is going on. The "hole theoreti#al stru#ture for#es the pra#titioner to think #learly and in detail a!out "hat he or she is doing. The 'uestion, 6.hy are you doing thatB6 should al"ays !e ans"era!le in terms of spe#ifying "hi#h pro#ess or pro#esses in "hi#h system or systems the pra#titioner is at that time attempting to alter. n other "ords the goals or purposes are mu#h more #lear, detailed and definite. The approa#h to indu#tions #hosen in this !ook is therefore ine$ita!ly different to the familiar #hapter on indu#tions in other !ooks. There "ill !e #onstant referen#e to the parti#ular systems "hi#h are !eing affe#ted. There "ill !e attention to the 'uestion of purpose. n this spirit small se#tions of a $ariety of indu#tions "ill !e analysed, as #ontrasted "ith the pra#ti#e of pro$iding total s#ripts 4 of "hi#h there are unlimited num!ers in the literature. *o attempt "ill !e made to #o$er A++ possi!le forms of indu#tion. The e2amples are used simply to illustrate the prin#iples in$ol$ed. Jarious things should !e#ome apparent as "e go along. The most important thing to understand from the !eginning is that "e are dealing "ith comple1 pro#esses. E$en "hen an indu#tion seems to !e simple, there is $ery often a great deal happening "hi#h is highly rele$ant !ut not o!$ious. f "e "ere emphasising 0tage Hypnosis rather than Hypnotherapy this "ould !e e$en more true, !e#ause the stage Hypnotist, like the stage magi#ian, utilises a $ariety of su!tle te#hni'ues to make the effe#ts as dramati# and the means as in$isi!le as possi!le. )ye @i1ation

A #ommon feature of many indu#tions is a re'uest that the 0u!&e#t keep his or her eyes fi2ed: on a spot on the #eiling, on the HypnotistFs eye, on a !right light or on a spinning dis#. +et us try to analyse "hat this in$ol$es. At the simplest le$el it runs as follo"s. There is a $er!al re'uest from the Hypnotist. t results in a dire#t $oluntary a#tion on the mus#les mo$ing the eye. This in turn results in a signifi#ant redu#tion in the amount of $isually interesting stimulus re#ei$ed !y the !rain. t is a rather #ommonpla#e o!ser$ation that the general le$el of arousal in a person is related to the amount of e2ternal stimulus. .e #an therefore predi#t that as a general rule the fi2ation of gaLe, !y limiting the amount of ne" $isual information, "ill result in an o$erall redu#tion in arousal. 7ore !riefly "e ha$e: Jer!al dire#tion 4 3Neye mo$ementO 4 3N$isual a#ti$ityO 4 3NarousalO. W9or meaning of sym!ols go to 0ym!ols.X That is the #entral pro#ess. But "hen "e #ome to analyse things #learly in an a#tual #ase, it #an !e seen that there is often far more to it than that. The instru#tion, 6+ook at that point6 is, in this #ulture, normally interpreted as, 6+ook at that point and do nothing else.6 Conse'uently there are also the unspoken instru#tions, 6>o not mo$e6 and 6>o not talk6. These, of #ourse, a#t to redu#e mus#ular a#ti$ity and $o#al a#ti$ity respe#ti$ely, "hi#h in turn a#t to redu#e the o$erall le$el of arousal still further. Pra#tising Hypnotists #ould ask themsel$es ho" mu#h effe#t an eye fi2ation instru#tion "ould ha$e if the 0u!&e#t got up, "alked around, $ie"ed the spot from $arious angles, attempted to tou#h it, dis#ussed it and other matters at length and so on. t should !e fairly o!$ious that the suggestion "ould ha$e a minimal effe#t. This is a first e2ample of the fa#t mentioned a!o$e that the most important aspe#ts of an indu#tion may !e things that are not e2pli#it in the $er!al des#ription at allI n a!!re$iated form these additional pro#esses are: Ta#it instru#tion, 6>o not speak.6 4 3N$o#alising systemO 4 3NarousalO. Ta#it instru#tion, 6>o not mo$e.6 4 3Nmus#ular systemO 4 3NarousalO. n addition to these "e may #onsider a higher4order system "hi#h a#ts to a##ept an idea or instru#tion NA##eptO. f the 0u!&e#t does "hat the Hypnotist asks, e$en in the small "ay of fi2ing the eyes, it starts to a#ti$ate this system. n many of the more authoritarian indu#tions this system is "orked on $ery e2tensi$ely. There #an !e a #onstant stream of small instru#tions. 6Gust mo$e around here, "ould youB6 6*o" &ust look at me.6 6*od your head if you understand.6 6Clasp your hands together.6 6*o" &ust turn to fa#e the audien#e.6 The o$erall effe#t of su#h steps in the pro#ess is to #ti$ate automati# a##eptan#e more and more. .e may note that military training "as on#e !ased $ery mu#h on a similar pro#ess of !eginning "ith o!edien#e on small things. @ gather that mindless o!edien#e is not no" rated as highly as it on#e "as in the for#es.A

n an a!stra#t form "e may represent the a#ti$ation of the tenden#y to a##ept as follo"s: 2N nstru#tionO 4 2NA#tionOA 4 2NA##eptO That is, ea#h time the pro#ess of #arrying out an a#tion in response to an instru#tion takes pla#e, it reinfor#es the tenden#y to a##ept further instru#tions. *oti#e the more #omple2 form of this, "hi#h automati#ally alerts us to the fa#t that the system NA##eptO is of a different order from the others in$ol$ed. )ye Clos're The fi2ation of the eyes is usually a prefa#e to getting them to #lose. f the purpose of this "ere merely to #lose the eyes then it could !e a##omplished !y the simple dire#ti$e, "ith no pream!le, 6Please #lose your eyes6. ndeed "ill often do this, "hen this is my sole goal. But many indu#tions a#t in su#h a "ay that the eye #losure is in$oluntary. .hat is the purpose of thisB On the one hand it may ser$e to impress the 0u!&e#t "ith the 6po"er6 of the Hypnotist, and a#ti$ate a system of !elief in him or her. On the other hand it #an ser$e as a test for the Hypnotist of the strength of the pro#ess 2 N0uggestionO 4 3NEyelid mus#lesO. +et us analyse an in$oluntary #losure. t in$ol$es at the minimum the eye mus#les @7A and the $er!ally suggested idea @0A that they are going to #lose. f "e "ere thinking of su#h a #losure as !eing of the nature of a test, as in the last #hapter, then "e "ould !e e2amining the strength of the pro#ess: 20 4 37 @the eye mus#les are a#ti$e only in holding the eye open, so their a#ti$ity is redu#ed on #losureA. *o" a reasona!ly simple "ay of testing this "ould !e to say to a person, "ith no prior eye fi2ation or pream!le, 6 "ould like you to !e a"are of the mus#les of your eyelids. Open and #lose them a fe" times until you !e#ome a"are of the slight effort it takes to keep them open. Opening is an effort, #losing is a rela2ing of that effort. *o", surprisingly, think that you "ill find that $ery soon that effort is going to !e too mu#h for you: you "ill no longer !e a!le to keep your eyes open.6 0uggestions on these lines may !e repeated for up to a fe" minutes, !y "hi#h time a person for "hom the a!o$e #hain is strong "ill in fa#t ha$e found that their eyes ha$e #losed. f, on the other hand, #losure has not #ome a!out, then the Hypnotist may ask 'uestions to see if there is any o!$ious reason "hy it has not happened. n the a!o$e e2ample the phenomenon is presented as #learly and simply as possi!le "ith a minimum of se#ondary or #on#ealed fa#tors operating. The attention has !een fi2ed on a parti#ular system 4 the eyelid mus#les. The thought that it "ill soon !e too mu#h effort #ons#iously to #ontrol them is gi$en in a non4authoritarian "ay. The result is o!ser$ed. "ould like you to #ontrast that pro#ess "ith a more typi#al approa#h in Hypnosis.

The more typi#al pro#ess is first to ask for eye fi2ation as a!o$e and then, after a little "hile, to say something like, 6*o" your eyelids "ill get hea$ier and hea$ier and soon you "ill !e una!le to keep them open.6 n the !est #ases eye #losure "ill then #ome 'ui#kly. This looks simple, !ut there is more going on !eneath the surfa#e. *oti#e first that the 0u!&e#t has !een su!tly gi$en t"o #ontrary dire#tions: to keep looking at the point an% to #lose the eyes. This, in itself, #an gi$e rise to un#ertainty in the 0u!&e#t. People do not like un#ertainty. There is therefore a su!tle pressure to resol$e the dilemma as soon as possi!le in one "ay or the other. Ho" has it happened that the latter "ins o$er the formerB .ell, the Hypnotist has loaded the di#e in one or more of the follo"ing "ays. 9irst of all the eye fi2ation has !een arranged in su#h a "ay as to a#ti$ate a natural system "hi#h "ill lead to eye #losure. This may !e !y getting the 0u!&e#t to look at a point "hi#h is high a!o$e the normal line of sight, "hi#h "ill 'ui#kly strain and tire the eye mus#les. There is also a refle2, "hi#h leads to eye #losure @for the prote#tion of the retinaA if the eye is e2posed to a !right light, "hi#h #an !e a#ti$ated if the 0u!&e#t is dire#ted to gaLe at a !right light or o!&e#t. There is also a refle2 to a$oid eye #onta#t at a #lose distan#e "ith a relati$e stranger "hi#h #an easily !e a#ti$ated !y a Hypnotist "ho #omes $ery #lose to the 0u!&e#t and says, 6*o" &ust keep on looking me in the eye.6 The se#ond point is that the Hypnotist "ill typi#ally start to mention the hea$iness of the eyes shortly after some signs of in#ipient #losure are apparent: e.g. a !link or a droop. The !all is already rolling. The Hypnotist gi$es it a sho$e. t is "orth adding that there is good e2perimental e$iden#e that if t"o e$ents #ome #lose together in time and in$ol$e different senses, then people find it hard to pla#e them in a #orre#t order. 0o, if you say, 6,our eyes "ill start to !link6 straight after the eyes ha$e !linked, there is a strong tenden#y for the person to suppose that they !linked !e#ause of "hat you saidI This a#ts to a#ti$ate a system of !elief that "hat you say "ill happen. On top of this the Hypnotist "ill !e indi#ating !y his tone of $oi#e that of the t"o options 4 to keep staring, or to #lose the eyes 4 only the latter is "hat "ill a#tually happen. He may, for e2ample, say, 6 "ant you to try to keep your eyes fi2ed on that point,6 "ith a su!tle emphasis on try, indi#ating that it #an !e e2pe#ted to !e diffi#ult. But on the other hand he "ill say, 6,our eyes "ill "ant to #lose,6 in a matter of fa#t tone "hi#h suggests that it is as good as done. n addition the general patter of the Hypnotist may in#lude the "ord 6sleep6, "hi#h, !y asso#iation, tends to in#rease a sleepy feeling and a hea$iness of the eyes. t may !e #om!ined "ith a slight slo"ing of the $oi#e to a tone "hi#h is itself sleepy, "hi#h #an again suggest a sleepy feeling to the 0u!&e#t. Another fa#tor "hi#h is $ery effe#ti$e is !ased on our tenden#y to imitate. t is #ommonly the #ase that if a Client has seen another going through a gi$en pro#ess, he or she "ill !e pre4programmed to do the same. )roup Hypnosis utilises this effe#t, and the 0tage Hypnotist is in a position to use it e2tensi$ely. But there are $ery, $ery

fe" people "ho ha$e not seen some film or other display in "hi#h the 0u!&e#tFs eyes #lose and he or she !e#omes immo!ile and speaks only "hen spoken to. Conse'uently there are in effe#t so#ial pressures on any 0u!&e#t to #opy this. By no" trust that it has !e#ome #learer that, in "hat appears to !e no more than one simple step in an Hypnoti# indu#tion, a large num!er of psy#hologi#al fa#tors ha$e !een e$oked "hi#h "ill not !e apparent in a types#ript at all. .e ha$e seen the follo"ing systems impli#ated. (A 0ome physiologi#al or psy#hologi#al #ause of eye #losure is a#ti$ated. -A The system "hi#h determines the order of e$ents is manipulated, to enhan#e the system of !elief that suggestions are !eing o!eyed. /A 0ystems "hi#h e2tra#t meaning from the tone rather than the fa#tual #ontent are a#ti$ated. 1A By asso#iation, sleep4like pro#esses are initiated. 3A That #omple2 pro#ess "here!y "e are a!le, from !eing !a!ies, su##essfully and naturally to imitate others may !e used. .hile !undling all these together may in#rease the effe#ti$eness and speed of the indu#tion, it is a poor "ay to in#rease our understanding of "hat is happening. *ot only does the #on$entional "ay !undle together methods, it also !undles together goals. +et us look at "hat goals are in$ol$ed. The follo"ing are possi!le ones. (A To #lose the eyes. -A To demonstrate to the Hypnotist that the 0u!&e#tFs eyelid mus#les "ill respond to suggestion. /A To redu#e the general le$el of arousal. 1A To demonstrate to the 0u!&e#t that the Hypnotist #an make the eyes #lose against his or her "ill. 3A To enhan#e the !elief and #onfiden#e of the 0u!&e#t in the Hypnotist. 8A To meet the 0u!&e#tFs e2pe#tations. "ould suggest that for learning and for understanding and for e2periment in the field of Hypnosis su#h a !undling together of goals and pro#esses is far from helpful. 0u#h a !undling may "ell !e the !est "ay of produ#ing the dramati# effe#ts in$ol$ed in the entertainment field, "here speed and drama are important. n a therapeuti# #onte2t, on the other hand, it is more appropriate in all "ays for the Hypnotherapist to ha$e a #lear, #ons#ious goal and a #lear understanding of "hat he or she is doing on the "ay. *e2t let us #onsider "hat happens if the $er!al dire#tion does *OT lead to the e2pe#ted result: in this #ase eye #losure. This is potentially a !ig pro!lem for a Hypnotist "orking in an authoritarian tradition, !e#ause it "ill redu#e his #redi!ility, on "hi#h he trades a lot. 7oreo$er he #annot readily ask, 6.hy are your eyes not #losingB6 !e#ause it "ould again suggest "eakness. He is therefore for#ed to mo$e onto some other te#hni'ue in the hope that it "ill su##eed "here the other failed. By #ontrast the more modern Hypnotherapist does not "ork in su#h an authoritarian style and #an therefore ask 'uestions "ithout losing fa#e. .ithin the present paradigm the asking of 'uestions arises $ery naturally !e#ause of the "ay in "hi#h "e generally "ant to ha$e a good idea of "hat is going on. 0o "hat #auses #an there !e for non4#losureB One #ommon #ause is the e2isten#e of a lot of internal $er!al a#ti$ity. The 0u!&e#t #an easily !e thinking su#h things as, 6 feel silly,6 67y ne#k is hurting 4 "ant to stop this nonsense,6 6.hy is nothing

happeningB6, 6 must try hard to fall asleep soon,6 and so on. All su#h thoughts "ill tend to increase the general le$el of arousal. Or, espe#ially if the approa#h is authoritarian, there may !e a strong resistan#e in many su!&e#ts 4 6 won't do "hat he asks.6 Or again, there may !e a lot of emotional a#ti$ity: a feeling of an2iety a!out the situation. This "ould not ne#essarily !e e2pressed internally in "ords, !ut #ould arise from a la#k of #onfiden#e in the Hypnotist @a la#k of rapportA or, if the 0u!&e#t is in a re#lining #hair, asso#iations "ith !eing at the dentistFs, or &ust fear of the unkno"n. Or again, there may !e some physi#al dis#omfort "hi#h is pro$ing $ery distra#ting. Ho" #an "e tellB There may !e some !ody4language signs "hi#h "ill help, !ut the easiest "ay is simply to ask. The 'uestions, 6.hat are you thinkingB6 and 6.hat are you feelingB6, 6Are you #omforta!leB6 gi$e ans"ers "hi#h #an !e $ery informati$e of "hat is going on. 9or some reason, rooted in the old authoritarian traditions of Hypnosis, many Hypnotists seem to feel that 'uestions are !anned, !ut in the #onte2t of Hypnotherapy the more that "e kno", the !etter. Co'nting n many indu#tions the 0u!&e#t is gi$en the task of #ounting silently. This may !e from some num!er in the hundreds do"n to Lero. t may !e up"ards. .hat is the purpose of thisB .hat this a#ti$ation of a pro#ess of #ounting @CA a#hie$es is to make it $ery hard for any other internal $er!al pro#ess @ JA to take pla#e. .e #annot speak senten#es on t"o different su!&e#ts simultaneously. 0o 9 "e are dealing "ith a 0u!&e#t in "hom there is a lot of internal $er!alisation, and parti#ularly if some of this $er!alisation is a#ting to pre$ent any parti#ular goal that is !eing aimed at, a task like $er!al #ounting #an !e $ery effe#ti$e. n shorthand "e ha$e: 2C 4 3 J. .hat are the pro!lems that might arise "ith thisB The main one is that there seems to !e no "ay of kno"ing if the 0u!&e#t is #ontinuing to #omply "ith the instru#tion. .hat if he stops #ountingB A possi!le ans"er to this is to syn#hronise some simple physi#al mo$ement: a tap of a foot, a mo$ement of a finger, a nod of the head. An elegant "ay of sele#ting the mo$ement is to allo" the 0u!&e#t to #hoose, as follo"s. 6As you #ount, "ant you to find that part of your !ody "hi#h most feels like mo$ing in time. Keep #ounting and test the $arious parts to see "hi#h is most responsi$e. t might !e anything. t may !e a finger. @&ause, while +ubject tests finger movement .A t may !e a foot. @&ause.A t might !e your head. @&ause.0 Perhaps something elseB @&ause.0 *o" "hi#h #omes easiestB6 @ "onder if you, the reader, #an think of the most natural set of mus#les to syn#hronise "ith the #ountingBA .hen the 0u!&e#t has #hosen the most natural mo$ement, this #an then !e made a#ti$e and syn#hronised "ith the #ounting. As long as the $isi!le mo$ement #ontinues there is then a $ery good #han#e that so "ill the #ounting.

t is $ery unlikely that the 0u!&e#t "ill hit upon the most natural set of mus#les to syn#hronise "ith #ounting, "hi#h are, of #ourse, the mus#les of the $o#alising systemI But do not suppose that one person in a hundred "ill think of this unless it is suggested. The pro#ess of &ust forming the "ords "ith the lips, or e$en speaking them 'uietly, is a totally foolproof "ay of ensuring that the #ounting is #ontinuing. t may !e argued against speaking the "ords 'uietly that !y allo"ing the $o#alising system to !e a#ti$e "e are en#ouraging a higher than ne#essary degree of arousal. E$en if this "ere to !e true, the small loss "ould !e more than offset !y the gain of kno"ing that "e had the #ounting pro#edure firmly in pla#e. But in fa#t, as has !een kno"n sin#e the last #entury, the !rain is a#tually more a#ti$e in a person asked to rehearse a poem silently than in one allo"ed to speak it out loudI @Games @(<3=ABi!A That is !e#ause there is active inhibition in$ol$ed. .e may similarly e2pe#t fully $o#alised #ounting to !e less arousing to the !rain. suspe#t that the only reason one does not #ome a#ross this idea in the standard te2ts is that in the a"sence of a clear an% systematic &ay of thin#ing a"o't &hat &e are %oing indu#tion pro#esses are hit upon more or less at random and then #opied and repeated !y others. .e ha$e hit on the idea !y the simple pro#ess of asking "hat our e2a#t goal is and then asking ho" "e may !e sure that the goal has !een a#hie$ed. Dis'alisation There are $ery fe" indu#tions "ithout a passage that runs, 6*o" "ould like you to pi#ture [email protected]. on a hot, sunny !ea#hA...6 The sunny !ea#h is $ery popular, !ut other lo#ations may !e suggested, su#h as the deeply #arpeted stair#ase leading do"n"ards, the pea#eful #ottage "ith its log fire and so on. The impression gi$en !y the !ooks in "hi#h these #an !e found is that the ones printed are parti#ularly effi#a#ious, and #an !e used in prin#iple for e$eryone. T AT IS <RON+( The indeli!le memory "hi#h imprinted this fa#t on my mind "as of the time "hen "as using the #arpeted stair#ase indu#tion, only to find that my Client "ent into a pani#I .hen stopped to find out "hy, dis#o$ered that she "as #laustropho!i#. And you #an !e sure that there are some people "ho hate lying out in hot sun, or loathe the solitude of a pea#eful #ottage, and so on. The moral is that it is "ise ne$er to use a $isualisation s#ript "ithout #he#king first "ith the 0u!&e#t that it is a##epta!le. Better still is to ask the 0u!&e#t to #hoose a suita!le theme, perhaps from a short list. +et us, again, !egin !y asking "hat is the purpose of the $isualisationB The goals #an !e $aried. At its simplest "e may &ust !e trying to find out ho" readily this pi#torial imagination #an !e a#ti$ated and in "hat "ays. A related goal is to find out the e2tent to "hi#h $isualisation is a!sor!ing, i.e. eliminates other mental pro#esses. A se#ond #lass of goals #an !e to arouse #ertain responses to the $isualisation, su#h as feelings of rela2ation or pea#e.

*o" in many indu#tions 'uite a fe" of these goals are all !undled together, and typi#ally no effort is made to dis#o$er if any of them ha$e !een a#hie$edI The !eginner may !e assured that the result "ill !e to 6indu#e a light tran#e6, or, at other times, to 6deepen a tran#e6, !ut he or she is gi$en $ery little "ay of #he#king if this is true or not. +et us see if "e #an impro$e on this !y pro#eeding systemati#ally. 0ome ideas on these lines ha$e arisen in the pre$ious #hapter. Another possi!le approa#h, gi$en in more detail, is the follo"ing. 0tart !y dis#o$ering ho" readily the 0u!&e#t #an pi#ture something familiar. 6.ith open eyes "ant you to think of a familiar pla#e, person or thing. .hen you ha$e thought of one, let me kno".6 .hen something has !een #hosen, 'uestions #an !e asked to esta!lish su#h things as the #larity of the image, "hether #olours #an !e seen, and "hether mo$ement #an !e pi#tured. These #hara#teristi#s are fun#tions of different neurologi#al stru#tures in the $isual #orte2, and so "e are a#tually e2amining the ease "ith "hi#h these different stru#tures #an !e a#ti$ated. Gust as there are some people "ho seem to dream mainly in !la#k and "hite, so there are people "ho #annot $isualise easily in #olour. And kno" a photographer "ho #an $isualise #learly, !ut only in still pi#tures 4 ne$er in mo$ing ones. .hether his training had led to this #hara#teristi#, or "hether the #hara#teristi# had led him to his profession, do not kno". As a se#ond step "e may then ask the 0u!&e#t "hat is the effe#t of doing the same thing "ith #losed eyes. .e may e2pe#t it to make the pi#tures #learer, !ut the differen#e is often less than you might e2pe#t. Then "e may go on to #o$er a !roader range of su!&e#ts. 6*o" perhaps you "ould like to let your mind "ander to some other pla#e, some other time. t may !e indoors or out, #astle or #ottage, !ea#h or mountain4top. t #an !e any"here you "ant. ,ou #an !e doing anything you like.6 After a minute or t"o of this "e may ask, 6*o", ha$e you thought of some"hereB6 and detailed 'uestions #an !e asked to esta!lish the details of the setting: in this "ay "e may test its $i$idness. 9inally "e may ask ho" a!sor!ed the 0u!&e#t "as in the pi#tures. 6>id you noti#e anything in this room "hile you "ere doing the pi#turingB6 is a general 'uestion "hi#h #an !e asked. ,ou may ha$e mo$ed something, and perhaps tapped gently !ut in$isi!ly during a part of the $isualisation in order to ha$e something to #he#k the ans"ers to this 'uestion against. t is also useful to ask, 6.hat "ere you thinking "hile pi#turingB6 to esta!lish the e2tent to "hi#h $isualisation redu#es internal $er!alisation. One great $alue of the a!o$e systemati# testing is that it tea#hes that in many #ases "hat you might ha$e imagined to !e a phenomenon indu#ed only !y your great skill in using a po"erful indu#tion, is something that a parti#ular person does regularly and easily. re#all, for e2ample, one man "ith an enormously $i$id imagination "hi#h "as #apa!le of pla#ing him at any point inside or outside of the room at "ill 4 you may think of it as like a "aking out4of4the4!ody e2perien#e.

7ore generally it #an tea#h ho" $ery, $ery different people are in the "ay their minds fun#tion, and #onse'uently ho" different your approa#h is going to ha$e to !e in order to a#hie$e useful #hanges in the different minds. Ha$ing run through the a!o$e pro#esses, and 9 $isualisation is strong, possi!le further goals are to dis#o$er the ease "ith "hi#h the $isualisations #an e$oke other senses, and, perhaps more importantly, feelings. Thus, for e2ample, if the 0u!&e#t happens to ha$e #hosen a #amp4fire s#ene, it is possi!le to ask a!out the sound of the #ra#kling of the fire, or the "armth of the flames on the fa#e, or the smell of the "ood4smoke, or the taste of #offee drunk in the great outdoors, or the #omfort or dis#omfort of the pla#e "here the 0u!&e#t is sitting, and finally the feelings 4 of happiness or ad$enture 4 "hi#h go "ith the pi#ture. n this "ay, "hi#h of #ourse seems $ery natural and pleasant to the 0u!&e#t, it is possi!le to dis#o$er ho" readily the image #an also a#ti$ate other internal systems: sound, heat, smell, taste, tou#h and finally emotions. f $isualisation is *OT strong, it is still possi!le to run through a similar pro#ess, !ut repla#ing "ords like 6see6 or 6pi#ture6 "ith 6think6, so that "e might say, 6 am going to "ant you to think of a familiar situation and then tell me a!out it.6 There are people 4 poets #an !e e2amples 4 for "hom a "ord is "orth a thousand pi#tures. n this "ay it is possi!le to dis#o$er "hi#h of the a!o$e systems is easily a#ti$ated !y "ords, and to a$oid irritating those 0u!&e#ts "ho, in fa#t, find it $ery hard to pi#ture things, !y talking as if they #an do so easily. +et us ne2t ask the 'uestion, 6.hat differen#es are there likely to !e !et"een a 0u!&e#t "ho has !een run through a typi#al Srela2ing on the !ea#hF indu#tion, and one "ho has talked a!out the s#ene of #hoi#e in the a!o$e "ayB6 n !oth #ases "e #an presume that attention has !e#ome fo#used on internal systems. n !oth #ases "e #an presume that this has resulted in a redu#tion of attention to the e2ternal en$ironment, !ut only in the latter are "e likely to !e #ertain. n !oth #ases it is presumed that distra#ting internal $er!alisation has !een redu#ed, !ut in the former "e might !e 'uite "rong, "hile in the latter, !e#ause e2ternal $o#alisation has !een en#ouraged to remain a#ti$e, "e #an !e mu#h more #ertain. n !oth #ases it is presumed that the 0u!&e#t is en&oying feelings of rela2ation, !ut this might !e totally "rong in the former #ase in "hi#h the Hypnotist has #hosen a s#ene that he finds rela2ing. n !oth #ases it is presumed that rapport has !een a#hie$ed, !ut in the former @ 9 it has !een a##omplishedA it is !y making the 0u!&e#tFs thoughts keep in step "ith those of the Hypnotist, "here in the latter it has !een !y means of the Hypnotist pa#ing the thoughts, sensations and feelings of the 0u!&e#t. n !rief, then, the approa#h suggested a!o$e "ill not only a#hie$e all the goals that a good indu#tion is presumed, "ithout proof, to a#hie$e, !ut "ill do so more effe#ti$ely, as "ell as !eing enormously more informati$e. t is hard to see "hy $o#alisation is en#ouraged so little in 6indu#tions6. Perhaps it is simply a left4o$er aspe#t of the traditional, authoritarian approa#h. t is a #ommonpla#e of #ounselling that talking is, in itself, a rela2ing and a helpful pro#ess for most people. .e should e2pe#t that the pro#ess of talking a!out "hat is

happening as the session progresses should also !e rela2ing, as "ell as enhan#ing #onfiden#e and rapport. an% Levitation A #ommon 6indu#tion6 uses hand le$itation. The !asi# pro#ess is one in "hi#h the Hypnotist does all the talking. The 0u!&e#t may !e in$ited to imagine a lighter4than4 air !alloon tied to one finger of one hand. 0uggestions are made that this also !e felt, and that it "ill gently pull that finger up into the air. On#e that is started, the other fingers and finally the "hole hand and arm #an !e in$ol$ed in the mo$ement, until it rises to the fa#e. At that point the 0u!&e#t is usually told to rela2 #ompletely and 6go into a deep tran#e6. The "hole pro#ess may take some ten minutes. +et us ask "hat the purpose of this is. The o$ert goal is to indu#e a non4$oluntary mo$ement of the hand and arm. 0o at the simplest "e are trying to esta!lish the possi!ility and ease of the pro#ess: Jer!al dire#tion 4 2Nin$oluntary systemO 4 2Narm mus#lesO, "here "e are !eing $ague a!out e2a#tly "hat in$oluntary system is mediating the mus#ular response. Possi!le se#ondary goals are to redu#e most other mental a#ti$ity as a result of fo#using on the mo$ement5 to impress the 0u!&e#t "ith the po"er of the Hypnotist5 and to test ho" easy it is to indu#e analgesia. This third point arises !e#ause in order for the rising of the arm to feel in$oluntary, sensations of tiredness in the arm must !e una$aila!le to #ons#iousness. @Try lifting your arm #ons#iously o$er a period of minutes and feel the a#he.A *ote that although this pro#ess is normally presented as an 6indu#tion6, there is no discernible difference in the result if the "hole thing is presented on the lines of, 6 "ould like to test a #ertain response,6 follo"ed !y the re'uest to $isualise the !alloon, et#. This underlines yet again the pro!lem that supporters of 6Hypnoti# states6 ha$e in trying to esta!lish any differen#e !et"een su#h a hypotheti#al state and the result of su#h a straightfor"ard pro#ess. The theoreti#al approa#h of this !ook a$oids this #ompletely. Although there is no strong reason "hy the image of the !alloon should not !e used in the a!o$e, it is perhaps easier and more informati$e to !e more fle2i!le. Eri#kson @(<;(ABi! is kno"n to ha$e approa#hed this phenomenon !y asking the 0u!&e#t to rest his or her hands lightly on the legs and then to look at and pay #lose attention to the fingers. He "ould then ask the 0u!&e#t to look out for any change in any of them: of feeling, or "armth or position. .hen something "as reported, he "ould then !uild on this to produ#e more #hange and then still more. @The feed!a#k loop in$ol$ed in this "ay "ill !e emphasised later in the !ook.A The great ad$antage of this non4 dogmati# style is that it allo"s 'uestion and ans"er in the pro#ess. As "e ha$e seen, a Hypnotist "ho asks 'uestions of the 0u!&e#t #an gain a lot more information a!out e2a#tly which pro#esses are a#ti$e than one "ho simply gi$es dire#tions and hopes that the dire#tion is !eing follo"ed.

.e might ask why a therapist "ould !e interested in this Hypnoti# phenomenon: "hy spe#ify that parti#ular goalB The most #ommon reason is the follo"ing. n e$olutionary terms the $o#al system is a ne"#omer "hen it #omes to #ommuni#ation. )estures and mo$ements of $arious kinds ha$e a mu#h more an#ient history. *o", as "e shall dis#uss in more detail later, in #ertain people some mental systems #an !e#ome deta#hed from the $o#al system. n some #ases this means that the person is effe#ti$ely not #ons#iously a"are of some pro#ess or pro#esses in the !rain. n others it is milder, and the person simply feels una!le to speak a!out them. .e pro!a!ly all kno" men "ho seem to !e 6out of tou#h6 "ith their o"n feelings, for e2ample. And in #ases of trauma, memories of the e2perien#e #an !e 6repressed6, i.e. not #ons#iously re#alled. n #ases of this kind, it may ne$ertheless !e possi!le to esta!lish a #onne#tion !et"een that hidden su!system of interest @HA and a mus#ular mo$ement @7A, "hi#h does *OT pro#eed $ia the $er!al or #ons#ious or e$en $isual systems. f "e #an interpret the mo$ement, then "e ha$e a #hannel of #ommuni#ation "ith that hidden system. *o" a #ommon mus#ular pro#ess to !e used for this signalling is the mo$ement of a finger. Conse'uently 9 a Hypnotherapist has, as a goal, the esta!lishing of a #onne#tion "ith H, it #an !e a useful preliminary to test for finger le$itation. The presumption is that if the pro#ess: 2J 4 2Nin$oluntary systemO 4 27, i.e. a $er!al instru#tion #an lead indire#tly to the motor a#ti$ity "ithout passing through the normal $oluntary system of mo$ement, then the pro#ess: 2H 4 2Nin$oluntary systemO 4 27, i.e. an a#ti$ation of the motor pro#ess !y the hidden system, also !ypassing the normal $oluntary system, is also easily possi!le. +ogi#ally, the one need not imply the other, !e#ause J is 'uite distin#t from H, !ut they do ha$e in #ommon the !ypassing of the $oluntary system, and so the test is some kind of pointer and also a preparation. n#identally the pro#ess of using a mus#ular system for #ommuni#ation in this "ay is #ommonly #alled deo47otor40ignalling @ 70A. 7ore on this is des#ri!ed in Chapter (< on indire#t 'uestions. .e see again the importan#e of thinking #learly a!out goals here. The simplisti# Hypnotherapist may use a hand le$itation as part of e$ery indu#tion he does, for no other reason than that he has al"ays used it. A more systemati# Hypnotherapist "ill a#ti$ate that parti#ular system of response only "hen it lies on the path of his pro&e#ted therapy. But noti#e then that, "ith the parti#ular goal of #ommuni#ation "ith H in mind, the systemati# Hypnotherapist is likely to pro#eed yet more pre#isely as follo"s.

0uppose that H has to do "ith a hidden fear, and "e "ant to find out more a!out it, $ia a non4$er!al #hannel of information. .e #ould pro#eed on the follo"ing lines. 6.hen people start to feel frightened they usually ha$e #hara#teristi# "ays of responding. 0ome "ill #ry, others "ill #len#h their fists, others may start to tap their feet as if getting ready to run a"ay, others may feel a need to turn their heads a"ay, others may fro"n: there is no one "ay. *o" "ant you to think of something that you find a !it frightening and then noti#e "hi#h parts of your !ody respond.6 Of #ourse the first response may !e something that #annot !e easily seen, like a flutter in the stoma#h: in "hi#h #ase the Hypnotherapist #an a##ept that one, !ut ask also for another, "hi#h in$ol$es $isi!le mo$ement. .hen a mo$ement has !een #hosen, then "e ha$e found a mus#ular system "hi#h is readily a#ti$ated !y the emotional pro#ess of fear. t is therefore one of the most promising #andidates for a #hannel of #ommuni#ation. t #ould !e possi!le to "aste large amounts of time trying to use finger mo$ement in an indi$idual "hose natural response to fear is to 6freeLe6 all the ma&or mus#les, "hile at the same time the eye!ro" mus#les might !e tightening up $ery readily in response to that same fearI On#e a #hannel has !een o!tained it #an !e used more and more freely, perhaps in the "ay outlined !elo". 6 am &ust going to talk a!out some things that people #an !e frightened of. do not "ant you to feel any fear, and should you start to get un#omforta!le, "ant you to ask me to stop. .hile talk your eye!ro" mus#les @if these are the channel discoveredA "ill !e telling me ho" you feel, "ithout you ha$ing to think a!out it at all.6 The Hypnotherapist #an then gradually talk around possi!le areas of fear, simply noting "hen the non4$er!al response gets stronger, in a simple game of Hunt the Thim!le. The #loser he gets to talking a!out things that really arouse fear @"hether #ons#iously or notA, the more the mus#les signal that he is getting 6"armer6. n this se#tion "e ha$e looked at a fe" items from indu#tions, and e2panded on the prin#iples in$ol$ed at great length. The intention has !een to sho" ho" the systems approa#h to our su!&e#t leads to a far #learer idea of the goals of su#h pro#esses, and ho" it generates an a!ility to rea#h spe#ified goals more 'ui#kly, more surely and more #onfidently. There has, of #ourse, !een no attempt to analyse all possi!le indu#tions. On the #ontrary it should !e apparent that in the spirit of this approa#h the same ,in%'ction, &ill never "e 'se% t&ice: the pre#ise approa#h depends so mu#h on the response of the Client that it must !e different for ea#h person. t should, ho"e$er, no" !e possi!le for the reader to look at A*, 6indu#tion6 pro#ess and start to analyse it in a similar "ay. The key 'uestions are the follo"ing:4 (. .hat pro#esses of "hi#h systems are in$ol$edB -. .hat are the possi!le goals of this 6indu#tion6 in terms of those pro#essesB /. Ho" #ould ea#h goal !e a#hie$ed more simply and dire#tlyB 1. Ho" #an it !e $erified that ea#h goal has a#tually !een a#hie$edB

This last 'uestion is of great and general importan#e, !elie$e. The great ad$an#es in kno"ledge in re#ent #enturies ha$e #ome a!out as a result of demanding that statements !e $erifia!le *OT simply !y a referen#e to an 6Authority6, !ut !y referen#e to fa#t. The motto of the %oyal 0o#iety of +ondon is "ullius in verba, part of a +atin 'uotation "hi#h may !e freely translated as, 6.e do not take any!odyFs "ord for it.6 Gust !e#ause someone has said, 6This pro#ess leads to a deep Hypnoti# tran#e,6 it does not mean that it "ill "ork for you or "ith e$ery 0u!&e#t, or indeed at all, as it standsI t may "ell !e, for e2ample, that the person "ho "rote those "ords "as using some $ery important, !ut not $er!al, pro#ess as part of his indu#tion, of "hi#h you are una"are. To pro#eed !lindly, "ith no #ertainty that the #hanges "hi#h are happening are "hat you think is happening, is foolishness. Jerifi#ation is the #ornerstone of s#ien#e and of sure progress in all things. A !ri#klayer does not lay the ne2t layer of !ri#ks "ithout #he#king that the pre$ious layer is #orre#tly pla#ed. hope that any student of Hypnosis "ill go a"ay and test "hat ha$e said !y trying out, "ith the a!o$e 'uestions in mind, many #omponents of many 6indu#tions6 many times on a $ariety of people, and in that "ay !uild up a $ery good foundation of understanding of ho" ea#h part "orks. This approa#h of mastering the #omponent part of a skill is fundamental to most e2pertise. CONCLUSION 6 ndu#tions6 as $ie"ed from the systems $ie"point are more pre#ise and more fle2i!le and more a##urate than the traditional 6s#ripted6 approa#h. They #an !e more pre#ise !e#ause they are !uilt around a firm stru#ture of detailed goals in terms of spe#ified #hanges to spe#ified systems. They are more fle2i!le !e#ause the approa#h lends itself to modifying and tailoring the pro#esses to the personality of ea#h indi$idual 0u!&e#t. 9inally they are more a##urate in that the systems approa#h en#ourages #ontinual $erifi#ation that all is going as it is supposed to: "hi#h allo"s #orre#tions and ad&ustments to !e made as ne#essary. Concl'sion of Part A B, TH 0 0TA)E it is e2pe#ted that the ne"#omer to the field "ill ha$e pi#ked up a reasona!le o$er$ie" of Hypnosis. n addition it is hoped that all readers "ill ha$e !e#ome familiar "ith the systems perspe#ti$e. PART E Intro%'ction to Part E

THE *EKT A*> CE*T%A+ part of the !ook takes the ideas "hi#h ha$e !een presented in Part A and de$elops them in the #onte2t of Hypnotherapy. This is, in !rief, a three4stage pro#ess of finding out "hat pro!lem a Client has, planning ho" to sol$e the pro!lem and finally making the #hanges ne#essary to a#hie$e this goal. n the #ourse of doing this the $irtues of the organised 67organi#6 approa#h to thinking a!out "hat "e are doing "ill !e#ome yet more apparent, and "ill re$eal not only the dynami# !asis of many pro!lems, !ut also gi$e more insight into the "ay in "hi#h many Hypnoti# pro#esses "ork. The ideas "hi#h are presented here do not e2ist, to the !est of my kno"ledge, in any other !ook on the su!&e#t. The "hole 'uestion of diagnosis in Hypnotherapy and de#iding on the !est approa#h is *OT one "hi#h seems to ha$e re#ei$ed a great deal of attention in the literature. )i!son P Heap @(<<(ABi! e2emplifies the !est #urrent thinking on Hypnosis in therapy, and is re'uired reading for anyone training in Hypnotherapy. But it retains, as an unspoken assumption, the #ommon idea that pro!lems should !e #lassified in the medi#al manner !y symptom. Although they o!ser$e that different approa#hes "ill !e made to different patients "ith similar symptoms, they gi$e little in the "ay of guidan#e as to "hy one should use one approa#h rather than another. The !ook also a$oids gi$ing any #ategori#al definition of Hypnosis, "hile leaning @p.(A to the idea of a 6state of Hypnosis6. By #ontrast this present !ook is e$ol$ing a ro!ust and e2tensi$e theoreti#al $ie" of the su!&e#t. This $ie" in turn pro$ides an approa#h to diagnosis "hi#h is !oth more informati$e, in$ol$ing as it does an analysis of the dynamics of the pro!lem, and also far !etter at pres#ri!ing "hat should !e done. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R *9

ypnosis!

The Process of ypnotherapy ; Stage *! )lements of Diagnosis in ypnotherapy

PART B This central part of the book takes a very close look at the process of Hypnotherapy, in more or less the order that it arises in real life, starting with the initial diagnosis. n doing this the val!e of the systems approach and the notation we have o!tlined in Part A

become more apparent and develop real strength, throwing f!rther light on how a variety of Hypnotic phenomena are prod!ced.
This chapter starts to look at the process of diagnosis by looking at the presented symptom. It then describes the first step in a process of diagnosis which involves looking at precursors and resultants of the presented symptom. % precursor is a system, a change in the activity of which produces the symptom. % resultant is a system whose activity changes as a direct result of the symptom. In this way we build up a clear picture of the dynamics of the problem. The typical picture is a chain of systems each affecting the ne t, with the problem symptom somewhere in the middle. % situation of considerable importance arises if the chain forms a loop, colloquially termed a vicious circle.

*O. THAT .E ha$e esta!lished some of the prin#iples of Hypnosis it is time to look at the spe#ifi# field of Hypnotherapy, "hi#h is our goal. .e "ill dis#o$er that forming a #learer idea of "hat "e need to a#hie$e in therapy "ill help to #larify the kind of Hypnoti# pro#esses "e need to use. .e ha$e already seen a little of this at the end of the last #hapter, "here "e ha$e #hosen to modify an item from a standard Hypnoti# 6indu#tion6 "ith an eye on its therapeuti# purpose. The key "ord in the #hapter title is 6diagnosis6: the 6determination of the nature of a pro!lem6. t may !e thought that this is not a matter that needs dis#ussion. Pani# atta#ks are easily diagnosed !y their symptoms, sleeplessness is simply an ina!ility to get to sleep, a heada#he is a heada#he: "here is the pro!lemB .e may !egin to understand "hy this is not suffi#ient !y #onsidering the ad$i#e that appears in many peopleFs "ritings: 6,ou should not simply treat the symptoms.6 .hat does this meanB t means that it has often !een found that a heada#he, let us say, is simply a sign of some deeper pro!lem "hi#h, like an i#e!erg, is <=U #on#ealed from sight. f you remo$e the symptom then all that happens is that some other symptom "ill arise in its pla#e. n pra#ti#e then, Hypnotherapists "ill generally look deeper than the presented symptom !efore doing anything. Ho"e$er the way in "hi#h this should !e done is no"here e2pli#itly gi$en in any detail. @Though this, repeat, is not to say that it is not done !y pra#tising therapists. t has not !een "ritten mu#h of !e#ause of the a!sen#e of a theoreti#al frame"ork "ithin "hi#h to do so.A The follo"ing should !egin to make the "hole matter of systemati# analysis of pro!lems in the #onte2t of Hypnotherapy mu#h more understanda!le, a##essi!le and effe#ti$e. The starting point of all Hypnotherapy is a Client saying, 6 ha$e a pro!lem.6 And the goal of therapy is that same Client !eing a!le to say honestly and happily, 6 no longer ha$e that pro!lem.6 @ t is to !e understood that this is not a#hie$ed !y means of !rushing the pro!lem under the #arpet and that it is not a#hie$ed at the e2pense of introdu#ing a ne" and perhaps "orse pro!lem.A Bet"een those t"o statements lies a process of change. t is a pro#ess "hi#h is fa#ilitated !y the therapist. n order to do this "ith ma2imum effe#ti$eness the

therapist must first understand the nature of the pro!lem and then help to make appropriate #hanges. This #hapter is de$oted to ans"ering the 'uestion, , o& %oes the "egin to 'n%erstan% the nat're of the pro"lem=, ypnotherapist

*oti#e that pro!lem4sol$ing happens in many professional #onte2ts 4 medi#ine, engineering, !usiness #onsultan#y and so on 4 and in ea#h there is going to !e an initial phase in "hi#h the professional is asking 'uestions in order to grasp the nature of the pro!lem. The a#tual 'uestions asked "ill $ary from spe#iality to spe#iality, !ut the ans"ers re#ei$ed "ill gradually #hara#terise the pro!lem more and more pre#isely. t is important to noti#e that to a large e2tent the 'uestions are determined !y the kind of tools "hi#h the professional has. A do#tor, for e2ample, has a limited num!er of medi#ines and pro#edures at her disposal: a diagnosti# session is therefore going to !e !iassed to"ards simply determining "hi#h is the most appropriate one. 0in#e the tools of the Hypnotherapist deal, as "e ha$e seen, "ith altering the fun#tioning of a $ery "ide $ariety of internal systems in a naturalisti# manner, it follo"s that during the diagnosti# phase the "!estions will be aimed at finding o!t which systems are involved and what f!nctional processes involving them need to be changed. The emphasised "ords are of #entral importan#e, and are not to !e passed o$er lightly. *oti#e ho" this definition of the diagnosti# pro#ess is rooted dire#tly in our !asi# #on#ept of Hypnosis as a manipulation of the pro#esses "hi#h $arious su!systems undergo. *oti#e ho" #lear the goal of diagnosis is. *oti#e that the goal is to get a real idea not merely of a stati# symptom, !ut of the dynami#s of the "hole pro#ess of "hi#h the symptom is merely a part. >iagnosis in Hypnotherapy is finding out which systems are involved and what functional process or processes involving them need to be changed. The !are !ones of this pro#ess of diagnosis #an !e represented !y a series of 'uestions, the key ones of "hi#h "ill no" !e des#ri!ed. F( ,<hat is the pro"lem=, >. 2hat process ? is the central one for the ?lient3 2hat system does it involve3 n asking $er!ally the 'uestion in !old type, "e are aiming to get information "hi#h ans"ers the 'uestion in itali# type. As e2amples "e may find ans"ers su#h as, 6 !lush,6 the #entral system in "hi#h is the #apillaries of the fa#e, and the trou!ling pro#ess is a dilation. f the ans"er is 6 pani#,6 then the #entral system #an !e thought of as part of the lim!i# system in the !rain, and the #entral pro#ess that of arousing systems in the !ody "hi#h "ould !e a#ti$e in a 6flight or fight6 situation. Of #ourse the parti#ular pro#ess "hi#h is the symptom does not arise in isolation, so the ne2t #ouple of 'uestions e2plore the pre#eding and resulting e$ents.

F( ,<hat is happening .'st "efore the pro"lem starts=, >. 2hat system & /for precursor0 activates ?3, or in shorthand &3 # ?. @=or precise meaning of symbols go to +ymbolsA n pra#ti#e this 'uestion stands for a "hole series of 'uestions, sin#e many Clients ha$e ne$er thought their pro!lem through in this "ay. 6 !lush in front of people6 may !e "hat is !elie$ed to !e the truth, !ut in fa#t it may !e that !lushing only happens in front of mem!ers of the opposite se2 "ho are found attra#ti$e, or "ith people "ho are felt to !e in authority, or in #onditions "here guilt is felt and so on, or it may !e only "hen the sufferer has thought to himself, 6Oh dear, hope do not !lush hereI6 n these #ases the ans"ers to our te#hni#al 'uestions "ould !e, respe#ti$ely, an arousal of a se2ual or inferiority or guilt or an internal $er!alisation system. n the #ase of smoking the ans"ers may turn out to !e, 67y mouth feels $ery dry6, 6 get a ti#kle at the !a#k of the throat6, 6 t is like a $oi#e saying, SHa$e oneF6, in "hi#h #ases the pre#ursors seem to in$ol$e the sali$ary glands, the sensory system and the internal $er!alisation system respe#ti$ely. Of #ourse in many #ases there "ill !e several ans"ers to this 'uestion. The immediate pre#ursors to smoking may "ell !e !oredom or stress or a #up of #offee, for e2ample. n the a!o$e, the ans"ers to the 'uestion ha$e mainly related to internal systems. t must not !e supposed that this is the only #lass of possi!le ans"ers. The ans"ers gi$en may relate to e2ternal pre#ursors "hi#h may in$ol$e people or things 4 6.hen the !oss shouts at me6, 6.hen the #hlorine in the s"imming4pool gets up my nose6. Of #ourse "e may "ork from su#h ans"ers to dis#o$er "hat system in the Client is responding to su#h e2ternal stimuli, !ut it is important for us to !ear in mind the possi!ility that the !est "ay to ta#kle the pro!lem may !e a purely pra#ti#al one: to #hange &o!s or "ear a nose4#lip. .hen "e ha$e a #lear idea of immediate #auses of the pro!lem symptom "e should also find out "hat happens as a result of it. F( An% &hat happens after&ar%s= >. 2hat systems * /for resultant0 does the process ? affect in turn3 Or in shorthand, ? # *3 Although it is o!$ious that the pre#ursor of the symptom is important, it may not !e 'uite so o!$ious "hy the resultant is, so here are t"o primary reasons. There are times "hen the result of C is a re"ard of some kind: heroin #an lead to an e#stati# high, or at least to the relief of the #ra$ing5 a heada#he may lead to a day off "ork or at least some lo$ing attention5 o!sessi$e #leaning late at night may result in a$oiding un"anted se2 and so on. t is an elementary prin#iple of psy#hology that "hen an a#ti$ity is re"arded the !eha$iour tends to !e reinfor#ed, i.e. the "hole pattern is more likely to !e repeated.

n other #ir#umstan#es the result may not !e a re"ard, !ut #an still ha$e the result of reinfor#ing the pattern. 9or e2ample, a #ommon result of stammering is an in#reased #on$i#tion that stammering is ine$ita!le. This #on$i#tion feeds !a#k into the ne2t so#ial o##asion and in#reases the #han#es of stammering happening again. As a result of a first4order appli#ation of our first t"o 'uestions, "e should kno" P ( and %(, su#h that: P( # C # %(, !ut there "ill often !e a $alue in asking the same 'uestions repeatedly to dis#o$er earlier pre#ursors and later resultants, until "e ha$e a single #ausal #hain des#ri!ing a long pro#ess of "hi#h the symptom is only a part: ... # P/ # P- # P( # C # %( # %- # %/ # ... n pra#ti#e "e may "ell dis#o$er a num!er of su#h pro#esses. There are many roads that pass through %ome, there are many senten#es "hi#h #ontain the "ord 6lo$e6, there are many a#ti$ities "hi#h in$ol$e an in#rease in heart rate, and there "ill in general !e many pro#esses of "hi#h the symptom is part. Typi#ally, in order to determine the patterns a!o$e, the Client is referring to memories of o##asions "hen the pro!lemati# #entral symptom C arose. ndeed it is often ne#essary to listen to a##ounts of a num!er of different episodes in order to distinguish fa#tors "hi#h are an essential part of the pro!lemati# pro#esses and those "hi#h are in#idental. Hseful 'uestions to ask in order to #larify the nature of the key pro#esses are: F( An% &hen else has CS happene%= F( <hat %i% the %ifferent occasions have in common= F( Can yo' recall the first time CS happene%= n many #ases, of #ourse, the first time is of great importan#e as it set the pattern of the pro#ess "hi#h has !een follo"ed "ith only small $ariation e$er sin#e. At times the first o##urren#e has !een #ons#iously forgotten, and then a $ery #areful analysis of the #urrent pro#ess "ill often ena!le one to determine "hat the original e2perien#e is likely to ha$e !een. +et us suppose that as a result of 'uestioning it is found that the #entral symptom in a man is that of a pani# atta#k5 that a #ommon fa#tor in triggering off the atta#k is the sight of a !earded man5 and that a #ommon effe#t of the pani# is a gagging rea#tion and some nausea5 and that this has !een #urrent sin#e the age of three. Then one possi!le e2planation is that as a #hild the Client "as for#ed to perform fellatio on a !earded man at that $ery early age. This pro$ides a hypothesis "hi#h #an !e e2plored !y means of further 'uestions: it is very ris#y to s'ppose that the ass'mption is tr'e &itho't rather more evi%ence than the a"ove( f four or fi$e other aspe#ts of the pro!lem also fall into pla#e "hen this hypothesis is adopted then its likelihood is in#reased.

But it is important to note that the appropriate attitude to take to su#h an hypothesis is to look for e$iden#e that it may !e wrong, rather than #onfirmatory e$iden#e that it is right. Thus e$iden#e that the manFs fantasies and se2 life are perfe#tly normal "ould #ast dou!t on the theory, for e2ample. f "e "ere to dis#o$er that the man also has the same pani# rea#tions in hospitals, and further 'uestioning re$ealed that he had !een in hospital "hen he "as t"o "ith a throat pro!lem, then "e ha$e a se#ond hypothesis, "hi#h is that the pho!ia "as initiated !y a !earded do#tor e2amining his throat too roughly. f, alternati$ely, "e found that the pani#s #ould also arise at times "hen the Client is sitting at a ta!le on a formal o##asion, the roots may ha$e to do "ith his father @"e "ould ha$e to #he#k if he "ore a !eard at the timeA forcing him to eat at an early age. Hypnoti# te#hni'ues #ould then !e used to pro$ide further e$iden#e in "ays that "ill !e des#ri!ed later. n some #ases it is useful to regress the Client to the time of the original e2perien#e and to allo" it to !e reli$ed and the asso#iated feelings to !e e2pressed. 0u#h an e2pression of emotion is termed a!rea#tion. Ho"e$er, it is "orth realising that in many #ases symptoms redu#e or disappear purely as a result of the understanding "hi#h #an !e a#hie$ed !y means of the a!o$e analysis, "hi#h has more of the fla$our of 0herlo#k Holmes than 0igmund 9reud. n dealing "ith su#h phenomena it is important to !e #areful a!out the language "e use. t is easy and #ommon to say that a pro!lem "as 6#aused !y6 an early trauma. But this sense of #ause is not the same as that implied !y the use of 6d6 "hi#h is that of a dire#t or immediate #ause. n fa#t "e should analyse su#h situations in the follo"ing "ay. Trauma # N7emory tra#e at a non4#ons#ious le$elO. Current stimulus # /N7emory Tra#eO # /NAsso#iated responsesO. This is not to split hairs. The a!o$e analysis #an !e of #entral importan#e sin#e if, using Hypnoti# te#hni'ues, "e alter the memory trace in certain key ways , "e #an dramati#ally impro$e the response to #urrent stimuli. Put more !luntly, people are affe#ted *OT !y the past !ut !y "hat they remem!er @#ons#iously or su!liminallyA of the past. .e #annot #hange the past, !ut "e #an #hange memories. %eturning no" to the a!o$e line of 'uestioning, "e ha$e seen that it results in a linked #hain of pro#esses, "ith pre#ursors leading to the symptom "hi#h in turn has its resultants. *o" #onsider ho" this #hain #ould end. .e ha$e the follo"ing alternati$es. A #hain may ha$e open ends lying either inside or outside the person, or the #hain may #lose and form a loop. An e2ample of a #hain "hi#h starts outside a person is one in "hi#h the initial pro#ess is that of !eing shouted at. The pro#ess "ill end outside the person if it leads to hitting or $omiting. t "ill end inside the person if the last #lear resultant is something like a heada#he or mus#le tensions. The #hain may start inside a person if, for e2ample, the first #lear pre#ursor is a re#urrent thought of self4hatred, or some re#urrent feeling or physi#al symptom.

The distin#tions a!o$e !e#ome of $alue "hen "e #ome to the ne2t stage in our "ork, "hi#h is #hanging the situation. t is a #ommonpla#e that a $entilated emotion tends to dissipate harmlessly, i.e. an e2ternal end to the #hain is less of a pro!lem to the indi$idual than an internal end. And the approa#h to sol$ing a pro!lem "ill generally !e 'uite different a##ording to "hether the primary #ause is some 'uite definite fa#tor in the e2ternal en$ironment or some internal pro#ess. The third alternati$e, "hi#h is that the #hain may #lose to form a loop, is of enormous importan#e. 0u#h loops are $ery, $ery #ommon. n #ollo'uial language they are #alled $i#ious #ir#les and are often re#ognised as su#h !y the Client. +et us look at some simple e2amples. A man has a slight tenden#y to !lush. But he is em!arrassed a!out !lushing. The em!arrassment results in more intense !lushing. .e ha$e a $i#ious #ir#le, "hi#h in a short form #an !e e2pressed as: /NEm!arrassmentO # /NBlushingO # /NEm!arrassmentO, or 2NBlushingO # /NEm!arrassmentO # /NBlushingO. t does not matter "hi#h item "e start "ith "hen "e are defining loops: a loop has no !eginning and has no end. Other e2amples arise in many #onte2ts: sleeplessness #an lead to an an2iety @a!out la#k of sleepA "hi#h in turn leads to sleeplessness5 a si#kness at the thought of food #an lead to a fear of star$ing to death "hi#h #an lead to an in#reased feeling of si#kness5 the pain of mus#le tension #an lead to mental "orry "hi#h #an lead to yet further mus#ular tension5 an asthmati# atta#k may !oth !e #aused !y an2iety and pro$oke an2iety, in "hi#h #ase a $i#ious #ir#le #an e2ist5 a#id produ#tion in the stoma#h #an !oth !e prompted !y stress and @!e#ause of its dis#omfortA #ause stress5 perhaps simplest of all "e ha$e the fa#t that the feeling of fear #an itself !e fearful, though a more #areful analysis of this "ill usually sho" that there are t"o parts to the system 4 the emotion of fear and the mental pro#ess "hi#h says, 6This feeling is dangerous6. The general pattern that runs through the a!o$e and many other #omplaints that a Hypnotherapist "ill see is that of: /N9earDan2ietyO # /N0ymptomO # /N9earDan2ietyO. 7any things #an !e !oth a #ause and a result of fear, and hen#e #reate $i#ious #ir#les. The #onse'uen#es of a feeling of fear are many 4 "e ha$e already met them in the 6fight or flight6 responses. Typi#ally the heart rate in#reases, !reathing !e#omes faster and shallo"er, !lood is di$erted to !rain and mus#les and a"ay from intestines and skin @though the fa#e is a #ommon e2#eption to thisA, mus#les tense, there may !e a tenden#y to e$a#uate stoma#h and !o"els, there is s"eating, spee#h tends to !e inhi!ited, the mind ra#es and so on. The e2a#t pattern $aries from indi$idual to indi$idual, !ut if any of these effe#ts is regarded as itself !eing dangerous or a pro!lem then the a!o$e $i#ious #ir#le !e#omes esta!lished.

A $ery important part of the diagnosti# pro#ess is to esta!lish "hether or not there is su#h a $i#ious #ir#le, "hi#h "e "ill later des#ri!e as an internal in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop. 0u#h $i#ious #ir#les #an e2ist not &ust in the indi$idual human !eing !ut in other organi# systems too. 9or e2ample, if "e find that a pro!lem #hain is ending in another person 4 a spouse, for e2ample 4 then !y #hanging fo#us "e may #onsider our primary system to !e the #ouple, "hi#h has t"o #learly defined su!systems 4 the partners 4 "hi#h "e may la!el A and B. The a#tion of #rying !y A may lead to $iolen#e in B "hi#h leads to an in#rease of #rying in A: a $i#ious #ir#le. This e2ample is 'uite important !e#ause it reminds us that "e should generally not stop our analysis at the !oundaries of the indi$idual. Jery many pro!lems ha$e to do "ith the indi$idualFs rea#tions to and a#tions on others. One of the "ea'ties of the c'rrent systems approach is that &e can 'se precisely the same lang'age an% shorthan% an% %iagnostic approach in %ealing &ith processes &ithin the in%ivi%'al$ and processes &ithin the family &hich involve the in%ivi%'al and processes &ithin the society &hich involve the in%ivi%'al( .e may find for e2ample that the presented pro!lem of a heada#he is part of the follo"ing loop: /NThe !ossFs angerO # /Nresentment in manO # /Nheada#heO # $N&o! performan#eO # / N!ossFs angerO. n su#h a #ase "e ha$e a $i#ious #ir#le "here the most potentially useful system to #hange has little to do "ith the system "here the symptom appears. nstead "e should !e fo#using on the suffererFs methods of dealing "ith authority and anger from others. f the man #an stand up for himself 4 !e more asserti$e "ithout !eing aggressi$e 4 then the repeated doses of resentment "ill !e a$oided and the "hole $i#ious #ir#le "ill "ind do"n. Or "e might ha$e a typi#al situation in "hi#h the presented symptom is "hat the sufferer may #all paranoia 4 the feeling that people are thinking in an unpleasant "ay a!out him. @This is not the stri#t #lini#al definition.A But as a result of that feeling he may start to s#o"l at people, to skulk into rooms and perhaps to mutter under his !reath, as a result of "hi#h people will, indeed, start thinking unpleasant thoughts a!out him: a $i#ious #ir#le is esta!lished. n su#h a #ase the Hypnotherapist might #hoose to "ork on the thoughts a!out other people or the feelings of paranoia or on the behaviour "hi#h is maintaining the #ir#le. The 'uestion of ho" to #hoose the most appropriate point to start to #hange a #ir#le "ill !e left until another #hapter. hope it is #lear that the diagnosti# pro#edure outlined a!o$e goes a long "ay to a$oid the #riti#ism, 6,ou are only treating symptoms.6 n fa#t, the #riti#ism might "ith more &usti#e !e aimed at large areas of #ontemporary medi#ine, parti#ularly "hen it

#omes to treating the $ast range of an2ieties, pani#s, depressions, et#. "hi#h are !e#oming an in#reasing proportion of the do#torFs #ase4load as the spe#ifi#ally organi# illnesses are !eing #ontrolled more and more. The diagnosti# pro#ess in Hypnotherapy is detailed and should in prin#iple re$eal all fa#tors in$ol$ed "ith a presented symptom, and "ill therefore never !e dealing "ith it in isolation as the do#tor all too #ommonly is. The a!o$e pro#ess of esta!lishing the #ausal #hains 4 the dynami# patterns 4 in$ol$ing the presented symptom is #lear, though of #ourse the results #an !e $ery different in different #ases. "ould suggest that diagnosis is not #omplete until the pi#ture that emerges from su#h an analysis is #omplete and satisfa#tory: that it a##ounts for all the kno"n fa#ts. But "hat if this does not happenB .hat if no #hain arisesB .hat if "e #annot find any #ausesB Then, suggest, "e ha$e prima facie e$iden#e that the pro!lem does not lie in our field, !ut in that of someone else. .e are then in a similar situation to the do#tor "ho, ha$ing applied all his tests @"hi#h are simply a te#hni#al form of asking 'uestionsA, #annot find a #ause for the ailment. He is then likely to think of the pro!lem as !eing psy#hologi#al. f "e #an find no #lear #ause4and4effe#t #hains then "e should e'ually !e thinking, 6This is physi#al,6 and sending the patient !a#k for another opinion. @ n the HK people normally take pro!lems first to their )eneral Pra#titioner and only later to a Hypnotherapist, !e#ause the former #onsultation is free.A .e might also #onsider referring the Client to another spe#ialist. 9or e2ample, although in principle "e should !e a!le !y means of our diagnosti# s#heme to dis#o$er if there is a dietary #ause for a pro!lem, it is outside our e2pertise and so it is unlikely that "e "ill kno" the pre#ise 'uestions to ask in order to esta!lish the dietary #ause. E'ually although "e should in prin#iple !e a!le to de#ide if the #ause is an allergy, or perhaps some poison in the en$ironment, it "ill depend on asking the right detailed 'uestions, and the right 'uestions "ill again !e !est left to spe#ialists. hope that these fe" remarks "ill go a little "ay to e2plain "hy it is not ne#essary for an e2perien#ed and intelligent Hypnotherapist also to ha$e a full training in medi#ine any more than it is ne#essary for a )eneral Pra#titioner to ha$e a full training in Psy#hotherapy. @Though "ould strongly re#ommend that ea#h of these spe#ialists should a#'uire a !asi#, sound and rele$ant familiarity "ith the other field.A Ea#h has a #olle#tion of diagnosti# 'uestions designed to esta!lish the #auses of a gi$en #omplaint "hi#h is treata!le !y his or her methods. Ea#h, "ith pra#ti#e, learns to re#ognise "hen the ans"ers do not add up to something that is #apa!le of !eing treated !y the means to hand. Ea#h then learns to pass the patient on to someone "ho might ha$e a !etter #han#e. Of #ourse ea#h may make mistakes, !ut hope that these paragraphs may at the $ery least moderate the $ie" that a Hypnotherapist #ommonly attempts to 6suggest a"ay6 any symptom "ith no regard for possi!le physi#al or psy#hologi#al #auses, and hen#e makes things "orse. This is far from the truth. This is not to say that 6help6 #annot !e misguided: "e only ha$e to #onsider the #onse'uen#es of Thalidomide or of the indis#riminate use of the BenLodiaLepines @>iaLepam, Jalium, et#.A in the si2ties to see that mankind may easily take "hat appears to !e a step to impro$e things and su##eed only in #reating greater pro!lems. But it should !e #lear that the systemati# approa#h to Hypnotherapeuti#

inter$entions presented e2pli#itly here leads to a high le$el of a"areness of possi!le pro!lems and to a minimising of any dangers of an ill4#onsidered inter$ention. SUMMARThe first stage of diagnosis is to esta!lish the e2isting dynami# patterns. )enerally this "ill mean dis#o$ering #hains of pre#ursors and resultants of the #entral, presented pro!lem. One $ery #ommon and important pattern that #an emerge from this analysis is that of a $i#ious #ir#le @an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loopA. At times these #ir#les in$ol$e larger systems su#h as family or so#iety. n #onsidering those #hains "hi#h do not form #ir#les @open #hainsA it is useful to note if their ends lie "ithin or outside the indi$idual. The diagnosti# pro#ess ensures that the symptom "ill *OT !e seen in isolation. The failure of the diagnosti# pro#edure to re$eal a dynami# #ause for the #omplaint suggests strongly that the Client should !e sent to other spe#ialists for their opinion.

Principles of ypnosis!

C APT)R **
@ee%"ac# Loops ; an Intro%'ction
The notion of a vicious circle is part of a more general set of ideas which deal with what are known as feedback loops. These are of enormous importance in organic systems, and this chapter outlines their principles. 2e distinguish positive feedback loops from negative feedback loops, and increasing from decreasing feedback loops. %ny of these can at times create the problem we are supposed to be resolving, or prevent a change we want to make, or, on the other hand, be the means by which we are removing a problem or ensuring that the changes we make are permanent. * THE +A0T CHAPTE% "e met the notion of a $i#ious #ir#le. This #hapter "ill deal "ith $arious forms of loop, of "hi#h the $i#ious #ir#le is only one e2ample. n this #hapter P(,P-, et#. are all la!els for pro#esses undergone !y #ertain systems "hi#h "ill not !e e2pli#itly mentioned. A loop is a #ompound pro#ess "ith * identifia!le su!pro#esses P(, P-, ... P*, "hi#h "ill !e represented in the general form: 8P( 4 8P- 4 8P/ 4... 4 8P* 4 8P(.

W9or meaning of sym!ols see 0ym!ols.X +oops #an !e dis#o$ered !y starting "ith any pro#ess and then, !y finding pre#ursors and resultants, #reating a #hain until the pro#ess at the !eginning and the pro#ess at the end are the same. *oti#e that the #hange in a#ti$ity of ea#h #omponent pro#ess of the loop may !e an in#rease or a de#rease. .e "ill therefore end up "ith a loop ha$ing one of the follo"ing four forms: (A 2P 4...... 4 2P -A 3P 4...... 4 3P /A 2P 4...... 4 3P 1A 3P 4...... 4 2P (A .hen an in#rease in the a#ti$ity of P leads $ia a #hain of other pro#esses to a further in#rease in the a#ti$ity of P, "e "ill #all the #ompound pro#ess an increasing positive fee%"ac# loop. -A But "hen a de#rease in a#ti$ity of P leads to a further de#rease, "e "ill #all the loop a %ecreasing positive fee%"ac# loop. /A and 1A, in "hi#h an in#rease in a#ti$ity leads to a de#rease or $i#e $ersa, "ill !e #alled one;si%e% negative fee%"ac# loops . The form /A tends to pre$ent the a#ti$ity of P getting too great, and form 1A a#ts to pre$ent it getting too small. A t&o;si%e% negative fee%"ac# loop is one in "hi#h both of /A and 1A hold: 2P 4... 4 3P 4... 4 2P. *oti#e that positi$e and negati$e ha$e no emotional o$ertones. P may !e a fa$oura!le pro#ess, "hi#h #reates happiness, or an unfa$oura!le one that leads to misery. But "e "ould still see it as a positi$e loop if a #hange leads on to the same kind of #hange, and as a negati$e loop if a #hange in it leads to a #hange of the opposite sign. The s#ien#e "hi#h deals "ith su#h feed!a#k loops is Cy!erneti#s, the foundations of "hi#h "ere laid !y *or!ert .einer and others in the (<1=s @.einer @(<1;a,!ABi!A. Another phrase "hi#h is used for the s#ien#e is that of Control Theory. At the present stage of the s#ien#e of Hypnotherapy "e are dealing "ith these pro#esses in a qualitative "ay, !ut should "e e$er get to a stage of resear#h in "hi#h a quantitative des#ription of 6 8A 4 8B6 #an !e gi$en, then "e "ill ha$e a##ess to a great deal of esta!lished mathemati#al theory "hi#h "ill integrate our s#ien#e "ith many other related ones. )1amples of @ee%"ac# Loops

(A .e ha$e seen a num!er of e2amples of in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loops in the last #hapter. 0u#h loops are one of the important #auses of pro!lems. But here "e "ill #onsider their appli#ation in the simple Hypnoti# phenomenon of hand le$itation "hi#h "e ha$e already met !riefly "hen looking at 6indu#tions6. Pra#tising Hypnotherapists "ill !e a"are that "hen they !egin to suggest that a finger "ill rise into the air, nothing happens. 0e$eral minutes and many suggestions may pass !efore there is the slightest mo$ement. >uring that pro#ess the Client "ill typi#ally !e thinking, 6*othing is going to happen,6 and there is a lot of dou!t. But on#e there has !een the slightest mo$ement, "hi#h "e may la!el 29 @an in#rease in the a#ti$ity of the finger mus#lesA, it leads to a de#rease in the dou!ting mental pro#esses @3>A. The positi$e suggestions of the Hypnotherapist therefore gain ground @2PA, and these in turn lead to a greater mo$ement of the finger @ 29A. Hen#e "e ha$e the in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop: 29 4 3> 4 2P 4 29. n pra#ti#e "e find that an initial mo$ement soon !e#omes mu#h !igger and it #an take as little time to get the entire hand and arm le$itated up to the fa#e as it took to get a single finger to mo$e a fra#tion in the first pla#e. t #an at times !e useful to gi$e Clients a 6pi#ture6 of feed!a#k loops, to help them to understand things. The follo"ing is one pi#ture. 6 "onder if you ha$e e$er !een in a hall "ith a Pu!li# Address 0ystem "hi#h has started to gi$e off that high4pit#hed "histleB ,ou kno" "hat is happening, of #ourse. The mi#rophone is designed to pi#k up sound. t passes the sound to an amplifier, "hi#h makes it louder. t is then passed on to the loudspeakers "hi#h spread the sound into the hall. 6*o" if the loudspeaker is too #lose to, or is fa#ing, the mi#rophone, "e ha$e trou!le. The trou!le is that the mi#rophone then pi#ks up the sound from the speakers. This is then amplified further so that $ery 'ui#kly the mike is pi#king up a louder sound. This is amplified in turn, making the speakers still louder. The "hole thing 'ui#kly gets out of hand until it rea#hes the limits of the system, and you get the terri!le "histle. 6*o" in you "e might see the symptom as !eing the sound from the speakers. ,ou noti#ing the symptom is like the mike pi#king up the sound. ,ou "orrying a!out the symptom is like the amplifier making things "orse, !e#ause in you the "orry is in fa#t dire#tly #ausing the symptom. 6The pro!lem #an easily !e sol$ed !y turning the speakers a"ay from the mike, or putting them further a"ay @helping you to take less noti#e of the symptomA. t is also helped !y turning do"n the amplifi#ation @redu#ing your feelings of an2ietyA.6 Other e2amples of in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loops arise in many pla#es. A good learning pro#ess, for e2ample, is often #hara#terised !y the follo"ing loop: 2NskillO 4 2Nsatisfa#tionO 4 2Npra#ti#eO 4 2NskillO.

n other "ords, if a person gets satisfa#tion from the e2er#ise of a skill, it "ill moti$ate a#tions "hi#h "ill lead to a further in#rease in the skill. 7ost )%O.TH phenomena in a !iologi#al setting in$ol$e in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loops. Thus the gro"th of a !a#terial infe#tion is des#ri!ed !y the simplest of all loops: 2N!a#teriaO 4 2N!a#teriaO, i.e. if, in a gi$en en$ironment, the a#ti$ity of the !a#teria in#reases 4 !asi#ally as a result of the !a#teria multiplying 4 then the in#rease "ill in a short time result in a still further in#rease, as the in#reased num!ers also multiply. 0u#h a pro#ess of gro"th tends to in#rease $ery rapidly @te#hni#ally the gro"th is e2ponentialA until it rea#hes a siLe in "hi#h other fa#tors !e#ome important. These "ill typi#ally a#t to limit the gro"th in a "ay "hi#h #an often !e re#ognised as a negati$e feed!a#k loop. -A Decreasing positi$e feed!a#k loops are often of importan#e "hen "e #ome to dis#uss the resolution of a pro!lem. They may arise naturally and #an lead to a spontaneous solution to that pro!lem. As a simple e2ample, suppose that a person has a pho!ia a!out something that has !een gro"ing "orse for years under the influen#e of an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop. The more fear @9A is felt on meeting the o!&e#t that triggers the pho!ia, the more that o!&e#t is thought of as fearful @TA, !ut the more it is thought of in that "ay, the more terrifying it "ill !e felt to !e. @ 29 4 2T 4 29A *o" suppose that some progress #an !e made by any means whatever 4 ta!lets, Hypnosis, a#upun#ture, ad$i#e... 4 in redu#ing either the feeling of fear or the thought that the o!&e#t is terrifying. .e may generally e2pe#t that a redu#tion in the fear "ill lead to a redu#tion in the thought that the o!&e#t is fearful, and that a redu#tion in that thought "ill tend to redu#e the a#tual fear ne2t time. I@ that is in fa#t the #ase "e ha$e a de#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop: 39 4 3T 4 39. The a#ti$ity of ea#h pro#ess thus gradually de#reases until they !oth drop to Lero @an a#ti$ity #annot !e negati$eA. n other "ords if "e #an on#e get a noti#ea!le impro$ement, things "ill then #ontinue to get !etter under their o"n momentum. A Hypnotherapist is in an e2#ellent position to make the initial impro$ement !e#ause he is in a position to make impro$ements in !oth #omponent pro#esses of the loop. He may redu#e the emotion or the thought or !oth, and often in a $ery spe#ifi# "ay. By #ontrast the medi#al approa#h to su#h pho!ias is the rather general one of supplying the sufferer "ith some form of drug "hi#h indu#es a generally more rela2ed state. This may redu#e the feeling of fear, and the de#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop may then "ork as a!o$e. Ho"e$er, the $ery thought, 6 t is so !ad that had !etter take my pill,6 tends to in#rease rather than de#rease the per#eption of the o!&e#t as a fearful thing, and after a "hile the a#ti$ity of pill4taking #an !e#ome in$ol$ed in the "hole pro#ess.

nitially "e may ha$e 2NPillsO 4 3N9earO 4 3N.orrying thoughtsO 4 3N9O, "hi#h leads to the initial de#rease. But "e also ha$e the se#ondary effe#t 2NPillsO 4 2N.orrying thoughtsO "hi#h typi#ally !e#omes more and more important as the initial le$els of fear drop a little. t pra#ti#e then it is 'uite #ommon for the general le$el of a#ti$ity of !oth fear and per#eption of fear to drop the first fe" times a pill is taken and then to start to pi#k up again under the influen#e of 2NPillsO 4 2N.orrying thoughtsO. But the old in#reasing feed!a#k loop is still there "aiting to take effe#t, so that the in#rease in the thought of 6This is fearfulD!ad6 "ill again lead to an in#rease in the fear felt. Typi#ally "hen this starts to take hold again, the sufferer a#ts in one of t"o "ays. One "ay is to say, 6These pills do not "ork 4 "ill gi$e them up.6 The pro!lem then 'ui#kly returns to its pre$ious le$el, or e$en a !it more !e#ause, 6 t must !e !ad if the pills #anFt help.6 The alternati$e is to in#rease the dose. But all too often this simply leads to the same pro#ess as !efore: an initial impro$ement follo"ed !y a su!se'uent re!ound. This e2ample illustrates the #are one needs to take in analysing the nature of the feed!a#k loops in$ol$ed in a pro!lem. 0ome other e2amples of de#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loops are as follo"s. A person might, 'uite naturally, gro" out of a ha!it of nail4!iting as a result of the loop 3N!itingO 4 2Nsatisfa#tionO 4 3N!itingO, "hi#h "ill lead to the nail4!iting a#ti$ity dropping to Lero. There is a good #han#e that "hen a Hypnotherapist is asked to eliminate any a#ti$ity, then a de#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop for the symptom "ill !e instituted. As another e2ample, "hi#h illustrates that de#reasing positi$e loops #an also #ause pro!lems, #onsider a poor student "ho has !e#ome trapped in the loop 3NstudyingO 4 3N#onfiden#e in a!ilityO 4 3NstudyO, "hi#h #an #y#le until he or she gi$es up studying altogether and loses all #onfiden#e in his or her a!ility in that area. This e2ample underlines the fa#t that "hether a positi$e feed!a#k loop is in#reasing or de#reasing is not the most important thing. ndeed a positi$e loop #an !e in#reasing for one system in$ol$ed and de#reasing for another, e.g.: 2A 4 3B 4 2A is in#reasing for A !ut de#reasing for B, so "e should properly al"ays use phrases like 6.. is an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop for %6. The ultimate reason for the distin#tion !et"een in#reasing and de#reasing as applied to loops is that the a#ti$ity of a system #annot drop !elo" Lero: there is therefore a stri#t limit to ho" far do"n the a#ti$ity #an go. On the other hand there is no su#h stri#t limit on ho" high the a#ti$ity #an go: it may !e limited !y resour#es, !ut that limit is often fle2i!le and #hangea!le. n prin#iple the num!er of indi$iduals in a spe#ies @e.g. of domesti# #hi#kensA #an !e indefinitely large. On the other hand there is a definite and final lo"er le$el: "hi#h the dodo has attained. This remark is often $ery rele$ant to feed!a#k loops in$ol$ing organi# systems, and distinguishes them from feed!a#k loops "hi#h often arise in inorgani# systems, in "hi#h $aria!les are more #ommonly #apa!le of taking negati$e as "ell as positi$e $alues. The other differen#e is that in inorgani# systems the effe#t of a redu#tion in

the a#ti$ity of a system is generally e'ual and opposite to the effe#t of an e'ual and opposite in#rease. .e ha$e noted that in organi# systems there is generally an asymmetry !et"een the t"o #ases. /A Negative feed!a#k loops are of great importan#e in all !iologi#al systems. t is su#h loops that pro$ide sta"ility. They are ho" homeostasis 4 the preser$ation of relati$ely #onstant internal #onditions in a #hanging en$ironment 4 is a#hie$ed. The "ord sta!ility #an !e used in a stati# or dynami# sense. The stati# sense of sta!ility is represented !y the pi#ture of a milk4!ottle standing either on its !ase or on its top. t is not mo$ing in either #ase 4 it is sta!le 4 !ut is more easily distur!ed in the latter #ase: it is less sta!le on its top. >ynami# sta!ility is more like the sta!ility of a #y#list. 0he is #onstantly mo$ing, #onstantly #orre#ting for slight "o!!les on one side or the other. @+ook at tyre marks in sno": they are ne$er straight5 the tra#k of the front "heel is al"ays #rossing to and fro a#ross the tra#k of the !a#k "heel.A The #y#list is ne$er still !ut "ill ne$er fall off. n many "ays she is more sta!le than the milk4!ottle, !e#ause she has more po"er to #orre#t for any distur!an#e. 9or all of us e$en the pro#ess of standing in$ol$es negati$e feed!a#k loops. f "e lean for"ard a little this a#ti$ates a sense of im!alan#e $ia the me#hanism in the inner ears, "hi#h in turn a#ti$ates the appropriate mus#les at the legs, feet and else"here to #reate a !a#k"ard mo$ement. t "ill often happen that this results in o$ershooting the mark. .e then start to sense a !a#k"ard lean, "hi#h a#ti$ates an opposing set of mus#les and starts a for"ard mo$ement. 0imultaneously the system of !alan#e is monitoring and #orre#ting for side"ays mo$ements in a similar "ay. The net result is a dynami# sta!ility. The maintenan#e of !ody temperature in$ol$es similar loops. f the temperature in#reases, it a#ti$ates su#h systems as in#reased s"eating, "hereas if it drops, it #an a#ti$ate an in#rease in meta!oli# rate and shi$ering, "hi#h tend to in#rease the temperature again. 0horthand for t"o of these pro#esses is: 2Temperature 4 2N0"eatingO 4 3Temperature 3Temperature 4 2N0hi$eringO 4 2Temperature. *oti#e again the "ay in "hi#h in#reases and de#reases in temperature a#ti$ate different systems: this is 'uite #ommon in !iologi#al systems. .e "ill #ommonly see asymmetri#al dou!le4sided pro#esses like: 2P 4 8A 4 3P 4 8B 4 2P, "here A and B are different pro#esses or e$en pro#esses of different systems. n fa#t the entire internal e#onomy of the !ody depends #ru#ially on su#h loops at all le$els to maintain and sustain life. The relati$e #onstan#y of !lood4sugar le$els, of o2ygen le$els, of "hite #ell le$els, of fat le$els, together "ith our a!ility to e2e#ute any a#tion, say any "ord or #on#entrate on any thought depend on the e2isten#e of negati$e feed!a#k loops "hi#h "ill pre$ent any great departure from the re'uired le$el or pro#ess.

9eed!a#k loops e2ist at other le$els also. f you "at#h t"o people in #on$ersation you "ill o!ser$e negati$e feed!a#k loops regulating their physi#al distan#e apart. f this distan#e gets a little small, one or other "ill initiate mo$ement in order to in#rease it. But if the gap gets too large there "ill !e a mo$ement to #lose it. The result is a flu#tuating distan#e a!out some a$erage $alue. 7ore generally the sta!ility of a family or relationship "ill generally !e maintained !y means of su#h feed!a#k loops, so that in any pro!lem "hi#h features relationships it is important to look out for rele$ant loops. n the market4pla#e the pri#e of goods is kept relati$ely fi2ed !y means of negati$e feed!a#k loops. A simplisti# e2ample of this is as follo"s. f the pri#e rises, demand drops @ 2P 4 3>A. f the pri#e drops, demand rises @ 3P 4 2>A. But a drop in demand "ill #ommonly indu#e the seller to redu#e pri#es @ 3> 4 3PA in order to in#rease sales and so to maintain profits, "hile an in#rease in demand "ill en#ourage him to in#rease pri#es @ 2> 4 2PA in order to !enefit from it. .e therefore ha$e a dou!le4sided negati$e feed!a#k loop: 2P 4 3> 4 3P 4 2> 4 2P "hi#h tends to keep the pri#e "ithin !ounds. Against this !a#kground "e "ill no" look at the spe#ifi# "ays in "hi#h negati$e feed!a#k loops are of importan#e in Hypnotherapy. The first and important point is that 9 a pro!lem has not disappeared spontaneously after a period of time THE* there is a very high chance of it "eing maintaine% "y some negative fee%"ac# loop, "hi#h may !e internal or e2ternal. As an e2ample #onsider the dynami#s of the follo"ing al#oholi# pro!lem. As a result, it turned out, of #hildhood se2ual a!use a "oman hated se2 "hen she got married. 0he #ould only tolerate it if she "as drunk. After a "hile it follo"ed that 9 she "ere to stop or e$en redu#e drinking, her hus!and "ould per#ei$e her as !eing in a 6"orse6 state and #ons#iously or un#ons#iously en#ourage her to drink again. @ 3N>rinkingO 4 3 N0e2ual a#ti$ityO 4 2NHus!andFs dis#ontentO 4 2N>rinkingO.A As another and #lassi# e2ample from the annals of Hypnosis "e may #onsider the famous #ase of 7esmerFs treatment of the young "oman 7aria Theresa Paradies, "ho had !een !lind from an early age. 0he "as also a gifted pianist and musi#ian. There are $arious a##ounts of this #ase in #ir#ulation, !ut the main features are the follo"ing. 7esmer had some good initial su##ess. But then, to his amaLement, the parents o!&e#ted $ery strongly and remo$ed her from treatment. Then: 6The logi# is that Paradies Wthe fatherX !egan to anti#ipate serious em!arrassment if 7aria Theresa "as sa$ed from !lindness. Her musi# already suffered from the impro$ement of her eyes. Partial sight made her ner$ous at the piano5 ner$ousness made her hit the "rong keys, and the deterioration of her playing made her more ner$ous. t "as a $i#ious #ir#le from "hi#h she #ould not hope to es#ape e2#ept after long, arduous e2perien#e 4 if then. 7ean"hile she "ould #ease to !e the a##omplished, petted star of the #on#ert stage "ith a handsome in#ome of her o"n.

0he might lose the pension granted !y the empress Wher godmotherX in #onsideration of her !lindness. 0he "ould then !e#ome a half4#rippled !urden on her parents.6 @Buranelli @(<:3ABi!A Clearly there "ere 'uite a fe" #onse'uen#es of an impro$ement in sight "hi#h "ere unfa$oura!le to 7aria Theresa and her family. The natural result "as to rea#t against the impro$ement, and to return to the status quo ante. n short a negati$e feed!a#k loop "as re$ealed. The out#ome of the #ase "as that her parents took her home from 7esmerFs house "here he had !een treating her, and the #ondition of her eyes promptly deteriorated again. n outline the pattern "as the one4sided negati$e feed!a#k loop: 2N0ightO 4 3NPlayingO 4 2NParental furyO 4 3N0ightO. Ho"e$er, this story has an ending "hi#h should !e a #aution to all therapists. 7esmer "as furious that his #ure should ha$e !een undermined. But "hat of 7aria TheresaB Ho" did her life pro#eedB 0he "ent !a#k to her #on#ert life and "as a great su##ess in Paris and +ondon. 0he "as so good that 7oLart "rote a #omposition espe#ially for her, the Con#erto in B 9lat 7a&or. n other "ords the la#k of sight did not !light her life, and might indeed ha$e made it in many "ays more fulfilling. 7usi# may "ell ha$e !een all the more !eautiful as a result of there not !eing any $isual distra#tions. 0he "ould ha$e had ser$ants to do all the !oring, pra#ti#al things in life. 0he had musi# and friends and fame. .as life so $ery !adB .e should !e"are of thinking that the impro$ement of a parti#ular symptom !y our te#hni'ue must !e the !est thing for the Client. @OR T ) CLI)NT T ) LI@) AS A < OL) IS T ) MOST IMPORTANT T IN+( 0o if there is a negati$e feed!a#k loop in$ol$ing the symptom we should consider what function it serves and whether it is of value to the ?lient . n fa#t the great !lessing that 7esmer ga$e 7aria Theresa "as a relief from the other, truly agonising treatments "hi#h had #aused her enormous pain. Before 7esmer "ent to "ork the family might ha$e thought that it "ould !e !etter to ha$e a sighted daughter and so "ent on trying to !ring a!out a #ure. The effe#t of 7esmerFs treatment "ould, no dou!t, ha$e !een to make them realise that the regaining of her sight "ould not !e the great !lessing that they had imagined, so they dropped all other treatment as "ell. The #ommon e2isten#e of negati$e feed!a#k loops in life is one of the things that makes the HypnotherapistFs task so mu#h harder than that of the Hypnotist. t is one thing to make a #hange, e$en a dramati# #hange, in the fun#tioning of some su!system of a human mind or !ody. t is another to make it sti#k: to ensure that it "ill sur$i$e the pressures that so #ommonly e2ist to make things return to the "ay they "ere !efore. t is easy enough to plant a rose in a desert: keeping it ali$e is another matter.

0o "e ha$e noti#ed that "hen a pro!lem has remained in e2isten#e for some time, there is a $ery good #han#e that it is !eing maintained !y a negati$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h "ill tend to return things to the status 'uo, after an inter$ention !y the Hypnotherapist. But a good Hypnotherapist "ill not only re#ognise and deal "ith this, !ut also realise that if he or she is to institute a ne" pra#ti#e or ha!it, then the simultaneous introdu#tion of a negati$e feed!a#k loop to sta!ilise the #hange is often $ery ne#essary. Thus it is $ery little use making a suggestion for in#reased moti$ation @7A, for e2ample, and e2pe#ting it to remain in for#e indefinitely. True, it might "ell ha$e an effe#t for a "hile, !ut "hat happens "hen the moti$ation tends to drop, as it "ill sooner or laterB t might !e more lu#rati$e to ha$e the Client return for a 6!ooster6, !ut is it the !est professional pra#ti#eB t "ould !e !etter to "ork on esta!lishing a loop so that 37 4... 4 275 i.e. the $ery fa#t of the moti$ation dropping should trigger off some other system "hi#h "ill lead to rene"ed moti$ation. As an e2ample, it is #ommon for a drop in moti$ation to lead to an in#rease in guilt, "hi#h leads to self4!lame, a drop in morale and yet further loss of moti$ation @ 37 4... 37A, a de#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop. n fa#t the la#k of moti$ation may, on analysis, ha$e !een found to !e a simple result of trying to do too mu#h all at on#e. f "e then institute the rule that a drop in moti$ation 7H0T !e responded to !y spending some time in a re#reational "ay, then in due #ourse, as the systems "hi#h ha$e !e#ome e2hausted are refreshed, moti$ation "ill rise again. That is to say, "e ha$e instituted a negati$e feed!a#k loop 37 4 2Nre#reationO 4 27, to repla#e, if "e ha$e done things "ell, the old de#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop 37 4 2NguiltO 4 37. 0o here "e ha$e an e2ample of a !enefi#ial negati$e feed!a#k loop, to emphasise the fa#t that the "ords positi$e and negati$e are not the same as !enefi#ial and harmful. +et us look at another e2ample of the usefulness of looking for a negati$e feed!a#k loop to maintain a #hange, this time "hen the primary system is a #ouple. +et us suppose that they are arguing5 they ha$e !een to #ounselling5 they ha$e taken the good ad$i#e on !oard5 they argue less fre'uently5 so they get on !etter5 so they need to argue less. n short the inter$ention has started off a !enefi#ial de#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop for the 'uarrelling. .hether this has a good #han#e of surviving "ill depend on "hether the #ounselling has also managed to esta!lish a negati$e feed!a#k loop to #ope "ith any future increase in 'uarrelling, su#h as might !e triggered off !y &o! pro!lems, in4la" pro!lems, et#. The 'uestion is, 6Ho" "ill the #ouple rea#t to an in#rease in 'uarrellingB6 f no attention has !een paid to this pro!lem, then a small in#rease is all too likely to es#alate as !efore to the point "here #ounselling is again sought. f the #ounselling had !een good enough, it should ha$e instituted an automati# pro#ess "hi#h "ould ha$e limited the 'uarrelling. As a $ery simple a$enue, possi!le to the Hypnotherapist, a post4hypnoti# suggestion might !e used to ensure that on the #ue of a 'uarrel one of the partners "ill !eha$e in a ne" "ay, "hi#h might !e as simple as to go for a "alk, and there!y defuse the situation !efore emotions get out of hand. Eri#kson is reported to ha$e got one #ouple to stand in the !ath to ha$e their 'uarrelsI A #ommon result of 'uarrelling in the nude might perhaps !e predi#ted.

SUMMAR.e ha$e learned to re#ognise different kinds of feed!a#k loops "hi#h arise "ithin the frame"ork of #omple2 !iologi#al systems. They are intrinsi#ally neither good nor !ad. Increasing positive fee%"ac# loops are typi#ally in$ol$ed "hen "e see gro"th. At times "e may !e "orking to pre$ent su#h loops, if they are detrimental5 at other times to en#ourage them, if they are !enefi#ial. Decreasing positive fee%"ac# loops are #hara#teristi#ally in$ol$ed in the elimination of the a#ti$ity of some system. Again "e may at times !e trying to esta!lish su#h loops or to eliminate them. Negative fee%"ac# loops are #hara#teristi#ally in$ol$ed in maintaining things the "ay they are. @But a dou!le4sided negati$e feed!a#k loop may lead to insta!ility, as is sho"n in Chapter -3.A Again "e may !e eliminating or instituting su#h loops. T ) NATURAL @UNCTIONIN+ O@ T ) MIND AND EOD- IS MAINTAIN)D EN)+ATID) @))DEACG LOOPS( The same is also true for so#ial groupings and most dynami#ally sta!le organi# systems. t is #entral to su##essful Hypnotherapy to re#ognise the o$er"helming pre$alen#e and importan#e of these #lasses of loops in determining the "ay in "hi#h "e "ork. t is e$en more important "hen "e #ome to try to make effe#ti$e and long4lasting #hanges. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R */

ypnosis!

The Process of ypnotherapy ; Stage /! ConseH'ences of Symptom Re%'ction

The ne t step in diagnosis involves looking at the question of what would happen if the problem symptom were to be removed. The importance of this comes from the observation that the problem may well only remain in e istence because of a negative feedback loop which ensures that any reduction in the problem leads to consequences which start it up again. It is essential in successful therapy that such situations be recognised. * CHAPTE% (= "e #onsidered the first step in the pro#ess of analysing the pro!lem in terms of the $arious pro#esses in$ol$ed. The #onse'uen#e of looking for

pre#ursors and resultants !y means of $arious 'uestions then led to one or more #ausal #hains in$ol$ing the pro!lem symptom. A parti#ularly important form of su#h a #hain "as then #alled a $i#ious #ir#le, !ut no" that "e ha$e analysed loops in more detail it "ill !e #alled a positi$e feed!a#k loop. .e may note that in some #ases the a!o$e diagnosti# pro#ess is, in itself, therapeuti#. Three reasons for this are as follo"s. 9irst, it pro$ides the #lient "ith an opportunity to talk a!out the pro!lem to a sympatheti# person. *o" "hether it is an instin#t, or a pattern from #hildhood, it is #ertainly the #ase that for many people @though not, of #ourse, allA the follo"ing pro#ess is deeply ingrained: 2>istress 4 2Talk 4 3>istress. W9or meaning of sym!ols see 0ym!ols.X n fa#t studies ha$e sho"n that there is no measura!le differen#e in the impro$ement of patients "ho ha$e !een through a pro#ess of psy#hoanalysis and #ompara!le patients "ho ha$e simply talked to a sympatheti# listener @0hapiro P 0hapiro @(<;-ABi!A. A se#ond reason is that the $ery 'uestions asked in 0tage ( "ill ha$e for#ed the #lient to think more #learly a!out the pro!lem, and in many #ases this "ill in itself make it seem less intra#ta!le. The third reason is that the pro#ess of diagnosis "ill often pro$ide an ans"er to the 'uestion, 6.hyB 4 2hy is this happeningB6 9or many people a greater part of the distress "hi#h arises "hen something feels "rong results from not kno"ing the ans"er to this 'uestion. n su#h people there e2ists an internal pro#ess of the follo"ing form: 2N>is#omfortO 4 2N0ear#h for #auseO. *o" if no #ause #an !e found the sear#h #ontinues, and #ontinues and #ontinues, often turning up "ilder and "ilder ideas as to "hat #an !e "rong, and #reating in#reasing le$els of unease. 0u#h people ha$e often !een helped enormously in a medi#al #onte2t !y a do#tor "ho "ill simply gi$e a name to "hat is "rong: 6,ou are simply suffering from nterrogitis.6 6Thank you, >o#tor. ,ou ha$e set my mind at rest 4 thought it "as far "orse.6 The point is that e$en if the name is meaningless, this pseudo4ans"er #an !e enough to stop an endless sear#h "hi#h "as in itself a prime #ause of distress. People "ho understand "hat is happening are generally a!le to #ope far !etter that those "ho donFt. This e$en applies in situations like operations, in "hi#h the patient has no #ontrol o$er the situation. 0tudies ha$e sho"n that those "ho are told "hat is going to happen seem to feel less pain post4operati$ely, need less medi#ation and on a$erage lea$e hospital three days earlierI @Eg!ert et al. @(<81ABi!A Ho"e$er, in general "e "ill not find that the pro#ess of o!taining a #lear pi#ture of the dynami#s of the pro!lem "ill in itself sol$e the pro!lem. .e must ne2t fo#us on the 'uestion of the remo$al of the symptom. But it is a #ardinal rule of good therapy that symptoms m'st not "e treate% in isolation( This is easy to say, !ut you "ill seek in $ain if you seek any other !ook "hi#h "ill e2plain e2a#tly ho" this rule #an !e #arried out. This is not to say that good modern therapists >O treat symptoms in isolation, simply that the absence of a good theoretical foundation for Hypnosis has made it impossi!le for their pra#ti#e to !e #odified. .e ha$e already done a lot of the "ork of seeing a symptom in #onte2t !y esta!lishing the #hains "hi#h feature an increase in the a#ti$ity of the symptom. But, as "e started to see in the pre$ious #hapter, it #an !e as important, if not more so, to e2amine #hains "hi#h in$ol$e a decrease in the a#ti$ity of the symptomati# system.

This #hapter then "ill fo#us on the 'uestion, 6.hat "ill happen if a symptom is redu#edB6 *oti#e that this is *OT a 'uestion that #omes all that naturally to the mind. f "e ha$e a 6pro!lem6 "e do not naturally look !eyond its remo$al. t takes 'uite a lot of mental dis#ipline to think, 6.hat "ould happen if these heada#hes "entB6 !e#ause they seem so o!$iously a pro!lem. t does not naturally o##ur to us to think that their remo$al might lead to "orse things. But our notation and approa#h automati#ally train us to think in this ne" "ay. 0ome of the rele$ant 'uestions to the Client "hi#h #an !e used are the follo"ing: F( Let 's imagine that the central pro"lem C &ere to go a&ay! &hat else &o'l% change= >. $? 43 F( In partic'lar can yo' thin# of anything &hich &o'l% "e li#ely to ma#e it get &orse again= >. Is there a negative feedback loop / 3? 4... 4 2?0 maintaining the problem3 As "as mentioned in the last #hapter, there "ill $ery often !e su#h a loop in$ol$ed and, if there is, it is $ery important indeed to dis#o$er "hat it is, !e#ause su#h a loop "ill tend to a#t to pre$ent any #hange. n the #ase of 7iss Paradies, the fa#t that her professional #areer "as in se$eral "ays harmed !y ha$ing sight "as something that 7esmer had not anti#ipated and led to a negati$e feed!a#k loop. Another useful 'uestion in the hunt for the negati$e feed!a#k loops is: F( Can yo' thin# of any small "enefits that C lea%s to= The point here is that the Client "ill ha$e la!elled C as a 6pro!lem6, !ut has failed to realise that a #onse'uen#e of C may a#tually !e of some !enefit. 0u#h a !enefit "ill reinfor#e the pro#ess C, "hi#h "ill !e more likely to happen again: i.e. a negati$e feed!a#k loop "ill e2ist. 0uppose, for e2ample, that a person is doing something from a sense of duty 4 $isiting in4la"s, ha$ing se2, going to "ork, et#. 0uppose also that there is some 6pro!lem6 4 migraines, nausea, 'uarrels, et#. 4 "hi#h has as a natural #onse'uen#e the a$oidan#e of the duty. Then, although the Client "ill almost #ertainly *OT ha$e made the #onne#tion at a #ons#ious le$el, there is a $ery good #han#e that the !enefit gained from the 6pro!lem6 pro#ess is at least partly responsi!le for maintaining it in e2isten#e. n su#h a #ase it "ill pro!a!ly not !e enough simply to "ork on redu#ing the a#ti$ity of the #entral pro#ess, as it "ill lead to an in#rease in the unpleasant duties, "hi#h "ill simply tend to rea#ti$ate the old pattern again: 3C 4 2>uties 4 2C.

Although the 'uestions a!o$e are simple in prin#iple, it must not !e supposed that the pro#ess of finding the ans"ers to them is ne#essarily a 'ui#k one. t "ill often !e ne#essary to a#ti$ate the ClientFs imagination in 'uite some detail and for some time in order to get full ans"ers to them. There is a natural human tenden#y to pay more attention to things that are "rong than to things that are right. There is a natural human tenden#y to suppose that someho" the remo$al of a per#ei$ed pro!lem "ill lead, as in the fairy stories, to, 6... and they li$ed happily e$er after.6 t is seldom that simple. n some #ases the only "ay of dis#o$ering the #onse'uen#es of a redu#tion in the pro!lem "ill !e to go ahead and start to redu#e it, and see "hat happens. The fa#t that "e ha$e thought a!out the 'uestions a!o$e prepares us for the possi!ility that after a period of impro$ement there may "ell !e a relapse, "hi#h "ill not therefore take us !y surprise, as 7esmer "as taken !y surprise !y the #ase of 7aria Theresa. nstead "e "ill "el#ome it as possi!ly pro$iding a fuller ans"er to "hy the pro!lem #ontinues to e2ist. This reason #an then !e ta#kled. As another e2ample, a Client may !e suffering from a la#k of self4#onfiden#e. n theory she and her family "ant this to impro$e. But "hen the #hange a#tually !egins to take pla#e and they realise that as a #onse'uen#e of her in#reased #onfiden#e she "ill say 6*o6 to them some of the time, they may "ell start to resent it and a#t in su#h a "ay that they demoralise her again. The pattern is simply: 2N0elf4#onfiden#eO 4 3NComplian#eO 4 2N9amily dis#ontentO 4 2N9amily annoyan#eO 4 3 N0elf4#onfiden#eO, i.e. a negati$e feed!a#k loop. f su#h a loop e2ists @and the a!o$e pattern is $ery #ommonA the Hypnotherapist "ill have to take a##ount of it and modify the approa#h a##ordingly. An o!$ious step "hi#h #an !e taken is to restri#t rather #learly the parti#ular a#tions of a more #onfident Client to those "hi#h meet "ith appro$al, at first. n this "ay "e #an #reate a more firm !asis for later #hange. *oti#e the #ontrast !et"een the a!o$e approa#h and that of the naR$e Hypnotherapist "ho might simply suggest, "ith all the po"er "hi#h suggestions #an ha$e in #ertain Clients, 6,ou "ill !e#ome super4#onfident. ,ou "ill !e totally #onfident. *othing "ill get you do"n.6 The $ery generality of this is su#h that the Client is left to his or her o"n de$i#es "hen it #omes to e2pressing this #onfiden#e. There is little guarantee that others "ill like "hat happens for long. t is almost #ertain that someone "ill resent it and a#t against it. 0in#e this ne"4found #onfiden#e has no real roots in !eha$iour or e2perien#e it "ill 'ui#kly "ither in the !laLing heat of someoneFs rea#ti$e anger, and the "hole thing "ill die, lea$ing the Client more demoralised than !efore. 6 t is easy to plant a rose in the desert: keeping it ali$e is another matter.6 ndeed e$en as am "riting this, there is an episode on the tele$ision series "eighbours in "hi#h a young man, Brett, has gone to a Hypnotherapist for help "ith

his la#k of #onfiden#e "ith girls. He has !een gi$en the phrase, 6 #an do anythingI6 "hi#h has gi$en him a great feeling of #onfiden#e. But he has !een gi$en no detailed dire#tions on how he should attra#t the girl of his #hoi#e, >e!!ie, and has gone for a 6super4#ool6 approa#h 4 leather &a#ket, sunglasses, #igarettes and sho"ing off on his !ike 4 "hi#h is not only totally alien to his personality, !ut a total put4off to >e!!ie also. .hen he falls off the !ike in an ignominious heap, "e see at the same time the ine$ita!le #ollapse of su#h an ill4#onsidered appli#ation of Hypnoti# suggestionI .hen "e ha$e ans"ered the 'uestion 3C 4B, i.e. "hat happens later on in the #hain if "e redu#e the a#ti$ity of C, "e also need to look at the earlier pro#esses as "ell, to see "hat their effe#t is if C is remo$ed. The point here is that it is an e$eryday o!ser$ation that if the ha!itual #onse'uen#e of some feeling or a#tion is th"arted, then some other #onse'uen#e may follo" instead. 9or e2ample, in animals and mankind "e see displacement activities. There may !e a desire to atta#k "hi#h is th"arted !y fear, so the energy "hi#h is ready to go into the atta#k is displa#ed into some other #hannel. The animal may pa" the ground and a man may thump the desk. n general terms "e need to kno" "hat the pre#ursor "ill lead to if its effe#t on the #entral pro#ess is !lo#ked. f the pre#ursor of smoking is a feeling of anger, "hat "ill the anger lead to if smoking is pre$entedB Jiolen#eB 9amily ro"sB O$ereatingB t is important to ha$e some idea of this, for it is $ery !ad therapy if the result of remo$ing the original pro!lem is an e$en "orse one. n order to #larify this "e need to ask 'uestions like the follo"ing. F( <hat other things %oes it 6the prec'rsor7 lea% yo' to %o2feel2feel li#e %oing= F( <hat has it at times le% to in the past= >. &4 43 2hat other resultants of the precursor &4 e ist3 %emem!er that there are generally many #omple2 pro#esses "hi#h #an in$ol$e a parti#ular su!pro#ess. .e ha$e already sought to find all the pro#ess #hains "hi#h #ontain the #entral pro#ess C. *o" "e are looking for all the #hains leading on from P(. .e may end up "ith se$eral. 0uppose that "e ha$e as a pre#ursor of C an in#reased feeling of anger A, then "e may dis#o$er the follo"ing resultants of mA: 2A 4 2C 4... 5 2A 4 2N0houtingO 4...5 2A 4 2N0'uash playingO 4...5 2A 4 2N0toma#h A#idO 4...5 2A 4 2N>esire to sell @in a salesmanAO 4... f these are the primary ones then "e #an !e pretty sure that if the #onne#tion 2A 4 2C is someho" remo$ed, then one or more of the other four pro#esses "ill happen. One

of these has no redeeming features as it #an lead to ul#ers rather dire#tly. The shouting may or may not !e ad$antageous: "e "ould ha$e to follo" the #hain a !it further to dis#o$er the #onse'uen#es. f it "ere to !e properly or#hestrated it might !e neutral or e$en ad$antageous. The other t"o should lead to a healthier !ody and a healthier !ank !alan#e respe#ti$ely. The &o! of the Hypnotherapist is then to ensure that simultaneously "ith remo$ing the effe#t of 4A on C, one of the t"o @or threeA favourable #onne#tions is sele#ti$ely enhan#ed, so that the o$erall result is !enefi#ial to the Client. f the remo$al of C leads to an unfa$oura!le resultant of A, then this "ill a#t to in#rease the moti$ation to return to C again. Thus many people ha$e returned to smoking !e#ause the simple elimination of smoking from the #hain: 2NAngerO 4 2N0mokingO has led to the alternati$e pro#ess: 2NAngerO 4 2N>istress of spouseO 4 2N0pouse insisting that smoking !e rene"edO 4 2 N0mokingO. This is another e2ample of the homeostati# properties of negati$e feed!a#k loops. 9or another e2ample suppose that the presented #entral symptom 0 is o$er4eating. n response to the 'uestions ans"ering B 4 2C let us suppose that "e find that there are many #auses as follo"s: 2Nfamily ro"sO 4 2C 2N!oredomO 4 2C 2Nfeeling unlo$edO I 2C 2N"orry a!out ailing parentsO 4 2C. n a #ase like this there "ill pro!a!ly !e still more su#h #hains leading to o$ereating, !ut "e "ill take &ust these four for simpli#ity. t should !e #lear that "e ha$e a #ompli#ated #ase on our hands, !e#ause "e need to kno" the ans"er to mP (d B for each of the four pre#ursors a!o$e. .hat "ill our Client do after a family ro" if she does not eatB .hat "ill she do if she is !oredB .hat "ill she do "hen feeling unlo$edB .hat "ill she do "hen she thinks a!out her parentsB f "e did use a Hypnoti# te#hni'ue simply to !lo#k the o$er4eating,then "e might find her going into a deep depression, ha$ing an affair, taking to drink, gam!ling or e$en de$eloping an illness herself. n su#h a #ase then it "ill !e "orth syn#hronising a slo" #hange in the eating pattern "ith other #hanges designed to impro$e ea#h of the a!o$e #hains. f "e "ere to find that the family ro"s "ere rooted in finan#ial "orries, then it might !e "orth putting effort into gi$ing her the #onfiden#e to get a &o!. This "ould ha$e as side4effe#ts a redu#tion in !oredom and a greater feeling of !eing appre#iated @if not lo$edA. .e might also find that #hannelling some of the desire to eat into the pattern of seeing the parents and #ooking them a $ery ni#e meal in "hi#h she "ould &oin, "ould !oth help her to feel that she "as doing something for them and redu#e any se#ret "orry4

!inges. .e might suggest that &oining some #lu! in "hi#h she "ould find herself appre#iated 4 ideally something a#ti$e as "ell 4 "ould simultaneously make her feel less unlo$ed and help to lose "eight. Although it may take time to "ork through all these possi!ilities, it is time "ell spent because the result is permanent beneficial change. As an analogy imagine that "e are in #ontrol of a "ater system of streams and ri$ers. To sol$e a flooding pro!lem do"nstream "e may try damming a ri$er. But this "ill generally ha$e effe#ts upstream as "ell. .hat is going to happen to the "aters running do"n to the damB They ha$e to flo" somewhere. f the engineer does not plan a safe path for them, then they "ill either !uild up until they #ould e$en destroy the dam, or find their o"n path, "hi#h #ould easily !e &ust as disastrous. @Of #ourse engineers are ne$er as stupid as that.A But in the same "ay if we ignore pre#ursors in making #hanges to the primary system, "e may en&oy a temporary su##ess !ut then find the "hole "ork #ompletely destroyed !y the po"er of those pre#ursors either for#ing the original symptom to return for la#k of other outlet, or for#ing another outlet "hi#h may "ell !e far "orse than the original symptom. Our #areful analysis of the pro!lem is a $ery ne#essary "ay to a$oid su#h pro!lems. Perhaps at this stage some readers are thinking that this all seems rather #ompli#ated. They might then remem!er the analogy of the pro!lem of #hanging an e#osystem. f you start to mess around "ith one spe#ies then it has effe#ts on a large num!er of others, !oth up and do"n the food #hain, and therefore indire#tly on most of the other spe#ies in$ol$ed. .e no longer li$e in times "hen it is a##epta!le to say, 6,ou ha$e a pro!lem "ith spe#ies CB 9ine. .e "ill simply e2terminate it !y means of #hemi#al K or prey spe#ies ,.6 This has led too often to "orse pro!lems. An e#ologist has to propose a detailed and #on$in#ing #ase for the proposed #hange, and this in$ol$es 9 %0T analysing the e2isting food #hains up"ards and do"n"ards in a great deal of detail. n the same "ay "e should analyse the e2isting #ausal #hains in$ol$ed in the $arious mental, emotional, pra#ti#al and so#ial pro#esses "hi#h are #onne#ted to the pro!lem, dire#tly or indire#tly, if "e hope to make an 6e#ologi#ally sound6 organi# #hange for the !etter. n fa#t the systemati# foundation "hi#h "e ha$e esta!lished has made it 'uite easy to "ork our "ay around e$en $ery #ompli#ated pro!lems "ithout getting lost. +et us summarise in our shorthand the 'uestions asked so far to emphasise this point. t really amounts to the repeated asking of the simple 'uestions, 8K 4B and B 4 8K, i.e. 6.hat resultants are there of a #hange in the a#ti$ity of pro#ess KB6 and 6.hat are the pre#ursors of a #hange in the a#ti$ity of pro#ess KB6 0tep ( "as !ased on esta!lishing the #ausal #hains in$ol$ing an in#reased a#ti$ity of the #entral pro#ess C, !y asking the t"o 'uestions: B 4 2C 4B,

"hi#h led, !y repetition, to a #olle#tion of #hains in$ol$ing 2C, ea#h of the form: ... 4 8P/ 4 8P- 4 8P( 4 8C 4 8%( 4 8%- 4 8%/ 4.... Of parti#ular importan#e "as the dis#o$ery of feed!a#k loops in$ol$ing C. 0tep -, "hi#h "e ha$e met in this #hapter, "as !ased on t"o 'uestions "hi#h illuminate "hat "ould happen if "e su##eeded in redu#ing the a#ti$ity of pro#ess C: 3C 4B, "hi#h "ill tell us "hat the resultant "ill !e if "e su##eed in redu#ing the a#ti$ity of C5 and: 8P( 4B, "hi#h "ill tell us "hat the resultant of P( is likely to !e if the a#ti$ity of C is redu#ed. The first of these "ill $ery often lead to the dis#o$ery of a negati$e feed!a#k loop for C, "hi#h is $ery important in maintaining a pro!lem, or #ausing a relapse, depending on ho" you look at it. The se#ond is rather more likely to re$eal alternati$e pro!lems "hi#h #ould arise if C "ere eliminated. The only other 'uestion "hi#h fo#uses dire#tly on the #entral pro#ess C "hi#h "e #an ask "ithin our formal stru#ture is: B 4 3C, i.e. "hat immediate pre#ursors to a de#rease in the a#ti$ity of C #an "e findB This 'uestion is, of #ourse, $ery important. t !rings us to the key issue in treatment "hi#h is the 'uestion, , O< are &e to remove the pro"lem=, .e "ill treat this in the ne2t #hapter. But !efore "e finish this #hapter it "ill !e noti#ed that although the dynami# stru#tures re$ealed !y the systemati# analysis on the a!o$e lines are, in this !ook, primarily applied to the systems of importan#e in Hypnotherapy, they are of m'ch &i%er applica"ility. .e ha$e already noted that sound e#ology goes through the same pro#ess. f 0 is some spe#ies of interest, then sound e#ology in$ol$es finding all the fa#tors that are in$ol$ed in either in#reasing or de#reasing the num!ers @and hen#e a#ti$ityA of that spe#ies. The analysis again in$ol$es a repeated asking of "hat #auses or results from a #hange in the a#ti$ity of a gi$en spe#ies or @more generallyA from a #hange in the non4organi# en$ironment. The same pro#ess #ould, and should, !e used !y a !usinessman "ho "ants to make #hanges in the fun#tioning of a #ompany, to ensure that the #hange is ad$antageous and effi#ient. There may !e @ am not an e2pert in the fieldA 7anagement Consultants "ho step into a !usiness, make a fe" dramati# #hanges "hi#h produ#e immediate positi$e results and then lea$e, "ithout thinking through any negati$e feed!a#k loops in$ol$ed. .e may then find a year or so later that things are "orse than !efore.

As an imaginary e2ample: suppose that the e2pert !rings the #ompany into profit !y #utting #osts in a "ay that in$ol$es a great loss of personnel. n si2 months he !rings it !a#k into profit. But a natural #onse'uen#e is that morale "ill drop and un#ertainty rise in the remaining "orkfor#e. E$en if it is the #ase that only the less produ#ti$e personnel "ere sa#ked, there "ill !e a tenden#y for the remaining, !etter people to look for other &o!s. .ithin t"el$e months this #ould #ome a!out: 'uality "ill drop5 a little later this "ill result in a drop in sales. The #ollapse of the ema#iated #ompany is only too likely: and all !e#ause the pro!a!le #onse'uen#es "ere not thought out. The !etter approa#h "ould ha$e !een to anti#ipate this, and "ork hard to ensure the #ontinuing morale of the people remaining. *oti#e that although the disastrous final #onse'uen#e "as a result of the #onsultantFs poor analysis, superfi#ially it looks as if the #onsultant did "ell, and that it "as his a!sen#e that led to the poor resultsI Poor Psy#hotherapy #an look the same. .e ha$e already noted e2amples of this in family therapy, "hi#h further underlines the fa#t that the theoreti#al approa#h in this !ook #an !e applied to all organi# systems, not simply the human mind, "hi#h is our primary #on#ern in this !ook. SUMMARn this #hapter "e ha$e e2amined the important therapeuti# prin#iple that a symptom should not !e treated in isolation and spelled out HO. this #an !e done in a systemati# "ay !y thinking through the #onse'uen#es of redu#ing a symptom. t is important to note that this in$ol$es looking not only for any dire#t #onse'uen#e of a symptom redu#tion, !ut also for the indire#t #onse'uen#e of "hat the pre#ursor leads on to if not to the symptom.

Principles of C APT)R *0
Ma#ing Changes in ypnosis

ypnosis!

%s a preliminary to deciding what to do to change things for the better this very important chapter builds on the analysis of cybernetic processes to emphasise a general and very central technique of Hypnotherapy. 2e start from the general principle that amplification is involved and the observation that organic systems are typically provided with a multitude of increasing positive feedback loops which act precisely like amplifiers. .any Hypnotic phenomena are shown to centre around the principle of deliberately creating and activating such loops. %s a secondary but still important principle we note that in many other cases a pre-e istent loop of this nature is present but is held in check by the activity of another system. In such cases it is enough to inactivate the controlling system in order to tap into the activating power of the loop. <ut even then the inactivation is likely to be achievable by means of establishing a positive feedback loop.

THE P%EJ OH0 CHAPTE% led us up to the point in the therapeuti# pro#ess at "hi#h "e ha$e a parti#ular #hange in mind. t is no" ne#essary to spend a little time looking in more detail at some rather important prin#iples underlying the #reation of #hange in the fields of Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy. n pre$ious #hapters "e ha$e tou#hed on the importan#e of positi$e feed!a#k loops in Hypnotherapy in #reating pro!lems and of negati$e feed!a#k loops "hi#h pre$ent the pro!lems from disappearing. n this #hapter "e "ill !e looking at the other side of the #oin: "e are looking at the "ays in "hi#h these feed!a#k loops and their manipulation is CE*T%A+ TO H*>E%0TA*> *) HO. JE%, 7A*, H,P*OT C TECH* ?HE0 .O%K. t is "orth remem!ering that our primary tool is sound "a$es of minimal energy. @The po"er in$ol$ed in ordinary #on$ersation is around (= mi#ro"atts, i.e. one millionth of the po"er of a ten4"att !ul!. 7ost of that a#ousti# energy goes into imper#epti!ly heating up the room, and only a $ery small fra#tion "ill hit an ear4drum. An ear #an in fa#t respond to a!out one million millionth of the a#ousti# po"er of typi#al #on$ersation: one million million millionth of the po"er of a ten4"att !ul!I %emem!er that "hen anyone says of a remark, 6Ho" illuminatingI6A 0omeho" "e ha$e to use this minute amount of energy to #reate large4s#ale #hanges in the fun#tioning of a human !eing. This #an only !e done in one "ay: !y amplifi#ation. Conse'uently "e are, in the field of Hypnosis, dealing #onstantly and at many le$els "ith the pro"lem of amplifying changes( .e "ill see in this #hapter that the primary me#hanism for amplifi#ation is the creation of a positive feedback loop. Closely related to this is the removal of a negative feedback me#hanism that is limiting an e2isting positi$e feed!a#k loop. +et us start !y emphasising the e2tent to "hi#h "e #an po"er a #hange !y introdu#ing in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loops. The atom !om! "orks !e#ause the greater the num!er of neutrons flying a!out in a lump of uranium, the greater the num!er of uranium atoms "hi#h disintegrate as a result of a #ollision "ith a neutron. But the greater the num!er of disintegrations, the greater the num!er of neutrons flying a!out, sin#e ea#h of these uranium atoms @of the rare -/34isotope $arietyA releases se$eral neutrons as it de#ays. n shorthand: 2NneutronsO 4 2Nsplitting of uranium atomsO 4 2NneutronsO. W9or meaning of sym!ols see 0ym!ols.X This simple pro#ess forms a po"erful in#reasing feed!a#k loop "hi#h leads to the "ell4kno"n mushroom #loud, pro$ided only that the lump of uranium is not so small that too many of the neutrons es#ape from it !efore they get a #han#e to hit an atom. Anyone familiar "ith the "orkings of a laser @+ight %mplification !y 0timulated Emission of %adiationA "ill realise that there is a similar pro#ess at "ork there. .ithout e2plaining the terms in detail: the greater the num!er of photons of light in

the laser, the greater the num!er of e2#ited atoms "hi#h are stimulated into emitting further photons, "hi#h in turn leads to the stimulation of yet more atoms until nearly all of the atoms ha$e de#ayed from their initial e2#ited state, and all the photons emerge in step. n shorthand this is: 2NphotonsO 4 2NemissionsO 4 2NphotonsO. n #ommon parlan#e "e may #all su#h in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loops the 6!and"agon effe#t6: the more people "ho get on the !and"agon, the more other people are dra"n to get on, and so on. t is sometimes also #alled the 6sno"!all effe#t6: you pi#ture a large sno"!all rolling do"n a sno"y hill, gro"ing larger and larger as it #olle#ts the sno" it passes o$er. The !igger it gets the more sno" it #olle#ts, "hi#h makes it still !igger, and so on. @People tend to use 6$i#ious #ir#le6 "hen they do not like the result and 6!and"agon effe#t6 "hen they do: !ut !oth are positi$e feed!a#k loops, and may !e either in#reasing or de#reasing in terms of a#ti$ity.A The !and"agon or sno"!all effe#t #an !e seen at all le$els of the uni$erse. .e ha$e seen it in lasers and atom !om!s. .e may also see it in the #ondensation of intragala#ti# dust to form stars: the more dust #olle#ts into one pla#e, the greater its gra$itational for#e to attra#t more dust, "hi#h in#reases the #om!ined mass, making it possi!le to attra#t more dust, and so on. n e#onomi#s the more su##essful a produ#t is, the #heaper the unit #ost, "hi#h makes it possi!le to ad$ertise more "idely and sell at a lo"er pri#e and attra#t more #ustomers, "hi#h allo"s a further redu#tion of the unit #ost and so on until the market saturates. .e ha$e the in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop for sales: 2N0alesO 4 3NCostO 4 2N0alesO. On#e you see the pattern, it !e#omes $isi!le all around you at all le$els. n our field "e ha$e already seen in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loops !eing in$ol$ed in the #reation of pro!lems su#h as !lushing: 2Ne2pe#tation of !lushingO 4 2N!lushingO 4 2Ne2pe#tationO. No& &e are going to emphasise the fact that the active creation an% 'tilisation of s'ch loops in or%er to amplify change is one of the primary techniH'es of ypnosis an% ypnotherapy( An e2ample that has !een #ited already is the simple Hypnoti# phenomenon of hand le$itation. 9rom the moment that there is the slightest mo$ement in the hand, the feed!a#k is #lear: the per#eption of mo$ement leads to an in#rease in the e2pe#tation of mo$ement, "hi#h in turn leads to more mo$ement: 2Nmo$ementO 4 2Ne2pe#tationO 4 2Nmo$ementO.

n a similar "ay a slight sleepiness in the 0u!&e#t #an !e amplified !y the Hypnotist "ho #reates a loop: 3NarousalO 4 2Nthought, 6 am sleepy6O 4 3NarousalO "hi#h, as long as it is maintained, "ill lead to de#reasing arousal or in#reasing sleepiness. ha$e "ritten this in terms of arousal rather than sleepiness firstly !e#ause it is #loser to our prin#iples of "orking as #losely as possi!le "ith the notions of a#ti$ation. The se#ond reason for this e2ample is to demonstrate a decreasing positi$e feed!a#k loop, to re$ise the fa#t that it is the ad&e#ti$e positive "hi#h is the key one "hen "e are trying to amplify a #hange. The primary differen#e !et"een a decreasing and an increasing positi$e loop for a gi$en system is merely that in the former the #hange is limited !y the fa#t that the a#ti$ity of the system #annot !e less than Lero. n the latter #ase any limits "ill !e imposed !y other #onsiderations, su#h as the effe#ts of other systems. An 6indu#tion6 routine "ill often #ontain repetitions, su#h as, 6,our legs "ill feel hea$ier and hea$ier ..... hea$ier and hea$ier ... hea$ier and hea$ier6, to !e follo"ed a fe" minutes later !y, 6,our legs are no" still hea$ier ... hea$ier and hea$ier.6 Here again "e ha$e a pro#edure "hi#h has !een found empiri#ally to !e effe#ti$e in produ#ing the re'uired effe#t, !ut the me#hanism passes "ithout e2pli#it #omment in most !ooks. This is not to say that pra#titioners are not a"are of "hat they are doing: it is more that there is no esta!lished theoreti#al frame"ork in "hi#h to e2press it. .ith the language and notation "e ha$e de$eloped "e #an thro" into high relief the fa#t that the repetition is part of the pro#ess of esta!lishing a feed!a#k loop. The first mention of hea$iness "ill esta!lish an e pectation of hea$iness5 after a "hile a slight hea$iness "ill normally !e perceived5 on#e this happens, it "ill in#rease the e pectation, "hi#h "ill in turn in#rease the perception. The task of the Hypnotist is simply to dra" attention repeatedly to these t"o systems "hile they !uild ea#h other up systemati#ally. f you "ere to turn !a#k to look at the list of #hara#teristi# Hypnoti# phenomena in Chapter -, you "ould find many simple phenomena that #an !e produ#ed in a great num!er of people &ith no other ,in%'ction, than the esta"lishment of a %irect fee%"ac# loop "et&een the phenomenon an% the e1pectation of the phenomenon( t is really a $ery "orth"hile pra#ti#e for anyone training in Hypnosis to attempt to #reate these phenomena "ith no pream!le or indu#tion !y simply esta!lishing positi$e feed!a#k loops in a fully alert and #ons#ious indi$idual. 0u#h ground"ork gi$es an e2#ellent insight into "hat a great part of our su!&e#t is a!out. As another e2ample, the 'uestion, 6 "onder if there is a small grain of sand in your shoe at this momentB6 esta!lishes a mild e2pe#tation that there might !e. This tends to amplify the response of any ner$es in the sole of the foot. f "e keep on asking the 'uestion there "ill generally #ome a time "hen one small group of ner$es happen to fire more than a$erage. This "ill reinfor#e the e2pe#tation that there might !e something there. This leads in turn to a greater amplifi#ation of the messages from those ner$es, relati$e to the others, in an attempt to find out if there really is a grain there. But this makes it seem as if there is something there, and so the e2pe#tation is

amplified still further. .ithin a fe" minutes this feed!a#k loop "ill in#rease to the point "here there is a #learly 6hallu#inated6 grain in the shoe. t is perhaps e$en easier to #reate an it#h in the nose in a similar "ay. .e may note en passant that the a!o$e pro#ess is $ery similar to that "hi#h is #urrent in the hypo#hondria#, "here!y the e2pe#tation of a symptom leads to small signs of the symptom, "hi#h !uild up the e2pe#tation and so on. The #ommon form of loop "hi#h "e are meeting here is the simple: 2Ne2pe#tationO 4 2Nper#eptionO 4 2Ne2pe#tationO. *ote that the idea that belief is an important fa#tor in Hypnosis is #ommon. .hat this normally fails to take into a##ount is the fa#t that a !elief "hi#h is not a##ompanied !y some e$iden#e #onfirming the !elief "ill tend to "ither a"ay: only those "hi#h seem to !e #onfirmed !y e2perien#e are retained and strengthened. n shorthand "e ha$e: 2N#onfirmationO 4 2N!eliefO, 3N#onfirmationO 4 3N!eliefO. t is mainly "hen "e ha$e a situation in "hi#h a !elief produ#es its o"n #onfirmation that a positi$e feed!a#k loop is esta!lished "hi#h leads to a deeply entren#hed !elief. .e ha$e the phrase, 6a self4fulfilling prophe#y6 to des#ri!e su#h !eliefs. On#e they are fairly esta!lished they !e#ome unshakea!le. 0o, to put things in another "ay, A*, of the simple phenomena "e ha$e listed may !e produ#ed "ith a!solutely nothing in the "ay of 6indu#tion6 other than #reating a self4fulfilling prophe#y !y the fi2ing of attention on an appropriate loop in$ol$ing the phenomenon and the e2pe#tation of the phenomenon for long enough for the loop to !e#ome esta!lished. n #ases "here they #annot !e esta!lished, the most likely #ause is one of the follo"ing. aA The attention of the person has "andered. !A The person has !een a!le a#ti$ely to entertain the !elief that nothing "ill happen5 "hen nothing happens, that !elief !e#omes stronger5 this ensures that the phenomenon is less likely to happen and "e ha$e a positi$e feed!a#k loop 4 !ut of the opposite kind to that desired. #A There is simply not enough amplifi#ation as "e go around the loop to produ#e a signifi#ant effe#t. .e ha$e already seen that the traditional tests of 6Hypnoti# responsi$eness6 are far !etter understood as a "ay of testing ho" easily one system may a#ti$ate another. But it is $ery often the #ase that one system "ill not naturally a#ti$ate another enough for our purposes, so that the effe#t has to !e amplified. n this #hapter "e see HO. a typi#al Hypnoti# pro#edure of #reating a positi$e feed!a#k loop is used to amplify a small effe#t into a large one to #reate the dramati# effe#ts "e asso#iate "ith our field. n the #hapter on tests, feed!a#k loops "ere not emphasised, !e#ause at that stage in Part A su#h things had not !een des#ri!ed. t should no" !e possi!le to

understand "hy a professional Hypnotist or Hypnotherapist may get far more dramati# effe#ts than are readily a#hie$ed in a la!oratory test under 6standard6 #onditions. The former #an tune a feed!a#k loop far more a##urately to the indi$idual 0u!&e#t. The latter, "ho is using the same tape4re#orded approa#h for ea#h potential 0u!&e#t, "ill !e less likely to a#ti$ate the strongest form of feed!a#k loop in ea#h. t should also !e #lear no" that the simple idea that it is straightfor"ard to esta!lish ho" easily one system a#ts on another "as a little naR$e. .e #an no" distinguish the ease "ith "hi#h one system #an a#ti$ate another dire#tly from the ease "ith "hi#h it #an do it "hen an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop has !een #alled into play. n an a!stra#t form "e no" distinguish !et"een the #ase in "hi#h "e are merely e2amining, for t"o systems A and B, the strength of: 2A 4 2B and the #ase in "hi#h B also a#ts on A and so "e are e2amining: 2A 4 2B 4 2A. E$en if at times it may !e hard in pra#ti#e to distinguish !et"een the t"o, it is important to !ear the distin#tion in mind. n the pra#ti#al #onte2t of Hypnotherapy the ad$antage of thinking a!out and "orking to"ards the #reation of in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loops to amplify our efforts leads to a great in#rease in effi#ien#y. T 0 E?H JA+E*T TO THE > 99E%E*CE BET.EE* H0 *) PO.E% TOO+0 @.H CH A7P+ 9, E99O%TA A*> HA*> TOO+0. ,ou may no" !e !eginning to understand "hy the Hypnotherapist has more po"er to #hange a person than other therapists. It is thro'gh having learne% s#ills &hich can no& "e more clearly seen as highly rational$ scientific an% practical! s#ills in 'sing the intrinsic systems of min% an% "o%y to create positive fee%"ac# loops to po&er change( *e2t "e "ill take a look at the other side of amplifi#ation: the elimination of negati$e feed!a#k elements "hi#h pre$ent a positi$e feed!a#k loop from taking off. n a nu#lear rea#tor an e2plosion is pre$ented !y the introdu#tion of rods of a moderating material "hi#h a!sor!s neutrons. f there is the slightest danger of o$er4heating, these rods are pushed in a little further to a!sor! some of the e2tra neutrons and the rea#tor is dampened do"n a !it. .e ha$e the negati$e feed!a#k loop: 2NneutronsO 4 2NmoderatorO 4 3NneutronsO. The !rain relies $ery hea$ily on the use of su#h negati$e feed!a#k loops to inhi!it a#ti$ity. The a#tion of an enormous num!er of the neurons in our !rains is to inhibit the a#tion of the thousands of neurons that they are in #onta#t "ith. f it "ere not for this fa#t, e$ery neuron in the !rain "ould soon !e firing in an orgy of un#o4ordinated a#ti$ity as a #hain rea#tion of mutual e2#itation took pla#e. There "ould !e massi$e hallu#inations of all kinds: $isual and sensory, e#stati# or agonising5 freneti# a#ti$ity

of the mus#les, and so on. suppose that to e2perien#e su#h a thing "ould !e not unlike feeling an atom !om! e2ploding in the !rain. 7ost of the peripheral ner$es of our !odies are #ontinuously sending messages in"ards to"ards the !rain. But most of them fail to a#ti$ate any #ons#ious response most of the time. 0ome"here along the line they pass through a su!system "hi#h at that time pre$ents the message from !eing passed on. An e2a#tly analogous pro#ess is $isi!le in human organisations. At any gi$en time many #ustomers may !e #omplaining a!out a produ#t to salespersons. n many #ases the #omplaint is a#ti$ely pre$ented from going further. n the rarer #ase it gets passed on to a manager, "here it may again end. f it happens to !e a parti#ularly serious #omplaint it may get up to the 7anaging >ire#torFs Assistant, or e$en, !ut only $ery rarely indeed, to the 7anaging >ire#tor. At ea#h le$el "e are seeing an active pro#ess of pre$enting the message getting any further. This is, in fa#t, ne#essary to the good organisation, sin#e if the 7> had to handle e$ery #omplaint in person he or she "ould ha$e no time for anything else. n the task of pi#king up a pen#il, the a#tion is a result of the amplifi#ation of the minute amounts of energy in$ol$ed in thinking of the task into the mu#h larger amounts in$ol$ed in #ontra#ting the mus#les of the fingers. But there has also to !e a #ontinuous pro#ess of monitoring the #ontra#tion and limiting or #ontrolling it to make it a useful one. These simple e2amples illustrate the prin#iples "hi#h run through the organisation of our "hole !odies and ner$ous systems. On the one hand "e need pro#esses of amplifi#ation, and on the other hand "e ha$e to !e a!le to pre$ent them getting out of hand. The eye #an multiply the effe#t of a fe" photons of light falling onto a fe" #ells in the retina until a $ery large proportion of the entire #orte2 is a#ti$ated. @0uppose that you are lost at sea in a small !oat and ha$e &ust seen the merest fli#ker of light from a lighthouse.A But on the other hand "e need to !e a!le to #ontrol these amplifi#ation pro#esses or they "ill get out of hand. f every fe" photons "ere enough to trigger off a#ti$ity in the entire #orte2 it "ould !e totally o$er"helming. The important ideas that "e "ant to emerge from these e2amples are first the general one, of the #omple2 and e2tensi$e net"ork of amplifi#ation and #ontrol systems "hi#h is in$ol$ed in all our thoughts and a#tions, "hi#h is the essen#e of #y!erneti#s. The se#ond, and spe#ifi#, idea is that amplifi#ation #an !e a#hie$ed not merely !y #reating some form of in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loops !ut also !y reducing the a#ti$ity of a pro#ess "hi#h is limiting the a#tion of an already e2isting amplifying loop. As some further simple e2amples of this #onsider first a simplisti# pi#ture of ra!!it num!ers in the "ild, "hi#h are limited !y the num!er of predators in a negati$e feed!a#k loop of the form: 2Nra!!itsO 4 2NpredatorsO 4 3Nra!!itsO. .e #an therefore in#rease or 6amplify6 the ra!!its !y eliminating the predators, sin#e @at least "hen there is enough foodA the system of ra!!its is naturally self4amplifying:

2Nra!!itsO 4 2Nra!!itsO. n so#iety, #riminal a#ti$ity is limited !y poli#e a#ti$ity. The elimination of poli#e a#ti$ity "ould lead to an in#rease in #riminal a#ti$ity. n some marriages many kinds of a#ti$ity in the "ife are limited !y the hus!and. f the hus!and dies "e may see a dramati# in#rease in his "ido"Fs a#ti$ity in those "ays, on#e she has passed through a period of grie$ing. n many adults an in#lination to playing the fool is usually limited !y so#ial #on$ention a#ting through higher !rain #entres. f "e in#apa#itate those #entres "ith drink, or eliminate the normal so#ial #on$entions !y #alling the situation a 6fun party6 or a 6hypnoti# sho"6, then "e #an 'uite easily see a dramati# in#rease in the playful a#ti$ity. hope that these e2amples are enough to illustrate the prin#iple: 9 "e ha$e a system A "hose a#ti$ity is !eing limited !y the a#ti$ity of a se#ond system B, THE* a redu#tion in the a#ti$ity of B "ill lead to an in#rease in the a#ti$ity of A. This is o!$ious "hen you start to think a!out it. .e may no" look !a#k at the idea presented in Part A, "hi#h "as that a general feature of many Hypnoti# pro#edures is the gradual redu#tion of the a#ti$ity of most systems, "ith the e2#eption of the one or t"o of interest. .e presumed there, on grounds of #ommon sense, that this redu#tion in the a#ti$ity of the ma&ority "ould tend to in#rease the a#ti$ity of those fe" left a#ti$e. *o" "e #an see a little more of the reason !ehind this. The general redu#tion of a#ti$ity "ill almost #ertainly !lanket off all those systems "hi#h a#ted in su#h a "ay as to inhi!it or moderate the a#ti$ity of our key systems of interest. These are left free then to a#t to their fullest e2tent. There is a good #han#e that !y eliminating all other spe#ies of animals !ut one her!i$orous spe#ies in an e#osystem, "e "ill find that this one, "ith no predators and #ompetition left, "ill start gro"ing e2ponentially. There is a good reason to suppose that if "e send on holiday all other departments in a fa#tory, especially the quality inspectors, then "e "ill !e a!le 'uite easily to get an in#reased output from a remaining produ#tion department. There is a good reason to suppose that if "e #an s"it#h off most mental fun#tions, in#luding those "hi#h resist suggestion and monitor !eha$iour @self4#ons#iousnessA, then "e might easily indu#e a totally uninhi!ited @in most sensesA a#ti$ity from the 0u!&e#t 4 as #an happen in stage Hypnosis. n !rief, "e #an no" see more #learly the rationale of another of the #hara#teristi# pro#edures of Hypnotherapy "hi#h distinguishes it from other therapies: the ina#ti$ating of the ma&ority of internal systems. The reason is that this #an !e e2pe#ted to remo$e the effe#t of systems "hi#h are a#ting to limit #hange, and hen#e allo" re'uired #hanges to take pla#e under the influen#e of a positi$e feed!a#k loop.

.e are no" in a position also to see "hy this may not al"ays "ork. .e might, !y this glo!al s"it#hing off, also s"it#h off systems "hi#h activate the one of interest: the 0u!&e#t is then too sleepy to respond at all. @The "orkfor#e may simply do"n tools and play #ards.A Or systems "hi#h are $itally in$ol$ed in the proper a#tion of a key system may !e s"it#hed off and the result #an !e dangerous. @The a!sen#e of safety personnel may 'ui#kly lead to dangerous pra#ti#es and an a##ident.A The moral of this is that "hereas it may at times !e helpful to follo" the pra#ti#e #ommon in #ontemporary Hypnotherapy of aiming @it "ould seemA at rather generally lo" le$els of a#ti$ation other than in the key system, the more a##urate analysis and approa#h re#ommended here is far safer and more effe#ti$e. f "e ha$e done our diagnosti# analysis fully and properly "e start, ideally, "ith an a"areness of the part played !y all related systems. 0ome may in#rease and others de#rease the key a#ti$ity. And "e should !e a"are of the #onse'uen#es of #hanging any of them, and in this "ay kno" &ust "hi#h ones it is useful and ad$isa!le to "ork "ith. 9inally "e "ill look at an appli#ation of the prin#iples of this #hapter "hi#h is $ery important in the #onte2t of Hypnosis, sin#e it deals "ith those areas "e may #all rapport and suggesti!ility. n most people an early tenden#y to trust others is gradually limited !y the #reation of a learned a!ility to dou!t. n the #hild the tenden#y is for e$ery idea presented to !e a##epted, pro$ided only that it #an !e grasped. *oti#e the in#ongruity of the follo"ing dialogue. .other1 6+ook at that ni#e doggy. 0ee, it is "hite.6 ?hild1 6*o, 7ummy. ,ou are not ne#essarily right. .e ha$e no e$iden#e to esta!lish "hether it is ni#e or not, and it may !e !la#k or !ro"n as "ell as "hite: "e kno" only that it is "hite on this sideI6 0u#h replies #an only #ome at a later stage in life, after the #hild has learned to analyse, #riti#ise and dou!t. These are active pro#esses that some people learn and de$elop more than others. *oti#e also that "e generally learn them more in some areas than others. The philosopher, "ho may !e ruthlessly analyti#al of his #olleaguesF statements, may !e like a !a!e in arms in the hands of a #ar salesman. f "e let A !e the pro#ess of A##epting an idea, and % denote the learned system of %esistan#e to a##epting a ne" idea, "hi#h is a mi2ture of dou!t and self4assertion and self4prote#tion, then it is the nature of the relationship that the greater the resistan#e, the less the a##eptan#e: 2% 4 3A. The Hypnotist "ill therefore often !e trying to redu#e the inhi!iting effe#t of the resistan#e 4 the #riti#al, analyti#al rea#tions 4 in order to in#rease the a##eptan#e of his or her suggestions. Ho" does he do thisB Typi#ally !y means of a feed!a#k loopI .e thus see the t"o themes of this #hapter !rought together in the one e2ample. On the one hand "e

plan to a#ti$ate a useful system 4 that of A##eptan#e 4 !y means of de#reasing another system "hi#h is holding it in #he#k 4 %esistan#e. On the other hand "e "ill see that this is typi#ally not a#hie$ed in one step, !ut as a result of a feed!a#k loop: 3% 4 2A 4 3% "hi#h is a positi$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h is in#reasing for A and de#reasing for %. This a!stra#t formula had !etter !e illustrated !y an e2ample. )enerally the persuasi$e speaker, Hypnotist or not, "ill use the pro#edure of starting "ith an idea for "hi#h there "ill !e automati# a##eptan#e, su#h as, 6*o", think you "ill agree "ith me "hen say that you seem a $ery sensi!le personB6 The a##eptan#e of this statement "ill redu#e the resistan#e a little. .hyB Be#ause "e #annot always ha$e % a#ti$e. .e ha$e learned that if "e trust a person 4 "hi#h amounts to dis#o$ering that "hat he says is in agreement "ith our ideas 4 then "e gain !y redu#ing our resistan#e to other ideas. As a rule of thum! "e therefore start "ith a fairly high resistan#e and lo"er it on e$ery e2ample of agreement and raise it on e$ery e2ample of disagreement. Be#ause the resistan#e is redu#ed, the ne2t suggestion "ill then !e a##epted a little more readily. t might !e, 6But as a sensi!le person you "ill kno" that some people suffer from #losed minds like tortoisesB6 This #an also !e a##epted easily, "hi#h "ill in turn redu#e the resistan#e. This #an then !e follo"ed up "ith a more dire#t a#tion to redu#e the resistan#e still further, su#h as, 6But am sure that you are not like them. $ou "ill #ertainly re#ognise the importan#e of ha$ing an open mind.6 Again, "ith the redu#ed resistan#e, this #an !e a##epted, and the "ay is !e#oming open to stronger and more 'uestiona!le statements, su#h as, 6*o", ha$e your !est interests at heart, and "hen say that this #ar is going to transform your life, kno" that you "ill not !e like one of those tortoises and dismiss it out of hand, !ut "ill really e2amine the ad$antages.6 And so on. The a!o$e is #learly a manipulati$e pro#ess: it is not !eing re#ommendedI t is mainly mentioned to illustrate the fa#t that the nature of the pro#ess is a feed!a#k loop. Creating rapport is a pro#ess. t takes time. And it in$ol$es the amplifi#ation of small #hanges. These fa#ts are also true for the HypnotistFs task of de$eloping rapport. As an e2ample #onsider the follo"ing pro#ess "hi#h might !e used on stage. 6,ou pro!a!ly "onder if you "ill !e hypnotised tonightB6 This "ill usually get a 6,es6 response. @The good Hypnotist, like the good salesman, "ill !e looking for responses 4 a 6,es6 or a nod of the head 4 to $erify that there has !een a##eptan#e at ea#h stage.A 60o do most people. *o", are you prepared to #o4operate "ith me to see if "e #an find outB6 @This is an easy statement to a##ept, so resistan#e drops a !it, redu#ing in turn its inhi!iting effe#t on a##eptan#e.A 6*o" &ust fa#e the audien#e. ThatFs fine.6 Here "e ha$e an e2ample of a tri$ial re'uest to "hi#h the potential 0u!&e#t #annot o!&e#t, !ut the a#ting out of it means that the idea of mo$ing has !een a##epted, and the Hypnotist is a small step further on. ha$e seen #ases in "hi#h the Hypnotist does a lot of little ad&ustments in this

spirit: 6*o, if you #ould &ust mo$e along a !it. *o, !a#k a !it. ThatFs fine. *o" gi$e a !ig smile to anyone you kno" in the audien#e.6 And so on. The a##epting of these seemingly tri$ial suggestions generally redu#es the resistan#e to all other suggestions, "hether of a#tions or ideas. t is really 'uite immaterial "hat the suggestions are: the important thing is that they are a##epted, so that the loop is tra$elled a fe" more times. t is then #orrespondingly 'ui#ker to get another loop started, su#h as the loop in$ol$ing the e2pe#tation of eye #losure and the a#ting out of it. But the a#hie$ement of the eye #losure loop "ill further a#t through the %esistan#e4A##eptan#e loop to redu#e the resistan#e still further, and so on. This underlines the dynami# and loop4like nature of "hat is in$ol$ed in 'uite a #entral aspe#t of stage Hypnosis. At least one professional Hypnotist is e2pli#itly a"are of this fa#t @7#Kenna @(<</ABi!, p. -;A, though he gi$es only a little detail of HO. it is done. n Hypnotherapy the "ay in "hi#h resistan#e is redu#ed is generally different. n part, suspe#t that this may !e due to a differen#e in the personalities of those "ho #hoose to "ork on stage and those "ho "ork in therapy. The latter are going to !e primarily #arers, "hi#h tends to #orrelate "ith a rather lo" le$el of authoritati$eness and a #omparati$ely lo"4key personality. The former ha$e to !e 'uite e2tro$ert and tend to like to dominate a situation, so that an authoritati$e style is rather #ongenial to them. n any #ase the Hypnotherapist, "ho "ill still !e operating @typi#ally "ith great sin#erityA the loop: 3% 4 2A 4 3%, "ill tend to do it in a slo"er and more rela2ed manner. 0he "ill esta!lish an atmosphere of trust !y empathising "ith feelings and agreeing "ith statements. %esponses su#h as, 6 kno" ho" !ad you must !e feeling6, 6 t must !e terri!le for you6, and so on are 'uite as good at redu#ing resistan#e as the methods "e ha$e seen a!o$e, and far more appropriate to the therapeuti# en$ironment. find a not un#ommon pattern in therapy is for the Client to #ome "ith "hat seems to !e a small pro!lem. then deal "ith that as "ell as #an. Then, seemingly out of the !lue, a totally ne" pro!lem is presented, "hi#h is often far larger. .e might start "ith nail4!iting, and end up "ith #hildhood se2ual a!use, for e2ample. The pro#ess is #lear: the #lient is simply testing me on the first item. f he or she is satisfied at that le$el that make sense, #an !e trusted, et#., then it seems possi!le to pro#eed to a larger and more sensiti$e matter. This approa#h is totally understanda!le. t is "hat "ould do myself. t is an e2ample of the a!o$e positi$e feed!a#k loop. The a!o$e loop pro#ess of redu#ing the inhi!iting effe#t of resistan#e may !e #alled a#hie$ing rapport, ho"e$er it is esta!lished. n general, note that the pro#ess is $ery mu#h ri#her and more #omple2 than has !een indi#ated a!o$e, for the potential 0u!&e#t or Client "ill !e responding not only to "hat is said, !ut to a great $ariety of other things su#h as the tone of $oi#e, the nature of the eye #onta#t, smiles or their

a!sen#e, !odily gestures and so on. 0omething of this #omple2ity has !een hinted at in the #hapter on ndu#tions. Conse'uently resistan#e "ill generally only redu#e if A++ the signs are in agreement "ith the e2pe#tations of the person. A look in the HypnotistFs eyes "hi#h is interpreted as !eing shifty, or a note in the $oi#e "hi#h seems to indi#ate inse#urity or hostility are 'uite as a!le to in#rease resistan#e 4 redu#e rapport 4 as a statement "hi#h is thought to !e false. People tend to !e $ery sensiti$e to insin#erity and any la#k of #onsisten#y in the messages they per#ei$e. t is for this reason that "ould not re#ommend a #ons#ious striving for rapport in Hypnotherapy. t is one thing to re#ognise the nature of "hat is happening, and there!y to re#ognise "here you may !e going "rong. t is another to !e fore$er operating a system me#hani#ally5 !y rote5 follo"ing rules. n the end it seems to me that the only rule is that the Hypnotherapist should !e honest and sin#ere. f you do not sin#erely "ish for the "ell4!eing of the Client, then the #han#e of any su##ess is greatly redu#ed !e#ause something of this "ill sho" up in the "ay you speak or a#t, and in most #ases it "ill simply indu#e resistan#e to anything else you say or do. To attempt to !luster through a feeling of ha$ing slipped up, for e2ample, "ill !e disastrous. 0in#erity and honesty are the #entral $irtues needed in order to !uild up rapport. f you ha$e these then your !ody language "ill !e #onsistent "ith your spee#h and your intentions. f, on the other hand, you are trying to follo" the hand!ook, Ten Bold-&lated Techniques for ?reating Instant *apport , !y . 7#Conn, the #han#e of there arising a dis#ord !et"een some of these aspe#ts of yourself is great, and the #han#e of a good and lasting rapport "ith all Clients is lo". The moment a dis#ord is sensed, the resistan#e % to a##epting "hat you say "ill rise 'uite dramati#ally, !reaking the loop. This "ill tend to result in a denial @>A of your ne2t statement. f you press the point, the resistan#e "ill rise still further and "e are "ell on the "ay to esta!lishing the loop: 2% 4 2> 4 2%, "hi#h is the dynami#al form of a 'uarrelI t is !e#ause of this that there #an !e as many styles of Hypnotherapy as there are styles of people. E2tro$erts and intro$erts "ill tend to ha$e opposite styles, for e2ample. But ea#h is a##epta!le, as long as it is #onsistent: This a!o$e all: to thine o"n self !e true, And it must follo", as the night the day, Thou #anst not then !e false to any man. 4 +hakespeare, Hamlet I. iii. C8.

0o "e ha$e seen in this #entrally important e2ample that in order to in#rease a##eptan#e "e ha$e had to "ork to redu#e the a#ti$ity of the system of resistan#e, and ha$e done so $ia a suita!le dire#t loop. +et us look at a fe" other e2amples of this same pattern in the field of Hypnosis. n many people there is a natural tenden#y to daydream 4 to $isualise freely 4from time to time. n su#h people this pro#ess is a#ti$ely suppressed !y the need to pay attention to things or people in the surroundings. f "e therefore a#t to redu#e the system of a#ti$e attention to surroundings in su#h people, the daydream "ill naturally emerge. n anyone "ho has had a !usy and rather stressful day, there are definite messages of fatigue !eing sent from the !ody to the !rain, !ut these are typi#ally !eing a#ti$ely ignored @as "e ha$e seen messages to the 7anaging >ire#tor !eing ignored: 6>onFt !other me no". Fm !usyI6A. .e may readily 6indu#e6 a feeling of tiredness in su#h a person !y simply reducing the a#ti$ity of these suppression systems. The "ords, 6*o", &ust listen to "hat your !ody is telling you,6 may !e enough to do this. n pro!lems in "hi#h some memory is actively pre$ented from #oming #learly !a#k to mind !y some defensi$e system !e#ause it "as so painful @see later #hapter on disso#iationA, then the ina#ti$ation of the repressing system "ill lead to the a#ti$ation of the memory. This should not, of #ourse, !e done "ithout e2perien#e of ho" to handle the resulting e2pressed feelings. These fe" e2amples are representati$e of $ery many more in "hi#h "e amplify !y remo$ing the effe#t of a #ontrolling system. But noti#e that although it is easy to say, 6remo$e the effe#t of a #ontrolling system6, that is itself a #hange that is unlikely to #ome a!out !y simple diktat. *ormally "e "ill need to esta!lish a positi$e feed!a#k loop to turn a slight redu#tion of the #ontrolling effe#t into a larger one, as "e ha$e seen in the #ase of rapport. .e may no" put the message of this #hapter another "ay. The image of Hypnosis "hi#h has the Hypnotist gi$ing a single order "hi#h is o!eyed gi$es a misleading impression. The essen#e of so many Hypnoti# pra#ti#es is that, far from !eing as simple as fli#king a s"it#h, they involve comple1 %ynamical processes &hich %eman% repetition for their effectiveness( They involve repetitive processes &hich "'il% to&ar%s the %esire% o'tcome( A pi#ture to ha$e in mind is a #hild on a s"ing. 0he !uilds up height !y means of many small syn#hronised e2tra pushes. Before she has the kna#k of it she #annot get any"here. A !usiness gro"s, not all in one !ound, !ut !y a steady round of in#reasing sales and feed!a#k in a parti#ular market. Produ#ts are *OT usually designed perfe#t. There is a loop in "hi#h a #hange is e$aluated, then impro$ed and then e$aluated again. t "as ho" the .right !rothers learned to fly. t #an !e ho" a #ar is ro#ked out of the mud, slo"ly !uilding up momentum. %epetition. %epetition. %epetition. %epetition in order to esta!lish loops

"hi#h "ill !uild up a signifi#ant #hange. %epetition @"ith slight $ariationA in order to esta!lish positi$e feed!a#k is #entral to Hypnoti# phenomena, as it is to so many organi# pro#esses. %epetition in this !ook is !y design: a signifi#ant #hange of mind generally re'uires repetition. SUMMARt is not generally going to !e the #ase that simply suggesting a #hange "ill produ#e it, nor that redu#ing the a#ti$ity of all other systems "ill automati#ally in#rease that of the one of our #hoi#e. .e ha$e no" added to these simple ideas the more po"erful one that the !ody and !rain are full of systems that #an !e turned into in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k 4 amplifying 4 loops "hi#h #an enhan#e the a#ti$ity of any parti#ular system $ery po"erfully indeed. n the fields of !oth Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy the use of po"erful positi$e feed!a#k loops is a #entral and distinguishing feature. .e ha$e also noted that in some #ases there "ill e2ist natural pro#esses of amplifi#ation that are held in #he#k !y a negati$e feed!a#k pro#ess. n su#h #ases it is indeed the #ase that a redu#tion of the a#ti$ity of the one pro#ess "ill lead to an in#rease in a#ti$ity of the other. These t"o prin#iples ha$e !een illustrated in the key matter of #reating rapport.
Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R *:

ypnosis!

The Process of ypnotherapy ; Stage 0! Planning a Change

In this chapter attention is focused on the process of deciding a strategy in Hypnotherapy for reducing the problem symptom. There is no one way of tackling a given symptom, or helping a given person. <ut there is a strategy which has a good chance of producing a short list of the most effective and efficient ways. B, THE T 7E "e ha$e #ompleted the first t"o steps of diagnosis "e should ha$e a #lear idea of the dynami#s of the pro!lem: "e should kno" "hat systems are in$ol$ed. 0ome of these are important "hen the #entral system !e#omes a#ti$e5 some of them are important "hen it is redu#ed in a#ti$ity @and may a#t $ia a negati$e feed!a#k loop to in#rease it again.A .ith all this information in mind "e are in a

position to !egin to #onsider the strategy of ho" things are going to !e #hanged for the !etter. The #laim of Hypnotherapy is that it 0 possi!le for the therapist to inter$ene and to #hange things for the !etter. t is a "ell esta!lished fa#t that Hypnoti# te#hni'ues CA* #hange things. .e ha$e &ust seen in the pre$ious #hapter HO. many of these #hanges are effe#ted. n this #hapter the fo#us is more on the 'uestion of "hat e actly "e should !e aiming to #hange. The simplest approa#h is to find an ans"er to the 'uestion: B 4 3C, i.e. is there a system "hi#h has as a dire#t result a redu#tion in the pro!lem pro#essB The simplest ans"er to this is, 6 f "e a#ti$ate a system of !elief in the Client that the symptom "ill disappear, then it "illI6 This is the hope and !elief of many "ho #ome to a Hypnotherapist for help. And in many #ases this "ill "ork. A #ase in "hi#h it should al"ays "ork is one in "hi#h our earlier steps ha$e re$ealed that the only #hain in$ol$ing C is C itself and the thought @TA, 6C "ill happen to me6, and has the form: 2T 4 2C 4 2T, i.e. a simple in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop in "hi#h the more the Client thinks that a pro!lem "ill arise the more it happens, and the more it happens the more he or she is #on$in#ed it "ill happen again. f, in su#h a #ase, "e #an repla#e T !y the thought T (M N6C is going to stop happening6O, then "e "ill institute the loop: 2T( 4 3C 4 2T(, "hi#h is a positi$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h is in#reasing for T (, "hi#h therefore gets more and more ingrained, and de#reasing for C "hi#h therefore gets less and less a#ti$e until it disappears. An e2ample of the a!o$e loop might !e pro$ided !y a #ase of stammering in "hi#h the !elief, 6 stammer6 leads to stammering "hi#h reinfor#es the !elief. n that #ase a Hypnotherapist #ould ha$e a dramati# su##ess if the old idea #ould !e repla#ed !y the ne" one, 6 do not stammer6. n pra#ti#e, it "ould not !e !est to start "ith that suggestion for the follo"ing reason. There is a high #han#e that the old pattern "ill *OT !e totally eliminated immediately, so that although the Client "ould !e free from stammering for a fe" days, a stammer might start a little later. But if this "ere to happen it "ould immediately tend to repla#e the ne" thought !y, 6 am stammering again,6 and "e are !a#k into the old loop. t is therefore !etter pra#ti#e to suggest a thought on the lines, 6 am stammering less and less6. This "ill esta!lish a loop in "hi#h the less the stammering, the stronger the #on$i#tion that it is impro$ing, "hi#h

"ill feed !a#k into redu#ed stammering, and so on. Then, at a se#ond stage, the thought, 6 do not stammer6 #an !e introdu#ed. This e2ample reinfor#es the idea "e ha$e o!ser$ed, "hi#h is that Hypnosis is so $ery often a!out amplifying small #hanges into larger ones !y means of a positi$e feed!a#k loop. Here "e are amplifying a small impro$ement into a greater one. The re#ognition of the fa#t that "hat a person repeatedly thinks or !elie$es #an ha$e the most profound effe#t on the "hole of the mind and personality and feelings and !ody is one of the traditional #ornerstones of Hypnotherapy. The emphasis on this fa#t is one of the features that #ontri!utes to distinguishing it from related dis#iplines. The trou!le is that if this idea is made the sole defining #hara#teristi# of Hypnotherapy it #an lead to the e2#essi$ely simplisti# $ie" of things "hi#h amounts to the idea that Hypnotherapy #onsists solely of 6pla#ing the person in a tran#e6, and then suggesting that the pro!lem "ill disappear. Pra#tising Hypnotherapists "ill ha$e dis#o$ered that things are not al"ays that easy, "ithout perhaps !eing al"ays #lear a!out "hy it sometimes "orks and sometimes does not. .e ha$e seen that su#h an approa#h will almost #ertainly "ork if there is only a simple feed!a#k loop of the a!o$e form in$ol$ed in maintaining the pro!lem, and if the suggestion is appropriately "orded. But it "ill often not @e2#ept perhaps for a short timeA if the situation is more #ompli#ated. *oti#e that the "ay in "hi#h "e ha$e diagnosed #ases should make it #lear "hen su#h #ompli#ations e2ist and therefore "hen dire#t suggestion of the a!o$e form is almost #ertainly *OT the only treatment needed. .e "ill ha$e analysed all the #ausal #hains in$ol$ing C. n many #ases these "ill !e open4ended @e.g. !lushing may !e a dire#t result of 6friends6 making fun of the !lusher in a deli!erate attempt to arouse itA or in$ol$e other fa#tors su#h as deep emotional responses. n su#h #ases there is no guarantee that the simplisti# approa#h is going to "ork and the e2a#t "ay to ta#kle the pro!lem is going to !e less o!$ious and dire#t. The #entral 'uestion for the Hypnotherapist in these more general pro!lems is, 62here is the inter$ention going to !e fo#usedB6. At times this may still !e on the #entral system C, !ut it "ill often !e on related systems. As a simple e2ample, Eri#kson is on re#ord as ha$ing treated insomnia *OT !y fo#using on sleep at all, nor on the !elief that, 6 suffer from insomnia,6 !ut !y putting his effort into esta!lishing a ne" pattern of !eha$iour, "hi#h is that if sleep does not #ome then the sufferer should get up and polish floors for hours @)ordon P 7yers4 Anderson @(<;(ABi! pp. (1<4(3=A. +et us see ho" this "orks. A typi#al insomnia pro!lem in$ol$es an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop: 2NArousalO 4 2NAn2ietyO 4 2NArousalO. n the simplest terms, Eri#kson has fo#used on the result of an in#rease in arousal and instituted: 2NArousalO 4 2NPolishingO 4 3NArousalO.

He relies on the empiri#al fa#t that spending hours polishing in the middle of the night is in fa#t physi#ally tiring, to produ#e the resulting lo"ering of the le$el of arousal. n this "ay he !reaks the original positi$e feed!a#k loop and #reates a negati$e one. After this is repeated for a fe" nights, arousal "ill lead simply to the thought that polishing is on the agenda, "hi#h is su#h a tiring thought that arousal "ill drop until sleep supersedes: the 6pro!lem6 is then o$er. Another e2ample, from my #ase!ook, in$ol$ed !lushing. The !asi# pro#ess "as the typi#al one for !lushing: an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop of the follo"ing form: 2N9eeling of em!arrassmentO 4 2NBlushingO 4 2NEm!arrassmentO. This stops !eing a positi$e feed!a#k loop if "e #reate a different resultant of the in#rease in !lushing. n this #ase, "hi#h in$ol$ed a man "ho had re#ently !een promoted and so felt rather inse#ure in his ne" position, it "as suggested that he feel and e2press anger as a result of the onset of !lushing. He "as to raise his $oi#e and perhaps thump on the desk. t "as e2plained that any redness would then simply be interpreted by others as a sign of anger. This "ould make him feel less em!arrassed. He "as 'uite happy to do this. .e then had the ne" pro#ess: 2NEm!arrassmentO 4 2NBlushingO 4 2NAngerO 4 3NEm!arrassmentO 4 3NBlushingO. This #onstitutes a negati$e feed!a#k loop for the !lushing and em!arrassment. On#e he had repeated this pro#ess a fe" times in real life he had no further pro!lem. People responded 'uite "ell to his anger !y !a#king off a !it and this ga$e him enhan#ed #onfiden#e in his ne" position, and so he seldom felt em!arrassed at all, and if he e$er did then he kne" ho" to #ope "ith it. n #hoosing anger as a suita!le resultant "e may !e guided !y the notion that in the male at least, !lushing #an often !e the result of suppressed anger. ha$e kno"n a num!er of #ases in "hi#h a young man had on#e freely e2pressed his anger, and "ent red in the fa#e "hile doing so. Then, for one reason or another, he started to suppress the anger. Then the same redness remained, !ut no" the asso#iated feelings "ere of humiliation or em!arrassment. n su#h #ases the a!o$e inter$ention simply restores an earlier pattern of !eha$iour, !ut in a #ontrolled "ay. Although the point "ill not al"ays !e la!oured, su#h a #hange should *OT of #ourse !e implemented "ithout checking the consequences of the change in the "ay in "hi#h "e ha$e #he#ked for the result of redu#ing the #entral symptom in Chapter (-. An in#rease in the e2pression of anger "ill affe#t people #lose to the Client. .e "ould ha$e to ensure that they "ill not rea#t so strongly that the anger is again inhi!ited, i.e. that there is not a negati$e feed!a#k loop for the anger of the form: 2NAngerO 4 2N%ea#tionO 4 3NAngerO 4 2NEm!arrassmentO. .e should also ensure that the e2pression of anger is kept "ithin !ounds, "hi#h is "hy a !anging on the desk and raising the $oi#e are specifically suggested. A general suggestion 4 6,ou "ill e2press your anger6 4 might lead to a#tions for assaultI

n the a!o$e e2amples then, the fo#us of the inter$ention has *OT !een on the presented symptom, !ut on other aspe#ts of the loop in$ol$ed. *oti#e that no #laim is !eing made that those are the O*+, "ays of ta#kling the a!o$e pro!lems. The pro!lem of insomnia may !e ta#kled in many "ays. A #ommon one is to gi$e the sufferer a suita!le tape "hi#h, typi#ally, a#ti$ates a non4rational part of the mind. This might !e a generi#, 6 magine yourself on a desert island6 s#ript or a more spe#ifi#, 6,ou like "alking. ,ou are no" going to imagine yourself on an old familiar "alk, and follo" it e$ery foot of the "ay...6 n this "ay "e plan to inactivate the system of $er!al thought "hi#h is so often in$ol$ed in keeping the person a"ake, and instead to activate the daydreaming system, "hi#h at night #an #hange so readily into normal dreams and hen#e sleep. *ote that the #hoi#e !et"een the t"o approa#hes 4 the polishing or the tape 4#an !e made on the !asis of de#iding "hether the arousal has more to do "ith an a#ti$e mind or an a#ti$e !ody. f the arousal is more in the mus#les, then Eri#ksonFs approa#h is likely to !e !etter. f it is more in the @$er!alA mind, then the tape may !e the !etter #hoi#e. This illustrates the "ay in "hi#h a #larity of analysis of the systems in$ol$ed in a pro!lem leads to a #larity of understanding of the !est approa#h to resol$ing a pro!lem. Blushing may like"ise !e ta#kled in many other "ays. 0imple suggestions that, 6,ou "ill gro" out of it6 may !e enough in a gi$en #ase, parti#ularly if the #ause is a simple loop of the kind met at the start of this #hapter. Again the #hoi#e of the !etter te#hni'ue "ill depend on our underlying analysis of the systems in$ol$ed. f "e ha$e analysed a suppressed anger then the first method has #lear ad$antages. f "e ha$e dis#o$ered an immature self4image 4 that #riti#ism a#ti$ates a #hildlike response 4 then the se#ond #an !e re#ommended. Again noti#e that the approach is not %etermine% "y the S-MPTOM$ "'t "y the TOTAL PROC)SS. The differen#e !et"een the skilled "orkman and the no$i#e is often not that one #an and the other #annot do the &o!, !ut rather in the 'uality and effi#ien#y that the former !rings to the &o!. A !ook#ase #an !e made in many "ays, in#luding holding it together !y kno#king nails in "ith a s#re"dri$er. A ClientFs pro!lem may !e #ured !y many Hypnoti# te#hni'ues, some of "hi#h are e'ually !iLarre and lia!le to produ#e a result that #ould #ollapse in a short time. Ho"e$er, a professional Hypnotherapist should !e #onstantly stri$ing to a#hie$e the !est, smoothest and most effi#ient results. n order to do this "e study $ery #arefully the person "e are dealing "ith as "ell as the parti#ular pro!lem. n earlier #hapters "e ha$e des#ri!ed a systemati# "ay of approa#hing the analysis of the pro!lem. 0ome e2amples of inter$entions ha$e no" !een gi$en. .e no" mo$e on to see ho" "e #an pro#eed in a systemati# "ay to plan possi!le #hanges, "ith a $ie" to #hoosing and implementing the !est. The #entral differen#e !et"een this pro#ess and the diagnosti# pro#ess is that it is syntheti# rather than analyti# 4 it in$ol$es di$ergent rather than #on$ergent thought,

or lateral as opposed to linear thought. There is no O*E "ay, as "e ha$e seen a!o$e. Conse'uently there is no pre#ise linear des#ription of a pro#ess "hi#h is guaranteed to determine the !est method of #hange for a gi$en therapist and Client. Ho"e$er, "e #an lay do"n some general prin#iples to guide the #reation of therapeuti# inter$entions "hi#h "ill !ring us as #lose as possi!le to su#h a des#ription. The pro#ess is not, ho"e$er, linear, !ut a loop. @They are e$ery"hereIA 0tep (. 9o#us on a parti#ular part @PA of one of the #ausal #hains in$ol$ing C. @This may !e a named su!pro#ess, or the link !et"een t"o named su!pro#esses.A 0tep -. Think of a num!er of inter$entions @ A "hi#h #an affe#t P in su#h a "ay as to lead to a redu#tion in the a#ti$ity of C. @The more the !etter.A This step is the creative one. 0tep /. Of ea#h inter$ention ask, 6Ho" easy is this likely to !e "ith this ClientB6 0tep 1. Of ea#h inter$ention ask, 6>oes there e2ist a negati$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h "ill a#t to eradi#ate the effe#t of this inter$entionB6 0tep 3. Of ea#h inter$ention ask, 6.ill the #hange that this inter$ention introdu#es #reate ne" pro!lemsB6 0tep 8. %eturn to 0tep ( and #onsider inter$ening at another point until all possi!le points of inter$ention on ea#h #hain ha$e !een e2amined. As a result of going through the a!o$e pro#ess the Hypnotherapist should end up "ith a short list of possi!le inter$entions "hi#h "ill ha$e the desired result of a#hie$ing a permanent impro$ement in the #entral pro#ess C, "ith no harmful side4 effe#ts, and "hi#h are @#omparati$elyA easy to implement. t then remains simply to #hoose the !etter ones and to start making the #hanges. That makes it sound $ery easy. 0ometimes it isI t does, ho"e$er, lea$e open the 'uestion, 6Ho" on earth #an one think of inter$entions out of the !lueB6 There are $arious ans"ers to this. The first ans"er is that they are seldom #reated 6out of the !lue6. A pra#tising Hypnotherapist "ill ha$e a#'uired an e2tensi$e list of possi!le ones from his or her training, reading and e2perien#e. An e2#ellent sour#e4!ook of Eri#ksonFs inter$entions @"hi#h tend to !e more inno$ati$e than mostA is OFHanlon P He2um @(<<=ABi!, !ut other !ooks, &ournals, seminars and dis#ussions "ith other pra#titioners #an gi$e the Hypnotherapist a familiarity "ith a "ide range of approa#hes. .ith this !a#kground a 6ne"6 inter$ention is seldom more than a modifi#ation of an e2isting one. The se#ond ans"er is that the inter$ention may !e 6re$ealed6 !y the pro#ess of listening intelligently to the Client during a #ertain amount of open4ended dis#ussion. f, as an e2ample, it is found that a "oman has trou!le stopping herself eating the sna#k foods that all #hildren lo$e, "hile !eing 'uite firm "ith her o"n son in those matters, then it does not take too mu#h lateral thinking to think of instituting the follo"ing resultant of eating su#h food: 6,ou must !e fair. E$ery time you indulge the

little4girl4in4you "ith i#e4#ream, et#. you must give your son e actly the same .6 *oti#e that, as in the a!o$e e2amples, "e are not seeking dire#tly to #hange her eating ha!its, "hi#h "ere the #entral symptom, !ut rather introdu#ing a #hange in the resultant. 0in#e she has in fa#t tried $ery hard to redu#e the eating dire#tly with no success at all, "e may presume that a dire#t atta#k "ill not !e too su##essful. On the other hand this indire#t approa#h, "hi#h still allo"s her to eat as mu#h as she likes, "ill soon lead to the amounts !eing moderated !y her motherly #on#ern that it is not going to !e good for her !oy. E'ually, if "hile "e "ere thinking a!out the pre#ursor, "e dis#o$ered that she mainly ate in that "ay at times "hen she felt alone in the e$ening !e#ause her hus!and spent all his time reno$ating #ars, and "e also dis#o$ered that she 'uite liked "orking on ma#hines herself, then the follo"ing thought is o!$ious: 6.hat if she "ere to !e a!le to &oin him in the garage in some "ay at any time she felt that urge to ni!!leB6 n &ust su#h a #ase things got a lot !etter "hen the hus!and !ought an old #ar for her to reno$ate "ith him. *oti#e ho" uni'ue su#h a pres#ription must !eI There #an !e $ery, $ery fe" "omen for "hom an eating pro!lem #an !e sol$ed !y their hus!and !uying them a "re#k to reno$ateI ,et, in this one #ase, it "as a strategy "hi#h "ill impro$e the marriage, redu#e her "eight and impro$e her #onfiden#e @"hen she is a!le to dri$e her o"n #ar aroundA, and all "ithout further dependen#e on 6therapy6I That is elegant. t is spe#ifi#. The an#ient story of the Pro#rustean Bed #omes to mind. Pro#rustes offered hospitality to passing strangers in the only house on a road through a "ild land. But his standards of hospitality "ere demanding indeed. He only had one !ed, !ut he "as determined that e$ery tra$eller should ha$e a !ed "hi#h fitted him perfe#tly. The solutionB f the tra$eller "as too short, Pro#rustes "ould stret#h him on a ra#k until he "as long enough. f he "as too short, Pro#rustes "ould lop off "hate$er o$erlapped the ends. 0ome therapies ha$e a limited num!er of resour#es and ha$e therefore to fit the patient to the remedies, rather than fitting the remedies to the patient. n reality many a )eneral Pra#titioner, through no fault of his or her o"n, is limited to pres#ri!ing one of a limited num!er of drugs to deal "ith a $ery "ide num!er of #ases "here there is no #lear organi# malfun#tion !ut some distur!an#e of emotional !alan#e, or sleep, or digesti$e pro#esses, and so on. 0ystemati# Hypnotherapy, far from !eing a non4s#ientifi# option, is in many "ays a more s#ientifi# one than is open to the )P. t is a"are of the #omple2ity of the dynami#al systems "ith "hi#h it deals. t diagnoses not in terms of simplisti#, stati#, symptomati# #ategories !ut in terms of the pre#ise dynami# pro#esses in$ol$ed, "hi#h may in#lude e2ternal as "ell as internal systems. t has a great fle2i!ility and there are an enormous $ariety of #hanges it may institute, so that o$er the range of pro!lems to "hi#h it is !est suited, it is in a far !etter position to fit the !ed to the patient rather than the patient to the !ed. *o" it may !e thought that the types of inter$entions mentioned a!o$e, e.g. getting a "oman to feed her son the same treats as she feeds herself, or getting her to "ork

"ith her hus!and, are not Hypnotic. But noti#e that these, also, are #hanges in thoughts andDor habits. And it is *OT al"ays the #ase that ha!its or thoughts #an !e #hanged simply as a result of saying that they #ould !e. .e "ill often ha$e to !ring to !ear the full po"er of suggestion, amplified in the "ays "e ha$e outlined, to start and maintain su#h a #hange in thought or ha!it. n this "ay, an a#tual session "ill often pro#eed in "hat looks a fairly normal "ay, "ith rela2ation, $isualisation, et#., !ut "ith the goal of #hanging one of the ne", indire#t pro#esses rather than !y a dire#t atta#k on the #entral or presented pro!lem. *e$ertheless su#h a method #an often !e a lot faster and more effi#ient than the dire#t atta#k !e#ause of its intelligent use of the real dynami#s of the personFs personality. .hen it #omes to implementing the a!o$e #entral pro#ess of determining the possi!le approa#hes to #hange, remem!er that, as in diagnosis, it is *OT !eing suggested that the Client !e asked 'uestions in a systems4oriented language. t is !oth #ommon sense and #ourteous to talk in a language familiar to the Client, and the ans"ers to the 'uestions in$ol$ed "ill normally !e o!tained as a result of informal #on$ersation. Thus "e "ill not normally ask, F( o& easy %o yo' thin# it &ill "e to change J=

But "e might say something on the lines of, A Client &ith a similar pro"lem fo'n% it very helpf'l to %o -$ and then simply note the response from the Client. Clients "ill typi#ally relate su#h a remark to themsel$es appropriately. E'ually "e "ill #ertainly not ask, F( Does there e1ist a negative fee%"ac# loop involving I= But "e might #on$ersationally say, Of co'rse$ I have #no&n cases in &hich a change in (((( has le% to an improvement in (((( "'t 'nfort'nately this le% to ((((( happening an% this in t'rn starte% the pro"lem 'p again( The e2a#t details "ould !e pro$ided from some kno"n #ase "hi#h had points of similarity "ith the #ase in hand. This "ill get the Client thinking on su#h lines and if there are any su#h #onse'uen#es "hi#h they #an en$isage, then they #an easily !e prompted to speak of them. There is a fair #han#e that in this "ay any o!$ious feed!a#k loops "ill !e dete#ted. Or "e might ask,

F( I &on%er if yo' co'l% spen% a fe& min'tes vis'alising in %etail &hat &o'l% happen if &e co'l% arrange for (((( to happen= Do yo' thin# it &o'l% improve matters= This 'uestion is rather more likely to ans"er the 'uestion of "hether making the #hange #ould lead to ne" pro!lems. But this 'uestion and the last #ould yield information !oth on the e2isten#e of negati$e feed!a#k loops and on the e2isten#e of other pro!lems if a #hange "ere to !e implemented ( There are many other 'uestions and approa#hes "hi#h #an speed up the sear#h for the most effi#ient points of inter$ention. 9or e2ample "e ha$e: F( ave there ever "een times &hen the pro"lem has got a "it "etter= If so$ &hat seeme% to %o the tric#= F( <hat %o yo! feel &o'l% help to remove the pro"lem= These "ill often gi$e a lot of insight into a possi!le solution. 0uppose, for e2ample, that a "oman has got slimmer ea#h time she had a !oyfriend. f the nominal pro!lem is 6"eight6 then it "ould seem that a promising line is to find out "hy she does not no" ha$e a !oyfriend, and perhaps o$er#ome that. There might, for e2ample, ha$e !een a disastrous relationship !reakdo"n "hi#h has led to a relu#tan#e to try again. f this o!sta#le #an !e remo$ed then she #ould again find a !oyfriend and the "eight "ould then redu#e of its o"n a##ord. On the other hand there may !e a feed!a#k loop in su#h #ases, "hi#h may !e the main reason she does not ha$e a !oyfriend: 2N.eightO 4 3NConfiden#eO 4 3N)oing outO 4 3N7ale #ompanyO 4 2N.eightO. n that #ase "e may ha$e to "ork on se$eral fa#tors at the same time: some #onfiden#e !oosting, some en#ouragement to go out to a suita!le pla#e, some seeking male #ompany, and some "eight redu#tion. The se#ond 'uestion is $alua!le !e#ause the Client is seldom stupid or ignorant, and "ill ha$e thought hard a!out the pro!lem. The fruits of this thought are $alua!le, e$en if not perfe#tly #orre#t. f the presented pro!lem is pani# atta#ks, and the Client thinks that it has to do "ith an assault ele$en years ago, then he is pro!a!ly right. on#e had a Client "ith a strange skin #ondition 4 a redness on one side of the fa#e 4 that a Harley 0treet #onsultant had gi$en $arious names to, !ut !een una!le to stop. 0he herself #onne#ted it to a statement that her sister had made to her as she "as sitting in front of the fire: 6 f you sit as #lose as that your fa#e "ill stay red.6 .orking on the assumption that the Client "as right led to a remo$al of the pro!lem. t #an also !e useful to ask, F( <hat is it that yo' &o'l% li#e me to %o= This might get an ans"er like, 60"ing a pendulum in front of my eyes, send me to sleep and "ill "ake up "ithout the pro!lem.6 0u#h an ans"er is not to !e ignored: it is either going to ha$e to !e integrated into the pro#edure "hi#h is used or a $ery good e2planation of "hy it is not "ill ha$e to !e pro$ided. Other"ise there is going to

!e a strong rea#tion in the Client of the form, 6 This is not "hat e2pe#ted. t "ill not "orkI6 "hi#h is going to make e$erything mu#h harder. f, in su#h a #ase, there is an o!$ious relu#tan#e to #hange the pre#on#eption then it "ould !e ad$isa!le to use a pendulum to !egin "ith and in time to send the Client to sleep. *oti#e that parado2i#ally this means a real sleep, from "hi#h there is a strong sense of a"akening, sin#e this is "hat is e2pe#ted, despite the fa#t that the Client "ill ha$e seen Hypnoti# 0u!&e#ts on stage and s#reen #hanging from a sleep4like appearan#e to a "akeful appearan#e "ith no sign of thinking that they ha$e !een asleepI Of #ourse there "ill almost #ertainly !e other and more useful inter$entions made as "ell: a simple pie#e of pra#ti#al ad$i#e may !e the most important thing done in the sessionI Of #ourse if "e held a traditional, simplisti# idea of Hypnosis then it #ould !e o!&e#ted that a pie#e of ad$i#e has nothing to do "ith Hypnosis. But "ithin the present theoreti#al frame"ork the #entral theme is the #hanging of key mental pro#esses. f a ne" thought pro#ess #an !e a##epted "ithout dou!t then it is irrele$ant "hether this "as a#hie$ed as a result of a #omple2 ritual or a simple totally #on$in#ing statement. At other times the ans"ers to the last 'uestion #an #larify the goal. t may !e that a person suffering from a #hroni# pain, "hi#h seems at first to !e the #entral pro!lem, does *OT e2pe#t it to !e remo$ed, !ut rather hopes to !e a!le to sleep soundly in spite of it, or to !e a!le to !e less frightened of it, or simply to redu#e it to managea!le proportions. n su#h #ases the fo#us of inter$ention is likely to !e different a##ording to the different goal. There is no end to the 'uestions that might help to thro" up the pie#e of information needed to help to de#ide on a smooth and effi#ient inter$ention. suppose that it is e2perien#e that gi$es the pra#titioner more and more of the a!ility to hit on the right 'uestions earlier in a session as the years pass. 7any of these are asked dire#tly, !ut there are also many indire#t "ays of finding out the ans"ers to 'uestions. This last point is #o$ered in the #hapter on ndire#t ?uestions in Part C. n this #hapter the pro#ess of planning the !est "ay to inter$ene has !een outlined. >eeper understanding is, think, only possi!le as a result of the reader attempting the analysis in parti#ular #ases. This is easy for those already in pra#ti#e, "ho ha$e ample opportunity and should find it stimulating and easy, sin#e it should simply in$ol$e tightening up in a #lear and pre#ise "ay "hat they are already doing. To trainees it should !e the !asis of training e2er#ises: "ithout "hi#h it "ill remain rather a!stra#t. To the intelligent reader it should gi$e a good understanding of the kind of thought pro#esses in$ol$ed. This last #lass of reader, "ho is unlikely to apply any of this "ork in Hypnotherapy, might ne$ertheless find that further insight #an !e o!tained !y trying to apply this method of thinking to analyse any pro!lem found in daily life "hi#h in$ol$es others. 9or remem!er that the approa#h is general enough to !e appli#a!le to any organi# system, "hi#h in#ludes your family, or so#ial or "ork group. SUMMAR-

Hypnotherapy deals not only "ith pro#esses of #hange, !ut "ith pra#ti#es "hi#h are themsel$es pro#esses. An important su#h pro#ess is planning an inter$ention. This pro#ess has !een outlined in a simple "ay "hi#h #an !e summarised as follo"s. 9or all possi!le points of inter$ention in the rele$ant #ausal #hains, ask the follo"ing 'uestions: P(-:5Ho" #an it !e #hangedB

How easy is the change? Will it result in a relapse because of negative feedback? Will it result in any other problems?

This mental pro#ess "ill lead in time to a #olle#tion of the !etter "ays of inter$ening, "hi#h "ill form the !asis of treatment. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R *>

ypnosis!

Therape'tic Interventions an% Reinforcing Changes

In the conte t of Hypnotherapy it is important to ensure that changes to the ?lient are reinforced by factors in the environment. This amounts to ensuring that there will be an increasing positive feedback loop to make the change grow in strength. This is contrasted with a form of therapy in which any new behaviour is reinforced only by the therapist, which can result in undue dependence. The principle is that -#ife must provide the reinforcer-. *O. THAT "e ha$e #o$ered in outline the first t"o stages of therapy 4 >iagnosis and Planning 4 and "e ha$e also learned more a!out some of the po"erful "ays in "hi#h Hypnosis a#ts to institute #hange, "e are ready to mo$e on to the third stage, "hi#h is the therapeuti# inter$ention itself. t should !e #lear no" that there are going to !e as many different results of the first t"o stages as there are Clients. That is "hy it is important to emphasise P% *C P+E0, rather than simple rules4of4thum!. t "ould !e impossi!le to list all the #on#ei$a!le different #om!inations of #auses and symptoms and intera#ting fa#tors "hi#h #ould arise. But, as "e ha$e seen, it 0 possi!le to outline principles of approach "hi#h #an ena!le us to form a $ery #lear pi#ture of the dynami#s of ea#h parti#ular #ase. n many instan#es, find, there is really $ery little "ork in$ol$ed in the inter$ention at all, !y the time the really hard "ork of understanding the dynami#s of the pro!lem and of possi!le inter$entions has !een done. Be#ause the optimum point of #hange

has already !een determined there is no "aste of effort su#h as #an happen "hen the therapy is dire#ted in the "rong "ay. t "ill often happen, for e2ample, that the pro#esses of diagnosis and planning a #hange "ill #ome up "ith some simple suggestion that the Client a##epts enthusiasti#ally and has no pro!lem in implementing. n su#h a #ase the session looks from the outside as if it is simply #ounselling or possi!ly a form of mild psy#hotherapy. n rather more instan#es it may still !e the #ase that the Client happily a##epts an idea at a superfi#ial le$el, !ut that more time "ill ha$e to pass !efore it is naturally "o$en fully into the fa!ri# of life. n su#h a #ase the use of Hypnoti# te#hni'ues #an a##elerate this pro#ess. Pra#tising therapists "ill kno" ho" to do this in detail. An e2ample of su#h a te#hni'ue is sometimes #alled 6future pa#ing6. n this the Client is taken through a typi#al pro#ess, su#h as is indi#ated in the earlier #hapters in this !ook, "ith a $ie" to ina#ti$ating distra#ting mental and physi#al pro#esses and a#ti$ating feelings of #onfiden#e and the detailed $isualisation of situations in the future in "hi#h the desired #hange or #hanges "ill !e naturally in#orporated into life. @But noti#e that "e may "ell ha$e already done a little mild 6future pa#ing6 as a part of the pro#ess of #he#king out the #hange for any pro!lems "hi#h might arise as a result. n su#h #ases there may !e little need to do more, if the Client has a naturally strong in$ol$ement "ith "hat he or she is imagining.A n other #ases, in "hi#h an emotional #hange is in$ol$ed, it may "ell !e that the 'uestions and ans"ers in$ol$ed in the diagnosti# and planning stages "ill themsel$es !egin to a#ti$ate emotional systems, su#h as suppressed grief. n that #ase, also, it may !e that little e2tra "ork is needed, and the session may again look like a session of psy#hotherapy. But there are ad$antages in again handling things more pre#isely !y means of te#hni'ues "hi#h fall "ithin the field of Hypnotherapy. There is, for e2ample, another "ell4kno"n te#hni'ue for dealing "ith traumati# material "hi#h goes like this. The trauma may ha$e !een indu#ed !y, for e2ample, a se$ere a##ident, or sudden !erea$ement, or an assault. @ t is not A++ se2ual pro!lems.A The memory of the in#ident is #ut off from #ons#iousness !y an automati# me#hanism "hi#h is there to pre$ent e2#essi$e distress. *o" the !eauty of the typi#al Hypnoti# approa#h is that it is possi!le 9 %0T to a#ti$ate a $ery strong feeling of #alm deta#hment, and THE* to a#ti$ate the imagination in a deta#hed "ay su#h as to sho" the e$ents in 'uestion on a TJ s#reen, or as happening to a third party. n that "ay the information a!out "hat happened is a!sor!ed #ons#iously "ithout great distress. On#e that has happened, and the fa#t that the e$ent can !e thought of without o$er"helming distress has !een dis#o$ered, the "hole thing !e#omes far less of a pro!lem. Typi#ally it "ill then !e possi!le later to allo" a #ertain amount of #ontrolled #rying or other natural e2pression of feeling to !e#ome a#ti$ated until the "hole matter is #leared up. The dynami#s of su#h pro#esses #an !e #hara#terised in terms of a su!liminal memory, #ons#iousness, the emotional system and a me#hanism "hi#h #an inhi!it the #onne#tion !et"een the memory and the #ons#ious mind.

n shorthand then "e ha$e the pattern: 2N 2NmemoryO 4 2N#ons#iousnessOO 4 2NemotionO 4 2Ninhi!itionO 4 3N 2NmemoryO 4 2N#ons#iousnessOO. That is, "e ha$e a strong negati$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h pre$ents the pro#ess of #ons#ious re#all of the memory, sin#e "hene$er this pro#ess starts it a#ti$ates a strong emotion, "hi#h in turn a#ti$ates the inhi!itory pro#ess "hi#h stops the re#all #ontinuing. f "e look at "ays of #hanging this loop, in the "ay suggested in the #hapter on planning, then the a!o$e method, "hi#h is to "ork on the system NemotionO and pre$ent its a#ti$ation, is an o!$ious "ay of pre$enting the loop operating. .e might ha$e #onsidered trying to pre$ent the a#ti$ation of the system Ninhi!itionO, !ut this "ould, in itself, lead only to a sudden re#all "hi#h "ould lead to $iolent emotion. This "ould !e dramati# and might make the therapist feel pleased at o!taining an 6a!rea#tion6. Ho"e$er it is not to !e re#ommended, as it does nothing to ensure that the remem!ered material is in any sense #ome to terms "ith. t is 'uite possi!le that the e2perien#e "ill simply #onfirm the feeling that the memory is *OT to !e approa#hed, sin#e it is so distressing, and the inhi!itory me#hanism "ill gro" stronger after a "hile, and !e reinfor#ed !y a fear of therapy, so that nothing "ill ha$e !een gained. 0imilarly to "ork dire#tly on the element N N2memoryO 4 2N#ons#iousnessOO in the loop and to attempt to enhan#e it dire#tly !y for#ing the memory through to #ons#ious re#all #ould lead to an e2#essi$e e2pression of emotion "hi#h "ill potentially lead to the same pro!lem. That is "hy the normal approa#h is the one suggested a!o$e: "orking first to moderate the emotional response. The a!o$e e2amples !ring our attention to that part of our su!&e#t "hi#h may !e #alled detailed te#hni'ue. E$ery trade or profession has its parti#ular te#hni'ues, "hi#h its mem!ers pi#k up "ith e2perien#e, reading and #onta#t "ith others in the same field. .e ha$e here seen 6future pa#ing6 and the use of an imaginary TJ s#reen to #on$ey information from one su!system of the mind to another "ithout e$oking strong emotion. But there are #ountless more. It is not the p'rpose or intention of this "oo# to list all s'ch %etaile% techniH'es. %emem!er that this is not a training manual. *either am introdu#ing any 6Holy )rail6 type inno$ation in te#hni'ue. All am attempting is to make #lear the prin#iples in$ol$ed in "hat "e are doing, in order that "e may think more #learly a!out it and do it !etter. am therefore going to take as read @in other !ooksA all su#h detailed te#hni'ues "hi#h #an !e used to implement #hanges in the field of Hypnotherapy and fo#us attention on one prin#iple of o$er"helming importan#e. The fa#t that there is little #ons#ious a"areness of this prin#iple makes it all the more important. This prin#iple that should !e emphasised as !eing #entral to effe#ting effortless inter$entions is the $alue of esta!lishing positive fee%"ac# loops to po"er the

#hange. .e ha$e seen su#h loops !eing used in indu#ing simple Hypnoti# phenomena. .e "ill no" !e looking at their typi#al forms in therapy. +et us !egin !y looking at an elementary e2ample. t is a fa#t that many people pay disproportionately greater attention to things that are getting "orse, and too little to things that are getting !etter. Conse'uently, e$en if their mood is lifting as a result of some form of therapy, they s#ar#ely noti#e it, !ut noti#e instead only the times "hen there is no impro$ement. This naturally limits any impro$ement and "ill usually o##asion a relapse. One possi!le Hypnoti# inter$ention is to remedy this !y #hanging the !alan#e and instituting the ha!it of #ons#iously noti#ing any impro$ement. But an a"areness of impro$ement "ill generally lead to an a#tual lifting of mood, "hi#h "ill again !e noted and thus a positi$e feed!a#k loop is instituted. f "e let 7 !e the a#tual mood, and A an a"areness of an impro$ement in mood, then "e "ill ha$e instituted the in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop: 2A 4 27 4 2A 4 27 4... Conse'uently if "e #an only #hange the !alan#e of paying attention from 6"orse6 to 6!etter6, there #an !e steady impro$ement in all things. And things "ill go on getting !etter and !etter, "ithout our needing to inter$ene in detail in all "ays. This prin#iple "as in$ol$ed in the su##ess earlier this #entury of Ymile CouQ, "ho "ent around the "orld promoting his ideas on the $alue of positi$e thought: ideas "hi#h he en#apsulated in the saying, 6E$ery day and in e$ery "ay, am getting !etter and !etter and !etter.6 He en#ouraged people to repeat this saying o$er and o$er again until it !e#ame a part of their philosophy of life. n many people it had a lot of su##ess. The e2pe#tation of impro$ement "ill often lead to a#tual impro$ement. The fa#t that this idea has *OT transformed the "orld sho"s that things are not 'uite as simple as that. n parti#ular, "onder if you #an spot the ine$ita!le negati$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h "ill a#t on the pra#titioner of CouQismB +et us suppose that it "orks to !egin "ith, and the use of the ma2im leads to impro$ement. That "ill, of #ourse, en#ourage the person to #ontinue, and so impro$ement "ill in#rease. But #ontinuous gro"th is simply not possi!le for anything or any!ody. 0ooner or later the gro"th "ill slo" or stop. There "ill !e pro!lems that resist the ma2im, su#h as tootha#he, or a "ife lea$ing to marry a man "ho is less self4#onfident !ut needs her more as a result @in fa#t more like the man she married !efore CouQ took a handIA. n any #ase there "ill #ome a time "hen a man relying entirely on the ma2im "ill find that it no longer has any effe#t. f anything, sin#e things are deteriorating, it "ill seem that repeating the ma2im leads to the deterioration. He "ill lose faith in it. He "ill stop using it. A not dissimilar loop lies !ehind those fre'uent small ad$ertisements: =!* +%#) ) ercise bike, hardly used. 9or the first fe" days after an e2er#ise !ike has !een !ought "e ha$e: 2Ne2er#iseO 4 2Nfeeling of "ell4!eingO 4 2Ne2er#iseO.

But soon the e2er#ise has !een in#reased to a le$el "here fatigue sets in and "e ha$e: 2Ne2er#iseO 4 2NfatigueO 4 3Nfeeling of "ell4!eingO. The #ommon immediate rea#tion is to in#rease the e2er#ise in the hope of reinstating the original loop and so in#reasing the "ell4!eing again, !ut no", of #ourse, it simply leads to more fatigue and so to still less "ell4!eing, so "ithin a short time the "hole thing is gi$en up in disgust. By #ontrast to CouQism the introdu#tion of the prin#iple of simply altering the balance !et"een the amount of attention paid to impro$ement as opposed to deterioration, or to good as opposed to !ad, has mu#h more #han#e of instituting a slo" !ut steady positi$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h #an lead to #ontinuing impro$ements in different areas. t does *OT depend on #ontinual impro$ement for its maintenan#e. t e2pe#ts some set!a#ks, !ut noti#es impro$ements more. f you "ant a phrase to en#apsulate the #hange "e "ant, it #an !e found far !a#k in time, !efore CouQ. t is the simple, 6Count your !lessings.6 "ould suggest, tentati$ely, that the happy people kno" tend to adopt this attitude, "hile the unhappy ones do not. .hat does your e2perien#e suggestB Another e2ample of the use of in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loops lies in tea#hing. As my father, a tea#her, first told me, 6The important thing is to set tests in "hi#h they do "ell from the !eginning. This leads to #onfiden#e and self4esteem. That in turn leads to !etter performan#e in the ne2t test, "hi#h #an therefore !e a little harder.6 This is an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop. The #orresponding de#reasing positi$e loop "ould set in if the tests "ere too hard: #onfiden#e "ould drop5 performan#e "ould drop further, e$en on the same diffi#ulty of test, and things "ould steadily deteriorate. The important psy#hologi#al #on#ept in this #onte2t is that of reinforcement. f a rat in a #ommon e2periment in a psy#hologistFs la!oratory performs some re'uired a#tion, su#h as pressing a le$er, it finds that it gets a small amount of food. The food in#reases the possi!ility of its again pressing the le$er. The food is #alled a positive reinforcer of the a#tion. f, on the other hand, e$ery time the rat goes into a #ertain area of its #age it gets an ele#tri#al sho#k, then the fre'uen#y "ith "hi#h it "ill go there is redu#ed. An ele#tri#al sho#k is termed a negative reinforcer for that a#ti$ity. n shorthand "e may summarise these in the follo"ing "ay. +et A !e some pro#ess of some system in the rat. @ n e2periments this "ill usually result in some #learly $isi!le a#tion su#h as pressing a le$er, or mo$ing to"ards or a"ay from something.A Then if "e let P% denote a system in the rat that responds to a Positi$e %einfor#er @e.g. the digesti$e systemA and *% denote a system "hi#h responds to a *egati$e %einfor#er @e.g. the pain systemA, then "e ha$e in shorthand: either 2A 4 2P% or 2A 4 2*% @#ourtesy of the e2perimental psy#hologistA, "hile:

2P% 4 2A and *% 4 3A !e#ause of pro#esses "hi#h ha$e e$ol$ed in animals "hi#h ensure that it repeats a#tions "hi#h lead to food et#. "hile redu#ing those that lead to pain et#. .e therefore find an in#reasing positive feed!a#k loop for A "hen there is positive reinfor#ement: 2A 4 2P% 4 2A, !ut a negative feed!a#k loop "hen there is negative reinfor#ement: 2A 4 2*% 4 3A. 9or a typi#al student, doing "ell in tests is in itself a positi$e reinfor#er to study in that su!&e#t. Con$ersely doing !adly is a negati$e reinfor#er. As a general rule someone "ho ha!itually noti#es only "hen things are getting "orse is getting only negati$e reinfor#ers. This is likely to end up "ith depression and total inertia. n order to impro$e the #ondition of su#h a person "e "ill ha$e someho" to introdu#e the ha!it of noti#ing impro$ements in order to get some positi$e feed!a#k "hen things get !etter, "hi#h "ill then ena!le the #hanges leading to those impro$ements to !e reinfor#ed. These e2amples illustrate the important prin#iple that in esta"lishing a change for the "etter in a therape'tic conte1t &e nee% to instit'te increasing positive fee%"ac# loops &ust as surely as "e ha$e used them in indu#ing simple Hypnoti# phenomena. f "e fail to in#orporate positi$e reinfor#ing fa#tors, then any #hange is all too likely to lapse. f "e have introdu#ed them, then any small #hange in the right dire#tion "ill #ontinue to gro" stronger. There is a $ery important distin#tion to make here. n an Hypnoti# pro#ess the Hypnotist is in a position to pro$ide reinfor#ers. n the #onte2t of esta!lishing feed!a#k to maintain a therapeuti# #hange it is life "hi#h has to pro$ide the reinfor#ers. .ithin a session a Hypnotist may say things like, 6Jery good. ,ou are doing "ell.6 But any therapy is only su##essful "hen the Client no longer needs su#h affirmations !e#ause life is saying, 6,ou are doing "ell,6 and reinfor#ing the #hanges made. To this end "e "ill !e on the look4out for positi$e reinfor#ers "hi#h life #an offer the indi$idual Client. Of #ourse su#h reinfor#ers $ary from person to person. One useful 'uestion to ask in the sear#h for positi$e reinfor#ers is the follo"ing. F( Can yo' tell me &hat things in life give yo' greatest satisfaction 2 pleas're 2 happiness= f, as a random e2ample, someone gets a great satisfa#tion out of tidiness, then to tie in the prospe#ti$e #hange to an in#rease in tidiness gi$es it a positi$e reinfor#er "hi#h "ill in turn #reate an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop. Thus "e might help su#h a "oman "ith #ertain emotional pro!lems *OT !y talking a!out control "hi#h is

a rather more mas#uline #on#ept, !ut !y thinking in terms of ho" to keep her feelings, like her hair and dress, tidy. @This "ould also imply attractive.A Then, any step in the dire#tion of dealing more effe#ti$ely "ith her feelings "ould get the lo$ely positi$e feelings "hi#h go "ith tidiness. This "ould then !e a positi$e reinfor#er for the #hanges !eing introdu#ed. ?uite a lot of 7ilton H. Eri#ksonFs su##esses are !ased on finding a small !ut $ery effe#ti$e inter$ention that leads, in time, to the elimination of the pro!lem. The frustrating thing, found, is that "hile admired Eri#ksonFs approa#h, he ne$er "rote anything "hi#h ena!led me to determine HO. he arri$ed at a parti#ular #hoi#e of inter$ention, or HO. he kne" it "as going to "ork. Conse'uently might find myself applying one of his te#hni'ues in "hat seemed a similar #ase, !ut to no a$ailI realise no" that "as mistakenly looking for a similarity in symptoms "here should ha$e !een looking for a similarity in dynamics. *o" that fo#us on the dynami#s more than the symptoms, in the "ay "hi#h is des#ri!ed in this !ook, find that his "ork makes mu#h more sense and it is easier to !egin to emulate him in effe#ti$eness. Another 'uestion "hi#h #an !e useful in the hunt for reinfor#ers is: F( <hat$ to yo'r min%$ &o'l% "e the greatest "enefit of this change= 0uppose, as a rather o!$ious e2ample, that the Client "ants to lose "eight, then it #an !e $ery important to kno" ho" the !enefit "ill !e most appre#iated. s it in !eing a!le to !uy smarter #lothesB s it in feeling fitterB s it in looking slimmerB s it in feeling more se2ually attra#ti$eB And, if so, for "homB s it in simply seeing a different num!er on the s#ales "hen "eighedB n these different #ases "e might "ell !e a!le to use some aspe#t of the desired result as a reinfor#er of a useful #hange. n the first e2ample "e might institute the ha!it of "indo" shopping for an ideal "ardro!e, "ith an eye to looking for items "hi#h #an !e !ought and "orn at steps along the "ay to the ideal "eight. n some #ases it is then hardly ne#essary to spe#ify e2a#tly the #hanges in lifestyle "hi#h are ne#essary to a#hie$e the #hange, any more than it is ne#essary in !iofeed!a#k training to spe#ify how the !lood pressure et#. is to !e #ontrolled. The feed!a#k in either #ase #an !e enough to reinfor#e any impro$ement, pro$ided it is 'ui#k and #lear enough. n the present #ase e$ery small redu#tion in "eight leads to the reinfor#er of a ne" arti#le of #lothing, "hi#h leads to #ontinuing the a#tions "hi#h led to the "eight loss, "hi#h leads to more #lothes, and so on. n the se#ond #ase, "here the desire is to feel fitter, "e might link any eating to some e2er#ise, as "hen Eri#kson got a "oman to run around the house after e$ery sli#e of toast. n this "ay "e are more likely to produ#e real fitness "hi#h "ill reinfor#e the impro$ement. f the goal is to feel more se2ually attra#ti$e in general, then "e might fo#us on the 'uestion of ho" to eat in a se2y "ay. The Client might !e dire#ted to "at#h films, paying spe#ial attention to how a#tresses eat so as to in#rease their attra#ti$eness, and then to imitate them.

*oti#e that "e "ill then ha$e !roken the identifi#ation of eating as !eing someho" #onne#ted "ith !eing *OT se2ually attra#ti$e, and instead #onne#ted it to BE *) se2ually attra#ti$e. There "ill therefore !e a re"ard of the desired kind e$ery time she eats in the ne" "ay. 0in#e, in pra#ti#e, this ne" "ay "ill not !e gluttonous, "e "ill ha$e the foundations of a useful positi$e feed!a#k loop. f there is a #ompulsi$e need to see a #hange on the s#ales "e might manage something on the follo"ing lines. The s#ales had !etter !e a##urate. This means finding one of those pre#ise ones "hi#h measure to the nearest oun#e. 0uppose that there is one in to"n in a pharma#y. .e "ould then "ork to esta!lish the rule that the person must .A+K to the shop ea#h time, and make a note of his or her "eight to the nearest oun#e. f lu#k is on our side this #ould mean a t"enty4minute "alk e$ery day at least. This "ill tend ine$ita!ly to redu#e "eight5 the resultant loss "ill a#t to reinfor#e the ha!it of "alking5 and "e ha$e a ni#e gentle positi$e feed!a#k loop: 2N"alkingO 4 3N"eightO 4 2N"alkingO. These e2amples should !e enough to sho" ho" the dis#o$ery of a potential reinfor#er #an suggest ideas for the esta!lishment of a suita!le positi$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h "ill lead to the desired result. Another "ay of looking at this is to note that a sear#h for positi$e reinfor#ers #an thro" up ideas for potential #hanges at the #ru#ial, #reati$e 0tep - of the pro#ess of determining possi!le #hanges. The ad$antage of using "eight loss as an e2ample is that it should !e o!$ious it is a process "hi#h takes time. This is really the #hara#teristi# of all Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy, "hi#h is unfortunately masked !y the tenden#y of the 0tage Hypnotist to present Hypnosis as ha$ing to do "ith instantaneous #hanges of state. This leads people to suppose that it is possi!le instantaneously to ha$e e2#ellent memory or unshakea!le #onfiden#e or "hat ha$e you. +et us take another #hara#teristi# pro!lem for "hi#h a feed!a#k loop is useful: pho!ias. One of the standard psy#hologi#al methods of o$er#oming a pho!ia is that of progressi$e de4sensitisation. +et us see ho" this "orks "ith an e2ample. 0uppose that the fear of "ater is so great that it is impossi!le to learn ho" to s"im, !e#ause e$en going to the pool arouses an2iety. The solution to the pro!lem in$ol$es first sitting on the edge of the pool until the an2iety su!sides. Then feeling please% &ith this progress( Then standing in $ery shallo" "ater until the fresh an2iety su!sides. Then feeling please% &ith this progress( Then sitting in $ery shallo" "ater until the fresh an2iety su!sides. Then feeling please% &ith this progress( Then "alking in up to the knees until the fresh an2iety su!sides. Then feeling please% &ith this progress( And so on. Ea#h fresh stage arouses some an2iety, of #ourse, !ut it is impossi!le to maintain that an2iety fore$er, and so, pro$ided that there is no impatien#e and no pressing on too fast, ea#h le$el of an2iety must fade a"ay. The a!stra#t pattern des#ri!ing this pro#ess is: 2@depth of "aterA 4 2Nan2ietyO 4 2Nslo" per#eption that there is no dangerO 4 3Nan2ietyO 4 2Npleas're in progressO 4 2@depthA.

The feeling of su##ess is very important, sin#e this is the positive reinfor#er "hi#h makes the loop a positive one. f this is not instituted, the sufferer is in#lined to !e fore$er thinking, 6 am stupidI 9an#y !eing s#ared of the "ater, at my ageI6 0o that instead of !eing pleased at !eing a!le to sit in the "ater "ithout an2iety, he or she is feeling !ad !e#ause no one else has to do that. They therefore pro$ide themsel$es "ith a negative reinfor#er, and so enter a negati$e loop "hi#h soon dis#ourages them from #ontinuing. ha$e kno"n #ases of indi$iduals "ho ha$e !een 6treated6 for their pho!ias !y psy#hologists "ho seem to ha$e learned the pro#ess of progressi$e desensitisation !y rote, "ith no understanding of the nature of the loop they are supposed to !e instituting. They ha$e negle#ted the #entral importan#e of the reinfor#er, "ith the result that ea#h step has !een taken "ith in#reasing relu#tan#e, and the 6#ure6 failed. A similar method may !e used to eliminate a pho!ia in the #onte2t of Hypnotherapy. The main differen#e is that the Client is usually taken through the stages !y means of an enhan#ed $isualisation rather than in reality. This has the ad$antage that there is little pro!lem of self4#ons#iousness 4 as there often is at the real pool. Jarious Hypnoti# te#hni'ues #an also !e used to instill #onfiden#e and, "hi#h is often of great importan#e, to deal "ith memories of some early disaster "hi#h may ha$e initiated the pho!ia. But it remains of importan#e to ensure that ea#h small impro$ement results in great satisfa#tion "hen the 0u!&e#t tries things out in real life. %emem!er: +ife must pro$ide the %einfor#er. Conse'uently "e need to ensure that satisfa#tion "ill !e felt "ith ea#h step of progress. After these e2amples it should !e possi!le to see the prin#iple in$ol$ed fairly #learly. The good Hypnotherapist "ill al"ays !e trying to arrange that any #hange made in the #onsulting room "ill !e amplified or reinforced !y the ClientFs en$ironment: 6+ife must pro$ide the %einfor#er.6 This attention to en$ironment is "hat is sometimes denoted !y the ad&e#ti$e 6holisti#6, !ut it should !e realised that the #ustomary antithesis !et"een 6holisti#6 and 6analyti#6 does not hold in the #onte2t of the present theory of Hypnotherapy, "hi#h #learly in#orporates a great deal of analysis of the systems in$ol$ed, !ut does not limit itself to internal systems, !ut rather in#ludes e ternal ones in the en$ironment as "ell. Conse'uently it may also !e termed 6holisti#6. This attention to arranging for reinfor#ement !y the en$ironment highlights a #ertain important ethi#al and professional point. .e ha$e noted that many elementary Hypnoti# phenomena are e$oked !y means of reinfor#ement !y the Hypnotist. f things go !eyond that, and deeper and more personal #hanges are reinfor#ed !y the personality of the Hypnotherapist, then "e ha$e danger of the Client !e#oming almost addi#ted to the Hypnotherapist. f the only pla#e the #hanges are reinfor#ed are in the HypnotherapistFs offi#e, then the Client !e#omes su!tly #onditioned to return again and again. One ad$antage of the 67organi#6 approa#h is that it for#es us to #onsider rele$ant e2ternal systems, and the "ays in "hi#h they affe#t the pro!lem. .e are for#ed to ask "hat the resultants of #hanges are. .e are for#ed to look for negati$e feed!a#k from the en$ironment "hi#h #ould a#ti$ely eliminate an impro$ement5 "e are for#ed

to look for aspe#ts of the en$ironment "hi#h "ill pro$ide positi$e feed!a#k to #hange. .e #annot restri#t oursel$es to the #osy little "orld of N 8Therapist 4 8Client 4 8 TherapistO. 9or an e'ui$alent analogy #onsider again the management #onsultant "ho restri#ts himself to analysing the !eha$iour of a !usiness with no reference to the market in which it operates( Any !usinessman should see ho" futile this #an !e. An organisational stru#ture "hi#h "orks e2#ellently in one market su#h as insuran#e, "ould !e of dou!tful $alue in the "orld of entertainment or a high4te#h, high4 inno$ation field like #omputers. 7oreo$er any #hange "hi#h does not result in a positi$e reinfor#er 4 in#reased profits 4 from the market is going to !e thro"n out 'ui#kly. Organisational #hanges "hi#h lead to in#reased profits "ill, ho"e$er, generally get reinfor#ed "ith no further "ork !y the #onsultant. *o" it might !e o!&e#ted that the Hypnotherapist #annot #ontrol the ClientFs daily en$ironment. And in the simplest sense this is, of #ourse, true: the Hypnotherapist does not lea$e the #onsulting4room. Ho"e$er, "hen you start to think a!out it, it 0 possi!le to alter the ClientFs effe#ti$e en$ironment, as a result of #hanging the ClientFs !eha$iour. 0uppose, for e2ample, that there is a young man "ho is misera!le !e#ause he does not ha$e a girlfriend, and "ould like the #onfiden#e to get one. t might !e $ery #lear that sin#e he spends all his spare time at home or "ith an elderly un#le there is no #han#e, e$en if he were more #onfident, of meeting someone. n this #ase "e might simply look to gi$e him enough #onfiden#e to take him to a pla#e "here he "ill ine$ita!ly meet suita!le girls. This #hanges his effe#ti$e en$ironment. .ith only a little lu#k, nature "ill then take its #ourse and he "ill need no more 6therapy6. n many #ases it is possi!le also to #hange the !eha$iour of people around the Client !y means of #hanging the !eha$iour of the Client in their presen#e. As a $ery simple e2ample, suppose that someone #omplains that e$ery!ody at "ork hates him, and it also turns out that he has a ha!it of s#o"ling all the time. f "e #an get the s#o"l remo$ed 4 perhaps on the prete2t that it indi#ates tension and "e "ill remo$e the tension 4 then, human nature !eing "hat it is, those around him "ill per#ei$e him as a mu#h more pleasant indi$idual. They "ill therefore start to a#t in a more pleasant "ay. This "ill en#ourage him to smile more and s#o"l less. This "ill make him seem more likea!le. And the loop "ill #ontinue to po"er the #hange. There may !e some readers "ho, at this stage, "ill !e o!&e#ting that some pro!lems are deeper than this. ndeed they #an !e. t might "ell !e the #ase that in the last e2ample the s#o"ling is a result of some deep emotional "ound "hi#h "ill need some e2amination. But remem!er that "ithin this systemati# approa#h "e do not attempt e$en to #hange a s#o"l "ithout running through the diagnosti# pro#ess des#ri!ed in #hapters a!o$e: looking into the 'uestion of the systems "ith "hi#h it is in$ol$ed5 "hat arouses it5 "hat are the asso#iated feelings5 "hat "ere its origins5 "hat "ould !e the #onse'uen#es of #hange. n fa#t, therefore, the s#o"l may !e the $ery door that "e need in order to enter the area of the deeper pro!lem. On the other hand, it may &ust !e a ha!it of no great signifi#an#e other than that it has !e#ome in$ol$ed in an e2ternal loop in "hi#h the more he s#o"ls the less people like him, and so the more he s#o"ls. f it is the latter it should !e #omparati$ely easy to

#hange it. f it pro$es to !e $ery hard, then "e may "ell suspe#t that there is more to it, and a #areful analysis should re$eal "hat that more is. .hen "e start "e do not kno" ho" mu#h of the pro!lem pro#ess is internal and ho" mu#h is e2ternal. The diagnosti# pro#ess is general enough to pro$ide the ans"ers to this, as "e follo" up the #ausal #hains in$ol$ed. f the #hain is purely internal then, as in the #hapter on the use of positi$e feed!a#k loops in Hypnosis, "e "ill !e looking to internal positi$e loops to po"er the #hange. n order to a#hie$e this end "e may "ell !e enhan#ing #hanges $ia a positi$e feed!a#k loop in$ol$ing Client and therapist. f, on the other hand, the "orld e2ternal to the Client is playing an important part in the pro!lem then "e may "ell need to #hange that. This "e #an do indire#tly, using #hanges in the ClientFs !eha$iour to produ#e the re'uired #hanges. This "ill in turn in$ol$e us in making #ertain internal #hanges, and "e are !a#k to po"ering these #hanges "ith positi$e feed!a#k loops. And these may start "ith a pro#ess like a typi#al indu#tion. Turning again to our Consultant analogy: he or she must first determine the large4 s#ale #hanges that need to !e made, looking, as the Hypnotherapist does, for ones that are relati$ely easy, "ill !e $ia!le, and "ill not !e harmful. 0u#h #hanges "ill generally !e made "ith the e2ternal en$ironment in mind. Then he or she "ill ha$e to get do"n to the nitty4gritty of making the spe#ifi# internal #hanges "hi#h may !e ne#essary in, say, the a##ounts department. t is at this stage that he or she seems to !e "orking hardest: that is the point "here people see the #hanges. But in fa#t the most important "ork is his or her understanding of the larger s#ale: an understanding "hi#h is in$isi!le. t is also the understanding "hi#h is hardest to tea#h 4 and the understanding "hi#h pays !est. 7ost !ooks on Hypnosis tea#h the simple te#hni'ues for making lo#al #hanges. .e ha$e seen that many are no more than esta!lishing simple feed!a#k loops in$ol$ing the #hange and the e2pe#tation of the #hange. They are easy to learn. 7ost students #an pi#k them up "ithin "eeks. But that is not Hypnotherapy. n mu#h of this !ook, !y #ontrast, the higher4order skills of #hanging a person as a "hole, "ith a #lear understanding of the intera#tions of the indi$idual "ith his or her en$ironment, ha$e !een emphasised. *e$ertheless "hen the skilled Hypnotherapist gets do"n to "ork, the first visible sign of "ork may "ell !e the same early familiar steps of many an 6Hypnoti# indu#tion6: 6*o", "ould like you to sit #omforta!ly and fi2 your eyes...6 SUMMAR.hen "e #ome to making a #hange it may !e $ery simple, and in$ol$e only an internal ad&ustment. n that #ase the #hange #an !e po"ered !y internal positi$e feed!a#k loops. 0ome e2amples ha$e !een gi$en of su#h loops in the #onte2t of therapy. .e ha$e noti#ed the importan#e in this #onte2t of looking for positive reinforcers. 7ore generally in Hypnotherapy, ho"e$er, "e are making #hanges "hi#h affe#t and are affe#ted !y the ClientFs en$ironment. t is $ery important then to ensure that any #hanges are reinfor#ed !y the en$ironment outside the #onsulting4room. n other

"ords "e look to #reate positi$e feed!a#k loops in$ol$ing the ClientFs en$ironment to support and enhan#e the #hange. t is important to noti#e that it is possi!le to #hange the ClientFs en$ironment $ia #hanges in the ClientFs !eha$iour. At its simplest, this might mean simply introdu#ing the ha!it of going to ne" pla#es, "earing ne" #lothes or treating people differently so that they in return !eha$e differently. SUMMAR- O@ PART E * PA%T B "e ha$e seen the simple notions of systems and their a#ti$ities and intera#tions, "hi#h "e started "ith in Part A, de$elop into $ery po"erful tools of thought for understanding mu#h that happens in the fields of Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy. The "hole area of diagnosis has !een transformed from something that "as at !est a listing of symptoms into a #lear and logi#al pro#edure for defining the nature of the dynami#s of the systems in$ol$ed. @And organi# systems are nothing if not dynami#.A The feed!a#k loops "hi#h ha$e emerged naturally from the same approa#h ha$e !een seen to !e not only fundamental to the fun#tioning of most organi# systems, !ut also #entral to the nature of $ery many of the most #ommon Hypnoti# pro#edures. Positi$e feed!a#k loops ha$e !een seen to !e responsible for $ery many of the #ommon pro!lems presented to the Hypnotherapist, !ut also to pro$ide one of the more po"erful tools for making #hanges to eliminate pro!lems. *egati$e feed!a#k loops ha$e !een seen to !e essential for the preservation of valuable processes in organi# systems5 !ut e'ually they #an !e responsi!le at times for maintaining a disadvantageous one. .e ha$e seen that the pro#ess of diagnosis leads on naturally to a systemati# "ay of generating #hanges, and a "ay of thinking systemati#ally a!out those #hanges to ensure !oth that they are permanent and that they do not #ause further pro!lems. 9urthermore it should !e #lear that the prin#iples de$eloped ensure that "e negle#t neither any important internal aspe#ts of the pro!lem, nor any important e2ternal aspe#ts. There is !uilt into the thinking an automati# 6analyti#6 element, and an e'ually automati# 6holisti#6 element. t is hoped that pra#tising Hypnotherapists "ill see ho" this "ay of thinking makes e2pli#it and rigorous "hat most of us ha$e !een doing for years. t is hoped that the non4spe#ialist "ill understand in a deeper "ay "hat Hypnotherapy is all a!out: that it is *OT the domain of #harlatans and sho"men5 *OT simply a matter of "a$ing a "at#h, sending someone to sleep and ha$ing them "ake up 6#ured65 *OT totally dependent on a !elief that it "ill "ork. t is, rather, at root a $ery pra#ti#al, logi#al and s#ientifi# approa#h to #hanging @for the !etterA the fun#tioning of a "ide range of mental, emotional and ha!itual systems in the human !eing.

t should also !e #lear that the same approa#h and prin#iples #an ha$e appli#ation in !roader fields su#h as families or organisations, or indeed medi#ine. The use of a diagnosti# pro#edure !ased on the dynami#s of the systems in$ol$ed rather than stati# symptom #lusters "ould seem to !e an ad$an#e in many other fields. Ca'tions (A Throughout this !ook there are many e2amples "hi#h are #hosen for their illustrati$e $alue: they are therefore simple. n real life things are generally #ompli#ated. This means that "e may end up "ith many #ausal #hains and many loops, "hi#h may link together in $ery mu#h more #omple2 "ays than ha$e !een indi#ated here. *ote also that e$en in the simpler #ases it #an often take many sessions to make useful, permanent #hanges. -A Be a"are of the fa#t that a parti#ular #ausal #onne#tion !et"een systems may "ell hold only under parti#ular #onditions. 9or illustration, "hereas !lo"ing on a small fire #an easily put it out, !lo"ing on a large one #an fan the flames. 9or#ing oneself to go into mildly fearful situations #an redu#e the an2iety felt. 9or#ing oneself into highly fearful situations on the other hand #an produ#e a $ery strong pho!ia. /A >o not imagine that the prin#iples alone make an e2pert. Training and e2perien#e are essential, as in other professions. 1A *o matter ho" "ell someone understands the theory presented a!o$e, it "ill !e of limited use unless it is #om!ined "ith a good share of humanity: an a!ility to understand and empathise "ith our fello"s from all !a#kgrounds and of all temperaments. 3A >o not imagine that "ill !e applying the formalism in a rigid "ay in the #ourse of a session, though may su!se'uently "rite do"n the dynami# stru#ture as part of the #ase notes. Gust as a #omposer hears musi# in his head and only su!se'uently puts it on paper, so grasp the dynami#s in my head in a rather a!stra#t "ay, and only later #onsign it to paper. 8A t is not !eing suggested that the theoreti#al frame"ork de$eloped here is complete. think that there is still a lot of "ork to !e done to tighten up the e2a#t notions used @though a step to"ards a tightening of the definition of a#ti$ity is gi$en in Part CA, and in the re#ognition of signifi#ant dynami# patterns and of the fun#tioning of the many systems "ith "hi#h Hypnotherapy is in$ol$ed. n the a!o$e only the simplest patterns ha$e !een des#ri!ed. t is !eing #laimed only that the frame"ork pro$ides a relati$ely rigid foundation on "hi#h su#h further "ork #an pro#eed. PART C * TH 0 PA%T of the !ook the #hapters deal "ith a $ariety of different themes "hi#h are largely dis#onne#ted from ea#h other, though all relate to the theory de$eloped in Parts A and B. They may !e read in any order, or skipped.

The first three of these #an !e !roadly seen as e2panding on important aspe#ts of Hypnotherapy. The ne2t three are there to relate the 67organi#6 approa#h to Hypnotherapy to important asso#iated fields, namely e2perimental "ork, family therapy and other forms of psy#hotherapy. The final four #hapters take a more detailed look at some $ery important theoreti#al #on#epts and #onstru#ts. A summary of ea#h is a$aila!le at the front of the !ook in the list of #ontents and, in a different form, at the end of ea#h #hapter. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R *?

ypnosis!

Dynamic Re"o'n% an% Paire% Systems

PART % n this third part of the book each chapter is relatively independent. &ach takes !p one partic!lar aspect of o!r s!b'ect and looks at it from the perspective of the principles that have been developed.
In this chapter we focus on a particular and very important principle of organic systems. This is the fact that to maintain homeostasis - a reasonable equilibrium there evolve pairs of systems which act in opposite directions to maintain any important parameter within range. If one increases, then the other decreases. This is coupled to the principle that if we attempt to over-ride a system it will tend, over a few cycles, to strengthen. 2e may then often find that the most effective strategy in dealing with a problem is analogous to vaccination1 we act in the short term to produce the very thing which we are trying to prevent in the long term, with the aim of strengthening a natural system which will produce the required change. The converse of this is that a direct attempt to change a system is more analogous to drug therapy1 it can be very effective in the short term, but in the long term weakens a natural system which would do the same job, thus creating potential long-term problems. THE%E 0 an old saying: 6.hat goes up must #ome do"n.6

Originally, suppose, this "as applied to anything thro"n into the air. But here "e "ant to fo#us attention on the fa#t that for any !iologi#al system any in#rease in a#ti$ity #annot go on for e$er: in time the a#ti$ity le$el must #ome do"n. This idea pro$ides a starting point for our e2amination of the reason "hy, in Hypnotherapy, if "e "ant to decrease the a#ti$ity of a system, "e may often su##eed !y first increasing it. Here are some e2amples of the use of su#h a prin#iple. t is not un#ommon for someone to say, 6 #annot rela2. The more try, the "orse !e#ome.6 The pro!lem here is that the mus#les are designed a#ti$ely to #ontra#t "hen they re#ei$e a ner$ous impulse: 2Nner$ous inputO 4 2Nmus#le a#ti$ityO. But there is no "ay in "hi#h a dire#t ner$ous stimulus #an redu#e a#ti$ity. Those people "ho #an rela2 ha$e learned the kna#k of stopping sending any messages to the mus#les @$ia the efferent ner$esA, often !y #on#entrating instead on messages #oming from the !ody @$ia the afferent ner$esA. People "ho are trying to rela2, !ut #anFt, are a#ting as if the "ay to rela2 is to find the right "ay of ordering the mus#les to rela2. But this does not "ork. .ith su#h people it is parti#ularly useful to get them to start !y tensing all the large !ody mus#les as mu#h as possi!le. .e might suggest raising the legs, holding the arms for"ard "ith tensed fists, tensing the a!domen, et#. They are then instru#ted to hold this for as long as possi!le. This greatly enhan#ed a#ti$ity of the mus#les soon uses up most of the a$aila!le energy in the !loodstream "hi#h, #om!ined "ith a !uild4up of la#ti# a#id in the mus#les, soon produ#es the familiar tiredness and a#he. .hen this tension is rela2ed the mus#les are then naturally in no #ondition to !e a#ti$ated !y any ner$ous impulses, and so rela2 into a state of $ery lo" a#ti$ity. n shorthand "e ha$e: 2Nmus#lesO 4 2Nsense of fatigueO 4 3Nmus#lesO ha$e kno"n men "ho ha$e got into a terri!le state !e#ause they ha$e !een told !y someone that they ought to rela2 more: they ha$e then redu#ed the amount of sport they ha$e !een playing in an attempt to do so. This has only led to hours of in#reasing tension. .hen they are instead instru#ted to play sport again they find the natural #onse'uen#e: they rela2 after the game #ompletely and naturally. .e see in these e2amples the prin#iple that in dealing "ith some organi# systems the !est approa#h to making a #hange in one dire#tion is to start a change in the opposite direction. As another e2ample of this prin#iple, there is a #ase of Eri#ksonFs in "hi#h he dealt "ith a grossly o$er"eight "oman !y first forcing her to put on more weight @%ossi @(<;=A $ol. J, pp (;-4(;3Bi!A. The pra#ti#al effe#t of this "as that she su!se'uently lost "eight 'ui#kly and easily. A possi!le me#hanism for this #an !e analysed as follo"s. There is some system in the !ody "hi#h is responsi!le for storing fat: let us #all this NstoringO. There is another

system "hi#h deals "ith remo$ing stored fat @remem!er the general prin#iple that "e e2pe#t t"o different systems "hi#h operate in opposite dire#tionsA: let us #all this Nremo$ingO. n line "ith our general prin#iples of diagnosis "e "ould like to kno" "hat leads to an a#ti$ation of NstoringO. f "e pla#e the me#hanism in the en$ironment in "hi#h it e$ol$ed, "hi#h "as one in "hi#h there "ere $ery fe" means of storing food safely for long periods, and one in "hi#h there might !e years of plenty and then years of famine, the follo"ing dynami#s "ould seem natural. Any sense of there !eing a shortage of food "ould a#ti$ate NstorageO in the same "ay that today any ne"s that there might !e a shortage of sugar on the supermarket shel$es leads to house"i$es des#ending like lo#usts and pa#king their larders "ith it. n the #ase of a sensed impending famine the early "oman "ould simply find herself eating e$ery s#rap a$aila!le and turning it into fat. .e therefore ha$e the simple pro#ess: 2Nsense of shortageO 4 2NstoringO. *ote that although this is a plausi!le formula am !y no means saying that it 7H0T hold for e$eryone. f there is one #ertain thing that #an !e said a!out people it is that they "ork in different "ays. .hat >O say is that the 'uestion of "hether or not the formula holds for a particular person is one "hi#h #an !e determined empiri#ally. f an artifi#ial sense of famine su#h as is produ#ed !y a stri#t diet leads to an a#ti$ation of a pattern of #ompulsi$e eating and then rapid "eight gain "e ha$e a strong reason to suppose that the initially plausi!le result a!o$e holds. .ith this idea in mind "e may see Eri#ksonFs strategy as !eing one of ina#ti$ating #ompletely this parti#ular #oupling !y presenting the "omanFs !ody "ith a "orld in "hi#h there is not only a surfeit of food !ut one in "hi#h it is !eing for#ed into her. .ith this NstoringO system ina#ti$ated it "ould then !e easy to lose "eight. n#identally the same method of pla#ing this storage me#hanism in the en$ironment in "hi#h it e$ol$ed "ould suggest that it is rather more likely to happen in "omen, "ho ha$e to #arry food "ithin their !odies for !oth themsel$es and a helpless !a!y, than for men, "ho "ould more helpfully respond to famine !y "orking harder to glean food !y hunting or going further afield 4 a#ti$ities not generally helped !y !eing hea$ier. Here is another thought on the same lines. .hat made a "oman look attra#ti$e a fe" million years agoB suggest that it "as !eing "ell4fed and plump: this "ould indi#ate health and !eing a!le to mother healthy #hildren. @This remains true, !elie$e, in parts of the "orld "here food is at a premium.A Therefore if a "oman felt unattractive then "e might "ell suppose that the primiti$e me#hanism of attempting to pad herself out "ould !e a#ti$ated: 2Nsense of unattra#ti$enessO 4 2N"eightO

A modern "oman "ho has inherited this me#hanism is therefore in a terri!le position !e#ause, thanks to modern ideas, she thinks that "eight is unattra#ti$e. .e therefore ha$e: 2N"eightO 4 2Nsense of unattra#ti$enessO, "hi#h, #oupled "ith the a!o$e primiti$e me#hanism makes, of #ourse, an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop for "eight and unattra#ti$eness 4 a loop "hi#h is a familiar one to millions of "omen. f su#h a "oman attempts to lose "eight !y dieting, !ut has also inherited the old storage pattern, then she only su##eeds in a#ti$ating a $ery strong instin#ti$e desire to !inge and gro" fat. This is a serious feed!a#k loop: 2N"eightO 4 2NdietO 4 2Nsense of famineO 4 2NstorageO 4 2N"eightO, "hi#h underlies the prin#iple, 6>ieting makes you 9at6 @Carnon P EinLig @(<;/ABi!A. 0in#e an in#rease in "eight "ill sooner or later trigger another attempt at dieting, there is an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop. 9or su#h people Hypnotherapy has to a#t to eliminate the in#reasing loops !y deftly altering key fa#tors. 9or e2ample, a strong emphasis on enhan#ing the feeling of attra#ti$eness "ill tend to "eaken or in#apa#itate the loop in$ol$ing it and "eight. Eri#ksonFs o$er4eating strategy "ould "ork for many "omen, !ut it takes a lot of effort to get most "omen to a##ept this approa#hI But at the least "e may note that it is an important part of any healthy eating pattern that there should not !e any prolonged sense of !eing depri$ed of food. This !ook does not pro$ide a detailed a##ount of dealing "ith su#h pro!lems. n general there is no one "ay for e$ery "oman. As in the general prin#iples of Hypnotherapy outlined in Part B, the !est results are o!tained !y a #areful analysis of ho" things "ork in ea#h indi$idual5 the systems, internal and e2ternal, that are in$ol$ed5 and finally a proper handling of the $arious possi!le strategies for #hange and their out#ome. After the a!o$e e2amples and dis#ussions, "hi#h gi$e insight into ho" when we are dealing with dynamic systems the 6o!$ious6 #hange #an !e in e2a#tly the "rong dire#tion, "e #an #ome to a more general perspe#ti$e on the strategy of #reating #hange !y pushing in the opposite dire#tion. .e start "ith the general prin#iple that, in order to maintain homeostasis, organi# systems e$ol$e pairs of su!systems "hi#h operate in #ontrary dire#tions. @ n many #ases there are se$eral systems "hi#h operate in ea#h dire#tion, !ut for simpli#ity "e "ill #onsider t"o.A +et us &ust #all a parti#ular pair of systems "hi#h regulate some fa#tor K, NupO and Ndo"nO. They might !e systems for in#reasing and de#reasing salt in the !loodstream, for raising and lo"ering an arm, for in#reasing or de#reasing "eight, for in#reasing or de#reasing adrenaline produ#tion, et#. %emem!er that the systems NupO and Ndo"nO "ill generally ha$e e$ol$ed millions if not !illions of years ago in 'uite a different en$ironment and in !eings "ith little #ons#ious #ontrol.

.e then ha$e the !asi# formulae: DK Z DNdo"nO and [K Z DNupO. The third fa#tor that "e are going to take into a##ount is the attempt #ons#iously to #ontrol the system regulated !y these t"in me#hanisms. *o" suppose that #ons#iousness is al"ays stri$ing to alter K in one dire#tion. .ithout loss of generality "e may suppose that it is trying to mo$e it do"n: DN#ons#iousnessO Z [K. ne$ita!ly this "ill !ring it into #onfli#t "ith NupO, "hi#h e2ists to safeguard the organism against $alues of K "hi#h are too lo", and this in turn a#ts to in#rease K: [K Z DNupO Z DK. But this in#rease, of #ourse, #ompletes an in#reasing loop for K. The in#rease "ill !e #ons#iously noti#ed and the pro#ess repeated again, and again: DK Z DN#ons#iousnessO Z [K Z DNupOZ DK. 0in#e it is a general prin#iple of organi# systems that the more often they are a#ti$ated the stronger they !e#ome 4 think of mus#les or of immunity to disease 4 the main effe#t of the a!o$e loop o$er a num!er of #y#les is that NupO !e#omes stronger. 7ean"hile Ndo"nO #an take it easy. It is ne$er needed: N#ons#iousnessO has taken o$er its role. t is ina#ti$e. t may e$en start to atrophy. One great $irtue of getting the #ons#ious mind to a#t in the opposite dire#tion, and to for#e the $alue of K up for a "hile, is that it "ill then a#ti$ate the laLy Ndo"nO systemI Eri#ksonFs eating strategy did &ust this. One of the !ig pro!lems "ith people "ho suffer from pani# atta#ks is that although there are natural systems "hi#h "ill pre$ent the asso#iated symptoms from getting out of hand, they are often used so infre'uently 4 the sufferer naturally tries to a$oid pani#s at all #osts 4 that they !e#ome "eakened and less effe#ti$e than they should !e. A strategy of getting a Client to go out and 6#olle#t6 mini4pani#s "ould !e an e2ample of a "ay of in#reasing the strength of the 6do"n6 system. n our initial e2ample on rela2ation "e a#ti$ated a natural system "hi#h s"it#hes down mus#ular a#ti$ity !y first for#ing up the a#ti$ity until the Ndo"nO system 4 the system designed to prote#t against o$er"ork 4 "as a#ti$ated. Many pro"lems &hich are "ro'ght to the ypnotherapist are a res'lt of one; si%e% efforts at control( And time and time again they ha$e !een helped !y an approa#h "hi#h en#ourages the Client to spend some time a#ti$ating the opposite me#hanisms. There are millions "ho ha$e tried $ery, $ery hard to sleep, !ut ha$e ne$er tried to stay a"ake. 9or#ing oneself to stay a"ake and a#ti$e is a good "ay of a#ti$ating the natural me#hanisms "hi#h redu#e arousal and !ring on sleep. There are men "ho

ha$e trou!le urinating in pu!li#. They ha$e pushed and pushed to no a$ail in an attempt to start !ut they ha$e ne$er pra#tised stopping. .hen they do pra#tise they are a#ting against the release system, "hi#h therefore gets a #han#e to gro" stronger. There are those "ho are $ery em!arrassed !y !lushing. They try $ery hard to redu#e it, !ut it only makes things "orse. By a#ti$ely trying to increase it, they tend to a#ti$ate more often the systems "hi#h tend naturally to limit it: systems "hi#h #an then operate more often and more easily. Of #ourse in all real #ases the situation is 'uite #omple2 and the suggestion to re$erse the dire#tion of #ons#ious #ontrol has other definite useful effe#ts in !reaking psy#hologi#al $i#ious #ir#les as "ell. Ho"e$er there remains an important prin#iple of organi# systems, "hi#h is that putting pressure on them "ill, if they do not #ollapse #ompletely, make them stronger. .e ha$e eliminated smallpo2 from the "orld. But most other infe#tious organisms are getting more and more immune to our !est anti!ioti#s: !e#ause medi#ine is al"ays a#ting to redu#e their a#ti$ity, the long4term effe#t is to make them stronger. n so#iety it is so $ery often the #ase that attempts to oppress or suppress some se#tion of so#iety leads only to that se#tion !e#oming stronger in the long run. There are e2#eptions, as "ith the diseases, !ut so many people fail to understand that dire#tly atta#king an organi# system @"ithout killing itA is most likely to make it stronger in the long run. %nything that does not kill you outright makes you a little stronger. 4 Piet Hein The introdu#tion of my2omatosis "as $ery su##essful in redu#ing ra!!it populations "hen first introdu#ed. But no" ra!!its ha$e !e#ome more immune and ha$e de$eloped different instin#ts so that they no longer return to the "arren to die, "hi#h used to in#rease the #han#e of the other ra!!its !e#oming infe#ted. This disease is therefore no longer effe#ti$e in #ontrolling ra!!its, and the populations are e2panding again. .e may note in this #onte2t that one potential pro!lem "ith many medi#al inter$entions is that they are al"ays a#ting in a one4sided "ay. They a#t as ad&un#ts to the #ons#ious mindFs #ontrol. The effe#t "ill !e to "eaken "hate$er system there is in the !ody to produ#e the same effe#t as the drug. n&e#tions of insulin, for e2ample, "ill tend to de#rease the !odyFs o"n produ#tion of insulin. Conse'uently there must de$elop a greater and greater degree of dependen#e on the drug. This is not to say that in many #ases the medi#al inter$ention is not the !est thing to do 4 parti#ularly in the short term. But it is to say that some pra#titioners should !e#ome more a"are of the dynami# nature of the systems they are "orking "ith. f, for e2ample, a tran'uilliser of any kind is used artifi#ially to redu#e an2iety 4 and this #an in#lude ni#otine 4 then ine$ita!ly it redu#es the demands on the !odyFs o"n systems "hi#h operate to redu#e an2iety. These tend therefore to !e#ome less a#ti$e and "eaker. Conse'uently if the artifi#ial tran'uilliser is remo$ed there is $ery little to stop

the symptoms rising to high le$els. The effe#t is generally to make the sufferer return again to the artifi#ial help. As a population, our mus#les are mu#h "eaker than those of our grandfathers, !e#ause "e use artifi#ial legs so mu#h: #ars. Our natural legs ha$e so mu#h less e2er#ise that they ha$e naturally !e#ome "eaker. n general "e see that if the fun#tion of a system is 6assisted6 !y some other me#hanism then there is a definite possi!ility that that system "ill "eaken. E'ually parado2i#ally, organi# systems are often made stronger !y !eing resisted, not assisted. Pruning may strengthen a rose. The "hole prin#iple of $a##ination rests on this !asis. The $a##ination does not dire#tly help to kill off an infe#tion. .hat it does is to a#ti$ate and therefore strengthen the !odyFs o"n immune system !y 6fighting6 it. The $a##ination is a mild atta#k on the !odyFs health. The immune system rea#ts !y gro"ing more effe#ti$e, and then remains so, often for life. *oti#e that in this "ay it is the #omplete opposite to drug therapy. Ja##ination, !y atta#king, strengthens a natural system. >rug therapy, !y assisting, "ill tend to "eaken a natural system. But of #ourse there are times, su#h as "hen a system has !een naturally "eakened, and needs a #han#e to re#o$er, "hen temporary assistan#e is the #orre#t treatment. Ho" do "e de#ide "hi#h approa#h is the !etterB t is to !e hoped that a #areful systemati# analysis #om!ined "ith a sympatheti# understanding of the Client "ill ena!le the right de#ision to !e made. But the mere fa#t that the t"o possi!ilities are in mind should make us a"are of the options, so that if the one approa#h is not going a##ording to plan, then "e are "ell ad$ised to e2amine the alternati$e. t is to !e hoped that the need systemati#ally to analyse the dynami#s of a situation, as has !een done in Part B, "ill also lead to an automati# a"areness of opposing pairs of systems "hi#h e2ist. %e#all that "e start !y asking D0 Z B, "hi#h should re$eal among any systems that are a#ti$ated !y an in#rease in 0 any "hi#h a#t to limit it. These "ill !e Ndo"nO systems. But "e also ask the 'uestion [0 Z B, "hi#h is to say that "e ask "hat "ill !e the #onse'uen#e of a redu#tion in the symptom that is seen as a pro!lem. This should re$eal to us any NupO system that !e#omes a#ti$e to pre$ent it #hanging do"n"ards. .hat this #hapter adds is the ha!it of automatically looking for paired systems, "hi#h a#t in opposite dire#tions to maintain the homeostasis "hi#h is so essential for the sur$i$al of an organism. t also adds the simple !ut important idea that a #hange #an as often !e a#hie$ed !y starting a #hange in the opposite direction to the long-term goal, "ith the o!&e#t in $ie" of a#ti$ating or strengthening an opposing system "hi#h in time "ill !e a!le to a#t in the intended dire#tion.

Those readers "ho are familiar "ith Eri#ksonian terminology "ill find in the a!o$e an e2planation of "hy the strategy of 6parado2i#al inter$ention6 4 telling the person to do the opposite of "hat he or she has !een doing to try to get rid of the pro!lem 4 #an often !e used to great effe#t. A dire#t attempt to #ontrol the ha!it of thum!4su#king in one of Eri#ksonFs #ases led only to the girl doing it more and more. Eri#kson merely imposed a #ertain amount of #on#entrated thum!4su#king on her, to the point at "hi#h she started to feel a strong sense of resistan#e to the imposed #hore @Haley @(<:/AA. The a#ti$ation of this inner sense "as then enough to stop her. A dire#t attempt !y a parent to #ontrol the amount of s"eets #onsumed !y a #hild all too often leads only to a stronger desire for s"eets and the ha!it of o!taining and eating them in se#ret. All the parent su##eeds in a#ti$ating is a stronger desire for s"eets. f, on the other hand, the parent "ere to impose the #onsumption of large amounts of s"eets as a penalty for not doing home"ork or something else, then there "ould soon !e a#ti$ated a $ery strong a$ersion to s"eets. . 0o far "e ha$e seen a model of ho" #ontrol of a system may !e in#reased !y ensuring that !oth its NupO and Ndo"nO regulatory systems are regularly a#ti$ated to strengthen them. This e2plains in a #lear "ay "hy the strategy of parado2i#al inter$ention "orks, and "hy increasing the a#ti$ity that one "ants reduced #an !e effe#ti$e. But there is another reason "hy parado2i#al inter$ention may fun#tion, "hi#h is rather more dramati#, !ut less #ommon. .e "ill present this first !y means of a pi#ture @"hi#h is not unlike "hat seems to ha$e happened to #ertain early tri!es of peopleA. 0uppose that some people mo$e into $irgin #ountry, "hi#h is "ooded. They find that they #an #ut and !urn the trees and re$eal fertile ground "hi#h #an !e #ulti$ated. This pro$ides enough food for the population to in#rease. The in#reased population #an spread out and #ut more trees, to pro$ide more ground for #ulti$ation. And this in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop "ill #ontinue until they run out of ne" land. .hat happens ne2tB t is not simply that the population gro"th "ill stop, and the population le$el off: the population is almost !ound to #rash. The reason for this is that there is little "arning of the impending danger: as long as there is land still a$aila!le, the men "ill go right on e2ploiting it "ith in#reased $igour. f you a##elerate to"ards a stone "all a #rash is ine$ita!le. Businessmen may !e a"are of similar phenomena in more modern times. The .all 0treet #rash is an e2ample of a system in "hi#h there "as an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop in a system "hi#h "as too young to ha$e e$ol$ed any negati$e feed!a#k loops to regulate its gro"th. .hen it rea#hed a point "here there "ere no ne" funds a$aila!le to fuel the in#rease, the "hole system #rashed. +et us look at this prin#iple and see ho" it might, in theory, !e used to #ontrol a predator population. The normal pro#edure is to "ork $ery hard to kill off the predators. But !eyond a #ertain point this !e#omes $ery diffi#ult. *ot only do you

rea#h a point of diminishing returns in that the smaller the num!er of predators, the more time and effort it takes to kill another, !ut also the predator tends to e$ol$e more and more effe#ti$e "ays of sur$i$ing your atta#ks. The opposite strategy, suggested !y the a!o$e general #hara#teristi# of !iologi#al systems, is to feed the predators. +et them !e a!le to raise large litters. Help them all to sur$i$e the "inter. +et their population gro" e2ponentially until it is t"enty or more times the num!er that the land #an naturally support. +et them gro" soft on good li$ing, and lose some of their "ariness. THE* suddenly #ut off the supplies at a time "hen natural food supplies are near a minimum. The large num!ers of a#ti$e predators "ill $ery 'ui#kly mop up these supplies and then !e fa#ed "ith star$ation. There is a $ery good #han#e that the entire population "ill in this "ay !e "iped out: and if you "anted to a##elerate this, then there "ould !e a $ery good #han#e of killing the last fe" due to their soft and "eakened state. n these e2amples, "e see a pattern of a positi$e feed!a#k loop #reating e2ponential gro"th of a system. But in ea#h #ase the systems #ame up against the fa#t that a resour#e #an drop to Lero, and that #an happen "ith $ery little "arning. This, in#identally, is one reason "hy it #an !e of great importan#e to distinguish positi$e feed!a#k loops "hi#h are in#reasing "ith respe#t to all their #omponent systems, and positi$e feed!a#k loops "hi#h are de#reasing "ith respe#t to one or more of their systems. n all positi$e feed!a#k loops "e #an e2pe#t a pertur!ation to #hange e2ponentially, !ut in the de#reasing kind one of the systems #an hit Lero a#ti$ity suddenly, and this #reates a drasti# #hange in "hat is happening, as "e ha$e seen. 9rom an e#ologi#al perspe#ti$e, a sta!le e#osystem is one in "hi#h any spe#ies "hi#h #ould hit Lero a#ti$ity @e2tin#tionA has done so. The remaining spe#ies #o4e2ist in patterns of negati$e feed!a#k loops "hi#h ensure that in none does the a#ti$ity rea#h Lero: as any one approa#hes Lero there must !e something in its intera#tions "ith the remainder of the e#osystem "hi#h ensures that its a#ti$ity re!ounds up"ards. f some #hange is made to the e#osystem, "hether at the en$ironmental or !iologi#al le$el, there is no longer any guarantee that e2isting negati$e feed!a#k loops "ill pre$ent a spe#ies hitting the irre$ersi!le Lero. E2tin#tions !e#ome possi!le, or e$en highly pro!a!le. Ho" do these thoughts ha$e any !earing on HypnotherapyB .ell, "e #hange the e#osystem of someoneFs mind "hen "e introdu#e ne" thoughts. f, in parti#ular, "e esta!lish a positi$e feed!a#k loop to make the pro!lem system in#rease its a#ti$ity at a fast rate, then "e may find that rather than running up against a natural regulatory system of the kind "e #onsidered a!o$e, "hi#h has e$ol$ed to maintain homeostasis, "e may ha$e systems running in a totally ne" mental en$ironment in "hi#h there are no su#h limits. n this #ase "e may anti#ipate that the e2ponential gro"th "ill at some point #ause some pro#ess in the #hain or #hains suddenly to hit Lero a#ti$ity due to depletion. This in turn "ill trigger off sudden sho#ks in the

!eha$iour of others, and "e ha$e a#hie$ed a sudden #hange all around, not unlike the #hange in an e#onomy "hen a !usiness "hi#h has !een gro"ing fast and large suddenly #ollapses, #reating sho#k "a$es all around. This style of 6therapy6 reminds us of 7esmerFs patients "ho "ere "ound up into higher and higher states of e2#itement until there "as a dramati# 6#risis6 in$ol$ing #on$ulsions and a great display of emotion. 0u#h phenomena "ere on#e asso#iated "ith religious #on$ersion, or "e may think of initiation #eremonies, or of !rain"ashing. am not happy "ith su#h te#hni'ues in general !e#ause, although they #an deli$er #hange, "ould ha$e little #onfiden#e that it "ould ne#essarily !e for the !etter. Ho"e$er this is not to say that they might not !e used in a limited "ay to e2tinguish a limited and small system. 0ome readers may ha$e noti#ed the $alue of this aspe#t of the theory, ho"e$er, in modelling a ner$ous !reakdo"n. Typi#ally in su#h #ases there are one or more positi$e feed!a#k loops "hi#h are running e$er more strongly under diffi#ult #ir#umstan#es until one of the systems in$ol$ed runs up against the !ri#k "all of no further resour#es. Perhaps the !ody #an gi$e no more physi#al strength, perhaps the limits of produ#tion of #ertain neurotransmitters ha$e !een rea#hed, perhaps the immune system #an no longer fun#tion on the limited resour#es it has a$aila!le to it. .hate$er the reason, the sudden stop of any one system in a loop "ill #reate sudden #hanges in all related systems, and the "hole #omple2 pattern is likely for a "hile to stop dead, "ith all the a##ompanying symptoms of !eing totally una!le to #ope "ith demands, "hether on physi#al strength, on de#ision making, or on the emotions. Of #ourse in time there "ill !e a re4gro"th "hi#h, if "ell managed, #an !e mu#h stronger and !etter than the gro"th that "ent !efore. The Ameri#an 0to#k E2#hange did not die out after the )reat Crash, though it "as in the doldrums for some time. t is no" far stronger and far !etter regulated than it "as then. An e#osystem "hi#h has #rashed #an also re4gro" strongly and often "ith rene"ed $igour !e#ause a lot of dead "ood #an get #leared in a #rash. n the long term a #rash #an !e !enefi#ial, !ut "ould still rather not take the responsi!ility of initiating a massi$e #rash, !e#ause of the enormously diffi#ult task of predi#ting e2a#tly "hat "ill gro" again after it. t is true that you #annot make an omelette "ithout !reaking eggs, !ut then it is so $ery mu#h easier to !reak eggs and *OT end up "ith an omelette. 0H77A%, Organi# systems tend to maintain homeostasis: a reasona!le e'uili!rium in the fa#e of #hanging #onditions. To this end negati$e feed!a#k loops e$ol$e so that any departure of some key parameter from its typi#al $alue "ill !e #orre#ted !y a pair @at leastA of systems, one of "hi#h "ill a#t to in#rease it if it drops and the other to de#rease it if it rises. .e therefore ha$e a real possi!ility of redu#ing some symptom !y a#ting in a "ay "hi#h initially seems to in#rease it, pro$ided that this a#ts to a#ti$ate the opposing system "hi#h "ill in time redu#e it naturally. This is the prin#iple used in $a##ination.

.e ha$e seen also that repeated efforts dire#tly to redu#e a pro!lem may "ell simply strengthen the system that is produ#ing it, and "eaken a system "hi#h "ould naturally redu#e it. This "ill generally aggra$ate the pro!lem o$er time. This is the danger inherent in prolonged drug therapy or of any artifi#ial aids. .e ha$e further indi#ated that under more e2treme #onditions the a#ti$ity of a system may !e eliminated !y for#ing it so strongly in the opposite dire#tion that "e o$er4e2pand it until the system 6#rashes6. This is not re#ommended, e2#ept on a small s#ale, !e#ause of the unpredi#ta!ility of the #onse'uen#es. This pattern also pro$ides a model for the pro#ess of a 6ner$ous !reakdo"n6. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R *A

ypnosis!

Comple1 Dissociate% Systems

This chapter draws attention to the general point that in any comple system there are subsystems which may or may not affect each other. If two have no direct effect on each other they may be called totally dissociated. If the effect is only one way we may call it a partial dissociation. The dissociation may also be weak or strong - in the latter case there will be some third or higher system which acts so as to prevent the strongly dissociated systems from affecting each other. ) amples are given of these phenomena and an interesting point is made regarding the difference in emphasis between Hypnotists, who tend to create dissociation, and Hypnotherapists, who tend to eliminate it. * PA%T A "e dis#ussed su!systems of the human !eing "hi#h #an !e identified !y means of the asso#iated stru#tures, su#h as the auditory system, $isual system, et#. Ho"e$er these are not the only systems that are in$ol$ed in Hypnotherapy. There #an also !e #omple2 systems "hi#h are not neatly identifia!le in terms of one spe#ifi# stru#ture. .e ha$e already mentioned some of these "ithout e2pli#it #omment, !ut "ill no" pay more attention to them. A useful introdu#tion to su#h systems is pro$ided !y the phenomenon "hi#h is kno"n as disso#iation. .e may take an e2ample of this from HilgardFs "ork @Hilgard P Hilgard @(<:3ABi!A. Hilgard is the primary proponent of the modern neo4disso#iation theory of Hypnosis, "hi#h states that disso#iation is the fundamental #hara#teristi# of all Hypnoti# phenomena. This e2ample took pla#e in a #lassroom en$ironment in "hi#h the instru#tor "as demonstrating a $ariety of Hypnoti# phenomena, in#luding deafness. One of the students "ho "ere parti#ipating in this demonstration "as also !lind, so that the phenomenon of indu#ed deafness "ould !e parti#ularly dramati# for him, as it "ould

lea$e him a"areness of the "orld through his sense of tou#h only. He had !een hypnotised pre$iously. A standard indu#tion "as used, follo"ed !y the suggestion that after the instru#tor #ounted from one to three the student "ould !e#ome deaf and una!le to hear any sound. t "as additionally suggested that this "ould !e re$ersed "hen the instru#tor pla#ed his hand on the studentFs right shoulder. t is possi!le that had it not !een for this reassuran#e that the effe#t "as to !e temporary, the suggestion "ould not ha$e taken effe#t, !e#ause of the an2iety that might !e indu#ed in a person so dependent on sound. The effi#a#y of the suggestion "as tested !y !anging together some large "ooden !lo#ks: there "as no response at all. n fa#t, at an earlier demonstration the e$en more dramati# test of firing a starting4pistol near the 0u!&e#t had !een used, also "ith no effe#t. *aturally there "as no response either to any 'uestions asked of him. The parti#ular signifi#an#e of the e2periment that day "as that another student "as moti$ated to "onder if, despite the la#k of o$ert response, there might !e 6some part6 of the 0u!&e#t "hi#h #ontinued to !e a"are of "hat "as !eing said. The reasoning "as that sin#e there "as no malfun#tion of the ears themsel$es, the "ords might !e getting some distan#e into the !rain. The instru#tor agreed to test this hypothesis and did so in the follo"ing "ay. He spoke 'uietly to the 0u!&e#t, "ho had pro$ed unresponsi$e to the loudest noises. He !egan "ith the general o!ser$ation that there are many internal systems of "hi#h there is no #ons#ious a"areness, su#h as those that #ontrol #ir#ulation and digestion. He then added that there might !e mental pro#esses of "hi#h there may also !e no a"areness. *e2t he suggested that there might !e a part of the 0u!&e#t that "as a!le to listen to his $oi#e and pro#ess information. 9inally he asked for the ideo4motor response of the lifting of an inde2 finger if this last suggestion "as in fa#t the #ase. Apparently !oth the instru#tor and his #lass "ere surprised "hen the finger rose. 0o "as the 0u!&e#t, "ho immediately spoke to remark on the fa#t that he had felt his finger mo$e for no reason and "anted to kno" "hat had happened. The instru#tor therefore restored the 0u!&e#tsFs normal sense of hearing !y tou#hing him on the shoulder. The 0u!&e#tFs a##ount of e$ents "as that he re#alled the initial instru#tions a!out going deaf at the #ount of three, and !eing a!le to hear again on !eing tou#hed. There "as then only a silen#e, "hi#h "as rather !oring, and so he had o##upied his time "ith a mathemati#al pro!lem. .hile thus employed he had felt his finger lift, and so asked a!out it. The 0u!&e#t "as then told "hat had happened and then the initial suggestions "ere re$ersed so that he "as a!le to hear again "ithout a hand on his shoulder. The ne2t step taken "as to use an analogue of the phenomenon of 6automati# "riting6. This is a phenomenon "hi#h has !een reported at $arious times in the history of Hypnosis, and had !een used !y this instru#tor. t in$ol$es the re#o$ery of material not a##essi!le to #ons#iousness !y means of one hand !eing pla#ed 6out of a"areness6 !y Hypnoti# te#hni'ues, and then !eing allo"ed to "rite in response to 'uestions. @This is dis#ussed further in Chapter (;.A

The instru#tor again "ent through his Hypnoti# indu#tion and talked e2pli#itly of there !eing t"o parts of the 0u!&e#t, and that a #ertain tou#h on the arm "ould put the instru#tor in tou#h "ith that part "hi#h had kno"n "hat "as going on "hen he "as hypnoti#ally deaf. He further suggested that that part "ould !e a!le to ans"er 'uestions, "hile the other part 4 presuma!ly the #ons#ious mind 4 "ould !e una"are e$en of the fa#t of talking until 6out of hypnosis6 again. At that stage he "as to !e #ons#iously a"are of e$erything. The instru#tor then tou#hed the 0u!&e#t in the spe#ified "ay and asked 'uestions. The results "ere $ery mu#h those "hi#h "ould ha$e !een e2pe#ted if automati# "riting had !een used instead. The 0u!&e#t spoke freely of the e2perien#es "hi#h had o##urred "hen he had !een 6deaf6, su#h as the #on$ersations !et"een the instru#tor and the other students, and the !anging of the !lo#ks. But "hen the tou#h "as remo$ed the 0u!&e#t reported no #ons#ious a"areness of "hat he had &ust said. 9inally "hen all the suggestions "ere re$ersed the 0u!&e#t "as a!le, as suggested, to remem!er e$erything that had happened. The #on#lusion dra"n from this little e2periment "as that it is possi!le for one part of the !rain to register in#oming information e$en if there is no #ons#ious a"areness of it. 9urthermore it may !e possi!le to re#o$er su#h information. 9or #on$enien#e Hilgard #ame to talk of this information as !eing a$aila!le to a 6hidden o!ser$er6. Perhaps it should !e noted that if this a##ount "as our only !asis for this #on#lusion then it "ould !e logi#ally 'uite inade'uate. A s#epti# #an point to the fa#t that information a!out "hat had happened had !een gi$en to the 0u!&e#t after the first episode, and he #ould easily ha$e re4presented these fa#ts "hen the supposed 6hidden o!ser$er6 "as !eing 'uestioned. Ho"e$er there is ample other e$iden#e, su#h as that o!tained from automati# "riting, to $alidate the general #on#lusions, so this a##ount #an !e taken as a usefully $i$id "ay of introdu#ing the su!&e#t of disso#iation. Perhaps the only surprising thing a!out this a##ount is that the instru#tor and #lass "ere surprised at the finger mo$ement, sin#e they had already seen automati# "riting and "ere therefore a"are of the possi!ility of information not !eing a##essi!le to #ons#iousness !ut a$aila!le !y other means. The 6hidden o!ser$er6 in this e2ample may !e regarded as a fun#tional su!system of the person "hi#h is essentially distin#t from the system "hi#h is a#ti$e in normal #ons#iousness. The disad$antage of the phrase is that like 6the su!#ons#ious6 it suggests that there e2ists only one su#h system. n prin#iple there #an !e many. n terms of #omple2 systems the e2isten#e of fun#tionally distin#t su!systems is no surprise. f "e #onsider that system "hi#h is a #ountry, for e2ample, then to an outside o!ser$er the out"ard signs of the a#ti$ity of that #ountry are those things #ontained in the media 4 TJ, radio and papers. Ho"e$er, many things happen in a #ountry "hi#h are not re$ealed in the media. And it "ould !e 'uite possi!le for an

outside o!ser$er to pay attention to some different aspe#t of life 4 dis#ussions in pu!s, for e2ample 4 "hi#h might re$eal a totally different pi#ture. n #ertain so#ieties there is $ery little #onta#t indeed !et"een $arious se#tions of so#iety. There #an !e many autonomous su!4so#ieties, "hi#h may !e deli!erately se#ret like the 7asons on#e "ere, or simply deta#hed for most purposes like pigeon4 fan#iers. There is nothing strange a!out some su#h su!system of so#iety responding to and !eing $ery agitated a!out something that the rest of so#iety kno"s nothing a!out. f, !y analogy "ith HilgardFs little e2periment, it is arranged that the su!4so#iety has a##ess to the media, then it "ill tell its story, and then for a "hile the greater part of so#iety "ill !e in #onta#t "ith and a"are of that su!4so#iety and its preo##upations. n general terms "e may say that A*, #omple2 system "ill #ontain su!systems. These are more or less integrated "ith ea#h other. n this #hapter the #ases of interest are those systems in "hi#h t"o su!systems are essentially dis&oint5 they do not #ommuni#ate5 they are disso#iated. f they are la!elled A and B, then total %issociation arises "hen neither system affe#ts the other: 8A 4 9B and 8B 4 9A. .e may also define 'nilateral %issociation, in "hi#h one system #an affe#t the other !ut not $i#e $ersa. Thus "e may say that 6B is unilaterally disso#iated from A6 if #hanges in A ha$e no dire#t effe#t on B, "hile #hanges in B do ha$e an effe#t on A: 8A 4 9B, "hile 8B 4 8A. Of #ourse these definitions are idealisations. n pra#ti#e "e may ha$e degrees of disso#iation, !ut this does not diminish the usefulness of the #on#ept. f "e ha$e a strike in a !usiness, then during a period "here there is no negotiation "e ha$e a situation appro2imating to a total disso#iation !et"een the "orkers and the management. n a totally auto#rati# organisation in "hi#h the managers order !ut do not respond to the "orkfor#e, "e ha$e a unilateral disso#iation of the managers from the "orkfor#e. f, on the other hand, "e ha$e a "orkfor#e "hi#h does not respond to management, !ut does affe#t it a lot, then the "orkfor#e may !e said to !e unilaterally disso#iated from the management. Another appro2imation to disso#iation is pro$ided !y a t"o4party system of go$ernment. There seems nothing strange to us in the fa#t that e$ery so often there #an !e a #omplete and sudden #hange of the prin#iples on "hi#h a #ountry is run. ,et, from the point of $ie" of another #ountry, it #annot !e so different from dealing "ith a total #hara#ter shift in a person. One day foreign poli#y may !e open and friendly, the ne2t it #an !e prote#tionist or hostile. A sensi!le foreign #ountry "ill therefore ha$e lines of #ommuni#ation @"hi#h are *OT the offi#ial #hannelsA to the party "hi#h is out of po"er so that it is not taken !y surprise !y the #hange.

The Hilgard e2periment #an !e seen as paralleling &ust su#h a #ommuni#ation "ith a system "hi#h "as not the one "hi#h "as primarily in #ontrol. +et us ne2t look at some familiar e2amples of forms of disso#iation in the #onte2t of human psy#hology and psy#hotherapy. At one e2treme "e ha$e #ases of split or multiple personality. n su#h people there seem to !e distin#t and non4#o4operating personalities "hi#h #an take it in turn to !e Sin #ontrolF. n e2treme #ases ea#h personality has its o"n memories "hi#h are 'uite distin#t from those of the other or others. n other #ases there #an !e a one4"ay flo" @unilateral disso#iationA: one personality has a##ess to the memories of another !ut not $i#e $ersa. 0u#h e2treme #ases of multiple personality make good reading or films, !ut seem to !e $ery rare in real life @Ellen!erger @(<:=ABi!A. A se#ond familiar form of disso#iation, "hi#h is #ommonly dis#ussed in !ooks on psy#hotherapy, is one in "hi#h a memory of a traumati# e$ent is repressed, "hi#h is to say, made ina##essi!le to #ons#iousness. *e$ertheless the memory #an ha$e distin#t and often trou!lesome effe#ts on !eha$iour and feeling in the present. Here the dynami#al pattern is that the t"o systems 4 traumati# memory and #ons#iousness 4 are typi#ally totally disso#iated, ea#h ha$ing no dire#t a#tion on the other5 !ut ea#h is #ompeting for #ontrol of some third system su#h as the mus#les or the 6flight or fight6 system a#ti$ated !y per#eption of a threat. +et us suppose that a #hild has !een se2ually assaulted at the age of four in a garage, and that the memory of this painful e2perien#e has !een repressed. A typi#al #onse'uen#e is that, e$en "hen the #hild has !e#ome an adult, it is impossi!le to enter a garage "ithout e2perien#ing a pani#. At su#h times it is as if the adult personality is repla#ed !y that of a terror4stri#ken four4year4old again. There is only the most limited #ommuni#ation !et"een the t"o personalities, sin#e the adult does not ha$e a##ess to the #hildhood memories "hi#h ha$e !een repressed, and has little or no #ontrol o$er the #hild personality. The #hild, like"ise, has $ery little a!ility to alter the adult. A great deal of psy#hotherapeuti# "ork and Hypnotherapeuti# "ork is #on#erned "ith healing su#h di$ides. The #lassi# "ay, going !a#k at least as far as 9reud, is of the therapeuti# abreaction, in "hi#h the repressed memories are released 4 !rought to #ons#iousness 4 together "ith the asso#iated emotions. This "ill then often lead to the resolution of the pro!lem. But noti#e that though it "ill often happen that su#h a pro#ess "ill "ork, it is not necessarily the #ase that it "ill al"ays "ork. The reason for this, put in a simple "ay, is the follo"ing. Certainly if an adult does not kno" "hy a #hild is $ery upset, then he or she "ill often not !e a!le to help. But the mere fa#t that an adult does kno" "hat is upsetting a #hild does not guarantee that this is the end of the pro!lem: the adult may still treat the #hild in the "rong "ay and make things "orse. .hat is true of the dynami#s of a real adult and a real #hild is like"ise true for the dynami#s of an adult personality and the 6#hild "ithin6. f "e ha$e the pattern that: 2NE2pressed distress5 #hildO 4 2N%epression5 adultO 4 3NE2pressed distress5 #hildO,

then it does not matter "hether the 6adult6 system is e2ternal or internal: the 6#hild6 system "ill generally !e una!le to es#ape the po"er of this negati$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h a#ts to pre$ent any e2pression of distress. Jery often sufferers ha$e, #om!ined "ith the internal system that rea#ts to diffi#ulties like an a!used #hild, also an adult internal system "hi#h a#ts as if it is "rong e$er to #omplain5 so that any #omplaints from the 6#hild6 are responded to !y in&un#tions to the self to 6stop !eing silly,6 6pull yourself together,6 et#., "hi#h may !e effe#ti$e in the short term !ut ne$er lead to a resolution of the #entral pro!lem. The 6adult6 is fore$er trying to #ontrol the 6#hild6, !ut ne$er 'uite managing to do it in the long term. The "ords, 6 do not feel in #ontrol,6 arise in fa#t $ery often in the therapeuti# #onte2t and are a good indi#ator of some degree of disso#iation. The Client may not !e in #ontrol of their feelings in a #ertain #onte2t, or of their a#tions in another #onte2t, or of their thoughts in yet other #onte2ts. n terms of our present systemati# approa#h "e may say that there is a degree of disso#iation !et"een that system "hi#h is the personality "hi#h the Client presents to the therapist and some other su!system of the !ody or mind "hi#h is seen as a 6pro!lem6. 0ome of these #ases #an #ome $ery #lose to !eing split personalities, as in the #ase of se$ere al#oholi#s in "hi#h the so!er and drunk personalities #an ha$e little in #ommon, in#luding memories. n others the 'uasi4autonomous su!system "hi#h is not under #ontrol #an !e #omparati$ely small, as #an arise in su#h pro!lems as in#ontinen#e or nail4!iting. One familiar s#hool of analysis of psy#hodynami#s "hi#h takes up the a!o$e theme and features in an essential "ay an analysis of a person into large or high4order su!systems is Transa#tional Analysis @TAA, "ith its di$ision into Child, Parent and Adult @Berne @(<81A, Harris @(<:=ABi!A. Here the pi#ture is that a parti#ular indi$idual may, in some relationships, #ontinue to !eha$e in many "ays like the #hild he or she on#e "as, "hile at other times the !eha$iour #an !e that of a parent in a relationship. This parental role is #ommonly !ased on the role of one of the a#tual parents. Both parental and #hildlike roles tend to !e rather highly #harged emotionally and stereotyped. 9inally Transa#tional Analysis pla#es great "eight on a third, or adult, personality "hi#h tends to !e less emotional and more fle2i!le and helps to resol$e #onfli#ts of $arious kinds in a #onstru#ti$e "ay. Although TA deals in this "ay "ith su!systems of a person, the primary system of interest is typi#ally a t"osome: t"o indi$iduals "ho are a#ti$ating parti#ular personalities in the presen#e of the other. A typi#al pro!lem "hi#h TA "ill seek to help is the follo"ing. +et C( !e the #hildlike persona of the first person and P- !e the parental persona of the se#ond person. Then pro!lems #an arise in #ases "here an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop e2ists in "hi#h the #hildlike !eha$iour of ( prompts or a#ti$ates #omplementary parental !eha$iour in -, !ut this in turn a#ti$ates further #hildlike !eha$iour in (: 2C( 4 2P- 4 2C(. n the a!stra#t "e ha$e no "ay of telling "hether su#h a loop is !enefi#ial or other"ise 4 it depends entirely on "hether the #onse'uent !eha$iour is harmful or not. f it is harmful then this positi$e loop "ill !e seen as a pro!lem and a "ay needs to !e found to eliminate it !y #hanging the pattern of intera#tion of the systems in$ol$ed.

A #hara#teristi# strategy in the #onte2t of TA is to a#ti$ate an adult personality or system in one or !oth of the people, "hi#h "ill alter or remo$e the harmful loop. Another large4s#ale analysis of a psy#hoanalyti# nature is of #ourse the 9reudian analysis into d, Ego and 0uper4ego. These again fun#tion like 'uasi4autonomous su!systems of a person "hi#h are often in #onfli#t "ith ea#h other and may !e effe#ti$ely disso#iated. But "e do not need to go into su#h areas to !e a"are of the e2tent to "hi#h an indi$idual may ha$e many different personae, ea#h of "hi#h may a#t like a 'uasi4 autonomous system. 7any a "oman has #omplained that she is at $arious times a daughter, a mother, a "ife, a mistress, a se#retary, a #ook, a housekeeper, a ta2i4 dri$er, an employee, a nurse, a #onfidante, a friend, and so on. n most people these different personae are #onne#ted reasona!ly #losely, !ut the di$isions !et"een some of them #an at times !e#ome so strong that it is possi!le to #all them disso#iated. 7any a professional man, for e2ample, effe#ti$ely has t"o personalities 4 his "orking one and his domesti# one 4 and there is little #onta#t !et"een them. As a general point, it seems that some indi$iduals find it relati$ely easy to #ompartmentalise their li$es. Others find it $ery diffi#ult. t is possi!le that some of the fa#ility "ith "hi#h some of the #lassi#al Hypnoti# phenomena #an !e produ#ed in an indi$idual are related to su#h a !asi# #hara#teristi# as this. In partic'lar note that the fact that ilgar% fo'n% s'ch a clear;c't e1ample of %issociation in the partic'lar st'%ent %oes not g'arantee that s'ch a phenomenon can "e fo'n% in everyone( The fa#t that Hypnoti# pro#esses #an at times un#o$er a disso#iated system in #ertain indi$iduals, or e$en #reate one in other people, does not allo" us to o$er4generalise and to dedu#e that this is the !asis of A++ Hypnoti# phenomena. +et us illustrate this prin#iple "ith our !usiness analogy: many organisations of suffi#ient #omple2ity naturally su!di$ide themsel$es into 'uasi4autonomous di$isions "hi#h a#t independently for nearly all purposes. But this does not allo" us to dedu#e that su#h departmentalisation #an easily or "isely !e produ#ed in another #ompany "hi#h has al"ays !een tightly integrated, "ith #lose t"o4"ay #ommuni#ation !et"een all se#tionsI *either should "e assume that the "hole of !usiness #onsultan#y "ork is the matter of #reating distin#t departments. @As an outsider to the "orld of management theory it seems to me that the 67anagement )urus6 @Kennedy @(<<(ABi!A typi#ally fail to appre#iate that different #ompanies not only ha$e different 6personalities6, !ut that it is in general !etter for the general e#onomy if there A%E su#h different personalities. The Business )urus, like many a psy#hologi#al guru, seem all too prone to "ant e$ery #ompany to adopt the personality "hi#h has their stamp of appro$al.A 9inally "e ha$e the simplisti# analysis into Cons#ious and 0u!#ons#ious "hi#h is often #ome a#ross in !ooks on Hypnosis. .e meet statements su#h as, 6 "ill !e #ommuni#ating "ith your su!#ons#ious mind,6 6,our su!#ons#ious kno"s things that your #ons#ious mind does not and it #an signal "hat it kno"s !y mo$ing a finger,6 and so on.

This !rings us round #lose to the neo4disso#iation theory of Hilgard again, "ith its t"o4system analysis. The main point to !e made here is that the Cons#iousD0u!#ons#ious terminology #reates the limiting idea of there !eing only two large su!systems in the mind. This !ook should !e making it #lear that it is far #loser to the truth to regard the mind as #onsisting of an enormous num!er of su!systems, from the lo"4le$el neurologi#al ones up to high4order personae, all of "hi#h are interlo#ked to some e2tent, and #an !e disso#iated to some e2tent. f some of these are not a##essi!le to the #urrently #ons#ious system, then they may !e said to !e relati$ely un#ons#ious 4 an ad&e#ti$e. But to use the "ords 6un#ons#ious6 or 6su!#ons#ious6 as nouns gi$es them a solidity and reality that they do not possess, "hi#h is the reason the terms ha$e !een a$oided as far as possi!le in this !ook: though pro$ided that the a!o$e point is re#ognised, they #an !e used as a shorthand for the large #olle#tion of intera#ting systems in$ol$ed. *o" that "e ha$e taken a "ide !ut !rief tour of e2amples of disso#iation, it is time to make an important distin#tion !et"een t"o forms of disso#iation. These "ill !e termed &ea# and strong. .eak disso#iation arises if there is simply no reason for asso#iation. 0trong disso#iation arises if there is a natural asso#iation, !ut there is an a#ti$e prin#iple at "ork "hi#h pre$ents it. There are usually #ertain systems "ithin go$ernment "hi#h are strongly disso#iated from so#iety !e#ause of se#re#y la"s @e.g. the Offi#ial 0e#rets A#t in the HKA. There are groups of #riminals "ho are a#ti$ely disso#iated from so#iety !e#ause there is a death senten#e "aiting for any indi$idual "ho lets outsiders kno" "hat is going on. .e ha$e seen that traumati# memories are often strongly disso#iated from #ons#ious a"areness, and a man may a#ti$ely disso#iate all thoughts of his mistress at times "hen he is "ith his "ife. At some times and pla#es it has !een the norm that ra#es or #lasses ha$e !een a#ti$ely or strongly disso#iated !y strong so#ial for#es pre$enting their se2ual or so#ial mi2ing. By #ontrast there is a "eak disso#iation !et"een the mental systems "hi#h deal "ith inter4departmental memos and "ith playing !all "ith a #hild: there is simply no natural #onne#tion, so that neither thought nor a#ti$ity "ill e$er emerge in the #onte2t of the other. 0imilarly the system of nursery s#hools and the system of #asinos in so#iety ha$e no natural asso#iations: you may #hange the le$el of a#ti$ity of one "ithout affe#ting the other in the slightest. They are disso#iated in the "eak sense: no for#e is needed to ensure that they remain separated. One "ay of e2pressing the nature of a strong disso#iation sym!oli#ally is as follo"s. 0uppose A and B are t"o systems "here A is naturally asso#iated "ith B: 8A 4 8B 4 8 A. But suppose also that there is a third, regulatory, system % "hi#h "ill !e a#ti$ated !y any su#h a#tion of A on B, and "ill a#t to eliminate the asso#iation. n shorthand this is: 2N 8A 4 8BO 4 2% 4 3N 8A 4 8BO, andDor 2N 8B 4 8AO 4 2% 4 3N 8B 4 8AO. .e may see this as a negati$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h a#ts to eliminate any pro#ess "here!y a #hange in A #an affe#t B @andDor B affe#t AA. The net effe#t of this may !e

redu#ed to the simplest des#ription of disso#iation 4 8A 4 9B andDor 8B 4 9A @totalDpartial #asesA 4 for some purposes. Ho"e$er, it is important to !e #lear a!out "hen this represents a strong disso#iation, in$ol$ing a third regulatory system, and "hen it is merely a "eak disso#iation in "hi#h no other system is in$ol$ed. n pra#ti#e the sort of analysis that "e ha$e seen in earlier #hapters "ill generally sho" up su#h a differen#e $ery easily. There is generally no pro!lem in asso#iating "eakly disso#iated systems, though it may take #ontinuing effort to keep them together, as there is generally little affinity. On the other hand an attempt to asso#iate strongly disso#iated systems is likely to e$oke a strong rea#tion, and "ill generally !e $ery diffi#ult. The type of disso#iation in$ol$ed in repression is generally of the strong type, and the literature from 9reud on"ards #ontains many referen#es to the "ays in "hi#h a regulatory system % #an a#t in order to pre$ent the repressed system from #oming into #onta#t "ith #ons#iousness. f ask you to asso#iate the idea of a !a!y "ith the idea of a lam! there "ill normally !e little pro!lem. f ask you to retain the asso#iation in the #onte2t of that lam! !eing #hopped up !y the !ut#her, there is likely to !e a strong resistan#e, !e#ause the normal adult has a natural instin#ti$e pro#ess "hi#h rea#ts strongly to any suggestion of $iolen#e !eing dire#ted at a !a!y. An automati# and strong disso#iation "ill therefore arise. n the #onte2t of Hypnosis "eak disso#iation may "ell arise spontaneously and "ith little effort. f the Hypnotist "orks to esta!lish in the 0u!&e#t a $ery unusual pattern of thoughts, feelings and !eha$iours 4 e$en !eing totally rela2ed in a strange room listening "ithout interruption to a strangerFs $oi#e is $ery unusual, after all 4 then things "hi#h are said "ill ha$e no natural #onne#tion or asso#iation "ith other more normal patterns. 0o that &ust as thoughts of offi#e memos ha$e no asso#iation "ith playing "ith a #hild and so ne$er arise in that #onte2t, so the thoughts "hi#h arise in response to the HypnotistFs $oi#e need ha$e no asso#iation "ith the rest of life @"hat the Hypnotist has said is unlikely to !e remem!eredA: unless of #ourse a deli!erate asso#iation has !een made. The #reation of a deli!erate asso#iation is the prin#iple of the post4hypnoti# suggestion. As an e2ample suppose that the Hypnotist asso#iates in the mind of the 0u!&e#t the sound of a pie#e of musi# and the idea of mar#hing. This may !e done 'uite strongly if, in a##ordan#e "ith a prin#iple des#ri!ed in earlier #hapters, the a#ti$ity of all other systems is redu#ed to a minimum. Then the e2perien#e of the asso#iating may "ell !e @"eaklyA disso#iated from normal #ons#ious patterns of thought, "hile the asso#iation !et"een the musi# and the mar#hing remains strong. Then, at any su!se'uent time, "e may find the 0u!&e#t, e$en if seemingly normally #ons#ious, rea#ting to the sound of the pie#e of musi# "ith the suggested mar#hing !eha$iour, "hile at the same time the !eha$iour may not !e asso#iated "ith "hat happened "ith the Hypnotist. There is nothing $ery strange a!out this. A similar phenomenon, in systems terms, is as follo"s. 0uppose that in a !usiness some managers are sent on a #ourse to !e taught some ne" te#hni'ue !y training #onsultants. The rest of the #ompany ha$e no idea "hat happens on the #ourse. .hen the managers #ome !a#k e$erything may

pro#eed as normal at first, until a parti#ular #ir#umstan#e #omes up "hi#h triggers off the ne"ly trained !eha$iour: the managers then !eha$e in a totally ne" "ay, as they ha$e !een trained to do. n a similar "ay the Hypnotist may tend to isolate one small system or small group of systems and get them to fun#tion in a ne" "ay in response to imagined #ir#umstan#es. +ater the 0u!&e#t "ill !eha$e in a totally normal "ay until those #ir#umstan#es arise and then the ne"ly learned !eha$iour "ill !e e$oked in a "ay "hi#h might seem surprising. n the a!o$e e2amples of "eak disso#iation the Hypnotist has not esta!lished any system designed to keep information a!out "hat has happened out of #ons#iousness. t is possi!le, ho"e$er, for the Hypnotist deli!erately to institute su#h a system. At its simplest this amounts to introdu#ing the thought, 6,ou "ill not !e a!le to remem!er ...6 Thus it may !e possi!le to get a 0u!&e#t to !e una!le to re#all the num!er 686, so that the e2er#ise of #ounting the fingers pro#eeds: 6(, -, /, 1, 3, .., :, ;, <6. @There may "ell !e some tell4tale hesitation !et"een 3 and : as the regulating system suppresses the kno"ledge of the missing digit.A .ith a fe" 0u!&e#ts it #an !e as easy as that. .ith others the Hypnotist "ill ha$e to !uild on some small e2ample of forgetfulness !y means of a positi$e feed!a#k loop, as "e ha$e seen in the pre$ious #hapter, until the e2pe#tation of not !eing a!le to remem!er things suggested !y the Hypnotist is #onfirmed enough !y e2perien#e to !e firmly entren#hed. The dynami#s of su#h a pro#ess is not so $ery different from the "ay in "hi#h many of us make our memories "orse !y repeating to oursel$es, 6 ha$e a memory like a sie$eI6 ha$e read, !ut #annot remem!er "here@, that to repeat these "ords is e'ui$alent to pun#hing another hole in the sie$e. Although the dynami#s of indu#ing amnesia in this "ay sho"s it to !e an e2ample of a strong disso#iation, the po"er of the regulating system is unlikely to !e anything like the po"er of some of the regulators that e2ist naturally and are in$ol$ed "ith repression. These #an e$oke $ery strong emotions of terror at the $ery approa#h of an asso#iation, "hi#h effe#ti$ely pre$ents any further #loseness. The e2ample from Hilgard 'uoted at the start of this #hapter is of strong disso#iation. The auditory system responded to sounds. But the normal pattern "here!y the a#ti$ation of the auditory system a#ti$ates higher systems "as deli!erately inhi!ited !y means of the instru#torFs suggestion. .e #annot say e2a#tly "here the inhi!ition took pla#e, !ut it "as at a fairly high le$el of information pro#essing. The #on#epts in$ol$ed in disso#iation thro" a $ery interesting light on a #ertain !asi# #ontrast !et"een Hypnosis as used on the stage and in many simple e2perimental demonstrations of Hypnoti# phenomena on the one hand, and Hypnotherapy on the other. This #ontrast may !e o$er4simplified for emphasis !y saying that the Hypnotist is generally attempting to disso#iate material from #ons#iousness. The Hypnotherapist is generally attempting to eliminate su#h a disso#iation.

+et us look at this in a little more detail. Consider "hat is happening to the 0u!&e#t on stage. He or she is typi#ally una!le to a##ess kno"ledge that is normally a##essi!le. t may !e that the num!er 686 has disappeared. t may !e that a normal a!ility to #ontrol !eha$iour is gone. Thus if there is a post4hypnoti# suggestion to rush a!out #rying 69ireI6 "hene$er a #ertain pie#e of musi# is played, and no re#all of the origin of this response in the HypnotistFs "ords, there is some disso#iation. f Hypnoti# te#hni'ues are used to indu#e a finger le$itation, then the 0u!&e#t #an sense that the mo$ement has nothing to do "ith the normal $oluntary me#hanisms for lifting a finger, and there seems no #ons#ious #ontrol of the systems "hi#h are in$ol$ed in the mo$ement. This again indi#ates a disso#iation, al!eit a mild one. By #ontrast, the Hypnotherapist is typi#ally fa#ed "ith a pro!lem in "hi#h a Client or Patient is saying, 6 ha$e no #ontrol o$er ... 6. And this, as has !een noted, is $ery #ommonly !e#ause of a disso#iation "hi#h has arisen !et"een t"o @or moreA su!systems. The Hypnotherapist @or Psy#hotherapistA "ill then typi#ally !e a#ting to reduce the disso#iation, as "e ha$e seen. Efforts "ill !e made to allo" repressed material into #ons#iousness5 or to allo" the #ons#ious mind again to #ontrol some fun#tion that has !e#ome disso#iated. n terms of one of our analogies, the 0tage Hypnotist #an !e seen as sho"ing "hat fun it #an !e to repla#e the personnel of some department of a large firm "ith stooges "ho deli!erately a#t in a "eird "ay, and no longer do "hat is e2pe#ted of them. @The department !e#omes unilaterally disso#iated.A t "ould !e fun if professional tele$ision engineers "ere repla#ed !y men "ho had !een told to e2#hange all footage sho"ing the Prime 7inister "ith #lips of donkeys, for e2ample. The Hypnotherapist, !y #ontrast, is dealing "ith a firm in "hi#h some department has !e#ome disso#iated @perhaps they are disaffe#ted for some reasonA and generally "orks to re4esta!lish good #ommuni#ation and #o4operation !et"een that department and others: i.e. the disso#iation is redu#ed. .e ha$e seen then that Hypnotists tend to #reate disso#iations and Hypnotherapists tend to eliminate them. But this distin#tion is not a!solute and there are some #ases in "hi#h Hypnotherapy in$ol$es pro#edures more like those of simple Hypnosis, and may #reate a system disso#iated from #ons#iousness. But su#h a pro#edure should !e performed "ith great dis#retion, !e#ause it is analogous to introdu#ing a ne" spe#ies into an e#osystem: if there is a long4term effe#t it #an so easily !e "orse rather than !etter. 9or e2ample, suppose the pro!lem is #aused !y a disso#iated system "hi#h is a#ti$ating some ha!it or symptom su#h as smoking, a ner$ous stoma#h, an2iety atta#ks, et#. *o" a simplisti# Hypnoti# treatment is to 6suggest6 that these things go a"ay "hen the 0u!&e#tFs re#epti$ity to ne" ideas has first !een enhan#ed !y standard te#hni'ues mentioned in earlier #hapters. This amounts to #reating a ne" su!system in the mind "hi#h is partially or #ompletely disso#iated and "hi#h is designed to a#t on the symptomati# system in order to remo$e the symptom. 9or a "hile this may "ork. But sin#e nothing has !een done a!out the original disso#iated system, "e no" ha$e two su#h su!liminal systems, !oth a#ting on the symptomati# system. The out#ome is unpredi#ta!le at !est. At "orst it may #reate 'uite undue internal tension and stress.

on#e had as a Client a professional "oman "ho "anted help "ith her !lushing. 0he refused to allo" any deeper analysis of why she "as !lushing, and made the mistake of agreeing to a#t dire#tly on the symptom. All "ent "ell at first5 set up internal systems of thought to suppress the !lushing and it stopped for a "eek or so. Then it #ame !a#k "ith a $engean#e: "orse than !efore. This may !e seen as an e2ample in "hi#h the ne" system seemed effe#ti$e at first !ut "as then #ompletely o$er"helmed !y the old. This is not untypi#al of "hat #an easily happen if you attempt to suppress the a#ti$ity of any !iologi#al system !y for#e. An initial su##ess is $ery often follo"ed !y a strong re!ound, as many a father of a teenage son has found to his #ost. 0ome further thoughts on this prin#iple are in the pre$ious #hapter. 7any people, after ha$ing "at#hed a presentation of entertainment Hypnosis, #ome for Hypnotherapy "ith the idea that it "ill !e $ery easy to make the re'uisite #hanges, !ut they ha$e often failed to grasp the essential differen#e !et"een #reating a ne" su!system "here there "as none !efore, and #reating one in opposition to one that is already a#ti$e and entren#hed. Any !usinessman "ill tell you that there is a !ig differen#e !et"een e2panding into a to"n "here there is no #ompetition and one "here there has !een a similar !usiness running for years. n the latter #ase there may !e no pro!lem at first, !ut ri$alries "ill soon start to take their toll, and the entren#hed !usiness has many ad$antages on its side: it kno"s the #ustomers so mu#h !etter. A #ompetent Hypnotherapist "ill !e attempting to make a permanent #hange, "hi#h means that any ne" su!system of thought or !eha$iour must harmonise "ith e2isting ones "ell enough to integrate properly and stay permanently. .e ha$e already seen in earlier #hapters ho" a thorough analysis of the dynami#s of the situation helps enormously "ith this task. These sho" ho" far from the truth it #an !e to assume that pro!lems #an !e sol$ed simply !y #reating a @possi!ly disso#iatedA su!system dire#tly to #ontrol the symptom. Another analogy for #ertain Hypnoti# pro#edures "hi#h #an thro" light on the a!o$e distin#tion is that of a skin or organ transplant. f a surgeon repla#es a patientFs heart, he is repla#ing a parti#ular system of the !ody. There "as a time "hen this "as thought to !e a su##ess if the ne" heart #ontinued to !eat and the patient sur$i$ed the operation. The fa#t that death follo"ed "ithin "eeks or months "as under4 emphasised. Of #ourse it later !e#ame apparent that a ma&or #ause of su#h deaths "as the re&e#tion of the ne" organ !y the !odyFs defen#e or immune system. The pro#edures of Hypnosis are nothing like as drasti# in their #onse'uen#es, !ut there are #ertain similarities. A Hypnotist "ho esta!lishes a ne" mental system in a personFs mind is doing something analogous to transplanting an organ. 9or a "hile it may "ell #ontinue to fun#tion effi#iently. But it is generally the #ase that "e ha$e mental pro#esses "hi#h a#t like the immune system in that they re&e#t alien material: material "hi#h "e do not re#ognise as 6self6. f these are "orking effi#iently there "ill #ome a time "hen the ne" "ay of a#ting or thinking "ill seem alien or un#omforta!le, and a little later the alien systems "ill pro!a!ly !e simply eliminated. .e may see

su#h a pro#ess happening rather naturally during the teenage years "hen ha!its of thought and !eha$iour "hi#h ha$e !een passed on to the #hild !y the parents are re&e#ted !y the strengthening personality of the adoles#ent. Gust as there are people "hose immune system is "eak, so there are people "hose a!ility to re&e#t alien ideas is "eak. on#e had a Client, a young "oman, "ho had !een to another Hypnotherapist "ho had, among other things, gi$en her suggestions for 6#onfiden#e6. 0he had internalised these suggestions, !ut in rather a strange "ay. t made her feel as if she "ere "earing a manFs #oat 4 in fa#t the HypnotherapistFs #oatI 4 "hi#h "as hea$y, large and un#omforta!le. n short all the signs "ere that the su!system he had #reated in her "as alien to her. @A middle4aged manFs sense of #onfiden#e "ill generally !e !ased on 'uite different things from that of a shy "oman in her early t"enties.A 0he had not had the strength "hen sa" her to #ast off that suggestion !y herself, !ut #learly that "as "hat "as needed. *o" surgeons ha$e learnt t"o "ays of in#reasing the su##ess rate of organ transplant. One is to use an organ "hi#h is not re#ognised !y the immune system as alien 4 in the simpler #ase of !lood transfusion this means getting the !lood group right 4 and the other is artifi#ially to redu#e the a#ti$ity of the immune system "hile the organ is !eing a##epted. Those #on#erned, as "e are, "ith transplanting su!systems of mental a#ti$ity, like"ise find that "e are most su##essful if the su!systems harmonise "ith the e2isting $ery large net"ork of systems, and if "e redu#e, to !egin "ith, the mindFs normal and healthy tenden#y to re&e#t alien material. This latter pro#ess is "hat "e ha$e dis#ussed in an earlier #hapter under the name of in#reasing rapport. The other o!&e#ti$e 4 of attempting to harmonise the suggestions "ith the personality of the 0u!&e#t 4 is not one "hi#h #an easily !e taught. t is *OT easy for us to understand the $ery different "ay othersF minds "ork. The a$erage person gi$es ad$i#e on the !asis of "hat they "ould do in the same situation. A hus!and "ho is a golf fanati# "ill suggest to his "ife, suffering from post4natal depression, that "hat she needs to shake herself out of it is a good game of golf. The "oman "hose marriage is on the ro#ks "ill readily ad$ise her !est friend to lea$e her hus!and. n )erald >urrellFs !ook .y =amily and !ther %nimals ea#h of the #hildren ga$e their mother !irthday presents "hi#h "ere things that they liked, !ut "ere of no use to her. t takes a lot of listening to other people, and a lot of trying to understand how they think, !efore one !e#omes good at this side of the &o!. think ha$e done "ell at $arious times in esta!lishing an understanding of ho" a modern >ruid, and a modern Buddhist and Hindu and 7oslem think, so that #an help them to make the #hanges that they "ish to make, !ut it is pro!a!le that, other things !eing e'ual, the &o! #ould ha$e !een done !etter !y someone "ho shared their "orld4$ie"s. One moral the prospe#ti$e Client may dra" from this is that in the sphere of Hypnotherapy you should !e parti#ularly #areful to esta!lish that the therapist listens, and sho"s strong signs of kno"ing as a result ho" you think and feel. Other"ise there is a $ery strong #han#e that any transplanted ideas "ill !e alien to you. f this

happens you "ill either re&e#t them in a short time, making the "hole e2er#ise a "aste, or you may end up "ith a disso#iated system that you may "ell need further help in getting rid of, like the "oman "ith the o$er#oatI .e may "ell ask the 'uestion, 6.hy should it ever !e ne#essary for a Hypnotherapist to create a su!system "hi#h is disso#iated from #ons#iousnessB6 Or to put it another "ay, 6.hy should it e$er !e !etter for a Client to !e una!le to remem!er "hat it is that the Hypnotherapist has suggestedB6 or, again, 6.hy should it e$er !e ne#essary for a 7anaging >ire#tor to !e strongly e2#luded from kno"ing ho" some of his staff are !eing retrainedB6 f it is thought to !e ne#essary, then "e may generally presume that the Client "ould not #ons#iously #hoose to a##ept the idea. But this pro$ides prima facie e$iden#e that there is a !ad mismat#h !et"een the ne" idea and the e2isting personality, "hi#h must make us suspe#t that it has !een !adly #hosen. The argument in favour of #reating su!systems disso#iated from #ons#iousness is that 9 "e kno" for a fa#t that the "hole !eing "ill !e the !etter for the introdu#tion of a ne" pattern of !eha$iour, feeling or thought, BHT that this ne" pattern "ill, as in the #ase of an organ transplant, need prote#ting for a "hile against a natural re&e#tion, THE* it is "orth gi$ing it that immunity !y the artifi#ial prote#tion that disso#iation gi$es it "hile it !e#omes esta!lished. 7y personal feeling is that there are $ery fe" therapists "ho are "ise enough to !e a!le to !e #ertain of the long4term #onse'uen#es of a #hange of this nature and so the pro#edure of introdu#ing a disso#iated system should !e used rarely and "ith great dis#retion. 9inally noti#e that the pro#ess of #reating a su!system disso#iated from #ons#iousness is not the same as #reating distin#t su!systems. t may "ell !e that in a gi$en small !usiness !oth #orresponden#e and a##ounts are handled !y the same people in the same department. As the !usiness gro"s it may "ell !e ad$antageous to separate the t"o fun#tions into t"o different departments. n this "ay distin#t su!systems ha$e !een #reated. f there is no #ommuni#ation !et"een the departments then they "ill also !e @"eaklyA disso#iated from ea#h other. But more normally they "ill #ontinue to intera#t in appropriate "ays, and so they "ill !e distin#t !ut not disso#iated from ea#h other. But in either #ase it is essential that they should not !e disso#iated from higher managerial le$els. n the same "ay it #an !e useful or ne#essary "ith #ertain Clients to ena!le them to separate #ertain mental fun#tions. 9or e2ample some pho!i# rea#tions arise !e#ause a #ertain situation is associated "ith a #ertain frightening e$ent in the past. f, for e2ample, a person has had a #ar #rash "hi#h in$ol$ed a lorry, then su!se'uently all lorries #an arouse a strong feeling of fear. Clearly "e need to "ork to"ards disso#iating the fear from a re#ognition of lorries. n a #ompa#t form, "e ha$e: 2Nper#eption of a lorryO 4 2NfearO and "e "ill need to "ork to"ards:

2Nper#eption of a lorryO 4 9NfearO But there is no reason "hy this #hange should !e a#hie$ed in a "ay "hi#h suppresses #ons#ious a"areness of the pro#ess. The Hypnotist, again !y #ontrast, is often creating strange asso#iations, su#h as one !et"een a pie#e of musi# and an unusual !eha$iour. t may help to summarise these ideas !y saying that on the "hole the Hypnotherapist is more likely to en#ourage vertical asso#iation, though he or she may en#ourage lateral disso#iations, "hile the Hypnotist is more likely to !e doing the re$erse. SUMMARn this #hapter "e ha$e !een #onsidering $arious aspe#ts of the notion of disso#iated systems. t is #lear that any #omple2 organi# system "ill ha$e su!systems, and the 'uestion then arises naturally "ithin our frame"ork of "hether any t"o are dynami#ally #onne#ted or not. n earlier #hapters the emphasis has !een on the #ases in "hi#h t"o systems are #onne#ted. n this #hapter the interest has !een fo#used on "hen t"o are *OT. n su#h a #ase "e are dealing "ith dissociated systems. .e ha$e seen that disso#iation may !e #omplete or unilateral, and "eak or strong. The latter distin#tion, in parti#ular, is dynami#ally $ery important. n the "eak #ase the systems do not asso#iate !e#ause there is no reason for it. n the latter they are a#ti$ely pre$ented from asso#iating. A parti#ularly useful distin#tion !et"een Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy arises out of these ideas. This is that Hypnotists tend to aim to #reate disso#iation !et"een a ne" system and e2isting #ons#ious systems. Hypnotherapists tend to "ork in a pre#isely opposite dire#tion and to eliminate su#h disso#iations. This has led to an analogy !et"een the introdu#tion of a ne" mental su!system into a Client and an organ transplant. The key #onsideration is then "hether it "ill !e a##epted or re&e#ted. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of hypnosis! Chapter *B

In%irect F'estions

The asking of appropriate questions is a theme which runs through the whole book. !ne particular aspect of this is asking questions of the ?lient. &roblems can arise when we want to know things about subsystems of which there is no conscious awareness. This chapter deals with some of the techniques specific to Hypnotherapy which deal with such a situation. In brief they involve bypassing the verbal system and connecting the system of interest to some other system /using the characteristic Hypnotic techniques of eliminating distractions, amplifying responses by means of feedback loops, etc.0. The alternative systems are usually the visual imagination or the motor or emotional systems. ) amples are given to illustrate this. A THE7E .H CH has run through this !ook is the asking of appropriate 'uestions. n Part B there "ere many e2amples gi$en of the types of 'uestions that might !e asked of a Client during the pro#ess of diagnosis. .e ha$e seen the repeated use of the 'uestions, 6And "hat is the resultant of thatB6 and, 6And "hat is the #ause of that36 .e ha$e seen the pro!lem of determining the !est form of inter$ention redu#ed to the repeated asking of four 'uestions. t "ill !e apparent !y no" that a##urate Hypnotherapy depends on o!taining the ans"ers to many 'uestions, at many different le$els. The 'uestions are there to help us to think #learly. At times the ans"ers are o!tained !y dire#tly asking the Client. But "e ha$e already seen that a slightly indire#t approa#h is more useful. n this #hapter "e are going to d"ell on this matter of indire#t ans"ers, and in parti#ular on o!taining ans"ers "hi#h cannot !e o!tained !y asking the Client dire#tly, because the answers are not consciously known . n terms of the language of the pre$ious #hapter, "e may say that the information is disso#iated from #ons#ious mental pro#esses. +et us !egin "ith an e2ample "hi#h might arise if "e "ere e2ploring resultants of a #hange. 0uppose "e "ant to kno" ho" it "ould make a person feel. *o" there are people "ho #an #ome out "ith a 'ui#k response if asked, !ut for many others there is no dire#t ans"er. 0o ho" #an "e pro#eedB Our approa#h to Hypnotherapy #an help us to analyse the situation in the follo"ing "ay. The primary systems of interest are the $er!al @JA and the emotional @EA. f "e "ere getting an a##urate ans"er to our 'uestion then the follo"ing pro#esses "ould !e strong: 2J 4 2E, so that the $er!ally suggested thought of the #hange "ould lead at on#e to an arousal of the #onse'uent feelings, and: 2E 4 2J, so that these feelings "ould then !e a!le to #reate a re#ognition of themsel$es in the $er!al mind, so that they #ould !e reported.

f $er!al ans"ers are not !eing o!tained, then there is a failure of one or !oth of these pro#esses. @ n terms of the definitions in the #hapter on >isso#iation, there is a unilateral or total disso#iation !et"een the t"o systems.A *o" "e ha$e seen in the #hapter on 6indu#tions6 that a Hypnotherapist has 'uite #lear "ays of esta!lishing "hether or not the a!o$e pro#esses #an !e e2pe#ted to pro#eed easily or "ith diffi#ulty. T"o different pi#tures may therefore emerge. t may !e that the a!o$e #hains are normally "eak, or it may !e that they are normally strong, !ut for some reason are "eak in the parti#ular #ase !eing #onsidered. @Hsually this distin#tion is the distin#tion !et"een "eak and strong disso#iation.A The differen#e is often of $ital importan#e, for in the latter #ase the reason #an thro" a lot of light on the matter in hand. +et us !e more #on#rete and #onsider a spe#ifi# instan#e of finding the ans"er to a 'uestion that #annot !e ans"ered in response to a dire#t 'uestion. .e "ill suppose that a "oman in her thirties is unhappy !e#ause she has ne$er !een a!le to find a satisfa#tory hus!and for some reason. n e2ploring this pro!lem "e "ill naturally !e asking oursel$es, in line "ith the analysis of Chapter (-, 6.hat "ould the #onse'uen#e of marriage !eB6 n a #ase like this the emotional response is !y far the most important. And "e "ill suppose that the "oman finds it rather diffi#ult to ans"er the 'uestion in that she reports that she seems to "ant to get married, !ut in pra#ti#e "hene$er things seem to !e mo$ing in that dire#tion, something al"ays seems to go "rong. A #hara#teristi# approa#h of Hypnotherapy to this situation is the follo"ing. t is re#ognised that the internal $isual system is usually more dire#tly #onne#ted to the emotional system than is #ons#iousness and so steps "ill !e taken to a#ti$ate it. These steps are those "hi#h are #ommon to a lot of Hypnoti# pro#edures: a systemati# redu#tion in a#ti$ity of other fun#tions, so that the Client is sitting or lying, #omforta!le and rela2ed, "ith #losed eyes and no distra#tions and "ith mind fo#used "ith no strain on the $isual imagination. .e might then, slo"ly and gently, get the Client to start to unfold, in her imagination, pi#tures relating to !eing married, in response to gentle guidan#e !y the Hypnotherapist. There is no "ay of kno"ing in ad$an#e "hat these pi#tures "ill !e, of #ourse, and it is $ery unlikely that any t"o #ases "ill !e the same. f "e had no e$iden#e to guide us "e might #on&e#ture that there might !e some hidden fear of se2, or of ha$ing #hildren or some generalised inade'ua#y 4 the possi!ilities are endless. And any of these might arise in a parti#ular #ase. It is the a"sence of any s'ch specific theories of the origin of pro"lems that is one of the hallmar#s of scientific ypnotherapy( <e %onKt con.ect're! &e fin% o't( But to gi$e an idea of ho" things might pro#eed "ill summarise one #ase of mine. This "oman soon started to report pi#tures of a happy house, "ith plenty of e$iden#e of young #hildren around. There "as a $ery li$ed4in kit#hen and a garden full of s"ings and toys. The atmosphere "as rela2ed and domesti#. n fa#t e$erything "ent "ell until "e rea#hed the master !edroom, and there the pro!lem turned out to !e

*OT "hat you might !e anti#ipating. The pro!lem "as that the "ardro!e "as filled "ith a manFs formal suitsI 0he reported a $ery strong a$ersion to these. 0o there, in a nutshell, "e may see her dilemma. 0he "as dra"n to a #ertain kind of rela2ed "ife4style. But this #oe2isted "ith a pre#on#eption that a hus!and had to !e suited and formal, "hi#h she did not like at all. At that stage a Hypnotherapist may instantly mo$e on to the ne2t stage in therapy, "hi#h is to #hange things. n this #ase the pro!lem system is the limiting !elief a!out hus!ands, and a suita!le #hange #an !e promoted !y in$iting the Client to do something a!out those #lothes in the "ardro!e if she #hooses. n this parti#ular #ase it took her $ery little time indeed to thro" out all those horri!le stiff suits, and to repla#e them "ith &eans, &umpers and so on. 0he "as a!le to report that this ga$e her great satisfa#tion. t "as e$en more satisfa#tory "hen she "as reporting "ithin months that she had found a "onderful man, and later that they "ere to get married, and later that the house they "ere li$ing in "as filled "ith the same feeling and light that she had imagined in her $ision, and later that she "as pregnant, and later a mother. Her hus!and does not "ear suitsI n this e2ample, then, "e ha$e seen one of the ma&or te#hni'ues "here!y the Hypnotherapist "ill find ans"ers to 'uestions that #annot !e ans"ered dire#tly !y the $er!al mind. The pattern is simply that if: 2E 4 9J, i.e. "e #annot get information a!out a feeling dire#tly to the $er!al mind, then "e #an often pro#eed indire#tly $ia the imagination: 2E 4 2 m 4 2J. The idea of o!taining information a!out feelings $ia the $isual imagination goes !a#k at least as far as 9reud, and his interpretation of dreams. But the more modern pra#ti#e is not to "ait in a hit or miss "ay for a dream to re$eal something, !ut instead gently to guide the imagination to"ards the re'uired area. This is far more informati$e than dream analysis, partly !e#ause it allo"s far more 'uestions to !e asked regarding the matters of interest, so that it !e#omes possi!le to sift out the important from the irrele$ant5 !ut there is also so mu#h more time. A re#alled dream may ha$e taken up only a fe" minutes, "hile a guided daydream #an easily run for ten times that. n the a!o$e #ase "e ha$e an e2ample also of the re$erse pro#ess: 2J 4 2 m 4 2E, i.e. instead of the Hypnotherapist attempting to a#ti$ate feelings in the Client !y means of simple "ords, he is instead talking only a!out the images, and allo"ing them to e$oke the #orresponding feelings.

0u#h an approa#h is of #ourse !y no means uni'ue to Hypnotherapists. 9ilm4 makers and ad$ertising e2e#uti$es pour !illions of pounds do"n the same #hannel. They pro$ide images "hose su##ess is primarily measured !y the e2tent to "hi#h they e$oke feelings. But at this stage "e are #onsidering primarily the re$erse pro#ess: not of #hanging the ClientFs deeper thoughts or feelings, !ut of finding out a!out them. The #ase 'uoted a!o$e, ho"e$er, sho"s that a $ery pre#ise idea of "hat the pro!lem is, presented as an image, allo"s an inter$ention to !e e'ually pre#ise, elegant and e#ologi#ally sound. Here is another e2ample of the gently guided daydream to illustrate the prin#iple. This time it is of a young man "ho "as, for some reason, not finding a girlfriend. .hen images started to #ome to his mind they "ere of "alking do"n a rather arid $alley. E$ery so often he "ould meet an older man "ho "ould ad$ise him of the dangers of lea$ing the $alley. But he found nothing of interest in it. This image gi$es an insight into the pro!a!le #ause of his predi#ament, "hi#h is that he has !een dis#ouraged !y his father or other older men from in$ol$ement "ith girls. The same image "as then used to impro$e matters !y suggesting that it might !e "orth seeing for himself "hat dangers lay outside the $alley. He #lim!ed the hill out of it5 "alked for some time through a $ery lifeless region, and then #ame to fertile farmland on "hi#h he found a farm "here 4 surpriseI 4 there "as a $ery attra#ti$e daughter "ith "hom he "as soon on $ery good terms. His dis#o$ery of this for himself "as possi!ly one of the more effe#ti$e "ays of #reating a #hange in his attitude to his situation. n all su#h e2plorations noti#e that the tone of the Hypnotherapist is totally non4 for#ing and typi#ally of the form, 6 "onder if you "ould like to ... B6 or 6 "onder "hat "ould happen if ... B6 That is, 'uestions are !eing asked, !ut of a $ery indire#t and open kind. t is important that he or she should not interfere too strongly, or the thing "hi#h is looked for "ill !e destroyed or missed. This aspe#t of our "ork is as unlike the strong, #ommanding, authoritati$e 0$engali image as possi!le. .e tread as softly as a !utterfly on the flo"ers of "hi#h dreams are made. The a!o$e method is the ri#hest and pro!a!ly the most po"erful strategy "hi#h is used in Hypnotherapy to o!tain ans"ers "hi#h are not readily a$aila!le !y dire#t 'uestioning. The se#ond most #ommon method in$ol$es the a#ti$ation not of the $isual system @JA !ut of the mus#ular system @7A. 0o if 0 is some system for "hi#h it is impossi!le to esta!lish the pro#ess: 20 4 2J, then instead "e esta!lish: 20 4 27.

The most #ommon response #hosen is pro!a!ly a finger mo$ement, identi#al to the small mo$ements that arise at the !eginning of a hand le$itation pro#ess. t might !e esta!lished, for e2ample, that if the ans"er to a 'uestion is 6,es6, then a finger on the right hand "ill mo$e, "hile if it is 6*o6, then a finger of the left "ill mo$e. This is sometimes #alled deo47otor 0ignalling @ 70A. The pro!lem "ith su#h a method is that it is #omparati$ely uninformati$e, espe#ially if "e do not hit on the right 'uestion. t is also $ery slo". A single deo47otor response may easily take more than a minute. There is one instan#e in "hi#h this parti#ular method #an !e more informati$e and faster, "hi#h is if it !e#omes possi!le to allo" 0 to a#ti$ate the system of hand"riting. This phenomenon goes !y the name of Automati# .riting. n some indi$iduals it is possi!le for the hand to !e "riting something @often out of $ie" of the 0u!&e#tA "hi#h is making sense, !ut of "hi#h the 0u!&e#t seems to ha$e no #ons#ious a"areness. This is most likely to !e possi!le if there is some high4order su!system of the mind "hi#h has !e#ome dis#onne#ted from the normal system of #ons#iousness 4 a phenomenon "hi#h is dealt "ith in more detail in the #hapter on >isso#iation. 7e#hanisms "hi#h #ould fa#ilitate the a!o$e methods are the Oui&a !oard, "hi#h is like automati# "riting in that it #an, in time, produ#e senten#es, or a di$ining rod or a pendulum "hi#h, like finger le$itation, #an produ#e 6,es6 or 6*o6 ans"ers. A di$ining rod is designed so that a small mus#ular mo$ement is amplified, and a pendulum uses a dynami# form of the same prin#iple: it takes imper#epti!le mo$ements of the hand to #hange a side4to4side mo$ement @6*o6A to a to4and4fro mo$ement @6,es6A. These do not seem to !e in #ommon use in modern Hypnotherapy, pro!a!ly !e#ause those "ho use 70 find that the amplifi#ation of the response "hi#h Hypnoti# te#hni'ues pro$ide makes su#h artifi#ial amplifi#ation unne#essary. f "e are interested in kno"ing more a!out the emotional system, ho"e$er, it makes mu#h more sense to a#ti$ate *OT a mus#ular response, !ut a response "hi#h is naturally asso#iated "ith emotional arousal. E$en "ithout making any effort in this dire#tion it is often easy for the therapist to noti#e rapid !reathing, a slight smile or tears as easy pointers to the #urrent emotions. n most #ases, of #ourse, the 0u!&e#t is a"are of these and they are interpreted #orre#tly. f, on the other hand, the 0u!&e#t gi$es a $er!al statement a!out his or her feelings "hi#h is *OT "hat the signs indi#ate, then there is a strong presumption that the emotions and the $er!al mind are dis#onne#ted to a signifi#ant e2tent: a situation "hi#h is usually of great signifi#an#e in therapy. .e may e2tend this prin#iple !y using Hypnoti# te#hni'ues 4 suggestion may !e enough 4 to amplify su#h signs still further. 9or e2ample "e might say, 6As you think a!out "hat "ill !e saying, your !ody "ill respond 'uite freely. ,ou need not feel any distress !ut if your !ody "ants to #ry, it "ill #ry freely. ,ou need not feel any anger, !ut your fa#e or !ody may sho" it.6 0trangely, although deo4 .otor signalling is a phrase often en#ountered in the literature on Hypnotherapy, do not re#all meeting the phrase deo4)motive or deo4%ffective signalling. Conse'uently presume that the use of the a!o$e de$i#e is rare, despite the fa#t that it #an !e $ery useful. suspe#t that the reason for the rarity is the a!sen#e of a suffi#ient #larity of thought

on "hat are our goals and our means: a #larity "hi#h !elie$e that a systems approa#h enhan#es. The $alue of noting emotional rea#tions is $ou#hed for !y those pra#titioners "ho make use of an ele#troni# amplifier of emotion. t is a fa#t that emotional arousal tends to produ#e a small in#rease in the produ#tion of the s"eat glands. f the arousal is intense then the s"eat may a#tually !e seen, !ut for more moderate arousals it is only enough slightly to moisten the skin "ith salty "ater. 0in#e this #ondu#ts ele#tri#ity 'uite "ell its presen#e #an !e dete#ted !y measuring ho" easily a small #urrent of ele#tri#ity #an flo" !et"een t"o points on the skin. A ma#hine "hi#h does this is #alled an Ele#tri# 0kin %esistan#e meter. 0u#h ma#hines are often used in the #onte2t of !iofeed!a#k. Another name for them is +ie >ete#tors, "here it is supposed that they "ill dete#t a lie !e#ause the liar "ill !e slightly more stressed and aroused "hen speaking the lie than "hen telling the truth. The "eakness of the ma#hines is that they #annot distinguish #learly !et"een different forms of emotion, !ut they #an ne$ertheless !e useful in pra#ti#e as a means of dete#ting emotional a#ti$ity "hi#h is not great enough to affe#t the $er!al mind. n this #onte2t "e should note that one of the more useful dete#tors and amplifiers of feelings is the human !eingI There are some people "ho seem to !e e2traordinarily sensiti$e to the moods of others. presume that they are a!le to pi#k up small #ues from mo$ements, tone of $oi#e, e2pression and possi!ly e$en smell @as animals doA and integrate them into an a##urate representation of the other personFs emotion at that moment. The representation "ill often take the form of feeling the same emotion as the other person. As an e2ample of this, in a small "ay, #an #ite something from my o"n e2perien#e "hi#h also leads to a general prin#iple. Early on in pra#ti#e noti#ed that "ith some Clients, and for no o!$ious reason, "as feeling ner$ous: "ith me this "as signalled primarily !y a shakiness in the $oi#e. This #ould ha$e gro"n into a #onsidera!le pro!lem for me had not #onsidered the possi!ility that "as simply feeling the other personFs emotion. tested this !y asking, 6Ho" are you feeling at presentB6 On ea#h o##asion the ans"er "as, 6Jery ner$ous.6 As then #almed the Client do"n, the feeling in me "ent also. The general prin#iple is that, for many Clients, there may often !e times in "hi#h they think that they are ner$ous, "hen in fa#t it is the people around them "ho are ner$ous, and they are simply pi#king up the mood. ha$e a daydream that in an ideal "orld there "ould !e a #lass of therapists "ho "ould !e termed Empathists. They "ould ha$e learned to de$elop an innate skill in assessing the feelings of others in the a!o$e "ays into a #onsistent and a##urate fa#ulty. .orking alone, su#h an indi$idual is in danger of !eing s"amped !y the emotions "hi#h are !eing dete#ted, "hi#h #an redu#e the a!ility to help. The Empathist "ould therefore a#t as a part of a team in "hi#h her @or hisA role is purely passi$e 4 reporting on the feelings of the Client or patient 4 "hile others, less a!le to

empathise themsel$es, "ould take the lead in dire#ting #hange "hile all the time !eing ad$ised !y the team Empathist of ho" things "ere going. %eturning no" to the general theme of o!taining ans"ers to 'uestions "hi#h are hidden from #ons#iousness, "e "ill turn to the phenomenon 'uoted at the start of the last #hapter in "hi#h a !lind student demonstrated a total disso#iation !et"een t"o parts of himself, ea#h of "hi#h "as independent of the other, !ut ea#h of "hi#h #ould take turns in a#ti$ating the $o#al system "ithout any e$iden#e of one going $ia a different #hannel, su#h as the $isual. 9 "e #an arrange this, then it is pro!a!ly the most informati$e "ay of getting out hidden information. ha$e not put it at the top of the list !e#ause it does not seem to !e an option "hi#h is readily a$aila!le in most people. seldom find it in my o"n pra#ti#e and neither do read many #ases in "hi#h it arises. But it needs to !e mentioned for #ompleteness. Before ending this #hapter there are some "arnings that need to !e made. f you 'uestion a ni#e #hild, it "ill tend to gi$e the ans"er that it thinks is e2pe#ted. And after"ards it "ill often !elie$e the ans"er it has gi$en. 9urthermore it is a #hara#teristi# of many Clients that the #ommon pro#ess of de$eloping rapport "ill lead to a rea#ti$ation of this #hildlike !eha$iour pattern. Conse'uently in the #onditions under "hi#h the te#hni'ues of this #hapter are used it !e#omes $ery easy indeed in some indi$iduals for the responses to !e JE%, 0T%O*)+, *9+HE*CE> !y "hat the therapist "ants or e2pe#ts. 0u#h e2pe#tations #an easily !e e2pressed !y tone of $oi#e or su!tle use of "ords. n the e2ample of the hus!andFs "ardro!e, if say, 6Are the suits ni#eB6 in a tone of slight in#redulity, it "ill suggest the ans"er 6*o6. f the tone is "arm it "ill suggest the ans"er 6,es6. The professional Hypnotherapist should, as a result of his or her training, !e a#utely a"are of these possi!ilities, and g'ar% against them "y maintaining a totally open an% non;.'%gmental attit'%e to all that is sai% in s'ch con%itions$ as far as possi"le( Ho" does one kno" if the 0u!&e#t is easily influen#ed in this "ayB t is usually 'uite easy. One may test in small inno#uous "ays. may say, 6This garden that you are in seems a ni#e pla#e5 it needs only a !ird4!ath to #omplete it.6 f the 0u!&e#t then noti#es the !ird4!ath, then note a strong response to suggestion. f there is no !ird4 !ath, then there is a presumption that there is a "eak response, though in either #ase further e2amples should !e used !efore &umping to a #on#lusion. t is this possi!ility of a strong response to the suggestion of the therapist "hi#h, to my mind, thro"s dou!t on the reported results of many people "ho seem to o!tain amaLing results of the type in "hi#h they spe#ialise and "hi#h they e1pect. There are men "ho spe#ialise in re#o$ering lost memories of a!du#tion !y aliens from Hnidentified 9lying O!&e#ts. There are men "ho spe#ialise in re#o$ering lost memories of early se2ual a!use. There are men "ho spe#ialise in finding Oedipal #omple2es. There are men "ho spe#ialise in finding uni$ersal ar#hetypes. There are men "ho spe#ialise in finding memories of 6past li$es6. There are men "ho spe#ialise in finding spirit possession. There are men "ho spe#ialise in finding memories of a !irth trauma.

am not making any statement a!out "hether or not any one of these phenomena is true in a particular case. .hat am saying is that !elie$e that the amaEing number of cases ea#h finds #onfirming his o"n ideas is a result of the po"er of suggestion in at least a preponderan#e of su#h #ases. .hen one has "orked as a Hypnotherapist one should kno" ho" easy it #an !e "ith some people to rea#ti$ate the open4 mindedness of a #hild to all manner of things. t is usually impossi!le to persuade the men referred to a!o$e that there is any error in their te#hni'ue, and they are often honest and sin#ere men. But they seem uniformly una"are of the e2tent to "hi#h ideas and e2pe#tations may !e #ommuni#ated !y 'uite su!tle #ues and !e un#riti#ally a##epted "hen the normal mental pro#esses of analysis and resistan#e are eliminated: a fa#t "hi#h should !e o!$ious to all pra#tising Hypnotists and Hypnotherapists. There "as a time "hen poli#e for#es pla#ed a lot of #onfiden#e in the po"er of Hypnosis to 6!ring !a#k6 forgotten memories "hi#h might help them in a #ase. But the suggesti$eness that "e are dis#ussing here produ#ed too many 6false memories6 as a result of the su!tle pressure to remem!er, and so Hypnosis is no" used far less in a forensi# "ay. t is rare to find people reporting sightings of fairies these days. But !e#ause kno" the e2tent to "hi#h #ertain people #an readily !e indu#ed truly to !elie$e that they are seeing things that are not there 4 any #ompetent 0tage Hypnotist "ill demonstrate this regularly 4 kno" that many people #ould easily !e indu#ed to see fairies again. Or demons. Or to 6remem!er6 !eing a!used. Or to e2perien#e pains #orresponding to an illness they ha$e read a!out, !ut "hi#h all the tests pro$e that they ha$e not got. All su#h things "ill a##ept as true statements of the personFs !eliefs and su!&e#ti$e assessments of his or her e2perien#es. @This is "hat the philosopher >ennet @(<<(ABi! terms a heterophenomenologi#al position.A But do not ha$e to a##ept them as true statements a!out the "orld e2ternal to themsel$es "ithout su!stantially greater e$iden#e. SUMMARn this #hapter "e ha$e looked !riefly at the fa#t that it is not al"ays possi!le to find the ans"ers to our 'uestions a!out the a#ti$ity of $arious systems !y dire#tly interrogating the $er!al mind. One of the strengths of the dis#ipline of Hypnotherapy is that it is familiar "ith a num!er of te#hni'ues for !ypassing the $er!al mind and, !y amplifying the a#tion of #ertain other systems, #an find the ans"ers to its 'uestions in other "ays. The most informati$e alternati$e system is that of the imagination, though the disad$antage of this is that there still has to !e a $er!al a##ount of "hat is !eing seen. The alternati$es are the motor system and aspe#ts of the emotional systems, "hi#h #an !ypass the $er!al mind altogether, !ut at the pri#e of !eing lo" in information #apa#ity.

Ho"e$er it is important to realise the e2tent to "hi#h the 0u!&e#t may produ#e ans"ers "hi#h are in line "ith those e2pe#ted !y the therapist, and that steps !e taken to guard against the distortions "hi#h #an result. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R *C
)1perimental ypnotherapy

ypnosis!

This chapter underlines the value of the very clear theoretical structure presented in this book when it comes to making meaningful e periments. +ince it has proved impossible to find an agreed objective answer to the question, -2hen is a person Hypnotised3- the e perimentalist who wishes to be scientific is working on shaky foundations. 2ithin our framework, however, the basic question as to whether a particular system is active or not is much more tractable and answerable. It should then be possible to build a strong e perimental structure on the basis of clearly defined e periments on the component parts of Hypnotic procedures. * TH 0 CHAPTE% a !rief look "ill !e taken at e2perimental Hypnotherapy from the perspe#ti$e of the systems approa#h of this !ook. There is something of a #hasm !et"een e2perimentalists and pra#titioners in the fields of Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy. This #an !e seen as !eing a result of the fa#t that they tend to !e asking different #lasses of 'uestions. The latter are asking, 6Ho" #an #reate a #hange in this parti#ular personB6 The former are asking, 6Ho" #an "e e2pe#t a parti#ular pro#ess to affe#t people in generalB6 The e2perimentalist therefore typi#ally "orks "ith a parti#ular 6indu#tion pro#edure6 4 often tape4re#orded 4 "hi#h he or she "ill apply to a group of people, often those suffering "ith a parti#ular symptom5 note the results5 and dedu#e from them "hether or not 6Hypnosis has !een effe#ti$e6 "ith a parti#ular pro!lem. To the Clini#al Hypnotist or Hypnotherapist, su#h a pro#edure seems of $ery limited $alue !e#ause his or her #lini#al &udgement "ould often lead to the #on#lusion that a parti#ular Hypnoti# pro#edure should *OT ha$e !een used for many of the indi$iduals, "here it "ould !e anti#ipated to !e of little use, and should instead !e repla#ed !y a different one. 9urthermore the therapist "ould say, in the language of this !ook, 6One of my most $alua!le tools in Hypnosis is the esta!lishing of positi$e feed!a#k loops !oth "ithin the patient and !et"een us in order to intensify the effe#ts am aiming for. This re'uires #orre#t timing and tuning to the 0u!&e#tFs personality, so that it #an !e syn#hronised "ith the rate at "hi#h things happen in the 0u!&e#t and #an !e

presented in a language and a "ay "hi#h suits the 0u!&e#t !est. All of this is 'uite simply ignored !y the e2perimentalistFs approa#h.6 The argument on the e2perimentalistFs side is 'uite simply, 6But your su!&e#ti$e assessment of the effi#a#y of treatment is not a good enough !asis for the su!&e#t. The history of medi#ine is full of pro#edures and potions "hi#h "ere #laimed to !e effe#ti$e, !ut #areful e2amination has found that they gi$e no more than a pla#e!o response. .e need to esta!lish a hard, fa#tual and s#ientifi# !asis for your "ork if it is to !e a##epted. .e are follo"ing the standard pro#edure in su#h #ases.6 f "e look at this position from a more general perspe#ti$e "e see the follo"ing pi#ture. The e2perimentalist is "orking "ithin a $ery simple #ause and effe#t paradigm. The assumption is that "e are testing "hether a pro#ess P "ill lead to a redu#tion in a symptom 0, "hi#h "e may represent as: 2P 4 30 B This is the model used for testing drugs, "here P is the appropriate appli#ation of the drug. *o" the pro!lem for medi#al s#ien#e is that the human !ody is a $ery #omple2 system. The #onne#tion !et"een the appli#ation of a drug and a #hange in the symptom is therefore not generally a dire#t one. The drug P may affe#t one parti#ular system of the !ody dire#tly, and then this affe#ts a third, and so on through a #hain until "e get to the symptom. As a further #ompli#ation, many of the intermediate systems are regulated !y negati$e feed!a#k loops "hi#h ensure that there is little long4term #hange. On top of all that #omple2ity there is the pro!lem that our internal !io#hemistry $aries from indi$idual to indi$idual. The great ad$an#es in medi#ine this #entury #an !e seen to !e a result of $ery #areful analysis of the systems most in$ol$ed in a spe#ifi# illness and then of designing a drug "hi#h "ill a#t as directly as possible on the system in$ol$ed. Anti!ioti#s "ere a great ad$an#e !e#ause they a#ted dire#tly on a "ide range of infe#ting organisms. The manufa#ture of insulin for dia!eti#s, of 9a#tors J or K for haemophilia#s, of the H- !lo#kers @e.g. \anta#A "hi#h !lo#k the a#id4produ#ing effe#t of histamine on the stoma#h lining for sufferers from stoma#h ul#ers are further nota!le e2amples. These ad$an#es are real. They represent a real in#rease in kno"ledge and po"er. Compared "ith present4day medi#ine, medi#ine of a hundred years ago "as se$erely limited in !oth its understanding and resour#es. 7edi#al kno"ledge has !een !uilt on a painstaking analysis of component processes. 0o, argue, should Hypnotherapy, mutatis mutandis. 9rom this $ie"point the statement, 6He is under Hypnosis6 seems a!out as useful as, 6He is under 7edi#ation6. .e "ould immediately ask: .HAT medi#ationB AspirinB .arfarinB \anta#B Arseni#B E'ually "e "ould like to kno" "hat Hypnoti# pro#esses are !eing used and ho" ha$e they !een seen to affe#t "hat systems.

Of #ourse e2perimentalists in the field of medi#ine >O, "hen a ne" treatment has !een proposed, test its effi#a#y !y means of asking 'uestions of the form: 6>oes 2 @TreatmentA 4 3@0ymptomAB But more and more of the e2perimental side of medi#ine is de$oted simply to asking the key 'uestions B 4 8N0ystemO 4 B: "hat are the #auses and resultants of any #hanges in rele$ant physiologi#al systemsB %elief from AlLheimerFs disease, for e2ample, is $ery unlikely to #ome from a random testing of all kno"n materials. nstead it "ill #ome as a result of finding out first, the nature of the pro#ess responsi!le for the destru#tion of the ner$ous tissue in the !rain "hi#h is asso#iated "ith the disease @my guess !eing a misdire#tion of an immune responseA and se#ond, of narro"ing the sear#h to the dis#o$ery of "ays of altering or pre$enting that pro#ess. The li!erating impli#ation of this approa#h for e2perimental Hypnotherapists, suggest, is that instead of !eing limited !y the strait4&a#ket of the idea that the primary pro#ess of #hange is something ill4defined #alled 6!eing Hypnotised6, the emphasis should !e on analysing the effi#a#y of the component pro#esses used "ithin Hypnosis. 9or e2ample, it is #ommonly held !y pra#titioners that $isualisation is al"ays a !etter "ay of getting through to other su!systems of the mind than is $er!al dire#tion. 7y e2perien#e suggests that this is an un"arranted generalisation. E$en as am "riting this ha$e &ust seen a Client "ho had one of the poorest a!ilities to $isualise that ha$e e$er #ome a#ross, and yet has performed enormously "ell on a "ide $ariety of #hara#teristi# Hypnoti# responses su#h as disso#iation, a seeming a!ility to regress to 6past li$es6 and so on. Ho"e$er this is &ust one #ounter4e2ample, and it may "ell !e that the proposition is generally true in the population. t "ould !e useful to ha$e some e2tensi$e studies to esta!lish "hether, or under "hat #onditions, this is so. Another useful e2perimental e2er#ise "ould !e to fo#us spe#ifi#ally on the #onne#tion !et"een $isualisation and another spe#ifi# su!system. .e might then ask, 6 s it true, as is often assumed, that in a parti#ular indi$idual the a#tion of the imaginati$e system on the other system is stronger if all other systems are reduced in activityB6 This is a plausi!le assumption, "hi#h underlies the pra#ti#e of rela2ation and #alming that so often a##ompanies Hypnotherapy. But it should !e #onfirmed !y e2periment. *oti#e that "e "ould !e a$oiding the tendentious 'uestion, 6 s the su!&e#t HypnotisedB6, "hi#h is $ery hard meaningfully to ans"er, and instead !e a!le to use some more pre#ise definitions of "hen #ertain key systems are relati$ely ina#ti$e. There #ould at least !e referen#e to the e2tent to "hi#h the heart rate dropped and the skin resistan#e in#reased, and to the immo!ility of the lim!s, fa#e and so on, to esta!lish some #riteria other than the $ague, 6The 0u!&e#t "as Hypnotised6. t "ould !e e$en !etter if one of the !rain4s#anning systems "ere to !e used to esta!lish the le$el of a#ti$ity in $arious areas of the !rain "hi#h are a##ompanied !y #ertain Hypnoti# pro#esses. The main thrust of the a!o$e is the tried and tested prin#iple that s#ien#e should ADOID &herever possi"le concepts &hich cannot "e "ac#e% 'p "y meas'rement( The #on#ept of 6!eing hypnotised6 is so diffi#ult to define or measure that it pro$ides the poorest possi!le s#ientifi# foundation for further "ork. The

#on#ept of #hanges in a#ti$ation of a system is !y #ontrast $ery #lear and #risp. @A later #hapter dealing "ith the #on#ept makes it yet more s#ientifi#ally pre#ise.A 9urther e2periments #ould fo#us on the feed!a#k loops "hi#h ha$e !een introdu#ed as !eing 'uite #entral to many Hypnoti# phenomena. 9or e2ample, ha$e stated as a #ommon e2perien#e that finger le$itation pro#eeds rapidly only after some initial le$itation has !een per#ei$ed, !e#ause there is a presumed feed!a#k loop "here!y an e2pe#tation of lifting is greatly reinfor#ed !y the feeling of some lifting. The e2perimentalist "ho already has some e2perien#e of !io4feed!a#k e'uipment may "ell find that he or she #an make some $alua!le #ontri!utions to $alidating or in$alidating this idea. 9or e2ample "e might pro#eed as follo"s. The 0u!&e#t #ould !e told that finger le$itation is al"ays pre#eded !y a #ertain in$oluntary response "hi#h he or she "ill !e una!le to dete#t, !ut "hi#h "ill !e pi#ked up !y a ma#hine and presented in the form of a "histle or pointer mo$ing. .e #ould then e2amine "hether the le$itation is 'ui#ker if a totally spurious response !y the ma#hine is introdu#ed !y the e2perimenter. "ould predi#t that this apparent feed!a#k "ould enhan#e the 0u!&e#tFs e2pe#tation that le$itation "ould happen and therefore ser$e to initiate the loop. As yet another spe#ifi# in'uiry: ha$e often thought that feed!a#k loops are strongest if emotional arousal is high. f this "ere true then it "ould follo" that many #hanges "ould !e easier to make if emotional arousal "ere high. This #ertainly seems a prin#iple used in e$angeli#al meetings, and it "as used !y 7esmer at the height of his fame. But it "ould !e good to ha$e more e2perimental data on it. >oes the nature of the emotion ha$e any !earing on itB Again, if the intention "ere to !e to assess the po"er of Hypnoti# te#hni'ues to help "ith physi#al illnesses, the e2periments of real $alue "ould seem to me to !e those "hi#h thro" light on the a#tual systems in$ol$ed. t is one thing to say lightly, 60aturate the su!#ons#ious "ith thoughts of returning health and it "ill happen.6 t is another to esta!lish that Hypnoti# te#hni'ues #an a#tually #hange measura!ly the le$el of #ertain anti!odies: as has a#tually !een done @.alker et al. @(<</ABi!A. Better still "ould !e to esta!lish the path"ay !et"een the initial thought and the immune system, and therefore the #onditions under "hi#h su#h a response #ould !e produ#ed more relia!ly, and for a greater proportion of people. *o" am sure that some of this approa#h is already impli#it in mu#h e2perimental "ork. The e2periments suggested are #lose to the 'uestions asked in mainstream e2perimental psy#hology. The ad$antage of using the systems paradigm as a frame"ork for e2periments relating to Hypnoti# phenomena is that the reasoning and results #an !e made far more e2pli#it and s#ientifi#, "ith ad$antages all around. t is my #ontention that #lear and $alua!le e2periments, like #lear thought, #an only pro#eed usefully "ith the help of a #lear language and a #lear #on#eptual stru#ture. This !ook is an attempt to pro$ide &ust su#h a stru#ture. SUMMAR-

f E2perimental Hypnotherapy "ere to !e !ased on the theoreti#al frame"ork suggested in this !ook, "e "ould find the follo"ing inno$ations. (. There "ould no longer appear in the a##ounts of e2periments, 6The 0u!&e#ts "ere Hypnotised6, !ut rather statements more on the lines of, 60ystems a,!,#... "ere a#ti$ated, "hile systems p,',r... "ere ina#ti$ated, as assessed !y #riteria 2,y,L... As a result it "as found that the response of system K to system , "as #hanged in the follo"ing "ays: ...6 -. 9ar more e2periments "ould !e made on spe#ifi# component pro#esses in$ol$ed in Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy. n this "ay the su!&e#t "ould !e#ome more like modern medi#al and other s#ien#es in esta!lishing a deep, !road and a##urate foundation of detailed understanding of its components. t seems to me that the importan#e of this point #annot !e o$er4estimated. As look !a#k at the history of the real in#reases in understanding of our uni$erse see, time after time, that they ha$e !een a result of a detailed e2amination of the fa#ts. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R /9
@amily Therapy

ypnosis!

=amily therapy is an area of human psychology which has already incorporated to some e tent a systems way of thinking. The background to this is presented for the sake of its similarities to our systematic approach to Hypnotherapy. +ome e amples are used to illustrate the fact that the approach and notation developed in earlier chapters continue to be precisely as valuable when the primary system is a family and not an individual. The general point is made that the practice of a therapist is characterised by the choice of systems he recognises as important. The different fields of family therapy are associated with different assumptions as to the subsystems of importance. The same holds for Hypnotherapists1 the subsystems they regard as important characterise and at times limit them. * TH 0 CHAPTE% "e "ill take a little e2#ursion out to"ards one of the !oundaries of our su!&e#t, to "here it merges "ith family therapy. There are three main reasons for this. The first is that during diagnosis "e may "ell find that the family enters as a signifi#ant system in the #reation or maintenan#e of the pro!lem. The se#ond reason is that "e ha$e seen that it is $ery important "hen esta!lishing a ne" !eha$iour in a Client to ensure that it "ill re#ei$e positi$e feed!a#k from the

"orld outside the #onsulting4room. The most important part of the "orld for most people as regards personal relationships is the immediate family. 9or !oth these reasons "e may !e#ome in$ol$ed in many #ases "ith a #ertain amount of family dynami#s. A third reason is that "e are often dealing, as you "ill find in the #hapter on disso#iation, "ith @perhaps partiallyA disso#iated internal systems "hi#h are fun#tionally e'ui$alent to parent and #hild. n su#h a #ase "e are dealing "ith something like a part of an internalised family. 7ore generally "e may at times find internal systems intera#ting in a "ay "hi#h resem!les other possi!le e2ternal relationships. O!$iously there "ill !e no attempt to gi$e an e2hausti$e a##ount of family therapy in the spa#e of this #hapter. .hat "e "ill do is to !egin !y looking !riefly at the parti#ular form of family therapy 4 kno"n as systemi# therapy 4 to "hi#h the present systems4oriented approa#h to Hypnotherapy is most naturally related. 0ystemi# theory originated half a #entury ago and its ideas ha$e permeated the field to the e2tent that: 6All family therapists no" a##ept the idea that families are systems5 not !elie$ing in systems theory is a !it like not !elie$ing in the flag, apple pie, and motherhood. 0#hools of family therapy $ary, ho"e$er, in the degree to "hi#h they a#tually in#orporate systems thinking in their pra#ti#e.6 @Be#$ar P Be#$ar @(<;;ABi!A Then an e2ample "ill !e gi$en of a simple family pro!lem using the notation and language of this !ook. The purpose "ill !e to demonstrate that the same #on#epts and approa#hes #an !e used in family therapy also. Gust as it "ould !e useful not to ha$e to learn a ne" language as you mo$e from #ountry to #ountry, and it is useful to find the same mathemati#al language used in all the $arious s#ien#es, so, it is argued, it is useful to !e a!le to use the same theoreti#al stru#ture !oth for internal systems of a person and for his or her e2ternal relationships. The integrati$e $alue of a #ommon stru#ture is further illustrated !y referen#e to the $ariety of different s#hools of family therapy. Systemic Therapy The roots of systems theory go !a#k to the (<1=s. At that early stage it in$ol$ed "orkers from many dis#iplines. mportant among these "ere *or!ert .iener, a mathemati#ian "ho #ontri!uted the "ord 6#y!erneti#s6 @.iener @(<1;aA, @(<1;!ABi!A, "hi#h #an still !e used as a synonym for systems theory, though more often in Europe than Ameri#a. The !asi# inno$ation of su#h approa#hes "as to start to think a!out processes and the a!stra#t patterns into "hi#h they are organised, rather than to fo#us on static o!&e#ts. t is e'ui$alent to pla#ing more emphasis on $er!s and less on nouns. There is less emphasis on naming and #lassifying things, and far more on des#ri!ing how they !eha$e. n the #onte2t of family therapy the fo#us mo$ed from the indi$idual mem!ers of the family to the dynami# pattern of intera#tions !et"een them. Clearly this "hole approa#h is $ery mu#h in harmony "ith the philosophy of this !ook.

@Though only learned of systemi# therapy after ha$ing formulated the notions of this !ook as a result of attempting to understand Hypnotherapy.A @.e might note parentheti#ally that this #hange from an emphasis on things to an emphasis on processes is one "hi#h signals the #oming4of4age in many a field of kno"ledge. Before >ar"in, spe#ies "ere simply #lassified. 0u!se'uently attention has !een fo#used on ho" they form and #hange. There "as a time "hen ro#ks "ere simply #lassified, and "ere regarded as un#hanging. Then it !e#ame o!$ious that they did #hange, and geology and related su!&e#ts "ere transformed as attention turned to the more deeply fas#inating 'uestions of ho" ro#ks form, and ho" #ontinents form, and ho" the fa#e of the earth #hanges "ith time.A Another important #ontri!utor from the early days "as anthropologist )regory Bateson. He "as influen#ed !y the "ork and ideas of 7ilton H. Eri#kson from as early as (<1(. He de$eloped systems ideas in the #onte2t of studying s#hiLophrenia @Bateson @(<38ABi!A and al#oholism @Bateson @(<:(ABi!A, the former paper introdu#ing the #on#ept of a dou!le !ind, "hi#h "ill !e $ery familiar to "orkers in our field. t "as #o4authored !y Gay Haley, "ho is "ell kno"n as a student of 7ilton H. Eri#kson and no" as a giant of family therapy in his o"n right. n pra#ti#al terms the !iggest departure from pre$ious pra#ti#e that systemi# therapy introdu#ed "as that therapists stopped seeing patients in isolation in !oth senses of the "ord. They not only started to see the "hole family together 4 a hereti#al idea at one time 4 !ut also !e#ame a#utely a"are at all times that a 6pro!lem6 in an indi$idual "ould often !e a result of family fa#tors. n the pro#ess of analysing su#h family systems a great deal of emphasis "as pla#ed on the study of #ommuni#ation and information pro#essing. The emphasis on #ommuni#ation "as gi$en its ma&or impetus !y >on Ga#kson, founder of the 7ental %esear#h nstitute in California in (<3<, "ho "as a #ommuni#ations theorist and pu!lished e2tensi$ely as "ell as gathering around him many indi$iduals "ho are no" "ell kno"n, su#h as Jirginia 0atir, Gules %iskin, %i#hard 9is#h, Gay Haley, Paul .atLla"i#k and Gohn .eakland. Although there ha$e !een many de$elopments of this systemi# therapy in su!se'uent years, they ha$e !een primarily "ithin this #onte2t of family therapy and "ith a high emphasis on #ommuni#ation: it is interpersonal rather than intrapersonal. 0pe#ifi# s#hools "hi#h may !e seen to ha$e de$eloped in this "ay are stru#tural and strategi# therapies. 0tru#tural therapy fo#uses on the dynami#s of #ommuni#ation: "ho is speaking to "hom, "hen and in "hat "ay. 0trategi# therapy fo#uses more on the purpose of #ommuni#ation, in#luding non4$er!al #ommuni#ation, of "hi#h the presented symptom may !e an e2ample, in esta!lishing the !alan#e of po"er "ithin the family. At the other e2treme from systemi# therapy "e may perhaps pla#e !eha$ioral therapy, "hi#h tends in pra#ti#e to pla#e the most emphasis on the role of operant #onditioning, and to say least a!out the family as a system. Ho"e$er the !asi# idea !ehind operant #onditioning 4 the fa#t that a !eha$iour "hi#h re#ei$es positi$e reinfor#ement is repeated and strengthened 4 is one that "e ha$e met !efore in the

analysis of positi$e feed!a#k loops. Conse'uently !eha$ioral therapy do$etails "ith the theoreti#al frame"ork of this !ook at that point. This all too !rief outline of family therapy is suffi#ient for our present purposes. .e may no" o!ser$e that although the !asi# #on#epts of the systems4oriented approa#h to Hypnosis de$eloped here e2tend up"ards naturally and easily to family therapy, there has !een no great mo$ement of systemi# therapy do"n to smaller systems "ithin an indi$idual. Both theories share a #ommon #on#ern "ith the analysis of pro#esses. Both use the #y!erneti# #on#ept of feed!a#k, though the present theory applies it in more detail and, hope, #larity. The present theory, !e#ause of its generality, does not pla#e the same primary emphasis on #ommuni#ation and information, though these #on#epts "ill arise in the appropriate #onte2ts. 0ystemi# theorists tend to see themsel$es as holisti#, and !reaking out of a frame"ork of #ause and effe#t. The present approa#h is holisti# in the sense of paying due regard to the influen#e of all e2ternal and internal systems and their intera#tions, !ut it remains unrepentantly determined to analyse these intera#tions in terms of the a#tions of one on the other. t should already !e #lear that an analysis of the re#ipro#al effe#ts of t"o systems on ea#h other is a po"erful tool for understanding their relationship. 0u#h systems may !e systems of thought, of feelings, of relationships, of ner$es, of hormones or of so#iety. They may A++ !e rele$ant to a gi$en situation. t is *OT holisti# ar!itrarily to say, 6.e "ill only #onsider systems of the follo"ing kind...6, "hether the restri#tion is to !io#hemi#al systems, or to so#ial systems or to spiritual systems. 6The highest,6 as it says in The Imitation of ?hrist @Thomas a Kempis @#. (11(ABi!A , 6does not stand "ithout the lo"est.6 .e ha$e to #onsider all le$els and all kinds of systems, and then think $ery #learly indeed a!out the interplay !et"een the things that are happening on the different le$els. *e2t let us look at a situation "hi#h might arise in family therapy. +et us suppose that the result of an emotional upset in person A is anger. 0uppose that the rea#tion of person B to this anger is of #oldness and "ithdra"al. 0uppose further that this results in yet more emotional upset in A, "ho regards the #oldness as a "ithdra"al of lo$e or #ommitment. .e #an then "rite this in shorthand as: 2Nanger5AO 4 2N#oldness5BO 4 2Nanger5AO, "hi#h is of #ourse an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop. t more or less guarantees that 'uarrels "ill ha$e no resolution and "ill lea$e !oth partners feeling $ery hard done to. This analysis fo#uses our minds $ery #learly on the fa#t that the pro!lem is a process, and furthermore that the nature of the pro#ess is an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop.

f "e "ant to #hange this loop "e #an pro#eed on the same principles that "e ha$e used in earlier #hapters to ta#kle similar loops in Hypnotherapy. .e need to look at ea#h part of the pro#ess in turn and see if it #an !e #hanged5 "e need to #onsider possi!le #hanges5 "e need to #he#k su#h #hanges to see if they "ill last @*O negati$e feed!a#k loopsA5 "e need to think them through to see that they do not make things "orse. There is no "ay of telling in the a!stra#t "hi#h is the !est point to "ork on. n one #ase it might !e 'uite easy to get A to moderate the e2pression of anger 4 perhaps !y insisting that it !e on paper or in pu!li#5 in another it might !e possi!le to get B to !e#ome angry instead of #old. t may !e possi!le to get either to see that the other is not so mu#h hostile as upset. The !est "ay may take some ingenuity, !ut the !asi# patterns of thought used !y the therapist #an !e seen as the same as he or she uses in eliminating a $i#ious #ir#le within a single person in our approa#h to Hypnotherapy. n short, the form of the strategies of diagnosis and planning a #hange #an !e identi#al to those used in this !ook. .hat "ill !e different is the #lass of inter$ention made, though the patterns 4 ensuring that negati$e feed!a#k loops are dealt "ith, ensuring positi$e feed!a#k for the #hange 4 "ill !e the same if the #hange is going to !e $ia!le and sound. t is "orth noting that if "e "ere temporarily to send A out of the room and ha$e a pri$ate talk "ith B, it is analogous to a Hypnoti# pro#edure in "hi#h "e ha$e diagnosed t"o distin#t su!systems and pro#eed to #ommuni#ate "ith one and not the other @as "e sa" Hilgard do at the !eginning of the #hapter on >isso#iationA, !y effe#ti$ely a#hie$ing a total disso#iation !et"een them for a "hile. f "e simply talk to one in the hearing of the other, "ith the other not allo"ed to inter$ene, it is analogous to the Hypnoti# pro#edure of #ommuni#ating "ith one su!system 4 the 6#hild "ithin6 perhaps 4 "hile allo"ing another 4 the internal 6parent6 perhaps 4 to 6listen in6, !ut not interfere. This "ould !e an instan#e of a unilateral disso#iation. n the a!o$e e2ample the simple loop "as presented @unrealisti#allyA as if it "ere the only pro!lem in$ol$ed. Of #ourse in general "e "ould ha$e found other, and more #ompli#ated, issues. .e should ha$e asked, for e2ample, if there "as any reason "hy the indi$iduals had adopted those parti#ular responses, and that might ha$e taken us rather deep into an analysis of the internal systems of ea#h 4 a pro#ess "hi#h #ould easily take us !a#k into the realm of indi$idual therapy. There #an !e real #omple2ity lying !ehind su#h a seemingly simple loop. And the pra#titioner should !e a"are of this fa#t, and not !e misled !y the fa#t that throughout this !ook "e are fo#using on rather simple e2amples, in the "ay in "hi#h introdu#tions to most su!&e#ts use simple e2amples to !egin "ith. %emem!er that the purpose of the !ook is to esta!lish a way of thinking rather than to gi$e an e2hausti$e a##ount of e$erything. Ho"e$er, !e#ause of the uniformity of the analysis of pro#esses, "e #an mo$e effortlessly from a family pro!lem do"n to a personal pro!lem, "hi#h might in turn re$ol$e around some 'uite limited su!system of that person, and at all times we will be working within the same systems paradigm, using the same language and the same shorthand notation. The a!o$e e2ample "as also presented "ithout any referen#e to the pro#ess of diagnosis from "hi#h it "as deri$ed. This thro"s light on an important point. In

practice the #in% of %ynamic patterns &hich the therapist ten%s to see an% &or# &ith &ill inevita"ly "e infl'ence% "y the theoretical stance an% therefore the H'estions as#e%( To put this into perspe#ti$e let us imagine a 'uite different s#hool of family therapy, "hi#h is an e#onomi# one. This might model the system of a family from an e#onomi# $ie"point. t "ill ha$e o!ser$ed that a lot of family arguments are a!out money, and e2trapolated to suppose that money is therefore the !asis of the "hole thing. A therapist from su#h a s#hool "ill fo#us entirely on the #ash $alue of ea#h e2#hange !et"een mem!ers. He @it "ould !e unlikely to !e a "omanA "ill try to esta!lish ho" ea#h person $alues su#h things as making a meal, or ha$ing it made and so on. He "ould fo#us on pro#esses of negotiation as the 6internal market6 tries to get into !alan#e. He "ould !e a!le to assess the a#ti$ity of 6!uyers6 and 6sellers6 in any parti#ular #ommodity or ser$i#e, and note that a#ti$ity in one market has to !e related to a#ti$ity in another. 9or &ust as "hen someone !uys shares, the money has to #ome from some"here else, su#h as sto#ks, so it "ill !e the #ase that if, for e2ample, someone 6!uys6 housekeeping ser$i#es, they "ill ha$e to 6pay6 in perhaps ne" #lothes or nights out, so that 2Ndomesti# "orkO 4 2Nne" #lothesO. This e#onomi# family therapist "ould therefore see the "hole thing in terms of finan#ial su!systems or markets. f his e#onomi# model "as !ased on 7ar2ist4+eninist lines then he "ould !e more likely to analyse the su!systems in terms of so#ial #lass. But the details are not important: the key idea is that the dynamics discovered will be limited by the types of subsystems felt to be important. n a similar "ay the different s#hools of family therapy tend to fo#us on rather different aspe#ts of family life, and in$ol$e rather different analyses into su!systems. Conse'uently they "ill ask different 'uestions and get different ans"ers. f 'uestions are asked a!out the family life of parents "hen they "ere #hildren, then the ans"ers "ill re$eal patterns in$ol$ing three generations: the su!systems of the family "ill !e seen to in#lude the !eha$iour and personality of the grandparents as they "ere "hen their #hildren "ere young. A psy#hoanalyti#al approa#h might see rather different su!systems of the mem!ers of the families in$ol$ed, perhaps "ith a strong emphasis on the se2ual aspe#ts of relationships, Oedipal responses and so on. f, at another e2treme, the 'uestions are kept $ery mu#h to the here4and4no" in terms of "hat rea#tion there is to any a#tion, as in a !eha$ioral approa#h, there is going to !e #omparati$ely little attention to any history, or any internal ideas or feelings of the indi$iduals in$ol$ed, and the systems that "ill !e featured in the analysis "ill !e rather simple rea#ti$e ones. A #ommuni#ations4!ased therapy "ill similarly in$ol$e asking 'uestions a!out the "ays in "hi#h the #ommuni#ation of one indi$idual is affe#ted !y the #ommuni#ation of another, and "ill deri$e systems !ased on the types of #ommuni#ation "hi#h are !eing studied. 9amily therapy is not an e2a#t s#ien#e. There is no reason to suppose that one form of analysis is al"ays !etter than another. +ooking at the situation from the outside, it "ould seem most pro!a!le that for a parti#ular #ase of a 6pro!lem6 in a parti#ular family one form of analysis might !e the most appropriate, !ut that ea#h approa#h "ill ha$e $alue in some #ases. n an ideal "orld the therapist "ould !e familiar "ith all possi!le forms of analysis into su!systems and, as a result of a diagnosti# pro#ess, determine "hi#h is the most useful in a parti#ular #ase. 0u#h an approa#h

"ould !e 6holisti#6 in the sense used a!o$e: of !eing a!le to re#ognise and take a##ount of any systems, of "hate$er nature, that are in$ol$ed. n pra#ti#e a similar pattern #an !e seen "ithin Hypnotherapy, though there has !een little attempt to #lassify the different approa#hes as methodi#ally as has !een done for family or psy#hotherapy. The rough #lassifi#ation of Chapter 1 "ill, ho"e$er, gi$e an idea of the "ay in "hi#h different theorists ha$e fo#used their attention on different systems as !eing the #entral one in Hypnosis, "hi#h is analogous to the "ay in "hi#h different s#hools of family therapy fo#us on a different #entral feature of family dynami#s. 0u#h an approa#h differentiates one approa#h from another. The "hole theme of this !ook is 'uite the opposite: it is integrative in that it sho"s up "hat is #ommon in all approa#hes. There is something of $alue to !e learned from ea#h approa#h to Hypnosis, !ut none is a #omplete theory of the su!&e#t. One of the greatest ad$antages that the 6hard6 s#ien#es ha$e o$er the 6soft6 ones is their #ommon language, deri$ed from a parti#ularly fruitful and pre#ise shorthand #alled mathemati#s, "hi#h integrates them and sho"s "hat they ha$e in #ommon. Ea#h spe#iality is differentiated !y its ra" material, !ut united "ith the others !y the #ommon dis#ipline "hi#h for#es it to "rite do"n its findings in the most simple and #ompa#t "ay in the #ommon language. t is this goal "hi#h is the guiding prin#iple of this !ook. The author "ould like to !e a!le to read #ase reports on family therapy in "hi#h the systems assumed to !e important and the dynami#s thereof "ere made e2pli#it and "ritten do"n #ompa#tly. f se$eral different therapists looked at the same #ase, the different diagnoses #ould !e "ritten in a similar language and #ompared and #ontrasted "ith #omparati$e ease. At present sin#e ea#h field tends to use its o"n spe#ialised $o#a!ulary, su#h #omparisons !e#ome $ery hard. t is "orse than trying to #ompare the $alue of petrol at t"o pumps at one of "hi#h it is pri#ed in CD+itre and at another in ]Dgallon. +ike"ise in Hypnotherapy he "ould like to see #ase reports and 6indu#tion s#ripts6 a##ompanied !y a #lear and distin#t statement of the dynami#s and systems in$ol$ed, again "ritten in shorthand for #on$enien#e, so that he might understand "hat the therapist !elie$es to !e happening. SUMMARThe general a##eptan#e "ithin the field of 9amily Therapy of a systems frame"ork augurs "ell for a similar a##eptan#e "ithin the field of Hypnotherapy. The $ariety of approa#hes to 9amily Therapy "ithin that !road frame"ork is also likely to !e a feature of Hypnotherapy "hen it is de$eloped along systems lines. .e ha$e noted the importan#e of the fa#t that ea#h approa#h to 9amily Therapy is #hara#terised !y the kind of systems that it regards as !asi#. The $alue of !eing a!le to use the same theoreti#al frame"ork for "orking "ith so#ial groups or families, or indi$iduals or systems "ithin indi$iduals, or e$en the intera#tion of neurons, "ould seem to fa#ilitate thought immensely.

Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R /*
Psychotherapy

ypnosis!

Fifferent schools of psychotherapy tend to focus their attention on different subsystems of the human mind, and apply different techniques to them. This chapter very briefly outlines some of the major approaches in order to provide an idea of the conte t of Hypnotherapy. It is concluded that Hypnotherapy, in the sense of this book, is broader than most forms of psychotherapy as it may deal with systems of many kinds and all levels from the comparatively simple refle es of the nervous system up to social systems. It involves a prescriptive diagnostic process, a crisp theoretical framework, a sense of the dynamics of feedback systems and a wide variety of procedures to change them.

* TH 0 CHAPTE% "e "ill take a !rief look at ho" Hypnotherapy relates to other s#hools of Psy#hotherapy. 9or the non4spe#ialist the des#riptions of other s#hools "ill not !e so detailed as to !e tedious. 0pe#ialists "ill !e a!le to supply the missing details for themsel$es. .ithin the present paradigm "e ha$e a #lear path to"ards #lassifying forms of Psy#hotherapy, as indeed "e ha$e to mu#h larger fields of human endea$our. .e first ask: <hat are the systems 6S7 recognise% in the fiel%= .e then ask: Ey &hat processes 6P7 are these systems altere%= The ans"ers then define the field as W0(, 0-, ... P P(, P-, ...X Thus the field of #lassi#al parti#le dynami#s "ould !e roughly #lassified as Wmo$ing parti#les P for#esX. The field of dentistry is roughly Wteeth P filling, remo$al, repla#ementX. The field Wmarriages P di$or#eX represents a su!field of the legal profession: the field Wmarriages P dis#ussion, #on#iliationX is a su!field of #ounselling: the field Wmarriages P !lessingX is a su!field of the #leri#al $o#ation. These simple e2amples illustrate that fields may !e distinguished either !y their systems of interest or !y their pro#edures, or !oth.

t should also !e #lear that a large field #an !e split into many su!fields. Thus modern medi#ine #o$ers su#h a large field 4 Whuman physi#al disorders P medi#ines, physi#al operationsX 4 that it is split into many small spe#ialities su#h as on#ology M Wtumours P drugs, surgeryX. *oti#e that "e generally do not need to ela!orate all the systems and all the pro#edures of a gi$en field. f "e "ant to gi$e more detail, then "e simply start to enumerate su!fields. .e may apply these prin#iples to Psy#hotherapy and Hypnotherapy to o!tain a first4 order #lassifi#ation of the fields. Broadly speaking, Psy#hotherapy M Wpro!lems of the systems of human thought, feeling or !eha$iour P personal intera#tion, #ommuni#ation, dire#tionX. .e may #ontrast Psy#hiatry, "hi#h in the HK at present "orks far more "ithin the medi#al paradigm and is effe#ti$ely Wpro!lems of systems of human thought, feeling or !eha$iour P drugs, ele#tro4#on$ulsi$e therapyX. .e may also #ontrast Tea#hing M Wsystems of human kno"ledge or thought P personal intera#tion, #ommuni#ation, dire#tionX. The primary differen#e from Psy#hotherapy is in the systems of interest, "hi#h tend to !e more in$ol$ed "ith information and less "ith feelings. .here tea#hing does deal "ith feelings, as in some of the arts, it is not #on#erned "ith feelings as a distressing 6pro!lem6 "hi#h has to !e remo$ed. *e2t "e "ill roughly #ategorise some of the prin#ipal s#hools of Psy#hotherapy. Any pra#titioner in a s#hool may "ell o!&e#t that the !rief des#ription does not do &usti#e to the "hole: and of #ourse it does not. Gust enough detail is gi$en to distinguish it from other forms. The names in !ra#kets are those of the person most asso#iated "ith the approa#h. Adlerian therapy @Alfred AdlerA M W!eha$ioral patterns, so#ial systems P en#ouragement of so#ial in$ol$ement, a!sen#e of !lame, humourX Asserti$eness training M Wso#ial skills P self4monitoring, !eha$iour rehearsalX A$ersion therapy M W!eha$ioral systems P forging unpleasant asso#iations to a !eha$iourX Beha$iour therapy M W!eha$iour patterns P desensitiLation, #onditioning, o!ser$ational learningX Bioenergeti#s @Ale2ander +o"enA M Wrepressed emotions, mus#le tension P mus#ular e2er#ises, $er!al e2pressionX Biofeed!a#k M W$arious internal systems P use of feed!a#k ma#hines to amplify small signs of impro$ed #ontrolX

Cogniti$e therapy @Aaron Be#kA M W!eliefs, thought systems P reasoning, re#on#eptualising, 6running mo$ies6X Eri#ksonian therapy @7ilton H. Eri#ksonA M Winner and so#ial systems P very varied, hypnoti# te#hni'ues, use of metaphors, pattern inter$ention, dire#tionX 9reudian therapy @0igmund 9reudA M Wid, ego, super4ego, dreams P re$ealing un#ons#ious #onfli#ts, free asso#iation, transferen#e, #atharti# release of repressed materialX )estalt @9ritL PerlsA M Where4and4no" systems, defen#es, dreams P en#ounter groups, integrating su!systems, inner dialoguesX Hypnotherapy M Wmany systems P a#ti$ation and dea#ti$ation, use of inner and outer feed!a#k loops to enhan#e #hangeX Gungian therapy @Carl GungA M Wego, personal un#ons#ious, #olle#ti$e un#ons#ious, ar#hetypes, personae P a#ti$ating imagination, use of mandala, #onne#ting to ar#hetypesX Primal therapy @Arthur Gano$A M WPain, traumati# e2perien#es, repression P e$oking the repressed painX %ational4Emoti$e therapy @Al!ert EllisA M W!eliefs a!out self P reasoned #hange of !eliefX %eality Therapy @.illiam )lasserA M WBeha$iour patterns, self4responsi!ility P enhan#ing ego strength, !reaking old patternsX %ei#hian Therapy @.ilhelm %ei#hA M Worgone energy, se2ual repression, #hara#ter armour P massage, release of se2ual energy5 use of orgone !o2X %eligious Therapies M W)od, souls, lo$e P healing of souls, forgi$ing of sin, esta!lishing !onds of lo$eX %ogerian Therapy or Person4#entred Therapy @Carl %ogersA M Wpositi$e regard, parental influen#e P emotional support, listening, !eing non4dire#ti$eX 0elf A#tualiLation @A!raham 7aslo"A M Wnormal people, hierar#hy of needs P meeting needs, !e#oming more oneselfX Transa#tional Analysis @Eri# BerneA M WChild, Parent, Adult P game analysis, s#ript analysis, Fm OK 4 ,ouFre OKX The a!o$e list gi$es a reasona!ly !road pi#ture of the ma&or su!fields of #urrent psy#hotherapy in the HK today, in alpha!eti#al order. Ho"e$er, this list is more useful for dida#ti# purposes than as a "ay of #lassifying indi$idual therapists. t is seldom the #ase that a therapist "ill !e so e2#lusi$ely trained in one approa#h that he or she "ill !e ignorant of, and not use "here appropriate, ideas and te#hni'ues from the others.

*ote that although %eligious Therapy is in#luded as one item, it is still the #ase that "orld4"ide this #ategory far outnum!ers, in terms of people in$ol$ed, all the others put together. Hypnotherapy appears near the middle of the list in the 67organi#6 form suggested in this !ook. t has often !een omitted from short lists of therapies !e#ause it "as thought of as la#king in depth and !eing, in effe#t, the field: W#ons#ious, su!#ons#ious P tran#e, dire#tionX. This makes it seem far more limited in s#ope than it truly is, as hope this !ook has sho"n. am afraid that Hypnotherapy has long la#ked the respe#t that is its due !e#ause of this faulty per#eption in the minds of those "ho are not e2perien#ed in it. !ne of the aims of this book is to elaborate the sound intellectual and scientific basis for the field to prevent such a dismissive attitude in future. *ot only is this e2pression of Hypnotherapy near the middle of the list alpha!eti#ally, !ut it is not e2treme in other "ays. t does not say, 6This "ay, and no otherI6 @as many of the founders of other s#hools ha$e saidA. .e ha$e seen that it #an a##ommodate the frame"ork of systems that ea#h of the other spe#ialised therapies use, "here appropriate. t is, in prin#iple, !roader !e#ause it starts "ith the 'uestion, 6.hat are the most appropriate systems for analysing this situationB6 By #ontrast a Primalist, for e2ample, has already pre4&udged this issue and ans"ered, 6The Pain of a $ery early suppressed s#ream.6 But there is no reason "hy a Hypnotherapist should not de#ide, after the diagnosti# pro#ess outlined, to "ork "ith the set of systems of any of the a!o$e approa#hes, !ut to !ring to them some of the parti#ular strengths of the morgani# approa#h, "hi#h in#lude a #lear sense of the dynamics of organi# pro#esses5 the $alue of ina#ti$ating irrele$ant systems5 the importan#e at many le$els of feed!a#k loops of many kinds and the a!ility to make signifi#ant #hanges to different systems at different le$els !y handling the dynami#s properly. SUMMAR>ifferent s#hools of Psy#hotherapy tend to fo#us their attention on different su!systems of the human mind, and apply different te#hni'ues to them. Hypnotherapy, in the sense of this !ook, is !roader than most, as it deals "ith le$els of systems from the #omparati$ely simple refle2es of the ner$ous system up to so#ial systems. t in#ludes a pres#ripti$e diagnosti# pro#ess, a #risp theoreti#al frame"ork, a sense of the dynami#s of feed!a#k systems and a "ide $ariety of pro#edures to #hange them. n parti#ular "e note that Hypnotherapy is not in opposition to any of the other s#hools. f it is &udged that the parti#ular systems of a s#hool are important in a gi$en Client, then the systemati# approa#h of Hypnotherapy #an !e applied to those systems. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of

ypnosis!

C APT)R //
Activity
This chapter presents a precise scientific definition of the key notion of activity which has run through this book. The activity of a system is defined as the rate at which it increases the entropy of the universe - a quantity which is in principle always measurable or calculable. It also has the property of always being positive. It is appro imately proportional to the power output of the system in watts. If we wish to e trapolate the notion of activity to socio-economic systems /which are also organic0 then a more useful measure will be the rate at which money is spent1 GDsec.

* THE BH+K of this !ook the "ord 6a#ti$ity6 has !een used freely "ithout defining it pre#isely. This #hapter ela!orates on the idea a little. The follo"ing pre#ise definition "ill no" !e proposed. The activity of an organi# pro#ess is the rate at "hi#h it in#reases the thermodynami# entropy of the uni$erse. @The definition "ould also !e meaningful for an inorgani# pro#ess, !ut "e are not primarily interested in those.A +et us see "hy this is a useful definition. The first point is that it is "ell defined. Although the #on#ept of entropy is perhaps rather diffi#ult to grasp for the man in the street, it 0 something that #an readily !e defined s#ientifi#ally and mathemati#ally. The se#ond point is !ased on a $ery general prin#iple, a form of the 0e#ond +a" of Thermodynami#s, "hi#h is that the entropy of the uni$erse is *EJE% de#reased !y any pro#ess. This implies that the a#ti$ity of any pro#ess, as defined a!o$e, can never be negative. This is $ery satisfa#tory, sin#e our intuiti$e idea of a#ti$ity is that it should !e positi$e or Lero. *ote that it is important to define the a#ti$ity in terms of the entropy of the universe, sin#e it is possi!le for a pro#ess to de#rease the entropy of one part of the uni$erse, !ut only at the #ost of in#reasing it at least as mu#h some"here else. The third point is that it is additive. By this mean that if an organi# system is analysed into distin#t su!systems, then the a#ti$ity of the "hole "ill !e the sum of the a#ti$ity of the parts. The fourth point is that the #on#ept of entropy #an !e applied to information as "ell as to thermodynami# pro#esses. There is therefore the possi!ility of using it as a #on#ept "hi#h "ill span the full range of our su!&e#t from the atomi# pro#esses

in$ol$ed in the simplest !io#hemi#al #hanges to the #omple2 information pro#essing #hara#terising our higher thought patterns. am not a"are at present of "ork "hi#h dire#tly #onne#ts the thermodynami# entropy #hange in$ol$ed in, shall "e say, a #ertain neurologi#al pro#ess, to the informational entropy #hange 4 "hi#h is at a different le$el. Perhaps it is "ork "hi#h has yet to !e done. But at least the possi!ility is there. At the thermodynami# le$el it is possi!le to define the entropy of a pro#ess as !eing the amount of heat that it deli$ers to a thermal reser$oir held at an a!solute temperature of (oK. The a#ti$ity of a pro#ess is therefore measured in "attsDoK. 0in#e most !iologi#al pro#esses are at temperatures "hi#h $ary $ery little from around /(=oK @#lose to !lood temperatureA "e #an #ompare the a#ti$ity of different pro#esses simply !y #omparing their heat output. Thus for pra#ti#al purposes "e may identify the a#ti$ity of a part of the !rain @sayA "ith the rate of heat produ#tion !y the mental pro#esses therein. The a#ti$ity of a mus#le "ill similarly !e measured !y the rate at "hi#h it is produ#ing heat. The rate of produ#tion of heat is po"er, measured in "atts. A t"o mega"att po"er station is t"i#e as a#ti$e as a one mega"att station5 a t"o kilo"att ele#tri# fire "ill !e t"i#e as a#ti$e as a one kilo"att fire5 a person #lim!ing stairs t"i#e as fast as another @"ith the same "eightA "ill !e t"i#e as a#ti$e5 t"o identi#al neurons firing "ill !e t"i#e as a#ti$e as one neuron firing5 and the a#ti$ity of ea#h of these different systems #an !e #ompared to a good a##ura#y !y #omparing their thermal po"ers, or more pre#isely !y #omparing the entropy #hanges they are produ#ing. The $arious !rain4s#anning te#hni'ues gi$e measures of !rain a#ti$ity "hi#h #orrelate "ell "ith the a!o$e definition. Another "ay of #on#eptualising the third la" of thermodynami#s is the follo"ing. E$ery naturally o##urring pro#ess results in making energy less available for doing "ork. Energy, as "e kno", is #onser$ed. There is the same amount of energy in the "orld !oth !efore and after petrol has !een !urned. But at the earlier time the energy is #on#entrated and a$aila!le to po"er a #ar, "hile after"ards the energy is spread through the atmosphere and is no longer a$aila!le. The a#ti$ity of a pro#ess is a measure of the rate at "hi#h energy is !eing made una$aila!le. n todayFs e#ologi#ally #ons#ious age it "ill !e seen that a#ti$ity is not therefore an une'ui$o#ally good thing. An effi#ient pro#ess is one "hi#h a#hie$es a gi$en #hange "ith the minimum #hange of entropy: the minimum loss of a$aila!le energy. The dynami#s of an e#ologi#al system may !e #harted !y measuring the flo" of energy through it @e.g. )reen et al. @(<;1ABi!A. t should !e #lear that the pre#ise definition of a#ti$ity used here #ould !e used in su#h a #onte2t. The a#ti$ity of the ra!!it population, for e2ample, #ould !e measured as the rate at "hi#h all the pro#esses in "hi#h ra!!its are in$ol$ed are in#reasing the entropy of the uni$erse5 or to a good a##ura#y as the rate at "hi#h they are produ#ing heat. On the "hole "e might e2pe#t an e#osystem to e$ol$e in the dire#tion of ma2imum effi#ien#y as ea#h spe#ies uses the energy a$aila!le to it "ith the minimum "aste. n the field of e#onomi#s "e might start !y noting that a !arrel of oil represents a #ertain num!er of kilo"att4hours of a$aila!le energy @if "e again negle#t the small

$ariations #aused !y the temperature dependen#e of entropyA. This pro$ides us "ith a link !et"een #urren#y and energy, sin#e in prin#iple the #ost of anything #an !e measured in terms of the #ost of a !arrel of oil. .e #an therefore esta!lish the e#onomi# e'ui$alent to the a#ti$ity of !urning oil, "hi#h "ill !e measured not in "atts !ut in CDhr. f "e are heating our houses "ith a t"o kilo"att fire "e are using energy at t"i#e the rate of a one kilo"att fire, and "e are spending money t"i#e as fast. The thermal a#ti$ity and the finan#ial a#ti$ity go hand in hand. t may !e possi!le to e2trapolate this to other, more #omple2 e#onomi# pro#esses, !ut this "ould take me too far outside my e2pertise. 9or "hat it is "orth my guess is that the #on#ept of entropy at different le$els #ould !e a $ery important one in e#onomi# theory: so mu#h e#onomi# a#ti$ity results in order at one le$el of so#iety @a lo#al decrease of entropyA !ut at the e2pense of an ine$ita!le global increase in entropy @disorderA. Gust as an effi#ient ma#hine is one "hi#h a#hie$es its goal "ith the minimum in#rease of entropy, so an effi#ient !usiness "ill !e one "hi#h a#hie$es its goal of produ#ing a produ#t or ser$i#e "ith the minimum "aste of money. These ideas "ill seem $ery #rude to an e#onomist, no dou!t. n this !ook they are simply presented to stimulate an a"areness of the potential $alue of the pre#ise notion of a#ti$ity "hi#h has !een presented here, in order to underline the fa#t that it is appli#a!le to all manner of organi# systems. But a!o$e all it is "orth noting again the fa#t that a s#ien#e "hi#h uses, as a !asi# #on#ept, something that #an !e pre#isely defined and measura!le is in a $ery strong position to gro" on a firm foundation. n parti#ular, therefore, "e ha$e a firm foundation for Hypnotherapy "hen "e !ase it on the notion of the level of activity of a system. SUMMARThe #entral #on#ept of a#ti$ity may !e gi$en a pre#ise definition in terms of the rate at "hi#h a system is in#reasing the entropy of the uni$erse. This leads to it !eing measura!le in units of "attsDoK, though for most pra#ti#al situations it is proportional to the po"er generated in "atts. t #an !e e2trapolated to analyse energy "e!s in e#osystems "ith little pro!lem. t is possi!le to use this e'ui$alent to o!tain an appro2imate e#onomi# e'ui$alent "hi#h "ould !e units of CDse#: the rate at "hi#h money is !eing spent. n this "ay "e #an make a start on measuring a#ti$ity on a so#io4e#onomi# s#ale if "e "ish to do so. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of

ypnosis!

C APT)R /0
Analogies
The use of analogies or metaphors in Hypnotherapy is common and important. In this chapter their use is related to the general principles running through the book. The key idea is that the principles allow us to uncover the abstract dynamic pattern of the problem and solution. The same abstract pattern may be embodied in many particular forms, each of which thereby provides an analogy for all the others. In helping a ?lient we generate an analogy which draws on his or her e perience, and present the change that is required to resolve the problem in terms of the related change in the analogy. These ideas also throw some further light onto the nature of the theory of this book1 although many analogies have been presented for Hypnotic phenomena, their purpose is to enable the reader to grasp the general or abstract principles which are involved in both Hypnosis and the other fields from which the e amples or analogies are drawn. THE H0E O9 A*A+O) E0 in Hypnotherapy is a $ery #ommon pra#ti#e. n this short #hapter "e "ill look at this and integrate the theory of the pra#ti#e into our general systems frame"ork. A good pla#e to start to #onsider this theme is "ith the many e2amples that ha$e !een presented in this !ook of organi# systems. Any of these #an !e taken as a partial analogy "hi#h #an pro$ide some understanding of the "ay in "hi#h the mind operates. .e ha$e #onsidered, for e2ample, e#osystems, or parts of one5 "e ha$e #onsidered so#ieties and !usinesses and families, and or#hestras. Any of these #an !e taken as a partial analogy for the "orkings of the !rain. But "hat e2a#tly is the relationship of one to anotherB Of #ourse, at one le$el "hat is happening is that "ish to #ommuni#ate something rather ne". "ant to tea#h a "ay of looking at Hypnotherapy "hi#h has not arisen !efore in my readersF minds. But you #an only !uild a "all !y pla#ing ne" stones on top of stones already firmly in pla#e: they #annot !e pla#ed in mid4air. ha$e therefore !een trying to relate these ne" ideas to pre4e2isting ideas "ith "hi#h many of my readers "ill !e a little more familiar. @And the little analogy ha$e used of "all4 !uilding is an e2ample of this $ery pro#essIA But again, "hat is the relationshipB The relationship, in the e2amples am using, is one of similar %ynamic str'ct're. #an, for e2ample, e2plain "hat is happening in a relationship as follo"s: 60he is a hedgehog. .hen she feels threatened she #urls up and sho"s only pri#kles. He is a ra!!it. .hen he feels threatened he "ants to snuggle up #lose for reassuran#e.6 *o" anyone "ho #an #reate from these "ords a pi#ture of the ra!!it !eing upset !y the pri#kles as he snuggles #loser, and the hedgehog getting more threatened and pri#kly as #omplaints are made a!out her !eha$iour, "ill gain a good feel for the dynami#s of the relationship. Ea#h is !eing true to his or her nature, "hi#h "ould make sense to another "ith the same responses. But ea#h has a response "hi#h a#ti$ates in the other something un#omforta!le. His attempt to get her to un#url

makes her "orse. Her attempts to "ard him off make him "orse. .e ha$e a #lear $i#ious #ir#le. Clearly the dynami# stru#ture is identi#al to that of t"o humans "here she rea#ts to !eing #ro"ded !y !eing $er!ally nasty @the e'ui$alent of the hedgehog spikesA "hereas his automati# response @perhaps learned in #hildhoodA is to try to get physi#ally #lose. n a more a!stra#t form "e ha$e the pattern of t"o systems A and B in the follo"ing in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop: 2NA, threatenedO 4 2NA, pri#kly e2terior to #lose approa#hO 4 2NB, threatenedO 4 2NB, #loser approa#hO 4 2NA, threatenedO. The $irtue of telling someone the story of the t"o animals is that it gi$es a simple pi#ture of "hat is going on in their relationship. E$en !etter is to #ontinue "ith the little story in su#h a "ay that it !e#omes #lear ho" the animals might make the !est of their relationship. 6They "ent along to "ise old Badger "ith their 'uarrel, and he said to the hedgehog, S.hen he gets too #lose you must ask him to run all the "ay do"n to the shops and get you some of your fa$ourite her!al tea. ,ou "ill feel !etter "hen he #omes !a#k.F And to the ra!!it he said, S.hen she gets too pri#kly you must run all the "ay do"n to the shops and get her some of her fa$ourite her!al tea "hi#h "ill make her right in no time.F6 The dynami#s of this ans"er is parallel to a similar ans"er in the #ouple, in "hi#h it is arranged that the defensi$e responses trigger off some ne" pattern of !eha$iour "hi#h !reaks the loop. t might !e as simple a matter as getting him to do something for fi$e minutes "hile she #alms do"n and #an !e open and friendly again. *oti#e that "e are not saying that the "oman snuffles in hedgero"s or likes eating "orms. .e are not saying that the man has long ears or a !o!tail. The analogy is not at the le$el of identity of structure, !ut of identity of process. The use of little stories as analogies in this "ay is another of the #hara#teristi#s that made 7ilton H Eri#kson so effe#ti$e. 9or a $olume "hi#h gi$es many e2amples of this approa#h read %osen @(<;-ABi!. Earlier in the !ook 'uoted the e2ample of a Pu!li# Address 0ystem "hi#h has started to gi$e that loud s#ream that happens if the mi#rophone is pi#king up the sound from the speakers, "hi#h used as an analogy for an internal feed!a#k loop "ithin a person "hi#h #auses a trou!ling symptom, perhaps of pani#, to !e produ#ed from no"here. This does not mean that there is literally a mi#rophone in the head, or some speakers. The structures are 'uite different, !ut the process, of an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop in$ol$ing three systems "hi#h are in$ol$ed "ith per#eption, amplifi#ation and produ#tion of the thing per#ei$ed, is identi#al. The analogy then gi$es insight into the dynamics. t is important to note that the dynami# pattern is al"ays at a higher order than any of its parti#ular em!odiments, i.e. analogies "hi#h share the same dynami# pattern. The relationship of the theory to its appli#ations is similar to the relationship of the num!er / to all parti#ular #olle#tions of three o!&e#ts. There is an analogous #onne#tion !et"een any t"o #olle#tions of three things. But the relationship of ea#h

to the a!stra#t num!er 6/6 is different. 6/6 sym!olises the property that they all ha$e in #ommon. n a similar "ay 6 2A 4 2B 4 2A6 sym!olises the property shared !y all dynami# systems "hi#h in$ol$e t"o su!systems ea#h a#ti$ating the other in an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop. Any em!odiment of this sym!oli# e2pression #an then ser$e as an analogy for any other. This is analogous to the "ay in "hi#h the a!stra#t formula 6-T/M36 #an !e em!odied in the adding of t"o apples and three apples, or of t"o red !ri#ks and three red !ri#ks, or of t"o pound #oins and three pound #oins. Any parti#ular su#h em!odiment is analogous to any other. The a!stra#t num!ers, ho"e$er, are at a different le$el: they en#apsulate a #ommon property of all the e2amples. 9e" #an dou!t that the a!stra#t #on#ept of num!er and the de$elopment of a sym!oli# "ay of "riting num!ers do"n ha$e together led to enormous #hanges in understanding of many other things. 7athemati#s has gi$en its strength also to all su!&e#ts in "hi#h it has !een possi!le to e2tra#t a!stra#t patterns from a mass of parti#ular e2amples. t is hoped that in this !ook "e are finding that this same fundamental step #an !e taken in the field of Hypnotherapy. There "ill !e people "ho, ha$ing read this !ook, "ill say, 6Oh, it simply #ompares the "orkings of the !rain to a so#iety,6 or 6 t simply #ompares the "orkings of the !rain to the "orkings of an e#osystem,6 or 6To a !usiness6 or 6To an or#hestra6. n fa#t su#h a statement "ould re$eal that the reader had failed to make the intellectual leap to grasp the essential nature of what is being attempted , "hi#h is the #reation of an a!stra#t theory of a #ertain $ery "ide #lass of systems 4 organi# systems 4 "ithin "hi#h the phenomena of Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy #an !e readily grasped. The prin#iples in$ol$ed in this theory #an ha$e many different em!odiments, ea#h of "hi#h is analogous to ea#h other. %eturning no" to the day4to4day use of analogies in Hypnotherapy, let us e2pli#itly ask the 'uestions, 6.hy generate themB6 and then 6Ho" #an "e generate themB6 Clearly the ans"er to the former is that "e "ant to #hange some system in the ClientFs mind. .e "ant him or her to think rather differently or feel rather differently as a result. But "e must then ask, 6.hat #hanges are "e aiming atB6 The ans"er to this should ha$e #ome out of the pro#edures of Part B: "e ha$e asked 'uestions a!out the ClientFs e2perien#e "hi#h they ha$e ans"ered in their o"n "ords. .e ha$e then a!stra#ted from these ans"ers the abstract pattern of the dynamic processes of the systems in$ol$ed. .e ha$e then de#ided on the !asis of this pattern "hat things #ould !est !e #hanged. This lea$es the final task of getting these #hanges into the appropriate parts of the ClientFs mind. This has to !e done at the appropriate le$el, in a language that those parts of the mind respond to: it may, for e2ample, !e $isual or $er!al or kinaestheti#. But it must also !e an em!odiment of the #hange that "e kno", from our a!stra#t analysis, to !e needed. n order to do this "ell "e really need to !e a!le to understand ho" the

Client sees the "orld, and then translate the #hange into that #onte2t, i.e. "e #reate an analogy !y #o$ering the !ones of the dynami# stru#ture "ith the flesh of the personFs o"n thoughts. @That is itself an analogy "hi#h does the same thing in a small "ay.A 9or e2ample, suppose that "e find someone "ho is #reating pro!lems for himself or herself !y #ontinually "orrying a!out some symptom, !ut "e re#ognise that the $ery fa#t of paying attention to it, to see if it is getting !etter yet, is making it "orse. The a!stra#t formula is an in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop: 2NsymptomO 4 2N"orryO 4 2NattentionO 4 2NsymptomO. .e #learly "ant to !reak this loop. The e2a#t approa#h "ill depend on the person. f "e are dealing "ith a keen gardener "e "ill !egin !y e2ploring his mind for an e2ample of some pro!lem "hi#h might arise in the garden. .e might then dis#o$er ho" he "ould deal "ith that pro!lem. f "e find that his approa#h in that #onte2t is sound, then "e #an make that a !asis for an analogy "hi#h "ill get through to him and #hange his attitude enough to !reak the $i#ious #ir#le that he is in. t might, in a parti#ular #ase, go like: 6There "as a gardener "ho started to ha$e dou!ts a!out ho" his leeks "ere gro"ing. They seemed to !e lagging !ehind. 0o, fearing root4rot, he gently pulled them up to ha$e a look and then replanted them.6 @The gardener listening to this "ill understand that uprooting a plant is a $ery good "ay to upset its gro"th.A 6But although he found nothing, he "as surprised to find that they did e$en "orse. 0o a fe" days later he #he#ked them again. There "as no sign of the rot, !ut if anything they got "orse and "orse. And despite the fa#t that he #he#ked them e$ery fe" days and ne$er found any signs of rot, they "ere the most disastrous #rop he e$er gre". 6The ne2t year he prepared the !ed "ell and then had to go a"ay for most of the gro"ing season. To his total surprise they did $ery "ell indeedI6 At the a!stra#t le$el the first part of this analogy em!odies the dynami#s of his presented pro!lem $ery "ell. The se#ond part em!odies the solution. The preparatory stages of Hypnosis "ill generally ensure that "ith no distra#tion from other mental systems the #onne#tion !et"een the pro!lem and the analogy "ill !e #lear and run deep. The lesson from the analogy "ill then generally !e applied to the real pro!lem. t is $ery important to note that the effe#ti$e analogy is one "hi#h is meaningful to the 0u!&e#t, *OT one that is merely meaningful to the Hypnotherapist. This #an al"ays !e ensured in the #onsulting4room. The pro!lem fa#ing an author in presenting analogies is that he does *OT kno" "hat ea#h reader kno"s. ha$e therefore presented many analogies and e2amples, in the hope that one at least "ill strike a #hord. As another e2ample of this use of analogy, let us suppose the person trapped in the a!o$e loop "as a lo$ing mother.

6And there "as this #aring mother "ho "as "orried !e#ause her son seemed a !it off #olour. 0o she insisted that he stayed a"ay from s#hool. 0he did her !est to help him. 0he made lots of ni#e food, !ut he still did not seem to ha$e mu#h of an appetite. 0he read to him, !ut someho" he lost interest after a fe" hours. 0he insisted that he lie do"n and rest, !ut he did not seem to impro$e from it. 0he sent him to !ed early, !ut he did not seem to !e a!le to get to sleep. Clearly something "as "rong. But nothing that she did seemed to help. 6After many "eeks of this, the mother had to go to look after her o"n mother "ho "as really ill, lea$ing a friend to keep an eye on her son. This friend "as rather la2 and the ne2t day the !oy "ent outside and played all day long. He #ame in ra$enous and ransa#ked the larder for all he #ould find. Then he "ent out to play again "ith his friends after they "ere !a#k from s#hool. He slept like a log. After a fe" days of this his friends kidded him so mu#h that he "ent !a#k to s#hool and "as right as rain.6 Here again the dynami# pattern is modelled in the first part @e2#essi$e attention and "orrying making things "orseA, and sol$ed in the se#ond part !y a redu#tion in attention "hi#h allo"s things to get !etter. The reader might #are to generate a fe" more e2amples "ith different people in mind: a dog trainer, an e2e#uti$e or a nurse, perhaps. t seems to me that many of the traditional 6fairy stories6 ser$e a similar fun#tion. ha$e lost #ount of the num!er of times ha$e retold the story of the Hgly >u#kling, for e2ample. t em!odies so "ell the pattern in "hi#h a #hild gro"s up in a so#ial en$ironment "hi#h tries to make it #onform, against its o"n nature. The #hild feels guilt, a failure, et#. t is only after lea$ing home and finding the so#iety of others like himself or herself that the #hild finds life !e#omes not only tolera!le !ut happy. t seems to !e a fa#t of human life that all adults #an relate to an appropriate analogy, i.e. one that models the dynami#s of "hat is happening to us in terms of another pro#ess that "e #an grasp more easily. They are therefore of uni$ersal appli#a!ility. t is also a fa#t that not e$eryone #an a!stra#t general patterns to the same degree. That is one reason "hy the ma&ority of people find higher mathemati#s su#h tough going. The a!ility to do so is #orrelated "ith intelligen#e and, in terms of the "ell kno"n theory of Periods of Cogniti$e >e$elopment de$eloped !y Piaget @(<8/ABi!, emerges in the final period: that of 9ormal Operation at around the age of (up"ards in the de$elopment of the #hild. trust that readers of this !ook #an operate at a mental le$el on "hi#h it is possi!le to a!stra#t the patterns from the e2amples gi$e throughout the !ook, so that they #an grasp them at the appropriate le$el of 9ormal Operation. f one of the analogies is, ho"e$er, one that is $ery familiar, then that "ill !e a parti#ularly fruitful sour#e of ideas and metaphors "hen it #omes either to understanding or to em!odying the prin#iples. SUMMAR-

Analogies are used often in Hypnotherapy, and indeed in all learning. They in$ol$e relating the ne" to something already kno"n, so that the ne" may !e understood !y analogy "ith the kno"n. .e ha$e dra"n attention to the fa#t that in Hypnotherapy, "hi#h is #on#erned "ith #hanging processes, the nature of the relationship of analogy is that of dynami# parallel. The t"o things ha$e the same dynami# stru#ture. .e ha$e noted that one of the $alues of an a!stra#t theory is that it makes it easy not only to understand "hat these analogies are doing, !ut also to generate them as ne#essary: it is only ne#essary to find a #on#rete em!odiment of the dynami#s of the systems in$ol$ed. t is emphasised that an analogy is only of mu#h use if the Client #an relate to it. The skilled Hypnotherapist "ill therefore #lothe his or her analogies "ith the ideas or e2perien#es of ea#h indi$idual Client. 9inally it has !een noted that analogies ha$e !een used in this !ook to help readers to understand the prin#iples of Hypnotherapy !y relating it to other fields of kno"ledge. This is possi!le and meaningful !e#ause many organi# systems ha$e the same a!stra#t forms of dynami# pro#esses. HomeE Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of C APT)R /:

ypnosis!

Conscio'sness! , o&=, an% ,<hat=,

This brief chapter gives an outline of an approach to the very difficult question of consciousness. The essence of the approach is the theme, which runs through this book, of the twin perspective on any system both as being part of a larger system or systems and also as containing subsystems. The point is made that when we ask of a system a question based on -How3-, then we are looking for an answer in terms of its subsystems. !n the other hand when we ask a question based on -2hat3- we are looking for answers in terms of its supersystem or supersystems. %nything like a full understanding of a system can only be obtained by answering both the -How3- and the -2hat3- questions. %pplying these principles to human consciousness, which is taken to involve the highest order of systems within the individual brain, leads inevitably to the conclusion that although research has gone a long /though not the whole0 way towards answering the -How3- questions, the answers to the -2hat3questions must lie in a higher system, which must at least include very many other human beings. The fact that traditionally the -2hat3- questions regarding human life have been answered in terms of higher systems than the individual human being is therefore accepted to be the right approach in principle.

* THE BO>, of this !ook ha$e used the "ords 6#ons#ious6 and 6#ons#iousness6 "ithout defining them. n part this "as to a$oid #ompli#ating the main theme of the !ook !y getting prematurely in$ol$ed in #ontro$ersy in "hat is a li$ely area of #urrent de!ate. 0in#e this area of dis#ussion seems to !e open to those from all spe#ialities, !e it mathemati#ians su#h as Penrose @(<;<, (<<1ABi!, philosophers su#h as >ennett @(<<(ABi! or e$olutionary !iologists su#h as >enton @(<</ABi!, it is perhaps not !anned to someone "ho deals daily and dire#tly "ith the su!&e#t matter: he is the less likely to !e a##used of ultra#repidating @a useful "ord meaning the laying do"n of the la" on matters of "hi#h one has little e2perien#eA. The follo"ing thoughts on the su!&e#t, then, may !e $ie"ed as a possi!le starting point in #onsidering the matter from a $ie"point #onsistent "ith that used in the !ook for other phenomena. *oti#e that you may #hoose to disagree "ith the #ontents of this #hapter, and it need not affe#t your a##eptan#e of the remainder of the !ook. am "riting this #hapter for pleasure 4 it is a de$elopment of the thoughts running through the !ook, !ut it #annot !e presented as !eing ne#essary to an understanding of Hypnotherapy. ha$e taken it as a2iomati# that in dealing "ith a gi$en organi# system "e must pay attention to all related systems "hi#h in#lude BOTH its su!systems A*> its supersystems: systems of "hi#h it is a part. This means that in dealing "ith any organi# system "e #an neither understand nor predict the !eha$iour of su#h a system "ithout referen#e BOTH to the systems of "hi#h it is #omposed A*> to the systems of "hi#h it is a part. This is in addition, of #ourse, to understanding its effe#t on and response to its immediate en$ironment, !oth physi#al and organi#. t is a pe#uliarity of inorganic matter that "e #an deal "ith it pretty mu#h in isolation. .e need to kno" only a little a!out its e2ternal en$ironment and its internal stru#ture to deal "ith it. Organi# systems are far more #omple2. They generally ha$e #omple2 internal systems that lead to #hange e$en in an un#hanging e2ternal en$ironment. They ha$e far more #omple2 responses to their e2ternal en$ironment, and finally they "ill in general form part of larger organi# systems "hi#h often determine a large part of their !eha$iour. 9or e2ample, the goals of a !eeFs !eha$iour are determined !y the entire hi$e, though it has some freedom on a moment to moment le$el. Of great importan#e to us in the present #onte2t is to note the related generalisations that: aA Systems can NOT "e 'n%erstoo% p'rely "y reference to their content( !A The nat're of higher;or%er processes relevant to a given system can never "e %e%'ce% p'rely from an analysis of its s'"systems an% their "ehavio'r$ nor from its imme%iate e1ternal environment( +et us look at some e2amples to illustrate these ideas. There is a #hild #rying on the mat. Ho" #an "e understand "hy he is unhappyB .e #an ask "hat has re#ently happened. He is #rying !e#ause his father has #ome home from "ork and has !een angry. Ho" #an "e understand any further the #ause of thisB The #hild, attempting to

understand it in terms that he #an grasp, may naturally feel that he has !een naughty. t is totally impossi!le by reference merely to the child to dedu#e that in fa#t the reason the father is angry is that he has &ust heard that interest rates are going up and this "ill make his finan#ial situation pre#arious. nterest rates are not things that #an !e dedu#ed from the #hildFs e2perien#e at all. *or #an they !e dedu#ed from the e2perien#e of a #olle#tion of #hildren. nterest rates are an e2ample of a phenomenon in a higher4order system @the e#onomyA "hi#h, "hile ha$ing a signifi#ant effe#t on the life and !eha$iour of that system "hi#h is a #hild, #an ne$er !e dedu#ed from an analysis of the #hildFs !eha$iour. +et us take another e2ample. Consider, 6The #at sat on the VVV.6 t seems to us easy to supply the missing "ord. But there is no "ay that this #an !e done purely !y referen#e to the pattern of letters "ithin the senten#e. f you dou!t it, repla#e the letters !y sym!ols, thus: 6^/_ I@^ I@^ FT ^/_ VVV6 t is only !e#ause of patterns "hi#h e2ist at a higher le$el than the simple ordering of the letters that "e #an supply the missing ones. n this #ase the #orre#t #ompletion of the senten#e relies on the fa#t that in our so#iety in the HK the senten#e, 6The #at sat on the mat6 has !een #opied e2tensi$ely from !rain to !rain as a typi#al e2er#ise to !e set #hildren "ho are learning to read. That pro#ess #annot !e dedu#ed from the pattern of the first fi$e "ords, !e#ause it is a pro#ess in a higher4order system. .ithin the higher4order system the "ord 6mat6 #ompletes the senten#e "ith a $ery high pro!a!ility. .ithin the lo"4order system of groups of sym!ols, it has a $ery lo" pro!a!ility: "e might perhaps e2pe#t a three4letter group !e#ause four out of fi$e of the pre$ious groups ha$e three letters, and "e might e2pe#t the last t"o sym!ols to !e 6@^6 sin#e this has happened in half the three4letter "ords. But "e "ould not e$en kno" "hat sym!ol to use to #omplete the "ord. Ho" #ould you guess that it "ould !e 6V6 simply from looking at the earlier sym!olsB W%eaders a"are of some information theory @Gones @(<:<ABi!A "ill kno" that an entropy #an !e asso#iated "ith the information #arried !y the last "ord, "hi#h is #al#ulated in terms of the pro!a!ility of the #orre#t "ord relati$e to all possi!ilities. @%e#all that, in information theory, entropy M 4 plog -@pA, "here p is the pro!a!ility.A t should !e #lear to su#h readers that the entropy within the higher system of all kno"n statements starting 6The #at sat on the6 is far lower than the entropy "ithin the smaller system #onsisting merely of a kno"ledge of a di#tionary, "hi#h is in turn smaller than the entropy "ithin the still smaller "orld in "hi#h "e kno" only the letters of the alpha!et. This is a spe#ifi# e2ample of "hat is a rather general rule that "e #an often redu#e un#ertainty @de#rease entropyA !y mo$ing up to a higher system. Or, to put it in other "ords, &e can increase o'r 'n%erstan%ing "y moving 'p into a higher;level system(X And e$en if "e did someho" manage to predi#t the ne2t group of sym!ols in this "ay 4 !y enlarging our data !ase to in#lude e$ery senten#e that has e$er !een "ritten and spoken in the English language, so that "e might gauge the relati$e pro!a!ility of the "ords 6mat6, 6!ed6, 6#ar6, 6rug6, 6rat6, et#. and dedu#e that in fa#t 6mat6 is o$er"helmingly more pro!a!le 4 then "e "ould still !e no"here near understanding it, for this in$ol$es pla#ing it "ithin a still larger system "hi#h in#ludes real #ats and real mats. t is e$en more #ertainly the #ase then that "e are una!le to understand the "hole of the system of the English language merely !y referen#e to the trun#ated senten#e "e started "ith.

9or the ne2t e2ample #onsider a mathemati#al theorem of great theoreti#al interest @)`del @(</(ABi!A "hi#h says that in any mathemati#al stru#ture "hi#h is at least as !ig as the system of "hole num!ers there are propositions "hi#h #annot, even in principle, !e pro$ed true or false "ithin the system itself @#f. Penrose @(<;<ABi!A. But this is not to say that they #annot !e in#luded in a still larger mathemati#al stru#ture in "hi#h they can !e pro$ed true or false @though of #ourse in this ne" stru#ture there "ill !e ne" propositions "hi#h #an !e pro$ed neither true nor false "ithout referen#e to a still larger oneA. f "e note that the 'uestion of !eing true or false is an important one as far as understanding goes, then again "e see the prin#iple that full understanding of a system #annot !e o!tained purely !y referen#e to its #ontent. *e2t suppose that "e "ere analysing a !rain in great detail, and dis#o$ered, as "e tend to do, that this neuron a#ti$ates that neuron, or e$en the pattern of a#ti$ation of a small group of neurons. This gi$es no insight nor understanding at all into their purpose. t #annot in prin#iple tell us, "ithout referen#e to the larger system, "hether those parti#ular ones are part of the $isual #orte2 or the motor #orte2 or "hat ha$e you. A key #an only !e understood in the #onte2t of lo#k4and4key, "hi#h itself #an only !e understood in the #onte2t of the pro#ess of lo#king, "hi#h #an itself only !e understood fully in the #onte2t "here some things of $alue ha$e to !e preser$ed against theft. The stru#ture of flo"ers #an only !e fully understood in the #onte2t of the inse#ts "hi#h are ne#essary in order to fertilise the plants "hi#h !ear them. The reason for their #olours #an only !e understood in terms of the #olours that the inse#ts respond to. 7ost spe#ies of plants or animals ha$e spe#ifi# features or systems "hi#h only make sense, or ha$e meaning, in the #onte2t of a parti#ular en$ironment. The long tongue of the ant4eaters only makes sense in a "orld of ants and termites "hi#h #an !e e2tra#ted from deep in their nests most easily !y means of a long sti#ky tongue. n human !eings the !odily systems "hi#h are a#ti$ated !y a sense of danger #an !e understood if "e think of the en$ironment in "hi#h they e$ol$ed: one of enemies or large predators "hi#h might ha$e to !e either outfought or outrun. A parti#ular pattern of mo$ements of my fingers at present #an !e understood at a lo" le$el !y referen#e to the e2ternal system of the keys on the key!oard of the "ord pro#essor, !ut at a higher le$el it #an only !e understood in terms of the #urrent thought "hi#h #ertain se#tions of this #ommunity ha$e a!out Hypnotherapy and related su!&e#ts. t "ould !e almost meaningless in the #onte2t of mediae$al European thought, and totally so to the stone4age d"ellers "ho on#e li$ed on lkley 7oor a!o$e me. There are #ountless further e2amples of this kind. They all underline the fa#ts that it is the norm to fin% that the 'n%erstan%ing of a system is incomplete 'nless it is place% in the conte1t of a larger system$ an% that the nat're of this larger system CANNOT "e %e%'ce% p'rely "y reference to the smaller .

And hope that you are finding that this $ery !ook you are reading is an em!odiment of this same prin#iple. .e "ant to understand Hypnotherapy. E$en in prin#iple this is hard to do if "e myopi#ally attempt to do so from within the su!&e#t. And so it is !eing e2plained "ithin the mu#h larger #onte2t of organi# systems, #ausal #hains and feed!a#k loops. n this larger #onte2t it CA* !e understood far !etter. To put all this in a different perspe#ti$e suggest that "hen, in daily talk, "e ask the 'uestion, 6How3- 4 6How does this "ork or happenB6 then "e are asking for an analysis in terms of subsystems. 6Ho" does a #ar "orkB6 leads to a dis#ussion of internal #om!ustion engines and the like. On the other hand "hen "e ask the 'uestion, 6 2hat is36 it is normally a shorthand for 62hat is the purpose36 or 62hat is the meaning36 and "e are then typi#ally asking for an analysis in terms of supersystems. The 'uestion, 6.hat is @the purpose ofA a handB6 is a meaningful one "hi#h has an ans"er #ou#hed in terms of the needs of the higher4order system "hi#h is the person "hose hand it is. 6.hat is @the purpose ofA a #lo#kB6 is ans"ered not in terms of its "orkings, !ut in terms of a higher system "hi#h is that of time4#ons#ious animals. f "e ask, 6.hat is the meaning of this paragraphB6 "e are asking to ha$e its #ontent related to a larger system of kno"ledge. By no" it should !e #lear that the #ontention impli#it in the approa#h of this !ook is that the fun#tioning of the human mind #annot !e understood nor predi#ted "ithout an understanding both of the "orkings of its su!systems and of the "orkings of its supersystems: the so#ial systems, et#. of "hi#h it is part. n parti#ular the highest4order pro#esses of the mind 4 "hi#h take to !e the #ons#ious ones 4 seem to me to !e ine$ita!ly those aspe#ts of the person "hi#h "ill most re'uire an understanding of pro#esses outside the indi$idual to !e understood. Other, smaller, su!systems of the mind may !e understood reasona!ly "ell !y a partial analysis of their su!systems @"hi#h "ill ans"er the 'uestion 6Ho" does it "orkB6A, and a partial understanding of the part they play in the "hole !ody or !rain, "hi#h are their immediate supersystems @"hi#h "ill ans"er the 'uestion, 6.hat is its purposeB6A. But #ons#ious pro#esses, !eing at the top of the pile as regards a single indi$idual, must demand e2pli#ation not only in terms of its su!systems !ut also of systems e ternal to the indi$idual if "e are to ans"er 'uestions related to 6 2hat is #ons#iousnessB6 9or this *OT to !e true "ould make #ons#ious pro#esses something amaLingly uni'ue among #omple2 systems for "hi#h, as "e ha$e seen, the 6.hatB6 'uestions re'uire the system to !e $ie"ed as part of a larger system. n an attempt to #riti#ise this position ha$e repeatedly asked myself, 6Can you think of A*, organi# system 0 for "hi#h it is possi!le to ans"er the 'uestion, S.HAT is 0BF "ithout referen#e to a higher4order system of "hi#h it is partB6 ha$e failed, !ut hope that anyone else "ho "ishes to #riti#ise the position "ill attempt the same task. As parti#ular appli#ations of the a!o$e prin#iples "ould suggest that:

*o matter ho" mu#h kno"ledge "e ha$e a!out the neurologi#al path"ays of pain it CA* ne$er pro$ide an ans"er to the 'uestion, 6 2hat is #ons#iousness of painB6 *o matter ho" mu#h kno"ledge "e ha$e a!out the neurologi#al pro#esses of reasoning it CA* ne$er pro$ide an ans"er to the 'uestion, 6 2hat is #ons#iousness of truthB6 *o matter ho" mu#h kno"ledge "e ha$e a!out the emotional or affe#ti$e system "ith all its neurologi#al and hormonal aspe#ts, it CA* ne$er pro$ide an ans"er to the 'uestion, 62hat is #ons#iousness of lo$eB6 7y hum!le suggestion is that su#h things, "here "e are asking 6.hat is..B6, #an in principle only !e ans"ered in terms of a higher4order system or systems. This is not to say, of #ourse, that "e are not doing $ery "ell in ans"ering the 'uestion, 6Ho"B6 All the !ooks ha$e read on the su!&e#t of #ons#iousness seem to miss this #entral point. They argue as if an in#reasingly su!tle use of 6Ho"B6 'uestions "ill e$entually gi$e an ans"er to 6.hatB6 But this is a priori totally impro!a!le on the grounds that the latter 'uestion ine$ita!ly re'uires referen#e to larger systems. Perhaps you kno" a story on the follo"ing lines: A poli#e #ar "as #ruising the streets of a seaside to"n one night, and stopped near a drunk "ho "as #ra"ling on the ground on his hands and knees. 6And "hat are you doing, sirB6 the poli#eman asked. 6+ooking for my losht #ufflink,6 "as the slurred reply. The poli#eman took a 'ui#k look around, !ut sa" nothing, and so asked, 6And "here did you lose this #ufflink, sirB6 6 t fell in the sea.6 6Then "hy on earth are you looking hereB6 6Talk shen#eI #anFt sh"imI6 The snag is, of #ourse, that "ith our $ery limited minds "e ha$e a $ery limited #apa#ity to understand $ery mu#h larger systems @"e #anFt 6s"im6A. The !ee does not ha$e a !rain large enough to grasp the purpose of the !ee4keeper. ha$e a mind apt only to understand simple things, "hi#h is "hy ha$e had to look at hopelessly #omple2 organi# pro#esses in terms of the simple notions of systems and the intera#tions of one on another. #ould no more understand $ery mu#h more #omple2 things than #ould, as a #hild of four, understand in the slightest "ay anything of this !ook. Conse'uently, although it seems ine$ita!le that the dire#tion to look for an ans"er to 62hat is #ons#iousnessB6 is upwards to more #omple2 systems, there is a poor #han#e of any of us !eing a!le to see far enough in that dire#tion to see anything like

a #omplete ans"er. Ho"e$er, this is no e2#use for looking in a pla#e that the ans"er cannot !e, simply !e#ause "e are una!le to look $ery far in the pla#e "here it is. A different, !ut related, traditional response of some people to diffi#ult 6.hatB6 'uestions is, in effe#t, to dismiss them. .here in the a!o$e it has !een admitted that it is a priori unlikely if not impossi!le for me, from my limited perspe#ti$e, to grasp a phenomenon from a mu#h higher perspe#ti$e, they "ill argue, 6 #annot ans"er them !y means of my standard methods for ans"ering SHo"BF 'uestions. Therefore they #annot !e ans"ered.6 This ans"er has the undou!ted $alue of fo#using the mind on the simpler 6Ho"B6 'uestions "hi#h #an !e pursued "ith #onsidera!le su##ess, as the ad$an#es in s#ien#e o$er re#ent #enturies attest. The a#t of saying 6There is no sea6 may "ell impro$e our #o$erage of the ground, !ut "ill ne$er help us to find anything in or a!out the sea. f the sea is there and there is something of $alue in it, then e$en if "e #annot s"im "e may ne$ertheless hope to find out something !y some other means. am reminded of saa# *e"tonFs famous hum!le "ords: I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me. <rewster /4H880Bi! t "ill !e re#ognised of #ourse that all the religions of the "orld are united in taking a third line. They say that an understanding of su#h !asi# aspe#ts of our #ons#ious e2perien#e as pain, truth and lo$e #an only !e o!tained in terms of a higher4order system or systems 4 )od or )ods. t is my #ontention that the direction in "hi#h they are looking 4 up"ards, to a more #omple2 le$el 4 is the right and only "ay to look for a full understanding of the nature of #ons#iousness 4 the 6.hatB6 4 "hile not denying the importan#e of the @easierA task of asking 6Ho"B6 in understanding the me#hanisms of mu#h that is going on. As to "hat ans"ers "e may find in that dire#tion: they must !e left as outside the s#ope of this !ook. am saying that all the e2amples #ited, "hi#h stand for millions more, demonstrate that as a rule full understanding of anything 4 in parti#ular the ans"ers to the 6.hatB6 'uestions 4 #an only !e o!tained from a $ie"point higher than the thing itself: from a perspe#ti$e "hi#h en#ompasses higher4 order systems. therefore propose that the H'estion ,<hat is h'man conscio'sness=, can only "e f'lly 'n%erstoo% from a perspective m'ch larger than the in%ivi%'al . But sin#e ha$e merely a human perspe#ti$e do not ha$e that higher perspe#ti$e and so #an say nothing "ith personal authority. think "e must #on#lude, ho"e$er, that the smallest system "ithin "hi#h indi$idual #ons#iousness #ould !e understood is that of the so#iety @past, present, and possi!ly future alsoA "ithin "hi#h it has de$eloped. But "ho am to !e a!le to see things from su#h an enormous perspe#ti$eB .ho #an #laim to !e a!le to look do"n on a person "ith an intimate understanding of a "hole so#iety "hi#h e2ists, of #ourse, o$er hundreds if not thousands or millions of yearsB And ho" #an kno" if that perspe#ti$e is high enoughB Perhaps it "ill re'uire a perspe#ti$e high enough to take in the entire

system of life on earth 4 past and future as "ell as presentB And perhaps e$en that is not enoughB t may help to put the pro!lem in perspe#ti$e to #onsider the follo"ing. .hen the human population of the earth has dou!led and then dou!led again there "ill finally !e a!out as many people as there are neurons in a typi#al !rain: some -= !illion @Cal$in @(<;/ABi!A. @The !rain also #ontains a mu#h larger num!er of simpler glial #ells "hose purpose has yet to !e fully elu#idated.A By that time the #ommuni#ations !et"een people "ill also, thanks to phones, the nternet, TJ, et#., !e getting on for !eing as #omple2 as those !et"een neurons, many of "hi#h #an !e in dire#t #onta#t "ith some (=,=== others. .e may "ell e2pe#t to see $arious groups of people #olla!orating in #ertain fun#tions &ust as !rain #ells #olla!orate. n !rief am proposing the suggestion that a population of su#h a siLe "ould ha$e a #omple2ity at least as great as a human !rain, and reasona!ly similar pro#esses of operation. The 'uestion "hi#h then arises is, 6.ould there then !e a )lo!al Cons#iousnessB6 Anyone "ho argues that #ons#iousness is an 6epiphenomenon6 of #omple2ity "ould, presume, ha$e to a##ept that the ans"er #ould !e 6,es6. @There are intelligent people "ho think that a suffi#iently #omple2 computer #ould !e #ons#ious, so they "ould ha$e to a##ept that a suffi#iently #omple2 society #ould !e also.A But sin#e the relationship of ea#h of us to that )lo!al Cons#iousness is that of a #ell to the entire !rain, it should !e #lear that "e #an ha$e $ery little idea of the nature of that Cons#iousness, though "e "ould !e affe#ted !y it &ust as an indi$idual !rain #ell is affe#ted !y our #ons#ious thoughts. *o" of #ourse there is no proof that there "ill !e @and perhaps already isBA su#h a le$el of #ons#iousness. am simply proposing the thought to illustrate one kind of supersystem that #an plausi!ly !e proposed as one in "hi#h the 6.hatB6 of indi$idual #ons#iousness might !e ans"ered: though it "ould lea$e open the 'uestion of the nature of that larger glo!al #ons#iousness. t is of #ourse a rather hum!ling thought: that of seeing oneself as su#h a small part of su#h a large "hole. t is so mu#h more gratifying to see oneself as at the top of a #omple2 system than as at the !ottom of one: the 7anaging >ire#tor of a firm rather than a &unior #lerk. And intelle#tuals, "ho #an often !e led to think "ell of themsel$es !e#ause they #an think in more #omple2 "ays than their fello"s, do not perhaps take all that "ell to intelle#tual humility. A study of thinkers of the past seems to sho" that in e$ery age they ha$e thought that they kne" some <<U of all the important things. And later generations ha$e seen that they "ere laugha!ly ignorant e$en in matters they thought themsel$es "ise in. dou!t if this generation is any different. .e "ill all pro!a!ly seem $ery ignorant in a mere hundred years let alone a thousand or ten thousand. suspe#t that the ideas "hi#h ha$e suggested a!o$e "ill !e resisted, "hen they are resisted, as mu#h from a relu#tan#e to adopt the hum!le perspe#ti$e they imply as from a logi#al #riti'ue of the dire#tion they propose. should perhaps add the simple point that saying that the ans"er lies in a #ertain dire#tion does *OT mean that simply !e#ause a proposed ans"er lies in that dire#tion it is rightI A lot of people seem to fail to grasp this point. They may argue, 67organ has said that the nature of #ons#iousness #an only !e understood "ithin a larger #onte2t. M- theory 4 that it is determined !y the position of the stars D a

gala#ti# super#i$ilisation D life for#e D et#. 4 #learly in$ol$es a larger #onte2t, so it 7H0T therefore !e rightI6 But that is like saying, 6)old is found underground. found this stone underground. t must therefore !e gold.6 Or, 6,our #uff4link fell in the sea. ha$e &ust found this @a pe!!leA in the sea. t must !e your #uff4link.6 The history of s#ien#e 4 the history of the asking and ans"ering of the 6Ho"B6 'uestions 4 tea#hes us that "e ha$e no natural fa#ility either in asking the right 'uestions or in ans"ering them. The past is littered "ith the most amaLing theories and #on&e#tures on all manner of things, su#h as the idea that the stars are fi2ed on a #rystal sphere around the earth5 the phlogiston theory of #om!ustion5 the four humours theory of human health5 animal magnetism: ea#h of "hi#h may !e said to gi$e rather superfi#ial understanding of #ertain areas, !ut ea#h of "hi#h has !een demonstrated to !e hopelessly inade'uate or "rong. @And those theories are among the more su##essful onesI History says far less a!out the less su##essful ideas.A .e ha$e only made progress in ans"ering the 6Ho"B6 'uestions !y means of $ery #areful and honest thought and e2periment. ha$e no reason to suppose that the human mind is mu#h !etter e'uipped to ans"er the 6.hatB6 'uestions. The a priori assumption is that it is "orse e'uipped. The higher may understand the lo"er more easily than the lo"er understand the higher. An adult understands a !a!y !etter than a !a!y understands a parent. .ith my full #ons#iousness may understand the "orkings of a single #ell: the re$erse #an ne$er !e true. A !iologist may !egin to understand the "orkings of the fruit fly. The re$erse "ill ne$er !e true. Ho" then #an "e !e e2pe#ted to understand #learly something "hi#h e hypothesi is mu#h larger and more #omple2 than "e areB There is a possi!le ans"er to this o!&e#tion "hi#h #an !e summarised as follo"s. 6The unaided mind is, of #ourse, una!le to ans"er the S.hyBF 'uestions. But )od @the Shigher systemF as you put itA, "ho is the sour#e of human #ons#iousness, is naturally a!le to guide it into the paths of truth, especially on the important matters to do with the relationship of the lesser consciousnesses of His creation to His higher one.6 9or "hat my opinion is "orth !elie$e that there is some truth in this, !ut a truth that, like so many others, #an easily !e misunderstood and misapplied. SUMMARThe important phenomenon of #ons#iousness is #onsidered in the #onte2t of asking the t"o important 'uestions, 6Ho"B6 and 6.hatB6, "hi#h #an !e asked of any organi# system. The former 'uestion re'uires ans"ers in terms of the fun#tioning of su!systems. The latter re'uires ans"ers in terms of the pla#e of the parti#ular system "ithin a larger #onte2t of "hi#h it is a su!system. .e ha$e learned a lot a!out the 6Ho"B6 of the mind as a result of e2periment and analysis of its su!systems. But su#h progress "ill ne$er, of its nature, !egin to ans"er the 6.hatB6 'uestions.

Although "e may #on#lude that to ans"er the 'uestion 6 2hat is #ons#iousnessB6 demands a higher perspe#ti$e than the single human mind, the limitations of an indi$idual mind #an !e e2pe#ted greatly to limit any a##ess to that perspe#ti$e. t is noted that all the "orldFs religions #laim that there is a larger system "ithin "hi#h human #ons#iousness has its origin and meaning. The a!o$e reasoning leads to the #on#lusion that they are at least looking in the right dire#tion. On the other hand thinkers "ho are looking to ans"er it !y means "hi#h #an at !est only lead to an ans"er to 6How do #ons#ious pro#esses "orkB6 are fishing for "hales in a !u#ket. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E *e2t Chapter

Principles of Hypnosis: Chapter />

Mathematics
This brief chapter points towards the way in which the analysis of Hypnotic phenomena promoted in the body of the book could be developed in such a way that it would connect up with the large e isting body of mathematical theory of cybernetic and biological systems. % single very small e ample of mathematical modelling is given in the hope that even the non-mathematician may get an idea of the potential of such an approach. *O 7ATHE7AT C0 has !een attempted in this !ook so far. The formulae "hi#h ha$e !een presented are no more than a form of shorthand. n this #hapter "ill simply point out dire#tions in "hi#h any de$elopment of the analysis might #ontinue. Central to our analysis of Hypnoti#, and indeed organi#, pro#esses ha$e !een feed!a#k loops. The first me#hanism "hi#h em!odied a negati$e feed!a#k loop is usually #ited to !e Games .attFs fly!all go$ernor @(:8=A, !ut !y today they ha$e proliferated throughout so#iety in all shapes and forms. The theory of su#h me#hanisms is usually dated from the "ork of .iener @(<1;aABi! on Cy!erneti#s. An alternati$e introdu#tion to the su!&e#t is gi$en !y Ash!y @(<38ABi!. Control systems are normally modelled using linear integro;%ifferential eH'ations. 9or a typi#al modern te2t on these lines see 0tefani et al. @(<<1ABi!. These are readily mastered !y anyone "ho #an handle the +apla#e transform and #omple2 analysis. These approa#hes ha$e !een used to design #ontrol systems for su#h $aried systems as artifi#ial lim!s @%au#h @(<;8ABi!A and #ontrol of a fle2i!le air#raft @7artin P Bryson @(<;=ABi!A. %elated, !ut mu#h more #omple2, mathemati#s has !een used to model feed!a#k in a#ousti# systems, "hi#h are three4dimensional. A parti#ular e2ample of this, "hi#h ha$e studied in depth @Gones P 7organ @(<:-, (<:/, (<:1A, 7organ @(<:1, (<:3, (<:;ABi!A is the generation of noise !y &et engines. This in$ol$es an in#reasing

positi$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h is asso#iated "ith the HelmholtL insta!ility of the interfa#e !et"een streams of gases "hi#h ha$e different speeds. @0ound generation !y the flute is !ased on the same phenomenon.A 0u#h e2amples again use a linear model. Ho"e$er, detailed analysis of !iologi#al systems re$eals non;linearity. The term 6non4linear6 has a pre#ise meaning to the mathemati#ian, !ut in pra#ti#al terms it means 6e2tremely diffi#ult to analyse: #an normally only !e sol$ed using a #omputer6. There has !een something of an e2plosion of resear#h into the theoreti#al studies of su#h !iologi#al systems in re#ent years. A good #ompendium "ith "hi#h to start is 7urray @(<</ABi!. E2amples of systems "hi#h ha$e !een treated are population dynami#s in#luding predator4prey intera#tions, ner$e propagation, animal #oat patterns, morphogenesis and epidemi#s. Against the !a#kground of all that "ork, the present !ook #an !e seen as simply lifting Hypnotherapy into the t"entieth #entury and making it possi!le for it to take its pla#e among other s#ien#es "hi#h #an utilise the po"er of spe#ifi# mathemati#al models. The stru#ture that has !een re$ealed 4 in$ol$ing the #lear #on#ept of a#ti$ity as its !asi# $aria!le 4 lends itself to measurement. 0uita!le e2perimental measurements #an #larify the e2a#t form of the intera#tions !et"een systems. A kno"ledge of the e2a#t form leads to e'uations. These e'uations may !e essentially similar to those "hi#h ha$e already arisen in #ontrol theory or !iologi#al systems, in "hi#h #ase "e #an at on#e take o$er the solutions. Alternati$ely "e may find different e'uations, "hi#h "ill pro$ide the theoreti#ians "ith some happy hours of "ork and many ne" pu!li#ations. t is presumed that the typi#al reader is *OT $ersed in mathemati#al modelling. *e$ertheless "ill present the simplest possi!le model of feed!a#k loops in the #onte2t of Hypnotherapy to gi$e a fla$our of "hat #an happen, and also to illustrate the kind of ad$antage that #omes from a pre#ise analysis. The mathemati#al formulation #hosen is simpler than any of those mentioned a!o$e, and should !e "ithin the grasp of anyone "ith a )C0E in mathemati#s. +et us #onsider a #ommon pro!lem "hi#h is often !rought to the Hypnotherapist for treatment: !lushing. The in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop "hi#h dri$es this pro!lem is typi#ally: 2N"orry a!out !lushingO 4 2N!lushingO 4 2N"orry a!out !lushingO. Clearly it takes a little time for the a#ti$ation of a "orry to lead to the a#ti$ation of the !lushing. t takes time, of the order of se#onds, for the thought 6 am !lushing6 to a#ti$ate the #hange in #ir#ulation in$ol$ed. E'ually there is a smaller time taken for the in#reased !lushing, felt as heat, to !e per#ei$ed !y the mind. f "e let the magnitude of the "orry at time t !e .@tA and the magnitude of the !lushing at time t !e B@tA, then our !asi# e'uation deals "ith changes in . and B. This "ould normally lead us at on#e to #al#ulus, "hi#h deals "ith the rate of #hange of 'uantities like . and B. Ho"e$er not all of my readers are au fait "ith #al#ulus and so "ill pro#eed to dis#retise: to #onsider the $alue of the $aria!les only at a series of

dis#rete times. @This is "hat is done in any #ase "hen diffi#ult pro!lems are sol$ed on a #omputer.A This means that "e "ill only #onsider the $alues of B and . at a series of times at small inter$als apart: in this #ase "e might imagine re#ording !oth e$ery tenth or e$en hundredth of a se#ond. n this "ay "e "ould get readings . =, .(, .-, ./... and B=, B(, B-, B/.... 9rom these "e #ould #al#ulate the in#reases in the 'uantities in ea#h inter$al as follo"s: (A "( M .( 4 .=, "- M .- 4 .(, et#., and -A !( M B( 4 B=, !- M B- 4 B(, et#. .e "ill ne2t suppose that a #hange in . "ill lead to a #hange in B m time4steps later and a #hange in B "ill lead to a #hange in . n steps later. @Pure mathemati#ians may !e "orried that the t"o time delays #ould !e in#ommensurate, and #ould not therefore !e dis#retised in this "ay, !ut they #an do the #ontinuous #al#ulations "ith deri$ati$es.A This "ill then ena!le us to propose the $ery simplest dis#retisation of our !asi# relationships !et"een B and . in the follo"ing "ay: /A "i M G!i4m and !i M K"i4n The num!ers G and K "ill !e #alled #oupling #onstants, and are some positi$e num!ers "hi#h "e might hope to determine !y e2periment. G is numeri#ally the in#rease in the a#ti$ity of the .orry system as a result of a unit in#rease in the a#ti$ity of the Blushing system. K is numeri#ally the in#rease in the a#ti$ity of the Blushing system #aused !y a unit in#rease in the a#ti$ity of the .orry system. *oti#e that in "riting these e'uations "e are assuming that ! i and "i remain positi$e sin#e our !asi# relationship 2. 4 2B 4 2. only tells us a!out "hat happens as a result of in#reases. At this point "e are not e2amining "hat happens in a phase in "hi#h they are redu#ing. .e ha$e also supposed that there is a dire#t proportional relationship !et"een the #hanges in the t"o $aria!les. n the real "orld this is unlikely to !e more than an appro2imation, !ut it is the appro2imation that applied mathemati#ians al"ays #onsider first, in the a!sen#e of any !etter information. This linear appro2imation, as it is #alled, is often remarka!ly good as long as the 'uantities in$ol$ed do not !e#ome too large. Ho"e$er readers should note that e2periment is the only determinant of the e2a#t relationship !et"een the #hanges in the different systems. They should also note that the e'uations ha$e "ritten do"n are not the ones #ommonly found in !ooks on #y!erneti#s, in "hi#h the e'uations are typi#ally dra"n from an e2perien#e of inorgani# systems su#h as ele#troni# #ir#uits, rather than organi# systems, as here. f "e put the t"o e'uations together "e #an get: 1A "i M +"i47, and !i M +!i47,

"here + M GK, and 7 M mTn. *o" let us #onsider the situation in "hi#h a person is neither !lushing nor "orrying right up to and in#luding the time t M =, so that .i M Bi M = for $alues of i "hi#h are negati$e or Lero. .e may then suppose that from that time the "orry steadily in#reases for some reason or other "hi#h is not a dire#t result of !eing a"are of !lushing. .e #an then #al#ulate "(, "hi#h is the in#rease in the first inter$al, ""hi#h is the in#rease in the se#ond inter$al and so on right up to " 7. These may !e of any @positi$eA siLe until "e #ome to "7T(, at "hi#h point "e "ill suppose that in#reases in . are go$erned !y the feed!a#k loop $ia e'uation 1A "hi#h says that: 3A "7T( M +"(. 9rom then on "e "ill take it that all further $alues of " i are determined in the same "ay. This means that $alues of "i for i M 7T( to -7 are simply the $alues for i M ( to 7, !ut all multiplied !y +. A #ontinuation of the #al#ulation sho"s that the $alues for i M -7T( to /7 are those for i M ( to 7 multiplied !y +- and so on. n mathemati#al shorthand "e ha$e: 8A "&7Ti M +&"i, "hi#h su##in#tly e2presses the $alue of " at all future times. But "hat "e "ould like to kno" is not the $alue of "i 4 the in#rease in the $alue of . 4 !ut rather the $alue of . itself. .e #an do this !y adding up the indi$idual in#reases: :A .i M "( T "- T "/ T ...... T "i. Of parti#ular interest is the $alue of .7, "hi#h is the $alue that the "orry has risen to at the point "here the feed!a#k loop starts to "ork on the "orry to in#rease it further. .e "ill #all this $alue .. t is not diffi#ult then to see that: ;A .&m M . T +. T +-. T +/. T ..... T +&4(., !e#ause after ea#h period of time at "hi#h the #hange has mo$ed around the loop the "orry has in#reased still further !y + times the pre$ious in#rease. 0u#h a series #an !e e2pressed in a different form using a fairly easy result in alge!ra "hi#h, like so mu#h in mathemati#s, "ill either !e "ell kno"n to the reader or "ill ha$e to !e taken on trust, as follo"s: <A .&m M .@(4+&AD@(4+A Z@if +M( this formula is not "ell defined, and instead "e ha$e . &m M &.A. This formula dra"s attention to the fa#t that things are $ery different a##ording to "hether + is greater or less than one. f +a( then the term + & gets smaller and smaller as time goes !y, and the "orry only in#reases up to the limit:

(=A .@tA

.D@(4+A.

9or e2ample, if + M (D-, then the effe#t of the positi$e feed!a#k from the a"areness of !lushing o$er time #an only in#rease the initial "orry !y a fa#tor of t"o. f the fa#tor + M =.<, then the "orry #an !e in#reased tenfold !y the feed!a#k5 if + M=.<< it #an !e in#reased a hundredfold and so on. f, on the other hand, +Z( then the term + & "ill go on in#reasing "ithout limit, and the "orry and !lushing "ill in theory go on in#reasing indefinitely. n the real "orld this #annot happen of #ourse. As they in#rease there "ill #ome a time "hen some other fa#tor arises "hi#h "ill pre$ent further gro"th, and they "ill le$el off at some high $alue "hi#h #annot !e predi#ted "ithout kno"ing more a!out the systems than "e ha$e !uilt into this simple linear model. This is not dismaying: "e kne" in setting up this simple model that it "as only an appro2imation. @The e2#eptional #ase +M( also leads to the "orry in#reasing indefinitely, of #ourse.A The results that "e ha$e o!tained so far illustrate the $irtue of mathemati#al analysis o$er simply thro"ing the e'uations into a #omputer and seeing "hat happens. One might play a!out "ith all sorts of $alues of the parameters G and K and m and n, getting the #omputer to #hurn out many different solutions "ithout hitting upon the !asi# and simple fa#t that the main features of the solutions are determined !y the $alue of the parameter + M GK5 nor "ould it ne#essarily !e easy to determine the "ay in "hi#h the !eha$iour depends on +. 0ome pra#ti#al #on#lusions that arise from this simple result are the follo"ing. The effe#ti$eness of an in#reasing feed!a#k loop is determined !y the siLe of the parameters G and K. The &o! of the Hypnotherapist is therefore to redu#e these #oupling #onstants. He or she "ill therefore !e aiming to redu#e either the effe#t of the "orry on the !lushing, or the effe#t of the !lushing on the "orry, or !oth. *ote that in general the #oupling #onstants !et"een any t"o systems "ill !e different in different people. f "e are using a positi$e feed!a#k loop in order to produ#e an Hypnoti# effe#t, then "e should not !e surprised if it is easier in one person than another !e#ause of these differen#es. The pra#tising Hypnotherapist "ill ha$e a reasona!le 'ualitati$e idea in many #ases of ho" large the parameters are. 0o4#alled 6good6 0u!&e#ts are often people in "hi#h a #hange in one system produ#es a large #hange in another system5 a #oupling #onstant is large5 the amplifi#ation fa#tors tend to !e large5 positi$e feed!a#k loops are strong. 6Poor6 0u!&e#ts are those in "hi#h it is hard to produ#e the standard Hypnoti# responses: "e may #hara#terise them as people in "hi#h there is little amplifi#ation5 #oupling #onstants like G and K are small so that a positi$e feed!a#k loop has an almost imper#epti!le effe#t5 the loop is "eak5 #hanges in one system ha$e little effe#t on other systems. f "e need to produ#e a strong result in a person in "hi#h the #oupling #onstants are small, then "e are likely to need to put in 'uite a lot of "ork to in#rease the amplifi#ation. t is an untested hypothesis of mine that most #oupling #onstants are larger if the person in$ol$ed is more generally aroused D e2#ited D ner$ous. E$eryday e2perien#e #ertainly suggests that high adrenaline le$els produ#e generally greater responses in most systems. f this is true then there "ill !e times "hen the #urrent #on$ention in Hypnotherapy of going for deeply #alm and rela2ed pro#edures may

*OT !e the !est approa#h to #ertain #hanges, in parti#ular those in "hi#h "e "ant to enhan#e a positi$e feed!a#k loop. t is reasona!ly straightfor"ard to #al#ulate .i for $alues of i "hi#h are not multiples of 7: interested readers should !e a!le to do this themsel$es. +ike"ise the $alues of B are #al#ula!le in a similar "ay. n the e2ample "e are dealing "ith, limiting $alues of B are K times those of .. n summary, "hat "e ha$e learned from a #lose study of this $ery simple model of a positi$e feed!a#k loop is the follo"ing. t "ill al"ays tend to amplify a #hange, !ut for small $alues of the #oupling #onstants the amplifi#ation "ill !e limited to in#reasing the #hange !y a fa#tor of (D@(4+A. f the #oupling #onstants !e#ome large enough for + to !e greater than or e'ual to one, then the amplifi#ation #an gro" indefinitely, until the $aria!les rea#h $alues too large for the simple linear model to remain $alid. f "e had not thought through su#h a model in detail, then "e might ha$e thought that a positi$e feed!a#k loop "ould A+.A,0 lead to $ery large $alues of the a#ti$ities in$ol$ed, "hi#h turns out not to !e true. 0o far "e ha$e only dealt "ith the phase of !lushing "here things are in#reasing, and ha$e dis#o$ered that for +a( they rea#h a plateau determined !y (=A. 9or +Z( they "ill go on in#reasing until some other fa#tor a#ts to limit an e2plosi$e gro"th: "e #annot predi#t "hether this "ill lead to a steady plateau or a sudden #rash. f "e no" think of the plateau situation, "e "ill note that there "ill #ome a time "hen the positi$e feed!a#k loop has !een produ#ing $ery little in#rease for some time. t is then only a matter of time !efore some other influen#e starts to introdu#e some redu#tion into the $aria!les. Typi#ally the thought, 6At least it is getting no "orseI6 "ill a#t to start to redu#e the "orry for a fe" se#onds. But this is likely to produ#e a redu#tion in the !lushing, "hi#h "ill in turn redu#e the "orry, and so on. n !rief "e "ill ha$e a de#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop: 3. 4 3B 4 3.. This #an again !e represented 'uantitati$ely as: ((A "i M G!i4m and !i M K"i4n, !ut G, K, m and n "ill no" pro!a!ly ha$e different values from those in /A. The important differen#e !et"een this e'uation and e'uation /A is that the 'uantities " i and !i are no" negati$e, not positi$e. .e #an run through the same mathemati#s as !efore and dis#o$er that the small redu#tion indu#ed !y the influen#e of the #alming thought "ill !e amplified in the same "ay as "e ha$e seen a!o$e. The total possi!le redu#tion "ill, if the ne" $alue of + is less than unity, !e no more than .D@(4+A, "here this $alue of . is a measure of the redu#tion produ#ed !y the #alming thought !efore the de#reasing negati$e feed!a#k loop starts to take o$er. There are then a fe" possi!ilities. f this redu#tion is less than the original in#rease then the resulting le$el "ill !e some"here !et"een Lero and its ma2imum $alue. 0ome people "ill report this response: the em!arrassment will redu#e after a "hile, !ut #an remain at some signifi#ant le$el as long as they remain in the situation. The se#ond possi!ility is that the e2pression for the redu#tion is e'ual to or greater in

magnitude than the original in#rease. n this #ase the redu#tion pro#ess "ill re$erse the original in#rease and !ring the $aria!les !a#k do"n to Lero. f the ne" $alue of + is greater than unity then the redu#tion to Lero "ill !e simply faster. .hen e$erything is !a#k to Lero again "e are !a#k "here "e started. There may or may not !e some reason for the in#reasing pro#ess to start up again. An em!arrassing remark or a self4#ons#ious thought may do the tri#k. As a final #omment, "e should remem!er again ho" $ery simple the a!o$e model is. t #an plausi!ly !e supposed in real life that the 'uantities G and K "ill depend to some e2tent on the $alues . and B. 7ost organi# pro#esses #an in#rease faster at lo" le$els than they do "hen they are rea#hing the limits of their resour#es. 7aking G and K depend on B and . is not a pro!lem if "e are thinking of #omputerised solution of the e'uations, !ut it "ould take us outside the !ounds of "hat is possi!le in this !ook. Ho"e$er, simple though it is, the model has taught us a fe" simple prin#iples, parti#ularly in$ol$ing the "ay the !eha$iour depends on the siLe of the #oupling #onstants G and K. .e "ill ne2t take a look at negati$e feed!a#k loops in a similar "ay. The pi#ture no" gets more diffi#ult !e#ause "e ha$e to deal "ith !oth in#reases and de#reases. +et us look at a dou!le4sided negati$e feed!a#k loop:Z (-A 2K 4 2, 4 2K 4 2, 4 2K. A similar approa#h #an !e used, e2#ept that "hen "e #ome to looking at solutions, "e "ill start not from a solution in "hi#h K@tAM,@tAM=, !ut from a more general steady state in "hi#h K@tAMK=, and ,@tAM,= for all t up to and in#luding tM=. Hsing similar linear appro2imations to these relationships, "e ha$e the follo"ing e'uations for the in#rements 2i and yi: (/A 2i M 4Gyi4a @if yi4aZ=A T Kyi4! @if yi4!a=A, (1A yi M +2i4# @if 2i4#Z=A 4 72i4d @if 2i4da=A, "here G,K,+,7,a,!,#,d are positi$e parameters. The solution #an !e simplified, ho"e$er, if the delay parameters are the same for in#reases and de#reases, so that aM! and #Md. f "e then also suppose that 2 iZ= for iM( to aT#, then !y (1A yiZ= for i M #T( to aT-#, !y (/A 2ia= for i M aT#T( to -aT-#, !y (1A yia= for i M aT-#T( to -aT/# and then (/A gi$es 2iZ= in -aT-#T( to /aT/#, and the pattern repeats. This #an !e summarised !y saying that there are solutions of (/A and (1A "hi#h are periodi# and in "hi#h 2 and y "ill !e alternately positi$e and negati$e. 9urthermore the $alues of 2i and yi #an !e determined in a $ery similar "ay to that used for positi$e feed!a#k loops, "hi#h the interested reader may #al#ulate. .e #an #onsider only the !eha$iour of 2, sin#e that of y #an !e determined similarly. f "e let

K M 2( T 2- T ... T 2aT#, "hi#h is the in#rease in K@tA o$er the first positi$e phase !efore the feed!a#k loop starts to a#t on it, then "e find that during a negati$e phase the #hange in K@tA is 4G+ times the #hange in the pre$ious positi$e phase, "hi#h is in turn 4K7 times the #hange in the pre$ious negati$e phase. f "e let G+K7M?, then if ?a(, "e find that the departure from e'uili!rium is follo"ed !y a period of os#illation "ith de#reasing magnitude until the $alues of K and , rea#h a ne" steady state. The limit for K is: K K= T K@(4G+AD@(4?A.

f you "ould like a real situation to think a!out, then one e2ample is that of the inter4 personal distan#e !et"een t"o people at a #o#ktail party. f "e let K@tA !e a measure of the reser$e !et"een the t"o and ,@tA a measure of the physi#al distan#e, then #ommon e2perien#e suggests the normal pattern of so#ial intera#tion is for 2 N%eser$eO 4 2>istan#eO 4 3N%eser$eO 4 3N>istan#eO. @*ote that in this model the important distan#e is the psy#hologi#ally per#ei$ed distan#e, as measured !y the a#ti$ity of the appropriate mental system. 9or simpli#ity "e "ill suppose that ea#h person estimates it in the same "ay, and that ea#h has a similar measure of reser$e, though there "ould !e an interestingly different, !ut more #omple2, analysis if "e had t"o people "ho &udged them differently.A 0uppose that the #ouple are talking happily at some #onstant le$el of reser$e and distan#e. Then the a!o$e simple mathemati#s models a situation in "hi#h there is some for#ed #hange: it may !e that for a "hile a #hange of topi# in#reases or de#reases the reser$e or it may !e that one is physi#ally pushed nearer or dra"n apart !y an outside agent. n the solution o!tained a!o$e, the result is a period of os#illation during "hi#h the for#ed #hange is o$er#ompensated for, and this o$er#ompensation is again #orre#ted for, until things sta!ilise at some ne" distan#e, "hi#h "ill generally !e a different one from the one they started from. A su##ession of su#h episodes may result in the t"o rea#hing #loser and #loser e'uili!ria or more and more distant e'uili!ria. By #ontrast, if ?Z( then the situation is unsta!le, !e#ause any small distur!an#e "ill 'ui#kly !uild up in an os#illatory fashion. The #hanges 2 and y "ill in#rease !y the fa#tor ? after ea#h os#illation. Of #ourse as this happens "e are less a!le to predi#t e2a#tly "hat happens ne2t, as the $aria!les !e#ome too large. Thus if the reser$e !e#omes too large or the distan#e gets too large then the #ouple "ill o!$iously drift apart. On the other hand the mathemati#s also predi#ts that after a num!er of os#illations the distan#e #an !e#ome Lero: the t"o "ill #ollide. At this point "e #an no longer rely on our simple linear appro2imation to predi#t "hat "ill happen. t may !e that in some #ases the moment "ill !e prolonged to the mutual satisfa#tion of the t"o, or it may !e that it "ill lead to an immediate $iolent emotional and physi#al distan#ing. An important res'lt that emerges from this analysis is the fact that merely "eca'se &e have esta"lishe% the presence of a negative fee%"ac# loop$ it %oes NOT ens're that it &ill lea% to sta"ility( t "ill #ertainly a#t in that "ay if the #oupling #onstants are not too large. f they are too great then the effe#t of the loop is

to #reate in#reasingly large os#illations. .e may perhaps #all systems "hi#h e2hi!it su#h !eha$iour over-controlled. t is typi#ally the #ase that "hen a person is highly ner$ous it #an produ#e !eha$iour in "hi#h there is an o$er4rea#tion to all stimuli. Hnder su#h #ir#umstan#es negati$e feed!a#k loops #ould easily run into a pro!lem in "hi#h the amplifi#ation fa#tor ? !e#omes greater than unity. .e might then anti#ipate su#h os#illatory phenomena as a shaking hand to !e#ome noti#ea!le. The more that the person then tries to #ontrol it, the more he or she makes things "orse !y trying too hard. This phenomenon is 'uite #ommonly o!ser$ed, and may !e !rought to a Hypnotherapist for treatment. The task is again to redu#e the magnitude of the #oupling #onstants G,K,+,7 until their produ#t is less than unity, at "hi#h point #ontrol is effi#ient again. t should !e remem!ered ho"e$er that "e ha$e made #ertain assumptions in deri$ing the a!o$e solution to the negati$e feed!a#k e'uations. f, for e2ample, "e had not #hosen all the 2i to !e positi$e for iM( to aT#, !ut rather allo"ed them to $ary, "ith some positi$e and some negati$e, then there "ould !e a high degree of #an#ellation "hen "e #ame to doing the summation. f the a$erage $alue of these distur!an#es "ere to !e Lero, then the 'uantity K "ould !e Lero, and the feed!a#k loop "ould not produ#e any net #hange either. The pra#ti#al impli#ation of this fa#t is that if the time taken for the loop to operate is signifi#antly longer than the time o$er "hi#h e2ternal effe#ts flu#tuate, then there is less danger from o$er4#ontrol. Of more interest is to drop the assumption that aM! and #Md. ha$e !een una!le to sol$e the resulting e'uation e2a#tly, !ut the effe#ts of the t"o hal$es of the loop are no longer in phase, and there is some #an#ellation, so that although os#illations #an still !e e2pe#ted, they do not ha$e the same #han#e to gro" "ith larger $alues of the #oupling #onstants. Again there "ould seem to !e the suggestion that o$er4#ontrol is less of a pro!lem if different me#hanisms, "ith different delay times, are used in the different parts of the feed!a#k loop. hope that these simple e2amples "ill gi$e the non4mathemati#ian at least a fla$our of "hy the e2a#t s#ien#es !enefit from their mathemati#al models. They may not gi$e a full pi#ture and they may not !e used to gi$e e2a#t num!ers. But they #an still gi$e insight, and #an predi#t results "hi#h might "ell not !e apparent "ithout the detailed thinking4through that the mathemati#s for#es on us. This leads to a ne" understanding and promotes ne" ideas on ho" to deal "ith real4life pro!lems. kno" that all of this "ill seem a million miles a"ay from day4to4day Hypnotherapy for most pra#titioners. And am not suggesting that any should need to go into this amount of detail. .e #an all dri$e #ars $ery "ell "ithout any kno"ledge of ho" to tune a suspension system @a primiti$e #y!erneti# systemA. But the engineers "ho design su#h systems !enefit enormously from kno"ing the mathemati#s of su#h systems. n the same "ay trust that if a#ademi#s and e2perimenters #an gi$e us a more detailed understanding of the "ay in "hi#h the $arious systems of the mind and !ody "hi#h are in$ol$ed in Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy intera#t, then "e "ill all a#'uire a #learer idea of "hat Hypnotherapy is a!out, and also !e a!le to refine and impro$e our strategies in gi$en #ases.

hope that no one feels that this approa#h takes all the poetry out of the su!&e#t. Think rather that &ust as the dis#ipline of a stri#t metre is "hat has gi$en us the glory of the greatest poetry, &ust so does the dis#ipline of thinking #learly and a##urately a!out a pro!lem lead to the !est therapy. f the poetry of a !ody lies in the lines of the flesh, it ne$ertheless needs the inner strength of the !ones to keep those lines firm. This !ook on the prin#iples of our su!&e#t pro$ides the !ones on "hi#h its fair form may display its !eauty. SUMMARThe mathemati#al modelling of organi# systems is a ri#h and gro"ing field. The prin#iples of this !ook lead to a des#ription of the methods of Hypnotherapy in terms of the dynami#s of organi# systems. t is therefore in a far !etter position than all other theories of Hypnosis or, indeed, of Psy#hotherapy to take ad$antage of mathemati#al modelling to strengthen and illuminate the su!&e#t. n this #hapter some simple e2amples ha$e !een presented for the !enefit of readers "ith a little mathemati#s to illustrate something of "hat #an !e a#hie$ed !y applying mathemati#al pro#esses to a situation. mportant pra#ti#al #on#lusions "hi#h ha$e #ome out of it are the follo"ing: t is *OT the #ase that the e2isten#e of a positi$e feed!a#k loop ine$ita!ly means a massi$e in#rease in the a#ti$ity of the #omponent pro#esses. The in#rease may !e $ery mild if the #oupling #onstants are small. t is *OT the #ase that a negati$e feed!a#k loop ine$ita!ly means a return to the original $alue of the a#ti$ities after a distur!an#e. The ne" $alues #an generally !e different. 9urthermore in an over-controlled situation, the negati$e feed!a#k loop may e$en lead to in#reasingly +A%)E s"ings in the a#ti$ity of the $aria!les, and so the situation #an !e H*0TAB+E. n attempting either to use or to remo$e either positi$e or negati$e feed!a#k loops, the Hypnotherapist "ill !e typi#ally "orking on the #oupling #onstants !et"een the systems in$ol$ed. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E Con#lusion

CONCLUSION
AT THE E*> of this !ook "ould like to refle#t on the fa#t that a theory is itself an organi# phenomenon. The stru#ture underlying it is one or more human minds together "ith representations of the ideas in !ooks, arti#les and #omputer memories. The de$elopment of a theory is a process. t gro"s under the influen#e of a num!er of feed!a#k loops. .hile the de$elopment has !een mainly "ithin my mind ha$e !een #ons#ious of using a $ariety of mental pro#esses.

The foremost of these is the positi$e feed!a#k loop: NunderstandingO Nsatisfa#tionO Nfurther "orkO NunderstandingO.

kno" that one of my personal #hara#teristi#s is that the satisfa#tion get from understanding something is one of the deepest kno". There is therefore a $ery strong positi$e psy#hologi#al reinfor#er in the a!o$e in#reasing positi$e feed!a#k loop, "hi#h has kept it going po"erfully o$er the years sin#e started Hypnotherapy. "ould say that an enormous part of human a#hie$ement is the result of some su#h loop. f you are a good runner then an in#rease in speed leads to a satisfa#tion "hi#h leads to more running, "hi#h leads to further in#rease in speed. Part of the art of helping Clients to a#hie$e their goals is to ensure that they #lose a loop like the a!o$e to po"er the #hange, as "e ha$e seen. Also #entral to my "ay of thinking are t"o #ontrary pro#esses @re#all the general prin#iple that organi# systems tend to arise in opposite pairsA. One, "hi#h "ill #all Nre&e#tO, a#ts to re&e#t and #riti#ise an idea. The other, "hi#h "ill #all Na##eptO, a#ts to a##ept and de$elop a ne" idea. regard them as analogous to the systems in the !ody of "hi#h one a#ts to a##ept and a!sor! "holesome food and the other to dete#t and re&e#t su!stan#es that are not food or are poisonous. Ea#h is important. But ea#h #an pro$e fatal "ithout the other. To a##ept e$erything is a path to madness. And the other path to madness is to re&e#t e$erything. To eat e$erything "ill soon pro$e fatal to the !ody. To eat nothing is e'ually fatal. 0o during the de$elopment of the ideas you ha$e !een reading there ha$e !een #ountless #y#les of thought applied to aspe#ts of the theory, large and small. f "e let NideaO !e the pro#ess of d"elling on an idea, then ha$e operated at different times both NideaO Na##eptO and NideaO Nre&e#tO. Thus, for e2ample, at one stage had half the !ook "ritten, !ut an e2posure to Nre&e#tO found it inade'uate and s#rapped it all. *o" if the a#tion of Na##eptO does *OT lead to any in#rease in understanding, it redu#es the satisfa#tion "ith the idea, and the idea tends to drop out of mind. On the other hand if the idea resists all attempts to #riti#ise it then !e#ome more satisfied "ith it and it gro"s stronger. .e thus ha$e the follo"ing possi!ilities: NideaO NideaO NideaO ideaO Na##eptO Na##eptO Nre&e#tO Nre&e#tO Nsatisfa#tionO Nsatisfa#tionO Nsatisfa#tionO Nsatisfa#tionO NideaO, NideaO, NideaO, NideaO.

%epeated appli#ation of these pro#esses tends to #ontinue to alter the ideas in $arious "ays and at $arious le$els. But any that #an "ithstand the alternating mental

en$ironments are ine$ita!ly more ro!ust. The gardener !oth fertilises and prunes. The #ontinuing sur$i$al of a spe#ies in$ol$es gro"th and death. The sur$i$al of an idea is no different. *oti#e that the sign of an e2pert in any field is the repeated and fre'uent use of Na##eptO and Nre&e#tO. .e may see it in someone "ho is e2pert at assessing #lothes or "ines, or !uying and selling #ars, or at golf: 60hall a##ept that shot as ade'uate or re&e#t it as not good enoughB6 t is the #ontinual e2er#ise of !oth that leads to e2pertise. There is another set of mental pro#esses, "hi#h #ons#iously or instin#ti$ely use in my thoughts, that parallel the dire#tions suggested !y looking at su!systems or supersystems or #onne#ted systems of a gi$en system. Of any idea "ill tend to ask: ?(. Ho" does this idea "ork in a parti#ular e2ampleB ?-. Can generalise this idea to a !roader #onte2tB ?/. Can find a similar idea: an analogyB Ea#h of these 'uestions a#ti$ates a #ertain kind of pro#ess of mental sear#h: Nsear#h e2ampleO, Nsear#h generalisationO, Nsear#h analogyO. "ill trigger off these pro#esses at random, as a part of the o$erall pro#ess of understanding, and in parti#ular in response to the a#ti$ation of the feeling of !eing at a loss as to "hat to do ne2t. think that you should !e a!le to find the influen#e of this "ay of thinking throughout the !ook, as mo$e !et"een spe#ifi# e2amples, analogies and generalisations. f, for e2ample, apply the pro#ess Nsear#h analogyO to the pro#ess of asking the a!o$e three 'uestions, #an immediately generate the follo"ing loose analogies: aA They might !e likened to the three )unas 4 0att$a @or 0att"aA, %a&as and Tamas 4 des#ri!ed in the Bhaga$ad )ita: 6Those "ho are in 0att$a #lim! the path that leads on high, those "ho are in %a&as follo" the le$el path, those "ho are in Tamas sink do"n"ards on the lo"er path.6 !A They might !e likened to the three possi!le spin states of a parti#le "ith spin4( @in 'uantum theoryA: the spin takes $alues that #an !e la!elled T(, = and 4(. #A They might !e likened to the Holy Trinity. dA Or to the N#hildO, NparentO and NadultO of Transa#tional Analysis. eA Or, relati$e to a gi$en spe#ies, of NpredatorsO, NfoodO and N#ompetitors for the same foodO. fA Or, in an organisation, to Npass the !u#k upO, Npass the !u#k do"nO and Npass the !u#k side"aysO.

There are many more possi!ilities, !ut the a!o$e "ill ser$e as e2amples. "ould then a#ti$ate the pro#ess Na##eptO to ea#h of these for a "hile to see if the analogies help my understanding. +ater "ould a#ti$ate the pro#ess Nre&e#tO to #riti#ise their $alue as analogies. At the end might !e left "ith one or t"o "hi#h seemed 'uite useful. Another pair of mental pro#esses that use freely are Nsear#h similaritiesO and Nsear#h differen#esO. 9or e2ample in dealing "ith a gi$en Client "ill !e fore$er seeking to find similar #ases that ha$e read a!out or handled, "hi#h #an !e a fruitful sour#e of insight into the present one, !ut A+0O seeking for the differen#es !et"een the present one and the others, !e#ause these differen#es may !e #ru#ial. *oti#e that the first of the t"o senten#es a!o$e #onsisted of a generalisation to "hi#h then applied Nsear#h e2ampleO in order to o!tain the se#ond. f had a#ti$ated instead Nsear#h analogyO might #ome up "ith the follo"ing. There is a little girl sitting on the floor sorting peas into t"o piles, !ig and small. Ea#h time she pi#ks a ne" one up she #ompares it "ith ea#h of the piles she has so far. 0ome #learly go to one pile or the other. Others ha$e to !e #ompared #arefully against the peas in the piles to see ho" similar or different their siLe is to those in the other piles. 9rom time to time she may need to re4sort some peas into the opposite pile. But e$entually she not only separates the peas !ut a#'uires an e2#ellent a!ility to assess, as a result of these repeated pro#esses, the siLe of any small o!&e#t. n the same "ay, !y fore$er assessing ideas to see if they are similar to or dissimilar to other #olle#tions of ideas, one #an de$elop an astute a!ility to assess a ne" idea 'ui#kly and easily and see "here it !elongs. Another prin#iple of thought that also use is to ask of most things in life, 6.hat pro#ess or pro#esses is this a part ofB6 t is the differen#e !et"een thinking in terms of still photographs on the one hand and of a $ideo or film on the other. 0uppose, for e2ample, that a Client tells me some isolated fa#t, then the a!o$e mental pro#ess 4 Nsear#h pro#essO 4 is a#ti$ated, and this in turn a#ti$ates a mental pro#ess of #reating a @rather a!stra#tA #on#eption of "hat is likely to ha$e led up to and then follo"ed on from the isolated fa#t: am mentally sear#hing for pre#ursors and resultants. may then a#ti$ate NtestO and ask the Client if ha$e got the details right and a#ti$ate Na##eptO or Nre&e#tO on the !asis of the ans"ers get, in order to modify my #on#ept of the pro#esses in$ol$ed. ,et another pro#ess that use freely in my thought is, of #ourse, the asking of 'uestions. @The "ord #omes from the same +atin root as does 6'uest6, a sear#h: it is a pro#ess of mental sear#hing.A 9urthermore, do not simply ask 'uestions, !ut ask myself, 6 s this a useful 'uestion to askB6 use my tools to impro$e my tools. #ould present this analysis of my thought pro#esses in more detail, !ut perhaps ha$e "ritten enough to sho" that the means am using to analyse other organi# systems are self4referential: they #an !e applied to the means themsel$es. They allo" us to think a!out thought, or to think a!out our thought a!out thought and so on5 at ea#h le$el rising to a higher le$el of system. This may remind some readers of BatesonFs ideas on +e$els of +earning @Bateson @(<:/ABi!A. He is also "orth reading for other ideas that parallel some in this !ook. presume that other thinkers think

a!out their tools: their thought pro#esses. But "ith the e2#eption of Bateson and the "ell4kno"n "orks on lateral thinking and other mental tools !y Ed"ard de Bono, ha$e #ome a#ross fe" referen#es !y e$en the foremost of our thinkers to the "ay in "hi#h they ha$e #hosen to think, "hi#h is perhaps a little surprising. ,ou "ill !e a!le to see that sin#e regard thoughts as themsel$es pro#esses, do not regard them as in any sense fi2ed or immuta!le or eternal. 9urthermore they, also, depend intimately on the en$ironment in "hi#h they e2ist. And as a part of the pro#ess of testing @"hi#h #ontains the su!pro#esses Na##eptO and Nre&e#tOA it is ne#essary to in$ol$e not only my internal en$ironment !ut also my e2ternal one. One of the most important aspe#ts of this is in the #onsulting4room. An idea "hi#h does not help me to help people gets a $ery lo" satisfa#tion rating. An idea that does help is highly satisfying. @ should add that the pleasure of helping has al"ays !een a se#ond strong reinfor#er for me.A The se#ond important e2ternal en$ironment is that of the minds of others "ho "ork in the field. n order to get feed!a#k from this en$ironment ha$e presented some of my ideas at the Annual 7eeting of the British 0o#iety for E2perimental and Clini#al Hypnosis @(<</, to !e pu!lishedA5 pu!lished some of the material in this !ook as it has !een e$ol$ing in my mind @7organ @(<</aA, @(<</!A, @(<</#A, @(<<1aA, @(<<1!A, @(<<3aA, @(<<3!ABi!A5 and modified the ideas "here appropriate in response to the feed!a#k. *o", "ith the pu!li#ation of this !ook, the ideas are e2tending to a larger en$ironment still, to in#lude your mind as "ell. ,ou "ill ha$e your o"n internal systems to deal "ith ne" material, and they "ill almost #ertainly in#lude Na##eptO and Nre&e#tO, though the #riteria they use may "ell !e different from mine. ,ou "ill understand that "ill !e most happy if you #hoose to use either or both of these systems and then feed !a#k the results to me, for in either #ase you "ill !e e2tending my o"n de$elopment of the theory. Then, "hen ne" editions #ome out, they are likely to !e #hanged !y this feed!a#k. t is of the nature and glory of life that it #hanges and gro"s. A theory "hi#h did not partake of these 'ualities "ould !e a dead theory: dry !ones. hope that you, the reader, "ill play some part in a#ti$ely #hanging "hat you ha$e understood: re#asting it in your o"n "ords, relating it to others, in#orporating your o"n e2perien#es, de$eloping your o"n life as a result of "hat you ha$e learned. Only insofar as things like that happen 4 only insofar as the theory a#ti$ates thought and a#tion 4 is it a li$ing, organi# thing. ha$e en&oyed "riting this. t has a#ti$ated my mind, and helped me to do my &o! !etter. hope that it has a#ti$ated your mind and that it may #ontri!ute in some small "ay to help your life to impro$e also. 9inally it might !e an idea to think !a#k to "hat said in the introdu#tion a!out the purpose of this !ook. There you read that this !ook is *OT intended to present ne" fa#ts a!out Hypnotherapy, nor to !e a #ompendium, nor a history, nor a hand!ook, nor a 6Tea#h ,ourself6 !ook, nor the finding of the Eli2ir of +ife. %ather it is intended

to present a ne" $ie" of the su!&e#t: a ne" paradigm "hi#h leads to a deeper understanding. hope that, through reading as mu#h of the !ook as you ha$e #hosen to do, you ha$e !een a!le to take that ne" perspe#ti$e and #onse'uently are a!le to &udge if this intention has !een a#hie$ed. hope to ha$e re$ealed that Hypnotherapy #an !e treated as highly s#ientifi# in the true sense of the "ord. t has a foundation of #lear and measura!le #on#epts and a theoreti#al frame"ork "hi#h underpins its many te#hni'ues. t #an #ertainly hold up its head $ery high among forms of psy#hotherapy, many of "hi#h #an get lost in a &ungle of ill4defined if e$o#ati$e terminology and $aguely defined #on#epts. t #an interfa#e "ith the theoreti#al frame"ork of modern medi#ine in its emphasis on systems in a "ay that fe" other forms of psy#hotherapy or alternati$e medi#ine #an mat#h. t in#ludes "ithin itself a diagnosti# pro#edure "hi#h is "ell4defined, spe#ifi# and free from ar!itrary la!els and #omple2 patterns of symptoms 4 6syndromes6 4 "hi#h ha$e no referen#e to underlying me#hanisms or pro#esses. Of its essen#e it emphasises the dynamic nature of all organi# pro#esses, "hi#h e$en medi#al diagnosis #an fail properly to take into a##ount. t #an interfa#e also, thanks to its stru#ture, "ith theories of so#iety and e#onomi#s, so that there #an !e mutual gain from the e2#hange of models and ideas. n its emphasis on the importan#e of the supersystems "ithin "hi#h the system of interest is em!edded, it is holisti# in a meaningful sense of the "ord, and gi$es an added dimension to the #on#ept of e#ologi#ally sound #hanges in an e#ologi#ally #ons#ious "orld. n its emphasis on the importan#e of feed!a#k loops it is #onne#ted to one of the most #entral features of all the me#hanisms of the !ody and mind, and indeed all organi# systems. t automati#ally imposes a "holesome mental dis#ipline in the analysis of pro!lems and the generation of solutions, "hi#h is again la#king in so many other forms of psy#hotherapy. The "ays of thinking it em!odies are $ery pra#ti#al on a day to day le$el in dealing "ith Clients. 9or all its a!stra#t strength it deals "ith human reality. t does not demolish e2isting pra#ti#es and parti#ular perspe#ti$es in Hypnotherapy, !ut rather strengthens them !y uniting them in a #ommon frame"ork. All those things #laim for the approa#h, !ut do not #laim that "hat is fi2ed in this !ook is either #omplete or "ithout error. There are dou!tless mistakes, at many le$els, that ha$e not managed to eradi#ate. And there is mu#h more de$elopment needed not only on the #onse'uen#es of the approa#h !ut also on the approa#h itself. A #rystal may !e fla"less. A mausoleum may !e #omplete. f the ideas a!o$e

"ere #omplete and "ithout error then they "ould !e !eyond #hange: !ut to !e !eyond #hange is to !e !eyond life. "ould prefer the theory to !e organi# and to li$e. Home E Contents E Pre$ious Chapter E ntrodu#tion