Fishingboatsofth034718mbp 2

FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD:
FISHING BOATS
OF THE
WORLD:2
Edited by
JAN-OLOF TRAUNG
Chief, Fishing Boat Section,
Food and
Agriculture
Italy
Organization of the United Nations,
Rome,
Published by
FISHING NEWS (BOOKS) LTD.
LUDGATE HOUSE,
110
FLEET STREET, LONDON,

1960
E.C.4,
ENGLAND
COPYRIGHT,
by
I960
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION

OF THE UNITED NATIONS
AH
right!
First Published 1960

1st
Reprint 1967
The views expressed
in the papers and discussions are those of the contributors and not necessarily those of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
EDITORIAL TEAM
Associate Editor: N. Fujinami
Technical: D. A. S. Gnanadoss
P.
P.
Translators:
J.
Chaux
Frances
Gunner
Knoops
P.
H. Svenkerud
Style: P.
Secretarial: S. Benoit B.
Borland
Andrews
C. de Frcitas
C.
Day
D. Fisher-Knoops
J.
C. Davics
L.
OarTncy Jo vane
A. Perez-Ortiz
FROTBD IN GREAT WTTA UNWIN BROTHEM LMTtD WQK1NQ AMD LONDON
CONTENTS
Page
No.
fagf
No.
Gillnet filing: deck
Fishing gear
OF CONTRIBUTORS NOMENCLATURE AND SYMBOLS PREFACE INTRODUCTION CHAIRMAN'S NOTE

LIST
.
.
....
B. R. Sen
11
17
19 21
D. B. Finn
.
Deck arrangement Main specifications

Construction
A. C. Hardy
23
.... .... ....
T. E. Colvin
64
65 67 68 69
71 71
PART
TACTICS
. .
Problems affecting the fishing industry Future developments
Principal fightag boat types Grouping of boat types Variety of boat types within countries
A.C. Hardy
Change
appearance Common' types of boat
in
27 27 27 28 30
LongUne
fishing:
deck design and

Y.
KanasasM
Fishing year
General arrangements
Main
specifications
and construction
Machinery
73 73 74 77 82
FISHING
METHODS AND DECK ARRANGEMENT

Pole and line fishing: deck design and equipment
Jr.
Parse seining: deck design and equipment P. G. Schmidt,

Basic purse seining systems
31
S.
Skipjack
Fishing method
Mwamatsu
84
Method of carrying fish Size of boat

Requirement for an
efficient
32 35 35
purse seining system
36
37 37 39
General arrangement Mackerel

Fishing method
Basic design considerations
Combination
fishing
General arrangement
Equipment for purse seining Analysis of vessel types and methods as applied to
important purse seine fisheries U.S. East and Gulf Coasts
Squid
Fishing method
....
Norway
US. West Coast,

Iceland
Alaska and Canada West Coast of South America
40 40 43 44
48 49
53 53
General arrangement
....... ......
.
84 84 85 89 89
91 91
92 93
DISCUSSION
NON-TRAWLING
Boat types Non-trawling fishing Drift-net and gillnec fishing

Lofiglinifig
South Africa and South West Africa Portugal, France, Spain and North West Africa
........
'
94 94 94
95 97
Pole and line fishing
Angola Japan Korea U.S.S.R

Drift Mittaf * deck
/.
54 54 54
55
Combination
fishing
97 99
C. de Wit
56
57 59
Trawling ; deck dcdga and eqdpmmt A von Brandt and C. Birkhoff Gaiend description of fishing gear Bottom trawl with one boat
.
.
102 104
105 106
108 111
Fishing
ear
Bow rudder
Hufl form
60
61 61
Sidctrmwtef Stern trawier without a ramp Stem trawkr with a ramp
Bottom trawl with two boats

Mid-water trawier Future prospects
.
.
PtoptiWon machinery
62
112 113
CONTENTS
Page No.
OF OPERATIONS COMMAND f+ + mm j
jiiinj VOTOTUUOT OUUUU1
_ujinB
.I
FISH HOLDS The care of the catch

C. A. Reay andJ.
B^ 4 In UBWJCTI OT
i
M. Shewm
200
201
.4.
C. Hardy and H. E. H. Pain
Basic components
Typical layouts
114 115 118
Why and how fish go bad

Temperature control Care and cleanliness
in
handling
....... ....
and
safe
203 204
DISCUSSION
TRAWLERS
The
fish
Review of related papers

Stern handling versus side handling
Hauling speed and winch power Smaller stern trawlers Future developments Command of operations
.... ....
I
121
room: engineering and architecture W. A. MacCallum
123 126 127 132 132
Large fishing boats

Insulation
Features conducive to
efficient
working
Partitions, shelving, etc
Coatings and linings

Materials for fish
rooms
208 209 209 214 215 216 217

221 221
Small fishing craft

Longliners
I
PART
II
CONSTRUCTION
tables
Larger longliner, small trawlers and cutters
222
SCANTLINGS Steel and wood scantling

of U.S.A.)
(West Coast H. C. Hanson
Wooden
construction
137 137
141
J. Icing versus freezing The trawlers Delaware and Northern Wave Handling aboard the vessel
W. Slavin
Storage on the vessel

Quality aspects Factors affecting costs
Overall evaluation
Unloading and handling ashore
Steel construction
.... ....
C.
227 228 229 230

231
Structural testing of small craft Y. Otsu, N. Yokoyama General description

Structure test
232 233 233 234 234 235 236
and T. Kobayashi
146 146 148
Tana
freezing
Doke and
Methods of preserving the catch Refrigerating capacity and piping

Insulation
.... ....
S.
Chigusa
Suggested standard scantlings

Hull timbers
Fastenings
D. S. Simpson
Determination of scantlings
........
'
Determination of fastenings
152 154 158 159 166
DISCUSSION
Icing and
FISH HOLDS
DISCUSSION
SCANTLINGS
167
171
.
problems Design of fish holds Comparison of freezing installations Authors* replies
related
....
.
239 244 247 258
Good
boatbuilding practices
Comparison of wooden scantling regulations Resistance of wooden keel, stem and stern post
Steel scantlings
.......
.
Author's replies
184 185 185
INSTALLATION OF MACHINERY
Propulsion engines for fishing boats Comparison of two- and four-stroke diesels
Supercharging of diesels Comparison of typical engines Influence of r.p.m. on length Semi-diescb
/.
Stokke
261
NEW
MATERIALS
188 .189
Glass reinforced plastic hails P. de Laszlo The raw materials of Polyester/Mat laminate Moulds
Temperature control
Inspection
Rigidity
Operation of engines
Controllable-pitch propellers Installation examples and trawl winch drive
189 190 190

191 191 191 191
Future development
262 262 263 267 267 268 268 270 272
Hollow skegs Weight Tanks and engine foundation

.
Repair Cost of hulls
.... ....
.
Steam versus dieed

C. Hopwood and H. W. N. Comparison of U.K. West Coast steam and
trawlers
.
Meme
diesel
274
275 276 276 283 284
'.
192 194 194
Example of machinery on a diesel trawler Maintenance and operation of diesel main engine Winch engine
Auxiliaries
DISCUSSION
PLASTICS
196
[6]
CONTENTS
Pag*
No.
CONSTRUCTION
Aft.
(continued)
An
/. T. Tothttl
Propulsion systems for motor trawlers

F. SUberkriib
Multiple-speed gear
Controllable-pitch propeller Diesel-electric drive
Propeller nozzle
285 285 287 288 288
Model tests of five recent fishing boats The design of an improved hull form
Propulsive factors affecting hull form Resistance and stream flow tests
Effective
powers for other

.
sizes
of vessel
Velocities in the nozzle
Design of the propeller
Ri
ittmwlen fttied with multiple reduction gc A. Chardome
Auxiliary diesel for propulsion Breakdown of reduction gear

Latest development
Efficiencies
....
289 290 290 290

291
Self-propulsion tests Delivered powers for other sizes of vessel
353 3S3 354 355 356 357 359 359 360

361 361
Trawling
tests
....
.
Resistance of trawlers
Series
Methodical series resistance
tests
with trawler
H. Lackenby modeb
.
Multiple
reduction
gear
versus
controllable-pitch
A
B
propeller
291
Series
systematic variation of midship-section area systematic variations in proportions

.
364 365 365 369
Device for raising and lowering propellers *p K. Inamura and idJ\ M. Ninomiya Structure and materials
Installation
Problems to be solved
295 295 296 297

298 299 299 300
301
Statistical analysis of resistance data for trawlers D. J. Theory of minimal variance
Dwst
.
370
371
Regression equation for trawler data Practical uses of the regression equation
.371
.
374
388 389 389 389
391 391
Vibration in trawlers
H. Lackenby
The loads imposed by trawling gear

Instruments used
W. Dickson
The modes of vibration The nature of excitation
Method adopted during

Explorer towing
trials
trials
Determination of vibration frequencies Estimation of vibration frequencies

.
Mara towing
Hauling
trial
trials
DISCUSSION
Engine design
MACHINERY
in general
Diesel-electric propulsion
Multiple-speed gear
Controllable-pitch propellers
Propeller shafts
Authors* replies
.... ....
.
303 304 305 308 309 313
SEAKINDLINESS
New
perspectives in sea behaviour

irregular
G. Vossers
393
Waves
phenomena
394
COSTS OF CONSTRUCTION
Ship motions Influence of main dimensions Influence of longitudinal radius of gyration Influence of bilge keels, sections, freeboard and sheer Influence of metacentric height
.
3%
.
397 399
....
400
401 401 401
An
analysis of
US.
fishing boats: dimensions,

//.
Vertical accelerations
weights and costs

Weights Construction costs
Benford and
M. Kossa
320
321
Motion
in irregular seas
Proposed cost and weight system
....
I
325 328
Loss of speed Future developments
402 403
.
DISCUSSION
COSTS
332
Behaviour of trawlers at sea II W. Mdckel Programme of investigations and the measuring instruments
404
405 406 409
411
PART
III
SEA BEHAVIOUR
T. C. Gillmer
. .
.
Power output and speed The ship in a seaway The stability Rolling and pitching
in
good weather
414
Dutch coastal
RESISTANCE AND PROPULSION
Remarks on
341
Model tests of some fishing launches

Description of
facilities
the shape of
Boats
Speed and seakindliness Comparison with finer boats
W.Zwobmm
fishing
and apparatus
Description of models tested Test results
342 342 345
Comparison with fuller boats Fuel oil and lubricating oil consumption
418 418 419 420 421
Model
Model
tests
of small simplified boats K. Otsu, N. Yokoyama and T. Kobayashi
tests
Full-scale test
Comparison with
similar sized boats
348 348 349 352
Tests with a trawler model in wares /. D. van Manen> C. Vossers and H. Rijkcn Particulars of ship and model test conditions
,
<
Results
Results
when when
trawling
sailing
. .
.
422 422 424 426
[7]
CONTENTS
No,
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Tke !!
tit
SEA KINDLINESS (continued)

. .
OT tCB mm*, OH) F**mmmmi4t*^ OnSMUum mf Head to wind

I
H.Lackenby
cioelHcieat
drifter tests
J-O.
Trmng
Todd*s steam
NPL motor drifter torts

Graff and Heckscher's trawler
Allan't drifter tests
tests
.
FAD tests
Self-propulsion tests
Wave tests
Trawling
tests
428 428 429 430 430 430 433 434 440

445 446 447 450
Wind 30 on
the
bow
Stern to wind
General comment
311 513 513 513 513
DISCUSSION
SEA BEHAVIOUR
515 522 530 535 540 540 542 546 555 559 567 569 578
Small boat resistance

Influence of nozzles
Bulbous bows
Statistical analysis
of resistance
.
Fishing gear resistance
Trawler ferns with bvlbow bows
D.
. .
J.
Doust
Resistance characteristics in calm water Propulsion characteristic* in cahn water Performance in rough water
Sea behaviour theory Observations of behaviour at sea Model tests in waves General design Authors* replies
Tests of fishing boat models
fat
waves K. Taniguchi
The
Chair's
summing up
.
Effect of
Methods and apparatus used bow section form

\
in the experiments
453 454 457
Stability
....
.
Safety at sea
on
hull design
of fishing boats H. L Chapelle
460
461
PART
IV
PRODUCTIVITY
Resistance
Seaworthiness and seakindliness
....
466
SYMPOSIUM OF BOAT TYPES SHORT DISTANCE FISHING

Development of a boat for India's surf coasts
STABILITY
method to determine freeboard

stability
in relation to
Principles
O. Jablonski of freeboard determination on the basis of
468
Surf conditions
stability criteria
Graphical method for determining the curve KG, Determination of critical loadings for fishing vessels to construct a curve of
469 470
471
KG
.
Development first phase Conclusions from first experiments Development second phase Experiences from the tests with BB-57 Prototype 1958 BB-58 Future work mass production of BB-59
Notes on
Statistics
stability
of fishing vessel insurance
....
.
A.Takagi
Trend
in the principal dimensions of various types
Stability
475 475 476 478

481 481
Commercial outboard
fishing craft Florida mullet gillnet skiff River gillnet tender
Comments on a few
stability criteria
Proposals for the assessment of fishing vessel's stability
Oyster garvcy Salmon net tender
New
Transverse stability of tuna dinners /. R. Faulting, Jr. Effect of trim on transverse stability The transverse stability in longitudinal waves
England lobster boat Salmon trolling dories
....
.... ..... ...... ..... ...... ....... ....... ..... ......

. .
....... .....
P. Gurtner
585 586 587 588 589 592 594 595 597 597 598 599
601
D. D. Beach
607 607
489 490 493
Trap-net boats and harpoon boats V. Foderd, R. Sard and A. Cambiano
Tuna
Safety from capsizing
Capsizing
Specification
trap-net boats
.....
.
609 609
611
K. Wendel
Dimensioning of righting levers of moments
....
. .
The
righting levers Alterations of the righting levers due to wave*
496 "497 497 498 500 500

501
Swordfish (Xiphias Radius) harpoon boats
MEDIUM DISTANCE FISHING

L. C. Ringhaver
General arrangement New trawling gear Production
Safety allowance
Stability criteria
Measuring
stability
502 503
Engine output and cruising range Construction materials

Crew's comfort
.
SAFETY AT SEA Cannes of accidents

Investigation
W. C. Miller
by model
505 506 507
Mass production Cost and finance

economics
....
615 615 617 618 618 619 620 620 622 623
[8]
CONTENTS
Page
No.
PRODUCTIVITY
No.
SYMPOSIUM OF BOAT TYPESMEDIUM DISTANCE FISHING (continued)

.
DISCUSSION
BOAT TYPES
of a trawKf of vKNrtho4ox design C. B. Corlett andJ. Venus

Conttruction and operation Licensed building
Surf boats Short distance fishing
Future developments
624 625 627 629 629
Medium
Long
distance fishing
distance fishing
.... .... ....

/.
668 673 688

701
CHOICE OF SIZE AND TYPE

Choice of boat type and size for Polish
fisheries
Swiecicki
The Netherlands post-war

Shrimp trawler
fishing fleet
Aims of study
631
Subject of study
P. Boogaard
Motor
cutter
Trawler-drifter
Trawler
632 633 634 636
Range of study Method of choosing the optimum

General results
fishing boat
708 709 709 709 710 714
LONG DISTANCE
FISHING
.
H. Heinsohn Design studies for stern trawlers Influence of the length of the gear Manoeuvring of the ship during hauling and shooting Fish holds and fish landing
Transport of fish from stern to hold Fish meal plant
Complement and accommodation

Lifcsaving appliances Classification and freeboard
.
.... .... .... ...
Choice of main engines Lines and stability Trawl winches Heinrich Meins
638 638 639 639 639 639 639 639 639 640
641
Propulsion and processing machinery for deep-sea trawlers C. Eddie Types of machinery Design of diesel-electric equipment Economics of speed Economics of preservation
....
S.
715 716 717 718
720
Modern
factory ships in Japan
Sato
Basic design
Fishing operations
Selection of types Size of ships
....
cod trawlers
E. R. Gueroult
CarlKtimpf
Sagitta
Performance
643 645 645 647 647
Fuel and freshwater Arrangement of factories Conveyors Refrigerating machinery Freezing equipment Cooling equipment for refrigeration of cargo holds
Insulation
723 725 726 726 727 729 729 729

73 1
731
French deep-sea
salt
Introduction of diesel propulsion
Modern
trawlers
stability
Cargo capacity and
Short description of typical vessels
654 654 655 656 658

661
Canning systems
.......
732 732
734
DISCUSSION
Choice of
size
PRODUCTIVITY
and type
Diesel whale catchers Increase of boat size and speed

.
Fishing boat of 1975
735 752
761
S.
Takahashi
on catchers Example of a modern Japanese diesel catcher Comparison of diesel and steam propulsion
devices
New
....
662 663 664 666
REFERENCES
INDEX
771
ADVERTISEMENT SECTION
At the end of
because
it
this
volume appears an advertisement
section. This
is
included
is
appreciated that practical commercial information should be
readily available for all interested parties, concerning fishing gear
and equipment
that can be procured from various sources for the betterment of fishing practices.
The advertisements cover many pages and a complete index of

represented appears at the
the firms
commencement of the
section.
[9]
LIST
OF CONTRIBUTORS
Page
No.
Page No.
AKASAKA,
President,
303
Ltd., 3, 1-chomc, Ginza,
CATASTA, L.
Costruttore Navale,
Italy.
198
Akasaka Iron Works Co. Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
Monte
S. Michele, S.
Benedetto del Tronto,
ALVERSON, D. L.
Chief,
101, 128, 133
CHAPELLE, H.
North Pacific Fisheries Exploration and Gear Research, UJS. Fish and Wildlife Service, Seattle, Washington, U.S.A.
96, 167, 169, 460, 516, 519, 566, 671, 682, 736 Curator, Division of Transportation, Smithsonian Institution, U.S. National Museum, Washington 25, D.C., U.S.A.
I.
.
ARCOULIS, E.
Project Engineer, Evangelistria pany, Bouboulina 2, Piraeus, Greece.
249
CHARDOME, A.
Civil Engineer
Managing Director and
Com-
and Manager,
Beliard,
289, 317 and Co., Ostend, Crighton

.
Belgium.
BARDARSON, H. R.
123, 179, 303, 578, 690 Naval Architect and Civil Engineer, Director of Iceland Government Inspection of Shipping, P.O. Box 61, Reykjavik, Iceland.
.
CHARDOME,
P.
525
Managing Director, Chantier Naval de Rupelmonde, Rupelmonde, Belgium.
BEACH, D. D.
597
10,
CHIGUSA, S
Director, Nissin
234
Kogyo Co.
Ltd.,
Naval Architect, 3813 South Sheridan Ave., Minneapolis

Minnesota, U.S.A.
Asahi Building,
3,
3-chome,
Nakanoshima, Kha-ku, Osaka, Japan.
BEAUDOUX,
E.
97, 308
CLAVEAU, J-M.
Directeur,
97,98
Krebs,
Chantiers Navals
Concarneau
(Finistere),
Directeur General adjoint, Ateliers et Chantiers de la Manchc, rue Charles Bloud, Dieppe (S.M.), France.
France.
COLVIN, T. E.
64
1303
BENFORD, PROFESSOR H.
University of Michigan,
320, 338
Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A.
Naval
Illinois,
Architect,
North Sheridan
Road,
Waukegan,
Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering,
U.S.A.
.
Ann
CORLETT, E. C.
BIRKHOFF,
C
P.
.
102, 748,
749
Dip]. Ing., Rickmers Werft, Bremenhaven, Germany.
B., Ph.D. 627, 695, 698 Managing Director, Burness, Corlett and Partners Ltd., Naval Architects and Marine Consultants, Worthing and London, England, U.K.
BOOGAARD,
631
Chief, Shipping Department, Ministry of the Building Industry,
COSTA, Capitano
Societa
W.
Ufficio
253
45,
Rotterdam, Netherlands.
Gcnepesca Leghorn, Italy.

P. R.
Tecnico,
Viale
L.
da Vinci
BoRDOLi, Dr. Ing.
G
4,
182
Ingegnere Navalc c Mcccanico, Via Sistina
Rome.
CREWE,
540
99 BULLJS, H. R Chief, Gulf Fisheries Exploration and Gear Research, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pascagoula, Mississippi, U.S.A.
Chief Engineer (Hydrodynamics), Saunders-Roe Ltd., Head Offices, Osborne, East Cowes, Isle of Wight, England, U.K.
CRISTIANI,
L
.'
578
Ingegnere Navale, 23 Via Francesco Crispi,' Rome.
CAMBIANO,
A
Institute
609
Nautico, Palermo,
Sicily,
Italy.
CROSIO, E.
Milan,
Italy.
197
Architetto Navale,
Vice-Dircttore Tecnologico, Pirelli S.p.A., Viale
Abmzzi no.
94,
CARDOSO,
Merchant
J.
C.
123,182
"Boa Esperanza", Rua 9 de
Marine Inspector General, Ministry of Marine, Abril, S. Pedro do Estoril, Portugal.

E., Jr
Institute Inc.,
CSUPOR, Dr. Ing. D.

Maierform S.A., 29 rue du Rh6ne, Geneva, Switzerland.
531
CARVER, DR.
541
Naval Architect, Ocean Resources

Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Woods
Hole,
DE LASZLO, P.
D
Upper Berkeley
St.,
188, 198
Director, Halmatic Ltd., 10
London, W.I.
[11]
LIST
OF CONTRIBUTORS
No.
No.
08 WIT,
lands.
J,
G.
56,95,96,123,197,581
GARDNER,!
515,557,673
Deputy Inspector of Shipping 23 Dokweg, Ijmuiden, Nether-
Technical Editor, Maine Coast Fisherman, 33 Glen Park Saugus, Mass., U.SA.
Avenue,
249
DlCKSON,
W.
96, 388, 561
GIANESI,
Italy,
Don.
Ing.
G
Milan, Via Clerici
7,
Senior Scientific Officer, Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen, Scotland,
Ingegnere Refirigetmzkme, Samifi
Milan,
DlLNOT, P. F.
London,
SJB.7.
741
GILLMER, Professor T. C.
341
Stone Marine Engineering Co. Ltd., Woolwich Road, Charlton,
Department of Marine Engineering, U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A.
DOKB, C.
Director,
234
GOLDSWORTHY,
E. C.
124, 134
Miho Shipyard Co.
Ltd., 7,
3-chome, Yaesu, Chuo-ku,
Tokyo, Japan.
Messrs. E. C. Goldsworthy, Estate Buildings, South Road, Weybridge, Surrey, England, U.K.
DORVILLE, F MacOregor Comarain
125
S.A.
GOPINATHA
PILLAI, Dr. K.
.671
171,672
%
.
bis,
me
du Ranelagh,
Paris 16c
Director of Fisheries, Trivandrum, Kerala, India.
Dousr, D.
J.
370,445,561,695,746
GNANADOSS, D. A. S
Assistant
Naval Architect, Ship Division, National Physical Laboratory, Fettham, Middlesex, England, U.K.
Director
of Fisheries,
B-33,
Chidambara Nagar,
Tuticorin, India.
DREOSTI, DR. G.
Director,
M
Africa.
239, 258
GREENHILL,
Managing
W.
A.
303
Fishing Industry Research Institute, University of
Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town, South
Director, The Bergius Co. Ltd., 254 Debbie's Loan, Glasgow, C.4, Scotland, U.K.
DU CANE, Commander
Managing
England, U.K.
P.
541,542,547,576
Box No.
18,
GUEROULT,
E.
R
.
654
Director, Vosper Ltd., P.O.
Architecte Naval, 26 rue Danielle Casanova, Paris 2c,
Portsmouth,
GURTNER,
. .
DUTRUIT, M.
579
P. 133, 585, 672 Naval Architect, Fishing Boat Section, Fisheries Division, FAO,
Safety Engineer, 3M Company of St. Paul, Minnesota, 7 Acacias, Prtlly, Vaud, Switzerland.
Rome.
GUTSCHE, Dr.
Ing.
......
Germany.
172,
. .
522
EDDIE, G. C.
trial
124, 134, 242, 247, 715, 750, 751
Lttcknitzstrasse 13, Friedrichshagen, Berlin,
Principal Scientific Officer,
Department of Scientific and IndusResearch, Torry Research Station, Aberdeen, Scotland, U.K.
P.
HAMLIN,
333
Naval Architect, Manset, Maine, U.S. A.
EDGE, Captain,
F
1
134,556
Hutton Road, Orimsby,
Manager, Ross Trawlers Ltd., Lincolnshire, England, U.K.
HANSON, H. C.
101, 137, 167, 185, 332,
574
Naval Architect and Marine Engineer, Wash., U.S.A.

99, 124
102, Pier 52, Seattle 4,
ESTEVE, V.
Arquitecto Naval, Sindicato National de la Pesca, Paseo del Prado, Madrid, Spain.
HANSSON, Captain
.....
E.C.2.
574, 579
Director, Swedish Sea Rescue Institution, Gothenburg, Sweden
FEA, E.
196
Ingegnere Navale e Meccanico, Centra Industrial e Navak, Via Ferdinando di Savoia 3, Rome.
HARDY, Commander A. C., 39/41 New Broad Street, London,
23, 27,
14
FINN, D. B., Ph.D., C.M.G.

Director, Fisheries Division,
21
HARPER Gow,
6,
L. M.,
MJB.E.
126,748
FAO, Rome.
.
Shipowner, Chr. Saivesen and Co., 29 Bernard Street, Edinburgh

Scotland, U.K.
FLINDT, R.
304
Street,
HEEN, Dr.
........
FAO, Rome.
.
239
General Manager, Lister Blackstone Marine Ltd., Long Dursley, Gloucestershire, England, U.K.
Chief, Technology Branch, Fisheries Division,
FODERA, Dr.
V
. .
609
HEINSOHN, H.
DipL Ing., Rickroeri
Germany.
123, 126, 134, 249, 638,
703
2
Direttott, Centre Sperimentale Pesca, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.
Waft, Pottfach 2066, Brcmerhaven
FUJINAMI,
Rome.
Naval Architect, Fishing Boat Section, Fisheries Division,
536 FAO,
HENICHICE,
Director,
W.
184, 534,
548
ScUffbou-Venuchunstett,
StflhUnpr
11,
Bedin-
Korbhont, Germany.
[12]
LIST
OF CONTRIBUTORS
Pat*
No.
H0ISGAARD, J
Chief Engineer, A/S Hundested, Denmark.
96,307,580
Hundested
Motorfabrik,
Skaraevej,
KREUZBR, Dr.
.......
.
Page
tfo.
239
Chief, Fish Processing Section, Fisheries Division,
FAO, Rome.
FAO, Rome.
748
HOLT,S.
94
KRISTJONSSON, H. Chief, Fishing Gear
.94,
97, 101, 128, 133
Section, Fisheries Division,
Chief, Biology Branch, Fisheries Division,
FAO, Rome.
KUMMERMAN,
HOPWOOD, G.
274, 315
Chief Engineer, Mirrtees, Bickerton and Day Ltd., Hazel Grove, near Stockport, Cheshire, England, U.K.
H
Comarain
Pr6sident-Directeur Gtafari, MacGrcgor bis, rue du Ranelagh, Paris 16c.

I.
S.A.,
LACHENAL,
D
298, 364, 51
1,
676
Deep-Sea Fishing Association, Navotas,
HUNTER, A.
.127, 132, 198, 303, 305, 336, 524, 535, 536, 540, 543, 571, 692, 697, 701
President, Inter-Island Rizal, Philippines.
Managing Director, Cook, Welton and Beveriey, Yorkshire, England, U.K.
Gemmell
Ltd., Grovehill,
LACKENBY, H.
Chief Naval
535, 539, 694, 697
HUSE, H.
V
Director, Hydraulik A/S, Brattvag,
J.
303
Norway.
Architect, The British Shipbuilding Research Association, 5 Chesterfield Gardens, Curzon Street, London, W.I .
Managing
LEROUX, R.
582
Directeur, Societ6
1
304
HUTCHINSON,
Street,
Administrative Service, Department of Fisheries, Wellington
des Anciens Chantiers Dubigcon, Boulevard de Chantenay, Nantes (Loire-Inf(6rieure), France.
Anonyme
Ottawa, Canada.
INAMURA, K.
295
Chief, Fishing Boat Section, Fisheries Agency; now Director, Japan Export Frozen Marine Products Inspectorate Corporation, c/o Kohan Building No. 3, 3-Chome, Kasumigaseki Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo, Japan.
LEWIS, Professor E. V. 535, 548, 554 Head, Ship Division, Davidson Laboratory, Stevens Institute of Technology, 711 Hudson Street, Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S.A.
.
.
LlNDBLOM, J
Dipl. Ing.,
182
Laivateollisuus Ab,
Oy
Abo, Finland.
.
INKSTER, R. G.,
M.D.
New
Buildings,
556
Teviot
MACCALLUM, W. A.
197, 208, 242, 258,
750
Department of Anatomy, University Place, Edinburgh, Scotland, U.K.
Research Engineer, Fisheries Research Board Technological Station, P.O. Box 429, Halifax, Canada.
of Canada,
Nova
Scotia,
JABLONSKI,
Naval Architect, The Maritime
Institute,
468, 572
Gdansk, Poland.
MCGRUER,
579
E.
179, 196, 557, 671
JACOBSSON, Professor M.
Chairman,^ Sweden.
Boatbuilding Officer, Scottish Country Industries Development Trust, 27 Walker Street, Edinburgh, Scotland, U.K.
Swedish
Sea
Rescue
Institution,
Gothenburg,
MALIC,
J.
B.
676
Department of Agriculture and Natural
JOHNSSON, N.
V 530, 553 Naval Architect, Nicolovinsgatan 8B, Malmo, Sweden.

F
572, 750
Fisheries Technician,
Resources, Bureau of Fisheries, Manila, Philippines.
MEWSE, H. V. N.
Marine Superintendent, J. Lancashire, England, U.K.
274
Marr and Son
Ltd.,
JOUDINSTEV, A.
Fteetwood,
Engineer, U.S.S.R. Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (VNIRO), Verkhne Krosnoselskaja 17, Moscow,
U.S.S.R.
MILLER,
255, 752
W.
C.
505
JUL,
M.
Naval Architect and Marine Engineer, Wm. C. Miller and Associates, 577 Spreckles Building, San Diego 1, California,
U.S.A.
Fonkningsinstitut (The Danish Meat Research Institute), S0ndre Ringvej 16, Roskilde, Denmark.
Director, Slagteriernes
MILLER,
W.
P.
180, 556,
697
KANASASHI, Y.
President, Kanasashi Shipbuilding Co. Ltd., 4010-19, Shimizu City, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan.
73,97 Mi ho,
Managing Director, James N. Miller and Sons St. Monance, Fife, Scotland, U.K.
Ltd., East Shore,
KLAASSEN,
H
T
MILNE, G.
S.
124, 692,
750
305,524,580
Chief Engineer, Lips Propeller Works, Drunen, Netherlands.
Shipyard General, Manager, John Lewis and Sons Ltd., 186 Albert Quay, Aberdeen, Scotland, U.K.
KQBAYASHJ,
146,
348
MlNOT,
Naval
P.
Architect,
124, 541, 572,
755
Naval Architect, Fishing Boat Laboratory, Fisheries Agency, Tsiikishtma, Chuo-Kui, Tokyo, Japan.
Woods
Hole
Oceanographic
Institution,
Woods
MITSUI,
Hole, Mass., U.S.A.
KOSSA,
320, 338 Naval Architect, Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan,
U.S.A.
M.
95, 197, 249, 347
Chief of Hull Designing Section, Shimonoseki Works, Mitsubishi Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd., Enoura-1, Shimonoseki, Japan.
113]
LIST
OF CONTRIBUTORS
Pag*
No.
No.
M5CKEL, Captain W.
404,561
RANKCN, Commander M. B. F. 242, 255, 701, 741,

J.
748, 752
Naval Architect, HamburgacbeSchiffbau-VmuchsanttaJt, Branv fettentrasse 164 (24), Hamburg 33, Germany.
and E. Hall Ltd., England, U.K.
Dartford Ironwork*, Dartford, Kent,
MURAMATSU,
S.
84
RAPPINI,
Genoa,
Don.
Italy.
Ing.
G.
309
Chief, Design Section, Yaim Shipbuilding Co. Ltd., Yaizu City. Shtzuoka Prefecture, Japan.
Direttore del Laboratorio, Ansaldo S.A., Piazza Carignano,
NlNOMIYA, M.
295
1,
R*PSQN, Dr. A. M.
Division of Fisheries, Department of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries of the Papua and New Guinea Administration, Port
Fishing Boat Laboratory, Fisheries Agency, Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo, Japan.
2 Kesumigeseki,
Moresby, Papua, Australia.
NUTKU, Professor A.
Department
of
517, 573, 675

Architecture,
Naval
Technical
University,
RASALAN,
S. 6.
676
Istanbul, Turkey.
Chief, Division of Marine Fisheries, Bureau of Fisheries, Manila, Philippines.
O MEALLAIN,
S.
249, 336, 672, 750
fiord lascaigh Mhara; Inspector and Engineer, Chairman, Fisheries Division, Department of Lands, 3 CathaJ Brugha
Street, Dublin.
Au
REAY^ Dr, G.
Director,
200, 258 Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Torry Research Station. Aberdeen, Scotland, U.K.
S.
.
.
.
ORSZULOK,W.
95,308,741,750
Office,
REM0Y, Captain
542, 570, 580, 581
Naval Architect and Main Director, Central Design United Polish Shipyards, Gdansk, Poland.
Government School of
Fisheries, Fiord,
Norway.
Osn, O.
Ingegnere Refrigerazkme, Societa Ing. 18, Milan, Italy.
253 G. DeH'Orto, Via Meraao

146, 348, 550, 554
1,
REYES RISOTO, E.
Tecnico Naval, AMC.
98
335603, Apto.
2,
c/56
and
58,
Marianau.
Habana, Cuba.
Otsu, Y.
geseki,
....
E
.
. .
RUICEN
'
'
422
Chief, Fishing Boat Laboratory, Fisheries Agency,
2 Kesumi-
Naval Architect Netherlands Ship Model Basin, Wageningen,

Netherlands.
Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo, Japan.

114, 134
Street,
H. PAIN, Commander H. S. G. Brown Ltd., Shakespeare

England,
RINGHAVER, L.
615, 690
Watford, Hertfordshire,
President, Diesel Engine Sales Inc., St. Augustine, Florida, U.S.A.
UK.
RODEN,
S.
576
PA*KS,
Sir
Fred
95, 123, 249,
'Chairman and Managing Director, Boston Deep Sea Fisheries Ltd., 238 Dock Sttaet, Fleetwood, Lancashire, England, U.K.
Naval Architect, Department of Naval Architecture, Technical University of Hamburg, Germany.
ROSCHER,E.
PAUL, D. A.
693
Naval Architect, Hall, Russell and Co. Ltd., 16 Carton Place, Aberdeen, Scotland, U.K.
K
Hamburg
1,
528
Germany.
Dipl. Ing., KttdienaJlee 57,
SALOMON,
308
Manager, Svead s,i.a.s,, Via Montevideo 20, Rome.
PAULUNG, Professor
, J. R., Jfc. 489, 574, 57T Department f Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, University of California, Berkeley 4, California, USA.
SANTARELUU
M
R
Siciry, Italy.
684
POPPER, F. E,
Chief, Economic* Borneo* Fisheries Division,
.337
FAO, Rome,
.
Iiigeniere Naval y Mecanico, Hip&lito Yrigoyen 723-4 Piso-of. 31, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
SARA,
>ott.
609
Centro Sperimentale deUa Pesca, Patermo,
BROSKIE,
J.
94,122,242,332,519
SATO,
JAp*
S.
Oapaitment *fFisheries, Ottawa^ Canasta.
723
XL
....*..,...
,
Chief, Design Section, Hitachi Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd., Uuaoshsma Shipyard, iimoshiaia, Hiroshima Prefecture,
Marine Sales Manager, Donald Macftesoa and Co. Ltd., 27 Albion Street, Manchester 1 Lancashire, Entfaad, (J .1C
lapan.
<JUKESHI, Dr.
M.
fl.
674
Binder,
ftekistan*
-Central Fisheries Department, Saddar, Karachi 3,
SCHARFE, Dr. J Gear Technologist, FAQ, Rome.
121, 125
Fishing Gear Section, Fisheries Division,
RAHOLA, Professor 1
Aaetor 0f Hie
Institute
SCHMIDT,
.
R G., Jr.
571
....
of Itttatftofy, Helsinki, Firifamd.
Pmttent, Marine Construction aad Design Co., 2100 modore Way, Seattle 99, Wash., LLS.A.
31,128 Com-
LIST
OF CONTRIBUTORS
Pag*
No.
tot*
No.
SBGHERS,V
Conitructeur-Armateur, Chantiers et du Slipway, 4, Ostend, Belgium,
309
TAKAGI, Professor A.
96,175,475,576,577,754
Armement Seghen, Qua!

19
Department of Naval Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, Japan,
SEN, B, R.
Director-General,
TAKAHASHI,
Executive
S.
Director,
126, 303, 661,
750
Ltd.,
FAO, Rome.
.
Hayashikane
Shipbuilding
Co.
Shimonoteki, Japan.
SHEWAN, Dr.
200, 258 Industrial and of Scientific Research, Torry Research Department Station, Aberdeen, Scotland.
J.
M.
TANIGUCHI, K.
Chief,
453
Nagasaki Experimental Tank Laboratory. Mitsubishi Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd., Nagasaki, Japan.
SICKLES, Lieut. -Commander C. M. Merchant Marine U.S. Coast Guard, O. in ., American Consulate General, Naples, Italy.
581
Detail, c/o
THIBERGE,
F
Rue Henri Rochefort
573
31, Paris 17e.
242 SILVA, Commodore D. D. Chairman of "Commissfto Central das Pescarias", Member of the National FAO Committee, Rua D. Constantine Bracanca 10,
Lisbon, Portugal.
....
Boston
10,
Ingenieur, Bureau Veritas,
TlTO,
J.
M
F. H.
. .
.
671
European Representative, Outboard Marine International S.A. of Nassau, Bahamas; Bruges, Belgium.
TODD, Dr.
134,
152,
304,542,543,548
SIMPSON, D.
U.S.A.
S.
185, 304, 569, 581, 694, 745

Street,
Naval Architect, 200 Summer
Massachusetts,
Superintendent, Ship Division, National Physical Laboratory Feltham, Middlesex, England, U.K.
TOTHILL,
J.
SLAVIN,
W.
227, 247, 261, 745, 749
Mechanical Engineer, Fishery Technological Laboratory, Division of Industrial Research and Services, U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, East Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
J. T. 353, 555, 559 Naval Architect, Ship Laboratory, National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada.
TOWLE,
E. L.
N.
743
Assistant Chief Engineer, Industrial
SMITH,
J.
D.
688
1202
Joe D. Smith and Associates, Consulting Engineers, Graycroft Avenue, Madison, Tenn., U.S.A.
and Marine Division, Motor Engineering Department, Metropolitan-Vickers Electrical Co. Ltd., Trafford Park, Manchester, England, U.K.
TRAUNG, J-O.
SOUBLIN,
Qua!
L
Amateurs &
124, 735
la Peche de France, (Seine-Maritime), France.
98, 133, 167, 183, 196, 428, 546, 562, 575, 582, 673, 690, 755
President de la F6d6ration des
Chief, Fishing Boat Section, Fisheries Division,
FAO, Rome.
542
Guy de Maupassant, Fecamp
TSUCHIYA, T.
198,
STEEL, H. E., C.B.E.

Director, Burness, Corlett
576
and Partners
Ltd., 41 St.
Mary Axe,
246
Naval Architect, Fishing Boat Laboratory, Fisheries Agency, Tsukishima, Chuo-Ku, Tokyo, Japan.
London, E.C.3.
TYRRELL,
J.
99, 176, 540, 542, 555

Ltd.,
STRAKOSH,
F
18,
Consulente navale, Via A. Rendano
Rome.
261, 313
John Tyrrell and Sons Aridow, Co. Wicklow, Ireland.
Managing
Director,
South Quay,
STOKKE,
Head,
VAN MANEN, Dr.
J.
D.
.
422,562
of Internal Combustion Engines, Technical University of Norway, Trondheim, Norway.
Department
The
Under-Director, Netherlands Ship Model Basin, Netherlands.
SVENKERUD,
17
VARRIALE,
307
Naval Architect, Fishing Boat Section, Fisheries Division, FAO, Rome; now A/S Nordisk Aluminium Industri, L0kkeveien 9,
Oslo, Norway.
Ingegnere, Socteta Ansaldo, Genoa, Italy.
VENUS, J
708
Managing Director, Seawork
E.C.3.
101, 198, 624, 695,

Ltd., 41 St.
698
SWIECICKI, J The Maritime Institute, Gdansk, Poland.
Mary Axe,
337
VOLKBR, Professor Dr.

SWINFIBLD, A.
Ing.
.....
. .
169
fnstitut fttr SchhTstechnik der
Tedmiachen Hochschufe, Gun*
Naval Architect, 3OGrosvenor Street, Sydney, N.S.W., Australia.
hausstrasse 25, Vienna IV, Austria.
SUBERKRUB, F.
Consulting
285
Architect,
VON BRANDT, Professor Dr. A.

Direktor,
Institut
102, 122, 133
Naval
Chilehaus
CVI, Hamburg
1,
fur
Net*- und
Materialforschimg,
Neuer
Germany.
Wall
72,
Hamburg 36, Germany.

393, 422, 555, 561
Laboratory. Netherlands Ship Mwfel
SUTHERLAND,
180
VOSSERS, G.
Head,
Senior Technical Officer, White Fish Authority, 5 Fortes Street, Edinburgh, Scotland, U.K.
[15]
LIST OF
CONTRIBUTORS
ITS, ZHWER, Nvtl Afcbittct, Tingjtuvtden 26, Otto. Norwy.
No.
WBNBLUM,
Professor Dr.-Ing. G. P. 515, 535, 540, 547, 567, 569
P.
......
1
ffo.
668, 750
Hunburg, Garmuty.
WENDEL, Professor
. 491,577 Dr.-Ing, K. . Technical Naval of Architecture, Univmtty Head, Department of Hannover, and Frofesaor at the University of Hamburg, Stubbenhuk 10, Hamburg 11. Germany.
.
ZIMMER, H.
.......
130, Bcreen,
178
Naval Architect, Poetboks
Norway.
YOKOYAMA,N
.....
146,348
ZWOLSMAN, W.
Netherlands.
185,334,418,524
Naval Architect, Fishing Boat Laboratory, Fisheries Agency, Tsukishima, Chuo-Ku, Tokyo, Japan.
Naval Architect, Holland Launch H.V., Zuidcujk 218, Zaandanf,
[16]
NOMENCLATURE AND SYMBOLS"

A.
TECHNICAL TERMS
Longitudinal moment of inertia of watcrpiane Transverse moment of inertia of waterplane Indicated horsepower
A
Ab
A<i
Lateral area of ship's profile, including erections, exposed to wind
I*
It
**
A Am
Blade jua, developed (to shaft centre) Blade area, developed (outside boss) Blade area, expanded
1HP
J
1C
-
Advance number
Keel, at midship section
AP Aw AC
AP
B
=
<=
Midship section area Blade area, projected (outside boss) Waterplane area
Alternating current Aft perpendicular
Speed
lar
Displacement constant (Froude's circu-
BAR BG BHP
= =
Kq
t
K) Torque coefficient
Thrust coefficient
Height, centre of buoyancy above keel Height, centre of gravity above keel Maximum height of centre of gravity above keel from operational conditions Maximum height of centre of gravity above keel
KB
BM
BMi
= = =
=
= =
--
Breadth or beam in waterline; Centre of buoyancy Blade area ratio (outside boss) Height, centre of gravity above centre of buoyancy
KG KG
KG,
Brake horsepower
Height, mctaccntre above centre of buoyancy Height, longitudinal mctaccntre above centre of
KM
KM
k
kj
buoyancy
Height, transverse mctaccntre above centre of
KMi
t
BMi
b
considering stability criteria Height, mctacentrc above keel Height, longitudinal mctacentrc above keel Height, transverse mctaccntre above keel
C,
s
&
Cb Cm
= =
buoyancy Centre of buoyancy of thin layer of fluid Admiralty constant (Resistance) Admiralty constant (Self-propulsion) Resistance constant (Froudc's circular C) Block coefficient, also S
Midship area coefficient, also p Prismatic coefficient, also 9
Residuary resistance coefficient Waterplane area coefficient, also a Centre of buoyancy Centre of gravity
Radius of gyration;
Wave number
kt
Longitudinal radius of gyration Transverse radius of gyration
Cp C Cw CB CG CN
r
= =
r=
L L Lc Lp Lr LBP
LCB LCF
=
=-
Cubic number
Controllable-pitch propeller Speed of waves; Chord length of propeller at 0.7
CP
c
=
-=
LCG LOA
1
between perpendiculars, also of entrance of parallel middle body of run between perpendiculars, also Longitudinal centre of buoyancy Longitudinal centre of flotation Longitudinal centre of gravity
-
Length Length Length Length Length Length
in waterltne
LBP
Length overall
D
Ob
DAR DC DHP
d
= = *
--=
Depth; Propeller diameter Diameter of boss at rake line Disc area ratio (to shaft centre)
Direct current
M Mh M
t
Any
length defined in particular
Metaccntrc
Heeling moment Heeling moment due to centrifugal forces when turning Heeling moment due to wind forces Intersection of line of action of buoyancy and
centreline, at
1
Mw
M^
EHP
Fp FP
f
"
Deliver^ horsepower to propeller Draught, also T; Distance between centre of wind pressure and centre of water pressure Effective horsepower (tow rope horsepower from
resistance tests)
MCT m
N
n
in
Moment
Mass;
:=
an angle of heel 9 to change trim one inch
coefficient
= =
Pitch acceleration at
FP
Revolutions per minute Revolutions per second

Pitch propeller; Trawl pull Pitch propeller (boss)
Forward perpendicular
Freeboard Centre of gravity; Girth amidships
Height,
P
P<i
GM
GZh
me taccn trie
GM| GMt
Height, longitudinal metacentric Height, transverse metacentric

Stability lever Heeling lever
Pe Pm P
t
Pitch propeller, Pitch propeller,
mean
effective
mem (face)
PC
Pe
Pitch, propeller tip Propulsive coefficient
GZ
Mean effective
Torque
pressure
coefficient
Q
QPC R
Rf Rr Rt S
=
GZ
g h
Righting lever Acceleration due to gravity ** Distance from centre of roll to crew's position ;
*
Quasi propulsive
Radius, propeller; Resistance

Resistance, frictional
hw
1
Wave amplitude Hei^trfwave Moment of inertia
Resistance, residuary Resistance, total Surface, wetted
Compiled by H. Sventeud
{17)
NOMENCLATURES AND SYMBOLS

A. ()
*
TECHNICAL
SHP
T
T*
Tr
TI
=
>
Wctted-surface constant (Froude's circular S) Shaft horse power Draught, also d; Thrust; Juried; Temperature =Draught at after perpendicular * Boriod Of encounter
A
A,
n =
ma
DispUooncmt, weight of in metric ton; Small

increment (e.g. SHP) Displacement, weight of in long tons Thrust increase coefficient Thrust increase
AKt
AT
o
c
Draught at forward perpendicular

Draught, loaded Draught, light Period of pitch Period of roll Period of heave Terns per inch immersion Thrust deduction fraction; Thiclraess at shaft axis
Cylindrical thickness at root Resultant inflow velocity at 0.7 Speed in knots
To
-=
Cw
TI
Tp Tr Tz
TFI
t
tr
i7b i^h 170

r] p
= = = = =
= = = =
=
**
Block coefRcient, also Cb Phase angje
Wind
pressure coefficient
Efficiency
Efficiency, propeller Efficiency, hull
behind ship
Efficiency* propeller in
open
U
V
V.
=
= **
??r
Efficiency, propulsive Efficiency, relative rotative

Efficiency, rest Efficiency, trawling
Speed of advance of propeller (knots)

Speed, wind Variable pitch propeller
Wave
direction
Vw VP
v
A
AP
y^ z x
JJL
Wf
w
y
= Wake fraction (Froude) = Wake fraction (Taylor)

=
Speed in
ft./scc. (m./sec.)
= - Wave length; Coefficient of heat conductivity
Tuning factor Tuning factor, pitch Tuning factor, heave
Z
z
a
e
i
of centre of gravity of fluid Heave amplitude; Section modulus Vertical shift of centre of gravity of fluid
Horizontal
shift
I'm
p
pi
= =
-
Wave frequency Maximum wave
slope
Density (mass per unit volume) Density of air

Prismatic coefficient, also Q>; Angle of roll Prismatic coefficient, entrance Prismatic coefficient run ; Range of angles of heel
Waterplane area
direction
coefficient, also
C*; Wave
= =
=*
9 ?e
9r
Ôe P
Waterplane entrance coefficient Angle of nozzle profile relative to shaft Half angle of entrance
= =
= = =
-=
line
9s
Angle of heel of
giving positive righting levers maximum righting lever
y y
=
=n
Midship area coefficient, also C m Displacement, volume of in cubic metres Displacement, volume of in cubic feet
X
y>
Yawing
Angle of pitch Angular velocity; frequency
Natural frequency
<o
d> r
B.
MEASUREMENTS
==
A
BTU
= = =
Ampere(s)
British thermal unit(s)
h.p. hr.
=
gal.
Horsepower(s) Hour(s)
Imperial gallon(s)
Inch(es)
Kilocaloric(s)
NT
2
-
Net tonnage
Ounce(s), avoirdupois
C
cal.
Degree(s) Centigrade
Imp.
in.
RT
rad.
Cakme(s)
=
--
Tons of refrigeration Radians)

Revolutions per minute Revolutions per second SeconoXs)
cm.
c.p.m.
c.p.s.
Centimetre(s) == Cycles per minute Cycles per second
kcal.
r.p.m.
r.p.s.
kg.
km.
cu.
Cubic
F
fm.
ft.
= =
-B
kW
I.
= -=
-=
Kilogramme(s)
Kilometre(s) Kilowatt(s)
Litre(s)
sec.
sq.
Square
Metric ton(s)- 1,000 kg. =2,204 Ib. avoirdupois -0.984 long ton -1.102 short ton
Degree(s) Fahrenheit
ton
GT
g.
= =
=-
Fathom(s) Foot or Feet Gross tonnage
Ib,
m.
min.
ml.
.
=
=
Pound(s), avoirdupois Metre(s) Minute(s)

Millilitre(s)
Gramme(s)
U.S. gallon(s)
tons
gal.
mm.
Millimctre<s)
W
P-
Long
ton(s) (British)
Volt(s)
Watt(s)
C
cyl.
ABBREVIATIONS
Cylinders)
=^
%
This
diam.
Diameter
Figures)
pp.
vol.
Page Pages
*=
Volume
mid.
Moulded
wt.
ttst |i bated on BSRA'i Standard Nomcndauirc and Symbols (1949), but hat abo been partly influenced ITIXTi 1951 recommendations. Under no circumstances must it be interpreted t an officUl FAO tuggwtkm, ai it ITTC wffl achieve internattooal agreement on naval ai^hecturc mnnendature,
a ihoped^TtinlWthe
^y indiyidttal ittafe
f!8J
PREFACE
*
Rome from 5 to 10 April, 1959, provided Fishing Congress, | 1 an inspiring example of international co-operation, and the generous response in attendance and JL technical contributions showed clearly the importance now attached by governments to fishing
Boat
held in
nutrition.
^HE Second FAO World
boat design in the wider context of over-all efficiency of the fishing industry, safety of fishermen at se*
and advancement of human
has been the spearhead of much pioneering work in the improvement of production techniques in agriculture, forestry and fishery, and this Congress was among the most fruitful it has initiated* The uses to secure the exchange of ideas and to disseminate Congress illustrated one of the methods
FAO
FAO
did not come about in an ad hoc manner. It was a carefully prepared part of a very much larger plan of attack on one of the most crucial problems that face the world: that of increasing food production, particularly animal protein foods, to meet the demands of a world population which
information.
It
The population of the world today is about 2,800 million, and is increasing per cent, per annum. According to a recent United Nations survey, it has been estimated that the world population might double itself by the end of this century. This will undoubtedly exert a tremendous strain on the world's food resources. Even to maintain the current unsatisfactory levels of nutrition, special efforts will be needed to increase agricultural and industrial production. One source which may make a notable contribution to world food supplies is the inland water and oceans. These waters cover about seven-tenths of the world's surface, and produce mostly animal protein food, but at the present time not more than 1 per cent, of the food consumed by human beings is derived from
is
increasing at a fast rate.

1
at the average rate of
.6
The importance of scientific and technical developments to increase man's ability to resources of the sea can, therefore, be easily realized. Compared with farming, fishing still remains more of a hunting operation. It is not difficult to see that as husbandry gradually takes the place of hunting, the oceans will yield larger harvests of fish, and, in tht< field, the work of the Fishing Boat
this source.
utilize the
Congress made,
am
sure,
a significant contribution.
The fishing boat constitutes the heaviest part of investment in the fishing industries of highly developed countries, higher than the investment in harbours, canning plants and retail stores. A recent investigation in Canada showed that vessels accounted for 67 per cent, of the total investment of the Canadian fishing industry, as against 45 per cent, in 1917, and 59 per cent, in 1935. This fact underlines the dominant position of fishing vessels in the economics of the fishing industry and how important is the need to increase their efficiency in the effort to catch more fish. Such an increase will not only add to the world's food supplies but will also increase the prosperity of the world's fishing industries, and raise
the living standards of the fishermen.
Awareness of the need to increase the efficiency of boats is reflected in the fact that more naval architects are being employed in the design and construction of fishing craft, and that professors of naval architecture and shipbuilding research organizations are starting to work on improving designs
of fishing boats. The proceedings of the Congress, which are published in this volume, FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD 2, point to the trends and developments arising from this new interest. Technically, the book is both supplementary and complementary to volume No. 1 of the same title, based on the proceedings of the first Congress, and it will be, I feel, equally, if not more widely, welcomed.
:
The first Congress in 1953 played an important pan in drawing the attention of governments to the contribution that naval architects could make to the efficiency and prosperity of fishing industries. Indeed, until a few years ago, government activity in the fishing industry was mainly in the hands of biologists. In 1950, when FAO first employed a naval architect, only the governments of Norway and
Japan had established posts for naval architects. Hie situation has improved since then, and some other governments, such as those of India, Israel, Newfoundland and Turkey, have since employed naval architects. In Canada, France, Germany, U.K. and U.S.A*, naval architects have been employed
[19]
PREFACE
in semi*government research institutions engaged in fishing boat development work, but, on the whole, naval architects are still the exception ratter than the rule hi national fishery administrations. But several governments are now considering the establishment of fishing boat departments to help promote the development of the fishing industry .
In this respect there is much to encourage the hope that the resources of the seas and oceans, the lakes and rivers and other waters, can yield much more food for human consumption than is at present harvested from them. For example, in recent years experience has shown that pelagic fish, such as the tuna, may be caught over wide areas of the oceans and seas. The Japanese are making substantial catches of such species hi the South Atlantic, white French fishermen, operating from Dakar in West Africa, have built up a tuna fishing industry. Again, the Mediterranean is generally regarded as a poor fishing sea and until recently shrimp fishing was of little importance there. But, a few years ago, French fishermen discovered substantial stocks of big, excellent quality shrimp and, as a result, trawlers from Algeria, Egypt, Italy and Turkey are fishing these stocks. Another outstanding example has been the rapid development of the pilchard fishery in South Africa and the ansiovy fishery off Peru. Here are thriving fisheries which have been developed in a few years and have already yielded millions of tons of fish.
I mention these few examples to indicate something of the huge potential of the sea. Marine biologists have concluded that it should be possible to increase the world commercial catch of fish from about 30 to 60 million tons a year from existing known stocks. But, of course, if this is to be done then an essential development, among other things, is an improvement in fishing boat design and performance throughout the world and not only in a few of the more advanced countries. One of the most significant contributions made by the Second FAO World Fishing Boat Congress has been to help spread this knowledge internationally.
While the Second FAO World Fishing Boat Congress was an important milestone, much remains to be done before fishing boat design as a whole reaches the technical level achieved in the design of other types of ships. The application of science and modern techniques to the improvement of agriculture has yielded highly beneficial results, both to the producer and the consumer. The same process could make the fishing boat more efficient, thereby producing more food for the world while bringing to the fishermen a higher standard of living.
B. R. SEN Director-General of FAO
120]
INTRODUCTION
has already been demonstrated how the ingenuity of mankind can reach out to space and the an ingenuity we also need to turn earthwards towards the art of living. Imagination plays a great part in determining what the future holds. Before ever there was a wheel, somebody imagined what a wheel was like; before ever there was a sidewalk or pavement, somebody conceived the idea; before there was a sail or a steam engine, there was a dream on somebody's part, and so ideas always
IT
stars,
precede things.
collaborators, besides being practical, hard-headed technicians and scientists, also have this gift of imagination. Some of them have put forward an idea which, at first sight, seems so fanciful as to be impossible that is to fish from submarines to escape the perils of weather and to increase fish catching efficiency. But progress in fish finding and in the capture of fish is so rapid that
My
valuable
the adaptation of these techniques to submarine fishing has become largely a matter of applied engineering. Submarine fishing may seem impossible today, but I should not be at all surprised to see it in practice tomorrow. And perhaps this is another way in which atomic energy may be turned to peaceful uses. The application of ingenuity, founded on proper scientific and technical knowledge, leads to progress.
Since the 1953 First Boat Congress there have been many new developments. Chilled sea water for preserving the catch is being introduced on the Pacific Coast of the Americas. Large powered blocks are being introduced to handle encircling nets. More fishing vessels are being built with transom sterns, and even bulbous bows are now used on large trawlers. Stern trawling is being adopted on large factory trawlers, and there have also been advances in the design of dicsel and free piston machinery, as well as in the design of propellers. Wooden hulls, as another example, are still built in different strengths
in many countries. Standardization of scantlings and better methods of construction of such ships could lead to substantial economies. New materials, such as plastic, are being introduced and recently there has been much progress in our knowledge of the behaviour of ships in a seaway which could be applied to the design of fishing vessels.
below 100 ft. (30 m.) is a much neglected sector of the fishing has such a lot to do with the efficiency of fishing or fishing operations. It was, therefore, an encouraging experience to see that so many professional and technical men from many countries came, at their own expense, and contributed to the Second World Fishing Boat Congress* This fact in itself illustrates the awakening of world interest in fishing boat design, con-
The
fishing boat
particularly that
it
industry in spite of the fact that
struction
I
and performance.
like first
would
of
all
to thank those
years,
particularly in the last
two
from outside FAO who, over the past six years, and more gave unstintingly and freely of their time in organizing the Congress.
It is very seldom that I have had the privilege of following a Congress which has been marked by harder work or such vigorous discussion, and I think that all who shared this experience feet that the meeting was a rewarding success. This can particularly be attributed to the following:
The amount of preparation that went into the Congress Work on it was started in 1957 by the Secretariat, with the assistance of a Committee The high level of the papers The professional and technical competence of those attending, which was reflected
discussions
in the
of your Chairman, Commander A. C. Hardy (U.K.) and the A. Vice-Chairmen, Professor Takagi (Japan), Professor G. Weinbhim (Germany), M. E. R* Gueroult (Prance) and Mr H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.). I also want to mention Mr. J. G. de Wit
The very
effective leadership
(Netherlands).
121
INTRODUCTION
I noted at this Congress the emphasis upon the human factor, on the people who have to go to sea. This is a factor of over-riding importance which has sometimes, in the past, been overlooked, but the meeting showed that the designers, engineers and managers of today are taking it fully into account*
There was also the discussion on new materials and the adaptation of skills and of sciences that have been developed in shipbuilding, which showed not only awareness of present day scientific and technical advances but also an example of the use of imagination.
kind can deal adequately with all the subjects in its field and, without doubt, boat design, construction and performance should have been treated in more detail. Personally, I feel still more attention should have been focussed on small vessels, craft which are only just beginning to receive attention from naval architects, technicians and engineers. Perhaps the theme of the 1965 Congress should be "Mechanised craft of less than 100 tons".
No
meeting of
this
many aspects of fishing
The vast majority of fishing boats in the world are certainly of less than 100 tons, most of them, indeed, are of only a few tons but it is these numerous fleets of small boats plying their trade off the coasts of all the fishing countries of the world which have, in the past, been most neglected by the naval architect, boat designer and builder and engineer. Yet, paradoxically, these are the boats that are most likely to benefit from the attention of the scientist and engineer and this is one reason why I should like to see them be the centre of interest and attention at our next congress.
of science, I think that this Congress pointed to the upward trend of the application in essential to boats. of kind are and this encouraging progress technology engineering fishing Meetings in the world, and I doubt if there will ever come a time when it will not be necessary to exchange knowledge and opinions and exercise our imagination. The action, therefore, of the governing body of
up,
To sum
FAO in providing for these congresses at intervals of six years or thereabouts is a wise provision.
D. B. FINN Director, Fisheries Division,
FAO
[22]
NOTE FROM THE CHAIRMAN

fishing boat is not only
a large part of the investment in the fishing industry as a whole;
THE
we must also realize that each individual boat is costly. 40,000 or $100,000 is not too much money for a medium-sized fishing vessel. A modern British super-trawler costs 300,000, or
and most recent factory
ships cost
$1,000,000, today,
some
1,000,000, or $3,000,000.
In view of the
many hundreds of thousands of fishing boats in use under different weather conditions,
it
should seem easy to ascertain from fishermen the hull shape to combine best sea behaviour with toast resistance. This is, unfortunately, not the case; it is virtually impossible to get reliable information from talking to fishermen because they mostly have too little experience of the sea behaviour of different boat types and sizes and they have a tendency to confuse their observations, The laws of naval architecture often fly in the face of common sense; a longer or a lighter boat will always be better in waves than a shorter one, even if non-dimensionally it is inferior; ballast sometimes makes a boat roll most uncomfortably. The fisherman has not always the knowledge necessary to separate such factors and might conclude that a longer boat is better due to its shape, when perhaps the reason is only the length. Furthermore, during his lifetime a fisherman usually sails only about a dozen boats, mostly from the one port, and of a similar type; so his experience on different boat types is normally very limited in contrast to his experience of catching fish.
in various areas,
Nobody would think if designing a transatlantic liner of asking members of a crew to specify the design : this is based on research and a careful study of conditions, analysis of operating conditions and the co-ordination of technical and economic aspects. If fishing boats are to be improved, the same analytical approach is definitely necessary. Science must play as important a part in fishing as it has played in agriculture, forestry and nutrition. I think the time has come for naval architects to realize that if we wish to design better fishing boats we must operate very closely with all disciples of fisheries
science.
The term "fisheries science" is comparatively new, but it is probably the best way of describing the change from unplanned hunting to the organized utilization of the untapped resources of the sea.
Therefore, at the Second
biologists,
World Fishing Boat Congress we had not only naval architects; we fishermen themselves, who gave their point of view. We also had very distinguished fishing boat owners and builders. And in a long experience of national and international conferences I have never been to one in which there was so much real friei illness. And furthermore, I feel this particularly as Chairman, I have never been to a conference whic was harder work, because the speed of discussion was really terrific. The volume of qut&tions was toi dntial. And in dealing with the matter from the Chair, it was rather like trying to turn off a shower in a bath-tub because you realized that you had only a certain amount of time to give to any particular subject. Some people were good; they talked slowly and deliberately, and they kept to the rules of the length of speaking. But others went on and on. But the trouble was that they weren't just talking. They were talking "good stuff"*
had
FAO
we had practical
So how possibly could you extract the maximum from it and let people feel that everybody was satisfied ?
However we invited participants and those who had no opportunity to attend to expand their remarks in writing. This invitation has been acted upon to a very great extent and the 225-page discussion in this book probably constitutes somewhat of a record for a four days' technical meeting of this kind. Naturally some condensation has been necessary, but I am happy to note, as I did in my introduction
to the
first
fishing boat
book
that "the opinions are presented as they have been expressed

first
and
it
just
will
as often as they occur. do". This book has the thickness of a very large Bible and indeed, together with the be a super-Bible for fishing boat builders and designers for a long time to cone.
No attempt is made to talk down to the reader or to tell him what he ought to
book,
The Second
definitely that
FAO World Fishing Boat Congress was very worthwhile, and X would like to say quite
nobody could have done
this better
than the appropriate United Nations body
the
[23]
NOTE FROM THE CHAIRMAN

FAO Fisheries Division. In organizing technical meetings one very easily totes one's sense of proportion but because this was an integral part of the activities of the FAO Fisheries Division, it had a very good balance.
At the last Congress we did not dare to take you as far as atomic propulsion, but in the discussion on the 197S fishing boat Professor A. Takagi from Tokyo made some suggestions along these lines.
Now, it means just this: that if the Japanese are right, and if they can produce these atomic ships, that the factory can stay at sea for maybe two years. Well, you'll say that's ridiculous. What about the poor crew? I say: That's all right, don't worry about that. Undoubtedly, such a ship would have a would be flown home and crew B would flight deck. And every six months, or less, if necessary, crew be flown out. And possibly too, the catch, the frozen packaged fillets of fish, would be flown away out of the freezing hold in the ship. So this ship might be fishing up in the north, and within 24 hours a freshly filleted, deep-frozen packaged piece of plaice or sole could be enjoyed by someone in Alice Town in the middle of Australia. This is not a flight of fancy, it is a distinct possibility, and I give it to you as an idea of the tremendous pace of life today. And as this book goes to press we have news of a proposal to use surplus aircraft carriers as mother- and/or factory-ships. The way in which the air is leading us by the nose, the whole tempo of life is being speeded up. It is time we did speed up the tempo of the fishing industry in view of the fact that only a fraction of 1 per cent, of the food we eat comes from the oceans and seas, although they cover more than 70 per cent, of the surface of the have seen world some 90,000,000 square miles. Old style fishing is not good enough to-day. built new in the Russia has the in the for of and, up great way factory ships style example, something have also seen a new development in fishing in the way the Japanese have set up fishing fleets. fishing enterprises in collaboration with governments of many countries, for example Israel, Ceylon and Brazil. All these efforts are directed towards solving one of the continuing problems of to-day, production and distribution of more and better food.
:
We
We
Fishing thought of the world
is
"maybe" and "could be" out of it, and making

world feeding*
9
.
going through a period of intense change in which we are taking the it into a hard science, realizing that "world fishing is
A. C.
HARDY
[24]
PART
TACTICS
A.C.Hanfy
27
PttbMiMwl
9Q
PISHING

On*
P.O. Scheldt, Jr.
31
. -
94
TrwB:
^-t *+
/.
C.
A PW
56
COMMAND
OPERATIONS
A.C.H~4ya*IH.E.B.P4*
114
T.E.Colvto
64
CMtwItai cnrinl f trawtav
73
PRINCIPAL FISHING BOAT TYPES

by
A. C.
HARDY
It
44
A table giving the world diitribution of the important types of fishing boats at a glance is given.
fishing nations, catching
contains
between them 92,9 per cent of the world's
7 basic types operated
/FF
by
fish.
LES PRINCIPALS TYPES DE NAVIRES DE PECHE

etait utile,
on a pens* qu'un tableau dormant d'un seul coup d'oeil la distribution mondial* des types importants de navires de pecbe Le tableau contient 17 types de base de navires employes par 44 nations pratiquant la peche et dont les prises reprfeentent 92,9 pour cent des poissons peches dans le monde.
A cet egard,
PR1NCIPALES T1POS DE BARCOS DE PESCA

Se da una tabla con la distribuci6n mundial de los tipos mis importantes de barcos de pesca. Contiene 17 tipos bisk en 44 naciones pesqueras que capturan cntrc ellas el 92,9% de la pesca mundial.
nple.dc
has been judged useful to prepare a basic table giving the principal ship or boat types used in fishing other than those for purely local and off-shore duty. Fig. 1 shows the distribution of the types among 48 different areas and countries. In order to simplify matters, the types have not been rigidly analysed in so far as sub-types are concerned; rather has the basic function been chosen. The top of the table shows a total of 17
trawlers.
IT
the large
and
Seiners, both Danish and Purse, follow; then diversified drift-net family.
The angling boat group
consists
of
(rollers,
tuna
clippers and longliners. The recent arrival in France of the U.S. type tuna clipper as opposed to the sail-driven
trolling tunny ship of former years is to be noted; it represents a revolution in an important branch of the
individual types. The columns to the left show the principal fishing nations, divided into geographical areas and arranged in alphabetical order within the continental
divisions.
French fishing industry. Longliners can be adapted from other types, particularly in northern waters where a longliner can be employed as a trawler and vice-versa; they can also be specially built. In Japan and Canada
Grouping of boat types
The first shown
is the whale-catcher, a boat for shooting, usually attached to the whale factory ship, but capable of operating if necessary from shore bases. There are two kinds of factory ships: (1) the mother ship which operates
with catchers and
is
concerned in processing or canning;
The dory-type longPortuguese and Canadian ownership. There is a column for the carrier, which sometimes carries fish in tanks with chilled seawater and on others in wells open to the sea. This is followed by research and training ships which are employed by no less than sixteen different nations, and this is an indication of the importance with which the training of fishermen and biological research
longliners are one-purpose boats.
liner is confined to
is
(2) the fishing stern chute factory, a new type also coming into prominence particularly in the fishing fleets of the
regarded.
No
attempt has been made to
U.S.S.R. This type formed the subject of much debate, some of it acrimonious, on the occasion of the 1953 Congress. It is now beginning to reach maturity, and is a completely self-contained type planned for gutting, producing fish meal, extracting liver oil, and for producing frozen fillets in packaged form ready for the consumer market* The port of discharge is not usually a conventional fishing
accompanying the
fishing.
fleets at sea; there
some acting as store ships too, and They are giainly owned by two nations, namely the Portuguese and the Dutch. There are also fisheries protection ships of the United Kingdom and Germany
equipped with hospital
facilities.
hospital ships, are a few of these, some adapted to trawl
list
port The next group is the trawler family and
it is
divided
into distant water
and near-middle water
types.
Then
come
its
near relations, the Pareja, and Grand Banker
Variety of type* within countries study of fig. 1 produces many interesting facts. The catch figures of each national column are in some respect a measure of each nation's reliance on fishing as a means.
(27)
FISHING BOATS OF THE
WORLD
TACTICS
Fig. 1.
Table of fishing boat types
of feeding, or for export purposes, or both. In this respect it is natural that Japan should lead in the variety of boats with a total of 14 individual types; followed by the ILS.S.R. with 11 and Norway with 10, though this figure is dependent on the inclusion of factory mothcrships. In point of fact, Norway was the first country in the world to adapt an ex-tank-landing ship, built during World War II, as a complete herring oil and meal floating factory working in conjunction with a group of catchers; in 1957 this ship was offered for sale. U.S.A. has 9 different types. The United Kingdom, Canada and Iceland list a total of 7 ship types; Portugal, France, Sweden and India, 6 each; the Faroes, Germany, the Netherlands and Italy 5; Denmark, Eastern Germany, Indonesia and the Union
of South Africa
4.
industries intrude, absorb labour.
governed in some degree by the way in which other and the extent to which they can
in appearance Seven decades of trawler evolution are outlined in fig. 2, which is a good example of the development of a fishing vessel type. It is a slow and gradual process, for deep-sea fishing is not a business which encourages the taking of
Change
nation's interest in fishing, however, cannot be judged by the number of types it used, this is controlled by such factors as the size of the country and its internal needs, the fishing grounds which are within reasonable
distance,
industry,
unnecessary chances. The coming of steam for propulsion in the 1880*8 was perhaps the most important stage. The ever increasing length of voyages, due to fish movements and over-fishing, brought about an increase in size. The advent of oil as a fuel for boilers permitted even longer voyages, although its use was strongly resisted at first, particularly in Great
Britain
and the
i.e.
canning, salting,
extent to which fishing is an export etc., rather than a means of
The internal combustion engine, just before the outbreak of World War I, probably caused the biggest change which has ever affected shipping. It was not,
however, until well after World War II that it began to affect the trawler. Even today steam has not entirely disappeared. The use of electricity for propulsion, and in certain instances for the whole powering of the ship,
is
national feeding. On size comparison it is noted that Japan uses 14 types compared with only 11 by the U.S.S.R. Other factors which affect fishing arc the size
and
aWe to go to sea in the fishing industry, and their expertas sailors.
type* of harbours; the size of population willing or
however now slowly gaining acceptance.
The
available fishing population is
The growing importance of the bridge at the nerve centre has eliminated outside walkways and increased the
(28)
SAIL SMACE 1883
90 ft. 1886
101ft. 6in.
1803
110ft. 1898
112ft. 1910
138ft. 4in.
1910
140ft. 600 IBP 1924
152ft. 650 IHP 1933
180ft. 800 IHP 1934
172ft. 950 IHP 1936
178ft. 950 IHP 1939
167ft. 950 IHP 1946 (First Oil Burner)
DIESEL TRAWLER 137ft. 600 BHP 1948
182ft. 1,000 IHP 1948
185ft. 1,35O IHP 1951
185ft. 1,350 IIP 1966

Fig. 2.
185ft. 1,500 SHP 1907

(29)
Stvt*tkca4eseftrawk

size
WORLD
TACTICS
of the structure
itself.
progressively cot
down
Alterations in machinery have the size of funnels. An entirely

in 1946,
new
type of funnel
was introduced
end of the
a period
which marked the
virtual
tall
stovepipe struc-
the most popular 35 nations use it Next oomes the drifter, which again in one or another of many forms is used by 29 nations. This is followed by the purte seiner employed by 26 nations, compared with the Danish type
ture previously necessary to obtain draught for the rather inefficient coal-fired boilers.
Model testing led to a cruiser-conical type of stern about 1933. At the same time there was a tendency up to the outbreak of World War II to increase the sheer forward, rake the stem and build up the foVsle; this, for reasons of seaworthiness, was frequently of turtleback type. The introduction of the cruiser-conical stern seemed to be the signal to increase the structure aft.
tion
of seiner employed by only 8. Other high-ranking figures are the troller, shared by 12 nations, and the whale* catcher used by 11 this is employed by 5 nations as shore-based, as apart from the factory-based unit. The
Pareja
is
shared by as
many
training ship has a total of 16. popularity of the trawler, of near

is
as 8; the research and The almost universal
especially to be noted, and is in fact used Atlantic, Baltic and Mediterranean nations.
and middle water type, by all North The Nether*
This improved comfort, gave extra space for accommodaand reduced the risk of the ship being pooped. Later the mizzen-mast was eliminated, although this is not a
characteristic. The present tendency to fish on the starboard side only enables the superstructure to be extended on the port side, again resulting in more and better accommodation, and better quarters for the crew.
common
Common types of boat

figures at the bottom of the columns of fig. 1 show the extent to which various basic fishing boat types are used. It is evident that on present showing, i.e. April 19S9, the trawler in one or other of its various forms is
The
lands has specialized in drifter type ships. The common characteristic, it should be emphasized, is merely one of method of fishing; in size, power, equipment, they vary according to local conditions and local sources of supply, or to the extent to which international sources of supply can be called upon. It is felt that in the past all these factors for ship types shared by so many nations have been confined to national "watertight boxes". It is the object of this paper to break open the boxes and to let ideas mingle freely. Although there are clearly many points in design which could never be common to all, and perhaps only common to a few, the exchange of ideas cannot but be of benefit for all.
(30)
PURSE SEINING: DECK DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT

by
\
PETER
G.
SCHMIDT,
Jr.
fith arc produced by pune seining, which is the most important form of encircle net fishing, than by any other bask method, seine vessel design has improved rapidly in the last few years. The most important purse seining systems are the two-boat system, as used in the Norwegian herring fishery and the U.S. East Coast menhaden fishery, and the one-boat Western system, as developed on the Pacific Coast of U.S.A. and Canada. The other basic systems are described. The fish can be carried either by the purse seme vessel or by carry-away vessels. This has a major influence on design. Selection of the size of the purse seiner is described, together with the general requirements for an efficient purse seine system mad me important baste design considerations. The most important design consideration is the selection of the fishing method. After the method
More
and purse
has been selected, arrangement of work space can be made and proper equipment selected. In most cases, the combination fishing principle be taken into account in the design. The arrangements of fishing vessels, methods of fishing, and mechanization of the fishing process are discussed for the world's most important purse seine fisheries, together with suggested changes.
shall
LA PECHE A LA SENNE TOURNANTE

On capture plus de poissons par la peche au filet coulissant, qui est la plus importante m&hode de peche au filet touraant, que par n'importe quelie autre methode, et le plan des bateaux pour la peche a la senne s'est amelk>r6 rapidement pendant tea dernieres annfet. Les systcmes tea plus importants de peche a la senne sont le systeme a deux bateaux, qui est employ* par les pecheurs de harengs norvemnt et par ceux de la cdte orientate des Etats-Unis pour la peche au menhaden, et le systeme occidental a un bateau employ* sur la cote Pmonque des Etats-Unii et du Canada. Une description est donnee des autres systemes de base. Le potsson peut 6tre transport* soit par le bateau de peche a la senne, soit par des bateaux de transport. Ceci a une grande influence sur le plan du bateau. On indique le choix de la grandeur du bateau pour la peche a la senne tournante ainsi que les exigences requites pour un systeme emcace de peche et tos considerations primordiales pour le plan du bateau. La methode de peche est le point le plus important & considerer pour le plan du bateau. Une fois la methode choisic, il convtent de determiner Tespace et requipement necessaires pour le travail Dans la plupart des cas, le plan du bateau devra prevoir une peche mixte. L*amenagement des bateaux, les mcthodes et la mecanisation des prooedes de peche, sont dtscutes pour les plus tmportantes pecheries a la senne tournante du monde, ainsi que les modifications proposees.
LA PESCA CON REDES DE CERCO

redes de ccrco, que es la mas productiva de todas, y las formas de los barcos que emptean esas redes ban mejorado rapidamente en los ultimo* afios. Los sistemas mas important** de pesca con redes de ccrco son el de 2 cmbarcacioaes empteado en la pesca del arenque en Norucga y en la de alacha en la costa oriental de los E.U.A., y el de 1 embarcacion, practicado en la costa del Pacffico del Canada y los E.U.A. Se dcscribcn ambos sistemas. El pescado lo transporta el barco de pesca al ccrco o barcos de transports Esto influye mucho en las formas. Se explican la selecci6n de las dimensions del barco de pesca con redes de ccrco, las condicioncs generates que se han de reuntr para lograr un bucn sistema de pesca con redes de ccrco y consideraciones de importancia relacionadas con el proyecto, cntre Las cutlet hi mas importante es la eleccibn dc los metodos de pesca. A continuacidn se hace la destribucidn de tos espacios donde se realizarin las facnas y se selecciona el equipo. En algunos casos, al preparar el proyecto se han de tener en cuenta las posibilidades de emplear diversos metodos
La pesca con
de pesca.
Sc estudian: distribuci6n a bordo de los pesqueros, metodos dc pesca y mecanizacidn de la pesca en algunas de las pesquerias con redes de ccrco mas importantes del mundo. Se proponcn algunos cambios.
MORE
seine.
fish arc caught by encircling nets than by basic type of fishing gear. By far the other any most important type of encircling net is the purse
of all
In U.S.A., purse seining accounts for over SO per cent fish production. Throughout the world, most of the
A purse seine is a form of an encircling net at the bottom passing through rings Une a having attached to the net, which can be drawn or "pursed". In general, the net is set from a boat or pair of boats around the school of fish. The bottom of the net is
Definition:
by this method. The world's are an based on purse seining. fisheries reduction great The fish reduction industry is growing particularly in many of the relatively undeveloped fishing areas of the world, and along with this purse seining is growing in
herring-like fish are caught
dosed with the purse Une. The net is then pulled aboard the fishing boat, or boats, until the fish aw concentrated in the bunt or "fish bag". The fith art then removed from the fish bag aboard the fishing vessel or an accompanying fish-carrying
pulled
vessel.
importance. In many areas, the more efficient purse seines are replacing other traditional gear. The efficiency of purse seining has increased recently, with the introduction of
and improved
synthetic nets, mechanization, electronic fish detection vessel design. In the last few yean, purse found to be extremely effective for been has seining
catching codfish in the Lofoten Islands off Norway,
and
FISHING UOATS OF THE

otter applications are being found for sunken
WORLD
TACTICS
pone
This
BASIC PURSE SEINING SYSTEMS

Two-boat fysttn
is the oldest system of purse seining, and was first developed on the East Coast of U.S.A. in the menhaden fishery. It was introduced into the Icelandic and Nor-
There are many variations of the general procedure described above. This paper will describe the design and equipment of modem purse seine vessels, the methods u*ed in many of the important purse seine fisheries of the world and also the traditional types of boats. The reasons behind evolution of the traditional designs are set forth, together with suggested changes in method and design. No attempt has been made to cover all of the types and methods of encircle-net fishing, and the subject has been
wegian herring fisheries in the early 1900s (Kristjonsson, 1959). In this system, two small seine boats 32 to 36 ft. (9.75 to 1 1 m.) in length are carried in davits on board a larger vessel, which is called a "steamer*' (fig, 3). On
more important fisheries. Purse seining has evolved during the last 60 or 70 years --primarily through the efforts of fishermen, with little attention being paid by naval architects, factory owners, or fisheries technologists. During the last 20 years rapid development has been made in purse seine vessel design and methods on the West Coast of U.S.A. and Canada. In the last 5 years this development has increased in tempo, with the introduction of mechanization of the
limited to the
net-handling process. In general, purse seining is little known and understood in northern Europe, except in Norway and Iceland. Even there few of the new methods and vessel designs have been tried As was very evident at the Fishing Gear Congress of 1957, much more work has been done in the development of modern trawling than in the improvement of purse seine methods and vessels. The deep sea trawler had captivated the interest of naval architects and engineers far more than the generally smaller, and less complicated, purse seiner. Very few naval architects have employed themselves in the betterment of the purse seiner outside North America, and in most cases the
FAO
vessels
have been
built
types of vessels
fishing
common
along the traditional lines of other to the fishing area, with the
method adapted to these vessels. With the increase in mechanization in many parts of
the world, it is necessary to improve all phases of the purse seine operation so as to increase the productivity
of
man and equipment

possible in
in order to
remain competitive.
most cases to design vessels and equipment and select methods which can increase efficiency
It is
well over 100 per cent.
The major purse seine fisheries of the world can be grouped as follows: Norwegian and Icelandic herring fishery U.S. East Coast and Gulf menhaden fishery , U.S. Pacific Coast, Alaska, and Canadian salmon, herring, sardine, mackerel and tuna fishery Japanese and Korean sardine, mackerel and skipjack fishery
U.S.S.R. herring fishery
Fig. J.
Two-boat purse seining system
reaching the fishing grounds the small boats are launched, each carrying half of the purse seine net. The boats run breasted together until the school of fish is located, and
boats, on setting, go in opposite encircling the school of fish and coining together 180 degrees from where they started setting the net. The net is pursed, using a purse winch in one or both
the set begins.

directions,
The
West Coast of South America anchovy and tuna

fishery
South and South West Africa pilchard and mackerel

fishery
of the boats, and the net is then putted from each end by the crew or power block in the two boats until the fish are sufficiently raised and concentrated for brailing or
Portuguese, Spanish, French, and North West Africa sardine fishery
+ Angola pilchard and mackerel fishery

[32]
pumping. The "steamer" then comes alongside and removes the fish from the bunt of the net with either a large brail or a fish pump.
FISHING METHODS AND DECK ARRANGEMENT

The two-boat systen of purse leaning evolved in the day* before the modern gaiolme and diescl engine, when it was necessary to row arouad the flsh. The fishcatohing boats were carried ant to the fishing grounds on the larger vessel, which was either sail or steam powered, and were small enough to be propelled around the fish by oars. There has been little change in this general method since engines were put in the seine boats. The two-boat system has the following disadvantages: It uses a large number of fishermen. The individual productivity of each fisherman is relatively low. It does not tend itself to mechanization Launching and hoisting the smaller boats in rough weather is hazardous, and much fishing time is lost due to the problem of handling the small boats The "steamer" must be large enough to carry the small seine boats, which eliminates this system for many species of fish where a large cargo capacity vessel is not required The length and depth of net are limited because of
limited space in the small seine boats
- PURSE
SEINING
Advantages of the one-boat system are: 9 Adaptability to the mechanioUkai of the net haaSng process by use of a powered fatock aod highly mechanized handling of rope or wire purse line Utilizes a minimum of manpower Adaptability to systems capable of fishing in rough weather
Safety to fishermen and no back-breaking labour Ability to carry and handle large nets efficiently Flexibility of operation carries own fish in periods
when
carry
fish are scarce
away
fish
and works with other vessels to during periods when fish are
abundant
Disadvantages are: Clumsiness of extremely large vends, which would make them unsuitable for purse seining certain types of fish such as menhaden The net is hauled from only one end, which, theoretically, is not as fast as hauling from both ends. This disadvantage is not so great because of the rapidity of hauling using a powered block.
Portuguese system
The work
is extremely back-breaking and hazardous because of the necessarily small and unseaworthy boats which do not provide a good working platform Investment per net is very high. Instead of having
several nets
working per carry-away

are:
unit,
only one
is
used
The advantages of the system
Larger carrying vessels can be used, which travel at high speed, complete with their fishing units The small seine boats particularly in Iceland and Norway compete for the schools of fish, and the
difficult to
The Portuguese system, which is used to some degree in France, Spain, and the Northwest coast of Africa, is referred to by many in those countries as the "American system'*. Evidently this system was derived from the American West Coast system of carrying the entire net aboard the purse seiner, setting it out with a skiff attached
to the end.
large single vessels setting the nets would find it manoeuvre in such crowded conditions
it
The bunt, or "fish bag'* of the net is in the end, in contrast to the lampara style, with the fish bag in the middle, as used in the Mediterranean. The only basic
difference in the Portuguese system from the Western system is that a large amount of manpower is used to haul
With the two small
seine boats, encircle quickly the school of fish
is
possible to
it is
the nets.
the
On the West Coast of U.S.A., the nets have been

over power
rolls,
The net can be hauled rapidly because from both ends simultaneously
pulled
historically pulled
and strapped with
boom (lifting the net in successive bites, with a single fall from the boom) now a powered block is generally
Western one-boat system The Western one-boat system shown in fig. 4 is becoming increasingly popular and is being adopted in many areas where fishing is developing. The net is carried aboard the catcher vessel, and in most cases this vessel also carries the catch back to the factory. A small auxiliary boat is used, called a "skiff". To surround a school of fish, the large vessel releases the "skiff", which is attached to the end of the net. The skiff tows away from the seiner as the seiner is describing a circle around the fish. The seiner joins together with the skiff and purses the net. The net is then pulled aboard the seiner until the fish are sufficiently concentrated to brail into the fish hold of the seiner, or in some cases into a carry-away vessel, which may be working in conjunction with the seiner. The Western purse seiners are arranged with the machinery and deckhouse forward, so as to give the maximum working area in the stern of the vessel for handling the net This system lends itself most favourably to mechanization and
high
used.
With the Portuguese system, it is not possible to stack on the stern of the boat because from 20 to 30 men are lined up along the rail pulling web. From 3 to 5 men coil the cork line on the stern. Several men are used for pulling corks in the bow, and several more for pursing (fig. 32). The body of the net is stacked for about 30ft. (9 m.) along the side of the vessel. The Portuguese method of setting the net and pursing is generally similar to the Western system. The arrangement on the Portuguese boats with the deckhouse and machinery amidships does not lend itself readily to convenient handling of the net without modithe net
fication
of the system
(fig,
32)*
The main disadvantage of the system is that it needs a large amount of manpower. Otherwise it is, in general,
similar to the
Western system.
South African
In South Africa the net
seine boat; however,
manpower
efficiency.
and fish are aft carried on one a modified lampara-styie apt with
{33]
WORLD
~ tACtlCS
A. Storting setting of net
8. Setting
completed
C.
Picking up foreword purseline from skiff

D.
Towing
E. Pursing
Lifting rings
6. Pulling
web
Fig. 4.
One-boat purse seining system
[34]
FISHING METHODS
purae line
it
AND DECK ARRANGEMENT

is
PURSE SEINING
used. This system
du
Ptessis (1959),
was well described by The South African boats at* very
similar in arrangement to European "drifters", and the system does not lend itself well to mechanization; however, it is relatively efficient for the small nets used.
a floating seine table. Hie large boat thea purses the and the net is hauled bade into the smafl seine boat, TTiis system is makeshift at best, and should be coosktared only as a transition to utilize existing equipment where the fishery cannot justify the construction of proper
net
Western-style purse seine vessels.
Drums were first introduced in 19S1 in British Columbia and the Puget Sound areas of the Pacific West Coast They have been primarily successful in handling relatively shallow salmon seines, and are the fastest, most efficient method yet devised (Smith, 1954; Schmidt, 1953).
Unfortunately, there are various problems to be sur-
METHOD OF CARRYING
FISH
mounted in using a drum seine, of which gear damage and special methods of handling the net appear to be the most serious. The drum seine lacks flexibility in adapting to
the traditional nets that are in use. Prior to the introduc-
One-boat carrying its own fish In the Norwegian herring and menhaden two-boat system the steamer not only carries the two fishing boats to the grounds, but is used to transport the fish back to the factory. Each "steamer" is therefore a complete fishing unit working independently. When the steamer is loaded, it is necessary for it to leave the grounds, with its net, to
unload. In the Western system, the purse seine vessel usually carries its net and fish. On the U.S. West Coast most of the salmon, sardine, and tuna seiners operate in this
seiners, however, are unloaded into tenders (carry-away vessels) each night to transport the fish to the canneries. The California sardine seiners carry
tion of the
powered block, about 30 boats were converted
to
on the stern of the vessel. A spooling device, consisting of two vertical rollers moving in a track on the stern of the vessel, is used to spool the net back and forth while it is being wound onto the drum. The entire net from cork line to lead line is bunched together as it goes through the spooler and winds onto the drum. The drums have been mostly hydraulically powered; however, some of them are run mechanically through shafting and gearing. The
spoolers have been primarily hydraulically actuated. Some of the drums have been mounted on a rotating
carriage in a tub, with spooler mounted on a frame attached to the drum, such that the entire mechanism can be rotated through 180 degrees. This allows picking
drum seining, and several new vessels were built. In drum seining, the seine is wound on a large drum mounted
manner. The salmon
however, when big sets are obtained fleet may load up from one net. The tuna purse seine vessels operating out of Southern California and South America all carry their own fish. In South Africa, Angola, Portugal, Spain, France, and Northwest Africa, most of the purse seiners carry their
their
fish,
own
many
boats of the
own
One
The
catch.
boat working with carry-away vessel example of this is the Canadian winter herring fishing, where, although the seine boat is a complete
best
fishing unit capable of carrying fish, in most cases these boats work in conjunction with tenders which carry the
fish the
up the net on the
side, similar to the position
of pulling
the net onto a seine table.
The
fishing vessel
must have a
wide, square stern, which in most cases is recessed with a tub, so as to lower the centre of gravity of the drum. The net is set out over the stern of the vessel, allowing the drum to rotate against a brake. Since the introduction of the powered block during the
last three years, only about 6 drum seine vessels have been built or converted. It would appear that the simplicity,
initial cost, and flexibility of the powered block are advantages over the drum. The drum seine method must not be discounted, however, as it can be successfully applied to various types of fishing, and may eventually gain more favour after additional development
long distances back to the reduction factory. It is generally only when dose to the factory or when all of the carry-away vessels are loaded that the seine boat will
low
itself and return to the factory. Obviously the advantage of this system is that it allows the fishing unit to stay on the grounds, keeping its net and crew more productive while the carry-away vessels run back and forth to the factory. The consideration of whether the fishing boat should carry its own fish or work in conjunction with carry-away vessels is of prime importance in the selection of the design and arrangement of the
load
fishing vessel.
U.S. mftdterd and Icelandic herring one-auxiliary boat
SIZE OF
Some
are:
BOAT
of the factors influencing the size of the purse seiner
This system is a transition from the two-boat system used in the menhaden and Icelandic herring to a modified one-
boat system in which the net is carried in one auxiliary seine boat that is towed by the larger vessel. Obviously, the only justification for this method is that the large boat does not have appropriate space on the stern or alongside
the house
Governmental regulations Distance to fishing grounds
Maximum daily catch

Stability
from which to handle the
net.
The
large boat
tow the net-handling boat atengwde the quarter, to make

the tet around the school of fish* In effect the small boat
Average daily catch and adequacy of working platform, together with size and weight of net Availability of carry-away boats Use of vessel for other methods of fishing
135J
PISHING BOATS OF tHB WORLD:

The influence of these factors
foUowing
(1)
specific examples: will
2 -~
TACTICS
be
illustrated
by the
GomMMOta! rrgriarion; In Alaska, protective laws,
which are based partially on conservation and partially on protecting die local fishermen, have been passed which limit the lengths of fishing boats. For instance, in Southeastern Alaska, the Alaska limit has been in effect for some time, which prohibits the operation of any fishing vessel of over SO ft. (15.3 m*) registered length. From this has developed what is known as the Alaska limit combination purse seiner. In other areas in the fishing world, there are regulations which tend to restrict the size and type of vessel. In general, this type of restriction is nonprogressive and detrimental to the development of
efficient fisheries.
(4) Working platform: As mechanization is increasing, the desirability of having a stable vessel with a dear deck area at the stern is becoming more important, poor working platform is afforded in the small two-seine boats as used in Norway and the U.S. menhaden fisheries. good working platform is afforded by the large herring, sardine, and tuna seiners on the U.S. West Coast. Complete mechanization is possible aboard these vessels, with the crew exerting practically no physical effort. (5) Availability of carry-away boats: If a system using carry-away boats to take the fish back to the factory is used, the size of the purse seiner can be relatively small.
It is
55
ft.
the author's opinion that vessels from about 45 to (13.7 to 16.8 m.) can efficiently handle the largest
(2) Distance to fishing grounds: This criterion has had a major effect on the design of the tuna seiners, inasmuch as they must travel many days, and sometimes as much as three weeks, to the fishing grounds. To make this type of operation profitable, a large fish-carrying capacity is
nets, provided they work directly with carry-away It would be vessels that are equipped with pumps.
possible with, say, a 50 ft. (15.3 m.) seiner, similar to fig. 27 to handle the largest pilchard, sardine, anchovy, menhaden, and herring nets with not more than six men.
it would be unnecessary for helper boats, customary in Norway, to be used in drying up the net.
These boats can be so mechanized that
necessary. Tuna seiners are getting larger and larger, and at the present time are up to 150 ft. (45.7 m.) in length and capable of carrying up to 400 tons of frozen
tuna.
In many areas, such as the anchovy fishing grounds of Peru and northern Chile, and the fishing grounds of South and South West Africa, the fishing vessels rarely go more than 1 or 20 miles from the factory. In this case, the size of the vessel can be determined primarily by the expected maximum daily catch. At present, in the newer
areas, the vessels make two and three trips a day. The trend is to increase the size of the vessel not because of
REQUIREMENT FOR AN EFFICIENT PURSE SEINING SYSTEM

The design of a purse
seiner should
meet the following
general requirements: (1) Rough weather: The vessel must be designed to fish in rough, as well as in calm weather. Many of the purse
and systems being used are ineffective a large part of the time as they cannot be used in high wind and rough seas. It is the author's opinion that a vessel and
seine vessels
distance, but because of the expected daily catch. (3) Daily catch: The size of the maximum daily catch
and the average daily catch are probably the most important factors influencing size. For instance, most of the menhaden vessels have reached the size (approximately 130 ft. or 40 m.) at which they can handle what would be considered a large day's fishing. These vessels range outward to approximately 100 miles from the factory, generally returning each night with their catch.
Recently some vessels of up to 200 ft. (60 m.) in length have been built, and have been refrigerated so that they can stay at sea for up to one week before unloading. It has not as yet been determined whether this is a profitable size of vessel. The South African boats were originally 50 ft. (15.3 m.) in length and carried 80 to 100 tons of fish. Each year they are increasing the length of these boats to a point where they can carry as much as 200 tons of fish. The fishing grounds in South and South West Africa are close to die factories, and it has been common for these boats to make several full-load trips a day. They are now finding that, with improved nets and the echo sounder, bigger and bigger catches are being made consequently the size of the vessels is increasing. The next step would be the introduction of carry-away boats that would pump the fish out of the nets, carrying them back
;
system can be devised that will fish in much rougher weather than is at present being done in most areas. (2) Manpower efficiency: The system should handle large nets with a minimum amount of manpower in most cases the modern systems of mechanically handling not only use fewer men, but are more productive, in that more sets can be made during an equivalent fishing period, and the net and fish can be handled faster. (3) Safely of fishermen and elimination of hard, backbreaking labour: As education and the standard of living of the various fishing areas increase, it becomes more and
more necessary
to improve
safety
standards and to
eliminate unnecessary hard, back-breaking labour, so as to attract better fishermen to the industry.
(4) Speed ef setting and hauling: It is important that the net should be able to be set out fast, and in many cases the circle made in either direction, to left or right. Likewise, the problem of attack from sharks, which
occurs in
hauling.
many
areas, is lessened with the speed
of
(5) Brafltaf speed: Efficient brailing systems should be devised to remove the fish from the fish bag as rapidly as possible. Often the hauling speed is very good, but
to the factory, allowing the catcher boats to stay on the
ground.
much time. The fish pump (Burgoon, 1959; Rotas, 1959) is being increasingly used. It is at present universally used in the U.S. menhaden fishery, and is being introduced in South America, Whereas rapid
brailing occupies too
[36]
FISHING METHODS AND DECK
ARRANGEMENT
FURSE SEINING
than resistance, whic* are of primary It ha* been found, however, that low resistance vessels can be designed within the more important limitations that go with the fish-catching method.
After the general system is decided, arrangement of working space can be made, and proper equipment can be selected for net hauling, pursing, and fish handling. Stability is of prime importance if mechanical systems of hauling are to be accomplished. Draft is often a considerationparticularly in such areas as the U.S. East Coast menhaden fishery, some areas of the Alaska salmon fishery, and some of the anchovy fisheries of South
m^
America. The following outline is suggested in evaluating a design: Selection of method of handling net Arrangement of working space to best suit this
method
go with the above, providing adequate stability and low resistance, and meeting draft limitations Proper location of fish hold space so that vessel will not trim either by bow or stern when being loaded Selection and arrangement of proper equipment;
Net hauling equipment and purse line-handling equipment (c) Fish handling (brailing or pumping) Unloading considerations arrangement of vessel so it can be easily and rapidly unloaded Adequate accommodations to attract high quality
(a)
Selection of best possible hull to
(b) Pursing
Fig. 5.
Pumping menhaden
with JO
in.
(305 mm.) centrifugal
pump
fishermen.
brailing is accomplished in Norway, Canada, and California, the fish pump has advantages in requiring fewer
COMBINATION FISHING
far, in this discussion, consideration has only been given to purse seining and the purse seine method of fishing. It is becoming more and more apparent that in most fishing areas vessels should be able to accomplish efficiently at least one other type of fishing in the "off season", so as to obtain maximum utilization of the
time lost in starting the operation, and allows continuous operation (fig. 5).
So
men,
less
Again, setting, hauling, and brailcan be ing speeded up, but to little avail if the pursing system is too slow and requires too much manpower. Modern, drum-type winches, using wire cable, are the ultimate answer (fig. 6). (7) Night fishing: The purse seine system should be
(6) Efficient pursing:
equally efficient at night as it is during the day. In general, the Western system can be accomplished safely
at night.
the
The system using two small seine boats, such as menhaden and Norwegian herring systems, does not
lend itself safely to night fishing.
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The most important design consideration is selection of the purse seine method. This means selection of the type of net and system of hauling, method of pumping or brailing, and unloading, The next most important consideration is whether the boat is to carry its own fish or whether the fish will be carried in auxiliary vessels. From the above considerations it is possible to block out a general scheme. The design of the hull below the water is less important than the working arrangement and
fishabtiity.
Of course, good
should be used. There are
many
naval architectural practice considerations, other
[37]
FISHING BOATS Of THE
WORLD
TACTICS
Atlantic cooft
Mtnhodtn purssboats
Pocific coost
MiMboat
Pacific coast ssins skiff
/South
africop pilchard boat
Portugtse ins boat
Norwsgian hsrnng pursaboots
Fig. 7. Application
of]
tyr*t ofpur
M Ml**
FISHING METHODS

Pursing
is
PURSE SEINING
vessel throughout die year. Hanson (1955) discusses the combination principle in detail In Europe most vessels being used for purse seining have evolved from other traditional types* There is a marked resemblance between trawlers, drifters and purse seiners in these areas* In most of the areas, as in Iceland, more consideration has been given to the proper handling of driftnets, long lines, and trawls than to the development of an efficient purse seining system. On the U.S. West Coast and Canada, the vessels have been developed primarily as purse seiners, and have been modified for use as trawlers and long liners. Where the purse seine fishery is the most valuable in terms of monetary return, it is only logical that this approach be used. It is surprising, however, how well the West Coast purse seiner lends itself to stern
acnftmpfahod usually by pulling the maoila, wire or nylon purte fine at both ends with the me of a purse wine*, with several turns being taken around each one of two winch heads. In the 1930*8 a Tacoma shipyard developed a type of wire purse winch for use on the large herring, sardine,.
hemp,
iteel
WMfl
to ttw
purttaf
ft
it
>*'
it
Kit
toward purwUr*
on
Kw
eonwctod perttftm art porttd main
trawling and long lining. It is the author's opinion that purse seine vessels similar to fig. 20, 21, 24, 27, 28, 29 and 30 not only convert well to trawling, but make superior small stern trawlers with many advantages over the conventional side trawler type. Vessels of this design are also
Tow Hnt drum
engaged in the North
Pacific halibut fishery,
and the
largest landings in the last
by these vessels, which is similar in design to the European longliners and drifters. In the conversion of the U.S. West Coast purse seiner to trawling, maximum use is made of
type,
few years have been primarily rather than by the traditional schooner
Fig. 8.
Pursing with wire purse line on special type 3-drum winch
the
boom
in handling the trawl net, as described
by
Alverson (1959).
EQUIPMENT FOR PURSE SEINING

Powered block
Puretic Power Block (Schmidt, 1959) and system of hauling nets has in recent years probably done more than any other one thing to revolutionize the purse seine fishery. The powered block is in use by over 1,000 boats on the Pacific East Coast from Alaska to South America. It is gradually being introduced in Norway, Iceland, Korea, and other areas. The U.S. East Coast menhaden fishery is now about 80 per cent, converted to the powered block, even in the small seine boats. In this conversion, twelve men have been eliminated from each net, thereby doubling the labour efficiency. In addition, faster hauls are being made on larger schools offish. As stated by the author (1959) 'The power block is a new concept in net hauling whereby fish nets can be hauled from the sea faster, with fewer men and less toil, with less nit wear than by traditional hand methods'*. It is not a matter of whether a traditional system can be adapted to the
and tuna seiners on the U.S. West Coast (fig. 8, 9). This type of winch was a decided advancement for the large boats, and allowed them to use wire cable in pursing. Other U.S. Western boats ran the wire from hardened winch heads on the conventional winch to drums, where
The
Tow
Mw
drum
powered block, tat whether a system can be developed using the powered block which will increase the productivity of the fishery. In all areas where the powered block has been effectively tried, either a traditional system has been modified or a new system has been successfully developed Fig. 7 shows applications of the powered Mode to various traditional boat types and basic methods. la most cases, tome redesign or rearrangement of the vesad would eventually follow the introduction of the powered btock.
Fig. 9. Pursing with wire
on standard winch, showing hods to r**is
the wife was wound (fig. 10). Before setting out, all the wire is wound on one drum. In many of the purse seining areas where mechanization is developing, the change to
wire purse line

Fig.
is
proceeding rapidly.
6 shows a new type of hydraulic purse winch for
the large tuna bait boats that are converting to parse
[39]
FISHING BOATS OF f 8 WGIUUD<
2 ~*
TACTICS
particularly when operating In the turf, fa South America, most of the seine vewels do not yet have anchor winches, but it would be an extreme advantage when fishing anchovies dose to the breaker line. Considerable hardware has been developed for handling purse seines such as a special skiff release, purac line release, and snap purse rings. Two types of snap purse rings are used the Norwegian-Iceland type which the author introduced to the U.S.A. in 1956, and a new type developed in California by Peter Maiorana. The snap purse ring has several advantages particularly when used in conjunction with the powered block method.
ANALYSIS OF VESSEL TYPES AND METHODS AS APPLIED TO IMPORTANT
PURSE SEINE FISHERIES

The following is an
analysis of the type and arrangement of fishing vessels, and specific methods, with suggested changes for the more important purse seine fisheries.
UNITED STATES EAST AND GULF COASTS

fig. 10, Pursing with wire on standard winch, showing leads to reels
seiners.
This all-hydraulic winch has three drums and
three gypsies each with separate controls and hydraulic motor for independent operation. The capacity of the
The U.S. menhaden fishery extends from New England to northern Florida, and from Florida to Texas in the Gulf of Mexico. This is one of the two largest reduction fisheries in the world, and annual production has reached over one million tons of fish. The fishing season lasts
nearly six months, and the fish are concentrated in large schools. Most of the fishing vessels are owned by the factories. Robas (1959) describes the general method and type ot vessel. The basic system is the two-boat system.
winch is 5 tons, and it is capable of handling a purse line of in. (14.3 mm.) diameter, 800 fin. (1500 m.) long. Sets of up to 300 tons of skipjack have been made with this winch in conjunction with a powered block and nylon tuna seine in Peruvian waters.
&
The menhaden steamer is from 100 to 200 ft. (30 to 60 m.) long, of relatively shallow draft, and is capable of carrying
from 150 to 600 tons of fish. These vessels are highly powered, with speed of up to 15 knots. A number of
138
ft.
Brailmg using the conventional brailer is well developed in Norway, Iceland, and Canada. The use of pumps is increasing, and will probably supersede brailing in the next few years particularly where the fish is to be used for reduction. For tuna and salmon the conventional brailing methods will undoubtedly continue. In salmon fishing, when small catches are being made, the fish are
rolled aboard with the use of the powered block, by bringing the end of the bunt of the net across to the hatch. This has speeded up the process considerably. Special "brailer blocks'*, or releases, are used in Norway and Canada. In Norway it is the Haahjem brailer block, and in Canada the Wilfro block. This device holds the bottom of the brailer closed until it is tripped by pulling on thtf wire.
(42 m.)
wooden minesweepers have been con-
verted,
successfully being used by the industry. of these vessels are twin screw, with up to 1 ,200 h.p. Many Recently some of the larger vessels have been refrigerated,
and are
using a chilled sea-water circulating system.
Miscellaneous equipment Much hydraulic equipment is being installed on U.S. Western purse seiners and used in conjunction with the hydraulic powered block circuit. Lightweight, compact, high pressure hydraulic mast- and boom-mounted winches have been developed for raising and swinging the
boom, and for brailmg. Hydraulic anchor winches have also been developed which operate off the powered block circuit is very important to have a conveniently operating anchor winch, as it is often necessary to anchor
rig. //.
Modern
[40]
FISHING METHODS
AND DECK ARRANGEMENT - PURSE SEINING te aU^

f
fleet
has
now
converted to aluminium purse boats.
in. wide (11 by 2.7 ntX aod were developed to provide a more tobte worki fonn and more working space for use with the powered block, without increasing the weight. The steel boats which have been replaced wejs 32 ft (9,75 m.) long, and it has been found that the larger, lighter aluminium boats, even when used with the powered block, are considerably
They are 36 ft. long by 8 ft 9
more
Fig.
12.
stable,
buoyant, and seaworthy.
report that these boats are
much
drier,
The fishermen and they can be
36 x 8ft. 9
Modern aluminium menhaden boats ready to make set, in. (Ji x 2.7 m.), 100 h.p. gasoline engine and power block
bunched, and fished, in rougher Weather With tht powered block than was possible with the smaller sted boats, fishing by hand. It can be seen from fig. 13 that
Arrangement: The menhaden steamer (fig. 11) has the engine or engines in the stern, the fish hold amidships, and pilot-house and crew's quarters forward. These vessels take on the general aspect of a tanker. All menhaden steamers are equipped with fish pumps, 10 in. (305 mm.) dia. being the most common size. The
fish pump is 'located in the after part of the forward deckhouse, and is driven by a diesel engine of from 100 to 200 h.p. (fig. 5). The small seine boats, which are called "purse boats" are carried in davits alongside the machinery house aft. A hydraulic system is used for
The "purse boats" are as shown in In 1958 aluminium purse boats were introduced to the industry, made from J and &in. (6.35 and 4.8 mm.)
fig. 12.
hoisting the boats. Small seine boats:
Fig. 14. Modern method of strapping menhaden net with 3-ton hydraulic winch to dry up the fish for pumping (the largest sets can be handled with ease in this manner)
hauling the net in the overhead position does not cause excessive angle of heel. Actually, the resultant heeling force is about the same as when pulling the net by hand
Fig. 13. Hauling menhaden seine with hydraulic power block supported by aluminium block crane (note the easy work of the fishermen)
over the gunwh^le, the only difference being that the exercises greater force than is possible by hand. Method of fishing: The method of fishing has been somewhat modified by the use of the powered block, strapping winch, and fish pump. Aeroplanes art universally used in the menhaden industry for spotting fish. Approximately one aeroplane is used for each five boats* Not only does the aeroplane locate the schools of fish.
powered block
[41]
WORLD
r2
TACTICS
powered Mock in the purse boats. The powered block is supported by a specially developed hydraulic crane (fig. 13; Schmidt, 1999). HydrauHc reel* for spooling the pane toe have also been introduced into the new pone
boats. In 1958 the system of strapping the net to dry up and concentrate the fish for pumping was finally adopted
.
14 shows the strapping operation in which the net is lifted by hydraulic winch, using two single falls to the gaff on the mast of the steamer. two-drum,
Fig.
winch was developed for this purpose. Each drum is on an independent hydraulic circuit, using hydraulic power for both raising and
3-ton, high pressure hydraulic
lowering to ensure positive control. The power block cut
down the manpower required while pulling in the net much more rapidly, and the strapping system made it
possible for this small crew to dry up the net without additional help. This system works with a minimum of
manpower, even on the

Fig. 15.
Old method of dryfog MB menhaden for pumping (this crew has been reduced by half by the strapping method)
largest schools of fish. It also allows fishing in considerably rougher weather than was
possible before.
but actually sets the purse boats around the school by the use of radio. Six men are now used in each purse boat with the powered block and strapping system whereas formerly twelve men were needed. By studying fig. 13 and 14 it will be seen that the men do very little physical work. One of the largest operators in the industry has
applied electrical attraction, in conjunction with a fish to speed up broiling. This allows pumping before the fish would normally have been sufficiently concen-
the author's opinion that the as far as the basic system will allow, with the use of these modern aids: aeroplanes for spotting, powered blocks, strapping winches, electrical attraction, the fish pump, and greatly minor improveimproved aluminium purse boats.
Suggested change* :
It is
menhaden system has developed about
pump,
trated,
and together with the strapping system has speeded up this part of the operation, Mechanization: In 1958 and 1959 nearly 80 per cent of the menhaden industry converted to the use of the
suggested in fig. 16, which shows an improved purse boat as designed by the author. This design is a further refinement to allow more convenient operation with the powered block, and to give the boat captain better visibility and control of the boat.
ment
is
must come from a At change present experiments are being made using one-boat systems in the menhaden fishery.
Any major
increase in efficiency
in basic method.
Q
Fig. 16.
Of
t*
Improved design for menhaden pi
[42]
FISHING METHODS
to determine whether
AND PECK ARRANGEMENT

the catch
PURSJE SEINING
Fwtbcr cisperiiiWBtatiOT of this type should be conducted tome form of OQ**oat system would not be superior to the pretest two-boat system.
bet with only needed in the purse boats.
the
made additional helper boats are called in to hdp dry up

(fig. 17). These boats are out on the grounds, bang towed by smaUdrifter-lottgltners, The fishermen in
A design similar to fig. 22 would be capable of handling

menhaden
six,
rather than twelve,
men
boat of this type with
powered block working with a carry-away vessel and employing the strapping system for drying up would be
able to handle large schools of fish rapidly with increase in manpower efficiency and ability to fish in rough water.
the helper boats share in the catch that they hdp to dry up. The boats towing the helper boats are used to tow 9* the "steamer during hauling and brailing operation. Mechanization: The net-handling procedure is little mechanized except for some use of powered rollers
NORWAY
Henrteg
The Norwegian herring

described.
Fig. 17
fishing method has already been shows a Norwegian vessel drying up
mounted on the gunwhale. The powered block has not tried, and drying up of the fish is done by the use of a large amount of manpower in the seine boats and helper boats, rather than by the strapping method. The fish pump, although it has been tried, is not being employed. The method of brailing, using the conventional braiter, is well worked out, and good brailing speed is achieved. The large and modern "steamers" (seiners) are very fine
been
system being used. Suggested changes: The methods developed in the menhaden industry, including the fish pump, strapping, and powered block, can be adapted to the Norwegian herring boats with very little change in basic system. It should be possible to handle the largest sets with the above recommended mechanization. Aluminium purse boats of the design in fig. 16 are recommended for support of the powered block if mechanization is attempted. Much further experimentation should be made with a one-boat system, working in conjunction with carryaway vessels. There is no reason why this system, properly applied, should not be successful in the Nor* wegian herring fishery and particularly fishing in the rough weather which has plagued this industry. The only two arguments against adopting the one-boat system are: It may be hard for one boat to compete in setting in the congested areas where there is so much competition for a school of fish Unsuccessful experiments have been made in Norway with U.S. Western one-boat systems. It is
inconclusive,
ships, well designed for the
a large catch of herring. ArraBgemcet: The type of vessel is similar to the menhaden steamer, but is wider and deeper. This is because
there are no draft limitations as in the menhaden fishery. The machinery and deckhouse are all astern, similar to
Fig.
17.
Norwegian herring seiner and seine boats with helpers drying up herring for orailing
the author's opinion that these experiments were inasmuch as the boats were not
The two purse boats
the schooner or cutter design from which they evolved. are carried in davits aft.
Seine boats: Norwegian seine boats are now being built number of aluminium seine boats primarily of steel were built without too much success, primarily because they were of light gauge, riveted construction. With the
newer aluminium alloys and welding techniques, aluseine boats should have the same advantages as observed in the menhaden industry. The Norwegian seine boats are arranged with the engine in the stern, and the net handling in the bow. They are of whale boat type about 32 by 8 ft. (9.75 by 2.44 m.). There is considerable difference of opinion as to whether this is a more satisfactory arrangement than that used in the menhaden seine boats where the engine is in the bow. M*ho* affehtag: The echo sounder is used to locate
adequate; nor were the personnel properly trained. Considerable improvement has since been made in seiner of the design the U.S. Western technique. of fig. 22 is capable of mechanization, and also can vessel of this type can set in congested areas. weather than the open seine in much rougher operate boats now used. It would travel to the fishing grounds under its own power, or could be towed, winched tight to the stern of the carry-away vessel
minium
the fish, which
we very rardy visible on the surface. The

encircle the fish,
two purse boats
and when
large sets are
for codfish. Sunken nets were used, Western purse seining system. These nets were handled on the stern of drift-net and longtine vessels which were not designed for, and were very inconvenient for use with, this system. Purse seining of cod in Lofoten, which was found to be very effective, hat now been banned by legislation due to conflict with the fishermen using traditional methods.
in northern
A few years ago purse seining was introduced in Lofoten

Norway
similar to the U.S.
[43]
PISHING BOATS -/Of* THE WOftiO

Aa experimental powered Mock was introduced into that fishery in 1958, and proved an immediate success. Staqgotai chnfet: It is suggested that new vessels have the deckhouse moved forward, such that the net can be efficiently handled using the powered block. The vessels now being used are exceedingly inconvenient for purse The UJS. Western-style combination purse seining* seiners might be ideal for the cod and saithe purse seine fishery, and they can also be used for trawling and longlining at other times of the year.
UNITED STATES WEST COAST, ALASKA
<
TACTICS
AND CANADA
The
types of vessels used have been exceedingly well described by Hanson (1955). These vessels are used for
herring,
sardines,
Fig. 18.
Salmon purse seining on
the the net
U.S. Pacific coast
set ting
purse seining salmon, mackerel, and tuna.

Arrafeffient: The
anchovies,
use
the
is
being
made of hydraulic topping lift winches

little
for the
general arrangement places engine in the bow, with a forecastle for the crew in the smaller vessels just forward of the engine room. The deckhouse is forward, and is either of the 1- or 2-level type. This leaves the large deck area at the stern available for handling the net both in setting and hauling. The larger boats have all of the crew accommodations in the lower deckhouse on the main deck. These quarters are
boom, boom vanging winches, and other mechanical

aids.
Very
physical effort
is
required by the fisher-
men.
Suggested changes: Since the powered block is generally used in this area, the requirement for the seine table, as shown in fig. 20, and by Hanson (1955), has been eliminated. Many of the boats are now removing the seine tables, and new vessels are being built without them.
Since web pulling is no longer done by hand, it is suggested that the boats be designed with higher freeboard and more sheer up in the stern. With the use of the seine table, it was necessary to keep the sheer very flat so as
spacious compared to European standards, and are very comfortable, even in a seaway. The boats are equipped with a large mast and boom, and all operations requiring physical effort are handled by power, with much use of the boom and in some case, booms. In this design, a horseshoe, or transom, stern is used, with the deck being kept very wide aft, to give a maximum
stability, working space, and flotation. The wide deck aft is very important. The fish hold is placed with its centre of gravity on the centre of flotation such that the vessel does not trim by the bow or stern when loaded. The rudder is kept underneath the counter, to keep the net from fouling. The seagoing characteristics of these boats are good, and pitching is very small because, with the wide stern, the tendency to "hobby-horse" is minimized. The tanks are placed in the stern and engine room. The forefoot is fairly deep, which keeps the bow from drifting unduly. This gives an added advantage, in manoeuvring as the stem pivots about the bow, which is very convenient particularly when this type of boat is being used for longlining. Method of fishing: The method of fishing has already been described in this paper and, whereas the size of vessel and details of the net vary considerably for different types offish, the general system is the same for all of the types of fish mentioned above. Specific differences will be
not to cock the table unduly, and to keep
it
from being
amount of
excessively high. Increased mechanization of the boom should be used, together with more use of auxiliary booms for brailing. Further improvement should be
made
line.
in methods and equipment for handling wire purse The use of aluminium should be adopted in seine skiffs. The trend toward excessive beam should be stopped. The Alaska limit law, limiting the length of
listed below.
Mechanization: In general, the U.S. Pacific Coast boats are mechanized, with the use of the powered block and increasing use of wire drum winches for handling the purse line. Hie fish pump is little used as yet, because it is not applicable to pumping salmon or tuna, which have been the primary source of income in this area. Maximum
Fig. 19.
Hatting 300 fm. (550 m.) net with powered block using
[44]
FISHING METHODS
AND DECK
ARRANGEMENT
PURSE SEINING
Mom
LOA
L
Ltngth rtgisttrtd
5783ft(l766mJ 54 - ft (1676m) 4992 ft.(tt.l9mj

1733
ft.
B B*om
T
T, fully
ovtr guords
17.92
ft.
ft.
ft.
(528m.) (5,46m)
(2.36m)
loodd
775 950
(2.90mJ
FMS!
i
oil
copocity wgtt r capacity
6000001(22680
l200gol(4630U
260ip.Continoyi)
Fig. 20.
Modern Alaska
limit steel
becoming obsolete on
seinerarrangement shewing seine tobk (tables vessels equipped with powered blocks)
[45]

50 ft (15.3 m.) has caused designers to buitd wider and wider vetaels. It has been found that beams in excess of 1? ft. (5.2 in.) on a 50 It (15.3 m,) registered length cause excessive steering problems when driven at
vessels to
WORLD
TACTICS
high speed-length ratios. It is suggested that lower deadrise be used with the resultant increase in midship coefficient and decrease in prismatic coefficient. The tendency in the past has been toward excessive deadrise
and high prismatic coefficients, which give high resistance per ton of displacement.
Salami Fig. 18 shows a typical Alaska limit salmon seiner making a set. Fig. 20 shows the arrangement of living quarters, working space, winch, and hold. In 1958 this vessel
Fig. 22. 39x14 ft. (11.9x4.3 m.) shallow-draught steel salmon seiner, powered with 150 h.p. diesel. Several hundreds of these vessels
fish the shallow areas
of Alaska
arrangement are similar to the smaller vessels, as shown by Hanson (1955). The salmon purse seiners have converted generally to the powered block, with the exception of some 30 vessels equipped with drums. Pursing is done, in most cases, by a purse winch with two winch heads, using manila or nylon purse line. Wire purse line is being used increasingly by the bigger boats, using drum type winches.
Fig. 21.
Alaska
limit
salmon seiner
covered 17,000 miles in its quest for salmon and sardines from the Bering Sea to southern California. The Alaska limit design has developed an exceedingly high displacement-length ratio vessel, which provides a very
stable
working platform. These are big
vessels for their
length, being designed to make the most limitation. The seine skiff will be noted in
fig. 18.
of the length These
skiffs are from 16 to 18 ft. (4.9 to 5.5 in.) in length, and powered with engines of from 100 to 165 h.p. Their primary purpose is to tow the end of the net while the net is being set out, tow the vessel away from the net during the pursing and hauling operation, and tie off to the cork line during brailing. There are probably nearly 1,000 boats of this general style on the West Coast, including British Columbia. Fig. 22 shows a small, shallow draught "beach" seiner. From 400 to 500 of these vessels operate in the Kodiak Island and Prince William Sound areas of Alaska. A vessel of this type carries a crew of four, who live aboard. The dimensions are 39 x 14x2 ft (11.9 x4.3xO.6m.) draft. In Canada and on Puget Sound larger purse seine vessels are also used, because there is no limit on length, the design 'and
Fig. 23.
net.
Large
am of*p to 300 torn can At Mid up with the smatl crew

is
ling
400x45
fa.
\
(732x82 m.)
and a powered block. Normal crew
eight
1*6}
FISHING METHODS
PURSE SEINING
Fig. 24.
California!* sardine seiner, loaded
TtoM *wr converted from CmHfrrnian bait boat,, kafgng ***>/>". tuna Mines with total erew of 12 men. 11**e venela It currently the moat productive /.S. mrtAorf of producing tuna. Stern view ofSmnt* 7 of 3SO-t<m capacity, ha*Hnf giant net /*>. W/.*x PJx*J m.) . /Jtf x
Fig. 23.
J0x
MM MMT
Mock
fi?*"* ***
<**
with powered
[47]
FISHING BOATS Of TKE

shows a herring vessel These vessels also fish salmon during the periods of the big runs. The herring vessels in general are largDr from 75 to 95 ft. (23 to 29 m.) in length. The characteristics of the Pacific herring are very similar to that of the herring in Norway. The big herring fishery is in British Columbia in the middle of the winter. The Canadian herring seiners are
Fig. 23
WORLD
~ TACTICS
of the coast. Therearenowabout50Qpurscscinersin Peru, which has developed its fishing industry most rapidly.
Purse seining for anchovies in that country may reach one million tons in this coining year. The design of vessels was originally based on plans by H. C. Hanson, and in general follows designs of the Northeast Pacific Coast. In the last three or four years, as the industry has matured, there has been evolution developing distinct local characteristics. In the last two years, the quality of construction has improved, and the size of the vessels is
gradually increasing.
completely mechanized, using wire purse line and power blocks. Sets as large as 500 tons can be handled, drying up the fish with the powered block. This has been a big crew improvement in the method of drying up the set. of eight men is used, including the captain and man in the skiff. Echo sounders in small boats are used to locate the
Those
vessels catching skipjack
herring schools as in Norway.
Tana
tuna are primarily U.S. built. Arrangement: Fig. 28 shows a design by the author's Compan^pf an anchovy-bonito seiner, typical of modern contraction* "in Peru. The arrangement is in general similar to that of the Pacific Northeast boats; however, the vessels are designed with much greater freeboard
tions
Tuna seiners
are getting larger with the conversion of the bait boats to seining. Pacific Fisherman, June 1959,
describes the economic reasons for the change
from pole
and carrying capacity for their length. The accommodaand rigging of these vessels is very simple. Fig. 27 shows a boat designed by the author's Company
'
Fig. 26.
Side view of Sun King completing broiling
fishing to purse seining.
Of primary importance
has been
power block and the nylon seine. The tuna seines are up to 450 by 50 fm. (825 by 92 m.) and are exceedingly bulky. Cotton tuna seines seldcm last more than a year. The life of nylon is not known as yet, but is probably in excess of four years. The old method of strapping the net was slow and tedious. With the conversion to nylon, powered block, and other hydraulic equipment for handling purse lines and boom, the
the Puretic
efficiency
for combination fishing for hake (merluzza) and sardines on the West Coast of South America. The deckhouse is
of the tuna seiner has nearly doubled. Fig. 25

It is
and 26 show these large purse seine vessels.

to handle
all
necessary
phases of this operation by power equipment, otherwise the system would not be feasible.
would be used in North America, and simplicity throughout has been the requirement. Carrying capacity is exceedingly important, and it can be seen that the fish holds are proportionately much larger than those currently being used in Europe or in North America. It will be noted that the seine table, which has been common in the Pacific Northeast, has been eliminated from these designs, as it is not necessary with the powered Mode. It is, therefore, possible to use more sheer in the stern of the boat, which gives the afterdeck ample freeboard when the vessel is loaded, assuring
considerably smaller than
WEST COAST OF SOUTH AMERICA

Purse seining on the West Coast of .South America has been increasing rapidly. The types of fish obtained are anchovies in Peru and northern Chile, bonito in Equador Peru and Chile and skipjack and yellowfin tunaalongmost
,
and stability Method f Mi*: The general method of fishing is similar to that used on the U.S. West Coast and Canada. Distances to the grounds are very short, and in most cases the vessels return before dark. Anchovy, the main
safety
.
species fished,
is
very easy to catch.
[48]

Meduudzattoa: The only mechanization is the powered
block, although a few boats have converted to wire purse line, and the fish pump is receiving its initial installation.
ARRANGEMENT
MffKSB SEINING
Suggested changes: The size of the vessels will increase, probably until they have a hold capacity of about 80 to 90 tons. Increased use of wire purse line, and the powered block, is recommended, in addition to the use of fish pumps. In certain areas where the fish are very plentiful, carry-away vessels should be adopted, and then the size of the seine boat can be held at from 50 to 60 ft. (15.3 to
described above. Recently, because of manpower shortage, the one auxiliary seine boat method is being used, towing the single net boat alongside the larger vend.
Suggested dumges: There is interest in vessels which can fish the large schools of herring which have been found in the winter close to Reykjavik. New vessels can be developed to accomplish this fishery. Fig. 29 and 30 give designs of two such vessels proposed by the author. In addition to being efficient purse seiners, the raised deck vessel (fig. 29) would be an exceedingly able stern trawler.
8m
IDA L B
94.- ft.064tftO
4650ft, 04. 17m.)
ov*f guordt
16.83ft
!650f1(S03*>) ( 5 13m.)
f,min.dMi9n)
WL
358
ft
1.09*0
A, HoUoopooty
Kfc tood
I,
4L- torn 4O-tpn

10- ton
'
of
SOton lood
- in.
(CTtm)
Fig. 27.
54
ft.
(16.5 w.) steel combination trawler-seiner for West Coast designed for trawling hake and seining sardine
of South America,
18.3 m.) in overall length. Catch per man in higher than in any other purse seine fishery, even
Peru
is
though
the industry
is
only eight years old.
The compromise design (fig. 30), places the deckhouse and machinery amidships. This was done to allow working space forward for handling longlines and drift-nets,
A modified design is proposed similar to fig.
30,
but with
ICELAND
Arrangement, method and mechanization: The Icelandic purse seine fishery is for herring. Originally the system was identical to that used in Norway. The method of purse seining in Iceland is undergoing change, as
the deckhouse located off centre, allowing 8 ft. (2J m.) of working space adjacent to the amidships deckhouse.
This would be convenient for handling drift-nets. The space aft of the deckhouse on this design is amide for efficient handling of a purse seine. The drum-type purse
[49]
WORLD
TACTICS
'
;
*'
t^._.
~l_
o
O
I
a
I
*
*
'.'''
25m
t
on
28,
6Q ft.
(18-3 *n.) anchovy-bcmito /uirjrr je/wrr >br WV^/ Coast
of South
FISHING METHODS
Gmwol LOA
B T
Futl copocity CJiiNtd woltr cop.
PURSE SEINING
81.5ft.
(24.64m.)
(
220ft.
6.71m)
3X>5nO
I0.0ft.<
8000 got.
8Oton
BOton*
Hold capacity
AP
WTB
WTB
Pond S
Wottr- tight
WTB
Portable trow goltew*

I
Flf. 29.
Proposed combination
vessel for Iceland.
140 ton capacity raised deck combination trawler-purse seiner
[51]
WTfl
Wotr
tight
bufetwod
WTB
80ft.(243em)
LOA
ouhe longhnt gurdy

N.
PUTM
dovit
P ond S
"Eftgiru "room"
SSrtoy| MI s
ft? v /
Fig. 30.
Proposed combination vcs&lfbr Iceland* 200 ton capacity compromise design purse seiner-trawler,
longltner,
and drtfter
[52]
FISHI1*G
PURSE SEINING
winch is also designed to handle the trawl cables, so that one winch suffices for both operations. Maximum use of
compact, high-pressure hydraulic winches is made on the booms. Fish pumps would be used for unloading the net, which would allow extremely rough weather
fishing.
SOUTH AFRICA AND SOUTH WEST AFRICA

In Walvis Bay of South West Africa, and St. Helena Bay of South Africa, exist two of the most fabulous purse seine fisheries in the world. These fisheries are limited by quota to a total of 500,000 tons fish production per year. This is accomplished with high tonnage per man efficiency.
have not been made. Fig. 7 suggests a method of using the block. With the use of the powered block and snap purse rings, possibly two men could be eliminated from the crew, and the work made easier and faster. Further experimentation should be made, using a net with the bunt at the end, rather than the lampara style with the bunt in the middle. Unsuccessful U.S. Western-style vessels have been built and tried in South Africa. These vessels failed because the design was not correct for the
local
conditions.
It
is
the author's opinion that
correctly-designed U.S. Western boat could be developed for the South African fishery that would be able to handle
larger sets as rapidly as the present boats are handling
with approximately the same number of men. heard in South Africa of the Western* designed boats, which apparently cannot carry as big a load as the South African design. This, obviously, is generally a matter of beam, length, and freeboard in the light condition, and the correct U.S. Western design would be able to pack as much fish as the South African counterpan. The present South African design and hand method of hauling cause severe limitations on the depth of the
small
sets,
Much
criticism is
Fig. 31.
Typical deck arrangement, South African lampara seiner
net, as well as the length. and more fish have been
With the echo sounder, more found at depths for which the
This
able
is
partially
due to the large concentration of
avail-
fish,
and
partially to the unique system used. Fig. 31
The
shows the arrangement of South African-type vessels. vessels have evolved from the European drifter type; however, they are being built with much more freeboard and beam than is common in Europe. A South African
60 ft. (18.3 m.) in length will carry, with deck load, well over 100 tons. No other fishing vessels have been built which will safely carry as large a load for a
vessel of
is not efficient. Considerably more experimentation in basic systems would be desirable. The addition of fish pumps on carry-away vessels could increase the productivity of the catcher vessels. This would allow greater production, with fewer catcher vessels and fewer fishermen on the grounds, because it would eliminate the waste time of running to and from the factory and waiting for unloading. The catcher vessels could be mechanized for handling larger sets, which would be aided by the fish pump.
present lampara
given length. The arrangement of the vessel is satisfactory for the small lampara net used. If the nets were larger, the location of the deckhouse in the stern would
be a handicap.
Sardines
PORTUGAL, FRANCE, SPAIN AND NORTHWEST AFRICA

Sardines are the primary fish purse seined in these areas. Arrangement of the boats is shown in fig. 32. As the fish are not schooled up very heavily, large nets are used and
Arrangement: The engine is in the extreme stern of the vessel, with a huge fish hold forward. The purse winch is located just forward of the main deckhouse, and on an angle. Rollers are used on the gunwhale, over which the purse line leads. These rollers cause an undue amount of wear, and should be improved.
Method of fishing: The lampara net described by du Plessis (1959) is handled very rapidly by from eight to ten men. The vessel sets with a small skiff tied to the end of
the net,
and on completion of the set pursing starts immediately, and the wings are also pulled in partially
Fig. 32.
while pursing is in process. This is possible because the purse line takes the strain, and allows easy hauling of the wings. The echo sounder is in general use in South Africa, and in the last two years large quantities of fish
Typical deck arrangement, Portuguese sardine boat
have been found at times and in areas where there was
fish
no previous
fishing.
Suggested cbaages: As yet, the powered block has not achieved much success; however, proper experiments
is small. The vessels have a very small hold space, and generally the small catch is carried on deck. The arrangement of the vessels is only satisfactory for hand hauling, with the use of a large amount of manpower (25 to 40 men).
the catch per set
153]

The general method was described at the beginning of this paper. The boats are well built and seaworthy, and the nets are relatively long and deep. Mechanization: The use of the fish finder is highly developed, and has increased the productivity of the fishery, allowing the boats to fish in the daytime, as well as at night, and on schools of fish that are not ordinarily visible. This is the only mechanization in the fishery.
Suggested cfcMpit Manpower efficiency is very low, and pay for the crew is small In the author's opinion, a U.S. Western-style purse seiner of equivalent size could catch an equal amount offish with one-fourth of the crew
presently used.
WORLD
upper
TACTICS
pilot house and flying bridge on top are located amidships. Purse winch is located forward of deckhouse. The net is stacked on the stern. These boats work in pairs separating to set the net V-sheave manually operated net around the fish. hauler is located on the stern. The net is pursed in the normal manner, and half the net is hauled aboard the
stern of each vessel.
The vessels are diesel powered and are equipped with and direction finders, wireless telegraph, and equipment for determining seawater temperature. Brailing is
fish
The general system is good, and Portuguese fishermen are extremely hardworking. Mechanization would increase their efficiency.
with conventional brailer. These vessels are gradually being converted into oneboat seiners.
Twa
There
is an increasing interest in purse seining tuna in France, Spain, Portugal, and Northwest Africa. This is partially based on the success of this method in southern California. The California vessel design is recommended. There is now considerable bait fishing in these areas, using modified California techniques.
Two-boat "Aguri" These are small, Japanese-style vessels of 10 to 50 tons, of historic design. Although these boats were very
i
numerous in the modern vessels.
past, they are being replaced
by more
built of wood, from 60 to 85 tons The trend is to steel construction. Engine room is amidships, with hold in the bow. Crew space is in the stern. These vessels are of modern design and con-
One-boat seiner These are boats, mostly
capacity.
ANGOLA
The methods of
This
fishing in
struction.
Angola are the same as
in
Portugal, but the concentrations offish are much larger. is a major purse seine fishery, and reduction industry. The principal catch is mackerel and pilchard. Suggested changes: There is far more reason to change
the design of boats than in Portugal, because of the large amount of fish that are handled. Likewise, there is a shortage of trained crews, and the use of more mechanization, including the powered block, wire purse line, and fish would increase productivity. It is interesting
is similar to the U.S. Western purse seine with the net stacked on the stern. Pursing is technique, done with a winch, just forward of the deckhouse. The crew consists of about 30 men, and net hauling is aided by the use of a hand-powered net puller mounted on the stern. The powered block has not yet been introduced. Pursing is mechanized, using wire purse line and net
The method
reels,
similar to the system illustrated in
fig.
8.
The
tele-
vessels are diesel
powered, equipped with wireless,
pump
to note that the Angola fishery, which is very close to the South West African fishery, uses the U.S. style net, rather than the lampara. More experimentation should be done to determine the relative efficiencies of these two
systems,
and to develop
vessel designs in order to the type of fish available.
better deck arrangements and mechanize the best system for
graph, and fish and direction finders. The one-boat seiner resembles the two-boat seiner, although it is generally of more modern construction and equipment. The one-boat seine fishery is carried on with the help of a fleet of 5 or 6 boats: one or two lighting boats, one fish finder boat, one skiff, and one or two fish carriers. In this respect, this is an operation of fishing vessel with separate carry-away vessels; therefore, the fish hold in the catcher boats is relatively small.
. American-style purse were introduced into Japan seiners American-style purse immediately after the war. Although the general arrangement is very similar to the traditional one-boat seiner boat of Japan, the details of U.S. construction and
JAPAN
Purse seining in Japan is one of the major types of fishing methods. The publication, Illustration of Japanese Fishing Boat and Fishing Gear (1959), portrays pictorially the types of seine boats and gear used in Japan. Purse seiners are used primarily for mackerel, sardines, and skipjack. Japanese boats are of the following types:
AwVMMMit seiner
arrangement were not well accepted and this general arrangement is not at present being built. The basic difference seems to be that even though the Japanese use a partially mechanized system, approximately 30 men are needed, resulting in extremely large crew quarters and
correspondingly small fish hold. The U.S. vessels introduced were designed for the small U.S. crew, and the crew quarters are inadequate for the larger Japanese crew.
These are wooden boats of 20 to 50 gross tons, operating in pairs. The engine room is amidships, with hold forward and crew's quarters in the stern. Deckhouse with
[54]
FISHING METHODS AND DECK KOREA

Korea are very similar to the Japanese one-boat system. Very large and deep nets are used in fishing mackerel in Korea. Recently powered blocks have been introduced on the Korean boats, with
seine vessels in
ARRANGEMENT
PURSE SEINING
Modern purse
much
success, in conjunction with the U.S. International
Cooperation Administration program.
ment has been made in some areas in the last few years in both method and vessel design. Unless superseded by some completely new system such as electrical fishing, it is anticipated that purse seining will be applied to more and more species of fish in more of the areas of the world, and will continue to account for a larger percentage of the total fish production. Nylon nets and mechanization of the entire procedure have resulted in
large increases in man productivity. In many areas the traditional designs of vessels should be re-analysed in the
light
U.S.S.R Russian publication (Anonymous, 1958) gives an excellent pictorial representation of Russian fishing vessels. This publication shows purse seiners of types similar to the U.S. Western style, complete with seine table, showing methods of handling the nets similar to the Western technique. The two-boat system for catching
of these recent developments.
It is
most important
to design the vessel to suit an efficient method rather than adapt a method to suit existing designs.
herring
is
also used.
Acknowledgments
CONCLUSION
The percentage of fish caught by
in
the purse seine
method
world
fisheries is increasing rapidly.
Great improve-
the like to acknowledge assistance in preparation of this paper to Helge Kristensen for preparation of the drawings Wildlife and diagrams; Dayton L. Alverson, of the U.S. Fish Service for helpful suggestions and criticism on the text; and the Pacific Fisherman Magazine tor permission to use several of the photographs appearing in the paper.
:
The author would
[55]
DRIFT-NETTING: DECK DESIGN

by
J.
AND EQUIPMENT
G.
DEWIT
Drift-netting has the advantage that it can be done by boats that have engines with an output as low as 80 h.p. but drifters are normally equipped with 150 to 180 h.p. to provide reasonably free running speed. The disadvantages are the rather passive character of the fishing method, the high cost of the gear and its upkeep in shore establishments, and the limited duration of the season about eight months a year. There are two types of arrangement for the drift-net: shallow-water and deep-water. In the former the net is above the warp, whereas deep-water nets lie below the warp. Every fleet of nets consists of 100 to 120 separate nets, each 69 to 87 ft. (21 to 26.5 m.) long, making the total length about 1.13 to 1.43 nautical mites (2,100 to 2,650 m.). Setting is somewhat different for the two types but hauling is almost the
The
(36 m.)
design of a boat
is
mainly determined by the methods of setting the nets and hauling and processing the catch. About
18
ft.
LBP is considered as the upper limit for a drifter. The prospects for drifting are uncertain due to the disadvantages mentioned and
The
solution for these difficulties
the
poor
results obtained in recent years.
may
be a combined type of "drifter-trawler".
EQUIPEMENT DE PONT POUR LA PECHE AUX FILETS DERIVANTS

derivants offre I'avantage de pouvoir etre pratiquee par des bateaux dont la puissance des moteurs n'est que les drifters sont mums d'un moteur de 150 It 180 c.v. pour assurer une vitesse de route raisonnable. Les inconvenient* sont le caractere assez passif de la methode de pdche, le cout 61cve de J'engin et son emretien dans les etablissements a terre, et la duree limitee de la saison de peche environ huit mois par an. II y a deux types de disposition des filets derivants: en eau peu profonde et en eau profonde. Dans le premier cas, le filet est au-dessus de Taussiere alors que les filets pechant en eau profonde pendent au-dessous d'elte. Chaque jeu de filets se compose de 100 a 1 20 filets separts, mesurant chacun 69 a 87 pi. (21 a 26,5 m.) de long et ayant une longueur totale d'environ 1,13 a 1,43 mille marin (2.100 a 2.650 m.). La mise
filets
La peche aux
de 80
c.v.,
mais normalement
a Peau est
quelque peu difterente pour les deux types mais k relevage est presque le m6me. Le dessin d'un bateau est determine surtout par les methodes de mise a 1'cau et de relevage des filets et de traitement du poisson, Pour un drifter, on consider* que 1 18 pi. (36 m.) Le.pp. est la limite sup6rieure. Les perspectives d'avenir pour la pdche aux filets derivants sont incertaines a cause des inconvenients mentionnes et des mediocres resultats obtenus ces dernieres annees. Un type combin* de drifter-chalutier
pourrait permettre de resoudre ces dimcultes.
PESCA A LA DERIVA: EQUIPO Y FORMA DE LA CUBIERTA

la deriva tiene la ventaja de que la pueden practicar embarcaciones con motores pequeftos de un rendimiento tan bajo pero normalmente esas embarcaciones cuentan con motores de 150 a 180 c.v. que les dan suficiente velocidad en ruta. Los inconvenientes son el caracter bastante pasivo del meiodo de pesca, el elevado precio del equipo y de su mantenimiento en los establecimientos de tierra y la duracidn limitada de la campafia: unos ocho meses al afio. Hay dos maneras de calar la red de deriva: en agua somera y en agua profunda. En el primer case la red esta encima del cable, mientras que en el segundo esta debajo. Cada andana consta de 100 a 120 panes separados, cada uno de ellos de 69 a 87 pies (21 a 26.5 m.) de longitud, que le dan una lonîtud total de 1,13 a 1,43 millas nautkas (2.100 a 2.650 m.). El calamento es algo diferente en los dos tipos de pesca, pero el halado es casi identico. La forma del barco la determina principalmente el metodo de calamento y halado de las redes y el de elaboraci6n de la captura. Unos 1 18 pies (36 m.) de eslora entre perpendicutares se coniidera el limite superior para los pesqueros a la deriva* Las perspectivas de esta clase de pesca son indertas debido a los inconvenientes mencionados y a los males resultados obtenidos en los ultimo* afios. La solucidn de estas dificultades podria ser un tipo combinado de barco de pesca al arrastre y a la deriva.
La pesca a
c.v.,
como
30
fishing carried out by drifters in the Netherlands was of considerable importance in the years just after World War II. Now, due to increasingly bad seasons and the disadvantages of drifters, there seems to be no future for it. When catches improve, drift-netting is expected to continue for some years.
HERRING
The conditions and circumstances are apt to change completely in a very short time, and it is difficult to say what will happen next, but the advantages must be
weighed against the disadvantages. Shipbuilding is only one of the factors to be considered; others are in the fields of biology, technology and economics.
[56]
FISHING METHODS

(fig.
DRIFT-NETTING
(fig,
Although electronics help drift-net fishermen to locate the shoals of herring, drift-netting remains a passive fishing method, in that the vessel after setting the nets has to watt for the fish to swim into them.
namely, the shallow-water
33}
and
the deep-water
fleet of nets consists of 100 to 120 separate nets, all connected to a warp. The fleet is shot some hours before sunset and the drifter is connected to it by a net-swing.
34),
Hauling begins in the early morning, usually just before dawn. The deep-water nets are generally used for herring in the English Channel and on the Dogger Bank and are made of No. 30/15 American or Egyptian cotton; whereas the shallow-water nets are of No. 30/12 or 36/12 cotton. The seizings are generally of manilla, f in. (16 mm.) diam. The manilla warp varies from 330 to
375
Ib.
(150 to 170 kg.) per 120 fm. (220 m.).
The net-swing must be heavier than the warp because it has to absorb the forces acting on the fleet, caused by the movements of the vessel. Made of manilla, about 450 Ib.
Fig. 33. Shallow water type drift nets or Scottish nets, hung above the warp, are supported by cork floats connected to the upper spearline and the buoys or buffs. Suitable when the herring are near the
surface
The main advantages of drift-netting are: Herring which swim too high for trawling can be
caught Engine power can be as low as 80 h.p., which means small capital investment and low fuel consumption
Fig. 35. Setting of Scottish nets. to the warp and fisherman
Fisherman *' the
'A' connects the seizing buffs to the spearline
The main disadvantages are: 41 The passive character of

The
the operation
makes
it
impossible to "hunt" for fish fishing gear is expensive Vessels with small engines of, say, 240 h.p., cannot be used for other fishing during the off-season approximately, from January until the second half of May
Fishing gear There are two types of arrangement for the drift-nets,
(200 kg.) per 120 fm. (220 m,), the net-swing is about 75 fm. (137 m.) long in strong winds, but may be less when the weather is fine.
Setting the nets Setting a fleet of 100 nets takes 1 to 1J hrs. With shallow-water nets, the warp from the rope room runs over a fairlead on the starboard bulwark as it passes overboard, as shown in fig. 35 and 36. Fisherman connects the seizings to the net at the marked places. Fisherman B connects the buffs to the buff strops on
the float-line, the buffs being brought buff store forward.
by a boy from the
The warp of the deep-water nets is carried forward from the rope room over the deck and passed overboard just behind the forecastle, as shown in fig. 37. At the same
time the nets are run out over the rollers fitted on the starboard bulwark just abreast of the net hold. While the boat steams very slowly astern, steered with a bow rudder, fisherman passes the seizings to B, who takes them forward to C, and he in turn connects them and the
buffs to the warp.
the setting is finished, the net-swing is led a deep fairlead just abreast of the stem and through fastened to a bollard, located between the foremast and the hawse. This fairlead is usually made of cast iron and has sufficient depth to prevent the net-swing from
slipping
When
when
the vessel pitches.
Fit. 34.
Deep-water type
drtft nets,
hung below the
cable, suspended
from
the warp
and supported by
cork
floats.
Floats are connected to the spearline .end by buoys. Used for deeper shoals
Circular hawses are used on vessels with an open forecastle. To keep the space under the forecastle as dry as possible, the hawses are closed with a plate when
sailing.
[57]
WORLD
TACTICS
them from
scattering over the
being used to prevent deck.
Hauling a fleet of deep-water nets differs only in that the buoys are disconnected at G. This is not difficult on ships which have no forecastle. When there is a fore-
warp hawse pipe is usually not wide enough to take the buoys, so the buoy ropes are disconnected from the warp at F and fastened to an endless rope, running through the hawse and around the back of
castle, the circular
the forecastle.
The hauling gear is shown in fig. 39 and 40. Until some years ago the nets were hand-hauled, but now
Setting of deep-water type drift nets. The warp goes overboard almost abreast of the fore mast. The nets are abreast of the net room. The seizings are taken o *C" by sermen *A* an and *B\ aen to y fishermen The buff strops or buoy ropes and the seizings are connected to the warp at 'C'
Fig. 37.
power
rollers
are
used.
These power
rollers
cause
problems regarding the safety of the deck-hand at M. This deck-hand, who controls the hauling speed of the warp, is a boy of 14 or 15 years, usually the youngest on
board.
There
is
an
it
historical reason for entrusting this
work
Fig. 36. Setting of Scottish nets abreast the net room. The warp runs from the fairlead on the bulwark forward to the watertine. The buffs are in the pond, ready to be connected to the upper spearline. The skipper, on the bridge, overlooks the operations, while manoeuvring his vessel slowly astern downwind.
(Courtesy N. farlevtiet
Jr.,
Katwlfk an Zee)
The mizzen sail keeps the bow of the vessel to the wind when drifting with the nets set out. The wind pressure on the vessel is normally enough to keep the warp
In strong winds the main engine is put "slow to relieve the strain on the net-swing. controllable-pitch propeller is better for this operation,
stretched.
9'
the warp was hauled by a handwas a boy's job to haul off the warp from the capstan while the crew "walked" around. Differences in hauling speeds of nets and warp were adjusted by slower hauling of whichever was ahead. When the steam capstan was introduced, the hauling speed was controlled by the boy, or the skipper on the bridge, by regulating the steam flow to the winch.
to a boy; driven capstan,
when
ahead
because it allows the engine to run at optimum and constant speed.
Hauling the nets
The warp is hauled in by the winch. Hauling cause* the ship to move slowly in the direction of the fleet. To
winds the engine is run "slow ahead". With shallow-water nets, the fisherman at F in fig. 38 disconnects the net seizings from the warp, and the outboard hanging nets, with the buffs are taken aft to the net roller. The man at L disconnects the buffs from the strops as the nets come over the roller, while
relieve the strain in strong
Hauling. The warp rests in the hawser abreast of the stem. The propeller turns at a very low r.p.m. to maintain a balance between The seizings are disa sufficiently tight warp and too strong a pull. 9 connected at 'F' and tfte buffs or buoys at *L or *G'. Fishermen 'A* *'
Fig. 38.
to
are pulling in the net and shaking the herring into the *' The nets disappear into the hatches
pond *#*.
who shake them up and down
A, B, C, D and E, same time to empty out the herring. The fish fall into the pond H to starboard and into the space between the two ponds, stow boards
at the
clears the seizings as they come in. The nets are hauled by the men at
Although modern belt-driven winches are more complicated and harder to handle, the job is still done by boys. Power-driven net rollers, introduced a few years ago, have made their work even more difficult. These rollers are belt driven by the winch shaft. The hauling speeds of the warp and the nets are theoretically the same, but that of the warp is greater, due to the slip of the nets over
At intervals this inequality has to be corrected. This can be done by stopping the winch and slipping the necessary length of warp. This is not very dangerous for
the roller.
[58]
FISHING METHODS
DUIFT-NETTING
gut, the herring being brought to them from the ponds by another gang, who also take the gutted herring to the
two men who salt them. The barrels have to stand
for hours
and be topped up
at intervals, before they can be closed, to allow the contents to settle. When closed they are lowered into the hold
which
is
divided into compartments having a width to
accommodate the barrels lengthwise. In loading a fresh compartment all empty barrels have to be brought on deck. If each compartment has a central partition, 26 to 30 barrels are stowed on deck, but when there are no such partitions, the deck has to accommodate about 60 barrels. Therefore a drifter must have ample deck space forward of the ponds to accommodate the filled but not yet closed barrels and the empty barrels, yet leave enough
working space.
Deck gear
When
coamings and from there over the shooting

rollers are
over rollers on the hatch rollers on the starboard bulwark, and then overboard. The hatch
setting, the nets are led
removed when
setting is finished.
Fig. 39.
port pond. Lower
Fishermen are leaning against the the fishermen in the net room are hauling the nets to the hatch. The nets are led over a roller between the two ponds. Buffs are seen in the foreground. (Courtesy N. Parltvliet Jr., Katwljk an Zee) left,
Hauling and shaking.
M, but stopping the winch also means stopping the net rollers the crew generally object and the boy is strongly urged to slip the warp without stopping the net rollers, i.e., without stopping the winch. This is very difficult for a youngster to do on the deck of a
the deck-hand at
:
and pitching vessel, and some fatal accidents to resulted. In the Netherlands it is obligatory have boys that the net roller drive is independent of the winch drive, so the deck-hand at can stop the winch to slip the warp,
rolling
and the powered net rollers continue without interruption. The nets pass from the fishermen A to E over an
athwartships roller, aft of the ponds, through the hatches K, into the net room, where they are spread evenly over the whole floor. As the nets are easily torn if they catch on protruding objects, constant care must be taken to
avoid such mishaps.

Processing the catch on board are gutted on board and salted in barrels, which are then closed and stored as shown in fig. 41. If the catch is too large it is salted in an ungutted state, to be
The herring
processed as smoked herring. the winch, Gutting is done on a bench, forward of which runs. from bulwark to bulwark. About ten men
Hauling. The train of buffs can be seen lying In the water* The fishermen upper Ifft disconnects the sellings. The fisherman forward of the pond is holding the upper spearttne and keeping the hose seizings clear from the roller. The open barrets contain the previous day's catch. The sallow indicates that this vessel is also*
Fig. 40.
suitable for trawling.

(Courtesy N. Parkvtitt 7r, Jtowtf* ah 2**)
[59]
WORLD
TACTICS
Hauling is preferably done over the starboard side, but a shifting wind may make this difficult and bring the nets along the stem or even under the keel. In such circumstances the nets are hauled on the port side,
Because a drifter sets its fleet while steaming slowly astern, a bow rudder is required. This is constructed to fit well into the form of the hull, as shown in fig. 42. The rudder can be settled in the central position by a fixing rod while steaming. This rod is located in a pipe and can be easily disengaged on deck. The rudder head is carried up to a tiller on deck. Another type consists of a rudder head resting in a heel pot rivetted to the stem as far below the waterline as possible. The lower part of the rudder head is square; the upper part is kept in position by a bearing. The tiller remains outside the bulwark and is operated from the deck by two tackles. The rudder plate has two arms which fit to the square on the rudder head. A rudder davit on the bow enables the rudder plate to be moved up and down. Before setting, the rudder plate, pointing
forward,
is
lowered.
When
sailing
it is
hoisted and fixed
against the bulwark, pointing aft. mizzen is used to keep the vessel's
bow
to the
wind
when heaving-to, riding at the fleet and hauling. The position of the foremast is determined by the loading and unloading gear (de Wit, 1955). There are considerable difficulties in stowing and in loading barrels
forward of the foremast and, for
fig. 41. After being gutted and mixed with salt, the herring are put into the barrels> which have to stand open for many hours to allow the contents to settle. The barrels are topped up several times before they are closed. The day* scotch is in the pond. The previous day' scotch is in closed barrels which will be lowered into the hold and empty barrels
this reason, the best
brought on deck. Drift-net fishing requires ample deck space for processing the catch
At one time the side rollers for hauling had a diameter of about 6 in. (IS cm.), but some years ago it was increased to about 16 in. (40 cm.) with the introduction of the mechanical drive. These rollers are driven by the winch shaft running from the front of the engine skylight or the superstructure. A pulley is fixed on this winch shaft for a belt drive to the rollers. The winches are of a simple type and belt-driven from the main or an auxiliary engine. The best way to drive the power rollers is an arrangement that allows the skipper in the wheelhouse to regulate the speed of the net rollers, and to evep the differences of the hauling speeds of nets and warp. For this, the electric or hydraulic drive appears to be the best solution. The long power rollers usually extend beyond the ship's side and are likely to be damaged in harbour. To avoid this, the rollers are often hinged at a point near the deck to allow them to be moved inboard. The ponds are nearly the same height as the bulwarks. They must be easily removable, especially on vessels which trawl during the winter months. Each pond is divided into two or three compartments by longitudinal boards, which prevent the fish moving about too much
and thus
losing condition
when
the ship rolls.
Fig. 42.
Bow rudder.
Its design can be made to fit into the waterHnes having a rather sharp entrance angle
[60]

place for the foremast
is
ARRANGEMENT
DRIFT-NETTING
on, or just aft of, the forward
hold bulkhead
Under deck arrangement

In subdividing the hold, the size of the barrels is taken into account. The height of the barrels determines the distance of the wooden partitions between the rows of
barrels.
should the warp hawse be too high above water. These requirements result in a very moderate sheer forward, which also provides a good working platform forward. Before 1940 there was a trend to increase the length of new ships from 90 to about 105 ft. (27 to 32 m.) LOA. After 1945 this trend continued until vessels were about
1 18 ft. (36 m.) long, which for drift-net fishing, must be considered as the maximum. It is commonly considered that the sea qualities necessary for drift-netting would be lost if this length is exceeded. Experience has shown that more net damage occurs when vessels are longer. The beam of the older boats is about 21 ft. 3 in. (6.5 m.). Just after World War II a drift-netter of 105 ft. (32 m,) LBP was built with a beam of 22 ft. 4 in. (6.8 m.). The trawler-drifters of about 1 15 ft. (35 m.) LBP, in which the emphasis is on trawling rather than drifting, usually have beams of 25 ft. 1 in. (7.6 m.), but it is felt that they have excessive beam with a correspondingly large which makes them too stiff. If the is too large the period of roll will be too short and the barrels on deck will he upset. When a ship is built primarily for drifting its beam should not be larger than about 23 ft. (7.0 m.). The depth of a drifter is generally 10 ft. 4 in. (3.15 m.) but sometimes as much as 11 ft. 6 in. (3,5 m.). The depth is determined by the number of barrels that can be stowed on top of each other without damaging those at the bottom: if there is too much pressure the lower barrels may spring leaks, especially when the vessel
A Dutch barrel has a height of 2.4 ft. (73 cm.), whereas a Scottish barrel is 2.54 ft. (77 cm.) high. Allowing 2.5 ft. (76 cm.) between the partitions for a Dutch barrel and 4 in. (10 cm.) on one side for the thickness of the partition
planks with clamps, the neck-to-neck distance between the partitions amounts to 2.85 ft. (86 cm.). These partitions are preferably arranged in steel channels, welded to the reverse frames, so that the distance between frames
is
or, for
ruled by the distance between the wooden partitions Dutch barrels, 17 in. (43 cm.).
net room has a length equal to at least five frames, namely 7 ft. 1 in. (2.15 m.). The frames are covered with wood to prevent the treated nets coming into contact
The
GM
CM
with the hull. The location of the net room hatches is determined by the location of the aft bulkheads of the ponds. The rope room is aft of the winch, with a capacity of at least 320 cu. ft. (9 cu. m.) and a floor space large enough for coiling down the warp. Lath sheathing is normally used on the hull and the bulkheads. It is possible to use a double barrel compartment as a rope room, in which case its width must be about half the breadth of the vessel. As a height of about 8 ft. 3 in. (2.5 m.) is sufficient, a fuel oil tank can be installed under such a rope room.
pitches and rolls. Six layers of deal barrels can be stowed without danger to the bottom layer, such stowage requiring a depth of
Sometimes the rope room

but this
is
is
built into the engine
room,
10 ft. 4 in. (3.15 m.). With oak barrels, seven layers can be stowed and they need a depth of 11 ft. 6 in.
(3.5 m.).
not recommended because it cramps the circular hatch of 2 ft. (60 cm.) engine room space. diam. and a minimum height of 1 ft. (30 cm.) gives entrance to the rope room. The hatch is closed with a steel lid or a hood of i in. (6 mm.) plate. The crew's quarters in older drifters are arranged both forward of the hold and aft of the engine room. The
forward quarter provides room for twelve

aft quarter for three
men and
the
or four. In modern vessels all crew's quarters are located aft of the engine room. The after pan of the vessel has a deckhouse which, at least to port, reaches to the side. Hull form
According to Roorda (1957) the coefficients of drifters should be 8=0.52 to 0.54, p=0.73 to 0.80, 9=0.65 to 0.74, a =0.83 to 0.86. The floor should rise 3 ft. 3 in. to 4 ft. (1 to 1.2 m.) and the bilge should have a radius of about 3 ft. 7 in. (1 1 m.). The hull form must be such as to dampen pitching and heaving and the wind profile should be kept as small as possible, especially forward. The old drifters, which were very good vessels for drifting, had a vertical stem with V-frames forward, almost without flare, and fine waterlines in which the bow rudder fitted well. The raking stem now used has not been an improvement.
.
For good manoeuvrability when sailing astern, a drifter should not have too much trim by the stern. If it does,
the ship will only respond slowly to the bow rudder. When riding to the fleet the forefoot must not be of too
Propulsion machinery
When
for a long time,
shallow draught, otherwise the bow will be "thrown away" by the swell and the nets may be damaged. Dutch driftera of 82 to 98 ft. (25 to 30 m.) LBP have
ft. 3 in. (2.0 to 2.2 m.) 9 ft. 2 in. to 9 ft. 10 in. (2,8 to 3.0 m.) The bow must not be too high because net damage can result from the wind blowing away the bow; nor
a ship must be able to steam astern and when hauling much manoeuvring is necessary. To do all this a mechanical or an hydraulic reversing gear is much better than a direct reversible engine. For the same reason it is desirable to have a
drift-netting,
the following draughts: Forward , 6 ft, 7 in. to 7
controllable-pitch propeller. The coupling of the engine to the propeller shaft
Aft
no reduction gear. The engines have a speed of about 350 r.p.m., bat must be able to work for hours at their lowest speed, H* the speed is too high and the propeller is engaged when the ship is
usually has
maximum
[61]

hauling there is a great risk that she will suddenly gain too much speed. When that happens the warp will slacken and the foreship may easily run over the nets.
WORLD
TACTICS
supplying the market with sea-gutted, sea-salted and seapacked herring, formerly the function of drifters, and a trawler can be used all the year round.
Again, the fishing gear for drifting
is
very expensive,
890
1300
and a costly shore establishment is needed to maintain it, as shown in fig. 44 and 45. Indeed, the cost can seldom be borne by owners of only one to three vessels; so the trend has been for such owners to sell their ships to
larger concerns. While many factors point towards a disappearance of the drifter, herring can usually be caught by drifting when
too
ISO,
MOO
1.300
bottom
trawls
is
produce
little
or
nothing.
For
this
tool
90
i.
1000
500
hesitation in giving a plain answer to the question posed above. The trend so far has been to replace drifters by small trawlers of 118 to 125 ft.
reason there
some
(36 to 38 m.) LBP, with engine outputs of 600 to 800 h.p. Most of these vessels are doing very well. There is also Nurrtw
Driftfiit
of
Nun**
of
the trend to combine drifting and trawling, which is not a new idea. It has been tried in Germany with the aid of
the "propeller-rudder". When drifting, this "propellerrudder" only is used, but for trawling or steaming the Dutch shipyard is main engine is brought into action.
following another method and is constructing a vessel of 126 ft. (38.5 m.) LBP, with a twin engine installation (2x500 h.p./650 r.p.m.) working on one propeller shaft
Fig. 43.
number of
Trends in drift-net herring fishing. During recent years the vessels, voyages and days at sea have all decreased; so have catches. Catches by trawling are increasing
The control of the engine and the reversing gear must be from the bridge where the skipper can see the whole scene. Although one qualified engineer is carried when the vessel has an engine of SO to 225 h.p., and two when the engine is more than 225 h.p., it is difficult to keep them
1
in the engine
room during
fishing operations.
Prospects As previously stated, the results of drifting in the Netherlands have not been encouraging in recent years, as shown in fig, 43 (Jaarcijfers ... 1954 to 1958), although there was an improvement in the first part of the 1*958 season. Drifters are cheap to operate, but they can only be used from May until the end of December. This creates a social and economic problem because most of the crews often remain as idle as their ships. In an attempt to solve their problems, engines with higher power than is necessary for drifting have been installed, thus bringing into being the combined type of "drifter-trawler". In recent years, when some drifters have been scrapped, the question has been asked: What kind of ships should
be
built in their place to

difficult
very
maintain the fishery? That is to determine. Trawlers are increasingly
The shore establishment for the upkeep of fishing gear is The fleets of nets can be seen in the background* and targe quantities ofprepared ropes, etc,, are shown hanging from the ceiling
Fig. 44.
costly.
[62]
FISHING METHODS
through a 3
engine
is
:

only one
engine room.
DR*IFT-NETTING
reduction gear.
For
drifting,
The
used, but both for steaming and trawling. requirements of a drifter and those of a trawler are
The crew is accommodated in the forward part of the ship but the engineers have their quarters near the
The power units may comprise a main engine of about h.p. and an auxiliary engine of about 200 h.p. The
contradictory in many respects. The modern tendency is to give the crew better protection against the weather and the sea. This naturally improves the working conditions and it also increases the efficiency of operation and the quality of the product. All these developments
result in a new type of fishing 46 is a sketch resulting from- some thinking about such a new type. Trawling is done over the stern. This brings the deckhouse more forward and gives a reasonable length between
600
and improvements might

vessel.
Fig.
the slipway and the electric winch. Drifting takes place more forward than is usual in Dutch vessels. The net room (5) and the rope room (6) are located forward of the fish holds (3) and (4). The fish ponds (IS) and the capstan (16) are located on the 'tween deck. In this way net damage caused by the pitching and heaving while
there
hauling can be greatly reduced. Over the ponds (15) is a double deck height for nearly the full breadth
vessel.
fall
of the
When
the nets are shaken so that the
herring can
clear of them, there should be sufficient
deck space alongside. The 'tween deck at the ponds is built about 2 ft. (0.6 m.) higher, and the bottoms of the ponds are sloped. This
in the
slope causes the fish in the ponds to slide astern to sluices forward bulkheads of the working space, and from these sluices they pass to the working space (13) and (14),
Fig. 46.
1.
Sketch of a trawler-drifter affording more shelter for the crew. Explanation of the figures:
17. II. 19.
After peak
HydraulfcaUy-operated
bow
rudder
where they are processed.
2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Engine room Hold for about 700 barrels Insulated fish hold Net room
20. 21. Starboard:
Chain locker GaUey and meesroom Cook's store

Captain
Fort:
Rope room
Crew's quarters Drinking water Fore peak Hydraulic steering gear
22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
Mate
rollers
Chart room Wheelhouse HydrauUcally-operated net
11. Fish pond for trawling 12. Sorting place 1 3. Gutting and salting 14. Filling and closing the barrels 15. Ponds for drifting 16. Hydraulic or electric capstan
Engineers' cabins Boatswain's store Engine casing HydraulicaUy-operated hatch covers
Fuel oil
auxiliary engine drives a generator which supplies current to the motor of the electric winch and also to a motor mounted on the propeller shaft. The auxiliary engine thus serves a triple function:
It operates the winch Through the propeller shaft motor its power can be added to that of the main engine for propulsion when trawling Alone it can drive the ship when drifting, the main
engine being stopped
With about 200
h.p.
and
suitable electrical wiring this
auxiliary engine should give the vessel good manoeuvrability for drift-netting operations. vessel like that outlined in fig. 46 might have the
following main dimensions:
LBP B
condition before the ***** starts. Damaged nets are prepared by the fishermen** wives while the vessels are at sea. The nets are haded on carriages, seen In the background, bid out to dry, thoroughly inspected^ and repaired on the spot
=118
ft.
(36m.)
in. (3.2 in. (5,3
Flg.45.
D Ctween deck) = 10 D (shelter deck) = 17

sail will
=26
ft.
ft.
3 in. (8,0 m.)
ft.
6 6
m,) m.)
Due
mizzen
to the rather high superstructure forward, a be necessary to keep the vessel in the wind.
[63]
GILLNET FISHING: DECK DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT

by
THOMAS
conditions
E.
COLVIN
The Great Lakes (U.S.A.) gillnetter is distinguished by the extensive superstructure which covers the full length of the hull. Climatic on the Lakes make this superstructure necessary, which, in turn greatly influences hull design. Hull developments has progressed and been refined from early tugboat designs. While the early boats were of wood, the majority of all new construction is of steel. The V-bottom has been found to be the most economical method of constructing a steel hull for the Great Lakes. Nets are set from the stern and picked or lifted from the bow. These vessels must possess many of the capabilities of the ordinary icebreaker because of wintertime operation. Engines today are primarily high or tow-speed diesels; formerly, steam and gasoline engines were popular. Air-cooled diesete show promise. There is a possible future development of small gillnettcrs for perch, and they would be about one-half the size of the existing gUlnetters. Wood, in
all probability,
would be used for these smaller boats.

destroyed they were
trout in 15 years ago. Part-time fishermen require smaller boats, as the existing boats are too large for present catches.
The fishing industry has declined sharply due to the infiltration of the lamprey eel into the Great Lakes. It has completely Lakes Erie, Huron and Michigan. Because of the lamprey, catches of fish are down from one-forth to one-tenth of what
EQUIPEMENT DE PONT POUR LA PECHE AUX FILETS MAILLANTS

Le bateau depftche aux fillets maillants des Grands Lacs (E.-U.) se distingue par ses superstructures ctcnducs, qui couvrent toute la longueur de la coquc. Les conditions climatiques sur les Lacs rendent ces superstructures n&essaircs, et a leur tour elles ont une grande influence sur le dessin de la coquc. Le dveloppement de la coque a progressed et elle a et affinee a partir des formes primitives de remorqueur. Alors que les premiers bateaux 6taient de bois, la majority de toutcs les constructions nouveltes est en acier. On a trouv6 que le fond en V est la mfthodc la plus taonomique de construction d'une coque d'acicr pour les Grands Lacs. Les filets sont mis a 1'cau par raniere et ramasses ou releves par ravant. Ces bateaux doivent avoir la plupart des capacites du brise-glace ordinaire a cause de la peche en hiver. Les moteurs actuels sont surtout des diesels rapides ou lents; auparavant, les moteurs a vapeur et a essence &aient tres itpandus. Les diesels refroidis par air offrent des possibility. II sera possible de proc6der au ddveloppement des petite bateaux pechant la perche aux filets maillants, et Icurs dimensions seraient environ la moitte de celles des bateaux existants, ptehant aux filets maillants. Scion toutes probability on utiliserait
L'industrie de la peche a nettement dtelinl par suite de 1'infiltration de la lamproie dans les Grands Lacs. A cause de la lamproie, pechcs de poisson ont baisst d'un quart a un dixicme de cc qu'elles fraient il y a 15 ans. Les pccheurs ne s'adoimant pas exclusivement a la pdche ont besoin de bateaux plus petits car les bateaux existants sont trop grands pour les ptehes actuelles.
les
le bois
pour ces petits bateaux.
LA PESCA CON REDES DE ENMALLE: FORMA DE LA CUBIERTA Y EQUIPO

El barco de pesca con redes de enmalk de los grandes lagos de los E.U.A. se caracteriza por su amplia superstructure, que < toda la eslora del casco. emptear estas superestmcturas, que influyen mucho en la forma del casco, obligan las condicioncs climate de los lagos. Estos cascos son un perfeccionamiento de los antiguos de los remokadores. Aunque lot primeros barcos eran de madcra, todos los nuevos se construyen de aoero. El fondo en V ha dcmonstrado ser el m&odo mas ccon6mk de construir un casco de accro para navegar en kw grandes lagos. Los artes se calan por la popa y se recogen por la proa. Estos barcos tienen que reunir muchas de las caracteristicas de los rompehielos corrientes a causa de pescar en el invierno, Los motores empleados en la actualidad son printipalmente Diesels de alta o baâ yelocidad; antiguamente eran populares las maquinas de vapor y los motores de gasolina. El motor Diesel enfriado por aire ofrece posibilidades. La pesca de la perca es un posible campo de actividades futuras para barcos pequeAos que empkan redes de enmallo, pero los barcos tendrian que ser un 50 mas pequefios que los actuates. Es muy probable que se usase madera en la oonstruccidn de estos barcos mas pequeftos. La industria pesquera ha dccaido mucho debido a la llegada de la lamprea a los grandes lagos. Debido a lot estragos causados por la lamprea, las captures de pescado nan disminuido a cntrc la cuarta y la dcima parte de lo que eran haoe 15 afios. Los Pescadores que no dedtcan todo su tiempo a la pesca necesitan embarcaciones mas pequeflas, porque las que tienen actualmente son demasiado grandes para
las captures
que tagran.
f |
*HE
Great Lakes (U.S.A.)
gillnetter is distinctive
small
fleet
of
gillnctters
which were
originally designed
appearance due to its rather high superstructure, shown in fig. 47 and 48. This superstructure has greatly influenced the design of the hull and is the result of coping with climatic conditions on the lakes. The gillnetter is used on all five of the Great Lakes, but is most popular and numerous on Lakes Michigan, Huron and Superior. Almost every harbour on these three lakes on both the Canadian and U.S.A. sides, has a
Iin
to fish trout, perch, chub, whftefish, smelt, salmon, suckers, herring, and other species of fresh-water fish. These vessels range in length from about 33 to 60 ft. (10 to IB m.); and the most common length is between
40 and 45 ft. (12 and 14 m.), and these are usually two-man boats. The long superstructure was necessitated by the Q There are extremely cold weather of 0F ( 18 C).
[64]
FISHING METHODS
GILLNET FISHING
Fig.
47 and
48.
Great Lakes gillnetters with high superstructure to protect the crew
relatively
few days during the winter when the tempera-
ture
the
oil
much above freezing point. The entire interior of vessel is kept warm during the winter by a coal or
is
first,
below the waterline. They were propelled by steam at but the Great Lakes gillnetters adopted gasoline
burning stove. This prevents the nets from freezing and also keeps them dry prior to being set. The fishermen are reasonably warm except when actually hauling. During the early days, some of the gillnetters had split superstructures and occasionally only a forward or after deckhouse. Net boxes were carried on deck, as were the fish. In the winter it was not uncommon to have a large accumulation of ice on the decks, in the nets, and in the fish, which caused a severe stability condition, so there was always the danger of loss of life and gear due to capsizing, even with careful handling. Since these boats are also called upon to break ice to get to and from the fishing grounds, as shown in fig. 49, conditions were aggravated by this accumulation of ice and the weight of nets and fish so high above the waterline, especially when the hull rode up on an ice floe prior to crushing the
it is often desirable while going through the rock the hull in order to break an even larger channel to allow backing, manoeuvring, and gaining speed to continue to break ice ahead of the hull. The early boats were constructed of wood, and, for the most part, were based on the tugboat hull, the only difference being in the superstructure. The hulls were
engines very early in the twentieth century. In those days, when the fishing fleet was primarily of wood construction, the addition of the full-length deckhouse often lightened the hulls rather than made them heavier through the elimination of the main deck. Superstructure framing was widely spaced and lightly sheathed with tongue-and-groove ceiling of f to j in. (9.5 to 19 mm.). Actually, the only requirement of the deckhouse is that it be weatherproof and watertight, and that it supports
the weight of a
occasionally,
man and some light buoys, anchors, and, some newly-treated nets which would
present a fire hazard if stowed inside before being set the first time. With these deckhouse changes, the net boxes were lowered to a working flat. With the intro-
ice.
Also,
ice to
duction of adequate heaters to warm the whole interior of the hull, the nets that had been hauled remained warm and did not freeze. With the lowering of the centre of gravity, the boats became safer: the fishermen worked lower in the boat and were better supported, as well as remaining reasonably dry and protected not only from the winter cold but from rain and the hot sun of summer.
Other types of fishing vessels are used on the Great

Lakes,
the
design
being entirely different from the
sheathed with galvanized iron from slightly above to well
These include the pound-net and trap-net gillnetter. boats, which are very popular on Lake Erie, and an
occasional handliner for trout.
Fishing gear
The
gillnets of the Great Lakes are normally set on the bottom, and vary in length from 1,000 to 30,000 ft
(305 to 9,150 m.). The lengths are made up into boxes, each box containing from 1,000 to 2,000 ft (305 to 610 m.) of nets, with corks and leads. The nets vary in width from 5 to 6 ft. (1.5 to 1.8 m.). Along the upper portion of the net are placed aluminium or plastic floats.
The
Fig. 49. Greet
floats are
Lakes glllnetter
in Ice
in. (51
mm.)
approximately 4 in. (102 mm.) in length by in diameter and are spaced from 7 to 9 ft.
[65]

m.) apart. Opposite each float is a lead of approximately 6 oz. (170 g,) which is of sufficient weight to sink the net and the floats to the bottom* The leads are of cylindrical shape about 4 in. (102 mm.) in length, with a hollow centre, and are so tied as to permit them net only to revolve but to move slightly back and forth so that there is no binding while being pulled around the
(2.1 to 2.7
WORLD
30 boxes
TACTICS
boxes to be
locality but
set in any one day depends not only on on the individual fisherman; from 10 to
is the usual number. Ideally, the width of the forward of the setting platform will be that of a given number of boxes to prevent any movement due to rolling. If a vessel, is, say, 8 boxes in width and is to
hull just
about 2.5 in. (64 mm.), from State to State. The nets are of nylon. The seaming twine is of cotton. The float and lead lines are of linen or cotton, and occasionally nylon thread consisting of three or more strands,
lifting
drum.
The mesh
is
although
this differs greatly
specially treated
by dipping in a preservation made of gasoline and oils mixed. Newly-treated nets are never carried inside the superstructure because of their volatility, which is dissipated after the first setting.
Fig. 51.
Location of nets
Trough and roller equipment extending about 30

over the side
in.
(76 cm.)
which the nets are set varies not only with the season and species but with the locality. The rather shallow waters are from 6 to 20 fm. (1 1 to 37 m.), and the deeper between 35 and SO fm. (64 to 91 m.). Nets
at
The depth
are often set in the
summer
to as great a depth as
1 1
5 to
it will have two rows of 8 boxes each on bottom and a second tier of two rows of 8 boxes. Net boxes are seldom stowed more than two high because of the weight and the inconvenience of handling and stowing them.
set
32 boxes,
the
Setting the nets the fishing grounds are reached, a buoy anchor and buoy line are made ready. These are often carried on the housetop, but sometimes inside. The buoy and
When
its
bridle
anchor are then dropped with a suitable length of which varies according to the depth of the water.
the
When
Fig 50. Deck arrangement ofglllnetter with hauling equipment in the
fore end
buoy
is
in place
and anchored, the
vessel
of the
vessel
130 fm. (210 to 238 m.). Modern boats, with their gear, have reduced the labour of deep-water fishing. Two men with a mechanical lifter can haul nets from over 30 fm. (55 m.), whereas it used to require from three to five men to do the same work by hand.
lifting
Packing the nets
The
nets are stretched

reel
on a drying
reel,
and from^thig
they are stowed in boxes with the leads drying arranged and stacked in tiers along the right-hand side of the box. The floats are then stowed in tiers throughout the remainder of the box. Great care
taken to ensure that each float corresponds to its lead, and to be certain that everything runs free when setting. The belly of the net is allowed to overhang the edge of the box, and when
is
is
Fig, 52.
Net hauler drums ranging from 10 to 30

diameter
in.
(25 to 76 cm.) in
is, from 1,000 to 2,000 ft. emptied (305 to 610 m.) the belling is folded over the float and leads. Hie ends of the float and lead lines hang from the
the reel
that
moves ahead at a speed of 3 to 5 knots, depending on the weather and the skill of the men setting the nets. Each
man
box. When all the boxes are packed, they are loaded into the after or raised platform of the boat. The number of
setting picks up a lead and a float from the box and throws them dear of the stern. When the box is almost empty, a third man, if there is one, moves box No. 2 into place and makes fast the ends so that its contents are
FISHING METHODS
ready to be set when the
first

empty.
GILLNET FISHING
setter, similar to that
box
1$
On
a two-
of these
is
the
drum
it
used
on
the
boat, the last few leads and floats arc thrown by one man, the second man moving the next box into petition* Occasionally when a man and a, boy work the boat, the boy steers and moves the boxes into place, and the man throws the floats and leads. This can be dangerous as it is possible for the man to become en-
man
West Coast, but
has not be successful.
The configuration of the
tangled in the nets and be pulled overboard. When the desired length of net is in the water, a second bridle is made fast and attached to a second buoy and anchor.
superstructure varies according to the preference of the fisherman, builder or designer. The nets are always set from the stern, which can be open the entire width of the hull, and is the only universal feature in the superstructure. The large double doors on
Hauling the nets
The
reverse process is used when hauling, but this is always done forward, as shown in fig. 50. The location of the forward opening varies from boat to boat. A trough and a roller, shown in fig. 51, extend over the side of the hull for approximately 30 in. (760 mm.). Large guides on the ends of the roller prevent the net from slipping off as it passes to a hauling drum via the trough. Drums, shown in fig. 52, range from about 10 to 30 in. (254 to 760 mm.) in diameter, the last being
the sides of the superstructure aft are for loading and unloading the nets on the dock. The smaller boats all have a raised deck aft which is the steering flat and the
net-setting flat and which is seldom less than 8 or 10 ft. (2.44 or 3.05 m.) in length fore and aft. All the boats, regardless of size, have double doors on the sides aft,
and here, again, personal preference dictates their width and the manner in which they swing. Some open vertically, while others open horizontally. Advantages of
horizontal hinging are that there is better control of the open area and it is reasonably watertight when running
the most common size. The hauler is so designed as to catch the leads, and the floats, being opposite the leads, are pulled evenly with them. The net, with the catch, sags between the float and the lead lines. Thus, as the nets pass the drum, the float and lead lines are, together with
the fish, dispersed in the belly of the net. If the net is heavily loaded with fish, it is common, especially on twoman boats, to allow the fish to remain in the nets and to stow them in boxes; but with light catches the fish are
on a quartering sea or in rainy weather. The net-hauling doors are arranged over a great portion of the forward length. Generally, they are placed well forward to permit better control of the boat while hauling the nets, and the mechanical net haulers are usually located forward. A second door is often found in the hull, about half way between the forward and aft openings, used for picking when the net is to remain without resetting.
Location of
It is
flat
i
picked from the nets as they come aboard. During hauling, the speed of the vessel is very slow and only sufficient power is maintained to ease the load on the hauler as much as possible. The filled boxes are stowed as directed by the skipper, while the wet nets are placed in another part of the vessel. In the winter the boat is kept as closed as possible because it is essential that the inside of the vessel remains warm, usually around 60F
very
difficult to
as visibility directly
manoeuvre from the aft steering ahead is restricted at close
quarters. So a hatch is often fitted in the cabin roof, permitting the helmsman to stand with at least his shoulders above the housetop. He steers with his feet on the wheel, the engine controls being within easy reach while in this position. large window is fitted in the
sides of the hull
(16C), to prevent the nets freezing. After the haul is made, the vessel proceeds to the next set of nets to be hauled, and during this run some of the crew either pick the nets just hauled or, if they were picked during hauling, gut the fish. Hauling is normally done only after all the dry nets have been set. In port, the wet nets are wound on to drying reels, picked of
debris,
better visibility,
on some boats to give the helmsman but he is still blind on the opposite
side. There is often a large stack in the housetop for the exhaust pipe, which further restricts visibility. The larger boats of 55 ft. (16.8 m.) or more in length, usually have the pilot house amidships, with a separate steering flat above, and this gives very good visibility, especially as the engine exhaust is always aft.
and stretched for drying, ready for repacking. The methods of handling the nets on mechanized boats The differ little from those on unmechanized craft. mechanical hauler of course, reduces labour. The con-
Height of saperstracture
The headroom
working
flat,
tinuous superstructure was in general use long before the mechanical hauler. The modern hauler is very small, takes very little space, and can be adapted to any type of hull It is very efficient and needs but little maintenance. The drive is from the main engine through a shaft. The haulers are always operated from one side of the boat only, either port or starboard. Future development will be in the boats themselves,
is usually about 7 ft. (2.1 m.) in the although there is no apparent reason for this excessive height The most efficient boats are those in which all openings are low to the water, or the working flat is raised to a point where it is convenient to lean out During hauling, especially with mechanical haulers, height is not as objectionable as it once was. Nevertheless, height in the stern is still disliked because the nets have a tendency to fly off to leeward when being set.
The
followed by improvements in fishing methods,
Other methods have been tried for setting gillncts. One
superstructure across the stern, therefore, is usually carried just high enough along the bottom to allow it to be flush with the tops of the fish boxes.
[67]

The only fittings normally seen on superstructures are: a mooring bit forward, grab rails just forward of the
break into the pilot house, running lights atop the pilot house with a horn, and grab rails on the raised deck aft.
WORLD
there
is is
TACTICS
Fig. 54 is a design study and modified version of the vessel shown in fig. 53, namely Boat B in table I. Here
a drastic reduction in superstructure height, which
not only weight-saving, but also permits a reduction of
ballast as well as displacement. Development on this hull is conical in the forward sections (0 to 3) breaking
into cylindrical at stations 3 to 5, and the afterbody sections are then straight lines between the fairbody and
normal on gillnetters to have as much deadwood as is shown. This could be drastically reduced and is, for the most part, a carry-over from the wooden hulls. Although reduction in wetted surface would be small, improvement in manoeuvrability would be great and well worth the reduction. This vessel
the chines,
It is
outside keel or
has not been

Fig. 55.
built.
More and more men, having

fish
ment ashore,
steady employonly part time and that mostly only
during the spring, summer and fall, and fishing is limited to perch and some chub. Boat C in table 1 was designed
Fig. 53. Gittnetter,
Boat A, where the entire bottom

series
is
developed on a
of cones
The minimum equipment

extinguishers, etc.
gillnetters
is all
have no
required by law, such as fire that is carried. For the most part, accommodation for the fishermen.
Maia
Although there are no
fixed types of boats for gillnetting,
the main specifications of are given in table 1.
some Great Lakes
gillnetters
Fig. 53. This is the lines plan of Boat A in table 1, which is also shown in fig. 47. In this vessel the entire bottom was developed on a series of cones, with the primary apex just forward of station O and in line
Fig. 55,
Gilinetter, Boat C, constructed of aluminium alloy and designed for high speed, with accommodation for two
Fig. 54. Gtibetter, Boat B, being a design study and modified version of the previous figure, with a reduced height of superstructure
by the author originally for this purpose. The pilot hull, however, was converted to a handliner and is to fish as a gillnetter in the North during the summer, and as a handliner along the Gulf Coast during the winter. Constructed of aluminium alloy and welded throughout, it was designed for high speeds in rough water and to do some ice breaking. Her light weight, however, will not permit operation in thick ice. The beam was limited to 8 ft (2.44 m.) so the boat could be carried on a trailer. There is limited accommodation for two, and the engine
is aft,
operating through a V-drivc unit. Several vessels, in the near future, will be built from
with the fairbody extended from stations 2 and
3.
The
gill-
superstructure heights are normal for the average netter as are the locations of the openings. The
flat is
working
above the design waterline and, considering the team, results in a very spacious platform. This is a standard hull design and built by the Rargard Company of Marinette, Wisconsin.
same general plan but the hulls will be of steel. The complete boat will not cost more than about 94,000 (1,430). If the vessel is to be operated from one port only, cabin accommodation will be omitted, a selfdraining cockpit fitted in lieu of the foredeck, a bow roller installed, and the cabin used to stow nets and fish, during the haul, which will be moved to adjust trim while preparing for the next haul.
the
FISHING METHODS AND DECK ARRANGEMENT

in table L This is the result of a Fig. 56 is the Boat preliminary investigation of a high-speed gillnetter. This vessel has the ability to break ice up to, say, 6 in. (15 cm.) in thickness. The short superstructure reduces
OltLWBT FISHING
BoatD
0.1444 0,3000 0.5555 0.7667
05222
1.0000 0.9889 0.9444 0.8778 0,8028 0.7222
Fig. 56. Gillnetter,
Boat D, being the result of a preliminary investigation for a high-speed craft
of nets, whether for setting or after they are hauled,
the weight considerably, and is still of sufficient length to warrant the hauling of nets from inside. Setting would
spray
be from the stern, and during bad weather a lifeboat hood could be erected to advantage. The stowage
would be below decks on a fore and aft roller conveyor that passes port and starboard of the engine. This boat would cost between 82,500 and $3,500 (890 to 1,250), not including engine and equipment. Table 2 shows the sectional area of these four vessels,, and table 3 their power requirements.
WORLD
TACTICS
TAKE 4
for
to
BomtsAcmdB
Keel plate
.
BoatC
Boat
in.
on.
Stem bar
in.
*x5
19 x127
1x4
19
x102
fla flat
fx4 bulb plate

15.9x102,,
flat
in.
UxA
32x4:8
bar
bar
Longitudinal spacing
in.
9
22.9
11
on.
28
| round bar aft
15.9
flat
Chine bar
in.
round bar
.i
J round bar aft

12.7
mm.
in.
i plate forward
6.35
bar forward
4.8
mm*
Gunwhatobar
Frames
in.
2
51
s!*
in.
I|x2fxiangle
6.35 X63.5
32x63.5x6.35
14 forward
48x63.5
15 forward
Frame spacing
in.
15 forward
JL
}L
JL
cm,
in.
cm.
in.
19 midship 4o.3
61
JL
28 elsewhere
71
38 30 elsewhere 76
24aflJL
cm.
Bottom
Side
shell
in.
shell
in.
mm.
Working
flat
*4.8
!,
Jx3fir
in.
Iix6ftr
Jx3fir
mm.
in.
38x152
22x76
22x76
Superstructure
Superstructure, deck
in.
t plywood
9.5
(plywood
9.5
fir
1
mm.
beams
in.
Superstructure, deck
Ix3x
32x76x4:8
mm.
in.
x If laminated spruce and

25.4x41.3
x 21 laminated white oak

25.4x63.5
Main deck beams
2ixl*xi
mm.
Note. Boats A.
angle
63.5x32x6.35
3.2x63.5
B and
are mild steel; Boat
is
aluminium alloy 6061T-6, with a nominal chemical composition of
magnesium,
0.6%
silicon,
0.25% chromium, and 0.25% copper.
structure in steel construction again caused a stability problem, since it was not possible to build as light a
on without extensive framing. This, in turn, increased the cost out of all proportion. To counteract the effects of the increased weight and the raising of the centre of gravity, the vessels were heavily ballasted* Someof the newer hulls began to
structure which could be walked
the hulls became wider, again the V-bottom was introduced to farther reduce the initial cost This came only after welding was in general use. The riveting of a Vbottoni hull has never been economical.
Most new
gillnetters are
of
steel.
The
steel hull is
easier to maintain, does not leak, and can through the ice fields with little or no danger
be worked of punctur-
increase
ballast.
beam to offset the superstructure weight and For a number of years this was the major improvement; but as the propulsion plants became lighter,
ing or opening up. The Great Lakes, on the whole, are surrounded by metal working plants; therefore, metalworking skin is common* Numerous small plants have
170]
FISHING METHODS

and the
has
little
GILLNET FISHING
the necessary equipment a* well as a plentiful supply of skilled metal workers so that they can economically build boats either as a full-time or part-time business. The use of aluminium alloys for gtlhietter construction on the Lakes is not warranted at the present time: it is too costly and the corrosion rate of fresh water steel
vessels is very small. Lighter weight, by itself, is of no importance, in fact the greater weight of a steel gillncttcr
fines
so small that the commercial fisherman
protection against poachers. The Lakes fishermen are somewhat concerned that the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway may encourage
an advantage in winter when it is used as an ice breaker. There has been an increasing tendency to copy the yacht hull form up to the sheer line in both round and V-bottom hulls. While it is true that plate development
is
migrations of certain species of trash fish which will not improve the Great Lakes fishing. Some other problems are: (1) pollution of water by industrial plants; (2) restocking the Lakes with trout and other compatible species; (3) the expected population increase which will utilize the Lakes to their fullest; and (4) educating the population of the Lakes States to eat more fresh-water fish, rather than to import salt-water
fish.
does reduce the cost of labour in plating, the extreme to
which it is occasionally carried increases the cost of framing and requires more horsepower than is installed to
achieve the maximum hull efficiency. Unless the desired speed is in excess of IS knots, there is very little to be gained in carrying the plate development all the way to the transom. Table 4 gives the scantlings for both steel and aluminium
gillncttcr hulls.
Unless these problems are solved, gillnet fishing could ultimately be destroyed. When the catches amounted to upwards of a ton per day, the large gillnetter with great
beam was a necessity. Today, however,

is
the average catch
more
in the range of 400 or 500 Ib. (180 or
230 kg.) or
even
Engines
cost of fuel, the most popular engine the diesel, even for smaller boats. The air-cooled diesel promises to become popular in the smaller perch
is still
With the increasing
per day, so that large boats are not economical to own and operate. It would be possible in a period of, say, 20 years to stock the Lakes with trout and many other species of food fish, thus strengthening the fishing industry which, in turn, would then warrant extensive research and development of not only hull design and performance,, but of fishing methods themselves.
less
boats. It is felt by the author that the most economical engine will be between 5 and 25 h.p. Engine power varies widely in gillnetters. In the past, engines of low power were common, but due to their lighter weight and lower cost per h.p., the higher powered engines are preferable today. An increase in horsepower makes it desirable to have a hull capable of higher speeds. Unfortunately, higher speeds require a flatter and wider transom which, in turn, necessitates a fuller bow to prevent running under. The excessive beam necessary because of the vast amount of superstructure causes the half angle of entrance to become very full if any of the
Future developments
There are two possibilities for future development in Great Lakes fishing vessels. One is the one-man perch boat, with a hull of between 18 and 25 ft (5.5 and 7.6 m.), all open or at most with a small cuddy or wind break. The cost would be small, and the nets would be limited to
The other possibility is the introduction of the trawler, which would be not more than 36 to 45 ft. (1 1 to 14 m.) and would be operated by two or three men. It would be used primarily to catch trash
three or four boxes.
fish for fertilizer or mink feeding, and would sort out marketable species if market conditions warranted. Just recently there have been some developments in the 0.015 to 0.125 in. (0.381 field of welding thin material to 3.17 mm.) at high production speeds, using the inert-gas-consumable electrode. This development will be a boon to designers as well as to builders, as the rule of thumb has always dictated that the minimum economical thickness of welded material is 0.125 in. (3.17 mm.) or greater. To weld thinner material than this, highly skilled men were required and, even then, there was excessive burn-through and distortion due to the slow welding speeds necessitated by the thin plate. The use of thinner material will allow large reductions in super-
developed plating methods are used.
Problems affecting the industry Perhaps the greatest menace to fishing on the Great Lakes has been the lamprey eel. During the war years, the lamprey spread through Lake Huron and throughout the entire length of Lake Michigan. The average annual catch of trout between 1812 and 194S was over 2,500 tons, whereas today there are none in Lakes Michigan, Huron
and
eel
Erie. Unfortunately, the fight to control the
lamprey
came only after it had destroyed the trout in Lakes Michigan and Huron and had begun to spread into Lake
Superior.
The lower Lakes fishermen now concentrate on perch, chub, smelt, whitefish, herring, suckers, some carp, etc.,
but die catch does not meet the demand. Trout are still caught in Lake Superior, but they are small and of a recent stock. The only solution is the eradication of the lamprey, or at least its control, and the restocking of
trout throughout the Lakes. Poaching in the Great Lakes
is
it
structure weight, thereby permitting many refinements in hull design. This lighter material will also be feasible in
the construction of very small perch boats which would have been too heavy if constructed of 0.125 in. (3.17 mm.) steel. Heretofore, builders have been reluctant to attempt the smaller and lighter steel hulls and, when forced to build them, increased the weight of die
although there are laws against
quite common, and they are very lenient
materials to a point where the performance was unsatisfactory, or they increased the cost of construction to
[71]

uch a degree that
stccL
it
WORLD
struction
TACTICS
was no longer economical to use
In the future, the building of small perch boats will also encourage the revival of the wooden hull. Many of the boats will no doubt be built by the fishermen themselves to save money. While some are skilled in boatbuilding, the majority arc not; therefore, the hull design and construction will have to be kept simple. There is every possibility that the cross-planked hull of the Chesapeake Bay could be reintroduced to the Lakes. The system was never popular on the Lakes, which was
mainly due to not understanding the method of conand to the attempt to lighten backbone and bottom planking. This method of planking a hull could result in some very practical hull designs that would be easy to build and would not require a great deal of
lofting or carpentry is concerned. the elimination of bottom framing, it would be more economical to build than a longitudinally planked V-bottom hull, and the increased weight by cross planking would be beneficial rather than detrimental to the
knowledge as far as
By
development of the perch boats.
172]
LONGLINE FISHING: DECK DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT

by
YOSHIAKI KANASASHI
Characteristic* of tuna longliners are large fish rooms and fuel oil capacity. Electric welding, light alloys and new insulating material! have reduced ships* weights considerably, and engine room arrangements have been improved. Accurate navigation instruments are used to ensure safe voyages and economic operation. Excellent insulation materials and refrigeration equipment are used to preserve the freshness of the catch. As fishing operations are carried out in tropical waters, improvements in the living quarters are constantly sought. Overseas bases have recently been established for vessels fishing far-distant grounds.
EQUIPEMENT DE PONT POUR LA PECHE AUX PALANGRES

Les thoniers-palangriers sont caract&isfe par un grand espace itservd i la <le et une grande (apacit6 pour Carburant. Lasoudure electrique, les aliiagcs legere et les materiaux isolants ont consid&ablement reduit le poids des navires, ct les dispositions de la salle det machines ont 6tt ameliories. Pour assurer des voyages sftrs et un fonctionnement economique, on utilise des instruments de navigation precis. Pour preserver la fraicheur de la peche on utilise d'excellents materiaux isolants et des installations frigorifiques et de conditionnement de Fair.
Comme
les
emmtaagements pour
operations de peche ont lieu dans des men tropicales, on recherche constammont des ameliorations a apporter aux le logement. Recemment, on a 6tabli des bases outrc-mer pour les navires ptehant sur des lieux tres Ooignes.
LA PESCA CON PALANGRES: EQUIPO Y FORMA DE LA CUBIERTA

Los atuneros se caracterizan por la gran capacidad de sus bodegas y de sus tanques de combustible. La soldadura ettctrica, las ateaciones Jigeras, y los materiales aislantes ban reducido considerablemente el peso de los barcos y se ha mejorado la distributi6n de la
maquinaria en la sala de maquinas. Se emplean instmmentos de navegacion de precisi6n para asegurar que los viajes se haran sin novedad y que el fundonamiento sera econ6mico. Se emplean excelcntes materiales aislantes, equipo de refrigeraci6n y de aoondicionainiento de aire para mantener las frescura de la pesca. Como la pesca se realiza en aguas tdrridas, se trata constantemente de mejorar los alojamientos. Ultimamente se ban estableckk? bases lejos del Japon para los barcos que pescan en caladeros muy distantes.
JAPANESE
tuna fishing has moved from coastal waters to the deep sea, the size of the ships has increased, and the equipment has been much im-
provide comfortable accommodation for the crew. And, of course, keeping the catch fresh is of prime importance.
proved, although more improvement is still desirable. The largest tuna longlincr in 1941 was ISO GT, with a maximum cruising range of 5,000 sea miles, but the ships today range up to 1,900 GT, capable of voyages of
23,000 sea miles. Tuna are caught mainly by two types of vessel, namely, longliners and combination boats. Longliners are built of wood or steel, most boats of 100 to 1,900 GT being of steel. Combination boats are suitable for both longline and pole-line fishing; the pole-line season for tuna being
short, this type
FISHING GEAR
Longlining is the best method for catching tuna at a depth of 260 to 525 ft. (80 to 160 m.). Large catches can be made at low cost, and it can be carried out on any
of boat
is
limited to 300
GT.
There are three types of operation: single boat, group,
and from a base abroad. Mostly it is single boat, but group operation 'was started about 1950 'on distant grounds, using a mothership to service the catcher boats. For the third type of fishing, there are shore bases near
the fishing grounds.
so longline fishing trip lasts three to four months, the boats must be very seaworthy, of good stability, and
according to the capital invested. Layout and construction of the fishing gear is shown in fines fig. 57, 58, and 59. The principal items are main (cotton or nylon yarn), branch lines (cotton or nylon yarn) and hooks. Auxiliary tools are buoy lines, buoys set of unit (glass balls), bamboo rods and lamp buoys. line is 650 to l,30p ft. (200 to 400 m.) long, with branch lines about 100 ft (30 m.) long, all coiled and stacked in a basket when not in use. The number of branch tines per unit line varies according to the species of fiih to be caught: 5 to 6 for bluefin tuna, and 12 to 13 for albacore. longline consists of 350 to 400 sets of unit fines, giving the main fine an overall length of 50 to 75 mites (80 to 120km.). The depth of hooks is adjusted by the booy fine to meet the swimming shoals, and is about 35 to
scale,
[73]

120 ft. (11 to 37 m.) for bhtefin tuna and 180 ft. (55 m.) for albacore. Some fishermen now UK radio buoys to
prevent tontine* from being snapped or carried away.
WORLD
The
TACTICS
on
by a conveyor to the die poop deck, and
longlines are then carried
port side and stowed in a housing the day's work is finished.
Fig. 57. Longllne layout
Before departure the owners of longliners collect as much data as possible concerning the fishing grounds, mainly by radio from other boats at sea, and the longliner master is given an approximate target area. The boats as they approach the area indicated begin to measure the sea water temperature, because tuna live in definite temperatures, and in particular near the current rip where warm and cold currents meet and plankton are produced. Every morning at dawn the unit lines are joined with metal couplings, the hooks are baited with frozen sauries, and the sets are cast into the sea from the stern at 8 to 9 a.m., the speed of the boat being about 8 knots. The line is
Fig. 59.
Lamp buoy
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
Larger boats are not necessarily more profitable but, because catches have declined in the pre-war fishing areas, larger boats have been built to increase the cruising range and they have been provided with more refrigerating capacity.
LdmaBuov
JML
Fig. 58. Longltne construction
Fit. 60. LoHflir* fitkixg boat
a rate of about 100 sets of unit lines an hour. The boat drifts until about 1 1 a.m., when it comes around to the end of the line which was first thrown out and starts to haul with the line hauter. The fish come up through an
cast at
opening in the bulwark to the deck, where they are gutted,
washed and prepared for freezing or
ice storage.
and from the a inothership system has been introduced. Fig. 60 is a sketch of a fishing boat, and the general layouts of 250 and 1 ,000 GT boats are shown in fig. 61 and 62. The 250 GT vessel
sailing to
fresh,
To economize in the time spent
grounds, and to keep the catch
[74]
FISHING METHODS
LONGLINE FISHING
BO ft
e
Fig. 61.
General arrangement of 250
GT tuna longtiner
hold
is
has a waterline length of 122.S ft. (37.34 m.), breadth of 22.31 ft. (6.8 m.) and depth of 10.99 ft. (3.35 m.) and is powered by a 550 h.p. engine. The 1,000 GT vessel has a waterline length of 196.6 ft. (59.9 m.), breadth of 36.1 ft. (11 m.) and depth of 17.39 ft. (5.30 m.) and is powered by a 1,500 h.p. engine.
craft, the
divided into 6 to 12 small compartments
for crushed ice storage,
and a
large
compartment for
fish
Holds Holds are divided into 3 to 5 compartments. In a boat with small refrigerating capacity, such as the combination
storage, each cubic foot of which can hold about 34.3 Ib. of tuna fish (0.55 ton/cu. m.). In flush-deck boats, the hold is sometimes located aft of the engine room. Two longitudinal partition boards and one or two shelves are inserted into each fish hold. bilge well and suction pipe are fitted in each hold, the bilge being emptied by a pump in the engine room, or by a hand pump on the deck. The ice needed is 0.5 tons per ton of fish to be
Ftf.62.
[75]
FISHING BOATS OF
cooled.
Tl
The bah
i saury and squid. Details of freezing arc given in the paper "Tuna freezing" on
Friction multi-plate fine haulers are most widely used, but tome fishermen prefer the hydraulic coupling type. Two sets of line haulers are placed in tandem forward on the starboard side, with motors aft of the forecastle. There are side rollers on the bulwarks so that the hooked
Crew
50 55 60 70
One
ropes.
the loads being hauled
or two sets of derrick posts are erected on deck, by winches with drum-wound
Conveyors are used to carry both gear and catch.
Accommodation
Large crews are carried, especially on combination boats, and accommodation is inadequate, but designers are paying more attention to this problem. Table 5 gives the number of crew for various sizes of boats. Air conditioning is desirable for men working in tropical waters, but not many boats are so equipped. Mechanical ventilation is common on large longliners, (ceiling heights are limited to 6.2 to 6.9 ft. or 1 .9 to 2. 1 m. to lower the centre of gravity) and air conditioning and other facilities are beginning to be installed on many
smaller boats.
Fig. 63.
Schematic towing arrangement for a catcher boat on a mothersMp often than 1,000 GT
fish
can be pulled up to the deck. Lines are stored on the boat deck or aft of the poop deck. The gear is carried by
conveyor belt to its storage place aft. Memberships store equipment used in the catcher boats (Yagi, 1955).
Boats for single operation These are mostly in the 250 to 350 GT class and appear to be most economical and efficient for the time being. Ships under 300 GT are all of the flush-deck type, while those over 350 GT often have a long poop deck. Every boat has a freezing chamber located forward of the deck
TABLE 6
Principal
partiadm of wood an
Aluminium
Wood
52.5ft. 12.1ft. 5.4ft.
^% ___
Length, .*..<-
Depth, D
JBratatn,
L a
<
Gross tonnage,
OT
.
46.5ft. (14.20m.)11.8ft. (3.60m.) 5.25ft. (1.60m.) 19.80
(16.00m.) (3.70m.) (1.65m.)

19.50
Main engine
Fig. 64.
Lifting arrangement for
a catcher boat on a mother-ship of more than 1,000 GT
Air compressor Generator . Line hauler Wireless equipment

Speed, light, at 110% engine -load, knots,
3 h.p. hot bulb
3kW
90h.p. diesel 3 h.p. hot bulb
3kW
10
W short wave
phone
9.08
Small type
10
W short wave
phone
9.42
Small type
wireless
wireless
Foremast booms and detachable davits sat used for loading and unloading on both longliners and combination boats. Another method is to run three strands of wire, with triangular rings, from the foremast through hatchways, and to use a block and tackle at the warping nd of the windlass.
Speed, loaded, at
engine load, *
^~
Lightweight, ton Fish hold capacity
8JQ1 7.40 16.10 16.40 530 cu. ft (15.0cu.m.) 360 cu. ft. (10.3
own.)
176]
FISHING METHODS
house or the poop, bat the refrigerating capacity of the flush-deck type is kept below 4 tons per day because of
the limited space.
boat is arrangement plan shown in fig, 65, having the below principal particulars:
LONOLINE FISHING of a 216 GT combination
MothersWp opcratkm
Boats smaller than 1,000 GT have no deck space to carry a catcher boat, but it is towed as shown in fig. 63. Derrick post booms and a winch are installed aft, and the stern is strengthened. Boats larger than 1,000 GT carry one or more catcher boats on each side of the deck as shown in fig. 64. This type of boat has two rigid derrick booms and four units of 3 to 5 ton winches, so that catcher boats are hauled with drum-wound ropes, the deck being reinforced and provided with rigid rope-winding equipment. All motherships have long poops and engines aft, with a freezing room forward of the poop. Crew accommodation is aft of the poop and the deckhouse.
L =108.3 ft. (33m.) B =2L65ft. (6.6m.)
D=ll
ft. (3.35m.) Engine 650 h.p.
The hold space of

larger, as
it is
longliners is 20 to 40 per cent, not divided into small compartments.
Half the number of crew is needed, and living quarters can be provided on the upper deck.
Some 30 to 40 per cent, more fuel can be carried, which extends the cruising range.
Larger boats of this type can be built so that freezing equipment can be installed and longer voyages made. Table 7 compares boats of nearly equal dimensions.
10
y
*
*
Fig. 65.
ill
Am.
General arrangement of a combination tuna longliner and skipjack pole and line fishing boat
Catcher boats must be seaworthy. To ensure easy operation without sacrificing stability, many difficult problems confront naval architects: the rolling period should be long; the speed should be more than 8 knots at full load condition, and it should be possible to handle 200 to 250 sets of lines. The weight of catchers should also be reduced. At present, they are built of wood or to lighter light alloy, but study of this problem may lead boats. Table 6 compares the wood and light alloy types.
MAIN SPECIFICATIONS AND CONSTRUCTION

The Japanese Government issues fishing licences for certain fixed GT, so that shipowners tend to build the
largest ships possible within the
based on
maximum
GT allocated to them, loading capacity, cruising range and
speed. Relations between
grow t<*m*ge (Gl), critic orator (CN) and feagth (LBP) The relations between GT-CN and GT-LBP are shown in fig. 66 and 67 respectively. The relation between GT-CN can be expressed by the foliowing equations:
Longiiner, poop-deck type
._
ud combination boats
and
it is difficult
These boats have
different functions
to
compare
their
merits and disadvantages. The
general
GT=(0.00906 to 0.00920) xCN(cu. (OJ2 to <U23)xCN (cu. m,)
ft)
[77]
WORLD
TACTiCS The relation between GT and LBP can be expressed by

:
Hie following equations:

Longliner, poop-deck type
300 to 600
GT
LBP LBP
(m.)=(5.60to
600 to 2,000
(ft.)=(18.37 to 19.03) x-^GT 5.80)
GT
x^GT
(m.)=
(ft.)=(19.36 to 19.52) x-^GT (5.90 to 5.95)x^GT
Longliner, flush-deck type
Below 600
GT
LBP
(m.)=
(ft.)=(19.03 to 19.52) x-^GT (5.80 to 5.
Combination boat
Below 300
GT
LBP
(m.)=
(ft.)=(17.39 to 18.37) (5.30 to 5.60)
UftfaO
Fig. 66.
Relation between gross tonnage

longliners
and cubic number for
and combination boats
Relations between depth (D),
bean
(B), draught (T)
and
LBP
For motherships, carrying one or more catcher boats, allowance must also be made for catchers and the stability when lifting them. The location of freezing rooms must, also be considered. With the recent trend towards increasing the weight of fittings, the value of has been gradually enlarged, making the breadth corre-
KG
spondingly larger.
shows the values of beam (B) and depth (D) against LBP, which can be expressed by the following
Fig. 68
Longliner, flush-deck type
equations:
GT=0.00850xCN
(cu.
ft.)
LBP
B
164
ft.
(50 m.) (about 600
GT)
to 9.51) to 2.9)
=0.30xCN(cu. m.)
Combination boat
(ft.)-0.11
LBP+(10.17
(m.)=0.11
LBP+
(3.1
LBP>J64ft. (50m.)
GT=*0.00734xCN (cu. ft.) -0.295 xCN(cu. m.)
B
[78]
(ft.)-0.20
LBP-3.61
(m.)-0.20 LBP-1.10
FISHING METHODS
LONGLINE FISHING
Fig. 69.
Relation between light weight

liners
and cubic number for ana combination boats
long-
Weights and longitudinal c*otre of gravity (LCG)

Fig. 67.
Relation between gross tonnage and length for longliners and combination boats
Light weights are weights in fig. 70.
shown against CN, in fig.
69,
and hull
LBP<il64ft. (50m.)
D
D
,600 cu. ft. (1,800 cu. m.) (about 600 Light weight (ton)=(0.0102 to 0.0093) x
2.95)
CN (cu. ft)
m.)
GT)
(ft.)=0.068 LBP-K3.61 to (m.)=0.068LBP+(l.l to
=(0.36 to 0.33) XCN
(cu.
0.90)
LBP>164ft. (50m.)
LBP+(1.64 (m.)=0.080 LBP+(0.50
(ft.)=0.080
to 1.31) to 0.40)
CN>63,600
cu. ft. (1,800 cu. m.) Light weight (ton)=(0.0093 to 0.0076)
xCN (cu. ft.)

(cu.
=(0.33 to 0.27) xCN
m.)
Values of B/D range between 1.95 and 2.30, usually between 2.0 and 2.1. In the standard design, draught is equal to 85 per cent, of depth, the block coefficients being about 0.66 to 0.70.
3,600 cu.
Steel hull
ft. (1,800 cu. m.) weight=(0.0051 to 0.0038) xCN (cu. ft.) (cu. m.) =(0.18 to 0.135)
xCN
CN>63,600
cu.
ft.
(1,800 cu. m.)
Steel hull weight =(0.0038 to 0.0037)
xCN (cu.
(cu.
ft.)
r
jtL
UMQ Nftritap
(ton)
=(0. 1 35 to
steel hulls,
0. 1 30)
x CN
m.)
Weights of
deck planks, insulation, equip-
ment and fittings, and machinery are given in table 8 in the form of percentages of the light weight. The longitudinal centre of gravity in light condition is aft of midship, due to the position of the engines. It was
**
o
Long
* *
tfrif
Tlrn
Fig. 68.
13^
***
rtth and depth and length for longltncrs and combination boats
Fig. 70.
Relation between hull tteel
longwiers ana
--*
md cubic mmber fir
[79]
PISHING BOATS OF THE
WORLD
TACTICS
UiPllRD
Fig. 73.
Relation between volume offish room, fuel oil and fresh water and cubic number for longliners
""
"LM "*
length for
of boat but, in general, the following equations are valid where T is the mean draught of the boat:
Fig. 77. Admiralty constant
lonfliners
and froude number versus and combination boats
KB=(0.55
to 0.56)
BM, BM,
light condition =(0.085 to

full
0.090)B'/T load condition =(0.090 to 0.095)B'/T
3 per cent.
boats.
LBP aft of midships in the immediate post-war
longitudinal centre of gravity is now 7 to 8 per cent. LBP aft of midships owing to the increased weight of machinery in the engine room, weight of general outfit in living quarters and a decrease in the weight of
With 250 to 350

to maintain a
in the
The
GM
GT ships, every effort should be made

of
1.31 to 1.64
ft.
(0.40 to 0.50 m.)
most unfavourable conditions. With larger boats, the difficulty is lessened by their breadth.
i^jMÔQy
heat insulating materials.
machinery and
outfit
The increased weight of the means that the value KG/D is
etc
raised to 0.87 to 0.89 against a previous value of 0.80 to 0.82. The maximum displacement of small boats is on the
on the large boats over 500 centre of gravity varies according to the load in the holds. At full load it is higher than in light condition, and when the fuel oil in the doubleoutward
cruise,
and of
GT
homeward cruise. The
large to give a high speed, so that fish can be landed fresh and command better prices. But, with the development of refrigerating facilities, the question of sailing speed needs to be re-examined. Fig. 71 shows the maximum values of V/VL and A i/f V'/BHP against LBP at the time of trials.
The main engines should be
bottom tank
is
consumed, counter-measures should be

ballast, to get better stability.
Fish
room
capacities
taken, such as using water
The
of
in
relation
between
CN
and
and the
total
hold volume
fish holds, fuel oil

fig.
fresh water tanks as
shown
MeUceotre The height of the metacentre
varies according to the type
72 may be expressed as follows: Total volume (cu. ft)=0.50 CN-1,766
(cu.m.)=0.50CN-50
f
t
s
Pig, 72.
Insulation,
%
. .
Cork only
^
Motion
volume offish room and *uHc number for
Oufcttrf !0ex
16 to 17 JO to II
15 to 19 13 to 15
17 to 18 11 to 12
19 to 22
15 to 22
EOtnflMXMOt
AttGl fiw*
.
.
y,%
11(013
15 to 18 13 to 15
190}
FISHING METHODS
LONGLINE FISHING
TABU
9
bination boats.
-tare
The hold
capacity
may be
expressed as
follows:
Fish
Fig. 74.
room
(cu. ft.)=0.24
CN-8,823
Relation between ratio bait hold/ice hold and cubic number for combination boats before and after World War II
(cu.
m.)=0.24
CN-25
equipment was
shows the relation between CN and the fish hold capacity of longliners which may be computed from the
Fig. 73
Ratios of bait tanks to ice hold were 0.6 to 0.8 before
World War
II,
when no
refrigerating
following equation
123,600 cu. ft. (3,500 cu. m.) (about 1,200 GT): Fish room (cu. ft.)=0.375 -3,531
CN
provided, but nowadays most boats have such equipment, and hold space is reduced so that the ratio is about 0.8 to 1 .0. Fig. 75 shows the capacity of the bait hold and ice hold space against gross tonnages.
(cu.
m.)=0.375CN-100
ft.
Tank
capacities
CN> 123,600 cu.

Fish
room
(3,500 cu. m.) (cu. ft.)=0.13 CN+31,070
Fig. 76 shows the freshwater in relation to gross tonnages.
(cu.
m.)=0.13CN+880
and
limit the space
varies
and fuel oil tank capacities The amount of freshwater according to the number of crew and navigation
(cu. ft.)=(l .94 to 3.00)
(cu.
days, but in general,
Refrigerating facilities are installed for the fish hold.
Water
x GT
m.)=(0.055 to 0.085) XGT
74 shows the relation between the hold capacity ice holds) and CN, and also the ratio of the bait hold capacity to the ice hold capacity and CN for comFig.
(bait
and
75.
Relation between volume of bait hold and gross tonnage for combination boats before and after Werld Warll
Fig. 76.
Relation between volume of freshwater and gross jfr longUners and combination boats
WORLD
TACTICS
TABLE
11
MS
Cross tons
of beats
Total
GT
230 350 700
1,000 1,500
150 200 400 500

1,000
that,
50 per cent, by the use of superchargers, with the result without sacrificing hold space, higher speed and longer voyages have become possible. The relations of
gross tonnage to
10.
Fig. 77.
main engine power
are
shown
in table
Main
engine output
of longliners
There is a tendency towards an increase in these figures. Fuel oil (cu. ft.)(12.36 to 15.89)xGT
(cu.
Engines are expected to run at full speed when a shoal of tuna is found, but at only 4 knots when hauling lines. Very low revolutions are kept for a long time, with clutches in and out. The engines must have the durability to
m.)=(
0.35 to
0.45)
xGT
stand continuous running for
six
months without
The main engine output of

fig.
77,
and the radius of action
longliners is shown in is given in table 9.
overhauls.
Construction
is generally used, riveting being employed only for the seams of bilge plates and deck stringer angles, etc. Section building is being widely adopted and construction time has been shortened remarkably. Slamming in the aft engine type of boat is a serious
Electric welding
The majority of screws are of the 4-blade, fixed-blade type and made of manganese bronze. Controllable-pitch propellers are operated from the wheel house by electric, hydraulic or rod systems. Main engines are controlled from the bridge on some
large
safety,
longliners.
is
remote control
With controllable-pitch propellers, believed to contribute much towards
high speed and accuracy of operation.
problem, and engineers are strengthening various parts more than specified in the regulations, although further
studies are necessary.
Auxiliary engines
Longliners often cannot be docked for six months or

longer, and their shell plating is badly fouled, so the sandblast vinyl coating process was introduced to protect the
hull.
After World War II, the power of auxiliary engines increased because of the adoption of freezing systems and the increase in cargo capacity. Three generators are
MACHINERY
Main engines Main engines
are 4-stroke, airless injection diesels.
The
power of the engines has recently been increased by 30 to
running in parallel, to supply electric power on 1,000 GT. exceeding ships Alternating current has been adopted to meet increased demands, and it has resulted in reduced costs, more from shore flexibility of voltage, ability to take power maintenance. easier and supplies, Table 1 1 shows the relation between gross tonnage and total horsepower of auxiliary engines.
installed,
Other apparatus
TABLE 10
Nonul
Gross tonnages
iae
of
GT
Main engine
h,p.
Wireless. Communication with the land and with other ships is necessary to ensure safety, detect shoals of in fish fish, and to obtain information about fluctuations 12. For comprices, etc. Particulars are given in table munication between mother and catcher boats, 2-MC
250 350 700

1,000 1,500
500 650
1,200 1,500 1,800
wireless telephones are installed. 10 Radar. With automatic position finders and gyro-
compasses
factorily.
it is
functioning well.
(fish finders).
Echo sounders
These operate very
satis-
182]
FISHING METHODS
TABLE 12

The
Magnetic compass
LONGLINE FISHING
electro-hydraulic system is used on most ships. pilots and remote controls are used in
Item
Transmitter
Before
War
After
War
navigation for longer voyages. Table 13 shows the relation between gross tonnage and steering engine power*
Type
Self-exciting
Pre-tuned crystal control
system
Powerx units
Auxiliary transmitter
100to300Wxl
None
4-valve auto-
lOOtoSOOWxl
TABLE
13
Powcrx units
Receiving set
25to50Wxl
8- to 16-valve
Normal
of boa*
Shortwave
super-
dyne xl
heterodyne or double super xl

Ditto
4-valve
Lony and medium wave

Emergency
Dittp
xl
1,
None
autodynex
or
8-valve super set xl,
or All-wave set xl
Tube and electric thermometers are hold to maintain the proper temperature, and indicators in the engine room enable the engineers to regulate the temperature by means of
Thermometers.
installed in each
expansion valves.
Steering
devices.
is
Steering
angles
are
manoeuvring
frequent
when tuna boats
large and are fishing.
Anemometers, logs, helm indicators, tachometers, exhaust air thermometers and other electrical measuring instruments are used on tuna boats. Lifeboats or liferqfts for ten persons were at one time required, irrespective of the number of the crew, but today the law stipulates that fishing boats must have sufficient lifeboats or rafts for the entire crew. As there is little space for lifesaving appliances, liferafts of the
self-expansion type are generally used.
1831
POLE AND LINE FISHING: DECK DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT

by
SHOGO MURAMATSU
important fishing methods in Japan is by pole and line. The boats differ in construction, equipment and installation species they catch: skipjack, mackerel and squid. This paper deals with particular features of these boats, i.e. the fishing method and the resultant deck design, especially the <* water-crinkling device, but tank, electric equipment, steering arrangements and fish hold.
One of the
dopendingon the
EQUIPEMENT DE PONT POUR LA PECHE A LA LIGNE AVEC UNE CANNE

La pAche & la ligne avec une cannc est une des principales m&hodes utilisees au Japon. Les navires different dans leur construction, Icur 6quipement et fair installation selon les especes pdchees: bonite & vcntrc ray, maquereau et calmar. Gette communication traite des caract6ristiques particulieres de ces navires, c*est-&-dire la methode de peche et 1'dquipement de pont qiti en dtooute, sptriatement le dispositif de projection d'eau, le vivier & app&t, T^quipement dlectrique, les dispositifs pour gouverncr et la cale & poisson.
LA PESCA CON CAN A Y LIN A: EQUIPO Y FORMA DE LA CUBIERTA

La pesc* con la cana y lifla reviste gran importancia en el Jap6n. La forma de las cmbarcaciones, el equipo y la instalaci6n varian segun se pesque barrilete, caballa o calamar. Trata esta ponencia de caracteristicas determinadas de las embarcaciones, por ejemplo: el mtodo de pesca y las formas que hay que dar a las cubiertas para practicario, especialmente el sisterma de chorrillos de agua, los viveros, el equipo el&trico, los sistemas de gobierno y ia bodega de pescado.
fishing in Japan goes back thousands of bones of skipjack being found in shell years, SKIPJACK* mounds of the Stone Age. It is thought that in those days they were caught with the bare hands when a fish school swam towards the shore. Later they were caught with bone hooks, or with horn or bone spears.
GT, respectively, with 2, 4 and 6 days fishing respectively. The duration of the trips also depends, of course, on the distance to and from the fishing ground, and
100
necessary provisions
fuel, fresh water, ice, bait, etc.
Up to the Edo era (1603 to 1868), the skipjack came very near to the shore and fishing was done from conventional sail or row fishing boats of small size. In the Meiji era, from 1868 to 1912, skipjack migrated more offshore, so larger boats were required. Mechanisation began in 1903. Modern boats have a fishing platform all around the bulwarks, and a huge bow platform. More than onethird of the hold has no buoyancy when used for bait, because it is open to the sea through the bottom. The skipjack fishing fleet, including boats for tuna
longline and skipjack pole and line fishing numbered, at the end of 1954, 1,263 vessels of over 20 GT, the total gross tonnage being 142,892 and the average 113 GT. Hie average power was 233 h.p. The total catches of the fleet amounted to 1 14,000 ton. The trips last, according to the size of the boats, from 5, 10 to 12 days for fishing craft of 20, 50 and over
ice vary according to the degree of insulation of the fish hold and size of the refrigeration plant. Some attempts have been made to reduce the heavy work of angling from fishing platforms and also to decrease the large crew. The purse seine was assumed to be the best alternative method, and more than ten boats were constructed with a large space aft, the engine forward, and without the fishing platforms. These purse seiners all proved a failure, however, and were converted
must be carried accordingly. The quantities of
into the traditional type.
FISHING
METHOD
Katsuwowu pclamis
Sarda
oriental!*
(Linne).
Euthynmu
affinis yaito
(Temminick at
Schiefel),
and
Before leaving port all possible information is gathered on the presence of the fish schools. sharp look-out is kept at sea, the temperature and colour of the water are examined, and trolling tests made to detect the schools. The best time for finding fish if about sunrise, and they seem to bite best in the morning. In general, more fish are caught in cloudy weather than in fine, and there are more chances of detecting than during A change of weather and after the passage of small cyclones.
[84]
FISHING METHODS
Fiih arc apt to

when
the
POLE AND LINE FISHING
come to
the surface
wind drops,
biting fish arc usually found in dear, tidal waters. Upon detecting fish, the boat sails in the direction of the school, its formation and movement being assessed by trolling. If it is satisfactory, live bait is chummed while sailing slowly ahead. When the school rises to the bait,
and
When hooking, every possible care is taken not to impair the vitality of the live bait. Sardines axe usually hooted in the collar-bone, but other fish in the backr neck, nose or eye, according to species and size. The rod
is
the boat stops with
its
fishing side to leeward.
operated to permit die bait to swim freely in the water* the school disperses, fishing is abandoned a new school sought. school normally gives from 10 min. to 2 hr. fishing, and in a few exceptional cases it can last for a whole day.
When
md
Fishing to leeward gives the forward fishing lines more range, the constant tension in the lines preventing their entanglement. When the fish are abundant and biting
well, the fishing platforms
Fishing gear
is quite simple, being merely a bamboo pofer 15 to 20 ft. (4.5 to 6 m.) long, fitted with a hemp or cotton line 1 to 1.5 ft. (0.3 to 0.45 m.) shorter than the pole*
This
on both
sides of the boat
can
be used. The crew are assigned duties as anglers, chummers and bait carriers. The chummers are experienced and skilled fishermen who throw bait into the sea from boxes at the bow, stern and midship to attract the fish towards the boat and keep them there. Less experi-
enced fishermen distribute live bait from the bait tanks to the bait boxes for the chummers. Skilled young anglers
are posted at the bow, as shown in fig. 78.
The bait hook is 1 to 2.5 in. (25 to 65 mm.) long, and hat no barb because a large number of fish are caught in a short time and have to be rapidly released from the hook. The centre of the jig hook is made of horn, or whale bone, and wrapped with a feather.
Handling the catch on board
best and the most generally adopted way of storing 9 skipjack during a 10 days trip is to keep them in a light brine at about 32F (0C), which prevents drying and damage by pressure. The catches piled up on deck should be stored immediately, to avoid exposure to the sun.
and older anglers
at the stern,
The
When
quick storing is not possible, constant sprinkling with sea water as well as protection from the sun are
necessary. The bait carriers, when they are not carrying bait, kill the live skipjack and wash them with sea water. When the bait tanks are emptied they are cleaned and
fish
Fig. 78.
Skipjack pole and line fishing with skilled young anglers posted at the bow and older anglers at the stern
used as fish holds. The holds are partitioned off so that can be stored by size. After all catches have been stored, they are covered with rough hemp or cotton cloth, bamboo hurdles, and cement weights, to avoid damage by the rolling of the vessel.
AJbacore fishing
conceal the shadows of the boat and crew and to with increase the effect of baiting, sea water is sprayed live bait has been the where sea the over sprinklers chummed, so as to make the surface seem alive with small
To
fish.
Each angler has a fishing rod, with live or artificial bait, and he fishes either standing or sitting. Sitting gives a good balance to the body but restricts action, so that,
except when the boat is rolling heavily, the standing the rod, position is usually assumed. The angler holds set in a rod-holder attached to his waist, and the moment he feels a bite he jerks it up and catches the fish under his left arm to remove the hook. Some men swing the fish
season for albacore in Japan is normally combined with skipjack fishing because the two species are generally found in the same areas. Therefore, skipjack vessels, during the albacore season make preparations to catch both, because albacore are very valuable for the export market. The gear used for albacore is stronger than for
line fishing starts at the
The pole and
end of July. This
on board and by a whipping motion of the lines release the hook with a snatch as the fish lands on deck. The latter method is used mainly with artificial bait. artiFishing efficiency can be greatly improved with ficial bait, which can be used when the skipjack are biting very freely. Enough live bait must be thrown out to keep the school from dispersing. When the biting becomes
less active,
and line. For albacore two anglers work together, each with a pole having joined lines. The hooked fish is lifted on board between the two anglers. Otherwise the method is practically the same as for skipjack. The maximum size of fish which can, be lifted by a single angler is about 24 Ib. (11 kg.), whereas two anglers can handle 42 to. (19 kg.). Bigger fish have to be lifted on board with a
skipjack, particularly the pole
gaff hook.
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
far out in
Fishing operations for skipjacks and albacore take place deep water and often in a high swdl, so the
Hve instead of artificial bait
is
used.
hulls
must be strong and seaworthy. Moreover, as the
[85}

crew often
WORLD
2
is
TACTICS
good
cm one side of the vessel, it must have The majority of the wooden skipjack boats range from 30 to ISO GT* Steel vessels are mostly of the 1 50 to 1 SO GT daw.
fish
stability.
the ice holds
Since most of the skipjack fishing boats are also used for tima in its season (spring and summer) they must have a food cruising range and a speed of 9 to 10 knots to operate all the year round in far distant fishing grounds and facilitate a large number of voyages.
divided into 9 to 12 compartment*, with on both sides and bait tanks in the centre. Each compartment has a deck hatch. No special fishing deck gear is required, except piping and the fishing platforms.
The hold
Their effective width
is
about 21.7
in.
have 17.8
in.
(45 cm.) high benches.
(55 cm.) and they Knee the bow is
B-
i
Fig. 79.
General arrangement of skipjack and tuna clipper where no special fishing deck gear
is
required
Because of the limited angling time, it is essential to have a large crew for whom accommodation must be provided Boats of 20 to 50 GT carry on an average a crew of 30; 50 to 100 GT boats 45; and boats of over 100 GT, about 55 fishermen. As shown in fig. 79, the boats usually have the engine aft, hold forward, and the deck house above the engine room* large number of the crew are accommodated in two cabinsone forward, and the other aft of the engine room.
most suitable for fishing, the platforms in this area are designed to accommodate as many fishermen as possible, to withstand heavy waves, to dnabte the anglers to keep in contact with thoee on the other side, and to allow the fish to slide to the deck. Turbine pumps, belt-driven from the main or auxiliary engine, are used for the water sprinkling system. The diameter of the pump discharge pipe is 5 in. (127 mat)
on bays boats; 4 in. (102 mm.) on vessels of medium sue and 1.3 in. (33 mm.) for those of smaller size. The
1*6}
FISHING METHODS
AND DECK ARRANGEMENT ~ POLE AND

A
LINE PISHING
sprinkler pipe is usually laid over two-thirds of the length of the boat, the diameter decreasing towards the stern. Hie distance between the sprinkler nozzles is approximately 13.8 in. (350 mm.) at the bow, 15.8 in. (400 mm.)
at the stern
ships.
5 generator supplied electricity for deck and cabin lights, navigation and flood lights. second 5
kW
kW
installed for battery-charging equipment,, radio, direction finders, Loran and fish finders.
generator
is
and
On some
vessels the
19.6 to 35.5 in. (500 to 900 mm.) midpump is controlled from the
fig.
Hold
bridge.
80 shows a section of fishing platform and the water sprinkler machinery.

Fig.
81
The main hold is divided into many small its. There are two longitudinal bulkheads to give one row along each side for the ice containers and a centre one for the bait tanks, as shown in fig. 79. On the outward
<
voyage the containers ait
filled
and the tanks with

Sprinkler
live bait;
with block or crushed ice whereas on the homeward
voyage
all
are used to hold
fish.
capacity, type and location of live bait tanks have an important influence on fishing operations. The tanks are generally partitioned to keep the bait quiet and to
The
prevent excessive water movement. The sea water in the tanks is circulated by power or naturally. Power circulation requires large pumps, costly piping and an auxiliary power unit; so this method is rarely used. With natural circulation, the sea water enters freely through valves in the bottom of the ship. These valves are plugged
Ftf. SO. Fishing platform
Sea water circulates through the bait tank on deck, supplied by a turbine or centrifugal pump in the engine room. The diameter of the supply pipes is 3 in. (76 mm.) for large, 2J in. (63 mm.) for medium and 2 in. (51 mm.) for small boats. The same pump is also used for washing the deck. The capacities of pumps used on skipjack boats are shown in table 14.
Mate
few typical specifications are given in table IS. The is not very small, but hold capacity is huge and the
GM
amazingly small. This last characteristic is not conducive to safety. Another outstanding feature is the number of crew required and consequently accommodation is a difficult problem.
the freeboard at full load
is
Fig. 81.
Arrangement of sprinkler machinery
TABLE 14
Capacity of bait tank
Type
Turbine
Diameter
Dimensions (excluding piping) Breadth Height Length

in.
Disckarrt
r.p.m.
Head
M* mm. 2 51 ?* 76
mm.
550 660 740 795 925 785
1,000 1,165
in.
mm.
315 360 373 405 569 280 340 465
in.
mm.
405 460 480
555
(ton per hr.)
21.6 26.0
29.1 31.3
Rotiiy
102 127 76 102 127
12.4 14.2 14.7 15.9
15.9
18.1
1,700
f
5
7.5
22
35 65 95 35
&m.
59.1
16
18
18.9 21.8
36.4 30.9 39.4 45.8
22.4 11.0
13.4 18.3
24.4 13.4
19.1
214
620 340 485 570
13
6.8 12.5 17.8
60 80
65.7 65.7 65.7 65.7 65.7 65.7
20 20 B>
20
[87]
FISHING BOATS OP'TOIB

TABU
W0mU>
TACTICS
15
of skipjack
Ship'*
MyofyoMant
No. 3
Steel
Kotoshiro \faru
KaioMeru
No. 11
No. 3
Ckoei Maru No. 11
KoryoMoru
No. 2
Type of construction
Year launched
Shipyard
Principal dimensions
Wood
1951
Wood
1949
Ntehii
Wood
1950
Wood
1951
1948
Kanasashi
Goriki
Koyanagi
Yaizu
L B
ft,
(m.)
or
...
.
ft. (ai.)
101.38(30.90) 19.68 ( 6.00)

10.17 ( 3.10) 159.85
97.77 (29.80)
20.01 ( 6.10) 10.33 (3.15)
Mm.)
.
153.19
81.36(24.80) 18.04( 5.50) 9.19 ( 2.80) 97.93
74.80(22.80)
16.73 ( 5.10) 8.04 ( 2.45) 78.04
68.24 (20.80)
14.93(4.55)
7.61 ( 2.32)
61.03
Main engine (dieseJ)

Wirefeas ratonna
h.p.
320
125
430
125
210
125
210 50 50
160
pow
50
Number of avw
Capacities
65
70
57
40
Withhold
Pud oil tank

Fresh water tank
Light condition
.
cu. ft (cu. m.) cu. ft. (cu. m.) cu. ft. (cu. m.)
5,141 (145.6) 1,639( 46.4)
5,552(157.2) 1,519( 43.0)
3,581 (101.4) 816 ( 23.1)
364
10.3)
219
6.2)
258
7.3)
3,147(89.1) 619(17.5) 102 ( 2.9)
1,886(53.4)
297
138
8.4) 3.9)
Trim by item
ft.(m.) ft. (m.)
5.61 (1.71)
OM KOp LOO aft

T
A
8
.
ft.
.
(m.)
;
|L
ft.(m.)
5.18(1.58) 183.76 0.59 0.65 0.76 1.34(0.41) 0.80 1.77(0,54)
7.38 (2.25) 6.66(2.03) 218.89 0.59 0.63 0.76
6.14(1.87) 6.14(1.87)
130.91
0.59 0.63 0.77

1.61 (0.49)
1.77(0.54) 0.77
5.97(1.82)
0.82 5.25(1.60)
4.92(1.50) 4.92(1.50) 91.34 0.54 0.63 0.74 1.77(0.54) 0.88 4.72(1.44)
5.15(1.57) 5.18(1.58) 73.99 0.57 0.66 0.75

1.54(0.47) 0.85
3.18(0.97)
ft.
Trim by stern
ft.
.
to.) (m.)
ton
OM
KOJp
LCOaftiL
.
9.42(2.87) 3.15(0.96) 366.68 0.69 0.73 0.89
10.50(3.20) 4.27(1.30) 360.95 0.67 0.70 0.84
8.07 (2.46)
5.51 (1.68)
7.81 (2.38) 3.15 (0.96)
6.63 (2.02)
200.82 0.65 0.69 0.83

,.57(0.48)
171.15 0.64 0.70 0.86

1.64(0.50) 0.87
3.41 (1.04)
4.89(1.49) 108.75 0.65 0.72 0.83

2.30(0.70) 0.63 2.46(0.75)
ft.(m.)
.
.
ft.(nx)
-1. 77 (-0.54)
2.20(0.67) 0.70 3.25(0.99)
4.49(1.37)
Trial rttult
T
A
ftfm.)
ft.
.
Trim by stem
V/Max.iLp.
(m.)
5.61 (1.71) 5.91 (1 JO)
7.48 (128) 6.30(1*92)
ton
134.00 9.66/320 10.05/384
218.00 10.11/430 10.61/516
64)7(1.85) 2.62 (0.80) 123.20 8.63/210 8.76/282
5.09(1.55)
5.91 (1.80)
85.20 9.70/210 9.77/250
5.38(1.64) 6.30(1.92) 78.6 8.67/160 8.90/192
with lead or glass spigots when carrying fish. The disadvantage of natural circulation is that the tanks cannot hold a large quantity of bait, and the boat cannot anchor in muddy waters when she carries live bait. Rg. 82 and 83 show a bait tank valve as used on boats with ccSing, The total area of the valves is of the bottom area of the tank. When the bait tank is to be used to store the catdt, the water is 4ected with a rotary pump thro^h a hose with strainer. The pomp can also be used, in an emerfency, for
IMIk
are used for bait and for fish stored in a mixture of crushed ice and tea water. The ceiling is made from cedar or pine planks of the same length as the hold, 1 to L5 ft (a3 to 0.45 m.) wide, and 2 to 3 in. (50 to 75 mm.) thick. Skill is needed to make the seams
when they
and butts completely watertight. There is a reoent tendency to use plywood covered with a binding agent -+* a lining for Ash hokte, because of its water-resistant
qualities Refrigeration equipment now commonly instated in large vesaeb maintain the temperatures in the
hoklttabcmt32T(0'QandtheriiM>ntersarehutaHed
hokb imist withstand a large water head, both

[88]
having reconttng dial* in the wheelhouse.
FISHING METHODS AND DECK ARRANGEMENT POLE AND LINE FISHING FISHING METHOD MACKEREL
The
41 history of Japanese mackerel fishing can be traced bade to very remote times and it has developed remark* ably since the Edo era, when mackerel were caught by
Catching mackerel with pole and line is similar to skipjack fishing, except that the trips are shelter and a larger crew is required for mackerel. Further, the bait consists mainly of frozen sardine, saury or herring, packed in 34 Ib. (15 kg.) cases. Hie quantity of the bait is 10 per cent, of the weight of the catch expected with it Mackerel is caught by night, and boats go to the
grounds in the evening to investigate the movement of the schools with echo sounders* At the same time fish-luring lamps are hung over the side, and frozen bait is chopped and distributed to the bait boxes of each angler. The fish, attracted by the lights, come to the surface and try to bite the bait, when the fishermen, with a quick swing of the pole, hooks it indiscriminately and hauls it up.
fishing
\Sto
water vulva
Fig. 82. Section through bait
and ice hold
handlining or with nets. Handlining in those days was at night, using lights, as well as in the daytime. In recent years pole and line fishing has been introduced. Until about 1948 small boats of under 20 GT were used, from September to February, the operation being subsidiary to fishing for skipjack. Since 1951 pole and line
done
fig. 84.
Mackerel pole and line fishing boat
When fish are found in deep waters, the anglers first use hand lines and shorten them as the fish gradually come up to the surface (fig. 84). Immediately this occurs, the anglers change to pole and line, while bait Is chummed, or scattered, on the surface. Young anglers are seated in the bow with veterans aft, on both sides, facing astern. The pole is held in the outboard hand and a dipper in the other, and as the angler scatters chum with the dipper, he moves the hook bade and forth through the water, inducing the fish to bite. While keeping the boat to the wind, the master adjusts the speed so that the boat stays with the scattered bait When the school is very dense all anglers fish on one side
of the boat standing up. Bah chumming is of mq$or importance in this type of operation. The bait is brought to the anglers when they are fisfcing by four or five bait carriers on each side pf the boat, and the anglers scatter
it
.J
Fig. 81.
Sea warn tote, the total area of the valves being about one-fifteenth of the bottom area of the tank
as evenly as possible.
has been conducted all the year round with 35 to 60 GT vessels. In the southern part of Japan, boats of 100 to 135 GT are now often used.
fishing
This consists of pole, tine and hook. Hie pole is about 3 .3 to 6.6 ft. (1 to 2 rau) long; the line is made of synthetic fibre of almost the same length as the pote, with one
is also
necessary.

TABLE 16
WORLD
TACTICS
lamps, since one such lamp is required for every two generators are installed for anglers. Normally 20 this purpose on the large boats, a IS generator on boat* a 10 on small of and one medium,
kW
kW
kW
Mb*
2 in,
Discharge
51mm.
3
in.
Length Width Height 12.8 13.2m. 21.4 325 335 mm. 545
29.5
15.3 16.3 in.
4.5
02
5
to 0^8 in.
250
150 to
7.5
to7
76 nun.
750
390 415
mm.
200
0.28 to 0.36 in. 7 mm. to 9
itallation docs not differ much from that Theelccti of skipjack pole and HIM craft. However, a rather powerful generator is necessary to supply the fish-luring
Handlfe* the catch on board Three methods are used to preserve the catch namely (i) ice; (ii) chilled water and (iii) salt. With ice about 35 mackerels are packed in boxes and covered with crushed ice. In small boats, where the capacity of the hold is limited, the catch is usually preserved in chilled water; the hold being filled with sea water and having its temperature lowered by adding crushed ice before putting in the mackerel. Mackerel in ice or chilled sea water will
TABLE 17
Ship's
KyowaMaru
No. 8
Kyowa Maru
No. 5
Kyowa Maru
No. 3
Toyokuni Maru
Shomba Maru
Typo of construction
Year launched
Shipyard
.
Wood
1958
Wood
1956
Wood
1952
Wood
1950
Wood
1948
Yaizu
Yaizu
Yaizu
Yaizu
Showa
L
.
.
OT
(m.) (m.) It On.)

ft.
ft.
88.194
5.1
80.38 (24.50)
9.88 ( 3.01)
17.72(5.40) 9.02(2.75)
96.94
68.14(20.77) 15.16 (4.62)

7.58 ( 2.31)
132J1
(diesel)
64.04
64.63 (19.70) 13.98 ( 4.26) 6.17 ( 1.88) 37.48
54.89(16.73) 11.02( 3.36)

5.31 ( 1.62)
19.50
Main engine
h.p.
380
350 50
180 75
120
75
Wireless antenna power
W
cu. ft. feu. m.) cu. ft. (cu. m.) cu. ft (cu. m.)
80
60
40
32
20
29
Number of crew
Capacities
60
45
Fish hold Fuel oil tank Fnth water tank

.
3,740(105.9)
1,
052
( 29.8)
2,861 (81.0) 1,022 (28.95)
1,614(45.7)
1,052 (29.8)
795 (22.5)
251 (
7.1)
201
( 5.7)
356 (10.1) 124(3.5)
215 989
( 6.1) ( 2.8)
117(
71
3.3)
( 2.0)
Uqht condition
ft.
Trim by item
ft.
6.82(2.08) 8.60(2.62)
ton
182^4
0.61
6.43 (1.96) 6.56(2.00) 141.91 0.59
4.59(1.40)
5.31 (1.62)
4.72(1.44)
5.91 (1.80)
GM
KO/p
LCGaftiL
Full load condition
ft.(m.)
Mm.)
ft (in.) ft On.) ton
.
0.67 0.80 1.97(0.60) 0.805 7.12(2.17)
0.66 0.82
70.36 0.55 0.64 0.74 2.07 (0.63) 0.76
6.92(2.11)
60.66 0.56 0.68 0.73 1.05(0.32) 0.90 4.23(1.29)
3.64(1.11) 3.44(1.05) 33.97 0.64 0.68 0.78 0.72(0.22) 0.84 4.99(1.53)
T
Trim by stern
KO/D LOG alt *L

Tried remit
OM
8.58(2,62) 3.25(0.99) 261.33 0.66 0.71 0.87

1.87(0.57) 0.765 6.30(1.92)
'8.66(2.64) 4.13(1.26) 225.28 0.66 0.72 0.91

1.87(0.57) 0.75
6.56(2.00) 2.46(0.75) 116.3 0.65 0.70 0.83

1.67 (OJ1)
5.91 (1.80)
5.31 (1.62)
2.76(0.84)
0.61
ft (m.)
0.70 0.78 1.18(0.36)

0.81
1.51 (0.46)
0.33 (0.10) 58.86 0.70 0.73 0.84
ft (m.)
3.87(1.18)
0.79(0.24) 0.74 1.25(0.38)
Trim by stein
'
ft (at)
ft.(m.)
7.48028)
84)1 (2.44)
6.27(1.91) 5.84(1.78)
SM (1.65)
5.58(1.70)
4.99(1.
ton
20550
10.11/380 10.40/456
135J
10.27/350 10.90/420
86JO
8.90/1W
9.11/216
64.60 8JOSV120
4.59(1.40) 2.62(0.80) 4tfJO 7.44/75
V/Max
h.p.
8^6/142
7^9/90
[90]
FISHING METHODS
fish is salted.
This method, however, requires t large
drifting too much to vessel normally carries
deck space.
leeward To facilitate this, the two large spankers, as shown in fig. 85, on the mizzen matt, which prevent the rather high bow from yawing. The size of the spanker in large vessels is about one-third of the wind profile. Sometimes
also necessary for the same reason to reduce the the freeboard forward by filling the forward fish holds
it is
with water. In order to have full control of the rudder movements, the connection between rudder and wheel is by direct shaft. Some boats have recently been fitted with hydraulic
steering gear.
Bait chopper
Mackerel vessels are also fitted with a chopper driven by belt or chain from the main or auxiliary engine with
characteristics according to table 16.
Main
specifications
A
Fig. 85. control
few typical examples of mackerel boats are shown in
Mackerel pole and line fishing boat with wheelhouse aft for of operation. The vessel is also fitted with a spanker sail
table 17.
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
Most of
the small mackerel boats,
Hold design
This
up
to 30
GT,
are of
modified Japanese type incorporating foreign ideas. The boats have straight sides and bottom with a chine, providing a streamlined water flow from stem to stern. As shown in fig. 85, the wheelhouse is placed at the stern to enable the skipper to control the whole operation and see both the crew and the effect of the chumming at the same time. The wheelhouse aft also helps to keep the bow into the wind.
is practically the same as in skipjack pole and line fishing boats, the only difference being that mackerel boats have no sea water valves because live bait is not
necessary for mackerel.
SQUID
Squid is one of the most popular fish in Japan. They are caught in all the coastal waters, especially on the Pacific side, and constitute about 10 per cent, of the Japanese fish catch. The pole and line boats used for squid are mostly 6 to 20 GT, with motors ranging from 10 to 30 h.p. They are of the Japanese type, and are equipped with fish-luring lights, three such lamps being fitted on
During the
fishing operation the catch
is
collected
on
deck amidships. To prevent it from sliding astern, the deck has an upward sheer from midships to aft. Such sheering is, however, impracticable on larger vessels, so these have pond boards to stop the fish from moving
on the deck.
FieWng pUtforws These are more or
less the
same as
in skipjack boats.
The anglers generally fish in a standing position, but when the schools are not very dense they sit on fishing seats on either side of the boat, facing towards the stem. Each seat has a board which can be set up as a shelter, both from the wind and also from the bait that is being scattered by the forward anglers. The seats for mackerel
fishing are, therefore, slightly different on ikipjack boats.
from those used
With mackerel pole and line fishing, it is not necessary to sprinkle the sea with water, nor are bait tank circulation and draining needed; so pumps are only required for deck-washing and bilges. In some of the large
mackerel boats, however, motor pumps have recently been installed to unload the catch by pumping.
Fig. 86.
Squid hantf lines, with a mackerel pole and
hook*,w*h
tine
shown extreme
rig
crew of about 15 is carried. vessel. Squid fishing is also conducted in-shore from smalt open boats with one or two anglers. In peak seasons various small craft, normally used for
each side of the
other purposes join the squid fishing
fleet.
The
vessel
must be kept head to the wind without
[91]

FISHING
WORLD
TACTICS
METHOD
grounds for squid are generally found in waters 2 to 4 miks from the coast at a depth of about 20 to 75 fra. (35 to 135 m.). The squid swims nearer the surface in the summer than in winter, and it also goes to shallower water in warm weather. The fishing operafishing
Good
more sets of this gear at ooe time, and one man can catch about 1 ,000 to 1 ,500 squids hi a night.
on arrival at the ground, the and fishing starts and goes on for 1 to 3 hours. Dawn and dusk seem to be the best time for squid. The handlines are moved up and down at various depths until a "biting" depth is found. The squid is then lured to the surface by gradually shortening the lines, after which shorter handHnes are used, which increase the angling activity. Skilled fishermen can handle two or
tion itself is very simple:
vessel stops
Squid is mostly caught in the evening and before daybreak with the aid of lights. Three kinds of gear are used, namely (i) hanegu; (ii) tombo and (iii) yamade. The hanegu gear is used for squid swimming near the surface,
the tombo for those in mid water, and the yamade for those in very deep water. The hanegu gear used in Hokkaido consists of three parts, the hook, the synthetic line and the pole, as shown on the right in fig. 86. The hook itself consists of about 10 brass hooks arranged in the form of a small parasol, fastened to the line and baited
TABLE 18
Mate Type of construction

ft.
specifications of iqukl fishing boats
Wood
Wood
62.76(19.13)
13.25 ( 4.04) 6.40 ( 1.95) 32.27
Wood
ft.
OT
ft.
(m.) (m.) (m.)
68.86(20.99)
14.1
1(
7.15 ( 48.88
4.30) 2.18)
51.97(15.84) 11.68( 3.56) 5.64 ( 1.72) 19.97
Main engine
Type of main engine
h.p.
115
semi-diesel
115
semi-diesel
50
semi-diesel
Wirckw antenna pow<

Capacities
W
cu. cu. cu.
ft. ft.
ft.
35
Ftohoid
Fuel oil tank Fresh water tank
.
m.) m.) (cu. m.)
feu. (cu.
1,861 (52.7) 233 ( 6.6)
1,342(38.0)
600(17.0)
53
( 1.5)
120 32
( 3.4) ( 0.9)
64
1.8)
7(0.2)
Ufht load condition

Trim by
stern
ft. (m.) ft.(m.)

.
ton
9
.
OM
4.89(1.49) 3.48(1.06) 64.91 0.54 0.63 0.74

1.77(0.54) 0.76
4.53(1.38) 4.33(1.32) 51.64 0.56 0.62 0.77

1.71 (0.52)
KG/D
ft.
On.)
LCGaftJL
Full load condition
ft.(m.)
3.84(1.17)
0.80 4.79(1.46)
4.10(1.25) 2.69 (0.82) 24.89 0.50 0.58 0.73 1.15(0.35) 0.90 1.84(0.56)
Trim by stern
ft.fm.) ft.(m.)
.
5.58
<U
5.38 (1.64)
ton
1.64( 73.02
0.61
GM
KG/D
LCGaftIL
"Dial result
0.67 0.83
ft.
1.18(6.36) 41.24 0.54 0.61 0*80
(m.)
ft.(m.)
1.35(0.41) 2.56(0.78) 1.57(0,48)
1.44(0.44) 2.53 <y77) 0.33 (0.10)
ft.
Trim by stern
to.)
5.340.63)
(Mm.)
ton
463 (1,41)
4.20(1.28) 53.76
8.14/115 8.31/125
7.10/50 7.33/60
5.71^4$
8.10/115 8.30/125
V/100%kp.
V/Max.
h.p.
PISHING METHODS AND DECK ARRANGEMENT

with
slices of squid. In the other two types of gears, the hooks arc fashioned AS shown on the left in fig. 86.
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
The boats have the engine aft, a small fish hold forward and the crew quarters aft, as shown in fig. 87. The hold immediately in front of the engine room is often used for
crew accommodation, being
fitted
with a removable
entrance. The fishing platform is built on the bulwark around the rear half of the boat, and on the fishing ground a removable platform is rigged around the bow.
The fish boxes About eight
on deck on the outward voyage. each of kW, are hung from the spar slung between the fore and mizzen mast. The main engine is stopped when fishing, and a sea anchor is dropped.
are piled
fish-luring lamps,
1
Fig. 87.'
Squid pole and line fishing boat with engine aft
Main
specifications
few typical examples of squid fishing boats are given
in table 18.
193
NON-TRAWLING FISHING METHODS
DISCUSSION
MR.
S. J.
HOLT (FAG): Turkey has one
research trawler and
for hauling the nets and longlines near the point of minimum movement due to pitching and heaving of the ship. This is
vessels carrying on experimental work; Belgium has trawlers; Eastern Germany has several research vessels; so has Poland; research in Portugal is carried out from the Gil Earns, the hospital ship of the dory fleet; Spain has a small vessel; die U.S.A. has several research vessels operating in the North Pacific. The Chinese Peoples Republic is conducting oceanographic studies and probably has one or more research vessels; India, on the other hand, does not yet have a research vessel; the Union of South Africa has several such as the Afrikana; Australia has a small vessel for experimental work. The rastrelliger fishery in the Gulf of Thailand is carried out with the aid of a large carrier fleet possessed by Thailand.
two small
more critical
in the
rough Northern seas than
it is
on the tuna
longline vessels operating mainly in equatorial waters, and this is indeed to some extent reflected in present day practices. The Japanese tuna longline vessels normally have the line haulers fairly far forward, while the tendency in Scandinavian boats, fishing with bottom-set cod gillnets and longlines, is to
near midships. Power gurdies and longlines are sometimes placed far forward on the assumption that the boat is pulled towards the gear. This is a fallacy. Even when fishing with small motorboats it is important to manoeuvre the ship under power
locate the net
and
line haulers
for hauling gillnets
MR. JOHN PROSKIB (Canada) Hardy's paper is interesting and

:
such a manner that the nets or lines are lifted nearly up from the bottom. From the wheelhouse the skipper must naturally have a clear view of the hauling operation and be able to see the direction of the gear coming up.
in
vertically
stimulating. There are, however, feveral omissions of important Canadian fishing boats in fig. 1. For example, the the following important existing types have been omitted:
On
Atlantic coast, the whale catcher, the trawler (Grand Banker), longliners and sardine and herring carriers. Of the boats listed in Hardy's paper, the Grand Banker
dory schooner (longliner)
is
now relatively unimportant and
is
18 of these boats operated out of the Canandian Atlantic ports and accounted for less than 4 per cent, of the total groundfish landings in that year. On the other hand, the modern longliners (which do not use
dories) in 1957 accounted for nearly 7 per cent, of the total groundfish landings (except halibut), 65 per cent, of the swordfish and 40 per cent, of the halibut landings. In Canada the modern longliners are not one-purpose boats besides fishing for groundfish by longline technique, these boats are also used for swordfishing (where longline gear is not used) and also for mackerel seining. Another recent *4 development is the trapper-longliner" which uses trapping and longttne technique for capturing fish. These boats have been developed in the province of Newfoundland. The sardine and herring carriers (packers) are important in the Bay of Fundy fishery and play a dominant role in theweir fishery of the area. On the Pacific Coast the important fishing boat types omitted from Hardy's table are the whale catcher, drifter and longliner. Drifters are important salmon boats and the longJiners play a dominant rote in the halibut fishery.
on the way out In 1957 only
Oillnetting and the other methods of fishing mentioned above are very often carried out from combination boats, due to the short seasons for each gear. This means that certain compromises have to be made as to deck arrangement and also the ways and means of providing shelter for the people hauling the gear. On the American Great Lakes gillnet boats the deck is totally covered, and de Wit has suggested in his paper a rather radical design that also provides full shelter for the men while hauling drift-nets. Other more improvized shelters can no doubt be provided on many of the one-purpose or combination boats. It is becoming ever more important to
give attention not only to labour saving, but also to labour easing to make work on the boats more attractive. In many countries where industry offers steady and comfortable employment on land the fishing operators find it increasingly difficult to attract people to work on their boats, unprotected on the open deck. It should be easy to give much more shelter than is done today. There is no need for this hardiness that is expected of the fishermen, and furthermore it is wasteful from the point of view of efficiency as the men tire less and work better in shelter than when wet and cokl and encumbered by heavy and
stiff
seaclothes.
More fish is caught by purse seining than by trawling or any other single method of fishing. As long as the net is operated from auxiliary purse seine dories, at in the U.S. menhaden
New England mackerel fishery and the Norwegian and Icelandic herring fisheries, any type of boat can be used as the main or carrier vessel. The boats in Norway and Iceland are multi-purpote boats. The Icelandic (met (Tomaafishing, the
MR. H. KJUSTJONMON (FAO, Rapporteur): The advent of nylon in the last few years has given a new impetus to gillnet fishing in many countries where it was waning before, and due to this gillnets are now frequently used on big boats, up to over 100 GT. The big boats fish in rough weather
and
this
sonJ955)flih with longlines, bottom-set gillnet*, drift-nets for herring, purse seine* and trawis. Cargo vessels of up to 7,000 tons have been used as purse seine ships, carrying in davits everal pairs of mechanized net dories about 30ft (9.15 m.)
long.
make* it more important to
locate the
power gurdies
When
the net
is
operated from the main boat special
194}

demands aie however, made on design ai>d deck airangemcnt. This has been canted to its most rational conclusion on the
U.S. Pacific Coast (Hanson, 1955). Schmidt's paper on pone seining arrived too late to be presented at the Congress. This was most unfortunate as it
DISCUSSION
would no doubt have hdped to stimulate very useful discussion on purse seiners which have not yet received the attention from naval architects which these boats merit as die biggest
fish producers.
type of vessel that might be called the Netherlands near and middle-water trawler. There are two types of nets used in drifters. They require a little different handling, though the arrangement on board the ships can be the same tot both methods. In case the herring is expected to swim high the fishermen use nets above the warp. If they swim deep, the nets are suspended from the warp. The length of a fleet of nets is about 8,200 ft. (2,500m.) Most of the drifters are about 40 years old, and much
given to their replacement. Up to now replacement drifter and building a middle-water trawler. Therefore the drifters and consequently drift-netting will gradually disappear. Still there are people believing in the construction of new drifters. If they are built, they shall always have to be able to
When purse seines are hauled by hand, 12 to 20 men are needed. This waste of man power is now becoming critical even in countries where wage levels are not yet up to American or Scandinavian standards. It is therefore essential to introduce mechanical labour saving devices and to modify the boats accordingly. The latest innovation for handling purse seines is the powered Mock, which has come into prominence since 1953. Schmidt (1959) has also proposed ways and means of modifying several conventional boat types (with the wheelhouse aft or midships) for use with the powered block. The powered block is indeed a revolutionary labour saving and labour easing device, which makes it an easy task for 6 or 7 men to handle a big net. Purse seining seasons are often short so combination boats are usually called for. One advantage of the powered block method is that it can even be applied in the net dories, thus leaving the main boat unaffected. This is mainly an advantage when mechanizing net handlings on existing boats with too small deck space aft. It is however often desirable not having to operate with net dories but to handle the net directly from the main boat. This can only be done conveniently where there is ample free deck space aft or on the quarter for stacking the big net. There are many other strong arguments in favour of free deck space aft. This is the driest and most sheltered part of the ship and the stablest working platform; apart from purse seining, the gillnet, drift-net, and longline boats operate ever greater quantities of gear which should preferably be stacked on the after deck for setting at high speed over the stern. great deal more thought must be given to evolving more rational deck layouts and this must go hand in hand with work studies on board the boats during fishing operations.
thought
is
meant scrapping the
trawl
felt
and to
it
that
drift; this combination will be inevitable. will be possible to trawl over the stern on vessels
He
of
the drifter type stern trawling.

discussion.
and so he tried to combine drift-netting and He was fully aware that this point is open to
(Poland): de Wit stated that the upper of a drifter was considered to be about 118 ft. (36 m.). Studying the problem of the future Polish fishing fleet, three main types of ships had been found to meet the requirements of bringing fish to the market in the needed amount and quality. They were:
limit
MR. W. ORSZULAK
Processing and freezer trawlers of about 1,000 to 2,000 tons d.w.

Freezer trawlers of about 1,000 tons d.w.
Deep-sea drifter-trawlers 350 tons d.w.)
for
salted
herring
(about
Drift-net
MR.
J.
and gfflnet fishing O. DE Wrr (Netherlands): The Netherlands have
of the last mentioned ship (length overall about or 50 m.) has been discussed with Polish fishermen, and they found it possible to operate a drifter of this length. He would appreciate it if de Wit could give htm a more detailed explanation about the elements limiting the size of drifters to the said length. He mentioned that it was proposed in Poland to install diesel-etectric drive and a bow rudder based on the water jet principles. The sketch of the proposed drifter-trawler in de Wit's paper seems to have as main disadvantage the proportion of the profile areas. The size of the mizzen sail to keep the ship against the wind will probably be too large for efficient
size
The
165
ft.
specialized in drifters. In former days the drifters were sailing vessels and in the twenties the whole fleet became motorized. The engines were mostly of the hot bulb type of 60 to 80 h.p.
SIR
The
were only used during the herring season from to December. In the remaining months, the ships were idle. From 1940 there was a growing tendency to use the
vessels
FRED PARKES (U.K.): He was also interested in drifting. One of his vessels had won the Prunier trophy twice and he
May
be done by trawling in the winter months. The only objection was that engines of 60 to 80 h,p. were too small From that time engine power has increased steadily to about 1,000 h.p.
vessels all the year round. This could
it interesting to note that the vessel which won the prize five or six years ago, had twice the herring catch of the one that brought home the trophy last season. Wiry, he the wondered, was herring scarce in the North Sea?
found
Why
The compromise engine for trawling and drift-netting would be of about 400 h.p. If the output is higher, it is better to
trawl only, also during the herring season. If the output is lower than 400 tup. it is possible to drift during the herring season and to trawl during the winter months. It becan^ckar that a 141. 1ft (43m.) vessel is not the right vesed for drtft-netting and trawling. Hiese vetsels equipped with engine from 600 to 1,000 h.p., operate in the North Set, the Channel, and recently, south of Wand. It is this
reduced catches? Herring drifters were hardly built any more because of scarcity of fish, and many of the old ones wore being converted for various other tasks. What could be done to preserve the herring as food for human beings?
MR.
T. Mrraui (Japan): de Wit
is
qualities necessary for drift-netting
of die opinion that the wouldbelost if the length
of die boat is over 118 ft. (36 m.) approximately. The seaof keeping qualities would of course be improved as the si the boat becomes larger and the duration of the operation could become longer. In his opinion the manoeuvrability could be improved by using a controllaWe-pitch
[951
FISHING BOATS OF THS

much rodder, propeller rudder, ete. He would from appreciate if de Wit would elaborate on these details
WORLD
proposal
is
^ TACTICS
tow
wy
tngthe vessel light and by using inodera and stronger materials,

this limit tte main objection against His the large wind area, requiring a very large mizzon sail if it is not possible to use water jet bow rudder for instance, as Orszulak suggested.
one can pass
W. DICOON <U.K.): DrSt-aettfag is done by Scottish toats mdeep water a* wefi as shallow water, with strops between the top of the net and the buoys. The limit for the is about 20 to. (36 m) between the buoys and the float
Drifter-trawlers are not the only possibility for dual purpose Drifter-seiners and drifter-tontfiners also offer possiSeining in this context means Danish seining, fly
He would
like to
say that diesei-eiectric drive
is
ideal
from
a technical point of view also for drifters. But he is convinced that it is too expensive for this type of vessel with decreasing catches, as Sir Fred Parkes pointed out
Krisônsson touched the problem of offering more shelter and better accommodation because there is a growing difficulty to recruit people for the industry. It is his impression that more shelter whik working means poorer quality of the sleeping accommodation in many cases. The quarters will be in the foreship while the best place is aft. Regarding the Scottish type nets mentioned by Dickson, he thinks the main reason for using them is not fishing in shallow waters, but catching the herring swimming nearer to
to the fishermen the surface.
dragging style* The biggest drifter-seiners are about 75 ft. (23m.) long with 150 h.p. engines. Although these boats were intended to be dual purpose, the tendency has been for them to remain on one job or the other because of crewtng difficulties. The other possibility is drifter-longliners of 75 to 90 ft. (23 to 27 m.) length with 150 to 300 h.p. engines. The drift-netting arrangement it the usual one, but some of these boats are rigged for both types of fishing at once. They shoot
the nets and if the fishing is good they return to port; if not, they lay the longlines and then continue fishing until a good catch is obtained. few 75 ft. (23 m.) boats are now converting to trawl and the usual deck arrangement is to have the trawl winch forward. This is the easiest form of conversion to make, but not the most satisfactory because of the inconvenience in handling the
MR. H. I. CHAPELLE (U.S.A.): The use of a deckhouse covering the whole deck of a fishing boat as described by Colvin is unusual. This is not practical in all fisheries carried on in cold weather, for reasons of gear used. Nevertheless the arktype deckhouse would have advantages in some instances; some New England fishermen found the last winter sufficient excuse to consider additional shelter for the crew working on deck. The deck-layout of these gillnet boats seems to give the
fear from a trawl winch up at the bow. Another combination boat suggested is the seiner-trawler with the winch aft of the casing with dear deck space aft. This, however, is not quite satisfactory for drift-netting.
(22.3 m.) research vessel of this style is now in Scotland. Trawling can be done from the side in operation or from the stem, and seining is done from the stem. This type has no arrangements for handling heavy gear over the
73
ft.
maximum working space, considering the average size and deck machinery required. The windage of the ark-type deckhouse is important. As shown in fig. 54, a reduction is possible by lowering the working deck to the greatest possible degree considering the form of body in V-bottoms, placing the deck below the chine elevation sharply reduces the working
;
stern,
10 that only
gear the net over die stern, but in rough weather it is easier to handle from the side. When operating from aft, the crew apace has been shifted forward, which is not satisfactory to the
is
worked over die
light gear is worked over the stem; heavy side. It is quicker to shoot and haul
craw;
this is
ft
real problem.
platform width. Ballast is necessary in these boats because of the limitation just mentioned. As Colvin has indicated, the Great Lakes fisheries are in process of change, and so are the boats used. It is probable, therefore, that the boats of the designs shown in fig. 53 and 54 with ark-deckhouses will be replaced by types somewhat similar to fig. 55 and 56.
The replacement of the round-bottom with

PROFESSOR A. TAKAOI (Japan) : Drift-netting for herring is not practised much in Japan, but drifters of 66 to 82 ft. (20 to 25 m.) long, with 250 to 340 h.p. engines, are used to a large extent for salmon and trout. About 30 tons of synthetic fibre net are shot from the stern, and hauled forward. Only small boats are used in Japan, for economic reasons. Salmon and trout drift-netting may not be common in other countries but this type of boat could be used for other purposes.
the V-bottom,
in the types represented by fig. 53 and 54 does not appear to have resulted in any improvement in hull-form resistance-
wise. The proposal to employ a fast planing hull in a fishery should be of interest. Obviously, the practicality of this is yet to be proven, so far as economic operation is concerned. Let us hope we may have a report on this matter in due time.
So
little
has been published on the Great Lake
gillnet
boats
ME.
I*
G. OB Wrr (Netherlands): He considered the bow
that they are almost unknown outside their area of use. Colvin's paper is therefore most useful, particularly as it
gives an adequate description of a highly individualistic type of U.S. fishing boat
rudder an essential part of the equipment of a drifter. Hie cotttroflabie-pitch propeller and the propeller rudder are very helpful but not essential. If th&vessd gets longer, the absolute foroes on such vessels due to the wind and waves become also of great magnitude. Thoce fotttt be balance between these forces and the strength
of the par.
Drift-net* a very tender. With the materials now to use, fee Dutch fishermen are of the opinion that vessels cnOTwfing 113 ft (36 m.) LBP will increase the net damage. As he pointed out in Ms paper, one of the Dutch builders isfoingtobuikla 126ft, (3.5m.) LBP wssel. In giving the
H0ISGAARD (Denmark): An interesting gillnet hauling shown in Colvin's paper. This Crossly-type net hauler is more automatic than the conventional ones used, for instance, in Scandinavia. The net is gripped by finger-like damps actuated by an eooentiic. No man is therefore needed to haul the net off the gurdy as is the case with an ordinary
MR.
J.
winch
is
vertical net hauler
diminishing the wind area, by build-
with pressure-groove sheave. He under* stood that these net haulers are used extensively in die American Great Lakes gillnet fishery but not to ay groat extent elsewhere, except that he had heaixl thai some erf the
CM]
NON-TRAWLING FISHING METHODS -DISCUSSION

Russian herring drift-act vessels operating in the North Atlantic are now equipped with such, or similar, winches. In U.8 A. these winches are normally driven by a separate mall engine but a hydnuiHc drive could also be used as security tignfofft tmfflfog loo hard on die net. Even though
these net haulers are rather costly, about 400 (about $1,100), they should be tested in European waters and, if found suitable, their use should be economic if they save one man.
of the crew required for jetting the long&iftes in the water t
Haw these experiments ptoved satisfactory?

in order
What,
of preference, are the live bait species used
by the Japanese tuna tongtinen?
What
What
longliners,
are the species of tuna caught by the high sea and in what percentage? is the approximate sate price of these species in
Japan?
MR.
E.
BBAUDOUX
(France):
He asked five quest ions:
Are the Japanese health and safety regulations for refrigeration apparatus on board tuna longlincrs the same as those of other countries?
Direct expansion system of ammonia in the fish storage holds seems to be authorized in Japan, whereas it is prohibited in France. Is this procedure more widely used in Japan than brine circulation ? The installation of compressors in the engine-room makes
MR. Y. KANASASW (Japan): Answering Claveau he gave exr amples from a fisheries company where he is the president. The distribution of the income among the owners and crew is as follows: (a) Fishing boat from 300 to 500 GT: owner (the income from the sales of the fishexpenses)
crew
(the
x 65% income from the
sales
of the
fish
expenses) x
(b) Fishing boat
35%
sales
sales
more space
available, but is prohibited in France for safety reasons. separate room is required in France. Is it permitted to have refrigeration machinery in the
owner
crew
(c)
(the (the
above 500 GT: income from the
of the fish-
expenses) x
70%
of the fish-
income from the
engine-room in Japan ? Are there any longliners equipped with propulsion motor rating between 750 and 1,500 r.p.m.?
Are there any longliners equipped with air-blast refrigeration holds?
What
is
the opinion as to this system?
expenses) x 30% The monthly earnings of the captain, skipper and seaman are approximately as follows: Captain: 61 to 79 (U.S. $170 to 220) Skipper: 75 to 93 (U.S. $210 to 260) Seaman: 32 to 43 (U.S.I 90 to 120)
MR. Y. KANASASHI
(Japan):
The answers
to Beaudoux's
questions are: Spaces, fittings, etc. for the crew's accommodation are completely regulated by the Ships* Security Law of the
The Japanese tuna shipowners have no experience with the U.S. tub method for the baiting Hie bait for skipjack or bonito pole and line fishing is
entirely different from that for tuna longline fishing. Live fish bait is used for the former, while the bait used by
Japanese Government
Ammonia
is permitted and widely used as the refrigerant for the cooling coils in the fish hold, and the piping materials, scantlings, etc. are also regulated by the same law. Brine circulation is not so common The ammonia compressor is in the engine room to
Both of these a waste of time for the fishing boats to catch them by themselves The species of tuna caught by the deep sea longliners
the tuna longliners are frozen saury pikes. baits are easily obtained in the market and
it is
are as following:
economize space and it is permitted Low-speed engines are considered better for frequent changes of speed during fishing operations, There are no longliners equipped with air-blast in refrigeration holds or in freezing rooms because of the limited space where big quantity of the catch to be frozen at one
time.
Species
Percentage
Yellow
fin
tuna
50%
Stiff price per 2,240 /Ml.000 *j.) 286 to 125
Big eyed tuna Albacore

Striped marine
5% 5%
10%
Therefore, semi-air blast
is
more
suitable for
longliners
(France): French shipowners consider the cost and maintenance expenses of tuna clippers using live bait too high; they are greatly interested in the method of fishing tropical tuna fish with longlines as used in Japan.
MR. J-M. CLAVEAU
Black marine
20%
White marine
Broadbill sword fish
5%
2
They are anxious to know whether the Japanese designers would be willing to supply information about their refrigerated tuna longliners. The following bask data concerning the use of these boats would be of particular interest The size of the crew required for tuna longlining must be one of the essential economical factors. It would be interesting to have full particulars regarding the manner and percentage of the distribution among the shipowners and crews of the proceeds from the sates of the fish.
:
Others
3%
(U.S. $800 to 9 10) 239 to 286 (U.S. $670 to 800) 304 to 429 (U.S. $850 to 1,200) 257 to 314 (U.S. $720 to 880) 904 to 378 (U.S. $850 to 1,060) 268 to 304 (U.S. $750 to 850) 378 to 572 (U.S.$ 1.060 to 1,600) 143 to 239
(U.S. $400 to 670)
What approximately are the monthly earnings of a Skipper yid a seaman of a tuna longliner in Japan?
Have
die
IL&
the Japanese tuna shipowners experimented with tub method, which aims at reducing the number
MR. H. KJUSTJONSSON (FAG): At the first Fishing Boat Congress the U.S. pole and line tuna fishing boats were described in detail and the Japanese bonito boats are described now. There are. however, at least two other typea of pole fishing boats that have not been described yet in these two Boat Congresses: one is the rather simple type bonfco
FISHING BO At S OF THB
boat used in Cuba.
WORLD
TACTICS
H* other development in recent years,
morty since the first Boat Congress, is the creation of a pole and Hne tuna fishery out of Dakar, where nearly 100 tuna
dippers operate now. These boats resemble the American tuna dippers, but there are some significant modifications; the bait tanks, for instance, ate not on deck but flush in the hull. He hoped that someone from France would give a description of these boats.
MR. J-M. CLAVBAU
(France): Three types of French tuna
vessels are preeeatiy in use:
+ The
65 lo 82 ft. (20 to 25 m.) wooden trawler-tuna dipper, engaged in albacore fishing from June to Novemher off tiie coast of France, and in trawling from December to lime
The 72 to 85 ft. (22 to 26 m.) baby tuna clipper, equipped with a 300 to 350 h.p. motor and two auxiliary 20 h.p. motors for driving the pumps of the 4 bait wells. The profile is similar to that of the CaUfornian tuna dipper. It has 4 fish-welb with a total capacity of 6,750 to 1 1,200 Imp. Gal. (30,000 to 50,000 1.) of water for keeping tile live bait. It has no freezing apparatus, but only low-powered refrigerator for storing at 32 to 28F tuna in ice, so that it can land 20 to 30 tons (0 to of tuna fish. This type is used in the summer tuna fishing season off the coasts of France, and then in the six-month yettowfin tuna season off the coasts of West Africa. It is manned by a crew of 13 to 15 men
between the boats that were built on the island at the and of the last century and today's boats. This situation is due to the lack of specialized technicians such as draughtsmen, fishing boat builders etc. Recently the visit of an FAO fisheries economist stimulated interest in the modernization of the fishing fleet, or more exactly, its creation, because the present fleet cannot be modernized or even unproved. There are two main types of fishing boats: the bonito boats, which measure from 40 to 70 ft. (12.2 to 21.3 m.) LOA, and the lobster boats, 30 to 40 ft. (9.15 to 12.2 m.) long* They are both made of wood and am mostly of the schooner type with sail propulsion; recently they have been motorized, thus converting them into sailing vessels with auxiliary engines. Their layout is not functional: 2 or 3 of the 7 crew members can sleep in the forecastle on the lobster boats, though not very comfortably. This compartment has littte depth as the boat has a very low freeboard. Aft of this compartment is the fish hold that will take 20,000 to 30,000 Ib. (9 to 13.5 tons) of fish with ice. Next comes the live well, in which the live bait ("majtia" variety of sardine) is kept. This well is a tank
with several orifices to allow the seawater to enter through slow-going boat and a tank with small orifices will pipes. not allow free circulation nor proper oxygenation of the seawater, and consequently the "majua" bait can be kept alive for 24 or 48 hours at the very most. Towards the stern there is another small compartment, just as inconvenient as the first, where the rest of the crew steeps.
2Q
The motorized boats have

live well
their engines placed
between the
Freezer tuna clipper. This is a steel ship of very recent construction in France: 2 series axe now in use:
(a) The 89 ft. (27m.) clipper, equipped with a 400 h.p. motor and two auxiliary 60 h.p. motors for driving the pumps to the 6 bait wells and with ammonia refrigera-
general profile
tion compressors at 100,000 (25,000 kcal.). Its is that of the CaUfornian tuna clippers,
BTU
and the stern cabin. The drinking water is kept in barrels on deck; a small charcoal stove serves for cooking; a small canvas shields from the sun both the fish lying on deck and the men while they fish and clean their catch. The compass and helm are also under the canvas. Bonito are fished with rod and live bait. Cuban fishermen
are undeniable highly skilled in this type of fishing. The boats used for catching spiny lobsters are smaller, shorter and have no normal fish hold. There is a live well in the centre of the boats, similar to that used by the bonito boats for live bait, in which the lobster are put. The live wells will hold 300 to 600 Ib. (135 to 270 kg.) of lobster. The gear used is the "chapingorro", namely a rod, that together with a glass-bottomed bucket, can be used to fish
at depths
from the latter by reason of smaller superand the considerably reduced volume of the bait tanks situated on the deck. This ship is equipped with small fishing racks in the calm waters off the coast of Africa. It has no dry fish hold, all its tanks being used first for storing the live bait and then for freezing the tuna in brine and storing it. It can land about 35 tons
but
it
differs
structures
This type of ship is essentially intended for fishing tropical tuna off the coasts of Africa, where it can navigate the whole year round. It is manned by a crew of 15 men (b) Hie 118 ft (36 m.) clipper, equipped with a 600 h.p. motor and 2 auxiliary 120 h.p. motors. It has
fish.
of tuna
of not more than 6 fm.
In Cuban bonito and lobster boats, the longitudinal lines are very curved at the stern; consequently the boats are slow. There is considerable suction resistance due to these lines, but the boats have inherent stability since a large part of the
total displacement lies low. The frames, keel, stem clamp and structural parts are extremely thick, and
and
Its profile
and deck equipment are similar to those qjfthe
the timbers used are heavier than water. In addition, the boats
previous ship. Its wider cruising range allows it to remain at sea for 1 month and to land about 150 tons of frozen tuna fish. It is manned by a crew of 17 men and is used for fishing tropical tuna
a wide beam, approximately a third of their length, which contributes still further to their stability. Being unacquainted with Ike principles of hydrodynamics* the skippers and owners use too much power. In most cases, with half to one third of the power, the boats would
sail at the same speed
haw
Mm. J-O. TIIAUNO (FAQ): The French use longer poles than the CaKforaians, and have a line and a number of tackles from a wife between the masts to help to take the fish on board. It would be useful to know the ma^ consideration beteid the fishing techniques.
there to incorrect
and consume much less ftiel. In addition, choke of propeller revolutions, that is too
result
Mghr.p.m. Further, the owoinsuUpropeik

diameter,
and as a
a proper
of too large pitch-diameter ratio is by
no moans attained.
Obviously til this is doe to ignorance. Some tin ago when inspecting latmches of the Navy in various fishing ports of the island, he was abie to see the defects noted above. He forthwith became very
Ma.
E Rms RJSOTD (Cuba): Cuba has kept to traditional
fishing jear
and methods. Both conduction and types of boats are rather antiquated; there is haitUy any dtffcraice
DISCUSSION
Fig. 88. Lines
of Spanish tuna
bait fishing vessel
for modern skippers and suitable for the Cuban coasts, and for that purpose he studied the projects and publications. Further, on several occasions he got the skippers and fishermen together, and boarded their boats with them to
FAO
of these sets has an air compressor to start the propulsion motor and the other a dynamo of about 5 kW to provide
electric current
when
power
the boat
is
is
in pent.
When
the boat
is
at sea, electric
supplied by a
dynamo coupled
to
learn at dose hand their shipboard needs. In this way he was able to analyse and ascertain what would be the most suitable type of boat for the kind of fishing practised in Cuba. There
the shaft.
men
interest among most Cuban shipowners and fisherwith regard to creating a new fishing fleet suitable for their coasts, which are fairly broken and where allowance must always be made for the shallow draught.
is
a great
The compartments in the hull are as follows: the chain locker; the forecastle that will hold 10 to 12 fishermen; an insulated fish hold; the engine room with live bait tanks, one toward the bow and one toward the stem, and with fuel tanks
the sides; a room for the two enginemen and finally a storeroom for fishing gear. The front bulkhead of the engine-room and the wheelhouse are usually made of steel plates and the galley and food stores are located in the superstructure. The holds are insulated mainly with sheets of pressed cork, glass fibre or asphalt products. The insulation material is covered with an inside planking of wood over which cement mortar is
on
MR. H. R. BULLIS
(U.S.A.):
An
article
on the Cuban tuna
fisheries published in the "Commercial Fisherman's Review" five years ago gave the sizes of vessels, number of crew and
the fishing technique. using a beach-seine.
The
vessels fish for their
own
bait
applied.
very typical fishing boat on the northern coast of Spain is that from which bonito is fished with rods. These small boats, 59 to 72 ft. (18 to 22 m.) in length, are made of various timbers; the keel, the stern, the stern post and the frames are made of oak, the keelson of eucalyptus and the rest of the hull of pine. These are strong,
MR. V. ESTBVB
(Spain):
One
seaworthy boats, very good for navigating in the Atlantic and die Bay of Biscay. Lines and general arrangement is shown in fig, 88 and 89.
The live bait tanks are made of sheets of galvanized steel or else an aluminium alloy resistant to aeawater corrosion. Salt water is introduced into these tanks through pumps from the auxiliary units, and passes out through the discharge funnels on the top portion of the tanks, thus producing the continuous circulation of seawater necessary to keep the bait alive. The inside of these tanks is properly lighted. These boats usually have three wood or steel masts with
booms.
The propulsion equipment generally consists engine of ftom 150 to 250 h.p. at 300 to 600 r.p.m,, coupled by a dutch to a fixed-blade propeller. The engine room is usually located to die centre of the boat in order to give good trim under any possibk load. Usually the auxiliary machinery consists of two sets of mechanical pumps of from 20 to 30 h.p. tit circulate wafrr through the live bait tanks. Bitter of time pumps can take care of all these tanks whfle the other is out of use. In addition, each set works another pump of to gitfcter dachas pmrara, that produces artificial rain
diesel
of a
MR. J. TYRRELL (Ireland): In Ireland they are not concerned with drift-net fishing, which has, with few exceptions, been discontinued for many years, due to uncertainty of catches aad expense of gear. They have therefore developed multipurpose vessels in sizes from 50 to 80 ft. (15 to 25 m.), for
operating herring ring net, otter trawl, Danish seioe and lately the floating trawl The chfef fishing methods have been bottom trawling and Danish seining, for which the individual catches were relatively small.
attract the fish,
imd
is
also used as a fire extinguisher.
One
BOATS OP THE WORLD 2 - TACTICS H noto* the ?d?ff!!!!,' rftatoraaltoy^withcabta,engii>e:
aft,
S^n^Sned and a combined Danish

trawl, have,
,
seinesetoe-
interest, since his
company
^
*
,
has been found satisfactory for

gear development,, particularly
Modem
uwMe
of thto tayout has yet
ring net
and the mid-water
howevw,
is
made designs and model, which

.
are presently being discussed

(23 m.) long with 20
ft.
adnfc* Ugto of
clearly
(6
m>
deck arrangement development, an improved becoming necessary.
accommodated forward, followd by the
1100]

engine
DISCUSSION
room and the fish hold aft* The wheelhouse would be located forward of amidships, with the winch, of the combined Danish seine and trawl type, at about mid-length. transom stem seems most desirable for this layout, and care must be taken to preserve trim, with a heavy load located
ahiminium construction has been indicated. One of the advantages of this material is the lighter weight of the vessel and the consequently greater payioad.
vessels,
MR. H. KJUSTJONSSON (FAO): When he was as a young

student on the U.S. West coast during World War H, fee frt for the first time acquainted with the Pacific type boats with the wheeihouae forward. He had, as a youngster, worked on the Scandinavian boats in Iceland and it was immediately obvious to him that the Pacific type had many important
advantages, for instance, in regard to purse seining. He had, however, the same misgivings about their seaworthiness asexpressed by Tyrrell. To test their performance in rough weather, he worked his way to Alaska, mainly with the objective of testing the performance of this boat type under rough weather conditions somewhat similar to those in the North Atlantic. He returned to Seattle on a 78 ft. (23.8 m.) puree seiner, an 11 days' voyage, and, luckily for him, they got a full gale in the Gulf of Alaska lasting for two days. After this he was quite confident that he could recommend thpTodaiKhro to test this type. He wrote an article in an Icelandic newspaper which came at the right moment. The people at home were optimistic and asked him to go ahead and have a boat built of the new type to be tested in Iceland. The Icelandic Skippers* Union sent over on experienced purse seine skipper who familiarized himself with the Pacific purse seining gear and method and sailed the boat home. Unfortunately thisboat, an 84 ft. (25.6 m.) purse seiner, came a little bit too late to Iceland due to late delivery and missed the herring season in 1945. This meant that this design had not been tested when a big-scale rebuilding of the boats was decided immediately after the war, mainly in Sweden. This Pacific type boat has been operating in Icelandic waters since 1945. It has been found to be eminently seaworthy. As a matter of fact, it used during most winter seasons to aid the cod fishing boate
considerably aft of midships. The chief objections are

:
relatively long shaft running below the fish hold The crew are doubtful about the safety of working on a wide exposed aft deck He felt these objections could be overcome without much trouble, except possibly the first, which goes against all traditional practice. He should like to hear from Hanson or Kristjonsson whether they have met with similar difficulties with vessels of the proposed arrangement, and how these were overcome.
The crew dislike living forward The engine installation requires a
MR. H. C. HANSON
(U.S.A.):
He had
witnessed a fast transi-
tion in fishing boat types in the Western U.S.A. and in Alaska. The first step from the rowing boat came with the bow-pickers, with the engine aft. The West Coast was at that
time a new country without heritage or tradition, and consequently with little prejudice, which meant quick changes. Purse seining started about 1914 and brought about the change from bow fishing to stern fishing. The boats developed from the flat bottomed seine boats and the trolling vessels to the combination boat as it is known now. Seine fishing, trolling, lining and trawling are all done by these boats developed within the last 20 years. Large tuna vessels often operate for up to three months at sea. Practically all vessels on the West Coast are now fishing over the stern. Tuna vessels are being stripped of their bait tanks net table is still used and are converted to purse seining. in combination with the powered block. He expected that in the near future West Coast fishermen would go further out to sea, and it might well be that they will then adopt smaller types of stern trawlers, such as are now operating in the North Atlantic.
&
and to tow them in when they have engine trouble. That not necessarily because it is the best aad most seaworthy boat, but it is seaworthy enough for this tough service.
is still
Thm
MR. D. L. AtVBRSON (U.S.A.): According to Hanson, the change-over to multi-purpose fishing boats has come about in a short time, and this has been advantageous to the fishing industry. Up to now fishing has been done close inshore and the methods used have been trawling and purse seining. In future, fishing for extended periods might be done in distant waters like the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea, and a new type of vessel may be considered.
Regarding the change* in the tuna fleets, there has been a tendency in recent years to remove the bait tanks and equip the vessels for purse seining. This change has been mainly due to the distribution and schooling patterns of tuna, which make it more profitable to catch them with a purse seine. The introduction of nylon nets has made it possible to use
Regarding changes in deck arrangement of small
gillnet
a prejudice against using it for any fishing method where the gear is handled forward of amidships because of i or real difficulties which are anticipated due to windage on the wheelhouse, lack of deck space forward etc. This has however not been tested in Iceland yet after all these years, and this in spite of the fact that such boats are used successfully in the Pacific halibut longlinc fishery in the stormy Gulf of Alaska.
VENUS (U.K.): His firm had built orthodox trawlers The efficiency of the design had not been questioned. However, accommodating the crow forward may have an adverse effect on the willingness of the crew to go to sea, because of the heavy motion in high seas.
MR.
J.
for middle distance trawling.
HANSON (U.S.A.): As regards living quarters forMR. H. ward on the combination type boat, this seems to bo all right as 95 per cent, of the owners prefer it this way. Hie only difficulty is probably .the over-icing occurring in the North Atlantic, but there is also risk for king in the Pacific and nodifficulties seem to arise.
[101]
TRAWLING: DECK DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT

by
A.
from the aea aw obtained by
VON BRANDT
and C.
BIRKHOFF
In several countries, such as Belgium, United Kingdom, Federal Republic of Germany, France, 75 to 100 per cent, of all landings trawls. The trawl thus is an important gear to gather the protein resources of the sea. Its development is closely connected with the fishing vessels which represent approximately 80 per cent of the capital invested in flff*rrH- The efforts to catch more with larger nets, to extend operations into deeper waters, and to reduce manual work by mechanization requires a corresponding development of trawlers with the necessary deck equipment. The investment is considerable in the moat modern
very large, it is light and handy and needs relatively link limited by the beam, The introduction of otter boards decisively influenced devk>pmeaU and extended the i^ Winches were needed for the longer and stronger warps as well as the gallows to lower and haul the boards. 4 The methods of towing, handling the net and hauling the catch distinguish a "tide trawler* from a "stern trawler", the latter with
special
The beam trawl h the most primitive type used in power trawling. Unless
Its height
deck equipment.
and width are
Although the Hem trawler has certain advantages in handling the trawl, side trawlers are still dominating in the North Atlantic. On stern trawlers without a lamp the net is hankd over a broad stem toller; the codend with the catch, however, must be hauled over the
vessel's side,
or without a ramp.
and
this takes time.
The arrangement of the deck machinery varies greatly, because
trawlers are often also used for other fishing
The stern trawkr with a ramp developed from the desire to process the fish on board, in order to extend the fishing trips. It is important that the sailing tkne to and from the fishing grounds and the stay in port be as short as possible so that actual fishing days can be the maximum. This also apphes to the time to shoot and haul the nets. Stern trawlers with a ramp have a number of advantages over other types. These include the time saved in handling die trawl and catch, thus preserving the quality of the fish, less damage to the nets, better working conditions for the crew, a more seaworthy vessel, easier conversion to other types of gear, as for instance pelagic trawls, and more favourabk use of the space on board. Two-vessel trawling can lead to greater yields than when each vessel operates by herself, and two small vessels can use a larger net Magic trawling has mainly been done with two boats, brt the size of the vessels is limited and fi at night Therefore worf is being carried out to develop a pelagic one-boat trawkr. The stern trawkr appears to be the better type of vessel
.
for tto operation,
EQUIPEMENT DE PONT POUR LE CHALUTAOE Dans plusieurs pays, tels que la Betgique, k Royaume-Uni, la Republique federak alkmande et la France, 75 & 100 pour cent de toutes ks quantites debarquees d'onginc marine sont peches an chalut. Le chalut est done un engin important pour recoltcr ks ressources protciques de k mer*
Son developpement est en relation etroite avec ks bateaux de peche qui repretcntent approximativement 80 pour cent du capital dans ks peches. Les efforts pour pecher phis avec deplwgraids wets, pour eteiita t pour redirire k travail manud par la mecsiusation nfaessttent un developpement correspondant des chalutien poss6dant requipement de pont necessaire. L'investisscment est considerabk dans ks stades ks phis recents du developpement. Le chalut * perche est k type k plus primitif utilise dans k chalutage avec des bateaux mecanises. A moms qu'ill soit tres grand, Sa hauteur et sa iargeur sont Iimitecs par la perche. ilcstlegCTetmanoeuvTahketnicessitere^ L'introduction des plateaux de chalut a exerce* une influence decisive sur ks devetoppements et a augment* la portee de la peche. fiafaOudesttttiuXdesfunespiw plateaux. Les methodes de mnorquage, de manoeuvre du fikt et d'embarquement de la peche distinguent k "chalutage sur k cote"* du "chalutage par Tamere", ce dernier etant pratique avec ou sans rampe.
invest*
LeschaItitiBi$i>echantsiirle4fo
certain! avantages dans la
de pont varie beaucoup parce que ks chalutiers sont souvent utilises pour d'auttes methooes de f L*kle>duchahitkrnmnid une rampe piwientdud^ est temps potato pass* impor^qik dep^chertelkpu&seetre maximum. LeschahitkfiptehttitparfaiTliteev nii^ nippct anx du poi^; ' k mer do navto ; pte de ftdMtes pow et w^ utilisation pMft favorabk de Teapaee 4 bord* Leâutagei deux navires peut donner des naidenmnte phis ekves que lorsque cheque navfae opere
]
k cul-de-<diahrt reafermarrt te* p^
manoeuvre du chalut Sur ks chalutien sans rampe,
k fikt est hisaft a bord sur un large rouleau place 4 1'arriere

*
"
La
disposition de
n^ i<^
fflet*
unimdikwi twue Jt
seul, et
deux
peuvent utihser un pnts grand
petits navires
k meilleur pour cette openuon.
Taêiepaii^ Ledialatier^MuîitjrTaêiepaii^
EQU1PO PARA LA CUBIERTA DG LOS ARRASTEROS
w captm con artts tie amwtre. Q

oe pnxeinas oei mar*
te
de urattn cowtftuye. POM. on Jmporttrte
mlo p*n moffer lot
f!02]
FISHING METHODS
U
TRAWLING
Sunerfeocic4iainicinto et$6 ettrechainente relacionado con el dc lot barcoi de peaca, QUO rtfunetentan, aprox.. tl 80 pof cjenfto dot capital invertJdo en to indurtria petquenu Lot eafaenBOt encaminadot & peicar mis con redes nayoraa, A rMiMrtfc la -peaca a agua* info pfpfiindai y t rpdudr el trabajo manual mediante it Tnamnhractop, cxisea mcjorai oorrfapofHttentei en lot airattrqx* y en el material de fa*e mfc nxxtenm de perteckraan^ oibierta neceaario, En de am^tre con buxni meciiikx^ roeoot qoe tea muy grande, e* El art* de vara e tipo mat primitive) crapioaxk) en la Ugero, maniobrtWe y necearita relativamente poco equipo de cubfcrta etpedal. Su altura y su anchuxa estan Hmttada* por la vat*. de manera dediiva en el perfocckmamierito y penniti6 ampliar el akanoe de la Ui introducddn de IM poeita* poeita tie mat pesados, ati como pescantet para izar y arriar las puertas. neoctitarqn maqiiinillat para lot cabtoi de En lot metodot de arrastte, de maniobrar el arte y de embarcar la captura ae diitinguen el arrattre por el coatado y el arraitre por la popa; eite liltimo con ramp* o tin elUu
pc^
...
lot arraitroroc ae suekn emplear ' idea eWarrastrero con Es important* redudr en todo k> posibfe la durad6n de lot viajes de ida y vuelta a lot caladerot y la pcrmancncia en puerto, a fin de que el niimero de dias habfles de petca sea el maximo. Etto es tambien de apficad6n al tiempo dedicado a largar y virar el arte. Los arrastren* con ramp* a popa tienen varias ventajas sobre tot otrc* tipcra ,entre las que ettan el tiempo abom^ de la capture, que contribuyen a mantener la calidad del pescado, perjudican menos a las redes, la tripulaci6n trabaja en mejorat coodickHies, el barco ttene mas resisteacia a lot efectos del tiempo, es mas facil convertirk) para emplear otras dases de arte y el espacio a bordo etta dittribuido mas favorablemente. La petca al arrattre con dos barcos puede producir mayores rendimientos que cuando cada barco opera por si solo, y dot barcos. pequeflot pueden emplear un arte grande. El arrattre pela^co se ha efectuado prindpalmente con parejas, pero el tamaflo de los barcos es limitado y la pesca resulta difidl en mar gruesa y de nocne. For estas razones se ettudia la manera de perfeocionar un arte pelagkx> para una sola embarcacion. El arrastrercque pesca por la popa parece ser el mejor para etta operaci6n.
varia
mudio porque
"
trawl, the
most important gear for demersal
used at all fishing depths, from the shallow off-shore waters to the deepest fishing grounds known today. Although trawls have been used since the invention of nets, they have only attained This imtheir present importance in recent times. portance depends on, and has grown with, the development of suitable vessels, their propulsion and deck equipment. Fig. 90 and table 19 show the magnitude of trawling compared with other fishing methods.
THE
fish in sea fisheries, is
the development of larger nets requiring greater towing power; thus the development of the trawl is closely connected with that of propulsive power. The influence of the net was apparent in the sailing trawlers which had to be fitted with special sails to increase their towing power. With the development of special vessels and deck equipment, trawling has become a fishing method calling
for considerable capital investment.
Consequently,
it is-
The
trawls were developed to:
Catch more fish by increasing the volume and efficiency of the fishing gear
Fish in deeper waters off shore Reduce manual work by mechanization Be suitable for many species of fish Catch fish not only on the bottom but also in midwater Be suitable for bad weather operations Fish and other marine animals must be in certain concentrations to be trawled. If not, such gear as hand lines, longlines, fixed bottom set gillnets, trammel nets or traps are used. The encircling net only, in size of catch, can be
single owner and small business basifr into a large enterprise. Although the trawl requires a smaller crew and less working time than several other methods used for bottom fish, the total expenditure for the equipment is high and continues to increase.
changing from a
TABLE 19
Bottom tfawi catches exfWMPid
ofttototftl
100
91 91
T*
61
compared with the
trawl, although the encircling net is only used for pelagic fishing. The trawl plays little part in inland water fisheries although smaller types of trawl are still used in some lakes and rivers, such as the large lakes of South-east Europe, the Caspian Sea and the large African lakes.
42 5 39
35
35
32
25 22
4
*Data for 1955 fBy trawlers under 70
1
The trawl it closely correlated to the vessel in which it is used, and no other gear has had such a great influence on the design of fishing vessels. The development of fishing vessels from the open rowing boat to the factory ship has been accompanied by
[103]
12
Bytrawienover90ftLOA
tData for 1949
30
^%
WORLD
filtration
TACTICS
Various designs have been evolved to achieve good of water and to avoid a swirl before the net
which would repel the entering fish. The material, composition and shape of the parts, mesh size, etc,, of the net scarcely influence deck equipment and need not be
mentioned.
Accessories
and 92 give examples of modern trawl designs, which are no longer simple net bags but include accessories that are of essential, if not decisive, importance for obtaining good catches. The largest possible width and/ or height of the net opening is essential for effective operation. When the net is towed by one vessel, the horizontal width can be obtained with booms or beams or oner boards. Booms were first used by sailing boats,
Fig. 91
as
shown
in
fig.
93.
It is
much
easier to get the desired
width of opening by towing with two boats. Two-boat trawling, therefore, is widely practised. Vertical spread is partly achieved with net floats or sheering equipment or kites, and partly by design.
The size of the net and the opening is also influenced by the length of the lines (groundrope and headline). To ensure smooth running of the groundrope over a rough bottom, wooden bobbins and hollow iron balls weighing,
in total, as
much
as 1.5 tons are attached to the rope.
Handling
fig. 90, Contribution
calls for special
deck equipment.
of bottom trawl catches

North Atlantic area
to total catches in the
Handling of fishing gear
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FISHING GEAR

Net
The time taken for one haul depends on the bottom and on the abundance of the fish and may vary from a few minutes to several hours. The trawling speed depends on
trawlers
species of fish to be caught. Large at 3 to 5 knots for most species of fish. Small vessels, however, fish at lower speeds. Low speeds
the net type
and
The size and design of the trawl is governed by the species to be caught, and by the available towing power. Until
recently, ideas about the behaviour of the trawl nets in action were only hypothetical, but nowadays direct or indirect underwater observations have made it possible to understand better how the net behaves in action and to determine its relation to the vessel.
work
are especially important in trawling for
some
flat fish.
Shooting and hauling require special equipment, particularly for handling the lines and accessory gear. It is important to bring the codend on deck without damaging
the
fish.
flf. 91.
Modern
Enftttk bottom
mw/(Gtanw,
1936)
1104]
FISHING METHODS
TRAWLING
92.
Modern German
round-fish trawl (ScMtrfe, 1957)
BOTTOM TRAWUNG WITH ONE BOAT

General description To keep the trawl open horizontally from only one boat,
and
is
used in European, Asiatic, African and American

first
coastal waters.
Otter boards were
used at the end of the
last
booms
are attached to the
bow and
stern to
which the
warps are fastened, as shown in fig. 93. This method, however, was mainly developed for sailing boats, and has been practised since ancient times in Europe and in Asia. Another well-known method is to open the trawl horizontally with a stick or beam and to trawl with one warp and bridles as shown in fig. 94 (beam trawl). With the low towing power of sailing boats, small trawls can only be used and they are lowered and hauled by hand. The width of the net opening of the beam trawl is determined by the length of the beam, which varies from 25 to 45 ft. (8 to 14 m.), and sometimes skids attached to each end of the beam hold the mouth vertically. The beam and skids give the opening a certain
rigidity.
century, although the idea is old. Line fishermen used and still use a similar device to control the direction of
running water or when towing from a boat The otter board for trawlers was used in Ireland about 1870 but was first reported from England. Originally the otter trawl, like the beam trawl, was towed with one warp and bridles but a second warp was soon added. The introduction of otter boards encouraged the manufacture of larger nets for use at greater depths. Fig. 95 shows such a German trawl. Concurrently with the development of larger trawls, more powerful vessels were designed (fig. 96), which extended the fishing time and
lines in
distance from home ports. Longer and stronger warps led to powered winches, and the invention of the gallows
makes
1956).
it
In large sizes, however, the long and heavy beam much more wieldy than the otter trawl (Morgan, It is really a gear for small inshore fishing craft
enabled the boards to be handled.
Methods of trawling and handling the net determine whether the vessel is a "side trawler" or a "stern trawler*'.
Ft?. 93.
TowiHtbyaboatsallinf athwartt the horizo*toJope*tnf of the i qft of the boat
[105]
FISHING BOATS
In the first type, the two warps run because the net is shot and hauled oa one
side.
OF THE WORLD 2 TACTICS 11 to 14 mm can work simultaneously when unloading. asymmetrically

:
In the
item trawler, however, the warps run symmetrically. The codend is hauled over one side of the vessel or over
the stern.
The superstructure is located aft of the hatches. As only one side, generally the starboard, is required for handling the net, the portsidc superstructure on modern vessels is usually closed. A working passage runs
to starboard, and this also accommodates the bulky bobbins of the ground rope. Arranged on the free working deck forward of the superstructure are the fish ponds, where the catch is gutted, washed and sorted.
STERN TRAWLER WITHOUT A RAMP

Origin This type of vessel was developed in fair weather regions, such as the Pacific coast of U.S.A. and in the Mediterranean, and has only come into use as a near-distance trawler in recent years. In order to utilize drifters,
Fig. 94. Japanese
beam trawk
SIDE
Origin
TRAWLER
The side trawler is the most familiar type of vessel in the North Atlantic deep sea fishing industry and it has been
developed over a longer period than other types. In the days of sailing trawlers, the trawl was handled on one side, and this arrangement was inherited by mechanized vessels. Indeed, modern side trawlers still make use of the wind, heaving to so that the net can be shot and hauled from the weathersidc to prevent the vessel being driven over it, and to help stream it out
trawlers has become more or less standardized internationally. There are two gallows for the otter boards and a derrick for the bobbin wire in front of the after gaUow. There is also a derrick at the foremast for shooting and there may be a third derrick near the mast. Between the hatches and the deckhouse
there is a winch from which the warps run forward and are guided over the centre and wing bollards to the gallows. Aft at the bulwark there is a messenger, with sheave and slip hook or slip block (also called a towing block) or
fishing.
The equipment of side
other equipment for connecting the two warps when Quarter rope- and bridge tackle-sheaves at the deckhouse haul the net, and the tackle at the foremast lifts the filled codend on deck, as shown in fig. 97. Sometimes, on smaller inshore trawlers, the winch is placed before the hatches, <MT between two hatches. This
requires corresponding fairkad bollards. The fish hold is normally in front of the engine room which is in the aft part erf the vessel. The crew's quarters today are usually located near the messrooms aft, to
Fig. 95.
Development of the German herring bottom trawl (van Brandt, 1957)
avoid unnecessary walking over the open deck. The a forecastle to improve seaworthiness and to protect the crew working on the open forcdeck where
trawlers have
working rooms and net and cable rooms are located. Trawlers have hatches over the fish holds and these are arranged at regular distances, so that several groups of
tuna dippers and, possibly, trollers, throughout the year, it was necessary to equip them for an alternative fishing method, such as trawling. And as the other fishing gear with the exception of most of the drift-netswas handled over the stem, it followed that the trawl was also handled over the stem. The gallows
seiners, longliners,
M06]
FISHING METHODS
1800
- TRAWLING
i860
STVAfi
1902
STEAM
ff.
'
oftk* European trawler (compare alto fig- 2)
[107]
WORLD
TACTICS
Fig. 97.
Deck arrangement and leading of warps on fide
trawlers
were symmetrically arranged
at the sides near the stern. used for shooting and hauling the trawl, and the catch is sometimes hauled over the side as the existing derrick can best be used as the "cod-
stern-roller is often
at the
of the large derrick. There may be another small derrick mast for this purpose and also for hoisting the
lifeboat.
There are various arrangements of the winch and the

fairlead bollards, differing in types
end
derrick*', while the
heavy tackle at the mast serves
and
sizes
from the
as the "fish tackle".
The deck equipment of these vessels varies, often depending on the original fishing method, and even the most modern vessels remain typical of their original
character.
small shallow-water winch with a twin drum, transversely set, to the deep-sea winch with two separated drums placed in a longitudinal direction. The fairlead bollards are arranged according to the working direction, so that there are either centre bollards between the gallows or
two wing
have two movable side-gallows, either U-shaped or davit, situated approximately ft. (3 to 5 m.) forward of the broad stern, which is often a transom stern. This latter is best for the large net-roller and it provides a good working space for shooting and hauling the nets. The vessels have a mast, aft of the deckhouse, with a large derrick to serve the hold and fishing gear hatches
vessels
bollards.
Modern winch drums
are aligned
Hie
reversed 10 to 16
towards the gallows by using a cardan shaft, and rotatable davit-gallows are fitted. Vessels with larger trawl winches working in a longitudinal direction sometimes also have a small seine-double-capstan or two additional drums as shown in fig. 98, which may be advantageous for pelagic fishing. This type of vessel is very profitable in fair weather areas, as it can be adjusted to the best
and the
aft
working place.
is
A heavier tackle for hoisting

often attached to the middle
the codend over the side
With the addition capable of working throughout the year. As it costs relatively little to build and operate, this type of vessel has a great future in fisheries where favourable weather prevails.
fishing
method
for existing conditions.

is
of a trawl, such a vessel
STERN TRAWLER WITH A RAMP

SSKSo*
Origin The idea of processing fish on board to facilitate voyages to remote fishing grounds has led to this type. The processing machinery required a large space, and the shelter
deck was the obvious place for it. The beam wind position on the side trawler when handling the trawl was very inconvenient. The height of the shelter deck made the handling of the trawl difficult, and heavy rolling had to be avoided because of its effects on the processing machinery and conveyor belts. The answer to these problems was to operate over a stern ramp which, as was soon proved, does not impair the quality of the fish.
,
>
98*
Ztacfc 4P'iwifCfPMMtf ojtd fandinf Wtthoitt ntttip
of
wttt'ps
on item
some difficulties in handling the trawl over the item. Additional sweepline-giltons were used
At
first,
there were
[108]
PISHING METHODS
TRAWLING
in the British stern trawlers. These drew the sweeplines from the trawldoors to the ramp, simultaneously slacking
the warps. The arrangement of the trawl winch, fairlead bollards and gallows has a slight resemblance to that of
the smaller stern trawlers without a ramp.
gear in line with the inclination of the ramp. This arrangement allows the wet net, with the exception of the full codend, to be kept clear of the ramp and thus reduces friction.
Warp
roller
tropes type
arrangement was used on German built The large factory trawlers built for Russia used warp roller trollies running on rails along the stern ramp which, although expensive, can be handled quickly. This arrangement has been given up in new Russian vessels where use is made of two conventional
different
vessels.
gallows aft on each side of the deck.
Other equipment includes a derrick at the portalgallows for lowering the codend; a bipod mast over the loading hatch, designed to allow the codend to be emptied without being lifted; coamings and bobbin tracks along the deck for safety when the vessel rolls, two short lifting lines which make it easy to fasten the warps to the otter boards, and two veering lines for the heavy bobbin wire. With this method of handling the gear, the flush fish hatch with a chute leading into the large buffer store should be located just in front of the
Fig. 99.
Deck arrangement and
leading of warps on stern trawlers with
ramp
Gallows type
relatively simple solution was found for trawlers of conventional size and without a raised upper deck. Gallows based on the gallow-sheave principle were installed near the stern, turned aft, beside the ramp. The transom surfaces were bent inward to guide the otter
ramp
as
shown
in
fig.
99.
By unloading
the catch from
the codend immediately below deck the fish ponds can be installed on the 'tweendeck in front of the gutting places.
free
deck space over the
fish
hold and uniformly
distributed hatches are needed for unloading fresh fish; therefore the superstructure is restricted in size. larger
boards to the stern with guide bars. Cross-head bows on the gallows heads assured a firm three-point position of the otter boards flush with the transom. Two rail rollers prevented the warps touching the bulwark when hoisting.
In most cases, the gallows are single portal shaped extending over the whole width of the vessel with two fixed warp-sheaves (fig. 99). An alternative version of this system, which is adopted by one German company, is fitted with two movable warp-sheaves. In this case the transverse part of the gallow allows for a transverse shifting of the warp-sheaves during operation. When separate warps or special sweepline-gilsons, slightly
superstructure can be accommodated on a factory trawler because the frozen fish can be unloaded in containers through a central hatch.
Advantages of stern trawlers with ramps cost of building such a stern trawler is about 10 to 15 per cent, higher than that of a comparable side trawler, but the stern trawler can fish longer, which might result in better annual returns.
The
elongated back strops and pennants (independent piece) adjusted to the ramp are used, the net can be handled over the stern without transverse or longitudinal movable warp-sheaves.
Crews quickly adapt themselves to the stern trawler and its deck equipment, and the better working conditions are appreciated. Thp advantages of the stern trawler can be summarized as follows:
(I)
Longer
fishing time because there is
9 No
turn round for hauling and shooting. Ship need not be laid athwart to sea
these large stern typical deck arrangement in trawlers is a hoisting post with the tackle for hoisting the
Another
Generally free choice of the direction of hauling, independent of current and wind a special advantage when fishing on steep banks
[109]

Higher hauling speeds are possible than those obtained on ride trawlers, because the warp pull is in line with the ship Mechanical hauling of the net by the trawl winch only, instead of pulling by hands as on side trawlers No necessity to split the codend No necessity to lift the codend, which is only
tilted
WORLD
TACTICS
The working deck being completely enclosed

Having the gutting room in the alter part of the ship which is not so much affected by pitching as the foreship. The same applies for pitching at
ramp which of side trawlers

the
(6)
is less
than at the forward gallow
Adverse weather
and emptied
(2)
More
successful fishing because there is Better manoeuvrability when hauling, shooting and towing as the warps leave the stern symmetri-
effects reduced by Linear direction of hauling The net being handled only by the winch Having the ramp deck and the winch protected
The working deck being completely protected
cally without influencing the ship motions. Therefore fishing on steep banks, especially in heavy athwartship seas, is easier than on side
trawlers
The possibility of varying the length of towing warp to the different depths of sea without damaging the warps in the towing block No fouling of the gear when shooting as this is cleared into the water when the ship is under way and an parts are carried away by the flow in the proper sequence. Doors immediately start to sheer away
No unequal elongation of trawl-warps due to the symmetrical arrangement of bollards (if any) and rollers. Therefore control and readjustment of length-marks on warps is not necessary.
(3)
More
careful handling of the catch due to Shorter death-struggle in the codend lengthening piece when splitting the catch because the codend is brought to the deck in one pull, this not being the case on side trawlers (experience proves that up to now the quality of the fish has apparently
been better) Smoother unloading of the codend onto the gutting deck immediately after hauling (consequently earlier protection of the catch from heat,
light and weather) The use of processing and stowing conveyor belts, thus reducing fish handling to a minimum
Fig. 100.
Operation of two-boat trawlerf
These points give considerably better quality fish than is the case with the conventional trawler. At the fish market in Bremerhaven only less than } per cent, of stern trawler catches have been unfit
for sale, although mostly the ships
(7) Danger of icing up in "black frost" is lessened due to higher freeboard (on side trawlers water shipped on the open foredeck may not drain away, as freezing ports are frozen up).
had made
by
longer
(4)
trips.
Mart
careful handling of the fishing gear Better guiding of lines
Few changes
in the direction of pull Avoiding uneven load on the warps Keeping the warps clear of the ship's hull
(5) Better
(8) More space for processing machines and their arrangement in a continuous processing line (e.g. the effective long washing machine) is given by The long, completely enclosed working deck The location of the codend unloading hatch and the storing hold hatches at the opposite ends of the working deck
working conditions for the crew by
Saving the long, dangerous and heavy work in hauling the net Reducing the work of handling Having the ramp deck especially the trawl winch -protected by the superstructure
I
Drawbacks
There are only a few drawbacks against the above
advantages
(1)
splitting
Methods for dealing with very big catches or them are still to be developed. Up to now
"0]
FISHING METHODS

vessels, as
TRAWLING
100,
about 25 ton have been handled safely. However, farther improvement* aeon possible. (2) Codettds and lengthening pieces must be made particularly strong by using expensive materials such as Perlonetc. Therefore the loss of a net is very expensive.
(3) Some difficulties arise by using the conventional herring trawl with the second kite. Only time and money is needed to solve this problem.
completing the haul, to dose without endangering the
shown in fig.
Psychological reasons often hamper successful twoboat fishing, as captains and crews must be able to work in harmony. It is easier to find two equivalent boats,
than to find two captains

agreement.
who can work
in effective
(4) First costs of stern trawlers are higher than those of side trawlers, the difference being bigger on small trawlers and diminishing with size. At a length of about 200 ft* (61 m.) LBP, the difference disappears. (5) There is a loss of speed of about S per cent, because of the broad aft end of the ship with ramp.
Pareja trawler
The Pareja vessels operate a large trawl at slow speed. The boat requires an aft platform for the net and a special
compartment for the lines. A snatch block hanging overboard is used on either side of the stern. In addition to the centre and wing bollards on the fore deck, the
Fig. 101.
Deck arrangement and
leading
of warps on Pareja trawlers with pwtectinf rolfa

the forecastle
The many more advantages

trawler
indicate that the stern
well have the greater future. The technical details given above only indicate present possibilities.
may
Pareja trawler has wing bollards on the bulwark behind the snatch blocks and the towing block amidship at the
In the distant future, stern trawling might be further developed to operate almost automatically.
BOTTOM TRAWLING WITH TWO BOATS

Two
boats can be used to spread a trawl horizontally, as in the Spanish "Pareja", the Japanese "Teguri", the Italian "Paranzella", and the German "Tuckzeesen"
fisheries.
deck house. Although the net is shot over the stern, it is hauled over the bow, where there is another pair of rollers; on either side of the latter, modern vessels have in addition two protective rollers. Vessels with whale backs have yet other protective rollers at the rear end, as
shown in fig. 101. The full codend is brailed until it can be hoisted by the fore derrick. The Pareja trawler cannot be used as a
single trawler.
Tegori trawler small vessels with low engine power are able to tow relatively large trawls, no otter boards being required. As vessels and warps are remote from the entering fish, sometimes twice as large as the catches are larger
Two
those caught by the one-boat net; so it might be profitable to use two vessels with two crews. This applies in
theParcjaflshcryforvessebofupto400GT.
Thwe are, however, disadvantages in trawling with two boats at night and in bad weather. It is often difficult to maintain a constant distance between the vessels and, in
trawlers are small boats operating in the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea. The engine room and deck house are aft, while the fish holds axe arranged in the foreship. The shooting operation is carried out by the two boats but the net is hauled aboard over the stern of one boat The warps are hauled by two drums on either side of the deckhouse and thereafter wound on reels behind the forecastle. The trawl winch is driven by the main or auxiliary engines through a countershaft Most of the vessels shown in fig, 102 are 50 to 130 GT, of steel or wooden construction. Smaller boats of tradi*
The Teguri
FISHING ftOATS OF f HE
tkmal type as shown in fig, 103 are also used. The average trip lasts three weeks and the crew numbers 12 or 13 men.
WORLD
TACTfcGS
There Is also a need for instruments to control continuously the depth of the net. Special equipment is wanted to transmit the data from the depth measuring device to the bridge. This might be wireless or by a cable
from the
cable
net.
If
it is
done by
drum or winch would have
cable, then an additional to be installed.
Fig 104. Danish two-boat pelagic trawl (Larsen type)

102.
Japanese Teguri steel or wooden two-boat trawler of SO to 130 GT
tranter
The Tuckzeesen
in one-boat trawling. smack", well known in
trawlers operate with equipment used An inshore trawler or "trawl
North European waters,
is
used,
with dock equipment similar to that of the large side trawler. There are two small gallows but sometimes only one forward gallow with two rollers for two warps. The wheelhouse is placed aft and the net is only handled on the working deck forward of the wheelhouse. Trawl winch, guiding rollers, foremast and hatches are arranged
as on large trawlers. Shooting and hauling is done by one boat, towing by both. The crew of the shooting boat has in some cases to be bigger due to this reason.
Two-boat type in two-boat bottom trawling, there is no frightening effect on the fish, and the trawling speed is sometimes greater. These advantages have contributed to the success of the Danish net shown in fig. 104, which was invented by Robert Larsen. Two-boat fishing limits the size of the vessels, and operations are difficult in bad weather, from wind force
As
Beaufort 4; and for larger vessels,
6.
One-boat type Fishing with one vessel
The disadvantages
is less dependent on the weather. are that the lines of the net cross the
MIDWATER TRAWLER
While the trawl
for catching fish
is
considered the most important gear

close to the bottom,
it
on or
can also be
Fig. 103.
&naUTeguritrawlerhavingacrewofl2or 13 men
Fig. 105.
On+boat pelagic
twl of British
Columbia
operated away from the bottom. But, until the invention of fish-detection instruments, it was not possible to ascertain the depth at which the fish were swimming, there are still problems to be solved before success in pelagfc trawl fishing can be assured. In particular, them is a ne(xl to acquire biological knowledge of the behaviour of the fish, especiaHy herring and similar species.
fish shoal, and the otter boards may also cause disturbance. Moreover, if the vettel sails over the shoal the These fish, if high in tile water, may be frightened.
difficulties
may
explain
why
this
kind of fishing has not
been very
At trawb have become well known the Canadian net, operated over the
:
sucoessftil until recently. least two types of pelagic one-boat
IU2J
FISHING METHODS
stern, as
TRAWLING
shown in fig. 105 and 106, and the Swedish net, designed by K, H. Larsson, operated over the side: the latter system is shown in fig. 107. The deck equipment is the same as used for bottom trawl nets. The codcnd of the Canadian trawl is opened at the side and brailed. This enables finer net material to be used but some additional deck equipment is necessary for brailing as shown
in fig. 106.
Recently, indications from an echo sounder transducer placed on the headrope of pelagic trawls could be transmitted by cable to the echo sounder recorder in the wheelhouse. Because the depth of the trawl can be
Fig. 107.
Swedish one-boat pelagic trawl (Larston type)
catches were
trawlers.
made by both
small and large
German
adjusted by altering the ship's speed, the depth can be adjusted to that of fish shoals, indicated by the ship's echo sounder. As a result of this technique very large
FUTURE PROSPECTS
Future deck arrangement and the method of handling the gear will depend to a large extent on trends in catching, handling, processing and transport of fish. There is a trend towards the larger trawler with more store room and greater engine power, but the limitations in fishing techniques and other factors tend to restrict this development. The need to cut down travel time between port and fishing ground calls for vessels of improved design and/or with greater power. They must also be able to fish in rougher weather and thereby increase the fishing time. The operational method of stern trawling permits building a vessel of approximately 300 ft. (90 m.) in length, which is larger than the present side trawlers, and suggests a development of the stern trawler towards a
combined fishing, transport and processing vessel. The advantages of the existing stern trawlers with a ramp suggest the development of a smaller craft of this type, also with a ramp. Design studies and experience
large
ft. (30 to 35 m.) in a new type of a have future. It become might length may "distant water trawler" without transport functions, seaworthy and efficient. A stern trawler of less than 100 ft. (30 m.) in length, with a wide net roller instead of a ramp, also seems to have a useful future.
suggest that a vessel of 100 to 120
Fig. 106. Brailing of a Canadian pelagic trawl net (Barraclough and Johnson, 1955)
{H3
CENTRALIZED CONTROL OF TRAWLERS

by
A. C.
HARDY
and H. E. H.
PAIN
The appearance and interior pf trawlers have altered much over the yeara, mainly due to the advent of mechanical propulsion, the application of modal test mute, and the development of navigation and fishing instruments and equipment. To accommodate the added It is becoming the nerve centre of the vessel The paper describes ttpoaratm and to give centralized oontml* the brito has few examples of bridge layouts are given. this progress and explains the basic requirements for centralized control.
LBS
L'a
t
COMMANDES CENTRALISEES A BORD DES CHALUTIERS

beaucoup chang6 au oours des
surtout a la suite de 1'avtoement de la propulsion
et rintirieur des chalutiers ont
<k disposition de la passeiUe.
CENTRALIZACION DE LOS MANDOS EN LOS ARRASTREROS

han ctmbiado muofao el aspecto y la distribucidn interior de los arrastreros, debido principalments propuls&n mectafca, la apiicaci6n de los resultados de ensayos de modelot y el perfeodonamiento de los instrumentoe y material de aavegactdn y pcsca. Pfcim qoe altorgase todos estos apanrtos y centralizar lot mandos del barco, se ha tenido que aumentar el tamafio del puente, quc se ha convertklo en el centre neurilgico de la embticacidn. En la pooeocta se describen estos adelantos y se las i fondamentaJes para centralizar los mandos. Los autores dan algunos ejemplos de distribution de puentes.
Con el
transcorso de los afios

la
*I advenimtento
de
^HE
trawler of today
is
an expensive and
is
intricate
part in the trawler's nerve centre,

increasingly being adopted.
and automation
is
expensive largely JL because it is intricate, and it is intricate because of the devices and equipment it carries; yet no trawler carries anything other than of a severely utilitarian nature. Rapid advances in technology have affected the shape, altered the profile and improved the interior of the
trawler.
piece of fishing mechanism. It
Instrumentation and automation have increased the
of the bridge and altered its appearance. The more or less open launch of the 1880's is developing into the totally enclosed ship of the 1980's.
size
In the profile, not the least important portion is the bridge. In fact, the bridge of today is the nerve centre
from which every function of a trawler's operation other than cooking 4s controlled. In the 80's, the bridge was merely an open space above the engine room with a steering wheel, a compass, and a voice pipe to the engihe room. The masts were still fitted in the same position they had occupied when the trawler was propelled by sails. Indeed, sails were often used in trawlers on the mainmast up to the outbreak of World War II. Today from the bridge or nerve centre the speed and direction of the ship is controlled, the fish are detected, the trawl modi is operated and ship-shore communication is maintained. Instruments give the skipper exact information about his vessel's trim and stability, and the speed of the various machines, and he has a "broadcast" weather map showing the approach of bad weather, so that he can avoid it. Electronics now play an important
Idea of centralized control the trawler from the bridge come into use, they are installed at positions most convenient for the user and to meet many individual requirements, but in general the arrangement follows the same broad pattern. Fig. 108 shows the general layout in {dan and front
As more aids to control
elevation of a modern deep-water trawler's bridge, and it also illustrates the basic requirements in terms of functional instrumentation.
In aircraft, control is concentrated in the pilot's cockpit. Here the essential control requirements in terms of functional instrumentation have increased to the^point where it is hardly possible to find space for a single extra instrument or information dial Fig* 109 shows the cock* fit in a modern commercial aircraft. All the information sources cannot be studied at once, nor do they need to be, but their grouping, logically placed with preference given to the moot vital, is an excellent example of centralized control and information services.
[114]
COMMAND OF OPERATIONS
Similarly, in ships, die grouping ii basically universal: Centrally placed steering position, engine control telegraphs at each side of the bridge, duplicate steering control in certain classes of trawler, with winch and other controls conveniently positioned, together with radar and
CONTROL OF TRAWLERS
vided anywhere in the vessel by means of electric
repeaters.
More than 30 years of use has proved the considerable

fuel saving with automatic steering. In addition, steering
engine wear
released.
is
reduced and the
human helmsman
is
echo-sounding or ftsb-finding displays. Fig. 106 shows the common information services and functional controls. The arrangement is wasteful of space and all units cannot be said to be conveniently
placed to meet all situations. The illustration is a good example of conventional equipment It will be noted
that a gyro
Most automatic
reliability
steering systems using

electric
a gyroscopic
steering.
Its
compass as datum also have
hand
compass steering repeater
is fitted.
has also been proved. Very much less manual effort is required to steer, the course is more accurate, and fuel and time are saved. It is of interest that a helmsman using the hitherto
108. Conventional wheelhouse of a modern middle-water or deep-sea trawler illustrating the basic information and control services
BASIC COMPONENTS FOR CENTRALIZED
CONTROL
Hydraulic and electro-hydraulic steering engines are
the
still
of
suitable for large fishing vessels. In the interests safety at least one magnetic compass must be carried
most
in all types of vessel
electric gyroscopic north-seeking compass has been generally adopted in ocean-going vessels. Its advantages are the absence of errors due to variation and deviation,
The
accuracy in polar latitudes and also reliability. Modern gyroscopic oompaspes am small and robust and present no siting problem. Compass information can be pro-
conventional telemotor steering control, but having a gyroscopic compass as course indicator, can maintain a more accurate course than he can with a magnetic compass. This particularly applies in heavy seas and high winds. Again there is a saving in fuel. telemotor transmitter control cap be replaced by electric steering control with complete safety and increased efficiency. As a safety precaution, the necessary wiring to the steering engine should be duplicated, as should also, and separately, the connection to the steering engine. With electric control, duplicate steering positions are simple additions; they can, of course, be remote from die
bridge.
Hitherto, the conventional wheel has been almost
[115]
WORLD
TACTICS
Fig. 109.
and control services Cockpit of a modern airliner illustrating centralization and concentration of Information
universally used to actuate the rudder.

control, a complete wheel be omitted entirely.
is
With electric can even and unnecessary
Radar
In the latest development of radar, sometimes called "true motion*', the gyro input has made it possible for the radar console to provide azimuth stabilized true motion display: off-centred relative motion display; true motion display using log speed input, and true motion
display using manual speed input. In effect, the officer-in-charge can be given a picture showing the positions, movements and tracks of all ships
Magnetic
wto
steering
magnetic compass as datum can also be used for automatic steering. It cannot give as accurate a course, but is efficient and by comparison inexpensive. It is, in
more suitable for the smaller vessels. Here also, remote control can be provided. Magnetic compasses, with remote repeaters, are available and may have advantages in tains of cost, where the extreme accuracy and other services provided by a gyroscopic compass are not required.
general,
,
within range in true perspective to his
own
ship.
Many
available.
types of electric rudder angle indicators are With direct-acting electric steering control
can readily be incorporated the rudder angle indicator.
The remote
repeaters of transmitting compasses can give inputs to the radio direction finding indicator. With gyro input it is of evident advantage to read off true bearings.
Log The most modern
logs transmit information electrically and, as has been said, can supply one of the automatic
[116]
inputs to "true motion' also be displayed.
radar.
CONTROL OF TRAWLERS
r.p.m., and propeller-pitch, with provision to stop the engines, and also discontinue the automatic speed control to ôbtain full-engine revolutions when necessary. second lever alters the relationship between pitch and
Distance travelled can
Echo
Many types are now available to meet two

ments
navigation and fish location.
basic require*
For accurate and
speedy detection, and identification of fish, a combination of recorder and visual display, similar to the conventional radar presentation, represents a considerable advance. The recorder will give an indication of the presence of fish and a certain measure of quantitative information. For detailed examination the cathode-ray tube enables extremely accurate and rapid assessment to be made. An aural system can give notice that fish echoes have been
detected.
power. Further advances enable complete control to be exercised from a singk lever. This regulates fuel supply and shaft speed, and at the same time controls pitch to
meet any change in ship condition. Such systems can also provide a second or "slave" control position in addition to that from the engine room.
Propeller-pitch
and engine mutation indkators
These are ancillary to main engine controls and are

positioned at the control position.
CHANQI-OVt* LEVER
AUTOMATIC NAVIGATOR
Wheelhouse of a middle-water or deep-sea trawler illustrating a concept of Fig. 110. centralized information and control services to provide maximum economy of space ana
manpower
As an ancillary to the fish detecting devices, which it must be remembered only indicate when fish have been found and not how to find them, it is required to know accurately the depth at which the trawl is towing. The trawl can then be adjusted to the known depth of fish.
Engie and propeller control Where the main propulsion machinery is internal combustion or electrical and also where controllable-pitch
propellers are used, complete remote control can be exercised from the wheelhouse as well as from the
Engine room tekgraph The conventional engine room telegraph has been developed into indicating telegraphs and control levers
which can be desk-mounted in juxtaposition with other

controls.
Ctowd circuit tekvfatoo

For stern trawling, closed circuit television, to observe operations that would otherwise not be visible, may be considered. Provision can be made for its incorporation
in
engine room.
single lever
can
select
both engine
any scheme of centralized control
[117]
FISHING BOATS OF THE TYPICAL LAYOUTS HP CENTRALIZE CONTROL

Three main claret of fishing vessels are chosen as representatives of the vessels where centralized control would
WORLD
TACTICS
engine controls are at hand, as are also the winch button
show the greatest saving in construction cost, top hamper, and operating expenditure? The "middle-distance" and "deep-water" trawler The fish factory trawler with or without stern trawl
facilities
and tog. For normal control while on passage the information sources art placed around the main steering position. The master transmitting gyro compass is used as the
steering repeater.
An indicating echo-sounder unit is also
The fish factory parent ship or other large vessel.
placed where most easily seen when navigating in confined waters. The radar unit is placed to give maximum accessibility without in any way interfering with either of the two steering positions.
TftfC
CONTROL
I*
Fif. 111. Centralized command control in
(lie wkeelhouse (above) and remote control at the stern trawl position (below) in a fish factory trawler
Fish factory trawitf

Fig. 110 shows a centralized layout suitable for amiddfedistanoc or deep-water trawler with starboard control of fishing. Although the vessel can remain in automatic steering, the "push-button" controls at the starboard wing can over-ride automatic steering and direct the vessel as necessary. The "fish indicating" recorder, while not obstructing direct vision, can be kept under constant observation
a control layout applicable to the with stern trawl and the stern control position. The starboard wing control position is not required. Provision is made for closed circuit television display to provide immediate visual information about
Fig, 111 illustrates
fish factory trawler
while the ancillary cathode-ray display unit is also immediately accessible. Engine room telegraphs or
operations astern. control console for the after position is shown. This includes push-button steering together with rudder angle indicator, main engine controls and a cathode-ray display for examination of fish echoes.
[118]
At both the wheelhouse and stern control positions, engine room telegraphs could be substituted for the main engine controls, if required.
Large TCMd Fig. 1 1 2 and 113 shows the centralized command concept for the largest type of vessel, including the fish factory and mother ship. Two schemes are shown. Both include a deck-head mounted, double-faced rudder angle indicator, visible from anywhere in the wheelhouse or wings of the bridge. Both also show the reflector type magnetic steering
compass.
CONTROL OF TRAWLERS
engine room is considered more practicable in larger types of vessel. This provides an opportunity to emphasize the safety factors incorporated where auto-electric control is used* If wiring and, separately, the connection to the main steering engine is duplicated, it is then possible to have hand electric control and automatic steering available through one set of connections with push-button control via the other set at standby. Using auto-electric control, change-over to any of the
three
methods of
steering
can be accomplished in
seconds.
Further, the complete cycle of change-over is
duplicated.
flUTQM4fftC MJIV KUtfQII

CQLJftftC
OOOaoOOOOQ
Fig. 112.
Centralized control in
a fish factory or
large mother ship
Fig. 112 shows the central control. The
main
steering position
embodied in
All these proposals of centralized control have the
position is placed immediately to starboard with the engine revolution indicator, log and echo-sounder indicator conveniently displayed. Fig. 113 shows the main steering to the rear of the
command
common feature of leaving much of the port side dear of

obstructions. Larger ocean-going vessels have a trend towards combining the chartroom and wheclhouae. By careful attention to lighting and screening, the port side of the wheelhouse could be used as a chart table ami for the automatic navigator, electric course recorder, weather map display or other instruments concerned in navigation. Where the size of the wheelhouse does not permit this, the space can still be used for a chart
table.
Although shown amidships, there is no why this main steering position should not be elsewhere in the wheelhouse if desired. Pushbutton steering is included in the main console. While in automatic steering, the officer-in-charge can take immediate over-riding steering control whenever required. Control positions remote from the wheelhouse could be provided if necessary. Control of main engines is
central control
technical reason
replaced by engine
stage, control
room telegraphs because at the present of main propulsion machinery from the
Other instruments, particularly internal and radio telephones, could very easily be incorporated in tlie control consoles. Such units, as loudspeakers and switch boards could be sited conveniently on the after bulkhead
[119]

The instruments illustrated are not comprehensive and tie only representative of the many available. The design of centralized control must be flexible and
WORLD
is
TACTICS
steering, the remote steering facility can be particularly valuable in saving manpower, always provided due regard
paid to lookout.
CONTPQL UNIT
ECHO SOUNDER INDICATOR REFLECTOR TYPE COMPASS (ON DECKHEAD OVER)
CHANGEOVER
STEERING REPEATER
AUTO ELECTRIC STEEPING COLUMN

Fig. 113. Alternative arrangement to fig.
112 with separate steering position
adaptable to meet individual requirements. Easy access to die various instruments is required for servicing and can be achieved by removable panels or components.
Conclusions All of the designs shown are entirely practical and are intended to show how to achieve greater efficiency and
economy
degree of centralized control can also be achieved, with resultant saving, in smaller classes of fishing vessel than those mentioned. For instance, the systems using a magnetic compass as datum and providing automatic,
in control. early decision by the owner to take advantage of centralized control would enable the naval archi-
An
tect
hand electric and remote control of steering as an addition to the normal system, are considered particularly useful in drifters, seiners and line fishing boats.
manpower economy same time, reduction in fatigue and

efficiency.
to prepare the most economical wheelhouse of design leading to a change in the size and shape the bridge and a saving in weight and cost. Installation problems would be modified and streamlined. An would be achieved with, at the in
increase in operating
As
well as the physical relief afforded by automatic
[120]
DESIGN OF TRAWLERS
Review of related papers
DISCUSSION
DR. and
SCHARFE (FAO, Rapporteur): Apart from von Brandt Btrkhoff's background paper, information on specific trawler deck design is given, for instance, by Ringhaver who describes the Gulf shrimp trawler in Florida. The
J.
in a dangerous position when heaving with conventional equipment broadside in bad weather and a strong tide with the
forward position of
to
the,
deckhouse of these boats
is
said
gear caught at the bottom. Seakindliness has a bearing on the present subject in so far as it affects the working conditions on deck. Mockel collected data of the metacentric height (GM) of five commercial
trawlers. He found that a between 2.3 and 2.6 ft. (0.7 and 0.8 m.) is a reasonable compromise for those vessels and is most agreeable for the crew. Lower values give the feeling of insecurity. High values result in too much stiffness. In both cases, particularly in the latter one, the vessel ships much water in bad weather interfering with the ability and safety of the crew working on deck. Such vessels consequently have to stop fishing earlier. Zwolsman states the average metacentric height for modern standard Dutch fishing boats of about 72 ft. (22 m.) LOA to be 2.56 ft (0.78 m.) fully equipped but without ice. The crew are said to consider these
go back to the old times of hand hauling the gear. The ample working space aft although very welcome is not essential for the power handling of the gear. Instructive drawings are given, illustrating the recent radical change from the conventional one-net to the modern two-net method which demanded a considerable change of the rig. The new method for which two 40 ft. (12 m.) otter trawls are towed simultaneously from strong outriggers, as many other subjects to be mentioned later have also been described from the gear point of view in Modern Fishing Gear of the World (Kristjonsson, 1959). The operation can be taken as rather well mechanized. A similar two-trawl method of shrimp trawling is common in the Netherlands and Germany with the
GM
beam trawls, instead of otter trawls, are used. sketch of the rigging of such a boat is given by Boogaard It may be mentioned that considerable (fig. 695 and 696). risk can be attached to such outrigger trawling in case one of the trawls gets caught at the bottom. When towing with a strong tide, only a very quick action, namely releasing the respective warp, can prevent the boat capsizing. An automatic device for effecting this release in proper correlation with the pull of the remaining warp would be a great help. Boogaard also touches the question of winch drive by giving details of construction, performance and wire capacity of the trawl winches of four conventional types of Dutch craft. The smaller boats have belt drive from the main engine. The bigger trawler-drifters use an auxiliary diescl of 100 h.p. and the still bigger trawlers of 132 ft. (40.25 m.) have
difference that
boats as very seakindly. Besides the operation of the gear, often a greater part of the crew's work on deck is devoted to the care of the catch. Reay and Shewan (p. 200) point out that the fish quality and the time it can be kept in good condition on ice, depends very much on the time which elapses before it can be cooled down. The process of gutting, cleaning and stowing should, therefore, be accelerated as much as possible. Mechanical washing machines and chutes to direct the fish into the fishroom have already considerably contributed to diminish
delays. But there is still a wide field for improved mechanization of fish handling on the conventional trawlers with respective
changes and additions in the deck designs.
states that herring drift-netting in the North Sea is declining. Consequently in Holland drifters often are replaced by small trawlers. Existing drifters with sufficient engine
De Wit
LOA
hydraulic drive.
The pro and contra of electric and hydraulic winch drive for big deep sea trawlers is discussed by Stokke (p. 26). The somewhat smaller efficiency of the hydraulic drive is said to be compensated by its smaller size, which not only can save engine room space but also allows for direct attachment of
the oil
motor to the winch. The considerable space otherwise
needed for the winch motor can be used, for instance, for 9 crews accommodation. This is an advantage particularly for
smaller craft.
trials described by Dickson provide information the relation of hauling speed and power output of the winch at different warp loads for two typical U.K. trawlers. Dickson furthermore stresses the need for considering the stability when converting for instance Danish seiners into trawlers. The well known stiffness of the Swedish motor cutters enables them even to tow with both warps at the
Hauling
on
power are fitted with gallows and trawl winch to serve as combined drifter-trawlers and also new combination vessels have been designed. In Germany the same tendency can be observed. Until now these combined vessels trawl over the side which still is the most common method in northern European countries. De Wit now proposes a revolutionary design combining stern trawling with a stem chute with drift-netting from a sheltered 'tween deck. This leads to the most recent development, namely stern trawling, particularly with a stern chute. The conversion from side trawling to stem trawling with a stern chute has strongly affected the traditional deck design and brought forward a good deal of new ideas and improvements in favour of the so badly wanted mechanization of trawl operation. Heinsohn gives a comprehensive description of the time German stern trawlers in operation to date, comparing and dfcnmfting also their different deck design and equipment. Ordinary
trawl winches should serve the purpose but for convenience an additional pair of drums or capstans have been installed Electric drive, installed in two boats* in two vessels.
top of the aft gallows. They, therefore, need no sliphook and avoid the working of the warps in the sliphook which Dickson mentioned as mult of too short a distance between aft gaUowand towing Mode. More tender boats might come
seems to have advantages over hydraulic drive became of its better flexibility and the easier possibility of using the winch
[121]
generator as additional between the winch and the upper edge of the stem chute is advantageous for hauling in the about 183 ft. (56 m.) long net with die catch. The distance should not be less than about 70 ft (21 m.). On Heinrich Mtins it is even 97 ft. (30 m.). So with two additional pulls the catch can be brought on deck. For the last pull for heaving the loaded codend, now a tackle is used in line with the slope of the stern chute. This eases the pressure and wear on the codend and
FISHING BOATS OF THE propulsion power. A long distance
WORLD
TACTICS
trawlers, there are inshore
and deep sea vessels, and the towing speed might vary between 0,5 and 5 knots. There, naturally, is a close correlation between the type of the gear and the type and equipment of the boat; the gear influences the boat and the boat might eventually influence the gear. The introduction of power propulsion was indispensable for the development of modern trawling. The exploitation of
the deep sea required bigger and bigger craft, these, other hand, allowed for bigger gear.
unit: this
on the
With nylon codends having special lengthening piece. strengthening, more than 25 tons are said to have safely been brought on deck in a single operation. This means a considerable saving in time compared with the splitting of the
catch of side trawlers. The average time taken on a commercial trip of Sagitla was 24 min. for Hie otter boards to be out of die water. Of this time 14 min. were spent in average for net repair and removing giiled fish and only 10 min. for dipping and unciipping the otter boards, hauling the trawl on deck, emptying the codend and shooting again. The crew is released from all heavy work such as hauling in the net and The fish is gutted or it works well protected and in safety.
further processed under deck, washed by a machine and carried to the hold by means of conveyor belts. This most
This shows that, first, boat and power must be a sound is underlined by the several contributions dealing with propulsion problems. The solution is important not only for the big trawlers but perhaps even more for the small ones which usually are treated as less interesting for rational approach, and, therefore, are almost forgotten. There must secondly be a close correlation between the boat and power unit on one hand and the fishing gear on the other hand. Coming from a Gear Research Institute, Professor von Brandt felt quite clearly the wide gap between the present state and the effective solution aimed at. great deal of improvement is needed before the powered boat together with the gear will become a very efficient unit, and this demands efforts from the naval architects, the fishermen and the gear
promising development should most carefully be considered for application to different fishing conditions. It seems well standard suited to solve quite a few trawling problems. deck design, as, for instance, is found in side trawling, has
technologists working in close collaboration. Until now, only technical matters have been mentioned, i.e. the boat, the power and the gear, which should be a
not been established yet so that exchange of practical experiences with the different systems would be most fruitful. Ease and speed of operation is one of the main points of this method. There are, however, some doubts regarding the quality of the fish hauled in a big bulk, which should be
discussed.
proper unit. But besides this there is a further very important point which has to be taken into consideration: the crew. There are model tests with boats and with gear, but until now the fishermen seem to have been neglected. In this respect he was not thinking of better accommodations for living and lot has recently been sleeping on board or safety at sea. done in this field in different countries. He was thinking of
One aspect of the ideas on centralized control of trawlers put forward by Hardy (p. 114) might shortly be mentioned already now. It regards full winch control from the bridge which at the moment is still wishful thinking. A partly control, namely the release of the warps from the bridge in case of the gear being caught at the bottom, has been installed
But there are strong points in regard to efficiency, labour saving and safety which make a full central winch control during the whole gear operation desirable. This is a problem worthwhile to be taken up by marine engineers. The present trawl winches might not be suitable for such central control. So new designs, eventually with separate drive systems for the warp drums and capstans and suitable brakes, could easily lead to a complete change of winch arrangement and warp conduct and consequently to a thorough redesign of the deck equipment of certain trawler types in favour of improved
for instance in
vessels.
working physiology.
If a farmer's wife wants a new kitchen, she can rely on extensive studies concerned with the right placing of table, water tap, and even to avoid unnecessary steps. If a farmer needs a new spade, lots of tests have been made about the best
some new German
shape and length of the handle to obtain highest efficiency. But looking at a trawler's crew working, it is quite obvious that nobody has ever seriously cared how their operation could be improved. There is a wide field for extensive time and motion studies, on proper deck design and equipment and its optimal placing. Until now it obviously made not much difference to the designer if a basket had to be lifted 3 ft. (1 m.) high or only 1} ft. (im.) or if it had to be used at all. The
fishery is in this respect in the
same position as
all
industry
mechanization.
PROFESSOR A. VON BRANDT (Germany): The importance of

trawling is underlined in Hardy's first paper. For the Northwestern part of Europe, for instance, the trawl is the most important gear for harvesting the sea. Trawling as we know it
is a comparatively new method and there are old skippers who have participated hi it from its beginning. It is not surprising that, for instance in Europe and East Asia, very old types of trawling gear are being used tide by tide with the most progressive gear from one and the same port; there are beam trawls and otter trawls, and there are
with the difference that on land this demand has long been realized. In the fisheries of highly developed countries with a high standard of living and the consequently growing difficulties to find trawler crews for the difficult job of handling the gear to a great extent with their own hands, the demand for rational mechanisation becomes more and more
pressing.
now, however,
stifl
Fortunately there is now a promising indication that the trawl fishery gradually becomes conscious of this need. The development of the big Northern European stern trawlers,
for instance, is one first and very important step in this direction. It is to be hoped that the great interest caused by this
development
fisheries too.
will
stimulate similar efforts in other trawl
bottom trawls and
floating trawls.
Trawling is mads from a very wide range of sizes and types of craft; there are small sailing boats and high-powered
MR. J. pRQSKift (Canada): Since the trawl has been specifically developed for groundfishing (all species except halibut) the impact of this type of gear on total catches of groundfish
J
(122
TRAWLING
shows son*
coast.
interesting result* for the
DISCUSSION
MR. A. HUNTER (U.K.): The characteristics of modern side fishing trawlers permit high economical speed and provide a safe platform for fishing in bad weather up to force 7/8 on
the Beaufort scale. More knowlege of the reaction of a trawler form to varying sea energy spectra and the best routing based on more use of weather prediction may enable quicker voyages to be made. This is important from the aspect of fuel costs where the fisheries are remote. Stern trawling must nevertheless always attract the attention of owners and
builders. Were such vessels comparable in resistance? Model experiments carried out with a good trawler speed form modified for a stern ramp showed that with the lower portion of the ramp immersed the resistance increased by 20 per cent. On this basis 20 per cent, more fuel would be consumed. If fish processing were done on board speed was of less consequence, but generally larger ships were involved. In Britain it had been stated that factory ships of the Fairtry type caught in one year about the equivalent of two orthodox trawlers, while the cost was said to be as much as that of three or four orthodox trawlers. In these ships commercial considerations could not ignore the sociological effect on larger crews required to spend considerably more time at sea, often in bad weather conditions. There may therefore be a place in the fishing economy for the normal size of trawler bulk freezing part of the catch at sea. This did not mean that
Canadian Atlantic
An estimate of contribution to total landings of groundftsh

in 1957
by trawler* was as follows:
Percentage contribution to total groundfish landings 12 per cent. By trawler* under 70 ft. (21.4 m.) 30 per cent. By trawlen over 90 ft. (27.4 m.)
LOA LOA
The small trawlers were developed under the fleet moderniprogramme for the Atlantic coast and are fishermen owned. The large trawlers for the most part are company
zation
owned. Brandt and Birkhoff in their paper also suggest the development of stern trawlers of less than 100 ft. (30.5 m.)* Three such craft were developed on the Atlantic coast by the Department of Fisheries of Prince Edward Island. These trawlers were 50 ft. (15.2 m.) LOA powered by a 76 h.p. diesel engine. Although these craft proved to be suitable for scallop dragging, they were found to be unsuitable for groundfish fishing
for the time being.
Stem handling MR. H. R. BARDARSON (Iceland): Stern trawling is a remarkable new development from the usual side trawling. However, this new type of handling the gear seems to have more advantages when adopted on big factory ships than on the small sea-going trawlers of 600 to 850 GT. Icelandic trawlers come
almost entirely within these tonnage limits and none of them trawl over the stern. In Iceland, they have up to now no experience with stern trawlers, but they have been considering very carefully whether this type of ship would be a step forward
for their trawling industry.
builders were opposed to stern trawling and they would always undertake the construction of vessels which owners considered
best for their purpose.
Iceland is not basing the fishing industry on factory ships, as there are freezing plants on land all around the coast, and the task of the fishing vessels is to bring first rate fresh fish to the harbours. The freezing plants are much closer to the
fishing grounds than in many other countries. The big type of factory trawler with freezing plant on board is very expensive, not the least owing to the large crew it must cany. Although mechanization can be used on board for preparing the catch and freezing, the crew have to be paid all the time they are on board, whereas on land workers are only paid for actual working hours. Owing to the difficult crew situation in Iceland at present, with a need for more fishermen, the factory ship would be a big problem to solve. The question is then whether the stern trawler would still have many advantages over other types of trawlers in the size group of 600 to 850 GT for iced or cooled fish only. He felt that the crew would have better working space and the bigger freeboard might also result in less icing. These are important
MR. J. C. E. CARDOSO (Portugal): Although no big stern trawlers are at present operating in Portugal, he believed that stern trawling has great possibilities and shows advantages
over the traditional method. It is, however, difficult to convince fishermen to take up a new fishing method. At present the Government is building a research ship of 190 ft. (58 m.} length which will be equipped for stern trawling. This vessel should serve the purpose of convincing owners and fishermen of the advantages to be derived from the adoption of stern
trawling.
MR. J. G. DE Wrr (Netherlands): Stern trawling results in an arrangement in which the crew's quarters are in the forward part of the vessel. This is of no advantage to the crew. All new vessels in the Netherlands have crew quarters aft. He would ask as to what the advocates of stern trawling have to say about this question.
SIR FRED PARKES (U.K.) felt that German trawler owners did not favour stern trawling for their normal size vessels, a
advantages.
method which seemed
to be of advantage mainly for large
The motions on the aft end of a vessel are not so comfortable

as in the midship region. He considered that it would be possible to fish in worse weather with the conventional ships rather than with the new ones, considering the size of ship. Iceland is following with interest the results of the first stern
trawlers.
It
Distant water trawlers were very costly, about 300,000 ($840,000) apiece. One should strive to evolve a vessel that brought fish to port in larger quantity and in good quality at lower costs. His company had ordered six small vessels of
had been
said that stern trawling
still
results in
handling a completely filled codend, as the whole net is hauled at once. He had also heard that this has caused damage to fish in the lower part of the net through pressure when the net is hauled up the ramp. Although stern trawlers are very interesting, he felt that some alterations would be necessary for Icelandic conditions, and he considered this type of trawler to be still in the
difficulties in
100 ft (30.5 m.) length, with controllable-pitch propellers. This was a new venture for home water fishing.
experimental stage.
MR. H. HEINSOHN (Germany) said that his company was designing stern trawlers of the size of ordinary side trawlers, and three had already been operating successfully for two to three years. Although there was at the moment still a wide field for improvement, because stern trawling with deep set trawters was a new venture, the evidence offered by practical
[123]

oporattoa should act be tenoned and should have move weigh! than theoretical conclusions. For exampto, the quality of the catch was doubled because of the big pressure in the codend. However, landing statistics and reports from fish merchants showed definitely that this was /to/ the case. On the contrary, there were indications that the average quality was better, especially on long trips. One of the might be that the fully packed codend is lifted on board Quickly* and there is a shorter death struggle than with side trawling when the bag has to be split when a large catch is made. The fact that the fish before gutting are
WORLD
TACTICS
trawlers making long voyages. The dominant factors are time and temperature; other factors, like the length of the death struggle and high pressure for a few minutes, were not important in this type of ship but might be of more importance in the
smaller stern trawlers which have been suggested for the
North-East
Pacific.
moms
stowed below deck and protected from the light may also mean improved quality, as well as the mechanical handling, washing
MR. F. MINOT (U.S.A.) believed that stern trawlers would develop greatly in the future and would prove their excepThe question of the difference in tional seaworthiness. resistance between a stern trawler and a cruiser stern side trawler did not seem to be due to the stern shape but rather
to the ramp.
and quick transport
to the holds after gutting. It has been said that stern trawling, especially in smaller vessels, was impossible in bad weather and that a stern
MR.
E. C.
GOM>SWORTHY (U.K.)
said that fish brought by
ramp would only be suitable on big factory vessels. Here actual experience, too, proved this statement to be wrong. The stern ramp should follow the movement of the waves as closely as possible, which seems more likely to happen with
smaller vessels provided the most suitable course during hauling and shooting operations is maintained (i.e. with the sea, or with the sea on the beam) so as to avoid heavy pitching. Stern trawlers are able to fish longer in bad weather than side trawlers because the crew is in safe and dry positions to operate the gear. In respect of icing up, experience has shown better performance with stern trawlers due to shipping less spray and water because of the higher freeboard than with side trawlers where the freeing ports and the trawl winches
stern trawlers could easily be more than eight days old. Fish meal would be the result unless distant fishing were done
by factory ships. Recent developments had shown that side trawling was on the way out, and fishermen still being suspicious of the new method should be invited to come on board stern trawlers, to see for themselves that these vessels were as good as the side trawlers. Stern trawling most certainly safeguarded the fisherman and made his life more comfortable. For these reasons alone it seemed inevitable that stern trawling would be the method of the future. The problem of pitching and heaving referred to by other participants should be easy to deal with.
MR.
V. ESTEVE (Spain):
It is
no easy matter
to decide which
Regarding seaworthiness, the stern trawler is as good, and perhaps even better, than a side trawler of the same size. What happens when the codend is completely full? This is A still a problem, which probably arises only once a year. catch of 25 tons has been brought on deck safely in severe weather conditions without creating undue problems, and it should be borne in mind that for 60 years fishermen have constantly been improving details of the gear of side trawlers. Stern trawlers at present operate with side trawling gear, but it is likely that this is not a good proposition. Stern trawlers should have their own gear which fishermen should start
ice up.
trawling
method
is
best as regards ease of net handling,
volume of catch and quality of
on
fish. In Spain, all fishermen the northern coast without exception trawl over the side of their ships, while most of those on the eastern coast trawl over the stern. The catch by either method is about the same and so is the quality of the fish. The boats from which trawl-
ing is done over the side normally have gallows on either side. Those using the stern trawling system have large-diameter net rollers, a guide rollers or gallows depending on the shipmaster. Both types of ship use the same sort of winch.
improving.
Grass (owner of a stern trawler) found that in the rare cases when the net was full, the fore part had to be cut to release the weight 9 and if the net was on the deck, to get the catch out more easily. Hunter has said that transom stern trawlers have 20 per cent, higher resistance. Model tests, which have been made with stern trawlers, have been very encouraging and the resistance is found to be just slightly more than for ordinary side trawlers of the same size. The reason for Hunter's statement may be that a type of transom stern was used which was * too deeply immersed in water and therefore not advantageous
at the speeds at which these ships operate.
MR. L. SOUBLIN (France): His opinion was that the stern trawler factory ship is satisfactory from the technical standpoint, but that the principle is open to question. There is no reason to fear that the fish caught by stem trawlers is inferior in quality to that obtained by side trawling.
On the contrary, the filleting and freezing of fish that have just
been caught result in a high quality product. The trawl can be hauled in rapidly and efficiently in one operation. Trawling in bad weather is made much easier. The crew working on the lower deck is well protected in very comfortable conditions. These points, and many others, indicate that the stern
factory trawlers are highly satisfactory from the technical standpoint. Nevertheless, they have three important require-
cruiser stern
result in
would probably be slightly 20 per cent* difference.
better but
would never
MR. G.
S.
trawler need not
MILNE (U.K.) agreed with Heinsohn that a stern show much extra resistance over the tradi-
tional cruiser stern trawlers. He felt however, that the principfe did not show to advantage for vessels below 180 ft. (55 m.) LBP operating in North Atlantic waters.
ments with regard to: Weight (winch and various gear on the upper deck) Length (82 ft. or 25 m. clearance are required between the winch and the aftermost hatchway; hence at least 100 ft or 30 m. between the winch and the after end of the ramp) Beam (because the deck admiahips must be cleared for
shooting the trawl,
fish
it is
necessary to provide for additional
MR. G. C. EDDIE (U.K.) suggested that the reason for any apparent difference in die quality of fish between stem trawling and side trawling is that item trawlers are distant water
side to store fish temporarily) These three requirements necessitate very large trawlers.
poods on each
Thus, stem trawHng must be associated with very large factory trawlers. This very principle, he found, was open to
[124]
TRAWLING
DISCUSSION
period, during which the basic principles underlying the methods have withstood any attempt at modification. This must not apply also for the future, especially in the case of the trawl, which, in spite of all recent improvements, must always be kept alongside the ship, borne by its own buoyancy, and emptied into the fish ponds on the deck to prevent damage. With the above ideas in mind, Mr. Dorville's firm, in association with fishing experts and with one well known
winch maker, has developed a new way of operating the trawl from the stern of a large trawler by centralizing the mechanism for the gear operation at the aft end of the ship, though keeping the method of lifting the net now used in
side fishing
(fig.
114).
The new stern trawling unit consists of a shroudless bipod mast and two symmetrically arranged groups of mechanism for shooting, controlling and handling the trawl. Each group consists of a revolving crane with 3 ton and 16 ft. (4.5 m) range, and an electric fishing winch with brake and warpguiding gear. Two separate motors and control gears are provided for the operation of the associated winches and
cranes. Elimination of the gallows system, with the warping fairleads and bollards, allows the warp to have direct way.
A watertight steel folding flush hatch tightly covers the hatch space under the mast. It is fitted in a frame and forms a hinged ramp enabling the fish to slide easily and quickly to
the 'tween-decks.
Fig. 1/4.
Proposed stem trawling arrangement without ramp
Trawling operations are performed as follows: Shooting. The codend is picked up by one of the two revolving cranes, pulled back, lowered astern and dropped in the ship's wake. By its resistance in the water it pulls the whole trawl over the transverse roller on the bulwark into the water. After the bridles have been paid out from the winches the veering is stopped for unhooking the otter boards. Then the necessary amount of warps is paid out, the winches
are braked, and trawling starts. Hauling. The warps are hauled in on the drums of the two winches, then the otter boards are hooked up, disengaged from warps and bridles, and the bridles hauled in the
question because some national fish markets cannot accept the large production from this type of ship. The stocks in the sea are not inexhaustible; for some species,
they seem to be already decreasing. There is moreover real depletion, such as, for instance, the inordinate catching which should be frankly denounced and courageously discussed of one- and two-year-old herrings in some coastal areas of the North Sea, which constitutes a veritable genocide. He feared that these large trawlers, in view of the need to fill their holds, will gradually go in for overfishing and thus contribute toward the progressive depletion of the resources of the sea. In this sense one can say that this type of ship,
which is very satisfactory from the technical standpoint, design the principle behind which is open to question.
is
MR. F. DORVILLE (France): Deep-sea trawlers are developing very rapidly and will in all probability evolve into selfcontained factory ships. Important progress has been made with regard to hull construction, speed, and crew comfort. Electronic devices are increasingly used. Yet, on the other hand, means of handling the gear and the catch have changed but little over the past years. Means of hoisting the net are still missing on trawlers of the classical type. The present system, consisting of mast, derrick and fishing winch, cannot be considered as an efficient solution, in spite of the skilful
use
conventional way until the wings appear. The ends of the foot rope are then seized by one crane each, and in one single operation by .both cranes the whole trawl mouth is first raised and then lowered on to the deck at the aft end of the ship. The codend is then attached in the customary way and lifted by one crane, either over the stern if the catch is normal, or over the sheltered side of the ship if the catch is large, and is discharged into the hold by hauling over the hatch cover ramp. Thus the codend is hoisted directly from the sea and brought over the movable ramp without contacting either the hull or the deck, thus avoiding any damage to the fish or nets. The design of this stern trawling unit allows valuable deck space to be gained, owing to concentration of the gears aft, which enables the crew to work with increased safety on
the whole deck area. The output increases, although there is a reduction in the number of the crew, and the whole operation All operations are mechanically controlled is accelerated. . from the bridge. Due to growing difficulties to find qualified crews for the very hard job of handling the gear on side fishing trawlers, the demand for rational mechanization is becoming more and more urgent The answer to this fundamental problem might be this stan trawkng unit with a remote control equipment.
is no J. SCHAHFE (FAG) : Dorvilk's progress in trawl hauling is not quite justified. Besides some small improvements oa conventional side trawlers, as, for
made of
derricks
On new factory ships, it by the fishermen. and winches have become more and more numerous,
DR.
bringing about a real complication of gear. Fishing methods have been widely tested over a very long
[125]

"bang up" method of dealing with tile heavy bobbin groundrope and the mechanical hoisting of the body of the net, there has also been the development of the British, Russian and German stern trawler* with chute. Their equipment for fully mechanized hoisting of the net, which is used on a commercial scale with satisfactory results is carefully described and discussed in this book. The use of separate winches for each warp, which has already been considered in the past, should contribute to decreasing the wear on the warps and to increasing the safety of the crew working on deck. However, it seems that the price of such an arrangement as against that of the conventional trawl winch has acted as a deterrent to its introduction. Large super trawlers are now fishing in weather up to Beaufort 8 to 9. The operation of the proposed system with revolving cranes which, with only a 3 ton capacity, seem somewhat small, might become difficult. The hoisting of a bag which is the common weight filled with about 3 tons of fish for a splitting bag" without contacting either the hull ." would hardly be possible when the vessel is or the deck rolling and pitching in a rough sea. Deck space can certainly be gained by omitting a stern chute. But this factor is not of importance to ships with a 'tween deck for processing the catch. It is not quite dear how the operation can be greatly accelerated with the proposed arrangement, particularly as the method of dealing with big catches (more than 3 tons) is not described.
instance, the
.
. .
WORLD
TACTICS
gear to How mote freely and come to more easily, and altered the arrangement to prevent the danger of the trawl net coming into the propeller. There is a danger in the first vessel, but h has only happened once. On that occasion the vessel nearly had to call for a salvage vessel but die managed to dear it
The Russians have probably had the same experience heavy seas with strong winds. In 18 voyages the gear had been shot about 10,000 times. Therefore it would be dear that the crew would not continue to do this unless it went smoothly. It could therefore be said that this is no longer an experimental method of handling trawling gear but a perfectly normal one. It is not the only method but it happens to suit the large factory trawlers with a
herself.
_
in
'tween deck.
2.
He wanted
to discuss the question of production at sea

-discussion).
later (see Part

3.
IV
MR. Y. TAKAHASHI (Japan): The first Japanese commercial stern trawler of 1,500 gross tons, 1,800 h.p. was built in 1958. This boat is a combination freezer vessel. The length of the
is too short. Operating results have not been altogether successful, mainly because of the long time needed for lifting the net, and there is some belief that a side trawler might be better. The defect mentioned might be overcome by lengthening tip distance between the chute and the winch. Another weak point of this boat is the square stern which often causes entanglement of the net. Round sterns only will be built in the future.
slipway, or stern chute,
With regard to the trawl winch power, this in Japan is from 60 to 90 h.p., but in France it is almost 120 h.p. and in some other countries it is as high as 200 to 250 h.p. It would be much appreciated if an explanation could be
usually
Regarding the personnel problem, which occurred in many places, particularly among the Americans, he did not feel that any troubles were present, although it was anticipated by the trawler industry and might have turned out very differently if they had not had the full support of the trade unions and the services of a somewhat outstanding skipper who was able in the early days to hold the crew together. He admitted that in the first two or three voyages, it was a difficult problem to get the men accustomed to remaining at sea for two to three months. That difficulty had largely been overcome. They could have attracted men from the start by very high rates of earnings, but obviously with a crew of 80 men or more, they wished to keep the earnings on a fair basis, not an extravagant one, and they tried to increase their earnings by increasing production. The crew receive at least 50 per cent, of their earnings on production and therefore if one can get them to increase the production or the value of it, the pay automatically improves. There is probably some room in Britain for further increase in pay, should that be necessary. Earnings still were below those of the deep-sea trawlers working out of Humber. Reverting to stem trawling, he agreed that the problem of getting a heavy catch up the slip does exist, and that methods had to be improved to overcome this problem. The problem is however in acceptable proportions. The amount of fish lost by the odd heavy bag brought up the slip is very low in relation
to the total catch. He firmly believed that this type of vessel would increase and develop. It has been proved to work in a practical way and it is a logical way of utilizing the catch fully. It would
given for these big differences. Incidentally, Japanese trawlers are operating to depths of 2,000 ft. (800 m.).
MR.
L.
M. HARPER Gow (U.K.): He spoke as a ship manager
take a long time, and he doubted whether factory vessels would ever do more than supplement the normal standard
fishing vessel.
and not as a technician of his experience since 1953. At that time, they had carried out some experiments with the Fairfrec to investigate possibilities of stern trawling and freezing at sea, At the time they had under construction the Fair try, which
started operating in 1954.
Fairtry I completed 18 operational trips in 4i years (4 trips per year) which was approximately what was planned. In 1955 and 1956, the last being a particularly good year for distant-water fishing, the results were satisfactory enough to make them decide to construct two more vessels, following the lines of Fairtry /, but with such improvements as found necessary and advisable. See fig. 115 fot the general arranpment drawings of Fairtry // and ///. The main controversial points of this type of vessel are: 1. Stern trawling; 2. Production at sea; 3. Personnel problems.
1.
MR. H. HENSOHN (Germany): He made some explanatory comments on the horsepower of the trawl winches used on stern trawlers. He is using basically the same type of winch as is used on side trawlen and he had found that the output fo r the trawl winch has something to do with the output of the main engine. According to the experience of the German and
British skippers, the fine is at the intention being to haul the net up quickly. There might be some sound reason behind this, but what matters in his opinion is the speed of the net through the water, which is a result of the ship's speed and the hauling speed. Now if the ship's speed is increased the pull on the winch must be much heavier than if the speed is reduced, so for trawlers with a
f^
vessels.
There was little change in general design in the two new They had improved the layout in design to allow the
high horsepower with engines running
full
speed ahead one
1126]
TRAWLING
must have a much stronger trawl winch. He has tried to net explain to skippers that what matters is the speed of the through the water and that if they reduce the speed of the vessel the speed of die trawl winch goes up simultaneously. Regarding the output, the first trawler had 180 h.p. and the
DISCUSSION
power gradually was increased to go up to 300 h.p. or more.
250.
The tendency now is to
MR. A. HUNTEH (U.K.): He supported Hetnsohn's remarks about trawl winches. It appeared from the methods employed
MAIN DECK
LOWER DCOC
Fig. 115.
General arrangement of Fairtry
II
end III
[127]

by tome skipper* as if the trawl winch should have the same power as the main engine so thai they could fight it out
British ships with 1,500 to 1,700 tup. engines usually have winch motors of 300 h.p. The normal trawling speed is 3| knots and the winch can haul from the mean barrel position at roughly the same speed, viz: 250 ft. (75 m.) per minute.
WORLD
TACTICS
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. most interring film taken by an underwater camera placed in the codend of a trawl, first facing aft and later facing forward, was shown in 1957 at the FAO International Fishing Gear Congress in Hamburg. At that tune underwater research on the behaviour of fish in front of and inside a trawl had not quite reached a
for hauling
therefore difficult to understand why when the order up the net is given the main engine telegraph should immediately be rung to "Full speed ahead" as is sometimes done* It is understandable that the gear should
It
was
conclusive stage, yet it was fascinating to watch the fish swim sometimes for a considerable just in front of the footrope time then maybe relax and be carried aft into the belly,
feeling themselves trapped when coming into the codend and then perhaps trying to escape out of the mouth of the net.
end it is the question of the speed through the water which counts in preventing die fish escaping from the net, There seems great room for education in this matter. The trawl winch with its actuating machinery is an expensive item of equipment in a large trawler and the whole success of the voyage depends upon it Yet when the trawl gear is shot these mechanisms axe subject to the most primitive usage.
lift
off the
bottom quickly, but surely
in the
Smaller stern trawlers
MESSRS. DAYTON L. ALVERSON and PETER G. SCHMIDT JR. (U.$A.): Purse seiner type vessels ranging from about 50 to 75 ft. (15.2 to 22.8 m.) in length constitute the bulk of fishing craft trawling from Puget Sound, Washington, U.S.A. ports. A typical multi-purpose vessel of this type was described by Hanson (1955). Combination purse seiners have become popular because of their versatility in other fisheries, such as salmon and herring seining, tuna trolling, and gillnetting. When rigged for trawling, either of two types of winches are used to handle the trawl warp. The centre winch, which houses both drums in one unit, leads toward the guard rail and the wire is led around heavy blocks aft to the davits. Divided single-drum winches with a common drive shaft are also extensively used. These are set to feed directly aft to the
davits.
As
Pacific trawlers
employ
handling the net
is facilitated
relatively small crews, say 3 to 5, by hauling in the wings, body,
Fig. 116, Stern view
of a trawler rigged with a drum for handling

net
the
Sometimes when shooting the ship steams at 6 to 8 knots and the warps are paid out with the winch brakes almost full on with sparks flying all over the place. There would appear to be room for improvement in practice and perhaps also in
design.
intermediate and codend of the net in successive lifts, using the boom and winch. This method is relatively safe during average weather conditions as no bobbins are used, but not in squalls when it may result in loss of fishing time. This handicap has been partially overcome with the advent of the drum trawler shown in fig. 116. These vessels (Alverson, 1959) are fitted with power drums to haul in the wings and body of the trawl. Successive lifts of the net are not necessary
MR. H. KRISTJONSSON (FAO): Heinsohn and Hunter have mentioned the habit of trawler skippers of increasing towing speed when beginning to haul up the trawl and it sometimes
calls for rather critical
power requirements, and the question was posed: "Why do the skippers do this, and is it necessary to
increase the towing speed so much at this point?" Obviously the need for accelerating the towing speed when beginning to haul up depends largely on the species fished, how fast swim-^ ming and active they are, the trawling speed of the vessel prior* to hauling, the construction of the net, etc. In many fisheries
as only the codend is lifted aboard. Although small boats have generally been satisfactory for most coastal fishing, they have some disadvantages for Puget Sound trawling. These vessels generally make longer trips than those operating from coastal ports. The expansion of the fishery to northern Vancouver Island and Hecate Strait, British Columbia, has resulted in trips averaging from 8 to 11 days each and runs up to 500 miles. Fishing in Hecate Strait has been possible because increased yield per fishing effort has exceeded increased operating costs. The small size and relatively small capacity of these vessels, coupled with slow sailing speeds of about 9 knots have, however, reduced their ability to obtain maximum benefits from the more
productive distant grounds,
factor which may further reduce their effectiveness is the recent development of territorial rights. Territorial extension
there
is,
of course, no such speeding up at the beginning of
hauling. On the contrary, it is common practice, for instance in die Mediterranean, to leave the net practically stationary
cm the bottom, the vessel coasting backwards while hauling in the warps, in some Scandinavian fisheries the vessel even doubles on its track, steaming towards the net while hauling in
die warps*
that under certain conditions it to increase the hauling speed when beginning to haul up. Mr. Kristfonsson thought that perhaps the most convincing proof would be found through underwater television observations, such as those started some years ago by
te essential
would exclude Puget Sound trawlers from fishing grounds from which a large percentage of their catch is currently
derived.
To compensate for the loss of such areas, fishing vessels would either have to intensify exploitation of the species in
the deeper waters along the outer continental shelf or to fish further afield perhaps in the Gulf of Alaska, where some
large unexptoited banks exist between Cape Spencer and Kodiak Iffoml. AMwMig*1 the tmfl%r vessels now fishing
in the Pacific Northeast
The fact remains, however,
would be
suitable,
but perhap not
1128]
TRAWLING
DISCUSSION
HOLD PLAN
Fig. 1/7.
Proposed 84 ft. (23.6 m.) stern chute trawler
[129]
WORLD
TACTICS
Fig.
US. Proposed 127ft.
(3S.8 m.) shelter deck stern trawler (see also overleaf)
efficient in
the deeper waters, they would not be capable of distant trawling in the Gulf of Alaska. Two trawler designs should be considered: (1) a vessel
theside.
capable of operating efficiently in grounds currently fished, and (2) one able to trawl in the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea. If future trawling leads to greater offshore operation, the "sea-ability" and ability to fish in relatively rough seas will be of considerable importance. For the local fishery, alteration of deck design and equipment may be sufficient. It would be advisable to utilize the drum trawl and stern chute. This method could be improved by shifting the drum forward, which would aid in handling the net and would avoid, in most instances, having to lift the heavy codeod over
With a larger vessel a shelter deck could be provided. Drawings of an 84 ft. (25 5 m.) combination trawler for the local Pacific Northeast fishery are given in fig. 117. Major departures from die current seiner-trawler include an offset deckhouse, a stem ramp, and a combination offset trawl winch. The deck plan offers a number of advantages: (1) the offset deckhouse provides extmnely good visibility from the pilot house (approximately 315) which allows the skipper to observe the handling of fishing tear on deck, (2) the winch operator, protected by the raised forecastle, can see the trawl warps at all times* (3) a large dear work ana is available, (4) a hydrauJkalry controlled boom or crane is free to swing 300, and (5) the stem ramp and drum winch combination
.
[130J
TRAWLING
DISCUSSION
HOLD PLAN
Fig.
118 continued
brings the codend aboard in two hauls. If "splitting" is necessary this can be done in the normal way. The advantages of the stern chute trawler have been discussed by Birkhoff
(1959).
The main
details are:
LOA
B, moulded
84 23
ft.
(25.6 m.)
(7.01
ft.
m.)
designed to provide ice storage with auxiliary or to contain chilled seawater. The vessel has an estimated fish capacity of 120,000 Ib. (54.5 ton) of iced fish or 129,000 Ib. (58.5 ton) offish carried in chilled seawater. The vessel can be easily converted for purse seining or for kmgUning. In addition to bottom trawling, the vessel can be used in the Alaska king crab or shrimp fisheries. This smaller trawler is proposed for operation in areas from the Columbia River to Northern Hecate Strait. Maximum running distance would not exceed 500 mites, although the operational capabilities are much greater. South-east storms are frequent in these waters for much of the year and small trawlers lose dose to 3 5 per cent, of the available fishing time because of advene weather. The stern chute should allow
is
The hold
refrigeration,
fishing in relatively heavy seat. If one additional fishing day per trip could be attained, the average catch per trip could be increased 15 to 20 per cent. Reduction in hauling and totting
lime should also add to the general fishing efficiency.

I
12 ft (3.66m.) . 146 90 ton at 40 cu. ft/ton Hold capacity 25 ton Fuel oil capacity Freshwater capacity 3 ton 360 h.p. at 375 r.p.m. Engine output Approximate speed (light) 10} knots 4,000 mites Approximate range Plans for a 127 ft. (38.8 m.) medium-distance trawler are shown in fig. 118. As witfc the smaller vessel, an offset house, stern chute, and forward-placed drum winch are suggested. The advantages of this arrangement are similar to thoae given for the smaller boat. The added length allows for bringing the net aboard in one haul. In addition, a shelter deck is provided to handle or process the catch. Processing equipment, if desired, can be installed on the shelter deck. The catch is hauled to the work deck, sptlted throutfi a loading hatch, separated into fish bios, and then loaded into the fish hold. Doors are provided on the side shelter deck for fast
.
D, moulded
GT
[131]

If
WORLD
grounds.
2
to
TACTICS
initiate
dock
fscQities
aw
not adequate for handling hutch ^11*1 bo used* Hold
the incentive
trawling
on
the
more
distant
capacity is about 400,000 Ib. 0*5 ton) for iced fish and 430,000 Ib. (200 too) when carried in chilled seawater, The vessel also can be used in the purse seine fisheries for herring, sardines, or tuna, as well as for king crab or
The main details are:
LOA
....
. .
.
127
B, moulded
dhrtmp. This suggested trawler could fish
GT
D, moulded
ft. (38.8 m.) 30ft. (9.15m.) 14 ft (4.2? m.)
all
the present areas, as
Hold capacity
500 250 ton at 40 cu.
ft./ton
Fig. 119. 32ft. (9.75 m.) multi-purpose fitting boat with layout for trawling
am large ccKrtratk>t of unfls^ Hmfliir to the red-fob of the Atlantic, which ihoukl provide high yttdi for dfctonttrawfco. The growth of future mark**,
oouptodwtth possible cbaoga to territorial MU, could provide
well as the extensive Gulf of Alaska banks. Maximum operating range without processing equipment would be about 1,400 miles. Operating conditions would be more severe than those encountered on present grounds, as gales are common during a large part of the year. The large "stagfehauT through the stern chute would improve the fishing abffity, and the shelter deck would provide protection for die trawl grounds of the Gulf have been reported to
Fuel oil capacity . Freshwater capacity
115 ton 14 ton
Engine output Approximate speed Approximate range
(titftt)
800 h.p. at 310 r.p.m. 12* knots

8,000 miles
ME. A. HUNTS* (U.K.): In the smaller size of stern trawlers such a* proposed by Ahwson, he asked if sufficient experience had tarn gabled regarding the safety of the stern ramp arrangement in a following sea. There could be conditions where the set could flood the deck by coining up die ramp.
It
was noticeable
that this design considerably restricted tte
{132}
THAWLINO
accommodation and the arrangements shown by Alvenon would not be acceptable in Britain where the staving accommodation hat to be placed at toast 5 per ant. of the ship's length abaft the forward perpendicular. Moraover three beds in the height would not comply with British law. Care also would be required in balancing athwartship weights without undue weight of compensating ballast always more difficult in the smaller ship.
DISCUSSION
The big problem of saving manpower is federally doeely tied up wilh handling ai* board* Factory ships staying at sea for a couple of months,, operating in distant grounds more than 1,000 miles from Ike home port, are obliged to cany large crews and complicated machinery for processing die fish. Such elaboration of the catch at sea is inherently expensive. On vessels staying out for a shorter time, Le., less than 20 days after q**^*g the first fish, there is bound to be an increasing trend to save labour by minimizing elaboration of die catch and streamline this, through mechanical handling and automation to be able to operate with very small crews. Provided with gc*>d accommodation and labour easing, as well as labour saving appliances, the crew members should work long hours white at sea and rather enjoy their leisure time at home by staying on shore once in a while by rotation. This would make fishing a mote
attractive employment.
Ma. D. L. ALVERSON (U.S.A.): There is no restriction in 1 crew's quarters in Schmidt * and his design. On purse seiner type vessels the crew is always put up in restricted quarters far forward, in the U.S.A. they do not have to put up with the regulation mentioned by Hunter. He is of the opinion that the broad stern is no problem, not even in a
following sea.
Recruitment of fishermen is very difficult and hence as much as possible should be done to improve working and living conditions on board the ships. In the U.S.A., in line fishing, the average age of the fishermen is over fifty years. The
trawling fleet shows a somewhat lower average age which might be due to the shorter trips these trawlers undertake.
An
the fish
ideal fishing boat would then resemble a tanker where is dumped into a tank with chilled brine or sea water,
MR. P. GURTNER (FAO) mentioned that stern trawling had been introduced in India for some time now even for very small boats ranging from 25 to 32 ft. (7.5 to 9.75 m.). The smaller boats do not normally have a winch, but the net is hauled by hand and towed from one or two samson posts at the extreme aft end. Bigger boats are now generally rigged as shown in fig. 1 19. Some criticism was heard from fishermen against having trawl davits at the extreme aft end of the boat, when bad manoeuvrability was experienced. Trawl davits are now fitted about i LOA forward of the transom and much improved manoeuvrability is expected. Fig. 119 shows a 32 ft. (9.75 m.) trawler.
Future development
or preserved by other simple means where laborious gm*iqg bleeding, and other handling is avoided. Mr. Kristjoosson was curious to hear the opinion of die fish processing people about such possibilities. He was afraid that research oa keeping fresh fish in chilled brine or sea water so far had beea done mainly in countries which fish in cold waters where was relatively little difference between the chilling temperatures and the temperature at which the fish live and also the bacteria on the fish. This method of preserving fish in fresh,
condition is, however, much more hopeful when fishing in warm waters where there is a drop of maybe 35 to 55 F (20 to 30 C.) from the sea temperature down to chilling:
when
Such drastic chilling of the fish immediately comes out of the sea should effectively arrest spoilage and might quite likely result in improved quality and increased keeping time with an absolute minimum of handling. Progress in this direction would obviously have a very pro* found effect on fishing vessel design and on the economics of
temperatures.
it
MR. H. KRKTJONSSON (FAO): It must be regretted that the discussion on stern trawling had dwelt too exclusively on trawling over a ramp or stern chute, while little mention had been made of the old and conventional stem trawling arrangements, such as the Mediterranean one, where there is certainly also scope for improvement. On Mediterranean trawl boats it is customary to place the winch rather far forward so that fewer strapping operations are needed when taking in the net. This method could, however, be further improved, but the main question is: Is it practical to take on board such lightweight trawl nets as the Mediterranean ones with their small catches, or can time and labour be saved by adopting the mode of operation used in the Gulf of Mexico shrimp fishing and on some stem trawlers on the U.S. West Coast, where the stern of the vessel is swung around slightly to bring the codend up to the side, leaving wings and belly in the sea? This is one example of the scope of efficiency studies which are urgently
fishing operations, as drastic savings
might be achieved in
labour item in
which
fish
is
universally
and
increasingly the biggest cost
production.
PROFESSOR A. VON BRANDT (Germany) Most of the discussion was concentrated on stern versus side trawling, their advan* tages and disadvantages, fish quality problems and crew problems. It seems to him these questions were answered as far as it was possible. There was only one question regarding; the gear itself: should a new type of gear for stem trawling be
:
developed.
Knowledge of the conventional types of trawls is still For gear research, not the bottom trawl but the floating trawl is now in the centre of attention. It seems necessary to say that in future there will have to be more
restricted.
needed on board fishing vessels. But such work studies must not be limited to finding out how to save labour in the handling of the vessel and gear, but should also cover handling of the catch. For instance, the small Mediterranean trawl boatscany crews of six to nine men not mainly for handling the fear but for sorting the small species in the catch meticulously into little bows for icing. Similarly, up to 40 people mre sometimes carried on Icelandic long-distance trawlers,
interest in floating trawls in connection with biological and economical problems. This could influence the deck arrangements a great deal and naval architects should watch this
development carefully.'
Coau&aad of operation
MR.
J-O.
TRAUNO (FAO,
Rapporteur):
Two
reasons have
as.
prompted the subject:
To
transmit the intentions of the skipper as fast
mainly for gutting the fish when working on exceptionally rich grounds,
possible To transmit die brain impulses at the skipper to th* react ion of the vessel
1133]
PISHING BOATS OF THE

task of putting forth the subject. Sttberkrflb's, Chardome's and Hfltaoiuft papers alto deal with this sutgect Hrinsohn's paper gives a very vivid account of what is possible for a skipper from the bridge of a modern vessel.
WORLD
TACTICS
the old
Hardy and Pain have attempted the
MR. A. HUNTBR (U,K.) quoted

the instrument
Navy saying "Though
their idea*
no
ME. G. C. EDWE (U.K.): The concept of the flight deck of an aeroplane in the bridge of a modern fishing boat is not a <x>rrcct one. The skipper's automatic navigator is to be placed At one end of the bridge and the echo-sounder at the other end, o that die skipper gets enough exercise and is relieved of his mental anxiety which is very often the cause of mishaps. He doubled the extent to which automation could be carried out in a fishing boat Such centralization tends to increase the anxiety and strain on the skipper and he would recommend that the equipment on the bridge be restricted to what is absolutely necessary. As automation is the rule of the day, it has to be accepted.
man". He Whfle the proposals were imaginative they perhaps tended to imitate too much the control of a modern aircraft. Full reliability of rudder control was essential, and the function of the steering gear was not only to control the rudder angle but also to hold the ship against the action of the sea. Robust steering gear was therefore essential. Visibility forward and aft is of the utmost importance to the trawler skipper, and the size of the control console proposed would prevent access to some of the wheelhouse windows. Moreover, such controls had to take into account the activities of the skipper when fishing. These operations enforced quick action between the doors at the bridge wings, a weather eye forward and a quick use of engine and steering controls. It was hardly likely he would respond readily to delegating some of these responsibilities to a dose television circuit
perfect there are limitations to the bit that these proposals rather reversed this.
may be
MR.
C GOLDSWORTHY (U.K.)
skipper to think in terms of a ducting his fishing operations, he wondered bow it is possible to make him understand anything else in fishing. It is a question of education. It is problematical if the advent of gyro compass, echo sounders, radar and all modern equipment has brought about any additional safety. However, the fishermen have the equipment and they tend to grow more and more automation minded.
If one cannot get the trawler speed of 2J or 3| knots in con:
MR. H. HONSOHN (Germany) said that a feature of modern German trawlers is a revolving chair for the skipper on the
starboard side, around which the naval architect has arranged various devices. The arrangements shown in Hardy's and Pain's drawings would not be favoured because of the absence of the revolving chair Due to lade of space, the radar screen or screens are normally arranged on the port side. In the starboard bridge wing is a second helm control and the engine telegraph and/or propeller bridge control, which should be within reach of the
skipper from his revolving chair. In certain vessels some controls are purposely put out of reach of the skipper's chair, so that another person must also remain on the bridge. Automation means that the man may be in sole control, which is against German law and there is a
MR. DWK3HT S. SIMPSON (U.S.A.) agreed with Hardy and Pain and said that there were two main requirements for successful centralized control a pilot house from which the skipper could see all the ship operations without going outside, and a diesel equipped engine room. Perhaps a third should be mentioned a well trained skipper. He believed that the starting of the engine should be omitted from the pilot house and left to the engineer, who could see what he was doing. Probably this also applied to the manoeuvring of a reversing engine, although in the smaller engines that can be easily arranged for the pilot house too. These installations would pay for themselves by releasing the engineer for maintenance work.
H. PAIN (U.K.) agreed with Hunter as to COMMANDER H. the aids necessary for navigation. He however added that nothing could replace the need for good seamanship.
.
An arrangement which would cut off fuel oil supply in case of over-heating of the engine was feasible and desirable. He would not suggest an elaborate system but would prefer the very flexible system of electric steering control of the conventional electro-hydraulic steering engine. The problem of older skippers who were not accustomed to automation would eventually disappear. The skippers of the future would be better educated and well versed in handling the equipment. The proposals might appear to be looking too much into the future, but most of the things which had
consequent risk of mishaps,
been suggested were already in use in one way or another in
many fishing boats.

CAPTAIN
ship,
P. F. EDGE (U.K.) said that white fitting out a new he found it rather difficult to place all the gadgets. He noted that old skippers tended to find all these gadgets in (he wheefhouse very disturbing, but in the case of younger skippers acquainted with automation and electronics, great benefits might result from centralized control positions.
He suggested that the analogy of the flight deck of an aeroplane and the bridge of a modern fishing vessel was valid. Centralized control aims at increasing the efficiency of the vessel as a fish catching machine, at reducing the burden of the skipper thereby and also at reducing hazards and
increasing safety.
1134]
STEEL AND
WOOD
SCANTLING TABLES
by
(West Coast of UJS.A*)
H.
C HANSON
Figure* and scantling tables are given for small fishing vessels not covered by bodies such as Lloyds and the American Bureau of Shipping They are for wooden boats of from 30 to 90 ft. (9.15 to 27.4 m.) with bent-frame construction and for those of from 30 to 125 ft. with sawn frames. (9.15 to 38.1 They also cover V-bottom wooden boats of from 30 to 90 ft. (9.15 to 274 m.) and welded steel vessels, of from 30 to 130ft. (9.15 to 39.6m.) in length overall.
m^
TABLES D'ECHANTILLONS POUR L'ACIER ET LE BOIS (COTE OCCIDENTALS DES
E.-U.)
L'auteur donne des figures et des tableaux d'fchantillons pour des petits navires de pcchc n'fcant pas oouverts par des organisme* teh one fe Lloyds et PAmencan Bureau of Shipping. Us sont destines aux navires de bois de 304 90 pi. (9,15 4 27.4 m.) construits avec des membnires courbfes et aux navires de 30 4 125 pi. (9,15 4 38,1 m.) 4 membnnes scttes. Us couvrent autti les navires de bois 4 fond en V de 30 4 90 pi. et les navires d'acier soudcs de 30 4 130 pi. (9,15 4 39,6 m.) de longueur tors-tout.
TABLAS DE ESCANTILLONES PARA EL ACERO Y LA MADERA (COSTA OCCIDENTAL DE LOS
E.U.A.)
Elautor da figure* y tablas de escantilkmes para los pequeftos barcos de pesca que no est4naseg^radosporoifanizacionesccMno la LJoydt y el American Bureau of Shipping. Se destinan a los barcos de madera de 30 a 90 pies (9,15 a 27,4 m.) de eJora constniidos con cuadernasasenadas. Tambien comprende los barcos de madera de fondo enVde30a90piesyk barcos de acero soldado de 30 a 130 pie (9,15a39,6m.)deesloratotal.
information on scantlings for smaller vessels not covered by bodies such as Lloyds and the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS). The author has collected data pertaining to such types built on the West Coast of the U.S.A. for both wood and steel fishing boats.
VIEWS
were expressed at FAO's Fishing Boat Congress in 1953 that there was a need for
Sawn-frame construction is not used to any great extent nowadays, but boats so built range from 80 to 125 ft. (24 to 38 m.) and are used for tuna fishing, but they are expensive to build due to high wages and lack of
skilled shipwrights.
practice.
is
Table 21 gives scantlings proved by The midship section and profile, fig. 125 and 126, of an 80x22 ft. (24.4x6.7 m.) wooden sawn-frame
Wooden
construction
Bent frames comprise 90 per cent, of wooden boat conFig. 120 to 124 show typical sections and some profiles of boats built on this system. Table 20 recommends scantlings which represent common practice for vessels of bent-frame construction. The bent-frame in this case is white oak, if obtainable. This material has now become very scarce, so red oak, while it is not the best, is used to a large extent. It is not, however, very rot resistant, and to give it a reasonable life, it is cut to the proper sixes, the edges rounded slightly and then pressuretreated with preservative. Typical bent-frame boats have keelsons and keel bolted together, the frame is dapped into the keelsons, with hard-wood floors over the keelsons and frame, the
struction.
round-bottom combination vessel used primarily for tuna one in Africa. The midship section shows two types of construction. The one to the left is a development from the bent-frame
fishing, this particular
single keel and keelsons bolted an together forming integral backbone. The framing can be sound if done properly by tenoning the cants into the keelson for about i in. (12.7 mm.); by having solid deep floors bolted to each frame as it is set, and with the floor
construction
with
and by
sided to within 1 in. (25 mm.) of the width of the bay; filling the anchor stock floor over the top of the
frame to the depth of the 'floor

fastened.
itself;
all
beiixg well
Failure to follow this
frame, backbone and floors all being well bolted together. In smaller vessels, such as beach seiners and gillnetters, deep floors we wed instead of keelsons, thus
differing
from the midship
section shown.
could lead to disaster if blow. Table 22 shows the scantlings for V-bottom vessels up to 90 ft. (27.4 m.) in length and it is baaed upon common usage for a great many years. The fishermen on the U.S. West Coast had an aversion to using V-bottom types, probably because they have been able to afford
method of construction the vessel sustains any heavy-
[137]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WOULD:
CONSTRUCTION
Fig. 123.
Wood
beach seiner* 45 x 14J ft. (13 J2 x 4.42 m.) with 4ft. (1.22m.) draught
fig. 130. Bent-frame construction of U.S. West Coast oak boats
Fig.
124.
fig. 121.
Wood constructed combination
vessel,
44J x 14 ft. (13.6 x
67x77x9.5 ft. (20.4x5.2x2,9 m.) combination boat designed for seining, otter trawling and trolling
4.3m.). Suitable 165 h.p.
Fig. 122.
i seiner, Wooden 38x12ft. (lit* 3.63m) with!ft. (0.91 1*.) setoer, 38xl2ft.(n
Fig, 125.
Midship section showing sawn-Jramc construction of vessel ofaOx 22 fc 04.4x4.7 m.)
1138J
SCANTLINGS
U.S.
WEST COAST STEEL AND WOOD PRACTICES

TABU
Afld
i
20
off
the
US.
to be
CM* to M It (27.4 a.)

65
19.8
gltca
rtMb Ml
LOA
Stem (Hdwd.) Stem post (Hdwd.)
Keelson Sister Keelson Fkx>rs (white oik)
Floor*
in
.
ft
30
9.1
45
13.7
50
15.2
57
17.4
m.
in.
in.
75 22.9
85
25.9
90
27.4
6x8
6 6
8x8
8
8x8
8
10x10
10
12x12
12
12x12
12
12x14
12 14
12x14
12 14
in.
8x12
8x12
12x12
10X16 14x14
12x16 14x14
14x18
in.
in.
.
in.
8x8 6x6 2x3

2x8
8X10 8x8
2x3
3x8
8
8x8 2x3 3x9

8
8x8 3x4
3x10
10
8x8 3x4
4x12
12 14 14 12
14X14 10x10
14x14 10x14
14X14 10x14
4x4
4x12
12 16 14
12
4x4
44x14
12 16 16
4x4
44x14
12
place
.
of
keelsons
.
(Hdwd.)
Deadwoods
Shalt logs Horn timber
. .
.
in. in.
in. in. in. in.
.
8
8
8
10x12
12
10x12
12
8
12x12
12
16 16
12
Gripe (Hdwd.)
10
12
Frames (white oak)
14x2
9 and 10 2Dbl.
3 to 6 3 18
Frame spacing
After cants (S.W.)
2x24
10
2x3
10
3x4
12
3x4
12
Hx4
12
4x5
16
in. in. in.

in.
3Dbl.
4 tog
3Dbl.
3Dbl.
44 to 94 24
4Dbl.
to 10
4Dbl.
54 to 12
4iDbL
5J to 12
44 DW.
54 to 12
Beams, sided Beams, moulded
4to8
34 24
Beam
spacing
It
5} 27
27
27
Bilge stringers Number of strakes
in.
.
2x6
4
3x6
5
3x6
5
3x6
6
4x6
6
4x8
7
4x8
8
Clamp, main deck Shelf, main deck Ceiling, main deck
. .
.
in.
in.
2x6 2x6
1
3x8 3x8
li
3x8 3x10
14
3x10 3x12
2
3x12 3x12
2
4x12 3x12
2
4x12 4x12
2
in.
(n)
Clamp, raised deck

Shelf, raised deck Ceiling, raised deck
.
in.
in.
2x6 2x6
1
3x8 3x6
in.
(n)
3x8 3x6
1*
3x12 2x12
2
3x12 2x12
2
3x12 3x12
2
3x12 3x12
2
3
Garboard
Sheer strake Planking
.
in. in.
in.
.
14 (n)
1
(n)
2x10 2x10
lixÔ
2x12 2x10
14x10
2 24
l(n)
li
1* 2
2*
ii
Broad strake
in.
Guard (Hdwd.)
Sponson Shoe (Hdwd.)
Decking
in.
.
2x3
None
li
2x6 2x8
li
2x8 3x8
2
4x12
2
4x12
2
5x12
24
in.
in.
in.
Waterway
14x2 14x6
-
2x3 2x12
8
2x3
2x12
10
2x4
2x12
12
2x4
2x12
12
24x4 24x12
12
24x4 24x12
12
24x4 24x12
14
Rim
timbers
.
in.
Quickwork
Sag in keel
in.
in.
4
i
in.
4
i
6
1
t per
ft.,
1*
soft
U
nominal, e.g. surfaced
Deck camber i
Hdwd.
hard wood, S.W.
wood, (n)
the
more expensive
fully-shaped boat.
Now,
they are
becoming aware of the merits of this method of construction which, experience has shown, can reasonably be expected to last from 20 to SO years. Table 22 refers to soft woods, such as firs and cedars. Yellow cedar is recommended because it has practically the same strength as West Coast firs but is slightly lighter
in weight.
warm
realized that vertical grain is difficult to obtain, but in countries it would greatly reduce maintenance costs. If hardwoods ,arc used, scantling sizes can be
reduced considerably below those given, which are for soft wood. All flitch used must be dose-grained, select, structural, without sap, wane, rot or loose knots, all well
best grades of this are used for such members as the frames, floors, navels, filters, beams, keelsons and keel. Clears are used for the planking, vertical grain above water, slash grain below water. It is
The
A typical 57x16 ft. (17.4x4,9 in.) V-bottom boat is shown in fig. 127 and 128. The bays between the frames are filled in solid from keel to deck in the cargo hold. This provides insulation by the wood itself and makes a solid backing for the ceiling to resist the impact
bolted.
[139]
CONSTRUCTION
Fig. 126.
80 x 22 x 9 ft.(24.4x 6.7x2.7 m.) wood constricted ttma boat designed for service fisheries. Suitable for both seine and bait fishing. 300 h.p.
in
South 4frlcan
Fig. 127.
Midship section showing V-bottom construction of a vessel of 57x16 ft. (17.4x4.9 m.)
Fig. 128. 57x16 ft. (17.4x4.9 m.) nvxxfc* K-/* combination boat for Alaska seining and for crabbing. Suitable for 240 h.p. dlesel and with two brine cooling tanks forward. Economical construction
Fig. 129,
Framimg
wed In mailer
sttel
nueh from
and
45 to 73 ft. (13.7
to
223
m,) length, with
/raiding oft
SCANTLINGS
U.S.

TABU
21
LOA
KM!
.
Stem (Hdwd.) Stern pott (Hdwd.)

Keelson
Sifter keelson
Deadwoods
Shaft logs Horn timber
Gripe (Hdwd.)
Frame spacing Frame taper

.
Flitch
Beams, sided Beams, moulded
Beam
spacing
Bilge stringers Number of sttakes
Clamp, main deck Shelf, main deck Ceiling, main deck
.
.
Clamp, raised deck Shelf, raised deck Ceiling, raised deck
Garboard
Sheer strake Planking
.
Broad strake
Guard (Hdwd.) Sponson Shoe (Hdwd.)

Decking
Waterway
Rim
timbers
Quickwork
Sag
in keel
in.
1*
in.
li
e.g.
Deck camber J
per
ft.,
Hdwd.
hard wood, (n)
nominal
surfaced
of the free water, and does away with the possibility of loose water in the bilges. This is a typical fishing boat
an Alaska limit combination boat, for heavy liquid cargo in both holds: for being designed water circulates and flows over the the carrying crabs, top of the hatch continuously.
commonly
called
with existing methods of construction by using both transverse and longitudinal framing for the same hull. Experience has shown this to be most practical and
efficient, especially where light-weight plating is used Plate skegs with apertures are introduced for better handling, and so are heavy horn plates to eliminate strut*
and reverse framing to a large extent These have all been proved and are recommended.
in sizes Scantlings for round- and V-bottom construction from small giQnetters up to larger boats, 130 ft. (39.6 m.) long, aw given in table 23. Compromises have been made
Fig. 129 shows the framing used in smaller steel vessels,, from 45 to 75 ft (13.7 to 22.9 m.). Transverse framing it
[141]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD;
CONSTRUCTION
Fig. 130. Midship section
of welded steel construction (19.3x5.5 m.) combination vessel
in
a 65x18 ft.
Fig.
132.
83^22
ft.
(25.3x6.7 m.) welded combination vessel
steel
round-bottom
Fig. 133.
83 x 22 ft. (25.3 x 6.7 m.) welded steel round-bottom combination
vessel
-tffxM-A
CIMxM m. mcM* MM? V*oaom com,
273 k*. OtMl, wftaMr
fig. 134.
100x.Xxl3.7Sfl.
(*Wx7.Px**
comMnatUm
frawt
md ttaa fiiMi* tw
.)
SCANTLINGS
U.S.
Fig. J35.
100x26x 13.75 ft.
(30.5 x 7.9 x 4.2 m.) all welded steel combination trawler with portable bolt tanks
and tuna fishing
vessel
used aft of the engine room bulkhead, with longitudinal framing forward. Since the plating recommended for the 45 ft. (13.7 m.) vessel is in. (4.75 mm.) thick, the framing is spaced more closely than the ordinary rules require. This is done to eliminate the washboard effect. To this end care must be taken not to over-weld plating
to the frames.
Fig. 130 and 131 show a 65x18 ft. (19.8x5.5 m.) welded steel V-bottom combination vessel with typical sections showing transverse framing aft of the engine room bulkhead with longitudinal framing forward. This type of construction is typical of all lengths of boat from 45 to 75 ft. (13.7 to 22.9 m.). Since the arrangements, in the lengths under 35 ft. (10.7 m.) depart from standard and use lighter weight steel, complete longitudinal con-
eliminating the extra cost of installing doubters in the trawl and seine lofts.
Forward, where webs are used, intermediate floors between webs are recommended at the same spacing as
All hull oftd
haw
ttM) work, whofwtr Mtura, dott n
include to*
haft, toil
*aft or propdtoft
90
25
20
60
struction in these smaller sizes
is
recommended.
20
Fig. 132 and 133 show an 83x22 ft. (25.3x6.7 m.) welded steel round-bottom combination vessel. This uses in. (7.9 mm,) plating, so transverse framing can be used without much trouble from washboard effects. The midship section shows framing built either transversely or longitudinally. Plate must be pressed over the entire hull surface, which is more costly than the V-bottom type. There is more space to work with here, therefore this added cost is not so important. Fig. 134 and 135 is a 100x26x13 ft. 9 in. (30.5x 7.9x4.2 m.) all-welded steel combination fishing vessel with portable bait tanks for tuna fishing. With the tanks removed the vessel is used for seining and longlining. The steel weights comply closely with the ABS or Lloyds rules with the exception that the framing is more closely spaced for welding. The heavy shaded areas on the profiles of vessels indicate where heavy chafing plates are in. (1.6 mm.) heavier usually installed. The use of gunwale plate is recommended in all cases, thereby
SO
100
190
200
250
feifOOO
K>20304030070i090IOOIIOI*W
t
of tfwl
Fig. 136.
Steel weights in combination and tuna fishing vessels lengths overall up to 114ft. (34.8 m.)
of
the transverse framing, not only for increased strength but to help to eliminate vibrations in the hull. In some cases angled cants are used where there is a heavy flare. Where engine beds and shaft alley bulkheads are
welded to the plating they act as

bers,
vertical strength
mem-
and regular vertical centre keelsons can be eliminated. However, at the ends of the vessel they can be used to advantage. Aft, where the weld line rises to the
stern with plate margin line, the heavy skcg plate should be brought forward inside the hull to form a vertical
centre keelson in this area.

Fig. 136
shows
steel
weight in relation to length.
[143]

TABLE 22
CONSTRUCTION
LOA
Keel
Stem (Hdwd.)
Stern post (Hdwd.)
Keelson
Sister keelson
Fkx>n (Hdwd.) Deadwoods

.
Shaft logs Horn timber
Gripe
Frames
Frame taper Frame spacing
Cants (S.W.) . Navel pieces at bilge

.sided
Beams, moulded
Beam spacing
Bilge stringers Number of strokes
vj-iamp*
mam oecic
main deck Ceiling, main deck Chine (Hdwd.) Chine clamp

Shelf,
Clamp,
Shelf, raised
deck deck Ceiling, raised deck

raised
Garboerd
Sheer strake
Planking
Broad strake
Guard (Hdwd.) Sponson Shoe (Hdwd.)

.
Decking Waterway
Rim timbers
Quickwork
Sag
m keel
in.
i
in.
1*
soft
U
nominal,
II
Deck camber i
per ft,
Hdwd.
hard wood, S.W.
wood,
(ft)
e.g. surfaced
[144)
SCANTLINGS
U.S.
TABLE 23
Plates
and shapes to have a minimum
tensile strength
of 58,000 to 68,000
p.s.i.
(145]
STRUCTURAL TESTING OF SMALL CRAFT

by
YOSHINORI OTSU, NOBUTATSU YOKOYAMA
and
TSUTOMU KOBAYASHI
Traditional Japanese coastal fishing boats are simple and inexpensive to construct. The hull has wide wood planking and its nail* jointed seams am much sttonfor than expected. The longitudinal members have a large safety factor. Transverse deformation may be caused unless the hull is fixed by beams suitably spaced.
L'ESSAI
DE
PETTTS
BATEAUX EN VRAIE GRANDEUR
cdtiers trmditionnels japonais sont de construction simple et peu coftteuse. La coque a de Urges tements Les bateaux -be sont beaucoup plus fortes qu'on ne la pcnsait. Les membrures longitudinalcs ont un grand factcur de sccuritc. de bord6 et ses cootures H pent y avoir tme deformation traitsvemle, a moins que la coque soit fixee par des barrots convenablement espaces.
ENSAYOS DE BARCOS PEQUENOS A TODA ESCALA

Las embaicaciones tradicionates japonesas dedicadas a la pesca costera son sencillas y baratas de construir. El casco es de pianchas de madera de mucha anchura y la davmzon resuha mucho mas fuertc de lo que se podria suponer. Los mtembrot longitudinalcs ticncn un gran factor de seguridad. Puede ocasionarsc una deformaci6n transversal a menos que el casco se asegure mediante baos bien espaciados.
more than 130,000 small unique fishing to 5 GT along the open and sheltered coasts of Japan, most of them are operated as small individual enterprises. The boats are built up of wide wooden planks without a complete frame system as shown in fig. 137 and 138, called the Yamato type.
are
THERE
craft
from
The example
dimensions.*
in
fig.
137 has the following principal

ft.
Constructional knowledge and experience have been passed on from individual boatbuildcrs to their apprentices, without any drawings or calculations so, naturally, there are many variations in the details of the hull form. Nevertheless, there is a fair amount of standardization, and the common constructional features can be summarized.
B = D = GT =
They are
LBP-21.5
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
(6.55 m.)
4.43
ft. (1.35 m.) 1.80ft. (0.55m.)
The
hull
is
made of five
fiat
or slightly bent wide wooden
0.95
said to have been developed from a primitive 15th century dug-out vessel. The Yamato boats are used for net fishing, pole fishing, lining, shore seining, etc. They are now mostly mechanised with small kerosene, semi-diesel or diesel engines but the sail and the rowing
scull peculiar to the region are
still
planks and a transom, as illustrated in fig. 139. The planks are cut to complete developed shapes and nailed up while being pressed into place by props or stays. The bottom and side planks are often neither caulked nor filled with a sealing compound; they are merely nailed after the joints are fitted by sawing, when they are in
position.
used, although
more
The
sides
as auxiliary
power during
fishing than for
emergency
propulsion.
forced with
and the bottom planks are transversely reinwooden knee-brackets of naturally shaped
The building cost of the Yamato boat is about half that of the round-bottom type. It is easy and economical
to maintain and has a good performance when riding on the turf and beaching. The weak point is the tn strength, because of the incomplete framing. The length is thus limited to about 50 it (15 m.). Larger boats with frames are constructed and are called improved Yamato or the compromise Japanese type.
timber, usually spaced about 3.3 or 6.6 ft. (1 or 2 m.) apart Floor timbers ait placed from chine to chine at
The floor brackets, or sometimes in between. timbers ate nailed or bolted to the hull planks. The transom is a thick plank fitted a little forward from the stern to form a recess for the rudder and the lifted propeller. Mechanized boats are strengthened by bulkheads for and aft of the engine.
the
'(Mi!
SCANTUNOS
tfcii
Fig. 137.
""""
^*
Construction plan of Yamato type, built of wide wooden planks, without
a complete
frame system
Longftudiiiftl strength
This
obtained from the hull planking only, except for the guard and rail. There is no deadwood, keelson and
is
bilge strake
found in normal round-bottom boats.
Usually there is a rowing thwart and a steering place aft, an engine trunk just forward, and an open space for fishing operations between the engine bulkhead and the short bow deck, with a wave breaker. The boats often have beams passing through both sides to hold additional rowlocks and/or to lay masts and long poles.
man stands on the stern thwart and with a single scull placed on a pivot on the transom, stirs the water behind the boat with a regular, rocking motion of pulling and pushing athwart the handle of the oar. The scull blade has an ogival section to produce a propelling action, as
shown
in
fig.
141.
Dimensions
Some
representative boats are listed in table 24.
The
Two
and equipment or three masts for single square sails with yards are used when the boats are fishing, as shown in fig. 140,
Fittings
at the stern or the side in
and sometimes for sailing. The rowing sculls are operated

a unique manner. Usually a
most popular size is between 1 5 and 40 ft. (4.6 and 1 2.2 m.) in length, with a beam of 3.6 to 8.5 ft. (1.1 to 2.6 m.). The L/B ratio ranges from 4 to S. Yamato boats are normally under 50 ft. (15.24 m.). Boats from 40 to 60 ft. (12.2 to 18.3 m.) are normally a combination of the traditional and modern type. Larger boats are usually of round-bottom design.
Fif. 138.
Ltar of the Yamato type
[147]
CONSTRUCTION
floor timber
frome
pivot f
<
side plonk
wing plonk keel plonk
rubbing shoe
rudder socket
tronsom
recess for lifted propeier
Fig. 139.
Fisheries Agency. This boat has the typical wide planking but a frame system, as shown in fig. 142. The boat was placed on two keel blocks, 24 ft (7 .3 m.) apart, and loaded amidship with weights from 980 to 4,750 lb. (445 to 2,159 kg.). The deflection was measured by piano wire stretched between the bow and the stern. Dial gauges were placed under the keel and optical measurement made by mirror, telescope and cathetomcter. The results were: (1) There is a linear relation between load and deflection in a wooden ship, even in such severe conditions that the maximum shearing force is 4.16 times the calculated sagging force for the 1/15 wave, the greatest bending moment being 4.33 times that estimated for the same wave.
The Yamato boat, which
Is
made of five
flat
or slightly
bent planks
push or pul othwortehlpt

pivot
Power The majority have
recently been converted into
power
boats, using small kerosene engines with electric ignition, semi-diesels, or small diescls from 1 to SO h.p. The speed range is from 6 to 7 knots. These engines are easily
maintained, spare parts and skilled labour being readily available in any village. As the propeller shaft is made to be lifted when landing or rowing in shallow water, a square slotted timber is fixed aft above the keel to provide a recess for the lifted shaft. description of the system
relative flow
is
given
on
p. 29S.
hydrodynomfc
lift
STRUCTURE TEST
for calculating the longitudinal strength of steel ships are so far as is known never used on wooden ships, and to ascertain if steel ship calculations are suitable for wooden boats, a preliminary test of the structural
deflection
propelling
component
The methods
Fig.
141
Rowing scull Having an ogival section to produce a propelling

action
was made with an improved Yamato boat, the Akatsuki of the Fishing Boat Laboratory of the Japanese
(2) Modulus of elasticity can, therefore, be assumed and the usual method for beam calculations applied. This test indicated the equivalent Young's modulus of
197,000 Ib./sq. in. (13,850 kg./sq. cm.). One elasticity of the test results is shown in fig. 143, where the computed
E-
=2,276,000 Ib./sq. in. (160,000 kg./ represented by broken lines. sq. cm.), (3) When the load was removed there was not complete recovery. The reason was not dear but it might have been permanent strains or slip in the timber and the
deflection,
assuming
is
nails,
(4)
The
transverse deformation at the
open hold was
for greater than expected, as shown in fig. 144. Transverve members, such as beams, floor timbers and bulk-
Fig. 140.
Singh to*
fa art fitted
on two or three motto Yamato boat
in the
heads, should be carefully arranged during construction. (5) Hie longitudinal deflection was only 0,4 in.
(10
mm.) even though
the applied stress
was
severer
[148]
SCANTLINGS
"AKATffJKI"
LBP.36lft(H.Ofn)
2
3
Coornmg Cowing bort,* Deck plonking

Girder
4
7
5
Fenow
Shelf
B D
-
72
W22m)
6
7
295ft(09rrO
Stroke
Stroke
8
9
10
11
A B
C,D
Bilge stringer
Strokes
Stroke
E
block
12
Short
13
Keel
Shoe "
-/
Fig. 142.
General arrangement of an improved Yamato type, the Akatsuki, with typical wide planking
nptfimtritfl
2276000
(160000
Fig. 143, Longitudinal deflection
of AkaUuki
[149]
CONSTRUCTION
[150]
SCANTLINGS
than would occur at sea. This seems to be due to the wide side planks and the nails along the chine. (6) The calculated stress on each member in the
severest test is
shown
in table 25.
safety factors were 35 for compression, 88 for tension and 16.5 for shear. These results suggest that
The
the structure of the Yamato type is much stronger than previously estimated and the scantlings might possibly be decreased to save hull weight However, there must always be a margin for deterioration and easy repair.
US]
The longitudinal strength of the type was proved to be more than sufficient, but transverse strength should be increased, preferably by means of beams or thwarts closer spaced than 6 ft. (2 m.). The easy construction
Fig. 144.
Transverse deformation o/Akstsuki
much labour and material, but skill is needed for caulking, nailing, planking, etc.
will save
[151]
STANDARD SCANTLINGS
by
DWIGHT
S.
SIMPSON
The scantlings of 22 successful fishing vessels from 50 to 150 ft (15 to 43 mj were investigated. As length, beam and depth are known at the beginning of construction, and final displacement and gross tonnage are more difficult to estimate, the unit load was formulated N-^CLOAxBxD/lOOinfeet, and N^(LOAxBxD/2.83) in the metric system. Due to the small variation in block and prismatic
:
was considered that any difference in scantlings due to the sharpness of the vessel could be neglected. It was also assumed that the sectkm modulus of the fhunes will vary as the unit load and as the square of the frame length. The frame length is related to F [(B4-D)/2]" in feet, or F-Z69 (B4-D)1 in the metric system. table recommends Diagrams are given from which the frame sections and frame spacings can be determined from the numerals. the plank thickness in fetation to unit load and frame spacing. Similar diagrams are given for the determination of deck beams. The strakes other and members are in the determined relation to longitudinal plank thickness. tHmffliBjf for keel, stem, keelsons, garboard hole is still just a hole and subtracts from the wooden ship is no better than its fastenings, and an over-fastened one is equally bad. for are discussed and formulas loads Common in various of timber. the fastenings permissible given types of timbers. Correct strength roe-boring is important Round fastenings give better holding power than square ones, weighing 33 per cent. more. On a weight basis small f^fiijny have greater holding power than large ones, and they are less liable to split the wood. Hot dip galvanizing gives ferrous fastenings amazing life. Timber connectors might increase the holding power in sheer of a fastening about five times. Recommendations are given. expressing the diameter of the fastening as a fraction of the member h is to connect.
coefficient!, it
SUGGESTIONS POUR DBS ECHANTILLONS STANDARDISES

On a fait des recherches sur les echantillons de 22 navires de peche mesurant de 50 a 50 pi. ( 5 a 43 m.) et donnant toute satisfaction. Comme la longueur (Lht), la largeur (B) et le crcux (D) sont connus au d6but de la construction et que k emplacement final et la jauge brute
1 1
sont d'unc estimation plus difficue, on a etabli la formule suivante donnant la charge spedfique: (Lht xBxD/100) dans le systeme cause de la faibie variation des coefficients paralleltpipedique et d'unite* anglnttrs, et (Lht x B x D/2,83) dans le systeme metrique. prismatique, on a consider* qu'il eiait possible de negliger toute difference dans les echantillons due a la finesse du navire. On a aussi admis que le module de flexion des membrures varic commela charge specifique et comroe carre de la longueur de la membrure. La longueur de la membrure est en relation avec F((B+D)/2P dans systeme <f unites anglatses ou F 2,69 (B+D) dans le systeme metrique. x F. Une est donae des diagrammes a partir desquels on peut determiner les sections des membrures et leur espacement d'apres table recommande repaisseur du bord6 en relation avec la charge specifique et respacement des membrures. Des diagrammes similaires fervent 4 la determination des barrots de pont. Les echantillons pour la qullk, 1'etrave, les carlingues, les virures de gabord, et autres pieces m^t Afct^rmm^t r+l.ti AI^P 1'epaiSSeUr du horde. navire de bois vaut ce que vatent les assemblages de ses differentes parties, et un exces de liaisons est egakmem mauvats. Un trou n'est qu*un trou et retire de la resistance a la piece de bois. Les assemblages courants sont examines, et 1'auteur donne des formulas pour les charpes pouvant etre autorisees pour divers types de pieces de bois. Le forage des avant-trous est important. Les pieces d'assemblage rondes (clous, boutora, etc.) remplissent mieux leur fonction que ks pieces carrees, qui pesent 33% de plus. Sur la base du poids. de petite* pieces d assemblage ont tine meiUeure action de liaison que de grandes pieces et sont moins susceptibles de faire eclater le bois. La galvanisation par trempage a chaud assure aux Ifaisonf de fer une duree etonnante. Les rondelks monies de dents peuvent augmenter de cinq fois environ la resistance au dsaiDement d*un assemblage. L'autcur donne des recommandations exprimant le diametre des pieces d' assemblage comme une fraction de felement a lier.
N- V
N~f
WngfM^^W
Un
SUGESTTONES PARA ESCANTILLONES NOR MALIZADOS

Se investigaron los escantillones de 22 barcos de pesca que median de SO a 150 pies (15 a 23 m.) y que habian dado resultados muy satisfactorios. la eslora (LOA). la manga (B) y el puntaf(D), se conocen al conuenzo de la construcci6n y como el desplazamiento final y el tooelaje bruto son mas diflate* de cafcular, seestableci6 la siguiente fdrmula que da la especffica: x x D/2,83) en el ststema m6trico. en el sittcro* de medidas briUnicas y a Jo pcquefta* que son las variadones de </ los ooeAdemes de Moque y prismatico, se crey6 ouc se podria hacer caso omiso de cualquier difierenda en los escantillones debida a la finura <telbarco. Tambien se supuso que el m6dulo de flexi6n de las cuadenias variaria como caiga espedfica y cotro de lacuadenML La longtaid de la cuaderna esta en reladdn con F-[(B-HD)/2] en el staema de medidas britanicai o F-2,69 (BH-D)* en el sMrtwna metrico.
Como
N-
(LOA B
cam
DeWdo
N=^ (LOAxBxD/100)
Una tabla recomienda SedandiagcamascoalMOttalessepiiedeadetenniiia^ idadte a la ourga emdftea y d es^ de los baot de la cubierta. Lot escantillones para la quilla, (xmtrûilU, Ublones de apankiun y otnu piezas longitudinal con reladdn al ospesor de las plandias. El valor del barco de madera lo da la davaz6n; una clavazdn excesiva es perjudicial. Un agitfero no es nada mas que im agiô y hace pettier resistenda al trozo de madera. Se examinun las clavagooes corrieiites y se dan fttrmulas para las carpas autorizadas para divenas dates de madera. El barreoado exacto es muy importante. El material de davaz6n (clavos, pernos, etc.) redondo es major <iue d cuadrado, qucpcsa 33% mas. Bassndose en el peso, las clavaiooes pequeflat sujatan mejer que las grandes y la roadera esta meoot xpuesta a agrietarse. La gsivsitoddp eo calicot da a la davaa6n dc hkrro una extraordinaria duraci6n. Las annddas dentadas pueden aumentar hasta cinco veoes la resistencia de la davaz6n. Se hacon ncomendadones en Us que se expresa d diametro de la davaz6n como
1
eepescr de la pianchas con
una fracctdn dd miembro que
tienc
que conectar.
SCANTLINGS
m/m/
f T The owner can
SUGGESTED STANDARD?
merely the individual detigner's or builder's customary practice. They vary in length from 50 to 140 ft (15 to 43 m.) and in proportions as in table 26, The lowest freeboard in ready*for-sea condition varies from .32D to .45D. The higher percentage generally
pertains to the smaller vessels, although the newer large vessels are approaching .4D. These relationships are shown graphically in fig. 145.
Y TT THATreasonsarethereforesUblishingminimum
standards of construction? Who benefits? The answer is: all concerned with fishing boats.
rest assured that his vessel is
soundly
built in accordance with the best experience,
and able to
withstand the hazards of her trade for a reasonable number of years with no undue maintenance costs.
The builder knows that he and his rivals are bidding on approximately the same construction, a sort of "fair 9 practice* arrangement that should put him on his mettle
to improve his workmanship as well as to watch management and his buying methods.
his
With few exceptions, keels, frames, stems, sternposts, planking and beams are of oak. Keelsons and other longitudinal members are generally of fir, with some of oak, and decks and bulkhead sheathing of pine or fir.
600
FISHING
BOAT PROPORTIONS
120
50
60
70
60
90
100
IK)
190
140 fl
20
Fig. 145.
30
Length overall
40
beam and depth of U.S. East coast
Relationship between displacement, length overall, fishing boats
The insurance companies would have more confidence

in rule-built vessels and, if properly powered and equipped,
All have ice sheathing along the forward two-thirds of the waterlinc and extended to the rail in way of the trawl
1 in. (2.5 on.) thick of oak, but someof greenheart. For typical midship section, arrangement of fastenings and nomenclature, see fig. 146. The original analysis of this data followed closely the method used by Smith (1950) for smaller craft based on displacement. Spots were widely scattered on all methods of plotting. It was found that the displacement figures were not reliable. Many lines drawings were not available, and accurate flotation lines were almost impossible
such vessels should enjoy lower insurance premiums. These ideas were brought out at a 1954 meeting of the Western Hemisphere Committee appointed by the 1953 FAO International Fishing Boat Congress in Miami. The
gallows, usually
times
Committee found there were so many variations in methods and countries that it decided to "start from scratch" with an investigation of a number of satisfactory
fishing boats in service.
The icMitHfy of 22 fishing vessels, built in New England and Nova Scotia, which vary in age from 5 to 18 years and have stood up to year-around fishing from Georges to the Grand Banks, about as hard service as fishing vessels find, were selected as a base. Hie designs of these "specimen" vessels represent the Work of six well-known naval architects and builderdesigners. Three of them arc classed with the American Bureau of Shipping, three were approved by the Canadian Steamship Inspection Service, and the rest represent
to
get.
Displacement figures given by designers or
TABLE 26
LOA/Bfrom3,12to
LOA/D
3/D
6.75 1.76
3.26 with 11.06 ,
an avenge of 4.23
S.33
1.93
2J8
[153]
CONSTRUCTION
Fig. 146.
Typical midship section of wooden trawler showing fastenings and nomenclature
builders differed from light to loaded and are not comparable. The use of under deck tonnage would be a sound base, but the tonnage is not likely to be known until the vessel is approaching completion; therefore it seems as difficult for the builder to use as displacement Some other criterion had to be found
scantlings, but fishing vessels in the size under investigation vary only from .420 to .500 in block and from .575
to
differences
Within these limits scantling prismatic. can be neglected. Smith again proposed that "the section modulus of the
.645
in
HULL UMBERS
To quote Smith: "The values for frame spacing and
hull
TABLE 27
Comparteon of
plank thickness have been developed on the assumption that the primary (structural) function of the planking is to present a certain degree of resistance to lateral deflection and if sufficient to provide this stiffness, it will be more than ample to sustain its function as a principal member of the longitudinal hull girder." To which may be added the fUrther assumption that, since this analysis is based on satisfactory existing vessels, frames and planking should be of sufficient size to withstand all the hazards of the service. It has been suggested that frame moulding should be sufficient so that planking and ceiling, considered together, constitute a trusstike structure. Perhaps usage and survival have already developed this system. The combination of planking, bilge ceiling and frame moulding produced herein have a high stiffness factor.
Length, beam and depth are known at the beginning construction. A cubic number based on LOAxBxD seems to be as good if not a bettor indication of vessel size than displacement, and has been used in this analysis. It is recognized that a wide variation in (he Mode or prismatic coefficients would require a modification of the
Note:
It will
i
be
it
in line 16
vinaoott in Hot 17
4.3 and Jit of vtiicto,
(B+DV2 hu tan wed
thehAlf-^thfigum. SimiUrty,linell between ISei 9 tad 10.
1154]
SCANTLINGS
SUGGESTED STANDARDS
cuia
frame, Z per unit length of vessel will vary as the unit load and as the square of the frame length. The unit load can be shown to vary about as the cube root of the displacement" [for which the writer has substituted the
45 40
more
or
readily obtainable
N^(LOAxBxD/100)
feet
metres]. Smith assumed that in smaller vessels the proportion of beam to depth remains about constant and substitutes B 1 for the square of the frame length. This would appear to put a double penalty on beam, possibly leading to
-^(LOAxBxD/2.83)
Z
<0
30
narrow
length
fishing vessels; therefore in this proposal, frame has been related to F^KB+D)/!] 1 feet, or
6
H
Table 27 gives some data of vessels selected from 22 base vessels which seems to
F=2.69 (B-fD) 1
metric.
justify this assumption.
2O
15
Thus, the section modulus of the frame, Z, has been determined to be Z=0.15xNxF. This is shown
graphically in
is
fig.
147.
is measured at the turn of the bilge and considered for only one futtock of the double frame. The proportion of frame siding to moulding used is the average of the "specimens" and is very close theoretically to the section most economical in material. Fig. 148 gives nomograms with which one can deter-
The frame, Z,
10
800
Fig. 147.
1600
2400
3200
N*F
Section modutii offrames
mine the frame dimension and frame spacing in feet and metres respectively from the section modulus per foot of ship's length (Z). Further, fig. 149 gives the moulding at deck and keel for a given moulding at bilge and the same
siding.
(76 or 89
Bent frames Too few vessels over 50 ft. (15.25 m.) with bent frames were investigated to warrant definite conclusions. The indications are that Z for a complete bent frame may be about the same as Z for a single futtock of the sawed frame. Plank thickness may also be about the same as for sawn frame construction, but frame spacing must be closer so as to leave about the same space between frames as resulted by standard sawn frames. Up to 3 or 3} in.
mm.) thick frames may be bent in a single stick and should be sided and moulded the same. If a greater Z is required, the frame should be in two or more parts laid on top of each other, with the total moulding about
1.5 times the siding.
Planking Smith developed his plank thickness, t, on the theory that deflection is constant and that load varies as the planking A. White area, s. By simplification, (t/s)' varies as this is sound theory, in practice the fact remains that no New England or Nova Scotia trawler has planking more
-TOO
7*
8O 25 578 650
828 -800 f
4T8|
480
880
S25
.
ô
(A). Scantlings
offrames
(inch units)
Fig.
(B).
Scantlings offrames (metric writs)
148
[155]

34O-
CONSTRUCTION
320300-
Fig. 150 and 151 give scantlings for die deck beams, based on a similar analysis as described for the frames. Spacing is generally the same as for the frames and this is assumed in determining the deck thickness factor. Deck camber can be considerably greater than usually designed. For several years the writer has used a camber of between 0.4 and 0.5 in. per ft (33 and 41 mm. per m.) with satisfaction to the crews.
B
1
200
-|
There are two construction types: (a) double diagonal sheathing, with painted or treated fabric between the two layers and stiffeners on one
side;
* f 160
M
*reoH
-
(b)
with the
thicknesses of tongue and groove planking, stiffeners (and insulation) between In very few cases is there any real attempt to make the
two
20
100
bulkhead-skin connection watertight. Experience proves that it can be done, although at considerable expense. Vessels would undoubtedly be safer with bulkheads better than "reasonably watertight". It is doubtful if any
wooden
6
100
9
180
10
ia
140
220
of bitgt
not to
260mm
b
vessels would float for very long if seriously damaged, but to make them watertight in even a onecompartment class standard would, except in the very
Moulding of
from
to*
large ships, impair their fishing efficiency.

I
ovtr
l*i than
ot
Fig. 149. Moulding of frame of deck and keel in relation to moulding at the bilge
Its
cain.
than 3 in. (76 mm.) nor less than \\ in. (38 mm.) thick. Examination of the examples shows that the space between frames (frame bay) varies only between 9 and 12 in. (229 to 305 mm.)* In other words, the actual support of the plank depends very littfoon the size of the
ship. However, the larger vessels obviously subject a greater load on the planking and its fastenings and it is therefore assumed that plank thickness varies as the N.
48
o.
544 * 40 f 9
O
Z-
There are a number of vessels between 110 and 120 ft. (33.5 and 36.5 HL) with 2f or 3 in. (70 or 76 mm.) planking, and it is assumed that 3 in. (76 mm.) is the correct thickness for the median 1 15 ft. (32 m.) boat correspondof 7.00. Another group of about 70 footers ing to of about (21 m.) average 2 in. (51 mm.) planking for
36
i32
5.00.
Table 28 has been developed on this assumption atftt shows, in addition, the standard frame spacing associated with any and plank thickness. It should be noted that all U.S. East Coast fishing
24
have their planking reinforced at the critical areas. narrow belt of 1 in. (25 mm.) sheathing of oak or greenheart is carried along the waterline from the stem to the aft trawl gallows and it is extended dear to the rail below the trawl gallows. Further protection is provessels
CO
16
\6
20
22
24
26 b
ft.
vided at the gallows by half oval strips or } in. (3*2 mm.) steel sheets. This sheathing is easily replaced when necessary and protects the planking from damage by ice, trawl doort, etc.
^ g 5 0tom mo* of ship

Fig. ISO.
Section mntulU </<fo*
btanu
1156]
SCANTLINGS
SUGGESTED STANDARDS
-
**q * 4i
=
-
17
WMi
TOO
Ml.,
t7t,
tt
25
tto
tit -too
"5
-i
14
21
-
tO
<
trt
22
'
t tt
H
r
i
* tt -
to
It It
17
r ^
47*
<
f": j
'*"
4to
418
i ..It
1 "
-400
71
m
(A).
Scantlings of deck beams (inch units)

Fig. 151
(B).
Scantlings of deck
beams (metric
units)
To make the bulkhead tight at the planking, stopwaters are required in all the butts of the frame futtocks ; stop-waters in all the longitudinal joints on both sides of the bulkhead and caulking between the stop-waters; gaskets between planking and frame, and between ceiling and frame and caulking of the bulkhead chine log.
;
Keels, stringen and other tagftudinab
The suggested scantlings are based on mathematical averages worked from the "specimen" vessels and on the principal longitudinal member the planking. The siding and moulding of the keel are determined as follows: Keel siding is based on practice over many years Keel moulding is based on plank thickness, which
varies as
Â,
which again varies in relation to
length In addition to contributing to the longitudinal strength, the keel is the chief contributor to drift resistance (when hauling in the net, for instance). Steel boats, even with a relatively small bar keel, do not handle nets as well as wooden boats with their
For
relatively deep keels (Simpson, 1951) details see heading: Determination of scantlings.
Timber grading There are numerous lumber association specifications for various species of timber, and each has its own grade
specification
covering the requirements for "select",
Since World War II, glued laminated timber construction has advanced enormously and vessels up to 165 ft. (50 m.) in length have been completely laminated, and with a
great saving in weight for, perhaps, greater strength. However, it is an expensive method and still rarely used except in military vessels. It is the author's opinion that
"structural", "No. 1 common", "No. 2 common", and so on. The skilled shipwright will ignore most of these, knowing that in any given pile of timber of any species
material specifications are
much more
necessary (a laminated vessel requires
more
stringent than basic timber
or any grade he can find both suitable and unsuitable crooked log that the millwright would ship timber, pass over with scorn might be exactly the thing that would save the shipwright many hours of labour, as well as material, rather than produce an inferior item from
than a normal sawn construction ship), but even if much less material were used, the labour costs would be too
high for fishing vessel construction.
straight stock.
To quote from a memorandum prepared during World War II: "The actual piece of timber to be used must be
[157]

TAKE
CONSTRUCTION
Aesistimc* to rot
1
Uvecmk
2 Gtwnbeart
3 Juniper
15 Larch (Western) 16 YcOow pine (dense) 17 Douglas fir (dense)
While not contributing to the immediate life or safety of the vessel, experience has proved that, when used in strategic places, a preservative of some sort greatly prolongs the life of the structure* Creosote and tar
derivatives should not
4 Cypnss
5 Cedtr, white, yellow
19 White pine 20 Port Orford cedar

21 Spruce
quality of the fish.
be used as they seem to affect the Even brush coatings of copper
6 White oak
7 Yellow bark oak 8 Mahogany
9 Grey oak
10 Ycflow pine (dense)
11 Douglas fir (dcnte) 12 White June (Eastern) 13 Sweet gum 14 Hackmatack 15 Mahogany (Philippine) 16 Douglas nr (average) 17 Larch (Western) 18 White pine (Western)
Portability
1
naphthanates, and probably others, have been successful over a number of years. Needless to say, the coating should be applied after the final fitting and just before securing the members. Faying surfaces of frames,
scarphs, heads and heels of frames, deadwoods and the upper surfaces of beams are especially benefited.
Mahogany
(Philippine)
2 Mahogany 3 Cedar 4 Oak

5 Cypress 6 White pine 7 Spruce
DETERMINATION OF SCANTLINGS
For a new
dimensions
defined.
1.
vessel, it is
only necessary to
know
the basic
20 Ash
21
Hm
(white)
8 leak 9 Fir 10 Yellow pine
length, breadth
and depth, as previously
Numerals:
feet
system
3
22 Red oak 23 Maple, birch 24 Spruce
Steam bending
1
Ash
(white)
Ability to hold fastenings

1 Beech 2 Sugar maple 3 White ash 4 Yellow birch 5 Teak 6 Iron bark 7 Live oak 8 Oroenheart 9 White oak 10 Yellow bark oak
2 White oak 3 Red oak 4 Elm 5 Beech 6 Birch 7 Yellow pine

8 Cedar
/LOAxBxD
100
_ TB+D]
~L~2~J
metric system
LOAxBxD
2.83
Mutability
1 White pine 2 Sitka spruce
2.69(B+D)
11
12
Gieyoak Red oak
13 Sweet 14 Elm
gum
4 DougfauTfir 5 White oak 6 Red oak 7 Yellow pine
Mahogany
NxF
0- D*ftoebn
hi
=? =?
liwlw*
pr*f*rr*4 by wrtlwx
satisfactory for the purpose intended
inspection
is
and the specific more important than the general approval of

of lumber".
any
species or grade
All recommendations in this paper are based on the timbers in use in New England and Maritime vessels
oak, fir and pine. There has not been time to relate these, in variable terms, to other timber more readily available in other regions. Table 29 might make comparisons easier.
Plywoods of the marine waterproof type have been used in bulkhead sheathing, in crew quarters and in deckhouse construction. Hie builder should be cautioned that the weak point in all plywood as the edges, which should be
in place. for plywood construction but, in practice, three thicknesses teem to be sufficient I in, (9,5 mm.) for interior sheathing; f in, (19 mm,) for bulkheads and house tops, and fin. or 1 in.
weU painted just before being secured There are many excellent formulae
(19 or 25
mm.) for deckhouse exteriors.
Fig. 1S2
shows a
Fig. 152.
tllUllMtt
practical ttiflener spacing.
frtKtted *p***t of tUffmtrt
1158]
SCANTLINGS
SUGGESTED STANDARDS
Rail or bulwark stanchions: Sided and moulded same as frame at head; buried to lower edge of clamps. (About
half the "specimen" vessels have one frame ftittock extended through the deck to form a stanchion. Better practice is to make the stanchion entirely separate a*
it by two bolts extending through planking Such stanchions can be replaced without damage to the frame and the head of the frame is protected from teaks in the deck caulking.) Following this recommendation, the scantlings of die three vessels in table 27 as built and as recommended have been listed in table 30.
2. Frame spacing and plank thickness: Select the standard 'frame spacing (to the nearest } in. =12.7 mm.) and plank thickness (to the nearest J in. =3 mm.) from
table 28.
3.
Frame dimensions: (a) Take out Z= section modulus
of frame futtock for the calculated F from fig. 147. (b) Connect Z with standard frame spacing on fig. 148 for feet or metres respectively and read dimensions for
standard frame. Interpolate if necessary. If slightly thicker or thinner frame stock is more readably available,
index line to suit and read new frame spacing. Return to table 28 and select plank thickness to suit. (c) Take out frame moulding at head and heel for selected frame moulding at bilge from fig. 149. 4. Deck beams: (a) Take out section modulus per foot of ship's length for given B from fig. ISO. (b) Proceed as in operation 3, using selected frame spacing on fig. 151. In theory, the moulding of beams can be reduced as much as 20 per cent, at their ends. Siding can be reduced when beam length is less than |B. Increase siding 40 per cent, for hatches, partners, breaks, etc. 5. Other scantlings: Are related to the thickness, t, of the standard planking. Keel, stem and deadwood: Sided 4 x t. Moulded 8 x t. For very full deckline, the upper part of stem may require an apron piece to give sufficient rabbet width. Keel shoe: 2\ to 4 in. (63 to 102 mm.) depending upon the length of the vessel. Keelsons: Sided and moulded 4 x t.
shift
NX
above, secure
and
ceiling.
FASTENINGS
Fastenings are
more
members, as
definite
handle than the wood mechanical stresses on ship joints

difficult to
be of help in developing reliable standards. A wooden ship is no better than its fastenings, and it is well to
are impossible to calculate. Again one must rely on what has proved sufficient. In addition, basic knowledge of the mechanical properties of various types of fastenings will
that an over-fastened structure is as bad as an under-fastened one and more expensive. hole bored for a fastening is still just a hole, and subtracts just that much from the area of the timber, hence from its section
remember
modulus,
etc.
therefore, actually
fastenings.
Fastenings placed too close together may, weaken the structure, as will too large
Sister keelsons: Sided 3.2
x t. Moulded
0.8
x siding
or
ft.
2.56 xt.
Not used
in vessels shorter than
90 to 95
(20 to 29 m.) LOA. Stern post and shaft log: l.Sxkeel siding, or 7.2 xt; not less than 3 x shaft diameter. Garboard stroke: 1 .5 x t ; 3 to 4 x t in width.
The proposed scantlings unquestionably allow for deterioration over the life of the vessel, and fastenings which may be weaker than the timbers connected mil
then be sufficient for the deteriorated timber of some
future date.
Second garboard (when fitted) 1 .2 x t. Clamps: Sided 1 .25 x t. Moulded 6.75 x siding (mould* ing in 2 or 3 strakcs).
:
Shelf:
Lock stroke: One of

deeper.
Moulded 1.82xt. Sided 2.5 x moulding. shelf members j in. (19 mm.)
Scarphs and fishplates Originally end joints were merely butted, then strengthened by overlapping pieces known as fishplates. In many places, the fishplate could not be used and the scarph
Lodger: Sided and moulded 2xt (fitted in vessels longer than 90 ft. or 27 m.). Bilge ceiling: Sided 1 .25 x t. Total moulding 13 x siding, should overlap butts of short futtocks at turn of bilge.
was developed, and is still essential in longitudinal members of fishing vessels keels, keelsons, clamps and shelves and sometimes in topside planking and bilge
ceiling,
although
it is
of doubtful value there, in relation
Decking: White pine, generally same thickness as planking but not less than 2 in. (51 mm.). Rough deck: Spruce, } in. (19 mm.) in all vessels. Laid on working deck to protect structural deck (fastened with short nails). Bulkhead sheathing: Pine or fir, same total thickness as t of planking, laid in two layers. 9 eners: Bulkhead stiff /10 x spacing gives a reasonable
to expense. The standard scarph is of the nib-ended hook type, fig. 146, with a length of 5 to 6 times the depth of the timber and with all faying surfaces snugly fitted. Where keelsons, sister keelsons and shelves are built of several relatively thin members, a plain scarph may be used in the individual members. In many existing vessels these
joints are simply butted, but this is not good practice. Metal fishplates are still used to reinforce the joint
figure for Z.
Where
D
S
siding =0.6 is depth of hull as before in feet is section modulus
Moulding =^0.8Z,
M.
between keel and sternpost heel and in similar conditions* Here they are usually of the double fishtail pattern, set
flush into the
wood.
is
is
siding
TrecttaUs
Treenails, throughnails or "trunnels", which ait various names for wooden dowels, used for all ship fastenings
moulding
feet.
Spacing in
[159]
PISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD;

30
2 ~~
CONSTRUCTION
VcwdNo.
12
ft.
20
HI.
115.86 23.75
14.25
35 J
7.25 4.35
7.26
363
JtS
3
76
31 85
2ixl6 63x407
4x7
101
44x10
105x254
x 178
24x5
63x127
24x48
63x1,218
in.
2Jx38 73x965
mm.
x44 70x114
70x121
long before metal fastenings were developed, are occasionally still used, but it is believed that they have no
place in modern, high-powered vessels.
spikes
and
drifts,
both round and square,
bolts, patent
fastening aids, gjucs, etc. of the results.
The following is a brief review
load may be applied laterally to the fastening, tending to break down the wood fibre and/or bend the
There have been many experiments to determine the holding power of various types of fastenings, such as
wood
screws and tag screws, cut
ttafls
and wife
nails,
be applied lengthwise of the fastenit out of the wood. Most ship fastenings must resist a combination of the two loadings.
fastening; or
it
may
ing, tending to
dniw
SCANTLINGS
TAW*
31
SUGGESTED STANDARDS
holding power. Boring should be done with a sharp tool, dull bit leaves a preferably of the twist drill type. rough hole, reducing the contact surface and, therefore, the holding power. In heavy timber, holes are generally bored iV in. (1.6 mm.) smaller than the fastening. Better practice would vary the holes to suit the type of timber and the size and type of fastening. bolt, for instance, needs only a slip fit, while a spike or drift requires a
Type offastening Nails and spikes

Screws
Lateral hading
Lag screws Where P gives

22)
is
Pa-KaD"* P.~KJ> Pf-KtD'

working loads
Loading in withdrawal P- 1,380G*/*D
P2,850GD
P-1,800GV*D*/*
by
safe
in Ib. (to obtain kg. divide
G the specific gravity of timber K is a coefficient based on specific gravity of timber D is the diameter of the fastening m inches (to obtain mm.
multiply by 25.4)
tighter
friction.
fit
as
its
holding power depends entirely on
The basic
factors that determine the holding

:
power of
any fastening are the

fastening;
specific gravity
of the
wood and its
moisture content; the diameter and penetration of the its relation to the grain of the wood (whether driven parallel or perpendicular to the grain), its fit and, of course, the type and material of the fastening. The common design formulae for the various fastenings are given in table 31 Table 32 shows the required figures for the more common woods used in American ship.
For screws in lateral resistance, the holes in soft woods should be 85 per cent, of the diameter of the shank and root of the thread. In hardwoods, the ratio is 100 per cent. In withdrawal, the holes for the thread should be about 75 per cent, of the root diameter and about 90 per cent, of the shank diameter. Lubrication slightly increases the holding power of screws and lags, but has the reverse effect on nails, spikes and drifts.
Plank fastenings
building.
The author made a series of tests in 1933. All fastenings were galvanized and sized as near as possible to a No. 14 screw. They were driven into Maine oak frame stock, using the same size holes as if planking a vessel. They were all 2J in. (57 mm.) long and driven into the oak
If
in. (41
Pretoria* for fastenings For anything but the smallest nails, preboring reduces the tendency to split the wood and adds somewhat to the
mm.).
They were first pulled to the giving point; then an attempt was made to determine what holding power was
TABLE 32
Group
\
Species
Kn
0.32 0.37 0.42
K*
G*
0.102 0.137 0.176
Or/
0.181 0.225 0.272
Cedar, white Pine, white Spruce, Sttka
1,040
2,520
1,800
0.058 0.084 0.114

0.128 0.128 0.160 0.235
Cedar, Alaska Cedar, Port Orford Cypress
Hackmatack
3
Fir,
0.44 0.44 0.48 0.56

0.51
1,350
3,240
2,040
0.194 0.194 0.230 0.314
0.292 0.292 0.333 0.419
Doualas
Larch, Western Pine, yellow
0.59 0.64
0.64 0.66 0.66
0.71 0.71
1,650
3,960
2,280
0.260 0.348 0.409

0.409 0.435 0.435 0.504 0.504
0.364 0.453 0.512

0.512 0.536 0*536 0.598 0.598
0.186 0.267 0.327

0.327 0.354 0.354 0.425 0.425
Beech
Birch
Oak, red Oak, white

Locust
t
.
2,040
4,800
2,640
Pn KBD/ baed on depth of penetration not less than | length of nail or spike in soft woods and i in hardwoods P.-K^D1 based on penetration of not less than 7 xdiam. of shank of screw Pi-KiD1 based on penetration of 11 xdiam. of lag screw shank in Group 1; 9t xdiam. in Group 2; 8i xdiam. in Croup
Group 4 woods. The figures ace based on probored
in
and 7 xdiam.
holes and with the fattening* driven perpendicular to the grain of the wood. When driven parallel to the grab, use 75 per cent of P for screws and lags and 60 per cent, of P for nails, spikes and drifts. Kails, niket, drifts and screws should not be used in withdrawal condition in end grain. Lags may be so used, taking P at 60 per cent. These figures ait based on dry timber and bright steel fastenings. Fastenings driven into green timber have less holding power after the timber has
******
shanks*
GalvanTaod ffcstaomp have somewhat fast holding power when fint driven but, in moist timber as found in shipbuilding, after two or throe hat better than formulae months, the holding power is
<
[161]

kit after the fastenings had been drawn J in. (6.4 nun.). Boat units gave suddenly *t widely different values:
400, 300, 675 and 800 Ib. (ISO, 225, 310 and 360 leg.) and held very little; to 200 Ib. (0 to 90 kg.) at i in. (6.4 nun.)
exit*
CONSTRUCTION
nails, drifts,
whether they be
perty
is
screws or lags. This pro-
especially valuable where the length of fastening is limited. Also several small fastenings may be less
liable to split the
wood
than, say,
two
large ones of the
same holding power.

Gahraoixed
r.
Hatch nails started quite uniformly at 625 Ib. (280 kg.), gave gradually and held about a uniform 225 Ib. (102 kg.)
at J in. (6.4
noa-ferroos fastenings
mm.) exit.
No. 14 screws started at 1,200 to 1,350 Ib. (545 to 610 kg,), gave gradually and held 450 to 500 Ib. (204 to 226 kg.) at J in, (6.4 mm.) exit. Later some composition nails with a variety of comtgations were tested under the same conditions and showed about twice the resistance as hatch nails in other words, about the same as screws of the same size. Still later, tests on bronze drift bolts of } in. (19 mm.) diam., with
ratchet type grooves, showed the same excellent results. Another result of these tests was to confirm the repair-
The advantages or disadvantages are frequently discussed. It is well known, of course, that a copper nail has little holding power unless the end is "clenched". However,
bronze screws have
many
devotees
who speak
vilely
of
galvanized fastenings. In theory, the non-ferrous metal is less siifyect to corrosion than galvanized metal and a good bronze screw can be driven harder than a galvanized one with less
man's practice of replacing a fastening, once drawn, with a new fastening of slightly larger size.
BoMiJ
sqoare faste is taken from one of the many test reports concerning the holding power, in withdrawal, of round
?.
Table 33
and square drift bolts. Note that the round and square rods of the same dimension (diameter or face), each in its own most efficient bored hole, have practically the same bedding power. However, the square rod weighs 33 per cent more than the round rod and it is, therefore, more economical to use the round rod. The author's own tests showed the same thing, i.e., round fastenings
are better
and cheaper.
sometimes overlooked that, on a weight basis, small fastenings have greater holding power than large ones,
It is
danger of breaking. However, non-ferrous metals are often chosen unwisely and two slightly differing compositions can be spoiled by electrolysis. The life of hot dip galvanizing is sometimes amazing. The author has a planking spike, removed from an eighteen-year-old vessel with a yellow pine planking and oak frame. The plank was soft but the spike was hard to draw and, although its galvanizing is a bit discoloured, it is perfectly fit to be used again. Even much older fastenings are known to be in good condition. The galvanized fastening cements itself into the wood after a few months, and its holding power, in withdrawal, is then considerably greater than the formulae figures. Conversely, for a month or two, as the wood seasons, the strength is somewhat lower. In an explosion, in which some planking was blown off the top-sides of a vessel, it was noted that most of the planking spikes were still firmly planted in the oak frames. Their heads had been pulled through the mahogany planking. This also calls attention to another advantage of the hatch nail: its head is much larger than that of boat spikes.
TABLE 33
UHfattte heUiec power per tech [25.4
1
lta.[2M.]4
Diam. boned hole
.
in.
"/i
Penetration
Yellow pine partlkl to grain
Ib.
200
91
280
127
344
156
222
101
kg.
14 in. (356 mm.)

14 in. (356 mm.)
11 in.
Yellow pine perpendicular to grain
Ib.
kg.
375 170
633 288
781 358
1,033
400
181
White
otic parallel to grain
Ib.
kg.
617 280
1,200
817 370
I f 778
469
2,500
1,135
867 393
1,133
(279 ram.)
Ilia. (279 mm.)
White oak perpendicular to grain
Ib.
kg.
543
810
514
YttDW pine perpendicular to
grain
kg.
efficient
322
777 352
675 306
holding power a the iQuai* bolt in to
bored
ftiom
Theobviota
ing
Mfft to round lapptiataltoto
H&ysatiBasasis: M
ftfrt^fi
ftf%
for pfaft^jM
ftiofl
fttrtn
H2]
SCANTLINGS
SUGGESTED STANDARDS
TAKE
34
|
wood screwi,
practical
11 in. (38
Practical length:
mm.)
Gauge
Diameter
D
.
in.
0.125
3.2
0.138
3.5
0.151
3.8
0.164
4.2
nun.
D*
Root diam.
sq. in.
0.0156
10.1
0.0190
12.3
0.0228
14.7
0.0269
17.4
in.
0.098
2.5
0.105
2.7
0.115
2.9
0.121
3.1
mm.
Head 'diam,
in.
0.2421
6.2
0.2684
6.8
0.2947
7.5 >
0.3210
8.1
mill,
li
in.
(38
mm.)
2 in. (51 mm.)

Practical length:
21
in.
(63
mm.)
3 in. (76
mm.)
3J in. (89 mm.)
Gauge
Diam.
12
in.
14
16
0.268
6.8
0.216
5.5
0.242
6.2
mm.
. sq. in. sq.
0.0467
30.1
0.0586
37.8
0.0718
46.3
mm.
in.
Root diam.
0.161
4.1
0.178
4.5
0.200
5.1
mm.
Head diam.
in.
0.4263
10.8
0.4790
12.2
0.5316
13.5
mm.
About two-thirds of the screw length is threaded. For best results Lubrication makes easier driving with no effect on holding power.
the shank of the screw should be started into the foundation
Resistance to withdrawal in Ike direction of driring Drifts have the least resistance to withdrawal in the direction that they were driven, some tests giving about 60 per cent, of the resistance shown in retraction. Fortunately, the head formed on long drifts during the process of driving greatly counteracts this difference. Short drifts should have small heads formed before driving. Spikes and drifts should be driven at least twice the
short tapered cones, with the end
little
smaller than the
bored hole, see

the point has
fig.
153.
A long taper, either in a cone or
chisel point, is likely to split the
wood, and the length of no holding power. The tests covered long chisel-pointed square spikes, and it was found that in
thickness of the fastened
member
into the foundation
Fig. 153.
nail.
A:
member.
In practice, when drifting tiers of members such as keelsons, through floors to keels, and edge fastening of the ceiling, damps etc., the fastening is driven through
A and B have the same hold*

wit
lenfth ofpene*
*hip spike,
B: hatch
tnf power per
tratton, however fofafriMrf Mtift nails weigh about 70 per cent. *f
the galvanized mike.
The bearing
member, the adjacent member and at least two-thirds of the depth into the third member. The hole boied through the fastened member should be little
fastened
tighter than
ojwofthcheado/Atsoitly" 7m cent, of that of M.

apt lo ipttr the wood or to At turned oy hard /train tnan tne
slip fit
ctoselpotxtofA
****** -" t u The author's toft* confirm the general experience that the
-
II
*
pointed end of spikes and drifts should be in the form of
1163]
FISHING BOATS OP THE WORLD:

yellow pine, particularly, the long taper would catch against the hard grain, carrying the spike so far to one side that an arc of the bored hole was untouched This
CONSTRUCTION
the fhflnV of the name diameter and depth as the For the threaded portion the hole should be equal to the length of the threaded portion. The guiding figures are: In oak or similar hard woods- 65 per cent, to 85 per cent* of the shank diameter In Douglas fir or Southern pine 60 per cent, to 75 per cent, of the shank diameter In pine, cedar or spruce 40 per cent, to 70 per cent.
of the shank diameter
The larger percentages apply to the larger sizes.

screw.
C: hanger bolt, D: lag Whtie the holding power of is much greater than that of either A or B, the bearing area of
Fig. 154.
theheadof&ia79percent.ofA and only 40 per cent, of B. A

washer mint be used under the head when bearing on wood. D should not be used when its fre-
If the use of lag screws in end grain is unavoidable, then 60 per cent, of the values for P should be used. Lags should not be driven nor even started with a
hammer.
C quent removal is foreseen. should be used for holding metal to wood where adjustment or replacement is foreseen
Where it is possible that a fastening may be removed, such as in realigning an engine or replacing a damaged fitting, hanger-bolts should be used instead of lags, fig. 154C. Once withdrawn, a lag should be replaced with
a larger
Brits
fastenings may be made by riveting over clinch or by threaded nuts the latter being much the rings better method. Bolts should be galvanized after the
size.
Through
not only destroys holding power, but could be a source of

leaks.
A short chisel point is the next best to the blunt cone.

It
should be driven with the chisel edge across the grain of the member most likely to be split.
Wood scjeiw
Table 34 shows the practical limits of gauges and lengths, particularly for hard woods and with properly sized prebored holes. Nickel-bronze screws of larger size can be used without danger of breaking. Screws should not be started with a hammer and should not be over driven. Power screw drivers are prone to this error unless in very skilful hands. While screws are often used to draw members together, this is bad practice clamps do a
better job.
Screws should be driven to

into the foundation
member
full depth of the thread for best results in with-
drawal, and slightly more for lateral strength. Screws are said to damage the wood slightly for a shaft distance and should, therefore, in soft wood be spaced not less than i in, (12.7 mm.) across the grain, nor less than 1 in. (25.4 mm.) along the grain, when driven perpendicular to the grain. For No. 10 and larger screws, these figures should be doubled, and for hard wood another } in. should be added to all figures. slightly smaller spacing may be used when driven parallel to the fibres. Spacing from the edge should be not less than 3 diameters .
020 O90 040 0*0 O40
0-7O
Lag screws Lag screws,

screws,
fig.
generally, may be treated as large wood 154D. Preboring should provide a hole for
Hg. 1SS.
HMIiy power of Itftcrewt
11441
SCANTLINGS
threads are cut,
this
SUGGESTED STANDARDS
TABLE 35
and due allowance should be made for when cutting the threads. The threaded nut, particularly when fitted over a heavy washer, can be used to draw the members together and to take up the slack due to inevitable shrinkage. Clinch rings can do neither very
well,
clinch ring has no value. Bolts should be of the carriage or T head type, with a square under the head to prevent turning.
and a loose
Tack bolts for keel and keelson members, scarphs, etc.: Frames to keel (2 drift bolts):
Keelson, through frames to keel
(2 drifts) : Sister keelsons
Keel siding x 0.085 Siding of frame member x 0.1 75

Siding of
The bored holes should provide an easy driving fit. Where fittings are bolt fastened, the washer should be
in
tome member x 0.216
one
plate, taking all the bolts

fitting
makes the
fastened.
wherever possible. This almost one with the wood to which it is
through keelson; sister keelsons through frame to garboard

:
Moulding x 0. 1
Thickness of garboard x 0.1 71 Siding of frame x 0.142 Siding of frame x 0.135 Largest dimension x 0.1 5 Siding of damp x 0.25
t
Garboard
frame
frames:
to
keel
(alternate
bays);
garboard
to
There are many tables giving strength values for bolts in various conditions, and it is not a subject to deal with in
detail in this paper. Generally, by using heavy and large washers, bolts can be stressed to the safe values of the
Clamps to framesU
Ceiling to frames Lodgers; to frames and beams: Beams to clamps : Planking to frames (2 hatch nails to frame)
:
bolt, 1 spike): (1 bolt, 1 spike):
metal and the thread root diameter.

Deck
Fittings and foundations
to beams:
Ice sheathing to planks :
(plank) x 0.18 Length - 2. 4t if bunged, 3t if flush
Diam.
=tx 0.125
Length*** 2t
Chainplates, cleats, pad eyes and machinery should be secured by through bolts wherever possible. Wherever lags or screws must be used, they should have the maximum length, and the values of P in the formulae for lateral resistance can be increased by 25 per cent, when the fastening is parallel to the grain.
Long enough to penetrate $ main planking

in inches]
to f
[measurements
Notes
All fastenings should be galvanized, preferably by hot dip. Round plank fastenings (hatch nails) are much more effective than
square spikes.
Bolts should have washers under both head and nut wherever possible. Heavy drop forged washers are more effective than thin punched washers. When it is necessary to draw a fastening, the replacement should be to t in. (1.6 to 3.2 mm.) larger.
Timber connectors Timber connectors
much used
in a variety of shapes and patents and in land structures, greatly increase the lateral
strength of timber joints.
The author made
extensive use
of them during World

Cyprtss factor
White pint
YftDow pint
HOC t23 2 25
2-69
keelsons, shelves
War II to join members of keels, and frames of a hundred or more
Oak
salvage vessels, subject to extraordinary stresses in their day's work. Some of these vessels, almost unstrained,
survived experiences that broke construction.
up
vessels of
normal
Connectors of the
split ring
type have been used in keel
and keelson members of some of the larger U.S. wooden trawlers. However, the double assembly required makes their use rather costly and probably unwarranted for smaller fishing vessels. Further information can be found in the literature. The holding power in shear of a 4 in.
(102
in.
(19 } alone.
mm.) split ring connector in conjunction with its mm.) diam. bolt is about S times that of the bolt
Glue
joints
is
The use of laminated wood and

construction
glue fastening in vessel rapidly advancing in many countries, having started about the end of World War II. Glues in numerous varieties, and with almost unbelievable properties,
Lftngtti
Fig. 136.
of terow
are available. Even metal surfaces can be "stuck*' together with ultimate tensile strength of upwards of 5,000 Ib./sq. in. (350 kg./sq. cm.).
HoMto? power of wood screws
The method had its inception, ostensibly, in an effort to conserve the ever-increasing scarcity of timber. How-
FISHING fcOATS OF TfrE WORLD:

ever, material specifications are so stringent that 165 ft. (SO at) non-magnetic mine-sweepers built for the U.S.
CONSTRUCTION
do
production. Nevertheless, the progressive builder will well to keep informed of developments in this field.
Navy, although very successful
vessels,
are said
to
require some 20 per cent, more standing timber than if buih in the orthodox manner. The equipment for satisfactory gluing is extensive and expensive and labour costs are rather high, so that this
Determination of fastenings From the vessels listed, plus other partially complete data available, the mathematical "average" has been established and "standards of practice'* proposed in
table 35.
type of construction is as yet not economic for commercial
166]
SCANTLINGS
MR. J-O. TRAUNG (FAO, Rapporteur): The relevant papers concerned with scantlings were Gunner's paper on surf boats, Beach's on small outboard motor craft, and Ringhaver's on mass production of shrimp trawlers. Gurtner adopted bent frames in a small boat which is subjected to great stresses when landing on a beach because bent frames for that purpose give stronger construction for a given weight. Beach's paper is interesting in that it shows how boats can be made today with marine plywood, especially in countries where the cost of labour is high. Ringhaver's paper on shrimp trawlers shows bent frame construction but much lighter scantlings than given in Simpson's recommendations. This shows that when weather conditions are less severe the boats can be built lighter.
Good boatbuilding practices MR. H. I. CHAPELLE (U.S.A.): Bent frames were now more economical and the sizes and types of North American fishing
boats
It
DISCUSSION
timber native to the area in which a boat will be used, as native timber appears to have some greater resistance to local
compared to imported stock. was very important but very difficult to accomplish. Deckwood should be formed to avoid pockets, creosoted if possible, and openings in bulkheads left for ventilation. Openings in ceiling and framework for this purpose were
fungi,
Ventilation
necessary.
Painting the bilge area should never be done in a wooden it encourages rot in the vicinity of frames, floors and even in the planking* Rail stanchions should never be part of or joined to the frames. It is practically impossible to prevent breakage of
boat,
made
this type
of frames highly desirable.
and wide, rather than square in cross section, to avoid damage to the grain in bending or over steaming and resulting brittleness and
his belief that bent frames should be thin
was
stanchions sooner or later. They should be placed between the frames and fastened to the damps from inside the hull. This makes replacement easy and prevents or delays rots in topside timbers or framing. The use of steel engine bedcaps is desirable, particularly with a heavy engine. Strapping and fish plates are useful. To prevent condensation forming and rot resulting these should
be bedded in tar or asphalt and tarred
felt
or paper.
breakage. Red oak had proved reasonably satisfactory. Green or nearly green stock seemed to be effective, steaming and caulking apparently preventing rot. Floors ought to be placed on top of bent frames. Floors should have two long arms made of sawn plank on top of the frame, bolted at keel centre-line and joined by a common plank floor timber. They should be spaced every third or fourth frame and common short plank floors, if necessary, fitted on top of the intermediate frames. Experience had
shown that this produced a strong and rigid bottom. Hard bends in the frames require lamination, or splitting
the frame. Split frames to be secured by the plank fastenings. Stiffening of the topsides should be done by the use of deep shelves at least in the midbody and by hanging knees at central points of support. Locking knees might also be used
occasionally.
U.S.A. rides and experience MR. H. C. HANSON (U.S.A.): Loadline scantling rules were established primarily for large cargo ships of steel construe* tion. Most of these vessels have a full square midship section and a parallel mid body. The U.S. Coast Guard and ABS rules state that "Where the frame obtains additional strength from the form of the vessel, due allowance is to be made to the value of the coefficient.** So some thought was given to the shape of the hull when the rules were written, but no consideration is given in actual practice. Therefore, such rules work to the disadvantage of vessels other than of the square
:
section type. Applied to smaller
wooden
vessels,
unfair as
most wooden
vessels, especially those
such rules become very with smaller
Frame spacing of the wide, thin bent frames may be greater than with square frames of the same cross-section. The wide frame gives better planking support by its greater bearing
surface.
He considered square fastenings, boatnails and spikes, superior to round ones, but they require great care in boring
and
driving.
Rot was an important problem. Formerly, impregnation with creosote or copper naphthalate was recommended but now a simple brush treatment was used to sterilize the timber and this seemed to destroy fungi and add 5 to 7 years of life at small cost. Salt was a very useful preservative, placed outside the clamp on stops inserted between frames. This could prevent mould and fungi for a very long period, 10 to
15 yean. Experience suggests that
it is
dimensions, gain their greatest strength through their deadrise, which makes the lines of the vessel fore and aft fairer, rising quickly towards the ends. There are seldom more than two to four identical frames. Such a hull shape is much stronger than one with a flat bottom. He had obtained measurements of the hog in the keels of various vessels, which showed that the flat bottom craft invariably hogs, whereas the vessels with a deadrise remain straight for many years. One vessel operating now is 60 years old and had retained her original shape. Any rule that does not take into consideration the hull shape is not correct according to his experience and judgement. Other construction features are necessary for the wooden vessel to keep its shape for years. The steel vessel relies on its
shell plating for its longitudinal strength;
on
its
floors for its
transverse.
really
The wooden
heavy
vessel for cargo purposes and for weather relies for its fore and aft strength on
best to build boats of
strength members, such as the bilge ceiling, side ceiling*
[167]

shelves and bulkheads. It does not depend on its planking, although the planking, if properly fitted, will give considerable longitudinal strength when new. The planking to give strength must fit wood to wood, and to do this small caulking seams must be used.
CONSTRUCTION
damps and
water, for
some period. If they do, they will have a good stan towards decay even before being cut into lumber. Also, since the logs are cut in the summer, the sap is up: winter is the
best time for cutting trees.
During World War I much timber was wasted by improper use in the tremendous wooden ship building programme. Some seemed to believe that merely by putting timber into the vessel strength would be added. If a little more time and thought had been spent during design, much of the natural resources would have been saved and wooden ships would have had a better standing. This was also true during World War II, but to a much lesser extent because there were not so
large wooden vessels built. the end of World War I, some designers used double diagonal planking inside the regular planking to provide
many
At
greater longitudinal strength. However, nothing came of it. During World War II, the Navy used this system in the
wooden minesweepers. These vessels were not designed for carrying cargo and had no inside strength. They were of bent oak frame construction; they had deadrise and good shape, but were not strong enough for carrying cargo. Once these vessels are recaulked in the customary method, they will gradually lose their original strength and are not to be compared with orthodox methods of wood construction with the
strength built into the ceiling. One of the older vessels built along this order was the Roosevelt, built especially for Arctic exploratory work. The hull had curvature all ways, fore and aft and transversely. The construction was by the double planked fore and aft method and the vessel was apparently designed for bruising against
ceiling
Yellow cedar grows at the snow line and its annular grain is very narrow, showing its fight to live. So in the selection of lumber for boat building, it is always best to use the logs with the very narrow annual rings. Second growth timber should be avoided as much as possible as this has not attained mature growth, usually having the wide rings. AH lumber used should be free from large knots, sap, pitch pockets, decay or other imperfections that would render it unsuitable for the wood building purposes. All lumber should be air-seasoned. As a minimum, the keel, keelsons, deadwoods and frame timbers should be seasoned for from 30 to 60 days; the ceiling, beams, bilge stringers, shelves and clamps, waterways for from 60 to 90 days; the topside planking, beams, coamings and the like from 90 to 120 days. Spacing sticks should be used so that air can circulate all around timbers and the ends protected so that they are not sun or
set-up
air checked.
Usually
it is
foot, stern post
best to use ironbark for the stem, gripe, foreand the like, and in case of a cruiser stern, the
the ice rather than for great longitudinal strength. Nominal was used, but the vessel held her shape to the very end of her career, due undoubtedly to the hull shape. She was about 35 years old when wrecked.
The tuna vessels built on the Pacific coast are an example of the vessels holding their shape due to hull design, in spite of the fact that many were not properly built in terms of good ship construction. They could be called satisfactory as most of them did not hog at all. As long as they were used for tuna work and retained their many watertight bulkheads, they were satisfactory, but without bulkheads they could not be called good vessels. Only in rare instances were they built with heavy
long floors.
lower rim should be of ironbark. Oak is by its very nature full of moisture and it takes a long time to dry, so it is very difficult to determine the life of this wood. If oak comes in contact with other woods, it induces decay through the moisture from it. Mr. Hanson had had success with steam-bent frames, by painting the frame with preservative such as cuprilignum before steaming, but the oak was fairly dry when used and did dry after being bent to shape. This type of frame was used for minesweepers. Preservatives should be used on all faying surfaces, between the ceiling edges, the back of ceiling facing the frame, face of frame when dubbed, faying surfaces between frames, back of planking, and so on. Preservatives should coat the outside of the wood as well as penetrate it. Any preservative, such as creosote, that is placed over the wood forming a coating, is harmful as moisture will collect under this coating and rot will
occur.
Caulking
aspect in the construction of wooden vessels guided by the "hand-me-down" system is in the caulking of the vessel. Reference can always be found in the old publications and writings relative to the use of "hawsing beetles'*. This is a large wooden maul with a handle about 3 ft. (0.9 m.) long. The Navy Wooden Boat Manual 250-336 includes it as recently as 1948 as a guide. After the regular caulking has been done by hand, the seams are then gone over by two men, one with a hawsing iron and the other with powerful blows to set the caulking up. Mr. Hanson long ago had come to the conclusion that wherever possible the use of this hawsing beetle should be prevented. It has been his creed to see that in all the vessels that he had to deal with, whether in the design or the building, the seams should be made as small as possible and only hand caulking used. The reason for this is that the caulker has better "feel" and coordination with the smaller caulking mallet and, because of that, can place the oakum and cotton in the seams more evenly, throughout the length of the seam. This is very important because when driving with the large beetle this simply cannot be regulated. AH Wows by this method are different: one may be 50 Ib. (23 kg.), the next 60 Ib. (27 kg.), and then one may be
One important
that
is
It is
very important
when
building a
wooden
If
careful
when
selecting lumber.
With
rot-resistant
such as yellow cedar, few troubles
will arise.
be woods, one is unable

vessel to
to obtain rot-resistant wood in quantities to build all the upper part of the vessel, then it should be used in those members where rot mostly occurs, so that if a repair job is necessary, Die main frame can be saved and repairs be made economically. The important members that are usually subject to decay are the frame heads, the rim timbers, covering boards around the frame heads, and above the rims. In fact, wherever fresh water leaks occur, rot will commence. Deck planking is easily replaceable so it is not so important to have rot-proof woods there, but the house coamings are susceptible.
cutting in winter
was easily obtainable near the salt water, so was easily done. However, in later years, say, since World War I, cutting of timber spread away from the sea and is now largely done in the summer. This means
Years ago
fir
that the togs are never stored in salt water but only in fresh
[168]
SCANTLINGS
75
lb,
DISCUSSION
Australian practice
(39 kg,), and wherever the heaviest blow
is
made,
it
spoils the work done before and the stage is set for seepage into the seams. This would not be so bad under water, in salt
on deck where fresh water comes and goes, it will not be long before rot starts. This is one of the main causes for maintenance costs in wooden vessels. He had seen the caulkers at the drydocks immediately take this beetle and start on the stern posts and exposed deadwoods. They will drive the hawsing iron up to the hilt into the seams and spread the seams sometimes as much as I in. (19 mm.) wide: this, in a
water, but
MR. ARTHUR N. SWINFIELD (Australia): From what he could gather, overseas construction does vary quite a deal from usual Australian ideas of construction; but so does the type and
species of timber, along with climatic conditions. These last two factors dictate the builder's approach to building com-
seam that was wood to the vessel in time.
wood when built, just naturally destroys

insisted that the
hence no doubt the difference in design. Almost every wooden commercial vessel in Australia is built of hardwood, with the possible exception of planking and decking; these could be of Oregon, but in many cases are of medium hardwoods. The term "hardwood" relates to many approved types of eucalyptus, most of which weigh in the
mercial vessels
Mr. Hanson for years had
seams
in
any
boat of his design be made as small as possible, and on hand caulking only, making the planking wood to wood at least half the depth. This he had adhered to, and vessels such as the
Penguin, Brown Bear, Lester Jones, Patron, Northwestern, and many others, never had to be caulked. The only reason that they finally came to the caulking phase was because of the
"beetling'* process commonly used in the drydocks. This creates additional work for the drydocks, but he thought that
this
seen
method was used only because it done and continue to do it.
that
is
the
way
they have
of 55 to 65 Ib./cu. ft. (880 to 1,040 kg./cu. m.) at 12 per cent, moisture content. These timbers are naturally heavy to handle, hard to work, and hard to bore for fastening. However, they "take" steam well, do not crush under fastenings, and produce very strong and durable frame work. For many years steam-bent frames have been used exclusively so that it is unusual to see a sawn frame vessel at any timeregardless of dimensions. Laminating becomes accepted practice in any frame over 1 1 in. (35 mm.) thick, depending, of course, upon the sectional shape of the vessel. Boat builders prefer bent frames of flatter section to those used overseas. His personal conclusions are that, from a
vicinity
agreed with Hanson in practically all matters, particularly so where deadrise affects strength. Longitudinal strength is lacking in many wooden boats today. Improper construction design causes this. Diagonal planking, or diagonal strapping of the hull, are rarely seen and are considered costly and, with the introduction of steam bent frames in large fishing boats in the East coast of U.S.A. thought was given to the design of structure particularly in this matter of longitudinal strength. With regard to the Roosevelt he believed she originally had longitudinal strength members that were removed after her usefulness in Arctic work was ended. She was very carefully designed by experienced shipbuilders, he was informed. The Woods Products Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture, had informed him that excessive steaming or boiling of steam-bent oak frames produces brittleness in some degree and that use of wood preservative before steaming is not recommended. To avoid the first it is necessary to use young and not thoroughly seasoned oak, apparently.
Farther U.S.A. practice MR. H. I. CHAPELLE (U.S.A.):
practical angle:
He
wider timber (frame) gives more room for reeling or
its modulus is reduced (by its very shape) it loses less strength from boring of fastenings than would a narrow, thicker frame Collapse and fracture are not so prevalent at significant points of stress Lamination is always reverted to as required and presents
staggering of fastenings In spite of the fact that
no problem
Referring to the general construction of a wooden vessel, drift bolts are seldom (if ever) used in any vessel; screw bolts are always preferred: bilge ceiling as known overseas is not used; bulkheads are regarded with seemingly greater importance; edge fastening of garboards is rarely used; planking is thinner; bent frames are closer spaced; all fastenings are copper and are through fastened.
Over caulking
vessel
is
very
common
in
repair yards.
new
and half way between and clamp always "on their flat" and through fastened with copper screw bolts through planking and bent timbers. It is in the last remark that he found a most significant
Stringers occur at "floor" tops, bilge,
bilge
ought to have little or no driven caulking but U.S. yards seem to have lost the skill in fitting required, to a
A great deal of Western Fir has been used in the East of U.S.A. since the beginning of World War II. It is a strange thing reconsidering the good record of this timber on the West Coast that Western Fir has gained a poor reputation in the East. Extensive and rapid rotting has occurred, obviously far more destructively in East coast boats than in Western craft. There was much trouble with Eastern built fir vessels in the Army and there has also been so in more recently built Eastern boats in spite of the use of preservatives. A similar situation has been found in boats built of materials of the Canadian Maritime Provinces when Canadian built boats are brought to Southern New England and to the Middle Atlantic States. These boats were of superior workmanship and material was carefully selected, but rot was both rapid and far-reaching. Mr. Chapclle therefore agreed with the Department of Agriculture suggestion that there are advantages in employing timber native to the area in which a boat is used.
steadily increasing degree.
as against a detail when considering flat sectioned frames deep or square sectioned bent frame. So often does one find a bent frame practically cut in halves by the very fastenings that go through or into it so that unless the frame is made wide enough to take the actual fastenings (stringers or plank fastenings), all talk of modulus becomes mere theory. How often does the repair man lift a stringer (particularly in the way of the bilge) only to find the bent frames fractured just where they are most needed, and this very often is due to the very fastenings themselves. True enough, a vessel is as strong as her fastenings/ but fastenings can in truth, by their very size, prove weak links, particularly in deep sections. All plank fastenings are copper through fastenings, either riveted (rooved) or turned over. A combination of both is sometimes used. Square copper nails are used exclusively, and all nails are driven through bored holes. Another aspect of design, deserving special consideration, is that relating to the fastening of the covering board which to his way of thinking is always a possible source of trouble. So often one notices the top strake used as the "chopping block"
[169]

TABLE 36
CONSTRUCTION
for the covering board fastenings, with dire results, and he plywood decking as well as to that used on the more solidly constructed vessel. He suggested that every commercial vessel should be fitted with a doubling over the topstrake, and clear of the caulking seam. This strake could be through-bolted as required, for
referred to light
MAIN
easy removal if ever such became necessary. The covering board then goes over the topstrake, but fastens only to the doubling strake. This protects the topstrake and reduces the ever present hazard of dry rot, caused by the leakage of fresh water around and under the edge of the covering board, thence on to the top edge of the top strake and down into the
DUMENS40M.
Flf. 157.
XteomtneHo* ofprofile and mUHMp ttcthns ofSinyaon't OH
[170]
SCANTLINGS
CriMc contort of timber for'
DISCUSSION
TABLE 37
Volumes
in cu.
ft.
tettng boats as cooqMrttf with Simpson's proposal for 3 ft, (0.9 17 m.) length midship section
Note: Pine to oak conversion factor
0.833
topstrake through the innumerable splits caused by the driven covering board fastenings. This, of course, could happen to the doubling piece, but in such an event the repair cost would be ever so much cheaper. This method was adopted with marked success in Australia during World War II, even with double diagonally built vessels, and it is now, of course, on record just how badly,
boatbuilding and they will be much appreciated by all those concerned with wooden boat designing and construction. He made a comparative study of the scantling regulations for wooden boats according to the Bureau Veritas, the Danish, the Swedish and the Newfoundland regulations. The main object of the study was to determine how these regulations compared with Simpson's suggested standard scantlings.
most double diagonally planked
vessels suffered
from dry
rot,
particularly at the junction of the decks and hull planking. It is most important that the faying surfaces of both planks
should be well painted as well as the top edges. Some important strength details of select Australian hardwoods may be of interest to naval architects.
Modulus of rupture
Ib./sq. in.
Modulus of elasticity
Ib./sq. in.
Crushing strength
Ib./sq. in.
cm.) 15,000-24,000
(kg./sq.
(kg./sq. cm.)
(kg./sq.
cm.)
(1,050-1,700)
2,400,000-3,000,000 (170,000-210,000)
7,500-12,000 (525-840)
To facilitate the study the profiles and the midship section of the special boats selected by Simpson (boats 6, 12 and 20) were drawn up to the given principal dimensions, assuming their prismatic coefficient to be 0.575, see fig. 157. One metre length (3.28 ft.) of the boat at midship was taken as the unit, and the cubic content of timber under the different classifications was worked out. The timbers used for the calculation are pine for decking and oak for the rest. However, for easier comparison, the pine has been converted to oak, using a factor of 0.833. The data obtained are given in tables
36 and 37, and indicate that, The small and medium boats are much more heavily built than would appear necessary according to Simpson
first figure in each case is for green timber, whilst the second is for timber seasoned to 12 per cent, moisture content. Their highly durable hardwoods, such as ironbark, tallowwood, jarrah, etc*, have a useful life in wooden shipbuilding of up to 40 years, and in many instances they have commercial vessels of over this age still in good order. The rest of their shipbuilding timbers would easily give a good life of 25 years.
The
The boats built to the Danish regulations are the heaviest

in the categories analysed
COMPARISON OF WOODEN SCANTLING

REGULATIONS
MR. D. A, S. GNANADOSS (India): The papers by Simpson and Hanson deal with a subject which is fundamental for good
rules lay down that where timber other than Newfoundland timber is used it may be sided and moulded i in. (12.7 mm.) smaller if the construction is entirely of hardwood. This reduction does not appear sufficient in the larger boats
The Newfoundland
might be possible to evolve unit weights for different categories of boats, which may also form a basis for estimating the total weight of the hull
It
[171]
PISHING BOATS OF THB WORLD:

TABU
38
CONSTRUCTION
Simpson's proposal
Bureau Veritas (France)
Danish regulations
Swedish regulations
Newfoundland rules
forward part of the stem to the aft part of the stem
LENGTH
From fore part of stem to the aft of the stern
From
stem to the rudder post
fore part of the aft of the
From the aft side of the stem to the middle of the rudder post
On the summer water- From

from the fore side of the stem to the
line,
centre of the rudder post or 96 per cent, of the length at the
summer
whichever
waterline,
is
lower
BEAM
Extreme breadth outside the planking
Widest
vessel frames
part of the outside the
Extreme breadth outside the frames
Extreme breadth outside the planking
Extreme breadth at deck line inside the

ceiling
DEPTH
From the top of the deck at side amidship to the lower edge of
the keel rabbet
From the top of the upper deck beam at sick amidships to the lower edge of the keel
rabbet
From the top of the deck beam at side to the inner edge of the
keel rabbet
From the under side of the decking at side to the lower edge of the keel rabbet
Transversal
From beam
ceiling
the top of the

at the centre-
line to the
top of the
on
flat
bottom
SCANTLING NUMERAL
N~3 7
in foot system
LxBxD
LxBxD
where
LOAxBxC
TS5
in metric system
the shortest distance from the intersection of the base line plane and the vertical plane from the extreme beam outside planking to the turn of the bilge
is
B+2D-R
LxBxDxO.75
RSS
in foot system 2.69 (B+ D) f in metric system
Longitudinal
L x Transversal
C-NxF
When the numeral not in the Table
is
Select the lower of the
Use the nearest (lower

or higher) numeral
scantling
numbers
possibility of gathering further information to cover small boats, to compare the existing scantlings and to suggest more judicious and rational use of timbers They form a basts for comparing scantling regulations in several other countries and to eventually formulate
The
determined on the basis of past experiences. As yet no method has been developed to determine the stresses and strains on
uniform regulations Simpson's proposals appear a fair basts for determining the scantlings and are a fine blend of scientific knowledge with practical experience It is, however, likely that the suggested standard scantlings of Simpson may not be acceptable to the countries whose regulations have been taken up for comparison, because of the
considerably lighter construction indicated which requires much departure from the existing practices. These regulations are the results of age-old practices and do not rest on a
scientific basis. The sea conditions, the timbers used, and the types of fishing necessitate different methods of construction and strengthening. Hence, naturally, they vary from country to country, and in many cases even inside the same country. Some of the main variations in classifying the vessels for scantlings are given in table 38. In recent years there has been considerable interest in
wooden fishing boats. The unique feature of Simpson's proposals is that he has evolved an acceptable system of calculating minimum standard scantlings for wooden fishing boats of the U.S. East Coast.
This system is naturally limited in its applicability to other countries because of local conditions, but it is reasonable to expect that with Simpson's proposals as a basis, suitable standards for minimum scantlings could be worked out under
the various regulations. It is hoped that further research work will be done on this important subject, which, as Simpson observes, would benefit all concerned with fishing
boats.
New
type of coustrnctioii
MR. C. HAMUN (U.S. A.): Simpson was to be congratulated on his paper suggesting standard scantlings. For over ten
years Mr. Hamlin has been designing, almost exclusively, yachts of glued-ttrip construction, i.e. the hull is built up of square longitudinal strips of wood glued and edge-nailed together, with framing largely omitted. Since this new and different concept of construction had no previous data upon which to base scantlings, it became necessary to create some standards of his own. Rg. 158 is a graph he used with success
wooden
fishing vessels. Many studies have been made on the performance, power and resistance and the like, but die actual timbers that go into building the boat itself are still mainly
[172]
SCANTLINGS
when selecting cedar planking for sailing yachts with displacements of from i to 10 tons. It would be noted that his longitudinal number took into account only displacement and
effective length, defined as
DISCUSSION
(LOA+2xL)/3.
This curve has
K>
served well for a particular type of boat within the range of displacements given above.
Most scantling rules with which he is familiar ignore displacement. With this omission, it would seem that any attempt to match the planking and other structural members to the loads they wiU be called upon to sustain will be erroneous. For instance, a pilot boat and a sardine carrier may both have
*%
llO
29
Fig. 159. Planking thickness from Simpson's examples as built and as recommended by Simpson plotted over Hamfin's longitudinal number
It
line fairly well,
would be seen that Simpson's recommended spots fall in and much better than the actual spots. In fig. 160 the Simpson's recommended spots are plotted
together with several points representing planking thickness according to Lloyd's rule for sailing yachts applied to some of Simpson's examples, as well as to some very light displacement sailing yachts. The linear fall of the points would indicate the possibility of a longitudinal number such as
suggested, containing displacement, having universal application for all types of vessels.
The justification for using displacement divided by length as the longitudinal number undoubtedly lies in the fact that it expresses the approximate loading per unit of length.
Fig. 158.
Hamlin's graph for cedar planking thickness for sailing yachts from 0.5 to 16 tons
overall dimensions
the
same
and hence
call for the
same
scantlings under most rules, but the loaded sardine carrier will have about twice the displacement of the pilot boat.
It is his belief that a system of scantling numerals could be devised which would apply to any size and type of vessel. He suggested that the system takes into account displacement and effective length, and possibly includes depth and speed length ratio in a minor role. There should be in addition a set of
which would allow for varying strengths of materials, arduousness of vessel function, etc. With such a universal set of scantling formulae, any boatbuiider anywhere could safely select material for any type of boat. In fig. 159 are plotted both the actual and recommended planking thicknesses for the 22 examples of fishing vessels cited in the paper, but using, instead of Simpson's longitudinal number, Mr. Hamiin's which was defined as follows displacement in tons divided by the effective length, (LOA4 2x L)/3.
coefficients established
:
Fig. 160.
Simpson's recommended plank thickness for sailing yacht*
compared with Uoyas"
rules
[173]
CONSTRUCTION
amH
60
in section, with a length equal to twice the beam, thus approaching the maximum unstiffened length of hull probably encountered in practice. For simplicity, there would preferably be no deck crown. All construction details would be exact scale representations of the full-size vessels. For variations of beam/depth ratio the sections would become semielliptical. Being prisms, the "hull" could be built in long lengths inexpensively, allowing uniform testing of several
different factors.
Forces encountered by a ship's hull could be reproduced approximately by cantilevcring the test section out from a rigid base and acting on the free end with various machines.
40
Actual
ships
gov.
rule
A A
o
Japanese
(HinoW*
(Sugi
Cypress)
50
800
Cedar)
1-
Acluot
ahipt
gov.
Pishing,
boot
soc,
rule
(HinoW)
CLubrnJ
Japanese
rub (KtyoM
o
I
FfcNng
boa,
5
Fig. 16] .
7 N
6600'
40
Simpson's recommendations for planking compared with Japanese standards
Although considerable data exist regarding the stresses imposed upon a vessel at sea, there are relatively few regarding the strength of vessels' hulls; the scatter of Simpson's "as
built" points demonstrates better than anything else the lack
of science in this area. It seemed to him that an experimental model investigation of ship strengths could be carried out profitably and inexpensively. He proposed that a simplified standard parallel mid-section be adopted as the basic test section. It might be semicircular
20
200
;o
NxF
Fig.
163.
Simpson's recommended figures for section moduli of
frames falls between the two Japanese standards
The major
torsion.
effects to be exerted by the machines would be hogging, sagging, a combination of the two in flexure, and
30
Standardization of test procedures and measurements, etc. would be necessary to insure the fullest usefulness of such a programme. The basic hull section should be tested in various constructions, such as conventional wood with moulded and bent frames, fibregkss, glued-strip, moulded plywood, aluminium, steel, etc. The construction method, materials and scantlings should be carefully defined, preferably by formula,
to permit reproductibility. The principle of the Standard Series should be adhered to hi all variations from the basic
fig. J62* Japanese frame-spacing, indicating that these are larger for small boat* and shorter far targe toot* than thoM proposed by
Simpson
undoubtedly be given in terms of Perhaps an experimental engineer could help avoid the pitfalls of scale effect in materials testing*
tests.
The
results should
yield strength.
H74J
SCANTLINGS
Mr. Hamlin urged that as much attention be given to the small fishing vessels as to the large. He rather regretted that Simpson did not extend his studies down into the lower limit of size, i.e. perhaps to 20 ft. (6 m.). In making damage surveys for insurance companies, his experience with fishing vessels under about 50 ft. (15 m.) LOA has been that usually the cost of repairing damage is much higher than the severity of the accident warrants. This invariably results from inconsistent and unbalanced scantlings. The establishment of universal scantling standards would benefit insurance companies by reducing the settlement load, benefit the fisherman by reducing his insurance cost and increasing confidence in his boat and
benefit the builder
DISCUSSION
A A
15
Jopmw
FfcNng
boot
ov
rule
<K*yc*i~;
(Motou
Ptne)
o
20C
toe.
rule
(KsyoU)
by materially advancing the
art.
40
x
600|_
cuin.
Actual
ships
'
I9/ *'
Japanese
QOV
rule
(KyoW~
rule
Zafoova)
ft
cucm
A
o
Fishing
(MotsuwPine)
25
boat
soc.
30
35 m.
(Keyaki)
//*20
Fig. 165.
30
(Matsu)
Simpson's proposals for keels compared with the much smaller required by Japanese rules
400
Keel based on L: Simpson's suggestion is much larger than the Japanese standards but the same if the keelson
is
included.
:
20
He would be glad to have some points clarified The minimum thickness of the planking when small, especially regarding the minimum
is very necessary
5200
(0
thickness of planks for caulking and fastening with nails Generally speaking, the keelson is larger than the keel in Western wooden boats, but in Japan the keelson is always smaller than the keel, and so it is in Simpson's paper. Is there any reason for the Western countries* practice?
Actual
ships gov.
rule
Japanese
(Keyaki
A
o
Fishing
(Molsu-fW
boot- soc.
rule
(Keyaki)
22*
25ft.
(Matsu)/
8 max.
Fig, 164.
7m.
Simpson's section moduli of deck beams compared with the two Japanese standards
Standards
in Japan PROFESSOR A. TAKAGI (Japan): In Japan there are about 1,000,000 gross tons of wooden fishing boats. Simpson's
paper, giving
new standards of scantlings and fastenings for wooden boats, is very useful. Japan uses two standards for wooden boat construction, namely the Government's Wooden
Boat Construction Rules, and that to be issued by the Fishing Boat Association of Japan, which is still in draft form. Some comparisons have been made between these two standards and those put forward by Simpson. See fig. 161 to 166 and
table 39.
Comparison Japanese is thicker Over 6 Japanese is thinner Below 6 Frame space Japanese is larger Over 6 Japanese is smaller Section modulus of frame: Simpson's figure falls between two Japanese Government standards for wooden fishing boats and general wooden boats.
Planking
The Member
results are as follows:
Simpson's Numeral 4 to 5
CO ft
Fig. 166.
Simpson's proposals for keels and keelsons being similar to the Japanese rules
1175]

TABLE 39
CONSTRUCTION
\Matsu
Fig. 164
14.0
cu. in./ft. 8.8 cu.
in./ft.
18.0 cu. in./ft. 13.5
25.5
cu. in./ft. 21.1
37.2
cu. in. 23.3
/ft.
A
S
Actual ship data Simpson's paper
Japanese Government's Wooden Ship Construct ion" Rule (1958) wooden Fishing Boat Construction Rule (1958) of the Fishing Boat Association of Japan
How was the relationship between the section modulus per

foot length of the ship and the maximum
considerable value for

districts
new
vessels of the types
and
in the
beam obtained ?
Japan has
Steel Fishing
wooden
fishing boats arc being
Boat Rules, and standards for drawn up. Are there any
investigated. Equally satisfactory vessels of quite different scantlings
he has
and
similar standards for fishing boats in other countries ?
construction methods have been developed independently in other parts of the world, and to these research similar to that carried out by Simpson might profitably be applied, so that
different standard specifications could
J
MR.
J.
TYRRELL
(Ireland): Simpson's proposals should
be of
be arrived
at.
He
felt
[176
SCANTLINGS
TABLE 39
DISCUSSION
(continued}
Comparison of Simpson's proposal with the
A
S
-Actual ship data

**
Simpson's paper
F -Wooden
Japanese Government's Wooden Ship Construction Rule (1958) Fishing Boat Construction Rule (1958) of the Fishing Boat Association of Japan
that such investigations should be sponsored by the Fishery Departments of the countries concerned, since it would be unreasonable to expect naval architects or builders to conduct
Simpson
Tyrrell
Frame spacing
Plank thickness
13 in. (330
If
(57
in. (41
mm,) mm.)
16
in.
(406 nun.)
in.
IJin. (44.5mm.)
so
much research at
their
own cost.
Frame section at bilge
His firm's standard multi-purpose vessel, 56x17x8 ft. (17. 1 x 9.2 x 24 m.), with 44 tons displacement when ready for
sea*
2.25x5.12 in. x 130 mm.)
3.25x5.5
(82.5
x 140mm.)
compared
for framing
and planking as
follows:
It is surprising
to find larch given such
a low classification in
[177]

is the Irih standard ntatcrial for planking, and a most reliable timber, very resistant to rot, and of excellent steam bending properties. There must be a considerable difference in the U.S. and Irish varieties.
CONSTRUCTION
tabfc29. Thia
is
scarphs to enable them to take up longitudinal strain (tension)

efficiently.
Galvanised mild
fig. 1 53
steel
plank spikes are
first-class in lasting
The butts of the planking should be well staggered and butts of deck planking must be kept well away from hatch corners to avoid leakage there and also to increase longitudinal
strength.
in Simpson's were quite unsuitable for planking or in other positions of$tras. Their standard spike had a rose head, and taking the 5 in* (12.5cm.)asanexampk,hada9ectionof J x iin.(9.5 x 6.35mm.) x J in. (7.8 x 3.2 mm.) at the point. under head, tapering to These were driven with the point at right angles to the grain of the frame, prebored by in. (7.8 mm.) drill through the plank and about i in. (19 mm.) into the frame. Lag screws were not reliable in any position subject to stress. In fig. 146 (mid-section) the topside planking was shown of a
and holding power. He thought those shown
Looking at the keel construction alone, i.e. the keel with garboards and keelsons, the main strain will be compression in the keel and garboard, and tension of the keelsons, scarphs are therefore most essential in the keelsons. He experienced
&
good
fitting
results
when
strengthening existing,
weak
vessels
by
&
a channel steel section upside down over the centre keelson with secure fastenings at the ends. The Swedish type reinforced concrete keelson is another solution that may be of
advantage in small seagoing vessels that

stability.
call for extra
weight
The Irish current practice in the vessel referred to above, was to fit three 7 x 2$ in. (178 x 63 mm.) top wales. It was noted that through fastenings are fitted before
standard thickness.
planking.
all
Hanging knees and riders of steel were not mentioned in the proposal. The knees may not be required due to the suggested small beam spacing but the riders certainly have a mission to
avoid hogging. Ceilings of double diagonal construction between the bilge stringers and clamps would also help to resist hogging. Simpson remarked in his paper that the basic vessels would
They consider
this in Ireland as
bad practice and
fit
such bolts through outer planking. Bent frames would not at all do in his area. In shallow harbour entrances the boats were subject to heavy knocking on the bar when entering port. He strongly advocated wellprepared plank seams, tight inside, and judicious application of caulking. Lock scarves were made in keels and rails in his yard. He felt the best fastenings to be bolt and nut, although
drift bolts
have ice protection, Mr. Zimmer presumed that the scantlings were not intended for navigation in ice. Scantlings for vessels
could be satisfactory.
Scandinavian practices
MR. H. K. ZIMMBR (Norway) : Standard scantlings for wooden fishing vessels are not a new thing. Apart from the classification societies* Lloyds Register of Shipping "Rules for Wood
and Composite Vessels 1929*' and Del Norske Veritas' (Norwegian Veritas) "Regler for bygging og klassifikasjon av 1955" (in Norwegian only), there are the Danish: treskip "Bekendtgorelse angaende Forskrifter om Bygning og Ombygning m.v. af Fiskefartoycr 1947" and the Swedish "Regler fdr byggandet av fiskefartyg av tra 1952". These rules are based on local practices like the proposed
:
might be considered separately. main drawbacks of wooden vessels is their tendency to rot. Copper naphthanates etc. might be useful as preventive measures, but there is nothing like salting of the space between the ceiling and the skin planking from the bilges to the clamps, combined with adequate ventilation of the space above. It was perhaps this tendency to rot which helped the advent of steel hulls. Today there are hardly any wooden hulls longer than 80 ft. (24 m.) being built in Norway. The upper range of the proposed scantlings seems to be outside future trends, whereas the lower range is not covered by the proposed standards.
like sealers
One of
the
He recommended that FAO should continue the research done by Simpson with the aim to produce more simplified
standards that could be of international use. Cooperation with the leading classification societies in this work might be
standard, but the discrepancy of practice may be consider* able. For instance: the Swedish practice of making keelson and floors of a reinforced concrete construction.
an advantage.
The Danish rules, which are the simplest, are based on a Numeral: (LxBxD) and cover the range of 33 to 84 ft. (10 to 25.5 m.). The Swedish rules are based on a transverse Numeral (B -h 2D R) and a longitudinal Numeral, UB+2D-R), R being the distance from the bilge to the lower corner of square B x D. The different standards seem to give similar results although there are some points worth taking note of.
:
MR. P. ZIENER (Norway): Simpson's suggested scantlings are for a specific area. The question arises whether they could be used for similar boats in other regions in the form they now
appear. In his opinion this would not be recommendable, because operational conditions, building woods and convenient construction modifications would in most cases demand scantlings and fastenings quite different from those arrived at by the proposed numerals. For instance, the resulting dimensions are far too heavy for most fishing boats operating in tropical waters, not considering the extensive use of hardwood in those regions which
Scantlings of dck beams are based on B alone in Scandinavian rates, and the dimensions are heavier and the spacing correspondingly larger. These rules give adequate strength and render a cheap hull,
The tad is the backbone of the hull, and one of the most apparent and common defects ef wooden hutts is the hogging of the ked and often the complete hull. The siding of Simpson's proposed scantlings is decidedly smaller than Scandinavian practice, fits experience catted for increased
strw^thinthektelandthekedson(hog).
that longitudinal
It is
would require further substantial reductions. For near-Aictic waters where wooden fishing boats are seasonally employed in seal catching and Arctic hunting, the scantlings would result in hulls too weak even if prescribed ice
reinforcements were added. standardization as proposed is undoubtedly valuable if strictly limited to defined areas, and might well include
machinery and certain equipment.
Operational demands,
most
essential
members
like
the keel, keelsons, bilge
materials aadmttstKiictiion tecta^ not die world that the suggested principle of standardization
stringers, clamps, lodgers (shelf)
and waterways are jotaed by
hardly could be universal.
[178}
SCANTLINGS
E. MCGRUER (U.K.) The numeral system is already used by the Classification Societies and recent yacht scantling rules is based on it. He hoped that people versed in construction
DISCUSSION
for
wooden
vessel construction for several years.

:
They were
MR.
based on the experience of the hardest use any fishing vessel could suffer North Atlantic service during the winter season. They were always putting trigger and bigger main engines
method* would join a boatbuilders' forum and develop

Simpson's proposals. In Scotland frames have greater moulding at the turn of the bilge, and he thought a better section could be had by not having a mass of material in the inner ceiling so near to the
neutral axis as indicated in fig. 146. Referring to the fastenings of a wooden ship, he thought that those who encouraged the use of nature's bounty for boats were entitled to say that a steel ship was no better than its welding, and a fibre glass hull no better than the unskilled
into these ships. A 71 ft. (21.6 m.) long vessel (about 90 GT) would have a main engine of about 400 h.p. Normally, small fishing harbours in Iceland were open to the sea; often five or more vessels were tied up side by side, bumping against each other and the harbour walls during rough weather. For some harbours it was even necessary to have a U-shaped steel piece on the bottom of the keel and up the stem to ride over the rocky bottom when entering port at low tide. Almost all
labour that is claimed could build it. Nor was the laminated boat better than the glue. As the inventor of an early laminated hollow spar, he felt entitled to glue parts of a boat, combined with early ship's
carpentry methods, proper riveting and dovetails and interlockings, so that in the event of a glue-line failure, the structure would not fall apart. He thought the Belgian fluted, square-section nail was
excellent.
ships over 46 ft. (14 m.) in length (about 20 GT) were built of oak with sawn frames. Bent frames were only used for the very small ships. Keels, keelsons, frames, stems, stern posts, planking, deck beams and other main strength members were of oak. Decks, bulkheads were of fir or pine and ceilings in fish hold of oak or fir. Owing to the Icelandic rules for the construction of fishing
wooden
and boatyards in other countries building for Iceland never had to do any guesswork, and no builder could tell the owner that his ships were stronger than those
vessels, boatbuilders
was easy
had a greater and more effective bearing surface, and was as light as a round fastening, because each side of the square section was concave. As a
It
to drive
of another builder. He was well aware of the fact that they used more timber (oak) and possibly more galvanized bolts, than would be used for similar size vessels in other countries.
general principle, boat nails should be square. He referred also to the ringed nickel alloy nail for use as a non-corrodible
spike.
In the Museum at Lake Nemi, Italy, can be seen wrought square nails of various lengths up to 24 in. (610 mm.), all nicely tapered from about i to i in. (20 to 6 mm.) and with such neat heads and finely worked points for plying-over. These long nails could not be driven. Rather were they lacings
tying one hull
easier to
this is
member to another. The Romans would find it work a square tapered nail than a round one and
perhaps the primary reason for the square section. But there can be no doubt the tapering square would fill the drilled pilot hole better where water might have ingress. Preference for the square nail is based on its greater resistance to shearing stresses between the members fastened, and not on axial pull The constructional design of a good draughtsman should use the old shipbuilder's term "room and space" to represent the distance between the molded edge or face of the frames; siding is in the space and the room is the space left between the frames. Sidings vary with the different builders. He should like to help in the question of how a boat design specification should be presented to the boatbuilder, the
and seaworthy ship was required were somewhat heavy. The Icelandic rules were based on tables for scantlings, the main scantling numerals being: B -f 4- G/2 the athwart ship numeral the longitudinal numeral L(B + + G/2) B the breadth numeral: L was the length of the ship between forward end of stem to after the end of stem, measured on deck, B the greatest the depth amidships from top of keel to moulded breadth, lower edge of deck at side and G the girth amidships. In order to compare the amount of timber needed for a ship according to the Icelandic rules, with the ships mentioned in Simpson's paper and Gnanadoss* comments, he had calculated the oak and fir needed in cubic metres of timber for one metre length amidships, for the usual Icelandic type of
believed that a strong
all,
He
above
even
if it
vessels
and according to their rules. This cubic figure was based only on the section in the fish hold. The material for stem, stern frame, engine seatings etc., was not included. For a 55 GT vessel with the dimensions of 77xl7.7xS.5 ft. (23.4 x 5.4 x 2.6 m.) they needed 70.5 cu. ft. oak and 20 cu. ft, fir
for 3 for
owner and the Classification Society. He felt the methods of sawing the
ticularly for planking,
tree for scantlings, par-
should be reconsidered. He suggested the boatbuilders should revert to the early sawer's method of quartering the tree before culling the planks. This quartered wood had much less shrinkage than the tangential wood,
which was
common now.
It
was necessary
to
make
quite
certain that the materials used were properly sawn.
He suggested slightly lower rise of floor, but advocated the use of a hollow garboard to add considerably to the strength of the hull. Regarding the keelson, he suggested this with intercostals between the framesshould be treated as a part of the keel itself to get a good section modulus. He discussed Hanson's and In Iceland they have had rules Simpson's papers together.
M*. H. R.
BAftDAftftON (Iceland):
(
ft. length midships (2.183 cu. m. oak and .616 cu. m. fir one metre). For a 75 GT vessel 80 x 1 8.2 x 9.2 ft. (24.34 x 5.55x2.8 m.) they needed 81 cu. ft. oak and 23.3 cu. ft. fir (2.506 cu. m. of oak and .721 cu. m. fir). Icelandic ships, down to about 50 GT are now also built of steel, mainly of all-welded construction, owing to the increasing problem of rot in wooden fishing vessels. About half the new Icelandic vessels below 100 GT are still built of oak. Good oak has proved to be the best wood for the building of strong vessels, but it Was difficult to find a good preservative, as the known coatings did not penetrate the wood far enough without expensive drying and pressure treatment. It may be of interest to know that they had vary good
experience in Iceland with all-welded steel engine settings in wooden ships, bolted with galvanized bolts through the frames and plankings. When auxiliaries were connected to Che mam engines, the seatings for these and the main engines were the same. These steel engine beds were important additions to the strength of the afterbody of the vessel, strength which was
179

very
CONSTRUCTION
much needed
with high horsepower engines built into
thete comparatively small ships.
Ma. W.
P.
MILLER (U.K.) He felt

:
that uniform specifications
would not
of boats in the world. The boatbuilders should evolve a few standard specifications which would suit various types of boats under different conditions. Timbers vary from country to country, and for that reason uniform specifications will not satisfy every boat.
suit all types
Twelve years ago the Scottish Fishing Boat Builders* Association (SFBBA) issued a catalogue with specifications for several types of wooden fishing boats in the 30 to 80 ft. (10 to 24 m.) length range. Two years ago the White Fish Authority in Scotland took up these specifications and asked for something better more concise and with wider coverage. The White Fish Authority and the SFBBA have been working
Authority were empowered to grant money towards the cost of fishing vessels not exceeding 140 ft. (42.7 m.) in length. Very the form of a broadly the assistance for a new vessel now tak grant of 25 per cent, of the total cost (with a grant ceiling of 30,000 or $84,000) and a loan under favourable rates of interest of up to 60 per cent, of the total cost. In the case of wooden inshore fishing vessels the grant to working owners is 30 per cent, of the cost (grant ceiling 5,000 or $14,000) with a loan of 55 per cent. As a condition of such assistance the vessels and engines have to be constructed and equipped to the satisfaction of the Authority. This involves the submission of plans, specifica*
TABLE 40
Comparison of Scantlings
(as
on
this together for
two years now.
recommended by Simpson and
for Scotland)
In 1958 he had occasion to visit fishing boat yards in many parts of the world and he took the opportunity to show them the catalogue of the Association. People everywhere expressed considerable interest in the publication and felt the necessity
for issuing similar publications in their
Simpson's vessel No. 6
own
areas.
The
information from the boatbuilder on the details and specifications of boats. He felt it was necessary that publications, giving all details of boats, should be made available to prospective boat owners so that they could make their best choice. Before commencing the drawing up of new specifications, the White Fish Authority conducted some preliminary investigations. Information was obtained from the authorities concerned with the Danish regulations and the Icelandic regulations. Bureau Veritas, however, could not furnish the English version of their regulations. He suggested that all standard specifications should be published by FAO. He felt one of the most vital points in boatbuilding was proper preservation of the timber. His idea was that timber should be permitted to be preserved by the natural element of the air and that all dead air spaces should be avoided. Preserving timber by air should be one of the major points of
customer gets normally very
little
study by naval architects. It was his opinion that the practice of fitting a keelson was a relic from the days of sailing boat construction, but boatbuilders were now faced with the problem of accommodating
huge, heavy engines. It was necessary to distribute the weight and the vibration of the engine to the whole structure of the
boat.
in
UK.
MIL A. SUTHERLAND (U.K.) had read with very great interest Simpson's paper. The Scottish Committee of the U.K. While Fish Authority had been working on a Minimum
Standard Specification for Wooden Fishing Vessels since 1956 and the papers are now in preparation for printing. It would be as well to describe briefly part of the functions of the White Fish Authority in order to explain the Authority's
standing in the matter. By Section 4 (1) (g) of the Sea Fish Industry Act, 1951, the Authority was empowered to give financial assistance by way of loan to meet capital expenditure incurred in providing,
gear.
and tenders from any applicant desiring a new fishing and the subsequent examination of the vessel whilst in process of building and during the handing over trial trip. The Authority insists that steel trawlers should be built to Lloyds classification. However, there were no recognized rules for classification of wooden fishing vessels and practices varied from port to port in Scotland. The rise in costs of vessels had been causing some concern and it was felt that by standardizing the ncantHngt of fishing vessels and their equipment boat builders would then submit tenders on similar basis and fishermen would be certain of a well-found boat. There was accordingly set up a working party consisting of
tions
vessel
acquiring, reconditioning or improving fishing vessels or their The White Fish Industry (Grants for Fishing Veueis
and Engines) Scheme, 1953 came into operation under the White Fish and Herring Industries Act, 1953, whereby the
three wril known Scottish boat builders, a technical consultant, a representative from Lloyds holding a watching brief and the Senior Technical Officer of the White Fish Authority, who eventually produced the Standard Specifications referred to
[180]
SCANTLINGS
which have
DISCUSSION
TABU
OriMe
for I
now
been approved as a condition of Grant and

Scottish vessels. the scantlings wore fixed
by means of previous submission and methods of fastening were carefully studied before the final choice was made. Sizes of rudder stock, chains and rods were estimated by using Lloyds Rules for
rudders.
Special attention was given to the methods of ventilation to try and eliminate decay in timbers and to cut down the danger of fire in the engine room. The lining of fishrooms
Loan assistance for Hie majority of
42
For
ft.
(0.917 m.) length
except in special circumstances is forbidden as experience has shown that the entrapping of air leads to rapid decay of the structural members of the vessel.
TABLE 41
Comparison of i
(as
recommended by Simpson ancffor Scotland)

Simeon's
vessel
No. 12
Proposed for Scotland
Proposed by Dwight
S.
Simpson
Note: Pine to oak conversion factor
0.833
the ability of vessels built in this basis from which to work.
way
for generations gave the
Using the Scottish method of calculating scantling sizes Mr. Sutherland had drawn up tables 40 and 41 of comparison for vessels No. 6 and 12 in table 30 of Simpson's paper. The Scottish Scantling Numeral at present does not go beyond a 90 ft. (27.4 m.) overall vessel. Also attached is a sectional view of the method of construction, fig. 167, used in Scotland and compared with that as shown in Simpson's
fig.
146.
Using these comparisons he estimated the amount of wood used in a 3 ft. length of each vessel amidships and the difference in cubic content is as shown in table 42 which is an extension of table 37 by Gnanadoss.
Regulations for life-saving and fire fighting equipment are on by the Ministry of Transport and a close liaison is maintained with that body. There are of course differences in methods of construction and in general the Scottish type of wooden fishing vessel is broader in the beam and deeper for similar lengths than those
insisted
on a Scantling Numeral where L is the length obtained by multiplying the distance overall, B the greatest breadth of the vessel and from the underside of the keel to the top deck beam at side in the middle of the rule length. These standards have been adopted from tried practice cutting out certain methods of building and fastening which
described by Simpson. The Scottish tables are based
LxBxD
had been found wanting, and substituting these wi

methods.
It will
be argued that
this is
approved not die correct way but
Fig. 167. Typical Scottish
wooden ship construction
PISHING BOATS OF THfc WOULD:

There are certain differences, the main ones being that the Scottish engine seats are fitted directly on to the frames, checked over each frame and through bolted before planking.
CONSTRUCTION
Hie
side floors and filter pieces are lugged to the seats with angle irons. In vessels of 80 ft. (24.4 m.) and over die engine teats are continued as far forward as practicable in the form of side keelsons. The garboard strakes are normally the same thickness as the ordinary planking but very much wider and the bilge and rubbing strakes are increased in size as shown in the drawing. The only woods used in the main structure of the vessel are oak and larch, the deck being of pine. The rise of floor is also much more pronounced in the Scottish type.
It will
is
exception of wood coming from a few forests. This leads in some cases to the use of increased scantlings. He has not yet had time to compare fully the scantlings they use in Portugal with those given in the two papers. He would
only say that in Portugal they would not go below 30 mm. (U in.) in hull and deck planking and that beams are very seldom placed on the same spacing as frames. Their spacing is regulated by the arrangement of hatches and casings. Deck camber is generally 1/30 to 1/20 of beam. In some cases regulations limiting size of fishing vessels would penalize the boats with greater camber. In wood construction they use scarphes in keels which agree with the ones indicated by
practically the
be seen that in the smaller vessels the weight of wood same as in those proposed by Simpson but
with rather striking differences in various members as shown in the sectional drawing attached. In the case of Vessel 1 2 however the comparison is very high and is higher than that of any other regulation. This is accounted for by the double framing, and practically all the other scantlings as shown in table 41.
The Scottish method of double framing is different from that of the Danish type as the two frames are bolted together after the inside faces have been treated with preservative. When a Scantling Numeral of 20,000 and over is reached the horse power and weight of the engine necessitates such construction. In vessels of 80 ft. (24.4 m.) and over it is becoming general practice to fit steel bulkheads and steel beams in way of the engine room with steel engine beds and these can be welded together to form a strong attachment for the engine. The papers by Simpson and Hanson have, Mr. Sutherland hoped, started a movement that will eventually lead to more discussion and interchange of ideas on this controversial but
highly important subject. In Scotland there is no intention of standardizing the design of vessels, as this would be a retrograde step and a bar to progress. He was happy to add that the step taken was made in consultation with the principal producers' associations and with the fullest co-operation and advice of the builders. Improvements are bound to come and this can be greatly speeded up by the interchange of ideas between naval architects
Hanson. For bulkheads the tongue and groove construction, with one thickness of plank, is quite prevalent. Such bulkheads are not strictly speaking watertight. On the whole their scantlings agree with the "as built figures given by Simpson and not too well with the ones given by Hanson. Keels are never square in section and keelsons are always practically so. On the matter of caulking, he agreed most certainly with Hanson. On fastenings, scarphes and bent frames, he agreed with Tyrrell. They use and recommend the bilge stringer construction mentioned by the Scottish participants. They do not use keelsons in their smallest craft and the engine bearers are
always extended well forward. He would point out that standard scantlings, although very desirable, can only be worked out in conjunction with a table of standards of quality and strength of materials and standard methods of construction. Both these standards are now unobtainable on an international basis and in his opinion that makes the two papers even more important. He liked to think that standards could be used to further
evolution and adaptation to local conditions which vary considerably due to service requirements of the vessels and wood working habits. He regretted to say that scantling tables of classification societies had been used as a rigid law in his country. Here was the superiority of Simpson's paper where the underlying Working hypothesis was clearly stated and allowed for other basis to be applied. He felt it was the duty of all participants to provide this kind of information regarding their own local standards as
and
J.
designers.
Hanson and Simpson have done.

the use of practical one.
LINDBLOM (Finland): The scantling proposals suggested by Hanson and Simpson have been needed for a long time. When his shipyard started building, some 15 years ago, no scantling tables were available. The conclusion that
laminated construction of frames is expensive, is not true. Frames built for 1,500 boats have been found to be cheaper but this depends on equipment used in the construction. It is preferable to start from raw material, then build up die impregnated material for machining and then build up the frames. As regards fastening, bolts with nuts were first used but later old fashioned clinch bolts 0.71 in. (18 mm.) were introduced. These bohs ate driven cold. Soft materials were used and proved to be good. Norwegian pine was used,
MR.
Regarding Simpson's numeral, he would only disagree with LOA as a parameter, although it seemed a most
wood and
In Portugal both the Veritas rules are generally followed in steel construction and from 130 ft. (40 m.) upwards Lloyds or Veritas in steel construction. Referring to fig. 120 in Hanson's paper, he presumed that
the fastenings were merely generally indicated and that possibly their details would not exactly correspond to what the drawing appears to show. Otherwise he would prefer
different arrangements.
having good absorbing properties for impregnation. has tensile strength.
It also
DR. O. BORDOLI (Italy): He was pleased to note that from the small amount of information given in the various papers, it was evident that for hulls of the same type and of the same
dimensions, the weights of the bare hulls varied quite a bit, if constructed according to traditional local methods or the various .-government or classification institute regulations. Hie reasons for these differences, which it certainly would be a food thing to eliminate or at least reduce, are due to the varying importance attributed to the different parts of the hull
structure.
E. CUUMMO (Portugal): In Portugal sawn frames M*. J. are used throughout. The method of construction in which both frame futtocks are interrupted at and tenoned into the keelson is not practised. Local pine and oak are generally used They are not usually of very high quality with the
[
In a congress in Ancona in 1955, Italian shipbuilders
SCANTLINGS
requested, at his suggestion, that the Rcgistro Italiaao Navalc (R1NA) should modify the regulations for wooden construction. Adopting the same methods as Gnanadoss, he had now
DISCUSSION
been able to conclude that for the construction of a hull of similar dimensions as No. 6 of Simpson, using the regulations of the Bureau Veritas and the RINA, the weights proved to be about 18 and 30 per cent, greater than those foreseen by
Simpson's scantlings. The subject of scantlings is such a vast and complicated one that a separate Congress for that purpose is called for. Regulations had been drawn up according to tradition in different countries, and boats built according to them. It was very complicated to compare various specifications, because they were based on local rules. He agreed with all participants that standardization was difficult to achieve because of local conditions, availability of timber, labour, etc. The traditions of boat building go back thousands of years: if one went back to these traditions, it might be possible to obtain some comparisons and evolve some standards and then, with suitable coefficients, suggest
the best scantlings for the respective areas. He knew that different emphasis had been attached to various structural
particulars.
Fig. 168. Body plan of 78.5 ft. (24 m.) fishing boat in both wood and steel version, the steel version having 7 to 9 per cent, lower resistance
material and both
had withstood the hazards of the sea for
Strength with economy MR. J-O. Traung (FAO) said that it was evident that some participants disagreed with Simpson because they had different practices. If when comparing two successful boats built differently one type was built with considerably less
years, then the lighter one would be the most economical to build. It was important to remember that Simpson's proposals were based only on successful boats.
many
They might be too heavy but not too light. Mr. Traung had first seen the possibility of using steambent frame construction in large fishing boats when he visited
TABLE 43
EHP
values for
strip
made of sted and wood
[183]

TABLE 44
CONSTRUCTION
(IS to 30
50 to 100
ft.
.)
Hanson in 1948, and learnt that these boats had a lifetime of over 30 years. The boats in his home country, built of sawn frames, did not all last so long. He had come to the conclusion that steam-bent frame construction was superior. Many seemed to think that a frame should have a big section modulus. Mr. Traung felt that a frame should not be regarded as a beam, but rather as a tie rod something which kept die planking togetherand a very flat section of the steam-bent frame as suggested by Chapelk might be suitable/ in fact, smaller boats have been built with stainless steel tie rods inside the planking, which thus forms a true arc construction.
of fishing
fish
Scantlings were important, not only to builders and owners aimed at cheaper vessels, but also to FAG, for
FAO
production, which could be achieved by building cheaper fishing vessels. If there were no competition from steel ships, it would not matter from the wooden boatbuilding point of view whether the vessels were built heavy or not, so long as all builders gave the same quotations, but it made a big difference to both the fisherman and the consumer if there was also unnecessarily heavy initial investment.
Builders of wooden boats were feeling increasing competition from builders of steel ships, the construction of which had been very much simplified during die last few years. Welding, for instance, had developed with the use of covered electrodes and with cheap welding equipment. Mr. Traung felt that the builders of wooden boats should drop their conservative attitudes and study die practices of other countries, with a view to improving their own methods. Only in this way could they hope to produce boats which were cheaper than those constructed of steel.
RESISTANCE OF WOODEN KEEL, STEM AND STERN POST

MR. W. HENSCHKB (Germany): Hanson showed that it is important to have a strong keel and corresponding stem and stern post to give wooden boats a good strength. He agreed with this but wanted to draw attention to the fact that resistance and propulsion characteristics also have to be considered. In the modd tank at Berlin-Potsdam he had made tests with wood and steel 78.5 ft. (24 m.) fishing boats having the same dimensions and shape. The models were made to the scale of 1 to 10. According to fig. 168 the difference consisted
[184]
SCANTLINGS
only in the type of keel, stem and stern post. In spite of comparatively small differences, the steel boat had, according to table 43, as an average, 7 to 9 percent, smaller resistance than the wooden boat (these results have also been given in FAO Fishing Boat Tank Tests, Part II). Later resistance and selfpropulsion tests were made with a model of scak 1 to 8 and it was found that the propulsive efficiency of the steel boat was some 10 to 20 per cent, higher than that of the wooden boat. He felt that the wooden boatbuilder should consider these results and endeavour to obtain the best combination of strength and resistance such as fairing stem and stern posts.
DISCUSSION
frames, and thus he had shown this construction for economical reasons. Iron bark sheathing over soft wood planking is used in the Pacific Northeast, in constrast to the use of solid hardwoods for planking as mentioned for Iceland, and he believed the sheathing method was better and more eco-
nomical and easier repaired. Mr. Hanson agreed that the

vessel
is
steel
superior construction, he
engine bed for a wooden had used steel engine beds
STEEL SCANTLINGS
referred to Hanson's paper, which gave minimum scantling dimensions of steel boats, and
MR, W. ZWOLSMAN (Netherlands)
suggested that a further list of scantlings based on many years of actuaf practice might be useful. Table 44 indicates scantling dimensions that are also approved by Lloyd's Register of Shipping and Bureau Veritas. All the construction drawings of the fishing craft built by his firm have been approved by one of these classification bureaus or by both. If the boats are to be supplied with a certificate for ice-reinforcement, the shell plates must be
.02 to .04 in. (i to
1
mm.)
thicker.
comparison of
this specification
with Hanson's shows
and had used steel bulkheads in coqjunction with them tieing the engine bed to bulkheads at ends of engine room, and he found this reduced vibration and made a better vessel for upkeep costs. The use of clinch bolts in wooden vessels was discontinued at the end of World War I; they do not do a good job, and as soon as the wood shrinks around them nothing can be done about it. By using screw bolts one is able to cinch them up at any time, and before delivery of any vessel it is common practice now to cinch up on the screw bolts, after wood has dried out while building. Even on vessels several years old one can take up on these screws. Hook scarphs will do the job all right, but they are costly to make and Mr. Hanson saw no purpose whatsoever in using them, as the many thousands of vessels built from his plans never had any and neither did the 60-year-old vessel above mentioned. Also since there is some pretty heavy weather
for years
that the shell plates are somewhat heavier and the frame distance somewhat smaller. Owing to the heavier shell plates it has never been necessary to apply longitudinal frames. Heavier shell plates also are
throughout these Pacific areas, he considered money spent on lock scarphs, lock dowels a waste of time and money. Lock strakes come under the same category of waste.
found to prolong the
life of the boats considerably. the prescriptions of the Shipping Inspection or the insurers, the shell plates must be renewed if wear and tear have reduced their thickness to .16 in. (4 mm.), and obviously
As per
if shell
plates .32 in. (8

it
mm.)
instead of .24
in.
(6
mm.)
thick
MR. DWIGHT S. SIMPSON (U.S.A.): Since so many variations of Numerals have been offered with a number of suggestions seeming a bit wide off the mark, Mr. Simpson thought it well to repeat and amplify some of the statements in his paper. The paper was an attempt to develop by analysis of existing
fishing vessels, minimum scantlings for the construction of fishing vessels but not freighters, sailing yachts or motor boats.
are applied,
will
is
.16 in. (4 mm.) little influence
be twice as long before the critical limit of reached. These heavier shell plates have only
overall cost price of the boat.
on the
REPLIES OF AUTHORS
(U.S.A.): His paper suggested a minimum standard scantling table based upon actual usage in thousands of vessels that had been built throughout the world, boats now in operation having been built along these standards as long ago as 60 years. So far as preservatives for wood were concerned, he was of the opinion that anything that penetrates the wood is good, but that anything forming a coating over the wood where moisture is encased is not good, since this
MR. H. C. HANSON
They were not intended to be used without judgement; however since the prototype vessels serving the analysis have existed for many years in North Atlantic waters from Hatteras to the North of Newfoundland about as tough an area as
can be found anywhere
sound judgement might, of course, increase scantlings for Arctic use or decrease the same for less arduous spots of the world. It was known that most fishing vessels are still built from
forms a rot condition. Air circulation and the use of salts are recommended. The use of sawn frames fore and aft in a bent oak frame boat are necessitated because the shapes require it, builders will try to bend the frames and they crack, so to overcome this they split the bent frame, which he considered bad practice, because experience shows that rot will occur between the two split members. The use of deep floors is good, not only for the strength they give the vessel, but in smaller vessels the tonnage measurement is reduced which is an advantage in some countries. Chapelle's statements that boats should be built and used only in the areas where the wood itself grows, for longevity, he did not agree with, one has only to see the many wooden vessels built in the Southern parts of U.S.A. from the Northwest firs to refute this statement. He agreed with Chapelk that the use of independent top timbers is good, but more costly; Mr. Hanson had shown the frames extended to form bulwarks because one pays for the oak to bend the
models, or even from rule of thumb, with no plans available. Therefore, basic dimensions that required no plans or engineering skill to obtain were chosen. Length (LOA) was taken as overall length simply because most fishermen and many builders know and talk no other length. Length on the waterline may vary with the loading and trim. Length between perpendiculars is no nearer estimate of the vessels size than length overall, and would have to be explained to many owners and builders. Breadth (B) over the planking is easy and universal Depth (D) amidship from top of deck at side to the rabbet line is easy to obtain and a better measure of size than if taken to top or bottom of keel or top of floors (Hanson mentions the use of deep floors to reduce tonnage measurement, for instance).
Mr. Simpson thought that perhaps not enough had been

said about the effect of varying prismatic coefficient. Again remembering that the paper dealt with fishing vessels, the
of the prismatic appear to be between ,58 and .68. ft. (25.9 m,) vessel No. 12 were designed to these limits, maintaining the same displacement she would have
limits
If the 85
[185]

midship coefficient between .791 and .680 or areas between 96.4 14, ft. (8*95 sq, m.) and 82.8 sq. ft. (7.7 sq. m.). These sections give half girths of 15.23 and 16,06 ft. (4.65 and4.9m.), a difference of .415 ft. (.126 m.) or 2.66 per cent from the average of the two. Applying this differential to the calculawill be 1,079 and the tion of the numeral, the minimum
CONSTRUCTION
Tyrreirs standard spike was once largely used as a ctenche is now largely succeeded by the wood screw. The long life of his sample is, of course, due to the purity of the metal and the excellence of the galvanizing.
nail bat
FxN
maximum
1,192.
Entering the chart,
fig.
147,
Z minimum
wiH be 16 and Z maximum 17.55 and from fig. 148 the minimum frame section will be 3.65 x 6.28 in. (93 x 160 mm.) and title maximum section 3.82 x 6.57 in. (97 x 167 mm.). Both of these would likdy be transformed by the builder into 3t x 6i in. (95 x 160 mm.), or perhaps 6 in. (165 mm.). Again, an examination of 60 vessels from all parts of the world show a minimum midship section coefficient of .641 and a maximum of .900 (both are extreme and rare), which give half girths of 15.21 and 17.86 ft. (4.65 and 5.45 m.) or 8 per cent, from the median. Applying this differential as before to the F formula gives a minimum section of 3.35 x 6 in. (85 x 152 mm.) and a maximum of 3f x6J in. (98 x 165 mm.). These are so close to the 3f x 6 in. (95 x 1 60 mm.) obtained from the unmolested rule that it seems not worth white to further complicate the numeral calculations.
White a number of rules use the R or diagonal extension it would appear from the above that it matters little, especially since fishing vessels with large midship sections seem to have small prismatics and vice versa. The American Bureau of Shipping uses a block coefficient at .8 x D which clearly fixes the capacity and, of course, makes it necessary to have a completed lines drawing. The original list of prototype vessels would be greatly reduced owing to lack of lines and a new list established before calculating a new set of graphs, and Mr. Simpson again wondered if the game is worth the
factor,
McGruer's fluted "Belgian" nail seemed to hold well in withdrawal but appears weak in lateral resistance. It also might be expensive. With some experience of structural testing, Mr. Simpson was of the opinion that Hamlin has outlined a program so extensive and costly that none but a Government or wealthy Foundation could finance it. The results would have a qualitative value but otherwise might have to wait until some sort of strain measurements were devised and tried on parts of
many
hulls in service.
Hamlin and others desire the rutes to be extended to smaller boats and bent frames. The paper by Smith (1950), already
referred to, covers the subject quite well with reference to U.S. West Coast construction. Experience has shown that, at least up to 75 ft. (22.9 m.) or so, a well-built bent frame vessel is at least the equal of
sawn frame construction in ability to stand grief. Glued laminated bent frames have been used in U.S. Navy vessels as large as 165 ft. (50.3 m.), with satisfactory results, but they are not troubled with large and varying loads. Bardarson, Gnanadoss and Sutherland have laboured mightily in a good cause and their efforts serve well to show the need of further study of the scantling problem. If Bardarson's 75 GT vessel is compared with Mr. Simpson's
No. 12 in Gnanadoss's table 36, it is found to be 68.6 per cent, heavier than Mr. Simpson's formulae; 32.8 per cent, heavier than Bureau Veritas; 32.5 per
slightly larger vessel
become so complicated that many would close the book after a partial glance and go on building in their accustomed manner what has been gained? The paper requested that timbers from other countries be related to those listed. Only Swinfteld has complied and it would be valuable if he had included more varieties and more Mr. Simpson believed the controlling properties details. would be specific gravity, resistance to rot, and obtainable size. For vessels of 75 ft. (22.9 m.) and smaller, bending properties would be valuable. Teak was not included in the original list since it is not a fishing vessel timber in the North
candte. If these formulae
cent, heavier than Swedish; 28.3 per cent, heavier than Newfoundland. Sutherland would rate it 22 per cent, heavier
than the White Fish Authority rule. This is indeed a heavy vessel, sacrificing many tons of pay load at some considerable expense. It seems added proof that the subject under discussion is well worth pursuing. Icelandic waters cannot be so severe as to justify such heavy scantlings if they were so and GZ of the Icelandic vessels could not be as severe, the
GM
low as they
are.
Americas.
Tyrrell
and others question the position
allotted to larch,
but he is talking of the European larch (larix decidua). The US. Western (larix occidental**) and Eastern (larix larfcina) larches are very different and generally yield a brash timber and, except for the roots from which the old "hackmatack" ship knees were hewn, am almost unknown in shipbuilding. t
Takagi's graphs are extremely interesting and will be of great assistance in the final analysis. His fig. 161 and question recall the statement in the paper than no New England or Nova Scotia trawler has planking less than 1} in. (38 mm.) finished thickness and possibly a revision of the figures would of 8 instead develop 3 in. (76 mm.) finished planking for an of 7. It is interesting to find the Simpson rule in the middle, more or less, of the several proposed Japanese rules. In Mr. Simpson's opinion the keels of his vessels, both existing and rutewise, are much too heavy structurally. It
Mr. Simpson was surprised at the universal antagonism shown against the round spike and wondered if a square drift or bolt is in universal use in other parts of the world. He thought it strange that minds able to accept complicated mathematical formulae and model basin tests as criteria for food hull design baulk at equally good mathematics and laboratory tests as criteria for good fastenings. Obviously there is no reason exc^t custom for the feeling. Simply to say that fig. 1 53A (used almost exclusively in the North America for more than 100 yean) or fig. 154D (used by the best boat ttd shipbuilders for 20 or 25 years) "are unfit for fastenings" or that 'the square fastening is to be preferred" is not a satisfactory answer in the face of technical and practical
eApei fence to the contrary*
must be remembered that all these vessels handle their nets from the side and the necessity of holding the vessel against drift white bringing in the net accounts for the depth of keel. He has added box keels of wooden keel dimensions to several steel trawlers, improving their handling of the net immensely, and has just completed a design of a 1 10 fit. (33.5 m.) steel dragger with such a keel. Answering Takagi's third question, Mr. Simpson said that the section modulus per foot of ship's length of beams as for frames is simply Z of the beam divided by spacing in inches multiplied by 12. In this connection it should be noted that beams should be spaced to suit bulkheads, hatches and deckhouses but kept as close to standard as possibte. If a different spacing is wanted the chart gives it, However, in spite of comments, the closer the beams are spaced the smaller and
[1*6]
SCANTLINGS
cheaper they are. Experience shows that with small spacing the expensive knees are not required tor long life.
DISCUSSION
and breaks at the bend rivets and screws are expensive* With proper equipment there is no great trouble in bending 3 in. (76 mm.) stock. If thicker is required it could be laminated with added strength. Mr. Simpson took issue with Traung, believing that it does
to rust
;
To Zimmer's question, Mr. Simpson stated that U.S. North East coast vessels are sheathed only to protect the planking from surface ice and the banging of the doors. He would like to see details of Zimmer's concrete keelson.
standard specifications be collected in one volume is good but might make it harder for the novice to make up his mind. He therefore preferred the idea of a world-wide committee to collect and analyse the various rules in an attempt to revise the formulae and suggested variations, other timbers, etc. He noted that Sutherland's fig. 167 apparently shows single frame futtocks with long butt straps for the smaller vessels but believed that double futtocks of lighter scantlings would be a lighter and stronger frame. Sutherland's engine bed seemed very deep and subject to vibration. The crossing of the keelson with secondary floors would stiffen the hull under the engine, decrease the size of
suggestion that
all
The
matter to the trade whether a boat be light or heavy. The lighter vessel saves both timber and labour and carried more load. It should sell for less and easier, and would tend
perhaps to more boatbuilding. He agreed with Traung that frames could be reduced, even perhaps, dispensed with if planking could be made a monolithic unit such as can be achieved by double or triple planking, by glued strips or edge fastening. (He has seen 40x8 ft. (12.2x2.4 m.) dugouts with no framing). For hundreds of years large Chinese junks have been built with no frames, just intermittent cleats holding three or four planks together plus a unique method of edge fastening the planks. As long
as the skin consists largely of individual planks transverse strength must be achieved by frames and under this stress they could be likened to beams. Mr. Simpson hoped that Swinfield can be persuaded to
the engine bed,
and minimize vibration. Mr. Simpson agreed with Chapelle's remarks on bent
frames except for the preference for thin frames. Most
Nova
expand
Scotia small craft are built this way and invariably show many broken frames after short use. Thin frames offer little bury for ordinary spikes; clench nails are unreliable, being subject
his thoughtful remarks, with more information on Australian scantlings and timbers. He also joined the majority of discussers in the hope that can arrange a further research into the possibility of more uniform basic scantlings.
FAO
[187]
GLASS REINFORCED PLASTIC HULLS

by
PATRICK
D.
DE LASZLO
The paper dealt with plastic hulls and decks made from cold setting polyester resin reinforced with glass fibre "mat" laid up in a female mould. The chief advantages of plastic hulls are low initial cost and very low maintenance and repair costs. One hull costs no more than an equivalent wooden hull but several hulls from the same mould are cheaper than wooden hulls. Maintenance costs are low because plastic hufls are unaffected by sea water; they cannot warp, rot, or split like wooden hulls. They are dry because they are homogeneous and therefore will not open at the seams or leak. They cannot rust or corrode and they are not subject to galvanic action like aluminium, nor are they attacked by marine borers. They do not absorb water, therefore they cannot be contaminated by fish nor will they add to their own weight by water absorption like a wooden hull when they are launched. Plastic hulls do not have to be painted. The colour is impregnated into the resin at the time of manufacture. The colour can, however, be changed if desired by sanding down and painting with a suitable paint. Plastic huH can be made fire-resistant. They are stronger than wooden hulls of the same weight and have greater resistance to impact. They are nrifiant and do not dent under impact. If a plastic hull is damaged in a collision the damage will be local that is to say there are no planks to iplit A first-aid repair can be carried out in a matter of hours and a full-scale repair takes less than one-tenth of the time required to repair a wooden hull. Plastic is a natural insulator and therefore will not sweat internally like metal. The largest plastic hulls in the world are built under Lloyd's survey, with bulkheads, tanks and engine foundations installed while the hulls are still in their moulds.
LES COQUES
DE PLASTIQUE RENFQRCE DE FIBRE DE VERRE
La communication traite des coques et ponts de plastiquc fabriques avcc de la resine de polyester prenant a froid, renforcee par des matelas de fibre de verre Stales dans un moulc creux, Lea principaux advantages des coques de plastique sont le coOt initial bas et Ics tres faibtos expenses d'entrctien et de reparations. Une coque de plastique ne coOtc pas plus qu'une coque tquivatonte de bois, mais pluskurs coques sorties du meme mouto cotitent moins cher que des coques de bois. Les frais d'cntrcticn sont faibles parce que les coques de plastique ne sont pas affectecs par I'cau de mer: elks ne peuvent ni gauchir, ni pourrir ou se fendre comme les coques de bois. Elles sont stehes parce qu'elfes sont homogenes et ainsi ne s'ouvrent pas aux joints et ne fuicnt pas. Elles ne peuvent pas rouillcr ni se corroder ni etre attaquees par les organismes perforants marins, et cites ne sont pas sujettes & Faction galvanique comme 1'aluminium. Elles n* absorbent pas feau : ainsi dies ne peuvent pas etre contaminees par le poisson et tour proprc poids ne peut pas ctre augment* par absorption d'eau comme une coque de bois quand elks sont lancees. II n'est pas ntoessaire de peindre les coques de plastique. La resine est imprtgnee de colorant
au moment de
la fabrication. Cependant, on peut changer la couteur si on le desire, en sablant la coque et en la pcignant ensuitc avec une peinture appiopriee. Les coques de plastique peuvent &tre rendues resistantes au feu. Elles sont plus robustes que les coques de bois de meme poids et ont une plus grande resistance aux chocs. Elles sont dastiques et ne se bosstlent pas sous le choc. Si une coque de plastique
est
endominagee dans une collision, les dgats sont tocauxc'est&-dire qu'il n*y a pas de planches de bordd qui se fendent. Une reparation urgente peut etre effectuee en quelqucs heures, et une reparation normale prend moins d'un dixieme du temps n6cessaire pour riparer une coque de bois. Le plastique est un isolant naturel, done il ne transpire pas a I'intdricur comme le metal. Les plus grandes coques de plastique du monde sont construites sous to contrdto du Lloyd's, les cloisons, les reservoirs et les fondations du moteur etant installed alors que les coques sont encore dans tours moutos.
CASCOS DE MATERIAL PLAST1CO REFORZADO CON FIBRA DE V1DRIO

Trata esta ponencia de los cascos y cubtortas de materiatos pttsticos fabricados con resina de pollster de fraguada en frio, rcforzados flora de vidrio extendidos en un molde hueco. Las principatos ventajas de los cascos de plattico son su costo inicial bajo y los pequeftos gastos de mantenimiento y reparation. Un casco de plastico no cuesta mas que uno equivatonte de madera, pero varios cascos hechos con el mtsmo molde son mas baratos que los cascos de madera. Los gastos de mantenimiento son bajos porque a los cascos de plastico no les afecta el agua del mar: no se pueden alabear, ni pudrir, ni rajarse como los cascos de madera. Son secos porque son homog6neos y, por tanto, no se abren en las juntas ni se hacen vias de agua. No se pueden oxidar ni comer y no estan sometidos a la accidn galvanica, como el aluminio, ni pueden ser atacados por los takdradores marine*. Como no absorben agua, no los puede contaminar el pescado ni aumentara su propio peso por absorddn de agua como aumenta el de un casco de madera cuando se bota. No hay que pintar los cascos de plastico. La resina se impregna de colorante en d momento de la fabricacion, pero si se desea cambiar d color, se puede hacer raspando el casco con arena ypintAndob con unapinturaapropiada. Se puede hacer que los cascos de plastico resistan el fuego. Son mas robustos que los cascos de madera del mismo peso ytienen mayor resistendaaioschoques. Son elastkx* y TO se abollan al chocar. Si un casco de piastico sufre averias en ana cotillon, los dafios son locales, es deck, no hay planchas que se poedan romper. Una reparation urgente se puede haoer en unas pocas boras y una reparation normal tarda menos de la decima parte dd ttompo necesario para reparar un casco de madera. El pUkitico es un aWante natural que no traniptra en d interior como d metal. Los mayoret catcot pttetlcos dd mundo se construyen bajo la tnspeocion de Lloyd's y tot mamparos, los tanques y las bases dd motor se instalan mtontras lot cascos ettan todavia en los moldes.
con paltotes de
[188]
NEW MATERIALS
reinforced plastic can be used for making the hulk and decks of all vessels and in particular fishing vessels up to 130 ft. (40 m.) in length. Glass reinforced plastic in this context means a laminate made of several layers of 2 oz./sq. yd, (68 gr./
PLASTIC HULLS
Method of mmkiag lamiate The process by which glass mat
is
GLASS
laid into
a mould and
sq.
m.) glass fibre "mat" impregnated and bonded
together with cold setting polyester resin. For convenience, this type of glass reinforced plastic is referred to as Polyester/Mat or P/M.
impregnated with polyester resin so as to form a Polyester/Mat (P/M) laminate is generally referred to as a "wet lay-up". The surface of the mould is first treated with a separating agent such as wax to ensure that the laminate cannot stick to the mould. A "skincoat" is then applied by painting or spraying the surface of the mould with a film of polyester resin which will eventually become the outside surface of the laminate. This film of
resin is generally coloured.
Hie raw material! of Polyester/Mat [P/M] laminate The chemistry of cold setting polyester resin is outside the scope of this paper. It is now produced by a number of manufacturers. The resin is an almost colourless
liquid
which can be stored for considerable periods
in
stage is to apply a layer of glass scrim and Glass scrim is a very loosely woven cloth similar to the cloth used for covering bacon. When the scrim coat has hardened, successive layers
resin.
The next
Fig. 170.
Section through
a wood mould for plastic construction
cool place. The resin is activated by the addition of small quantities of two other chemicals, generally known as the "accelerator" and the "catalyst", which cause it to set hard in a predetermined time. After the resin has set it will continue to harden over a period of about four weeks. For the purpose of building boats it is usual to arrange for the resin to set in 30 minutes. Glass mat is made of short lengths of glass threads disposed at random and loosely held together like a very coarse felt. Glass thread is composed of glass fibres each of which is about one-tenth of the thickness of a human hair. These fibres are astonishingly strong and flexible.
of 2 oz, glass mat, impregnated with resin, are applied until the required thickness has been achieved. Each layer of glass mat will weigh approximately
of resin and 1 Ib. of mat), or 2.17 kg./ in. (1.6 mm.) thick. be approximately Hulls less than 30 ft. (9.15 m.) long require only three in.* layers of mat which means that they will be about (4.75 mm.) thick; 30 to 40 ft. (9 to 12 m.) long hulls are 4 to 5 layers thick, 40 to 56 ft. (12 to 17 m.) long hulls are 6 to 7 layers thick, and hulls 57 to 80 ft. (17.4 to
Ib./sq. yd. (3 Ib.
sq.
m. and
will
24.5 m.) long are 7 to 10 layers thick according to the purpose for which they are to be used.
Comparative
tensile strengths are:

:
Glass fibre
Cotton Nylon:
Silk:
(
80,000-300,000 Ib./sq. in. 12,650- 21,000 kg./sq. cm.) 59,000-124,000 Ib./sq. in. 4,150- 8,700 kg./sq. cm.) 65,000-1 17,000 Ib./sq. in. 4,560- 8,200 kg./sq. cm.) 68,000 Ib./sq. in. 4,770 kg,/sq. cm.).
Moulds
Hulls are laid up inside a female mould. The mould be made of P/M by first making an exact model of the hull and then laying up the P/M mould over the model. This is convenient for complicated shapes such as deck-houses or where a great number of hulk are likely to be taken from the same mould. It is, however, cheaper and quicker to build moulds of
itself can
[189]

timber.
CONSTRUCTION
The frames of the mould are

shape of the hull
cut
from timber or
2 or 3
ft.
Otter
It is
kMs of laminate
steel to the outside
at, say,
<0.6 to 0.9 m.) stations down the length of the hull. The frames are mounted in a cradle built of steel or
make laminates with glass cloth which have much higher tensile strength than laminates made with mat, but glass cloth is not suitable for boats because
possible to
timber Fore and aft 2x2 in. (50x50 mm.) wooden "ribbands" are secured to the inner face of the frames at about 5 in. (127 mm.) intervals. The working surface of the mould is made of plywood secured to the ribbands. The inner surface of the plywood is then carefully sanded and painted. The outside finish of the hull will depend on the care taken to finish the inside surface of the mould. If proper care is taken
expensive, the high tensile unnecessary, and glass cloth will easily delaminate if the surface is damaged. Laminates can be made with other kinds of resin, in particular various kinds of "heat setting** resins, but they are not suitable for very large mouldings, like boat hulls
is
the resulting laminate

strength
is
which may weigh several tons, because

to heat such large moulds.
it is
not practical
in the
when
will
finishing the
mould
the surface of the
P/M
hulls
Many experiments
have been carried out
U.S.A.
be equal to
first-class
paintwork.
A mould must be made in at least two parts so as to enable the hull to be removed, ft is convenient if the
and U.K. with the object of making hulls of "sandwich" construction. A fibre glass "honeycomb", or some kind of "foamed" plastic, is sandwiched between an inner and an outer layer of glass cloth. The object is to produce a laminate which is light and rigid.
This sandwich technique has proved valuable in other such as radomes for aircraft, and it is sometimes convenient for small boats with flat bottoms, such as pontoons, but it is not yet satisfactory for large hulls because the tensile strength is inadequate; it is considerably more expensive than a P/M laminate; it is a great
fields
deal
difficult to repair, and, finally, it is difficult to a sandwich laminate so as to ensure that it is inspect
more
effectively
bonded.
Inspection
It is
essential that large plastic hulls should be carefully
inspected during construction. The largest P/M hulls in the world are built in the U.K. under Lloyd's survey, and the surveyor must have an easy means of ensuring
polyester/glass mat hull made in a wood and plaster master mould. The 2 halves of the mould have been separated but the hull has not yet been removed from the mould. Note the surface of the mill which Is highly polished as It comes out of the mould. Note also the moulded spray chine
Fig. 171.
that the quality of a laminate is up to specification. It takes about 15 to 20 min. to lay 10 sq. ft. (1 sq. m.) of P/M. The resin can be made to set in about 30 min.;
therefore, there
is
a clear 10 min. before the resin hardens
after the operator has finished. It only takes an inspector 2 or 3 min. to examine the area, which leaves plenty of
transom can be removable and the main mould must be

split
down
are
mould
separated,
the centre line. The various sections of the mounted on rollers so that they may easily be see fig. 170 and 171.
time to remove any air bubbles which he may detect. Air bubbles can easily be seen if the resin is not coloured. For this reason it is customary to add colouring matter only to the outside skin of a large hull and to
lay on subsequent layers of 2 oz. (56 g.) colourless resin.
mat with
Tenperatore control
large hull may take several weeks to build: a 56 ft. (17 m.) hull takes about 15 working days. It is therefore important that they should be built in a temperature-
controlled building so that the temperature may be held constant day and night, otherwise there will be a difference in shrinkage in the various layers which will lead to strains and possible delamination.
laminate can be inspected piece by piece and by layer but it is never easy to be sure what is happening inside laminates made with heat setting resins or laminates of "sandwich" construction. It must be emphasized that in addition to inspecting each square piece of P/M as it is laid, it is necessary to have the fulltime services of a laboratory to test every batch of mat, and every consignment of resin. It is also necessary on a
layer
large hull to test samples of the laminate as it hardens in order to make sure that it is fully "cured". If the resins are not of the correct specification, or if
A P/M
Temperature control
is
unnecessary for very small
boats, such as dinghies and small sailing boats, because the thickness of the hull is generally far greater than is necessary for strength, but with large hulls temperature
control
of vital importance in order to avoid the risk ofttrains within the laminate caused by variable shrinkage.
is
they are not correctly mixed, or

tions vary,
it
if
the temperature condi-
harden
resin may apparently but will never satisfactorily fully cure. In these
is
possible that
[WO]
NEW MATERIALS
conditions the resin will gradually "leach" out of the laminate and within a comparatively short time the whole
structure will
PLASTIC HULLS
Rigidity
become dangerous,
The P/M laminate is very strong but it is also flexible. The secret of making a P/M hull so that it will be stronger than a timber hull of the same weight but equally rigid
in stiffening the skin of the hull with hollow P/M "top-hat" transverse frames similar to the frames in a timber hull. This technique was developed and patented by the
lies
fig. 172. It consists of making a thin aluminium former of top-hat section over which a layer of P/M can be laid while in a wet condition. After the first layer has solidified a layer of uni-directional glass fibres, known as "rovings" are laid along the top of the frame so as to increase the tensile strength of the top. The frame is then covered with a further layer of P/M.
Strength
The
of polyester resin by itself is about 8,000 to 9,000 Ib./sq. in. (560 to 635 kg./sq. cm.). After it has been reinforced by 2 oz./sq. yd. (56 gr./sq. m.) glass mat, the minimum tensile strength of the resulting laminate is 15,000 Ib./sq. in. (1,050 kg./sq. cm.). The
tensile strength
author's firm, see
mat is composed of glass threads disposed in all directions, therefore the laminate will have this tensile strength
in all directions.
Most boats
Therefore,
less
of wood because
P/M
(40 m.) in length are built cheaper than steel or aluminium. shall be compared with wood.
ft.
it is
than 130
The
tensile strength
of
wood
is
4,000 to 10,000
lb./
sq. in. (280 to
700 kg./sq. cm.) along the grain, and negligible across the grain. Needless to say, the tensile strength of wood used in building a hull is seriously
By this system it is easy to make transverse frames for strengthening the main structure or horizontal frames for strengthening the bow or other special regions.
diminished by the fastenings and by the fact that the grain often "runs out", whereas in a P/M hull there are no fastenings and the tensile strength is uniform. The specific gravity of P/M is approximately 1.6. The specific gravity of a wooden hull, including the fastenings, will be somewhere between 0.8 and 0.9. This means that P/M is twice as heavy as wood but, in practice, it is so much stronger that even if the plastic is
only half as thick as the timber, which means that it will have the same weight, it will still be stronger than
ROVINGS
RIB
FORMER
LAMINATE
2 OZ.
OF
MAT
SCRIM-*
Fig.
172.
Section through a top hat frame plastic construction
wood.
To emphasize
If
this point:
is
Hollow skegs
P/M
hull
to be the
same weight as a wooden
The skeg of a P/M
hull
is
made
in
much
the
same way
as
hull, the
volume of material
in the
P/M
making the
half that of the timber hull. This is skin of the P/M hull only half the thickness of the skin of the timber hull. Even so the P/M hull will
can be only accomplished by

hull
the skeg of a steel hull. The skin of the hull is carried down to form a hollow skeg which is then reinforced by
fitting
P/M
frames.
face
is
Not only will the tensile (both longitudinally and laterally) be greater than the timber hull but the impact strength of the P/M hull will also be greater than a timber hull of twice the thickness. The hulls of vessels shorter than 100 ft. (30.5 m.) are not highly stressed. On a 75 ft. (22.9 m.) trawler weighing 1 10 tons, the maximum stress on the extreme fibres at deck level or at the bottom of the skeg according to whether the vessel is in a hogging or a sagging condition will not exceed 1,000 Ib./sq. in. (70 kg./ sq. cm.) if the thickness of the P/M deck and hull is
strength
be stronger in all respects. of the P/M hull
"diaphragms", or floors, in the way of the These diaphragms are prefabricated the top turned over to form a right angle flange. The
diaphragms are bonded into the skeg and then the transverse frames are carried across the top flanges of the diaphragms with the result that the diaphragms become part of the frames and the whole structure is
therefore
fig.
immensely strong and
rigid
as
shown
in
173.
Weight
P/M
hulls for power-driven boats,
up to 30 ft.
(9.
5 m.) in
length, weigh approximately the same as equivalent wooden hulls. Larger power-driven hulls are lighter
approximately i
in. (12.5
mm.)
thick.
than equivalent
It
wooden
hulls, while
rigid.
still
being of the
The
sq. in.
of the P/M laminate is 15,000 lb./ (1,050 kg./sq. cm.), so this gives an ample margin
tensile strength
same strength and equally
of
safety.
The only problem is to ensure that the hull is thick enough to withstand rough treatment in harbour where the vessel is likely to suffer from surging against
the dock-side or against neighbouring vessels. This is more a problem of providing adequate frames and bulkheads.
interest to note that a P/M hull for a a great deal lighter than the equivalent timber hull, because in a wooden hull there has to be a considerable weight of timber whose only function is to serve as a foundation to which planks may be fa&tened. For example, a P/M 40 to 50 ft. (12 to 15 m.) sailing hull will only be half the weight of the equivalent timber hull.
may be of
sailing vessel is
[191]
CONSTRUCTION
The horizontal and vertical faces of these tanks are prefabricated and then bonded into the hull before the frames are fitted. Large apertures are left in the top faces of the tanks so as to enable the tanks to be bonded internally as well as externally. These apertures are
covered with conventional steel or aluminium cover plates with a neoprene gasket. The transverse frames of the hull are carried down to the top faces of the tanks and continued inside the tanks and up the vertical faces. The finished tank structure adds greatly to the strength and rigidity of the hull. For smaller craft, or when built-in fuel tanks are not required, it has been found that the most convenient form of engine foundation consists of a pair of } in.
(19
CHAFING 1AR
Fig, 173.
mm.) marine plywood planks on edge running fore aft. The bottom edge is bonded to the skin of the hull. Appropriate transverse members and anti-tripping brackets can be made either of marine plywood or P/M.
and
Hallow polyesterlglass mat skeg % or keel, with the top the floor diaphragm flanged to carry the top hat frames
of
An angle-iron engine girder is through-bolted to the top edge of the fore and aft plank to carry the engines.
TOP. HAT
Tanks and engine foundations In large power vessels it is now usual to fit P/M fuel tanks and sometimes P/M water tanks. Diesel fuel tanks can be built into the engine compartment in such a manner as to
serve as foundations for the engine girder. This is accomplished in a twin screw vessel by building a centre tank and two wing tanks. The space between the side of the centre tank, and the side of each wing tank, being such as will conveniently accommodate the engines. Steel or aluminium engine girders are then throughbolted to the sides of the tanks at an appropriate angle
for the engines, and the engines are later bolted to these engine girders. A 56 ft. (17.1 m.) hull was designed to take two 250 h.p. light-weight diesel engines, weighing approximately 2 tons each, and to be mounted in this
MAM
UMWALt
175.
Polyestei Iglass
mat
hull
with
traditional
wood deck.
Note the covering board lodged on the gunwale
manner.
This arrangement is cheap. It has been approved by Lloyd's and has proved exceedingly satisfactory. Tests have shown that a plywood plank mounted in this manner can take a thrust in excess of 6 tons/ft. (20 ton/m.) run of plank. The great advantage of both these arrangements, i.e. the engine secured to fuel tanks or to plywood foundations, is that no bolts pass through the hull below the waterlme and the engine load is transferred to the hull over a very wide area which helps to reduce vibration
as
shown
in fig.
74.
Decks
hulls made by the author's firm incorporate a (150 mm.) vertical knuckle at the shecrline so as to provide a vertical face for the attachment of gunwales, fenders, decks, etc. It is easy to fit a wooden deck to a P/M hull An outwale and an inwate or beam shelf are attached to the hull by through-fastening in the conventional manner as shown in fig. 1 75. Deck beams are fitted to the inwale or
All
P/M
in.
/**.
The
interior
integral fuel tanks
of a 56 ft. (17.1 iw.) plastic huff thawing the and foundation* for the engine hearers
{192]
NEW MATERIALS
beam
shelf in
PLASTIC HULLS
a conventional manner and planked.

are required the top-hat frames are
When wooden decks

plugged with
wood in the way of the knuckle so that the fastenings may be taken through the frames. For small boats it is easy to make a deck as a separate
moulding with a vertical flange all around at the sheerline designed to mate up with the vertical knuckle of the hull as shown in fig. 176. Frames are carried across the deck so as to match up with the transverse frames of the hull. After the deck has been dropped into place a timber outwale is fitted and secured to the hull by bolts which pass through the outwale, through the vertical deck flange, and through the knuckle of the hull. The joint between the knuckle and the underside of the deck is covered with a layer of P/M so as to make it waterproof. The deck frames and transverse frames of the hull are then joined by hollow knees. Thus the finished frames are continuous and are homogeneous
Fig. 177.
31
outfitting yard.
ft. (9.45 m.) plastic hull ready It has a built-in spray chine, a
for delivery to the
P/M
deck and the
wooden bulkheads are
installed
rigid if the hull has to
the bulkheads serve to strengthen the hull and hold it be transferred to some other shop,
or delivered to
in fig. 178.
some other yard
for fitting out as
shown
Tests
hull
Fig.
}76.
show that the joint between a bulkhead and a which has been bonded by this method is at least
Construction used in fining a polyesterIglass mat deck

to
twice as strong as the conventional
polyester/glass mat
hull
with both the deck and the

to the whole structure.
hull,
which give great strength
There
is
an
alternative system
which
is
more
suitable
for large boats.
A 6 in. (ISO mm.) wide horizontal flange
facing inboard at the sheerline is moulded with the hull. This flange is recessed so as to take the thickness of the deck. The deck is made separately and can then be
dropped into the recess of the horizontal flange to which it is both bolted and bonded. Again, the deck frames are bonded to the transverse frames with hollow knees. In order to provide a non-slip surface it is customary to face a deck mould with a synthetic rubber floor covering
duced on the
indented with a diamond pattern. The pattern P/M deck with excellent results.
is
method of securing bulkheads to wooden hulls. Bulkheads can be made of polyester mat but this is considerably more expensive than plywood. If steel or aluminium bulkheads are required a 4 in. (100 mm.) P/M transverse plate frame is moulded into the hull and the metal bulkheads are through-bolted to the frame. Deep plate frames of this type are heavier and more expensive to mould than hollow top-hat frames, but they can be far stronger and far more rigid. They were used in making the superstructure of a submarine which has lately completed all its sea trials and has proved equally strong but much cheaper, lighter, and more durable than an aluminium or steel superstructure.
repro-
Marine plywood bulkheads are cheap and convenient. While the hull is still in its mould the plywood bulkheads are cut to shape and bonded into the hull with two layers of P/M applied on each side of the bulkheads at the junction with the hull in such a manner that the bonding extends for 2 in. (SO mm.) up both faces of the bulkhead and 2 in. (SO mm.) along the skin of the hull If the bulkheads are installed while the hull is in the mould they can be fitted with great accuracy (see fig. 177). Moreover,
56 ft. (17.1 m.) plastic hull awaiting delivery to an Fig. 178. outfitting yard. Note the spray chine, the deep skeg and the bulkheads installed ready Jar the outfitting yard to complete
[193]

and decks can be coloured to suit the owner's requirements. The colouring matter is ball-milled into
CONSTRUCTION
P/M
hulls
tins of resin, together with the appropriate quantities of activating chemicals in capsules. The first tin is opened, the chemicals added and stirred with a paint brush. The
the resin with conventional paint-making machinery. It is of great importance that the colouring matter should be evenly distributed through the resin so as to avoid the risk of shade variations. The coloured resin is generally only used for the skin of the hull and deck because it is wiser to use colourless
resin for the subsequent layers of mat, since it is a great deal more easy to see and eliminate air bubbles in a
mixture will set within half an hour. The resin is applied with a paint brush from the inside of the hull to the cellophane surface covering the aperture. As soon as the area has been effectively covered with a film of resin, the tin wkh the remaining resin and the paint brush can be thrown away because they will solidify in half an hour. The second tin of resin is then opened and activated with chemicals. A piece of glass mat is cut to the right
laminate if colourless resin has been used. There is a tendency for customers to ask for pastel shades of blue and green, and though hulls can easily be made in these colours it may lead to difficulties if the hull ever has to be repaired because it is almost impossible to match these colours perfectly at a later date. For this reason it is wiser for hulls to be made either black or
white.
shape to fill the cavity and the resin is painted into the mat with the paint brush until it is effectively impregnated and bonded to the skin-coat. Again the tin with its remaining resin and the paint brush are discarded. This process is repeated until sufficient thickness has been built
up.
It will take half an hour to apply each layer, therefore, a hole in a 56 ft. (17.1 m.) hull, which is six layers thick, can be filled in about three hours. Even allowing for the time required to prepare the damaged area, and to sand off the outside after it has been filled, the whole job can generally be completed in an ordinary working day.
There is no need to protect a P/M hull with paint, but it is possible to change the colour of a hull by sanding down the surface of the hull in the ordinary way and painting it with a good quality paint.
A P/M hull requires no maintenance. It is a homogeneous

cannot leak; it cannot corrode and it is not attacked by marine borers. Barnacles and algae will attach themselves to a P/M hull below the watertine in the same manner as a timber or metal hull, but they are far more easy to clean off. For example, there is no risk of damaging the hull by using a powerful detergent. 54 ft (16.5 m.) hull, which has been working commercially at Aden for the past two years has never been painted with anti-fouling paint. It has been slipped every three months and cleaned off with a wooden scraper. The owners report that it can be cleaned in this way much more quickly than any other hull they have ever used, In spite of this, it is recommended that the underwater surface of hulls should be painted with an
structure, therefore
it
Cost of hulls Cost is the only limit to the

130
less
ft.
size
of
P/M
hulls.
Up
hulls
to
is
(40 m.) in length the
initial
cost of
P/M
ordinary anti-fouling paint.
One of the
can so
collision
greatest advantages of P/M hulls is that they easily be repaired. If a P/M hull is damaged in a
it can be repaired in about one-tenth of the time which would be taken to repair a wooden hull. If' a frame is damaged, there is no need to replace the frame as in a wooden hull, because the damaged portion of the P/M frame can be cut away and replaced.
than a wooden, aluminium or steel hull. The initial cost of a steel hull exceeding 130 ft. (40 m.) is likely to be less than a P/M hull because the raw materials of P/M are a great deal more expensive than steel. Where the shape of the hull does not involve much curvature, and in consequence little labour has to be spent in bending, steel has a clear advantage. However, with hulls of less than 130 ft. (40 m.) in length there is a great deal of curvature and much labour must be used to bend steel to shape. Moreover, the steel used for small vessels has to be so thin that it can easily rust through if the steel is thick enough to withstand rust, the hull will be heavy and expensive. P/M hulls cost the same or less than wooden hulk in spite of the fact that moulds are expensive, and in spite of the fact that the hulk for large power driven vessels must be properly stressed and must therefore be made in temperature controlled buildings, because it requires far less labour to build a P/M hull. The cost of a P/M hull less than 31 ft. (9.45 m.) in length will be less than the cost of a wooden hull provided
the procedure for repairing a P/M hull is simple: The damaged area is cut away with a hack-saw in such
a manner as to produce a sBgbt bevel the wider part of the bevel on the outside of the hull Cellophane, backed T*feh any oonvrakmt fwrn <rf hardboard--or even a hanlboard with a waj^ surface 4s then secured to the outside of the hufl with adhesive tape and the repair is
Repair kiU ate sullied whkhcoiisut of ilb. (0.225 kgO
hulk are required from the same Between 30 and 50 ft. (9.15 and 15.2 m.) a P/M hull can compete with a wooden hull provided two hulls are required ftom the same mould. Above 50 ft. (IS nt) in length a P/M hull can compete with a wooden hull even if only one hull is required from a mould. For example, a 27 ft. (8.2 m,) hull is supplied for 750 (*2,100); a 31 ft (9.45 m.) hull for 1,000 ($2,800); a 56 ft (17.1 m.) hull for 4,000 ($1 1,200); and a 75 ft.
that at least three
mould.
(22.8 m.) hull for
8,000 (122,400).
NEW MATERIALS
more durable, and far more easy to made in any other material A single for vessel hull any up to 130 ft. (40 m.) in length P/M costs about the same as a wooden hull, but if several hulls are required from the same mould they will cost less than wooden hulls this is clearly of great importance for
hulls are dry, maintain than hulls
PLASTIC HULLS
"spray chine" into
all their hulls.
A spray chine not only
P/M
being blown over the deck in windy weather, but also adds greatly to the rigidity of the bow section without adding to the
serves to break the
bow wave and prevent it
fishing fleets.
weight. It would be expensive to make a similar spray chine in wood or steel. Attention is drawn to the vertical knuckle which reduces the cost of fitting out and also adds to the
P/M does not absorb any significant amount of moisture and therefore there is no risk of the material being contaminated by fish moreover, it is a very good insulator consequently there is no risk of condensation in P/M hulls. There remains one further advantage which has not yet been exploited to any great extent. P/M can be moulded into shapes which could not be economically made in wood. For example, the author's firm mould a
:
The author's firm have been able to introduce a generous and graceful flair into the bows of their hulls which again would not be possible in timber. It is believed that this is only scratching the surface of the possibilities and that there will soon be refinements of hull design
strength.
example, permit greater speed for a given will be easy to make in P/M but which would not be practical in other materials.
which
will, for
horsepower which
[195
PLASTIC CONSTRUCTION
Plastic construction
DISCUSSION
their characteristics,
only relevant paper on this subject was Gunner's describing a novel method of using a combination of plastic and plywood for a surf boat which is now under construction in India. For larger surfaces plywood is used, and for the comers, which are expensive to
J-O.
MR.
TRAUNG (FAO, Rapporteur): Hie
structure,
which are: continuous and monobloc low weight, non-rusting, smooth surface, perfectly watertight, elastic and at the same time strong, no maintenance
costs, easily repairable.
make
MR.
in
wooden FEA
construction, reinforced plastic
is
used.
(Italy): It
was
said at the
first
Fishing Boat
Congress that, if it is true that many people consider factory ships to be the fishing craft of the future, it does not mean that smaller craft are going to lose their leading position throughout the world. The same speaker added that even when guided missiles and jets dominate outer space, mules and carts will still be used. Hardy in his valuable paper showed that of the thousands of craft throughout the world, all have elements in common, that is, there is a universal basis from which to start designing an efficient fishing boat. It can be asked if the many differences that exist in fishing craft are due to specific needs, or are the result of tradition, which is often more of a handicap a noble handicap of course than an aid to progress. Everyone knows that the first steel ships were severely criticised by
By plastics is meant polyester resins reinforced with fabric or fibre-glass, cold-lay. The construction of boats with thermoplastic under pressure cannot be considered because the cost of the large moulds and tools needed is prohibitive. But this method can be used for small components which are needed in large numbers, such as fish containers, net buoys and various fittings. Polyester resins can be perfectly married to the best insulating materials to obtain insulating panels for fish holds,
refrigerator doors, etc.
Generally speaking, plastics lifeboats with air tanks, boats
can be used for the following: up to roughly 100 ft. (30 m.),
partial or complete superstructures on bigger boats, insulating and protective sheets for holds, movable and transportable fish hold compartments, containers for fish storage. Another use is for wooden hulls in the form of protective internal and
external skins. When applied for this purpose, suitable vents are provided in the plastic to allow the wood to transpire. would seem to be the time to formulate classification
Now
would become gravely and dangerously bent due to unequal heating by the sun on the side exposed to its heat for many hours, and the other in the shadow. We know now that the sun, fortunately, had some other preoccupation. Let us assume, therefore, that it is possible to reduce, on the basis of technical and experimental data, the large family
sailing experts; they said that the hull
rules for plastic boats, with the co-operation of resin manufacturers, naval architects and boatbuilders. The rules should
start
in
from the "equivalent resistance" point of view, and bear mind all the positive qualities of polyester fibre-glass
materials, such as the absence of corrosion, warping, decay, etc. Plastic is a lucky and enviable thing, because as it gets older
it
of fishing boats. This immediately raises the possibility of prefabricating standard boats from the smallest to those of
man
becomes stronger, without any particular care whereas for getting old is quite a disagreeable matter. Mr. Fea concluded his remarks by proposing that, seeing
is
medium size. With existing lifting devices fat prefabricated components can be of considerable weight; but this must be
carefully
studied so as not to introduce many difficult problems of transportation. We need not look far for examples of prefabrication; the Germans and the Americans have built big ships, prefabricated hundreds of miles away from the sea. Up to a certain point we should forget that w are speaking of boats; the designer and the engineers or naval architects know perfectly well that they are designing a boat and they will act according to the needs; but the workman who is riveting a steel plate is not so deeply interested in the ultimate end product, and does not necessarily require the boat to be built at the sea coast Prcfabrication means lower costs, due both to standardization and to lower labour costs. Assembly can be with bolts or by welding; for the smallest Graft there is no Assembly, because they can be delivered complete. With the above assumptions, die use of plastics for boatbuilding can be opportunely studied. It is not necessary now to detail the advantages of plastics ; it is sufficient to summarise
the opportunity, with so many international and knowing that there is a need to bring together, away from vested interests, all the sound and unbiased opinions and data on the use of plastics for the construction of fishing voats, their gear and fittings, it is proposed that FAO, which is the authoritative and appropriate body, forms a permanent technical committee to study
there
specialists assembled,
now
the aspects of plastics and their associated materials as they apply to fishing craft. It was further proposed that this committee, through FAO, collects information on plastics and disseminates it in the form of a periodical, or similar
publication.
MR, McGRUBft (U.K.): He referred to de Laszlo't paper and mentioned that if the P/M was half the t of the equal weight of wood, then de Laszlo's conclusion was erroneous. The inertia of a section of 2t is 8 times that of t If P/M is only 2.5 times strong* (larch 4000, P/M 15,000) then the
.
true relation should be: Wood*, P/M 2.5. If there is bending then the intensity of stress in 2t is twice that of t and the
[196]
NEW MATERIALS
relation
DISCUSSION
chiti
under discussion becomes: Wood . P/M 1 For standard P/M ihoukl be compared with quality standard woods like teak, oak, Canadian rock elm, and Honduras mahogany.
hull*. quality
*es the glass fibres, cut from rovings at the time
of use, with the polyester resin in a compressed-air spray. The mixture is then directed in the form of a jet against Hie surface to be lined. The layer thus obtained is then pressed by hand with appropriate rollers. The polyester resin is kept
T. MITSUI (Japan): Polyester resin is an interesting new material, especially because of its great strength. It seems to
Ma.
bcimportantthatthcpoiywterfib^ For this reason the material should be good for panels, but there might be risks if it is used for parts where the fibrcgtass reinforcement is discontinued. The material may also not be successful for components subjected to great vibration or repeated stress, such as bottom fittings or engine beds. In order to maintain the strength, rigidity must be seriously
considered. In Japan
many
ships are built partly of plastic resin.
He
would appreciate it if additional information about the methods to maintain rigidity in polyester resins would become
available.
MR.
J.
O. DE WIT (Netherlands):
De
Laszlo had given the
thickness of the
vessels.
P/M
hulls in relation to the length of the
him
He wanted to know whether de Laszlo would inform the thicknesses had the approval of the classification societies or government organizations like the Ministry of
if
Transport.
The same question arose in regard to the composition of the hull. De Laszlo pointed out that he preferred using an outer skin layer and a number of inner layers of glass mat. He
understood that de Laszlo had something against rovings in the hull. However he considered that in some parts of the hull it would be inevitable to use rovings where there were
local stresses.
He
fishing vessels local stresses.
thought that the longitudinal strength of smaller P/M was of less importance that the resistance to
P/M hulls the question of time of these vessels arose. He expected that the answer to this question would be that the steel hull has a longer life.
life
In comparing prices of steel and
two containers, one with the requited percentage of hardening, and the other with the catalyaor. Thus there is no risk of getting premature hardening, because the various components only react as they issue from the spray gun. The machine is capable of putting out about 310 Ib./hr. (140 kg./hr.) and the hardening of the layer takes about 30min. The percentage of glass in the polyester-glass mixture is about 30 per cent, a very high figure for hand work, but it gives a very satisfactory mechanical resistance. It should also be noted that the cost price of the layers when this method is used is much lower than in the case of other methods, either because rovings, which are cheaper than glass mat, are used, or because of the saving on man power. Another possibility of using polyester-glass is in the lining of wooden hulls. In 1957 an Italian shipyard built a 40 ft. (12 m.) motor yacht, the hull of which was lined with a layer of polyester-glass. This Ligurian shipyard, which massproduces such yachts, generally builds wooden frame hulls. The hulls are lined with planking consisting of a first layer of mahogany set diagonally and lined with cotton fabric impregnated with varnish and nailed by means of thick copper nails to the outer planking formed by parallel mahogany panels about 1 in. (30 mm.) thick. In the example mentioned, the outer planking and the cotton fabric were replaced by a single, continuous layer of polyester-glass, f in. (15 mm.) thick at the keel, and | in. (10 mm.) at the sides. These thicknesses were obtained by super-imposing several layers of glass mat. The results during two years* use have been excellent, and have confirmed the superior properties of polyester-glass. The use of the spray method for lining wooden hulls will open the way for small shipyards to turn the advantages of this new material to account, and will enable the shipyards already working in this field to reduce their cost price as a result of
in
improved methods.
Strength and cost
DR. E. CROSIO
acquainted with the qualities of the new polyester-glass material is in favour of its being used more and more extensively in the construction of boats, even though their dimensions are limited for the present to lengths of from 100 to 130 ft. (30 to 40 m.). De Laszlo is to be congratulated on the brilliant results obtained by his
(Italy):
is
Everyone who
MR. W. A. MACCALLUM (Canada): What was
the strength of
glass fibre reinforced plastic at the high temperature which might result in case of fire aboard ship? Would marine
company.
Laszlo mentioned the care that has to be taken in constructing the hull, on account of the effects resulting from temperature variations. In fact, one might ask why, in view of all the advantages of this new material, which should interest a good many shipbuilders, polyester-glass has so far been used only for the construction of hulk for military or pleasure boats. The use of polyester-glass depends on the possibility of effectively controlling the chemical phenomenon or hardening and the means available for doing so. The use of temperature-cxmtrolled catalysers is a tricky matter; the quantity to be incorporated depends on the surrounding temperature and cannot be determined by the craftsmen
insurance rates be affected by the use of plastic? Would the reinforced plastic fishing vessel which could be built economically be as good as the economically built wooden boat as
De
impact is concerned? He suggested that a cost analysis of wooden and plastic fishing boats costs of suitable fish rooms should be considered in each case. The plastic vessel would require an inner ceiling as well as Hie wooden vessel. Omission of a ceiling would expose the side and bottom of the vessel itself to abuse from implements, containers etc. Again on costs, Proskie's figures for Canadian wooden craft which include the cost of a deckhouse, complete
far as resistance to
in
crew's quarters, piping, 'galley,
etc.,
are as follows:
without die risk of serious difficulties. The presence of a chemist is necessary, whereas most small shipyards have none. These problems can be simplified by a new method of using polyester-glass which has already been used in Germany.
m.) LOA longliner ft. (13.7 m.) LOA ft. (17.7 m.) LOA 65.5 ft. (20 m.) LOA trawler
37 45 58
ft.
(1 1 .3
,,
645 ($1,800) 4,200 ($1 1,70(9 5,600 (115,700) 10,600 ($29,780)
The figures given for plastic boats are difficult to compare with the Canadian figures since the former cover the cost of the shell only. Canadian cost figures for a complete 37 ft (1 1 .3 m.) wooden toogtiner compare favourably with those for

of deckhouse* etc. It de Latzlo coukl provide cost figures for oomptoted vessels lest engine and screw, electronic equipment, winch and gallows and miscellaneous deck equipment.
the 31
ft.
CONSTRUCTION
(9.5 m.) plastic shell devoid
would be
hdpftri
if
He suggested that Unit Bens as described in his own paper,

mirfbt
be a field in which the method of construction might be investigated.
in plastic
MR. L. CATASTA (Italy): Plastic hulls is an innovation of great importance, although in order to pay off the cost of the mould, it is necessary to use it to build many boats of
identical shape
specific type
model
coats.
tests,
and dimensions. Once one has selected a of hull that has proved good in comparative It is possible to produce standardized hulls very
quickly and at ever diminishing construction and operating
The insignificant water absorption of plastics is well known, and therefore the weight of the boat will not be increased, as happens with wooden hulls. Resin, reinforced with glass, makes a material of the best mechanical properties as compared with its specific weight. Its use makes it possible to build larger capacity, more durable, boats that offer better
hygienic conditions, as well as effect a saving in power, because the hull was experimentally tested before the boat building was started. The problem is how to convince shipowners to use standardized boats which, in addition to being
mentioned robustness as a necessary quality in fishing boat scantlings and construction. It is so regarded for lifeboats. Another question regarding P/M boats was how long would they last? It was found that in the U.S. A., P/M boats had been operated for ten years and much experience was gained. prototype lifeboat was hoisted in derricks and allowed to smash against a ship's side. It was then dropped into the water from a height of 23 ft. (7 m.). Little damage occurred. Tests on the strength of lifeboats was carried out in order to ascertain longitudinal and lateral deflections. Tests on lifeboats made after 12 months gave good results. More than 600 P/M lifeboats are now being used in British merchant ships. Reliable experience has accrued on constructional methods. Scantlings can readily be reinforced for hard sea work. He .concluded that there were good grounds for confidence in this material, at least for smaller classes of
far has
fishing boats.
VENUS (U.K.): One of the boats made by de Laszlo's The hull was found to be perfect as it stood much knocking about and the owner was satisfied. This boat is 56 ft. (17 m.) long and fitted with aluminium girders. The boat is used as a harbour launch.
MR.
J.
firm has been sent to Aden.
MR. A. HUNTER (U.K.): He suggested

struction
the details of con-
seaworthy, are also cheap and good. Refrigerated holds are usually covered with insulation material (either cork, glass wool or sometimes sawdust, etc.), the inside being finished with wooden planking. Since they must be kept cool by ice or mechanical refrigeration, they are not ventilated. This means that there is a high degree of humidity permanently in the wooden planking and insulation
material.
seem to have been rigidly modelled on orthodox construction and ignore many of the possibilities with P/M materials. The illustrations suggest an analogy with the early pratice when welding was introduced where riveted constructional design was rigidly followed. Sandwich P/M constructions had already been used in some applications. He was amazed at the statement about the cost of P/M hulls and how depending upon size, they could be comparable with wood
construction even taking mould expenses into account. Prices for reinforced fibreglass lifeboats supplied to trawlers did not bear this out.
insignificant,
Water absorption by plastic materials can be considered and the suggestion has been made that expanding
Expanding
resins be used to cover the planks with reinforced polyesters. resins adhere strongly to the hull as soon as they
are applied, so that there is no danger of ah* pockets being formed to vibrations or slipping of the planks. In addition, expanding resins absorb no water, since structurally they consist of closed cells that form when polymerization occurs. Hence, a reinforced polyester covered planking also guarantees that the stanchions and joints can be covered with a cement made of the same resin, thus obtaining a smooth surface that permits the draining off of the water formed from melting ice. However, the insulation material must be applied on the spot, and aa Italian firm which is conducting experiments on the use of plastics has built special machinery for the applica-
Author's reply
MR. P. D. DE LASZLO (U.K.) As far as could be seen from the discussions, little opposition to this material was found. In regard to the tensile strength of the material the problem is to
:
compare
thousand tests have been made plastic and wood. but the comparison is very difficult because the tensile strength of wood can vary as much as 100 per cent. It would be better to campare with steel. plastic hull must be twice as thick as a steel hull. Comparison here is again difficult as an allowance is made in the thickness of steel plating for
corrosion.
of resins cm non-geometric surfaces, such as boat interiors. Even damage caused by violent Mows (which is.
tion
can be quickly repaired by the boat's crew at minimum expense. In addition, die expanding resin can be used to prevent infiltration of water which occurs in any other type of boat, no matter how well it is caulked. The tow specific weight (between 0.02 and 0.04) makes it possible to use such a resin not only in the refrigerated hold, but also in many parts of fishing or cargo boats to ensure floataWky in case of emergency. Plastic materials, because of
rare)
and deanlinra, offer obvious advantages eapecially to die large and important
their lightness, cheapness, durability
The boats built so far were approved by Lloyds. Insulation value of fibre glass is good. There is little condensation as compared with steel. If glass mat is employed, fibres are arranged in all directions and no difficulty should arise regarding discontinuity of fibres when attached to the hull. The engine foundations can be made in a number of ways. cheap way is to use marine plywood planks which can stand a pressure of 6 tons per foot run, which is alt that is necessary when considering the apparent loads and thrusts. Fatigue tests have revealed that glass reinforced plastic is six tones better than aluminium and vibrations occurring are
also
fl&eries industry.
smaller than when aluminium is used. Regarding baking, this is no problem at all. Rovingi are advantageous. It is possible to increase the tensik strength up to 30,000
M*. H, B, STEBL (U.K.); His
previous Department had !P/Mteticofiftnictkra of lifeboats. No speaker so
Ib./sq. to. (2,100 kg./aq, cm.) by introducing glass fibre locally. This high tensile strength is normally not necessary as the
NEW MATERIALS
maximum
stresses occurring are
DISCUSSION
The German machine
described
is
only in the region of 15,000
an ingenious
device.
He
lb./sq. in. (1,050 kg./sq. cm.). Frames of top hat section are also used, the tensile strength of which is increased by rovings.
As regards the life of a hull buih of P/M, this may be estimated to be 20 years. steel hull may last for 50 to 100 years but, after 30 years, it may have corroded so much that the boat cannot be used. The conclusion is that, as far as small hulls are concerned, plastic hull is good. The plastic hulls must be made in temperature controlled rooms. good plastic
material can only be
made by
qualified chemists.
would, however, be reluctant to use this machine. As regard* covering a wooden hull with plastic material, the necessary thickness of the plastic it 0.06 in. (2 mm.) and not 0,4 in. (10 mm.) as sometimes suggested. Wooden plankings with a plastic covering have, however, a greater tendency to rot. The cost of construction of the hull is competitive with wood, His firm is now making 40 hulls for the U.S.A. as this has been found to be cheaper than wooden hulls obtainable in the U.S.A.
[199]
THE CARE OF THE CATCH

by
G. A,
REAY
and
J.
M.
SHEW AN
An average satisfactory ratio of ice to fish might be 1:3. In British distant-water vessels the ratio is now nearly 1:1. can assumed and best be used only on the way to T*mfrlnffHl refrigerating grids, sometimes installed, have not the advantage once the fishing grounds to cool the nshroom and its fittings and to keep the ice crisp. Care and cleanliness are the other important factors influencing quality. Fish, easily damaged by rough handling and even moderate pressure, become softer and flabbier and more spoiled when piled too deep on deck, when tramped on in deck operations, when stowed below between shelves more than 18 to 30 in. (45 to 75cm.) apart, etc. The bacterial load of the unused ice increases during the voyage from 10s to 10* per ml. to 10* to 107 per ml. as it lies in the ice pounds, the increase comprising mainly fish-spoiling types. Washed fish can thus rapidly regain their original bacterial loads. The effectiveness of antibiotic ices may partly be due to supression of bacterial multiplication in the ice itself. Fishroom walk, fittings and shelves should be kept as clean as possible. Wood cannot be kept bacterially clean. Metal surfaces are much mote easily cleaned and do not carry sub-surface infections. There is no clear evidence, however, that the bulk of the fish in well-cleaned metal holds is kept in improved condition.
ice.
The main features of fish yp*iu gi largely caused by marine bacteria, and main factors in controlling it on trawlers, especially distant-water ones, are described ana discussed. Temperature is the most important single factor affecting spoilage and therefore in its control. With minimum delay the catch must be thoroughly drilled (typically iced) and kept so until landed. Delay should not exceed the kg phase of the spoiling bacteria, which, for example, 5 only about 2 to 3 hours at 59F (15C), a possible air temperature even in northern fisheries. Gutting and washing on deck inevitably dekys stowage of the catch: but washing tanks now common on British distant-water vessels and the recently tested South African and permit a more even flow of fish into the hold and a steadier rate of stowage in washing flume considerably reduce demy and warming
up
Fornx>trapkioverallccolmgofthecatc^
LES SOINS
partie par
A APPORTER AUX POISSONS PECHES
Les auteurs d6crivent et examinent de facon critique ks prtncipales caractiristiques de 1'ahiration du poisson, causee en grande ks bact&ies marines, et ks principaux facteurs servant a hitter contre 1'alttaation a bord des chahitiers, en particulicr ceux pdchent dans les eaux ioignes. La temperature est k facteur simple k plus important dans 1'alteration et par consequent dans la lutte contre cette alteration. Dans un minimum de temps, k pftche doit etre refrokik avec soin (gto&akment par mise on glace) et maintenue ainsi jusqu'au dibarquement. Ce minimum de temps ne doit pas dâsser k phase de ktence des bacteries de k putrefaction qui est, par exempk, d'environ 2 a 3 hres jeukment a 59F (15C), temperature possible de 1'air, m*me dans les ptehes septentrionaks. L'arrimage de la pechc est in6vitabkment retard* par l^visceratton et k kvage sur k pont, mais les bacs de kvage, qui sont maintenant communs a bord de na vires britanniques pftchant dans les eaux Hoignees, et I'auge de kvasje sud-africaine essayed reoemment, r6duisent considirablemcnt cette duree ainsi que k i&hauffement et permettent un feoukment phis rtgulicr des poissons dans k cale et une vitesse plus consume de Fan-image dans k glace. Pour un refroktisaement general plus rapide des captures, glaces doit etre bien mekngee aux poissons, &ant en contact avec chacun d'eux. Une proportion moycnnc de la glace par rapport au poisson, qui soit satisfaisante, pourrait etre 1 :3. Dans les navires britanniques pechant dans les eaux eloignees, k rapport eat actuefiement pfus voisin de 1 il Les serpentins itttiffaants, parfois install** sous k pont, ne prescntent pas les a vantages que Ton avait supposes et il est preferable de ks utilise? seukment pendant k route vers ks lieux de pechc pour rcfroidir U cale a poissom ct ses annc?^ ct consen^r U glace craquante. Le soin et ptoprete sont les autres facteurs important* ayant une influence sur k qualite. Les poissons sont fadlement endomma06s per une manutentkm bnitak et memc des pressions moderes, et quand ils gisent en couches trop epaisses sur le pont, quand ils sont pie*tines en cak entre des planches s6parees de plus de 18 a 30 pouces (45 a 75 cm.), etc., Us pendant k travail sur k pont, quand ils sont amines f deviennent plus mous, plus flasques et phis alteres qu tls ne dcvraicnt. a 107 par ml. quand les poissons sont La charge bact6riefine augmente dans mace pendant k transport de 10* a 1C1 par ml. a mis dans des ^tageres avec de k gkce, Taugmentauon portant surtout sur ks especes putr6fiant k poisson. Les poissons kvls peuvent ainsi rapidetnent regagner leurs charfcs bact^riennes originates. L'efficaciti des glaces aux antibiotiques pout 6tre due partiellement a k suppression de muHiplkation bac^rienne dans k gkce eOe-m&ne. Les parois, ks Atagfcres et ks planches de k cak a poisson doivent etre maintenues ausst propres que possible. Le bob ne peut pas ^tre maintenu bact^riolqgiquement propre. Let surfaces metalliques, qui ne portent pas d'infection au^dessous de la surface, sont beaucoup facite* a nettoyer. IT n'est pas certain, oependant v que fensemble des poissons se maintienne en meiUeur eiat dans des catos m6taUiques plus
oien nettoyees.
EL CUIDADO DE LA CAPTURA
Se docribeo y rxaminan las caracteristicas principales de la altegadon del pcacado,causadasen gran partc por tes bacterias marioas, flEias Jooportafitei de la hicha contra la afteracion a borao en we arrastreros, paitlccUatinente kM de gran aitura. La captura debe ser enfriada LatemperttuimeselCKAorquemasinlluyeenkdctorioi^^ Bsto mfatmo de tiempo up debe exceder la raenteenhielo)skipAlidactetiem^ toteate de las bacterias deteriorativas, la que es, por cjempk), de solamente 2 a 3 horas a 5^F (15*O. temperatura del aire que se est^ de la captun la retaida bieviubleomto k ev^^ aentraaunenlaspesqueriastepteotrkmales. con los tanques de kvado, ya muy comunes en los anaatreros brittoicos de 0ran akura v coo h* ^firft%OT onsayados PsoliitiUimomo tn So4*fHca,se reduce cnftttiera^^
itoras
i
FISH
coottajKto lie flHy*tK *<iffnftitffrtA
i
HOLDS
CARE OF THE CATCH

i
r
mas 40 hielo. Pant u& cnffiamieato enecal mat raptdo de la captura, d hiitlh* dt^Tf fttur mvy _ _ _, cipcfcadoyeocontactocoiicadauno. Una rotation media latttfactoria de hick) y peecado podria ser de 1 :3. En lot barcos britAnicos de gran ahura la retacion e aproxima mis a 1 :1. Lot serpentine* refrigerante* <pe algunas voces ae instalaban en las cubiertas no lienen taa ventaja* que ae lupufkron una vez y e* preeribto empleaiios aotomente en d viaje de ida a lot caiaderot para enfiriar la bodefa de peecado y MM anexot y para cootervar el biek>
crujieme.
K trata con cuidado y aun tl te aomete a Preston moderada, debtdo a to cual ae pone muy btondo y ae eatropca mas de k> ncceaario cuando
ae apiton rouchot
El cuidado y to limpieza son los otros factoret de importancia que influyen en to calidad.
peacado se magulla con ftdlidad
si
no
en
to
cubterta,
cuando ton pitotcados durantc
las toborea
de mis de 18 a 30pi4. (45 a 75 cm.) t etc. Durante el viaje, to carga bacteriana en el hielo aumento de 10* a 10* por ml. a 10* a 107 DOT ml. cuando el peacado etta en loi compartimicmoa, contapoiidiepdo cati todo el aumento a las especies que detenofmn el peacado. Uebido a dlo, el peacado tovado puede rccupcrmr rapidamente sus cargas bacterianas originalea. La eficada de los hielos con antibiotioos puede debene parcialmente a to aupraion de to multiplicacton bactertona en d hklo. Las paredea, d material, y las ptonchaa de to bodega de peacado deben nnanteneiie eacnipuloaaniente limpiot. La madera nose puede mantener libre de bacterias. Las auperAdea metalicaa ae limpian mucbo mas facilmente y no son portadoras de infeociones debajo de to supcrftcie. Sin embargo, no hay pruebas concretas de que to masa del peacado ae conserve major en bodegas metalicas muy limpias.
normaiea y cuando ae ahnaoenan en eatantca con tefmracioiie*
function of a fishing vessel
is
to catch fish
and
to preserve and land the catch in as fresh a condition as possible. That function must clearly influence vessel design not only in relation to catching
THE
assistance of catalysts in the flesh, to give rise finally torancid odours and flavours. In comparison, very lean fish, such as cod, haddock and whiting, which contain
operations but also to those of handling and storing the
The purpose is to indicate the main principles of good practice, so far as they seem to have been established
catch.
considerably less than 1 per cent, of fatty material in the flesh, do not noticeably exhibit this type of deterioration. In the very earliest stage of storage, before bacterial
multiplication has set in, oxidation possibly contributes to the loss of very fresh aroma in both lean and fatty fish.
of the fish. Whilst foods in general are perishable and delicate cargo, fish is exceptionally so; and the designers of fishing vessels are concerned with the supremely important first and often long link in the chain that joins catching to final consumption of the commodity. As far as the quality of the product is concerned, what is done on the fishing vessel cannot later be undone or offset. The paper deals mainly with chilling preservation in trawlers at sea typically by stowage in crushed ice of demersal or "white" fish.
in talcing care
In the normal, healthy, newly-caught fish, the flesh and organs are completely free from bacteria (Reay and Shewan, 1949). The external surface, however, harbours large numbers and so does the gut unless, as happens at certain times, the fish is not feeding. The bacteria on the outside of the dead fish multiply in the slime covering the
WHY AND HOW FISH GO BAD

The freshly-caught fish goes bad, i.e., suffers undesirable and finally unacceptable changes, particularly in odour, flavour and appearance, mainly through bacterial decomposition. In addition, enzymes naturally present in the flesh, organs, etc., of the fish play a still inadequately assessed part in deterioration either directly or by providing the bacteria with readily assimilable nutrients. Enzymes are, of course, involved in the first spectacular
which is a good nutrient substance, proand finally foul odours as welt as rendering the initially clear slime opaque and finally discoloured. As a result, the flesh becomes tainted through absorption of the bacterial products and is also itself invaded by the beleaguering bacteria, which proceed to multiply in it.
skin
and
gills,
ducing
stale
More often than not there is food in the gut of the newly-caught fish in process of being broken down by the powerful enzymes of the digestive juices. The gut wall*
fish, readily to the digestive action of the enzymes, which can then proceed to penetrate into neighbouring organs and regions of the flesh, digesting,
which is succumbs
resistant to
attack in the live
after death
change occurring after death, rigor mortis, and this must have largely passed off before bacterial action can develop
in the flesh,
softening or "jellying" them. Moreover, the bacteria that are normally associated with the food in the gut can
readily penetrate into the same sites and multiply there, although there is no clear evidence that the particular types found in the gut produce the noisome promuch food it ducts characteristic of spoilage.
now
In the very earliest stage of storage in ice
it
seems
probable that bacteria take little part in the gradual loss of the characteristic delicate odour and flavour of very fresh fish. The chief causes appear to be leaching out of soluble flavorous substances by the ice water and enzymic activity. In the case of fatty fish, such as those of the herring, pilchard, mackerel and salmon groups, the flesh of which may contain about 2 to 25 per cent of
oil,
When
present, the speed with which the gut wall can break down and the belly walls be jellied and even perforated
by the digestive enzymes is astonishingly great, even when the fish are chilled in ice. From this it will be apparent why, if possible, fish should be gutted and washed at
sea soon after catching. For the most part, this is the custom in the trawl, seine and line fisheries for demersal or "white" fish; but it is never done in the fisheries for pelagic species, such as herring and pilchard, which are small fish usually caught in great numbers.
depending upon species
and seasonal and

can contribute
biological
factors, oxidation
of the
oil
significantly
to spoilage. remdily
Rth oil* being of the unsaturated,
"drying"
combine with atmospheric oxygen, with the
[201]

The
bacteria responsible for spoiling fish
CONSTRUCTION
on the
fishing
and apparently during subsequent distribution, are marine types. They arc of the psychrophilic socaUed cold-loving variety, which exhibits most rapid mcreasc in population in the region of 68 to 75 F (20* to 24 C). In comparison, most pathogenic bacteria
vessel,
The average round voyage for such British trawlers is about 20 days, involving some 5 days for return to port from the grounds. Landings on the average comprise
periods ranging from 5 to IS days, phases II and III. This illustrates the order of the limitations of ice as a preservative under the best possible normal conditions, i.e., without adding chemical preservatives or antibiotics. Vessels often have to return to port incompletely filled because of the spoilage of the
i.e.,
fish stored in ice for
fish in
producing disease in hot-blooded animals have much higher optimum temperatures, mostly about 99F (37 C). All varieties of bacteria build up populations more slowly the lower the temperature is below the optimum; but whilst the growth of almost all pathogens is completely inhibited at melting ice temperature, the marine bacteria continue, although slowly, to multiply under such chill conditions. Some remain sluggishly active, even in frozen fish, down to a temperature of about 19.5 F C). There is considerable evidence to show that in lowering the temperature into the region around 32'F (0C) the inhibitive effect of cooling accelerates markedly with each successive degree. AH this means that spoilage can still proceed in ice-chilled fish, even before the fish is landed, at a rate and to an extent of the highest significance for commercial fish handling. Maintenance of the lowest possible temperature short of freezing is indeed far the most important requirement for retaining the quality of the catch. Apart from temperature and time, the other important factors affecting preservation are care and cleanliness in handling, which
early caught fish.

species
Table 45 applies specifically to gadoid, i.e., cod-like, which account for the bulk of the demersal
catches in the North Pacific, North Atlantic and Arctic areas. There are, of course, variations in the rate of
spoilage under standard conditions dependent on intrinsic factors such as size, species, biological condition, fishing
(7
ground and season, the effects of which are far from being thoroughly evaluated. It seems clear, however, that other things being equal, large fish spoil somewhat more slowly than small fish; and flat fish generally keep better than
gadoids.
It
is
possible that the bacteria

fish
on tropical or sub-
be somewhat more susceptible to control by chilling than those found on fish whose habitat is in much colder waters and that in consequence fish kept well iced immediately after catching may take somewhat longer to become inedible. Some evidence is
tropical
may
accumulating to
this effect.
be discussed later. Table 45 (Cutting, Eddie, Reay and Shewan, 1950) shows the average course of spoilage during three weeks of carefully gutted and washed newly caught cod and haddocks kept in plenty of ice. Four fairly recognizable phases of spoilage, as observed sensorily, are shown side by side with indications of the corresponding increases in bacterial numbers in the flesh and in three volatile bases produced mainly by bacteria. The relevance of these data to distant-water white fisheries will be obvious.
will
Control of spoilage Spoilage being mainly due to bacterial activity, control mainly consists in combatting this. To do so means, in effect, reducing the bacterial population on the fish before stowing it in the hold and preventing subsequent
temperature
through multiplication, for which most important factor, or through additions arising from contamination.
is
increase
whether
the
TABLE 45
Diagram staring side by
Storage time in ice in days:
ride tbe orgmnoteptic, cberaioil
I
canMy gntted and imbed and stowed in plenty of toe

<
and bacteriological changes

10
in
buttocks,
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Storage time in ice in days
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
CHEMICAL CHANGES
I- Ammonia increases rapidly

Stooge time in ice in days
!
5
t
10
11
12
13
14
IS
16
17
18
19
20
FISH HOLDS
CARE OF THE CATCH

can begin, say 30*F (-1.2C) t for most "white" fish, and, in addition, to keep the fish cooled until landing. It is of the utmost importance to mix the ice well with the fish for rapid cooling so that ice is in contact with each
fish.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
first importance in treating the catch is to thoroughly as soon as possible and to keep it chilled until landing. It is, of course, impossible to express the effect of temperature on the rate of spoilage in a simple and, at the same time, accurate manner; but from bacteriological, chemical and taste panel data and "averaging out" over the period that elapses before the fish reaches the point of inedibility (taken at Torry Research Station as 15 days in ice), fish such as cod and haddock spoil about two and a half times as fast at 40F (4.5C) and about five and a half times as fast at
The
task of
chill it
It is
surprising
how little this is appreciated by many
in the fish industry. Fish is, to use the canners' terminology, a solid non-convecting pack through which heat
transfer
is
much
mm.)
practical rule
would be
(50 to 75
often supposed. rough more than, say, 2 to 3 in. thick should always be stowed in layers
is
slower than
that fish
50F (10C)
The white
as at
fish
32F
(0C).
catch by trawlers is gutted and washed before being put below for sorting and stowage in ice; and there are no special arrangements on deck for cooling the fish. There is thus some delay before cooling can be
not more than one fish deep, between upper and lower layers of ice. Although theoretically one part of ice is required to cool seven parts of fish from about 55 to 32F (13 to 0C), such cooling is impossible in practice. The admixture of ice with fish cannot be made sufficiently
intimate; moreover,
some
ice is
consumed
is
in cooling
shelves, fittings, etc., although this
relatively small in
should be reduced to the unavoidable minimum. Bacteria exhibit a "lag phase" before they multiply and, in theory, cooling should be commenced before this phase is passed. The duration of the "lag phase" for marine bacteria at 32F (0C) is about three or four days and at 68 F (20C) possibly not more than two or three hours. Just after World War II, when Arctic catches were much heavier than now and when a haul might be brought aboard before all the previous ones had been put below, delays on deck were observed to be at times as much as 12 to 24 hr, (Rep. Food Invest. Bd., Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), 1948, 1949). The air temperature in northern latitudes can rise to 50F (10C) or even higher in summer, and it was found that the bacterial load offish exposed on deck at 45F (7.2C) for 18 hr. increased 10 to 100 times. The quality of the fish at landing IS days later correeffected but
it
amount. MacCallum (1955) points out that while it is impossible to give rules for the amount of ice necessary
for chilling the fish results are obtained
and the fittings completely, good by mixing ice intimately with the fish in a ratio by weight of 1 to 3.8. The Torry Research Station has recommended a ratio of 1 to 3 (Cutting, Eddie, Reay and Shewan, 1953).
Heat leaks
Provision has also to be made for absorption of heat entering the fishroom from outside so that this does not
denude any part of the catch and heat it up. Holds vary greatly as regards heat inleak, depending upon the
absence
or
presence
of insulation
and mechanical
refrigeration, whilst external climatic conditions vary widely. It is not sufficiently realized that heat inleak
from the sea through the
sides of the ship is almost as important as that through the deckhead. Obviously ice must be deployed in the right amounts and positions
sponded to
17 days.
fish
iced very soon after catching
after
Reay and Shewan, 1950). Canadian workers (Castell, MacCallum and Power, 1950) have reported air temperatures on vessels on Eastern Canadian grounds of 37 to 70F (3 to 21C) from May to July, and that exposure on deck for more than two hours during the warmer weather is decidedly detrimental to the fish. The Fishing Industry Research Institute, Cape Town (Cooper and Rousseau, 1955) cites
(Cutting, Eddie,
temperatures of stockfish as high as 81F (27.2C) after 99 min. on deck, the temperature of the fish at catching being about 59F (15C). Arrangements introduced
since the
war
and
directing
them by chute
for mechanically washing the gutted fish into the fishroom have very
end of a voyage there will still be with linings and bulkheads and at the top of the stowage. The correct deployment and requirement of ice can only be found out from experience with each particular vessel. Obviously the most difficult conditions are encountered in uninsulated ships; and satisfactory deployment of ice is probably easiest of all where the fishroom is simply insulated, or where insulation is combined with jacket cooling. Here temperature conditions in the hold should be at their most uniform and permit something like a standard stowage and icing procedure to be practised in any ship, some allowance
to ensure that at the
ice in contact
being
made
for climatic variations.
considerably contributed to di&inishing delays (see also page 241).
on deck
;sapptyof ice
Gutted
fish are typically
shelves, or in
stowed in the hold with ice on boxes in some of the smaller vessels. Ice
must be sufficient in amount to oool the fish as quickly as possible to jiut above the temperature at which freezing
refrigerating grids, which have been installed in insulated holds in some instances, has been found in practice to have less advantage than expected. Deckhead grids, in which the refrigerant is usually well below the temperature of melting ice, oool the air immediately under the deckhead. As the coded air falls all the air in the fishroom will gradually be cooled and it will cool any part of the room to which it
The use of deckhead
[203]

The chief uses of dccfchcad grids are thus witiy to cool the empty fishroom, to keep the ice in crisp, easily-handled condition and to cool all shelves and fittings before the fish is stowed (Cutting, Eddie,
circulate.
CONSTRUCTION
Reay and Shewan,
1953).
Hea* Another feature relevant to temperature control that might repay further investigation is the production of heat in stowage by the growing bacterial population on the fish and by possible tissue oxidation, Calorimetric
chopped haddock muscle
experiments (Rep. Food Invest. Bd., DSIR, 1954) with in ice have indicated a considerable production of heat, calculated as being equivalent to the melting of 25 tons of ice on a North Atlantic trawler trip, but the figure might be of quite different order for whole fish under conditions of commercial
stowage.
Grids can also keep the air cooled above "shelved" fish, i.e. in British practice, fish merely laid on a bed of ice with no more than a sprinkling of ice on top. At the top of the pounds containing "bulked" fish, i.e. fish completely stowed in ice, the pipes can merely absorb heat coming from the deckhead and can have no effect on the temperature of any fish more than a few inches down in the stowage, whether the linings, etc. are metal or not There is some danger of superficial drying of the "shelved" fish and also of freezing some of the fish, whether "shelved" or "bulked". This latter can readily happen since unavoidable local variations in air temperature during stowing are bound to occur in the air above
the pounds
Total amount of ice needed
and accurate thermostatic control from one
MacCallum's (1955) calculated requirements of total ice to total catch (100 tons in the medium-sized Canadian trawlers considered) range from 1 :1.5 for an uninsulated hold with wooden linings and boards poorly preserved to 1:3 for an insulated, wholly refrigerated metal
Ratios for actual usage in 1953 to 54 for a group of insulated wooden-lined vessels (1:3) and for another group of
surfaced hold. are quoted by
insulated,
which is attempted, is not really possible. Frosting and defrosting of the coils also contribute practical problems. On balance, it seems clear that deckhead grids offer no proved advantage in preserving the cargo as compared with the use of plenty of ice. The
single point,
MacCallum
The
refrigerated wooden-lined vessels (1 2.25). calculated requirement in the first case is 1:2, so
:
jacketted hold represents a much more sensible approach to this whole problem even than extended grids over tfie sides and bulkheads. However, unless the jacket is
hermetically sealed off from the fishroom, desiccation of "shelved" fish may still occur.
that the
amount used in practice is actually less. The calculated figure given for an insulated, metal lined
(not wooden-lined) vessel is 1 : 3, this amount being satisfactory in practice. Requirements will, of course, vary
Afedtadcal refrigeration Quite apart from the dangers of slow and partial freezing of some of the fish in a mechanically refrigerated fish-
room, some experimental

Bd.,
results (Rep.
Food
Invest.
1948; Ofterdinger, 1950) pose the question whether the quality of fish is not better if the air temperature in the hold is kept somewhat above 32F (0C) or if, more generally, the heat flow into the ice apart from that coming from the fish itself is such as to permit a steady melting throughout the voyage. Some data
DSIR,
with the size of the ship, the size of the catch, the duration of the voyage and the climatic conditions. In British practice, vessels of 165 to 185 ft. (50 to 56 m.) making distant-water trips of 20 days on an average, take to sea about 90 to 110 tons of ice for catches which range from 75 to 200 tons the average in 1956 was about 1 10 tons. Of the ice loaded, perhaps 70 to 80 tons is used for an average catch. These quantities ate ample to meet the exigencies of adequate temperature control, and generally this seems to be satisfactorily achieved. A large number of observations in recent years show that the temperature of distant-water fish, mainly
cod, at landing ranges from 31 to half the values laying between.
42F (-0.6
to 5.6C),
obtained at Torry Research Station (Rep. Food Invest. Bd., DSIR, 1954, 1955) with individual boxes of iced
fish at different
ambient
32 to 53F (0 to 12C), highest ambient temperature the fish reached inedibility some 1 to 2 days later than the fish kept at 32F (0C),
air temperature, ranging from showed that in the case of the
Mechanical refrigeration by itself is certainly not a satisfactory method of chilling fish and the only possible alternative to the use of ke seems to be stowage in chilled sea water. This has been developed so far for certain
fisheries
and
species,
mainly in Canada (Harrison and
Chemical and bacteriological evidence supported this. It is doubtful if this effect, which presumably is due to removal of bacteria and leaching out of their products, would be completely reproduced in a fully stowed pound of fish. However, it seems clear that, to preserve good external appearance ("bloom") the surface of the fish should remain moist. This is another reason for mixing ice well with the fish and for specifying that mechanical refrigeration should be operated so that the lower limit of air temperature anywhere in the hold is, say 33F
(0.6 C), rather than, say,
Q
Roach, 1955).
CARE AND CLEANLINESS IN HANDLING

Fish is very easily damaged by rough handling and even moderate pressure. Care should therefore be taken to avoid this. Pressure, such as may occur in bringing very large bags of fish on deck, in lying several feet deep in the dock ponds for some hours in being tramped upon during deck operations, gutting; etc, and at the unstowing in port, ami in being stortd in the hold with ice to dqrths of
31.5F(-0.6CX
the freeing
point of the
fish.
|2W]
FIftH
HOLDS
CARE OF THE CATCH

quality of the catch, cleanliness in handling
is
more than 2 or 3 ft. (0.6 to 0*9 at) for days on end, mutts in the fish being softer and flabbier than they need
Sudden, sharp pressure, as in being tramped upon, has been shown (Castell, MacCallum and Power, 1950) to result in abrasion of the skin and subdermal tissue cells, which become more readily penetrated by the surface bacteria with resulting enhanced spoilage readily distinguished after a week in ice. Bruising of freshly caught live fish may cause Moody discolouration of the flesh involving loss of yield if subsequent trimming has to be resorted to. The continuous pressure bearing on the fish when stowed in the hold results in the loss of juice and hence of weight to a notable extent (Cutting, 1951). For example, on trips of 18 to 24 days an average of 7 per cent, of the weight (and about 3 per cent, of the protein) of a catch of cod and haddock was lost. The staler the fish and the deeper the bulk of fish and ice, the greater was the loss. After 18 days at the bottom of a mass 4 to 5 ft. (1.2 to 1.5 m.) deep, the weight loss was 14 per cent, as against 3 per cent, at the top. At the other extreme fish stowed in
otherwise be.
single layers in shallow boxes, 8 in. (203 mm.) deep, gained 1 per cent, on the average, whilst the average loss was 3 per cent, for fish stowed between shelves 1 ft.
(0.3
mainly
concerned, on the one hand, with reducing the population of bacteria on the fish as it corns on board and, on the other, with preventing the addition of bacteria from the surfaces with which the fish comes into contact on the
The presumptive need for cleanliness in relation to quality is well recognized by the British industry. Further care in hygiene in various ways might not in it*
ship.
produce the enhanced quality of catch that might be expected. The scientific evidence is somewhat confused as yet laboratory results not always being reproducible in commercial practice. But any relaxation of hygiene in handling and stowage would be most likely to result in lowered quality.
totality
Mud from sea floor

Besides the bacteria naturally on the fish in the sea, others get on to it during trawling on the sea floor, especially if muddy. Indeed, considerable quantities of mud can be brought on deck along with the fish. It is
presumed from its general type that the mud flora includes fish spoilers. There is also evidence (Liicke and Schwartz, 1937) that, as a result of pressure in the hoisted
trawl bag, intestinal contents along with their bacteria are extruded and spread amongst the catch, although
m.) apart.
In bulk stowage of fish and ice, the shelves should be placed at vertical intervals of not more than 18 to 30 in.
apparently this flora
is
not predominantly of a
fish-
The space between shelves should be completely with fish and ice, but care should be taken that the fish is not subject to the weight of the shelf above. In other words, the shelves should be leaning on the rest-angles or battens. Deterioration through pressure in stowage is seen at its worst in the case of oily, "feedy" herrings. This is
(457 to 762 mm.).
filled
spoiling character. Despite the reservation

effectiveness of
tised, it is
still
made above regarding the more cleanly handling than is praccommonsense to recommend that decks and
deck pond boards should be thoroughly hosed down with seawater between hauls.
Gutting
The
being increasingly recognized on British vessels and boxes are coming into much more general use. Ice also is beginning to be used, but there is still some reluctance to do so even on larger vessels. This may be a survival from the days when salt curing was the chief outlet for the catch, it being held that iced herrings made a poor
cure.
fish should be carefully gutted as soon as possible after hauling, all viscera being removed without cutting
into the flesh. Ideally, the guts should not be allowed to fall on ungutted or gutted fish. However, guts are often
dropped on the ungutted
fish,
sively dirtier, the guts being finally
which become progreswashed overboard.

assist cleanli-
Layout of the deck ponds can be made to

ness here.
Washing
Cutting or piercing the flesh of fish, such as by knives in gutting and by hooks at unloading, opens the way for
bacterial entry and local spoilage and often discolouration.
fish
is
The next process

remove gross
new methods of which would be filled at sea storage, e.g. large containers, with fish and ice, and lifted from the hold at the port.
Some thought
is
being given to
washing the gutted fish, if only to blood and slime. This, ideally, should in some way be done with running water. When washing was done properly, e.g. by hosing fish individually, it
dirt,
Besides saving labour in discharging, this would avoid damage to the fish that occurs as the result of using hooks, ice shovels and throwing baskets into the hold. It would still be necessary to sort the fish on shore before
the
was shown (Georgala, 1957) that the surface bacterial load on cod (10 1 1 to 10* per sq. cm.) was reduced by some 80 to 97 per cent. The fish thus carefully washed reached inedibility some two days later than unwashed
-
fish,
when kept
is
in bacteriologically clean ice.
Washing
exposure for
sale.
These new methods of stowage might
practically impossible on trawlers catching fish at normal rates and it would not take much less than
of this sort
require larger hatch openings, and even a single continuous hatch in the biggest trawlers. The adoption of the submarine manhole within the hatch proper for
access at sea
From
first
would seem to make this feasible. the principles and in relation to preserving
the percentage reduction in bacterial load just indicated to wipe out the enhanced preservation. Until recent years fish on British trawlers were washed by playing the hose upon heaps of fish stirred by foot or sometimes
by hosing the
fish in baskets given
a rotary shaking.
{2G5J

Where
by a
there
CONSTRUCTION
was room,
fish
passing them into a partially

hose.
have also been cleaned by dammed deck pond fed
In recent years a special washing tank has come increasingly into use. As they are gutted the fish are thrown into this tank, which is raised well above the deck and is fed with seawater through a jet on each side. The jets produce a swirl and the fish emerging from the partially dammed end of the tank, looking well washed and free from obvious blood and slime, are led by chute to the stowage pounds below. This washer has certainly introduced a new element of order into the deck procedure, the fish passing continuously from the deck to the fish hold. On an average the fish is stowed in ice much sooner than previously, in fact very soon after gutting. This is a notable improvement and the fishermen are enthusiastic about it. South African workers (Cooper and Rousseau, 1955) have adopted a flume
fig. 201, in which the fish are brought from gutting to delivery by chute into the fishroom with
pound walls and division boards, which have often previously served as fish pound boards or shelves, and from contact with shovels used for icing the fish* and with the fishermen's boots. All these infections
carry nutriment with
them which
will
support further
growth.
On a typical distant-water Arctic trip from the Humber,

the counts for samples of the trawler's ice
on reaching the
fishing grounds some four days out of port were about 10* per g., whilst at the end of the fishing and on return
to port the figures were about 10* per g. The Canadians (Castell, MacCallum and Power, 1950) report, counts of the order of 10 7 per g. Several samples of unused ice
washing apparatus,
more than 50 per cent, reduction in the average maximum

time of exposure of the fish on deck and considerable lowering of the fish temperature. There are no data, so far as is known, concerning the greater bacteriological efficiency of these washers as compared with normal washing practice. There is, moreover, lack of agreement amongst investigators about the advantage in preservation to be gained by washing followed by normal stowage on trawlers. Ludorff and Kreuzcr (1956) found after washing with greater care than might be possible in practice that the 9 fish kept better after 16 days stowage than those treated by the crew in the normal way. Castell, MacCallum and Power (1950), on the other hand, could find no advantage in washing with extra care but their fish was stowed for no longer than 6 to 7 days* In a number of experiments
from trawlers returning to Aberdeen have also had counts of this order. The flora of the unused ice after a voyage was found predominantly to resemble the flora of fish. When very well washed codlings were stowed in clean boxes with factory ice they became inedible some five days later than similar codlings stored with unused ice from a fishing vessel. However, too little work has yet been done to assess satisfactorily the significance of the part played by ice in increasing the spoilage of the
catch under commercial conditions.
on a British distant-water trawler (Rep. Food Invest. Bd., DS1R, 1954 and 1955) no difference was found between unwashed and very carefully washed fish stowed in
boxes with the ship's ice after 10 to 15 days 9 storage, most of which occurred on shore after landing* This result appears to conflict with that quoted above, viz. that some two days' advantage could be gained. However, the explanation
may well
lie
in the fact that the ice
bacteriologteally dean as compared with the ship's ice, which, in the experiment, was taken near the end of the fishing period.
was
Contact with hold walls Fish can be contaminated not only from contact with the trawler's ice but also from direct contact with dirty shelves, walls and linings. Most of these, however, are still wooden and shortly after being painted, varnished with shellac or coated with various surface sealers, become porous and water-sodden and harbour beneath the surface multitudes of bacteria. It is generally agreed that so far it is impossible in any simple, practicable manner to sterilize such wooden fittings. It is not surprising, therefore, that it has not proved possible in practice to demonstrate convincingly that fish stowed in wooden holds, cleaned by practicable methods, such as washing with detergents and disinfectants, are very much better in keeping quality than where cleaning has been less careful. Indeed, it is perhaps improbable that contamination from the wooden fittings can affect the quality offish other than those in close contact with them. This, however, could perhaps amount to only a few per cent, of the catch in British distant-water trawlers, which use a high ratio of ice to fish (e.g. 1:1.5) and usually put extra ice between the fish and the walls of the fish hold. Some Canadian workers in recent years (MacCallum,
1955;
and McLean and
Castell, 1956) illustrate
how fish
The bacteriological condition of the ice as a separate factor has been found by both Canadian (Castell,
can be spoiled through contact with wooden walls and division boards and shelves. It was found that fish pressing closely on the wood during a voyage can frequently develop a particularly foul, sulphide-like odour, reminiscent of bilge water, which permeates part or at times the whole of the flesh, resulting in what is known to the trade as a "bilgy" fish. The cause was shown to be spoilage by facultative anaerobic bacteria resident in the wet, worn wood. This type of spoilage has alto been
recognized
1958),
MacCalhim and Power, 1950) and British worker* (Rep. Food Invest Bd, DSIR, 1955) to be of considerable
importance. Fresh crushed artificial joe as delivered to the fishing vessel contains relatively few bacteria, 10 1 to 1 per g* and these are mostly not considered to be fish spotting types. White stowed in the ice pounds in the bold for the voyage the tee becomes more and more contaminated with bacteria, presumably from the ice
cm
British trawlers (Burgess

it,
To
avoid
the Canadians
and Spencer, recommend that the
{206]
FISH HOLDS
fish
CARE OF THE CATCH

subject
be kept away from the wood by means of ample by heavy wire netting screens. MacCallum (1955) recommends the use of a considerable amount of ice to make certain that the fish does not come into contact with the walls of the pen or pounds. As much ice by weight as 22 per cent, of the total catch is suggested in the case of holds with poorly preserved wooden linings and boards and about 8 per cent, when
local icing or
and sampling methods require
closer investiga-
with contaminated ice especially later in the voyage, would seem at present to be a source of spoilage. It is difficult to see how this could be entirely eliminated, even in a metal-fitted hold kept thoroughly clean, except by incorporating a bactericidal or bacteriostatic substance in the ice. Work in many parts of the world has shown that at
tion, direct contact
least
the holds are metal-lined. Metal-lined holds and metal shelves can be
effectively
two
course,
cleaned and sterilized do not carry sub-surface infections; but there is apparently no published evidence to show that, apart from the less frequent occurence of "bilgy" fish, the
much more than wood and, of
cycline,
when incorporated
antibiotics, chlor-tetracycline and oxy-tetrain the ice can afford about a
week's extra preservation beyond the normal point of

inedibility (Shewan, 1958). Part at least of the effect of this treatment is no doubt to be accounted for by counter-
bulk of the catch
is
kept in
improved
conditions.
On
the
commonsense ground, however, of maintaining a proper

regard for care throughout the whole treatment of a foodstuff, good cleaning of fish holds and their fittings to prevent the accumulation of gross dirt must be strongly
acting the spoiling load that builds up on the ice. Anaerobic spoilage takes place only when the fish is directly in contact with smooth surfaces, especially infected wood, and can be avoided in the manner
described.
So long as
this is
done,
it is
the opinion of
many
of as
practical
men
in the British industry that exclusion
recommended.
easier to clean portable boards than fixtures, vertical pounds divisions should, wherever possible, be
it is
much
air as possible
As
best results,
from the stowage gives the and considerable trouble is taken to avoid
built
stanchions, the fixed wings remaining only at the sides of the ship, where they are necessary to avoid the use of boards of special sizes and
up from boards and
air spaces when bulk stowing fish, but whether in fact the result obtained is due to the exclusion of oxygen (in
shapes. In the same way it is better to have separate, portable rest-angles to carry the horizontal shelves, rather than rest-angles fixed to stanchions or battens
fixed to special boards. These features also make it easier to work in the fishroom both when stowing the
fish
some other factor, such as the prevention of warming-up by inflowing warm air, has not been examined scientifically. In any case trade practice is inconsistent as "shelfing" is advocated by the same
the air) or to
people.
and discharging it (Eddie and Waterman, 1958). Although too little work has yet been done on the
The work described in this paper was carried out as pan of the programme of the Food Investigation Organisation of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.
[207]
THE FISH ROOM
ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

by
W. A.
MAcCALLUM
The naval architect can serve the fishing industry better if he understands fish preservation. Much "know-how'* is at hand and the time to apply the results of engineering progress and technological advancement is when the vessel is in the planning stage. This paper and improvements concerns desirable shapes and dimensions of holds, <mpartmentt improvt compartments and containers for various fisheries and types or vessels; and of old and development of new features for fish storage. Particular importance is attached to the arrangement of fish rooms for the iced storage of "wet'* fish, salted fish, and fish room construction for handling either iced "wet" fish or fish refrigerated in sea water. Both fixed and movable elements are considered for transverse partitions in fish rooms. Integral transverse partitions and ceiling linings of two designs in aluminium alloy are cited. Practical steps to cut coats and reduce difficulties in placing boards in divisions, transverse partitions and shelves in trawlers are outlined and details of construction are shown. Inadequate planning offish room layouts in small wooden trawlers and longliners is described. The features of some paints, woods, plastics, glass fibre reinforced plastics, galvanized steel and aluminium alloys are noted. Methods of preventing die catch from touching the woodwork are discussed. Tables show the types, characteristics, and gauges of aluminium
i
alloys used.
The design and use of pen boards of wood and aluminium alloys components are discussed. Aspects of ventilation in wooden ships similar analysis is made of small decked boats, longliners, trawlers and cutters. are discussed; and so is the undecked small fish carrier.
LES CALES
POISSON--TECHNIQUE ET ARCHITECTURE
L'architecte naval peut rendre dc meilleurs services a 1'industrie des pecbes s'il connalt la preservation du poisson. Les connaissances acquises sont importantes, et c'est au moment dc retabltssement des plans du navire qu'il convient de mettre en application ks resultats des progres mfcaniques et de Tavaaoement des techniques. Les informations examinees concernent: ks formes et dimensions desirables des caks, compartimenU et recipients pour let diverses peches et les divers types de na vires; les ameliorations des caracteristiques anciennes et la mise au point de nouvelles caracteristiques pour 1'entreposage du poisson. On attache une importance particuliere a la disposition des caks & poisson pour 1'entreposage en glace du poisson frais, du poisson said et 4 la construction des cales 4 poisson devant recevoir soil poisson frais en glace, soil le poisson refrigere dans Teau de mer. Les dements Axes et amovibtes sont constderes pour ks separations transversaks dans ks caks a poisson. Les separations transversaks integrates et deux types de doubiage du plafond en auiage d'aluminium sont cites. L'auteur indique des moyens pratiques pour diminuer ks depenscs et reduire les difficult^ quand on place ks planches dans ks divisions, les separations transversaks et ks etageres a bord des chalutkrs, et il donne cks details de construction. II decrit aussi des projets de disposition de cak & poisson ne convenant pas a bord de petits chalutkrs et
palangrier* de bois. Les caracteristiqucs de quelques peintures, bois, matieres plastiques, matieres plastiques renforcees de fibre de verre, ackr galvanise et alliages d'aluminium sont indiquees. L'auteur examine ks methodes pour empecher bois. Des tableaux indiquent poisson de toucher
ks
types caracteristiques et epaisseun des alliages d'alurninium utilises. Le dessin et Templet de planches d'etageres de bois et d'alliages d'aluminium sont commentes. L'auteur examine ks divers aspects de la ventilation 4 bord des navires de bois et aussi des petits transports de poisson non pomes. II donne une analyse semblabk des petits navires pontes, des palangriers, des chahitiers et des cotres.
LA BODEGA DE PESCADO INGENIERIA Y ARQU1TECTURA

mucha information sobre d particular y el momcnto de aplicar los resultados de los adclantos <k la inenlorfa y de la tecftka e$ cuando dtarcoestatodaviaenproyecto. 1^ infornuu:i6n qiie se disorte esta re^ compartimjentos y wdpicntc* para difmntes clases de pe** y tipos de barco, mejora de las caracteristic** viejas del ahnaoenamknto de
Existe
& aiqtutecto fuval puede prestar seiv^^
pescado y forraulacion de otras ituevat.
Seda<
la const rucciondeUbwic^ para
manip^^
Se estudian
tot
ekmentos ityos
ymovilpan^separackroestramversalei Scmeiickjtxanpartickmestwirêrsalesint^ , cottos y ocdoproyectosbasadosenden^ko<kakd6iidealumu^^ Se mencionan medidas practicas para redudr los p*nasenla*divi*ioi>MyKdandatoflydc^^
describcn lot ddbctos
las diffciiltadc*
_ _. de
Se
k la madem paralapescaalarrastrey alpalangre. mnckman ctm^rislicas <k algimv

t
ac*ro galvanizado
y akactones de aluminio. Se discutcn los procedimicntos qoe existen para kmaderiL Se dan tabias de tot tipo^ caracristicas y eyesores cte las ak^^nes dc atominJoT
evfcar
quo
d pescado
este
en contacto con Sc
Seexamii^laajaitn^nycitvkockpaiw
i
aspectos
<fe la
vcntiladon en barcos do
madea. Se
dtscute
d barco
transportador de
pncado
sin cubierta
v se haoo un
aitilisis
1208]
FISH HOLDS

realized if at
A N important improvement would be

JL
jL room location, shape, construction and fitting out were given the same careful consideration as hull form, safety at sea and main engines. Thus boats should be
designed with fish handling and fish preservation characteristics very much in mind. In many details the naval architect should be able to improve present facilities for
fJL
the time a vessel
is
in the planning stage, fish
Typical fish and ice weights and states of stowage to help in design calculations are shown in table 46.
INSULATION
Typical coosUerations relating to the we of kMobtkra Whether or not to insulate depends on how many of the factors in table 47 apply. These and possibly other factors
handling and storing the catch. The naval architect must co-operate with the fisheries engineer, the owner, and the builder in connection with the installation of sea-water chilling tanks, visceral and liver tanks, and changes from conventional practice in the relative positions of fuel tanks and stowed fish. He must also be a guide as to the effects these developments will have on stability, safety, and other operating
characteristics of the fishing boat.
may have different significance depending upon which pan of the fish room is considered, viz., end bulkheads,
deckhcad or
ship's ceiling. Special weight should be given to factors that are important in the area or conditions under consideration. The remarks opposite items 10 and 1 1 indicate the majority point of view, at least in some countries. The cost of insulation alone can seldom be balanced against the cost of refrigeration as is done in
seven sections deal in the main with larger last two sections with small fishing craft, with the exception that ventilation, in the last section, applies to wooden vessels of all sizes.
first
The
boats,
and the
land storage. The insulation protective covering cost and possibly the cost of ventilating the vessel's structure behind the insulation must also be considered. Table 47 indicates doubt concerning installing insulation
on the
little
fish
room
ceiling.
too
ice is used,
But insulation is needed if which otherwise results in poor

in
quality fish.
Time
in
storage
is
LARGE FISHING BOATS

The
it
quality,
and
is of great importance dependent upon:
determining
ideal storage room is the rectangular prism because is easiest and cheapest to fit out and easiest to use.
Distance to the fishing grounds and vessel speed
Hence it is of great advantage to have the fish room as uniform and as fully-shaped as possible from aft to forward. Barker suggests that a true rectangular parallelepiped be considered in diesel trawlers without double bottoms. He proposes that fuel be carried in wing tanks on each side of the fish room. For a given cubic capacity between engine room and forward bulkheads the fish room would be longer and narrower and of approxiused.
Rate of catching and stowing Carrying capacity of the fishing
craft
mately the same volume as when transverse tanks are The design would:
Provide
less "lost"
space where boxed fish are stowed
Give complete interchangeability of all fish room boards used for bulk stowage Reduce costs and increase efficiency of space utilization if jacketed Unit Pen type construction (MacCallum, 1954a, 19SSa) for bulk stowage were
desired
Because of the relationship, varying though it may be, between vessel size and time of fish in storage, it is sometimes possible to by-pass certain factors and to associate the use of insulation with a particular type of boat of a certain size. Thus, Norwegian Fresh Fish Regulations, 1952 state that the end bulkheads in the fish room of wooden seiners 50 to 60 ft. (15 to 18 m.) long should be insulated, and in Japan insulation is applied on the ceilings, end bulkheads and deckheads of all steel and wooden boats over SO GT. It is estimated by H. C. Hanson that in Southern California 100 per cent, of the tuna boats, both steel and wood, 90 ft. (27 m.) and more in length are insulated, and 25 per cent, of those between 60 and 90 ft. (18 and 27 m.) in length are
similarly fitted out.
Quite
fish
apart
from
its
contribution
to
fish-saving,
insulation,
when used
operation.
is
Give the same advantages with regard to of seawater chilling tanks
installation
room
effectively, contributes to better The saving in man-hours with

fish.
insulation
worthwhile when icing the
It
also
Lead to shorter pens for bulk stowing, thus reducing the work of the icer and probably increasing efficiency
of icing
Result in
saves fatigue and this results in more careful icing. Judicious use of insulation can result in a gain in space for fish storage. Examples are illustrated in fig. 180, 181
more constant trim
and 1 82 and discussed later.

Insulation rtqdremeats fa sled
'
The proposals are worthy of careful consideration by naval architects.

Obstructions in
effectiveness
fish
holds
sometimes reduce the
As pointed out by Smith (1951) the calculation of heat flow through a wall of insulating material with intruding
stiffener steel members is difficult and complicated. adjacent to the lining will contribute to a substantial area which will be nearly as warm as the outside of the insulation. Isotherms do not run parallel to the outside
of space available and increase costs when metal tanks, Unit Pens and metal linings are fitted. The architect should strive to provide an uncluttered fish
storagespace.
1209]

TABLE 46
Typfcal
fisfe
CONSTRUCTION
wdght art
Weight
Remark!
Results of sieve analysis of crushed ice at 32'F (0C) as at loading into the fishing boat Per cent, by weight of ice retained on sieve Sieve No. 5.9 1} in. (38 mm.) mesh 64.8 1 in. (25 mm.) mesh 80.1 in. (19 19 mm.) mesh 97.5 9.5 mm.) mesh { in. (9.5
Results of sieve analysis of flake ice at 32 into the fishing boat
F (0C)
as at loading
Per
Sieve No.
1
cent,
mm.) mesh mm.) mesh (19 mm.) mesh in. (9.5 mm.) mesh {in.
i
in. in.
(38 (25
by weight of ice retained on sieve 0.0 41.8 75.2 93.2
Net volume
than gross volume by pen divisions, shelves, stanchions, etc. In bulk stowage, the weight of fish per unit gross volume of fish holds may be considered to be 10 per cent, less than the weight per unit net volume
is less
TABLE 47
Typical
rdatiaf to the
we of taralalioa on the ceiling of

Case considered
Insulation
\.
Factors Material used in construction of vessel
Recommended
Not recommended
Wood
62*F fl.7-O 44
Influence
in text
(
2.
Air and water temperature

Available space in fish room in relation to
catch,
AT30F
fish
on
or 16.7*Q. See hold carrying capacity"
3.
and
fig.
181.
in. (51
maximum qf 2
mm.)
loss
of space
(see
4. Effect
5*
6. 7.
of me of insulation in causing deterimticm of ti* structure Duration of fishing trip. Speck* and type of fish landed.
Fish handung to the area.
:
A /^ mm îi m+ **f it^ ityofice mimr^mif^ft aJ n n mt ^ff TJ> \MmaSaun oc MB recjuirea ana oott or
j
(including space for ice) against existing ceiling of uninsulated boat is original goaf Reasonable, though not guaranteed, provisions made to prevent dry rot. Seven days, Atlantic groundftth (cod, haddock, etc.) landed for ftesn and frozen fish trade. Relatively low-priced fish requiring high cafe of stowing. Ice readily available at low price.
X
fig.
181)
X X
X
"
10.
S^d
availability of suitable insulating
*? to obtain,
butmto
relatively
high compared to price of fiati*

availability
X
X
11.
Cost and
of suitable pro-
itlicoovred to price of
C210J
FISH HOLDS
00
10
t.o
*.o
eo
.o
LOW
.
Of
AC* AT OCMLMO "WOHKt (MCASUMMIMTt 0,0,
ro ro lUUtTMTIOM A
tao
ft,
no
0,
AND
lUMTBATttN
180. Space lost diagram for the ship's side
of a wooden
longtiner
inside wall surfaces and the conductance of any section of unit length is larger than the sum of the conductances of each section comprising the unit. The equivalent insulation depth is in some cases less than half
and
that of the overall insulation depth of the structure, due to the stiffcners alone and without considering the adverse
effect
increase over manufacturers' ratings of 25 to 50 per cent, appears to be warranted for low temperature storages (Lorentzen and Brendeng, 1955; Merlin, 1955). similar increase would appear to be justified for applications in some wet fish holds where wetting of insulation
of grounds, chocks, or fastenings. Where the ship's wall, bulkhead or deckhead
is prevalent. An increase in k could also take care of the effect of grounds between metal stiffeners
by absorption
to offer the
same
is built resistance to heat flow as the con-
ventional cold storage wall, having a chosen depth of insulation, the actual thickness of insulation required on the fishing boat may be determined as follows An average value of the desired* thermal transmission is put in the standard factor, formulaf
:
and fish hold linings. The overall insulation depth, always greater than where ship's members intrude into the material and hence also greater than the depth of frames, may be
determined through the use of available data, in the case of steel ships, obtained from the electric analogue method of accounting for the effect of frame and beam
profiles (Smith, 1951).
U=ft l|
In specifying insulation for steel ships, flanges of

t K|
'
f IQ
'
"
ivi
fc
Ir" K n
beams and stiffeners should be separated from the lining by unbroken layers of insulation, as shown by
fig.
and then the values applicable

fi
182, illustration B.
to fishing boats for f

. .
and
and of k!, k . kn for insulations are substituted. As required, the conductivity coefficient k used for the insulation may
for the surface conditions
materials
and
The Gregson System, found in such trawlers as the Bay Ella, formerly Cayton Bay (Birmabright Ltd., 1951),
is one practical solution to the problem of insulating a wall into which steel stiffeners intrude.
be adjusted to take care of water absorption, effect of convection currents in the wall, imperfect workmanship, etc. The equation is solved for the appropriate symbol
L which refers to the net thickness of insulation when the
Insolation requirements in
wooden
vessels
walls are considered to be without frames, stiffeners, etc. This thickness will be denoted as L, the effective thickness of insulation.
purely *The
The amount of adjustment to be made to k is For rockwool and corkboard an arbitrary.
on hold effect *t varioui values of the qiumtJttot of Ice which should be tte following 2nd and 3rd tub-iections. t See Appendix 1 for explanation of formula.
'
and
is'corisidered in
1) is used for determining heat flow through the- wall of an insulated wooden vessel and it is assumed that the conductance of any unit is the gum of the conductances of each section comprising the unit. The area of wooden frames and stiffeners represents a fairly large percentage of the wall structure. Thus, for ease of installation, etc,, insulation is often omitted from between-frame spaces and is
The standard formula (Appendix
placed
ceiling.
in
uninterrupted
layers
over
the
ship's

coct
cot s
CONSTRUCTION
AT etft.Mtt-MOMCftlMCAM*tlMT
t,O,
IN
ICUT*TION A AND
0,
lUMIHATlON
.MO*)
757. S/wre tot/ diagram far the ship's side
of a wooden
trawler
Iritatnce of insulation on fish hold carrying capacity In deciding upon the thickness of insulation LiOF <fig. 182) and Li (fig. 180, 181), it is helpful to recognize
The
ship's ceiling next to the frames
of the wooden
the point at which fish hold carrying capacity is being sacrificed. Typical instances for the sides of wooden longlincrs and wooden and steel trawlers are considered in fig. 180, 181, and 182. study of bulkheads and
longlincr is 1 in. (25 mm.), both non-insulated and insulated; 1J in. (37 mm.) in the wooden trawler; and \\ in. (37 mm.) with a \ in. (12 mm.) air space for the uninsulated steel trawler.
Insulation
is
continuous between and over frames of

for the non-insulated wall in the steel
the insulated steel vessel.
deckhcads can be made in a similar manner provided that in deckhcads the effect of transfer of heat from the inner lining to the ice by convection be considered. The following assumptions have been made in connection with calculations used in making the diagrams. Thermal conductivity of the insulation 0.33 BTU in./hr./sq. ft/F (0,00011 36 cal. cm./sec./sq. cm./'C).
(25
The U-value
vessel
(fig.
were
182, illustration A) is computed as if the wall without frames and battens.
The inner lining covering the insulation is 1 in. mm.) pine for both steel and wooden vessels. The insulating effect of a covering or coating is very small and
has not been considered.
Zero resistance (l/fi=-0) to heat flow exists in all cases between the inner linings and the ice with which these
are in contact.
A f in. (19 mm.) thickness of crushed ice at 32F (0C) having a density of 36 Ib./cu, ft. (577 kg./cu.m.) and a latent heat of fusion of 144 BTU/lb. (80 cal./g.) will melt in a period of 7 days, AT being 30F (16.7C) and the U-value of the wall being 0.07 BTU/hr./sq.ft./F (0.34 kcal./hr./sq.m./C). A U-value of this magnitude is a common goal in land-based storage rooms maintained at about 32F (0C). In fig. 182 the reference line for computing loss of space at the ceiling has been taken 2 in. (51 mm.) inwards from the flange of the steel frames in both the insulated
flf.182. Spac* but
aâm for thelW*s& of a *t*l trawler

[212]
FISH HOLDS
surface
<rf

been
and non-insulated holds, which corresponds to the ceiling

Heat
the iKm-itwilatedhokL transmittanoc calculations
have
made
sq. ft./F (0.48 kcaL/hr./sq. m./Q, corresponding to the use of 1 in. of insulation, when the storage period is 7 days ( to SO'F, 22.2 to 27.8Q and 0.08 BTU/
AT40
using the standard formula:
hr./sq,
Q=UA AT
where U=thermal transmission factor as defined in Appendix 1 A area of the surface through which the heat flows AT^tempcraiurc difference between the extreme surfaces of the
structure
, in the wooden boats may be 180 and 181 by subtracting in l
2
(
in.
ft./F (0.39 kcai/hr./sq. m./C) corresponding to of insulation, when the storage period is 14 days
AT=*30'F, 16.7<C). Cain hi stowage space may occur in the sted trawler [when combined space occupied by ice, insulation, etc. becomes less than that occupied by a ceiling over an
uninsulated structure together with the when storage is for one day, AT being depending on the thickness of insulation and over the frames as shown in fig. 182.
required ice]
The
thickness of ioe,
fig.
1
obtained from
column
from D,
in the abscissa.
vessel
Note that
the
in the
lost
non-insulated
wooden
at the ceiling, a , is equal to the depth of crushed ice used, D,. For the non-insulated steel vessel, the thickness of ice,
OU=0)
space
t,
may be obtained from fig.
in the abscissa at
182 by reading the number which the curve in question meets
In this case, the space lost at the ceiling is to the depth of crushed ice, D,. equal The calculation requires an additional step for the
Lio,=O.
30*F (16-7Q used between For all longer periods, AT being 30F (16.7'C) or higher, a saving of space may result. For example, space savings of 11.0, 10.9, and 10.3 in. (279, 277 and 262 mm.) result for a period of storage of 14 days, AT being SO'F (27.8C) for the cases where insulation is placed between as weO as over the frames to depths of 1, 2, and 3 in. (25, 51, and 76 mm.) respectively. It thus appears to be quite practical to insulate both between steel frames and over the latter to a depth of
approximately 3 in. (76 mm.) without sacrificing fish hold space when storage periods are 3 days or longer and AT being 30F (16.7C) or higher. The diagrams indicate that, generally, insulation can be used more advantageously on the steel than on the wooden vessel.
insulated steel vessel. First add 2 in. (51 mm.) to C ~(D B 2) in. read from the abscissa in fig. 182 opposite the point on the curve which denotes the thickness of
insulation considered. Second, (D t) thus obtained subtract the
from the algebraic sum number D 4 in column 1, namely the ordinate of the curves. Thus, from fig. 182,
uniformly continuous for 14 days, AT being 30F (16.7C) and the steel vessel having 6 in. (152 mm.) frames at 30 in. (762 mm.) spacing with 3J in. (89 mm.) flanges, the required thickness of ice is (2.4+ 2.0 in.) 3.0 in. =1.4 in. (112 76 mm. =36 mm.). Here, the insulation is placed between and over the frames to a depth of 2 in. (51 mm.). By such a calculation it will be seen in fig. 180 that gain in stowage space may occur in the wooden longliner when storage is 5 days or more, with AT being 50F (27.8C) and 7 days or more with AT being 40F
when
heat flow
is
Influence of insulation
on
quantities of ice to be carried
The quantities of ice to be stowed against the ceiling to combat heat flow for a period of 7 days, AT being 40F (22.2C) are determined with the aid of fig. 180, 181, and
182, according to table 50 (see p. 226).
Water-vapomr proof membranes. The best available vapour barriers and insulations should be selected and their application is most important. Normally, resistance to diffusion of moisture by the material covering the warm side of the insulation should be maximum, that of the material on the cold side should be minimum and that of the insulation some intermediate value.
(22.2C), namely combined space occupied by insulation and associated covering together with crushed ice becomes less than the space occupied by ice when insulation is not used. This gain in space, of course, will continue only to a certain maximum thickness of insulation
The wet
fish hold, finished
on the
inside with a water-
tight covering, needs little maintenance and is better for stowing fish than its poorly finished counterpart. Unfor-
beyond which space
purposes the
minimum
practical transmission factor without loss
is
lost.
For
all
of too much stowage space [assumed extra loss about 1 in. (25 mm.) of space as the result of using insulation] is
0.09 BTU/hr./sq. ft./F (0.44 kcal./hr./sq. m./Q corresponding to 2 in. (51 mm.) of insulation, when the storage periods are 5 days ( AT=40'F, 22.2'C) and
7 days
AT30*F,
16.7C)
respectively.
trawler in fig. 181 indicate that gain in stowage space occurs with the use of insulation when storage is for approximately 14 days, AT being 40*F (22^C). For the practical case where not too much stowage space is lost against the surface* the minimum transmission factor would be 0.10 BTU/hr./
The curves
for the
wooden
tunately such a highly resistant surface to the flow of water vapour is undesirably located on the cold ride of the wall. Unless great care is taken to provide an efficient vapour barrier on the warm side or to prevent water vapour from passing through the insulation, such as in the Minikay system (Bain, 19S5a), condensation in the insulation can be expected. The problem is not as significant in the steel boat where the plating acts as a good vapour barrier, or in the wooden boat where a vapour barrier of lowest permeability is applied to members and materials in situ in the walls and in heatresisting partitions
and decks.
universally accepted standard of water vapour resistance exists. The Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp.,
No
1953, recommended that vapour barriers have a resistance
[213]
FISHING BOATS OF
of 0.2 grains/q.
ft.
T!*
WORLD:
CONSTRUCTION
of surface/in. Hg, pressure diJflferentiaVhn (=0a penns) for storages above 30F (16.7C), and th appears to be satisfactory. Quo of the mot suitable materials for ships is bitumen (Bell, 195?) applied as either a gel-type cutback (used with a petroleum solvent) or a get-type bitumen latex emulsion, in thicknesses of up to i in* (3*1 mm.) to give in, (1.6 mm.). In using a dried film of approximately the former* the space should be well ventilated and sufficient time allowed for the solvent to evaporate before
Varkms The listed
cellular insulations qualify in various degrees for load-bearing applications as do some of the heavier glass fibre materials, but none of the alloy foils or cellulose acetate sheets qualify.
covering with insulation.

barriers in sheet form, e.g. aluminium alloy or polyethylene, require considerable care in placing and are not particularly suitable for boats. Specifications and inspections should ensure that the
Vapour
foil
vapour barrier entirely covers all warm surfaces in one continuous layer. A good vapour barrier should also be used when the insulating material has a high moisture
resistance.
Polystyrene is not recommended (Seiffert, 1956) where temperatures are above about 150F (66C). Expanded ebonite could burn if acetylene welding or cutting were carried out on adjacent steel plates. One solution is to use a non-inflammable insulation, e.g. cellular glass or glass fibres next to the steel plates, and other cellular materials, such as expanded ebonite or polystyrene for the inboard layers. Where interior linings or tank sides constituting the walls are also welded, the use of cellular glass could be indicated throughout, although compromise solutions would still be possible.
There
is
materials.
a wealth of general information on insulating For boat use, the following combined qualities
Air circulation within the insulation Air can circulate across the cavities of an insulating material in situ where these are porous or are of crimped sheets, such as aluminium foils and cellulose acetate. There are sealing difficulties at the joints of layered,
crimped
sheets.
should be sought:
Suitably low conductivity coefficient High resistance to the diffusion of water vapour High resistance to water absorption
Suitable density
FEATURES CONDUCIVE TO EFFICIENT AND SAFE WORKING

Hatches If each fish room has at least one large hatch, bulkstowed fish can be quickly unloaded by the batch, continuous conveyor or bucket method and unloading of boxed fish can be facilitated. MacGregor hatches (Bain, 19S5b) may be fitted. Large hatch covers need not be opened at sea. A successful method (Eddie and Waterman, 1958a) is used in newer British trawlers in which the larger hatch covers are fitted with screwdown manholes for access and for a chute from the fish washer erected above the hatches. Where deck-level wash boxes with screw-down fish valves are preferred and deck space is not available for separate wash boxes, the wash box could be built integral with the centre section of a MacGregor cover or a large cover of the
conventional type.
Lighting
Suitable compressive strength Suitable resistance to rot
Dimensional
stability
under varying temperatures
and humidity
Suitable resistance to flame
Availability
and low
price
will
The following types of insulation
be considered:
^ Cellular,
^
namely corkboard, foam plastics (polystyrene), expanded ebonite, cellular glass Glass fibre slabs
air,
> Those whose efficiency depends upon layers of

e.g.
aluminium foils in an alueolar structure and layered, crimped sheets of cellulose acetate For steel vessels where insulation is not load-bearing, resistance to water absorption is stressed, except perhaps when the insulation is used under the deck. For the wooden vessel, the insulation should also be resistant to rot. When it has to bear substantial loads, in both steed and wooden craft, high density and high compressive
strength are needed.
There should be a generous supply of
flat
marine type
lights placed off-centre as nearly in line with transverse
rows of stanchions as possible and protected by the stanchions. Three-way switches should be provided as well as a warning light visible from the bridge.
to iv&tfcr awofftmi firo rot With die exception of cork, the

i
cellular materials
lifted qualify.
Slabs of corkboard would be much more satisfactory if property coated on all sides with
bitumen than untreated Glass fibres in uncoated stab form

Coatings improve them Layered ahiminium alloy
foils
do not
qualify.
and cdtalose
acetate
and some arc extremely dangerous. The rung-and-stringer type is better than the one having steps OH both sides of a pillar. Pillar-ladders located along the centre line of the fish hold slow down fish handKng, and they are also dangerous. vertical runf-and-ttrin0er ladder should preferably be of meta!i Rungs should have a maximum spacing of 12 in, (305 mm,) and stringers at least 15 in, (381 mm.)
Mostfiflh hold ladders are skimpy
apart.
(2141
FISH HOLDS

Its effectiveness depends on the use of portable and interchangeable movable boards in most of the pigbon^ hole structure. Transverse partitions may be fixed as shown in fig. 183, movable as shown in fig. 184, 185, 186 or a combination of the two.
Central gurry troughs should have skid-proof perforated metal covers. All fish room floorboards should be
skid-proof.
Drafeafe art wai
o* facilities
Where pens extend down to the tank top or to the bottom of the fish room a tier of horizontal shelves should be provided at least 2 or 3 in. (51 to 76 mm.) above. Corrugated metal shelf boards assist drainage to the sides of
the pens.
It is essential
Fixed wooden components get wet even when painted, and this has led to the use of many portable boards in the hope that repeated cleaning, drying, and painting win
that fish pen drainage
is
unhampered
maintained. Drainage can be assisted by stops at the bottoms of stanchions to prevent division boards from dropping. Another way to stop this is shown in fig. 1 86 illustration A. Gurry troughs through the centre of fish rooms should be of generous size, isolated from the bilges, and should not carry piping or other facilities restricting flow or creating a cleaning problem. The sump should be of ample capacity, watertight and completely isolated from the bilges and it should have a perforated cover. It should be possible to empty the sump by means of one or more power-driven pumps, independently of the bilges. Standby pumping arrangements for deck manipulation should be provided. Suction intakes should have strainers. An excessive liquid warning device is useful.
and that
free flow to the
sump
is
Fig. 184. Fish pens with movaMe wooden boards for transverse partitions, pen divisions and shelving. Note the discontinuity
of
battens at stanchions,
and dependence on batten boards vertical and side loads
to
assume
Hot water for cleaning fish rooms can be supplied by hoses through the hatches or by fixed pipes. Fixed pipes avoid confusion and overcrowding at the hatches and on deck, but provision must be made to prevent them from freezing when not in use.
keep them in a better state. Some aluminium alloy portable boards compare favourably in cost with painted wooden boards. Other factors involved in the choice of movable or
fixed partitions are:
*
PARTITIONS, SHELVING, ETC.

Transverse partitions These are considered separately from ceilings. Pigeon holing the catch gives some of the benefits of boxed fish without the inconvenience of handling empty boxes.
fig.
Shelf supports, being standard angles on fixed wings in 183, are apt to cost less than some of the special
fig.
extrusions in
186, illustration A, used with However, standard angles can be used for portable boards in wings in fig. 1 86, illustration B. 185,
movable
partitions.
193. Fish
ent with
a fixed transverse f*n
KMdama&tothe
[215]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WQRU>:

up
CONSTRUCTION
areas where they have not been used before in fish holds to about 6 ft. (1.8 m.) in depth, a bottom shelf to provide drainage and one additional shelf just below the
mid-point of the pen height would be practicable
more
would not be profitable.

Specific shelf positions as indicated in fig. 183, 186, and 187 are to be preferred to indefinite positions indicated by the arrangements shown in fig. 184 and 185 because in the former cases the shelves are more apt to be used.
Shelf supports Undesirable side thrusts can be caused
when
shelves are
Flf.l&S. FUkpwwttmovabkcorriifated aluminium afoy boards far transverse partitions, pen divisions and shelving. Not* the disstancUons and dependance on those transverse conrtmdty ofbatten* boards wkk wUck the skeff hoards art in contact to assume vertical
jammed by pieces of ice and careless placing of the boards. This will occur more often when the location of the shelves is not specific as shown in fig. 184 and 183. Damage caused by side thrusts could be prevented by using heavier boards in transverse partitions as shown in fig. 184 and 185, but better still such loads can be taken
by shelf supports and stanchions as shown in fig. 186, in which case lighter transverse boards may be employed.
and side loads
Loads can be taken on transverse portable boards to which the shetf board battens are fixed or on which they rest as shown in fig. 1 84, 1 85, but this is not recommended,
because excessive side loads
satisfactory solution In general, the
is
COATINGS AND LININGS

Fish
room paints can be classified as follows

Those with a hard-drying phenolic
with specially formulated
Shellac paints
Plastic
oil
may be
experienced.
resin modified
shown in fig* 186. most important improvements in connection with movable elements in transverse partitions of large trawlers would be:
Loading
directly
alkyd
base paints requiring the addition
of a
onto
the
stanchions
all
through
suitable battens
Arranging stanchions so that

are interchangeable
movable boards
and varnishes containing epoxy resins require renewing yearly in whole or in part. None of them completely prevent the wood from getting wet in
service,
catalyst Plastic paints
types.
and they cost about twice as much as other The covering capacity of both plastic and nonabout 500
sq.
ft.
Uak Pea
The Unit Pen (fig. 187) provides pen partitions and pen bottom and back in integral unit form (MacCallum,
19548,
is
plastic paints is
per Imp.
in
per
litre).
Epoxy compounds
gal. (10.2 sq. m. contrast to epoxy
paints have
much lower covering capacity.
195Sa).
Each aluminium alloy pen
illustrated
made of three prefabricated sections. The advantages of the Unit Pen arc:
application of plastic paints is somewhat more complicated than that of conventional coatings, and the
The
manufacturer's recommendations should be carefully

followed.
% Effective welding methods can be used

The
units
can "work**
freely
without the welded
joints breaking
Canadian experience is that fish hold paints should preferably be white with grey and aluminium finishes as
Heavy sheet or light plate can be used Unit Pens can be removed readily and replaced for hull inspection or repair Washing the pen between trips becomes a smaller problem than when wholly "built-up" pens are used The main disadvantages are high first costs and wasted pace behind them when Unit Pens are placed in fish rooms of non-uniform shape or in those in which the shape changes rather abruptly from full to narrow Hues.
widths
Pens should not be tew than about 3

for best working conditions.
ft.
Sin. (LI m.) wide
The number of portable shelve* should be decided on the baits of the fishery needs and on amort practke. In
1
Flf.186.
toy
tki
******* ore
Mrf to met***
216]
FISH HOLDS
- ENGINEERING AND
ARCHITECTURE
the next choke. With time, the degree of covering may be judged effectively, an impression of cleanliness it realized and the effects of wear may be judged readily*
are recommended.
MATERIALS FOB FISH ROOMS

Materials in wet fish holds should be: (a) Suitable for storing foodstuffs (MacCallum, 1954b; 1955a; 1955b; 19S6)
(b) Sufficiently strong
(c)
These metals have good physical (Aluminium, 1957a), excellent resistance to properties corrosion in marine environments, and good wcidabiKty with the comet equipment (Aluminium, 1957b). In general other groups should be avoided, particularly the
copper group.
Waterproof
(d) Suitably resistant to corrosion

(c)
and wear
AM4LC AND ALUMMIUM BTAMCHKM
(f )
Of light weight where portability is required Of light colour or painted a light colour, preferably
white
CUT
(g) Inexpensive
Hum
THUS AT
items except (e) apply in whole or in part to fixed partitions, portable boards and most linings, and (e) may apply in the latter case when screens are used to cover
ceilings.
AH
TOP rot mscuno Or POUND OAflO*
-ALUMNMJM EXTKUftON
Characteristics of aluminium alloys are referred to in a
published Bulletin (MacCallum, 19SSa).
The magnesium and magnesium silicide group of wrought alloys, heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable,
OOUNTIMUMCHUO
HfVtTt
GALV.MSI
Fig. 188.
Method of fixing aluminium
alloy stanchions in fish
care,
Designs and specifications should be prepared with taking advantage of assistance available from
aluminium producers. Even with the alloys most resistant to corrosion, serious corrosion may result from poor fish room design.
This can be avoided
if:
Aluminium alloy linings never rest on steel stiffeners The sheets are of adequate thickness to resist
puncturing Other metals are isolated from them by at least 1 in. (25 mm.) air space. Where passage must be provided through aluminium altoy structures, a thick electric non-conductor should be used to separate the other metal from the aluminium alloy Aluminium alloy stanchions and stiffeners are
suitably isolated
fig.
from
steel
members
as
shown
in
188 and 189
All fastenings used in connection with aluminium alloys are: (a) aluminium alloy; (b) zinc or cadmium
187.
V*it
K* instated i* the fi* room of the

CtpcArfoi
coated if of steel (copper, brass or bronze should never be used) ; (c) non-metallic Portland cement concrete in fig. 189 and plaster ate not poured or laid against aluminium alloys
1217J
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD: 2

Partitions:
CONSTRUCTION
9
of wooden boards, metal boards and metal screens. In wooden vessels, such
To be considered bere arc: Wood phw coatings and shielding
partitions" the Unit
These are discussed under "Transverse and "Integral transverse and Ceiling coverings Pen *, above. Watertightness in linings: The use of aluminium alloy
members as deckbeams are included in the term "lining" where these form part of the inner storage space (as in uninsulated boats). All exposed woodwork in a wet fish hold tends to gain in moisture content after a short period of service despite the use of paints and coatings* Only woods with the highest resistance to fungal attack should be used in fish rooms, deck beams
structural
linings to provide water-tightness is feasible, but costs are high. Chilling in refrigerated sea water has stimulated
the need for tanks involving quantities and gauges of materials and weldments similar to those used in the construction of the Unit Pen. (MacCallum, 1954a, 1955a.)
The
metal.
simplest
and cheapest watertight lining is welded The main objection is said to be that the wall
and frames
included.
In the spring of 19S8 a thick epoxy compound was applied to the rather imperfectly dried linings of two New Brunswick small trawlers with a good measure of success.
If it is known from experience in a particular fishery that added protection to that offered by paint is going to be needed, several possibilities exist: (a) at the time of building, the bare wood may be covered with glass fibre reinforced plastic; (b) portable wooden or metal boards may be provided to protect well-painted linings and bulkheads ; (c) metal screens may be used as panels for the
beneath can be reached only by removing the lining, but gasketed access doors to the hull can be provided in the lining, and modern welding techniques are such that patching and rewelding of cut areas can be
efficiently
done
rapidly.
The
alternative
is
to use
movable units
same purpose.
successfully
Polyester resins without reinforcement cannot be used on fixed partitions and ceilings of trawlers
in service.
is
which have been
A combination of resin
and
such as the Unit Pen (fig. 187). Mechanical joints as typified by British Patent Specification No. 799, 238 (1958) appear to be of exceptional quality. They should be differentiated from applications in which simple mechanical lapping of plates or butting of plates on wooden grounds is practised. Failures of applications of the latter type have occurred. Insulants used as seals in mechanical joints should be chosen with caution. The preparation of faying surfaces should be discussed with aluminium alloy suppliers.
not impractical but some cracking, tearing and loosening will tend to occur after a period of two to three years (MacCallum, 1958). Success in laying the material and in service was achieved in two Newfoundland longliners built in 1957 and 1958 according to Monroe. No shovels or forks are used in these
glass fibre reinforcement
fish holds.
characteristics of boards are the same as those outlined for materials for fish holds together with correct thickness and width; correct overall length;
Pen boards The required
correct contour of ends.
The most economical use of these materials is on new woodwork on which one layer only of glass cloth is used
Structural strength is provided by the which in the case of the ceiling may be material backing the ship's sheathing. Where insulation is placed over the ceiling, i in. (6.35 mm.) thick marine plywood may be placed over the insulation as backing material for the
"glass".
with the resin.
Correct techniques must be used to obtain satisfactory with glass fibre reinforced plastics. It is also essential that forced ventilation be provided during application to remove toxic gases and to reduce fire
results
hazards.
on
Portable boards to protect linings may be desirable certain areas of the linings. These movable boards, of
painted wood or aluminium alloy, can be removed for washing and drying, and repainted, if required. Metal screens can be used in the same way as given for portable boards above. There is the added benefit that screens in fig. 190 retain ice between them and the walls to which they are attached. (MacCallum, 1954c,
1955a, 1956).
In the case of wooden boards some of these factors should be more fully considered along with additional aspects, such as: Checking: To prevent checks from developing, the timber should be properly seasoned and stored, and painted immediately the boards are cut. Thickness and width: In general, a softwood board of about 1 in. (25 mm.) nominal thickness can be used in widths of up to 6 in. (152 mm.) without fear of excessive loss through splitting; but thicker boards are often used. Shape of cross-section: Paint on softwood boards wears first at the square corners and then spreads to other areas (MacCallum, 1958). Whether or not a different cross-section will prolong the life of the paint has not been established. Length of boards and end cutting: Boards should be about t in* (12.7 mm.) less in length than the distance between the grooves in the stanchions. Their ends should be cut to an arc or otherwise dubbed off. With aluminium alloy boards the choice and design
size, shape and distance apart of the and the load or combination of loads the board wifl cany, Its design would be greatly simplified and com lowered by supporting shelf battens directly on stanchions. Boards 4 ft, 0*22 m,) long and f to 1 in* (23 to 25 mm.) thick, used as shown in fig. 186, are
depends on the
stanchions,
Aluminium
alloy:
These are given in table 48 and 49
far North Atlantic vessels.
satisfactory.
[218]
FISH HOLDS

TABU 48
TypfadwfcrW*
feyfl*
Hardness
Non-heat treatable alloys of as high a work hardness as can be fabricated and erected successfully be utilized in sheets and plates
Alloy numbers according to Canadian Standards Association (CSA).
'Alloy numbers according to British Standards Institute (BS).

British Standards Institute alloy 1477-NP5/6 [e.g. Noral B 54S (Northern Aluminium Co. Ltd., Banburv, U.K.) and Alcan B 54S(Aluminum Co. of Canada, Ltd., Montreal Canada)] may be an alternate choice when a major part of the fabrication work is by welding. There is very little low in tensile strength of this alloy as the result of welding as compared to BS 1470-NS 4, 4 BS 1476-NE6 [Alcan 56S (Aluminum Co. of Canada, Ltd., Montreal, Canada)] may be an alternate choice when stanchions are fabricated from individual extrusions and welding is a major factor. Cognizance should be taken of the relative mechanical properties of alloys 1476-NE6
andl47-HE20.
The nearest Canadian equivalent is HA
5.65.
KJaiMeatf metal have been selected to reeist forest ccmW be reduced whe less rigoroiis U^tment is to be expected. In general than it is in custom-built pen applications.
it is
easier to fabricate
Gauges and erect heavy gauge sheets in Unit flan
{219]
CONSTRUCTION
r* to
fttattc
type.
The ratttelaf
afler*
Atutnlia Auttri*
Germany
Moral 518
Itdy
Spate
SwitnrUuHl
U.S.A.
6051
Ctmpotitb*
SIS
AA31S
AJodur533Cr
AlminalWlO
BA25
BirnwtalOtt
1U.FS SAl L. 107
Al-Mg-Si
0.6
1
KonotetalCr
AR5IS
Al-Si-Mg
Birmbrteht019
DurmiuminX
DuraUfcunft
T1441
S-JSJJ/S
Dakoral S24
1200
AleanBSIS
Cmrbioi4
Aiuw4
ErbdodiL41
Fucte 3355
AlMfSI
NoralB51S Kynal M39/2 TI44I

TI 444
Antkorodftl 11
Aludur 533
Al-ft
-Si
i
F177 iMtorml
AntkoKxUl
KorrofeKal
Vtvl
RE 2
KSB
Al-Si-Mg
A-SG
HowI
Durelumlo H HidumJoiuro44
BA25
P-AlSilMfMn
MWU4
Fanul(43)
AlmlwUWM AWCO25
BirmeUl071
H30
PoUuJ
UkmU
VermasU
Vmfel
VolUl23
ZimU
548
AA54S
Atetn54S
Alumaf 35
VB3
AIMf 3
Nora! 54S BA 27
Birmabrifht 3
F.M. 3
Al-3Mg
Al-
M
3 5
VirpUum3 A-O3
MG 3
Kynal
M 35/2
P 35
Italkimag 35
TI 223 AbttinalW5
Peraluiwn 35 P-A1 Mf 3.5 Alnurit 30
AltmwcMM 35
HkhinJoiuin 33
TI223
AWCO 27
N5
Moral B54S
J54S
CSAGM40 AIMf 5
Alcan B54S
Heddenal 54
BAM27
AR-B54S
5083 5086
Al-Mg-Mn
4.3 0.3
BirmabrightS Kynal NI35/3 Kynal M36
IMG
MG5
35
T1224
HMumtnium
N5/6
A56S
CSA OM50N DonOlnox H5

Sckral6
Alcan A56S
Alumag50
NoralA56S
P-A1
BA28
Birmabright 5
Mg 5
Aludur 500
Al-5
Al-Mg-Mn
5
Mg
0.3
A-G5
Kynal
MG5
M36
TI225
AlmlnalW6
AkinufMM 50
AWCO 28
N6
57S
Hiduminium05
A A57S
Alramag
3 Alcan 57S
CSA OR 20
Alumag 25
Carbinox 3
2 Hydronattum Hy3 Peraluman 305 Moral 57S
MG
N4
F.M. 2 F.M. 24
A-G2
AlMg
MNG3
PwOumafi 30 Al-3Mg
SAIL. H3
Itattuma_25
P.
ASTMGR20A
IAE201
AlMg^.5
Almarit25
65S
AA65S
Afcan65S
CSA GS IN
I
AR65S
OSIIA
Kynal
M40
[220]
FISH HOLDS
The fottawiagpoinUshouki be observed:
Edges thouJd be square flirtings of a corrugated board should be such that sharp ridges are not presented to the stowed fish. Some firms make reversible boards with left and right hand edges which avoids any difficulty in
The
this respect
Boards with many corrugations become slippery in the central work area. It might be simpler, safer, and cheaper to use wooden boards in this area
A balance should be struck between the need to maintain a wide pitch of corrugations to reduce board weight and cost and the need to avoid a section which will fail through column effect.
For length of boards and end cutting the same remarks apply as made for wood.
Stanchions
Fif. 190.
Ufht weifht aluminium alby screens fabricated as panels are used over all fixed pen surfaces in the trawler Beauscjour II
Wood
should be used only for smaller
vessels.
Galvan-
ized steel or
aluminium
alloys are suitable materials for
The cheapest method to attach studs or cleats to steel stanchions to support shelf battens is by welding. If for various reasons welding is not practicable, riveting
(Jefferson, 1958b) may be substituted. Every effort should be made to provide
medium and large vessels*
In general, extruded aluminium alloy stanchions are better than those of built-up galvanized steel, and they are the same or a slightly lower
a deck struc-
and weight excellent advice concerning design of aluminium alloy stanchions can be obtained from some aluminium alloy sales development organizations. Fishery engineers probably have as good an appreciation as anyone of the necessary profile for a stanchion. The naval architect, of course, should have the last word in matters of strength. The principles involved in the proper attachment of
aluminium stanchions to concrete
floors are illustrated
price (Jefferson, 1958a). As to size, shape, strength
combined with the regular fish room stanchions, obviates the need for pillars on the centre line of the vessel near hatch coamings or under winches, etc. The use of glass fibre reinforced plastic for wet fish room linings, and aluminium alloys for stanchions, pen divisions and shelving might eventually become common
ture which,
practice.
SMALL FISHING CRAFT

Small fishing craft vary greatly in design and use, and the naval architect should consider each request for fish
by
fig.
189.
room and fish storage layouts and specifications according

to the needs of the client.
Nevertheless,
it is
possible
by
studying one basic craft to extract concepts concerning arrangement and use of materials which can be applied to other designs.
LONGLINERS
The
to basic design of the large Cape Island boat of 36 ft. (11 to 13 m.) LOA, shown in fig. 191, has an open cockpit with a watertight floor made from 1J to
42
li in. (29 to 32 mm.) wood. The floor is supported on cross-timbers laid on their flats athwartship above the keel and bolted to the underside of the knees. It is
9AIJMMIZID
iTIIL
drained either by means of scuppers, with plugs, or by flow forward to a point aft of the engine, housed in a box as shown in fig. 191, thence to the bilges. Three hatches, flush with the floor, are fitted in each cockpit to give access to the space below. All fishing and stowage operations are conducted from the cockpit, the fish being taken from
the power-hauled ionglines and stowed ungutted in a centrally located bin of maximum capacity of about 6,000 Ib. (2,720 kg.), placed fore and aft of the engine box.
f. 189,
Method offixing aluminium alloy

(CoittWy
U ItovtM
<*
I*
stanchions in fish roams Aluminium)
Thwarts, on smaller boats, tie the vessel together just below the wash board. The floor is only a few inches.
[221]

2
CONSTRUCTION
mm.) or
and 3
less insulation
in. (51
could be used in colder

in warmer.
climates
in.
(76
mm.) or more
The
material should be light and
fire resistant
where the bin

Suitable
or tank
is fitted
with a welded inner lining.
materials for the linings are marine plywoods thoroughly coated with epoxy resins, glass fibre reinforced plastics and metal sheet or plate, such as weldable sea-waterjoints
aluminium alloys, galvanized iron with soldered and steel covered with epoxy resins. Bin exteriors should be solidly made and have lifting lugs. Materials and coatings should be equal to lining material in resistance to dampness, water, and fish gurry, and should be able to endure the wear and punishment expected. Drainage should be provided in watertight bins, which
resistant
should be suitably trapped to minimize the melting of ice. Condensing units and heat exchangers can be installed below the cockpit sole, forward of the engine, where mechanical refrigeration is required for chilling and storing the catch in sea water. The condensing units, circulating pumps, etc. can be driven by the main engine.
LARGER LONGLINERS, SMALL TRAWLERS AND CUTTERS

Lack of co-ordination between those concerned and of
interest in the space which is to carry the pay-load often result in an unnecessarily small and irregularly shaped
Island boats tied up at Claris Harbour,
Fig. 191.
Cape
Nova Scotia,
Canada
above the top of the keel. Stowage and work space be subdivided by transverse bulkheads of uncaulked softwood boards extending from the floor to just below the wash board. The thwarts may receive loose boards which are laid fore and aft to protect the catch from the
room. The owner often has to accept two or more odd-sized pens. Much more satisfaction could be achieved if the naval architect and builder were to recognize that this topic is as important to the prospective owner in the planning stage as discussion of main engines, winches, etc.
fish
may
Wooden
Stanchions, hatches and "wings" craft of 45 to 65 ft. (14 to 20 m.)
LOA
are
sun.
The planking is 1 to 1J in. (25 to 38 mm.) pine, caulked, puttied and painted outboard and treated with copper naphthenate on the inside. Steam-bent hackmatack frames of about j to 1 in. (19 to 25 mm.) thickness and varying in width from 3 to 5 in. (89 to 127 mm.) are
used, clear distances between frames being approximately equal to frame width. There is no inner ceiling.
almost always fitted with wooden fish rooms housed below a full deck. One small hatch can give access to the fish room, or the hatch can be considerably enlarged,
particularly in some longliners where the opening provides headroom in a shallow-depth craft.
Almost all areas and surfacing materials are subject to great wear. Insulated boxes are seldom provided for ice, and the fishing trip lasts for hours, not days. canopy could be fitted over the fish bin, particularly if it were
In selecting the size of hatch, a balance should be struck between space requirements for moving fish to and from the fish hold, deck space needed for fishing and gutting operations, and deck stowage space for small boats, while at the same time regulations concerning
scantlings
for hatches
observed. considered
and hatch coamings must be hatch width of 3 ft. (91 cm.) should be
side of
placed athwartship. epoxy resin paint or similar coating might well be used on floor boards and bulkhead
An
minimum. Generally two rows of stanchions, one on each
boards for smaller boats, and both inside and outside the bin for larger boats. The latter could be fitted with a
grating for drainage. Insulated tanks or bins can be installed in the larger Cape bland boat at low cost because there is no upper
the fish room, are provided in a fore-and-aft direction. Where the upper ends of stanchions make contact with
Bins should be well secured but easily removed, whether fitted or empty. In the former case it might be necessary to have a number of smaller units* The size would depend upon lifting capacity at the dock and suitaide bin construction to prevent hogging and wracking.
deck.
hatch-end beams, the centre-to-centre distance of the latter will be an even multiple of transverse and longitudinal stanchion spacing to provide complete interchangeability of pen and shelf boards. In longliners, where the multiple is two, stanchions at the halfway position of the hatch may be secured to the underside of the hatch-dividing beam (strong-beam). In this case hatch width can be greater, equal to, or less than stanchion spacing.
1222]
FISH HOLDS
When
the stanchions

and those used athwartships between inner rows of stanchions and those used for shelves. The advantages are that more of the fish room fittings can be removed
for washing, drying, repainting or renewing; for equal deflections the material used in wing construction can be
lighter
make
contact with the caritns,
fore-and-afters, there cannot be complete interchangeability of pen and shelf boards unless the transverse
distance between the centres of these carlins is equal to the longitudinal spacing of stanchions. Thus the spacing
is established with an arrangement of this type once the width of the fish hatch is selected, and vice
of stanchions
versa.
A simple design for a stanchion, which has proved to be

satisfactory,
in
is
Nova
Scotia,
used by an experienced builder (Wagstaff) 192. fig. Although probably more
than that required where a deep fixed wing is there is greater flexibility in stowing tad the catch. When there is one movable and unloading one fixed section in each wing, the width of the fixed section can be reduced to between 3 and 4 ft. (0.9 to 1 .2 m.) in any craft in this range of sizes. When costs
used,
and
Fig. 192. Right hand: section through the fish hold of a longliner showing conventional provisions for ventilation of between-frame spaces, as practised by Wagstaff and Hatfield Ltd., Port Grevillc, Nova Scotia, Canada. Left hand: alternative method suggested by the author of venting
space between frames
costly than the ploughed section, it is cleaner, since its surfaces are easier to paint and repair effectively and
cheaply by simple batten replacement. Where ploughed stanchions are used, the standing portions should be spiked according to Mines, The width of the grooves in
the stanchions should be approximately i in. (6.3S mm.) greater than the thickness of the penboard. For larger boats an additional row of stanchions outboard of the first should be considered. Thus the
allow the series of narrow boards to be substituted, it is possible to use J in. (19 mm.) marine plywood or metal panels cut to the curve of the ship's ceiling. The plywood should be finished with epoxy resins or equally satisfactory coatings or with glass fibre reinforced plastic.
Movable stancWons-Hthe boxing of fish In Denmark most fish is landed in boxes: exterior box
dimensions, including handle bars at each end, are 36 x!9#x 7} in. (914x500x187 mm.). The stanchions in the cutters are often removable to facilitate box stowage of herring. Empty boxes are often stacked on board in a wooden gallows on one side aft next to the
steering house as
normal fixed "wing" of the pen is broken down into a movable section between inboard and outboard stanchions and a fixed section between the outboard row of stanchions and the fish room ceiling. The movable section is filled in with individual penboards interchangeable with those used in the fore-and-aft directions,
shown
is
in
fig.
193.
Galvanized iron
generally used for stanchions in
[223]
CONSTRUCTION
readily accessible,
The holds should be
and bins or
The question has been pillars should not be fitted. raised by Traung whether tracks might be used efficiently and safely for the movement of barrels in the fish
room.
Shelving in pens in which the fish are bulk-stowed has the advantage that crushing is reduced and the whole catch can be more effectively segregated with respect to species and time of catch, thus facilitating discharge and
subsequent disposal. For groundfish operations, shelving composed of individual movable boards can be used
effectively every
depth.
(76 to 91 cm.) of stowage practice of placing the intermediate shelf slightly above the one third point of the pen height, measured from the bottom drainage shelf,
2J to 3
ft.
The Norwegian
appears to be sound.
Pen drainage
193. Racks for aackiKt **&ty wooden boxes o* a new Danish steel trawler of about 100 tons and 80ft. (24.5 m.) length
Cottrttsy Fldt*rtmi*ttt*rl*ti Fori+gslaboratortum. Cof9*h*s**,
To
facilitate
fish,
drainage from each pen used for bulk*

stops can be placed at the bottom of each
stowed
floor.
cutters and in comparable Norwegian Metal lends itself particularly to use in stanchions which have to be fixed securely yet must be capable of quick removal and be good for repeated service.
modern Danish
boats.
stanchion to support bottom pen boards clear of the Likewise, battens can be used at the bottom of all wings for a bottom tier of shelves which should be at least 2 to 3 in. (SI to 76 mm.) clear of the floor of the
fish
room.
Hadiig facOHks Ior
barrels
CeOingft, betweeo-fnu ventilation
ttfl-deck-beams and stiffcner
Aboard some Norwegian vessels herring are salted in barrels on deck and the barrels are stored in the hold. According to Haraldsvik, the main requirements on deck are to have two or three bins in which to keep the fish before salting, and a good winch and hooks for
handling the barrels.
for ventilating the space between the wooden vessel planking and the ceiling is often given different significance from area to area. And sometimes a striking
The need
difference of opinion and practice exists among naval architects in a single area. The former differences are
understandable in that species and characteristics of
Fig, 194.
32
GT and 46 ft.
(14.1 m.) length
[224J
FISH HOLDS
wood
water and air

is
used, type of construction and temperature of may be responsible for various degrees of
and naval architect should consider the need for ventilation. Ventilation installation may be costly and the quantity of ice melted might be expensive from the standpoint of fish lost. Further investigations are needed. Aboard Esbjerg cutters, air circulation between frames is considered to be the cause of ice melting rapidly.
Accordingly, provision is made to cut off air circulation while the fish are in stowage. To provide air circulation for drying when desirable and to allow washing behind
the ceiling, a removable board is placed between each pair of frames where the ceiling meets the concrete, about half way up and again near the top of the ceiling in Skagen cutters and in the top and bottom positions in Esbjerg cutters as shown in fig. 194. Similar procedures in any other area would depend
resistance to fungal attack. Every boat owner, builder
considered to be necessary, on a continuous or on an intermittent basis, a system similar to that shown for the longliner at the left of fig. 1 92 might be a solution. Hie
spaces to be ventilated might be vented to the central
work area by pipes embedded in the concrete of the fish room bottom in a vessel of the trawler type. Where loss of ice due to ventilation is serious, a
remedy can be found
available.
if artificially
refrigerated air is
An
trawlers
Cape
application of this type is found in the Fourchu and Cape Scutari (MacCatlum,
19SSa)
fig.
19S.
\\ in. (38
mm.) diameter pipe was
upon:
(a) Ice losses due to continuous natural circulation of air behind the ceiling, e.g. the method used in Canadian longliners as shown in the cross- section shown to the
where circulation is confined to the and the method applied in some Nova only, Scotian small trawlers where means are provided for an exchange of air through a pipe and manifold system, between each between-frame space, throughout the whole of the boat, including the fish room, and engine room and
right of fig.
192,
fish
room
forecastle spaces.
(b)
effect
An
assessment in the area concerned of the relative
alternate wetting and drying of the enclosed woodwork as in the Danish cases, in comparison with environmental conditions associated with other designs.
(c) Scale of scantlings used: Hines has indicated that scantling thickness has been reduced to a minimum and the cutting of sections from strakes in the inner ceiling cannot be tolerated in constructing Nova Scotian small
on fungal development of
trawlers.
This difficulty could be avoided by increasing the thickness of the ceiling adjacent to the severed strakes, but in general the idea loses much appeal for
craft
such as those used in the Canadian Atlantic prowhere fish rooms may change shape drastically, thus requiring that several strakes be cut on a bias.
vinces
Fig. 195. Section through the fish hold of the trawler Cape Fourchu. Two air circuits are in parallel, the ventilating air circuit outboard and the refrigerating air circuit inboard. The lower pipe in the
d+awing
is
for draining the between-frame spaces
liners as
Were continuous air circulation, as in Canadian longshown in the cross-section on right of fig. 192,
not desirable, the author suggests, at the left of the for figure, a modification of the Danish system non-insulated and insulated longliners. Closing discs are provided on the goosenecks which are connected to pipes leading up the sidewall between each adjacent pair of frames. It is intended that the discs dose the pipes in front of the pens carrying toed fish or bulk ice. Where air circulation between the fish room and the frames' space of the non-insulated and insulated trawler
same
up each frame space from two S in. (127 mm.) diameter headers extending fore and aft at the bottom of the hold. There was a connection between 'tweenframc and 'tween-deck-beam spaces. The air supply for the ventilating circuit was bled from a refrigerated air supply which had a primary duty to maintain a temperature of about 31 F ( 0.5'C) within the jacket provided on the fish room side of the insulation. Thus the primary refrigerated air circuit and the ventilating air circuit were in parallel. About S per cent of the re* circulated, refrigerated air was made to pass through the ventilating pipes and into the 'tween-frames and
started
'tween-deck-beams spaces*
[225]
PISHING BOATS OF THfc WORLD:
CONSTRUCTION
AFMMMX1
thermal transmittanoe t overall coefficient of heat trans* mission or transmission factor, across a wall expressed in BTU/hr./*F/sq: ft. or In taU,/hr,/C/5q. m. of wall surface is the fedpiocal of the total air-to-air or medium-to-medium resistance Rtothe flow of heat offered by the wall ;
(1)
-, R
,
and
R*>
Rn
(2)
in hi. or cm. of each layer of homogeneous material in the wall and k lf k, kn thermal conductivity for 1 in. or 1 cm. thickness of the corresponding homogeneous material in BTU/hr./sq. ft. of surfaoe/'F temperature difference or kcal./ hr./sq. m. of surface/ *C temperature difference existing across a unit thickness of the homoi
Lt L* LQ - thickness
j*
material,
-resistance at the inside surface of the wall to 11 the (tow of heat where ft- inside film or surface radiation, conductance, and convection in BTU/hr./sq. ft. of surface/ *F temperature difference or kcal./hr./q. m. of surface/ temperature difference between the surface and the surrounding medium,
^--resistance at the outside surface of the wall to t the flow of heat where f outside film or surface radiation, conductance and convection in BTU/hr./sq. ft of surface/ F temperature difference or kcal./hr./sq. m. of surface/ temperature difference between the surface and the surrounding medium,
whence
R
showing tnat the resistance to the flow of heat increases with the thickness of the insulating
materials.
C
Therefore U
+ C+LS+
_Ln
(3)
Where an air space exists in a composite wall and the conductance of the air is a, the resistance offered by the air to the flow of
heat is I/a, hence this term will appear in the denominator of equation (3) along with
Reference should be
made
of
Rn"*resistanoes of the various materials, of which the structure is composed, to the flow of heat.
books
for
(3).
values
to suitable handin the constants
equation
TABLE 50
Necesaary weight of crushed
ke
to carry boat heat flow for
a period of 7 days
Weight of crushed ice Metric ton Short tons (2,000 Ib.) per 100 sq. m. per 1,000 sq. ft. surface
surface
6.2
6.1
Type of boat
Transmission factor BTU/hr./sq. ft./0F

0.27 (no insulation)
0.13
[1 in.
Depth of crushed
in.
ice
mm.
107
51
Wooden
longhner
4.2 2.0
2.2
(25
mm.) insulation + inner lining]
3.0
3.2
2.9 3.2
Saving
56
63
38
Wooden
trawler
0.1 6
(no insulation)
[I in.
2.5
1
3.7
3.6
2.1
1.5
0.10
(25
mm.) insulation dinner lining]
.5
2.2
1.5
Saving
Steel trawler
1.0
25
0.37 (no insulation) 0.08 (full insulation between frames. 1 insulation over frames + inner lining)
5.7
in.
145
8.5
1.9
8.3
1.9
1.3
33
Saving
4.4
112
6.6
6.4
[2261
ICING VERSUS FREEZING

by
JOSEPH W. SLAVIN
comparison is made of technological aspects of freezing and icing at sea. The freezing trawlers Delaware and Northern Wave art discussed in detail, and the procedures used aboard these vessels are evaluated in comparison with the procedures used on similar conventional trawlers, using ice. Emphasis is placed on (1) handling aboard the vessel, (2) storage on the vessel, (3) unloading and handling ashore, (4) quality aspects of frozen fish, and (5) the factors affecting the costs of freezing at sea. On the Delaware, brine-freezing round Ash prior to rigor mortis resulted in (1) slower handling aboard the vessel; (2) reduction of the vessel's capacity by 58 to 42 per cent., with capacity still higher, however, than the maximum capacity presently being utilized by Boston trawlers; (3) an increase in the time required to unload the vessel; and (4) increased handling at the shore-plant as compared with icing on the vessel. Brine-frozen fish stored at (- 18C) for 8 months were of high quality; the texture was Arm, and the fish was easy to fillet On the Northern Wave, plate-freezing eviscerated fish after rigor mortis set in resulted in (1) increased handling aboard the vessel; (2) reduction of the capacity of the vessel by about 30 per cent.; (3) an increase in the time required to unload the vessel; and (4) excessive handling at the shore plant because of the large space and long period of time required for air-thawing the fish as compared with icing on the vessel. Plate-frozen fish must be stored at (-29C) for maximum quality. Fish so stored were of high quality after 8 months; however, the texture was soft, and the fish were difficult to fillet. The factors affecting increased costs of freezing at sea as compared with icing at sea are (1) extra personnel required to operate freezing equipment: (2) additional cost of vessel due to freezing equipment and additional space required for storing frozen fish; (3) repairs and maintenance of freezing equipment; (4) insurance and depreciation of freezing equipment; (5) fuel for operation of freezer; (6) additional equipment and labour required for unloading the frozen fish; (7) frozen storage and associated handling costs ashore; and (8) equipment and facilities for thawing the frozen fish. Despite the increased cost of freezing at sea, sight must not be lost of its many favourable aspec aspects; namely, (1) the maximum utilization of the capacity of the freezer ship every trip; (2) the landing offish of uniformly high quality; and (3) t of frozen fish ashore for and slack It is that new recommended vessels storage during glut periods processing marketing during periods. built for freezing groundfish at sea rather than to convert existing trawlers, which are old and do not lend themselves to this application.
0F
-20F
LA MISE EN GLACE OPPOSEE A LA CONGELATION

et
L'auteur compare les aspects technologiques de la congelation et de la mise en glace & bord. Les chalutiers congelateurs Delaware Northern Wave sont examines en detail, et les procedures employees & bord de ces navires sont evaluees par comparaison a cellcs employees a bord des chalutiers similaires courants utilisant la glace. L'auteur insiste sur (1) la manipulation & bord ,(2) rentreposage a bora, (3) te dechargement et la manipulation a terre, (4) les aspects de la qualite du poisson congete, et (5) les facteurs affectant les couts de la congelation a bord. A bord du Delaware, la congelation en saumure des poissons entiers avant la rigor mortis a eu pour resultat (1) une manipulation plus lente a bord du navire; (2) la reduction de la capacite du navire de 58 & 42 pour cent, avec cependant une capacite encore plus grande que la capacite maximum utilisee actuellement par les chalutiers de Boston; (3) une augmentation de la duree necessaire pour decharger k navire; et (4) une augmentation de la manipulation a 1'usine a terrc par rapport a celle avec mise en glace a bord. Des poissons confides en saumure, entreposes a (- 18C) pendant 8 mois etaient d'une qualite elevee, la texture etait ferme et il etait facile de fileter les poissons. A bord du Northern Wave, la congelation dans un congdlateur a plaques de poissons evisceres apres PetaWissemeirt de la rigor mortis a eu pour resultat (1) une augmentation de la manipulation & bord, (2) la reduction d'environ 30 pour cent de la capacite du navire, (3) une
0F
etaient
de haute qualite apres 8 mois; cependant la texture etait molle et il etait difficile de les fileter. Les facteurs affectant I'augmentation des couts de la congelation en mer par rapport a la mise en glace & bord sont:
(1) to
personnel
qui y sont associes, et (8) Pequipment et les installations pour decongeler les poissons congeles. En depit des couts plus eleves de la congefetion a bonl,ilnefautpMr^r^devuesejnombreux aspects favorably & chaque sortie, (2) to debarquement de poissons d* une qualite uniformement efevee, et (3) 1'entreposage a tern de poissons conades pendant les pcriodes d'abondance pour Ic traitement et la mise en vente pendant tos periodes creuses. L'auteur recommande que, plutot que de transformer les chahitiers existants, qui sont vieux et ne se pritent pas a oette application, on oomtniise de nouveaux bateaux pour congrier
des poissons de chalut & bord.
LA CONSERVACION EN HIELO FRENTE A LA CONGELACION

El autor compara tot aspectos tecno!6gicos de la congelaci6n y de la conservacion en hido a bordo. Se examman con pormenoret treros congdadores Delaware y Northern Wave y los procedimientos emotoados a bordo de ellos se evaluan en comparacioii con
mautorfc*iste(])inani^^
A tordo dei Zfetowor* la
ci^
[227J
abQfdodeibsm,X2)iaf*^

actua tmenic por lot airaslreros de Boston, (3) un aumento
CONSTRUCTION
i
dd tiempo necesario para detcargar d baroo y (4) un aumento de la 3 de tierra en comparaddn con d empleo de hide en d barco. El petcado congdado en sahnuera, almacenado a 0F (~18 C) durante t meses era de may buena calidadt de texturt firme y fAcil dc flletear A bordo dd Norther* Wave, la congelation en congdadores de pkcat de peecado eviscerado despues dd oomionzo de la rigor mortis multo (1) en un aumento de k manipulation a bordo, (2) en la reduction en 30%, approx., de k capacidad dd barco, (3) un aamento dd tiempo nocDstrio para dsscanjar d barco, y (4) excesi va manipulation en las fabrics do tierra debtdo al much o etpatio y largo tiempo necesariot 1 petcado congelado en congdadorat de placas para deacongekr d petcado al aire, en comperacion con ef petcado comervado en hielo. 20F (-29C) para obtener la mejor calidad. El petcado afmacenado de etta manera era de gran catidad despues de debe mantenene a 8 metes, pero la tcxtura en Wanda y d petcado diffcil de fitetear. Lot iactorat que influyen en d aumento dd cotto de k congelation a bordo en comparacion con d emptoo del hido ton: (1) d pencmt timtaientario que hace falu para i^ y al etpetio tuplementario necesario para almacenar el petcado congdado, (3) las reparationet y roantenimtento dd equipo de congelation, (4) d seguro y la depreciation dd equipo de coiigelaci6n,(5)dcombu*tibtoneccsa^ necetanoft para detcargar d petcado congelado, (7) d ahnacenamiento en frigorificos y los costos de manipulation en tierra relaclonados con el, (8) d equipo y las mstalackmes para detcongelar d pescado congelado. A pesar dd mayor costo de la congelation a bordo no se deben perder de vista muchos aspectoa favorabtos entre los que estan: (1) aprovechamiento maximo de k capacidad dd buque congelador en cada viaje, (2) la descarga de pescado de calidad uniformementc alta, y (3) d almaoenamiento en tierra de pescado congelado durante perkxios de abundancia para tratarto y venderio durante epocas de eacasez. El autor recomienda que e constniyan barcos nuevos paracongelar a bordo k pssca de arrastre, en vez de transformar los arrastreros existentes que, ademas de ser viejot, no se prestan para esta aplicacidn.
n
la ftbrica
limited period that fish can be satisfactorily stored in ice aboard the vessel, coupled with the need to fish farther away from home in order to
full pay load. Factory ships have been are and successfully being used by the U.K., developed West Germany, and Russia, for processing and freezing at sea. The high cost of these vessels and the problems
IN been influenced by the
recent years much consideration has been given to the freezing of fish at sea. These considerations have
The freezing method is: Whole haddock are frozen
in
0F
(-18C) sodium
chloride brine (22 per cent, salt by weight) immediately after they are landed on the vessel. The normal procedure is to load the round fish into one or more of 1 1
return with a
several
in obtaining crews that are willing to stay at sea for months at a time, however, have prevented their use in some countries, particularly the U.S.A.
metal baskets, each having a capacity of 450 Ib. (204 kg.), located in the freezing tank. The baskets are moved by mechanical means through the cold brine. The fish are frozen in } to 4 hr., depending on their size, are unloaded from the tank, and are conveyed by a chute to the
The freezing of fish aboard the trawler, without processing, has been suggested as a solution to the high cost
and labour problem associated with the operation of factory ships. It was thought that such a freezer trawler would enable the fishermen to return to port with a full pay load of fish, which could be either processed
immediately or put into storage for future processing, depending on market conditions. Two trawlers recently have been developed for freezing the catch at sea, without processing aboard. These are the Delaware (fig. 196) in the U.S.A. and the Northern Wave in the U.K. Many reports have been issued concerning their development and operation. The object is not to review these reports but, instead, from data concerning the development of these vessels, mainly the Delaware, with which the writer
is
where they are stacked by hand. absorption system, having a designed capacity of 25 tons of refrigeration (75,000 kcal./hr.), is used in connection with two heat exchangers to provide the necessary cooling of the brine and of the frozen fish hold. The freezing capacity is 1,000 Ib. (454 kg.) of fish per hour, in terms of small haddock. The Delaware has made several large-scale commercial trips. More than 50 short tons (45 ton) of brine-frozen fish were landed each time. These fish were distributed to
0F (-18C) fish hold,

An ammonia
fish
processors
and
dealers,
who thawed and
filleted
directly associated, to compare the technological aspects of freezing and icing on the vessel. Emphasis is
placed on handling, storage and equipment requirements, keeping quality of the fish, and unloading and dock-side Some information on the processing requirements* factors affecting the costs of freezing and icing is also
given.
then were packaged, frozen, and marketed in the usual commercial manner. The Northern Wave measures about 188 ft. (57 m.) overall and has a beam of 28 ft. (8.5 m.) and a draught of 15 ft. (4.6 m.). The fish were eviscerated on board and then stored, with ice, in a "buffer" storage pen. After rigor mortis set in and before the third day of storage, the fish were removed from the buffer pen and loaded into one or more of the 16 vertical plate-freezing
them.
The
fillets
units. Each freezing unit was capable of producing three 63-lb. (29 kg.) slabs of frozen fish. The freezer had an average capacity of 500 Ib. (227 kg.) of fish slabs
The trawlers Delaware and Norther* Wmve The Delaware is similar in size to the large
trawlers
operating out of Boston. It measures about 148 ft (45m.) in overall length, 25 ft. (7.62 m.) in beam and has a depth of 15 ft. (4.57 m.), a gross tonnage of 303, and a
enuring range of 8,000 nautical miles*
period of 4J to 5 hr. was required for slabs of fish were then stacked by hand in the -20F (-29C) hold of the vessel. This vessel has made eight commercial-teak trips and has landed over 250 short tons (227 ton) of frozen fish. Much of the frozen fish landed hoi been distributed to fish processors and dealers who air-thawed it and marketed it in the chilled or smoked state.
per hour.
freezing.
The frozen
[228]
FISH
HOLDS
Fig. 196.
The freezer trawler Delaware with no processing equipment
Differences in opinion exist between British and U.S. researchers as the merits of freezing in brine prior to rigor mortis and plate-freezing after rigor mortis sets
in;
ferred
good
results are reported for
both procedures.
put into aluminium boxes, and transfrom the boxes to the vertical plate-freezer. The labour and time required for handling were therefore more than were those required on the Delaware or on
ice storage,
from
Handling aboard the vessel

well known that fish must be iced immediately to minimize the loss of quality. Evisceration, washing, and icing of the fish can be accomplished quite rapidly under commercial conditions. On a Boston trawler, for example, a crew of six men can eviscerate, wash, and ice about 5,000 Ib. (2,270 kg.) of fish within an hour after they are landed on deck. If the rate of catch exceeds the rate of handling, fishing must be stopped or the trawling period must be increased to allow more time to stow the
It is
fish.
Similar handling rates are reported for British
trawlers, using ice. In freezing at sea, the fish
must be handled as rapidly

of quality also will
result.
as in icing, otherwise
loss
On
conventional trawlers using ice. The capacity of the refrigeration system, the time required to freeze the fish, and the size of the catch must be given serious consideration in designing a freezer ship. The Delaware has a freezing capacity of 1,000 Ib. (454 kg.) of fish per hour, and not more than 3,000 Ib. (1,360 kg.) of fish can be put into the freezing tank at once without increasing the brine temperature excessively. Accordingly, if a catch of 6,000 Ib. (2,720 kg.) is landed, 3 or 4 hr. may lapse before the last fish are put into the freezer. The capacity of the freezing system, therefore, must be based on the maximum catch that can be expected within a 24 hr. period; also, sufficient quantities of brine must be used to compensate for the large initial loads of fish. For Boston trawlers, a capacity of 2,000
Ib. (907 to 1,130 kg.) of fish per hour would be satisfactory with sufficient quantity of brine to permit the loading of 6,000 'to 7,500 Ib. (2,720 to 3,400 kg.)
the Delaware, six men can normally sort and wash 1,000 Ib. (454 kg,) of round haddock, load these fish into the freezer, and remove an equal amount of fish from the freezer in about 15 min. In an hour, these fishermen
to 2,500
of fish at once. Also, some space should be provided for

icing the fish in the event of extra large catches. The freezing capacity for the Northern Wave of only 500 Ib.
could theoretically handle 4,000 Ib. (1,810 kg.) of fish both into and out of the freezer, which is slightly less than the rate of handling for feed fish. The freezing capacity is however not sufficient to permit the loading of 4,000 Ib. (1,810 kg.) of fish at one time. On the Northern Jffevt, the fish were first iced for a period of 12 hours to 3 days and then were removed
(227 kg.) of fish per hour, which is less than that of the Delaware* was thought to be adequate because of the method used to store the fish in ice for a mii|rifmîft of 3 days prior to freezing; thus, the storage of fish in toe served as a buffer, tending to smooth out the effects of
1229]
FISHING BOATS OF THB WORtU:

ktfge and tmaUcitchca on the freezing load Itispossibte, however, that this capacity would not be adequate if relatively large catches were landed during the first several days of fishing.
CONSTRUCTION
Storage on the Consideration must be given to the effect of freezing or icing on the storage capacity of the vessel, since the capacity governs the maximum pay load offish that can be landed. The capacity of the vessel on which the fish are stored in ice is in direct relationship with the available hold space, the quantity of ice used, and the size of fish. In freezing at sea, the capacity of the vessel is reduced over that of a vessel of similar size using ice, because of reduction of hold space resulting from the installation of
cooling coils, insulation, and refrigeration equipment.
would result in an increase in the vessel's storage capacity, hi terms of round frozen fish, from 125,000 Ib. (56,700 kg.) to 185,000 Ib. (83,910 kg.) thus, if these changes were made, the earning capacity of the Delaware would be reduced by about 42 per cent, instead of 58 per cent., as compared with its original capacity in terms of icedgutted
fish.
The additional space required for storing frozen fish as compared with that needed to store iced fish further
reduces the quantity of fish that can be landed by the vessel In storing iced, gutted haddock on Boston trawlers, the ratio of fish to storage space was found to be about
45
Ib./cu. ft. (721 kg./cu. m.) of hold space. On British vessels of the Northern Wave class, the ratio of fish to
is said to be lower than that on Boston being about 32 Ib./cu. ft. (513 kg./cu. m.) of hold space. This is probably due to the additional ice used on British trawlers because of the long period of time that
storage space
vessels,
larger than the Delaware, hold of 18,000 cu. ft. (509 cu. m.) with a capacity of about 500,000 Ib. (227,000 kg.) of iced fish, prior to conversion to a freezer ship. This capacity is proportionately less per cubic foot of hold space than is that of a Boston trawler of similar size. It is reported that the Northern Wave, as outfitted for freezing at sea, had 10,000 cu. ft. (283 cu. m.) of space for the storage of a maximum of 280,000 Ib. (127,000 kg.) of iced fish and cold storage space for about 70,000 Ib. (31,750 kg.) of frozen fish. The earning capacity therefore was reduced only about 30 per cent, because of conversion to freezing at sea. This vessel, however, was equipped to freeze only about 20 per cent, of its total possible catch, whereas the Delaware was able to freeze about 83 per cent, of its total possible catch. If the Delaware were equipped for freezing only 20 per cent, of its catch, as was the Northern Wave, the reduction in its original capacity would be only 25 per cent. This comparison shows that as the ratio of frozen fish storage space to iced fish storage space increases, the total capacity of the vessel decreases.
The Northern Wave, which is

fish
had a
these vessels are at sea.
The Delaware, prior to being converted trawler, had approximately 8,000 cu. ft.
of hold space for the storage of iced
fish.
to a freezing (226 cu. m.)
Careful consideration, therefore, must be given to the maximum quantity of iced fish that is to be landed in determining the feasibility of freezing at sea.
In the conver-
The information presented above shows

at sea results in
that freezing
sion, however, the hold space was reduced to about 600 cu. ft. (17 cu. m.) for storing iced fish, presumably the
last 2 days* catch,
and 3,800 cu. ft. (108 cu. m.) for storing frozen fish. Thus, a reduction of 3,600 cu. ft. (102 cu. m.) or 45 per cent, in space available for fish storage resulted. The reduction in space was attributed
the following: freezing tank and brine piping ft. (23 cu. m.); refrigeration machinery 1,300 cu. ft. (37 cu. m.); and insulation, bulkheads, refrigerated 1,500 cu. pipe coils, and other miscellaneous lost space
to
capacity of In evaluating icing or freezing, however, one also must consider to what extent the maximum capacity of the vessel was utilized when handling iced fish, and
in the
a reduction
maximum
the vessel.
800 cu.
how this capacity compares with that of the vessel as converted to a freezer ship. It has been observed that many vessels of the Delaware's size are now operating at 30 to 40 per cent, of their maximum capacity. It also may be noted that the Delaware can utilize its hold
space fully, every trip, and thereby operate at 42 per cent, of its maximum iced fish capacity, as now outfitted. This figure can be increased to 58 per cent, with more efficient use of space. Thus, theoretically, the Delaware has a higher level of productivity per trip than have many
(42 cu. m.). Also, only 33 Ib. of round brine-frozen fish could be stored per cu. ft. (529 kg./cu. m.) of hold space on the Delaware as compared with 45 Ib./cu, ft. (721 kg./cu. m.) for storing iced fish. This further reduced the pay load of fish that could be landed. In all, owing to the reducft.
tion in hold space and the increased space required for storing frozen fish, a total reduction in carrying capacity from 360,000 Ib. (163,300 kg.) of iced fish as originally
For proper evaluation, trawlers, using ice. however, the increased productivity of the freezer ship, as compared with that of iced trawlers, must be weighed against the increased costs associated with freezing at sea.
existing
designed, to 125,000 Ib. (56,700 kg.) of frozen fish and about 25,000 Ib, (1 1,340 kg.) of iced fish resulted because of conversion to freezing at sea. Thus, die total earning capacity of the Delaware was reduced by approximately
Unloading aid banking
To determine the feasibility of freezing at sea, one must

time, labour and equipment required for unloading the frozen fish from the vessel and for handling these fish at the shore plant with those required for the similar handling of fish iced at sea in the conventional manner. Costs and requirements for handling die frozen
compare the
58 per cent. This loss in capacity could be decreased somewhat by installing the refrigeration machinery in the engine room rather than in the fish hold and by more efficient arrangement of bulkheads. These measures
[230]
FISH
fish
HOLDS

this vessel in
then must be evaluated by both vend operators and processor! in terms of the overall advantages of this technique.
5 to 6 hr. or at an average rate of about
In the unloading of iced fish from a large Boston trawler, the fish are loaded from the pens to a basket, which has a capacity of 150 to 175 Ib. (68 to 79 kg.) of iced fish. The baskets of fish are then hoisted to the dock, and the fish are dumped into a weigh box mounted on a simple platform scale. Two scales customarily are used to weigh out the fish being unloaded through each of the two hatches on the vessel. The fish, after being weighed, are loaded from the weight boxes to carts or boxes and are hauled to the plant for filleting. About 16 men are used to unload iced fish, 6 in the hold, 4 on deck, and 6 on the dock. These 16 men can unload a large trawler at a rate of about 30,000 Ib. (13,610 kg.) offish per hour, which is a comparatively fast rate in spite of the primitive methods used. On trawlers of the Northern Wave class, the fish are handled somewhat similarly, except that a small hook often is used to transfer them from the hold to the unloading baskets. These fish are weighed into aluminium kits of 140 Ib. (64 kg.) capacity, which are transferred to the auction hall. The procedure used to unload frozen fish from the Delaware consists of transferring the fish by hand into
the unloading baskets, hoisting the baskets to the dock, and dumping the fish into boxes of 500 Ib. (227 kg.) capacity, in terms of frozen fish. The fish in the boxes
are glazed by spraying with fresh water and then are transferred by mechanical lift trucks to the cold storage
(5,670 kg.) per how. Thus, on the Northern Wave, the reduction in unloading rate was similar to that which occurred on the Delaware. It is believed that the quantity of frozen fish unloaded per hour from the Delaware and the Northern Wa*e
12,500
Ib.
could be increased considerably by more efficient arrangement of the fish hold to facilitate more rapid handling of the fish and through the use of elevator type conveyors, which can transfer the fish directly into a cold store located on the dock. It is doubtful, however, if the application of these methods would increase the rate of unloading frozen fish to a rate that would compare favourably with the one for iced fish.
Handling ashore Much of the groundfish landed in New England is marketed in the form of frozen fish fillets, whereas, in the U.K., groundfish are marketed predominately in the
fresh (chilled)
and in the smoked state. The purpose of both the Delaware and Northern Wave projects was to provide a source of high quality raw material that could be stored ashore during glut seasons and then be removed from the cold store as needed, thawed, and processed in the manner common to the trade. It was thought that this would keep the processors supplied with raw material
during the slack season. In handling the fish ashore, the processor has to take into consideration, in addition to his normal processing requirements, the facilities and cost for storing the frozen fish and for equipment for thawing these fish prior to
processing.
weighed on a large platform scale, prior to being placed in the frozen storage room. The weight of frozen fish loaded by an experienced crew averages about 85 Ib. (39 kg.) per basket, which is considerably less than the figure of 150 to 175 Ib. (68 to 79 kg.) for iced fish. This decrease in the capacity of the
plant.
Each
lot
of
fish is
The
fish frozen
aboard the Delaware can be
satis-
factorily stored in the cold store in large
boxes in lots of
500 Ib. (227 kg.). The frozen-storage charges are higher than those for packaged fish because of the increased space required per pound of fish and the extra handling
required to glaze the fish. If the fish are processed in small quantities, the 'boxes can be removed from storage the day prior to processing, and the fish can be thawed overnight by keeping the box flooded with a continuous stream of freshwater or clean seawater at temperatures
basket and the additional time required in transferring the fish to the baskets reduce the rate of unloading considerably. Recent tests show that, with two hatches being unloaded, a gang of 14 men can unload the Delaware
at a rate of about 15,000 Ib. (6,800 kg.) of frozen fish per
hour. This is a reduction of about 15,000 Ib. (6,800 kg.) per hour or 50 per cent, as compared with the rate of 30,000 Ib. (13,610 kg.) per hour for unloading iced fish. Thus, on the Delaware* the time required to unload frozen fish is twice that required for unloading iced fish
on
similar vessels.
On
the Northern Wave, the size of the hatch openings
was increased to facilitate unloading of the frozen fish. The slabs of frozen fish, averaging 63 Ib. (29 kg.) were hoisted from the hold on wooden skids. At the beginning of unloading only 4 blocks could be used per skid
because of the limited hold space available for handling the fish. After an hour, however, when the hold was partially emptied, 12 Mocks could be unloaded on a single skid. It is reported that 10 men could unload about 70,000 Ib. (31,750 kg.) of frozen fish blocks from
from 45 to 60F (7 to 16C). Only 3 hours is required to thaw haddock of normal size thus, if necessary, the fish may be removed from the cold store early in the morning and processed in the afternoon. Thawing the fish in boxes, however, would not be practical for a large plant having a capacity of 2,000 Ib. (907 kg.) of fillets per hour for an 8 hr. shift because of the large amount of storage space and the large supply of water required. Assuming a 33 per cent, fillet yield in such a plant, for example, approximately 48,500 Ib. (22,000 kg.) of raw material or 97 boxes of fish would have to be thawed at one time. For handling large quantities of fish, thawing tanks made of wood or non-corrosive metal, therefore, should be installed in or adjacent to the plant Three thawing tanks, each having a volume of 825 cu. ft (23 cu, m.) and a capacity of 16,500 Ib. (7,480 kg.) of frozen fifth, would be suitable. The size of the storage tanks is based on a ratio

for flih of 20 Ib./cu. ft (320 kg./cu. m*) of available space. Assuming a 20F (1 TC) drop in the temperature of the coding water, about 1,250 U.S. gal. (1,040 hap. gal.,
fin
CONSTRUCTION
ddock
lined, processed,
and marketed
fish processors and dealers at regular intervals of frozen storage. The fish were put into the 18C) (
by 19
0F
4,730 L) per hour of 60F(16Q water would be required for each tank if the fish were to be thawed in 12 hr., nd 5,000 U.S. gal. (4,150 Imp. gal., 18,900 1.) per hr. would be required if they were to be thawed in only
3hr.
The blocks of fish frozen aboard the Northern Wave can be satisfactorily stored in the cold store on pallets or wooden skids. Since these fish are in block form, they can be packed more tightly than can the Delaware's individual brine-frozen fish and therefore will occupy less space in the cold store. It has been recommended,
however, that these
rather than at
fish
cold store immediately after being unloaded from the vessel. Samples of fish were withdrawn from the cold store at bi-monthly intervals of storage by the participants, who water-thawed and filleted them; the fillets were then packaged, frozen and marketed in the manner customarily employed in the frozen fillet trade. The participants also noted the quality of the fish as compared with regular iced fish, on a form prepared for this purpose, and sent their comments to the U.S. Fish and WildService. The comments showed that water-thawed brine frozen haddock could be filleted easily, that the fillets were of good texture, flavour and odour, and that
life
be stored at
20F
as suggested for the fish frozen on the Delaware. It is doubtful if there are sufficient cold storage facilities available in the U.S.A. or
in other countries that will meet such temperature requirements. Investigators working on the Northern Wave project
0F
29C)
(-18C)
recommended
that the fish blocks be
thawed
in circu-
they compared favourably in quality with iced fish. It noticed, however, that these fillets were of slightly darker colour than similar fillets from iced fish and that they had lost the characteristic bright sheen of iced fish fillets. This darker appearance was not considered to be detrimental to the product, since much of the colour bleached out during subsequent frozen storage.
was
lating 65F(18C) air prior to processing. The procedure
followed was to remove the frozen fish from the cold store about 40 hr, before needed, lay the fish out on shelves in a specially designed room, and, with fans, maintain uniform circulation of the air over the product. Electric heaters were used to maintain the air at the required
temperature. Under the above mentioned 20 to 24 hr. was required for thawing the fish
conditions,
;
The maximum acceptable storage period at 0F 18C) for the brine-frozen fish was judged to be 8 months. Subsequent laboratory tests conducted on fillets prepared from brine-frozen haddock at intervals
(
after
which
time, they were weighed out into 140 Ib. (64 kg.) capacity boxes and iced, prior to filleting or smoking.
It appears that more space is required for thawing frozen fish with air than with water. In view of the requirement for more space and the long period of time required for thawing in air, air thawing might not be entirely practical for large scale commercial applications, where 50,000 Ib. (22,700 kg.) offish may have to be
of 0F (-18C) frozen storage verified these results. Other tests showed that the average salt content of fillets prepared from water-thawed brine frozen fish was less than 0.5 per cent, for both round and eviscerated haddock. These tests demonstrate that haddock can also be brine frozen at sea in the eviscerated form as well as
in the round, uneviscerated state.
In the Northern Wave project, over 250 short tons (227 ton) of fish frozen at sea in block form were made available to fish dealers and processors who thawed and marketed the fish in the chilled and smoked state. Similar samples
were also evaluated by project investigators at intervals

of
thawed at one time.

Quality aspects
-20F
It
29C)
was found
frozen storage. that fish frozen on the Northern
Wave
known that fish stored in ice aboard the remain at an acceptable level of quality for only a relatively short time, even though they may have been handled under ideal sanitary conditions. The acceptable
It is generally
20F kept their quality for 8 months of storage at (-29C) and that these fish could be satisfactorily
fish
vessel will
smoked. Industry commented, however, that the thawed were softer or looser in texture than were good
storage period for eviscerated haddock may vary from 8 to 16 days, depending on the handling, icing, and*
techniques of sanitation. For freezing at sea to be a success, the quality of the thawed frozen fish must compare favourably with that of iced fish that has been properly handled. Nothing is to
quality iced fish. cutting the fillets
Some difficulty was also experienced in from the thawed fish. The fillets lacked
the characteristic sheen of iced fish fillets, as did the fillets prepared from brine frozen fish in the Delaware project.
Some of
this
sheen was restored by dipping the
fillets
in a 50-per cent, saturated brine solution. The aforementioned experiments indicate
that
the
be gained by employing freezing-fish-at-sea techniques that will result in a product of lower quality; such a practice would have no possibility of financial success. Investigators on the Delaware and Northern Wave projects have taken this into consideration and have conducted extensive laboratory and industry tests to determine the quality of fish frozen at sea. In the Delaware project, 30 short tons (27 ton) of brine-
quality offish frozen at sea compares favourably with that of iced fish. It is believed that the brine freezing process
used on the Delaware firmed up the texture of the fish, making them easier to fillet than plate frozen fish. Much of the fish on the Northern Wave was smoked; therefore, texture was not as important a criterion of quality as in
the Delaware project, where the the frozen state.
fillets
were marketed in
[232]
FISH HOLDS
The question of whether or not

Additional equipment and labour required for unloading the frozen fish
freezing fish at sea is economically sound depends to a great extent on the nature of the fishery involved and on many other factors common to vessel and processing plant operations and
marketing techniques. Many times, even though a promay be economically sound, unexpected equipment failures and labour or marketing problems may result in financial loss. The Delaware and Northern Wave both were commercial vessels converted to freezer ships. They were, at best, experimental vessels. A study of the economics of their operations would mean little, since much was learned that could be put to advantageous use in the design of a new freezer ship. The purpose here then is not to make an economic analysis of these freezing operations, but instead to present information on how freezing at sea can be accomplished best and on the factors that should be considered in preparing a cost analysis of this
cess
Factors affecting processor co0ts Frozen storage and associated handling costs
Equipment and
fish
facilities
required for thawing the
For freezing at sea to be a profitable venture in a separate vessel-plant operation, the additional costsassociated with vessel operation must be offset by the return resulting from the landing of a full pay load. It i*
probable that the processor would pay less for fish frozen at sea than for iced fish because of the additional expense in storing and thawing the frozen fish. This must also be taken into consideration by the vessel operator, since it
would
affect the price received for the catch.
It
therefore
technique. Studies on the Delaware and Northern Wave projects indicate that conversion of an existing trawler for
costly and, in many cases, is not practical because of the age of existing trawlers and the
appears that the economics of freezing at sea become more attractive as the harvesting ability of the vessel
increases.
seem to
integrated vessel-plant operation would offer the best possibility of financial success.
An
freezing at sea
is
limitations placed on the freezing process because of the design of the vessel. It would be far better to have a new vessel built that is designed specifically for freezing fish
at sea.
In such an operation, where prior to freezing at sea the plant only operated part-time owing to lack of fish, the financial gain due to full-time operation of the plant
using frozen fish could be used to offset costs associated with vessel operations.
some of the high
In determining the costs of freezing at sea, the following should be considered, in addition to the costs associated with the handling of iced fish Factors affecting vessel costs Extra personnel required to operate freezing
:
Overall evaluation
equipment
Additional cost of vessel due to freezing equipment and additional space required for storing frozen fish Repairs and maintenance of freezing equipment Insurance for freezing equipment Depreciation of freezing equipment Fuel for operation of freezer
Freezing at sea, therefore, resulted in slower handling vessel, reduction of the vessel's capacity, an increase in the time required to unload the vessel,, increased handling at the shore plant and increased costs, as compared with icing on the vessel. However, these
aboard the
must be weighed against the more favourable aspects of freezing fish at sea; namely, the maximum utilization of the capacity of the freezer ship every trip,
factors
the landing of fish of uniformly high quality and the "stock-piling" of frozen fish during glut periods for pro* cessing and marketing during slack periods.
[233]
TUNA FREEZING
by
CHOMATSU DOKE
often
lasts for
and
SEIGORO CHIGUSA
Japanese tuna boats have highly developed refrigerating systems, because (i) they must operate in tropical waters, (ii) a fishing trip two months or more. Modern tuna freezing systems are described in detail, and the study is intended as a reference for the tropical operation of other
fishing vessels.
LA CONGELATION DU THON
<ii)
une
la
pour
Les thoniers japonais sont munis de svstemes de refrigeration tres de*veloppes parcc que (i) ils doivent operer dans ies eaux tropicales, de peche dure souvent deux mois ou plus. Les systemes japonais modernes pour la congelation du then sont decrits en detail et I'etudc est conûc pour scrvir de reference peche tropicale d'autres navires de peche.
sortie
CONGELACION DE ATUN
<ii)
Los barcos atuneros japoneses tienen sistemas de rcfrigeraci6n muy perfeccionados porque (i) tiencn que pescar en aguas tropicales, con frecuencia los vtajes duran 2 meses y mas. Se describen con pormcnores los sistemas modernos empleados por los japoneses para congclar atun. Tiene por objeto la comunicacion scrvir de referenda para otros barcos que pescan en aguas tropicales.
A S TUNA boats operate mainly in tropical waters,

JL
f-\
their fishrooras are insulated
JL equipped with refrigeration.
and almost all are The larger and more
The cost of this equipment

of total construction.
recently built tuna boats also carry freezing equipment. often amounts to 20 per cent.
sides, walls and and special attention is given to draining the bilge water from the melting ice, which otherwise impairs the quality of the catches. The period of preservation should not exceed 45 days. Stowage is about 30 to 36 lb./
arranged on the bottom as well as
ceiling,
cu.
ft.
(0.48 to 0.58 ton/cu. m.).
METHODS OF PRESERVING THE CATCH

Fresh raw tuna is much in demand in Japan. The larger boats on long trips, however, freeze the entire catch, while the medium-sized boats bring back some of the catch frown and the rest in the fresh and chilled state.
Storage by
boats pre-cool the fish in chilled sea water prior to storage in crushed ice, e.g. the gutted catches are put into a sea water tank and cooled to about 32F (0C) for 2 to 3 hr. before storage in the ice hold. This is called
Many
the pre-cooling system
(fig.
197).
Freezing
There are three systems for freezing the
fish,
namely:
coW sea
'
(i)
air blast;
(ii)
contact;
(iii)
brine
e.g.
Ottesen type.
method, catches are preserved in cold sea which is cooled by crushed ice or evaporator grid,' to about 32F (0C). The water is led directly into the fishroom, and the gutted, round tuna are kept submerged by a weight on the top; sometimes crushed ice or newly cooled water is added during storage. This method is often used for short trips. Stowage is about 45 Ib./cu. ft. (0.72 ton/ cu. m.) of the fishroom.
this
With
-water,
Air Mast freezing. This is the most common method. or semi-circular gutted catches are put into a battery of refrigerating coil installed in the special freezing 22F room, and are frozen by cold air blast of 13 to (-25 to -30C), which is forced through the pipes by 2 to 3 h.p. electric blowers placed at the ends of the
Round
The time necessary for freezing is 15 to 20 hr., and the rate of freezing is usually 5 to 10 ton per day. The pre-cooling system is sometimes used, in order to
battery.
Gutted round tuna are stored in the hold, together with crushed ice, and fishrooms arc usually equipped with refrigeration to prevent the toe from melting. As air convection does not take place, evaporator coils are
shorten the freezing time. Contact freezing. Contact freezing by means of plate freezers is mainly used for fillets. This is a highly efficient method, as it can be carried out two or three times
repeatedly in a day. It
is,
however, seldom used because
[234]
FISH HOLDS
of the moll demand for fillets in Japan. Even if this equipment is installed, it is generally used only for about 30 per cent, of the catches, the main part being frozen as round fish.
Brine freezing (Ottesen's system, fig. 198). The brine, salt to water, is cooled to a temperature
TUNA FREEZING
TABLE
ia
51
tfce
ft* hoMs of
200
Mar* N*. 26 art 32, Mlt 1958

Pre-cooling tank
.
GT SmmiyoM
U8cu.
470 cu.
ft.
made by adding
of
32F
. .
(0Q
ft.
(3.35cu. m.)
to to 21C) by pumping circulation, the catches are submerged in this brine and frozen for 10 to 12 hr. This method is sometimes used in larger
6F (18
Preparation
room
ft.
(13.3cu.m.)
boats requiring good freezing but this is not so suitable for the tuna because it results in crooked shape and the penetration of salt. Frozen round tuna are stacked in the fishroom at about (-18C). Stowage is about 36 Ib./cu. ft. (0.58 ton/cu. m.). Hat fillets are put into cartons and stacked in the fishroom, stowage being about
Freezing
room
2,383 cu,
-22F (-3
(67.5 cu.
,)
Frozen fish storage hold
7,097 cu. ft (201 .0 cu. m.)

1
0F
,4F( - 17C)aiid - 1 3.0"F(- 25*Q
45
Ib./cu.
ft.
(0.72 ton/cu. m.).
Condensers, horizontal shell and tube types: 3 ft. (910 mm.) diam. x 11 ft. 10 in.
(3,600mm.)
(16
effective
length
x|
in.
mm.)
plate thickness
in.
Inner tubes, 2 Effective area
.....
(50.8
mm.) diam.
2 120
1,069 sq.ft.
(99 sq. m.) 14
Propeller fans, 3 h.p.
An example
table 51.
for a boat of 250 to 300
GT
is
given in
The
principal machinery
is:
Ammonia
36
15
compressors: Japanese RT (475,000 120,000 kcal./hr.) 75 h.p.
BTU/hr.,
.
.
(198,000 Japanese 50,000 kcal./hr.) 30 h.p.
RT
BTU/hr.,
.
.
Condensers, horizontal shell and tube type: 2$ ft. (760 mm.) diam. x 9 ft. 10 in.
Fig. 197.
Tuna pre-cooling installation in the forward part of the deckhouse working on the principle of chilled sea water
(3,000 mm.) length Inner tubes, 2 in. (50.8 mm.) diam. 2 ft. 2 in. (660 mm.) diam. x 5 ft. 11
.
.
.1
.
80
in.
Examples
large ships are completely refrigerated use ice. typical example is the following:
(1,800
mm.) length
.1
.
Most
and do not
Inner tubes, 2
in. (50.8
mm.) diam.
.
48
Propeller fans, 2 h.p.

3 h.p.
.3 .2
Hoku Maru
(1,200 GT), built April 1957

Ib.
Freezing capacity (combined freezing system): 66,000 (30,000 kg.) per day Bait hold: 152 cu. ft. (4.3 cu. m.), 32F Pre-cooling tank: 671 cu. ft. (19 cu. m.), 32F
REFRIGERATING CAPACITY AND PIPING

Refrigerating capacity values in tables 52 to 54 are standard capacities for the direct expansion system: 20 per cent must be added to the capacities in the case of indirect cooling.
(0C) (0C)
The
Freezing room: 8,190cu. ft. (232 cu. m.), -22F(-30C) Frozen fish storage hold: 63,700 cu. ft. (1,804 cu. m.),
1.4F (-17C)
Pre-cooling
teak:
For the pre-cooling tank, the

can be selected from table 32.
refrigeration capacity
Ammonia compressors:
88.5 Japanese
RT
(1,160,000 BTU/hr.,
. .
Freezing room: The freezing capacity in relation to the refrigerating capacity for various types of freezing is
1 294,000 kcal./hr.) 150 h. p. 58.8 Japanese RT (775,000 BTU/hr., 2 194,000 kcal/hr.) 100 h.p.
.
given in table 53. Storage hoM: The refrigerating capacity of the fish storage hold is given in table 54.
[235]

TABLE 52
CONSTRUCTION
;
tank: Pipe lengths in the prôoottng tank or sea water cooling hold are given in table 55. Table 56 shows the length of pipes for Rearing
mm:
Pre-cooting capacity
per 24hr. 3 ton (6,600 !b.)

5 ttm
(1 1,000 Ib.)
Ib.)
Refrigerating capacity, Japanese (13,175 BTU/hr. or 3,320 kcal./hr.)
RT
given refrigerating capacities. Storage bold: Table 57 gives the pipe fitting ratios corresponding to fish hold spaces, other than those listed in tables 55 and 56.
7.3
10 ton (22,000
14.5
INSULATION
Combination boats Boats of this type are engaged in skipjack pole and line fishing from April to September in the coastal and off-
The standards for cooling coils in the direct expansion system are given in tables 55 to 57. In the indirect cooling system, the figures are increased by 20 per cent.
Necetmry
TABLE 53
refrigerating
TABLE 54
capacity for fish holds of various
Refrigerating capacity. Japanese (13,175 BTU/hr. or 3,320 kcal./hr.)
RT
Volume of storage hold
CENTRE
UNE
SECTION
A-A SECTION
WORWNG ROOM PLAN

FREEZNO 1MXK PLAN
Fig. 198. Freezing Installation built
on the Otteion brine freezing principle
[236]
FISH HOLDS
TABLE 55
TUNA FREEZING
I* far
3 ton (6,600 Ib.) 5 ton (11,000 lb.) 10 ton (22,000 Ib.) 15 ton (33,000 lb.)
138ft.
(42m.)
211
ft. (
64m.)
329 ft (100m.) 395 ft. (120 m.)
Renwks: The
table above applies to the evaporation process for flooded type with cooled sea water circulation at 16 in. (0.4 m.) with per second, cooling coils of 1 1 in. (34 nun.) outside diameter.
shore waters, and in tuna longline fishing during the

skipjack off-season. As skipjack fishing requires live bait, the tank must be constructed so as to keep the bait alive in sea water, this
IM-
being circulated through valves in the bottom of the boat. On the homeward voyage, the bait tanks, as well as the ice holds on the sides, are used to store the catch. The tanks must, therefore, also be insulated. The insulation is usually of two or three layers, each 2 in. (5 1 mm.) thick, sandwiched with soft wood sheathing
planks.
caulking.
Fig. 199.
Semi
air-blast freezing installation for tuna long-liners
The
layers,
insulation of the blast freezers
is
usually of four
each 2
in. (51
mm.)
thick, because
of the low
temperatures.
The
inside sheathing
is
made
watertight by
this type
Recent trends in insolation materials
of
Fig. 200 shows a typical fishroom insulation.
example of
At one
time,
insulation
materials
consisted
almost
exclusively of asphalted cork boards, but their use has declined since 1953 when new insulation materials were
Longliners Longiiners used exclusively for tuna do not require live bait tanks, so the fish hold is not divided into such small compartments as in the combination boats. compartment is usually of 2,000 to 3,000 cu. ft. (57 to 85 cu. m.)
introduced.
TABLE 57
Necessary pipe
fittfe* ratios for fish holds
for stowing
raw tuna, and sometimes over 7,000
cu.
ft.
when stowing only frozen tuna. The insulation is usually of three layers, each 2 in. (51 mm.) thick, sandwiched with soft wood sheathing
(200 cu. m.)
Volume offish storage hold

530 cu.
Pipe fitting Other fish Frozen fish hold storage hold

0.6 ft./cu, ft. 1.21 ft./cu. ft. (13.00 m./cu. m.) (6.50 ra./cu. m.)
ratio
But the watcrtightncss of the major consideration.
planks similar to those used in the combination boat. inside sheathing is not a
ft.
(15cu.m.)
(25 cu. m.)
880 cu.
ft.
0.56 ft/cu. ft 1.12 ft/cu. ft. (12.00 m./cu. m.) (6.00 m./cu.m.)
0.91 ft/cw. ft. (9.80 m/.cu. m.)
1,770 cu.
ft.
(50 cu. m.)
0.46
ft./cu. ft.
TABLE 56
Nicissary piping lengths for various freezing systems
2,650 cu.
ft.
(4.90 m./cu. m.)
(75 cu. m.)
0.74 ft./cu.
ft.
0.37 ft./cu. ft
(4.00 m./cu.
(8.00 m./cu. m.)
m.)
Length of pipes
Freezing per 24
3 ton
3,530 cu.
ft.
(100 cu. m.)
0.65 ft./cu.
ft.
Brine freezing
245ft. (75 m.)
Semi
air-blast
Contact
freezing
(7.00 m./cu. m.)
0.33 ft/cu. ft. (3.50 m./cu. m.)
freezing
1,970
ft.
4,420 cu.
(6,600 Ib.)
ft.
(125 cu. m.)
260ft.
0.58 ft/cu. ft. (6.20 m./cu. m.)
0.29 ft/cu. ft. (3.10 m./cu. m.)

0.26
ft./cu. ft.
(600m.)
3,280ft.
(80m.)
5,300 cu.
ft.
(150cu, m.)
0.52
ft./cu. ft.
5 ton (11,000 lb.)
410ft. (125 m.)

820ft.
440ft
(135 m.)
(5.60 m./cu, m.)
(2.80 m./cu.
mj
(1,000m.)
6,560 ft. (2,000 m.)
6,180 cu.
ft.
(175 cu. m.)
10 ton (22,000
lb.)
(250m.)
870ft. (265 m.)
0.47 ft/cu. (5.00 nu/cu. m.)

ft,
0.23 ft/cu. ft. (2.50 OL/CU. m.) 0.23 ft/cu. ft.) (2.50 m./cu. m.)
7,060 cu. ft (200 cu. m.)
0.43 ft./cu. ft
(4.60 m./cu. m.)
The length of. --J JL- A *Mir toe anne type, to onne
;
-
j table applies
__fl6in.(0.4m.)
iran.)
per so
bJatttype,to and for
diam, pipes; for in the semi airi.) per i ataspeedof6ft8in.< method. frtexmg to the ammonia ev
Remarks : Pipe fitting ratios in the above table apply to the i using hair-pin type without air circulation and with cooling coil*
ofl*
in.
(43 ram.) outside diameter.
[237]
FISHING BOATS
Oi*
THE WORLD:
CONSTRUCTION
The first of the new materials was layer corrugated membrane*, made of acetate or Vinyl resin. This has been used extensively in tuna boats because of its light weight, waterproof quality, easy handling and moderate price. But this material could not replace cork boards completely because of its comparatively low heat capacity, and it is now giving place to the latest new
materials including foam boards of vinyl or polystyrol resin. However, there are now many boats which use a
combination of these materials. Plywood panels art used in some boats for inside sheathing, but the sheathing planks formerly used still predominate, and a phenol resin coating or polyester
resin lining is applied to the surface to ensure that they are watertight Metal or plastic plating is not yet used in Japan. As tuna boats are required to store fuel oil in their fishrooms on the outward voyage by means of drums or plastic bags, every endeavour is being made to ensure oiltightness of the inside sheathing, and it is expected that the development of synthetic resin will play a big role in this problem in the future.
Fig. 200.
Fish hold insulation of 260
GT combination boat
[238]
FISH
HOLDS
DISCUSSION
operated for extensive periods in regions with a and fish is pre-cooled prior to storing. Pre-cooling: About 105 to 315 cu. ft. (3 to 9 cu. m.) with coils or plate coolers are used. Unfortunately no figures are given about cooling times, although it is obvious that precooling in chilled seawater is an excellent method of preservliners, are
DR. HEEN and OR. R. KREUZER (FAO, Rapporteurs): The papers emphasize fundamental points for the design of fishing vessels, e.g. the capacity of fish holds, which relate to fishing intensity and the time limit for preservation of catches. The papers deal particularly with distant water trawlers in Northern waters, but they have importance also on fishing boats in
.
tropical climate,
general.
ing the quality
on board
fishing vessels, particularly
under
Table 45 is based on long experience and carefully conducted experiments. These figures are valid for ideal conditions, and it is stated that even three hours on deck may show definite changes in the fish, thus indicating the need for rapid handling which necessitates care in design of equipment. The hold's insulation is dealt with in a comprehensive way by MacCallum, who reviews appropriate materials and dimensions. Insulation can be compensated by the saving of ice. The prevention of humidity penetrating the insulation, for example, the use of water-proof lining on the warm side of the
insulation, is unfortunately neglected to a great extent in fishing vessels. The need for a proper way of ventilation, drainage, etc., is also dealt with in some detail and the paper
tropical conditions. It is stressed that, despite refrigeration techniques, there are limits in the handling and preservation of fish on board caused
by such factors as the working power of the crew, the fishing techniques used, the irregularity of the catches, and the economic factors as mentioned by Eddie. It is important that in the planning and development of fishing boats a close collaboration should exist between naval architects, fisheries technologists, biologists and experienced people from the trade.
ICING
AND RELATED PROBLEMS
might be regarded as a hand book on the properties of sheathing protective materials. MacCallum correctly refrains from advocating the use of one particular material. He only describes its properties, and leaves the choice to the naval architects, who have to consider the local conditions under which the vessel will have to operate. Mechanical refrigeration as a supplement to icing is dealt with in many of the papers. The limitation lies in the properties of air as a heat carrier and its undesired desiccation of the
DR. G. M. DREOSTI (South Africa): He gave a summary of various investigations made by the Fishing Industry Research
Institute (FIRl) into of fish on trawlers.
and
problems connected with the handling
fish.
of the fish may be extended by additional methods In Eddie's paper reference is made to antibiotics as a possible means of prolonging storage and consequently longer stay on the fishing grounds, with influence in
Shelf-life
than
chilling.
Temperatures in trawler fish holds. Measurements made with a 10-point thermocouple with electronic galvanometer instrument on board a trawler equipped with an insulated fish room, indicated that, while there was little appreciable difference in minimum temperatures reached in different parts of the fish room, there was an appreciable difference in the rate of cooling of fish between the areas of the pounds near the hull and those amidships. Fish near the hull required an average of about 15 hr. to drop to within 1F (iC) of the average minimum temperature of 33.8F (+ 1C), while those amidships required an average
the economy. Some investigators indicate that antibiotics may reduce the percentage of spoiled fish, but it will not
improve
quality. There will be a greater quantity of slightly inferior fish in the fresh fish markets, and probably a less
percentage of fish condemned. In Slavin's paper, one approach to the problem of freezing the catches is described. He makes some comparison with the Northern Wave project in the U.K. and it is apparent that there is room for compromise between the regular factory freezing trawlers and round-fish freezing; it seems also clear that no generalization should be aimed at. Each project must be
of 3 hr. Rates of cooling in ice. A series of experiments in which hake, surrounded by crushed ice, were covered by layers of either 1 or 5 in. (25 or 125 mm.) of ice, revealed that at an ambient temperature of 75F <+ 24Q, the former fish took approximately 65 min. to cool from 60 to 35F (+15 to -f 1.7C), whereas the latter took about 83 min. to cool
evaluated in the light of the working conditions, and marketing conditions in particular. The solution is, however, not merely a technical one. The particular desires and preferences of consumers may be a deciding factor in selection of equip-
ment and methods.

Japanese fishing boats, chilled seawater for cooling or storing fish is used, as reported by Dofce and Sato. Japanese tuna boats, both multi-purpose boats and specialized long-
On
through the same temperature range. a At an ambient temperature of 40 to 45F (4 to similar effect was observed, though cooling of the fish was slower. For 1 in. (25 mm.) ice the cooling time (60* to 35*F) was 1 00 min., but it was 1 30 min. under a 5 in. (125 mm.) layer. Thus cooling under 1 in. of ice again took approximately 80 per cent, of the time under 5 in. of ice. These results confirm earlier FIRI observations that cooling in ice is considerably faster at room temperature than at relatively low ambient temperatures. Size aad shape of k*: The size and shape of particles of ice used for chilling fish was found to have a profound effect on
7O
(239]

It
CONSTRUCTION
TA*LE 58
a flvtHtey trawler
trip to
Cape waters
Ice
Ib.
kg.
(1) (2)
Cooling the
to
fish
3rF (21
cargo: 60 tons from 70
to
0C)
.
PrcKX>oUng of fish hold: 29x21x12 ft. 6 in. 3.8 m.) from 55 to 40F (12.8 (.8
31,700
14,400
xMx
to4.4Q
(3) Preventing
heat
.....
transfer
2,000
910
surfaces
from
through outer warming cargo. 4 in.

.
tl ton of (hat fh* most econ ton offish, and that increasing the quantity of ice is relatively costly for the temperature advantage gained. Thus, for a 60-ton load of fish, 60 tons of ice would be used; of this only 26 tons are melted, so that 57 per cent, of the ice remains unmelted. Re-use of ice. The above figures indicate the desirability of salvaging used ice for re-use ashore. Up to 10,000 tons of used ice are discarded each year by trawler companies. The dirt in the ice consists of scales, flesh and Mood which sink in water, and pieces of fat and liver which rise to the surface,
was also found

1
ice
per
. insulation (4) Cooling of air leaking into hold
(102
mm.) cork
(5)
Removal of heat produced by men working

in hold
......
16,000 1,000
7,250
and bacteria from the fish. The best method found of washing
ice
was
to agitate in
its
450 270
23~280
600
51,300
Total
Say: 26 short tons (23.2 tons) of ice
weight of fresh water, allow to stand for two minutes, lift it out and spray lightly with water to remove floating dirt, The yield of washed ice is 65 to 70 per cent. Bacteriological tests (total counts and coliform tests) showed that the washed ice was as dean as most of the fresh ice (at the time of use) from the bacteriological point of view. Tests also showed that fish stored as well in washed used ice as they did in clean unused ice, whereas in dirty ice the fish
deteriorated far
own
the rate of chilling* This appears to be due primarily to the bridging which occurs with certain types of ice but not with others. When blocks of ice were crushed to a particle size of about 1 to 1.5 in. (25 to 38 mm.) and two layers of fish were packed in this ice, one above the other, the difference in time taken to cool from 45 to 35F (7 to 1.7Q for top and bottom layers was negligible 81 min. for the bottom layer as against 89 min. for the top. No bridging was observed in
either layer. When flake ice
more
rapidly.
was used the difference in rates of cooling between bottom and top layers was significant, being 1 15 min. for the top layer as against 77 min. for the bottom. The bridging in the top layer was about half an inch. No bridging was observed in the bottom layer. When the same fish were rolled in salt and put in crushed
Bulk stacking of ked fish. When fish are bulk stacked, as in fish holds or trucks, to a height of 4 to 5 ft. (1.2 to 1.5 m.), with ice between layers, and below and on top of the fish, there is a certain loss in weight, thought to be due to the pressure on the fish; so tests were carried out to find the effect of this pressure on the fish. Hake were stored in ice and trays containing heavy weights were placed on top of the stack of fish and ice. The loss in weight after 3 and 7 days was determined. Table 59 (abbreviated) gives the results.
The bulk
48
Ib./cu.
ft.
density of hake closely packed
worked out at
(770 kg./cu. m.). Using this figure, together with those in the above table, the following equation was derived graphically between the daily loss of weight of a stack of fish
fish, the bottom layer were used (cooling time 40 min., no bridging observed) but was slower in the top layer where bridging now occurred (time 105 min.). With flake ice both layers cookd faster than when unsalted fish were used and bridging still occurred in the top layer (cooling time 57 min. in the bottom layer and 93 min. in the top). It seems, therefore, that while the rate of cooling is accelerated by the use of salt on the fish, this acceleration can be more than offset by the retardation caused by bridging, which in turn is caused by the melting of ice in contact with the salted
ice with
some
salt sprinkled
on the
fish
and
its
depth.
cooled faster than when unsalted
x=0.15-h/100
where
x- average
and
daily change in weight of hake in a stack as a percentage of the original weight of the stack
fish.
h=height of stack of iced fish in inches. This equation is based on the assumption that the average loss of weight is found by using the pressure on the fish halfway down the stack as the average pressure on the fish. Thus the average daily loss of weight per cent, in a stack of iced fish 72 in. (1.83 m.) high =0.5 7 per cent. It will be seen that in
Uae of ke on trawlers. Routine records, covering 105 trawler voyages and approximately 5,000 temperature readings during the period August 1954 to March 1955, were studied in attempt to relate the quantity of ice used to the quantity
It
TABLE 59
of fish caught and
its temperature at discharge. ascertained from data supplied by the Division of Fisheries that there is comparatively little change in air and
LOM of weight fee

Pressure on top cf
fish
was
first
seawater temperatures for winter and summer periods. Hie amount of ice melted in a typical trawler during a 5-<iay trip in Cape waters was calculated according to table 58. The calculations illustrated the importance of insulating the fish hold; if insulation of only 2 in. (51 mm.) thfcfrw*? had been mod, the estimated ovcraH fee consumption would have been increased from 26 to 31 short tons. It was again found, as noted previously* that lower landing temperatures were obtained when the ambient temperature
Equivalent depth of stack offish to produce this average pressure
Change ~
in weight
of
After
Ib./sq.ft.
After
kg.lsq,cm.
in.
3 days
inice
7 days
in ice
11
0,77
12.1
2.7
0*069
1.1
172 194
43
48.5 74.2
13*6
1.24
297 332
20.9
1J9
2.11
+0.53 +0.11 -0.54 -1.07 -1.05
+0*26 +0.07
-0.81
234
83
-L28
was
high.
1240]
*ingk or double layers of fish {height 380 mm.) there is actually a fain In weight according to the above formula. Thai is in line with the experimental findings. Cutting {Fbking Afewjr, 1951, No. 1975, p. 10) also found that the losses in weight of fish at sea were influenced by the depth of stacking and his figures are of the same order as the
FISH HOLDS 1m than 15 in. or
DISCUSSION
white the catch is sorted, cleaned and stacked in ice below deck. FIRI devised and tested at sea a fish flume which eliminates the batch system of cleaning and stowing and gives instead a regular flow of fish from the cleaning tables on deck directly to the fish hold. The flume runs along the port-side bulwark and is fed at the forward end by the deck hose. small hatch amidships admits fish through a chute to the fish hold; the water drains away through a grating near this hatch. Pish pass down the aluminium chute directly into sorting baskets in the hold and are placed in ice within a minute or two of cleaning. Fig. 201 shows the fish flume. The flume fitted smoothly into the trawler's organization, and has many advantages over the existing "basket" system of
above. It should be noted that the above equation holds for periods of up to seven days but has not been tested for longer periods of storage. Delay to ktag. It having been noted that a delay of only three hours before icing on board was sufficient to cause a noticeable effect on the keeping quality of hake, the matter
was
further investigated.
Ib.
On a commercial trawling voyage a time study was made of

22 hauls, ranging from 400 to 8,200
fish.
(180 to 3,700 kg.) of
The time required for hauling up the net varied from about 20 to about 45 min. The average time spent by fish on deck {measured from moment of releasing codend until half the
working. Among these advantages are: An important reduction about 50 per cent. in the time of exposure on deck Cooler fish enter the hold Protection of fish against trampling, bruising and contamination on deck
Fig. 201.
Sketch of prototype flume for trawlers
was stowed) was 57 min. The maximum time on deck, time till last fish was stowed, was 165 min. (This time was taken for a catch of 6,200 Ib., or 3,000 kg.). Maximum time on deck, excluding last haul each day was 98 min. (In the last haul only half the number of workers was used). Minimum time on deck, i.e. time till first basket was stowed, was less than 22 min. (3,200 Ib., or 1,540 kg., catch). It was observed that, while the unavoidable delay in icing increased with increasing weight of catch, the rate of cleaning
fish
i.e.
cleaned.
the fish also increased in linear relation to the total weight For instance, when the number of baskets (100 Ib., or 45 kg., each) to be cleaned rose from 8 to 51, the number of fish cleaned per minute increased from 14 to 31. The time for cleaning varied between 3.7 and 0.9 times (averaging
1.8 times) the time required for stowing.
Controllable washing by adjustment of slope of flume and by fitting weirs or by variation in water flow Work on deck is reduced and contributes to better handling by the lessening of fatigue Hatches of the fish hold are closed except for the small fish hatch, 18 in. (457 mm.) square The icing of fish is more carefully done, because fish are not "dumped** into the hold in a last-minute rush The overall rate of working of the trawler is so greatly increased that even with large bags trawling can be catch of 200 baskets was stowed resumed at once. away in 125 min. with the flume, whereas with the batch system the same crew would have taken at least 5 hr.
There was no relationship between the ratio of cleaning to stowing time and the time required for cleaning. A trawler Mi Awe. As one of the most important precautions for the preservation of trawled fish is to keep its temperature as low as possible, the less time it lies on the deck,
especially during the summer, the better FIRI investigations have shown that the temperature of hake lying on deck in the after 99 min. summer sun Can rite to 79 to
.
and trawling would have been suspended Almost the only disadvantage of the flume is the tendency to remove all surface blood from cut-ends and belly cavities, thus imparting a livid, grey and white appearance. This over-washing of the fi$h can be met, without impairing the characteristic extreme cleanliness of the catch, by adjustments to the flume and regulation of die water flow, as mentioned
previously.
81F (26Q
The summer months coincide at the Cape with the largest trawled catches and, as has been shown above, with the of the existing system of working on fish decks, long exposure fish is unavoidable. Trawling has sometimes to be suspended
[241
The flume has to be disconnected when the trawler is approaching port, but this is speecfitydooe, and the aluminium sections can be stowed away on the engine room casing. The flume will stand up to heavy seas and wear and tear. Carbon dioxide. Hake, previously chitted, were stoned in airtight containers immersed in ice. Concentrations of CO*
J
FISHING BOATS 0F THE WOULD:

varying from 30 to 90 per COOL, were maintained and the fish were compared with fish similarly chilled and stored in air. The controls kept for 10 days, whereas the CO, treatment extended the useful life to 14 days. In all cases, however, the flesh was softer than in the controls stored in air, and the colour browner, bmng least with 30 per cent, and very dark with 90 percent. CO,. These findings are in line with those of other workers, and the advantage of longer storage life is outweighed by the undesirable colour and texture changes produced and by the considerable extra expense.
CONSTRUCTION
(Canada): Reay and Shewan have work on bilgy fish. It has been noted both in the laboratory and aboard the boat that iced fish stowed against slime soaked wooden boards may spoil very rapidly in
referred to Halifax
MR. W, A.
MACALLUM
paper lays down broad principles only* It is also one of the reasons underlying the apparent conflict between the results of research in different countries. The biological systems involved are so complex that slight changes in practice, in size offish or in the amount of fish can afiect the exact manner of spoilage* For example, "bilgy" fish referred to by MacCallum seem to occur much more frequently in Canadian vessels than in British. The type of bacteria which will grow fastest is controlled by the environment and especially by the absence or presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Research on chilling in the U.K. is now devoted largely to the study of the effects of different types of stowage. Another cause of different results in different countries are possible differences in the physiology of different races of the same species of fish
the areas in contact with the wood. Spoilage of this type has been observed within days of capture in freshly-caught eviscerated cod. This was observed in cases where the whole It also fish was reduced in temperature to 32F (0C). occurred within the same period in cod which were not permitted to cool below 43F (6.IQ. To his knowledge bilgy fish are a cause for concern in a few countries and may occur among the catch within a short time of stowing. While the effect may wear off in part when the unfilleted or filleted fish is exposed to air for a reasonable length of time, such an approach to the problem should not be tolerated by a firm seriously engaged in the business of selling fresh and frozen fillets, since even one bad fish can affect the sale of a great many pound of fillets. Thus industry and government inspection services should recognize the importance of the human factor in the use of ice and in the need for properly fitted out fish rooms which cannot harbour bacteria in and on materials with which the fish may come in contact.
and differences in the bacterial flora. The engineer and naval architect must beware in interpreting the reported results. For instance, total bacterial counts on cod kept in chilled seawater for 1 1 days were lower than for similar fish in crushed ice. It was subsequently discovered, however, that there were more of the types which cause spoilage on the chilled seawater fish than on the iced
fish.
Results are also difficult to interpret because of different standards of judgement. There is no simple way of measuring the quality or freshness of a fish. Some aspects are more important in one country than in another. In the U.K., the standard used is "equivalent to x days in ice under ideal 9* conditions as judged by organoleptic and chemical tests and new method of preservation may be bacterial counts. judged a success in one country and a failure in another. This also depends on how well the orthodox method is applied in practice. Thus the reported success of chilled seawater in some parts of Canada and the less encouraging results in parts of the U.K. might possibly be explained not
Differing interpretations
foodstuffs.
MR. G. C. EDDIE (U.K.): Fish is one of the most perishable The naval architect and marine engineers must
therefore pay particular attention to the design of deck equipment and fish holds so as to prevent the rapid develop-
only by biological factors but also by the fact that the average temperature of normally iced fish is higher in the area where the success was reported. Nevertheless the broad principles of good preservation are clear. The fish must be well gutted and washed, cooled as soon as possible and kept cool. It must not be handled roughly or more frequently than necessary.
The only
ment of
which
spoilage.
seawater. If ice
successful chilling media are ice and chilled is used, the design of the hold and its equip-
Reay's and Shewan* s paper gives an account of the ways in fish is spoilt and lays down broad principles of good practice in the design of holds and in the handling of fish,
especially white-fish in the
North Atlantic and Arctic trawl
The paper represents over thirty years of research and study by scientists and engineers. Up to about 1920 the engineers and shipbuilders were much further ahead in the development of equipment for preserving all kinds of foodstuffs than were the biologists in their knowledge of how the equipment should be designed and used. This state of affairs led to the setting up of a number of national food research organizations of which the British Food Investigation was the prototype. These establishments were staffed at first mainly by bacteriologists and biochemists, and by the 1930*s the knowledge they had acquired was sufficient to indicate where industrial practices could be improved, and where they must be changed. Since World War II engineers and naval architects have designed improved chilling and freezing equipment and processes on the basis of the scientists' discoveries and the time hat now come when the scientific knowledge is again not complete enough to allow full understanding of the factors affecting Hie operation of die equipment. That Is why die
ment must be such that the ice is allowed to melt. Sufficient care must be taken to prevent fish from touching each other or the surfaces of the hold. The hold, equipment and ice must be kept very clean in the ordinary sense but it seems that further improvements in keeping offish cannot be gained short of achieving the sterility of the surgeon's operating table. The most important single factors are temperature and time. The naval architect should, in designing decks and holds, bear in mind the principles laid down in Reay's and Shewan's paper. It does not attempt to suggest detailed designs but it is hoped it will form a useful source of background information
when considering papers such
as the one by MacCallum.
MR.
J.
PMOSKIB (Canada): Reay and Shewan have produced
the very interesting and useful table 45. Because fishing craft already cost so much would they recommend freezing at sea or using refrigerated seawater in pieferenoe to icing for vessels under 70 ft (21.4 m.) and which do not stay at sea for very long periods? TaWe 60 indicates the days at sea in fishing
LOA
LOA.
His own observations and conchnkms so far indicate that the introduction of the more costly methods of preserving fish
[242J
FISH HOLDS
DISCUSSION
TABLE 60
Area
Nova
Scotia
Type of boat
Longiiner
Newfoundland Trawler
BayofFundy
Trawler
New
Brunswick Trawler
Nova Scotia
Trawler
Percentage of total days at sea
at sea
would reduce the
profitability
of operations under the
we have
ports or
inevitably taken for granted the supply of ice at the
existing cost-price relationships.
on board
ship.
Better handling needed COMMANDER M. B. F.

sight of the
RANKEN
(U.K.):
We
should not lose
paramount need to improve shore facilities for handling the fish and for processing, distributing and selling it. Handling. Current practice at most fish docks for unloading fish is so primitive and unhygienic that there would appear to be little point in improving the treatment of fresh fish on
board fishing vessels until it can be properly handled afterwards. Perhaps boxing on board offers a solution in conjunction with paternoster or other type hoists and conveyors, or, for wet fish only, the fish pumps used in some ports in the U.S.A. might be applied elsewhere at least for small fish. If fish is to be handled efficiently and hygenically on shore it seems essential to suppress the fish auction markets as known today and to handle the fish right from catching to the fishmonger's shop through properly integrated organizations fully responsible for every step.
make their own ice and various designs of so-called flake-ice machines are available for this purpose. In some cases it has been found necessary to make this ice from salt water, but this is not recommended as salt water ice freezes at too low a temperature which may damage the fish, the temperature rises as it melts, and a strong brine is formed which may penetrate the fish and give it an unpleasant
Factory ships must
Where it is impracticable to provide fresh water either from tanks or from a distilling plant, the objections to salt water ioe may often be obviated by the use of chilled seawater circulated through fish preceding tanks. Such chilling plants are usually more ecoflavour and poor appearance.
nomical of power and
less costly
than ice-making plants.
This
is
already being
done to some extent by a few big companies in the U.K., Greece and other countries and is presumably a salient point in the handling of fish in the U.S.S.R. The day should not be
so very far off when fish, or at least frozen fish, can be handled from the time it is sorted on board the vessel until the housewife begins to prepare it for cooking, without any contact with human hands (or feet). Cold tores. Most cold stores currently being built for frozen fish in the U.K. are designed for a holding temperature of ~20F (-29C). Many have already been completed but many more are needed not only at the ports but also at distribution centres all over the country. Similar trends exist in other countries though in some cases the temperatures being used at present are too high. Transport In the U.K. there is relatively little refrigerated land transport at present but large numbers of road and rail
right
However, apart from a few using chilled seawater, all vessels landing wet fish require large quantities of ice in proportions as high as half a ton of ice per ton of fish to be cooled. As it takes as much as 5 to 6 BHP on the freezing compressor to produce one ton of ice per day, quite apart from the size of the apparatus, it is obviously impracticable in most cases to make this ice on board ship and it must therefore be obtained from shore. This point needs emphasis as many enquiries have been received in recent years for plants to be installed in very small fishing vessels where the power required for the ice-maker would often be greater than that of the main engine. Ice is a cheap commodity in the large U.K. ports like Grimsby, Hull and Flcetwood where the cost is as low as 17s. ($2.4) a ton, but in many smaller ports supplies have to be carried considerable distances from the large ioe factories and some British near-water fishermen have to pay more than 4 4s. ($11.8) per ton. Conditions are no doubt similar in many other countries, but they are far worse in some tropical ones where there is not only a shortage of ice but abo of clean fresh water from which to make it.
Until recently plants suitable for use in these small ports
vehicles and/or containers will be needed capable of trans(-29C). Similar requirements porting frozen fish at
-20F
Some, like the U.S.A., are already well provided, although temperatures in depots, ships and shops are generally far too high. Ice. Much has been said, about the importance of toe on
exist in other countries.
have not been obtainable but today "rapid-ice" and "flakeice" plants are available in small sizes, the latter even below one ton per day, and flake-toe at any rate appears to be comat the larger petitive in price with the crushed ice produced more expensive. ports, though rapid-ice is at present somewhat
(Portugal): Portuguese trawta in fish holds) use about one ton of the coils cooling (without
board fishing vessels particularly of conventional types, though it is also important for the buffer storage and chilling of fish before processing in many factory ships. However,
COMMODORE D. D. SILVA
[243]

TABLE 61
CONSTRUCTION
die past year they had investigated the ute of chlorinated eawater on trawlers in U.S.A. Their observations showed that seawater containing about 60 p.p,m. of free chlorine was eflbctive in washing the eviscerated fish, prior to icing, and in washing the vessel's hold in port. Also, the chlorinating equipment operated satisfactorily on the vessel and required
little
attention.
As a
result
of these
tests chlorinating
equiplarger
ment has been installed on ten Boston trawlers. Reay's and Shewan's suggestion about the need for
hatch openings to permit better discharging Of the fish is a good one. This should be given serious consideration hi the design of new trawlers. The ice-fish ratio of 1 to 1 for British trawlers seems high. This means that boats landing 200 tons of fish would have to carry at least 225 tons of ice to make up for the melting. They have found a ratio of 1 part ice to 3 parts fish to be quite
ice per ton of fish. One ton of ice actually in the hold will conserve more than one ton of fish since a loss of 10 to 15 per cent, in volume occurs by melting on the trip out to the fishing grounds. It is well to note that the fish hold must be arranged with divisions as small as possible and temperatures obtained should not be lower than 30 to 28 F ( - 1 to Cooling coils under the deck had not proved to be of advantage, but he emphasized the great advantage of coils fitted on bulkheads and partitions, sides and bottom. With die latter considerable quantities of ice can be saved (about and practice seems to indicate that the fish caught J to during die first days of a long fishing trip arrives in better condition than if kept only in ice. However, he agreed with Rcay and Shewan that fish kept only in ice, in a hold without cooling coils, is usually of better quality than the one kept in a hold with them, provided it is kept no longer than 10 to 12 days.
satisfactory.
There
may
be some practical problems in storing and
handling fish if the hold shelving is only 18 in. (0.46 m.) high. In the U.S.A. they have found a shelving height of 3 to 3.5 ft. (0.9 to 1.1 m.) to be satisfactory for commercial
practice.
2Q
In tests conducted on the Delaware they observed that properly iced haddock and cod had a maximum acceptable iced storage period of only 12 days. Similar results have also
TABLE 63
Drying times of points
In cold temperatures
Portuguese distant-water trawlers are very often at sea considerably longer than that and the fish has to be stowed for as long as 15 days; then the slightly negative temperature maintained by the coils noticeably slows down the progress of protein decomposition provoked by bacteria in the fish. The disadvantages resulting from absence of ice and consequently of humidity on the surface of the fish placed near the cooling sources, the partial freezing of a portion of fish placed practically against the coils are in his opinion compensated for by the bettor condition of the bulk of the fish. Portugal had for many years been dedicating the greatest attention to the problems of handling and conserving the fish on board. In fact, the Fisheries Organization had distributed among the crews literature on the subject, advising on the best methods of handling and keeping the catch.
been reported by Canadian workers. It seems, however, the storage period for British landed fish is from two to three days longer. Is this because in the U.S.A. and Canada a slightly milder product is required than in England, where the vessels have to stay out from 1 8 to 20 days ?
DESIGN OF FISH HOLDS

MR. ELLIS PRUCHNIE (U.K.): MacCallum's paper, section Coatings and Linings, p. 216, mentioned three types of paints Hard-drying phenolic resin modified with specially formulated oil alkyd
:
W. SLAYIN (U.S.A.): He agreed with Reay and Shewan need for cleanliness on the vessel, even though scientific evidence as to its exact value was quite confusing. Within
MR.
J.
in the
9 Shellac paints
Plastic base paints requiring the addition
of a catalyst
As MacCallum very clearly points out, plastic based paints,

requiring the addition of a catalyst, need care in application if they are to provide the maximum protection of which they are capable. Hiat they are far superior to other types of protective coatings, and therefore well worth the extra care in application, will be shown in the following results obtained
fish paint (hard drying phenolic resin modified type), shellac (an uapigmented, deep orange coloured shellac varnish) and a two-pack dear varnish (being a synthetic resin based varnish, chemically dried by adding an equal volume of suitably formulated
TABLE 62
Dryiag
from tests. Three coatings were used: white
mom
1*4]
FISH
HOLDS
DISCUSSION
solution of
ionic, polyethylene oxide type.
* commercially obtainable wetting agent, non Hie results shown in fig. 203
were as follows: Two-pack: 225,000 strokes with no sign of wear Shellac: 8,000 strokes worn through White paint; 12,000 strokes worn through Water absorption tests. Wooden panels, 6x4xf in,, were given two coats of the materials under tet The ends were completriy sealed off by dipping them in a tray of molten wax, leaving the absorption test areas equal on each panel The uncoated control panels were similarly sealed on the ends. All the panels were totally immersed in water, and each was weighed before and after testing so that absorption figures, expressed as a percentage, could be calculated. The tabie 64 and fig. 204 illustrate the greater protective power of the twopack varnish over the other two materials.
Fig. 202.
Abrasion
test
machine for testing points
catalyst).
All the tests were carried out

fir
on mahogany, spruce
and Douglas
to illustrate different rates of absorption.
Spreading capacities.
the three different
Two
woods and
coats of paint were applied to the spreading capacity deter-
mined by subtracting the weight of brush, paints and container after application from the previous weight. Table 61 shows the results. Drying times. The materials under test were applied to an area 12x12 in. (0.3 x 0.3 m.) on the different woods. Using a 1 in. (25 mm.) brush, panels were coated with 2 to 3 oz. per
50 g. per sq. m.) with the white paint, 1 to 1} oz. per sq. yd. (35 to 50 g. per sq. m.) with the shellac and 1 to 2 oz. per sq. yd. (50 to 70 g. per sq. m.) with the two-pack material. Normal room temperature was maintained throughout the drying period, which was 60 to 70F (15 to 21C), and the relative humidity was 60 to 70 per cent. Table 62
sq. yd. (35 to
gives the results.

set of results showing longer drying times at lower temperatures have also been recorded. In a specially constructed cabinet showing an internal temperature varying from 48 to 54F (8.9 to 12.8Q, with a relative humidity of 70 to
Fig. 204.
Result of water absorption tests
80 per cent., the results are given in table 63. Abrasion tests were carried out on twice-coated panels. The panels measured 6 x 4 x i in. (150 x 1 00 x 6.35 mm.) to fit the "REL" abrasion test apparatus, fig. 202, which records the number of complete oscillations of the abrasion brush before signs of film wear appear. The brush had nylon bristles and had an applied load of 0.66 Ib. (300 g.). During tests the surfaces were continually wetted with an 0.5 per cent.
Resistance to chemical solutions.
Wooden
panel surfaces
had two coats of the material under test, but to ensure adequate sealing the ends had four coats. Seven days after coating, the panels were half immersed in the test solutions which were:
(a) 0.5
per cent,
ammonia
soda of the chemicals on the paints can be seen from fig. 205 and 206, and were as follows: Shellac: 0.5 per cent, ammonia complete removal within 24 hours 2.0 per cent, caustic soda complete removal within 24 hours
(b) 2.0 per cent, caustic
The
effects
TABLE 64
.
f .-M^fcjl M-mfa^-ii vi wutPU prtPWdBB
tij_ WMR
10
14
15
21
days
Douglas
(uncoated) (uncoated) Spruce (uncoated)
fir
Mahogany
days 26 20 25
days
days
33
days
days
Flf.2Q3. R*s*toofabnuto*t*stt.
Tb whit* JM room varnbh fa
. Shellac on mahogany White paint on mahogany
8
5
1
10 7
Two-pack on mahogany.
124
12
15
11
30 30
40 40
35
[245]

results
- CONSTRUCTION
vessels in the U.K. and elsewhere have now been treated In this manner and bear conclusive evidence of the test
hundred
which have been described.
Fif. 205.
Resistance to
room paint and
OJ per cent, ammonia. Both the white fish shellac have broken down whilst no breakdown is visible on the two-pack panel
ammonia
complete removal
complete removal
unaffected
after
Whhc
paint: 0.5 per cent,
within 24 hours
2.0 per cent, caustic soda within 24 hours
Two-pack:
0.5
per
cent,
ammonia
immersion for 7 days

2.0 per cent, caustic soda immersion for 7 days
unaffected after
Practical tests at sea. The laboratory results obtained were borne out under actual working conditions at sea. Apart from these, however, other observations were made which, although they emphasized the distinct advantages which the two-pack
had
varnish had over the other two, also showed that extra care to be taken to ensure success. In the case of new and
MR. F. STRAKOSCH (Italy): Ice has been and is still the most widely used medium for the preservation offish. It represents cold in Hs most handy, concentrated and economical form. Mechanical refrigeration, as applied to fish holds, is a welcome complement to the basic preserver, known for very many years. It is reported that the old Romans used snow or natural ice to bring fish to the capital from far-away places. The reason for its wide use is that ice when it freezes accumulates a considerable amount of heat 1 45 BTU per Ib. (80 kcal. per kg.) which, when it melts, is released to the surrounding medium. This chilling potential can be directed at the user's discretion on to large or small surfaces to reduce the temperature of organic matter to a degree at which decomposition is almost inhibited. The product of the operation is water, to the extent of some 660 Ib. (300 kg.) per ton of fish treated, and may thus amount to a good many tons of water to be disposed of. As known, the catch, after sorting, is stowed with ice, either in compartments of the fish holds divided by wooden or metal partitions and covers, or in boxes. With both methods water is released from the stowed mass and drips underneath, finding its way to the bilges or a sump. Thus the liquid runs over a large portion of the insulation and some of it penetrates the insulating material, impairing its heat repelling capacity. The bottom of the hold is particularly
affected in this way.
unpainted woodwork, little difficulty was experienced providing that a reasonable drying time was allowed between coats and that the wood was also reasonably dry. Trouble can be experienced on previously painted wood unless extreme care is taken. It is essential that all the loose flaking material of the previous coating be removed and that adequate care is taken to dry out the wood. This latter is not always easy to accomplish as most owners cannot afford the time necessary to dry a fish room properly. Trouble can also occur on surfaces which have previously been treated with a paint that contained a large percentage of oil. Two-pack varnishes usually contain ''searching" solvents and although the surface of the previous
coating may seem quite sound, the solvents in the two-pack varnish will seep through and soften the film thereby reducing the adhesive properties of the new paint which leads to an
In colder regions insulation is frequently omitted from fish hold floors, but the floor is covered with wood planking which easily absorbs moisture. This practice of having uninsulated floors would be objectionable in warmer climates, since it is obvious that heat exchange is most active on such surfaces, the heat from the bilge being on the lower side and cold on the upper surface. By insulating a fish hold floor this heat exchange is considerably reduced.
breakdown and "peeling". Temperature had a greater on the drying time of the two-pack varnish than on the other tested paints and it was found that the film would not cure below 45F (7C). Conclusion. Two-pack varnishes, consisting of a varnish base and catalyst, are much more durable than conventional fish room protective paints due mainly to their hardness of finish, which is the nearest approach an air-drying material can get to a stoved finish. The varnish tested showed not only resistance to chemical and bacterial attack but also exhibited properties of pliability and a lack of brittleness. The smooth hard surface of this varnish does not afford an easy key for fish slime or other foreign matter and so is easily kept clean. Detergents normally used for cleaning have no effect on it. It is, of course, true that they are more expensive than conventional finishes and that extra care is needed during application, but practical results have shown that they protect the woodwork longer than other previously used paints and that they reduce the risk of bacterial contamination. Over one
early
effect
But only by keeping the insulated surfaces dry can their heat repelling property be conveniently maintained. To attain this goal, it is necessary carefully to water-proof the inner side of all boundary surfaces of the fish hold, and to do this tongueand groove planking is usually fitted over the layers of cork or other material and painted. Sometimes a layer of tarred cartoon is inserted between cork and planking; in other
instances a light alloy sheathing
is
used.
Fig. 206,
Resistance to
room paint and
2 per cent, caustic soda. Both the white fish skttiac have broken down, whilst no breakdown ft
vWbb on
the two-pack pond
1246]
FISH HOLDS
None of theae systems, however, is completely successful, as small leak* can hardly be avoided; the best results have been obtained with a sheathing of zinc plates screwed or nailed to the tongue-and-groove boards and carefully soldered at all joints and on the screw or nail heads, so as to be thoroughly
waterproof.
floor sheathing should continue through the framing of all manhole covers so as to avoid penetration of water
DISCUSSION
soon as the catch Is placed therein, to the extent, of course, that the men working in the room have fresh air. But matters are not as simple as that when large catche* are stowed in bulk. Nevertheless, the ingenuity of designer* and the skill of skippers and fishermen will no doubt overcome
itself, a few basic recommendations may be of use. Small or medium sized fishing: boats can hardly afford to have a refrigerating mechanic among their crew; therefore the plant and its layout should be
The
the difficulties. On the refrigerating equipment
through the connections of such frames to the floor planking
and insulation. The efficient waterproofing of the inner side of insulations will lead to an all-over improvement of insulating efficiency, which in turn leads to better preservation, economy of ice, etc. Galvanized iron sheets are not recommended because rust may make subsequent soldering for upkeep too difficult.
Synthetic resin coating is reported to have been applied to fish hold surfaces with good results but appears to be still in the experimental stage. Developments in this field should be closely watched, especially in respect of subsequent upkeep to preserve the waterproof qualities. These matters, important in any climate, are particularly serious with high ambient temperatures, with the increase of temperature differentials and, thus, of the quantity of water that has to be dealt with. The attention of builders is therefore especially called to the proper design, installation and maintenance of the insulation in fish holds to ensure that it is heat as well as water repellent. As stated, the greatest heat exchange occurs on the floors of fish holds; so for this reason an increase in the thickness of insulation on such surfaces by 1 in. (25 mm.) or more is
as simple as possible and easily accessible, so that the normal engine room personnel can handle it. To achieve this, these are the main points to bear in mind : automatic working as far as possible; standard parts for easy replacements; frequent inspection by specialists, preferably before each voyage; good and even distribution of cooling coils on the Jiqnilated surfaces to approach the conditions obtained in "jacketed holds"; setting the thermostat to maintain a temperature of, say, 30F (- 1C) in fish holds, and 10 to 14F (6 to more in the packaging rooms, the thermostat controls to be outside
8Q
the fish room.
When it is not practicable to pack and pre-cool the fish outside the final store room, measures should be taken to prevent melting water dripping on to the lower layers, and to direct the water away from the fish. Packing the first catches
in closed, insulated, light alloy containers results in trials.
has given good
recommended. Another difficulty in the operation of
Finally, it must be remembered that the water produced from the ice surrounding fresh fish gets loaded with organic matter and becomes a fairly concentrated bacterial broth likely to carry contamination anywhere it penetrates.
fish holds whatever the type of refrigeration used (ice only or ice plus refrigeration) is the external temperature fluctuation. Air warmer than that in the fish hold and the catch packed there enters in large
MR. J. W. SLAVTN (U.S.A.): MacCallum's suggestion to arrange the stanchions so as to permit interchangeability of the pen boards is a good one. This is sorely needed in many
fishing trawlers.
volumes every time the hatch door
is
opened.
As a
result,
large portion of the fish room vapour condenses on the surface of the stowed fish and the general temperature inside also
rises.
Both
factors favour the
growth of microbes and thus

delicate internal parts.
All coatings used in a fish hold should of course be noncontamination of the fish may result. It is essential that the fish hold be thoroughly dried out before
toxic, otherwise
deterioration, even of the
more
Refrigeration coils may worsen the situation because many fishermen run the plant with hatches or doors open with the mistaken idea that the fish will be better preserved and dripping from the overhead coils is avoided. Temperature fluctuations can be reduced to a considerable
extent by taking special care in the design of spaces intended for fish stowage and also the handling of the catch. The catch,
applying existing commercially available coating compounds. coating that can be applied to a moist or only partially dried surface is badly needed to prevent excessive loss of tune due to drying out of the hold. He would like to learn if
put in the fish hold through its openings and has full access for periods varying between 10 and 30 min. or more. This happens many times a day during fishing so it will be easily understood that the cumulative adverse effect on temperature and moisture conditions is
after
each haul,
is
thus
warm
air
MacCallum has found any coating materials that can be applied satisfactorily without drying out the fish hold. In regard to the use of metal screens in die fish hold, it would seem that such screens would be very difficult to dean. Specifically, he would like to learn if MacCallum has observed any difficulty in cleaning these screens. MacCallum's paper will be of considerable value to naval architects in designing and fabricating fish holds.
these troubles, it is suggested that an the boat has refrigerating equipmentcooled packaging room be arranged where all the operations previous to storage are done so that the fish hold itself is opened only for shorter periods and perhaps at longer inter* vals. When fish is packed into cases with ice, the whole operation can be done in the pftpk*r*g room *&d the cases toft there until the next haul. This would have the further ad vantage that a product of uniform temperature would be stored
great.
To overcome
and
if
COMPARISON OF FREEZING INSTALLATIONS

EDDIE (U.K.): At the first Congress he had said, as does Slavin now, that the problems of freezing at sea are different for each fishery and different solutions will apply. Comparison of the Delaware and Northern Wave will be useful only if that is borne in mind. This is particularly true when discussing the handling, processing and quality of the products and it is quite obvious that Slavin did not see for himself the products from the Northern Wave: the standard of quality aimed at in this experiment was very high for reasons which are given below and the assess-
insulated
MR. G.
in the fish bold whore no or very little melting of ice would be required to reduce it to the ri^t temperature. This method hu^vta excellent iwults in practice. Obviously it is advisable to dote the door of the packaging room and keep it shut as
ment of the Northern Wave fish is therefore not directly comparable with that of the Delaware flab.
[247]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORtD:

Before discussing the different standards further, it is necessary to take exertion to fee statement in Slavin's summary, that the texture of the M>rrA*r fftn* fish was soft and the fish difficult to fillet This it most misleading. Some of the fish was soft for biological reasons; it is true that, in general, slightly more care is required in filleting than with good-quality toed fish hut sea-frozen fish is by no means difficult to fillet. Much sea-frozen fish is of a very firm
texture.
CONSTRUCTION
by the freezer hand who is not otherwise fully employed. The freezing operation is carried on entirely below decks* With this system, therefore, the freezer throughput can be as
low as one-quarter of the maximum catch that can be expected
stowage to storage space in a 32 Ib./cu. ft. (510 kg./cu. m.) or as low as 14 Ib./cu. ft. (224 kg./cu. m.) depending upon die method of stowage. The latter figure refers to "shotted" fish (see Reay's and Shewan's paper). Regarding space occupied by freezing plant, the Northern Wave was for a number of reasons fitted with a plant larger than that which was necessary or desirable. The result was that on average no extension of voyage was possible. There seems little merit in subjecting more fish than necessary to the expensive freezing operation, the proportion of frozen fish should therefore be decided either by the limitations of crushed ice or by considerations of seasonal fluctuation in supply and demand. The higher proportion of frozen fish on the Delaware was no doubt due to the compactness of the plant, arising from the smaller size of the fish which in turn allows full advantage to be taken of the high rates of heat
British trawler
in a 24-hr, period. The ratio of fish in iced
may be
Reports on the quality of fish as landed from the trawler in the U.K. and in the U.S.A. cannot be compared without examining the standards of comparison and taking into account the ultimate use of the product. In general, the .quality of iced fish after a given number of days on the fishing vessel seems to be higher in the U.K. than on the western seaboard of the Atlantic, partly because of the more liberal use of ice, a mean fish temperature of below 32F (-0C) being usual on large British trawlers. The standard against which seafrozen fish will be compared by the practical man is therefore in this sense higher, and the Northern Wave report must be read accordingly. More important, perhaps, is the fact that Northern Wave fish were produced to compete with iced fish for all purposes that is, the fish were presented to the ultimate consumer as whole fish, steaks and fillets in the wet condition, as smoked fish or smoked fillets, as well as in the form of frozen fillets, fish fingers and so on. The appearance of the thawed whole fish is therefore of importance. Moreover, die most stringent and severe test of freezing and cold storage practice is to split or fillet the thawed fish and smoke it Highgrade products according to these very exacting criteria simply cannot be made by brine immersion freezing and cold storage at ( 18Q. Slavin is not correct in implying that only (-29C) for plate-frozen fish must be stored at maximum quality. This applies to all frozen fish, and the point is generally accepted in the U.K. where for many reasons, which need not be given here, most frozen fish stores (-29 Q, regardless of the type of freezing operate at operation or product. Where the product is frozen fillet in consumer packs some
transfer possible in brine immersion freezing. The latest design of plant based on the Northern Wave, however, has a much improved throughput per unit of space occupied about 40 per cent, higher so that the throughputs mentioned
above can be achieved

saving yet
in
a freezer disposed athwartships,
this
more space
Some
figures
compared with the Northern Wave. regarding hold size and utilization on British
as
0F
-20F
distant-water trawlers were given in his own paper. The costs of unloading the frozen fish from the Northern Wave were rather less than for wet fish despite the makeshift apparatus used.
-20F
relaxation of these temperature requirements would, in British opinion, be possible for short periods of storage, say, no more
Water-thawing is not acceptable for large cod where appearance and texture is important, although thawing may be started in this way if under the control of an expert. Development of compact dialectric thawing plant is proceeding, but it must be pointed out that the costs of air thawing have been taken into account in assessing the economics of freezing trawlers of the type described in the paper
referred to
than four months at (-2PC). Frozen fillet of reasonable quality can be produced from fish up to ten days in ice or more, but if the appearance of the thawed fish is important or it is to be smoked then the fish must be frozen within three days of catching and stored at -20F (-29C). There is, therefore, a considerable difference between the type of product and the standards of judgment in the Delaware and Northern Wave experiments.
-5F
above (see also Hunter and Eddie, 1959). Quality aspects have been discussed above. Slavin is mistaken about the texture in cold-smoked fish; it is most
important.
No difficulties are experienced with plate-freezing fish prior to the onset of rigor mortis except in a small percentage of cases and trouble can be avoided completely provided that the* fish are stored for a period of several weeks. allows fish to be kept in 20F (Because storage at ice for as much as three days before freezing, a considerable
29Q
reduction in the size and capital cost of the freezing plant
is
possflrie as compared with what would otherwise be necessary, in the latest design, based upon the Northern Wave, the
freezer throughput is 200 kits (12.7 ton) per day equivalent <1 kit equals 140 Ib. or 63.5 kg.) but with a low temperature hold limited to 1,200 Idts (75 tons) equivalent this allows
Regarding economics, it is to be noted that the Delaware experiment related to a fishery which would be viewed in the U.K. as a middle-water fishery rather than distant-water. Vessels generally under 140 ft. (42.7 m.) making 10 to 14 day trips can land fish in an acceptable condition without freezing, having regard to the more liberal use of ice, and some of the catch is fit for freezing on shore even by the highest standards. The advantages of freezing are much clearer in the case of the European distant-water fishery. As pointed out in his own paper, the limitations of crushed ice have resulted in the construction of ships with engines developing more than twice as much power as required in the trawling condition, and operating at speeds where the power is varying as the seventh index of the speed. Better preservation reduces the need for speed, and smaller engines and bunkers release more space
for freezing plant (see also Hunter and Eddie, 1959). Regarding Slavin's overall evaluation, it is not agreed that freezing at sea need result in slower handling on board,
the freeaser to deal with an average tste of catch of 400 kits

{25.4 ton) par day, and a peak on any one day of 800 kits (51 too). This is very heavy cod fishing indeed. The rohandling of the fish from the wet fish hold to freezer is done
although it may require one or two extra men. The economic advantage of the ability to operate at lower speeds and powers, than at present necessary in some fisheries, has to be added to
FISH
those
HOLDS
DISCUSSION
fish, filleting it, and re-freezing the fillets. main difficulty lies in the thawing period. Freezing and storing on die ship can be done under optimum conditions. The suggestion put forward of thawing the fish by flushing it with water overnight is most unsuitable. He was of die opinion that thawed-out fish should never be refrozen, as the result was not comparable to iced fish under a certain age. The quality reduction was small, but the effect was that the fish had a lesser appeal to the public.
The advantage to owner and crew of of capacity on every trip is, of course, that the trawler will spend more days in a year on the fishing grounds and fewer in running to and from the grounds. This in turn implies capital savings in terms of the number of vessels required to produce a given quantity of edible fish.
h*ed by
Slavin,
in port,
felt
thawing the
that the
maximum
utilization
He
MR. T. MITSUI (Japan): He requested clarification on the following points regarding Slavin's paper: Which method was adopted to freeze the catches: was the brine stirred by propellers, pumps, etc., or were the baskets with the catch moved in the brine? How was the appearance of the fish when frozen by that method? In Japan appearance was determining the market value of the fish What was the exact meaning of "buffer" storage pen, and what are the details of the plate-freezing unit (including the weight of one charge)?
Preference for iced fish SIR FRED PARKES (U.K.)
DR. INC. GINO GIANBM (Italy): Several Mediterranean fishing enterprises have recently begun to fish in the tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean. The catch is frozen immediately after it has been washed and sorted, and the frozen fish is sold in
various Mediterranean harbours. Satisfactory marketing arrangements have been established for the frozen fish and the good quality and low price are greatly appreciated by the
One of his 190ft. (58 m.) super trawlers
was equipped with a refrigeration plant and a fish meal plant. With every catch that ship brought home a funny situation
kept in ice, sold at a much higher price After two years he gave up the experiment as he felt that the greater expense in freezing over icing, and the consequent lower price of the frozen fish, created a very critical economic problem.
arose: the fresh than the frozen
fish,
fish.
consumers. These projects have been a great success, partially due to the unfavourable state of the traditional fishing activities and to the depletion of the fishing grounds in the Mediterranean Sea, but also due in a great measure to the new freezing methods. Freezing is nearly a perfect way to preserve and store such a
highly perishable product as fish. These projects also show that freezing is the safest way to offer a cheap and high-quality
MR. H. HEINSOHN (Germany): The German

the Heinrich
freezer trawler,
has a plate-freezer of 8 tons per day capacity. The owners confirm Sir Fred Parkes' remarks. They claimed only one small gain: the sea time, or the fishing time of the vessel was longer. The quality of the deep-frozen fillets is excellent, a fact that is proved by the preference of the crew for frozen fish over
fresh fish.
Meins,
ARCOULIS (Greece): He felt that conclusions based on Wave and the Delaware experiments were not very reliable as these boats were not worked on a business basis. As co-owner of a few fishing vessels with freezing equipment on board, he felt to be in a position to make the
.
MR.
the Northern
product to large sectors of the population, ensuring at the same time good profits to the fishermen. Freezing plants on fishing vessels were not previously very common and there were no precedents of an industrial character to encourage the installation of such plants. Several circumstances have probably interfered with the introduction of freezing methods, such as the conservatism of fishermen, the prejudice against frozen fish by merchants and consumers, and perhaps also some mistrust of the technical installation, together with the general opinion that freezer trawlers had to be large vessels. By experience, freezing equipment requires a perfect knowledge of its operation, particularly so on small trawlers where the crew have not only a limited technical knowledge but also very inadequate repair and maintenance facilities. The equipment has to be simple, strong and safe,
properly designed for working in tropical areas, and capable of being operated in a limited space. However, the freezing equipments so far installed have fulfilled these conditions, have proved to be easy to operate, and are now in common use*
following observations:
an ordinary trawler but

diesel-electric trawler
Question of cost: a freezer trawler costs much more than is not more expensive than a
Freezing plants decrease the capacity of the vessel for storing fish Handling of frozen fish increases the cost of unloading the
catch
Perhaps the first freezing plant to be installed on a medium* sized fishing vessel was during 1951 at Genoa on the Greek Evridiki. The owners planned to fish along the Atlantic shores
The question of handling on shore and storage presents other problems. It all depends on what is to be done
with the fish. Circulating hot air to defrost the fish has been suggested, but it appears to be waste of money Quality: the fish is reported to lose its sheen and not to be
good for filleting The conception of the Delaware as a trawler with freezing equipment was obsolete. In the Northern Wave there was no
necessity for
using plate-freezers. air-blast freezing for over three years successful.
He
has been practising
and found
it
quite
MR. S. O'MBALLAiN (Ireland): He noted that there had been much talk about freezing fish at set in the round, unloading it
soon as it was caught, and market Lacking experience in this field, a number of initial difficulties had to be overcome, especially as regards the installation and the operation of die plant. But the project proved to be a success because of the trouble-free operation of the equipment and the fact that the product was welcomed by all kinds of consumers. This ship, still sailing the seas, has a length of 124 ft. (38 m.) and a displacement of 400 ton, it is powered by a 450 h.p. engine, has a speed of 11 knots and is provided with an ammonia plant having a refrigerating capacity of 715,132 BTU/hr. (180,000 kcaL/hr.), working with two compression 40 to stages and operating two freezers at a temperature of -49F (-40 to -45Q, abte to produce about 6 tons of frozen fish a d*yf and to refrigerate the 9,900 cu. ft. (280 cu.m.) ftshhokUatatemperatureof-4 to-13 F(-20to-25 Q. Hie holds have a capacity of only 264,000 to 286,000 Ib.
of Africa, freeze the
fish as
the frozen product in Piraeus.
[249]
CONSTRUCTION
about 33,000 Ib. (IS ton) of fish a day and to keep a temperature of - 13F (~~25Q in the fish holds of about 28,250 cu, ft. (about 800 cu. ITL). The vessels are powered by 1,200 h.p. diesel engines, and they are also provided with 500 kW
generating sets and their longitudinal section
fig. is
shown
in
209.
/Hr. ,W7. flrir Gree* freezer trawler Evridiki operating in the South Atlantic and having vertical blast freezers
fish and this has limited her profitaThe ship is shown in fig. 207 and 208. The Evridiki has worked excellently since 1952 without any particular interruption, making about five or six fishing trips every year,
(120 to 130 ton) of frozen

bility.
In 1955 Messrs. Evangelistria of the Piraeus decided to have their 500 OT transport vessel Grassholm converted into a trawler by the same firm which converted the Evridiki. The trawler was renamed Evangelistria L The operating results were such that her owners decided almost immediately to do the same with two more second-hand ships. While the conversion of the Grassholm was a very unusual and difficult technical task as the ship was once a minesweeper, later converted to a merchant vessel, the installation of freezing plant in the other ships presented fewer difficulties. Nevertheless, Evangelistria 1 has been operating profitably for three years with a production of about 2,200,000 Ib. (1 ,000 ton) of fish a year. She has a length of 157 ft. (48 m.) and is powered by a 650 h.p. diesel engine, giving her a speed of
which, for such a ship, is really a remarkable achievement. This early experiment showed that a number of the objections, which are still heard today, can be ignored. Some of these were a mistrust of ammonia as the refrigerating agent, the use of finned coils in the evaporators, high speed compressors and automatic control devices. The experience has given dear proof that a two-stage ammonia plant with proper characteristics can be installed on medium-sized fishing vessels and be operated with confidence by ordinary fishermen. The Atlantis High Sea Fishing Company of the Piraeus, owners of the Evridiki, are certainly of this opinion, because they equipped two more trawlers with the same system but on
scale. The refrigeration plant, itself, is toss cramped became the *hips ate about 229 ft. (70 m.) long and 29.5 ft. <9 m.) wide. The plants have a refrigerating capacity of
Fig. 209.
Longitudinal section o/ Evridiki

is
II
and
111
a bmer
1,587,000 BTU/hr. (400,000 kcal./hr.), designed to freeze
provided with a 1,190,000 BTU/hr. (300,000 complete with four freezers Ib. of 26,500 (12 ton) of frozen fish a day. capable producing Her two holds have a volume of about 14,100 cu. ft. (400cu.m.) cooled to a temperature of -13F (-25Q and can carry about 510,000 Ib. (230 ton) of frozen fish. The freezing
11 knots.
She
kcal./hr.)
refrigerating plant,
fig. 208.
nt
0/Evridiki I refrigerating
[250]
FISH HOLDS
process
is similar to the one on board the Evridiki, but it is somewhat simpler and provided with a number of special
DISCUSSION
devtoes for quick defrosting.
The two converted second-hand ships were renamed and Evangelistria 111 (fig. 210), and apart from some slight differences in the volume of the fish holds and in their superstructures, they are fundamentally similar
Evangelistria II
to one another.
Their technical characteristics are: length 117 ft. (54 m.); 27.9 ft. (8.50 m.); draught 12.5 ft. (3.80 m.); speed 13 knots; main engine 1,100 h.p.; 3 diesel generator sets with a total output of 350 kW. Refrigerating capacity 1,389,000 BTU/hr. (350,000 kcal./hr.). 4 short vertical tunnel
beam
freezers
(fig.
212).
Fig. 21
Evangdistria
in on trial
Quick-freezing capacity: 31,000 to 33,000 Ib. (14 to 15 ton) of fish a day. Volume of fish holds refrigerated to -13F (-25C): 21,200 cu. ft. (600 cu. m.). Capacity of fish holds: about 661,000 Ib. (300 ton) of frozen fish. Insulation of fish holds: 7.9 to 11.8 in. (20 to 30 cm.) porous cork slabs, with wood planking. Trawl winch power: 145 h.p., complete with Ward Leonard electric motor. Crew accommodation: 32 men. They were first of all completely stripped down to the bare hulls. Then complete reconstruction of the inside began:
all
advantages of diesel-electric power, it was decided to use the diesel engine as the owners thought that this system was much more reliable with the crews they could recruit. This choice of power is debatable. In fact, these ships have three motor generating sets with a total output of about 400 kW, a part of which is used for the Ward-Leonard system, while the other part has to work at a constant voltage. Consequently, both the circuits and the control-board are rather
common
insulated holds, main engines, crew accommodation, installing the new equipment and machines and so on. Where
complex and require, anyway,
necessary, the hull structures were replaced, modified or
qualified technicians. There are usually three electricians in these ships, one of them being specially required for attending the refrigerating
supplemented. The conversion took about four months, of which one month was for dismantling and three for the rebuilding work. The decision to convert instead of building a completely new trawler might be questioned. Although it is true that each such case must be carefully examined, after studying the particular vessels under discussion, it was decided that both time and money would be saved by converting these particular ships. Actually, cost of conversion was a third less than it would have been to build a new ship
similarly equipped.
equipment.
The power required

installation
is
for the winch and the refrigerating a factor that influences the choice and the sub-
division of the electric generators' outputs. It is necessary for the winch to have its own generator. second constant
voltage set supplies the requirements of the refrigerating installation, while a third is a stand-by. This arrangement has
proved practical and
efficient.
There was a great deal of discussion whether diesel-electric or diesel engines should be installed. Notwithstanding the
The refrigeration and freezing equipment require considerable power which has to be generated in a very limited space; therefore it must all be of minimal overall sizes, for example, by using high speed compressors. The equipment occupies
Fig. 210.
General arrangement of Greek frteter trawlers Evangelfctria
II
and ITI
[251]
CONSTRUCTION
and control devices arc very ample and
refrigerant has proved satisfactory in every way, and it i safer than freon. The main advantages of ammonia tie:
m Distribution
sturdy
% Maintenance is easy even with unskilled labour

Recharging does not need special care or precautions A high volumetric output is obtained with a low absorbed
power The refrigeration plants in these ships have automatic control and are composed of a two-stage ammonia circuit for the freezing and of a single-stage one for the holds. Each
electric
of the three compressors motor.
is
directly driven
by a variable-speed
As
no cocks,
far as possible all the connections should be welded and valves,, etc. should be in the holds. All controls,
automatic or manual, should be within easy reach. The use of switches or devices relying on mercury was avoided, because the ship's motion could interfere. All controls have been so designed and arranged as to reduce manual operation
as much as possible and improve safety. Thus in the three years operation of the Evangelistria trawlers and the seven years operation of the Evridiki there have been no breakdowns
or failures.
Four blast freezers are used, having a short vertical freezing tunnel and with specially designed self-locking doors to avoid condensation. The freezers are of the standard liquid ammonia flooded type, properly recirculated by pumps. Special care has been given both to the feeding system and to the recirculating pump, one ammonia surge-drum being used for the four freezers. This arrangement allows an easy working, even when loading and unloading the freezers, as well as when
defrosting.
After washing and gutting, the fish
is
placed in small wire-
mesh boxes for loading in the freezer. When frozen, the boxes go directly into the refrigerated holds. This layout has proved much more practical than the Evridiki's* where the frozen
has to be carried back into the processing room before entering the holds. The layout may vary as, for instance, when the fish has to be glazed. In general however, it is advisable not to have the freezer doors opening towards warm rooms, as this is very uncomfortable for the crew.
fish
Fig. 212.
on fresh whole
Short vertical blast freezers, being used with great success fish. They are kept in wire mesh boxes both when being frozen and in storage
about 215 sq. ft. (20 sq. m.) for an installed power of 160 h.p., with a total weight of 66,000 to 77,000 Ib. (30 to 35 ton). The absorbed power for freezing alone at full load is about 50 kW or 68 h.p. It is advisable, as a rule, that the refrigerating capacity does not exceed 50 per cent, of what is considered to be the daily average fishing capacity. Ammonia as the
and unloaded by hand. In theory making them automatic, but on this type of vessel the conditions are not satisfactory for safe and proper working of such devices. Each freezer is fitted internally with a pair of axial-flow fans directly driven by an electric motor of the enclosed type. Each freezer has a pair of cooling coils, complete with finned
The
freezers are loaded
there are
no
difficulties in
Fig. 213. Profile
0fIt*U**fre***r trawler Gtnepcaca IV
1252]
FISH HOLDS
gives
DISCUSSION
pipe evaporators, and well recessed to avoid damage. This alleviating surface in a small space. The necessary defrosting is done manually with hot gas, onoe or twice a day in about 10 min., and when the freezer is empty. It deans the
surfaces perfectly and removes about 4.5 to 6.3 Imp. gal. (20 to 30 L) of water each time. This water is discharged through a pipe into the bilge, which is kept dosed during
freezing operations. Fish holds am refrigerated by means of 1| in. (42 mm.) plain piping, working on direct expansion and controlled by
thermal expansion valves. It would not be difficult to attain lower temperatures but it would lead to a considerable loss of space on account of the thicker insulation. The frozen fish, however, is not kept in the refrigerated holds for a long time, so a temperature of - 13F (-25C) has proved to be satisfactory. The temperatures are controlled by means of tape
besides the usual distance- and mercury-bulb thermometers. The holds are insulated with first quality porous cork slabs, 8 in. (20 cm.) for the floors, and up to 10 to 12 in. (25 or 30 cm.) for the ceiling. The insulating cork slabs are fitted on the ship's frames with offset joints. The inside covering is of wood, sometimes covered with galvanized steel or anodized aluminium sheets. This type of insulation is sound and strong,
recorders,
Fig. 2/5.
Section showing refrigerating machinery and freezers
of
GenepescalV
Fish must be frozen as soon as possible Blast freezers, if properly designed, are simple, strong and easy to handle. They give the greatest flexibility
although it is somewhat bulky and expensive. For example, fish hold of 14,000 to 28,200 cu. ft. (400 to 800 cu.m.) is reduced by about 18 per cent, in volume by the insulation. The useful volume of a fish hold is an important factor and an accurate study was made for all ships in order to get the best utilization of space, even at the cost of some sacrifice in the accommodation for the crew. The trips between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic represent a time, so that inadequate holds, although satisfactory in other respects, might not be in a favourable competitive position. Based on the experience gained, several other ships are now
because whole fish both large and small can be frozen in trays or in various types of packing, as well as fillets. Difficulties with frost are totally removed by accurate design of freezers and simple defrosting devices
being converted, and entirely new vessels are projected. The new Evangelistria ships will have considerably different and much more complex characteristics and they will be classified
as factory ships rather than freezer trawlers. Their refrigerating capacity will be 2,000,000 BTU/hr. (500,000 kcal./ hr.), capable of processing about 44,100 Ib. (20 ton) of frozen fish a day. Their fish holds will have a volume of about
must have adequate air velocities and temperatures to ensure a perfect freezing. refrigerant, such as ammonia or freon, can be used; the former has proved to be reliable, simple and safe The problems posed by the construction of a freezer trawler, or by a conversion, are not simple. The refrigerating engineer and the shipbuilders should be conInstallations
sulted at
an
early stage
is
Freezing at sea
and
is
a working tool
definitely out of the experimental stage, at the disposal of fishing enterprises.
46,000 cu.
ft.
(1,300 cu. m.) kept at
a temperature of
sea
- 13F
It will certainly be considerably used in the near future, especially in areas where the traditional short distance fishing activities are on the decline.
(~25Q,
The results of this long experience of freezing at
summarized
safe
may be
More
Italian experience
as follows:
DR. ORAZIO
Osn
and CAPTAIN WALTER COSTA
(Italy):
Freezing at sea can be considered practical and perfectly
Gcnepcsca IV was formerly used for salt cod production. In 1957 she was converted to freeze and store frozen fish and to make fish meal. The main particulars of the ship, built at Le Havre in 1937, before conversion were: length 218.2 ft. (66.50 m.); beam 34 ft (10.36 m.); depth 19.7 ft. (6.00 m.); 1,220 OT; 679 NT; two holds: total volume 40,153 cu. ft. (1,137 cu. m.); 6-cyl. main engine, 1,200 h.p.; two 180 h.p.
auxiliary engines.
The new
to 215, waters:
is sufficient
refrigerating equipment of Gtntpesca IV, fig. 213 for fhe following white fishing in tropical
Freezing 20 tons daily by four freezers Preserving 400 tons frozen fish at a temperature of in the two holds 4o to _goF ( _20 to The main features are shown in fig. 216 ami can be summarized as follows: Direct ammonia expansion for freezers and holds Multi-stage expansion with deep intermediate sub-
-22Q
% %
Ftg.214.
lV fawingkolds
cooling between the stages
[253]
CONSTRUCTION
Fig. 216.
The refrigeration
circuits
of Gcncpesca IV
Forced circulation with electric ammonia pumps, for the

evaporators in the holds and the freezers Four independent units with two-stage low-speed compressors; one being a spare Subdivision in three circuits, each at a different operating
Each freezer is directly communicating with the holds. divided into two compartments and each compartment has three shelves of galvanized coils. Air is forced uniformly over the fish and the evaporating coils in a horizontal direction. The fish is frozen in its wooden boxes.
in each freezer temperature minimized. This division has also proved very useful to maintain identical conditions and even freezing; it avoids having to reverse the direction of the air blast periodically. Freezers are planned for -31F (-35C). It is not advisable to lower the temperatures too quickly so as to shorten the freezing time, because the quality of the fish depends on the right ratio between the speed and the temperature of the circulating air. Defrosting is done by emptying the refrigerant into a large ammonia accumulator. Evaporators are defrosted by injecting hot compressed ammonia distributed by a branch pipe on the plant's discharge side. The fish holds are cooled by
temperature Interconnection between compressors and between

cuits
By having two compartments

is
cir-
reduction
Automatic regulation of refrigerant, high degree of safety hi operation and easy control The refrigeration machine room is in the 'tween-deck. Each of the four units is driven by a DC motor and connected to a shell and tube condenser. Two units are for freezing; the third is normally used for cooling the holds; the fourth as
standby.
Electric energy
is provided by two diescl-elcctric units of each* placed in the engine room. One of these .generators is a standby. The refrigerating capacity of each compressor for the freezer is about 40 (150,000 keal./hr.) between 14 and 77TF (-10 and 25Q; the electric motor is 55 h.p. The refrigerating capacity of each compressor for the holds and for the spare is about 22 (85,000 kcal./hr.); the electric motor is 35 h.p. The compressors run at about 370 r.p.m.; tiiis low speed is very important for the heavy operating conditions in equatorial waters and it contributes to regular working
100
kW
suitable
ceiling.
RT
smooth pipe evaporating grids applied on sides and Holds* and freezers* doors are of "overlap" type.
RT
The ammonia is forced through the plant with four electric driven centrifugal pumps, of which one is a standby. The
and long life. The plant is divided into three suction circuits at different temperatures. The first and the second are for each of the freezers and are heading to the 40 RT compressors. The third circuit is for the holds and is connected with one of the 22 RT compressors. The four large shell and tube condensers have roll-expanded
pipes. The covere arc easily removable for periodical cleaning. The diameter of the pipes is larger than normal to facilitate
cleaning and avoid excessive water speeds. All parts in contact with leawater are treated with a special anti-corrosive paint. The four freezers are placed under the machine room,
fig. 217.
IV
{2MJ
FISH HOLDS
pump*
are fed
DISCUSSION
where the fish is landed there seems no alternative to freezing that part of the fish at sea. Therefore, fishing craft with capacity for freezing the complete catch will have to be developed for fishing giounds where shore bates cannot be
established.
from
vertical
ammonia
surge drums placed
over them. Electric driven pumpt are easy to regulate, being stable under load variations of the freezers and holds. Among the several advantages of forced circulation is that the ammonia pipe can be installed according to the vessel's construction, there is no need to observe pipe slopes and level
differences.
The
insulation of the separator
and the low temperature
Naval architects and fishing boat builders should study tile market investigations which food technologists have carried out. They are trying to predict what the consumers prefer.
This
that
is not an easy task but it is essential. Studies indicate where frozen fish and iced fish of average quality compete,
ammonia piping is one of the
of the holds and coated with bituminous emulsions on the surfaces. The average thickness of the cork linings is about 12 in. (300 mm.) in the holds and about 14 in. (350 mm.) for the freezers. The sides and ceilings of the holds are litosilo lined, white the internal surfaces of the freezers are covered with galvanized iron sheet applied on the wood boarding to which the cork is fastened. The volume of the frozen fish holds is about 26,850 cu. ft. (760 cu. m.). Two rooms at the bow are used for fish meal production, the first for machinery and the second for 65 tons storage. The refrigerating plant has been carefully tested during many voyages to and from the fishing grounds near the Mauritania coast, which average 80 to 90 days and the experience was: Direct expansion ammonia system has proved to be both economical and technically sound in a large capacity plant on ships. Refrigerating units should be mounted on deck or tween-decks, ammonia circuits must be welded, shut-off devices must be outside the holds, and proper ventilation is advisable for the compressor room. These recommendations, of course, apply also to other refrigerants, so the use of ammonia therefore does not demand special conditions. The plant should be divided into circuits operating at different temperatures for each freezer and hold, and several independent refrigerating compressors should be installed. Twostage compressors are suitable at the very low temperatures needed for freezing and they are as trouble-free as the normal single-stage machines. Forced circulation of ammonia, with
electric
synthetic resins. The insulation freezers was made with several cork layers
gets
it
the frozen fish, prepared of really fresh fish, is preferred and a better price. It is true that freezing at sea is costly but
may become a necessity and the consumers be willing to pay the increased cost.
Factors in fh
may eventually
COMMANDER M. B. F. RANKBN (UK.) With regard to the use of refrigerated grids in wet fish rooms, it should be remembered that these were originally introduced in the days of poor insulation in steam vessels mainly to limit the amount of heat entering from the boiler room. The advent of the diesel
:
engine had changed this and it was true that refrigeration was now somewhat of a luxury in Arctic waters except for preserving the ice on the outward voyage, but it was almost
certainly essential for operation in warmer climates. DeSilva mentioned the need to have bulkhead and ship's side grids,
presumably in
warm waters and this was certainly desirable in conjunction with good insulation. Strakosch raised the question of frosted pipes and this problem had certainly been troublesome in some British distant water trawlers but means were available for defrosting the grids in turn to limit the frost build-up and leave the grids almost clean on entering harbour. Refrigerated spaces in which to prepare the fish before storing it were definitely desirable in warm climates and were an important feature of modern designs of factory trawlers
designed for operation in warm waters. It was important to emphasize that the wet fish room cooling plant was only designed to deal with the heat influx from outside. It must not cool or freeze any of the fish in the hold and it must allow the ice to melt. below 32F Various remarks had been made about ice and the very
pumps,
is practical, efficient
and
reliable.
(0Q
the discussion of the preservation of white fish at sea many calculations are made regarding the economics of freezing the whole catch at sea immediately upon capture versus storage of at least a large part of the catch in ice for landing it in this condition. It is generally agreed that the latter method is the more economic.
Must study the market MR. MOOENS JUL (Denmark): In
large quantities which were required. Ice is by no means easy to obtain in many areas, particularly in warm climates, and it may be very expensive. It seemed probable, therefore, that
chilled sea water offered a better solution for fishing provided sufficient
warm
water
power could be provided to drive
appeared to htm, however, that insufficient attention is paid to the fact that the landing of white fish which has been up to 10 or even more days on ice may very well be an obsolete process, and that consumers may soon demand a fresher product. Large population groups have for years been accustomed to the use of white fish which has been up to two weeks on ice. On the other hand, people accustomed to really fresh fish, i.e. 2 to 3 days on ice at the utmost, or fish frozen within a few hours after capture, will not eat such 8 to 10 days old iced fish. The development in the U.S.A. has been that the whole distribution of fish is turning from fresh to frozen fish because it is in this way possible to supply the whole of the U.S.A. with fish of very good quality. This was not
It
the refrigerating plant. Dreosti mentioned the particle shape of ice but this did not sound like a practical problem as it was dear that the cooling effect of a given weight of ice was always the same and the important thing was proper distribution through the fish.
Washing of used ice between voyages did not seem practical by Dneosti's method and it would be better for the amount of ice remaining at the end of a voyage to be kept to a minimum. MacCailum mentioned belt driving of refrigerating compressors from the main engine of small fishing vessels. Alt attractive alternative would be to use a hydraulic motor with the pump driven by the main engine. This method was currently used on a number of refrigerated vehicles and allowed the compressor to be sited in the most convenient place
relative to the refrigerated space.
was used. the distribution of fish which has been iced for 10 days will be possible for several years to come but eventually wiH have to be discontinued. Since large parts of the white fish catches are fished far away from the place
the case
iced fish
It is likely that
when
MacCaihim's paper was obviously most valuable and would

be used by
to raise
figure
many
one or two
as their Bible. It was desirable, however, points. In table 40, MacCailum gave *
of 0.08 BTU/hr,/aq.
ft/F
(0.391 teaL/hr./sq.
m./<O
{255]

for the overall heat teakafe &ctor into A sted trawler, but this was lower than that recorded in many fully refrigerated ships and equalled the value obtained in trials in tix> Fairtry 1L In British practice where the tank top was uninsulated and the
CONSTRUCTION
freezer*
and unloading the
was 4J hn, and on
this basis the
freezing capacity of the whole plant was 646 lb./hr, (294 kg./ (- 29C), not 500 lb./hr. (221 k*/hr.) as stated hr.) to
- 20F
bulkheads, deckhead and ship's sides had between 2 and 4 in. (51 to 102 mm.) of insulation, a figure of 0.15 BTU/hr./sq. ft./ F (0.734 kcal,/hr./sq. m./Q was commonly used for calculating the heat leakage and this seemed more realistic. However, insulating the tank top as suggested by Strakosch
would improve
analysis of the
this figure
and
this
was very
desirable.
The
optimum
insulation thickness in relation to ice
hold capacity was most interesting, particuwarm water fisheries. The water-tightness of the insulation was of paramount importance both on the outside and on the inside and this
fish
carded and
larly in relation to
In the Northern Wave, blocks 36 x 18 x 4|in. (915x457 mm.) thk and weighing 64 Ib. (29 kg.) were produced. For the future a block size of 42x21 x4 in. (1,070x535x102 mm.) thick, weighing 84 Ib. (39.2 kg,) was suggested. Hie installation proposed for a standard British diesel or dicsel-electric distant-water trawler, 185 x 32$ ft. (57 x 9.9 m.) would have 13 three-station units and with the reduction in block thickness to 4 in. (102 mm.) as well as improved refrigerant distribution and control, a freezing time hr. had been achieved, though in practice, as low as 3 3 j hr. would be allowed for a complete cycle. On this basts such a plant would have a freezing capacity of 875 lb./hr.
in Siavin's paper.
xU4
was rightly empahasized by MacCallum. However, the Minikay system was not a satisfactory method of sealing the inside of the insulation in ships as it was almost impossible to ensure a vapour-tight internal lining between the hold and the Minikay ah* space due to the working of the ship. As a result it was common to find that the produce in the store had lost weight. The system was often ideal on shore but was not worth considering on board ship although it had been fitted extensively by some West European and Scandinavian shipping lines as well as in at least two frozen fish holds in trawlers. Mention should be made of the polyurethane light-weight
which appeared to have a great future, particutow temperature fish holds and for doors and hatch plugs. They showed promise of having a completely sealed structure and were cheaper to erect than other cellular
rigid foams,
larly for
(397 kg./hr.) to (-29Q; if the trawler's beam wens increased to 34 ft. (10.4 m.), a further three stations could be accommodated, which would raise the freezing capacity to 945 lb./hr. (430 kg./hr.). Handling of the fish between the buffer storage pounds and the freezers is much reduced with
this athwartships layout.
~20F
materials in
common
use.
aluminium foil was satisfactory so was concerned. This might be true of the material itself but it was not true of an insulated structure, as moisture could penetrate easily between the layers and
stated that
for as water absorption
freeze.
MacCallum
For frozen fish holds, the principle must be to keep the heat leakage to a minimum and so limit the refrigeration load. This in turn limited the amount of desiccation of the frozen
a most important point when fatty fish were involved. In general the equivalent of 12 in. (30 cm.) of cork (8 in. or 20 cm. over beams and frames) was required in Northern waters and rather more might be needed in warm climates. The jacketed hold was the ideal but was not a practical
fish,
proposition where space was at a premium and water-tightness of the inner lining could not be ensured. He hoped that Slavin would forgive him for saying that he had undertaken an unhappy and indeed an impossible task in trying to compare the relative merits of the Delaware and the Northern Wave. On the one hand was a ship and a fishery with which he was intimately connected, while on the other was a ship he had never seen and a completely different fishery
of which he obviously had no personal knowledge. Eddie dealt in detail with Slavin's paper. Only one or two points would be dealt with and a description given of the freezing equipment proposed for any new commercial vessel of this type which might be built for British owners.
UstM prototype
vertical plate-fr
(fig.
218) was developed for the
Northern
Wave from a prototype

and was
Station, Aberdeen*
built by the Torry Research in every sense A robust, practical
and
reliable unit, which never gave any trouble throughout the experiment, in spite of its situation at the forward cod of a violently pitching mseL Thecydc time for loading, freezing
Fig. 218.
[256]
FISH HOLDS
The Delaware** freezing plant could not be compared directly with that of the Northern Wave as it was freezing individual nth from about 1 to 4 in. (25 to 102 mm.) thick.
Its
DISCUSSION
installation could only be really satisfactory in a ship specifically designed for the purpose. Conversions were always expensive and almost never ideal. It had often been said that most of the damage done to fish occured during unloading and subsequent handling on shore, and Slavin gave a graphic description of the unhygienk
capacity
on thick ftsh only was presumably much
less
than
that of the Northern
Wave
likely,
plant, a figure
below 400
Ib./hr.
(182 kg./hr.) being
Also the temperature of
0F
(-18O
practice,
was much above

where
that found necessary in British
-20F (~29C)
was gradually becoming
standard; this temperature was essential for the long storage of such fish as herring. He would not comment on the relative merits of brine-immersion and plate-freezers, but the former had not found favour hi the U.K. for many years past, although it was first used there before 1890 (British Patent No. 6117, dated 9 April, 1889).
and primitive methods used today. It was to be hoped that far more thought would be given to this aspect both for fresh and for frozen fish. He looked forward to the day when human hands would not come into contact with the fish at any time after it entered the fish hold up to the time it was prepared for cooling. This was already technically possible for frozen fish though it was not yet current practice. However, wet fish presented a bigger problem, and many changes
Fig. 219.
Proposed refrigerating
circuit using single-stage Refrigerant
12 or 22
was a To achieve the low temperature of considerable technical problem, as simplicity, reliability and ease of operation were essential in such small ships. Theoretically a two-stage refrigeration plant would be the right solution, but it was found that for this application a singlestage Refrigerant 12 (Arcton 6/Freon 12) or Refrigerant 22 (-40C) (Alston 4/Froon 22) plant, evaporating at was preferable and need not occupy excessive space. The proposed basic circuit was shown in fig* 219. In a diesel-ckctric trawler with a constant-current system, the possibility had been considered of including the freezing compressor as well
-20F (-29Q
in the organization
and
distributing fish
would have
to
be
made.
Arcoulis saw no point in using plate-freezers but in the conditions of the Arctic fisheries with very high catching rates, everything possible had to be done to reduce the freezing time
freeze
-40F
while preserving the quality. The vertical plate-freezer could 4 in. (102 mm.) thick blocks in as little as 3* hours
as the trawl winch motor in the constant-current loop. fully automatic plant with a single compressor also appeared practical, reliance being placed on capacity reduction and speed control to balance the refrigeration load under all
conditions.
compared with at least five hours in a freezing tunnel. It was now common to thaw, fillet, and refreeze such large fish as cod and haddock and little was lost in the process provided that the initial freezing was done within the time limit and to the right low temperature.
Gianesi's very valuable contribution touched on some of the great problems involved in freezing fish in warm waters. Firstly there was the rapid onset of rigor mortis which
necessitated either very rapid chilling or immediate freezing. In the la tier case great difficulties were encountered with rapid frost formation on the tunnel air coolers and this was
Some
further information
in the paper
by Eddie. He
the above scheme was given agreed with Slavin that such an
on
[257]
PISHING BOATS OF THE WOULD: 2

.This showed the
desirability of pre-cooHng the fish before freezing, of limiting infiltration to die runnels, and of air conditioning die working
CONSTRUCTION
spaces to as low a temperature and humidity as possible, as was proposed for a number of projected designs of factory
trawlers.
that fish in direct contact with wood, even although otherwise surrounded with ice, are at 32F (0Q the Adi i& usually a few degrees higher- and the more rapid spoilage claimed by MacCallum may in fact be due in some measure to a tempera-
ture difference.
While appreciating the reasons for the choice of ammonia as the refrigerant he could not agree with Oianesi that this dangerous refrigerant was desirable in a small ship. A Refrigerant 12 or 22 plant either single-stage or two-stage was infinitely preferable and could be just as reliable and foolproof with careful design. He doubted whether ammonia would be tolerated by any British owner. In ship's rotary boosters followed by high speed V-dcsigns of reciprocating compressor were desirable to save space. Sir Fred Parkes and Heinsohn had said that frozen fish could not command such high prices as could fresh fish. This had been true in Western Europe and the U.K. principally because of unsatisfactory freezing methods and bad handling of the fish resulting in poor quality. Coupled with this was the fact that no Western European country had a satisfactory organization for marketing frozen fish. When these fundamental points had been dealt with there was no reason to doubt that frozen fish would be able to hold its own against fresh fish, and in many cases surpass it, as had already occurred in UJS.S.R., U.S.A. and Greece. Jul had highlighted the crux of the matter when he said that the customer may eventually be willing to pay the increased cost.
State of ice important
Answering Proskie: they had not had as yet sufficient experience with chilled seawater to be able to give a balanced opinion as to the merits of this method of chilling as against icing. It is considered, however, that where the age of the first caught fish at landing never exceeds six to eight days, chilling would give as good an article as sea-frozen fish at landing. Moreover, it is doubtful whether it would be feasible
or practical economics to
small vessels.
instal freezing plant
on board such
They had no .comments to make on Ranken's contributions. They had noted Slavin's remarks about the effectiveness of
washing
hold,
fish in
60 p.p.m.
free chlorine prior to
stowage
in the
and thought it very important that the scientific data on which this claim is based should be made available for all
to see.
Slavin's further point about the ratio of
1
:
for fish
and ice being too high might well apply to the vessels whose round trips are not of such long duration as those of the British distant water fleet and to which the values specifically
apply.
DR. O. M. DRBOSTI (South Africa): In commenting upon the use of ice, Ranken has apparently missed both points entirely.
made by Strakosch as applying particuconditions of high ambient temperatures are also very illuminating and would repay careful consideration by all interested parties. They serve to show, if nothing else, how difficult it is to generalize on matters affecting stowage of fish in a ship's hold, when the conditions under which the fishing is conducted can differ so widely.
The
several points
ilarly to
The particle shape of die ice naturally cannot affect the amount of cooling that can be obtained from a given weight of ice. That depends on the weight of ice alone. The rate at
which fish can be cooled by that weight of ice, however, depends very largely on the particle shape and size of the ice.
cooling rate, and not the total cooling effect, particle size and shape. In connection with the washing of used ice he could only say that in South Africa used ice is washed regularly and reused, not in the trawlers but in the railage offish up country. 1 4s. per short ton, whilst water costs only Ice costs about 5d. per short ton. It is definitely an economical and indeed a very simple procedure. In South Africa it is very practical.
It is therefore the
MR. W. A.
MACALLUM
(Canada): The naval architect
will
serve the fishing industry well if he applies available knowledge of fish preservation in the design and layout of fish handling
fish holding facilities aboard ship. He can bridge the gap between technology and practical application best by specifying necessary materials, procedures and arrangements when the vessel is in the planning stage. Mr. MacCallum's paper had been prepared to assist him in this important task. The method described for determining insulation requirements of a fishing craft would appear to be practical, having in mind the need to preserve the catch and to minimize the labour of the hold worker and loss of hold space. Mr. MacCaHum wished to stress the need to make a wise choice of water-vapour proof membranes and insulations and to install them correctly. He did not feel that vibrations in the fish hold can be considered extreme and that they would contribute to the breakdown of polystyrene. The latter is reported to have been used with good satisfaction and without
and
that
is
affected
by
REPLIES OF AUTHORS
J. M. SHEWAN (U.K.): They did not wish at this stage to contribute anything further to the discussions other than to make some general remarks. They thought that Dreosti had made several important points in his contribution, particularly with regard to the different rates of
DR. G. A. REAY and DR.
ill
effects
in insulated trucks
where vibration
intensity
is
cooling offish in different positions in the hold; under layers of fee of different thicknesses; and when "flake" and crushed block ice are used. His enumeration of the striking ad vantages claimed for the use of the fish flume on board ship was also read with much interest.
probably higher than that experienced aboard the vessel. Ranken's comments are appreciated. His report to the effect that a U-value of 0.15 BTU/hr./sq. ft./F (0.734 kcal./ hr./sq. rti.ro is commonly used in U.K. for calculating heat leakage is significant One might well question but not necessarily condemn a practice which provides about half the effective insulation considered to be necessary for 32F (0Q
storages
It
on land.
easily
MacCattum commented that fish hi some circumstances, and in particular in contact with wood, although chilled with ice can spoil more rapidly than shown in table 45, they would ttoe to have an assurance from MacCaHum that he has in fcct measured the tcnqxratures of the fish under the cinmmstaaoes he specified. In their experience
it
may
be shown that
if
a wall in a
steel vessel
were
insulated between the flange of the frame and the inner lining of the fish room to a depth of 1 in. (25 mm.) and the spaces
cannot be assumed
between frames were insulated to give an over-all U-value of 0.13 BTU/hr./sq. ft./F, the depth of crushed ice actually required under the otherwise unaltered conditions set out in
[258]
FISH
(86
sq.
HOLDS
DISCUSSION
boards, (2) shorter service life of the movable board as compared to the fixed sheet, (3) the more pleating appearance of the fixed sheet throughout its service life. On the larger trawler there can be a distinct advantage in having the inboard section of the wing of each pen "built" of movable aluminium alloy boards while on medium and smaller trawlers thane may be a distinct advantage in having fixed or permanent wings of aluminium alloy sheet; on trawlers of all sizes movable boards for "back halves" of wings (these being the sections between the outermost longitudinal row of stanchions and the ceiling) must be of various lengths and in the metal fish room are generally avoided, being replaced by fixed sheets. Everything else being equal, as many movable boards as can be handled conveniently and economically should be used in the wooden "wet" fish room since those responsible for maintenance may wash, dry and refinish these elements and operate a system which makes reconditioned boards available for installation
at all times.
Ubte 50 would be 2.3 in. (58 mm.). A saving of 3.4 in. mm.) of crushed ice or 5.1 short tons (2,000 Ib.) per 1,000
ft.
(5.0 ton per 100 sq. m.) of surface area of insulated wall
would be possible over the case where the wall was not
insulated.
U-valuc of 0.15 BTU/hr./sq. ft./F corresponds to an depth of corkboard of about 1} in. (37 mm.) only, where the insulation is incorporated into a fish hold wall (steel vessel). It is apparent that if minimal depths of insulation such as 2 to 4 in. (51 to 102 mm.) are used the greater portion of the insulation should be placed between the flange of the frames or stiffeners and the inner lining of the fish hold, otherwise a U-value of 0.15 BTU/hr./sq. ft./F will not be realized. It would be better still to insulate as heavily as economically feasible between as well as over frames. This should be more feasible now than ever before as a result of the development of suitable light-weight insulation. Theoretically, the jacketed fresh fish hold need not be a space waster. It could save space. Practice could match theory if the naval architect were to provide a fish room
effective
uniformly full from fore to aft. The Gregson system and the polyurethanc foams which can be incorporated into jacketed fish rooms appear to be quite adequate as far as providing water-tightness. In Mr. MacCaHum's opinion multiple unit pens could be incorporated also into a jacketed design which would have many pleasing and practical features. There seems little reason to doubt the success of the jacketed room from the engineering standpoint. Experience to date is not that alternatives to conventional construction are not satisfactory but that owners are loath and naturally so to increase capital expenditure when toe can be used successfully in place of a mechanically refrigerated jacket. In this connection it may be noted that builders have been under little or no pressure to develop cost saving techniques in jacketed hold construction. At any rate, radically changed techniques of hold construction in metal are apt to be fairly costly where vessels of a particular design are ordered in limited numbers.
Mr. MacCallum was pleased to have the results of Prunchie's laboratory tests of catalyzed finishes. It would be expected that their superiority over the others tested would be apparent, but in reduced measure, in fish hold applications. His experience with catalyzed finishes in the fish room was that they keep the wood covered for longer periods between refits than do conventional paints if they are applied under conditions favourable to their setting. However, they are not
considered permanent nor do they prevent the underlying wood from gaining moisture. To make laboratory tests more useful to the buyer of the product, modifications of presently used accelerated tests would have to be made and results should be expressed in such terms as guaranteed fish room surface covering characteristics for a given period for various grades and species of wood, with moisture content of the wood, and temperature and humidity conditions at time of
As suggested
in his
paper
it
may become common
practice
to specify metal for stanchions, divisions
and portable boards
and strong, durable,
tight materials for ceilings
corrosion-resistant, non-metallic, waterand walls of the fish room. Latex-
sand-cement compositions and glass fibre reinforced plastics are two possibilities for the latter application. Latex-sandcement should be placed over a rigid sub surface. Reinforced plastics may be used in the same way or in a self-supporting structure. Too few applications of either material have yet
applying and curing the paint being specified. Slavin has again pointed out the perennial difficulty the inability to keep wet wood covered with paint. The paint chemist has not solved this problem. Possible alternatives were: Use wood (a) in movable sections or boards which may be removed and dried thoroughly, albeit at high cost; (b) in fixed partitions, sides of fish hold, etc. only when it can be covered with screens, metal boards and painted wooden boards (all of which would be movable). In this case the lack of paint on the hidden surface has no effect on fish
:
been made however to give a good cost comparison with metals, e.g. aluminium alloys, for the construction of watertight jackets.
preservation. Use materials other than

painting, e.g.
wood which do not
require
aluminium
alloys, fibre glass, reinforced plastic.
Reay's and Shewan's comments in their paper as to the role of deck grid refrigeration. It is his personal opinion that, in many instances, a very good case can be made for the use of a jacketed wet fish
Mr. MacCallum concurred with
Regarding Slavin's question on cleaning screens, Mr. received reports of difficulties. It is quite probable that the frequency of removal of screens for cleaning need not be too great and most certainly will not be as great as that for movable boards. This should be the subject of a
MacCallum had not
room.
Eddie (1958 b) and he was in agreement as regards the arrangement and design of stanchions to permit interchangeability of pen boards. However, he did not feel that one should assert categorically that a fish room is best if it can be "built" and "torn-down" by the fishermen before, during and after each trip. "Wings" or portions of wings (transverse partitions) in aluminium alloys should be of movable boards when it is more convenient to ice and discharge the catch with such an arrangement that when partitions an wholly fixed and when this advantage is balanced against (1) the increased cost of handling and cleaning the
Slavin,
later report.
Strakosch has referred to the use of zinc sheathing (i to thickness) in fish^holds. One would expect the material, if suitably joined, to be satisfactory for some applications, particularly where fish are handled in small boxes. The gauge mentioned would be far too light for "wet fish" rooms where fish and ice and ice alone are stored in bulk. In the case of materials such as aluminium alloys, glass fibre reinforced plastics and plastic paints which are all new in the sense that shipbuilders are not too familiar with their use, the naval architect should know practicany as much about the material and its use as the manufacturer, so that through
1
mm.
[259]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WO&LD;

design and installation techniques full advantage can be taken of the material. In thii way failure* which In truth might be the fault of the architect or the shipyard and not of the material todf, may be avoided. Fish handling and storage space and timber ventilation in small boats despite the worldwide importance of the latter have been neglected heretofore by the naval architect and the technologist. Mr. MacCallum had analyzed certain types of smalt boats, both decked and undecked, in these respects. It is hoped that this may serve as a basis of discussion for the naval architect ami the prospective owner of a new vessel. He concurred in the opinions expressed throughout the the proceedings concerning the desirability of reducing the amount of strenuous work and of providing less onerous conditions aboard the vessel Progress towards this goal could be made by giving the fishermen: Uniform and fully shaped fish-rooms from fore to aft, uniform boxes or uniform fish pens with uniform and
It
CONSTRUCTION
fish
was good to leant from Eddie that
can be
satis-
factorily plate-frozen prior to rigor mortis and that it is not always necessary to wait until they pass through this stage of
rigor mortis until the start of freezing. In U.S.A. it was found that freezing immediately when caught is essential in order to obtain a high quality product. It is true that the Delaware fish were produced to compete with fish that are normally marketed in the form of frozen
fillets,
whereas Northern Wave fish were produced to compete with wet or smoked fish. However, it was observed that fillets
from thawed brine-frozen

freshly landed fish. Also,
fish
compared quite favourably to
A practical method for handling larger catches in boxes A dean or protected (as with screens) fish room and fish
containers made of materials which can be kept clean Insulation and refrigeration facilities to enable fish room air and surface temperatures to be kept at the desired
level
interchangeable boards
after a given days, the quality of fish on U.K. vessels seems to be higher than on vessels operating along the Western Seaboard of the Atlantic and that this influences the standard for comparison of sea-frozen fish. In evaluating this standard of comparison, Mr. Slavin pointed out that the length of time the fish are stored on the vessel is of prime importance and that, because of the long distance that British fishing vessels
Eddie implied that
number of
Suitable ice and
means of handling
it
more
easily
travel to and from the fishing grounds, fish landed in the U.K. are generally of much lower quality than those landed along the Western Seaboard of the Atlantic; he therefore could not agree with Eddie that the overall standard of comparison for evaluating fish frozen at sea for the Northern Wave project was higher than for the Delaware project. The studies now underway in the U.K. on dielectric thawing of frozen
have to
fish are
(U.S.A.): There is no question that the fishing problems for each part of the world differ considerably. Freezing fish at sea, as Arcoults pointed out, may solve many of Greece's fishing problems and provide that country with a
J.
MR.
W. SLAVIN
very interesting. This work should be closely appraised for possible application in other freezing processes. In regard to Ranken's discussion, it is difficult to determine what is meant by the capacity of thick fish. It is the overall
rate of freezing (the number of pounds of fish that can be handled each hour) that is important, not the thickness of the fish or layers of fish. This is only important because it contributes to the rate of freezing. The rate of freezing should be equal to the mean catch rate in order to provide rapid handling of the fish and to minimize loss of quality. In this regard, the
plentiful supply of high quality
raw material Yet,
in other
parts of the world, icing may be just as satisfactory. Therefore, only for evaluating, for each particular fishery, the factors of handling aboard the vessel, storage on the vessel, unloading and handling ashore, quality of the product and die associated costs can one determine whether freezing or icing is the most
satisfactory.
increase in freezing capacity recommended for future British freezer trawlers of over 875 Ib./hr. (397 kg./hr.) is a step in the
right direction. trawlers for the
Several of the contributors mentioned that the Delaware vessels and thus as such should not be used as a basis for determining the success of freezing at sea. This is not completely true for only by comparing techniques used on these experimental freezer vessels with those used on conventional king trawlers can remedies for existing problems be offered by naval architects,
and Northern Wave are experimental
New England
Mr. Slavin now recommends that freezer fishery have a freezing capacity
engineers, technologists and vessel owners and operators. Eddie in his contribution made the interesting observation that the fish frozen on the Northern Wave were soft because
of biological factors due to catch areas, not because of the freezing process. This is a good point and shows that in freezing fish at sea much thought must be given to the differences in fish quality due to biological factors. Mf. Slavin mentioned that during a recent trip to England, he had a chance to view plate-frozen fish that were caught in a
different area than those in the Northern
fish
least 3,000 Ib. (1 ,360 kg.) of fish per hour. In regard to Mitsui's questions, on the Delaware, the baskets of fish were moved through the cold brine and the appearance of these fish was quite satisfactory. The fillets prepared from the brine-frozen fish had lost the bright sheen of regular iced fish; this, however, was not considered to be objectionable. Also, buffer storage refers to the hold where the fish on the Northern Wave were iced and stored for one to three days after being caught and prior to freezing. Details of the platefreezing unit can probably be obtained from the Torry
of at
Research Station, Aberdeen, Scotland, U.K.

In response to O'Meallain's question on water-thawing, method has proven to be quite satisfactory for both haddock and cod; the thawed product being of very firm texture. These results may be influenced by the fact that the brine-frozen fish became quite firm due to the freezing process and, therefore, did not soften as much during water-thawing as did fish that were frozen by other more conventional
this
Wave
project; these
were of very good texture. Eddie's statement that high grade products cannot be made by brine immersion freezing and cold storage at 0F (- 18O is without foundation. Fish brine-frozen immediately after are of excellent quality. Also, catching and thra stored at storage at -20F (~-29*Q may only be necessary if the fish are iced for several days prior to freezing, as they were on the Northern Wave. In the U.S.A,, temperature* of -20F <-29C) are not practical for storing fish if they ate to be *-ng with other frozen foods.
means.
It was most interesting to learn from Arcoulis and Gianesi of trtefiwzing of fish at sea on Greek ftshing trawlers. More information would be desirabte on the species of fish now
0F
being
fron on these vesaete and on the methods for handling

on the
vessel,
these fish
and
for thawing
and
storing
them
ashore.
[MOJ
PROPULSION ENGINES FOR FISHING BOATS

by
IVAR
B.
STOKKE
The designs of two-stroke and four-stroke diesel engines are compared, giving the advantages and disadvantages and the two-stroke fufl-dieseJ engine may give 60 to 70 per cent, more power than a normally aspirated four-stroke engine of the same volume and r.p.m. Scavenging is simpler in a four-stroke diesel, especially by supercharging. Supercharging of the four-stroke diesel is discussed, and it is stated that 60 to 100 per cent, more power can be obtained thereby. The high pressure supercharged four-rtroke engine if a good competitor to the fully scavenged two-stroke engine. If, however, the two-stroke is supercharged, it will give a mean effective pressure of 85.5 to 99.5 Ib./sq. in. (6 to 7 kg./sq.cm.) which is equivalent to 171 to 199 Ib./sq. in. (12 to 14kg./sq.cm.)forahiî$upeiîarfedfour^troke diesel engine, Recent developments in this field are dealt with, and a comparison of the space requirements for the various propulsion arrange* ments for trawlers is discussed. The reverse reduction gear with two reduction ratios ahead is discussed, as well as the controllable-pitch propeller with direct drive to the propeller. It is mentioned that a controllable-pitch propeller is better suited for this propelling system than a fixed-blade propeller when considering the various propulsion requirements for trawling and sailing. If the conventional electric drive of the trawl winch is replaced by hydraulic drive, the space requirements will decrease. The hydraulic winch drive is more simple, robust and elastic and is therefore better suited for hard working conditions, especially those met in colder regions where trawling is often taking place. short outlook into the future development with diesel-electric propulsion, free piston gasifiers and gas turbines for big trawlers is given. It is warned against using too fast-running engines (1,500 to 2,200 r.p.m.) for fishing craft propulsion, because these light-built engines cannot stand the hard night and day working conditions without being worn down quickly.
MOTEURS DE PROPULSION POUR LES NAV1RES DE PECHE

L'auteur compare les conceptions des moteurs diesel a 2 temps et a 4 temps en donnant leurs avantages et inconvenients. II indique que le moteur diesel a 2 temps peut fournir une puissance plus elevee de 60 a 70% qu'on moteur a 4 temps & alimentation normale et ayant la meine cylindree et le meme nombre de t.p.m. Le balayage est plus simple dans un diesel & 4 temps, speciatement par suralimentation. La suralimentation du diesel a 4 temps est examinee, et 1'auteur declare que Ton peut ainsi obtenir une puissance plus elevee de 60 & 100%. Le moteur a 4 temps suralimente' sous pression 61evee est un bon concurrent pour le moteur a 2 temps a balayage total. Cependant, si k 1 2-temps est suralimente' il donne une pression efficace moyenne de 85,5 & 99,5 Ib/pouce carre* (6 a 7 kg./cm ) qui est equivatente aux 171 & 199 Ib/pouce carre (12 a 14 kg./cm*) pour un moteur diesel 4 temps a suralimentation poussee. II est trait* des recents d6veioppements dans cc domaine et 1'auteur examine la comparaison des exigences d'espace pour les divers de propulsion pour les chalutiers. Le reductcur a rcnversement de marche avec deux rapports de reduction en avant est compare* dispositifs a rhelice a pas variable avec entramement direct de I'helice. II est mentionne* qu*une hetice & pas variable convient mieux pour ce systeme de propulsion qu'une helice a ailes fixes quand on considerc les diverses exigences de propulsion pour le chalutage et la route libre. Si rentralnement electiique courant du treuil de chalut est rempTace' par 1 entratnement hydraulique, cela dimtnue les exigences d'espace. L'entralnement hydraulique du treuil est plus simple, plus robustc et plus elastique, et il convient done mieux pour les conditions de travail dures, specialement celles recontrees dans les regions froides ou on chalute souvcnt. L'auteur donne un court apergu du developpement futur de la propulsion diesel Electrique, par turbines A gaz et gene>ateurs & pistons libres pour lea gros chalutiers. II met en garde contre 1'emploi de moteurs trop rapides (1 ,500 a 2,200 t.p.m.) pour la propulsion des fratftnux de ces moteurs de construction legere ne peuvent pas supporter les dures conditions de travail nuit et jour sans dtre peche, parce que rapidemeni uses.
MAQU1NAR1A PROPULSORA PARA BARCOS DE PESCA

Se comparan los proyectofi de motores Diesel de 2 y 4 tiempos; se citan sus ventajas e inconvenientes y se menciona que un motor Diesel de 2 tiempos puede rendir de 60 a 70% mis potencia que un motor de 4 tiempos aspirado normalmente, de iguates cilindrada y r.p.m. La evacuad6n es mas sencilla en el motor de 4 tiempos, particularmente por sobrealimentacion. Se examina la sobrealimentacion del Diesel de 4 tiempos y que se afirma que con ella se puede obtener de 60 a 100% mas fuerza raotriz. El motor de 4 tiempos, sobrealimenudo, de gran presion, es un buen rival del motor de 2 tiempos. Pero si se sobreaumenta el motor de 2 tiempos, daii una potendafectrva media lie 1 1 35,5 a 99,5 Ib./pulg (6 a 7 kg./cm ), que equivale a entre 171 y 199 Ib./pulg* (12 y 14 kg./cm*) para un motor Diesel de 4 tiempos muy sobrieanmefitado* Se examma
de pato variabte es m^* admaiada para la transmisi6n directa que la de palas fijas. Si en higar de la transmition electrica normal de la maquinilla de pesca se emplea la hidraulica, se reducen las necesidades de espacto. La transmision hidrtulica de la maquinilla de arrastre es mas sencilla, robusta y elastica y, por tanto, mis conveniente para las condkaones de trabajo duxas, espedalmente las que se encuentran en las reaones frias en las que se pesca mucho al arrastre. Se menciona brevemente el futuro de la propulsion Diesel electrica, gasificadores de piston libra y turbinas de gas para arrastreros grandet. Se hace una advtrtencia contra el empleo de motores muy revolucionados (1.500 a 2.000 r.p.m.) para la propulsion depcsquerot, porque estos motores liieroa.se gastan rapidamente cuando se someten a las duras condiaones de trabajo diarias.
[261]

CURING
r
CONSTRUCTION
recent years there have been rapid in propulsion engines for fishing vessels, not only in design but also in the use of
is still
up
better materials, fuel
There
lubricating oils. competition between the four-stroke
and
and
the two-stroke systems. The two-stroke is simpler in design, especially with Curtis or loop scavenging. But the design becomes more complicated when the scavenging and exhaust ducts are placed both in the cylinder
liner
A two-stroke engine with the same r.p.m. and cylinder volume as a normally aspirated four-stroke engine may produce about 60 to 70 per cent, more h.p. Indeed, it can be built somewhat smaller, and is simpler in construction and easier to maintain. The length of the two-stroke is increased if a scavenging pump is used on the free end
a rotating scavenging pump is placed (Wichmann). The scavenging pumps can also be placed in front of each cylinder (Sulzcr). The lubricating oil consumption of two-stroke engines was once considered to be too high, but a modern twostroke compares favourably with that of a four-stroke. Improved oil film conditions, etc., for the cylinders have overcome many of the problems, especially the coking of the exhaust ducts. The spacing of the cylinders, i.e. the distance between the axes of two adjacent cylinders on the four-stroke is from about 1.4 to 1.6 D (D=diam. of the cylinder bore) as compared with 1 .7 to 1 .9 D for the two-stroke engine. The low values will be attained for the two-stroke engine with uniflow scavenging and the high with Curtis scavenging, the cooling water space being in the cylinder liner
(Alpha) but not
if
to about 10$ to 11 J in, (270 to 290 mm.) because in a cylinder liner with cooling space could be too expensive to maintain if not chromium plated.
larger engines
and
in the cylinder block. This design also requires especially between the cooling space and the
many
seals,
on the
side
exhaust and scavenging ducts, and that complicates the
fig. 220.
Wichmann
engine, with built-in hydraulic reverse gear
maintenance. Some of these difficulties are not great in very big two-stroke diesels, where the ducts can be finished after the cylinder liner has been placed in the
cylinder block. It is important to design cylinder liners with the least possible concentration of material around the scavenging and exhaust ducts (Stokkc, 1957).
itself.
COMPARISON OF TWO- AND FOUR-STROKE

DIESELS
The two-stroke system with uniflow scavenging has
scavenging ducts in the lower part of the liners, while the exhaust gas escapes through valves (or a valve) in the cylinder cover. This results in a more constant temperature in the cylinder liner and improved lubrication of the
cylinder wall.
The four-stroke cylinder liner has no scavenging and exhaust ducts and can be of uniform thickness and thus evenly cooled, which is important, particularly for uncooled pistons. There will be a better lubricating film and the liner wall will be less fouled by exhaust, with longer time between overhauls of the piston as the result. The four-stroke engine has, therefore, some advantages compared with the two-stroke, especially if the two-stroke has a symmetrical scavenging and exhaust steering
diagram.
SUPERCHARGING OF DIESELS
It
is
easier to build a four-stroke diesel with super-
the cylinder liners is also decreased because the exhaust escapes the shortest way. The piston top is also better cooled by cold air. Uniflow scavenging requires a longitudinal camshaft to operate
the exhaust valves, but the injection pumps, etc., can also be driven from this camshaft so that one pump can be placed near each cylinder. The fuel pipes to the nozzles
short, facilitating efficient working conditions for the injection equipment. The tightening arrangements between the cylinder liner and the cylinder block are
is a similar simplification and better shape of the scavenging and exhaust ducts when the cylinder Bner itsdf has a cooling water space (Wichmann). The same is true for the ducts of the two-stroke diesel with separate cylinders, but with a smaller cooling space in each cylinder (Alpha). This, however, makes the distance between the cylinders somewhat greater* Such a design is normally only used for cylinders with a bore diameter
The wear on
charging than a two-stroke trunk-piston engine with a symmetrical steering diagram. This, and the rapid development of supercharging equipment has an effect
on the competition between the supercharged four-stroke and two-stroke full diesel engines. Supercharging will
wiH be
simpler. There
Fig. 221.
Alpha engine, with hydraulically^perattd clutch and gear

for controllable-pitch propeller
[262J
increase the output of a normally aspirated four-stroke diesel by 60 to 100 per cent. When the charging air
is higher than about 8.5 Ib./sq. in. (0.6 kg./ cm.) it is easy to cool the air with sea water and the temperature of the supercharged four-stroke can be decreased (Stokke, 1958a). The thermal loading of a supercharged engine may even be lower than that of a not supercharged one, and the fuel consumption will decrease by about 6 per cent. The maximum combustion pressure will, however, increase a little, but not in proportion to the increased power because the scavenging
PROPULSION ENGINES
pressure
sq.
efficiency is very good. The increased oxygen concentration in combustion reduces the ignition lag, and thus the
newer types by tuning the exhaust system thoroughly, especially by turbocharged engines. But as the two-stroke engine is st&l using a mechanically-driven piston scavenging pump (or pumps) or a mechanically driven Roots or centrifugal blower, the specific fuel consumption will be about 5 per cent, higher than for the supercharged fourstroke engine. This difference can, however, be overcome by an exhaust-driven, constant-pressure supercharger (Wichmann) which will increase the output by at least 25 per cent. That would give a p of 89 Ib./sq* in. (6.25 kg./sq.cm.) which is equivalent to a mean pressure of 178 Ib./sq. in. (12.5 kg./sq. cm.) of a highly super-
maximum combustion
large enough,
pressure.
if
heavier and cheaper fuel,
The engine will burn the cylinder dimensions are

Alt CObin
rfi
rfi
rfi
rp
and a higher cooling water temperature can be maintained by fresh-water cooling. The air and
exhaust valves with the necessary valve gear might make the four-stroke engine more expensive to build, but in maintenance costs it compares favourably with the twostroke.
It is possible to make a supercharged two-stroke engine, but a turbine blower driven by the exhaust gas will not deliver sufficient air at lower engine loads, so an auxiliary scavenging pump is often necessary. The supercharged four-stroke diesel engine has become a keen competitor of the fully scavenged two-stroke with Curtis or loop scavenging, especially for trawlers of
Fig. 223.
Werkspoor supercharged four-stroke diesel engine
about 165 to 215 ft (SO to 65 m.) overall length. If a normally aspirated four-stroke diesel of 70 BHP per cylinder is supercharged, and the power can be increased by 75 per cent., it will produce about 123 BHP per cylinder. Eight cylinders will therefore give about 980 BHP, suitable for a trawler. A normally aspirated four-stroke with 70 BHP per cylinder has a continuous mean effective pressure (p) of
81 Ib./sq. in. (5,7 kg./sq. cm.).
Pe will
charged four-stroke engine. Both engines will have to cool the charging air and their fuel consumption will be
equal.
COMPARISON OF TYPICAL ENGINES

Table 65 gives cylinder dimensions, the normal output in BHP (metric) and the corresponding r.p.m. by continuous
day and night rating for some four-stroke and two-stroke

used in fishing boats. The table also gives the stroke/bore ratio (S/D), the weight per unit h.p. and the number of cylinders.
diesel engines
(a) Cylinder spacing. The table shows that a twostroke diesel engine with Curtis scavenging and the cooling water space in the cylinder liner (Wichmann)
With supercharging, the
(10 kg./sq. cm.). comparable normally aspirated fully scavenged twostroke engine has a continuous pe of about 64 Ib./sq. in. (4.5 kg./sq. cm.). To attain the same output as the super-
be 142
Ib./sq. in.
charged four-stroke, the two-stroke engine has to be overcharged to a pe of 71.12 Ib./sq. in. (5 kg./sq. cm.) by, for instance, the use of oscillating flaps in the exhaust ducts (Wichmann). The flaps are however omitted by the
has a cylinder distance of about 1.9 (D=the cylinder A similar fully scavenged diesel engine with bore). separate cylinders (Alpha) has about the same cylinder distance. On the other hand, a two-stroke diesel with uniflow scavenging has a distance of 1.7 and a fourstroke has 1.4 to 1.6 (1.7 for the V01und four-stroke
engine).
(b) Stroke/bore
is
ratio.
The
depends on the stroke/bore

engine
length of a diesel also ratio. The four-stroke
of
1.2 to 1.45 to
often designed with a lower stroke/bore ratio provide enough space for the valves.
The two-stroke engine stroke/bore ratio is from 13 to 1.72. The four-stroke Mirrlces diesel has a S/D** 1.2 and two air and two exhaust valves, while the Werkipoor
four-stroke engine has a S/D=1.82. This is rather high and can result in too small an air valve space in a highly
Fig. 222.
MAN
supercharged engine.
lower stroke/bore ratio molt*
[263]

TAKJES
CONSTRUCTION
output in about one hour: 1,000 82.5 Ib./iq. in. (5.8 kg./sq. on.) Length from front of engine to aft of flywheel*
Maximum
BHP
at 375 r.p.m. with a
mean
effective pressure
of
in a lower
mean
piston speed (for instance IS
ft./sec.
or 4.S7 nL/sec. for Mirriees as compared with 19.7 ft/sec. or 6.0 m./scc. for the Werkspoor) which is an advantage. moderate piston speed wffl decrease cylinder wear. The normally aspirated Werkspoor engine has a mean effective pressure of 83.4 Ib./sq. in. (5.86 kg./sq. cm.)
ef mmmMmnlmg gear (Alpha Table 66 gives the main characteristics of eight supercharged two- and four-stroke diesel engines. The weights of the Alpha and the Wichmann diesels include the hydraulic equipment The Alpha has the
(c)
lafliifiirffi
WkteMB).
hydraulic operated clutch and gear for the controllabkpitch propeller, etc., in
while the pe is only 121 Ib./sq. in. (8.5 kg./sq. cm.) for tbe supercharged engine, which might depend on the high
a box which
results in
fig.
a com*
All the
built in.
S/D
ratio.
paratively long engine, as hydraulic equipment of the
shown
in
221.
Wichmann engine is
[264]
PROPULSION ENGINES
TABLE 65 (continued)
The engines with 100 per
cent, increase of BHP by supercharging are of the type engines have B.B. turboblowers with air cooling With two reduction ratios ahead, the propeller r.p.m. is either 204 or 246
BCAW 29.
These
which reduces its overall length, as shown in fig. 220. Engines which are directly reversible and, consequently, have a fixed-blade propeller, are usually somewhat
shorter than those with controllable-pitch propellers. (d) Dcutz. The p, of the Deutz four-stroke engine, type R/V8M 545 in table 65, is 76.8 Ib./sq. in. (5.4 kg./ sq. era*). The supercharged Deutz (table 66) with a Po of 123 Ib^sq. in. (8*67 kg./sq. cm.) has a 60 per cent,
four-stroke in table 66 (e) MAN. The G9V 30/45 has 9 cylinders with a cylinder volume about the same ** the Deutz.. The p. with supercharging is 128 Ib./sq. in. (9 kg./sq. cm.) compared with the normal 85.4 lb./ sq. in. (6 kg./sq. cm.); so supercharging increases this engine's output by 50 per cent If the p. of the normally
aspirated engine is reduced to 81 Ib./sq. in. (5.7 kg./ be about sq. cm.) the increase by supercharging will 60 per cent, which can perhaps be reached without air
MAN
increased output
[265]
CONSTRUCTION
TAU
at 375 r.p.m., with a mean effective pressure of output in about one hour: 1,000 82.5 Ib./sq. in. (5.8 kg./aq. cm.)* Continuous rating by supercharging 1,000 to 1,200 'Length from front of engine to aft of flywheel
1
Maximum
BHP
BHP
coaling.
The length of the engine, but without the intermediate shaft with thrust bearing in fig. 222 is longer than that of the Deutz engine. With the intermediate shaft and the thrust bearing the length will be 25.2 ft. <7.69 m.) but the thrust bearing can be placed at the end of the engine room out of the way. The Mirrlees in table 66 is highly (f) Mbrfeea. supercharged and has air cooling. The length to the coupling flange is greater than that of the engine of lower output, but this is of little importance (see
normally aspirated Velund is decreased to 81 Ib./sq. in. (5.7 kg./sq. cm.), supercharging will increase the output 60 per cent. It would perhaps have been advantageous to use air cooling for this engine, although that would
increase
(h)
its price.
MAN
fig.
229).
VetaML The four-stroke VeAund engine in table 66 has eight cylinders with Hie same diameter as the MAN, but has a smaller cylinder volume. It gives 705 BHP at continuous rating and 300 r.p.m. This engine has a lower normal output than the Deutz and the and its total length is 21.5 ft (6.56 m.) to the flange of the propeller shaft Tte hydraulw equipment M placed in the engine frame. The p, of the supercharged Vriund is 129.5 lb./q. in, (9.1 kg./sq. cm.) or a 46.5 per cent, acrease in BHP. If the mean effective pressure of the
(g)
The Werkspoor four-stroke engine with supercharging, type TMABS 336, in table 66, has but less almost the same normal output as the than the Deutz. The p, is 121 Ib./sq. in. (8.5 kg./sq. cm.) which is somewhat low in relation to the p, of the normally aspirated engine. The Werkspoor engine has a high stroke/bore ratio and a comparatively small cylinder
Werkspoor.
MAN
distance.
The
total length to the coupling flange is only
MAN
(4.49 m.) which is shorter than other fourstrokes of the same output and r.p.m. The thrust bearing is placed on the intermediate shaft as shown in fig. 223
14,73
ft.
and the length to the flange is
also less than other four-strokes
18.78 ft (5.725 m.). This is and shows the advantage
of a biggw stroke/bore ratio. It has the disadvantages of higher piston speed and smaller space for the air valve. This eight-cyl. four-stroke dietel, (i) Bfffnt DiMd.
1266]
TABLE 66
PROPULSION ENGINES
(continued)
The engines with 100 per
cent, increase of BHP by supercharging are of the type engines have B.B. turboblowers with air cooling With two reduction ratios ahead, the propeller r.p.m. is either 204 or 246
BCAW29.
These
type RTF 8 in table 65, gives about 43 per cent, power increase by supercharging. With 62 per cylinder at 390 r.p.m. it is a comparatively small engine. Due to
BHP
the fact that this small engine uses valve cavities which facilitate inspection of the valves, and has a stroke/bore
ratio of 1.44, space, especially for the air valve, is limited
which might make high supercharging difficult. The have hydraulically-opcrated controllable-pitch propellers and clutches. The unit weight is only 66.8 Ib./BHP (30.3 kg./BHP), because the cylinder block and the high bedplate are made of welded steel plates and forged steel, and also because of the very short hydraulic
engines
must be higher than 500. This is evident 225 where a direct-drive Mirrlees supercharged four-stroke eight-cylinder engine (type KSSDM 8) of 1 ,490 BHP at 345 r.p.m. is compared with two four-stroke Mirrlees (dotted lines) each of 745 BHP at 750 r.p.m. Both work on the same reduction gear with an oiloperated reverse gear, reducing the speed of the propeller to about 345 r.p.m., sometimes to 250 r.p.m. With a belt drive on one of the diesels, or a trawl winch generator, the length of this unit will be practically the
drive, the r.p.m.
from
fig.
same as the
generator
is
equipment.
INFLUENCE OF
RJP.M.
ON LENGTH
direct-drive alternative. If, however, the separately driven, the difference in length will be about 5 ft. (1.5 m.). greater reduction ratio of 3.5: 1 to 3: 1, resulting in
a propeller r.p.m. of 200 to 250,

peller efficiency
The two Sulzer four-stroke diesel engines in table 65 and fig. 224 work at 500 r.p.m. and have a reduction gear to the propeller aad hydraulic reverse gear. This engine, with supercharging and eight cylinders, is longer than a slow running, direct-drive diesel with the same h.p. To make such an engine arrangement shorter than the direct-
will increase the proover the direct-drive diesels, but the reduction gear efficiency must also be taken into account.
The modern semi-diesel has afar better performance than the older hot bulb engines. The semi-diesel is cheap to
[267]
CONSTRUCTION
(33.7 kg./BHP).
This is partly due to a combustion pressure of only 427 Ib./sq. in. (30 kg./sq. cm.) and partly to the short length of the engine with hydraulic equip(fig.
ment
226).
OPERATION OF ENGINES
very important that engines in all fishing vessels are operated at moderate outputs and have suitable excess of air during combustion. If they are pressed unduly hard their reliability will, in the long run, be decreased. There
It is
vged two-stroke
diesel running at
500 r.p.m.
TVWowao*
(i
a direct Mirrkcs super . 225. . end 345 r.p.m. am/ two Mirrkcs four-stroke engine with 1,490 and 750 r.p.m. four-stroke ttiesels, with 745
BMP
BMP
build and low in maintenance costs, and total working expenoes are lower than other engines of similar h.p. Table 67 gives ratings and dimensions of a few modern Norwegian semi-diesels. Fig. 226 shows a Union semidiesel, type P, with hydraulic operation of the controllable-pitch propeller and a hydraulic clutch. The total length of this three-cyl. engine at 240 BHP is only
9.35
ft.
(2.85 m.).
The normal p. is 47
93
sq. cm.), equivalent to
Ib./sq. in. (3.3 kg./ Ib./sq. in. (6.6 kg./sq. cm.) for a
is
four-stroke.
Fuel
consumption
0.41
Ib./BHP/hr.
(187g./BHP/hr.).
The weight
is
only
74
lb./BHP
60
160
m.
Fig. 227.
Design particulars of fishing boats: engine SHP. r.p.m., speed, fish volume, GT and trawl winch
is a tendency to produce fast-running diesel engines up to 1,500 r.p.m. and even to use very light automobile diesels of up to 1,800 to 2,200 r.p.m. in the bigger fishing boats. But a diesel, specifically built for automobile
service,
cannot stand the hard and continuous operation
in fishing.
CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
controllable-pitch propeller, or a reduction gear with two speed ratios forward for the propeller in table 68, which has been used in France, will improve propulsion.
Fig, 236.
Union semMiesel.typtP
controllable-pitch propeller, used in Norway, since before 1920, is a relatively simple device, whkh permits groat manoeuvrability and better use of the engine both when trawling and when
The
Denmark and Sweden
[268]
IHSTALLATION OF MACHINERY
*
"
'1
PROPULSION ENGINES
4"
fig. 228.
MT Boston Neptune
Ctntrtesy
The Motor Ship
229.
MT Pioneer
Court**?
Th* Motor Ship
269]

TAKE
7
CONSTRUCTION
sailing.
A gear with two reduction ratios and a hydraulic
would be more complicated to build and operate and would have a lower total efficiency. Therefore the modern controllable-pitch propeller will make
reverse gear
its
driving the trawl winch takes up space under the wheelhouse. similar arrangement is used for the Pioneer
(fig.
Two MAN super-charged four-stroke "father and son"
229).
way
into this field.
engines are used in the German-built trawler Bahrenfeld (see fig. 230 for the engine arrangement). Both engines are direct-reversible. It would probably have been better to use an engine with a higher r.p.m., say, 500 r.p.m.
with a reduction ratio of about 2.5: 1 and a controllablepitch propeller instead of Vulcan couplings. Although
MAN supercharged four-stroke "father and son" arrangement

INSTALLATION EXAMPLES AND TRAWL WINCH DRIVE
Table 68 gives particulars for fishing boats.
'
Fig. 230.
size of the boat and the engine. High-speed engines do not to any great extent lead to greater fish room capacity. Most of the engines are direct coupled to the propeller and are supercharged and direct reversible. The trawler
shows the values graphically. 200 to 400 depending on the
The
Fig. 227 varies from r.p.m.
Boston Neptune with a Mirrkes engine is shown in
diesel generator for the trawl winch occupies much space in the engine room, while the electric motor for
The
fig.
228.
Fig. 231.
t for
Prim Cbri*
[270]
TABU
67
PROPULSION ENGINES
(<co*rtnuef)
more
expensive, this arrangement would have increased manoeuvrability and shortened the length. 500 r.p.m. is today fully acceptable for night and day work, and is only one-third of the 1,500 r.p.m. recommended by some optimistic diesel engine manufacturers. The trawler Prince Charles has a Holmes- Werkspoor four-stroke supercharged engine with direct drive to a fixed-blade propeller. There is a separate diesel-driven generator for the trawl winch drive, and the engine room
engine.
An oil motor is placed directly on the trawl winch and does not occupy special space. This winch drive is very robust and elastic and has been manufactured and used in Norway during the last 15 years. The efficiency
of the hydraulic system is, however, a little lower than the efficiency of the electric drive, but the hydraulic drive takes much less space, as can be seen from fig. 233, and the space for the electric winch motor can be used for a
spacious crew's mess.
occupies
possible
more space although as shown in fig. 231.
it is
placed so far aft as
The drawings for Kirkholmen, with a Wichmann twostroke engine and controllable -pitch propeller, are shown in fig. 232. The trawl winch is operated by a hydraulic oil pump driven from the forward end of the propelling
Dimensions and output of engines for two trawlers which fish in the Baltic from Strahlsund, Germany, are also listed in table 68. These trawlers have a shorter voyage to and from the fishing grounds, so they can be equipped with smaller engines, and consequently they have a lower speed, with a somewhat greater fish room capacity.
232.
Kirkhobrm
with
Wichnamn two-strok*
***
[271]
CONSTRUCTION
*Motor tuna
clipper
Bet ween perpendiculars.
*Seven cylinders
Norwegian sea-going
fishing craft
Diesel-electric propulsion is especially suitable for very large trawlers. There is, for example, the French deep* sea trawler Louis Girard, the details of which are as follows: length overall 246 ft. (75 m.), capacity of fish
room 22,900 cu. ft. (650 cu. m.), volume of liver-oil tanks 3,520 cu. ft. (100 cu. m.), total output of the two electric
Ward-Leonard propulsion motors 1,700 h,p., and speed 15 knots, the trawler has 3 dicsel-electric generators with a normal output of 950 BMP each. The eight-cyl.
supercharged four-stroke Sulzer trunk-piston engines, type 8 BAH, 500 r.p.m.
diesefc are
is hydraulically driven. The temperature in an engine room with free-piston gasifiers is much higher than in a ship with an ordinary diesel. The refrigeration room in the Sagitta must for that reason be very well insulated, as it is placed between the fish room and the engine room.
trawl winch
FUTURE IMEVELOPMENT
Future development seam to be towards still bigger trawlers because they mutt go to more remote fishing grounds. At the same time, fish will be caught in still
deeper waters, which will
The item trawler, Sagitta, has two free piston gatifiers for driving a turbine of 1,800 BHP, which drives a con*
trollaWe-pitch propeller through a reduction gear.
demand
stronger and, perhaps,
The
new
driving
and
fishing arrangements.
[272}
PROPULSION ENGINES
Oil
puny t*+wti from ft* tt/***/ 9*9to* tor

Courtly Ankertokken Ltd, Flora, Norway
Fig. 233.
Kirkholmen with hydraulic trawl winch
Thus trawlers will need a greater radius of action and must be factory ships as they will have to process the fish on board. If not, the trawlers will have to operate as catchers, supplying fish to a factory ship, on the same principle as in the whaling fleets. The trawlers must, in this case, be able to bunker from the mothership and, perhaps, be generally supplied from her. Delivering fish and receiving supplies from the mothership may be very difficult in open seas in unfavourable
weather conditions.
This suggests that self-supporting factory trawlers will be a better solution than a mothership with catchers. If helicopters could be used to help
transport fish
easier but
For fishing vessels of several thousand tons, the supercharged two-stroke cross-head engine might be used instead of supercharged four-strokes. The use of atomic
power remains, as yet, a future hope for fishing boats, but it would make the radius of action unlimited. The use of aircraft for quick transport of catches to market has been suggested. It would dispense with the
need for the factory
ship,
but whether such a proposal
would be economically feasible seems among other things, to depend on the price of fish in the future.
and supplies, it would make the operation would also be difficult in unfavourable weather
The author wishes to express his thanks to all the many firms which provided him with specifications and drawings of fishing
craft
conditions.
and
accessories.
1273]
STEAM VERSUS DIESEL

by
G.
and constant draught and
HOPWOOD
and H. W, N.
MEWSE
fishing, acceleration, fish
capacity
A comparison indicate* the advantages of dicsel over trim. A maintenance schedule is given for the main engine.
steam as regards fuel economy, power for
room
Teething troubles experienced are discussed, such as removal of piston castellations to avoid uneven liner wear, use of detergent and increased lubricating oil temperatures to reduce carbon deposition, correct lubricating oil filter usage and regular checking of oil samples, and of small accessories. Wear figures are given. The turbocfcarger system is referred to, including air supplies and some troubles with erosion of the gas outlet casing. The type of fuel oil is defined and a fuel consumption curve is given. The importance of satisfactory alignment of engine and shafting is emphasized and the recommended installation procedure detailed. There are no barred ipecd ranges and a description is given of the torslonal investigation. The antJdpfltffd loss in propeller efficiency in chancing from a steam engine running at 120 r.p.m. to a diescl at 230 r.p.m. has been reduced by the use of modern bronze propellers. Details of these are given, together with curves of efficiency, etc. The importance of power balance between the winch motor and diesel is stressed. Troubles on earlier vessels with carbonization of pistons, etc. and armature difficulties are described. Reference is made to maintenance procedure, lubricating oil and alarm systems. The two general service sets, each driving a generator, pump and compressor, are described, as well as some difficulties with the lubrication of the compressor big-end bearing and suggestions made about starting, and also about driving the pump and compressor electrically. Reference is made to steam boiler heating which has been superseded by small oil fired hot water circulation boilers.
lubricating oil
LA VAPEUR COMPAREE AU DIESEL

Une comparaison indique les avantages du diescl par rapport a la vapeur en ce qui concerne Peconomic de carburant, une plus grande puissance pour la peche, une plus grande acceleration, une plus grande capacity de la cale a poisson, et 1'assiette et le tirant d'eau plus
constants.
Le temps pass* pour Fentretien du moteur principal L'auteur donne une description des ennuis rencontres a I'origine et concemant des smets tels que: la suppression des creneaux des pistons pour Mice une usure inegale des chemises, 1'emploi d'huile de graissage detersive et âugmentation des temperatures de l'hu/le de graissage pour Mter la formation de calamine, I'emploi correct du filtre a huile de graissage et la verification reguliere des echantillons d*miito et de pctites pieces tellcs que les soupapes de pompe a eau, les injecteurs de carburant, etc. Des chiffres d*usure sent donnes. II est fait mention du systeme de suralimentation par turbo-compresseur, y compris les arrivees d'air, et des ennuis eprouvfe avec 1'erosion des pipss d'echappement. L'auteur decrit le type de fuel oil et donne la courbe de consommation de carburant. împortance d'un alignement satisfaisant est soultgnee, et la procedure d'tnstallation rccommandee est detaillec. II n'y a pas de gammes de Vitesse interdites, et il est donne une description des recherches sur les.cffbrts de torsion. La perte prfvuc du rendement de 1'helice en passant d'urte machine a vapeur tournant a 120 t.p.m. a un diesel a 230 t.p.m. a et reduite par Temploi d'heltaes de bronze d*un type moderne. Des details de celles-ci sont donnes avec des courbes de rendement, etc. L'auteur insiste sur 1'importance de 1'equiltbre de puissance entre le moteur du treuil et le diesel. II decrit les ennuis sur les navires anciens, avec le calaminage des pistons, etc., et les diffcultes avec le bloc. Les precedes d'cntretien, 1'huile de lubrification et le systeme d'alarme sont aussi mentionnes. Les deux groupes du service general, entratnant chacun un gtaerateur, une pompe et un compresseur, sont decrits, ainsi que quelques du compresseur, et des suggestions sont donnees concemant le demarrage de mime difficultes avec la lubrification du palter d'e*tremit que rentratnement electrique de la pompe et du compresseur. II est aussi fait mention du chauffage par chaudtere a vapeur, qui a ete supplant^ par une petite chaudiere a mazout a circulation d'eau chaude.
est detaille.
LAS MAQUINAS DE VAPOR FRENTE A LOS MOTORES DIESEL

Se subrayan, mediante comparaciones, las ventajas del motor Diesel sobre la maquina de vapor en to que concierne a la economia de combustible, mayor potencia para la pesca, mayor aceleracion, mas capacidad de bodega de petcado y asiento y calado mas constantes. Se detalto el tiempo decficado al mantenimiento del motor principal. Se dcscriben las dificultades encontradas al principio en lo referente a: supresion de las entalladuras de los pistones para evitar desgastfi desiguaks de las camisas, emptoo de un aceite lubncante detergente y aumento de las temperaturas del aceite de engrase para evitar la formation de depositos de carbon, empleo correcto del filtro del aceite hibricante y comprobadon periodtca de las muestras de aceite y de piezas pequeftas como las valvuias de te bomba de agua, los inyectores de combustitrfe, etc. Se dan datos sob el desgaste. Se alude alsistema de sobrealimentadon por turbocompresor, comprendido el suministro de aire y alguaas dificultades causadas por la erosidn en los tubes de escape, Se describe el tipode fuel oUyse da unacurvade consume de combustible. Se recaka to importanda de una alineacion satisfactoria y se dan porroenores de los procedimientos de instaladon recomendados. No hay gamas de vdoddad prohibida y se hace una descripcion de las investigadones sobre los efectos de to torsion. Mediante el empieo de helices de bronce modernas se ha reduddo to p^rdida prevista de randimiento de to helke al pasar de una miquina de vapor que gfra a 120 r.pon. a un Diesel a 230 r.p.m. Se dan detalies de teos, junto con curvas de randimiento, etc. El autor insiste en to importancia del equflibrio de potencia entre to maquhiilto de arrastre y d Diesel. Se describen las dificultades rimentadas por los primeros baicos con to carbonizacion de los pistones, etc. y con eJ bloque. Se alude a los procedimientos de manteoimknto, aceite lubncante y ststema de alarma. Los dot grupos de aemcio general, cada uno accionando un generador, bomba, y compresor se describen junto con algunas dificuhadcs del engrase del cojinete del cofQfwesor y se haoen tiifestiones sobi Sc faace refoirocia al calentamiento por caktora de vapor que ha sido sufastituldo par una pequefta caktora da de ngsifl callente.
i
[274]
West Coast hake
STEAM VERSUS DIESEL
SINCE class
were
built
1953, the diesel trawler has, in the British fishing, superseded the Castle
of coal fired steam trawlers (fig. 234), which in large numbers from 1917 to 1920 and were
the mainstay vessel for middle-water fishing.
COMPARISON OF WEST COAST STEAM AND DIESEL TRAWLERS

The principal characteristics of a modern motor trawler shown in figs. 235 and 236, 5 to 6 years of age, as compared with the Castle type are:
Diesel
Table 69 indicates the sea time, the coal consumption and number of voyages per year of five Castle class are sister vessels operating on wet ships. Ships L and and O are sister ships operating with supersteam; heated steam. Ship P is a post-war ship, operating on wet steam during the first two years and with superheated steam during the third and fourth years. As a matter of interest, the fuel efficiency was better in the latter than it was in the wet steam period. Table 70 shows the corresponding figures for five
LBP
Size
.
Steam
motor
trawlers.
LBP
128.17x26.58x13 m. 39.06 x 8.10x 3.96

ft.
125.42x23.42x12.58 38.23 x 7.14 x 3.84

8} to 9i tons coal (8.64 to 9.65 ton)
two types
Fuel consumption
(daily)
2.2 tons (2.23 ton)
of the operating costs and catch of the given in fig. 237. This information, with the tables and fig. 237, was obtained from owners with considerable experience of both coal burning and diesel
is
A comparison
trawlers.
Speed
11
knots
9J to 10 knots
140 tons (142.25 ton)
25 tons (25.40 ton)
Bunker capacity
65 tons (66.04 ton)
Average 14-day
fish
Periods of four years have been taken in each case, the coal burners from 1951 to 1954 and the diesels from 1954 to 1957. The statistical averages were based on
gross earnings and the operating costs were limited to fuel, oils and stores, together with repairs and maintenance. Repair and maintenance costs cover the hull and auxiliary equipment as well as the propulsion
actual
catch
34 tons (34.54 ton)
r.p.m. steaming
fishing
230
200
695
112
88 to 90
Power
BMP
540
IMP
machinery.
TABLE 69
Sea times and
fuel
consumption of Castle
shifts
Year
Voyages
Sea time Hours Days
Coal used Tons Metric ton
Average consumption per day Tons Metric ton
ShipL
First
17
241
Second
Third Fourth
Ship M
First
24 24 24
306 307 274
22
18*
11
2,137.10 2,874.40 2,899.65 2,603.90
2,171.3 2,920.1 2,945.6 2,644.8
8.7 9.6
9.3
9.45
8.83 9.75 9.44 9.60
17
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
20 20 23
23
234 267 253 243 290
3 15
11
1,950.30 2,279.40 2,271.45 2,326.85 2,710.15
1,981.3 2,315.6 2,307.4 2,363.4 2,753.6
8.5
8.55 8.9 9.5 9.05
8.63 8.68 9.04 9.65 9.19
Ship
N
20
21
First
Second Third Fourth

Fifth
23 22 22
277 262 304
13
2%
277
f
14
15
2,474.50 2,358.25 2,659.15 2,442.05 2,481.95
2,513.7 2,395.8 2,701.6 2,481.2 2,520.8
8.9 8.9 8.6 8.2 8.85
9.02 9.04 8.73

8.31
8.99
Ship
O
20 22 22 24
269 292 298 285
First
Second
Third Fourth
S*
1
2,359.70 2,583.85 2,698.05 2,559.00
2,396.9 2,624.5 2,741.3 2,600.0
8.6 8.75 8.9 8.9
8.73 8.89
9.04 9.02
Ship?
First
18
21 21 21
Second Third Fourth

Averages
266 288 290 280 278
11
1
19
2,929.20 3,077.95 2,561.95 2,584.90

2,256.64
2,976.0 3,126.3 2,603.1 2,728.1
11.0 10.6 8.8 9.5

9.1
11.17 10.76 8.94 9.65
21.34
2,293.2
9.26
Average yearly catch for
all
vessels- 507 tons (515.13 metric ton)
1275]
CONSTRUCTION
Fig. 234.
Castle steam trawler
LBPx Bx D**125
ft.
in.
x 23
ft.
in.
x 12
ft.
in.
(38.2*7.1 x 3.8 m.)
There are, or course, other vital factors which are independent of the ship or its propulsion machinery, such as the skipper's competence and ability, the proficiency of the crew, perils at sea, accidents and, in no small measure, the type of fishing and its relative earning potential No account was taken of any inflationary trends during the periods under review, actual figures
being quoted throughout.
Obviously, there are great differences in fuel condiesel engine, possessing considerably more power for trawling, results in increased catches because more ground is swept in a given time.
The result is a more machine, despite the reduction in propeller efficiency because of the increased revolutions of a diesel engine.
gear, particularly in heavy weather.
efficient
fishing
MACHINERY ON A DIESEL TRAWLER

installation of one of five sister ships has been found to be very suitable. Fig. 236 shows the general arrangement of the engine room. Main engine. This is a 15 in. (381 mm.) bore x 18 in.
The following
sumption and speed. The
similar oil fired steam trawler, built within the last
would have a power about 600 h.p., with a daily fuel consumption of about 7 tons (7.11 ton). The endurance of the diesel trawler in bunker capacity is
ten years,
twice that of the coal burner.
mm.) stroke, four-stroke, seven-cyl., direct reversing, exhaust gas turbocharged diesel, developat 230 r.p.m. and is direct-coupled ing 695
(457.2
SHP
through a Michell thrust bearing, intermediate and tail shaft to a four-bladed propeller. Winch engine. This is a 9} in. (247.6 mm.) bore x 10}
in.
(266.7
mm.)
stroke, four-stroke, five-cyL diesel
The reduced space required for machinery and bunkers in a motor trawler allows for a larger fish room in a vessel of the same length and the fish room can be placed further aft. This improved subdivision, combined with the reduced weight of machinery and bunkers, results in better freeboard and stability. Fuel and water consumed by a motor trawler on a fishing voyage amounts on average to the weight of fish caught. This results in more constant draught and trim, and the decreased displacement allows a finer and more seakindly hull to be designed. The diesel trawler can fish when the older steam trawler has to heave-to. Cleaner fuel, more
easily loaded, offers the possibility of better maintenance of hull and machinery. Due to the better acceleration of
developing 252 BHP at 600 r.p.m. driving a 101 generator supplying power to a 126 h.p. winch motor.
kW DC
Auxiliaries.
These comprise two composite general
service auxiliary sets, each engine being at 4} in. (104.8 mm.) bore x 6 in. (152.4 mm.) stroke, four-
stroke, four-cyl. diesel, developing 36 h.p. at 1,000
r.p.m.
MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION OF MAIN DIESEL ENGINE

The reliability, maintenance and simplicity, inexpensive economy of the diesel trawler has proved itself, and almost 100 of the type of main engine in question have
been sold within the
last six
the diesel, the ship
is
kept well away from the fishing
yean.
1276]
INSTAtLATION OF MACHINERY
Table 70 shows that the sea time of the five vessels has averaged 288 days and a maximum of 316 days over a period of five years. Generally, only 48 hr. are spent in dock between trips, except sometimes at weekends, and this would account for the varying times shown in the table. The vessel is at sea for about 300 days per year, doing 22 to 24 trips. During the normal 48 hr. turn round, engine maintenance is carried out, and further, there is a week in dock every four months for settling and resting the crew. Therefore, an average
year
is:
STEAM VERSUS DIESEL
300 days at sea 44 days turn-round 21 days settling

365 days
Maintenance schedule Readiness to proceed to sea has been assured by the maintenance procedure laid down by the diesel engine builders and implemented by the Superintendent Engineer and the shore-based engineering staff, and there are many records of long trouble-free running. There is no doubt that an efficient and well-ordered maintenance programme is a sound investment and that neglect results only in heavy expenses and loss of fishing time. This, of course, applies to machinery of any type. The maintenance schedule is based on Annual engine working time of 6,000 hr. Exhaust valves serviced every 1,000 hr. Fuel injectors serviced every 1,000 hr.
:
Fig, 236.
Diesel trawler engine

9
room
the conditions of Lloyds continuous survey, which has to be completed inside four years, two pistons*
To meet
two big end and main bearings and two cylinder heads
are overhauled annually.
is
Pistons serviced every 4,000 hr, Turbochargcr air filter cleaned every 800 hr. Turboblower fan cleaned every 3,000 hr.
The maintenance of the exhaust valves and injectors so arranged that two lines are done between each
so that
trip,
Turbochargcr bearings examined every 3,000

Starting air valves serviced every 3,000 hr.
hr.
all are maintained within the period of Other items, such as the governor and gear, tappet levers, relief valves, are examined annually. With the first engine, the maintenance routine was
1,000 hr.
Fig. 235.
Dto*ltr*tor(7cyl.)t<BI>xBxl>-128ft.2in. x 26A.7 to. x 13 ft. (39x8.1x3.96 m.) itud to

Brittok
Wat
Coast laktfidstog
[277]

TABLE 70
Sea
CONSTRUCTION
[39m,] dietd trawler
Sea time
Year
Fuel consumption
Voyages
peryear
Days
Ship
Hours
Tons
Metric ton
Average consumption per day Tons Metric ton
Main
engine hours
Idling
Working
A
22 20 23 26 26
First
Second Third Fourth Eiffel* Finn
290 267
301
20
315 269
I
21
689.71 561.67 610.88 618.32 547,45
700.05 569.99 620.60 627.91 555.77
2.37 2.10 2.02 1.96 2.03
2.40 2.13 2.05 1.99 2.06
6,280 5,684 6,363

6,501 5,645
700
1,443*
884*
1,062
832
SkipB
First
21
Second
Third Fourth
Fifth
23
22 22 24
277 309 284 259 287
12
4
21
619.62 665.16 593.48 529.40
594.%
628.93 675.67 602.51 537.48 603.52
2.24 2.12 2.09 2.04 2.07
2.27 2.15 2.12 2.07 2.10
5,979 6,670 6,157 5,540 6,199
681
750 659* 697 695
ShipC
Pint Second Third Fourth
Fifth
24
21
24 23
21
316 283 302 282 256
10*
19*
1*
717.27 594.68 616.80 539.58 519.36
728.50
603.51 625.88 547.64
2.27
2.11
2.04
1.91
2.30 2.14 2.07

1.94 2.06
6,772 5,938 6,313 5,672

5,411
822* 856 954*

1,097
527.32
2.03
734*
Ship
D
23
First
310
271
Second Third Fourth

Fifth
20
23 23 22
12 14*
17
298 273 272
4* 9*
716.86 588.00 607.68 555.54 600.44
727.48 597.43 616.74 563.90 609.63
2.31
2.16 2.03 2.03 2.20
2.34 2.19 2.06 2.06 2.23
6,972 6.026 6,715 5,813 6,020
480 492* 454 743* 517*
ShipE
First
Second Third Fourth

Fifth
24 24 22 24
23
22.8
304 304 274 299 287

288
20* 20 23
708.16 678.70 593.95 608.16 603.48
719.35 688.88 602.51 617.75 612.67
2.32 2.22 2.16 2.03 2.10

2.11
]
2.35 2.25 2.19 2.06 2.13

2.13
6,657 6,730 5,772 6,174 6,268

6,171
659* 586 827

1,012*
642*
771
Averages
611.57
all vessels
620.80
[Average yearly catch for
=695
tons (706.1 metric ton)
carried out at shorter intervals.
were removed every 2,500 time could be extended.

Casteflatioiis
hr.,
but
For example, the pistons it was found that this
Certain teething troubles will inevitably arise with any prime mover, particularly when associated with such
engine makers carried out tests with the castellations machined off, which gave a lower compression ratio but, as it was found that the engine would still start easily under cold conditions, it was decided to modify the pistons. This was done after a short period in service, and no further liner wear of this nature has taken place.
arduous conditions experienced in trawling. One was with the cast iron pistons which, due to the
valve overlap necessary for supercharged engines using the Buchi exhaust gas turbo system, had deep pockets in the top resulting in four, what might be termed, "castellations". It was found that uneven vertical bands of liner wear were taking place corresponding to the piston castellations. The uneven wear was found to be due to the operation of the ship. The ship often lays to for hours, and the engine cools down. Then, suddenly, the trawl may be shot, requiring the engine to be on full power immediately. This results in distortion of the piston castellations and the subsequent liner wear. The
Fig. 237.
Comp
ana diesel trawlers
[27*]
oil
STEAM VERSUS DIESEL

by stuck piston
rings, to the
to be troubled
period
used for cooling the piston and for general lubrication is important, as the piston cooling oil is taken off the main system. It was found that the oil returns from the pistons were being choked by carbon because a straight mineral oil was being used and, when a change was made to a detergent oil, the trouble was minimised to a considerable extent but not entirely
oil
The type of
between overhaul has been extended.

Contrary to general opinion, the pack type of lubricatfilter is being successfully operated on these vessels. It has been found that the time for a complete change of oil is indicated when three pints of carbon and heavy sludge are removed daily from the fitters. Experience has shown that oil changes should be made every 4,000 hr., not every 2,000 hr. as was first done. Samples of oil are analysed regularly by the supplying companies and the oil is always renewed before the analysis shows it has deteriorated. A moderately priced oil, which is changed fairly often, is economical. Frequent changes also result in a clean sump and sump tank. Considerable trouble can be experienced by not paying special attention to the quality and condition of the oil* The cost of oil changes is an insurance against damage
ing oil
cured. further investigation was made, which disclosed that the choking was, to some extent, due to low operating oil temperatures of 90 to 110F (32 to 43C).
Now
these temperatures have been increased to 130 to 140F (54 to 60C) and the trouble is practically non-existent.
Furthermore, the circulation of the oil at 140F (60C) three times as fast as at 100F (38C) so that the underside of the pistons receives three times as much oil for cooling purposes, which prevents the build up of carbon. Cases of piston cooling cavity choking are now nearly always due to the pack type of oil filter not being operated properly. With detergent lubricating oils, not only are the oil cooling cavities kept clean but it is an exception
is
and expensive renewals. The average lubricating oil consumption per 24 hr., including that of the auxiliary diesels, has been 9.75 Imp. gal. (44.4 1 .), and that includes the sump change of 240 Imp. gal. (1,092 1.) every
4,000 hr.
TABLE
71
7 Cyi. Main Propubkm Diesel Wear

Crankshaft and crankpin
No appreciable wear in 34,000 hr.

Adjusted to makers* recommended clearance where necessary; average 0.002/0.004 0.1016 mm) shims removed, in 34,000 hr.
Clearance 0.006
Cyl.
\
Connecting rod big end bearing
in.
(0.0508/
Connecting rod small end bearing

Cylinder
liners, cast iron
in.
(0.1524 mm.), original 0.003/0.004

Total wear
!
in.
(0.0762/0.1016
mm.) in 34,000 hr.

In.
Hours
in.
mm.
0.559 0.686 0.660 0.660 0.610 0.508 0.635
0.152 0.152
2
3
4
5
6
7
12,998 12,998 12,998 10,314 10,972 10,972 10,657
0.022 0.027 0.026 0.026 0.024 0.020 0.025

0.006 0.006
fitted)
0.0017 0.0021 0.0020 0.0025 0.0022 0.0018 0.00235

0.0003 0.0003
0.0003 0.00026 0.00027 0.00025
0.0432 0.0533 0.0508 0.0635 0.0559 0.0457 0.0597 0.0076 0.0076
Cylinder
liners,
chrome bore
2
3
4
5
6 7
Piston pin bosses
21,708 20,583 (Cast iron liner 21,537 22,881 22,329 24,337

in.
0.006 0.006 0.005 0.006
0.152 0.152 0.127 0.152
0.0076 0.0066 0.0069 0.0064
Clearance 0.006
.
(0.1524
mm.) original
0.003/0.004 in. (0.0762/0.1016
mm) after 25,276 hr.
Top
piston ring groove
0.015 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008
in. (0.381 in.
mm.)
mm.)
after 25,276 hr.

after 25,276 hr. after 25,276 hr.
Second piston ring groove

Third piston ring groove
(0.203
in.
(0.203 (0.203 (0.203
mm.) mm.)
Top
scraper ring groove
in.
after 25,276 hr.
Bottom scraper ring groove

Piston pins
in.
mm.)
after 25,276 hr.

in.
Maximum wear 0.001
(0.025
mm.)
in 30,000 hr.
Camshaft bearings.
Cams
....
Negligible wear in 30,000 hr.
No wear in 30,000 hr.

[279J

The
original cylinder linen were
2 ~-
CONSTRUCTION
made of centrifugal cast
iron and, once the vertical bonds of wear had teen overthe pistons, the average wear figures were in the region of 0,0015 to 0.002 in. (0.0381 to 0.0508 mm.) per 1,000 hr. as shown in Wear Down Chart, table 71 The liners, when worn between 0.020 and 0.030
of oil in the cooling system. To dean the was necessary to run the engine with a water temperature of about 160F (7U1C) and soda was put
gal. (36.4 1.)
system,
it
come by modifying
to 0.762 mm.), can be chrome plated at half the cost of a new liner. From experience gained, it is recommended, after about three years, to so treat two
in. (0.508
annually, until all have been chrome plated. Furthermore, the wear on chrome liners has been under 0.0005 in. (0.0127 mm.) per 1,000 hr. or 25 to 30 per cent, of that on cast iron liners. The original liner water joint rings were of natural white rubber and it was found that the detergent oil caused some of these rings to fail. The rings are now made of a synthetic material, and no trouble has since
liners
been experienced. In one ship the cylinder head cracked during the This was found to be due to cooling first voyage.
alteration in foundry practice, including the of casting, solved the problem. annealing
stresses.
into circulation to absorb the oil. In spite of this mishap, the liners can be withdrawn easily and the whole fresh water side of the system, including iron pipes and header tanks, is free from corrosion. The independent electric driven saltwater cooling pump is started one or two hours after sailing to allow the engine to warm up quickly. From the experience gained with the ram pumps, it is now felt that separate electrically driven pumps are better also for the freshwater side, and later engines are equipped with two electric pumps With a variable speed control. This ensures a good temperature control without opening and dosing the by-passes. In addition, the water can be circulated when the engine is idle. There is still trouble from corrosion on cast iron parts on the sea water side and it is proposed to try out various rubberized and resin
protective coatings which have now come into general use. If this move is successful, protection will be achieved without the expense of costly bronze fittings.
An
Turbocfcargcrs
Extant rahres The exhaust valves tended

procedure was
altered
The
to stick but when the oiling and a reamer passed through the valve guides, which are given a good wire brushing during the overhaul, there has been no sticking. The valves are cleaned with a power wire brush.
naturally aspirated engine, whether two- or fourstoke, will soon be the exception rather than the rule. The Buchi turbochargers have been found to be efficient.
On
the first engines, the air for the turbochargers was taken from the engine room via a ventilator and, when the engine room was battened down, there was insufficient air for combustion, with a resulting increase in exhaust
The maintenance period of the injectors has been considerably extended by fitting a light weight spring spindle of aluminium alloy in the nozzle holder body. This has less inertia, so that it keeps the needle valve firm on its seat, thus reducing the tendency of the needle
to become lacquered.
Cooling water
temperatures. When additional ventilation was installed to feed air to the turbocharger from the deck, the exhaust
The original ram type of water fibre valves which gave rise to
pumps were fitted with some difficulties. They
were replaced by metal valves which have a much longer life and improved performance. The first vessels were fitted with engine driven ram type freshwater pumps. It was found that a muddy' deposit of corroded material, about 1 in. (25.4 mm.) deep gathered in the coding water space at the bottom of the cylinder liner and in the cylinder heads. The corrosion making the deposit took place in the header tank, and was caused by a sniffing valve on a ram pump which resulted in the water becoming aerated. Every six months it was necessary to flush the cylinder heads down through the outlet doors on the hack of the cylinder block. A soluble oil added to the cooling water was successful in reducing the corrosion. On one occasion, salt water was used for cooling the engine and it caused the oil to separate out, there being about 8 Imp.
temperatures dropped by 30F (17C) and conditions in the engine room were improved. The turbocharger compressor blades tend to foul because the oil mist in the engine room is drawn in with the air. An increase in the exhaust temperatures, therefore, might indicate that the compressor and the air filter need to be cleaned. The only major trouble experienced with the turbocharger has been erosion of the gas outlet casing, the temperature of which, owing to the conditions of trawling, is often below the dew point of the water in the gases. The vessel stops every three or four hours, whilst trawling, and it is then not possible to keep the water temperature over 140F (60C). At low temperatures, the moisture settles on the casing walls and the acid from the sulphur in the fuel gases eats away the metal. In one case, the corrosion made a hole through the casing to the water side, and the engine was flooded. However, the vessel was able to dock under her own power, at reduced revolutions, with the turbocharger functioning without water circulation. casing, sprayed with cupro-nickel, is being tested to see how it resists this cold corrosion.
The engines
filters
originally operated
oil
on gas
fuel oil;
bier
marine diesd
was
tried.
Some waxing of
the
fud
All
was eliminated by heating the Aid
slightly.
[280]
the vessels are
fuel at
STEAM VERSUS DIESEL

it is
now operating satisfactorily on distillate a saving of about 14 per cent, in cost Fig 238 shows the fuel consumption curve and a typical
of the
4iffriHntf fuel is:
factory checking of the engine,
recommended that the
following procedure be adopted:
The
seating* should be
specification
lutely flat
over the
full
ground and scraped absoarea of each chock, using a
Specific gravity at
0F (15.56C)
Flash point (dosed)

Viscosity
F (C) Redwood No. 1 at 100F
(37.78C)
....
(Conradson)
.
0.830 min. 0.890 max. ISO (65.56) min.
steel straight edge.
The chock beings should dope one degree outwards, to ensure that the chocks can be fitted easily and
without disturbing the true alignment. After the engine has been lined up correctly on the jacking screws, the chock should be fitted to within 0.0005 in. (0,0127 mm.) by precision scraping with the aid of
suitable thickness
Pour point
Sulphur
% weight
residue
.
F (Q
34 min. 45 max. 25 (-3.89) max. 1.2 max.

0.2
gauge
this
Carbon
weight Cetane number
Water
Sediment
% volume % weight
....
.
%
max.
28 min.
0.05 max.
0.01
pound. By using
feelers and marking commethod on an absolutely flat
engine seating, the possibility of distorting the bedplate, and thus creating malalignment of the cranktightening the bolts, is eliminated. if care is taken to obtain smooth bores for the bolts and bolts of the correct diameter are
shaft
when
max.
Furthermore,
The
less
cost of this fuel than that of gas oil.
is
approximately 14 per cent,
fitted, i.e. a tapping fit, there is no doubt that the alignment will be satisfactory and will remain so for a long period.
INSTALLATION
The importance of
TORSIONALS
satisfactory alignment of engine
and
shaft at installation cannot be too strongly emphasised. With a properly chocked engine, the crankshaft align-
With the
ment seldom changes in many years running. Maialignment of the crankshaft is often caused by incorrectly fitted chocks. Such faulty alignment causes crankweb spring and, if this condition is allowed to continue, the repeated alternating stresses in the crankshaft will set up crystallization and fatigue stresses which could lead to a fracture of the crankshaft.
Regular crankshaft alignment checks should be made annually, unless some malalignment has appeared. After this has been corrected, it is usual to check at three
direct-reversing, direct-drive diesel engine, with a crankshaft designed not only for torque carrying capacity but to give a high natural frequency of vibration, the possibility of resonance and dangerous harmonics of the
firing
frequency within the operating speed range
is
eliminated. In the engines under review, the natural frequency of the stern gear system has been arranged to fall at 1,043
critical lies at
vibrations per minute so that the fundamental 3 Jth order 298 r.p.m., whilst the next major harmonic,
months,
six
months and yearly
intervals.
which is the 7th order, lies at 149 r.p.m. and gives rise to a vibration stress with propeller damping of 74S lb./ sq. in. (S2.2 kg./sq. cm.). The natural frequency of the
crankshaft
is
In order to ensure satisfactory alignment and satis-
such that the running speed
is
situated
beyond the 12th order harmonic and there are therefore no significant criticals in the running range. The installation
is
0500
tto
O>4tO.
consequently completely free of
criticals
within
the operating range and the vibration stress, therefore, in any portion of the shafting system will not exceed
74S
0-440.
Ib./sq. in. (S2.2 kg./sq,
cm.) as stated above. This is
no
due
entirely to the provision of a large diameter crankshaft and stern gear, and, while the latter is considerably
is
044O.
0410,
in excess of Lloyds* requirements, there
no barred
speed range at
all.
SHAFTING
04OO
0-JtO.
ITO
The shafting is a Aormal installation and comprises thrust block, intermediate shaft, stern shaft and pro*
peUer.
shafts for the first vessels were fitted with brass running in lignum vttae bushes. It was recognized that the wear of the lignum rttae would be rapid and at 0.060 in. (1.524 mm,) wear a gland was fitted at the outboard end of the brass tube and the tube was drilled for greasing. The results were excellent and, over four years,
ttners
OHO
OMO,
o-ao MfL
The
46
2J9.
1*6
{281J
CONSTRUCTION
the loss in propulsive
When translated into ship speed,

speed
is easily
efficiency is small* especially when consideration is given to recent developments in hull design, and any lots in
delivered to the shaft illustrated by fig. 240.
outweighed by the increase in horsepower by the diesel engine. This point is
As
diesel machinery is obviously less flexible than its steam counterpart, particular care had to be taken when designing the propellers to ensure that there will be no
serious overloading in the trawling condition.
Power
measurements were carried out with a torsion meter on one of the earlier diesel vessels. The SHP thus determined gave satisfactory confirmation of estimated values, and the data formed a reliable basis for subsequent
propeller design.
Thrust As a result of experimenting with various combinations of pitch and diameter, the screw giving the most satisfactory
fig. 239. Propeller efficiency for typical installations of steam and
diesel trawlers
compromise between
ideal free
running and
none of the tubes have had to be re-wooded. There was, however, some apparent swelling of the wood and it is
therefore considered inadvisable to have less than 0.035
in.
LUO
clearance to allow for greasing. The shafts on the later vessels run in white-metallined bushes and are lubricated from a header tank and
(0.889
mm.)
JtO
first
with outboard and inboard oil sealing glands. The had glands with soft packing, but excess oil leaked from them despite the use of metal-wrapped packings. All now have an improved type of gland and packing.
fitted
.110.
emulsified oil tends to solidify when cold, a twopint (1.14 1.) capacity hand-operated oil-feed pump is now fitted whereby fresh oil can be injected direct to the tube.
As
.100.
The return
oil from the shafts is led into a drum and can be disposed of or re-used after cleaning.
PROPELLERS
In changing from the conventional steam engine turning at about 120 r.p.m. to diesels with a propeller speed of 230 r.p.mu, a loss of propeller efficiency naturally results. On the other hand, many of the earlier steam trawlers were still fined with cast-iron propellers of elementary design. Modern, well-designed bronze propellers, with aerofoil blade sections, which are now standard equipment on the diesel trawlers, have reduced tte efficiency loss to a minimum. Furthermore, the optimum propdkr diameter is smaller for the higher shaft revolutions, thus providing improved immersion and reducing the possibility of fouling the fishing gear- Fig. 239 shows curvet of propeller efficiency plotted to a base of advance coefficient J for typical installations of the diescl trawlers
under consideration.
Fig. 240.
DHP and r.p.m.
versus curvet of speed far and OMMI trawlers
typical
steam
[282]
trawling
STEAM VERSUS DIESEL
was
of thrust for steam and
established. Fig. 241 shows estimated values diesel installations when free
running and trawling. These serve to indicate the superiority of the diesel ships when comparing thrust at the appropriate operating revolutions. Attempts have been made on some more recent diesel vessels to measure the actual thrust by the use of a thrust meter. While the results gave reasonable agreement with the estimated
figures in certain trawling conditions, some discrepancies were found in the free running results. Unfortunately,
no
similar thrust
measurements are available from steam-
ships for comparison purposes. It is hoped to obtain further data from diesel vessels in the future.
Fig.241. Estimated values of thru* for Mteom*crt
dk*l
machinery
Material
The
early diesel trawlers were initially fitted with cast iron propellers but it was soon obvious that they would have a short life and were discarded after only nine months* service. Manganese bronze propellers are now
cylinder liner wear. warming connection should be arranged from the main engine cooling system. The three later vessels with ISO h.p. motors were more
standard and an appreciable saving in fuel results, in addition to a considerably longer life. None has yet had to be discarded and experience suggests that those originally fitted should last at least seven years, provided they are not seriously damaged. But it seems that a relatively high rate of wastage must be expected, due to
the severe operating conditions.
facturer, however, is fully
cost.
both for trawl winch duty and in the better of the diesel when hauling. loading One earlier vessel developed two armature defects due
satisfactory
to hauling for prolonged periods near the stall condition
The
propeller
manu-
aware of these conditions and
has produced improved manganese bronzes at little extra Such propellers will have a useful life of twelve years. This is satisfactory, considering the possibility of damage and also that the propeller may have to be modified by a change in the ship's service.
heavy weather. This condition could have been by slowing down the main engine and thereby the ship, but was not desirable in this type of fishing. The gear ratio of the winches has now been lowered. Although this should give slower hauling, practice proves otherwise because a steady pull is better than slowing a motor
in
relieved
to near stall
on
rising swells.
The
can
diesel
now be
diesel and generator power on the overload rating of the being equal to the momentary overload of approxi-
selection
of the winch
safely based
WINCH ENGINE
Balance of load of winch and main engine Experience indicates that the power for the electric winch motor must be about 25 per cent, of the main engine power required when trawling. From the operational and maintenance point of view, it is essential to obtain power balance between the diesel engine and the electric winch motor. The first two vessels were fitted with 126 h.p. winch motors, whereas the last three vessels had ISO h.p. motors, all being driven by diesel generators of
mately 50 per cent, of the electric winch motor. Following is a comparison between the trawl winch
equipment on the
1956:
first
vessel
and a
later vessel, built in
First
Later
vessel
r.p.m. Diesel engine rating, continuous

. .
... BHP
.
vessel
12hr.BMP
Ihr.
Electric
BHP
.
600 252 280 308

189
winch motor,
h.p.
.126
h.p.
effi-
a similar type and power.

keeping the diesel engine running satisfactorily were experienced with the 126 h.p. winches. The diesel operated for long periods on light loads and, even when hauling, the power requirements were less than its normal output. The result was excessive carbon
Difficulties in
Motor momentary overload, max. With allowance for losses and

ciency, the diesel
650 306 340 374 208 312
must develop to
meet
the
maximum momentary
build-up on the pistons and cylinder heads, and heavy carbon deposits in the water-cooled exhaust manifold. In one case, the exhaust manifold became carboned and the manifold accumulated wet carbon containing unburnt fuel and lubricating oil which, due to the light load operation, had passed the pistons. The remedy was an uncooled manifold and by-passes to the fresh water
overload of the electric winch motor 230 377 are 10 per cent for motor losses and 92 per cent, generator efficiency. For the first vessel, the diesel is lightly loaded even at the momentary overload of the winch motor, whereas the later diesel's one-hour rating is slightly exceeded but, as the overload is momen-
The allowances
tary, this is acceptable.
The
later diesel
is,
therefore,
heat exchanger and the lubricating oil cooler to obtain higher diesel temperatures as quickly as possible. It is important to avoid cold running, which is the cause of
operated with better load. The winch diesel runs some eight hours daily. There are approximately six hauls with 15 min. full load but for the remainder of the time the diesel is on light load, for general deck usage, or not in operation.
[283]

The maintenance schedules show
liner
CONSTRUCTION
that piston ring
and
wear figures Art negligible, the greatest fault being the fuel dilution of the lubricating oil of the underrated diesels. Fuel lines should be so placed that, in the event of porosity or leaking, fuel cannot get into the
crank chamber.
power required to drive a pump or alternatively compressor. On average, an 80 per cent load is carried, which has resulted in satisfactory diesel performance.
phis the
There have been no major renewals, except for the normal replacements of pistons and liners; the shell
Hie
cylinder heads of the

1st
first vessel
were serviced:
main bearings and

There has been
year, after 1,485 hr.
little
the crankshaft are in or no wear.
good condition.
2nd
3rd 4th
5th
,,
2,663 3,860,, 5,321
6,500,,
ratio
Starting Occasionally, in extremely cold weather, the auxiliary sets have been difficult to hand start and the diesels are now
fitted with pneumatic starters. However, air starting on a dead ship requires a small auxiliary compressor of about 5 h.p., so a cartridge type of combustion starter may prove better and would save the small compressor. Occasional trouble has been experienced in the main compressor due to the failure of the babbit lining in the big end bearings, caused by lack of lubrication. A change of trim or list results in a false oil level and reduction of the splash lubrication. It has been found advisable to fill the crankcase sump above the high oil level mark.
winch sets with a more balanced power have twice the maintenance period.
The
later
lubricating systems are used, i.e., a wet sump system with the oil in the bedplate, and a dry sump system
Two
with the
oil in a separate sump tank fed by gravity from the bedplate or by a pump. It has been found desirable to omit the automatic lubricating oil emergency devices to
avoid automatic cut-out of the diesel when operation of the winch is imperative. In the present system, audible alarms give the engineer warning.
One
overload cut-outs are now fitted with a timing device to avoid cutting out on a short rising swell. push-button in the wheel house enables the skipper to atop the winch at once should a dangerous situation arise.
Future problem other factor was the loosening of the clutch housings
Winch
electric
Furthermore, remote control is fitted from the magnetic brake in the trawl winch electric motor room to the wheel house, so that the brake can be easily released in an
on the shafts, and it is felt that, in future vessels, some improvement could be obtained by installing a larger generator to drive the compressor and general service pumps. This arrangement is most attractive as the general service pumps could be interchangeable with the main engine pumps. However, in the event of a switchboard
failure, a direct driven pump is desirable to circulate the sea-water emergency cooling of the main engine. The earlier vessels had an auxiliary steam boiler to supply heat for the radiators and for the fish liver oil
emergency.
AUXILIARIES
The two general service sets, one being a standby, each comprise a 36 h,p. diesel engine, driving, through a 1 10 volt DC generator and, flexible coupling, one 20 through a friction dutch, one self-priming pump with a capacity of 30 tons (30.50 ton) per hour against a 70 ft, (21 m.) total head, and, through another friction clutch, one two-4yl. air compressor, capable of compressing 181 cuu ft. (524 1.) of free air per minute to 350 Ib./sq. in.
kW
Many of the subsequent vessels have dispensed with the steam boiler, as initial outlay and maintenance small oilcosts outweigh the revenue from the oil. fired hot water circulation boiler is now used for the radiators and the fish livers are landed raw.
plant.
TRAINING OF PERSONNEL
diesel engineers have graduated from the steam trawler. These men have, after a short training at the
Many
engine manufacturers* works, become most keen and proficient.
(24.6 kg*/sq. cm,).
The diesels
are
hand
started.
The
general auxiliary electric loading
is
12 to 15
kW,
The first diesel engineers have trained their colleagues, and experienced engineers, with the local port certificate, are now available for the increasing number of new diesel vessels.
(284J
PROPULSION SYSTEMS FOR MOTOR TRAWLERS

by
FRANZ SUBERKRUB
because of the two different requirements, high sailing speed and high trawling power. The paper trawler, and how this loss can be avoided by the use of a muttipie-speed gear, recent test showed that the multiple-speed gear a controllable-pitch propeller or a propeller nozzle. These three devices are compared. system gave the best results.
Difficulties in trawler design arise
describes
how trawling power decreases in the case of a normal
LES SYSTEMES
DE PROPULSION POUR LES CHALUTIERS A MOTEUR

soulevent des difficult^ dans
itier
te
dessin
de
normal
et
comment
cette perte petit
Ces
essai recent
trois dispositifs
sent compares.
Un
a montre que
la bolte
de
vitcssc donnait les meilleurs r&ultats.
S1STEMAS DE PROPULSION PARA MOTOARRASTREROS

Satisfacer dos necesidades distintas: mucha velocidad en ruta y mucha potencia en el arrastre, plantea importantes problemas al proyectista de arrastreros. En la ponencia se describe la disminucibn de potencia de arrastre en el arrastrero normal y c6mo se puede evitar esta pfaiida emptoando transmisiones de varias velocidadcs, heMiccs de paso variable y helices con toberas. Se comparan los tres sistemas. En una prueba efectuada recientemente se oomprob6 que el sistema de transmisiones de varias velocidades da los mejores resultados.
frequently face a combination of unfavourable conditions, such as rough weather and heavy seas, and a considerable reserve of trawling power is required. To obtain a high sailing speed, the propeller must be designed to deliver maximum torque at the nominal (100 per cent.) r.p.m. of the eqgine.
TRAWLERS
sailing speed of 14.5 knots, and trawling at 3.5 knots with a wake of 18 per cent. The engine output was 1,060 SHP and the loss of power before the propeller was assumed to be 6 per cent., so the available propeller power was
1,000
DHP in
But the propeller also requires maximum torque when trawling, and as the engine cannot maintain this torque at a reduced speed of the ship, its r.p.m. and power drop. A vessel with a propeller of 11,8 ft. (3.6 m.) diam. was tested at a trawling speed of 3.5 knots under several different head wind forces. Table 72 gives the results. When the same vessel was tested in the sailing condition
at 14.S knots its engine developed 1,025
peller r.p.m.
SHP at
18 pro-
and a measured propeller torque of 45,000
72 and 73 occur because the figures in table 72 were obtained under unfavourable conditions at sea during trawling, while those in table 73 were derived from model tests. Even so, the tables reveal similarities. The main points of the four service conditions in table 73 are: (1) The main engine output of 1,060 SHP at 350 r.p.m. gave a torque of 15,700 Ib.ft. (2,170 kg.m.). The gear ratio of 1 2.84 resulted in a propeller speed of 123 r.p.m., with a corresponding torque of 15,700 Ib.ft. x 2.84x94%
:
The
the sailing condition. slight variations between tables
Ib.ft. (6,200 kg.m.). This torque could be obtained without overloading the engine when trawling, the two higher torques in the table being recorded for very short periods only. The tests thus show that, while trawling, the maximum effective power of the engine is limited to
=41,900
9.2 ton.
Ib.ft.
(5,800 kg.m.),
and a propeller
thrust of
720 SHP.
of about 300 h.p. when trawling can be a multiple-speed gear or a controllable-pitch propeller is used, or a diesel-electric drive.
(2) While trawling, the engine delivered the same torque, 15,700 Ib.ft. (2,170 kg.m.), as when sailing, but the engine speed dropped from 350 to 245 r.p.m. This resulted in reducing the engine output to 1,060 SHP
The
loss
if
avoided
x 245/350 r.p.m. =740 SHP. The propeller speed decreased by the same ratio from 123 to 86 r.p.m. and die
propeller thrust
(3)
was about
1 1
.6 ton,
which gave a
:
pull
of
approximately 11 ton.
MW.TTPLE-SPEED GEAR
Table 73 shows the results of a model test, based on the same propeller of 11.8 ft. (3,6 m.) diam,, designed for a
With a multiple-speed gear of 1 3.54 ratio, the engine speed was increased from 24S to 305 r.p.m. white trawling, maintaining the output of 740 SHP, when the torque of the engine dropped to 15,700 lb.ftx 245/350
r,p.m.= 12,600 Ib.ft. (1,740 kg.m.), while the propeller performance remained the same as for (2).
[285]
2
1
:
a ratio of
CONSTRUCTION 3.54. Such a km speed makes
it
possible to
keep the vessel in any desired position in relation to the trawl
Effect of propeller
Fig. 242 (top) shows the possible propeller thrusts for various propeller diameters when the power output is 1,000 DHP. These curves prove that greater thrusts are obtained by larger propellers and show how the thrust can be increased by a multiple-speed gear. Fig. 242
(bottom) shows that the DHP losses in trawling without a multiple-speed gear are smaller for smaller size propellers, e.g. 200 DHP for the propeller of 8.2 ft. (2.5 m.) diam., and more than 300 DHP for bigger propellers
and naturally the gain

tion gears
is
in thrust by multiple-speed reducwith greater large diameter propellers.
too
40m.
"TO H
BMM*^^ difMiii rropiMOT oramvur
0Rt
Reduction gear multiple-speed equipment consists of a reversible reduction gear of normal oil pressure as used for many decades aboard fishing boats. The only difference is that, instead of a single speed reduction for ahead, there are two, one for sailing and another for trawling. Full engine power can be used at any time with these. Changing from one speed to the other and to 'astern' is done in seconds with oil pressure laminated disc clutches. The gear can be used with non-reversible main propulsion
The
242. Propeller thrust
and
DHP with and without multiple-speed
(4) To increase trawling power in a heavy sea, the engine speed was increased to produce a torque of 15,700 Ib.ft (2,170 kg.m.) and the same full engine output of 1 ,060 SHP at 350 r.p.m. as for the sailing condition, The propeller torque was increased from 42,400 to 54,100 lb.ft. (5,860 to 7,500 kg.m.), a 28 per cent. increase. Thus, by using a trawling-speed gear reduction, the propeller output was increased from 700 to 1,000 DHP, i.e., by 43 per cent.
by de-clutching and allowing the engine to run. is no direct connection between propeller and engine, the propeller can be automatically stopped by a brake. The advantages of this design have been proved
diesels
As
there
in practice (Ferdinande,
1958).
trawlers obtained
optimum
According to him, five catches around Boulogne-
sur-Mer by using multiple-speed reversible gears. The captains state that catches were less when they did not use the trawling-speed gear. The report also records: "In order to get the best fishing performance in a heavy
sea, it seems to be extremely important to go considerably below the maximum torque, so that the towing power remains flexible in any circumstances".
of tew power *ai low speed In fair weather trawling conditions, Mttckel found the SHP to be about 550 at 78 r.p.m. of the propeller or
276 r.p.m. (78 r.p.m* x 3.54) of the engine. According to the example in table 73 when using a speed gear reduction, the torque of the engine would be approximately 15,700 lb.ft. x 550/1,060 SHP x 350/276 r.p.m. -10, 300 IWt (1,400 kg.m.) in this case. This provides for a propeller trawling power range from about 500 to 1,000 DHP which is obtained only by adjusting the engine speed, and shows the advantage of using a OMiltqjkKSpeed reduction gear. Another advantage of the multiple-speed gear is that the propeller speed can be reduced considerably white setting and/or hauling the tmwl. If the engine speed can be neduced from 350 to 125 r,p.m., the corresponding propcOer speed will be 44 r pun. with a gear ratio of 1 : 1*4 and 35 r.p.m, with
TABLE 72
,
Tetti of!
{286]
INSTALLATION, OF MACHINERY CONTROULABLE-PTTCH PROPELLER

General
Similar
pitch propeUcrs.
i
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
can be obtained with controllable-
The multiple-speed (ear gives full power when trawling by adjusting the propeller speed* while the controllable-pitch propeller changes its pitch when
trawling, maintaining a constant propeller speed. In both cases it is possible to operate the engine when trawling under full power at the nominal engine speed. However, to improve the efficiency of a controllable-pitch propeller under various load conditions, it is necessary to change not only the pitch but also the r.p.m. To obtain good thrust results, a controllable-pitch propeller must have a large diameter, as is shown in fig. 242 (top), and a comparatively low propeller r.p.m., and this requires a gear to reduce the engine r.p.m. A large controllablepitch propeller, say 11 .8 ft. (3.6 m.) diam., combined with a reduction gear is, however, very expensive and complicated, so that a careful study should be made as to whether or not a multiple-speed gear with a fixed
*
90
ii^V
1
I
propeller
is
more economical.
L
Comparison with multiple-speed gear Inexpensive vessels have recently been built with controllable-pitch propellers to get 20 to 30 per cent, higher
thrust at full engine
power while
trawling.
propeller
Fig. 243.
been used for an engine of approximately 1,000 h.p. without reduction gear. As shown in fig. 242 (top), the propeller thrust for 1,000 h.p. at 8.5 ft. (2.6 m.) diam. at full power is 12 ton and at 11. 8 ft. (3.6 m.) diam., 14.6 ton. If a thrust of 12 ton is sufficient, then an 1 1.8 ft. (3.6 m.) diam. propeller and an engine of 700 h.p. with multiple-speed gear could be used, as shown in table 72. In this case, the higher cost of a large propeller with reduction gear would be offset by the less expensive engine of smaller power, and operation expenses would be considerably lower. The deciding
ft.
of 8.S
(2.6 m.) diam. has
Trawl pull improvement when using a propeller nozzle
factor is, however, the distance to the fishing grounds If the distances are great, high sailing speeds are required and, in practice, it has been proved that large diamctei
propellers produce higher speeds for the output, especially in heavy seas.
It
same engine
has been said that trawler captains do not like the

the controllable-pitch propeller rotates after beinj
way
put into the stop position when hauling the trawl. Th<
TABLE 73
Mood
tests
of trawler with and without
nMiltipleHflpeed
(tar
Engine
Propeller
{287]

TABLE 74
2 -*
CONSTRUCTION
PROPELLER NOZZLE
Improvements in trawling power with the propeller and its influence cm the sailing speed were shown in tests made in the Hamburg Tank. The results are summarized in fig. 243, where the specific trawling power (puH/h.p.) obtained from a number of model tests on
nozzle
well-designed tugs is shown against the SHP/sq. ft (sq. m.) of the propeller area at a speed of 4 knots with and without nozzle. Table 74, from fig. 243, allows com* parison with the other tables. The improvements in pull
danger that it might damage the trawl is obvious and this cannot happen with a stopped propeller. The controllable-pitch
propeller
is
normally only stops when the

efficiency
engine stops. Cavitation
harmful to any propeller's
and
eventually damages the propeller and the rudder. Cavitation, of course, depends on various factors, but primarily on the load per propeller area, which in turn
depends on the propeller diameter. There is normally no cavitation with propellers of 9.8 ft. (3 m.) diam. and larger with 1,000 h.p. but it occurs with those of smaller diameters, e.g., 8.5 ft. (2.6 m.).
DIESEL-ELECTRIC DRIVE
power to the propeller under any load conditions and at all speeds. The main engine operates at constant r.p.m. and does not have to be reversed as the electric motor deals with all manoeuvres. The disadvantage is the high initial cost and the electrical losses as much as 20 per cent. between the diesel and the electric motor. However, the system can supply auxiliary power, which eliminates the need for auxiliary generators, and this partly offsets the loss, particularly if the auxiliary power requirements
are very high.
under different conditions, with 1,000 h.p. and 1L8 ft. having blade areas of 109.8 sq. ft. (10.2 sq. m.) are shown. The main points of comparison are * Without the nozzle, the power loss was 30 per cent., namely from 1,000 h.p. to 700 h.p., and resulted in a pull of 9.56 ton % With nozzle, the power loss was 28 per cent. This means that 720 h.p. was available for the propeller, but the nozzle gave a pull of 1 1 ton, an improvement of IS per cent, in thrust. Without the nozzle, but using the full 1,000 h.p. while trawling, with the help of a multiple-speed gear, the resulting pull was 13 ton, an improvement of 36 per cent, in thrust Similar tests were made at Wageningen with propellers of various diameters. Where the diameters of propellers without nozzles were 3 per cent, larger than those with nozzles, the increase in trawling power of the latter was only 10 per cent, at 4 knots, and there was no increase when the speed was 6.25 knots. In table 74 the nozzle propeller and the normal propeller are of the same diameter. According to Helm, the sailing speed of a tug,
(3.6 m.) diam. propellers
:
The
diesel-electric drive supplies full
with the same power, was 10.75 knots with nozzle and 11.03 knots without nozzle. Another sailing test was
made at Wageningen and about 0.5 knot higher speed was obtained without a nozzle when the speed was about
13 knots.
These
tests indicate that the
speed losses caused by a
propeller nozzle increase at higher sailing speeds. While good results are obtainable at low trawling speeds, speed
losses
have to be considered for the

sailing speed is
sailing condition,
and as a high
tion of
important for trawlers
careful consideration should be given before the installaa nozzle.
1218]
RECENT TRAWLERS FITTED WITH MULTIPLE REDUCTION GEARS

by
ALEXANDRE CHARDOME
The
fint trawler to
be
fitted
similarly fitted trawlers have been built or are under construction in Belgium, mostly 25 similar trawlers of smaller power have been built.
with a multiple reduction gear was the Belgian Skipper, delivered in September 1953. Since then, 15 powered by diesel engines of 1 ,200 to 1 ,500 h.p, In France,
The latest trawler built in Belgium, the 628 Pierre, has the following main dimensions: length overall 192 ft. 9 in. (58.80 m.); length between perpendiculars 170 ft. 10 in. (52.10 m.); moulded breadth 30 ft. 10 in. (9.40 m.) and depth 17 ft. 5 in. (5.32 m.). Its hold capacity is 14,830 cu. ft. (420 cu. m.) With a load of 288 tons of fuel, fresh water, ice and fishing gear, the Pierre did 15 knots on trials, while developing less than
1,400 h.p. at the engine coupling flange. The main propulsion engine is a four-stroke supercharged diesel with a continuous output of 1,500 h.p. at 300 r.p.m. The reverse reduction gear has two ahead and one astern speeds. The ahead speeds are 154 r.p.m, for free running and 1 13 r.p.m. for trawling. With the astern gear clutch engaged, the propeller runs at 88 r.p.ra. The fixed-blade propeller has a diameter of 10
ft.
GT
11 in. (3.33m.).
The propeller of a trawler must meet the very different working conditions of trawling and free running. Based on the propeller charts of the B4-70 Troost series, the author provides a comparison between a controllable-pitch propeller of 10 ft 10 in, (3.30 m.) diam.
and a fixed-blade propeller of 11 ft. 4 in. (3.46 m.) diam. and 11 ft. 4 in. (3.46 m.) pitch. This shows that unless the propeller diameter is strictly limited, there is no valid hydrodynamic reason for preferring one type of propeller to the other.
CHALUT1ERS REGENTS MUNIS DE REDUCTEURS A PLUSIEURS VTTESSES

Le premier chalutier muni d'un riducteur & plusieurs vitesses a etc* Ic Belgian Skipper, livrt en septembre 1953. construits ou sont en construction on Belgique, te plus souvent Depuis ton, quinze chalutiers equipes de facxm semblabte ont propulses par des diesels de 1 .200 a 1 .500 c.v. Vingt-cinq chalutiers semblables mail moins puissants ont et construits en France. Le plus recent chalutier construit en Belgique, le Pierre, de 628 tx de jauge brute, qui a fait 1'objet d'essais de modek au basstn avant d'etre dessin et construit, a tes dimensions principaks suivantes: Longueur non-tout, 192 pi. 9 polices (58,80 m.); longueur entre perpendi* culaires, 170 pi. 10 pouoes (52,10 m.); largeur hors membrures, 30 pi. 10 pouces (9,40 m.), et crcux 17 pi. 5 ponces (5,32 m.). Sa cak a une capacitc de 14.830 pi. cubes (420 (). Avec un chargement de 288 tonnes de carburant, eau douce, glace et engins de peche, le Pierre a file IS noeuds aux essais en devetoppant moins de 1.400 c.v, a la bride d'accouplement du moteur. Le moteur principal de propulsion est un diesel a 4 temps suraUment6 avec une puissance continue de 1.500 c.v. a 300 t.p.m. Le r&ucteur-inverseur poss6de deux vitesses avant et une arriere. Les vitesses avant sont 154 tpjn. en route tibre et 1 13 t.p.m. en chalutage. Avec la marche arriere engagee, FheJice tourne a 88 t.p.m. L'helice a ailes fixes a un diametre de 10 pi. 1 1 pouces (3,33 m.). L'helice d'un chalutier doit satisfaire a des conditions de travail tres differentes: en chalutage d'une part, en faisant route d'autre part. En sebasamsurtes tables de la serieTrc<>8tB4-70,l^ (3,30 m.) de diam. et une helice a aifes fixes de 11 pi. 4 pouces (3,46 m.) de diam. et un pas de 11 pi. 4 pouces. Celt raontre qu'4 moms que le diametre de 1'Mlice soit strictement limite, il n*y a pas de raison hydro-dynamiquc valable pour preferer un type d*h61fee a 1'autrc.
ARRASTREROS MODERNOS DOTADOS DE REDUCTORES DE V ARIAS VELOCIDADES

1 Belgian Skipper, entregado en septimbre de 1953, fue* el primer arrastrero dotado de un redactor de varias velocidades. Desde entonces se nan construido o se construyen en Beigfca otros 15 equipados de manera analoga, casi todos ellos acckmados pot rootores diesel de 1.200 a 1.500 c.v. En Franda se han construdo 25 arrastreros analogos, pero menos potentes. El mat rerieate arrastrero construido en BcMgica, el Pierre, de 628 tons, brutas de registro, tiene las dimensiones prinqpales igukntes: Baton total, 192pkay 9pulg. (5$,Wm.); edormcntre perpei^ 10pulg.(9îTL);ycla<k>, 17pk5polg,(5,32m.). La bodega tiene una capaddad de 14.830 p* (420m).
Coa wttoaiBade
llaadomeoosde 1,400
9
un Diesel de 4 tempos, sobceaHde acopiamieato del motor. El motor principal <Je propulsion HeiigimiiajerediictordeinveniontieM marcha atras, la Las veloddades avante son de 154 r.p.m. n ruta libre y de 113 r.p.m. cuando pesca al amstre. Cuando se da heikgifma88r.p,aL La heto de palas njas tiene un diametro de 10 pies 1 pulg. (3^3 m.). La bttke de un arrastrero enoientra cxnidWoies nmy distiiitas
c.v.
288 torn.
dec*mbustâg^
el plato
mDttMo oonmmidimtato
palas njas
dell pin 4 pulg.
(3,46 nt)
de diam. yimpasode Ilpies4pulf. Demuestra que a menos que
el
diametro de to
litiioo
se ftnlte
[289]

first
CONSTRUCTION
THE
tion gear
trawler to be fitted with a multiple reducwas the Belgian Skipper, delivered in
September 1953 (Chardome, 1955). Since then, 12 trawlers fitted with similar gear have been built in Belgium and three more are now under construction. Within the same period about 25 trawlers of lower power
have been built in French shipyards. Table 75 gives particulars of the 15 Belgian trawlers. AH have a low prismatic coefficient and are designed to operate at maximum speed. The choice of a propeller to free running and trawling suit both working conditions therefore, a problem of primary importance.
gear teeth after a few months' service. These breakdowns, however, were not caused by the multiple-speed reduction gear; they were the result of inadequate surfacehardening during manufacture. To eliminate such break-
downs, the hardening process was modified, components of larger dimensions were used, and ultra-sonic control was introduced in the hardening shop. These measures have cured the weakness. The many repeat orders for trawlers with multiple reduction gear provide concrete evidence of the satisfactory performance of this system.
Latest development Fig. 244 shows the Pierre of Boulogne S/Mer, the latest and most modern trawler to be delivered. It has an overall length of 192 ft. 9 in. (58.80 m.), a length between perpendiculars of 170 ft. 10 in. (52.10 m.), a moulded
AnfHary 4tod for propatek*

The Belgian Skipper has proved to be a very successful ship from both the mechanical and fishing point of view.
Two targets were aimed at during its
design: Full use of the main engine developing a practically constant torque at all r.p.m., while driving a pro-
breadth of 30
(5.32 m.).
ft.
10
in.
(9.40 m.)
and a depth of 17
tests
ft.
5 in.
peller requiring different torques at different speeds
Model The
self-propulsion and
wave
were carried out
Use, white cruising, of the source of energy which drives the trawl winch on the fishing grounds. Development during the past five years has led to the abandonment of the second requirement. In the first M three trawlers of table 75, the "father and son propulsion system was used with the auxiliary engine driving the propeller shaft through an electric motor, but in all later vessels there is no connection between the main and the
in 1954 in the Paris tank.
winch diesel engines*
628 GT, and the capacity of the ft. (420 cu. m.). The fuel tanks hold 45,100 Imp. gal. (205 cu. m.) and the freshwater tanks 10,000 Imp. gal. (46 cu. m.). The main propulsion engine in fig. 245 is a four-stroke, supercharged diesel with a continuous output of 1,500 h.p. at 300 r.p.m. The reverse reduction gear in fig. 246 is the Suberkrub patent and has a 154 r.p.m. ahead speed
ship's
tonnage
is
insulated fish holds
is
14,830 cu.
An independent auxiliary engine for the winch drive can be any reliable high r.p.m. diesel, with a high degree of supercharging and costing comparatively less per h.p, than if this engine were also to be used for propulsion. Such dual-purpose use, of course, introduces complications.
for free running
and
speed is 88 r.p.m. diameter of 10 ft. 1 1
The
15 r.p.m. for trawling. The astern fixed-blade propeller has a
The power
in. (3.33 m.). diesel only drives a generator supplying auxiliary to the trawl winch electric motor through a Ward
Hie use of twin diesels has been considered too expensive when single diesels are available to give the required
propulsion output at sufficiently high r.p.m.
Breakdown of reduction gear It must be mentioned that three trawlers, namely No. 1, No. 2 and 4 of table 75, suffered from breakdowns of
Leonard coupling. This eight-cyl. engine is supercharged and has an output of 230 h.p. at 1,350 r.p.m. Use of a heavy flywheel, a Periflex type rubber coupling and a very accurate calculation of torsional vibrations enables the propulsion engine to run from 75 to 300 r.p.m. without entering a critical vibration field. A totally progressive thrust of the propeller is, therefore, ensured. Carrying a load of 288 ton of fuel, fresh water, ice and
f. 244.
TABLE 75
>
MULTIPLE REDUCTION GEARS
ptwcn of wiooi trawlers all frit three with the "father and
fishing gear, the Pierre

1
had a measured
trial
1
speed of
,400 h.p.
5 knots while developing somewhat less than at the engine coupling flange. See fig. 247.
The astern clutch is easily engaged, even at the highest speed, as the astern reduction ratio is higher than the free registering camera, used running reduction ratio.
Fig. 246.
Engine room and multiple reverse-reduction gear
during the trials showed that the ship, running at 1 5 knots, was stopped in 410 ft. (125 m.) after the astern clutch was engaged.
Efficiencies
The
propeller calculation for the Belgian Skipper
was
The author (Chardome, 1955) stated that diesel-electric drive means about 1 5 per cent, increased fuel consumption. This has been disputed by some but the author
considers that consumption
is,
in fact,
still
higher.
900 h.p. for the propeller, corresponding to 1,000 h.p. for the engine coupling flange. Some concluded that 10 per cent, loss of efficiency was the result of the multiple reduction gear, but that is not true. The 10 per cent, was due to a shaft-driven generator and a bad weather margin. The efficiency of a multiple-speed reverse reduction gear is higher than 97 per cent., as against less than 99 per cent, for the normal reduction gear incorporated in the dieselelectric drive.
The
difference is actually
some
1.5
per
cent.
Multiple reduction gear ntrollable-pitcfa propeller simplest way to explain the propulsion results of the Pierre is with a thrust speed diagram as shown in fig. 248. The thrusts, h.p., r.p.m. and efficiencies are based on open-water propeller tests carried out in the Paris tank. The speeds, in knots, were noted on the diagram, using the wake coefficient resulting from the self-propulsion also come from the selftests. The thrusts along
The
FG
propulsion tests. The relative rotative efficiency which is opposite to and has the same order of magnitude as the loss in the shaft line, has not been taken into consideration and the slight increase in r.p.m. which should result from the wake scale effect is also disregarded. Each point of the diagram represents approximately the output of the engine, the revolutions of the propeller and the resulting thrust The surface, AEFGK, is the field where the trawler could have worked if it had been fitted with a free-
running speed propeller only, taking for granted a normal lowest engine speed of about one-third of the nominal speed, i.e. about SO r.p.m. of the propeller.
Comtrtt board of the matoproftdstotntb*
The
surfaces,
ABDE
and
JKGH
(vertically
hatched)
FISHING BOATS 0F TH
WORID:
CONSTRUCTION
BD and DE win similarly limit of action* (b) Consider that part of line DF dose to F. If the ship is running free in bad weather, and if it is assumed that the weather conditions do not necessitate a reduction of the propulsion output, it is theoretically possible to adjust the pitch so as to obtain an additional speed of two-tenths of a knot. But such a pitch adjustment can only be made empirically, by trial and error, which will
revolution very dose to
its field
fty.
27.
Pierre at 15 knots on the measured
mik
result from using a trawling speed gear and a heavy flywheel The engine running steadily at 75 r.p.m. drives
the propeller at 28 r.p.m. through the trawling speed gear, instead of 50 r.p.m.
not guarantee the expected increase in speed. (c) Consider triangle JOH. Diesel engines are built which run steadily at 20 per cent, of the nominal r.p.m. This brings line JH down to line J* Hi. If still lower propeller revolutions were necessary, the output of the auxiliary diesel could be transmitted to the reduction gear quite simply through an electric motor connected by clutch to the free end of a convenient intermediate shaft in the gear. But as fishing companies do not seem interested in such a device, its usefulness seems only to be
relative.
It has been fully realized during recent years that the propeller of a trawler needs to be adapted to suit the contrasting working conditions of trawling and free is the difference between propeller adjustment through speed change in the reduction gear, and propeller adjustment through pitch change in the propeller itself. The standard series diagrams do not afford a composite view of the problem, but the author has tried to fill out the picture in fig. 249, 250 and 251, based on charts of the Troost B4-70 series. These give
at
pawling of diagram) three additional working fields would have appeared (cross-hatched on the diagram): triangles BCD, DBF and OJH. These fields represent
(Point
If a ccmtrollaMe-pitch propeller had been fitted to give, speed, the same thrust as that of the Pierre
the following theoretical advantages for a trawler: (a) Consider triangle BCD. ship fitted with a concannot while troliable-pitch propeller trawling adjust the pitch for the passage of each wave along the ship. The
running. point less clear
propeller must work at a certain pre-set position which renders it equivalent to a fixed-blade propeller. If this
position corresponds to point D, lines of torque
and
the thrusts as a function of propeller np.m., with diameters ranging from 9 ft. 10 in. to 11 ft 10 in. (3.0 to 3.6 m.) and pitch ratios ranging from 0.6 to 1.2. The
x-axis gives the r.p.m., the y-axi$ the thrusts, and the intersection of both perpendiculars the pitch ratio and
MULTIPLE REDUCTION GEARS

jfcgL
1000 BHP
the diameter.
Fig. 249 has been prepared for a propeller absorbing ,400 h.p., with the water entering the propeller at speeds of 4.92 ft./sec. (1.5 m./sec.) f corresponding to trawling, and 21.3 ft/sec. (6.5 m./scc.), corresponding to free1
running.
00160
Fig.
120
HO
*0
200' 220
MO
250.
Comparison between controllable-pitch and multiple reduction gear propellers at 1,000 h.p.
600 BHP
ife
2*000.
.
iipoo
BO
Fig.
00
MO
HO
MO
200
220
MO
6poo.
249.
Comparison between controllable-pitch and multiple reduction gear propellers at 1,400 h.p.
is
V-IC73
for 1,000 h.p. at the propeller, 4.92 ft./sec. (1.5 rn./sec.) water speed when trawling, and 19.36 ft./sec.
Fig.
250
1*724
ft/itc.
OP07
I2JOOO.
CBJOfcyftte)
when free-running. for 600 h.p. at the propeller, 4.92 ft./sec. Rg. (1.5 ra./sec.) water speed when trawling, and 16.73 ft./sec.
(5.9 nu/sec.) water speed
251
is
iqpoo-
water speed when free-nanning. The following comments are made about these charts (1) Hie author has assumed that a controllable-pitch propeller, adjusted to a given pitch, has the same efficiency as a fixed-Wade propeller directly devised for that pitch. This assumption might be too favourable to the controllable-pitch propeller, because both the size of the boss, and tto disturbed pitch distribution, when a blade leaves its original positi<Mi, cause loss of efficiency. This
(5.1 m./sec.)
:
4POO
spoo.
3,000
6pOO
2pOO
ipoo
8
00
wo
no
100
100
too
rmtlttpk
disturbance in pitch distribution becomes very pernicious
Fig.
251.
Compart** between
controllable-pitch
and
reduction gear propellers at 600 h*p.
[293]

TA1LE76
~ CONSTRUCTION
A
(2) A controllable-pitch propeller of diameter D has been compared with a fixed-Made propeller of diam. 1.05 D, so as to get the same thrust at trawling speed*
Tkrust
r.pjn.
and B represent the controllable-pitch trawling and when running free; points C and represent the fixed-blade propeller in the corresponding conditions.
(3) Points
propeller
when
Tntwfcngtt
MOO
1,000
39,680 51,171
600
1,400
213*0
24,900 19,687 13,724
1400
600
18J&GO 14*230 9,925 11,250 8.930 6,225
106
97.5
Table 76 provides a comparison between a controllablepitch propeller of, say, 10 ft. 10 in. (3.3 m.) diam., absorbing 1,400 h.p. at the optimum revolutions for the trawling thrust, i.e. 133.5 r.p.m., with a fixed-blade
propeller of
1 1
83
141
128
110.5
ft.
in. (3.45
m.) diam. and
ft.
in.
would be equally simple. Cavitation checks should, of course, be made before considering a solution as definitely valid. Unless the propeller diameter is strictly limited, there seems to be no valid hydrodynamic reason why there
must be a choice between a fixed-blade propeller with multiple reduction gear and a controllable-pitch pro-
(3.45 m.) pitch. Any similar comparison
The pitch of a controllable-pitch propeller is reduced by from 20 to 25 per cent, between free-running and trawling. Within these limits, the loss of efficiency should be low and can be assumed to be not more than a small percentage for well-designed proastern.
pellers.
when running
well-designed trawler using either type of prohave similar cruising and trawling qualities. Apart from performance, there are other factors which influence owners in their choice of a propeller. These are
peller.
peller will
simplified drive control. Owners' reports of both systems are therefore invited.
the purchase price, maintenance costs, reliability, and on the working
(294]
DEVICE FOR RAISING AND LOWERING PROPELLERS

by
KEIGO INAMURA
tail
and
MOTOJIRO NINOMIYA
end of the
Small, conventional Japanese fjshin* boats, when motorized, are fitted with a device for raising and lowering the propeller and shaft. This facilitates their sate landing on beaches. The device is simple but its mechanism involves many problems yet to-
be solved.
UN
D1SPOS1T1F
POUR RELEVER ET ABAISSER LES HELICES
Quand ils sont motorists, les petits bateaux de peche courants sont munis d'un dispositif pour relever et abaisser I'Mlice et Ptrbre porte~hlice. Cela facilite leur 6chouement sur les plages. Le dispositif est simple mais son m6canisme cree de nombreux probtemcs qnl sont encore a resoudre.
DISPOS1TIVO PARA
LEVANTAR Y BAJAR LAS HELICES
Cuando se motorizan los pesqueros pequeftos corrientes, cuentan con un dispositive para levantar la h61ice y el extreme exterior del 6rbol. Esto facilita sus varadas en las playas. El dispositivo es scncillo, pero su mecanismo presenta muchos probtemas que todavfia no se han resuclto,
THERE some
are about 403,000 fishing craft working the inland and coastal waters of Japan, and of these
Structure and materials
The
general arrangement of a
wooden pole and
line
157,000 are powered, 130,000 being boats of
less than 5 GT, mostly built in typical Japanese style. They are engaged in pole and line fishing, longlining, shellfish and aquatic plant collecting, seine fishing, etc. Many work along the stretches of the coast where there are no suitable harbours so they must anchor in shallow water or be hauled on a beach. Their propellers, therefore, must be protected from damage, and this has led to the development of a device for raising and lowering
fishing boat of about 23 ft. (7 m.) length overall is shown in fig. 252. The main engine is a 6-h.p. diesel. Fig. 255 shows the details of the raising and lowering device used
for diesels of 5 to
and a
(a)
20 h.p. It consists of a universal joint vertical sliding assembly supporting a hanging
bearing.
Universal joint.
The
propeller shaft
is
in
two parts
propellers.
As the propulsive efficiency of a propeller in a small craft is generally best at the greatest possible depth from the water surface, silch boats usually have their propellers
connected by a universal joint. The aft part of the shaft is movable up and down, its fulcrum being the centre of the universal joint spider. Fig. 254 shows a universal joint with key and set screw.
(b) Sliding assembly.
The
sliding assembly is
axially in
shown
in
fig.
253 and 255.

is
It consists
of the tubular sliding
below the keel

device
is
line, despite
some damage
risks.
component which
free to
move
vertically
especially useful when: (1) Approaching shallow waters. After bringing the engine to a stop and raising the propeller, the boat is
The
steered by hand. If the depth of water is sufficient, the propeller can be raised slightly to enable the boat to run
at
supported guide. The lower part of the sliding tube is connected to the hanging bearing housing. By moving the sliding tube, up or down, the propeller is raised or lowered, and the propeller can be fixed in any
selected position. The hanging bearing housing is secured to the sliding tube by a cross pin as shown in fig. 257. One of three methods to raise and lower the propeller can be used:
slow speed.
(2) Landing and beaching. Small boats are usually launched or hauled ashore by man power or winch and the device can be used to raise both propeller and shaft. (3) Mooring in rivers or where the water level may be affected by an ebb tide or the bottom of the boat may touch the ground. The device can be used to raise and
By sliding tube with hinge as shown in fig. 255 By a sliding tube without hinge as shown in fig.
With a screw as shown in
fig.
253-
256
secure the propeller
and
shaft.
The third method is \wcdfor propeller shafts of engines of

(295]
CONSTRUCTION
Ffg. 252. General arrangement
of Japanese wooden pole and

overall
line fishing
boat of about 23 ft. (7 m.) length
30 to 60 h.p. Either of the first two methods is suitable for lighter engines. (c) Hanging bearing. The hanging bearing supports, raises and towers the propeller shaft and through it the movement being propeller, the smooth up or down provided by the sliding member.
shaft should, preferably, be less than 8

line.
to the ship's base
(b)
peller
The propeller. The distance between and the hanging bearing should be as
the proshort as
Fig. 254.
Details universal Joint
of
will vibrate possible. If it is too long, the propeller will be and necessary. repairs frequent excessively
universal joint. This should be as dose as the outer end of the stern tube to facilitate to possible If it is not so placed, it will protrude downwork. repair ward and be liable to damage.
(c)
The
Fig. 253.
Details
of device for
raising propeller
breakdown of the device may seriously affect the operation of the boat, so it is imperative that it be constructed of strong, good quality and non-corroding materials. Table 77 lists the materials now being used for the
device.
When installing the device, special attention should be paid to the location of main components: (a) The hanging bearing. The hanging bearing should be co-axial with the propefler shaft when there is no angularity in the universal joint. The location of the main engine should be determined by convenience of operation* The angle of indiaation of the propeller
Fig. 255.
Hand
type of stato*
m**n*ly
(4)
RAISING PROPELLERS
The
otherwise
its
vertical guide. Put this as low as possible, free movement will be restricted, the pro-
peller shaft will
be inadequately supported and
will
tube, the correct inclination of the engine bed, the location and length of the sliding tube, and the length of the shaft can then be decided. The centre of the engine and
vibrate excessively.
other integral parts should then be firmly fixed.
Problems to be solved
Even though the device
is
very effective, there are
many
structural problems to be solved.
Among them
are:
Wear or breakage of the universal joint pin. The pin of the universal joint transmits both the torque from the engine to the propeller, and the thrust from the propeller to the engine and hull. Any malalignment of the shaft or any wear on the bearing
a slight gap around the pin, which often causes it to wear. Special attention, therefore, should be paid to this
creates
Fig. 256.
Screw type of
sliding
assembly
The
wise
and
propeller shaft should be properly aligned, othermay adversely affect the clutch and the bearings lead to breakdowns. The propeller shaft is positioned
it
as follows:
hole in the aft bulkhead for the proa string along the line on which the axes of the crankshaft, the propeller shaft tube and the hanging bearing will lie. Using the stretched string as the datum line, the arrangement of the shaft
First, drill the
peller shaft tube, then stretch
Fig.
257.
Details of hanging bearing
TABLE 77
In pPOp6ftef
UTftR^CBMBl
Material
Decreased efficiency of the propeller. As the stern of boats on which the device is installed is squarish, turbulence is apt to occur over the propeller. This has the effect of reducing the efficiency of the
propeller
bar
Item
Propeller ihaft Propeller Propeller set nut
High
tensile brass
Brass casting Brass bar Brass casting
etkey
Stern
tube bearing Universal joint coupling

.
Wear of the hanging bearing. The low position of the hanging bearing makes it difficult to keep it free from sand and other solid matter stirred up by
the propeller, and this causes wear. The bearing lining should, therefore, be made of lignum vitae,
Lignum vitae or white metal Aluminium bronze casting
Universal spider Universal boh and nut Hanging bearing housing Hanging bolt . bearing Sliding tube
.
Arms bronzo
Brass casting Brass bar
which is much tougher than white metal White metal bearings must be renewed at least once a year.
Conclusion The device is not only of use for boats which have to be beached but also for those which anchor or fish in shallow waters. It is being widely used on such boats, but the
device needs to be improved.
Lignum
joint
vitae or white metal Seamless brass tube Brass bar
Brass casting
Handle
,.
bar
l7J
VIBRATION IN TRAWLERS
by
H.
LACKENBY
(BSRA) so
far as trawlers
The paper
reviews the vibration research carried out at the British Shipbuilding Research Association
Experience has shown that trawlers have not been troubled with vibration problems to the same extent as other classes of sea* going ships, but with the present trend for higher speeds and powers, the matter is now assuming increasing importance. For this reason hat been giving more attention recently to the vibration characteristics of trawlers. One of die main problems is to avoid resonant conditions, that is, to ensure that the natural frequencies of the hull do not coincide with those of pulsating forces emanating from the propelling machinery and usually related in some way to the r.p.m. The first requirement is therefore to determine in the design stages these natural hull frequencies, but experience shows that, from first principles, this is a very tedious matter and sometimes quite impracticable. Moreover, the detailed information required is not generally available. Efforts have therefore been made to improve and simplify methods of estimating critical frequencies and at the same time to relate the .amplitudes to the exciting forces. This is being effected by determining experimentally the natural frequencies for a range of ship sizes and then correlating these in terms of simple parameters involving only factors known in the design stages. At first, measurements were made during trials using the propelling machinery as the means ofexcitation. This work has now been supplemented by controlled tests using * vibration exciter specially designed for the purpose, which enables more comprehensive data to be obtained. Some typical results are presented and an indication given of the manner in which they are being correlated.
BSRA
UBS VIBRATIONS A
La communication
concerne
les chaluticrs.
BORD DES CHALUTIERS

(BSRA) en
ce qui
passe en revue
les
progres des recherches de la British Shipbuilding Research Association
L'experence scmbJc montrer qu'cn ce qui concerne les problemes de vibrations, les chalutiers n'ont pas d'ennuis de la mdmc importance que fes autrcs classes de navires de mer, mais avec la tendance actuelle, qui est d'avoir des vitesses et des puissances plus 4tev6es, oettc question prend maintenant une importance croissante. C'est pourquoi I'Association a, ces derniers temps, port plus d'attention
vibrations des chalutiers. des problemes principaux est d'eVker les conditions de resonance, c'est-a-dire de s'assurer que les frequences naturelles de la coque ne coincident pas avec celles des forces pobees provenant de la machineric de propulsion et qui sont g6nralement en relation d'une facon queloonque avec la vitesse de involution. La premiere neccssite est done de determiner, aux stades de I'&ablissement des plans, ces frequences naturelks de la coque, mais I'exptrience a montre que, d'apres les premiers principes, c'est un probleme tres fastidieux et parfois impossible i resoudre. En outre, on ne dispose generalement pas des renseignements detailles dont on a besoin, On s'est done efforcc d'amtiiorer et de simplifier les methodes d'estimation des frequences critiques et, en mime temps, de mcttre -en relation les amplitudes et les forces d'exdtatkm. Pour cela, on determine experimentalement les frequences naturelles pour une gamme de dimensions de navires et ensuite on tos met en correlation entermesde parametres simples comprenant settlement les facteurs connus aux stades de I'ttablisseraent des plans. On a d'abord fah des mesures pendant les essais en utilisant la machinerie de propulsion comme moyen 6 complete par des essais controles a 1'aide d*un excitateur de vibrations concu specialement dans d*exdtation. Ce travail a maintenant ce but, qui permet d'obceitir des donnees phis complete*. La communication presente quelques resultats caracttristiques et donne une indication sur la facon seton laquelte its sont mis en correlation.
aux caract&fetiques des
Un
LAS VIBRACIONES A BORDO DE LOS ARRASTREROS

*
ReseAa lapocncia
los adelantos logrados
en
las investigaciones
reaUzadas DOT
la British
Shipbuilding Research Association
(BSRA)
La experiencia demuestra que los arrattreros no ban tenido probkmas de vibradones en el mismo grado que otras classes de barcos de aavegadon de altura, pcro debido a la actual tendenda a darles mas vetatidad y potencia, este as un asunto que adquiere cada vez mayor importanda. Debido a elk), la Association ha prestado ultimamente mas atenci6n a las caficteristfeas de las vibradones de los arrastreros.
Uno de to
principaies probtemas conaiste en evitar condickmes de resonanda. es dscir, Jograr
que
las
frecuendas natutmies del

<
BO coinckian eon las fete fuerzas pulsantes que emanan de la maquinaria propulsoni y que en 0enieral guaidan una derta reladon coo ta r.p.m. For k> tanto. Is primera coiKlidon es detcrminar mientras se proyecta ei barco cuales son las freoiendas naturales del peto to eKperienda demuct<>4isde el primer momcnto que e^ta es una tarea may larga y algunas veoes hnpoilbk. .__
asco
A causa de ello se ha tratado de meiorar y iimpHflcar los

y rehckmfodolas
entre si
mamplitodes^
distintos
E*tosek)gradetcnirinandoexpeiiaieiitalmerite mediante partoetros sendllos en tos que soJo se
kMdiicii^
se
ha cocnpkmemado
cmmyot regukdos en los que se eoipk* un generador de vibradones coostruido

i
oompletos.
En
la
ponencia se dan algunos resuhados tfpkos tip! y se indica la
f2W]
*
VIBRATION
the lowest natural
is
in so far as the vibration of trawlers are concerned Hits ha* involved systematic measurements of vibration on ships and their correlation in terms of simple parameters with the object of simplifying the estimation of
critical frequencies and vibration amplitudes in the design stage. Excessive vibration in ships can be very troublesome, mostly from the point of view of the comfort of the people on board, but it may also give rise to difficulties in the operation of instruments and gear. The stresses induced in the structure by main hull vibration are generally not significant, but severe local vibration can actually lead to failuit of components. As far as trawlers are concerned, experience seems to show that, in general, they have not been troubled with vibration problems to the same extent as other larger classes of sea-going ships, but with the present trend for higher speeds, powers and r.p.m., the matter is now assuming increasing importance. For this reason BSR A has been giving more attention recently to the vibration characteristics of
I JL
| 1HIS paper reviews the research progress of the British Shipbuilding Research Association (BSR A)
tance.
The mode of vibration having
frequency
generally the two-node vertical
The nature of exdtatkm The pulsating forces causing vibration generally arise from the main propelling machinery and the propeller or a combination of both and sometimes also from
auxiliaries.
forces
In reciprocating engines, there can be unbalanced and couples occurring at a frequency *qtial to the r.p.m. and there are also secondary forces, generally of smaller magnitude, occurring at even multiples of the
Torque reaction can also give rise to transverse on the engine at a frequency equal to that of the combined working strokes in all cylinders. For a single
r.p.m. forces
NOOC
trawlers.
2 -MOOt MOOt VtftTtCAL O*
Of course,
research is is not possible, then to reduce it to acceptable proportions. There are several factors involved in this:
the principal object underlying all vibration to try to avoid vibration altogether and, if this
NODE
HORIZONTAL PLAMtS
NOOC
3 -NODE
MODE
natural frequencies of vibration of the hull and its response to excitation The frequencies and magnitude of the exciting forces, or couples, which are generally related in some way to the r.p.m. of the propelling machinery
girder
The
VERTICAL OA HORIZONTAL
PLANCi
I-
NOOC
TOASIOMAL
The
criteria for acceptable limits
of vibration
As is well known, when there is coincidence between an exciting frequency and a natural frequency of the hull, a "resonant" or "critical" condition arises and serious vibration may result. This is characterized by a rapid build-up of vibration amplitude much in excess of the deflection which would arise from the same force
applied statically. The designer's problem is therefore to try and avoid such "resonant" or "critical" conditions especially in the neighbourhood of the service speed.
Fig. 258.
2-NOOC TOAStOMAl
Typical modes of hull vibration
acting two-stroke engine this amounts simply to the product of the r.p.m. and the number of cylinders.
The modes of vibration

Unfortunately the hull girder can vibrate in a variety of modes or patterns and some of the more common are
The
propeller can produce excitation in
a number of
shown diagrammatically
associated with
its
in
fig.
258.
Each mode
is
ways. If it is not properly balanced either statically or dynamically, "first order" forces are produced, that is those occurring at a frequency equal to the r.p.m. Such
forces will also arise
"natural frequency" and this becomes progressively higher the more complex the pattern, that is, the greater the number of nodes. For
own
the geometry of each blade
from hydrodynamic unbalance whore is not identical. la most
modern
both vertical and horizontal, 9 the simplest or "fundamental' mode is that corresponding to two nodal positions and has the lowest frequency. For torsional vibration the fundamental mode has only one nodal position as shown. Strictly speaking, there are an infinite number of modes of vibration but in ship work the fundamental and one or two of the higher modes immediately adjacent to it are generally of most imporlateral vibration including
propellers, however, such first order forces are generally quite small and cause little trouble, Of greater importance are forces excited by the propeller at "blade frequency", that is, the product of
r.p.m,
and number of blades. These can take two forms:
Surface forces on the hull due to the pressure field surrounding each blade as it passes in the vicinity Reactions at the stern bearing due to wake variations over the screw disc
CONSTRUCTION
excitation.
The practice was to run slowly throuî a ranee of revolutions and then record the vibration amplitudes in the neighbourhood of the critical frequencies as they were encountered. Some typical records from *uch a trial are shown in fig. 259* This shows for the two-node
vertical and two-node horizontal modes the amplitudefrequency relationship corresponding to measurements made on the forecastle. The former was excited at
116} r.p.m. by secondary engine forces and the latter at 88} r.p.m. by blade frequency forces. The service r.p.m. was in the region of 120.
it is not always possible to obtain defined clearly frequencies in the above manner using "natural" excitation and to obtain really comprehensive data it is better to carry out controlled tests using a vibration exciter designed for the purpose. Such a machine has now been built to BSRA design especially for use on
For various reasons
small ships such as trawlers. This exciter has been described by Livingstone Smith (1959), but it will be
of interest to mention that it is capable of exciting pulsating forces in any chosen direction up to a frequency 3 tons. of 600 per min. and with a maximum rating of These forces are generated by rotating masses and
control
Typical result* from full-scale tests using engine and propeller excitation
is
exercised by adjusting their eccentricity
and
These are primarily affected by

the after
hull-tip clearance
and
body
lines respectively.
speed of rotation. The unit is self-contained, electrically driven and power is supplied by its own diesel generator. The earlier work has recently been supplemented by controlled exciter tests on a series of three trawlers of different sizes and the response of the hulls has been accurately determined over a wide range of frequencies.
As far as trawlers are concerned, experience shows that the most significant forms of excitation are: engine
primary and secondary unbalance and "Made-frequency" impulses, that is, frequencies corresponding to engine r.p.m., twice engine r.p.m. and the product of propeller r.p.m. and number of blades respectively. It win be apparent from the above that there are quite a number of combinations of excitation and natural hull frequencies which could bring about resonant conditions. In the circumstances the designer and research worker are faced with two main problems. The first is to be able to determine readily the relevant
hull frequencies in the design stage
when decisions are as to choice of machinery, propeller r.p.m. and number of blades. The second is to ascertain whether the forces coming from the different sources are likely to excite vibration of serious magnitude.
being
made
a-MOOf
VtftTICAL
47 CYCtCt NL* MINUTI
tof ribnrioa
have therefore been made by BSRA to improve and simplify methods of estimating ship vibration freEfforts
quencies and to relate the amplitudes to the exciting In this connection it was very desirable to have comprehensive data for a range of ship sizes and, with the willing and active co-operation of trawler builders and owned in the U.K., measurements have now been made
forces.
on a number of ships
trials
<At fitst* 'jBMDaMUPCJiMBiits
unng
jfafr
were made during acopfltmioe propelling machinery as the means of
- CVCUM
Fig. 260.
'ft* MfttlTf
13001
Some
sited
VIBRATION
on the
typical results from such a test with the exciter forecastle are shown in fig. 260. It will be
seen that the complete vibration profiles as well as the
response curves at a particular position have been obtained. The vibration profile, of course, identifies the mode beyond any doubt and what is more, the exciting forces are now accurately known and can be related to the amplitudes produced. It will be noted
that the "tuning" is very much sharper in the case of the fundamental than the higher mode. This attenuation of
the response in the higher modes is characteristic and is explained by relatively greater damping. In the early days vibration amplitudes were measured by simple seismic instruments, but latterly the work has been extended and facilitated by the use of electrical pick-ups in conjunction with multi-channel recorders. Table 78 gives details of critical frequencies measured
on trawlers by BSRA together with the ship dimensions and displacements. This refers to vibration stimulated
artificially
by the
exciter as well as
by "natural" means.
Estimation of vibration frequencies Reasonable estimates of natural frequencies for the fundamental modes can, of course, be made from first prin-
knowing the detailed mass distribution along the and the inertia of the sections. It is a tedious process, however, and the information required is not
ciples
length
generally available in the design stage. Moreover, the estimation of the higher modes by such means is extremely
difficult
Fig. 261.
Estimate of two-node vertical frequency
and normally
are
impracticable.
To overcome
these
being made to correlate the actual experimental data for a range of ships in terms of simple parameters involving factors known in the design stage. For example, fig. 261 shows such a correlation for
difficulties, efforts
now
the two-node vertical mode. Here the critical frequencies given in table 78 have been plotted against a simple parameter of the type used by Todd and Marwood
(1947-8), viz.:
I
where
== inertia
A'. (LBP)'
of section in way
fish
of the
room,
in'.ft.
1
.
LBP~length between perpendiculars in

ft.
A',=displacemcnt in tons augmented for entrained

water
It will
effect*.
measure of correlation has been achieved covering a range of ship sizes. It is to be underlined, however, that this applies particularly to ships of the general type shown in fig. 259 and 260, where the superstructure extends from about amidships to the after end. The scatter might well be explained by slight variations in the superstructure from ship to
be seen that a
fair
Jofcaon and Aytiag

ffood
',-*
entrained water effect are given by ithe 957), for example that due to Todd and
viz.:
ship which have not been taken into account. It is intended to refine this approach if possible and to develop similar relationships for the higher modes. In this way it is hoped to provide trawler designers with information which will enable them to make rapid estimates in the early stages of the more important hull critical* with a reasonable degree of accuracy. At the same time, attention is being given to the development of force-amplitude relationships so that the intensity of vibration can be readily estimated from a knowledge of the exciting forces. This is an important aspect when resonance or near resonance cannot be avoided. This applies particularly to high frequency excitation such as propeller blade impulses where the higher modes are likely to be involved. In this region the criticals are more closely spaced in the frequency spectrum. This, coupled with variations due to changes in loading, makes them difficult to avoid. Even if it is possible to keep clear, the improvement may not be significant due to the flattening of the response curvet referred to earlier. 1$ other words, the ship response at high frequency tends to be an irregular wide band without very sharp peaks. In these circumstances, the only thing to do is to remove or reduce the source of excitation. For propeller blade impulses, this would probably mean increasing the hull-tip clearance and obtaining a more uniform inflow to the propeller. comprehensive pro*
A (U-flpn, whew B and T are the beam and draught
nspictivftly.
gramme of work on taken by BSRA.
these aspects
is
now
being under-
(301]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORU3:

TAMJTB
-CONSTRUCTION
It is
perhaps appropriate to conclude
this
paper with
a general comment which was touched on at the beginning. Reference to table 78 will show that the range of
the lowest hull critical frequency, i.e. the two-node vertical, is from about 230 to 400 cycles per minute which, until recently, was generally well above the r.p.m. of the
carefully watched. In this connection it is understood that the operating r.p.m. of certain direct-coupled diesels
modern trawlers is already within the range of frequencies referred to above. Careful consideration will also have to be given to propeller hull-tip clearances. Those which proved satisfactory in the past
fitted in
critical
propelling machinery. In other larger classes of seagoing ships the corresponding critical frequency is much
may no
longer be adequate.
lower and often of the same order as that of the r.p.m. This doubtless explains why hitherto, trawlers have not been subject to vibration troubles to the same extent as other classes of ship. With the trend for higher speeds, powers and r.p.m., however, the position will have to be
Acknowledgments
The author
the
is indebted to the Council and Director of Research of for permission to publish this paper and wishes to express his thanks to members of BSRA staff for help in its prepara-
BSRA
tion.
[302]
DISCUSSION
ENGINE DESIGN IN GENERAL

SIR FRED PARKES (U.K.): At the Paris Congress in 1953 he stressed the necessity for reliable engines. They must stand up to the hard work and be reliable. He felt very happy to say that diesel engines are now as reliable as the old steam engines used to be.
MR. A. HUNTER (U.K.): On the paper by Hopwood and Mewse he wondered after how many hours they renewed the roller bearings on the turbo-charger and if any further developments had been made towards extending the life of solid bearings. Hopwood and Mewse referred to the advantages of making-good cylinder liners after they had been worn. He asked whether it would not be better to have them chromeplated to begin with, and if it would not be cheaper also.
MR. M. AKASAKA (Japan): With only a few exceptions, the engines mentioned in Stokke's paper are low and medium speed: why are high-speed engines not used in European trawlers? In the paper by Hopwood and Mewse a diesel engine of 252 h.p. is used for a 101 generator. Is not the engine power too high for the generator? Again, with regard to this paper, superchargers were once used in Japan for 500 to 1,800 h.p. engines in fishing vessels, but after two years, or about 10,000 hr. of running, the cooling water side of the supercharger became corroded. Seawater was used for cooling to save engine room space because of difficulties in supplying freshwater. What is the practice in European countries?
kW
Hopwood and Mewse

independent auxiliaries.
referred to the tendency to have He had often wondered if that was
trawler like the Gerpir the
quite right for a trawler. It meant more work for the engineer, who might have to obey several commands at one time. He had with independent pumps to throttle down to the speeding conditions of the engine, whereas there might be some more safeguard if the auxiliaries were geared to the engine speed.
In a typical Icelandic is not reversible, but is connected through an hydraulic coupling to a gear, driving a fixed-pitch propeller. The trawl winch generator is connected through an hydraulic coupling at the forward end of the main engine. This engine arrangement is preferred up to now and is what their British colleagues have so nicely named the "Christmas tree", because almost everything is hung on
(Iceland):
MR. H. R. BARDARSON
main engine
There was also the remote possibility that the electrics might fail at a critical time during the vessel's voyage. It seemed that the propeller efficiency given in the diagrams
was rather high
for the revolutions of the diesel vessel.
main engine. There is no Icelandic trawler using the "father and son*' system. trawler, Kirkholrmn, Regarding the Norwegian 100 he wondered if Stokke could possibly give the horsepower available on the hydraulic winch drive; also the wire holding
to the
GT
MR. W. A. GREENHILL (U.K.): It was generally agreed that steam was out and diesel coming in, with a two-stroke engine for the mid and deep water trawling, and the medium speed
four-stroke engine for the inshore trawling. In his company, where they had specialized on four-stroke engines, it was found most satisfactory to cast iron liners centrifugally, and to chrome harden the top compression
ring. This was found most satisfactory from both the economic and wear points of view. On an engine brought into the market in 1959 with this arrangement, the liner wear was less
capacity of the drums on the trawl winch and the pulling power with half-filled drums and the corresponding hauling speed. This would enable the hydraulic winch to be compared with the electrical winch. In Iceland, for a 300 vessel like this, 700 to 800
GT
BHP
would be required, together with a 140 trawl windi drive.
h.p. engine for the
that 1/1,000
Mewse was the number of auxiliaries required. Apart from the main engine there was one unit driving the winch and two general service,
One
in. for 1,500 hours' run. point in the paper by Hopwood and
There were many things that could be said about trawler engine arrangements but from the Icelandic point of view it could briefly be said that diesel engines are preferred; controllable-pitch propellers are of very great interest, as gear boxes could then be omitted.
powered, auxiliary units. He thought it might be better to have just one main unit and one larger auxiliary set for the other drives. As regards turbo-chargers, they would come into both
dieael
MR. S. TAKAHASHI (Japan): The chrome-plated liner was wen known in Japan ancl it would be appreciated if Hopwood or Mewse could give some information about the capacity of
the generator used for the chrome-plating.
two*
*d four-stroke engines.
As infante controllable-pitch propellers which have shown many advantages, it must be borne in mind that these were
very expensive pieces of equipment and expensive in main*
terest in
MR. HANS VBSTRB Hum (Norway): He had met a certain inGermany for converting oW steam trawlers to dwid
wider circle might want to take advantage of propulsion. the experience gained in this respect in Norway where the main part of the steam trawlers are converted to diesel drive
(303J

As mentioned in Stokke's paper, the diesei trawlers always have cootroOahfe-pitch propellers and hydraulic pump* for the trawl winch driven off the front end of the main engine. The same arrangement is done for all the converted trawlers as well, but la these cases the old steam trawl winches have been converted to hydraulic drive with very low expense, as a special drive arrangement has been developed which permits negligible alterations oa the mechanical parts of the old steam trawl winch. As conversion of a steam trawler to diesei propulsion is quite an expensive job, this saving on the winch side is quite
important, according to their customers* information.
CONSTRUCTION
atuating the difficulty, and his company have completely solved this problem by a combination of rubber flexible coupling combined with viscous damping.
MR. F. H. TODD (U.K.): With reference to the paper by Hopwood and Mewse, he expressed fear as regards the
conversion to oil from the national point of view, since in war the U.K. depended on the fishing fleet for much of its food. He also pointed out that it was unfair to make comparison with the class of steam trawler chosen in this paper, which dates from 1917. The reason for this was that in 1934 tests were carried out on the Castle class trawler, with which
(U.K.): He endorsed Hopwood's recommendation for the use of detergent lubricating oils, but the frequency of top overhauls and maintenance appears to be excessive. Hunter and Oreenhill commented on the use of chromed liners or alternatively a chrome-plated top ring. Hopwood mentioned in his opinion only too briefly the effect of cold running engines, and he felt that far too little attention is given by operators to the benefits of running a
MR.
E.
I.
FUNDT
engine at a high operative temperature. The diesei is, of course, a heat engine and today there are a number of weQ tried and reliable automatic temperature controls which are worth while fitting, and so relieving the engineer from manual control of the engine temperature, which would have to be done frequently in trawlers where there is a continual load fluctuation. It is particularly noticeable that engineers used to steam machinery, going over to diesei engine operation, are reluctant to maintain the high temperatures necessary for optimum
diesei
compared, and it was found that by improving and machinery, the fuel consumption could be cut by as much as 60 per cent. Propellers must also be of the same quality when comparison is made between different hulls. This is, however, not the case here, as a modern design of manganese bronze propeller was used with the diesei and an old-type cast iron one with the steam powered vessel. To get a proper comparison, a modern steam trawler should be compared with a modern diesei trawler, and it would be of great interest if some builder would give this
the diesei
is
hull form, propeller
engine
information.
MR. DWIGHT S. SIMPSON (U.S.A.): It is interesting to read such a paper as Hopwood's, especially in the U.S.A. where the first diesei trawler was built in 1918; the first and only diesel-electric in 1919 and the last steam trawler departed in
1937.
results.
His company, which for over 20 years have used chrome hardened liners, have how adopted centrifugally cast iron liners, and use a chromium-plated fire ring to each piston. Service results measured accurately in the same engine over an extensive period show that the average maximum wear on die plated liner was 0.0002 in. per 1,000 hr. compared with an average of 0.00015 in. per 1,000 hr. for the plain cast iron liner. These figures were taken over a period of 40,000 hr.
f
The discussion concerns type and manufacture of diesels; the kind and quality of service available at the vessel's home port, and the high speed versus low speed engines. More and more owners are going in for high speed engines up to 1200 r.p.m. in 600 to 800 h.p. and to 1800 r.p.m. in 200 to 300 h.p. units. All diesels have had closed circuit freshwater
jacket cooling since about 1936. These engines have proved their reliability; both first cost, installation costs and main-
for the plated liner, followed by 22,000 hr. for the plain liner with the chromed ring. The maximum wear occurred at the turning point at the top piston ring on the thrust side of each liner. With both types of surface, the wear on the remainder of the liner was negligible, an average at the bottom in the line of thrust being 0.00005 in. per 1,000 hr.
It may be interesting to know that throughout this long period, the big end bearings were never replaced or remetalled, and the main bearings were not changed. Hopwood also commented on the benefits of fitting a light-
tenance are low and the saving in engine room length and weight can be put into more cargo, greater cruising range, more speed or a little of each. The high speed, non-reversing engine is also receptive of easy wheel house control. Multiple-speed gears have been
much
discussed
and are
finally
on order. About the same
applies to the controllable-pitch propeller. In New England and the Canadian Maritime Provinces he thought only three have been installed so far. Eleven vessels now in the design
stage will all have them. In the smaller vessels winches are driven
from the main
lew engine. The larger ships have diesel-electric drive. recent installations have direct separate engine drives through
fluid couplings.
weight spindle in the nozzle body holder. It is surprising to learn that injector seating wear occurred in an engine operaing at 230 r.p.m. maximum, but he could endorse the benefits
Most of those
in the design stage will
have
hydraulic drive.
which have been derived from reducing the inertia forces from these spindles, particularly when engine speeds increase* Referring to Chardome's paper, although discussing a comparatively slow speed mam engine of 300 r.p.m., Chardome mentioned the use of a heavy fly-wheel and a rubber coupling. Quite apart from any torsional consideration, a heavy fly-wheel is beneficial by improving the cyclic variation figure at tow engine revolutions and k important as the avoidance of torsionals is die elimination of tooth and reversal of stressci in a geared drive. The use a simple rubber flexible coupling in itself U not the cure.
i
DIESEL-ELECTRIC PROPULSION
MR. R. Lmoux
(France):
He
supplemented Stokke'f
state-
ment concerning the Loub Qirard deep sea trawler. The Louis Girard was delivered by Ms shipyard in 1957, thus he could give some partteuiare regarding the results. The dieselelectric propulsion consists of three generating sets, and power hill been T'Wwf** so that during trawling, only two of them are in service. Each unit comprise* a 930 h.p. die*d driving a 500 fcW generator coupled with a 165 kW auxiliary fonerator which can be used as exdter and generator for the
[384]
winch motor, Two ctectric propelling motors drive the propeHer-ihaft through a gearing.
DISCUSSION
The disadvantages of this system are: The ton of power fat the electric motors, due
effect,
to the Joule
He felt he had to give these partioaars, but wanted to pmnt out that it does not eliminate other solutions. His shipyard has been constructing a series of trawlers, 157 ft. (48 m.) LBP, with a special type of adjustable-pitch propeller made in
France, which gives complete satisfaction. The adjustablepitch propeller is much simpler than the controllable-pitch propeller and costs much less. Hie pitch is adjusted for the trawling or sailing condition when the engine is stopped and
it can therefore not be controlled continuously from the bridge as the controllable-pitch propeller. They had also built some small 112 ft. (34 m.) trawlers, equipped with multiple reduction gear, similar to those advocated by Chardome, and these trawlers did not cause
can be estimated at 18 per cent. It it necessary, however, to take into account the fact that when using multipkHTtduction gear, there is a loss of 5 to 10 per cent in the gearing and dutches. Also, with a controllable-
pitch propeller, highest propeller efficiency is ensured in one pitch position only, hence there is a loss of power in the others. However, there is still a loss of 8 to 14 per cent, in the diesel-electric solution as compared to other
solutions.
The cost, which is referred to later on. The temperature in the engine room has been criticized.
After a two year observation, he could assert that with usual ventilation methods, there was no trouble.
any trouble.
It is therefore necessary to examine for each type of fishing the best propulsion system, and if the shipowners give the designers and builders complete particulars regarding the future use of the projected boat, they will be in a position to propose the most economical solution, concerning the cost as
The advantages of the
diesel-electric
propulsion are:
Saving due to the fact that only two units are in service during trawling and that a special diesel for driving the winch is not necessary, Such an auxiliary diesel is very costly and it has a high fuel consumption, because it has to be restarted frequently and is often running idle. Saving due to the fact that each electric power unit runs at the most economic speed. Increased safety in dangerous waters (Spitzbergen, Greenland, White Sea), when the ship is far from any help she can then sail with a single unit and a single
propelling engine. Elimination of the torsional vibrations of the diesel engine, and, very probably, improved efficiency of the propeller which works with a constant torque. Improved living comfort due to the absence of vibrations,
well as running expenses.
MULTIPLE-SPEED GEAR
MR. A. HUNTER (U.K.): Regarding Chardome's paper, he observed that in Britain they had always tried to find the simplest solution to any problem in a trawler, and for that reason they had not gone in for so many involved devices. On efficiency Chardome seemed to think that with multiplegear drive there was a great advantage as far as fuel consumpwas concerned, compared with the diesel-electric drive, He did not think from experience that the question could be disposed of as easily as that. They all knew that there were electrical losses but they were partly recovered in propeller efficiency and there were also other advantages. One point about diesel-electric was that it did not always need full power at sea; sometimes the sea conditions did not permit it. One could automatically save by shutting down one of the
tion
which is very important for trips lasting from three to four months. Improved seakindliness of the ship, which is very
important in waters with risk of icing. The work of the is simplified by this type of propulsion which constitutes a long step towards automation. The possibilities of using the ship are increased to the maximum with
crew
a minimum staff in the engine room, since the propelling motors are controlled from the wheeihouse.
The shipowner definitely noted that, when sailing, fuel consumption is higher compared with a vessel without electric propulsion. On the other hand, the longer trawling period is more economical, and it is estimated by the owner that total consumption during a fishing season does not exceed that of a normal ship. More specially, capacity of fuel oil bunkers is comparable.
Diesel-electric propulsion
is
mow expensive when relatively
low r.p.m. engines are used, for example 500 to 700 r.p.m.
But, if it is accepted having engines running at 1,000 or 1*200 r.p.m,, which is possible with the present progress of dieeel designs, the cost of the electrical and mechanical equipment is considerably reduced, and the total cost becomes
generators. Moreover, in a straight through diesel job, one had to start up another auxiliary when trawling and all the time one had to have some auxiliary running to give light and power. When all these factors were added up, he very much questioned if the favour were not towards diesel-etoctric. The efficiency of the multiple gear was given as 97 per cent. That seemed to be very high. Years ago the efficiency of a reverse-reduction, oil-operated gear was given as 97} per cent. It was now given as 921 per cent, and that had been welt borne out by experience. The stopping time seemed to be very good indeed. From full revolutions the ship was reported as having been stopped from 15 knots ahead in 410 ft. (125 m.). It certainly meant that the Mem clutch must have been slipped in very quickly and perhaps Chardome could show the types of gear in a
further contribution.
comparable with the cost of normal ships. When gas turbines become readily available, it witt be necessary to use them with this type of propultioci. Patently, whan great attention is being given to stem
trawling, dieeel -electric propuliion provides certain advantages Â^k^^W AM* ^MMli^M Ai*A ^^^M^MAiakM MMfedttt &MWttMfl 2f> ^ *fe4Ma41fclA cue
(Netherlands): SQberkrttb's paper outlines the problem of the propeller coupled to a constant torque engine, having to operate under more or less varying conditions. He made the following comments:
fairly well
MR. H. KLAASSBN
It
was a
controllable-pitch propeller
pity that in the comparison made between the and the two speed gear box
wDQS uy moving
me
ypnefwcoig
inm
'
luiwara,
it
o pom
the case of the cootroUabte-pitch propeller being driven h.p. engine (if necessary with the appropriate tpeed reduction) had not been preeentod.
by a 700
[305]
FISHING BOATS OF THB WORLD:

SOberkrttb staled to his paper that it has been said that do act ifioe the way the controBabie-pitch propeder rotates after bciag put into the stop portion when hauling the nets. This wai indeed a complaint that was sometimes hoard* In his opinion all difficulties in this mpect could be avoided by using the extremely offered by the controllaWethe engine is running at its minimum r:p4n* With these possibilities of engine control, hauling the net will be even easier. This is again a matter of
captains
CONSTRUCTION
therefore be the rule for controllable-pitch propellers in the h.p. range covered in the paper by Chardome,
said that for a controllable-pitch propeller to adjust the pitch in such a way that under all weather conditions full engine power is absorbed. This is tnie if the pitch positkm has to be found npirically. However
it is difficult
Chardome has
"i
educating the crews in handling

disposal*
new equipment
at their
has been the reason why simple systems have been developed which allow for automatic pitch adjustment, so that full power is absorbed irrespective of the prevailing conditions. In this way, the theoretical advantages of the controllable-pitch propeller as mentioned by Chardome can
this
Regarding nozzles, he wanted to ask whether the speed of the propeller in the nozzle was the same as that without the nozzle, If so, the propeller diameter in the nozzle must have been too large, which should be the reason for the speed low in the sailing condition. Model tests have shown that a reduction of up to 25 per cent, in diameter is possible, at compared with the propeller without nozzle, if they are running at the same r.p.m. and a Kaplan Made contour is used. If the larger propeller diameter can be adapted in the stern frame the propeller could run at lower np.m. with all the well known
advantages.
be realized in practice. Fig. 262 shows an engine diagram which is not always presented by engine manufacturers. The diagram covers the
Chardome made an interesting comparison between the performance of the two-speed gear box and the controllable* pitch propeller. Fig. 249 to 251 are especially worth considering, and he wanted to make a few remarks on this comparison. Chardome stated that the controllable-pitch propeller had been designed to give the same thrust while trawling under full power as the fixed-pitch propeller. The
diameter of the controllable-pitch propeller, however, is smaller, presumably due to the fact that it is running faster. Would not the comparison have been more strict if the conditions for both propellers had been identical in the reference point ; in this case the trawling condition?
The comparison
in table 76 shows the controllable-pitch propeller to be always running at 133.5 r.p.m. The controllable-pitch propeller should, however, never be In this ataorintftd with running at constant speed! rapect he would like to make the comparison in two
parts:
(a) Vfbca full power is required, the engine is running at maximum rated r.p.m. in both cases. For the control* laWe-pitch propeller the speed both for trawling and free running is engine r.pjn., divided by reduction ratio, if there is one. For the two-speed gear box propeller , speed for Ae two conditions will be differait Figures for these conditions can be found In the paper.
Fig. 262. An engine diagram showing constant specific fuel consumption demonstrates best now a controllable-pitch propeller should be operated to attain highest efficiency
(b) When leu than full power is required, the aforementioned doc* not apply any more. For the controllable-' pitch propeller, it is certainly not necessary, and indeed not advantageous, to keep ft running at maximum r.p.m., not only because propeller efficiency at very low pitchdtafneter ratios will drop, but perhaps still more because engine efficiency wiH drop when running at high r.p.riL and low mean effective pressure (p.). Therefore, not only pitch control is necessary, but also r-p.m, control, In doing this one should be guided by the fact that an eugtae reader* the loweat fuel consumption if the p* is nrtucii* output, thb wffl fcept en the high side.
whole field of possible engine operating conditions, while in practice the fixed-pitch propeller limits operating conditions to a single curve. Therefore in most cases only particulars connected to this single curve aresupplied. When controllablepitch propellers or electric propulsion are discussed, the full diagram is valuable.
The diagram shows curves of constant specific fuel consumption and curves of constant engine output (1/3 N, 2/3 and N) as a function of engine pe (or engine torque) and
engine
If
Wh
resiftit
in 4be cmtotrflatte-pitch propeller
naming
at
represents the maximum output of die engine, a fowd-pitch propeller designed for the ship's speed under certain prevailing conditions will show a relation between torque and r-pjn. as shown fey curve QA* if, however, die peed of the ship decreasea due ID an increased hull resistance or due to towiog, the torque lequired by die propetter at a
certain
r*pm
number ofrevotetions wUi
increase. Therefore,)
>
INSTALLATION Of MACHINERY condition* not curve OA but curve OA' will be foliowed Various
;
DISCUSSION
methods of
OBB
shows the
relation between torque
and revolutions
for the cxtttrotUble-pitch propeller wi^ is the line representing the relation pitdi position, between torque and revolutions for the controllable-pitch propeller blades in zero pitch position. Let us assume that the engine maximum allowable torque is the same for all engine speeds (border line B'A) and the maximum allowable engine speed is the same for all values
OC
of engine torque (border line AC). The minimum speed of the engine is shown by border line FO. It is evident that all operating conditions of the engine in the area B'ACFG can be realised when a controllable-pitch propeller (or DC electric transmission) is used, irrespective of weather conditions, hull fouling, towing etc. From the diagram it is clear that not all parts of this area are favourable as far as fuel consumption is concerned. There is only one relation between engine torque and speed which renders the lowest fuel consumption i.e. curve AB, being the locus of all points of minimum specific fuel consumption for a certain engine output (tangents of curves of constant engine output to curves of constant specific fuel consumption).
In order to obtain the highest efficiency, the product of engine efficiency and propeller efficiency must both be maximum. So engine efficiency is not the only factor. Where curve AB means an increase in pitch and a decrease in revolutions at a certain engine output, as compared with the fixed-pitch propeller, it can at least be said that propeller efficiency will not be unfavourably influenced. Mr. Klaassen did not want to go into the exact determination of optimum efficiency, but only to show the principles. If AB represents the minimum fuel consumption curve when propeller efficiency has been taken into account the following conclusions can be drawn
:
control of engine revolutions and propeUer pitch have been developed. From the above ft follows however that, strtetry speaking, combined control of engine revolutions and tot supply (determining p.) should be carried out, the propefler pitch being adjusted by the mechanism. The two-speed gear box only serves to come closer to the maximum engine output under various conditions under which a trawler has to operate, when tSHS output is required. It does not contribute to an increase in efficiency from an engine point of view as compared with the fixed-pitch propeller driven through a fixed reduction ratio gear box, Mr. Klaaasen agreed with Chardome, however, that it is very unlikely that the electrical losses of electric drive can be fully compensated by operating the engines near their best efficiency curve. Hunter had remarked that the higher fuel consumption of diesel-etectric drive as compared with a mechanically driven fixed-pitch propeller is not as evident as one would think at first sight. Shutting down one of the generators when fuH power is not needed is mentioned as one of the factors that will increase efficiency. In terms of the diagram, this means increasing the torque of the remaining engines (constant r.p.m.) thus coming nearer to curve AB. That additional gains in efficiency are possible with electric drive if much auxiliary power is needed is well known. In electric systems spite of this, the high electrical losses in are very unlikely to be compensated. In cases where much auxiliary power must be available perhaps the best solution
DC
DC
would be
motors.
AC electric generators driving AC electric propeller

better efficiency than
there),
still
The advantage would be
DC
drive (but electrical losses are tion cost.
and lower
installa-
Only the controllable-pitch propeller

electric drive
and the
DC
Manoeuvring and adapting the propellers to the various conditions should then be realised by a controllable-pitch propeller, because the synchronous propeller motors
AC
cannot perform
this task.
maximum efficiency curve at smaller engine outputs, which indeed frequently happens in practice. With the latter, however, the electrical losses will be far greater than the
can realize the
AB
when operating
gain in efficiency due to being able to realize the curve AB. The figures will only partly show the adverse effect on the efficiency of constant speed operation of a controllablepitch propeller, because propeller efficiency will also be lower than the corresponding fixed-pitch case. As can be seen in the diagram, engine specific fuel consumption to will considerably increase going from The ideal curve along which a controllable-pitch propeller should be operated is FOBA. In F the engine is running at minimum revolutions, the propeller pitch being in zero pitch position. It is often said that a controllable-
MR. J. H0JSGAARD (Denmark): Regarding Chardome's paper (table 76), he agreed with Klaassen that if propellers were going to be compared, they must be given similar conditions under which to work. One could not compare a propeller running at 133 and one at 106 r.p.m. If one had not had to overload the engine with a fixed propeller at 106 r.p.m. one would have a very light running engine at 133. It would perhaps be necessary to have a look at what was required of a propeller.
pitch propeller absorbs very much power when running in zero pitch position. However, the figure clearly shows that this is only true when running at high r.p.m.
One important question already raised: was it necessary to keep the speed of the boat when the trawl was being taken up from die bottom? The problem could be solved by underwater photography, but trawler owners and captains had said that it was necessary to keep the speed of the trawl the same when lifting it from the bottom.
M*. L. VARRIALE (Italy): Commenting upon the papers by Chardome and Suberkrtlb, he had been able to study more
than 20 years* records o the performance of several hundred trawlers widi 200 to 300 kp, engines used in die Mediterranean fisheries. The trawUng speed tor one and die same boat was very different, depending on the depth and nature of die fishing grounds and the type of fish population. In ha opinion, die multiple-speed gear, permitting two speeds, one tor sailing and one for trawling, is not die best because die use of a single speed for trawling is too rigid a timftaUon. three-speed reversing gear would no doubt be a very complicated and certamly a costly one. They had tried the solution of
From F to the engine is still kept running at minimum r.p.m. f but pitch it inoâêd to its maximum value. It should be noted that extremely fine manoeuvring possibilities are
presented due to the fsct that the pitch range can for covering a vary limited horsepower range.
Ml
be used
From to B, propeller pitch whito r.p,m. is increased.
is
kept at its
maximum value,
Between B and A, propeller pitch and engine revolutions are simultaneously adjusted in such a way that maximum combteed efficiency of engine and propeller is ensured.

using a coatrotiable-pitch propeller, and the tot four 300 h.p. tnwters that had been in service for several years, had proved satisfactory. The fishermen \wing them got a 20 to 25 per cent hiîer catch in each haul
CONSTRUCTION
(b) 3 50 h4>. engine with tiw-fipeed reduction geai; propeller, 214/174 r.p.m. Bollard pull at tow r4>.m.: 54.8 Ib./h.p. (15.8 k*/h.p.); with bfonaee propeUer,
MR. W, ORSZULOK (Poland): There was one question he wanted to ask in connection with Chardome's paper: What in the author'! opinion are die criteria to design a propeller with multiple-reduction gear* In other words, what speed, revolutions and power are to be chosen for the fixed-blade propeller in this case? He emphasized that he agreed with what Klaasten had said about die diagrams fig. 249 to 251
.
(c)
Mr. Beaudoux thought that the bollard pull would reach 35.2 Ib./kp. (16 kg./h.p.). Supercharged 375 h.p. engine, reduction-reverse gear, a4justabk-pitch propeller, 225 r.p.m. Bollard pull with cast-iron propeller: 29.9 Ib./h.p. (13.6 kg./h.p.); with
brain
(d)
blades: 31.7 Ib./h.p. (14.4 kg./h.p.).
Supercharged 375 h*p. engine, two-speed reduction Bollard pull with cast-iron gear, 270/222 r.pjn. propeBer: 34.2 Ib./h.p. (15.5 kg./h.p.); with bronze propeller, one would no doubt have got 36.2 Ib./h.p.
<16kg./h.p.).
CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
(France): Chardome has given some very precise information on the results obtained with multiplereduction gear trawler* powered by 1,200 to 1,500 h.p, diesel engines. Chardome mentioned that France had built a large number of low powered trawlers with multiple-reduction goars and that in France they had confined themselves to the two-speed reduction gear, because multiple-reduction gear has too many drawbacks for small boats and two speeds are quite sufficient; one for sailing and one for trawling at an average speed of 3 to 4 knots.
MIL
E.
BBAUDOUX
In the case of the normal reduction gear, to obtain a bollard puH/h.p. very close to that of the a4justable-pitch propeller, it would have been necessary to make a considerable compromise in the propeller design, reducing the free running speed by 6 to 8 per cent. For this type of boat the economic speed
is
about 10.5 knots,
this reduction,
being operative only
during the outward and
marked effect on the The results obtained at the Paris tank have been fulfilled and can thus be summarized in regard to this type of trawler,
which has the following general features:
Cast-iron propeller: Free running speed 10.4 knots, traction 30.8 Ib./h.p. (14 kg./h.p.), 215 r.p.m.
Adjustable-pitch propeller: Free running speed 1 1 knots, traction 31.7 Ib./h.p. (14.4 kg./h.p.), that is, 0.7 per cent,
better.
homeward bound trips* has no commercial use of the boat
As Mr. Bcaudoux had built many of these trawlers, he was able to give some figures regarding die results obtained with
different propulsion
methods.
it
They had always considered
necessary to simplify the
propulsion equipment of a fishing boat of relatively small dimensions; that is from 80 to 130 ft. (25 to 40 m.), and their experience was that fuel consumption was not a determining factor in the operation of a boat, and that, while trying to get the maximum performance, it was necessary to think on the one hand of the purchase price of the boat and on the other of the current operating expenses, which might greatly affect the returns. They had always considered that up to 800 h.p., it was possible to use a maximum np.m, of 350 to 380 without
reduction gear,
there
Two-speed propeller with 174/214 r.p.m.: Free running

speed 11 knots, traction 34.8 Ib./h.p. (15.8 kg./h.p.). That is 10.5 per cent better than the propeller with normal reduction gear and 9.7 per cent, better than the adjustable-pitch propeUer. Two-speed propeller with 222/270 r.p.m. Free running speed 11 knots, traction 34.1 Ib./h.p. (15.5 kg./h.p.) That is 8.4 per cent, better than the one-speed propeller at 214 r.p.m. and 7.6 per cent, better than the adjustablepitch propeUer.
:
by direct propeller drive, especially if any considerable traction. Above this rpon., reduction gear is always necessary. In the case of an adjustable-pitch propeller, the motor is reversible, and if it is trolkble^tchptopelkrmijst be installed. With an
i.e.
was no need
for
It
should be pointed out, however, that the figures for
acUustabte-pitch propeller, the pitch for sailing 01 trawling is installed with the engine stopped, The pitch of a controllable-
adjustable* or controllable-pitch propellers will be higher if a better design is made of the blades, but he thought that, with
be fnstalted continuously. pitch propeller In cases where reduction gear is required in order to reduce the r.p.m. of the propeller (the lowest possible compatible
mf
maximum diameter of the propeller as permitted by the propeller aperture), a two-speed reduction gear should * pivierabiy be used* Nevertheless, a^justabie-piich propellers and reduction gears have beta installedon additkmal ccroplkaUion which should be avoided if possible, unices the gme has very high rjxnu, say 1*000 to 1,500; this would probably necessitate very
with a
regard to the small-powered engines, there is a marked advantage for the two-speed reduction gear, and that it is connection with a high-speed engine, always advisable because the reversing and speed control operations can be carried out from the wheeihouse, as can be done in the case of cootrollaWe-pitcfa propellers.
<x>stlyandcigpbersoimiwwslbte Itese types of trawlers were tested in die Paris tank, one a 90,2 ft Q?4 m.) LOA trawler, having an engine of 350 to 400 kp., had an average displacemt (oo trials) of 170 toas, Mock coefficient of 0.42 and prismatic coefflcwit of 0.579. The results wece:
(a)
Mr. Beaudoux had no accurate figures regarding thrust trawling, but he thought that the relations between the alternatives are practically the same as at the bollard pun test. It should be pointed out moreover that the propulsion powers of this type of boat are very great, which makes it possible for these small French fishing boats to work at great depth and in lough seas. Of course, the hulls of these boats
when
and the stern
ifMiff te particular mafrftt
it
possible to use
&
350ttp, engine with notrad reduction ge--21 5 r.pm at Hie cast-iron propeller. Bollard pail: 31.5 IMtp*
Ma. H. M. SMOMOM
(Italy):
On
the matter
I308J
hud been connected with the installation and maintenance of over 130 dkarl engines from 100 to 600 BHP. Thete engines were aH of the two-stroke type with revolutions ranging from 450 to 310 np.m. and were fitted in fishing craft from 30 OT upwards. The price of such a diesel engine not exceeding 400 BHP furnished with a controllable-pitch propeller was not more than a plant furnished with a conventional reverse gear. Above this output, the price of an engine with a controllablepitch propeller would be about 8 per cent, more than that of
DISCUSSION
just as rapidly as the
250 h.p. engine boats with fixed propeller and the 500 h.p. trawler is quite as good as the 700 lup.boab, especially in bad weather. If it were not for the slump in Belgian fisheries, he fett tare that many more shipowners would install controllable-pitcfa
propellers.
PROPELLER SHAFTS
DR. G. RAPHNI (Italy): Propeller shafts in fishing boats are subject to heavier stress than those in other vessel*, such as big tonnage ships, etc. Fishing boat shafts must combat (to
following difficulties:
a direct reversible plant. No reduction gears are used. He was glad to say that Italian owners were enthusiastic about the controllable-pitch propellers on their engines and since the war 90 per cent, of the engines they had fitted to
trawlers were equipped with this type of propeller. All the enquiries they received today were exclusively for plants
Uneven
of small
stresses
due to the limbed number of cylinders

of small craft propellers due to
equipped with controllable-pitch propellers and this should be a sufficient proof of the economical advantages to be gained by this method of propulsion.
diesel engines.
irregularities
Working
the sea conditions.

Specific stresses in connection with trawling. Frequent speed variations during normal sailing.
MR. V. SEOHERS (Belgium): Chardofne's paper was undoubtedly most interesting for the builders of new trawlers. However, it would be worth while emphasizing the fact that controllable-pitch propellers have also been adopted on exAs shipbuilder-refitter and owner, he was isting boats.
speaking from experience. Before the 1953 FAO Congress, not a single Belgian trawler was equipped with controllable-pitch propellers. Some boats, however, had had their mechanical reversing gear installed over 20 to 25 years ago, and they were so worn out that replacement was indispensable. One of these boats belonged to his fleet, and was equipped with a diesel developing 200 h.p. at 300 r.p.m. After studying and discussing the various reports, it was decided to replace the mechanical reversing device by a
mechanically operated controllable-pitch propeller, and it was decided to place a simple dutch between the pitch adjustment mechanism and the diesel, so that the propeller
Practical
difficulties
of carrying out continuous and
effective maintenance.
Such difficulties do not occur, for example, on large ships where, due to the service uniformity and the size of shafts, materials have less wear and tear and consequently last longer. In fishing boats with smaller shaft diameters, stresses are more
apparent. Constructional problems must be taken into consideration, e.g. propeller shafts of small diameters are subject to relatively higher stress and corrosion fatigue. As a result of the experience gained in research, forged steel with copper alloy linings, such as manganese bronzes, aluminium bronzes, etc., is used in the construction of the larger propeller shafts of diameters between 7.9 and 19.7 in. (200 and 500 mm.) for merchant vessels. For small diameter propellers shafts, a protective lining cannot be made in a single piece due to the length/diameter ratio of the shafts. Liners are, therefore, made in short elements connected by welding or spaced so that parts of the steel shaft are uncovered of specially coated. Corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion may appear in the joints and in the unlined zones, even though properly coated. As the shaft diameter is small, the liner forms a considerable percentage of total shaft diameter and takes up relatively higher torskmal
stress.
could be stopped during hoisting of the trawl, thus eliminating the risk of wires or trawl boards getting into the rotating propeller. This propeller has been in use for nearly 4 years, and has never given the slightest trouble. The adjustment
mechanism is operated by switch-bars and bevel gear from the wheel-house where the engaging lever is located. After a year's trial, it was decided to equip a second 200 h.p. trawler of his fket with this same kind of propeDer. The result was just as satisfactory as in the first case, and it was decided to fit out another two boats, one with a direct-drive diesel engine that develops 300 h.p. at 310 r.p.m, and the other with a 500 h.p. diesel equipped with reverse-reduction The latter boat was fitted with only a controllable-pitch
propeller as the hydrauticalry operated reverse gear was but on the 300 hp< boat, the adjustment and reversing mechanism operated by a small electric motor controlled from the wheel-house. This is the ideal solution for rapid manoeuvring in harbours and in front of tide-gates. In the meantime Ws shipyard had fitted out two more ^^te4^4tjf AwtMaaJL^M^ MaliW n*>^4^>llia %>!' i*S>A M^t^^tt^Mw.* ri*m jif vmenci crawlers witn oooutMMioie^pitcpi propeueii; one 01 thew boats has a 150h.p. at 300 dietel engine, and die
retained,
Great deal of experimental work is being done in the field of thin, effective coverings such as bituminous and plastic linings and various paints, as well as galvanic coating and metal spraying to overcome the problem of corrosion in small diameter shafts.
The main problems

(a)
are:
'
(b)
r^m
Slow or rapid deterioration due to wear or corrosion, i.e. systematic wear of moving parts. Such deterioration is present in large diameter propeller shafts and affects mainly journals ahd bearings. Stress failures (sodden failures due to accidents) and fatigue failures, i.e., casual and unexpected deteriorations.
othera240h.p.at300r.p,in,îne.
tea-going speed of
Him owners are highly
an tto boats equipped with thae propellers has been tacrtawd by about 10 percent and the trawl pull has also been towed substantially. The boats with 200 h.p, eogtaes and controflabia-pitch propellers trawl
In geoeral, the laot type of failure occurs in positions whore there are su&lea tectkmal duutgos (near the keyway as well as in Ganges between dfliertirtdiametere
as the propeller connecting cone or between two supporting
bearings*
[309J
CONSTRUCTION
tted (forged
steel
steel
is preferred) or 16 per cent, with molybdenum, keeping to mind that, as contact with copper alloy metals mutt be avoided stainless steel bushes are to be used. Some French steel producers exclude the use of normal 18/8 steel and suggest the use of 18/8 titanium stabilized steel with molybdenum. Italian engine builders have so far used normal 18/8 good quality steel, both in rolled and forged bars (either produced abroad CM* in Italy), as well as 18 per cent, chromium and 2 per cent, nickel magnetic steel without molybdenum. Mr. Rappini's company has been using 18/8 steel with molybdenum for about a year. Experiments with 18/8 steel, stress relieved after machining and treated in a nitric acid bath for
stainless
chromium magnetic
passivation, are
now
being carried out.
differing use of materials is a consequence of the results obtained in practice. Sometimes, in fact, materials such
Such a
as
ferritic,
Fig. 263. Fishing boat propeller shaft
made of 1818
steel.
Unaffected
manganese bronze, aluminium bronze, as well as semimartensitic and common type austenitic 18/8 steel have given good results over long periods of operation, while in other cases the same materials suffered serious damage due to corrosion and breakdowns, with consequent heavy
Experiments over the
last
few years with
at!
possible
systems, such as copper alloy liners,
chrome galvanic coatings,
>verings and spray metallisation, may lead one to a propeller shaft of high quality material, such as a suitable copper alloy (manganese bronze or aluminium
dunk
that
economical losses. Research at Mr. Rappini's company which ended in March 1959, covered the running of shafts for periods of up to five years. Trials with sixteen 18/8 stainless steel propeller shafts of the same quality and produced by the same steel
works, gave the following results:
Eight shafts in good condition fig. 263 Four shafts with corrosion areas after two or three years. One shaft with big pits after two years. Three shafts with wide pits and corrosion areas after
bronze) or stainless
!!
steel,
represents the best solution.
m* JW !! TOT propcaer snaics
alloy shafts, forged and heat-treated to produce high mechanical properties, are difficult to obtain, and results have not always been satisfactory. The trend in Italy, therefore,
as in other European countries, is to use stainless steel. Experience in actual operation is, however, rather limited and reports from country to country are conflicting. The American Bureau of Shipping has given some advice
two
years.
Different results were obtained with three propeller shafts
about die crevice corrosion problems arising when using 18/8 stainless steel, and has expressed its doubt about using plain chrome magnetic sleds. U.S. engine builders suggest high quality metals (copper nickel alloys such as Monel with
high iron content) for small diameter propeller shafts, while British engine builders suggest Monel (low content iron with aluminium addition). Swedish engine makers tend towards the use of high quality 18/8 stainless steel, as they do not consider it necessary to use low carbon steel or titanium stabilized steel. They are also using 17 per cent, chrome magnetic steel with 1 or 2 per cent.
of high quality 18/8 steel, each manufactured in a different European country: one had hardly any corrosion pits, one showed considerable corrosion (fig. 264), and one was so heavily corroded (fig. 265) that it had to be replaced after
only two years.
Such differences were mainly due to the varying working conditions of the shafts ; in the third case, the copper sheathing of the bottom was the reason for the corrosion of the shaft, as
was
nickel, and as well as
16 per cent, chromium, 1 per cent, molybdenum, 26 per cent, chromium, 4 per cent, nickel-
molybdenum steel. Though the last material is very resistant to corrosion, it deforms when heat treated and machined, and it is rather difficult, therefore, to make straight shafts. German engine builders seem to be using 18/8 high quality
later clearly demonstrated by laboratory tests. Five similar propeller shafts made of 18/8 steel with a high carbon content (about 0.12 per cent.), all from the same steel works, did not present defects after one year. Research with 18/8 austenitic steels proved that a special type of steel with molybdenum content was in very good condition after more than one year. Forty scmiferritic and semimartcnsitic magnetic stainless
steel shafts of very small diameter, 2.3 in. (58 mm.) were tested together with shafts of 4.5 in. (120 mm.) diam., all made of seraifemtic steel of the same type with 18 per cent, chrome
(310]
and 2 per cant, nickel, manufactured by the same steel works. Results were tolerable: only some galvanic corrosion by microcells appeared where there was contact with the copper
alloy supports or leather seals. Two propeller shafts in motor boats now in service in the Messina Strait one of the same type of semiferritk steel as the preceding one and from the same works, and the other of
cent, nickel in order to obtain better
steels.
DISCUSSION
chromium and 2 per mechanical propertiesgive after three years better results than those of austenitic
semimartensittc steel with 14 per cent,
Various Monel metal propeller shafts with high iron content has given very good results after ten years service. Stainless steel of the same t$pe and from the same works may therefore give quite different even opposite results. The problem seems to be in the actual working conditions of
the shafts.
The presence of copper around the propeller shafts exerts a considerable influence; conventional 18/8 stainless steel does not give good results when near a copper sheathed ship bottom, while its behaviour is quite different under other
conditions.
Fig. 266. Rotating beam fatigue teats. Test machines ore equipped with special fitting to carry out tests in sea water with copper ions at
controlled temperature
impossible to state whether forged stainless steel is to be preferred to rolled bars as trials have shown that high quality 18/8 forged steel is, under certain conditions, also subject to corrosion (see fig. 265). On the other hand, the stainless steel shafts used in the above research mostly came
It is
from
rolled bars.
in
Rotating beam fatigue tests Rotating beam fatigue tests were carried out in a Baldwin Moore machine, fig. 266, running at 4,000 r.p.m. and with the sample kept in sea water at a constant temperature of
The very good behaviour

after ten years service
is
motor boats of Monel metal
to be noted, such boats working,
more or less, under the same conditions as trawlers. The good behaviour of 18/8 austenitic steel with 2 per cent, molybdenum was also proved by investigations, even if this material has not been thoroughly tested in a sufficient number
of shafts and over an adequate period of time. These shafts have only recently been put into service. Six different types of stainless steel (three magnetic and three non-magnetic) and Monel K, manufactured in Europe, were chosen for special laboratory tests. Their chemical compositions are given in table 79, while the mechanical
properties are given in table 80.
104F (40C), fig. 267. The circulation system of the water was constructed of plastic material to avoid foreign metal ions. Fig. 268 and 269 show the fatigue curves obtained for the various materials, in air and in sea water with copper ion addition. A comparison of the behaviour in actual operation and during laboratory tests shows that copper might exert a
considerable influence.
Magnetic steels in sea water with copper Ions show & considerably reduced endurance limit (figures of endurance
Endurance drops from mm.) and even down to 1,100 Ib./sq. in. (5 kg./sq. mm.), see fig. 268. However, such materials may have a higher resistance, provided that working conditions are not so heavy as the experimental ones reported. The results may give an idea
limit refer to ten million revolutions).
Ib./sq. in. (45 to
64,000 to 14,200
10 kg./sq.
of the natural trend of each material towards corrosion

fatigue attack.
Conventional 18/8 steel has a considerable drop of endurance limit, ranging from 32,700 Ib./sq. in. (23 kg./sq. nun.) in
TABLE 79
Chemical composition of materials for propeller shafts
Materials
Chemical composition
Cr
Ni
Mo
Cu
%
Si
MONEL K*
ftf.M5.Wff*
akaft. fitted 0*
0.16
64.39
29.95 0.18
0.45
pattern on a 1919 tied proptOer a copper bottom skip
*AI-2.8; Fe-1.23;
Co -0.27; Ti-0.5%
1311]
FISHING BOATS OF THfi WdRLD; 2 CONST AUCTION A material settle similar to that obtained m the U.S.A. for
"crevk* tests" (McGrew, 1957) has been obtained from the* which do not, howtrver, it the working conditions of propeller shafts. Austenitic 18/8 stainless steels apear to be die most resistant, and any differences between them seem to be essentially dependent on the metaltographic structure, the best results being given (fig. 274) by the fine-grained austenitic-forritk structure (this also explains the effect of molybdenum). Hie better behaviour of the X5CN18/8 steel sample when compared with the X5CN18/9 (both having the same chemical composition) is due to a difference in the metallographic
,
structure.
Fig. 267.
Detail ofseawater cup
and nozzkfor specimen immersion
dry condition*
to 21,300 Ib./aq. in. (15 kg./sq.
mm.)
in sea
water with copper ions, thus showing a certain alteration. This fact may explain the corrosion of the propeller shaft of the ship with copper sheathed bottom in fig. 265. However, 18/8 steel with molybdenum proved to be unattacked in practice and maintained its endurance limit, both in dry condition and in sea water with copper ions. Mood is subject to a considerable drop of endurance limit in sea water with copper ions, but it tends to settle in an asymptotic pattern at 14,200 Ib./sq. in. (10 kg./sq. mm.). These tests show why results of various types of stainless
steel may vary according to the service conditions: 18/8 steel with molybdenum and Monel prove, here, to be the most suitable materials to withstand the heavy test conditions. This fact may also be interesting when comparing the costs of
the two materials. In spite of the results obtained, the use of magnetic steels cannot be ignored as those materials often give good results, as shown by the research on shafts in service conditions.
Accelerated cavitation teats were carried out in a special supersonic device capable of reproducing arbitrary cavitation conditions (fig. 270); they were made in water with 34 per cent sodium chloride, either with or without copper ion addition. Fig. 271, 272 and 273 show the weight losses after If hr. testing.
7
K)
RevoUitions
Fig. 268.
Rotating
beam fatigue
tests:
reversal of stress revolutions
TABLE 80
Krfl
Ultimate (ensue strength
tonsfa.i*. kg.lsq.mm.
Yield point
kg.fsq.
Elongation
/i
Reduction of area
impact (ktesnager)
&<fl.lsiJn.
Brmell hardness
in.
mm.
17.1
kgJnjsfAm. tonsfsg.
162.0
Xll
CNU
55*2
43.8
yscttm&A
X5CN18.8 X5CN18.9
514 484
34.95
KL6
41&
41.2
ti&O 64.6 64.9
19.4
21jO
58^0 64X)
m
311
255
1542
186J)
23.05
5SJO
18.17
363 253
78.3
M5.5
917
XiCND17,U
MonelK
49.7
21.4
1312}
with a greater toss in weight viUtion condition*, correspond well with the results of fatigue tests hi sea water with copper ions.
DISCUSSION
Route of magnetic steel forts,
CMvank com** tato with freptUtr bran* To define die influence of copper alloys, laboratory
tests
static
275) to determine the difference of electrical potential between various shaft materials and manganese propeller bronze, and to estimate the metal solution in 'the water. Table 81 indicates the galvanic corrosion tendency of chrome magnetic inoxydablc steel (X11CN18 and X40CD15) with or without molybdenum
(fig.
were carried out
Fig. 270.
Accelerated cavitation test
equipment
seems not to be as important as the addition of molybdenum. Research shows that 18/8 austenitic steel with molybdenum addition affords the best guarantee of long duration and good
austenitic steels
results.
Many
craft
have been built by Mr. Rapptni's firm during
39300 lb/%q.ia
the last few years by using such materials, while others are under construction which might confirm the satisfactory
result already obtained.
REPLIES OF AUTHORS
MR. IVAR B. STOKKB (Norway): In answering Leroux he considered a diesel-etoctric machinery to be more complicated than an arrangement with a direct drive diesel engine with controllable-pitch propeller, as mentioned in his paper for Kirkholmen. Also the maintenance cost will be less, especially when hydraulic drive is used for the trawl winch. Diesel engines with controllable-pitch propellers can be manoeuvred from the bridge, as easily as the diesei-electric
installation.
57100
ttxA^ln.
2_5700ltxAo.m,
|.fWti)
Revolutions
.
He also thought that the operation and mainten-
269. Rotating
beam fatigue
tests: reversals
of stress revolutions
being in contact with copper alloys (see also fig. 276). This confirms the need of using stainless steel instead of bronze bushes and accessories*
diesel-electric machinery would be greater and more costly. Advantages of diesel-electric propulsion aie that more fast-running diesel engines, say at maximum l,000r.p.m. can be used, and that in a stern trawler the diesel part can be placed forward. At the same time there is no torsional
ance
staff
of a
Coranent <MI ihf laboratory tests These have confirmed what practical experience has revealed. High quality metals like stainless steel (either magnetic or non-magnetic) and Moael, are suitable materials for the propeller shafts of trawlers* They must, however, be chosen and used carefuHy. Copper ions may exert a considerable influence on the life of such shafts and on the formation of localized and diffused
corrosion.
05.
04
Io.
Ql
Qwtnkal composition being the same, physical cottdWont of material, i.e. metaflographic structure, which thouid be cnsored through suitable tot workteg and prefer teat tvettiiient, nay exert a considerable influence. The low cartxm content dtanium stabiliamtiofi in the
the
Exposure timt
Fig. 271.
Y&ratiott *ce*l*ml*4 cevitmtbn tests

TA*LE 81
CONSTRUCTION
Kirkkolmen has a brake horsepower of up 10 700 when trawling, especially for the newest types of these diesel
engines.
It is, however, very interesting to note that Bardarson prefers direct drive for a controllable-pitch propeller for all Icelandic trawlers, because gear boxes can be omitted. It is
Corrodo*
Meteriak
**. Fe CM
3.60 0,90 0.15
O.i5 1.30 0.48
Sfteel
Remarks
corroded
exactly the
XII CN1I
.
.
Stainless steel
is
X40CD15
X3CN18.8
Both are corroded

corrodes bronze and beis
X9CHD2&4
X5CN18.9 X6CND17.II
that which has been gained in the last 40 years. Norwegian engine manufacturer has also used a small electric motor operated from the wheelhouse for adjusting the controllable-pitch propeller, just as Seghers reported from
same experience as
Norway during more than
comes passive
0.27
0.15 OJ25
0,07
0.54
0.43
1.42
Bronze
corroded more than
Belgium.
As above (equal analysis) Bronze is corroded more than

Bronze corrodes most
MONEL K
0.15
grains
vibration problem as Leroux has stated. He also thought that especially in very large stern trawlers, as mentioned in his paper, a diescl-electric system would have some advantages. He did, however, not agree with Leroux* statement that the overall efficiency of a controllable-pitch propeller would be less than with an electrically driven fixed-blade propeller, when the controllable-pitch propeller can be installed with an automatic control of the pitch and also given an optimum efficiency by varying the r.p.m. in relation to the power, this system would give a greater overall efficiency as explained by Klaassen. He would like to refer to Salomon's report that Italian fisherman have had very good experience of the controllablesimilar statement has been made by pitch propeller. Seghers from Belgium. Seghers' statement is very interesting especially because the controllable-pitch propeller had not been used in Belgium before 1953, and since that time many Belgian fishing boats and trawlers have been equipped with
2.0
1.6
O>
O80.4-
controllable-pitch propellers, which have given very good results, as both the sailing speed and the trawling pull have been increased. To Bardarson's question about the horsepower available on the hydraulic winch drive for Kirkholnwn he answered that it has a horsepower of about 250. This will give a pull on the wire wjth empty which drums of about 15 terns. The exact data for the pulling power by half-fined drums are not available at this moment. The propulsion engine of
(23 kg Her u)
Fig. 273.
6 8 - hours Exposure time 2

time
K)
Vibration accelerated captation tests
Monel K: exposure
hours
propulsion engines. A reason for this is that the Norwegian fishermen etc., who have used high speed engines with reduction gear, especially the lightbuilt engines with 1,500 to 2,000 r.p.m., have had very bad experience of the reliability of these engines in the long run. Therefore he had in several articles in the Norwegian technical press staled thai the highest r,p.m. one may use by night and day rating is 1,000 to l,200r.p.ro, for high speed engines up to
using low and
To Akasaka he replied that medium speed
all
Norwegian
fishing craft are
12
tin*fif. 172.
tatfs (23*f.M*rti)
and 750 r.p.nu for bigger propulsion engines tay 400 (as by diesd locomotives). Their experience, consequently, is that vwy high speed engines win have too great a maintenance
cost
BHP
i^ A* tone for ove^^
cavtiatto* lefts: exposure time
who wants to use his engine for fishing and not for overhaul. When Simpson stated thatahigh speed engine of 1,200 r,p.m.
ISM]
with a reduction fear to the controllable-pitch propeller would be lighter aw! hence give a bigger fiahroom, he wanted to reply that the saving in space with a 1,200 r.p.m. diesel engine, especially when fitted with a reverse-reduction gear, would not be as great as one might imagine, and the fuel consumption of the fastrunning engine would usually be
greater than that of a medium speed diesel engine with direct drive to the propeller.
DISCUSSION
The arrangement will be more complicated and give greater maintenance cost than a diesel engine with direct drive, especially when several high speed engines are used for the propeller drive. This is especially the case when a medium
speed propulsion engine is built as a high-pressure supercharged four-stroke engine, or as a two-stroke engine with supercharging and with a rotating scavenging pump together with a very short hydraulic equipment for operating the
controllable-pitch propeller, built into the engine as in fig. 220.
shown
Fig.
274.
picture
MetaltograpMc structure of non-magnetic steels. Top shows X5CN 18-8; middle, X5CN 18-9; and lower, X6CNB 17-11 magnified 100 times
The Norwegian systems of driving the hydraulic pumps are from the fore end of the main engine. The pumps normally have a higher r.p.m. than the engine. The drive is therefore made either by chain or by gear, and the oil pumps can be declutched when not in use. Neither chain nor gear reduction have given completely satisfactory results. One Norwegian trawl winch manufacturer has therefore constructed a unit which has one hydraulic pump driven direct through a clutch from the fore end of the propulsion engine. This has given no trouble, and he therefore recommended direct drive when a very big tractive force is desirable from the trawl winch.
MR. O. HOPWOOD (U.K.): Regarding turbo-chargers: Regular examination of the roller bearings mid changing the lubricating oil in the turbo-charger in accordance with the procedure laid down in the paper was all that was necessary to ensure trouble-free running. Some bearings had been run for two were found to be in excellent condition on examinayears tion. The turbo-charger makers had increased the recommended life of the bearingi. In a new building the engine had
wd
[315)
CONSTRUCTION
Propeller shafts: With regard to the question of materials they ted indicated in the paper their finding on the shaftings in operation. However, they were pleased to learn of the stainless steel type of shaftB. Auxiliaries: To suit the type and load experienced with deep water working a separate winch engine up to the present time was accepted as the correct machinery. The table on p. 283 shows the ratings required particularly with regard to the h.p. of the diesel engine compared with the output of the winch motor and generator. Two small auxiliaries were
one being a standby. Lubricating oils: They agreed with Flindt that it was advantageous to keep the temperature high. Difficulties were experienced with the ships engineers in the first case to increase the temperature. However, this had now been overcome. They agreed with the use of thermostatic valves for both oil
fitted,
and water.
Fuel injectors: Spring spindles having reduced inertia, hollow spindles, were in use. The figure of maintenance time given did not mean that the nozzles had to be serviced generally; it was merely a check and re-testing.
i.e.
275. Corrosion
and dM.p.
tests
tqptpmtni
with an air-cooled turbo-charger to combat cold corrosion. The turbo-charger was also fitted with bronze sleeve bearings which could easily be renewed at low cost should this be found necessary.
Steam versus
P, table 69,
diesel:
p.
been
fitted
on
They would refer Todd to Steam Ship 275 of their paper, which was a model
tested post-war vessel.
With regard to independent, electrically-driven pumps: Easier and better control of the engine cooling system was obtained without the engineer having to be continually opening and closing by-pass valves. Furthermore, the fresh water pumps could be left running on shut-down of the main engine to provide after cooling, and could also be used when the ship was laid to provide a warming circulation of the main engine from the auxiliary. It had been established over a period of years by the ships engineers, that the electricallydriven pumps were favoured by them. In the unlikely event of a complete electrical failure, a clutch driven pump off the auxiliary could be used for water circulation of the main engine. On the question of circulating water he agreed entirely with the use of freshwater rather than seawater. Regarding liners: Some owners did not wish to pay the
but preferred to re-condition the engine after a few years in service in accordance with classification requirements for survey. It was not suggested that the life of the liner was so short that it was necessary to re-conditkm by chrome-plating the bores but, starting with a plain liner, some years of operation could be obtained, the liner bore chromed and engine efficiency could be maintained withoutm^r<ttst of replacement of liners after 8 to 10 years. Regarding the use of chrome-plated top compression piston rings: This had been the practice on the smaller engines, in particular the winch engine sfee as fitted to the ships discussed* in the paper, with results equivalent to those given by the
questioner. Propeller efficiency: The curves and information were as given by the propeller manufacturer. Thrust meter readings
results gave reasonable agiteroent wtth the estimated figures in certain trawling condition*, cfcnne discrepancies were found* Further data was expected to be obtained in the ntar future. Whilst on the subject of propdfert, the authors would ffloe to have farther jwractical information from Klaaiieu in copnectjk>ti with a food
initial cost of chrome-plated liners
In reply to Simpson's comments: It is interesting to note that diesel trawlers have been in constant use in the U.S.A. for many years in comparison with their use in the U.K.
is no doubt that this is more due to an economic reason than for any other. The use of diesels in U.K. has developed mainly alter World War II particularly for the fishing grounds
There
as discussed in their paper i.e. the British West Coast hake fishing industry and was bound up with the high cost of coal and the necessity for new building. With regard to high speed engines with gearboxes versus
direct-reversing,
direct-drive
engines:
It
is
their opinion,
particularly with British conditions of fishing, that there is a use for both types and, in fact, for the home water fishing,
the higher speed engine with reverse-reduction gearbox and with a winch drive driven from the forward end of the main
engine,
common use. However, for the particular on the West Coast, the low speed engine has proved its worth and is considered more suitable for this particular type of fishing which calls for a high torque from
is
in
fishing duty
the engine, under trawling conditions. In fact, it is generally found that the engine is on a much higher load when trawling
than when free running.
With regard
figures given in the
to the reliability of this type of engine: The paper prove that the engines are particu-
had been taken and white Ike
larly suitable, as the days at sea and the overall costs are comparable with any other type of propeUing machinery. It has been standard practice on these vessels to provide a separate diesel-electric winch drive set, as given in their paper with diesel engine powers around 375 h.p. and, for powers of this magnitude* and with the engine on full torque under trawling conditions, it is considered better as a separate unit It is interesting to note that owners are now considering the me of controliaWe-pitch propellers and, at the present
one with A with a controllabb-pitcfa propeller, from which they hope to obtain some iterating data, not only for running conditions but for the ability of a
time, there one
fixed-propdier
two add
sister ships, just in service,
the
other
atipper's usage of the controlfcb^
vessel for fishing,
as they should soon have in operation their fir* 909 h.p. vcwd with a ccmtroiUbte-pttch propdter
,
had dosed
ciicuit
fmhwafer jack* cooling
that this type of systems since about 1936. cooling is far superior to seawater cooling, particularly for satisfactory engine operating conditions and to eliminate
DISCUSSION
There is no doubt
corrosion, and this had been their standard since the post war years.
on marine work
(Belgium): Beaudoux stated that he had some of them fitted with twospeed reduction gears, others fitted with controUabfe-pitch propellers, which enabled comparative readings to be taken. The results seem to prove that the controllable-pitch propeller loses more efficiency than expected, because of the
MR. A. CHARDOME
built identical trawler hulls,
diameter and the disturbed pitch distribution.
Fig. 276.
Metalhgraphic structure of magnetic

,
steels.
shows
XllCN
IS; middle,
X40CDJS; and
lower,
X9CND264
Top picture
magnified 100 times
efficiency for the multiple-speed reduction gear,
97 per cent. Mr. Chardome had no reason to disagree with the figure given by the gear manufacturers, as the oil cooler calculated under this assumption proved to be rather too efficient. He would, however, ask Captain Mdckel of the Hamburg Tank to make a direct reading in the summer of 1959 during a trial trip, and he was willing to communicate the results to those interested. Hunter stated further that the electrical losses of a dteselelectric drive might be compensated partly by other advantages such as fitting a slow running propeller with better efficiency or stopping part of the generator sets when the load permitted. Mr. Chardome thought one should try to ensure that such compensations were effective. An example is given in Heinsohn's paper: if a controllable-pitch propeller running at 230 r. p.m. is replaced by a slow running propeller of great diameter, 16 per cent of electrical losses can be compensated by 15 per cent improved propeller efficiency; but if a slow turning propeller of large diameter is used in both cases, the 16 per cent, dbctrical losses remain uncompensated, Experience wottW indicate if flopping part of the generator sets wouW wault in a tower average fbel consumption. It might be interesting to note the following: Trawler No. 8
Hunter expressed
doubts concerning
paper.
Gueroult's type
is
diesd-electric
ship.
The
[317]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORti>: 2 CONSTRUCTION doamioat of the type C are about 10 per cent greater than and without any risk of error. According to Kteassen, simpk
thereof the type A. Bodi trawtes apetid * coatkteabk time trewfcng the Ncwfouixlland fishing ground* in onto to fill tfeoir larB holds with salted fish, thus the horsepowers used
cannot be very dttferatf. According to die owners, the average foot cowumptkw of type C is, for each day at sea, 73 per cent, higher than that of type A, This does not seem to indicate that the electrical losses of type C have been compensated in any way. Klaassen and Hojsfaafd questioned why a controllablepitch propeller of 10 ft 10 in. (3.30 m.) diameter, turning at 133.5 r.p.m., was compared with a fixed-blade propeller of II It 4 in, (3,4* m.) diameter, with 83 and 141 r.p.m. This comparison seems arbitrary to them. The r.p.m. of the propeller of 10 ft. 10 in. (3.30 m,) diameter was chosen so that the thrust would be a maximum when absorbing 1*400 h*p. at trawling speed. Fig. 249 shows that this number of revolutions is 133.5 and also indicates that the P/D ratio is near to 0.8.
systems have been developed which allow for automatic adjustment of a controllable-pitch propeller so that full power is absorbed while free running, irrespective of prevailing sea
conditions.
Mr. Chardomc had tried to determine whether it was possible to design a fixed-Made propeller capable of absorbing the same 1,400 h.p. and of delivering, whilst trawling and
whilst free running, the same thrust as the controllable-pitch propeller described above.
Hie theoretical advantage pointed out under "Multiplereduction gear versus controllable-pitch propeller", might in this way become a practical advantage. It would, however, be useful to measure the advantage claimed. Modern trawlers owing to their improved hull lines and to their high propulsion power, are little affected by bad weather. Hunter and Eddie (1959) mention a difference of one half knot between trial speed and service speed. Fig. 248 shows that even if the speed loss was one full knot, in this case the automatic adjusting device would allow the controllable-pitch propeller to absorb 50 h.p. more than the fixed-blade propeller. Rlaassen has presented a diagram showing for a given diesel engine the curves of specific fuel consumption as a function of engine torque and engine r.p.m. with a curve AB being the locus of all points of minimum specific fuel consumption for a certain engine output; and he assumed, for
argument sake, that
tion curve
when
represented the minimum consumppropeller efficiency has been taken into
AB
diagram fig. must be increased by 4 to 5 per cent, and a P/D ratio near to 1 must be adopted to obtain an equivalent fixed-blade propeller, provided the power is delivered with variable torque, either by mechanical or by electrical transmission.
is
The answer
given in the
249: the diameter
account. He did not go into the exact determination of this optimum efficiency curve but went on to show the principles. He stated that the controllable-pitch propeller and the propeller with electric drive can work along the curve AB, and therefore have an advantage over the mechanically driven fixed-blade
DC
and P/D ratio equal to 1. The revolution! in the different working conditions result then necessarily from fig. 249, 250 and 251 and are staggered between 83 and 141, as stated above. With hydrodynamically equivalent installations it becomes interesting for the shipbuilder to compare the prices, the maintenance costs, the fuel consumption, etc. What would have been the use of comparing the controllable-pitch propeier to a fixed-blade propeller having the same diameter or the same r.p.m. at trawling conditions ? Both installations indeed would have been hydrodynamically completely
different,
He arrived in this way to 4 la. (3.46 m.) diameter
the fixed-blade propeller of
1 1
ft.
pfopeltor.
Mr. Chardome emphasized that this argumentation depended entirely on the position of the curve AB on the diagram and that he had never met a similar position with modern diesel engines and high speed vessels. In the trawlers his firm was building, where the curve AB (maximum product of engine efficiency and propeller
efficiency)
was situated along the so-called "fixed-blade propeller free running curve*', a second speed resulted in the
trawling curve and free running curve both being superposed upon the region of lowest fuel consumption.
The reasons
for this important difference are:
r.pjn. It the shipbuilder.
having nothing in common but the diameter or the would have brought no instructive information to
Diagrams showing curves of constant specific fuel consumption vary considerably with the type of diesel engine and with the increasing supercharge. The region
engines
Kfeassen remarked further that in the case of a controllablepropeBer, when the full power is not requested, it is advisable to reduce the r.p.in. and to increase the pitch above the pitch of the fixed-blade propeller rather than to maintain
pitcfe
the
maximum
r.p.m.
of lowest fuel consumption in four-stroke supercharged is normally and intentionally situated along the so-called "fixed-blade propeller free running curve'*. Klaassen's diagram must concern an unusual case as the region of lowest fuel consumption is situated much
higher.
of thrust is indeed recorded as indicated in 250 and 251, if the r.p.m. of the controllable-pitch propeller . aie reduced by partial toad. But if they are reduced under a given optimum, the thrust will again decrease correspondingly, Mr. Chardome recalculated the lower part of his table 76 assuming variable r.p.m. and obtained the results given in
fig.
An inomse
The dURpwnce which were already negligible are now prcticaBy non-existent, but in no case has the efficiency of the taedk&ade propeller been exceeded* A complicated medhantam thus allows a controBabk-pitch propeller to at a risk of numerous ftfllow ito laHuies, whtk the fixed-Wade propeller with fear, having a 4kaeter ificreaaod by 4 to 5 per cent and a P/D ratio equal to
f,
In modern trawlers (Chardome, 1955), if the efficiency of a fixed-blade propeller is maximum at 100 per cent, r.p.m. in free running condition with a pitch ratio in the region of unity, it will remain practically maximum along the free running curve when revolutions are decreasing. The pitch ratio of 0.675 at full speed as in Klaassen's diagram is unusual for high speed vessels.
In order to check this statement, Mr. Chardome had used the consumption diagram of the main propulsion engine of trawler Pterre to compute the specific fuel consumption for the fix cases in tWe 76 referring to the fixed-Wade propeller, and abo for the six revised of taUe f2 referring to the
cam
feJtowi
tiie
same curve without any complicated
regulation
oontroliabte-pitch propetter .
13I8J
TABLE 82
propeller at variable r.p.ra.
DISCUSSION
Thrust
Orszulok had asked for criteria to design a propeller with multiple-reduction gear. As may be seen in fig. 249, the best pitch ratio is near to 1 ; diameter and disc area ratio are then selected in order to avoid cavitation in trawling condition. The number of revolutions in sailing condition is fixed in the same way as with a single-speed reduction, i.e. by keeping a
certain reserve of torque at trial speed. Finally, the number of revolutions of the second speed correspond to full power
at
about 4 knots.
The
tively
:
results
were exactly the same
in
both cases, respec-
had expressed the opinion that two speeds, one and one for trawling, give too rigid a limitation and that a three-speed reversing gear would no doubt be very complicated and certainly costly. Mr. Chardome's experience was the contrary, because r.p.m. can always be adjusted to
Varrialc for sailing
get the desired flexibility
.352, .345, .343, .352, .345, .343 Ib./h.p. (159, 156, 155, 159, 156,
155g./h.p.).
Trawlers No.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
9 and 10
in tabte
75 have
all
Contrary to Klaassen's statement, he found that the controllable-pitch propeller with simultaneous control of engine revolutions and propeller pitch can, if the bad influence of boss diameter and disturbed pitch distribution is neglected,
reach practically the same thrust and consumption results as the two-speed driven fixed-blade propeller, but cannot go
three ahead speed reductions. Two-speed gears were used in No. 7, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15, because the dieael with its heavy
flywheel and after careful torsional consideration, proved to be much more flexible than supposed. Four more trawlers
have been ordered since table 75 was prepared, with h.p. ranging from 1,200 to 1,600. All will have two-speed ahead
reduction.
beyond.
(319]
AN ANALYSIS OF
U.S.
FISHING BOATS -DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS
AND COSTS
by
HARRY BENFORD
and
MIKLOS KOSSA
Dimensions, weights and costs of the principal types of U.S.-built, steel-hulled fishing vessels have been analyzed and the results are presented graphically. Methods of estimating weights and costs are suggested and the influence of overheads, wage rates, profit and miscellaneous costs are discussed. The proposed cost estimates are assimilated into a final set of curves showing the trends in total cost for vessels of various sizes and powers. To meet an apparent need, the paper concludes with a proposed cost and weight recording system suitable for small-craft yards.
UNE ANALYSE DES DIMENSIONS, DES POIDS ET DES COUTS

a analyst fes dimensions, les poids et les couts des principaux types de navires de peche a coque d'acier construits aux E.-U., et les rcsultats sont repr6sentes graphiquemcnt. II est suggert des methodes d estimation des poids et des couts, et 1'auteur examine Tinfluence diverses. Les estimations de coQt des frais generaux, des salaires, des btotfices et des proposees sont assimilees dans un groupe final de courbes montrant les tendances dans le cout total de navires de diverses dimensions et puissances. Pour satisfaire un besoin Evident,
On
Censes
1'auteur conclut par la proposition d'un systeme de relcv*
du cout
et
du poids adapt* pour
les
chantiers construisant de petits navires.
ANAL1SIS
en
la
DE LAS DIMENSIONES, LOS PESOS Y LOS COSTOS
Se nan analizado las dimensiones, los pesos y los costos de los principales tipos de barcos de pesca con casco de acero construidos los EU.A. y los resultados se presentan grtmcamcntc. Se proponen diversos m&odos para estimar los pesos y los costos y se examina influenda de los gastos generate, salaries, beneficios y gastos diversos. Las estimaciones de los costos propuestas se asimilan en un grupo final de curvas que indtcan las tendencias de los costos totates de barcos de diversos tamaftos y potencias. Para satisfacer una necesidad aparente, el autor tcrmina proponicndo un sistcma de registros de costos y de pesos adecuado para asttlleros donde se construyen barcos pequcnos.
making technical decisions and are the that best measure of engineering success is realizing commercial success. The prospective fishing boat owner may be impressed with the naval architect's calculations
tions in
NAVAL
architects are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of economic considera-
can be applied to fishing vessels outside the types mentioned.

Difficdttes encountered
In gathering the information for this study, the authors
were impressed by two things:

tion, administrators
(1)
almost without excep-
of
stability, strength
first of all, how much the boat and, second, how soon he can expect the profits to repay his investment. It is the primary intent of this paper to suggest means by which the naval architect can show the prospective owner how variations in possible, size or power will influence building costs. Since any cost analysis involves dimension and weight studies, the paper deals, not only in cost estimating, but in weight
interested in
and knowing is,
fuel rate; but
what he
is
really
will cost
technical people are very willing to co-operate in furnishing cost and weight figures, but, (2) the common failure to keep any sort of systematic
and
record of costs and weights meant that, for the most there was nothing available to contribute. In other part, instances, the recording systems were so confused that
they were of
little
use.
While it is not expected thai much factual cost information will be found in the published literature, it is
cause for dismay to comb every available technical paper on fishing boat design to find next to nothing published on weights. Simpson (1951) is a notable exception. Let this be a plea, then, to future writers .-publish your weight breakdown, or if you have none, at least state the dead-
and dimension approximations

This study
is
as well.
confined to U.S. type fishing boats, principally trawlers, tuna dippers, seiners and combination craft. Unless otherwise stated, all figures are bated
on steel hull construction, although deckhouses cither steel or wood. Vessel sizes range up to
(60 nt) in length.
may be
200 ft
Propulsion is by single screw diesel engines in powers up to 2,000 BHP. With * little care and judgment, the results of the study
weight and displacement at tome specified waterline! Despite the dearth of figures, it was decided to embark on the study and to publish the findings to provoke
Anther discussion.
IS20J
U.S.
FISHING BOATS
W.k
LI
tt.Mt
**<! *f
Fig. 277. Principal dimensions
of U.S. -built
trawlers
Finally, to
recording system
for
meet an apparent need, a cost and weight is proposed which should be suitable
mula
et al,
relating length, displacement
and speed (Schokker
most small-craft yards.
1953) but it was not found to be particularly applicable, except for trawlers in the range of length between 1 1 1 to 170 ft. (34 to 52 m.). The formula then is
as follows:
Proportions Fig. 277, 278 and 279 show the principal dimensions of the major types of U.S.-built fishing craft, while fig. 280, 281 and 282 give the approximate relationship
where
8.4 based on existing data (if using metric ton,
between length and displacement. These figures were developed as pan of the weight study but should also prove useful in preliminary design. The mean lines
a value of C=5.58
V= normal sea speed in knots A = displacement in long tons, saltwater

WEIGHTS
will give
LBP
in metres)
drawn on the
charts represent
final
but are not intended as the
good average practice word. In many instances,

from
special operating conditions will dictate departures these mean values.
An
attempt was
made
to put to use Posdunine's for-
Naval architects must know how to estimate weights of a proposed vessel. First, and most obvious, such knowledge is essential as a means of guaranteeing sufficient payload
Fig.
m.
ofU.-b*Ot /MM cUpp*t
CONSTRUCTION
Fif. 279. Principal dimensions
of U.S. -built
seiners
and miscellaneous fishing
craft
tions.
capacity, stability, trim and similar technical consideraSecond, it furnishes a rational method for esti-
mating most of the building cost components. This section is devoted to the problem of estimating weights in the early stages of design and presupposes that the dimensions and power have been tentatively set* The proposed cost and weight breakdown presented at the end of the paper does not in every instance agree with that used in this study. The authors were forced to depart from what they considered the best because of the manner in which their available weight data were
presented.
be used to estimate the net weight of normal any type of fishing vessel with wood deckhouse. When the deckhouse is of steel, its weight in tons can be estimated (Simpson, 1951) as 0.004 times the product of the structure's length, width and height. In metric units, the constant would become 0.144. These figures appear to be on the safe side. The same reference stated that wood deckhouses will weigh the same as steel. If the dimensions of the deckhouse are unknown, the following approximations can be used for either wood
Fig.
283
may
steel in
or
steel:
Seiners:
,. deckhouse weight =
.
LBPxBxD x 0.025 rtA - c

TKK
This category includes the main hull structure, superstructure, deckhouse, bulkheads, bulwarks, decks, foundations, etc. In general, welded steel construction is assumed, although the deckhouses will usually be of
Tuna
clippers:
deckhouse weight =
Fig. 283
xD LBP x B "
100
X 0.01 5
as measured by
wood, except
in the larger trawlers.
shows the influence of
size,
the cubic number:
LBPxBxD/100
in cubic feet,
on
the weight characteristics. This parameter is commonly used in big ship analysis and seems quite in order for small craft as well. Above a cubic number of 300, the
T
Of
*0*N
MWT9
unit weights decrease as size increases. This is quite in keeping with similar plots on large ships and is sound. In the smaller sizes, however, the trend is reversed. This can be explained by the fact that the raised superstructures, which are standard on the larger craft, usually
A^'
ft
'I
'
'
'
'
J*
'
'
At
.00
ti*
disappear as size decreases and, finally, in the smallest the deck will be partially or completely eliminated. Considerable deviation from normal weights can be expected. Extent of superstructure, block coefficient and arbitrary choice of plating thicknew, will all influence the
craft,
It k supritmg, then, to find that fig. 283 seems to be gonenUly correct within 10 per cent, in the range of sizes above a cubic number of 100.
float figure.
rflfjyfaornifiTf
f322J
Fixed There
is
U.S,
FISHING BOATS
considerable variation in the
amount of
fixed
ballast carried, and in many instances there is none. correlation seems to exist between ballast weight
No
and
vessel size. Ballast weight cannot be fixed in the preliminary design stage but is generally introduced only as found necessary for stability after the design is fairly well advanced. While ballast must not be overlooked in the
weight analysis, lating costs.
it is
of only minor importance in calcu-
Outfitting and hull engineering weight This category includes such items as the rudder, propeller
and
and
shafting, bait boxes, hull piping, joiner

rigging.
refrigeration
work, wiring, equipment, ventilation, heating, hatches
Fig. 282.
Approximate relationship between displacement and length of U.S. -built seiners and miscellaneous fishing craft
FAIL
ITH1N THI
\t
will.
Work boats used primarily for fishing are included whereas lifeboats would be grouped with outfitting. Bait tanks are grouped with hull engineering because of
here,
their elaborate piping.
It
is
44-
difficult to generalize
about
this category.
Its
99
100
MO
Fig.
28 J. Approximate relationship between displacement and length
of U.S.-butlt tuna
clippers
and
Fig. 284 can be used to estimate the weight of outfitting hull engineering. The figure shows the influence of
weight will depend on the fishing method to be used and normally the owner will dictate the equipment to the naval architect. In seiners, this weight will vary from about 10 per cent, of the light ship weight in 30 ft. (10 m.) boats to about 2 per cent, in 85 ft. (26 m.) boats. For small trawlers, this ratio should be about 5 per cent, in the smaller and somewhat less in the larger sizes. Perhaps this category should have been at the top of the list because the fishing method dictates the gear which is the crux of vessel design.
size on this weight category and it is found that the unit weight definitely increases with vessel size. While this is quite the opposite in larger ships, it can be explained by the fact that larger fishing craft tend strongly towards a greater use of electronic gear, deck machinery, steering
gear and "hotel service** systems. In the very small sizes, weights within this category are almost non-existent. Actual data details from existing ships show considerable variation and in some cases depart from the mean line by as much as 30 to 35 per cent. While fig, 284
is
believed to indicate the general trend,
it
should be used
with great caution.
1%is category consists essentially of that portion of the equipment, such as trawl winches, gurdies and seine reels, which are more or less permanently fixed.
vessel's fishing
It specifically
exempts fishing nets* fishing lines* poles and other loose gear which the fisherman can change at
Fig. 283. Net Heel weight coefficients for seiners and tima dippers (for trawlers with steel deckhouses, add 0.03 to C* *oJue given from curve)
[323]
FISHING BOATS OF
TE
WORLD:
CONSTRUCTION
was of necessity followed here. The outfitting and hull engineering weights of fig. 284 take this Into account,
Anffiary maefciaery
This category includes all the engine room items other than those directly concerned with the main engine. The weight of most of the auxiliary machinery, such
as the generators, bilge pumps and refrigeration machinery,
is
engine,
more a function of vessel size than of power of the main and is, therefore, analyzed on a basis of cubic
Fig. 284. Relationship between outfitting weight coefficient
and cubic
numbers. Fig. 286 indicates a rough method for estimating the weight of the auxiliary machinery. The unit weights tend to increase with size because of the increasing importance of auxiliary mechanisms in larger craft. Individual deviations from the mean line may be as much as 80 per cent, so that this plot should be used with care, in fact, a better method of approach is required.
Mate propulsion mftcUnery weight This category includes the main propulsion engine, together with its lubricating oil, fuel oil and cooling systems. Also included are the gears, starting air system
and
controls.
U.S. fishing vessels today are almost 100 per cent. diesel powered with single screw propulsion. As a general role, the engines are installed as single rather than multiple units. Direct engine drive is frequently found on the bigger vessels, while geared engines are more
common
in the smaller craft
where weight and space an aid

in calculating the
MIX
WT
I^C*4'V
(I.ON4
T^Hi)
C^*
"
restrictions are acute.
UM-0
Fig. 285 has been prepared as
weight of the main propulsion machinery. It should be noted that the weights are plotted on a basis of BHP. This is not to be confused with SHP which will be somewhat smaller. Dervin (1950) and Argyriadis (1957) give
excellent conversion factors for various arrangements. Liquids within the machinery will add a small extra
II
MM
and cubic
Fig. 286. Relationship between auxiliary weight coefficient
number
Lightship
all of the above weight categories (that is: structural hull, fixed ballast, outfitting and hull engineer-
weight, perhaps 2.5 per cent, to the dry weights fig. 285.
shown
in
The sum of
The weight of the propeller,
shafting
and
shaft bearings
really should be included in this category. However, in the data available to the authors, these weights were generally grouped with hull engineering, so this practice
fishing gear, main propulsion machinery and auxiliary machinery) equals the weight of the light ship. For a specific design, the prudent naval architect will also
ing,
append a designer's margin of 5 to 20 per cent., depending on confidence in his estimates. For wood hulls,
another 10 per cent, for soakage may be added. Fig. 287 shows the general trends of light ship weight versus cubic number. It is obvious that many factors ure off these mean lines. can throw an actual weight Trawlers, in particular, teem t be stoutly built and tend towards weights between 15 per cent and 25 per cent, above curve values.
The
difference between the design displacement
and the
Plg,2B5.
Dry wdgkt tf V.4e*l *******
of course, the deadweight This comprises Hie variable weights which the fisherman can use in various combinations and over which the naval architect will have no control. WhSe k is beyond the scope of thb paper to provide means
light ship
Wright
i*,
<
(324]
variable weights, the suggested
weigftt at the end of the paper will serve as to what ihottkl be considered
U.S.
FISHING BOATS
breakdown of oost and a reminder as
CONSTRUCTION COSTS
The very nature of boatbuilding
costs is such that it is a to write definitive treatise on the quite impossible Variations in design, different production subject.
methods between yards, changing hourly rates, disparity between local taxes and shifting dollar values, place any cost analysis on shaky ground although this does not rule out the usefulness of such studies. When engineering economy is used as a tool in design, it is generally satisfactory to have correct relative values of cost. Therefore, while the end results of a comprehensive study may not be exact today (and will surely be wrong tomorrow), they can still serve a very useful purpose. The remainder of this section outlines a method for estimating the cost of construction of a single-contract
Fig. 288. Steel hull ta'xwr requirements
long ton, based on the net weight. The figure may be considerably higher, however, if a greater-than-avcrage amount of electronic gear is installed. The man-hours required to fabricate and install the outfitting and hull engineering items can be estimated by the use of fig. 289.
Ebbing gear costs

This particular category is one in which the authors could find no exact information. It seems reasonable to
believe,
however, that the unit costs for both material
Fig. 287.
Relationship between light ship weight (exclusive of fishing gear)
and cubic number
and labour should be very nearly the same as for outfitting and hull engineering. Recent trends towards power reels and other labour-saving devices will, of course,
tend to increase costs within this category.
U.S.-buiH, steel fishing vessel. Dollar values are based on mid- 1958 conditions. The term "material cost" includes not only outside purchases, but services of the vendors'
engineers
and
similar expenditures.
SUucival huB costs These win vary with the

estimated from
fig.
steel weight,
which can be
283.
weight should be increased by about 15 per Current delivered costs are about 9200 (71) per long ton from the steel mill or about 9250 (89) per long ton from a warehouse. The man-hours of labour involved in the steel hull construction can be estimated from fig. 288. These values include mould loft work and wooden forms. Wooden deckhouses may be estimated on a basis of 9250 (89) per long ton of material and 100 man-hours per long ton for labour* Both figures are based on the
steel
Net
\
\
cent, to arrive at the invoiced weight.
finished
weight
trim
wr.
1.01
KM
ton
fig.
weight rf material involved can be estimated from 2M, The costs wiH average about 9265 (95) per
Fig. 289.
Qutfi
r per
[325]
CONSTRUCTION
These figures can be estimated on a weight basis, fig. 286, Material costs should average about $1,200 (429) per
long ton. The labour involved in handling and installing the auxiliary machinery generally requires about 180 manhours per long ton.
Hourly rates
The average hourly
rates, including a normal amount of bonus and overtime pay, comes to about 92.65 (19s.) on the East Coast and $2.75 (19s. 9d.) on the West
Coast.
This cost division includes most of the operating expenses which cannot be charged to any particular contract.
Fig. 290.
U.S. marine diesel engine costs
Fig. 292.
Approximate main engine costs
Main propulsion macUMiy The costs for the main engine can be obtained from
costs
diesel
the
manufacturers or, lacking that source, by reference

290.
and
Executives' salaries, watchmen's wages, property taxes fuel costs represent a few typical examples. The total
to
fig.
installing the main engine should vary with the weight of the unit. This may be about 50 man-
The labour of
cost chargeable to any given boat will number of contracts handled during
depend on the the year and
numerous other
factors.
hours per long ton (see
fig.
285).
Overheads are generally estimated as a percentage of

the direct labour costs and various yards report this as being from 30 per cent, to as high as 125 per cent. For general purposes, a figure of 80 per cent, is appropriate.
Miscellaneous costs, profit and Insurance sub-total of all material costs listed above should be increased by about 5 per cent, and labour costs (not part of the overheads) by some 10 per cent, to cover engineering, launching, material handling, cleaning, trials and other necessary miscellaneous costs. For estimating purposes, a profit of 10 per cent, on all of the above costs is frequently assigned. Insurance on the vessel may add another \ to 1J per cent.
The
Building several consecutive boats from the same set of drawings, templates and forms will, of course, effect considerable savings in cost tn addition to the nonFig. 291.
Maurid end
labour
{exd*&e of main
tngint
and
recurring expenses just mentioned there are reductions due to increased labour efficiency and the vendors*
savings.
(326J
COSTS OP CONSTRUCTION
The cost of each of two identical vessels may be only 90 per cent, of the cost of a single boat. If the number of
repetitions reaches eight or ten, the unit cost should level out at about 80 per cent, of the single-contract cost.
U.S.
FISHING BOATS
The Appendix contains a

trates die u$e
sartiplc estimate
which
illus-
of the foregoing cost and weight estimates. The example is based on an actual bid and shows satisfactory agreement with the average o/the bids submitted.
The preceding parts of this sectfon suggest methods for estimating costs of the majdr components of fishing boats. The method of presentation allows the reader to modify those particular items for which he has more authentic estimating data. Where speed is more important than accuracy, however, the following material should prove convenient. The detailed figures of the previous paragraphs have been assimilated in order to provide curves of total cost for fishing craft of various
sizes
Fig. 294.
Approximate relationship between length and cubic number
based on the material and labour curves of fig. 291, with an hourly rate of $2.75 (19s. 9d.), overheads at 80 per
cent., 10 per cent, profit and 1 per cent, insurance. The other contours are taken by combining fig. 291 and 292. It is probable that trawlers would tend to cost from 5 to 10 per cent more than indicated by the curves. Fig. 294 shows the approximate relationship between vessel length and cubic number. This allows quick conversion to the size parameter used in the curves when
and powers. Fig. 291 shows the general trends
in material costs
and
labour requirements for vessels of different sizes. The costs associated with buying and installing the main engine and fishing gear are specifically excluded. The figures are high enough to include miscellaneous material and labour costs, for example engineering, launching, etc. but no overheads, profit or insurance. Fig. 292 shows the general trends in the cost of furnishing and installing the main engine. These curves are rough and are intended only for quick estimates. The values are high enough to include miscellaneous material
costs. The total cost curve also includes overheads at 80 per cent, of labour, profit at 10 per cent, and insurance at 1 per cent. Hourly rates are assumed to be 92.15 (19s. 9d.). Fig. 293 shows the trends in total cost for fishing vessels of various sizes and powers. The curve of zero power represents a hull without main engine and is
thinking in terms of vessel length. Obviously, such an approximation causes a further lessening in the accuracy of the estimate. For rule-of-thumb estimates, the following approxi-
and labour
mations have been derived from fig. 292 and 293 Total cost, exclusive of main engine and fishing gear, in thousands of dollars (thousands of pounds
:
sterling):
.0.70 x
x
.
LBPxBxD is less
100
than 250
= 1.09
LBP x B x D
100
- 100
is
M^LBPxBxP 9X
*
100
-36^
when
LBP
^ xD
greater than 250
Cost of furnishing and installing main engine, in thousands of dollars (in thousands of pounds
sterling).
BHP is less than 600

El3x
Fig, 293.
Trends in taut cost versus cubic number (exclusive of

fishing tear)
BMP is greater than 600

J
1327
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD: 2 CONSTRUCTION HtOPQSED COST AND WEIGHT SYSTEM and they must, of course, be furnished with copies of the
toy way of definition, the authors mean the tategories into which the costs and weights involved in building a boat may be divided. Each category is given a code number for ease of identification and the same code
numbers are used on every boat building contract. After a few boats have been built and recorded under
such a system, the yard will possess a goldmine of economic and technical data of great usefulness in subse-
numbering system. The cost numbers should be made an integral part of each drawing number and all material should be plainly marked with its appropriate number. In studying and comparing various existing systems, four different philosophies seem to have been applied. Some yards divide the work according to what the object
bulkheads, foundations, rudders, etc. Others may it according to who does it: sheet iron, plumbing, variation on this is a division according painting, etc. to what sort of tools are used. Most systems now in use show the combined influence of all these philosophies and most contain rather peculiar oddities having their roots in the history of the yard. Several years ago the U.S. Navy considered adoptingasystem based entirely on function. Thus the charge number for propulsion machinery, as an example, would embrace not only the engine and gears but associated foundations, wiring and piping. The proposed system had considerable merit but was too alien
is:
quent contracts. The following departments

particularly:
divide
will benefit
Accountants,
who must keep a
record of
how
the
money is received and disbursed

Cost estimators, who must be able to predict quickly and accurately how much any proposed vessel should cost even when the new design is different from any
previously built
Naval architects, who must be able to assure the owner of adequate capacity, and proper stability and trim Production planners, who must have some basis for predicting labour requirements and for gauging
progress during construction
to established systems in yards throughout the country.

First proposal
The ideal system should be identical for both weight and cost records. When this is so, the estimator can readily establish a large number of exceedingly useful
such as man-hours per ton for steel shell Thus, as each contract is completed, are analysed and the resulting cocosts and weights efficients plotted or otherwise recorded. Then, when a competitive bid is requested, the estimator can use these tools for predicting the cost of each element of the procoefficients*
The first proposed method for breaking down cost and weight has been prepared by the authors and can be recommended for all kinds of small craft construction. It is generally similar to the methods used in large shipyards, differing principally in that special categories are established for deckhouses as well as for special equipment in this case, fishing gear. Deckhouses are set out because of wide difference in configuration between
construction.
craft. The new design may at first seem radical, but when broken down into each of its components, it can be analysed with confidence. This is not to say that any estimating system will eliminate the need for judgment and common sense. It is simply that a bid prepared by these means is bound to be better than one arrived at by gazing at the ceiling or by goingto the other extreme and estimating the cost of installing each individual plate and angle. The system should be detailed enough to yield reasonably meaningful coefficients and ill-assorted items should not be lumped in one category. On the other hand, a certain amount of compromise is necessary here or things will become altogether too complicated. The yard supervisors, who are responsible for keeping track of the" man-hours devoted to each type of work, are generally not too well qualified to memorize a long and elaborate list of charge numbers and their meanings. Over-complicated systems defeat their own purpose race they lead to
posed
various types of boats. Another point of difference is that hull engineering is lumped with outfitting because of the difficulty of drawing a line between them in smallcraft work. Finally, engine room auxiliaries are independent of the main engine since their functions are more akin to the hull than to the prime mover.
The breakdown
is,
is
made according
builds
it,
rather than
who
to what the object what tools are used, or
what function it fulfils. The list is by no means complete but enough details are given to express the authors* ideas. Each yard will have its own special requirements and these may vary, depending on the type of vessel. In any event, every conceivable item of work should be set down in one
category or another. This will prevent vacillation in the case of ill-defined items and ensure that nothing is forgotten in
cost estimate.
Zero division (cost kerns other than ship materials):

01
Engineering and design

Specifications
loose reporting. It is suggested that the best place to effect these compromises is in the smaller, less expensive categories where rather crude ftthtMifrf can do little harm.
02 03 04
and contract plans Insurance and miscellaneous fees

Staging, launching, cleaning, temporary lights, inspection and other miscellaneous labour and material
a fystem such as proposed here, it is to remember that it cannot possibly work important without the active co-operation of the yard supervisors. These individuals must be properly instructed and convinced of the importance of reporting time accurately
installing
When
05 06
99
Tests
Mould loft work and trials
Handling materials involved in the above
|328]
100 division (hull structure) 100 Shell pUtiag and bulwarks
101
U.S,
404 405 406 407
FISHING BOATS
Attached auxiliaries
Starting equipment Governing and control systems Liquids in propulsion machinery
102 103 104 105 106 107

108
Double bottom framing Other framing

Tanktop
Decks, hatch coamings and pillars Bulkheads Foundations
Castings and forgings Fastenings
499
Propulsion weight)
machinery material handling (no
500 division (engine room 500 Generators

501
auxiliaries)
Pumps and compressors

Heat exchangers
Refrigeration machinery
199
Structural material handling (no weight)
Note:
The
cost of fining
and welding two items
in
different categories should be charged to the smaller of the two items. For example, the work
of fastening a frame to the to the frame
shell
would be charged
502 503 504 505 506 507
Auxiliary boilers
Switchboard and wiring
in engine
room
Service systems for auxiliary machinery
Liquids in auxiliary machinery
200 division (deckhouse) 200 Deckhouse, wheelhouse,

201
599
etc.
Engine room auxiliary material handling (no

weight)
Open
bridge,
wind
screens, etc.
202
Wood
or metal awnings
600 division (fixed ballast) 600 Fixed ballast

700 division (vessel function)
299
Deckhouse material handling (no weight)
300 division (outfitting and hull engineering) 300 Joiner and carpentry work
301
302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310

31
1
Hatch covers and other closures Boatswain's and other stores Canvas awnings, hatch covers, etc. Furniture
Navigating equipment
This category is reserved for equipment peculiar to the needs of various types of craft. 701 Fishing gear and bait tanks 702 Towing gear on tugs 703 Cargo gear on coasters 704 Masts, sails and rigging on sailing boats 705 Firefighting gear on fireboats 706 Scientific gear on research vessels
Masts and rigging (except sailing craft) Electrical wiring, fixtures and appliances Heating, ventilating and air conditioning
Refrigeration equipment (outside engine Hull insulation
room)
The sum of all of these weights and costs will indicate the light ship weight and cost of labour and material to the shipyard. If further analysis leading to displacement is desired, the following categories are suggested as extensions of the above (most of these involve no cost to
the yard):
Lifeboats and davits
312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319
Other lifesaving gear,
firefighting
equipment
800 division (cargo deadweight) 800 Payload, other than passengers

801
Bedding, mattresses, linen Galley and messroom equipment Sanitary fixtures Piping outside engine room Steering gear and rudder
Dunnage
900 division (miscellaneous deadweight) 900 Fuel Fresh water (cooling, boiler feed, sanitary and 901
potable)
Deck machinery and mooring equipment

Independent tanks
902 903 904 905 906 907
Ballast water
J99
Outfitting material handling (no weight)
400 division (propulsion machinery) 400 Main engine

401
Lubricating oil Passengers, crew and effects Stores and provisions Bait and water in bait tanks Nets and other owner's furnished outfit
Reversing and reduction gears

Propeller, shafting
402 403
Cooling, fuel, for main engine
and bearings lubricating and exhaust systems
Another, more systematic, approach to this problem of identifying the various categories allows considerably finer division of the vessel's components. This method
FISHING BOATS OF THE WOfctP:

involves the use of primary, iccondary,
CONSTRUCTION
and
tertiary
breakdowns.
elaboration
While boatbirilders
It is
may
feel
that such
and cost accounting systems where they have not already done so. Once this is done, it will be for the naval
concise,
architects to compile such information in complete, yet form and to publish it for the benefit of all.
to the system.
there are several advantages so logically arranged that it may be no more difficult to grasp than the first proposal Further, it would be ideally suited to electronic data processing. The authors are indebted to Mr, G&a Magyari-Kossa, former cost estimator of the Danube Shipyard in Vic, Hungary, for permission to publish this system which he
is vrodcsirtbie,
Perhaps
could provide a standard form for the recording and dissemination of such data* As already explained, the authors had to develop the
FAO
developed several years ago. Space limitations preclude the presentation of the system in all its details. It is a decimal system. There are ten primary divisions, each of which is divided into ten secondary divisions (or sometimes fewer). Each secondary division is in turn divided into ten or fewer tertiary divisions* Thus, a logical arrangement of up to 1,000
categories
is
suggested weight and cost figures on insufficient data. The task is at best only half done. Fishermen and naval architects need a complete kit of economic tools in order to make rational design decisions. This study has attempted to show what sort of investment will be required in a fishing boat. What is needed next is a
generated
Primary divisions Design and engineering

1
study which will furnish methods for estimating annual profits for craft of various types, sizes and speeds. Then design decisions can be based on the attainment of the maximum possible rate of return on investment, rather than on the crystal ball. It has been shown (Benford, 1957; 1958) what can be done along these lines for
larger ships.
Hull
Propelling machinery Auxiliary machinery
2 3
Adnowfedgmenti
The authors wish
4
5
6
7
8
Piping systems Steering gear and deck machinery Joiner and carpentry work
Electrical
to acknowledge the help of the following individuals and their organizations: Robert F. Allen, A. W. Anderson, R. O. Anderson, Francis G. Bartlett, Robert Bennett, George F. Gary II, Wilton Colberg, Ernest Collins, Stephen B. Dowell, Lauritz Erling, Andreas Paste, Milton Fillius, James F. Goodrich, H. C. Hanson, William Hickman, U. W. Hird, Robert E. Hunter,
Owner's
Trials
outfit
and spares
(4):
and
delivery
Typical secondary division (of primary division piping systems) 40 Bilge and ballast piping 41 Engine room piping 42 Fire system piping 43 Sanitary and potable water piping 44 Special piping 45 Stacks and uptakes
V*1MUM9 U. *MJIVMM, VJVS1UVJI t*II/UV* t jyVOIBV K7V/4tap*%r, Illllp * . Spaulding, Howard Springer, Yoshitane Tana lea, Wesley D. Wheeler and Bruce Whittemore.
APPENDIX
tf ttmm mmttmMmtm sample emirate
*
To clarify the suggested methods of estimating weights costs, the following typical problem has been worked out.
steel
and
46
47 48 49
Pumps
Compressors Tanks
(Unassigned)
Problem: Estimate the deadweight and cost of a single-contract tuna clipper of 1,200 long tons displacement, powered by a 1,600 BHP, 1,720 r.p.m. opposed-piston dtesel engine. Assume the vessel was built on the West Coast during 1958. Calculations are done on a slide rule with weights figured no closer than the nearest ton and costs to the nearest $100 (35.7). Each step is
numbered for
(1) (2)
Typical tertiary division (of secondary division (41): engine room piping)
(3) <4) Steel
From fig. 281, LBP- 138 ft. From fig. 278, Beam -3 3. 6 ft.; Depth- 16.8 ft. Cubfcnumber,LBPxBxD/100-138x33.6x 16.8/100-780
fig. 283=0.337 weight=0.337 x 780-263 tons Wood deckhouse weight =0.0 15 x 780= 12 tons Outfitting weight coefficient in fig. 284-0.267 Outfitting weight-0.267 x 780-208 tons
clarity:
weight coefficient in
(5) Steel (6)
410
41 1
Steam piping
Boiler feed piping
(7)
(8) (9) Fishing
gear weight - nil
412
413 414 415

41*6
417 418 419
piping Cooling water piping Lubricating oil piping Diesel fuel piping Compressed air piping Exhaust piping (Unasttgncd) (Unassigned)
Fuel
oil
(10) Main engine weight, wet in fig. 285-35 tons (11) Auxiliary machinery weight coefficient in fig. 286-0.079 (12) Auxiliary machinery weight -0.079 x 780-62 tons (13) Weight summary:
Steel hull
Tons 263
12
.
Wood deckhouse
Outfitting
206
35
Fishing gear Main engine (wet) Auxiliary machine

Sub-total
52
580
43
it is the authors' hope that this paper will stimulate Jfahen&ea *nd nav! axcfeftects to devote more attention in fairing boat design. It is their lo tbe cwt
Designer's margin
and leeway
for baltett
(H %)
U&m
623
1,200
ItartherwiAthiUboirtyiirdmanagen
Deadweight
S77
1330]
Structural hull invoiced weight- 1,15 x263 302 tons Structural hull material cost- 1200 X 302- $60,400 (21,600) 151 Structural hull man-hours per ton of steel in fig. 2*8 Structural hull man-hours* 153 x 263-40,200 Woc<l deckhouse material cost $250 x 12-$3,000 (1,070)
U.S.
FISHING BOATS
(20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27)

(28)
12- 1,200 Outfitting material cost, $265 x 208 $ 55,200 (19,750) Outfitting man-hours per ton of outfit in fig. 289- 167 Outfitting man-hours, 167x208-34,700 Fishing gear material costs-nil
100 x
Fishing gear man-hours -nil Main engine material cost in fig. 290- $124,000 (44,300) Main engine installation man-hours, 50 x 35= 1 ,750 Auxiliary machinery material costs, $1,200x62** $74,400
Wood deckhouse man-noun,
(26,600) AiuuUary machinery
installation
man-hours,
180x62=
11,200 (29) Total man-hours (sum of lines 17, 19, 22, 24, 26 and 28)
x 1.10-98,000
(30) Total labour cost, $2.75 x 98,000 =$269,600 (96.300) (31) Total material cost (sum of lines 15, 18, 20, 23, 25 and 27)
1,
(32) Cost
05-1333,000 (119,000) summary:
Bid price
$908,300
324,400
This compares with an average bid of about $855,000 (305,000) recently proposed vessel of comparable size and power. The actual proposal involved the use of a surplus main engine which probably accounts for the difference. It is also possible that profit margins were somewhat reduced owing to the prevalent slump in fishing boat construction. The estimated cost, based on fig. 293 is $920,000 (329,000) and the rule-of-thumb formula happens to give exactly the same figure: $750,000 (268,000) for hull plus $170,000 (6,070) for engine.
on a
Fig. 295.
H.
C Hanson's curves of cost, man hows and steel weight

for Pacific coast combination type vessel
H. C. Hanson's curves Fig. 295 shows the result of a cost study prepared by Mr. H. C. Hanson of Seattle, Washington. Mr. Hanson has generously
permitted these curves to be included in this paper. While the quantitative values shown in fig. 295 are not in agreement with those developed by the authors, they nevertheless represent the considered opinion of a fishing boat designer of many years experience and, as such, warrant serious consideration.
[331
MR. H.
DISCUSSION
statements
desirability
HANSON (U.A.): He wanted to amplify made at the 1st Fishing Boat Congress as to
his
the
of using simple V-bottom designs in preference to the normal round-bottom (see pp. 107-109 and 250-260 and fig. 326 in Fishing Boats of the World.) The truth of these statements has been confirmed because the inflationary trend in the world has made it less profitable to construct
new
buildings costs
Fig. 2% shows the 1958 U.S. steel and that a small 30 ft. (9.14 m.) vessel cost $14,000 (5,000) and a 75 ft. vessel $140,000 (50,000)
fishing vessels.
complete. At the 1953 Congress the author complained about high prices, the 30 ft. vessel then costing 110,000 (3,600) and the 75 ft. vessel $100,000 (36,000), thus there has been a 40 per cent, increase in five and a half years, which, if it goes on at that rate, might have a very serious
effect
on the fishing boat building industry.
to reduce hull costs is to simplify designs by using V-bottoms wherever possible, both in wood and steel. Savings of from 7.5 to 10 per cent, can be made with simplified designs. Such changes sacrifice nothing in the way of good construction or operational qualities but actually produce better results. During the past five years the majority of new constructions from 30 to 57 ft. (9.14 to 17.37 m.) have been, in both wooden and steel vessels, of V-bottom type. Fig. 297 shows the profile of a 45x13x4.5 ft. (13.41 x 4.06 xlJ7 m.) steel combination trawler and purse seiner designed with both round- and V-bottom. Fig. 298 and 299 show die toes. Each version has the same appearance above the watcriine. The bow entrances are identical, being 24 off centre. Hie chine of the V-bottom disappears under water; thus there is no pounding in a seaway as in the normal chine boat The rise of fioor in the V-bottom should be noted, fig. 299A, being necessary for an easy motion of a chine boat in the
One way
still water line. When this occurs the fallacy of the double chine design is evident. The round-bottom type would make less speed, a maximum of 10 toots, because she has a tendency to squat more than the V-bottom type. This is due to shorter and more curved buttock lines fore and after. Fig. 301 gives a general comparison of the form curves for the 45 ft. (1 3.7 m.) round- and V-bottom hulls. There are no great differences between them. The loft and pattern work for the V-bottom type can be done in about half the time. With a round-bottom vessel, every inch of plating and frames has to be either pressed or bent, sometimes by heating. The V-bottom boat plates can be wrapped on easily, with very little, if any, roll work. Actually, the stern can be built with four plates, which is simplification at its best. The bow has to be plated in smaller pieces, but this work is also reduced to a minimum. The frames on the V-bottom type are straight, thus simple to make. Great savings are possible in construction compared with the roundbottom type and therein lie the savings as depicted on fig. 296.
Naturally, plating can also be simplified on the roundvessel if it is worked into place vertically, but still its costs are far in excess of the V-bottom type work. Another form of simple plating results from the use of what is known
bottom
as "Conical Hull Development *. This is a method of rolling the plates on the hull, all the plating being shaped in the arc of a circle, but it is expensive to lay out the hull to the exact shape to receive the plating and it is doubtful whether
it is
toss costly
than the regular V-bottom type, although

fine finished hull.
it
does produce a
seaway. Too little rise of fioor would offset the advantage of the chine and give the vessels more violent mot ions. Many round-bottom boats require bilge keels to counteract rolling. The effect of the V-bottom design is actually the same as a bilge ked in round-bottom boats, and it also gives additional support to the vessel front the stability point of view. Another advantage is that it allows longer, flatter buttock lines which' give higher speed, and a better directional stability. so-called double chine is indicated in fig. 299B. A simple flat plate, say 12 in. (0.31 m.) wide at the chine is all right but excessive width of plate, reduces cost, but it removes a considerable displacement in the very place where it will do a vessel die most food. In these small vessels, where every cable inch of displacement is necessary, removing 1,560 Ib. (708 kg.) cubic support at die bBpe is bad practice.
Almost all the advantages in the use of steel V-bottom hold true for the wooden V-bottom as well. Fig. 302 and 303 show a 57 ft. (17.37 m.) Alaska limit seiner, built of wood. The first boat of this type was built in 1913 and it is still in operation. Built of American yellow cedar, a life of 30 up to 50 years can be expected. This type is used at present for crabbing off the Washington Coast and, when opportuniBrine holds have ties arise, for purse seining in Alaska. been built in, and the structure itself is well suited to this heavy load because the harder bilge lends itself well to the support of liquid loads, and tighter tanks can be made, due
to the straight side structure. The cost of such a V-bottom wooden boat has pi <vtd to be 10 to 15 per cent, less than the corresponding roundbottom wooden vessel. large part of this reduced cost is
in the labour saved,
due to
its
ease of construction.
the past seven years the
M*.
J.
PKOMOB (Canada): For
It helps to make a tender vewel, particularly if the vessel is heavily powered. This 45 ft. (13.41 m.) V-bottom type boat wffl make 10 to 10} knots and then produce * wave system when under way about as indicated in fig. 300. it will be noted that the skte 0f the huB Js unsupported wed below the
Canadian Depaitmeni of Fisheries, in co-operation with the provincial Departments of Fisheries and Fishermen's Lorn Boards, has carried out * study of the economics of the operations of awbnt fishing craft on the AUantic seaboard. This study also toduded he of flirtiing boats and equipment to fishermen* Snot 1951 information on capital coils of boats (equipped and ready far
{332}
fishing) by type, *tae ad an* has boon published by the Department of Fisheries of Canada (Proskie, 1952 to 5t). Although data on capital cos* is gathered in some detail, the published cost analysis Is released in summary form as
DISCUSSION
follows:
Original capital cost

1.
Hull
4.
5.
Winch and gallows or gurdy

Fishing Total cost
i
2.
Engine
3. Specialized
equipment
6.
(electronics, etc.)
guide in respect of trends in capital costs and other related data, information is also released as follows:
4. Gross tonnage Area 5. Original capital cost per craft Type of craft 6. Capital cost per gross ton 3. Year built The level of profitability has also been calculated for the various types and sizes of craft and the maximum level of
1.
As a
2.
investment per fishing enterprise has been arrived at for
Fig. 297.
Steel combination trawler designed with both V- and round-
bottom
optimum
operations.
1958
198-200
ft
m)
quotations which are too low, thus depressing the overall industry price structure and causing many shipyard failures. For several years he used the curve shown in fig. 304 for preliminary estimation of building hours for yachts and it has stood the test of critical examination very well. The spots on the low side of the curve invariably represent a simple grade of construction, and the spots on the high side, first class yacht quality. The boats represented on this graph range from a 12 ft (3.7 m.) rowboat to a 65 ft. (19.8 m.)
trawler-type yacht. The value of the graph lies in the constant slope of the curve. This is of considerably greater importance than the actual position of the line as shown, since it makes it possible
to extrapolate fairly accurately on the basis of only one boat For example, he plotted the hours estimated by fienford
and Kossa
for the construction of a 1, 200-ton tuna dipper. used the light ship displacement (1,360,000 lb.), including ballast, thus making the comparison more valid by removal of
He
B
Fig. 296.
10
ttttl
tOA
eotufor various types ofvtaeU
1938 U.S.
MUtag
in their paper conclude that it is their contribution will stimulate "attention to the cost baton in fishinf boat design". Proskie endorsed this hope and wtabed to point out that in Canada it is already in
Benford mod
Kosw
hope
(feat <heir
wany have used their publications a cokto. ToflriB, in fail paper, only one oxample of a nawU arehtoet who is making some use of the restdts of an
>
iovettiittMB that has been carried out in Canada.
Abet ick some dcpM aad
Mm.
HAMLIN (U.S.A.):
1
asM of shipyard
All too often costs are a neglected opwation, particularly in tbe imaller, lowmitt. TWs lack of attention frequently results in
[333]
FISHING BOATS QF THE WOULD;
CONSTRUCTION
From the curve it appears that an 80-ton boat has a length of 75ft. 6 in. (23.00 m,) and that the total price of the steel hull of this boat, including the dock house, a complete steel deck over die whole boat, five water-tight steel bulkheads, engine foundation, streamlined steel rudder with quadrant and chain transmission with hand steering fear on the bridge and a whakback, amounts to 8,000 (U.S. $23,000), inclusive of the built-in fuel tanks, drinking water tanks and steel masts. This price also includes the fixed portholes, and
portholes in the deckhouse, as well as the bollards and the galvanized stanchions in the fish hold. The price shows the great difference in hourly wages between the Netherlands and the U.S.A., while also the steel price is about i lower than the U.S. $200 which is
mentioned.
Fif.
&9. V-bonom steel combination
trawler
the cargo variable.
If this spot represented the actual per-
vessel, the building yard could estimate the labour involved in a vessel of similar type and quality but of any size, by using a curve parallel to the one given, as shown by the dashed line. For instance, a clipper displacing 500,000 Ib. in light condition, and built of steel with wooden superstructure, could thus be expected to require approximately 44,500 hr. for her construction. He fek that consistent use of a curve such as this would give more accurate estimating values for labour than would detailed breakdowns by operation. At least it should provide an extremely accurate check upon quotations. Since displacement seems to be the vital factor in man-hours, the builder should, before estimating a job, find out exactly what condition the specified displacement applies to, and, by comparison with similar vessels of the same size and type, whether the displacement is accurate.
formance on a previous
MR. W. ZWOLSMAN (Netherlands): It was a great pleasure to read the clear explanation in the paper by Benford and Kossa. I twill probably be useful to also record some European data. Fig. 305 shows a number of curves giving the prices for steel fishing craft in the Netherlands. The lines are not
straight
due
to the fact that the small boats are arranged
and
equipped more simply and the larger boats have the sanxf electronics and auxiliaries as ships of 70 and 80 tons. From these figures it appears that the price of the steel hull constitutes about i of the price of the complete boat. The prices do not include fishing gear. Hie net steel weight irf a Dutch fishing boat is 13,5 to 14 per cent of metres, in connection with which it is to be remarked that f 70 to SOtonshavc fhcllplatcsof * in. (8 mm.),
LxBxD
classification societies
permit thinner shell plates, but
would only be a small difference in the total price of the boat, if J jo* (6.35 mm,) plate were used instead of * in, <$ mm.), whae the lifetime of the hull would be shortened k# 35 pur ip0t* for when the shefl thickness has become A in. <4 mm,), th* tbea pfauca have to be replaced.
!
Fig. 300.
'fPiBW fp996N9 'fiVMtiiCMi vfy 4
(334
DISCUSSION
and angle irons
Steel plates Steel masts
Forgings and pipes and steering gear Portholes and lights Welding rods
Painting
.....
including profit
Wages and overheads,
Total
8,000
In the Netherlands no high-speed engines are used in the

fishery for outputs higher than 100 h.p. The engines that have been used the last ten years in outputs ranging from
Fif. 301.
Form
curves for round-
and V-bottom combination trawlers
150 to 700 h.p,, vary from 300 to 750 r.p.m. Also, because the further arrangement and equipment of Hie U.S. boats differ much from that of the Dutch ones, it is of no avail to mention comparative figures here.
of a double chine type
In their paper, Cortett and Venus state that the cost is considerably lower than that of the
remarked that the same price of 8,000 for a 75 ft. (22.9 m.) plastic hull is mentioned by de Laszlo and that this probably does not cover everything
In this connection
it
may
also be
included in the description of the steel hull, while further in general the steel boat is likely to have a longer lifetime than the plastic boat. Time will still have to prove this, but it will be long before the builders of plastic hulls can show that their boats, under the heavy work in the fishery and in the fishing ports, can operate for 40 years without repairs to the
hull.
An 80-ton steel hull requires 6,300 man-hours, which also includes the mouldloft work and wooden forms, so that in case of several boats of the same type the price will be somewhat lower, but the price difference can never fall so low as the 80 per cent, which is supposed. For a series of eight or ten, the number of man-hours can be reduced to 80 per cent, but not the total cost-price.
The price of 8,000 ($23,000) for an 80-ton hull as follows:
is
composed
normal round shape. In Mr. Zwolsman's opinion the double chine form will only have little influence on the total cost-price of the boat. For the steel fishing craft of 30 to 200 tons, tens of which are made in the Netherlands every year, the price of the steel hull is about 30 per cent of the entire price of the boat and this often is reduced to 26 or 27 per cent, when, as frequently occurs nowadays, many electronic instruments and hydraulic winches are used. Of this 26 to 30 per cent, of the total cost-price, only about one-sixth is spent on direct wages in the shipyard, from which it appears that only 5 per cent, of the total costprice of the boat is spent on direct wages for the steel hull. For these wages, which constitute 6,300 man-hours for an 80-ton hull, 400 hours are spent on bending the frames and the curvature of the plates. Shaping the frames and plates of the double chine boat will cost at least 150 hours, so that there will be a saving of
Wood** bttiltAbtka limit
[335]

is
CONSTRUCTION
of the yard operations as a whole. Aster as concerned, Hie procedure which wffl give the desired results fa the establishment of the standard cott of labour and overheads, based on the estimate for the vend for each of the sections into which the total of operations is divided, and comparison weekly or monthly of die value of the work done at measured by the standard cost with the actual expenditure on labour and overheads. Materials do not come into this operation. The quantities and value of any materials used in each section of the work can be established in advance with great precision: they are in fact in the bill of quantities; and these materials can be issued in accordance with the programme of work. Incipient wastage shows up at once, and can be readily controlled. Application to the overall yard operation is relatively simple.
uw
Fig. 303.
Wooaen
built
Alaska
limit seiner
of the total number of only 250 hours at the utmost or hours spent on the work of the hull. So this turns out at & of 5 per cent, which is a difference in cost-price of 0.2 per cent of the complete boat. However, the arrangement of a shipyard can be somewhat cheaper if exclusively boats with straight framing and single curvature plating arc buih, but this is of hardly perceptible influence on the total cost-price of the boat.
Thus the comparison of standard cost, which will include only labour and overheads, with actual expenditure, shows up savings or excesses at regular time intervals, and enables suitable corrective measures to be applied as necessary. The original standard costs must be reviewed continually to ensure maximum efficiency.
In that connection
that the
it
is
well to
draw
attention to the fact
most potent factor
in inefficient
working
is
loss
of
time:
MR. A, HUNTER (U.K.):
A good system of costing is necessary

The
cost
Waiting for instructions Waiting for materials Waiting for assistance Watting for tools Absence of operative
Failure in any period to show a saving as compared with standard cost should be followed up by investigation into loss of time under any of the above heads.
make-up suggested by Benford and Kossa depends very much on the use of the cubic number. Naval architects will appreciate
the dangers inherent in using this parameter blindly unless ships of very similar characteristics and without large dimensional changes are being compared. The proposed grouping of costs is rational and orderly, but between various establishments will depend largely upon the demarcation employed in a particular establishment. The difficulty in an expanding post-war world is to make workpeople cost conscious right down the line from management to shop floor. The more detailed a system can be without employing an army of clerks the more readily
for budgetary control as well as records.
mam
will expensive differences
be thrown up.
S. MEALLAIN (Ireland): Benford and Kossa's paper of considerable interest and value as an analysis of the make-up of the cost of a fishing boat and indicating relationship between dimensions, weights and costs. The fact that the data used are those applicable to steel hulls does not take from the validity of the presentation. There is, however, an omission which detracts somewhat from the value of thfc
is
MR.
paper adequate reference to and emphasis on cost control. not sufficient to be able to make * satisfactory estimate or know, on completion, how much any particular vessel has cost. We should be able to keep trade of and control costs during actual construction, and know ateo whether the yard as a whole is working at a profit or a toss. It is dearly
It is
ewentialtobeabtetodetennineataUtimeswh h keeping pace wWi expenditure, and to measure in of money any discrepancy which may exist between the two rates of progress. In any yard engaged on the construction and repair of boats, it is necessary to have early and accurate information
i i
on
progress, Hot
o% of new vestris under construction, but
Fig. 304.
JUamtoft
**rwm fix p
Imnfar
[331
Suitable costing and cost control will not of themselves ensure profitable or eftdent working; but they ate the mains towards the application of such measures as can ensure it
~ DISCUSSION
E. POPPRR (FAO): Commercial fishing is undertaken economic gain, either individual or collective. The main object is to produce the most income at the least cost, or the
for
greatest value erf output with the least value of inputs. allocation of the income between producer, trader
M*.
The and
Where the total output is severely limited, for instance by the biological nature of the fish stocks, increased output by one unit means reduced output by others. Capital and other costs incurred for this purpose do not produce corresponding output value over all and there is economic loss. In the economic sense, production is not completed until the produce is consumed. The efficiency of the whote process of getting the fish from the sea to the consumer's table must be considered. Fishing is only one part of the process, and
over-all efficiency
consumer, and within each group, is a separate problem, not predominantly economic. Greater efficiency in the economic sense means lower cost per value unit produced. This can be brought about by saving on physical inputs, by making inputs cheaper, by increasing output for a given level of inputs, or by making the output more valuable. Such changes are often interdependent and unless there is lower cost per value unit produced,
there
is
depends on the others
also.
no economic
gain.
PROF. H. VOLKJER (Austria): Benford's valuable paper shows to arrive at the weight and cost of a fishing boat and these values change if the main characteristics of the boat are altered. He is right in saying that thereby the task of the naval architect is at best only half done. It is not any cost of any boat which satisfies the requirements that is wanted, but the most economic ship.
how how
Ftf. 305,
Zwoltman's curvtsfor costs of Dutch itttlfuktot
1337]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORID:

\
CONSTRUCTION
Banker*
criteria
for optimism. Hanson's comments were particularly valuable in their practical counsel concerning single and double chine hull forms. One minor comment was suggested
by his remarks on conical hull development: such a form is not confined to circular arcs; it is generated by a straight line between any fair line, such as a chine, and a focal point
which may
in this
surface designed along the generating line. developable; that is, it allows construction without recourse to furnacing. The transverse sections of such a form are frequently very nearly straight. When this
shift
is
way
is
not true, the frames may be installed in straight sections by orienting them along the radial generating lines.
Proskie's discussion was particularly welcome in that it called attention to the valuable cost data available from the
Department of Fisheries of Canada. The authors expressed

their apologies for their regrettable oversight in this
tion.
connec-
Hamlin's generosity in making available his man-hour curve for yachts was gratefully acknowledged. It was noted that his values showed reasonable agreement with those
M
.
J06.
Optimum
economy
design of vessels depending on what criteria of is taken into account
In his paper, and also in his earlier publications on tankers and on ore carriers, Benford says that the criterion for the most economic ship is the annual rate of return from invest* ment. This means; receipts minus cost divided by capital or profit by capital. This may be termed the "banker's criterion",
practically the annual rate of interest accruing from the capital. It can be shown by simple mathematical calculations that the optimum value of the banker's criterion
it is
proposed in the paper, recognizing the basic differences between pleasure and commercial craft. Hamlin's views on the relative accuracy of curve versus detailed cost estimates were felt to be well worth noting. Such opinions, while not as yet widely accepted, were thought to be gaining ground. Zwolsman's cost curves and practical discussion were received with pleasure since their inclusion added greatly to the value of the paper. His criticism of the author's estimate of the possible savings through duplication was noted. Benford (1957) showed that average costs per tanker levelled out at about 85 per cent, of the cost of a single tanker.
lofting and other non-recurring costs are more important in small craft, it was not felt that an average levelling-ofT figure of 80 per cent, was an unreasonable estimate for fishing craft. The exact figure would,
Since
design,
relatively
because
of course, vary from yard to yard and, even in a given establishment, would be heavily influenced by relative complexity of design as well as other factors.
largely influenced by income, i.e. in our case by the average boat constructed price per unit of fish sold after landing.
is
for a high fish price will, therefore,

characteristics, say
of length a low price. Therefore, it seems better to follow Popper's definition who pointed out that the cost per unit produced is the only correct criterion. He calls the relation : annual receipts minus cost divided by receipts, or profit by receipt, the "economic efficiency". In analogy with the banker's criterion, the term 9* "shipowner's criterion could be used. It can be shown (fig. 306) that its optimum value is independent of income. The mathematical formulation of both criteria (Volker, 1959) reveals a fundamental difference between them. The application of the banker's criterion must lead to erroneous results if used for finding out the various characteristics of the
show other optimum or of speed, as compared with
a boat buih to
sell fish at
Hunter has cautioned against placing too much reliance on the cubic number as a tool in estimating weights and costs. The authors concurred that there were dangers in the use of this (or any other) parameter when comparing ships of unlike characteristics. Hunter was felt to be by no means alone in his dissatisfaction with the manner in which the authors grouped both hull and machinery items in certain instances. There was admittedly room for improvement in that respect but a universally agreed-upon solution was not
held to be readily found. Vdlker's comments were confined to a comparison of two differing views on the proper economic criterion applicable to ship design. The authors felt it best to withhold
reply
until
the
referred-to
publication
most economic
ship.
O Meattain's remarks on the importance of cost control were well taken. The authors noted that accurate gauging of
entire subject might
entire subject, while of interest, significance in this particular paper.
The
became available. was of only minor
HAHRY BBNFORD AND MR, MIKLOS Ron*
(U.S.A.):
The authors were pleased with the interest shown in their paper* and noted with considerable satisfaction die widespread geographical sources of the ditcusskms. ft Hanson has made a food case for simplified butt
forms although Zwoliman, in
discussion,
found
less
shipyard progress was exceedingly difficult and that the be worth a paper at some future Congress, In doting, the authors believed that the general tone of the dijcuMkms was one of endorsement of the main points of the paper. Mott of Ac discussers generously contributed additional factual data wfeidi enhanced the value of the paper. All comments were most welcome.
1338]
MODEL TESTS OF SOME FISHING LAUNCHES

by
THOMAS
/
C
<
GILLMER
model tests of small, light displacement fishing launches During 1958 the Ship Model Towing Tank at the U.S. Naval Academy 1 of similar dimensions to those used in the Maine Coast lobster and the Bay crab and oyster industries. All models were approximately 4 ft. (1.22 m.) on the water-line. The tests were made up to a speed-length ratio V/VL~1.4S (v/v gL=0.43) The results were presented as: (1) horsepower versus speed in knots; (2) specific resistance versus speed-length ratio; (3)
residualiresistance coefficient versus speed-length ratio. It is possible to conclude, provisionally, that the most advantageous hull forms are those with fine entrance angles combined with displacements distributed uniformly from amidships to the stern. To qualify the advantages of these features, the half entrance angle would appear to be optimum between 10 and 12, with a prismatic coefficient of .65 to .70 resulting from a flat run from amidships to the transom. The powering would then be most advantageous in the speed-length ratio range of 1.1 to 1.4 (v/\/gL=0.33 to 0.415), the speed range apparently most frequently used in practice.
ESSAIS
DE MODELES DE QUELQUES BATfeAUX DE PECHE NON-PONTES
En 1958, le Ship Model Towinp Tank a I'Acadtmie Navale des E.-U. a commend des essais de modefe de petits bateaux de pdche non-ponts, de faible emplacement, de dimensions semblables a celles des bateaux utilises par les industries du horaard de la Cote du Maine et par celles des crabes et des hultres de la baie de Chesapeake. Tous les modules mesuraient approximativement 4 pi. ( 1 ,22 m.) a la flottaison. On a fait les essais jusqu'a un rapport vitesse-longueur V/VL^l,45(v/Vgt^=0,43) Les r&ultats ont pr&cntes commc suit (1) puissance en c.v. en raisonde la vitesse en noeuds; (2) resistance specifique en raison du rapport vitesse-longueur; (3) coefficient de resistance risiduaire en raison du rapport vitesse-longueur. Provisoirement, il est possible de conclure que les formes de coque les plus avantageuses sent celles comportant des facons de 1'avant fines, combiners a des emplacements distribues uniform6ment du milieu du bateau & I'arriere. Pour obtenir les avantages de ces caracteristiques, Ie demi-anglc d'acuit* paraitrait &re optimum entre 10 et 12, avec un coefficient prismatique de 0,65 a 0,70 ayant pour resultat des facons de 1'arriere plates du milieu du bateau a I'arcasse. La mecanisation serait alors tres avantaoeuae pour des rapports vitesse-longueur compris entre 1,1 et 1,4 (v/\ gL=0,33 a 0,415) la gamme de vitesses 6tant apparemment celle utiJisee dans la pratique.
ENSAYOS DE MODELOS DE ALGUNAS LANCHAS DE PESCA

Durantc 1958, en el estanque de remolque de modelos de barcos de la Academia Naval de los E.U.A. se inicid una serie de ensayos de modelos de lanchas de pesca pequeftas de poco desplazamiento, de dimensiones analogas a las cmpleadas por los Pescadores de boganvante de la costa de Maine y por los de cangrejo de mar y ostras de la Bahfa de Chesapeake. Todos los modelos tenian unos 4 pies (1,22 m.) de eslora en la llnea de flotaci6n. Los ensayos se hicieron con una relation velocidad eslora V/VL=1,45 (v/ygL=0,43) LOS resultados se presentaron como: (1) fuerza motrizcon relacidn a la velocidad en nudos; (2) resistencia cspecifica con relaci6n a la velocidad-eslora; (3) cocficiente de resistcncia residual con relacidn a la velocidad-eslora. Provisionalmente se puede decir que las formas de casco mis ventajosas son las que tienen Angulos de cntrada finos junto con detplazamientos distributes uniformemente desde la mediania del barco hasta la popa. Para obtener las ventajas de estas caracteristicas el semi&ngulo de cntrada parece ser 6ptimo entre 10 y 12 con un coeficiente prismfttico de 0,65 a 0,70 resultante de un lanzamiento piano desda la mediania hasta el yugo. La mecanizaci6n resultaria entonces mis ventajosa para las relaciones velocidad-eslora comprendidas entre 1,1 y 1,4 (v/\/gL=0,33 a 0,415) la gama de velocidades al parecer mas empleada en la piictica.
THE
need to investigate small fishing launch design has been long felt in the U.S.A. but no attempt has ever been made to initiate any programme to
improve the design. The problem of model testing small commercial craft is primarily one of limited financial resources. Designers and builders, not to mention the owners, are in an unfavourable position to enlist the services of model
testing tanks.
or educational institutions. With and testing are costly. Testing schedules are planned months in advance. This type of model testing obscures any apparent benefits to the owner, builder or operator of small fishing boats. The lack of financial backing, indifference and prejudice beset any
shipbuilding firms
either, research
scientific investigation
of fishing
craft.
In the tests being discussed the motivation originated simultaneously with the editorial vision of a trade
journal, the interest of several comnwrcial craft designers and the availability of a smalt model testing tank.
The model tanks
in the U.S.A. are essentially
of two
kinds: (1) the large and elaborately equipped installations, either government owned or subsidised by large govern-
ment contract work;
(2)
privately
owned by
large
modest The
J
Because of lack of funds, the programme has been tests at present ace toiled to resistance.
{341
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Fig.
3IL
Lines: Hull Af-/,
Mob Coast lobster boat, LQA~34fl. (10.36

*.),
,),
L**32 ft. 9 in.
<9M m.), Beam-
9ft. 1
in.
(2.77 /m),
Draufht-3ft. (0.914
Dtsploctment~4.15
tons, Prismatic coefficient -0.662
However, the studies show clearly the dangers in overpowering small commercial craft the over-powered boats result only in higher fish costs. The paper is a beginning, and is a limited attempt to provide information
in the carriage type. This, however, is only true where the model scale is I/SO or less instead of 1/8 as it was in
on
typical existing
boats,
with some practical
recommendations.
the tests discussed in this paper. The most important instrument in a gravity tank is the device used to measure speed. The towing force is simply determined by the weights. The speed-measuring instrument is an electronic
The Ship Model Towing Tank at the U.S. Naval Academy is small and of the gravity powered type. The size is
(26 m.) long, 6 ft. (1.8 m.) wide and 4 ft. (1.2 m.) deep. It is limited to normal resistance tests, and to models between 3.5 and 6 ft (1.07 to 1.83 m.) in length
counter, continuously showing any deviations, either It is motivated by a acceleration or deceleration. photo-cell impulse originating in one of the towing
wheels.
The "Eput" meter,
as the electronic counter
is
85
ft.
called, gives direct readings at
one-second intervals to
the nearest one-thousandth of a knot.
depending upon their fineness. Towing is by an accurately calibrated weight drive system. The toeing force is pre-established and the speed determined by instruments during the run. The primary advantages of the gravity tank are its small staff, the small models permit frequent test runs, all resulting in economical testing procedures. It can be argued that tests in a gravity powered tank are less precise than those
Models
tested
offices
The
the
models was initiated in 1958 through Mr. of John Gardner, Technical Editor good of "Maine Coast Fisherman", and Mr. Howard I. Chapelle, Naval Architect and Curator of Transportation, U.S. National Museum. Mr. Phillip Bolger, Naval Architect of Gloucester, Mass., was helpful in supplying
selection of the
take-off lines of
Maine
fishing boats,
and increasing
f-t-T-1-,
Fig. 312.
Biam-llfl.
y^^n^Â^yy^
[342J
FISHING LAUNCHES
Fig. 313. Lines: Hull CW, Chesapeake crabbing launch, LOA -=30 ft. (9J4 tn.), L**29 ft. 1 in. (S.86 m.) 9 Bcam**8fi.2in.t (2.49m.), Draught*** 2 ft. (0.61 m.), Displacement** 3. 17 tons. Prismatic coefficient** 0.754
and co-operation are being shown by such reputable commercial fishing craft builders as Hodgdon Brothers, Inc., of E. Boothbay, Maine. It was decided that the models must be of boats
interest
typical of regional traditions and characteristic of their type. They were to have similar coefficients, comparative
amidship aft. There is a fine entrance with a half angle of 10.5, and only a very slight hollow accounting for the slack sections carrying well aft. The dimensions are 34 ft. (10.36 m.) LOA, 32 ft. 9 in. (9.98 m.) length in waterline, 9 ft. 1 in. (2.77 m.) extreme beam, 8 ft. 5 in. (2.58 m.) beam (WL), 3 ft. (0.914 m.) draught at heel of skeg.
power and speed ranges and

less
similar capacity, all regard-
of locality of origin. Variations in hull form for comparative data would be in reference to the basic models. Four models were chosen. The first, M-l, was a 34 ft. (10.36 m.) launch for lobstering, built in Portland, Maine, in 1946, "one of several to the same moulds", according to her builder. The naval architect who took off her lines reported that she was powered with a 6-cylinder automobile engine of about 105 SHP, and "made a clean natural drift, but not fast, say 12 knots". The forward sections show a flare which does not settle into tumble home until well abaft of amidships, as shown in fig. 31 1. The bilges are gentle to almost slack, while the run is absolutely flat at an angle of 3.5 from
The displacement to the waterline is 9,140 Ib. (4.15 ton). The second model, M-2, is considered as a fairly
recent design modification
fishing boats.
among
the Atlantic Coast
This has a V-bottom, hard chine hull form. The lines, fig. 3 1 2, show a powerful hull with large freeboard, large flare and raking stem. It is, in terms of displacement, the largest of the boats tested. Her dimensions are: 37 ft. (11,28 m.) LOA, 34 ft. 5 in.
(10.49 m.) waterline, 1 1 ft. (3.35 m.) beam, 3 ft. (0.914 m.) draught at heel of skeg. Her displacement is ll,8001b.
(5.35 ton) to the waterline. The third model, C-l, is the
Chesapeake boat which
is
to
some degree less regional but of a V-bottom form known locally as a "deadrise" type. Probably the most
is
typical boat of this design
a square stern "deadrise"
1, JJ m^ L-M fi. 7 to tfOJS
B*UC-2, C***ap**e
Jtaftf**
Sfr. (1
launch. Hooper craWy Js *,!
Island boa*. LOA -35 ft. 6 in, (10.35 ML) Displacemen*~2J5 AMI, Prismatic coefficttnt-OJK
SEA BEHAVIOUR
the forward-raking, "tub" stern of these boats makes them easily recognisable, their underwater form is also unique and contributes to a certain hydro-dynamic superiority that will be noted in the test results. The boat is 35 ft, 6in. (10.85 m.) LOA, 34 ft. 7 in. (10.55 m.) length waterline, 6 ft. 5 in. (1.95 m.) beam, and 2 ft. (0.61 m.) draught at heel of the skeg. The displacement is 4,740 Ib. (2.15 ton). It will be noted from fig. 314 and the dimensions that she is smaller in terms of capacity than the C-l
:
and M-l models, although slightly longer. The bottom shows a distinct hollow or inverted curvature in the run, tapering off at the waterline at the after end. Her chine lies on the designed waterline for the entire length. The half angle of entrance on the waterline is 11.5*. While there is still a substantial number of this type of boat in use in the Chesapeake Bay area, the type has been abandoned by the builders. This is perhaps unfortunate but is undoubtedly due to the availability of much higher
and versus speed of hulls (assumed i)* Fig. 315, cent.) plotted in speed ranges for displacement huffs
EHP
BHP
40 per
crabbing launch of Cambridge, Maryland (lines by H. I. Chapcllc, 1955). It has a typical cross-planked bottom with continuous chine of very little compound curvature
below the waterline its entire length, as shown The underwater sections are straight; the run The is flat from amidships aft at an angle of 3.25. entrance at the waterline is straight with no hollow and with a half angle of 1 8. The dimensions of this boat are 30 ft (9.14 m.) LOA, 29 ft. 1 in. (8.86 m.) length waterline, 8 ft 2 in. (2.49 m.) extreme beam, 6 ft. 10 in. (2.08 m.) beam (WL), 2 ft. (0.61 m.) draught at heel of skeg. The
which
in
fig.
lies
313.
displacement is 6,990 Ib. (3.17 ton). The fourth model, C-2, also of the Chesapeake design is a crabbing launch of similar dimensions but with rounded stern and more deadrise. It has a finer hull but
greater length-to-beani ratio. Her stern and deadrise make her typical of the "Hooper Island" boats. While
Fig. 317.
Residua! resistance coefficient versus speed-length ratio. This plot exhibits the primary cause for the difference in resistance
characteristics
powered engines and the demands by fishermen for greater

greater speed regardless of fuel consumption. All the boats operate in coastal or partially protected waters, within approximately 50 miles of the base
speed
harbour. The catch does not require a large capacity because it seldom consists of more than several hundred pounds of lobsters or crabs. Hence the hulls generally are of light displacement with attempts at semi-planing forms. Because of their all-season usage, they are, like most fishing craft, of rugged construction. The Maine boats are generally planked with native cedar over steam-bent oak frames. The Chesapeake boats are planked in cedar, cypress or pine, and have sawn frames of oak or yellow pine. White speed in both lobster and crab and oyster boats is desirable, it is more important that the boats are
Fit. 316.
m*M
Specfc
resistance
Iftf an addfttoml r
economical, fairly dry, and tea-kindly. very few, authoritatively estimated at about 0.7 per cent. Maine boat* make 20 knots. The remainder, both in Maine and the Chesapeake, operate at 10 knots or ton.
{34#]
RESISTANCE AND PROPULSiON

The engines used in both areas are gcneraUy automobile conversions and very seldom engines built purely for marine service. This practice, following the automobile trend, led to the installation of engines of progressively higher horse power. This in turn over the two last decades has led to boats of greater beam and broader, flatter stems, essentially a semi-planing type. The economical operation of such boats is dubious. In analysing the results of the tests, the developments above should be kept in mind.
Nature of the model
tests
FISHING LAUNCHES
The Maine lobster boat models will be referred to as Models M-l and M-2, the Chesapeake square-stcrned model as C-l, and the Chesapeake Hooper Island boat as C-2. They were all constructed of soft pine and
finished to a gloss surface. All models were built to approximately l / t scale them 4 ft (1.22 m.) on the waterline.
making
Fig. 319.
Model M-l during towing run. Model speed** 2.84$ knots, speed-length raio= 1.42 (v/ \ gi=*0.422)
resistance versus speed-length ratio; and fig. 317,. residual resistance coefficient versus speed-length ratio. Fig. 315. Horsepower versus speed. This comparison
is the least significant, and it is perhaps the most subject to misinterpretation, because of the direct horsepower values, both EHP and SHP. The propulsive coefficient was deliberately chosen on the relating SHP to
EHP
conservative side, being 40 per cent. Such poor efficiency is by no means too pessimistic, and in many cases of poorly selected propellers is considerably lower. The
full scale boats; the Maine boats, being somewhat heavier, are at low speeds, up to 5 knots, at a very slight disadvantage. Above 5 knots, however, model M-l is considerably better than M-2, with model C-2 showing the lowest power requirements and consequently, boat for boat, the highest hydro* dynamic efficiency. AH curves show a characteristic
curves are for the
Fig. 318.
Residuary resistance coefficient of model C-2 at designed displacement and at displacement increased by 12.5 per cent
The primary tests were for pure resistance in order to study the powering problem. The results are plotted both in terms of total effective horsepower versus speed in knots, and in terms of specific resistance and residual
resistance coefficients, against speed-length ratio.
The
last presentation is thought to be significant, inasmuch as frictional resistance is basically independent of form,
steepness at higher speeds, indicating an excessive engine load at speeds above 8 knots. Specific resistance versus speed-length Fig. 316. ratio. The specific resistance (R/A), resistance per ton of displacement, in relation to the speed-length ratio,
and the results of form variation can be more clearly studied by the residual resistance coefficients. The upper
range of speed, being approximately at a speed-length V/VL of 1.5 (v/ \XgL-0.45), is well within the limits of customary operating speeds, and, indeed, beyond the capacity of many of the boats.
ratio
T*mrits
On the basis of the test data, generally conclusive results cannot be expected. However, the results can be of definite sigmftcaace, They are also subject to a limited
indicale the direotk^ for
amount o? extrapolation and in several instances improvement ''',.'
will
EHP
Three basic {dots believed to be most understandable to the greatest number of readers, are presented: fig. 315* and SHP versus speed in knots; fig. 316, specific
flg.310.
[345J
FJSHJHO BOATS OF THE WORLD:
- SEA
BEHAVIOUR
No firm and general conclusions on the bash of these four models only can be made, However, it is at once
apparent that the round-bottom hull of the Maine boat, M-l, is hydrodynamically superior. This would seem to be true irrespective of the difference in dimensions, which was not great. The Cr versus V/VL for model C-l indicates a fairly early build-up of waves at low speeds. The normal cause of such phenomena is the form of entrance at the bow. The half entrance angle at the waterline of C-l is 18. This angle for model M-l is 10. While this difference is considerable and significant it is not by itself the entire cause. Unless a fine entrance angle is combined with easy, gentle curvature, without "shoulder 1 ', the form cannot be hydrodynamically efficient. An entrance that is excessively sharp will cause weak bilges with resulting poor stability and capacity. Model M-l borders on the minimum entrance angle without loss of other very important characteristics. The low forward chines in C-l, because of the Chesapeake bottom construction, would seem to be a matter for serious study in
F&.32L
JU^C /4toArlN**ntt.
:
*
Model spud -2446 knots. ffto7.J0(r/v'i/
provides a more realistic criterion of hydrodynamic performance. Model M-l shows the lowest resistance or power requirement throughout the complete displacement speed range. Model C-2, which looked so well on a boat-to-boat basis, is relegated to a position more indicative of its ability among boats of equal weight. A resistance "hump" in the curve for the Chesapeake model,
C-l, between speed-length ratios of 1.0 to 1.2 0,3 to 0.36) or about 6 knots, is discernible.
(v/VgL~
The
*t
with larger
specific resistance might seem excessive compared vessels. value of 20 Ib./ton (9.07 kg./ton)
V/VL
1-0
well-designed, displacement type of yacht or trawler. However, with the broad flat runs and wide immersed
be expected (y/VgL=0.30) might
in a
transoms in smaller planing or semi-planing craft the values can go to ten times this amount. Actually, the tested models might, in a broad sense, be described as semi-planing forms and as such the values are within acceptable limits. The Chesapeake model, C-l, having the maximum resistance of 110 Ib./ton (49.9 kg./ton) *t v/%/LK4 (v/VgL*=0.415) could be described as normal or moderately good, and that of the Maine hull, M-l, of 80 Ib./ton (36.2 kg./ton) at the same speed, as very good.
Fig. 317.
any effort to improve these boats. However, there should be some room for variation in the entrance form in Chesapeake boats. Comparing the two Chesapeake models, C-l and C-2, the superiority of the latter is apparent in all criteria. The entrance of C-2 is considerably finer than C-l and the chine "knuckle" becomes negligible near the stem. The chine in this model also is on the designed waterline throughout its length. The good results of C-2 in fig. 317 is due also to the slight concavity or hollow "run" of the bottom, flattening out to tangency with the waterline
at the stern.
The comparatively
light
displacement and
length ratio.
Residual resistance coefficient versus speed' The factional coefficients for all hulls (not
shown) were naturally in very close agreement. Residual resistance, of which the wave resistance is the greater portion, is normally, in comparative tests of similar zeboaU,^giBaauit factor. The photographs of the modeb at similar speeds, fig. 319 to 322, show clearly the different character of the waves generated by the The high values of C-l and the "lumpy" charac<rf i* curve indict* a less efficient hydrodynwnk
,'
moderate beam also contribute to the low power requirements of this hull at the designed waterline. The additional plot, fig. 318, shows model C-2 in the waterline condition and at an increased displacement of 12.5 per cent, or 600 Ib. (272 kg.), and it indicates a considerable increase in residual resistance. This is caused largely by increased eddy resistance due to submergence of the type of stern. The admirable hydrodynamic characteristics and promise of low power of this boat are limited to a very narrow range of waterlines or loads. Her bottom
-'O",^,'
C-l, at
to
<U6)
hw
peed-length nttot a retah-Biy
TUP
model C-l appear
to be higher than for boat* of this type aad tm, Modd
^
C-2
is
the
bm

and chine
design, however, should not be overlooked for additional study. The V-bottom Maine boat M-2 has the highest power
FISHING LAUNCHES
requirements in the boat-to-boat comparison in fig. 3 IS. M-2 is the largest and heaviest, being 2.5 times heavier boat. The beam than the Chesapeake Hooper Island and wetted surface is also considerably greater than the These features indicate, of course, other models. greater capacity. The non-dimensional comparisons in fig. 316 and 317 further reveal the character of M-2. The absence of any lumpiness in the curves indicates Kttle
&2
towards the item, combined with a small entrance angle, would appear to be best solved by hull M-l when compared with C-2. These two hulls both have fine entrances but the prismatic coefficients (M-l, 9=0.66 and C-2, 9=0.57) show that the displacement of M-l is distributed toward the stern to a substantially greater extent. The evidence of the advantage of this is apparent in the fig. 316 curves, and the values compared in table 85. Hull M-l when trimmed by the stern and with 10 per
cent, higher displacement, as indicated
on fig. 31 1, show* at moderincreased requirement specific power slightly
variation in operating conditions. The clear superiority of M-2 over C-l in fig. 317 indicates an improved chine
form and the advantage of a fine entrance combined with a faired out and lifted forward chine. The speed of the models did not approach speedlength ratios associated with dynamic support or planing. The upper limits of the speed-length ratios were 1.45 Some tests were made as high as (v/v/gL=0.43). V/x/L=1.65 (v/VgL=0.49) where, in model M-l, a change in trim by the stern began to be apparent. Partial dynamic support could be expected to begin in
this range.
TABUE 85
fata*
f
fertile
atV/v'L-U
The "steepness" of the resistance curves in fig. 315 and 316 indicates that all hulls would demand excessively high power to reach partial planing conditions. The operational maximum speed claimed for the Maine boat, M-l, was in the neighbourhood of 12 knots. This is at V/VL=2.09 (v/ v/gL=0.62) in the partial planing range. It is estimated that at this speed the power would be 2.6 times that required for 8 knots, as shown in fig. 315. This means an actual engine power output of
approximately 60
is
ate speeds as shown in fig. 316. At higher speeds the than at her designed specific resistance is no greater
waterline.
These general conclusions are felt to be justified, but as the tests continue, attention will undoubtedly be given to specific advantageous hull forms. These types of boats work in a transitory hydrodynamic They are for the most pan operating as displacement hulls, yet they often have adequate power to be
area.
h.p.,
whereas for 8 knots only 23 h.p.
required.
It has been recognised traditionally that small entrance angles are of considerable importance in obtaining favourable powering characteristics. However, in order to combine a small entrance angle with ample displace-
ment
it is
either necessary to
widen abruptly to a
full
forced into a semi-planing condition. The requirements in these two situations are incompatible. It would seem then that the most suitable hull type is that one whose at the upper speeds of the specific resistance is lowest It is for such a hull that the condition. displacement At this stage, present investigation is primarily directed. considerable shows M-2 while hull M-l is clearly superior,
hull with hollow waterlines or carry the fullness gradually towards the stern. The distribution of displacement
promise with only

coefficient
slight
modifications
in
prismatic
and entrance
angle.
(347]
MODEL TESTS OF SMALL

'
SIMPLIFIED BOATS
and
"*"':.:'' by YOSH1NORI OTSU, NOBUTATSU YOKOYAMA
TSUTOMU KOBAYASHI
and propulsive efficiency
is
Traditional Japanese coastal fishing boats are simple and inexpensive to construct. Results of model tests indicate a problem on selection of L/B and deadrise angle. Resistance to those of ordinary round-bottom boats in spite of the angular shaped hull with hard chines,
comparable
ESSAIS
DE MODELES DE
PETIT
BATEAUX
SIMPLIFIES
t le
Vlfc.
Let bateaux de pechc coders traditionnels japonai* sont de construction simple et peu couteuse. Le* resultats d'essai* de modeJes indtquent {'existence d'un probleme sur le choix de L/B et du relev* des varangues. La resistance rendement propulsifs sont comparables & ocux de bateaux ordinatres a fond rond, malgre* la coque de forme anguleuse avcc des bouchains
ENSAYOS DE MODELOS DE BARCOS PEQUENOS SIMPLIFICADOS

Las cmbaxcaciones tradtctonaiea japonesas dedkadas a la pesca costera son sencillas y baratas de construir. Los reauttados de los ensayos de modelos indican que existe un problema en la seleccidn de L/B y del angulo de la astilla muerta. La resittcncia y el rendimiemo del proputsor son comparables a los de las embarcaciones corricntes de fondo redondo, a pesar de la forma jmgular del casco y de las aristas agudas.
UL
JL
UfHOUGH
there
is
a tremendous number of
4.2,
due to the
is
small fishing craft along the coast of Japan, they
and v/VgL
different displacements and trims tested, from 0.14 to 0.48. Four models were
fig.
IL have rarely been model tested. Here a typical example, the Yamato type, of which the scantlings are described on page 146, is analysed from the resistance point of view. The results prove to be quite good. It is hoped that more attention will be paid to this simple craft, which could be used in many underdeveloped areas.
developed as outlined in
323.
Two
models have a
deadrise different from the parent, and the other two have the same deadrise but different beams. Thus a series of LBP/B=4, 5, 6 and of p=0.7, 0.8, 0.9 are obtained. The lines of the models are shown in fig. 324. The influence of different LBP/B- and p for a specific
displacement is presented in fig. 325 and 326, together with the influence of trimming. It is apparent that larger LBP/B gives smaller EHP in speeds higher than 7.5 knots
The
craft has a sharp entrance, straight frames, rather high deadrise and hard chine. Tests were undertaken with 6*5 ft. (2 m.) models, whose parent is the Akatsuki. The particulars of the parent model vary: 9=0.57 to
when
the displacement is fixed. The minimum EHP is obtained in the even keel condition. The 12 deadrise of the parent model gives the maximum EHP. These
to 0.73,
v/(L/10)4.6
to 5.8,
B/T=3.6
to-
TABLE 36
IMnHhf
'
A
6*2
B/T
Fig. 325
5J9
SJt
0.631
3,07
Fig, 526
H 64
4*7 417
0.667
1JO
4.38
SMALL SIMPLIFIED BOATS
A -ot
Fig. 324. Lines
of the Akatsuki model family
results
effect
must also be analysed, considering the combined of the coefficients 9, B/T, LBP/B and p, shown
effect
become difficult and the structural simplicity might be lost. So further model tests were not made.
Full-scale test
in table 86.
The
of B/T on the results in
fig.
325 might be
larger than those of 9 and p especially above the Froude number of 0,4 or 8 knots. The residual resistance coefficient r versus B/T is shown in fig. 327, indicating
an
increase of Cr
Fig.
326
is
by increase of p. somewhat difficult to understand. As the
The 36 ft. (11 m.) experimental boat, Akatsuki, was tested seven different times at sea. It was fitted with a torsion-and-thrust meter. The particulars of the boat and one of the test conditions are given in table 87.
Some of the
gain by B/T is contrary to the benefit of 9; the convexity of the EHP curves plotted on the base of the dcadrise angle is probably the result of a disturbed flow around or of 9, B/T leaving the chine than the combined effect and p. The independent effects could be studied by
results are shown in fig. 328. The propulsion efficiency is less than that of large steel ships, and varies with minor changes of the sea which do not affect larger vessels. The efficiency is In
making many
variations
of the model. Most of such
test in a rough sea, the range of 30 to 50 per cent. Beaufort scale 6, showed that about 20 per cent move power was required than in a calm sea. The test also
variationi, however, are not always practical, because the lines may become so distorted that planking might
showed that this type adapted was unexpectedly seaworthy.
itself
to the waves
and
SEA BEHAVIOUR
325, 7%e effect afJLBP/B *nd trim on
EHP for the Akatsuki model series
Ft*. $36.
The
effect
ofrk* offloor *** trim onEHP/or
the Alt
SMALL SIMPLIFIED BOATS
Fig. 327.
Residual resistance coefficient of a model series
Akatsuki
*Hth tfa
rui KOI*
tot
A-
612 too
propHor A
205fl(25mm) pitch with tkow-boek propollor 4io !67ft(3C*mm)

ptteh
2O9ft.(25rr
233 ft (864mm)
sod.
rpm
401*04.
too
135JJ

pean
SEA BEHAVIOUR
dotted fines together with those of Pakistani and Eurofishing boats, as was done by Traung (1955). The towing resistance of the type is compared with the Hora and the Bedi boats of Pakistan; the test results of SSPA 587-A and 588-A (Traung, 1955) have been calculated to the same length and displacement as Akatsuki and are shown in fig. 330. It is interesting to note that the Akatsuki has almost the same EHP below 7 knots as the model of the original Bedi (Froude No.
0.35), disregarding the strict comparability
between
test
conditions.
Mention should be made here of the low cost of the small Japanese craft which has a comparatively good performance in spite of its simplified construction. It is recommended that naval architects should give further consideration to this type of vessel which is used by very many poor fishermen.
Akottukl
LOAMlft(IU)mJ
EHP
*2fm
Comparison with similar sized boats
The construction of the boat somewhat resembles the Long Island Sharpie launch and the New Jersey Garvey in U.S.A., and the hull shape can be considered to be in between the Sharpie or Garvey and the Virginian
Bateau or Hatteras boat described by Chapclle (19SS).
The type does not have a skeg and would have
little
directional stability if not actually being controlled
by
the extraordinarily long plough-shaped rudder, which is hung deep in the water. In fig. 329 the Admiralty constant curves are shown in
Fig. 330.
Comparison of Akatsuki and Pakistan boat
[352]
AN ADVANCED HULL AND PROPELLER DESIGN

by
J.
THOMAS TOTHILL
A
model tests of recent fishing boat designs reveal considerable scope for improvement in hull form and propulsive efficiency. (22.86 m.), 100-ton, 10-knot "fishing boat of the near future** was designed from a hydrodynamtc point of view, incorporating a bulbous bow, 2-bladed propeller, and a stecrable nozzle which replaces the rudder. Tests of this model show exceptionally low resistance, exceptionally high propulsive efficiency, and a high efficiency when trawling. Ths power required at 10 knots is only 105 BHP compared with 250 BHP for the average recent Canadian fishing vessel of the same size and speed. The results are expanded to all sizes for ready comparison with existing vessels.
Model
of a
75-ft.
UNE NOUVELLE CONCEPTION DE LA COQUE ET DE
L'HELICE
Lcs essais au bassin de modeles rtcents de navires de pcche rvelent de grandes possibility pour le perfectionncment des formes de coque et le rendement de la propulsion. Du point de vue hydrodynamiquc, on a 6tabli un modeie de "navire de peche du prochc avenir" de 75 pi. (22,86 m.), 100 tonneaux, 10 noeuds, comportant un avant a bulbe, une h&ice & 2 ailes et une tuyere orientable qui remplace le gouvemail. Lcs essais au bassin de ce modeie montrent une resistance exceptionnellement bassc, un rendement exceptionneltement ilev6 de la propulsion et un rendement 61ev pendant le chalutagc. La puissance n6cessaire & 10 noeuds est de 105 c.v. au frcin settlement au lieu de 250 c.v. au frein pour le recent navirc de pche moycn canadicn de m&mes dimension et vitesse. Lcs r&ultats sent i tend us a toutes Ics dimensions pour la comparaison facile avec les navires cxistants.
UN NUEVO PROYECTO DEL CASCO Y DE LA HELICE

Los ensayos en cstanques de experimentacton de modelos recientes de barcps de pesca revelan que existen grandes posibilidades la forma del casco y el rendimiento de la propulsion. Desde un punto de vista hidrodindmtco se hizo un modelo de un "pesquero del futuro prbximo" de 75 pies (22,86 m.) de eslora, 100 ton, y 10 nudos, con proa de bulbo, tolice de 2 palas y una tobera oriemable en lugar de tim6n. Los ensayos en canales de experimentaci6n de este modelo muestran una resistencia excepcionalmente baja, un rendimiento excepcionalmente alto de la propulsidn y una elevadisima eficacia durante el arrastre. La potencia nccesaria a 10 nudos es solamcntc de 105 c.v. al freno en vez de 250 c.v. al freno para los recientes pesqueros medios canadienses de las mismas dimensioned y velocidad. Los resultados se amplian a todas las dimensions para hacer comparacioncs fAcilcs con los barcos existentes.
para mcjorar
number of models of fishing have been tested for various Canadian organizations in the tank of the Ship Laboratory of the National Research Council of Canada. At the same time, a research project has been pursued with the general objective of improving the design and economic performance of fishing boats.
the last few years a
Examination of
wetted surface.
results
IN
vessels
Below 1\ knots, the curves separate according to the
Above
10J knots, the curves separate
according to the length.
tests of fife recent fishing boats Five models were selected for study. The displacement of the full-size vessels varied from 45 to 913 tons. Because models can be expanded to any size, they have all for purposes of comparison been expanded to 100 tons (101.6 ton) displacement in salt water. The 100-ton
Model
At the mean designed speed of 10 knots, the effective power ranges from 80 h.p. for the best model to 137 h.p, for the worst, a very considerable spread. The spread in engine power will be even larger since the better models should have a higher propulsive efficiency, and in practice the worst model will require about twice the engine power of the best model at 10 knots. The reasons for these large differences lie in the proportions and shape of the hulls, and in the wetted surface. Much of the resistance is caused by the bow wave, and it
important to shape the boat to minimize the height of the bow wave. The half angle of entrance of the toad waterline, the waterplane area coefficient of the entrance, and the prismatic coefficient of the entrance are important in this respect Maximum use must Abo be made of the length, by reducing overhangs to the minimum. Wetted surface should be reduced to the minimum by
is
dimensions are compared in table 89, from which it will be noted that the waterline lengths range from about 60 to 80 ft. (18 to 24m.)-
power curves are shown in fig* 331 in The designed speed of each model is shown by an arrow. Rudders and dummy hubs were
The
effective
English h.p. units.

fitted,
but not bilge
keels.
[353]

TAMJZ89
SEA BEHAVIOUR
registered dimensions and engine powers of all Canadian boats built in the last five years suggests very strongly
shown
Model No,
that the average boat is worse than any of the models in fig. 331. The average today, is a 9-knot hull
1
powered by an
l-knot engine.
B
T(ex.keel)
of an improved hod fern

Several well-known features of hull form, which have evolved through research in model basins over the past 80 years, did not appear in any of the above models,
it was considered worthwhile to try to design a hull incorporating every known feature which would be conducive to low resistance and high propulsive efficiency. This hull might then serve as a parent form for further
and
Vi
4.724 5.734 2.639
5.054 7.083 3.150
4.126 6.524 3.215 0.337 0.595 0.567 0.717

0.563
0.651
4.068 6.005 2.977
5237
5.976 2.611 0.515 0.590 0.873 0.754 0.598 0.707
4.940
5.921
development.
Displacement and speed. The hull was designed for 10 knots on 100 tons (101.6 ton) medium displacement.
2.664
0.503 0.559 0.900
0.671
0.480 0.558
0.861
0.744
0.312 0.609 0.512 0.746 0.587 0.652 21
0.460
0.601
0.765 0.753
0.603 0.675
31
0543
e
0.706
22
20
24
0.585 0.562 8
From a strucof view, the shorter the boat the better, since the weight of the longitudinal material in the hull, for a 1 1 From a powering given total displacement, varies as L point of view, on the other hand, the optimum length is about 1 10 ft. (33.5 m.) and the minimum effective power 38 h.p. Thus a longer, slimmer boat tends to have lower
Length.
First, to select the length L.
tural point
'
machinery and
eliminating external keels, curving the sections into the deadwood at the stern, and adopting a fairly full midsection.
fuel weight,
and higher
hull weight.
But
The shape of
efficiency.
the
bow
and the shape of the stem primarily
primarily affects the resistance, affects the propulsive
Model 85A incorporates a Maierform bow, a low prismatic coefficient, and low wetted surface to give a good result just below the designed speed. At higher speeds, more length would be desirable. Model 91 is fairly well designed in relation to speed, except that the wetted surface is excessive due to a large
wood keel. It is questionable whether such a high-powered boat would prove economic to operate, although this case is typical of the smaller modern boats. Model 140 could fairly be described as "the FAO boat of 1953", having been designed with the 1953 Congress recommendations in mind. This is a short, wide, deep boat with tome transom immersion and an external wood keel. It is too short for the designed speed and has toomuch wetted surface for good results. Model 146 is a double-chine steel boat with straightline sections, which erase increased wetted surface, particularly at the ekeg. This boat is the shortest of the group and hat the bhrffest entrance angle and highest entrance prismatic, due in part to the forward location of the engine. Model 147 is evidently unnecessarily long to relation
external
cocflkaent
architects
CMP
to the low designed speed. The high waterplane entrance gim rise to a very high bow wave. All die above modds were designed by eminent naval
and were good of
their kind.
331.
plot of the
Ejftctb* P***rfor six 100-to* Mlifctigned for

TJMF ftpfow uitKcf&ts tttttfttfti 4pWMM

down
ADVANCED HULL AND PROPELLER DESIGN

PropoWve
factors sff&cttaf
since the hull weight is the major item, a strong preference remains in favour of short length.
huH
Com
The
choice, then, narrowed
to finding the mini-
would remain
1 knots of the curve. substantially Using Taylor's standard series (1943) as a guide, a waterline length, L, of 75 ft (22.86 m.) was finally chosen.
mum length at which the resistance coefficient for

on the
level part
Attention was then devoted to propulsive efficiency. The broad features leading to high propulsive efficiency ait well known. They include the use of a large, slowturning propeller with as few blades as possible, located as far aft and as high as possible. Van Manen (1957) has
made
systematic experiments with propellers in nozzles
Froude number V/\/L is 1.15 (v/VgL 0.3437), which is about the upper limit for economical propulsion at all speeds and requires a prismatic co-
The
resulting
efficient, 9,
of 0.56 on the Taylor form.

ratio.
Beam/draught
The beam/draught
ratio,
B/T,
was then
2.0
ft.
selected to put the metacentre, M, at a point (0.61 m.) above the load waterline, since the centre
is
which revealed for the first time that, by suitable design of the propeller and nozzle, an overall gain in efficiency could be secured in both the free-running and the trawling condition over a conventional propeller. Further gains were expected if the propellers were re-designed for operation inside a nozzle, by broadening the blade tips and increasing the pitch towards the tips and roots.
Nozzte design. Application of van Manen's results to the present case involved a series of extrapolations beyond his tests in an effort to try to take advantage of the
trend in each of the many variables involved. These on the nozzle, the chord/diameter ratio, the thickness/chord ratio, the camber/chord ratio, and the angle of attack, and, on the propeller, the diameter, number of blades, pitch ratio, blade area ratio, blade thickness ratio, and pitch distribution.
include,
of gravity
The
resulting
expected to be at or near the load waterline. B/T for the Taylor form was 3.33.
tons knots, the (22.86x5.28xl.59 ton). At 10 effective power is 79.4 h.p. (English) which is on a par with the much longer model 147 in fig. 331.
Basic Taylor form. The Taylor form was with dimensions 75 ft. x 17.33 ft. x 5.20 ft
m. = 101 .6
= 100
now
fixed,
Improved Taylor form.
How
form? The obvious choice
at this speed
to improve the Taylor is to move the
longitudinal centre of buoyancy, LCB, aft. It was found that the LCB could be moved back to about 0.53 L from the bow before the slope of the diagonals in the afterbody
exceeded 18 degrees. The latter figure is considered to be about the limit for satisfactory flow to the propeller. This modified Taylor form was drawn up to provide a physical picture and serve as a guide for further work.
It was immediately clear that extensive alterations would have to be made in the afterbody to accommodate a single screw. Also a rake of keel would need to be introduced to accommodate a larger propeller and to avoid the steering instability which might result from trim by
The nozzle was intended to show no loss in the freerunning condition and a moderate gain in the trawling condition. By adopting a steerable nozzle, the rudder was eliminated and the nozzle could be placed farther aft where it would be larger and collect a greater proportion of the frictional wake. The nozzle characteristics finally chosen are as follows:
Outside diameter/draught Inside diameter/draught
0.900 0.800 0.240
Chord/draught Profile shape Angle of incidence
NACA4412
deep condition. It was envisaged that, aft and fish hold just forward of amidtheir in logical positions, the boat would sail at a ships, substantially constant draught aft, regardless of loading, and still have a slight aft rake of keel when loaded to
the
in the
bow
with the engine
The steering axis of the nozzle was placed at the i-chord point and the propeller tips at 0.425 chord, giving minimum tip clearance at zero steering angle. The aft face of the nozzle was placed at the aft end of the load water line.
This arrangement represents practically the largest and nozzle which are possible in relation to draught, and the propeller has a considerably larger diameter than is possible with the conventional combination of propeller and rudder.
propeller
capacity.
Bulbous bow.
At the Froude number for 10 knots,
Taylor's (1943) bulbous bow experiments suggest a useful application for a bulbous bow, although his experiments were made on very much slimmer models. To guess the best bulb, a rough extrapolation was made as follows:
When
Taylor
Vessel
Series
Taylor
Series
Present
during severe pitching,
the top of the nozzle emerges it is expected that
form
237
150 A,/(L/100) 0.14? Best value of Taylor's f 0.14 0.14 0.5 0.1 Best value of Taylor's t 1.1 The effect of moving the LCB aft and adopting a bulbous bow should be to reduce the resistance by 5 to 10 per cent, and the effect of introducing a rake of keel should be to increase the resistance slightly, so that the probable effective power at this stage was estimated at
60
a wave and remain full severe pounding of thp propeller. Other advantages of the nozzle are that it helps to protect the propeller from entanglement with lines and nets, and provides some damping of pitching motion.
from the water it will throw up of water, thereby avoiding any
about 75
h.p.
The main disadvantage of a nozzle is that if it should become ben t, it may stop the propeller. Protection against accidental contact with harbour walk was, therefore, provided by broadening the stern sections to a knuckle just above the waterline.
[355J
FISHING BOATS 0F THE WORLD;

Contra fltom frame. Elimination of the rudder has the disadvantage that there is no recovery of the rotational energy in the water behind the propeller. Compensation was therefore provided by adopting a contra stern frame ahead Of the propeller to give a pre-rotation of the flow in the opposite direction to that of the propeller rotation. Slopes on the suction side of the contra stern frame were held to 18 degrees to avoid breakdown of the
flow.
~ SfcA EAV10UR
TABLE 90
I6TMOMM9A
fter
from
Taylor form,
Tarkws featarc* ted beta
Bew flare. The fine shape of the waterlines forward was maintained from the light load line to the deep load Hue so as to ensure a minimum of spray formation at the
bow when
deep load
navigating in icing conditions.
line,
Above
the
however, a pronounced flare was considered necessary in rough water to limit the angle of pitch and to throw the wave crests out laterally. This should help to maintain a dry deck at sea; also, it gives protection to the bulbous bow when coming alongside a dock. The combination of flare .and bulb may be expected to provide an appreciable damping of the pitching motion.
Pmitkuiars of the model
When all the above features had been incorporated, the only remaining resemblance to the original Taylor form was the shape of the midship section. The lines and body plan are given in fig. 332. The main dimensions and coefficients are given in table 90. Model 149 A was made in wax on a scale of 1/7.5 to trip wire give a waterline length of 10 ft. (3.05 m.). of 0.040 in. (1 mm.) diameter was fitted at 5 per cent.
an extremely sharp hollow in the wave profile at the after end of the bulb. Both features disappear at higher speeds and displacements. In the region of 10 knots, the bow wave formation is
extremely clean at all draughts, with hardly more than a feather of foam along the top to cause spray. The model has a pronounced sinkage at this speed, particularly at the bow, but the bow rises again at higher speeds. The sinkage at the stern is just sufficient to immerse the after knuckle at 10 knots, but there is little or no dead water dragged along behind the transom. Stream flow tests were made at 10 knots in the 100-ton
condition.
the
of the length from the
bow to
stimulate turbulent flow.
Resistance and stream flow tests
The model was
corresponding to 80,
tested for resistance at displacements 100, and 120 per cent, of the
designed displacement, the draught aft being maintained constant at 6.5 ft. (1.98 m.). dummy propeller hub was the only appendage. In the light condition, a pronounced hump appears in the resistance curve at 6 knots, and this is associated with
The wave
profile
and streamlines are given on
body
plan.
332.
Model 149A <Uv*bp*dfrom a Taylor farm

The
Effective powers resistance test results
were expanded by the ITTC 1957 line with a ship roughness allowance of 0.0004. The ITTC formula gives about 1.3 per cent lower power than the Schocnhcrr for this model at 10 knots. The effective power curves are shown in fig. 333 and the 100-ton curve in fig. 331 as a dotted line. Table 91 lists
the effective powers.
Effective powers for other sizes of vessel To facilitate comparisons with existing vessels of all sizes, the effective powers and speeds for model 149A are
EHP
plotted on a log-log basis versus displacement from 10 tons to 1,000 tons in fig. 334 to 336. Each figure refers
Fig. 333.
Effective
power at
different displacements,
model 149A
EHP
TABLE
Effective powers of
friction line. S*Jt
91
Model 149A obtained by using the ITTC 1957 water at 59 F (15 C). Roughness allowance 0.0004
Light 80.0
81,3
Condition
Medium
100.0 101.6
Deep
120.0 121.9
V
Light
2.0 2.5 3.0
3.5
0.31
0.58 0.99
1.66
4.0 4.5 5.0

5.5
2.69 4.17 6.36 9.06

12.9 16.0 18.4 21.5 26.5 33.6
6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5
42.0 51.6
64.1
85.7 122.0
172.1
235.8 325.9
fig. 334. Effective power of even speeds j
%fr coaMo*
[357]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD; 2
SSA BEHAVIOUR
Fig. 334 to 336 may also be used in selecting, for example, the proper speed in relation to size or vice versa. At any speed there is a certain size for minimum power. In the medium condition, fig. 335, the 100-ton vessel appears better suited to the speed of 1QJ knots than to the designed speed of 10 knots, but it should be remembered that in terms of engine power the best speed is likely to be somewhat less, since the propulsive
efficiency will fall off as speed increases. The plot used in fig. 334 to 336 is quite simple to draw, is fully corrected for scale effect, gives constant accuracy
all
speed,
over the diagram, and uses practical units of power, and displacement. Only three calculations are
,0000
..
_.
A
SO
1
'
HM
to
tO
-.-I.-, '
'
TO
J
to
100
120
*'
flfr.
^..-,^^,,.1^
30
A M v.
33
JJ5. Effective
power at even speeds
in
medium
condition
to a different load condition, and secondary scales along the bottom show the waterline lengths, in feet and metres, for salt water. Choose the diagram which most nearly fits the dis-
placement and length of your vessel and read off effective any speed. For a more careful comparison, power read off the power from each diagram your displacement and speed, plot the power against length (from the bottom scale), and read off the power at your length. It will generally be found that, in the region of the designed speed, model 149A is hard to beat At the designed condition it is 6.3 per cent, better than Taylor's Standard Series, in spite of having 4.9 per cent more welted surface.
'
'
'
.*
*
Efcctto power
db
Ti
iT
Fig, 336.
# *w apteda to d*p condition
[358]
* r
>
-"44H
-OT4T-
GW
4>
1.0!
FOUMPLAM
OIM
OOK>
* A,
o*tr
z
Fig. 337. Propeller
and nozzle drawing
the powers and speeds for 10, 100 and 1,000 tons displacement to draw the whole diagram accurately. As the author has not seen this plot used before, he commends it to the attention of towing tank authorities
needed
optimum.
Model
140
is
evidently
seriously
over-
architects as a straightforward method of for practical presenting model test data in a form suitable design purposes.
and naval
powered, Hull forms which are appreciably longer and slimmer than those commonly used in fishing boats have flatter power curves which never reach the seventh power
relationship, and for these hulls the power will increase continuously with speed and with size.
The seventh power law
A little analysis reveals that the "optimum" speed always occurs at the point where the power is varying as the seventh power index of the speed. Once the power curve, from model preferably shaft power, has been determined 7 versus to matter a it is (speed) plot power tests, simple
and draw a tangent from the origin. The tangent point then gives the "optimum" speed. This is the speed for which both a larger and a smaller version of the same vessel will require more power, and might better be called the "saturation" speed and power. of Applying the seventh power law to the vessels
fig.
as a
The seventh power law may, therefore, only be regarded method of assessing the upper limit of practical speed for heavy displacement forms, and the designed speed should undoubtedly be somewhat less.
Velocities in the nozzle
The
fitted to
was machined out of brass and the model, and a rake of pitot tubes was placed in the nozzle with their orifices approximately in the position of the leading edge of the propeller blades. Velocities in the nozzle were then measured at 60-degrec intervals at three different radii at a speed corresponding
steerable nozzle
331, the following results are obtained.
Model
Designed speed
knots 9.67
11.47
Saturation
to 10 knots. The tests indicated local wake fractions from zero to 90 per cent, at different points of the disc,
speed knots
10.0
11.8
the average
wake being
24.6 per cent.
Without the propeller, the nozzle undoubtedly induces
85A
91
140 146 147
10.49
10.0
10.0
10.5
9.58 8.30
10.00
some wake at all points of the propeller disc, and the wake distribution without the nozzle will be measured when time permits. These tests will show whether the nozzle does in fact have a homogenizing action on the wake, as is sometimes claimed. Judging by the wake
measurements in the nozzle, the
Design of the propeller
effect
149A
cannot be
large.
These saturation speeds are based on effective power curves instead of shaft power, and are therefore somewhat too high for the reason already stated. Model 147 was not tested to a speed faigfc enough to determine the
Having established the merits of the

selected the nozzle, the propeller design
hull form and was considered.
(359]

is
SEA BEHAVIOUR
thus an ellipse whose major axis is 1,4 radius, with the tip cut off. Blade width. The blade width was chosen to give 0.25 mean width ratio, which, though excessive from the point of view of cavitation, is consistent with the blade
thickness.
from the
Blade sections. The blade sections were made ogival tips to 0.6 radius, and lenticular below 0.6 radius in such a way as to provide a nearly linear increase of camber from tip to root. Better types of blade section are available today, but, when cavitation is not a problem,
their advantage is marginal unless they are made to extreme standards of accuracy and finish. Pitch. The pitch distribution for a propeller in a nozzle is not easy to determine. By analogy with axial pump has expressed the view Manen van (1957) theory, design that the pitch should be increased at both the root and the tip. This conclusion is based on the assumption of a constant pressure increase over the whole propeller radius and must, the author believes, be rejected for ship propellers. What is needed in ships is a constant velocity increase so as to leave the water astern of the propeller, with a small but uniform velocity aft. On the other hand, an increase in pitch at the tip will
IOCT
undoubtedly increase the circulation around the nozzle and increase the thrust of the nozzle, besides collecting somewhat more of the frictional wake at the
section
V, to*
Fig. 338.
Selfpropulsion analysis for 100-ton vessel, model 149A, in medium condition* with propeller 31 and nozzle
top of the disc. Also the mean peripheral wake increases towards the root of the blade and a lower pitch would seem to be required at the root for wake adaptation.
Diameter. already selected as the biggest that could be accommodated in the stern contour without projecting aft of the load waterline ending. The propeller diameter was made the same as the internal diameter of the nozzle so that the
fixed
The diameter was
by the nozzle,
The pitch distribution finally adopted was a linear increase in face pitch ratio from 0.7 at the axis to 1.1 at the tip, the pitch ratio at 0.7 radius being 0.98. Although
propeller can be withdrawn aft without disturbing the nozzle. The necessary tip clearance is available when running because the propeller tips are forward of the
may seem to be a rather considerable manipulation of the pitch, it must be remembered that the camber of the sections confers a virtual increase in pitch, and the camber increases from tip to root. Thus, the hydrodynamic pitch is more nearly constant than the
at first sight this
face pitch values, although there
is still
some
increase
diameter of the nozzle. To maintain the clearance when the nozzle is turned for steering, the blade tips were made part of a spherical surface whose centre is the intersection of the nozzle axis and the shaft
point of
minimum
from root to
tip.
resulting propeller design is different in so many respects from anything tested before that it must be
The
regarded more as a
first
guess than as a final design.
axis.
two-bladed propeller was selected, Number of blades* far highest efficiency, high r.p.m. in relation to size, and
simplicity of manufacture.
Particulars of the propeller
Hade thkknein. The blade thickness ratio for adequate value of strength free-running is about 4 per cent. 5 per cent was adopted to cover the trawling condition.
propeller drawing is given in fig. 337. The model propeller was cut out of solid trolon, a stiff plastic material which machines and files well and takes a good
The
polish.
Axial offsets were drilled at 5-degree intervals
The
Blade
tip thickness ratio is 1 per cent. Mtiifte. If the clearance between the
infinitely small,
it
Made
tips
and the nozzle were
would be
logical
on the face and back of the blades to an accuracy well within one-thousandth of an inch, and the surface was filed down and polished until the drill marks disappeared. The sharp edges of the blades were then rounded back
very slightly.
to design the blade outline as a half ellipse touching the shaft axis, the tip being the widest part of the blade. As gome escape of water will occur in the tip clearance, the Hade tips were narrowed slightly and the greatest Wade width was placed at 0.7 radius. The Made outline
The model was

in
self-propelled, with nozzle and propeller at designed displacement. Tow-rope forces place
[360]

of,
0.45 and 0.9 Ib. (0.204 and 0.408 kg.) were used to cover the range of propeller loading from model to ship, the speed range being 6.5 to 11.5 knots for the 100-ton
ship. On each run, propeller thrust, torque, and revolutions per minute were measured, and the model speed. The thrust of the nozzle was not measured. The results
plotted in a very consistent

fairing
manner and hardly any
was required.
Setf-propubioa analysis results were analysed at the correct propeller loadings for 10, 100, and 1,000 ton vessels, using the ITTC friction line with a roughness allowance of 0.0004. Results for the 100 ton vessel are given in fig. 338 and table 92. At the designed speed of 10 knots, the delivered power is 102 h.p. at 211 r.p.m., giving a propulsive coefficient of 0.73, which is considered satisfactory. If the nozzle were regarded as part of the hull, the propulsive coefficient would be higher, but the author prefers to regard it as part of the propeller because its action is
The
DHP
largely
induced by the propeller.
thrust is given in table 92. It is higher than the resistance, particularly at low propeller loadings, and it appears that the nozzle is contributing little or nothing to the thrust in the free-running condition. The nozzle thrust will be measured when a dynamometer is
The propeller
available for the purpose. Open water tests are necessary for the complete analysis and these also will be made when the nozzle thrust
can be measured.
In the meantime it appears that the propeller is not far from being correctly designed, since the peak propulsive coefficient occurs at the designed speed of 10 knots, and
it
for longlining with an engine of about 105 to give 21 1 r.p.m. at the propeller.
could be said that the design should be highly effective BMP, geared
TABLE 92
medium load. Propeller 31 Self-propulsion analysis of Model 149 A and nozzle. Salt water at 59 F (15 C). Roughness allowance 0.0004
"*
TD
50
35
'tO
140
^
and
Fig. 339.
Delivered power at even speeds in
medium
condition
placement, pulls of
6,
8,
and 10
Ib.
(2.72,
3,63.
4,54 kg.) being applied over a speed range of 2 to 6 knots for the 100 ton vessel.
One point on each curve, in the region of 2\ to 3J knots, gave a speed which was some 10 per cent, below expectation, but as the point did not appear to be due to
error in measurement, the curves were taken through all the points.
Delivered powers for other sixes of vessel Fig. 339 gives the delivered powers at even speed for any size of vessel between 10 and 1,000 tons.
TrawHng tests The model was
The sum of the pull and the model resistance was always greater than the propeller thrust, showing that the nozzle was contributing substantial thrust, although this was not measured* The ratio (P+R)/T ranged from 1.12 at 6 knots to 1.42 at 2 knots, increasing slightly with
the pull.
tested for trawling at the designed dis-
[Mi]

The
were corrected to the 100-ton vessel on the TTTC friction formula with a roughness allowance of 0.0004. They are plotted in 340 as pull
results
SEA BEHAVIOUR
basis of the
in long tons versus delivered power in h.p. (English) for -even values of speed and r.p.m.
Trawttag
ratio of the
efficiency.
The trawling
efficiency
i? t
is
the
power absorbed by the trawl to the power
delivered to the propeller.
and the delivered power DHP (e.g.

units)
In any consistent units for the pull P, the speed V, ft.lb./sec. or kg.m./sec.
^^L DHP
With P
in long tons,
fig.
in knots,
and
DHP
in h.p.
(English), as in
340,
_6.88 q '""
PV
DHP DHP (metric),
With P
in metric tons,
v in m./sec. and
ranges from 32 to 56 per cent, increasing with the speed and varying only slightly with the pull. Compared with trawling tests on another model, the efficiency is 68 per cent higher at 2 knots and 53 per cent, higher at 4 knots. This is partly due to the larger propeller which is possible with the steerable nozzle, and partly due to the nozzle thrust.
It
i.e
1.7
TRAWLING FULL, TOM
Trawling economics. Though it is a valid yardstick for comparing boat against boat, the trawling efficiency is not a good criterion, since the object in trawling is not to get a lot of power into the net but a lot offish. Mathews (1958) has treated the subject analytically and proved beyond a doubt that the largest practical net
at the lowest practical towing speed gives the highest rate of catching fish and therefore the highest gross earnings.
and
Fig. 340. Trawling pull in relation to delivered power at even speeds r.p.m., model 149A, in medium condition , with propeller 31 and
nozzle
earnings, power costs, and net earnings per year for the present vessel with various engine powers, based in part on Proskie's data and in part on the trawling tests of the
model. The constant costs associated with the hull are not included in the table below.
The
oil,
costs associated with
power (which include
fuel,
grease, capital charges on the engine, winch, and fishing gear and their maintenance, insurance and depreciation) must then be deducted to give the net earnings. The ideal power to install for trawling is presumably the
be noted that the net earnings are reaching a 220 BHP, at which point the power costs are peak one-third of the gross earnings.
It will
at
A practical compromise
105
*
power which of trawling.
will give the highest net earnings per
hour
BHP
fig.
From
seem
is, therefore, required between for free-running, and 220 for trawling. 339 the saturation power of 140 would
BHP
BHP
Proskie (1952 to 1958) has recorded the economic perfonnance of some 100 boats in the Atlantic provinces of Canada for the past seven years. From his data, average trends regarding costs and earnings can be inferred. White the author does not claim any peat reliability for the figures, the following table gives estimated
to be the proper choice for the 100 ton trawler based on the present design.
Unfortunately, 140 BHP is beyond the scope of the trawling tests, but extrapolating the results indicates that the pull available for the net at 4 knots trawling speed
would be
140
close to 2,5 tons,
and the r.p.m. about 207.

220
17,900 6,250
BHP
Gross earnings
100
9,780 2,140
7,640
(127,400) ($6,000)
($21,400)
13,180 3,320
J80
15,830 4,670
Power costs
($36,900) ($9,300) ($27,600)
($44,300) ($13,100)
($50,100) ($17,500)
9,860
1U60
($31,200)
11,650
($32,600)
(1-12.80)
{3621

Trmwi

140
BHP at 207 propeller r.p.m., with a governor limitingmaximum r.p.m. to 21

power to 105
1 .
The proper trawl

trawling speed*
for 140
BHP on
this vessel is
if that is
one that
the the
When trawling,
full
power is
requires a pull of 2.5 Urns at
4 knots
the correct
available, but,
when running free, the governor cuts down
Speeds of 3 to 5 knots seem to be favoured by different skippers, but lower speeds lead to a larger trawl, greater pull, and a higher swept volume of water per unit time. Information on the pull required by trawls, at different speeds under actual fishing conditions, is badly needed to assist in the selection of the proper trawl in relation to
power.
Diesel with two-speed gearbox. The diesel engine has a 9 "constant torque characteristic so that if the gear ratio is right for trawling it is wrong for free-running and viceversa. two-speed gearbox is well worth considering on trawlers. One gear ratio is chosen to give full power at the propeller when running free and the other to give full power when trawling. The engine then runs at
*
BHP
and the speed to an economical
10 knots.
competitor of the near future, Free-piston turbine*. the free-piston engine driving a gas turbine, has a "constant power'* characteristic and can deliver full
power at any propeller r.p.m. It is, therefore, well worth considering for trawlers.
Conclusions
particularly
The design may
fairly be claimed to have exceptionally low resistance, an exceptionally high propulsive coefficient and exceptionally high trawling efficiency, when com-
designed power and revolutions in both conditions, Dksel with single-speed gearbox. An acceptable solution for the present design is an engine geared to develop
pared with current designs. Further improvements of the hull form and propeller design can undoubtedly be achieved, but in the author's opinion a greater scope for advance now exists in the design of trawls from a hydrodynamic point of view.
[363]
RESISTANCE OF TRAWLERS
by
H.
LACKENBY
The paper reviews the research progress of the British Shipbuilding Research Association (BSRA) on the resistance of trawlers. The object has been to provide design data to cover a practical range of proportions and fullnesses including systematic variation -of raid-section area coefficient, beam-draught ratio, length-displacement ratio and other geometrical features. The basic models represented to scale a 1 30 ft. (45.7 m.) trawler of 847 terns displacement with a service speed of about 2 knots. Throughout the work the results have been compared on a basis of constant displacement. The mid-section variations showed the beneficial effect on resistance of reducing the prismatic coefficient by fining the ends and
1
out the midship section. At speeds below 1 1 knots there was a significant increase in resistance as the beam-draught ratio was increased. An interesting and important feature, however, was that in the neighbourhood of the service speed of 1 2 knots the resistance appeared to be insensitive to changes
filling
in this ratio.
The length-displacement ratio group showed very clearly the advantage to be gained by lengthening the form while maintaining the other geometrical features. Tests in which the block coefficient was systematically varied showed that, at constant displacement, the resistance progressively increased with block coefficient.
LA RESISTANCE DES CHALUT1ERS

La communication passe en revue
resistance des chalutiers.
les
progres des recherches de
la
British Shipbuilding
Research Association (BSRA) sur
la
Le but 6tait de fournir des donnees de dessin pour couvrir une gamme pratique de proportions et de formes pleines, comprenant une variation systematique du coefficient de remplissage du malt re-couple, du rapport largeur-tirant d'eau, du rapport longueur-deplacemem et autres caractemtiques geometriques. Les modeles de base representaient a Pechelle un chalutier de 150 pi. (45,7 m.) ayant un depkcemem de 847 tonnes avec une vitesse d'utilisation de 12 noeuds. Dans tout le travail, les r&ultats ont compares sur la base du displacement constant. Les variations du mattre-coupleont montrg I'efiet avantagcux sur la resistance de la reduction du coefficient prismatique en affinam les extr&mites et en donnant une forme plus pteine au mattre-couple. A des vttesscs infcricures a 11 noeuds, il y avait une nette augmentation de la resistance quand le rapport largeur-tirant d'eau augmcntait. Cependant, il est important et interessant de noter qu'au voisinage de la vitesse d utilisation de 12 noeuds, la resistance ne paraisiait pas ctre affectee par les variations de ce rapport. Le groupe du rapport kmgueur-dcplacement montrait tres claircment l*a vantage obtenu en allongeant la forme tout en con servant
les
autres caracteristiques geometriques.
la resistance
Les essais dam lesquels on faisait varicr systcrnatiqucmcnt le coefficient de remplissage ont montre qu'a un deplacemcnt constant. augmentait progressivetnent avec le coefficient de remplissage.
LA RESISTENCIA J)E LOS ARRASTREROS

Resena
relativas
a k rcsistenck de tos arrastreros.
k ponencia los adelantos logrados en las investigadones realizadas por la British Shipbuilding Research Association (BSRA)
k
k
En este caso se trataba de facilhar datos que comprendicscn una gama practica de proporciones y formas, inclusive varkcidn sistemAtfca del ooefidente del area de cuadema maestra, reladon manga-puntal, relaci6n estora-despkzamiento y otras caracterfsticas
4t servicto de unos
arrastrero de 150 pies (45,7 m,) de eslora, 847 tons, de dcsplazamiento y una vdoddad 12 nudot. Durante toda labor los resultados se compararon sobre una base de desplazamiento constante. Las variadones de las cuadernas maestras demostraron el buen efecto que tenla en resistenda reduccibn del coeficaente seccion rnediana. prismatico, el aftnafntenlo de los extremes y el redondeamknto de resistencia al aumentar relacion manga-puntal. Sin embargo, vetoddades de menos de 11 nudos htibo un sensible aumetito en un detalie dc intakes e impartanckto* que en ks proximkUuks de vdoddad de servido de 12 nudos, resistencia parecta er imcnsiWe a loscamblos tn esta reladon. 1 grupo de rekdoaes etkxa-despkzamiento forma puso de relieve con mayor claridad ks ventajas que se obtienen akrgando se oonservan constantci ks
georotofcas.
Lot roodeios baafoos reprocntaban un
IXM ensayo*enlosqusealter6sistra^tic]iienteelc^^
de bloque demostraron que a desplazamiento constante,
k resistencia
aumenu progresivamentc con el cocflciente de btoque.

[364J

paper reviews the research progress of the
TRAWLERS
TABLE 93
THIS
ratio,
British Shipbuilding Research Association (BSRA) in so far as trawler resistance is concerned. The
Series
object has been to provide design data to cover a practical range of proportions and fullness including systematic variation of mid-section area coefficient, beam-draught
Length from after side of item post to fore ft. side of stem bar at main deck
. .
length-displacement ratio and other geometrical
m.
Length from after side of stern post to fore ft. side of stem bar at load water! ine I m. ft. Mean draught T m. ft. Trim by stern m. ft. Breadth B m. Displacement (tons salt water) A t
.
.
features.
Methodical series resistance tests with trawler models object has been to obtain from systematic model tests practical design data on the resistance of trawler forms. The general plan has been to select representative parent forms and then to derive others from them to cover a practical range of the following: Midship section area coefficient, p
The
...
Beam-draught ratio, B/T

Length-displacement ratio, L/y l/l Throughout this work the displacement was generally maintained constant. The midship section area variations were carried out first, after which the parent form was changed. The tests with the original parent form have been referred to as Series and those with the later form
Breadth-draught ratio B/T Length-breadth ratio L/B 1 8 Length-displacement ratio X/v / Wetted surface coefficient S/v 1 ' 1 Block coefficient 8 = V /IBT Midship area coefficient p
.
Prismatic coefficient 9 LCB as per centage of
....
from amidships
as Series B.
Series
A systematic variations of midship section area In this series the primary variable was the fullness of the
midship section as defined by the midship area coefficient
f*
*
:
"111/
~~ *
The
series
comprised 3 models having
p values
of 0.887,
0.854 and 0.823, the body sections of which are shown in fig. 341. The model having p=0.887 was the parent form and corresponded to a 150 ft. (45.7 m.) trawler of 8 -~- 0.582 with a speed of about 1 1 to 12 knots. This was considered representative of current practice at the time, that is, the immediate post-war years. The two other forms of finer midship section were developed from the
Fig, 341.
BSRA
Trawler Series A. body plans
[365]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
too-
tso
2 500
-V-VA \ \ --V7* A S\L

\
s a
500
00 J
5J.
B5/?/4 Trawler Series A: effect oj varying midship section area on effective and Ci Iwrscpowcr.
A
r.
* OHI
N,
ftiftlfi
ft
343.
KRA
Trewbr Series
A wd M:
comparison of body plans of the ptrtnt fornts
[366]
TRAWLERS
tto
too
I""
i
600
KALE or *rc:o
.
IN
r*or
t
344.
BSRA
Trawler Series
A and B: comparison ofeffective horsepower C and

t
curves
for parent models
parent by progressively increasing the rise of floor to give p values of 0.854 and 0.823 respectively. At the
same time, and on the same overall dimensions, the entrance and run were filled out in a systematic manner so as to maintain the original displacement of 847 tons. The principal particulars of the parent form are shown
in table 93.
ends generally resulted in increased resistance, and above 12 knots this becomes very marked indeed. Comparing the two extreme forms (i.e. 3=0.887 and 0.823) the
difference in resistance
amounts to 12 per
cent, in
way
of the service speed at about 1 1 J knots and between 1 3 and 15 knots the difference is as high as 30 per cent. In this connection it is pertinent to point out that in fining the
Resistance tests were carried out at a number of draughts and trims in the experiment tank of Denny's, Dumbarton. These included three displacements loaded, 85 per cent, loaded and 70 per cent, loaded, and four trims: level, 2 per cent., 4 per cent, and 6 per cent. L by the stern. The results for the loaded 4 per cent, stern trim at departure condition are shown in fig. 342 in terms of R. E. Froude's non-dimensional resistance coefficient <D* on a base of ship speed in knots. The values correspond to the 150 ft. (45.7 m.) ship, the trans* lation from the model scale having been effected by R. E. Froude's skin friction coefficients. The corresponding EHP's can also be read directly from the figure. All the models were of wax, 12 ft. 6 in. (3.81 m.) long and the results shown refer to tests carried out with trip wires as turbulence stimulators. Referring to fig. 342, it will be seen that, except at very low speeds, fining the midship section, and filling out the
:
midship section from 0.887 to 0.823 the prismatic coeffihas been increased from 0.656 to 0.707. The comparative behaviour at other trims and displacements was generally similar, but at higher speeds the benefit of trimming a ship with full ends was evident in all
cient
conditions.
The
beneficial effect
on trawler
resistance of reducing
the prismatic coefficient by fining the ends and filling out the midship section is now well enough known and it is
understood that the

that direction.
latest
design trends have been in
Further work was planned on this series including systematic changes in proportions, but for various reasons this was subject to considerable delay, not the least of which was the upheaval caused by the introduction of turbulence stimulation on models. Many of the tests referred to had been run without such stimulation and these had to be repeated with trip wires fitted to the models. In the interval there had been considerable development in the design of trawlers and it was con*
427.1
EHP V At*
was no longer
^
sidered that the parent form, designed originally in 1946, representative and that an improved set
in
^m ^11 water.
of lines should be prepared for the subsequent investigation.
wherep-ratii density of the wtter.
1367]
SA
BEHAVIOUR
110-
too..
190.
500.
600
Fig. 345.
BSRA
Trawler Series B: effect of varying beam-draught ratio on effective horsepower\
6.
JRSIfX Tracer Series B: effect of varying letifth-disftfaccmertt ratio on effective
horsepowert
[368]

Series Bcyvtettatk variations fai proportkws The new parent form was designed at Victors-Armstrong's
TRAWLERS
also remained
Experiment Tank, St. Albans, where ail the later tests were carried out. The body plan is compared with that of the original form in fig. 343. It will be noted that the rise of floor has been reduced and the bilge radius increased so as to give a midship area coefficient of 0.885. At the same time, the U-shaped forward sections were
replaced by V-shaped sections and the LCB was moved from 2.01 per cent, to 2.88 per cent. L aft of amidships. The form particulars are given in table 93 and it will be seen that the new model was slightly longer, and for the same displacement slightly finer. This resulted from a
decision to take the length of 150 ft. (45.7 m.) between the after side of the rudder post and the fore side of the stem at the load water line instead of at the deck line as in the previous series. The corresponding length to the
unchanged at 4.85 throughout the group* 4 per cent, trim condition are shown in fig. 345. It will be noted that at speeds below about 11 knots there is a significant increase in resistance as B/T increases and this remark also applies at higher speeds above 13 knots. A most interesting and important feature, however, is that, at 12 knots in the neighbourhood of the service speed, the resistance appears to be peculiarly insensitive to change
The
resistance results for the loaded
in
B/T
ratio.
would be 153 ft. (46.6 m.). two parent models is compared in fig. 344. It will be seen that the new form has less resistance over the whole speed range, the difference amounting to 5 per cent, at low speeds and as much as 22 per cent, in way of the service speed between and
fore side of the stem at the deck
at ratio, L/v l/> , variations. Forms Length were then developed covering a range of L/y 1/d ratios as follows: 4.35, 4.60, 4,85 and 5.1, all with constant B/T ratio 2.25. These were again derived by proportional expansion or contraction of the linear dimensions as appropriate. The results for the loaded 4 per cent, trim
The
resistance of the
condition are shown in fig. 346. In this presentation the group is regarded as a variation in length at constant displacement and, as would be expected, there is a steady reduction in resistance as length is increased. This shows very clearly the advantage in resistance to be
1 1
12 knots.
This new form was then used as the parent for a methodical series of tests involving systematic changes in
proportions using beam-draught ratio, B/T, and length1 displacement ratio, L/v '*, as the variables. This series was divided into two groups in which each of these form parameters was varied in turn while the other was maintained constant, that is, adhering to the philosophy of "one variable at a time".
gained by lengthening the form. More recently, a group of models has been tested in which the block coefficient has been systematically varied above and below that of the parent form and maintaining
the
expect,
other geometrical characteristics. As one would at constant displacement, the resistance progressively increased with increasing block coefficient. Self-propulsion tests are now being carried out on
certain
Beam-draught ratio, B/T, variations. From the parent form with B/T=2.00 three new forms were derived with B/T ratios of 2.25, 2.50 and 2.75 by proportionate expansion and contraction of transverse and vertical
dimensions respectively, so as to keep the displacement * unchanged at 847 tons. This meant that the L/y l/ ratio
models of Series B involving different propeller diameters appropriate to a range of shaft r.p.m. It is also intended to investigate special features on the parent form such as club-footing of the after sections.
Acknowledgments
The author
BSRA BSRA
is indebted to the Council and Director of Research of for permission to publish this paper and to members of staff for help in its preparation.
1369]
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF RESISTANCE DATA FOR TRAWLERS

by
D.
J.
DOUST
statistical analysis of resistance data for trawlers, obtained from model experiments conducted in No. 1 Tank, Ship Division. National Physical Laboratory (NPL), was made. From an analysis of this type, a design method has been evolved, by means of which optimum resistance characteristics can be estimated for each trawler type, together with predictions of effective horsepower for any particular form. These EHP calculations can be made by determining six parameters' from the normal ship's lines plan, and to facilitate the computation of results a programme has been prepared for a digital computer (DEUCE), so that the NPL can provide an estimated EHP/speed curve very quickly for a given set of parameters. In addition, design diagrams have been prepared for practical use in design offices.
ANALYSE STATISTIQUE DBS DONNfiS DE RESISTANCE POUR DBS CHALUTIERS

L'auteor a eflectut une analyse statistique des donnees de resistance pour des chalutiers, obtenues au moyen d'cxperiences sur tifectuees dans te fiassin No. 1 , Division dies Navires, Laboratoire national de Physique (NPL). On a elabort une methode de dessins d'apres une analyse de ce genre, au moyen de laqueUe on peut estimer les caracteristiques de resistance optimum pour chaque type de chalutier, en meine temps que la prevision de la puissance effective pour chaque forme particuliere. Ces cakuls de la puissance effective peuvent toe faits en determinant six parametres d'apres le plan normal des lignes du navire, et pour fatilitor le cafcul des resuhats on a prepare tin programme pour une cakulatrice elcctronique (DEUCE) de facon que to NPL puisse fournir tres raptdement une courbe estimee de puissance effective des vhesses pour un ensemble donn6 de parametres. De plus, des diagrammes de projets ont t prepares pour 1'utiliiation pratique dans les bureaux d'etudes.
modete
ANALISIS ESTADISTICO
DE LOS DATOS DE RESISTENCIA PARA LOS ARRASTREROS
Se efectu6 un analisis estadistico de los datos de resistcntia para los arrastreros obtenidos por medio de experiencias con modelos efectuadas en el estanque No. 1, Division de Barcos, Laboratoiio Nadonal de Flsica (LNF). Basandose en un analisis de este genero, se elaboro un metodo de proyecto por medio del cual se pueden estimar las caractcristicas dptimas de rcsistcncia para cada tipo de arrastrero, junto con la previsibn de la potencia efectiva para cada forma particular. Bstos oafaitos de la potencia efectiva se pueden realizar determinando 6 parametros a partir del plan normal de las lineas del barco y para fadlitar el oUculo de los rauitados se ha proparado un programa para una calculadora electronica (DEUCE) de manera que el LNF puede dar rauv raptdamente una curva estimada de potencia efectiva de velocidades para un conjunto dado de parametros. Ademas, los diagnunas de los proyectos se han preparado para su aplicacidn practica en las oficinas de estudios.
design
ANEW minimum
predict the
method which has been evolved to form characteristics of trawlers for
resistance, together with the estima-
tion of effective horsepower for any particular vessel has recently been completed in the National Physical
Laboratory (NPL). The method is thoroughly explained in a paper by* D. J. Doust and T. P. O'Brien entitled: "Resistance and Propulsion of Trawlers", presented to the North East Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in
Newcastte-on-Tyne, U.K. on 3 April, 1959. The paper also contains a part dealing with propulsion and propeller selection for trawlers which is not covered in this
L/B, B/d, Cm, Cp, LCB and fa) which are known from experience to be important in determining ship resistance at particular values of speed-length ratio. If we consider in Ib. is a first a simple case where, say, ship resistance function of only two form parameters, viz. LCB and fa, then it may be written as
n.m
This polynomial expression for

surface as
R may be considered as a
paper and the discussion relevant to the whole paper. Complete copy with discussions to be had from the Institution, Bolbeck Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne, U.K.,
price 10s. 6d.
the variation of resistance for constant values of fa or LCB is then represented by the intersection of a plane, say (}o=constant), with that surface. The case is now considered when
in
fig.
shown
347,
and
n=m=2^
which gives
This method consists basically in expressing the total ship resistance as a function of six form parameters,
0)
{370J

which may be written AS
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
(LCB)+C(LCB)'+D(i.)+Ett.) )+ H(LCB)
where A, B, C,
If we
etc.,
are coefficients,
and
is
known
.(2) as the
regression equation of R.
have a
series
of observations,
19
LCB,,
,
R,, LCB,,
R LCB
a,
R, LCBn, Jc , A, B, C, etc. may 'be calculated by the theory of minimal variance, provided the number of observations exceeds the number of The number of coefficients by a reasonable extent.
the values of the
coefficients
efficients in
observations required to solve a fixed number of coa regression equation is largely determined the by quality of the fit obtained in relation to the
measured data.
Fig. 348.
Regression equation in the linear form
Theory of minimal variance

yi,
In the simplest case, consider a set of observations and it is supposed ., x n ., y, and x,, x, x t y, y, that we have to choose the unknown values in a regres. .
therefore
by
differentiating with respect to
Cm and
y,
we
have
sion equation, so that the residual variation is a minimum. In this simple case it is assumed that the regression equation is linear and of the form, as shown in fig. 348,
[(y-yo)-Cm(x-x)]-o
and
(3)
.
m 2[(y-y.)~C (x-,o](x-x)-0
(3)
(4)
Where x, and y, are fixed values of x and y which normally vary, and it is required to find the best value of C m such that the variance is a minimum. In particular choose x =x (the arithmetic mean of the
*
From
Therefore
observations).
yo^ly^y
(4)
.....
y)
(5)
Now
since
~ V[(y
y^ftx---*)]^ minimum,
and from equation

Therefore
V(y
(xx)=CmV(x
(x
""
x)*.
Cm=^"~y^x ^
x)t
'
'
(6)
In this way we can see that the theory of minimal variance gives the best straight line through the observations, passes through the point (x, y) and has a slope Cm, such that the residual variation is a minimum. In a similar manner, the coefficients A, B, C, etc. in equation (2) may be determined and the argument
extended to a larger number of coefficients provided there

are sufficient observations.
Regression equation for trawler data
Certain facts are

design,
known from
which
assist in the
experience of trawler formation of the regression
LCS
equation.
(a)
LCB position is very important in determining ship

resistance* the best position varying with prismatic coefficient.
vbn for R repr&ented ms a wrface
(371J

- 0-BQ
10-0
SEA BEHAVIOUR
In cases where turbulence stimulators were not fitted

to the models, corrections were made to the measured resistances based on model experiment data. These
9-8
corrections seldom exceed 3 per cent, of the total resistance, due to the relatively high speeds of these vessels and the fineness of the forms. The data were computed
in
9-6
CR form, C*=RL/AV , first proposed by Telfer (1922 to 23) for each speed-length ratio V/ VL=0.80, 0.90, 1 .0 and 1.10, and the six form parameters evaluated from
f
the lines plans. In order to establish the relative importance of individual parameters, a regression equation of the form
94
/d2-S(7)
was
9-2
first
chosen, and the coefficients
a,,
at,
determined by the theory of minimal variance. established that all parameters were significant, C m being the least important. Evidence that cross-coupling of
B /d 2-4 terms was essential was verified by plotting the residuals from equation (7) against terms such as Cp xLCB etc. and a definite variation detected. The term "residual'* used here is defined as the difference between the observed and calculated values of CR for any set of design parameters.
a,, etc. It was
9-0
8-8
3-3
The
final
form of the regression equation for CR.
86
56*2
1C-B
8-4
10-6
/d
8-2
(0*4
6-0 O-60
Fig. 349.
0-6?
O-64 r
O-66
O-6S
C7O
10-3
Cp
CR due
to
Cp and Bid at
to-o
<b)
Optimum values of Jo for minimum resistance vary with prismatic coefficient and L/B ratio. Optimum
values of B/d for values of
(c)
minimum
resistance
vary with prismatic coefficient.

(d)
Optimum
L/B
for
minimum
resistance
0-3
vary with prismatic coefficient.
These facts suggest that cross-coupling of terms is required in the regression equation for resistance of these vessels, viz. terms such as (C p xLC8), (CpXt/B),
96
The resistance data for some 130 trawler models which have been tested for industry in No. 1 Tank, Ship Division, NFL over a period of 30 years were available; the boundary layer flow being considered ftilly turbulent
[372]
9-4
OW~
0*64
Cp
' 0*66
O10
flg.350.

which includes the requirements
as follows,
(a), (b), (c)
*
and* (d),
is
+a uie +ai,CpLCB+a ltCp LCB'

t
18-4
+a
,CpB/d+a,.Cp[B/d]
(8)
It can be seen that individual design parameters have been included up to the second order, the cross-coupled terms therefore being of the fourth order. The coefficients a,, ai, a,, etc. have been determined by the method already described. It has been established that equation (8) fits the majority of the data such that the speed pre-
/
n-a
B
n-6
/d21
158
17-4
15
&
17-2
154
0-60
15-2
Fig. 352.
0-6?
O-64 c
in
66
O 68
07O
Change
CR
due to
Cp and B/d at
Y/VL** UO
15-0
r\\
148
-& knot in an indiobtained using the measured tank results. Subsequent to the completion of the analysis, an additional 1 5 models were tested for the fishing industry and the measured results compared with those predicted from equation (8). It was found that each model was predicted to the same degree of accuracy as that of the original analysis. It should be noted also
dieted
from
this
equation
is
within
vidual case,
compared with
that
146
that the variations in resistance coefficient
CR
for the
original data are as large as 100 per cent, at each speed* length ratio, and these large variations in CR have been explained in terms of the six design parameters L/B,
14.4
B/d, Cm , Cp, LCB and In view of the closeness of the fit obtained between equation (8) and the .measured tank results, it can be seen that terms such as p , Cp 4, Cp *, etc. are not required
K-
14-2
in the regression equation, and this is supported by the fact that standard series results for other ship types seldom reveal variations in resistance with specific
14-0
0*60
Fig. 3*1.
0*62
Ck**g*
to
O 64 c
0-66
O-tt
O7O
Cjufce to C, and B/d* V/VL-1.00
design parameters, higher than the second order. We therefore have a means of predicting total ship resistance at constant speed-length ratio, in which the results for an individual form are conditioned by all the
[373]

4&0
2 --
SEA BEHAVIOUR
t*ft<> value for a specific combination of the parameters or to estimate an optimum combination of the
parameters for a given V/\/L. Here, further explanations will be presented for the
Consider the case where for a

parameters are:
new
design the form
CP =0.60, B/d=2.53, LBC=+ 4.31 % aft,

From
fig.
L/B=5.40,
352, 356, 386 and 389 F, =-^17.80 Fa 1.20
we have
=_
F;
==
2.50
"~
F,~
therefore
CR
,., A.>
4. 1
at
V/ \'L = 1
43-0,
SO
0-6?
0*64 ^
66
66
0-70
42-5
Fig. 353.
Oumge
in
CK
tine to
Cp and LCB at
V/L=0.80
previously tested models for that particular type. It must be emphasized, however, that the data are applicable to certain limits and that a new regression equation would be required to predict individual freak results which might lie outside these limits of the form parameters,
viz.,
Cp-=0.60 to 0.70, B/d=2.0 to
2.6,
LCB=0
to
6%
aft,
L/B*=4.40 to 5.80, i*e=5.0 to 30.0,

to 0.91.
Practical uses of the regression equation
C m =0.81
predictor of ship resistance. In the case of a design it is required to find the variation of EHP with the ship speed. To facilitate computation of(a)
As a
new
design diagrams have been prepared which depend on the values of the six form parameters L/B, B/d, Gn, C* LCB and !, the value of CRÂ,, being obtained at each speed-length ratio by adding the values obtained by interpolation in each diagram. Fig. 349 to 389 show four components of C*, namely Ft, F t , F; and F, in diagram form, covering all the LCB and possible combinations of L/B, B/d, Cm, C the whole of for the ranges experiment on these } parameters, on the basis of four V/ yX, namely 0,80, 0.90, 1.00 and UO. These diagrams can be used either to calculate the
results,
0-60
Fig. 354.
0-6Z
CfcHVt
I*
064.
0-66
0-M
0-70
Cud* to C, and LCB at
Yl*/L~0,90
[374]

The CR value
CR< it ft.)
for a ship 180
ft.
(55 in.)
is
therefore
(SFC)^ Froudc
to
1
skin friction correction

ft.
from 200
ft.
ft.
80
L
displacement of 200
A<mfl)= Extreme
In this case
vessel
(35 cu. ft./ton).
A (IM
ft.,
=1,710 tons and (SFC) =0.012.
Hence8i==
w~*
152.5x0.012
^
nm 0.153
Hence CRÎ..^,- 14.10 f 0.153- 14.253
060
Fig. 356.
0-6?
Change
in
OG4
C*
due to
0-66
O-65
070
OJO
CP anil LCB at
VI
and EHP(Froude)
325.7
1
xL
14.253 x 250 x( 14.76)' 325.7x180

therefore
EHP
(Froude)==975
In a similar
manner the
*
EHP values at
other ship speeds
can be calculated to deduce the E HP-speed curve for the

ship.
(b)
As a
design method.
certain
By
diagrams,
revealed.
optimum form
referring to the design characteristics are
It
can be seen from
fig.
352 that
minimum
resistances are obtained in the region B/d-2.25 over most of the range of prismatic coefficient P 0.60 to OJO.
0*4C
Chans*
In
0-66
1
0-68
0-70
The
beneficial effect of
C*
toe to C, and LCB at yj \L~LOO
further aft, seen in fig. 356, the reduction in resistance being greater
moving the LCB position cent, from amidships, can be 6 to per up
[375]
060
Fig. 359.
64
0-66
0*66
Jot, at
070
0.80
Change
in
CK
due to
and LI B
Cp
and
V\\l
4.8
a 40
Fig. 357.
OTO
Change
in
C* due
to Cp and Jo, and LIB ^4.4
at
Vl\l
O.W
0*t
04*
0<f*
OH
0*10
060
Ffr. J6Q.
070
Change
in
f^.*59. Ckanfri*C*duet9Cfia*dl***i *7 V
I
C*
due to C, and ia, at and LtB**5&
V\
0,^
376
30*
Sôce^
41
20*
-1
4l
060
0-62
64
c
L
0-66
0-66
070
Xft-0-80
/6- S-4
60
62
64
_
66
68
0-70
30*
Cp
45
44
43
25*
TOP LEFT
Fig. 361.
Change
in
CR
<///f /<>
t,
<iml
Aa r
tit
VI \'L
and LIB -5.2

LEFT
Fig. 362.
Change
in
CR
tltw to
Cp
and
and LIB
ABOVE
at V\ \/L
OMO
5.4
4|
Fig. 363.
Cltange in
CR
due to
CP and J^ at
5.6
V\ \/L
and LIB
040
0*62
O 64
O 66
O70
[377]
0*60
0*62
064 -
O 66
O-68
O-7O
TOP
y.
J6^.
Change
in
CK
<iu* to Cp ami and LIB -5. 8
at V/\
L-0.80
LEFT
Fig. 365.
Change
in
CR
due to Cp and |a^ and LIB -4.4
at VI
1^0.90
ABOVE
Fig. 366.
Change
in
CK
due to Cp and |a r and LIB -4.6

due to Cp and and L/B^4.8
at VI
L^0.
O-64
0-66
O-68
O-7O
BELOW
Fig. 367.
Change
in C/t
at VI
LÛ.
^r.oVe-
0-60
it
C O and LIB<y*^ to
p and 5.0
060
Fig. 370.
06?
Change
in
6 64
O 66
O 68
O7O
Cp CR due to Cp and |, and Ll B~ 5.4
at y/\ L=*0.90
0*tt
0-64 ^
0-66
06$
0-70
[379]
O 60
Fig. 374.
06?
Change
in
O
CR
64 ^
O 66
O 66
O70
I.
due to Cp and and LIB -^4. 6
at Vj
v/Z>
0-60
.
O-6?
372.
0-64
In
O 66
0-68
|ot, at
O7O
Change
CK
and LIB ^5. 8
due to C, and
0^60
049
0-64
066
magnitude of B/d, LCB,
fa and L/B and is difficult to present in a single diagram, since the number of practical combinations of these four parameters is almost infinite.
General trends may however be inferred, by considering each trawler type and choosing representative parameters for each (see worked example). The effect on resistance of changes in L/B ratio is dependent on the values of Jo and C P for each speedit will be seen in length ratio. For fixed values of | fig. 381 to 388 that the effect on resistance of changes
+3
040
Pig. 376.
0-63
Change
in
CK
due to Cp and Ja, and LI 8=5.0
at VI
Z> 1.00
forms of high prismatic coefficient. Optimum values of te, the half angle of entrance of the load waterplane, depend on the values of C P and L/B, and
for the for each combination of these parameters the best value of $00 can be obtained from the relevant diagram. The
of increasing the maximum area coefficient C m is generally beneficial in reducing resistance, although at V/VL*1.!0 it is rtlativdy unimportant. As far as the
effect effect
W
[381]
concerned,
of changes in prismatic coefficient on resistance is it can be seen that this depends on the
matic changes in the form parameters of a typical deep1 sea trawler. For this form, at V/y"L 10, the following form parameters give the best results.
.
viz,
Jo^S LCB^2.5%
aft
of amidships
Cm -unimportant B/d-2.20
characteristics can be evaluated for each combination of design parameters, and the
In this
best
way
L/B= unimportant the E HP-speed
form deduced. Again, supposing that non-optimum characteristics have to be accepted due to other design considerations, the penalty in resistance may be calculated for these non-optimum conditions relative to the minimum values.
Conclusions
% By
using the method described, the resistance-speed curves of trawler forms can be calculated from their
lines
plans with
sufficient
accuracy for practical
purposes
0*60
Fig.*
06?
to
'
Cp
to
066
Cp and
0-68
Jo, at
070
ndue
in
L/B
ratio
is
more marked with
the forms of high
prismatic coefficient. For L/B ratios in the region 5. 6 to 5,8 there is a marked reduction in resistance, whilst
maximum resistances usually occur in the range L/B 4,4 to 5.0. In addition to these design diagrams, a programme has beep prepared for a high-speed digital computer(DEUCE) t so that values of CM may be obtained very quickly for
any required combination of design parameter*. Table 94 has Wen prepared, and shows the effects on C* of syste-
0*60
0*62
0-64
Cp
/o
OW
Cm a
0i
C*
iliMf
tf2V-X
1382J
O 60
06?
0-64 r
0-66
O66
O70
Cp
ABOVE
Fig. 380.
Change
in
CK
due to Cp and and L/B~ 5.8
fa
at Vj
- LOO
TOP RIGHT
Fig. 381.
Change
in
CK
due to Cn and I*, and LIB ^4. 4
ar VJ\
L-
UO
RIGHT
Fig. 382.
Change
in
C and O andllBr-4.6
dtte to
Ja r at K/ x
L^/JO
Optimum
design
parameters can
be determined
either for general or particular cases and penalties in resistance estimated for non-optimum conditions The analysis has confirmed the high importance of position in determining the resistance of
LCB
trawier forms, and also the relative importance of the other form parameters
O-TO
[383]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
LEFT
.
...
in
CR due to Cp and and LIB- 4.8
Jo, at V\\
L-
1.10
O-60
0-6Z
0-64 ,
O-tt
O 68
O-70
RIGHT
Fig. 3*4.
in
eo*
rfw /o
and LIB -5.0
Qam/ i,
o/
- /./O
O*66
<MO
1384]
//
RIGHT
Fig.
.m. Chan*f
in
CR
due to
Cp and |,
5A
at VI y/l- 1.10
and LIB
+4
We 25*
fc
10
0*60
0*6?
O 64
0-66
O 66
0*70
LEFT
.
385.
Change
in
CR
due to Cp and Jo, and LIB- $.2
a/ K/
L^ LOO
0-60
O64
066
68
O70
1385]
PISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD:

+ 10
SEA BEHAVIOUR
LEFT
Fit. 387.
Chant*
In
O and
due to
P and k*, at K/\ LI B~ 5. 6
L~ 1. 10
O-6O
62
0-64
O 66
68
O TO
RIGHT
Fig. 388.
Change
in
CR
due to
MM// TtltrC Jj -/*- </>O 0ffM
Cp and
Jo, at VI N
1= /JO
0-60
042
044
1386J
Finally, a cautious approach to the use of this type of analysts is recommended and more experience is necessary before it can be unconditionally recommended. There is no suggestion at this stage that
on the
derived are the final word They may have to be improved or modified in the light of new results. However, the method can be used for estimating purposes and to suggest modifications in the hull form of trawlers
the various
expressions
subject.
checked by model experiments. The method must not be used for values of parameters outside the range of those in the data, or estimates may be grossly in
Eventually, tank-testing may not be necessary for except designs which are clearly revolutionary in
error.
-I.S.
but, at the present time, these should be
044
Fig. 389.
01*
concept.
Change
in
CR
due to
Cp
This work forms part of the research programme of NPL and is published by permission of the Director of the Laboratory. The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance given by Mathematics
considered to have a more general application to other ship types for which the variation in total resistance, due to changes in form parameters, are generally smaller in magnitude compared with trawler forms
is
The method
NPL, in computing the results, particularly Mr. J. G. Hayes who determined the required regression coefficients and advised on the statistical work. Thanks is also due to the North East Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders for permission to reproduce fig. 347 to 389.
Division,
TABLE 94
The
effects
on
CR
of
rtematk changes in form parameters

Resistance coefficient
LIB
5.40
B/T
2.53
Cm
0.909
0.6 1 0.62 0.63 0.64
CR
<
f\ >
LCB%
V/ x
L-0.80
9.23 9.29 9.35
9.41
V/yt-0.90
9.59 9.68 9.75
9.91
VARIATIONS IN C p
+4.31
15.0
V/vL-1.00
11.06 11.53
12.11
V/vL-UO
14.26 14.62 15.17 15.90
12.78
VARIATIONS IN
5.40 2.20 2.30 2.40 2.60
B/d
0.60
0.909
{4.31
15.0
9.08
9.11
9.14 9.19
9.34 9.38 9.43 9.58
10.85 10.76 10.70 10.70
13.10 13.27 13.55 14.46
VARIATIONS IN LCB
5.40
2.53
0.909
0.60
[2.50
15.0
+ 3.00
43.50 14.00 44.50
8.85 8.84
8.91
+ 5.00
9.05 9.27 9.56

15.0
9.18 9.12 9.18 9.35 9.64 10.04
9.75 9.68 9.86 10.29 10.97

11.91
13.89 13.97 14.03 14.08 14.10 14.10 14.04 14.08 14.09 14.07
VARIATIONS IN L/B
5.20 5.30 5.50 5.60
2.53
0.909
0.60
f4.31
8.87 9.02 9.34

9.51
9.12
9.31
9.75 10.00
10.12 10.37 11.06 11.49
VARIATIONS IN
*5.40
2.53
Joe,
0.909
0.60
14.31
15.0 12.5 10.0 7.5 5.0
9.17 8.87 8.76 8.85 9.14
9.52 9.16 8.96 8.92 9.02
10.68 9.98 9.56 9.44

9.61
14.09 13.24 12.62 12.23 12.06
VARIATIONS IN Cm
5.40
153
0.89 0.92 0.93
0.60
+4JI
15,0
9.31
9.10 9.03 8.96
9.73 9.40 9.28 9.17
11.04 10.48 10.29 10. tO
14.10 14.09 14.08 14,08
*Baskfbrm
[387]
THE LOADS IMPOSED BY TRAWLING GEAR

by
W. DICKSON
Between the extremes of speed trials on the one hand and the occasional bollard pull test on the other lies the case recording of towing performance the essential criterion of a trawler. The towing performance of two trawlers of very different size, an Arctic trawler and a pocket trawler, is set out in tabular form. The loads measured are the drag on the trawling gear and the horsepower developed by
the engine. Propeller data are given. The toads vary with speed. The large trawler does not use all the available horsepower when towing, while the small one sometimes does. There are notes on the effect of changing the warp-to-depth ratio and on the effect of depth. The towing performance of the small trawler is given for white-fish and herring trawling practice. In the latter case the net is much the same size as the Arctic trawlers but
made of light-weight
synthetic material.
this includes the
fast
Spot measurements are given when heaving up the Arctic trawler's gear and
There are notes and observations for the situation when the trawl becomes
trawlers of high freeboard.
on the bottom,
particularly as
power developed by the steam winch. it applies to small motor
LES
CHARGES IMPOSEES PAR L'ENGIN DE CHALUTAGE
Entrc les extremes des essais de vitesse, d'une part, et I'essai (peu courant) de traction au point Hxe, d'uutrc part, on trouvc le cas dc rcnrcgistrement du rendement pendant le remorquage criterc essentiel d'un chalutier. Un tableau montre le rendement pendant le rcmorquage pour deux chaluticrs de tallies tres diflfe*rentes: un chalutier arctique et un chalutier de poche. Les charges mesurees sont la traction sur 1'engin et la puissance developpee par le moteur. L'auteur presente les donnees pour r he ice. Les charges varient avec la vitesse. Le grand chalutier n'utilise pas toute la puissance disponsible pendant le trait, alors que le petit chalutier le fait parfois. II y a des notes sur 1'eflfet de la variation du rapport longueur de funes-profondeur et sur I'cffct de la profondeur. Le rendement du remorquage par le petit chalutier est donn pour la pratique du chalutage de fond et du chalutagc du hareng. Dans ce dernier cas, le diet est de dimensions beaucoup plus voi sines de celles du chalut utilis par le chalutier arctique, mais il est en
I
synth&iques legeres. L'auteurdo nnc des mesures individuelles effectuees pendant le relevage de I'engin du chalutier arctique et qui comprennent la puissance developpie par le treuil a vapeur. II donne aussi des notes et observations concernant la situation dans laquelle le chalut se bloque sur le fond, en particulier avec les pet its chalutiers a moteur ayant un franc-bord elcve.
fibres
LAS CARGAS IMPUESTAS POR EL ARTE DE ARRASTRE

Entrc los extremos de los ensayos de velocidad, por una partc, y el ensayo (poco corriente) de traccion a un punto fijo, por otra, se cncucntra el cato del registro del rendimiento durante el rcmolquc, que es el criterio esencial de un arrastrero. Una tabla muestra el rendimiento en pesca de 2 arrastreros de tamafto muy diferente: el arrastrero que pesca en el Artico y el arrastrero de bolsillo. Las cargas medidas son la tracci6n sobre el arte y la potencia desarrollada por el motor. Se dan datos sobre la hclice. Las cargas vartan con la velocidad. El gran arrastrero no emplea toda la potencia disponiblc durante el arrastre, micntras que el pequeflo lo hace algunas veces. Hay notas sobre el efecto del cambio de la relacidn longitud de caWe-profundidad y del efecto de la profundtdad. El rendimiento de remolque del arrastrerp pequefto se da para la pratica del arrastre cuando se pesca en el fondo y cuando se pesca arenque. En el ultimo caso la red es de dimensiones muy proximas a las empleadfts por lot arrastreros del Artico, pcro se hace de
fibims sintetkas tigers*.
;
Se dan medidas individuates cfcctuadas
al halar el arte del arrastrero del Artico,
comprendida
la
maoumiHa de vapor. Hay notas y observacioncs relativas a la situacion creada cuando se embarra el a las arrastreros pequeAot de motor con mucho francobprdo.
arte, particularmente
potencia desarrollada por la en lo que concicrne
can be more or less comprehensive, and occasionally a test of bollard pull is made. This paper is an attempt to provide some information on the towing performance between the extremes of full speed and dead stop. It cannot be said that no information on towing performance exists, but rather that there is not very much of it. Trawlers fishing commercially can rarely be spared for the purpose of taking such measurements and a few spot checks taken while fishing are interesting but of limited value. Research vessels are only suitable when the hull design, propulsion and fishing gear conform with commercial practice. The tests were made on two research vessels: Explorer, I83J ft. (55.93 m.) LBP, powered by a 1,200 h.p. triple
expansion engine, and Mara, 73} ft. (22.40 m.) LOA powered by a diesel engine developing 204 BHP at 600 r.p.m. These vessels correspond in essentials with the biggest and smallest, other than inshore craft, classes of
RESISTANCE AND PROPULSION TRAWLING GEAR LOADS TRAWLER has to do her speed trials, and these the same recorder as the tension measuring
The log
is
instrument.
towed from a boom 5 ft. (1.52 m.) clear of the ship's side and IS ft (4.57 m.) below the surface. Horsepower. On the trials with Explorer the SHP was measured by an electric torsi on meter clamped to the propeller shaft. Measurements of SHP were made at
5-min. intervals.
Decltaattai of warp. The declination of the warps was measured with a pendulum instrument with oil damping, ft was clamped to one warp below the towing block. By means of an alternating current magslip repeater, working on the synchronous link principle, the angle of the
pendulum could be read

amidships.
in
the instrument laboratory
U.K.
trawler.
Method adopted during trials Measurements of towing load, towing speed and engine power are required over a range of engine speeds. The procedure has been to start at low r.p.m. towing in one direction and increasing the r.p.m. in steps. When the
readings were complete, the r.p.m. were stepped up a little and the vessel brought about on the opposite course. Once there, r.p.m. we re reduced to the topmost value of the former series and the measurements made in descending
order. The mean of means was calculated for two such double runs. Naturally, the case is avoided where the turn of the tide would coincide with the turn of the ship.
TABLE 95
Explorer: towing performance
in relation to
engine speeds (mean of
working up and down the r.p.m. scale above the recorded values is that mechanical hysteresis due to friction, such as at the pulley wheels of the tension recorder and indeed over the trawl gallows sheaves themselves, would give rise to error if this method was not adopted to average it out. The same argument applies for the trials on Mara, where the engine BHP was determined from the readings
The reason
for
and
for increasing r.p.m.
were made as part of a general programme fishing gear. Some of the details appertaining only to gear performance have been omitted here. The essential measurements are: (i) the r.p.m. of the propeller, (ii) the speed of towing, (iii) the h.p. developed
The
tests
on the design of
of exhaust temperatures according to the engine manufacturer's curves. There is some little time lag in the exhaust temperature reaching its new value, consequently it is better to take the readings both in the direction of increase and of decrease.
by the engine, and (iv) the tension in the trawl warps together with (v) some records of their declination.
Instruments used
Explorer towing
I.
trials
Normal
all
condition.
These
trials
shown
in
table 95
Certain measurements, such as warp tension and towing speed require to be continuously recorded because of their fluctuations; for others a direct reading will do.
Ultimately, there
all
is
quite a
good argument
for recording
measurements.
The instrument for measuring warp tension. works on the principle of one wheel deflecting the warp a small lateral distance between two outside wheels. The deflecting wheel is mounted on a strain gauge load celt in the form of an electrically balanced bridge, whose unbalanced voltage due to the load is fed to a recording
Warp
weather, towing over even bottom in 67 fm, (122 m.) of water and with 200 fm. (366 in.) of warp out. The warp-to-depth ratio was the usual 3:1. The gear towed was the large Aberdeen trawl of 96 ft. (29.3 m.) headline length with 15 fm. (27.4 m.) sweep wires between otter boards and net. The engine speed at 'which Explorer normally tows is
were
made during good
tension
90 r.p.m. On the one occasion when the engine speed was raised to 100 r.p.m. the vibration in the ship became
considerable
rose to 783
and the power transmitted by the shaft SHP. There are several other points worth
noting:
(a)
instrument.
Under normal towing conditions only about half
low speed log is an electric log, recently developed by the Admiralty, adapted to work on
Speed.
The
UCWE
the available horsepower is being used* factory ashore a considerable half for the plant idling proportion having
1389J

It is
SEA BEHAVIOUR
TAau-96
4*bladed solid R.H* manganese brow propeller designed for 12 knots at sea developing JJ60 IHP at 126 r.p./n.
D
Pro
Diameter 10
ft.
in.
(3.25 m.).
Boss diameter 23 j
in.
(600mm.)
.
Ap
Ad
* D*/4
.
pitch It ft. 3 in. (3.43 m.) (also as used for mean effective pitch in calculations) Disc area 89.35 sq. ft. (8.30 sq. m.) Projected area (4 blades) 33.06 sq. ft. (3.07 sq. m.) Developed area (4 blades) 39.48 sq.ft. (3.67 sq.m.)
Mean
of the working day would be a matter for some concern, yet such is apparently the case on large trawlers. (b) As little as 20 per cent, of the available engine h.p. is effectively used in pulling the trawling gear, and of that between a third and a half is spent on the otterboards. Trawling therefore cannot be regarded as highly efficient from the mechanical point of view. (c) The increase of towing load with speed is in fact not much more than proportional to the first power of the speed. This is presumably because of the part played by friction on the sea bottom. (d) The 3 warp-to-depth ratio would mean a declination of 19| if the warp were straight, but there is an
: 1
not a rare thing to see mistakes made in ship conand more particularly in ship conversion, where a little knowledge or appreciation of the angle of warp declination would have enabled the after gallows and towing block to be positioned sufficiently far apart so that the warps do not work in the slip hook. If the after gallows are too close to the towing block or too high, then the after warp rides too high for the towing block; if the after gallows are too far away from the towing block, then it becomes unnecessarily difficult to bring the two warps into the block. Other considerations in locating gallows and towing block are their position in relation to the propeller and ensuring that when hauling the trawling gear over the broadside with engines stopped the ship will not tend to fall off the wind. Another point is that the nearer the gallows are together the greater the chance of foul shot gear. In small trawlers
struction,
it is often found more convenient to clip the warps together at the top of the after gallows than to use a towing block and this allows the after gallows to be
positioned
somewhat
further aft than
would otherwise
be the case.
3. Effect of deep water. It is known that trawling in deep water imposes greater loads on ship and engine. Facts about the magnitude of the loads seem to be few.
appreciable sag resulting from the heavy 3 in. (83 mm.) circumference warp. The warp is straightened out somewhat with increased towing speed. For making thrust and SHP calculations, the propeller data are given in table 96. Tests were made to deter2. Effect of warp lengths. mine the effect of differences in warp-to-depth ratio, since the 3:1 rule is not invariable. The details can be omitted but one or two points are relevant as they affect the loading on the ship: The warp tension recordings showed a marked decrease in peak-to-peak variation as the warp-todepth ratio was increased
TABLE 98
Mar*: towing performance with small

double runs)
otter trawl
(mean of two
and 5.3 limits of 3 warp-to-depth was no very marked change in the horizontal component of trawl drag or SHP at
Between the
there
: 1
: 1
ratio,
constant r.p.m. The sag of the wire below the straight line given by the warp-depth ratio increases but the actual angle of decimation appears only to decrease towards limiting value. At 67 fm. (123 m.) depth the limiting value of declination was 19 when at 5.3:1 the sag had risen to 8
Theoretical estimates of the drag of the increased length of trawl warp can be made but there is not yet sufficient practical data against which to check these estimates.
TABU
97
when Explorer was over deep water the opporwas taken to make some drag measurements. Unfortunately time was short and the weather bad, but nevertheless table 97 does indicate that the increase in load is appreciable. The measurements were made with 600 fm. ( i J 00 m.) of warp at 200 fm. (366 m.) depth and the same net was in we. The run was made once in one
Recently
tunity
direction only. The towing speed readings should be treated with caution. Hie first column gives the speed as
determined by the low-speed log already described and the readings look high, perhaps because with the roll of the ship the path of the tog towed from a towing boom is greater than the mean path. The second column gives
[390]

the speed as determined by the ship's electric log which only reads to the nearest i knot. In this case 6 tons of warp are out, and even in water this weighs 4} tons. The greater the declination of the warp, the greater is its drag per unit length. In principle
TRAWLING GEAR LOADS

TABLE 100
propeller data
3-bladed controllable-pitch. Reduction gear ratio: 2.03:1
the less able a ship is to develop the necessary thrust to straighten the sag in the warps due to their weight, the
Diameter 60
in. in.
(1.52 m.).
Boss diameter 15
itt.
(380mm.)
more heavily
discrepancy in towing speed between an under-powered and an adequately powered vessel will be more noticeable in deep water than in shallow.
is it
penalized.
Pm
Mean pitch 47
(1.194m.)
(maximum setting as used
BAR
in tailing condition) Blade area ratio 0.35
Hauling
trial
Mara
towing trials Common requirements for this type of vessel are towing a small otter trawl made of medium gauge twine as
would be done
for white-fish on rough ground, and towing a big Vinge or wing trawl made of lightweight nylon as for herring. In tables 98 and 99, line 6 is derived from the engine maker's curves, and line 10 and 11 from the propeller maker's curves. Line 8 is derived from line 7 on the basis of the warp-to-depth ratio and, since no allowance is made for wire sag, line 8 will be slight over-estimates. The first set of tests was made at depths between 20 and 33 fm. (37 and 60 m.) with 100 fm. (183 m.) of in(38 mm.) circumference wire, the second set at SO fm. (92 m.) with 250 fm. (457 m.) of wire. When white-fish trawling, normal engine speed would be between 500 and 550 r.p.m.
Measurements of warp tension and winch hauling speed were made on Explorer in good weather and, though representative of the power developed by the winch, they do not represent the greatest warp tensions ever met. The warp tension was measured in the after warp only and it is assumed that the tension in the fore warp is the same for the purpose of calculating winch horsepower. However, steaming ahead at 80 r.p.m. but with 10 starboard helm as she came round, the tension in the after warp rose to 5.5 tons with the winch at full throttle and heaving at 244 ft. (74.4 m.) per min. This represents
182 BHP at the winch. When heaving over the broadside with the ship stopped, warp tension fell to 4.4 tons while the hauling speed rose to 390 ft. (120 m.) per min., representing 234 BHP at the winch. Information on coming fast and warp tensions in rough weather is available in data collected on Explorer's predecessor, an old-fashioned trawler of 590 IHP. The old Explorer's trawl load was about 3 tons at normal towing speed. On coming fast and with the winch heaving very slowly the tension in the after warp alone rose to 4.6 tons. Another record shows that on heaving up over the broadside in a moderate sea and force 6 to 7
Herring trawling is done as
fast as is
reasonable and the
maximum figures in table 99 are therefore in order.

In the small trawler the available engine power
is
when towing The large trawler appears to make somewhat better use of the actual engine power in that a higher
fully utilized
much more
percentage of it is transmitted to the fishing gear, a point in favour of a big screw turning slowly
The lightweight nylon trawl towed by the pocket trawler is not very different in fishing size from the
heavy trawl towed by the Arctic trawler.
Propeller data for
Mara
are given in table 100.
wind, the tension in the after warp varied from 1.4 to 2.8 tons. It seems reasonable that, if these figures are scaled up or down in proportion to the mean trawl load, they would give the sort of figures to be expected on bigger or smaller trawlers; but the unexpected is also liable to happen and since it is not unknown for one of the warps to snap, much higher warp tensions must sometimes
occur.
Perhaps the most dangerous situation is having to heave up over the broadside in bad weather with the trawl fast on the bottom and in a strong tide. A winch with dog clutches would tend to jam under the heavy load and this may add to the difficulties. Now that some of the Scottish motorboats of the 75 ft. (22.9 m.) class are fitting out with lightweight trawls, they may have to face this situation. They can fish the Danish seine net in most weathers because the worst that can happen is for the ropes to part, but a trawl warp suspended from the top of the gallows on a boat of considerable freeboard The traditional Swedish type of is a different matter. motor trawler has come in for some hard criticism by naval architects on account of its being so stiff as to be thoroughly uncomfortable. Yet in the trawterman, who occasionally has to face a situation with the trawl fast
AA
[391]

on the bottom, the type inspires confidence. This should aot be read as a criticism of the Scottish type of wooden but it has evolved on the basis of driftmotprboat, netting, longlining and Danish seine netting (fly-dragging style) and not at all on the basis of trawling. If the pracof trawling from MFV's is developed further in it will be interesting to watch whether the hull will be modified. design
tice
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Conclusion
If the fishing gear engineer can use the naval architect's data on propeller thrust to match the drag of the trawls he designs, he will later be able to provide performance data. The scope of cooperation is, however, becoming wider and the fisheries biologist is involved too. Evidence is gradually accumulating on the catching rates of different
Scotland
It
should be possible to postulate a set of severe conditions of tide strength, winch hauling speed and wave height, and test them in a tank. Tests might even be made at sea with bigger models under more realistic conditions and not necessarily at any greater expense.
types and sizes of fishing gear and how the catching rates depend on the fish stock. A knowledge of the performance of modern fishing gear, and the thrust, power and
facilities
required to handle it at the boat, cannot fail to a more rational background for the design of provide fishing craft and the planning of fishing fleets.
1392}
NEW PERSPECTIVES
by
IN SEA
BEHAVIOUR
G.
VOSSERS
A review is given of the main developments in the theoretical study of ship behaviour in a seaway. The concept of the energy spectrum or spectral density, which is introduced in the study of irregular motion, is explained. The behaviour of a ship in a regular seaway is discussed. The influence of the main dimensions, the weight distribution and shape of the sections is illustrated with the results of some theoretical and experimental investigations. Some remarks are made on speed toss in waves. The author also considers some possible future developments.
NOUVELLES PERSPECTIVES DANS LE COMPORTEMENT EN MER

L'auteur passe en revue les principaux developpements dans 1'ttude theorique du comportcment des navires par mer forte. II explique concept du spectre d'taergie ou densitd spectrale, qui est introduit dans i*tude de mouvements irreguliers. Le comportemcnt d'un navire par mer forte reguliere est examined L' influence des dimensions principales, de la distribution du poids et de la forme des sections est illustree par les resultats de quelques recherches theoriques et experimentales. La perte de vitesse dans les vagucs fait I'objet de quelques rcmarques. L'autcur considere aussi quelques possibility de developpements futurs.
le
NUEVAS PERSPECTIVAS EN EL COMPORTAMIENTO EN EL MAR

Se reseflan los principales adelantos en el estudio te6rico del comportamiento de un barco en mar gruesa. Se explica el concepto de energia o densidad espcctral que se introduce en el estudio de los movimicntos irregulares. Se examina el comportamiento de un barco en mar gruesa regular. La influencia de las dimensiones principales, la distribucidn de pesos, y la forma de las secciones se ilustra con los resultados de algunas investigaciones tedricas y experimentales. Se haccn algunas observaciones sobrc la peYdida de velocidad en las olas. El autor tambiln examina algunas posibilidades de mejoras futuras.
del espcctro
is a seaworthy ship? Kent's (1949/50) well-known and lyrical definition allows a good deal of freedom in its interpretation. Seaworthiness cannot be expressed by one quantity: a vessel should ship little water, should pitch and roll only moderately, and should be easy to control; there must not be, particularly in following seas, any danger of The accelerations must be moderate; the capsizing. vessel must not lose much speed in head seas, etc. The importance of each of these factors has to be balanced one against the other. Research will not automatically lead to the design of a seaworthy ship, but the results will enable the designer to weigh the factors on a
determine
speed,
motions,
power,
revolutions
of propeller,
WHAT
and wave
height.
Research has commenced into the forces acting on a moment amidships has been measured in model scale, and the pressures when slamming have also been determined, both in model and full scale, and compared with theoretical
ship in waves. In particular, the bending
findings.
scientific basis.
Without theoretical knowledge, it is impossible to understand a ship's behaviour, because of the many variables. And it is only through theory that it has become possible to predict the influence of the main dimensions, of the form coefficients, and of the distribution of weights. Data from the study of irregular phenomena have been applied to the motions of ships. One of the characteristic aspects of the sea, viz., its irregularity, has been investigated, and the degree of this irregularity can be expressed by one or a number of figures. Precise instruments have been designed for use on board ships to
Since the 1953 FAO Fishing Boat Congress, model Many experiments have been made more realistic. model basins have been equipped with wave generators able to produce both regular and irregular waves. Experiments can also be carried out with waves meeting the model from any given direction, even in an irregular few such facilities are in existence or are being pattern. constructed in England, Japan, Netherlands, U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. This subject is reviewed under thie headings: Waves with a description of irregular phenomena,
as
some new conceptions
require explanation
Ship motions
Resistance increase and the loss of speed in waves
1960; Vossers. 1959) deal with the general aspects of the behaviour of a ship in a seaway. In this paper only a short account of
Two recent books (Korvin-Kroukovsky.
some of the results is given.
[393]

1000
I I
SEA BEHAVIOUR
1000
I
I
1000
I
I
4000
I
I
SOOOft.
I
1090
1500
nrt-
#T
vA/TvAtW'
r
I -
we.
3
as indicated by the dotted line drawn obliquely downwards. Wave a,, on the other hand, rapidly gains in height. This rapid vanishing and appearance of separate wave crests is characteristic of an irregular seaway. For more general consideration, a large number of regular waves of different periods can be presumed to be present. The height of each regular wave is an important quantity because it indicates the amount of energy
^l \
A i
^y V
f\
^ro-
12
IS
belonging to each wave length and wave direction. Since the energy is proportional to the square of the wave height, the quantity i h 1 of all waves present in the frequency interval from the \i to f*+d(x, can be added and, by definition, this sum is assumed to be equal to the product of djx and a quantity f((A which is called the energy spectrum or spectral density:
ST18
^h'-fWdti
The function
...
(3)
/=>>.
397.
Wave
pattern obtained by super position of three regular
waves
f((i), therefore, indicates the amount of in each of the component waves. energy present Fig. 392 gives an instance of the curve of the spectral density as a function of the wave frequency at different
The
irregularity of the sea has
been the obstacle to
its
precise description. cribed by idealized
The sea has generally been deswave types, such as the trochoidal
rarely, if ever, exists in nature. Yet great importance has been placed on the trochoidal wave which is still used in strength calculations. Tests with models have generally been restricted to single, regular waves. Important conclusions can be drawn from comparative testing of models in regular waves, but difficulties will arise when the quantitative
wave which
on a hypothesis by shows that, with increasing wind force, the frequency at which the maximum amount of energy is present decreases, i.e. that with increasing wind force, the height of the longer waves increases. Therefore, at a given wind force, a large number of different wave lengths, and not one wave length only, are
velocities.
wind
The
figure is based
Neumann
(1954).
It
present simultaneously.
The equation (3) is, in fact, only applicable to waves running in one direction. The consideration may, without any difficulty, be extended to waves running in
different directions,
which
is
more common.
three-
results are extrapolated to the full scale ship's "irregular"
dimensional spectral density
f(^, 6) will
then be obtained,
behaviour.
The sea waves can be assumed to be built up of a large number of regular waves of different lengths, heights and
This imitates the characteristic behaviour of an irregular sea, as is clearly demonstrated by the super position of three regular sinusoidal waves, all of which are, for convenience sake, running in one direction {see fig. 391) (Neumann, 1952). With variations in time of 3 sec., the wave elevation of the following system is represented as a function of place:
directions.
WIND SfCCO
40
KMOTS (tC/M*)
h^hj cos (kiX-piiO-f h, cos (k^c~fxt)+ +h t cos(k.x-M)
....
(1)^
where hi, h* and h, represent the amplitudes of each composite wave; ki, k t and k g the wave numbers, dependent on the wave length as follows: k=2*/^ (x= wavelength); and |i l9 (it, and {* the wave frequencies, dependent on the wave period as follows: fA=2*/T
period).
(T=wave
For waves in deep water, there is a specific relation between the wave-length x and wave period T
:
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Fig. 391 shows that the height of wave
X=l,150
ft.
(350 m.)
when t=0
sec.,
a,, being at decreases rapidly,
Fig.
392.
Hypothetical spectral density as frequency at tufferent wtim
a faction of wave
SEAKINDLINESS
a theoretical example of which is given in
1954).
fig.
- NEW
PERSPECTIVES
393 (Marks,
Occanographers disagree as to the shape of the curve of spectral density. However, it is hoped that the elaborate measurements which will be made in the next few years will clarify this matter. With the aid of the
spectral density distribution, the irregular
indicated by hw in fig* 394. It can be seen that height i* not a constant quantity, and a large number of different apparent wave heights are found in one record. Experience shows that, in general, the significant wave
wave pattern
can be completely characterized and comparison with two different wave patterns can be made. It is not always necessary to know exactly the curve of the spectral density, but the area below the curve is of importance because it indicates the total amount of energy present in the wave pattern. Other parameters, which have been adopted for describing the shape of the curve, such as the position of maximum energy, the "width" of the spectrum, etc., are discussed in Korvin-
Fig. 394.
Record of an irregular wave
Kroukovsky (1960) and Vossers (1959). In the case of a narrow spectrum, the area below the
curve of spectral density appears to be a measure of the visible features of an irregular phenomenon. One is,
for instance, the significant wave height, indicated by (hw )t/f. This is the average of the apparent height of a third of the highest waves. An apparent wave height is
height (h w )i/ corresponds to the visually estimated on board ship.
wave
height that
is
A significant wave period and a significant wave length

can also be defined. These features also appear to depend on the curve of spectral density, though in a somewhat more complicated manner. From this it follows that the relation between the significant wave period and the significant wave length of an irregular wave pattern, is, in general, different from that between the wave period and the wave length of a regular wave, as given in equation (2). For an irregular wave pattern, the relation
is:
x=Ci JL-
...
(4)
where Ci is a coefficient dependent on spectrum and varying between 0.6 and 1 .0. The practical consequence is that care should be exercised in calculating the wave length from the estimates made of the wave
period.
the shape of the
estimates of wave heights and periods at sea are value. generally given as estimates of the significant of such a wave Fig. 395 gives the frequency distribution height estimate in the North Atlantic, the observation
The
period being six years. The figure shows, for instance, that the chance of the significant wave height exceeding 20 ft. (6 m.) at the position of the weather ship is approxi-
mately 6 per cent. (Brooks and Jasper, 1957). Ship motions are increasingly recorded on magnetic or punched tape, and the data analysed on an electronic computer. A large number of data can be recorded simultaneously. This considerably increases the reliaof deterbility of the measurements and the possibilities
mining curves of spectral density. It is important, but also difficult, to obtain a reliable recording of the wave height when a ship is tinder way*
Many
instruments
re
available for recording the
wave
has evolved one height at a fixed point, and Tucker (1956) a from relatively slowly for recording the wave height moving ship. Further developments may be expected. The wave generator in a model basin can produce
waves of
different lengths and/or directions successively
Fit.
393.
Hypothetical spectral
dauby
as a function of *wv*
by varying the r.p.m. of the driving motor. Highly realistic sea patterns can be imitated, which considerably enhance the value of model experiments.
[395]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
under the influence force F, a restoring force supplied by spring constant B, and a damping force coefficient N. With displacement s as
motion of a mass
of an exciting
a spring with with damping a function of
time, speed is given by the differential ds/dt and acceleration by d^/dt*. Four different forces are acting simula taneously: the inertia force Md*s/dt , equal to the
product of mass and acceleration; the damping force ds/dt, equal to the product of damping coefficient
N N and speed; the restoring force Bs, equal to the product

of spring constant
B and
the displacement s; and, finally

in
the exciting force F.
These four forces have to be

. .
equilibrium at any moment, so that
M d'$/dt* + N ds/dt + Bs =* F
this
(5)
From
mined
equation the magnitude of s can be deteras a function of M, N, B, and the force F. Should
the force
time, say,
s
be of a sinusoidal character as a function of cos cot, the displacement s will vary as cos wt. The amplitude s can easily be determined.
F=F
04)
K)
34B
J in
tOOr.
the North
;-AAAAA/
Pcos wi
MMflCAMT WAVC HCttHT

Fig. 395. Significant wave height for the weather ship Atlantic
Fig. 397.
illustrate
Mechanical model of mass with spring and damping to mathematical expression for pitching
Ship motions A ship has six degrees of freedom three displacements in a rectangular system, and three rotations about these axes (fig. 396). The motions are:
x: surging y: swaying
z:
This amplitude can be represented by the product of
two
factors
$: pitching
9: rolling X: yawing
result in shipping
_F K ~B
(6)
heaving
Pitching and heaving

loss
of water and
The first factor F/B represents the displacement of the mass under the influence of a constant force F; the force
divided by the spring constant then gives the displacement. The second factor K depends on the frequency to and indicates the increase or decrease of the amplitude, if a
sinusoidal variable force
force,
is
of speed, while rolling and, to some extent, swaying, also play a prominent part in the ship's stability and
safety.
Yawing
particularly affects steering, especially in
following seas. To study a ship's motions, it has been found convenient to study a simplified model (fig. 397). It shows the
cos
cot,
is,
instead of a constant
therefore, also called the magnification factor. In fig. 398 the magnification factor has been plotted as a function of to/o> r and a dimensionless damping para,
acting on the mass.
meter
v=N/A/BM.
<A>=r6> r
6> r is
For
reason
It is
very large values of s are found, for called the natural frequency.
r
which
found that
VB/M(-2w/T)
T=27t\/M/B
and, consequently, that for the whole period,
... ...
(7)
(8)
Fig. 398 also shows that the damping is principally of importance in the neighbourhood of the resonance
frequency.
Fig. 396. Definition
of ship motions
Fundamentally, the considerations with regard to the
1396]
SEAKINDLINBSS
~ NEW
PERSPECTIVES
motion of a mass attached to a spring are also applicable to the motion of a ship in waves. The inertia forces or moments are dependent on the mass and the mass moment of inertia of the ship. Besides the inertia forces of the ship itself, the inertia of the entrained water must also be taken into account, so that an increase of the mass or the mass moment of inertia of the ship must also be considered. This increase may be negligible in the case of
rolling, whereas it generally totals 50 to 100 per cent, in heaving and pitching. The damping forces are caused by generation of waves which run in every direction and carry energy with them. Friction damping appears to be of minor importance.
and moments arise from the rolling pitching. Finally, the wave motions generate the exciting forces and moments.
restoring forces
The and
Fig. 399.
Definition
of wave direction with respect to ship
However, there is a considerable difference in the motion of the mass with a spring (fig. 397) because the coefficients M, N, B and F are generally constant whereas
they are variable for a ship. Research during the last decade has given a clearer insight into the way in which the coefficients M, N, B and
are dependent on the main dimensions, the ship form, the ship speed and the wave length.
The
have important effects on the behaviour in still water. effect of such small changes on the behaviour in a seaway will in general be very small, though there may be a greater possibility of slamming. Actually, a sufficient freeboard and sheer is more
important for obtaining satisfactory sea behaviour than

the ship
form (Numata and Lewis,
Some
1957). practical applications of these investigations are
The influences of the main dimensions, the ship speed and the wave length are the most important, the ship form is only a secondary consideration. Therefore the behaviour of a ship in a seaway must be considered at the very early design stage because the main dimensions have such a large influence. At a later stage in the design close attention must be given to the smooth water performance. Relatively small changes in hull form may
given below.
Influence of
First,
main dimensions
important to determine when resonance of The frequency of the exciting force is then equal to the natural frequency (fig. 398) and depends
it is
motion
will occur.
on the wave
speed.
Fig. 399
length, the
wave
direction
and the
ship's
shows how the wave direction is defined, this the being angle between the propagation of the waves and the ship. =0 corresponds with the following seas,
1 80 with head seas. Diagrams can be prepared to indicate the values of a ship's speed, wave length and wave direction at which resonance will occur. Fig. 400 gives such diagrams for natural periods of 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 and 1 1 sec. For a ship with
and
a *=-
a natural pitching period of, say, 5 sec., pitching resonance will occur in oblique head waves (a =135) of 230 ft. (70 m.) at a speed of 10 knots, while a ship having a natural period of roll of 9 sec. will get into a rolling resonance in obliquely following waves (a =45) of 295 ft. (90 m.) at a speed of 5 knots. These diagrams are not only useful for design, they also enable a skipper to determine the influence of speed and course alterations on the ship's motions. A ship's natural period can be calculated by formula (7). The period of r9ll, Tr , and of pitch, Tp, is:
'
'
'
where k and
t
ki are the transverse
and
Fif.398.
A&ttt& of motion as a function offrequency and damping
of gyration respectively, and and GMi are t transverse and longitudinal metacentiic heights.
GM
longitudinal radii
tine
[397]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
io*
io*
o*
400. Resonance diagrams for the natural periods ofpitch and heave 3, 4 t 5, of ship speed, wave length and wave direction
7,
9 and 11
sec.
as a function
The factor \/\.l has been introduced in (10), because the moment of inertia of the added mass has to be taken into account for pitch (a mean value of 70 per cent, of the moment of inertia of the ship itself is appropriate) while
it
may be ignored in rolling.
bution of weight, ki 0.20 L. The distribution of weights of ships always lies between these values. An elaboration of (10), in which greater allowance is made for the added moment of inertia, is given in fig. 401 The natural pitching period can be (Lewis, 195S). read as a function of the displacement and the length of the ship a mean value of 0.25 L has been assumed for the radius of gyration while the figure is further based on an L/B ratio, varying between 5 (for L/v / l =4.6) and
:
6(forL/v
J/
'==5.5).
,/C
0M
*L)
obtain a short natural pitching period, the ship must have a great length and small displacement, i.e. a high value of L/y 1 /'. With fig. 400 and 401, the conditions for pitching resonance can now be estimated. One should also know how the exciting forces and
To
moments
|LM4l<t*J
100
are dependent
direction, the ship speed

400
00
on the wave length, the wave and the main dimensions and
Fig. 401.
The
effect
of displacement and ship's

pitching period
length on the natural
shape of the ship. In the first calculations, the influence of the ship speed can be ignored. The changes in the amplitude of the exciting moment are given in fig. 402 for pitching in head waves (wave direction =180) for different waterplane finenesses, as functions of the ,
The radius of gyration is usually given as a percentage of the breadth or of the length of the ship. For rolling,
however,
it is
more
logical that
wave length/ship length ratio, x/L. Similar diagrams can be drawn for different wave directions and for other ship motions. Fig. 402 shows that, for a wave length/ ship length ratio between 1.0 and 2.0, the exciting moment for pitching is a maximum. If this wave length
should also coincide with resonance, very large pitching angles can be expected. Fig. 400 showed the relation between the natural
pitching period
the depth at varies between 0.33 and The radius of gyration and 0.26 L. The extreme
is
where
kt^cVIi+B*
the side,
0.39.
01)
is
the breadth, c
for pitch varies between 0.23 cases are a rectangular distribution of weight, ki=0.29 L, and a triangular distri-
and wave
length,
fig.
401 the relation
between displacement, ship length and natural pitching period, and fig. 402 the relation between wave length and
[398]
SEAKINDLINESS
large pitch exciting moments. Fig. 403 combines these data to illustrate the case when waves meet the ship
NEW PERSPECTIVES
head-on; as a function of the length-displacement ratio, 1 L/v /*, the Froude number, v/VgL, has been determined, at which, with wave length/ship length, x/L, between 1.0 and 2.0, resonance occurs. Fig. 403, originally developed by Lewis (1955), shows how, for avoiding
violent pitching and, consequently, shipping water, the 1 1 length-displacement ratio, L/v / , as a function of Froude
0.4S-
040
O30-
number, v/VgL, has to be chosen. The critical range, indicated by hatching, should, therefore, be avoided. With increasing speed, a higher length-displacement 1 9 ratio, L/v / , has generally to be selected. Fig. 403 also
a'020018010-
shows various values of modern ships. The speed reduction necessary for easy behaviour in rough weather for some of the ships is indicated. Fishing vessels seem to fall exactly in the middle range. The main dimensions
have to be drastically altered to avoid excessive ship
005.
73
WO
V<L/UX
126
WO
880
WO
Fig. 403. The effect of speed-length and length-displace*nent ratios on large pitching motions and deck wetness (Lewis, 1955) for ships in head-on waves
8.0
7.0
-O2 3 L
u o
0.9
-01211
10
1.5
2D
2.5
3.0
35
S.O
RATIO
Fig. 402.
WAVE
LENGTH - SHIP
LENGTH
/L
The
effect
of wave length ship length ratio on the pitching
ntoment coefficient for different waterplane finenesses

4.0
motion, and
these alterations
must be made to the

3.0
area below the critical range as fishing boats frequently run at low speeds.
Influence of longitudinal radius of gyration From formula (10) it will be evident that a short longitudinal radius of gyration results in a short pitching
2.0
period. Therefore there is a relation between longitudinal radius of gyration and resonance. Fig. 404 shows the influence of changing the longitudinal radius
VO
of gyration on the pitching angle as a function of the
Froude number, v/VgL, at a wave length/ship length VL*=L It will be seen from fig. 404 that a long radius of gyration gives resonance at a lower speed than a short radius of gyration. As boats must fish at low speeds
ratio
0.2 S
O.SO
0.75
140
121
1.50
(KNOTS; ft)
o
a short longitudinal radius of gyration is always preferable. This is, therefore, in agreement with the discussion on choosing the main dimensions.
ao5
cxio
0.15
azo
ax>
0*0
Fig. 404.
Effect
of the
longitudinal radius ofgynttto*
on
[399]

Of
KKEIS
SEA BEHAVIOUR
ftttJf
give less trouble from slamming. At higher speeds, U-shaped sections may sometimes be advantageous, though not in the case of fishing vessels.
WITHOUT tUftC KCCLS WITH tLftC KEELS
The vertical accelerations in the bow can also be reduced by a bulb, which acts as a damping mechanism; care should be taken, however, that the bulb is not too large. A 4 per cent, bulb (reckoned in percentages of the midship area) seems to give the best results.
Influence of freeboard and sheer
WAVC DIRECTION
Fig. 4()5.
Effect
of bilge keels on
rolling
InflMBce of bilge keels The influence of bilge keels on rolling is illustrated in The fig. 405, which gives the results of a model test. shape of the curve corresponds with the resonance curve of fig. 398. Bilge keels reduced roll angles from 45 to 24 in this case. The shape of the body sections and the ratio B/T also affect roll damping. For a midship-section coefficient pÔ.80 with a B/T 3, a higher degree of damping is generally found than with a B/T -2.
Influence of the shape of sections fishing boat running in the critical zone of fig. 403 will
cannot be designed to operate outside fig. 403, the possibility of very large pitching angles has to be expected. Considerable sheer and freeboard are therefore necessary. Absolute recommendations are difficult to give but it is hoped that accurate measurements at sea and model tests will be made, so that a rational base for choosing the proper freeboard and sheer can be arrived at. Statistics will have to be utilized and a percentage of probability fixed. This will be possible with the aid of the spectral densities of the motions. A ship's behaviour in following seas must also be considered when determining freeboard and sheer. With oblique seas, a rather large amount of water will be shipped in the region L/3 from the stern. In following seas the velocity of the waves may be about as high as the ship speed, and large volumes of water may sweep the aft deck. It is easy to determine when this will occur, and it is shown in fig. 408. The zone in which the wave length/ship length ratio, x/L, lies between 1 and 2 may be particularly prone to such a situation. The risk may be minimized by providing sufficient sheer aft, or may be avoided completely by proper manoeuvring, as, for
If
vessel
a fishing
the critical zone of
example, by reducing speed.
i.o
LIGHT OAATT
/i**09f
MAX
o.e
OH ATT
T s /L
-* a
0.6
be seaworthier with V-shaped than with U-shaped sections. This is perhaps not only due to the shape of sections. A V-shape hull has a higher watcrplanc coefficient, and fig. 402 shows this to be of influence op the exciting forces; moreover, the influence of the waterpiane coefficient on damping must also be considered. This is illustrated in two figures, taken from Ochi (1957). Fig. 406 shows, as a function of the Fronde's number, v/ v/gL, the vertical acceleration in the forepart of the ship for both U-shape and a V-shape of sections at two different draughts and a wave length/ ship length ratio x/L=l. Fig. 407 shows for the same ship forms, as a function of Froude's number, the draught-length ratio below which slamming will occur. These figures show that at low speeds V-shaped sections will resuh in lower vertical acceleration*, and
0.4
0.2
v-ronn
*
04
at
"it
EO
<u
at
01
04
ae
or
Fig. 406.
Effect
vertical acceleration tn the fore part
of the shape of sections or waterplane area on of a ship
[400]
SEAK1NDLINESS
of metftctotrk height The longest rolling periods should be chosen to obtain best behaviour in waves. Fig. 400 shows that, for a long
>
NEW PERSPECTIVES
o.f 0-5 -
rolling period, the range
resonance
may occur
is
of wave directions in which smaller than for a short rolling
period. Moreover, a longer period will generally lead to smaller vertical accelerations. It then follows that the largest possible radius of
0.4-
gyration (formula 9) and the lowest possible metacentric height, have to be chosen. The minimum metacentric height must, however, be determined by considerations of stability, a subject beyond the scope of this paper. It should be borne in mind that when a ship is on a wave crest her stability may be considerably reduced. This may, particularly in following seas, give rise to a critical
situation
0.2 -
o.i
and dangerous
rolling
motions
may
start.
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.0
1JO
Vertical accelerations Vertical accelerations, as well as shipping water, affect "habitability" on board ship. These vertical accelerations
SHIP SPECQ
WAVE SPEED
Fig. 408. Relation between Froude number and the ratio of ships speed to wave speed for different wave length/ship length ratios in following seas. The dangerous range is hatched
be caused by rolling, heaving, and pitching. The influence of accelerations on man's comfort on board ship has been investigated and reported on in a recently
may
published thesis (Nieuwenhuysen, 1958). It appears that not only accelerations but also the frequency of motion From fig. 409 (compare fig. 427) it is of importance. can be seen that, for a pitching and heaving motion with a frequency of 0.25 c.p.s., the vertical accelerations become decidedly unpleasant at 0.25 g, whereas for a rolling motion with a frequency of 0.1 c.p.s. they become
this
acceleration
seldom occurs.
Il
is
therefore clear
only pitching and heaving cause seasickness. If, from model tests or from measurements at sea, values of periods and accelerations are known, this figure can be used to judge the discomfort of a ship.
from
this figure that
Motion of
irregular seas
unpleasant at 0.35
g.
As a
acceleration of 0.25 g for pitching and heaving is easily reached for and aft for a quarter of the ship's length, whereas for rolling, even at the side of the ship,
An
spectral
density can
characterize
the
irregular
waves, so a spectral density may also be found for ship motions. The data in the upper part of fig. 410 shows, for
instance, the spectral density of the sea surface at a certain point, while those in the lower part represent the spectral density of the pitching and rolling movements of a ship.
005
a certain relation between the spectral density of that of pitching and rolling. This relation is determined by a ship's behaviour in regular seas; for
There
is
the sea
and
example, that for pitching being:

represents a function of the frequency, actually having similar shape to that given in fig. 398, fhh (n) the spectral density of the waves, and (fi) the
where
f^MYCpOl'fhhW
((JL)
(12)
0.03
spectral density of the pitching motion. is the pitching of a ship in regular waves,
f^
(JA),
therefore
and formula (12)
002
manner in which, with its aid, the spectral for density pitching can be found. The wave direction, too, can be taken into account in formula (12). Details are given by Vossers (1959) which also show that, for
indicates the
0.01
the sake of accuracy

start
'in
computation,
it is
preferable to
from a
relation different
does not contradict the line
from (12), which, however, or argument taken above*
CXI
01
0.5
0.4
04
Oe
07
relation similar to that for pitching is naturally applicable to rolling, but as damping is much less in be rolling, the curve of spectral density will generally
much "narrower".
Fig. 407. Efffct
of the shop* of sections on stemming
For an
irregular sea with
a wide spectrum, the peak of
[401]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
between the exciting forces and moments and the ship's motion, through which a certain mean resistance increase is obtained. The formula for the resistance increase in
regular waves
is:
R^Chw^cosc
(13)
where: Ri=the mean resistance increase, due to pitching; C is a coefficient dependent, for instance, on the ship form. similar term is valid for the influence of heaving
A
is
on the
stance
resistance increase.
be seen that, in principle, the increase in resiproportional to the product of the wave height and the pitching angle, or since the pitching angle is proportional to the wave height, to the square of the
It will
wave
height. .It further follows that, with large pitching angles, there will be a considerable increase in resistance. This is illustrated in fig. 411, where the loss of speed
0.0001
1
10
IN
ICO
FREQUENCY
CYCLES PER SECOND
as a function of the wave length/ship length ratio has been plotted for two different wave directions. The r.p.m. of the engine has been kept constant but, naturally, similar curves may be drawn for which the torque or the power is constant. It appears that for head-on waves (a =180), with a wave-length equal to the ship length, where the pitching angles are generally maximum, the loss of speed, too, is greatest. With oblique seas on the bow (a =135), the maximum loss of speed occurs with a smaller wave-length. The influence of the reflection of the waves against the ship, though present, appears to play a
subordinate part.
Fig. 409. Effect of vertical accelerations on comfort on board ship. Zone 1: only just noticeable. Zone 2: clearly noticeable. Zone 3: very clearly noticeable Just becoming inconvenient. Zone 4: decidedly unpleasant. Zone 5: unbearable (compare fig. 427}
The theoretical investigations have surprisingly shown a decreased resistance at small wave-lengths in head seas compared to the smooth water results. This phenomenon has also been observed in model tests in the seakeeping laboratory of the NSMfi (van Manen, Vossers and
Rijken, p. 422). The effect may total 5 to 10 per cent, of the power and cannot therefore be neglected, particularly in the interpretation of ship trials in small wave-lengths
the curve of spectral density for rolling will be in the neighbourhood of a period corresponding to the natural period of the period of roll. Then a measurement of the rotting period of a ship in a seaway will correspond to that of the natural rolling period. If, on the other hand, the spectrum of the sea is very narrow as, for instance, in the case of a regular swell, the peak of the curve of
spectral density for rolling
which are not generally considered to influence
resistance.
t*fCTtl
OCMSITV
Or WAVCt
may correspond to
of encountering the swell, and natural rolling period. It is, therefore, advisable when determining a ship's metaccntric height from the rolling period, to do so in a relatively irregular seaway, or, to
the period will not correspond to the
make
the rolling test in smooth water, when the natural rolling period will be found directly. There are various possibilities as to when to apply the
it may be used to indicate the probability at which values, such as pitch angle, submergence of the bow, or roll angle, are surpassed. This will enable a comparison between different ships in
method of the spectral density;
ofNtmr
tr
PITCH
fCTKAL
MMftltV Of NOtl
an irregular seaway.
In the
last few years, theoretical investigations have given a better understanding of the causes of loss of speed and of resistance increase in regular and irregular waves. One of the most important depends on a phase difference
Fig. 410.
Spectral density of pitching
and rolling motions
in
a given
[402]
SEAKINDLINESS
The general pattern of the resistance increase in a is, therefore, well known, but detailed information is not available, such as on the influence of the block coefficient and ship form, the behaviour of the propeller with or without a nozzle, and the advantages of using a
seaway
Elaborate propeller in a seaway. be carried out in the future, particularly now that accurate measurement of torque and thrust in a seaway is possible. Earlier measurements are unreliable, partly because the apparatus was unsuitable for taking dynamic measurements, and partly because theoretical and experimental investigations in the past few years have shown that wall effect plays a part in the conventional model basin which is only able to produce head-on waves.
controllable-pitch
NEW PERSPECTIVES
possible to carry out realistic experiments in any kind
of
sea.
In judging seaworthiness it is necessary to adopt statistical statements, such as the probability that such
model
tests will
7t
-US'
SCAS ON TMC
ISO*
5 60
5
HEAD SCAI
Future developments Now that a number of specially equipped seakeeping laboratories have been completed, a considerable advance has been made in the technique of model experiments in a seaway. Experiments cover both regular and also irregular waves, and thus the practical value of model
tests is greatly increased.
. 2S
05
*ATIO
Fig.
10
1.
10
WAVE
LENGTH
SHIP
LENGTH
*/l
impossible to predict to what extent research on the influence of shape and main dimensions of a ship will affect the new designs. It promises considerable contributions to the design of the optimum ship in a
It is
41 L Effect of wave length on Joss of speed
and such a value will be exceeded in a certain situation. Ship research provides a still almost unexplored domain
in this respect.
seaway.
The use of
basins
model
has
greatly
electronic computers by the ship simplified the numerical
calculations involved.
The introduction of the conception of spectral density enables exact measurements on board ships to be made;
and, in the future, instruments will be used on board and wave heights to permit a simple determination of the spectral density. The conception of spectral density is also important
ship to record motions
when
testing
models
in irregular seas.
It will
now
be
Finally, it is to be expected that in the seakeeping laboratory the nautical aspects of a ship's behaviour in a seaway will also come under review. This is, in any case, necessary in carrying out accurate seakeeping model tests because the human element plays a prominent part in seaworthiness. An incompetent skipper can easily make a good seagoing ship unseaworthy, but even the most competent man cannot turn a bad vessel into a good one.
1403]
BEHAVIOUR OF TRAWLERS AT SEA

by
II
WALTER MOCKEL
The behaviour of four trawlers, 167 to 182 ft. (51 to 55.5 m.) between perpendiculars, were investigated during fishing trips and shaft horsepower, ship's speed, warp pull, angle and period of roll and pitch, apparent angle of roll, vertical acceleration, and wind apeed were measured. It was found that the power requirement, when trawling, was almost the same for the four vessels and that the shape scarcely affected the power requirement, resistance of the ship being about 4 per cent, of that of the gear. Power was only partly utilised when trawling in good weather. In bad weather, the torque reserve and not the power reserve is the limit, due to the loss in r.p.m. Increase of power is not the only way to increase speed; refined hull design and, above all, increase in length are important factors. Trawlers require much additional power to maintain steaming speed in bad weather, 37 per cent, at Beaufort 5 and a speed of 13 knots. Loss of speed is less with a low block coefficient. Trawlers steaming at the same ratio of wave length to ship length as cargo ships lose comparatively more speed. The comfort of the crew is directly related to acceleration. Almost 50 per cent, of the passengers were seasick at an acceleration of 2.6 ft./sec 1 (0.8 m./sec*) on a large liner. The maximum acceleration found on the four trawlers investigated was about 1 g<=32 ft./sec1 (9.81 m./sec ) so they had about 12 times greater acceleration without a single case of seasickness. The raetacentric height should not be reduced below 2.3 ft. (0.70 m.) for motor trawlers to prevent risks arising from icing and shipping water. Crews complain not only about short periods of roll but also about long periods which convey a feeling of insecurity. Trawlers shipping much water soon have to stop fishing. Values and diagrams of natural periods of roll in relation to the beam of the ship, stability figures, data on the behaviour of the ship and the reaction of the crew, are given. The point of minimum motion was deduced from measurements of acceleration. Vertical acceleration is greater forward than aft and is lowest in a following sea.
LE COMPORTEMENT DES CHALUTIERS EN

fait
MER
II
Pendant des sorties de peche de quatre chalutiers, dont la longueur entre perpendiculaires e*tait de 167 a 182 pi. (51 a 55.5 m.), on a des recherchcs sur leur comportement et on a mesure la puissance sur 1'arbre, la vitesse du navire, la traction sur les funes, Tangle et la pe>iode du roulis et du tangage, Tangle apparent du roulis, T acceleration verticale et la vitesse du vent. On a trouve que la puissance n&essaire pendant le chalutage gtatt presque la mcme pour les quatre navires et qus la form? du de celle de Tengin. La puissance etait utilises partiellenavire affecte a petne la puissance n&essaire, la resistance du navire 6tant environ ment settlement pendant le chalutage par beau temps. Par mauvais temps, Je couple et non la reserve de puissance forme la limite, par suite de la perte de t.p.m. L augmentation de la puissance n'est pas le seul moyen pour augmenter la vitesse; le dessin raffine* de la coque et, par dcssus tout, {'augmentation de la longueur sent des facteurs import ante. Les chalutiers necessitent beaucoup de puissance supplement a ire pour conserver la vitesse de route par mauvais temps: 37% pour un vent de force 5 a T6chetle de Beaufort et une vitesse de 13 noeuds. La perte de vitesse est moindre avec un faible coefficient de remplissage. Des chalutiers, naviguant au m&me rapport: longueur de vague longueur du bateau, que des cargos, perdent comparativement plus de
4%
vitesse.
est en relation directe avec ('acceleration. Presque 50% des passegers avaient le mal de mer a une acceleraa bord d'un grand paquebot. L'acc^leration maximum trouvee sur les quatre chalutiers en question etait d'envtron 1 g soil 32 pi./sec* (9.81 m./sec 1 ); ils avaient done une acceleration douze fois environ plus grande sans un seul cas de mal de mer. La hauteur m&acentrique nc doit pas etre rcduite au-dessous de 2,3 pi. (0,70 m.) pour les chalutiers & motuer pour prvenir les risques dus au gJacagc et a Teau qui embarque. Les Equipages se plaignent non seulement des courtes periodes de roulis mais aussi des tongues pdriodes qui amcnent un setiment d'ins^curite. Les chalutiers qui cmbarqucnt beacoup d'eau doivent bient6t s'arr&ter de pecher. L'auter donne les chiffres et les diagrammes des periodes nature! les de roulis en relation avec la largeur du navire, les chiffres de stability, des donn&s sur le comportement du navire et la reaction de Tgquipage. Le point de mouvement minimum a etc dgduit des meswres de 1'acceleration. L'acce Oration est plus grande a Tavant qu'a Tarriere et est la plus faible par mer venant de Tarriere.
Le confort de Tequipage
pi. /sec* (0.8
tion
de 2.6
m./sec
COMPORTAMIENTO DE LOS ARRASTREROS EN EL MAR
II
El comportamtento de 4 arrastreros que tenian urta eslora entre perpendiculares de 167 a 182 pies (51 a 55,5 m.) se investig6 durante varios viajes de pesca y se calcularon la potencia en caballos al Arbol, la vclocidad del barco, la resistencia de los cables de remolque, los tagutos y periodes de balanceo y cabeceo, el Angulo aparente de balanceo, la aceleraci6n vertical y la velocidad del viento. Se observe que las necesidades de fuerza motriz durante la pesca eran casi iguales en los 4 barcos y que la forma del barco apenas de la ofrecida per el equtpo de pesca. La fuerza motriz solo influye en esas necesidades. La resistencia de los barcos era, aprox., el se cmpleaba parctalmente cuando se peacaba en buen tiempo, pero en mal tiempo el par motor y no la rescrva de potencia, marca el Ifmite debido a la perdida en r.p.m. El aumento de fuerza motriz no es la unica manera de incrcmentar la vclocidad del barco; los cascos de forrrtas mas finas y, sabre todo, el aumento de la eslora, son factores de important. Los arrastreros ntcesitan mucha potencia adicional para mantener la velocidad ouando el tiempo es malo: 37% con viento 5 de la escala Beaufort y una velocidad de 13 nudot. Se pterde menos velocidad cuando el coeficientc de bloque es bajo. Los arrastreros que navegan con la misma relacidn de tongitud de onda-eslora que los barcos mercantes pierden reUtivamente menos velocidad.
4%
[404]
SEAKINDLINESS
Wt* en
de los
vestigaci6n fu, aprox., I ni un solo cato de mareo.
-
TRAWLERS AT SEA
fc aocteracidn. En un gran tranutttntieo a una acelmcuta do 2,* aceleraci6n maxima encontrada en los cuatro arwtrerot objcto dc in12 vecet mas que en el tramatWntico, no obstante to cuafno sc di6
g~32
pasajcros
retaci6n <*"*? ie mared.

sea,
pies/teg* (9,81
m./wg) o
U unas
Para impcdir las pdigros quc repmentan la formacidn de hielo y el embarquc de mucha mar, la altura metaototrica de k arrastreros de no debe reducir a menos de 2,3 Las tripulactones no s6k> se quejan de los balanceos de period* ragtor pies (0,70 m.). corto, sino tambten de KM de periodo largo, por la sensacton de inseguridad que crean. Los arrastreros que embarcan mucha mar no tardan en dejar de cuando el tiempo se endurece. Se exponen valores y diagramas de los perlodos naturales de balanoeo con relacidn a pcscar la manga del barco, datos relatives a la cstabilidad, datos sobre el comportamiento del barco y la reaccibn de la tripulacidn. El punto de movimiento minimo se dedujo de los calculos de la aceleraci6n. La aceteraci6n vertical e$ mayor a proa que a popa con mar es minima de y popa.
data for trawlers under actual operation are essential for improving their design. The mere subjective reactions of the crew make no contribution, because a naval architect must deal in
Some
ship's data relevant to the investigations are

fig.
PERFORMANCE
plotted in
412 against the angle of entrance.
PROGRAMME OF INVESTIGATIONS AND

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
The following measurements were taken several times each day throughout the fishing trip: (a) shaft horsepower (b) ship's speed
(c)
measured quantities in his design calculations. With financial support from the Minister for
Traffic,
the**HamburgischeSchiffbau-Versuchsanstalt"(Hamburg Ship Model Basin) has, in addition to researches undertaken earlier, carried out investigations of operational conditions on three trawlers, F, and H. Data are also available for a steam trawler J. Although the information about J is less complete than for vessels F, G and H, it is adequate for purposes of comparison and will accordingly be taken into consideration.
warp
pull
(d) angle
(e)
and period of roll and pitch apparent angles of roll and vertical acceleration
Vessels
F and
G are motor trawlers, while H and J are
steam trawlers. All of them are modern craft built during the last seven years. The voyages of the two motor trawlers took them to the area of the Lofoten Islands.
wind speed. The power was measured with a Maihak torsion meter aft of the thrust block on the shaft. An electric impulse counter was connected to the meter in order to
(f )
(a)
TABLE
101
determine the r.p.m. of the screw. (b) The ship's speed was determined by a HSVA resistance-log calculated with the use of calibration curves from the measured resistance of a small metal cone towed behind the vessel. (c) The warp pull was determined by means of two dynamometers fixed to the warps in a simple manner. Thus the annoying stopping of the warps with chains
was avoided, although it is inevitable if ordinary spring dynamometers are used. (d) The angles of roll and pitch were determined as before (Mockel. 1955). The periods of roll and pitch were found by using a stop watch, a long series of measurewas calculated ments being taken. Each day the with a fair degree of accuracy from the period of roll,
CM
was on a herring trip to the went to Iceland. The bottom of whilst J Fladengrund, had been painted just before the start of the the ship voyage. The other three vessels had been bottom painted
The steam trawler
thus permitting a representation of the variation of throughout the voyage. (e) The devices for determining the apparent angles of
roll
GM
and the vertical pitching accelerations were developed by Dr. Grim. Those mercury instruments give only the
about ten months before the trip. The ships have a length between perpendiculars of from 167 to 182 ft. (51 to 55.5 m.) and a breadth of from 28 to 30 ft. (8.6 to 9.2 m.). Table 101 shows the average draughts and the relevant displacements as measured on
leaving
maximum
obtained during the time of observations. Six instruments indicating the apparent angle of roll were distributed between the keel and the top of the wheelhouse, and seven accelerometers were distributed over the
and on
arriving at port.
The pitch follows

:
and
disc-area ratios of the propellers are as
Ship
Pitch ratio
F
.
G
0.976 0.510 120
126.9
H
1.050
J
1.029
P/D
1.118
.
Disc-area ratio
DAR
0.543
np.m. at
Maximum r.p.m,
sailing speed
110
,
115.5
0.570 109 120
0.480 109
116.4
whole length of the ship. means of an (f) The wind speed was determined by anemometer calibrated in a wind tunnel. Owing to their sensitivity, some of these instruments calibrated both before and e.g. the dynamometers were after the voyage. The zero setting of the torsion meters was similarly checked. No change of the zero setting was noticed on any of the instruments during the voyages, so this source of error is thus excluded,
[405J
SEA BEHAVIOUR
curve. In the case of the two motor which travel at higher Froude numbers than the steam vessels H and J, the torque coefficients tinder sailing conditions lie in the area where the curve rises
shown on each
trawlers,
sharply.
The torque coefficients increase with the pitch ratio of the propellers. Where this is low for example in ship they remain constant up to high Froude numbers. As it rises, the coefficient also shows a tendency to
which is more pronounced at higher Froude numbers. However, in the case of ship H, the curve is too high in relation to the pitch ratio when compared with the results for the other three ships. The relatively high disc-area ratio of 0.57 may be a contributing factor. The effective pitch, which is unknown for all four propellers, in the case of ship H might be comparatively
increase,
Fig. 412.
Data of the forms of the
trawlers investigated
o Soiling torque
Moximutn torqut
POWER OUTPUT AND SPEED DURING GOOD WEATHER

Progressive trials were made on each ship in a calm sea at the beginning and the end of the voyage to determine the shaft horsepower, the propeller speed, and the speed of the ship. The results are plotted in fig. 413, 415 and 416, is taken as an example. The curves for where the ship the other three vessels follow the same trend. 1 Fig. 413 shows the measured power versus r.p.m. In this diagram, which serves to check the measurements, the power curve forms a straight line as long as the torque
004
10
O.
coefficient is constant, KqQ/pn'D*. This is generally true for vessels with comparatively low Froude numbers,
e.g.
002
0-20
0-25
030
higher propeller loads, because they sail at comparatively high Froude numbers, the gradient of the power curve
freighters.
However,
as
trawlers
have
increases at
Fig.
somewhat
sailing
greater
power than
a?
Fig. 414.
o-e
o-s
1-0
wind and when trawling. The torque coefficients K q were calculated from these measurements and plotted against Froude numbers in fig. 414. The sailing point and the value determined at full load are
413 .shows the power curve
forces,
r.p.m.'. at different
when
Torque coefficients for trawlers
greater than that for the other ships, thus the effective pitch ratio will also be greater. Since the power was determined several times a day
t4OO1*00 1000
throughout the voyage and the measured power always fell easily on the curve valid for the existing weather condition, the different torque coefficient found for ship cannot be attributed to a measuring error.
oo
Owing to the greater propeller load, the coefficients are higher when trawling than when sailing. In table 102 they are compared with the data obtained at sailing speed
and at maximum speed. Thus the torque coefficient when trawling is about 75 to 93 per cent, greater than when sailing. The trawling data given in table 102 for ships F, G and I represent
power output
10
|00
400 too
C/.MO
Fig. 413.
, 1
fOifO*
at 3*5 knots. It is only the data for ship that refer to the trawling speed of 4.5 knots usual when
fishing herring.
SHP valve, for trawUrG at dtferentwimlforctt

[406]
A complete diagram is given in fig. 415 for trawler G,
SEAKINDLINESS
where the values for shaft horsepower,
ship's speed
TRAWLERS AT SEA
140
190
120
K><
and
trawl pull are plotted against r.p.m. It shows the curves obtained under different weather conditions, when sailing and when trawling. It can be seen from the diagram that the power requirement related to r.p.m. is the same on the outward and on the return voyage. The resistance, which varies with the displacement, has an effect only on the speed.
MO
100-
9080
The trawling power, given below, same for all the vessels investigated:
Ship
is
practically the
SHP
1400
F
568
G
570
H
630
J
572
1" ? 6040 30
10
-
SHP
As
the ship
50- 1200 H
1000
trawled one knot faster than the other

1
power was about 1 per cent, higher. Differences in the hull form do not affect the power requirement at the low trawling speeds. At 3.5 knots,
vessels, its
20-
800-
the resistance of a trawler of the type of ship can be assumed to be about 0.5 ton, i.e. approximately 4 per cent, of the measured resistance of the gear, which was about 12.5 ton.
600400S:<P
The measurements of warp
pull,
which were taken
behind the gallows, appear at first sight somewhat high. Yet they were determined with much care by a long series of readings taken from two dynamometers on each trawl warp. The figures for warp pull were also supported by measurements by other investigators using ordinary dynamometers including the G's sister ship. These figures ran up to a maximum of 13 ton including the weight of the warps in water about 2.4 ton.
200-
6 8 10 Spttd (Knots)
12
14
Performance data versus speed measured on board trawler C under different weather conditions when trawling and when sailing
Fig. 416.
The
Ltnath of worp
Pull of
efficiency
780 fnv (1370m.)
7)
'
_P (fcgQ x v (m./sec.ê.SS
results are:
of trawl pull can be expressed: P (ton) x V(knots) SHP x 75 SHP
14-
The
Ship
^t
.
0.472 0.480 0.456 No measurements of pull were taken on ship J. Although, under the influence of the seaway, the current and the ship's movements, some scatter is apparent in the warp pull figures, the efficiency shows very little difference; and it can be assumed that this is
very close to
reality.
The speed-power curves in fig. 416 are based on fig. 41 5.

Only ton Only fothtr
Fothtr ond ton
40
Fig.
80
TQ
tO
tO
100
MO
ttO
K<,t as percentage of
K^m
+68
+83
+69.0
+76
4J5.
r.jMH.
if
nwuurtdo* board trawler G

joilfag
(where K*->ooeffictent at sailing speed; maximum output (maximum speed); and

trawling speed.)
coefficient at ** coefficient at
WMfi
and wntH trawling
[407]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
40
30
.6
CO
10
=f~r==
ST
Soiling
Troatfag
2345
Beaufort number
f.
4J9.
Additional
SHP for sustained FandC
13 knots speed for ships
The total power in good weather of

utilized as follows:
the four trawlers
was
10
12
14
SHP when trawling as percentage of

Sailing speed SHP Full power SHP
Ship
H
51.0 43.0
57.5 46.0
Spttd (knott )
Fig.
477. Comparison of power requirements and trawl pull for the

four trawlers under fair weather conditions
97.5 69.0
76.0 63.0
The
in
weather curves for the four ships are assembled 417 for comparison. In dealing with the question of power requirement it is
fair
fig.
know precisely what power and torque reserve are required when trawling in bad weather. It must first be ascertained to what extent the full sailing
important to
Ship H was trawling at 4.S knots and therefore required more power than the other vessels, trawling at 3,5 knots. At 3.5 knots, ship H would use about 57 per cent, of sailing speed power and 40 per cent, of the attainable maximum output. The reserve output cannot, however, be fully utilized at higher propeller loads owing to the
decrease in r.p.m. It is not, therefore, the reserve of power but the reserve of torque which is decisive for the loading capacity of the engine. These reserves are notably smaller than the output margins indicated above
:
power output
is
needed for trawling in good weather.
Soiling
spstd
Ship Trawling torque as percentage of: Sailing speed torque Full power torque
.
o Moximum tptod
400
H
78 68
86 73
119 93
90
eoo
020
035
had already Thus, when trawling herring, ship exceeded the sailing torque by 19 per cent, and used up 93 per cent, of the maximum torque. At 3.5 knots about 68 per cent, of the sailing torque and 53 per cent, of the maximum torque was required. On the other hand, ship J at 3.5 knots used all the sailing torque and up to 90 per cent, of the full power. In such cases it would be worth considering whether the use of a controllablepitch propeller or multiple gear might be advantageous
for
economic reasons,
0-7
0-9
II
Flf. 419. Admiralty constants for the four towritrs
The steep rise of the power curves in fig. 417 shows that no further major gains of speed are to be expected from increase of power. The same tendency is apparent from trial measurements on most trawlers. Increased
[408]
SEAKINDLINESS
speed can only be attained by
increased length.
still
TRAWLERS AT SEA
better hull designs
and
Judging from the
curves
it
C,
A*'VVSHP) in fig. 418
(Admiralty constant seems that for economical
J
4-6
1
22-
propulsion the ships should not travel at Froude numbers higher than:
6
140-
4O-
20*
18-
woo
1201200
ShipF
H
J
0.974 0.942 0.907 0.890
0.290 0.280 0.270 0.265
-3-0-
10014121000
However, considerations, such as the marketing situation, also determine a ship's economic speed. Fig. 418 was plotted from measurements taken at the beginning of the trips when the load conditions show a certain uniformity. These loads are very unequal on the
2-0-
10-
f 600
to-
6-
i:
OSJ o
j
400200
J
40-
homeward voyage.
20J
THE SHIP
IN
THE SEAWAY
Fig. 421.
The seagoing qualities are determined by the loss of speed, by the additional power required to maintain speed and by the rolling and pitching condition. Only observations recorded when the wave pattern corresponded to the wind force, have been used. Since good weather predominated during the short outward voyage of ship H, no investigations of the seagoing qualities of the unladen vessel could be made. However, the wind increased on the fishing grounds, so that some measurements could be taken.
Loss of speed and loss ofpower in per cent, offine weather performance for trawlers F, G and
qualities are practically the same. Fig. 419 shows that both ships require the same additional power to maintain
their
speed.
The
increase
is
quite
considerable.
It
amounts to 37 per cent, at Beaufort 5 and a speed of 13 knots. The vessels still have that reserve of power. But
they could only maintain 13.5 knots corresponding to the sailing speed up to about Beaufort 4, even at maximum torque. The possible speeds with maximum
The ship en route The influence of wind and weather can be deduced from fig. 416 for trawler G. Such diagrams are available for all trawlers investigated. The shape of the hull of ships F and G differs only slightly, and the seagoing
2
.
8
in per
10
o
s
10
Btoufort numbtr
420.
20
to
Sftut obtahubk with maximum tonfte
maximwM ^Hfd/or trawtos Fond G
cmr. of
Fig. 422,
Infl&nc* of wirt art bhck coejficicnt o*
[409]

o TrOW Iff + Trow I if
SEA BEHAVIOUR
F Q
torque are plotted in relation to the wind force in fig. 420, the speed in good weather taken as 100. For ships F and G, the sailing speed is about 3 per cent, less than the highest speed obtained with maximum torque. The diagram shows that the sailing speed could be maintained at Beaufort 4 with maximum torque. At greater Beaufort
numbers the speed drops below sailing speed. Fig. 415 also shows the power curve with uniform maximum and sailing torque. From this, fig. 421 gives the loss of speed, VV, and loss of power, VSHP. when travelling against the wind and the sea. The difference in losses for ships F and G are so slight that they may well be neglected and the two trawlers may thus be considered
as equivalent. The wind force ordinate of the diagram is divided to a correspond to the dynamic pressure of air p=^ pv /2 and p
V 64 The remains of proportional to p speed percentage and c 1 up to about Beaufort 6. At higher Beaufort numbers, however, the loss of speed increases more
to the square of the speed of the waves
loss
-
c=
rapidly.
of the shape of the hull on weather conditions. The loss increases with the block coefficient. At Beaufort 5, for example, it was found:
Fig. 422 shows the influence loss of speed under identical
246
Fig. 423.
r.p.m
AV
7.5% 9.5%
12.5%
loss
0.52
8
Beaufort
6.
0.54
0.56
Fig. 422 also shows the
Btaufort number
Trawling speed at sailing torque in relation to wind force
of speed for cargo ships at The loss of speed of trawlers is considerably

H
Ship G
rp.m
Ship
100- Headwind
100
rp,m
Heo^
90,\
90
80
-
r.p.m.
B0
70
I
-I
Sternwing
Moximum
torque""
"_
$HP 1000-
SHP
1000
torque
it
Torque at
900 TOO
900
otlinq
600700 600 500

-
s^l
^^^Torque ot trowjing
jT Moximum
torque
600.
^
Stern wind
Torque at
..^^
^,.
*""/~~~ '
of 3'S knots
Torque ot
i
Torque ot trowlinq of'^Tknott speed 01 ipeoa soilmq speed
Stern wind
i
2
Beaufort number
fig. 424.
Beaufort number numb
A4IM
dremeat far trawler F,
G (trawling at 3.5 knots) and H (trawling at 4.5 knots) at different

[410]
wind forces
SEAKJNDLINESS
more than
that of deep-sea cargo ships, although the and their power per ton displacement, SHP/v, from 0.3 to 0.6 is less than that of trawlers. The ratio for larger trawlers ranges between 0.8 and 1 .0,
latter are fuller,
TRAWLERS AT SEA
40
and
It
for smaller trawlers
it is
about
0.6.
* 30 1
.5
must be the larger pitching movements being considerable in comparison with those of deep-sea cargo ships which are responsible for the high losses of speed. The ratio of wave length to length of ship, x/L, under At identical weather conditions is also different. Beaufort 6, trawlers in the northern part of the North Sea travel at a wave length / ship length ratio of from 0.9 to 1.1, which causes heavy pitching into the head seas. At the same Beaufort number, the x/L ratio for cargo ships in the North Atlantic lies between 0.55 and 0.70. A trawler would meet corresponding waves at Beaufort 5. Fig. 422 indicates that loss of speed is considerably more
for trawlers in the
if the
0-40
035
N:
1
030
Fig. 426.
234567
Btoufort nufflbtr
Efficiency
of warp pull for trawlers F,
G and H
seaway than for big cargo
ships,
even
x/L ratio
is
the same.
The ship when trawling The influence of wind and waves is notably less when trawling. The maintenance of 85 r.p.m. of trawler G at wind force 8, when sailing, requires an increase in power of 36 per cent, and when trawling, an increase of only 4 per cent. In this case the loss of speed amounts
to about 20 per cent,
Fig. 421 indicates that for ships F and G the losses of speed when sailing and when trawling at Beaufort numbers up to 6 differ only a little, whilst the increase of power when trawling is considerably less than when sailing. The losses of speed and power are related to the sailing torque when sailing and to the good weather
trawling torque Ships F and
when
trawling. are practically equivalent both
when
when
sailing,
but only about 4
per cent,
when
trawling.
of speed of ship H is somewhat less than that of both ships F and G, the reason being that the power of ship H trawling faster 1 at a trawl pull of 8.5 ton was per cent, greater than that of vessels F and G. The trawl pull of F and was
trawling and sailing.
The
loss
about 12 to 13 ton.
Trawler
it
may
be assumed that ship H.
after
trawling with a light gear, regains speed much quicker pounding into the waves than vessels F and G.
Fig.
Trawling sp**d 3-5 knots
ships F, 4. 1 knots.
that, with good weather sailing torque, and H can all attain a trawling speed of The trawling speeds with this torque are also the same for all three vessels at the various wind forces.
423 shows
Up to Beaufort 6, they can maintain the usual white-fishtrawling speed of 3.5 knots with sailing torque. At higher wind forces, the engine must possibly be operated at
maximum
torque. Fig. 424, illustrating this point, for various angles of encounter and r.p.m., the
shows power
Trowtor
Trawling sptftd 4*5 knots
development and additional power needed to maintain the trawling speed (for F and G, 3.5 knots; for H f 4.5 knots) at different wind forces. With maximum torque, ship G can maintain 3.5 knots up to Beaufort 10. No observations at such high forces are available for the other vessels. Since, as a matter of fact, continuous overload of the engine is impossible, trawling has to be
stopped before that limit is reached. Modern trawlers cease fishing at wind forces of 8 to 9. With maximum torque in good weather the three vessels reach a trawling speed of 4.7 knots.
,
The torque reserve of modern trawlers permits trawling at high wind forces. Therefore, it is important to improve the sea-going qualities and the gear to take advantage of 90*
Angte of tncounttr
Fig. 425. Percentage of additional SHP for maintaining trawling speed In relation to wind force and angle ofencounter (head seas 0)
without danger to the crew. 424 there is a partial extrapolation of the power curves. This was made by the r.p.m.* curves of fig. 413. Since the power curves form a straight or almost straight
this possibility
In
fig.
line,
notable deviations
may
rarely occur.
[411]

the
SEA BEHAVIOUR
It is, therfore,
unpleasant the ship's movements are felt to be* important to design a ship with a stability giving a maximum period of roll without endangering
less
its safety.
It is well known that the comfort of those on board is determined, as a rule, by the extent of the acceleration. Statistical evidence of this fact was first published by Dr. Geller in the "Klinische Wochenschrift", No. 51 of 21 December 1940. Dr. Geller was for many years a
physician on big passenger liners. He measured the accelerations several times each day with instruments designed by himself. At the same time he recorded the number of cases of seasickness among the passengers. Fig. 427 (compare fig. 409) shows the frequency of cases
2949
Dy
of
.Fig.
of seasickness for bad and moderate weather compared with daily accelerations. The diagram indicates impressively the parallelism between acceleration and frequency of seasickness, and gives a very good idea of the stresses to which fishermen are exposed in the pursuit of their profession. During the voyage of the liner where bad weather predominated, the maximum acceleration noted was 2.6 ft./sec* (0.8 m./sec 1 )- At this figure, almost 50 per cent, of the passengers were seasick. The maximum
acceleration for trawlers, as established by the Hamburg Ship Model Basin, is in the neighbourhood of 1
427. Influence of acceleration on the comfort ofpeople on board ship (compare fig. 409)
g=
following Beaufort 2, the vessels maintain the trawling speed with the trawling torque required in good weather. At head wind of Beaufort 2
As far as possible, curves for head, beam and
wind were included.
Up
to
32.19 ft./sec (9.81 m,/sec). Thus this acceleration is about twelve times larger than the value for the liner and not even a single case of seasickness did occur. It is sometimes recommended that, in order to reduce
and corresponding sea, the power requirement starts The corresponding r.p.m. for a particular power can be ascertained from the upper curves in fig. 424. The r.p.m. of ship G, when trawling in good
to 3 to increase.
weather is 78, it rises to 85 with sailing torque for Beaufort 6 to 7 and to 92 with maximum torque for Beaufort 10. In a calm sea, ship F trawls with 73 r.p.m.
With
sailing torque, the r.p.m.
is
82.
The lower diagrams of fig. 424 show power requirement, plotted against wind
in
the additional force with the
angle of encounter as parameter. Cross-curves are given fig. 425, showing the power increase to maintain trawling speed at any angle of encounter. With a following wind, there is a slight gain in power. Under the influence of wind and sea both power and efficiency of the trawling pull are affected, as shown in fig. 426. At the same Beaufort number, the efficiency of, the three ships is so close that it can be represented by a single curve. Thus, at Beaufort 5 and 7, the reduction in the efficiency of the trawling pull amounts to 1 3 and 24
per cent, respectively.
THE STABILITY
Rolling
is
governed by the
stability .
The
reactions of the
crew
to the ships' motion are determined tions. The greater the period of roll
by the
accelera-
T r
l.lOSmB
in ft
2mB
yGM
in
m.
[412]
Al
it
OM059-0-2m.
10
C<x*flrtd
*
.
Oflfir*d
tttamtr
o Motor trawtor
Oeod
M'0-W-0-88m.-72-
4567
Bftodth moulded
10
15
10
II
12
m.
20
*5
30
36
40
ft
ffc. -429.
Influence
of stability on sea-going properties
rolling motions, there should be a reduction in the metacentric height. It is then necessary to study the crew's reactions to the motions of trawlers of different stability and consider the shipping of water when trawling in bad weather. The quantity of water shipped is decisive for work and for the safety of the crew. It is difficult to determine a trawler's metacentric
height by an inclining experiment (which has to be confined to the stay in port) because the short turnaround periods are fully taken up with unloading, equipping and essential repair work and the necessary time for the experiment is, therefore, seldom to be found.
It is
determined several times each day and the mean daily average. The average metacentric height for the individual stages of the trip obtained from these daily averages are plotted in fig. 428. over the They give a fair idea of the variation in whole voyage. The results of more recent experiments have been used to complete the diagram, which has already been published (Mdckel, 1955; p. 329, fig. 429). The steam trawlers investigated generally start the of about 2.8 to 2.9 ft. (0.55 to 0.89 m.). voyage with a
CM
was calculated from the
GM
GM
Naturally, on return to
differences.
port, there are considerable
thus simplest to determine the metacentric height
centric
2.3
The bigger the catch, the less the metaheight on arrival in port. The hold of ship H was
it
from measurements of the natural period of roll. The demands of adequate reliability are met if the period of roll is carefully ascertained by a long series of measurements and if the m-value for calculating the radius of gyration from the ship's breadth, B, corresponds to actual conditions. Inclining tests and simultaneous measurements of the natural period of roll have been done by
workers independently to determine those m-values and results have largely concurred. Nickum's (1955) investigations of tuna clippers in the U.S.A. gave m-values being between 0.385 and 0.415. The values obtained in Germany are in the same order of magnitude. From the results of investigations at various stages of the voyages they can be taken to be as follows:
several
loaded only to about a quarter;

ft.
returned with a
GM of
of
(0.70 m.), while another, almost exactly similar, of only 1.38 ft. trawler with a full fish hold had a
GM
(0.42 m.). Between these extremes, the
stability curves
the other vessels
fit
in naturally according to the load
of 2.07 ft. condition. Ship J, starting its trip with a the other with was tender ships and (0.63 m.), compared As a result of serious it was felt to be so by the crew.
complaints by the crew, who had a feeling of insecurity, more solid ballast was put into the vessel. The curves for the motor trawlers are quite different from those of the steam trawlers. After an initial decrease during the outward trip, they rise again when trawling, whilst the of the steam trawlers show a continuous
GM
GM
Leaving port. Average outward bound. Average trawling Average homeward bound
.
.
m =0.400
=0.395 =0.390 =0.387 =0.385
decrease over the course of the
trip.
This
is
due to the
different weight distribution of water and fuel and the difference in daily consumption. The steamers consume
11 ton of coal and 2.3 ton of water daily, white the daily fuel consumption of a motor trawler is only about 6 ton. The influence of the fish is assumed to be of the motor trawlers investigaabout identical. The ted were approximately 23 to 2,53 ft. (0.70 to 0.77 m.).
about
Arriving port These values are for a normal fishing trip lasting about three weeks, The metacentric height determined by these values from the period of roll generally agreed very well with the stability calculations of the shipyards. It may be regarded as accurate enough for the present purpose. During the trips the periods of roll were carefully
.
. .
GM
When
leaving port, they were somewhat less than those between of the steam trawlers, and on return had a 2.23 and 2.3 ft. (0.68 to 0.70 m.), showing that there was
GM
[413]

little
SEA BEHAVIOUR
difference in
GM at the beginning and the end of the
trip.
Trawlers often ship large quantities of water and in cold weather are subject to icing. Thus, on one occasion off the Greenland coast, trawling had to be suspended
capsizing as in respect of the safety of the crews when of the ships working the net and the catch. The defined as "stiff" in the diagram could be reduced
GM
on ship F due to
all-over icing.
The
vessel
had become
ice.
but not that of any other ship. From the investigations of stability so far carried out and from fig. 429. the following summary gives a preliminary conclusion:
so tender that the captain had to stop and remove the

H0*fMd*limUt
of roll of
of
OM
on*
(a) 4.46
GM
ft.
Crew's
view of stability behaviour of ship
and
30*
(1.36m.)
Much
too
stiff;
jerky rolling;
pre-
vessel ships
much water
dominantly windward; deck work impossible; trawling has

to be stopped early.
(b) 3.41
Fig. 430.
ft.
(1.04m.)
ft.
Too
stiff:
jerky rolling;
much
Anele of roll of old and modern trawlers

(c)
water on deck.
2.72 to 2.89
(Steam trawler). Movements are

felt
(0.83 to 0.88 m.) 2.3 to 2.62 ft.
to be normal.
(Motor
little
(0.70 to 0.80 m.)

(d) 1.94 to 2.03 ft. (0.59 to 0.62 m.)
Sooufort
Vessel ships trawler). or no water; no serious
Ship
complaints. is too tender; heels under a beam wind sharply to leeward and ships much water by the
lee rail; fishing
becomes
diffi-
cult
the crew have a feeling of
Ship G, too, was so iced up at the start of the voyage was only 1.84 ft. (0.56 m.). When the ice had melted in warmer air after two days the rose to 2.1 ft. (0.64 m.). Calculation with the help of the stability curves indicated a of 2.66 ft. (0.69 m.) on leaving
that the
GM
insecurity.
GM
The
Ships having a
ships listed under (c) may be regarded as normal. as set out under (a), (b) and (d)
GM
GM
when there was no icing. At the end of a voyage with full hold the metacentric height of steam trawlers was only from 1.41 to 1.48 ft. (0.40 to 0.45 m.). Motor trawlers also might suffer from
port,
showed unsatisfactory behaviour; water was shipped in bad weather and trawling became difficult. Fig. 429
Definite is only to be regarded as a preliminary result. conclusions must be supplemented by further accurate
measurements.
hmit$ of
ofltfo of pitch of old trowlora
lack of stability.
not necessary to increase the period of roll, because the crews, being accustomed to the violent motions of these small ships, seldom complain about rolling as long as the stability is normal within the limits explained below. The periods of roll on departure were plotted against the ship's breadth in fig. 429. The trawlers are then uniformly laden, whereas on arrival in port there may be considerable differences in load and stability. The views of the principal members of the crew (captain, mates, . engineers) supplement the curves represented in fig. 429. The ships within the hatched area did not give rise to any serious complaints. Their behaviour in a seaway was
It
is
Fig. 431.
Angle oj pitch of old and modern trawlers
J-
normal and, when trawling in bad weather, they shipped scarcely any, or only a little, water so that the handling of the trawl and the catch was not seriously affected. On
the other hand, the ships outside the hatched area shipped so much water in bad weather that fishing was seriously hindered and it often had to be stopped when other vessels continued trawling. These experiences show that trawlers are more sensitive to stability than is commonly supposed not so much with regard to safety against
2
ft
10
ROLLING AND PITCHING

Experienced fishermen feel that the rolling motions of modern trawlers are on the whole somewhat less
[414]
SEAKINDL1NESS
Comporton of mo*,
on oftoMp ot B-t
vtrtiool
TRAWLERS AT SEA
i(
y
"
...
20 Max opporont
Fig. 432.
40*
ongjo of
roll
Angles of roll and accelerations as measured on the trawler
F in
loaded condition
unpleasant than those of the older vessels. This subjective reaction is also confirmed by the measurements of the angle of roll in fig. 430; trawlers F, G, H and J have on the average smaller angles of roll than the older trawlers. This is mainly due to their considerably greater breadth. Also the rise of floor and bilge radius
are greater in the older types. The differences in rolling hardly depend on the GM, which are approximately the
The
natural periods of pitch were in the order of 4.2
to 4.4 sec.; according to calculation they should be 4.7 to 4.9 sec. Fig. 431 shows that at the same Beaufort
number the angles of pitch of the loaded ships H and J were considerably larger than those of the more slender motor trawlers F and G, which had practically the same amplitudes up to Beaufort 9 head wind. The angles of pitch of F and G are less than for the old steam trawlers
and J lie within the investigated earlier, while ships hatched area. The crew complained about the unpleasant pitching of ship J. They felt it to be normal only when the fish hold was 70 per cent. full. This reaction follows from the decrease of vertical acceleration because of the greater radius of gyration, the greater
pitch
same. The only exception
is
ship
roll
with
its
relatively
low
as
GM.
Even
so, its angles
of
are nearly the
same
those of the other ships investigated but they might be misleading because, being a tender ship, it rolled about a greater prelist when there was a beam wind. This prelist is not included in the measurements of the angle.
The
greatest total angles between the reversion points experienced are shown in table 103.
natural period of pitch, the decrease of the angle of due to the smaller reserve displacement of the
20
40
roll
MOK. cpportnt ongfe of
Fig. 433.
Angles of roll and accelerations as measured on the trawler
C in loaded condition
(415]

forebody, and a shift forward of the centre of buoyancy. The notable changes in the motion of the ship brought about by the load in the fish hold is also shown by the
difference between the fore
SEA BEHAVIOUR
TABLE 103
The
greatest total angle*
of roll and pitch and periods ef
roll
and
aft accelerations.
When
empty, accelerations are considerably greater This difference becomes less as the load increases, as shown by measurements on trawlers with a heavy catch. On ship G, fig. 433, which returned home with a full cargo of fish, the maximum acceleration was greater at the forward perpendicular by the following
is
the hold forward.
percentages:
Measurement
1
Load
Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish
At forward
perpendicular -f 75 per cent.
2
3
4
5
hold hold hold hold hold
empty empty
about J to f loaded f loaded fully loaded
.
+83
T-31 -r23 4-14
,,
to the character of the wave pattern at the these percentages show a certain scatter. The tendency towards less difference between the accelera-
Owing
time,
tions fore
and
aft
is
evident as the fish hold

in
fig.
is
loaded.
vertical
The curves for trawler F trend. At the start of the
432 show the same
trip,
the
maximum
accelerations at the fore perpendicular were found to be 61 to 67 per cent, greater than those at the aft per-
pendicular but towards the end of the voyage only 35 to 38 per cent. That the pitching of a trawler varies with the load condition is a fact known to every fisherman. The figures only serve to show the extent of the variation and, at the same time, give an idea of the men's reactions. They also show that there is a distinct advantage if the
power against wind of Beaufort 7 Accelerations resulting from the long periods of pitch with a following sea have the lowest values. The special diagram in fig. 432 shows the accelerations at Beaufort 6 on the aft body. Handling the catch and repair of the nets made it impossible to pass on to the foredeck and read the instruments arranged there. Yet even this partial measurement indicates the effect of the
travelling full
when
8.
to
crew is accommodated aft. Curves I and 2 in fig. 432 show that, with a head wind of Beaufort 4 to 5, accelerations both forward and aft are about 60 per cent, greater when sailing than when
trawling. The maximum acceleration at the fore per2 pendicular was found to be about 24 ft./sec* (8 m./sec )
angle of encounter on the acceleration. The measure* ments were taken at half-hour intervals before and after hauling and shooting the net. Fig. 435 also offers a curve measured with a following wind of Beaufort 4 to 5. It shows that with a following sea the accelerations are somewhat greater at the stern than at the bow. The point of minimum motion which coincides with the
minimum
ahead.
point of the curve
is
located forward.
Thus
in a following sea the ship pitches
about an axis further
Curvt
3-4
I
-2
100*
9-4 3-4 3-4 4-5
too*
10
tO 40* MM. Qppownt <M0lt of roM

f, 434. Angles
of roil and accelerations as measured on the trawler
H in loaded condition
[416]
SEAKINDLINESS
TRAWLERS AT SEA
20
40
60*
rofl
Mox. opporwrt ongH of
Fig. 435.
Angles of roll and accelerations as measured on the trawler J
in
loaded condition
The
is
position of the point of minimum vertical motion indicated in each diagram. In the case of ships F,
The
point, A,
was omitted for ship F because the

it
curves indicated
and
0.36
J,
when
to be in or even beneath the keel,

all
sailing against the sea,
it
is
situated about
LBP from
which was confirmed by
measurements. There
is
no
the aft perpendicular.
The
minimum pitching motion of ship H lies Owing to the good weather, only one measurement could be taken, and that with a beam swell. Its presence is
position of at 0.43 LBP.
explanation for the trend of the curve from the stability data of ship F when compared with the other vessels. Such curves might occur in the case of a very stiff
ship.
clearly apparent from the high level and flat course of the curve. This reading is therefore unsuitable for determining the point of minimum motion. There is
The metacentric height as found by the rolling period is about the same as for the other trawlers and was in very good agreement with the stability calculations of the shipyard. The reason might be that the lowest instrument
had failed. The position of the steadiest point dependent on the weight distribution,
is
evidence of relatively considerable heaving accelerations
and only slight pitching accelerations. The diagrams also include the maximum apparent angles of roll. They are greatest at the top of the wheelhouse. It has its minimum below the deck and again
increases as the keel
is
i.e.
No definite
to a large extent on the stability.
conclusions concerning the relation between
approached.
The
this position and the stability can be drawn from the results of only three vessels. The values should there-
point,
angle of roll steadiest point of the ship.
A, the intersection of apparent minimum and of minimum vertical acceleration, is the
fore only be regarded as preliminary. Table 104 gives the height of the point of minimum rolling motion (KA) with reference to the distance (KG).
TABLE 104
Heights of points of minimum roll above keel height of centre of gravity KG
The point of minimum rolling motion is highest for most tender of the three ships (J) and lowest for the stiffest (H). The figures can, however, only be regarded
the
KAin
relation to
as approximate values since, owing to the flat course of the curves for the apparent angle of roll in the range of
minimum motion,
KA/KC
1.15
It
the
position
of
minimum
Ship
ft.
KA
m.
3.59
3.38
3.78
11.8
11.1
CM Departure
ft,
rolling
motion cannot be fixed with precision.

should be noted that investigations during fishing
trips are subject to
m.
0.69
0,85 0.62
2.26
2.79
2.03
unwanted
influences
and the
results,
H
J
therefore, represent only approximate values.

0.80
1.47
But, for
12.4
practical purposes, they provide an idea of the behaviour of ships in a seaway and stimulate basic research to be carried out with models.
{417]
REMARKS ON THE SHAPE OF DUTCH COASTAL FISHING BOATS

by
W.
types. This
ZWOLSMAN
HO
12 After World War II, the Dutch fishing fleet was entirely reconstructed. The mpst successful vessels were of the CO 28 and paper describes their speed, seakindliness and fuel oil consumption. Some comparisons are made with two finer boats, one of which suffered from lack of buoyancy in following seas, while the other behaved like a drunken man. Comparisons are also made with fuller boats of the RE 212 type, which showed a tremendous increase in
resistance.
REMARQUES SUR LA FORME DES BATEAUX DE PECHE COTIERS HOLLANDA1S

Apres la seconde guerre mondiale, la flottc de peche hollandaisc a etc en t tenement reconstruite. Les types de bateaux GO 28 et donne les meilleurs resultats. Cet article renseigne sur leur vitesse, leur tenue a la mer et leur consommation de carburant. Us ont et6 compares & deux bateaux plus fins, Tun d'eux souffrait d'un manque de flottabilit par mer venant de Parriere, alors que 212 qui I'autre se comportait comme un homme ivre. Us ont aussi et6 comparts avec des bateaux a formes plus pleines du type montraient une 6norme augmentation de la resistance.
HD
12 ont
OBSERVACIONES SOBRE LAS FORMAS DE LOS BARCOS DE PESCA COSTEROS DE LOS

PAISES BAJOS
La flota pesquera de los Pafses Bajos se reconstruy6 totalmente despues de la segunda guerra mundial. Los tipos que dieron mcjores 28 y 12. Se describen su velocidad, navegabilidad y consume de combustible. result ados fueron el Se hacen algunas comparciones con dos barcos de formas mas fin as, uno de los cuales no tenia suficiente flotabilidad con mar de popa y el otro se portaba como un ebrio. Tambien se hacen comparaciones con barcos de formas mas llenas del tipo /? 21 2. cuya resistencia
GO
HO
habia aumentado extraordinariamente.
THE
CO 28,
war reconstruction of the Dutch fishing provided an opportunity to revise and experiment with the hull shape of the boats. The
post
fleet
fig.
Speed and seakindliness During the last five years boats of 70 to 85 ft. (21 to 26 m.) LOA have been built on these lines with only
slight variations. The speed results are favourable, as can be seen by fig. 439, comparing the power curve of 12 and RE 2 12 with those of an average and an optimum fishing boat given by Traung (1955). The optimum anticipated has practically been reached. The waterline length is the same, but the beam and the displacement of Traung's examples are 10 per cent,
436,
and the HD12,
fig.
437, are typical
developments. The GO 28, 68.9 ft. (21 m.) LOA and 17.7 ft. (5.40 m.) beam is equipped with a 3 cyl. 190 h.p. engine running at 750 r.p.m., with a reduction gear of 2}: I. The 12 has a 250 h.p. 4 cyl. engine running at 750 r.p.m., with a reduction gear of 21: 1. Both boats are among the most economical in the Dutch fishing fleet, as shown during the annual examination made by the Dutch Fisheries Department. This examination has revealed that skipper-owned boats with 190 to 250 h.p., in the main, give more favourable results than boats with engines of less than 150 h.p. or larger boats with engines of 300 to 350 h.p. While these successful boats have not been model tested, the as shown in fig. 438 has been developed on the shape basis of model tests made by others and on practical observations. Their principal dimensions are:
examples of the
latest
HD
HD
larger.
The average metacentric height of the Dutch fishing boat of standard shape, with full fuel and water tanks and
all
gear on board except
ice, is
2.56
ft.
(0.78 m.).
The
vessels are praised
by the crew as very seakindly com-
LOA
-73.3
ft. ft. ft. ft.
(22.35 m.)
LBP -63.9 B =18,4
(19.50 m.)
9.0
(5.60m.) (2.75 m.)
pared with the boats built before the war. Vessels of the same dimensions and shape have been in service for some years in Denmark, Belgium, France, the regions around the Mediterranean, West African countries and in the Far East, and they have proved seaworthy and seakindly in both the short waves of the North Sea and the eastern part of the Mediterranean and in the longer waves of the Atlantic and the Pacific
oceans.
[418]
SEAKINDL1NESS
DUTCH FISHING BOATS
Comparison wtth finer boats A few vessels, deviating from the standard shape shown in fig. 438, have been working from the northern ports of Denmark in the upper part of the North Sea. They have a longer aft body and a finer shape. This sharper form is not favourable when the boat is laden with fish and sailing in a following sea. The lifting capacity is
insufficient.
whaleback
less
because far
shelter
has improved conditions on board water is shipped and the crew has a
when
nets, etc.. are repaired
during the
trip.
With
Fig. 437.
Modern Dutch
trawler
the Danish boats, when deep laden in a following sea, water not only came aboard, but even stowed under the open whaleback, where there was no possibility of dis-
charge.
It
The problem was overcome by making a closed
whaleback.
might.be possible to reduce resistance by using
but experience has shown that this makes the Before World War H, a fishing cutter with very sharp ends was added to the Dutch fishing fleet. It behaved like a drunken man as soon as the sea became a little rough. The boat was built in the transitional period of the flat-bottom type with rounded
finer ends,
vessels less seakindly.
Fig, 436.
Modern Dutch
trawler
ends, and, as the lines drawing in fig. 440 shows, it possessed all the properties required to behave unpleasantly, such as a large beam, a short but broad and flat midship section, and sharp ends with a concave
Fig. 438. Lines plan
oj'HD 12 developed from
study of model tests and practical observations
1419]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
stacked 4 ft. (1.20 m.) high, and the designers feared that the stability of the standard shape would not be sufficient. Therefore, without modifying the main
dimensions, a somewhat fuller waterline was introduced, as shown in fig, 441 and 442. The particulars of this boat are also given in fig. 439, together with the speed
and power curve.

resistance resulting of the shape.
It shows the enormous increase in from a relatively small modification
100
Speed is very important in several Icelandic ports in order to be the first at the best spots on the fishing grounds. The 9.55 knots reached by RE 2 12 and by her five sister vessels was a disappointment, and was supposed to threaten their earning efficiency. However, now that the boats have been in service for two to three years, the contrary appears to be the case because, compared with some boats of a finer shape, the vessels can carry more fish on deck, can stay at sea longer when the weather becomes worse, and can go to sea earlier when the weather improves. This experience indicates that the boat with theoretically the best shape is not always the best. The particular circumstances always need to be fully considered. However, this statement does not affect the need to
strive for
minimum
costs in fuel
and lubricating
possible.
oil,
by
operational
Fig. 439 shows that good results were already attained in this respect. For example, the power required for a 70 ton
considerations
when
fi(f ,
439. Comparison curves for
HD 12 and RE 212 and an optimum and average boat as given by Traung (1955)
boat of the 12 type at 9 knots, was reduced from 180 to 130 h.p. or by about 28 per cent. The difference in the curves in fig. 439 is probably caused by the difference in the beam, which is somewhat less in the Dutch boats. The speed tests with 12 in open sea were
HD
The staggering motions were later partly suppressed by heavy ballasting which resulted in fuller
watcrline.
HD
water tines but, of course,

quences.
this entailed
other conse-
the trip from Den Helder to Cuxhaven without cargo, and the tests with 212 were made in
made during
RE
the canal between
Amsterdam and Ymuiden.
If the trials
Comparison with fuller boats In 1954 Iceland started to use steel fishing cutters, six of which were built in Holland. These 60 to 70 GT boats sometimes enter port with 40 ton of herring on deck,
had been repeated in that same canal, the results would probably have been still more favourable. The course of the curve at the bottom end shows this. The engines of HD 12 and RE 212 were of the same type
with
HD 12
Fig. 440. Dutch fishing cutter built before World We* 1L having rather unfavourable tea-gotog properties. LOA~59fl. (18.00 m.), L-31 fl. (15.60 m.), B*-18*fl. (5.75 m.)f 7MS ft. (2.40 m.)
[420]
SEAKINDLINESS
DUTCH FISHING BOATS
Fig.
44 1.
RE 212:
Icelandic fishing boat with great fullness due to the need for large carrying capacity.
For main particulars see fig. 439
and make, and could not have caused any practical difference in the establishing of the power curve.
Fuel
oil
is
do not
and lubricating
oil
consumption
The fuel and lubricating oil costs of a good engine in a good boat such as HD 12 only amounts to 10 per cent, of the revenue from the catch. HD 12 is equipped with a
4-cyl., 4-stroke diesel
not very high because Dutch fishing boats of this kind stay at sea on Sundays. This means, in practice, that the boats operate from Monday to Friday. The cost of the fuel and oil for the 1 96 sailing days was Fls. 1 5,000 (1,420), while the catch for the past two years has reached Fls. 150,000 (14,200) per year. Investigations of 30 post-war vessels equipped with
post-war diesels
leaving
with a continuous output of 250 h.p. 750 r.p.m., but usually the engine is not loaded above 200 h.p. Her fuel consumption in 1957 was 24,000
at
Imp. Gal. (109,800

(840
1.)
1.)
and
oil
consumption 189 Imp.
gal.
for 196 sailing days.
The number of sailing days
all sailing from the same ports, usually and entering at the same time, showed that in some boats fuel and oil consumption may be 20 per cent, or even more than 30 per cent, higher than that of HD 12 12 to 13 per cent, of the catch. The annual investigation made by the Dutch Fisheries Department shows that fuel and oil costs sometimes amount to 17 per cent, of revenue from the catch, although the average catch does not differ much from that of HD 12. In view of these differences in fuel consumption
between post-war diesels, it seems likely that the cost of semi-diescls will be even more unfavourable.
Conclusion
differences in fuel and lubricating oil consumption between one engine and another may easily have a greater influence on the economy than differences arising from the form of a vessel, which may constitute 3 per oent. to 4 per cent, of the revenue from the catch. The difference between one engine and another may amount to 5 to 6 per cent, a saving or loss which may determine her economic success or failure of the vessel.
The
Ftf.442. l<*hirtc fishing boat, built t* the Netherlands
[421]
TESTS WITH A TRAWLER

by
J.
MODEL
and H.
IN
WAVES
D. van
MANEN,
G.
VOSSERS
RIJKEN
Tests with a trawler model with and without nozzle in still water and in waves are described. The model was tested in the freerunning condition (0 to 1 1 knots) and when towing (4 to 6 knots). It appears that the addition of a nozzle for trawler propulsion when towing in still water can be recommended. This also applies to towing in waves, except in head seas, where unfavourable tendencies were found.
ESSAIS
D'UN MODELE DE CHALUTIER DANS LES VAGUES
L'auteur decrit des essais d'un modele de chal utter avcc et sans tuyere, en eau calme et dans les vagues. Le modele a et essaye en route libre (0 a 1 1 noeuds) et en peche (4 a 6 npeuds). 11 apparaft que 1'addition d'unc tuyere pour la propulsion du chalutier en peche par mer calme peut &tre recommandcc. Cela s'applique aussi a la peche par mcr forte, sauf en cas de mer debout ou on a trouvc des tendances defavorables.
ENSAYOS CON UN MODELO DE ARRASTRERO EN OLAS

Se describen los ensayos de un modelo de arrastrero con tobera ys in ella en agua tranquila y en olas. El modelo se ensayo en ruta libre (0 a 1 1 nudos) y remolcando el arte (4 a 6 nudos). Parece ser recomendable la adicibn de una tobera al arrastrero cuando se remolca el arte en agua tranquila. Lo mismo es verdad cuando se remolca en olas, excepto si vienen de proa, en cuyo case se encontraron tendencias desfavorabies.
SINCE
improvement of the towing Kort nozzle (nozzle or shrouded propeller), a steadily inpropeller
the successful
capability of tugs with the
creasing number of fishing boats, particularly trawlers, are fitted with nozzle arrangements. The advantage when trawling in still water is well known; charts on
The diameter of the nozzle propeller was 93 per cent, of that of the normal propeller. The dimensions and the profile of the nozzle were similar to No. 18, the openwater test results of which were published by van Manen and Superina (1959). The dimensions of the nozzle propeller were chosen in accordance with the ideas
presented in the same publication, and Kaplan-type blades were selected.
tables
performance and methods of design have been published (van Manen, 1956; van Manen and Superina, 1959).
Sometimes reference
effects
is
also
made
to the beneficial
of a nozzle propeller on the behaviour of a trawler in waves. The resistance increase in head seas is claimed to give the nozzle propeller an advantage; furthermore, it is said to increase the damping, thus reducing pitching. In order to verify these claims, a
trawler
Particulars of the ship and propellers are given in 105 and 106. Body plan, profile and nozzle
fig.
arrangement are shown on
443 and 444.

at
The
r.p.m.
still-water trawling tests revealed that the propeller
did not absorb exactly 940
SHP
5 knots
and 160
model was tested in the Seakeepfng of the Netherlands Ship Model Basin with Laboratory and without a nozzle propeller in still water and in waves.
typical
resulting r.p.m. for the normal propeller were 160.5, and for the nozzle propeller 157.3. These values were used in the subsequent analysis.
The
Particulars of sUp rail model test conditions The lines of the trawler are based upon one of Gucroult's (1955) designs. A paraffin wax model, scale 1:13 with bilge keek, was used. The propellers were designed for
trawling at 5 knots, with 940 SHP and a propeller r.p.m. of 160. The Wagcningen B-series charts were used for the normal propeller with a diameter of 9.84 ft. (3.00 at) which was a compromise for the trawling and
sailing conditions.
Because no friction correction can be applied to a in waves, the assumption was made that the differences in torque and r.p.m. between still-water and wave tests could be calculated for full size according to Froude's law. These differences were added to the stillwater torque and r.p.m. for the ship. The still-water conversion from model to ship was made with the 1957 ITTC friction formula with an allowance of 0.0004
model
added for roughness. The model was tested 4 to 6 knots trawling.
in
to 13 knots sailing. And Trawling was simulated by
1422]
SEAKINDLINESS
TRAWLER MODEL
IN
WAVES
Fig. 443.
Model 1779z based on a
trawler design by Gueroult (1955)
WU4
Fig. 444.
Nozzle arrangement of model 1779z based on results by van
Manen and
Superina (1955)
CC
[423
SEA BEHAVIOUR
TOW ROPE FORCE TESTS
WITHOUT NOZZLE WITH NOZZLE
IN STILL
WATCR ANO IN, HEAD WAVE DIRECTION 170*
EMCRGCNCC
SUBMERGENCE
Fig. 445.
Measurements of maximum emergence and submergence of
bow
in relation to
waves
applying a resisting force to the model conditions were Directions nearly head seas (<x= 1 70),
:
:
The wave
nearly following seas
(a=10
c
),
Lengths:
quartering seas (a=^45). wave length/ship length ratio: /./L--0.75,

1.00, 1.25
TOW ROPE FORCE CONSTANT 10.13 TON (WITHOUT NOZZLE) TOW ROPE FORCE CONSTANT 12.04 TON CWITH NOZZLE) POWER CONSTANT $40 SHP^^
Heights
wave height/wave length and 1/30.

STILL
ratio
hwA
1/50
WAVE
LtNGTH/ S
constant power
^7. Trawling performance data for

rope force
and tow
TOW ROPE FORCE TEST* IN WITHOUT NOZZLE WITH MOZZlC
WATER ANO IN HEAD SEA WAVC DIRECTION 170*
The recordings taken were:

angle (through the centre of gravity) the centre of gravity) (b) (c) Angle of roll (through the centre of gravity)
(a) Pitch
Heave (of
(d)
Maximum
bow
(e)
emergence and submergence of the waves (fig. 445) Acceleration at bow and stern
in relation to the
(f) Shaft torque

(g) r.p.m.
(h)
Speed
Results
when trawling
of the still-water and head-seas
tests
The
results
when
trawling are given in fig. 446 to 448. Quartering seas and following seas results differed very little from those
in still
water and are therefore omitted.

tests
The
when
trawling in waves were analysed for

:
three operating conditions

FOWCft CONST AKT
SHIP'S
140 SPtCO CONSTANT
S KNOTS
Trawling with constant speed and constant power; the changes in pull, propeller torque and r.p.m. as a function of the wave length/ship length ratio
are given in
fig.
446.
O.S
10
,
WAVC LtMGTM/ f|| p
Constant power and constant pull; the resulting speed of the ship, propeller torque and r.p.m. as a function of the wave length/ship length ratio are
given in
fig.
Fig. 446. Trawling
performance data for constant power and speed
447.
[424]
SEAKINDLINESS
SHP and
In
stiil
TRAWLER MODEL
TOW
IN
WAVES
Constant speed and constant pull; the resulting

r.p.m. are
shown
in fig. 448.
0*C PQftCC TCiU INSTILL WAU* MO tt HMO SCA WAVE 0MWCTIO* 170* WITHOUT M02ZLC WITH NOZZLC
water, at 5 knots, the nozzle propeller gave a
pull of 12.04 ton, while the normal propeller produced one of 10.83 ton. The same values were found in follow-
ing and quartering waves. Therefore it can be concluded that the nozzle propeller gives a considerably increased
pull (11 per cent.).
In head seas, however, an unexpected phenomenon was found. The differences between the propellers became smaller; in several conditions it was even found that the nozzle propeller gave a lower pull as shown in or required fig. 446 or a lower speed as shown in fig. 447, more SHP as shown in fig. 448. This was contrary to
expectations as it should give better performance at higher loads. One explanation might be the greater sensitivity of the nozzle propeller to changes in the
direction
pitching
of intake velocity, which occur with heavy and heaving. Another explanation might be the
greater variation in efficiency of a nozzle propeller to rudder angles, although to keep the model on course in
only small rudder angles of 4 to 10 were Further research is therefore needed. Subsequent tests were carried out with two rudders, each placed a quarter of the nozzle's diameter from the
head
seas,
required.
TOW ROPE FORCE CONSTANT TOW ROPE rORCC CONSTANT

SHIP'S SPEED
10.
TON (WITHOUT
NOZZLO
12.04 TON (WITH
NOZZLE)
CONSTANT
S KNOTS
Although very good steering resulted, there was no improvement in the nozzle propeller's performance when trawling in head seas.
centre line.
O.S
1.0
LCNGTH/ M ,p Fig. 448. Trawling performance data for constant tow rope force and speed
WAVE
WITHOUT NOZZLE WITH NOZZLC
SELF
PROPULSION
TESTS
IN
STILL
WATER AND
IN
HEAD
SEA
WAVE
DIRECTION
170*
WAVE
iHlP
LENGTH
LENGTH
10
200
JULS-
STILL
WATCH
.STILL
WATER
i SHIP'S
10
10
S
NIP'S
10
SPEED
IN
KNOTS
Ftg. 449.
SHIP'S
SPEED
IN
KNOTS
SPEED
IN
KNOTS
Power requirement when
sailing with
and without
[425]

HCAVC
Aftt
SEA BEHAVIOUR
TABLE 106
PITCH
IN
MfAP
W4VC
*H*QUT ttOlUC
WltN KOI XL C
tCA OMCCT10M 170*
Normal propeller Nozzle

PropellerNo.
.
propeller
2655
B-series
Propeller type Number of blades
Diameter
Pitch ratio
D
P/D
4 3.0m. 9.84
0.680
0.502
2656 KHMTKSS 4
ft.
2.8
m. 9.18
0.900
0.540
0.184
ft.
Blade area ratio
Hub
Rake
diameter ratio
....
S5V4
d/D
0.167 10
length and wave height/wave length. In still water the nozzle propeller required higher SHP, which was to be expected since the propellers were designed for heavy pulls; thus in the free-running condition with a small
load, the nozzle propeller
would be at a disadvantage. In head seas, especially in high waves with a length equal to the ship's length or longer, where the resistance
is high, the difference between the propellers smaller, and in some conditions the nozzle propeller required less SHP. There, the advantage of the
increase
became
nozzle propeller working with a heavy load was

strated.
demon-
fPCCD
Fig. 450. Relative heave
IN
KNOTS
sensitive to
sailing in
In genera], the speed of the nozzle propeller is less changes in load, which is of advantage for some types of propulsion machinery. When the design
is at 160.5 r.p.m. for the normal, and 157.3 r.p.m. for the nozzle propeller, a high sailing speed can be obtained with the nozzle propeller, although it will
and pitch when
head seas
situation
Results
wbea
sailing
452 show only the still-water and the head-seas results; the other tests produced very small differences. In fig. 449 the SHP and propeller r.p.m. are plotted against the ship's speed and the ratios of wave length/ship
Fig. 449 to
require more SHP. However, there is sufficient SHP available in the free-running condition, due to the trawl-
fig.
ing requirements, as 449.
shown
in table 107
compiled from
length, small
In certain conditions such as short
wave
head
wave height and high speed, even

TABLE 105
Pftrtfcttlan
in
seas, the
SHP
of strip and nozrle
than in still water. This was found on with different models. A theoretical occasions many explanation has recently been offered.
in
waves
is less
Length
between
perpen.
diculars
Length on the waterline Breadth Draught Displacement Horsepower, propeller

Horsepower, motor
....
...
LBP 42.00m.
L B T
SHP
V
43.99 m.
8.25 m. 3.85 m. 695.1 cu.
137.8 144.3
ft.
ft. ft.
27.06
12.63
ft.
m.
24.543 cu.
ft.
940
h.p.
The motions in head seas are given in fig. 450 to 452. Heave and pitch are given in dimcnsionless form; the heave, by dividing the heave amplitude by the wave amplitude (wave amplitude = half the wave height); the pitch by dividing the pitch amplitude in radians by
BMP
r.p.m.
(metric) 1,000 h.p. (metric)
Speed of the propeller Longitudinal radius of gyration (in percentage of
160
TABLE 107
LBP)
Metmcentric height . Rolling period Bilge keels-Length in percentage of LBP Height . Nozzle diameter Length-diameter ratio Angle of the nozzle profile relative to the shaft line . . Thicknes*-length ratio
.
OM
Tr
ki
25%
0.80m.
8 sec.
2.62
ft.
40%
0.20m. 2.80m.
0.425
oci
0.66
ft.
9.18ft.
8.5
t/1
0.15
[426]
SEAKINDLINESS
the
TRAWLER MODEL
When
IN
WAVES
slope, vm^rchwA, where hw /x reprewave height/wave length ratio. From fig. 450, with the pitch and heave amplitudes, no general conclusion can be drawn about the influence of
maximum wave
This remains true in following and quartering waves,

trawling in head seas, the nozzle propeller is unfavourable compared with the normal propeller, because it causes either a decrease in speed, a weaker pull, or an increase in SHP.
CMCMCNCC AND fWMCNGCNCC OF
WITHOUT NOZZLC **VC H WITH NOZZLC
sents the
Sometimes higher, occasionally smaller The same applies to fig. 452, where the emergence and the submergence of the bow is given in relation to the wave height. The influence of the nozzle on motions and taking water over the bow are of a secondary nature, and no definite trends can
the
nozzle.
amplitudes were found.
be discerned.
However, the measurements indicate that the nozzle

reduces
the
vertical
accelerations at
is
the
stern.
The
therefore likely that the nozzle influences the phase angles between the
influence at the
negligible.
It is
bow
motions by
its
damping
effect,
which, while not reducing
pitch and heave, does decrease the vertical accelerations at the stern.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from these tests: For a ship trawling in still water a nozzle propeller
increases pull considerably.
ACCELERATIONS AT F P WITHOUT NOZZIC WITH NOZZLE
IN
HEAD SEA WAVE DIRECTION
170*
5
SHIP'S
10
SPEED
IN
KNOTS
Fig. 452.
Bow emergence and submergence when sailing in head seas
In the free-running condition in still water the nozzle propeller requires a higher SHP, although at
SHIP'S
SPFCD
IN
KNOTS
ACCELERATION* AT AP WITHOUT NOZZLE WITH NOZZLE
IN
HEAD SCA
WAVE
DIRECTION
170*
a lower number of revolutions, which is advantageous for certain types of propulsion machinery in attaining a higher free running speed.
The same
applies to the free-running conditions in following and quartering seas. In the free-running condition in head seas the
differences
and
in high
between the propellers become smaller, waves with a length equal to the ship's
is better.
length the nozzle propeller
The
t 10
NP'f SPCCD
Fig.
IN KNOTS
influence of the nozzle propeller on the amplitude of pitch and heave and the wetness of the foredeck is negligible. The nozzle propeller, however, reduces the vertical
45 J. Accelerations
otFPandAP
when
sailing in
head seas
accelerations at the stern.
[427]
THE PRISMATIC COEFFICIENT

by
JAN-OLOF TRAUNG
Tests with fishing boat models in waves indicate that those with a low prismatic coefficient require less power in a seaway and seem more agreeable motions* The trend in construction of large fishing vessels is to adopt a lower prismatic coefficient. A review is given and some preliminary conclusions reached of tests with four related models having prismatic coefficients of 0.525, 0.575, 0.625 and 0.675. Resistance tests were carried out with two versions, one being a true expansion of the lines according to the Lackenby method, and the other a more practical one, keeping the profile and the freeboard the same. In the "true" version, the differences between the models were not as great as in the "practical" version. This indicated that the fineness of water line endings has a great influence on resistance. Self-propulsion tests with the four models indicate that there was a tendency for the value of the optimum prismatic coefficient to decrease. The motions during the wave tests was considered to be equal for all models but from the powering point of view a prismatic coefficient of 0.525 seems
10 have
to be the best.
LE COEFFICIENT PRISMATIQUE
Les essais de modeles de navires de peche dans les vagues indiquent que oeux aui ont un coefficient prismatique faible ncccssistem moins de puissance par mer agrtee et paraissent avoir des mouvements plus agreables. La tendance dans la construction des grands navires de ptebe est d'adopter un coefficient prismatique faible. L'auteur passe en revue les essais de quatre modeles de la mfime famille ayant des coefficients prismatiques de 0,525, 0,575, 0,625 et 0,675 et il donne des conclusions pre"liminaires. Des essais de resistance ont 6te* effectues ave ceux versions, rune etant un vrai diveloppemcnt des tignes selon la methode de Lackenby, et 1'autre, plus pratique, conservant le meme profil et le meme franc-bord. Dans la version "vraie", les differences entre les modeles n'etaient pas aussi grandes que dans la version "pratique". Cela a indiqu6 que las finesse des extremites de lignes d'eau a une grande influence sur la resistance. Les essais d'auto-propulsion avec les quatre modules indiquent que la valeur du coefficient prismatique optimum avait tendance a diminuer. Les mouvements pendant ks essais dans les vagues ont 6t6 considered comme etant egaux pour tous les modeles, mais du point de vue de la puissance, un coefficient un coefficient prismatique de 0,525 parait tre le meilleur.
EL COEFICIENT PRISMATICO
Los ensayos llevados a cabo con modelos de pesqueros en olas indican que los que tienen un coeficiente prismatico bajo necesitan tener movimientos mas suaves. En la construccidn de pesqueros grandes se tiende a adoptar un coeficiente prismatico mis bajo. Se reseftan los ensayos con 4 modelos afines de coeficientes prismaticos de 0,525, 0,755, 0,625 y 0,675 y las conclusiones preliminares a que se ha llegado. Los ensayos de resistencia se realizaron con dos versiones distintas; una era la ampliacidn veradera de las lineas segiin el metodo de Lackenby, y la otra, mas practica, mantenia iguales el perfil y la obra muerta. En la version "verdadera", las diferencias entre los modelos no eran tan grandes como en la "practica", lo que indica que la finura de los extremes <k las lineas de aguas influye mucho en la resistencia. Los ensayos de autopropulsibn con los 4 modelos indicaron que existfa una tendenoia a que disminuyese el valor del coeficiente prismatico 6ptimo. Se considero que el movimiento durante los ensayos con olas era igual en todos Jos modelos, pero desde k puntoode vista de la potencia propulsora un coeficiente prismatico de 0,525 parece ser el mejor
menos potencia propulsora en mar gruesa y paracen
tests in calm water with fishing boat models have been done over the years and a comparison of the results on a non-dimensional basis shows that resistance is governed by the same factors as with larger ships. Very few tests have, howStill fewer comparative ever, been done in waves. measurements have been taken on fishing vessels at sea; nothing has been published about smaller vessels. Sharpness, as expressed by prismatic coefficient, seems to be an important factor influencing the calm water resistance. Fishing boats seldom travel at higher speedlength ratios than 1.1 (v/VgL=0.33) in spite of the fact that their often large engines could produce a higher trial speed (Traung, 1955). Therefore a low prismatic coefficient is the best. Further experiences from resistance
MANY
calm water show the advantages of a small angle of entrance, the centre of buoyancy far aft, and a transom stern instead of a rounded stern. Because fishing vessels operate in rough water comparatively more than larger vessels, resistance in waves is naturally of great interest, and the object of this paper is to review some wave tests where the main variable was the prismatic coefficient. Furthermore, a summary is given of results of wave tests with four FAO models in the Fishing Boat Laboratory Tank of the Japanese Fisheries
tests in
Agency.
Todd's steam drifter tests Todd's (1938) steam drifter
Reference
is
tests
are
well
known.
but
it
usually
made
to the
calm water
tests,
[428]
SEAKINDL1NESS
PRISMATIC COEFFICIENT
through different degrees of rough water, each experiment being repeated with the models interchanged to
eliminate any difference in the wave trains. Regular waves were used having the following dimensions:
might not be out of place to review the seaworthiness tests* The opinion had been expressed that the bow of a fishing boat should be full to ensure seaworthiness. This opinion had survived, from the time of the old sailing ships but experience with other types of ships had shown that it was not correct. Todd pointed out in 1938 that
several large trawlers built with a fine form, as suggested
Wave
7J
ft.
height
Wave
length
by model tests, had shown themselves more seaworthy than the conventional type with full bow. The models represented typical pre-war drifters with steam propulsion, having a length between perpendiculars of 86 ft. (26.2 m.) and a displacement of 185 tons. The prismatic coefficient based on the actual length in
was 0.652 for the standard design, and for the improved design 0.567. The wave test models were 4.75 ft. (1.45 m.) long and fitted with rudders, but no
the waterline
propellers, and they were towed simultaneously through the waves at a slight angle on the bow. During the preliminary tests the model representing the best calm water
boat proved to have too low freeboard forward and a new model was made having the same freeboard forward as on the standard drifter. Table 108 gives a summary of
the tests.
190 ft. (58 m.) m.) 5ft. (1.5m.) 100ft. (30m.) 8ft. (2.4m.) 72ft. (22m.) 9ft. (2.7m.) 72 ft (22m.) In 100 and 190 ft. waves the models rode easily and neither shipped any water. In the 8 ft. high and 72 ft. long waves with broken crests the modified model shipped very little water (less than 1 per cent, of its displacement) but the standard design shipped nearly four times as much, or 3 per cent, of the displacement. With the somewhat higher waves, the modified model shipped hardly any water, or about 1 to 3 per cent, of displacement, while the standard model shipped 4$ per cent, of displacement. The standard design threw the water up almost vertically and it fell back into the model. The modified design threw the water outwards more than upwards and was consequently drier. Had a wind been blowing in the direction of the waves, the standard design would have got more broken water than the modified
(2.3
NPL motor drifter tests

Due
to the success of the previous tests, the British Herring Industry Board requested the National Physical
design.
that longer
Confused seas were created by mixing wave lengths so waves travelled through shorter waves, the
Laboratory (NPL) to make tests with smaller motor made of wood (Experiments with 1938), One model was built according to the standard design and another of a modified design proposed by the NPL. The models represented 70 ft. (21.3 m.) vessels having a displacement of 85.9 and 88 tons in the loaded condition. The beam for the standard design was 18 ft. (5.5 m.) and for the modified design 19 ft. (5.79 m.). The models used for the wave tests were 4.7 ft. (1.43 m.) long and these tests were made in the loaded condition. The corresponding prismatic coefficients were 0.653 for the standard design and 0.630 for the modified design. These experiments were also made by towing the models side by side and the speed corresponded to 8 knots
drifters
general aspect of the water varying every second. In such waves of from 6 to 8 ft. (1.8 to 2.4 m.) in height the
standard model shipped 13.5 per cent, water of its displacement and the modified design 6.6 per cent. In higher waves of 8 to 10 ft. (2.4 to 3 m.) the standard design shipped water equal to 18 per cent, of the displacement, and the modified design 5 per cent. It was concluded that the standard design, compared with
similar experiments on trawler models, was a good design and that accordingly the modified one would be still better. Some simulated trawling tests were also made and the standard design shipped considerably more water than the modified one. No boats were built
according to these
results.
TABLE 108
Summary
Wave
type
of Todd's steam drifter tests in waves
Standard drifter
Low prismatic
with low
drifter
Low prismatic drifter

with
bow
same height of bow as Standard
Regular waves of 125

length
and 8
ft.
ft. (38.1 m.) (2.4 m.) height
(crest to trough).
water shipped over the stern at beginning and end of run, but otherwise relittle
bow and
mained
Shipped water over the bow, and sank after passing 62 waves.
No water shipped ; quite dry at end of experiment.

Took a little water over the bow in each rough
portion and was less
dry.
Irregular sea, mainly composed of steep, short waves with a series of longer and lower waves passing through them on each run. The models passed through two very rough portions with comparatively smooth water between.
Took water over

stern
on
first
the bow and rough portion, and
was about three-quarters full in the calm period. Model sank soon after entering second rough
period.
than a quarter full after passing both rough

portions.
[429]

Graff mad Heckscber trawler
tests
SEA BEHAVIOUR
maximum
fall
rapidly to
investi-
The Hamburg tank
(Graff and Heckscher, 1941)
wave length and

(46 m.) length.
gated three similar trawlers having a length of 187 ft* (57 m.) with beams of 28.9 ft. (8.8 m.), 31.5 ft. (9.6 m.)
the draught (10.3 m.). were kept the same, but the midship section area was enlarged and thus the prismatic coefficient was 0.657, 0.615, and 0.575 respectively. The resistance tests showed
ft.
The
values around 100 ft. (30 m.) equally rapidly towards 150 ft. big movements around 100 ft.
and 33.8
The displacement and
the superiority of the wide and low prismatic model which at 1 2 knots, or a speed-length ratio of 0.77 (v/\/gL=0.26), only required 91 per cent, of the power taken by the
narrow model. At IS knots, or a speed-length ratio of 1.1 (v/ \XgL~0.33) the wide model only required 63 per cent, power compared with the narrow one. Selfpropelled tests were made in waves of about the same
length as the ship.
(2 m.) waves.
difficulty
length correspond to a tuning factor of 1, when the period of encounter between ship and wave is the same as the natural period of pitch and heave. At another speed there would be another period of encounter and also another length of wave, resulting in synchronous motion. The maximum increase in power occurs rather at the shorter waves of 80 to 90 ft. (24 to 27 m.) than at the point of maximum movement. Among the three models there was no material difference in the angle of
pitch.
The 0.501 prismatic model had appreciably greater heave than the other two. The general magnitude of power increase of the three models remained the same
head seas as
less
The height corresponded to 6.55 ft. The wide ship made these tests without any
in
in
required
superior.
calm water, but as the modified designs power in calm water, they remained
but the narrow one took the waves over the deck. Therefore the wave height was reduced to 5 ft. (1.5 m.) or a wave length/wave height ratio of 1: 37.5. The tests were only carried out up to a speed of about 11.75 knots, corresponding to a speed-length ratio of 0.76 (v/VgL~0.255). At lower speeds the wider model required somewhat more power and with the available
1,200 h.p. the narrow model would make 10.7 knots, while the wide model would only make 10.4 knots. However, the tendency was that at higher speeds than 12 knots, i.e. for speed-length ratios higher than 0.77, the low prismatic model would have the advantage. The movements of the models were also studied by means of a cine-camera and both the angle of pitch and heave were less for the narrow model. The wide model pitched
The vessel with the full bow threw the waves above the gunwhale when pitching than either of higher
The fan-flared bow of the lowest prismatic model threw the bow wave out and down when pitching and it was concluded that when meeting a head sea this model was the best one. Later on a design was made which was a compromise between the 0.612 and the 0.501 models with a prismatic of 0.537. One boat was built according to these lines and another to the lines of the model with the 0.612 prismatic. These boats were tried out in commercial fishing and, surprisingly enough, the low prismatic type was later on re-built with a fuller foreship. The opinion was that she had too fine a forebody and was liable to trim too much by the bow when filled with herring. With 31 cran
the other two.
more and it was explained that this model, because of its more flaring bow, followed the waves more, thus having larger movements but on the other hand the ship was drier. The narrow model went more through the waves. The larger power requirements of the wider ship at moderate speeds were also explained by its greater
20 per
cent,
5,530 kg.), the draught forward increased m.), and with a catch of 106 cran (41 ,500 lb.. by 18,800 kg.) the draught increased from 5 ft. 2 in. (1 .57 m.) to 8 ft. 3 in. (2.51 m.) or by 3 ft. 1 in. (0.94 m.). This was due to the very sharp entrance, which had a half angle
(12,200
1 1
lb.,
in. (0.28
front area.
of 9 only. It was, however, reported that the performance of the vessel was excellent and if anything she proved a drier ship running into the wind than the higher
prismatic one. The Board's reason for altering the forebody was that they had decided to dispose of the vessel and the new forebody was built to suit the prevailing orthodox ideas and to make the sale easier.
these experiments is that when boats all designing fishing possible loads should be taken into account, preferably by taking measurements at sea, and if a boat trims considerably due to its sharp forebody, this should be corrected by giving it a higher freeboard than a boat with a fuller waterline forward; in this case a 2 ft. (0.6 m.) higher stem would have been adequate
Allan's drifter tests
After World War II the British Herring Industry Board again ordered model tests of wooden motor drifters (Allan, 1951). The models represented vessels of 62 ft. (18.9 m.) on the waterline and the original model had a beam of 17 ft. 10 in. (5.44 m.) and a prismatic coefficient of 0.645. slightly modified design had the same beam and a prismatic of 0.612 and the extreme one had
The conclusion from
1 ft. (0.3 m.) less beam and a prismatic of 0.501. The displacement for all models was 71 tons. The tests in still water showed the superiority of the low prismatic models. Self-propulsion tests were made in head seas of different lengths and heights at a speed of 7} knots and
and it would not have spoiled the conning-angle. However, in 1952 the 0.612 prismatic type was accepted while the 0.630 was not before World War II.
torque, thrust, revolutions, speed, heave and pitch were observed. The general conclusions were that in short
seas of
FAO tests
The
results
(15 m.) length the vessels plough with little very through pitch or heave. From 50 to ISO ft. (15 to 46 m.) length, the pitch and heave increases
up
to 50
ft.
from previous
is
tests indicated that
a low
pris-
matic coefficient
World War
also of advantage in waves. Since II there had been a distinct trend in the
[430]
SEAKINDLINESS
0.575.
design of large trawlers in France, Germany and the United Kingdom to adopt a low prismatic coefficient and it was understood that skippers and operators found these ships to be superior. In view of this, FAO advises the adoption of a smaller prismatic coefficient, also for fishing vessels of less than 100 ft. (30 m.). However, scepticism is sometimes expressed since there are not as
many
results
from wave
tests as
from calm water
tests
with models representing small fishing vessels. In 1956 FAO decided to test four related models of an 88 ft, (26.75 m.) LOA fishing vessel with prismatic coefficients of 0.525, 0.575, 0.625 and 0.675, As the object of the tests was to investigate the influence of sharpness,
The variation was done with the help of the Lackcnby (1950) method for ships without parallel middle body and with constant LCB, although some difficulties were encountered due to the design rake of the keel. Fig. 453 shows the profile and some typical sections of a "true" variation. The rake of the stem and the stern post were changed to obtain similar flow under water. According to this method, however, it was felt that the propeller aperture would be too small and lead to propeller-racing in waves for the high prismatic models
and, furthermore, the increased freeboard of the small prismatic models would give them a certain advantage in waves which was only due to the method of variation and not to the difference in shape. The bow and stern over water of the high prismatic models would further be unnecessarily bluff and penalize those models.
Resistance tests
and due to the fact that research (Lewis, 1955) had shown that the length-displacement ratio has an effect upon seakeeping behaviour, it was felt desirable to keep the displacement and the length constant as well as the centre of buoyancy. Thus it was necessary to vary the area of the midship section and a practical variation was to keep the B/T ratio and p the same, varying the beam and draught. This had the advantage that the metacentre, both transversal as well as longitudinal, was kept within reasonable limits so that each model would represent a ship with comparable periods of roll and pitch. It had the disadvantage that the low prismatic models with the greatest beam were penalised but, after all, the object was to compare models of some practical
interest.
The models were ordered from the Fishing Boat Association of Japan and they were built by the Fishing Boat Laboratory of the Japanese Fisheries Agency to make them suitable for testing in their tank, being 213 ft. (65 m.) long, 13.1 ft. (4 m.) wide and 6.55 ft. (2 m.) deep. The model scale was 1 12.5, producing models 6.55 ft.
:
The parent form represents a development of model 206 c XXVI, FAO No. 6Cc, as published in FAO Fishing Boat Tank Tests, and it has a prismatic coefficient of
proposed by the tank staff. Turbulence was stimulated by using pins (Nevitt, 1957). Such pins have a rather high parasitic drag but Nevitt considered them to be satisfactory for small and beamy fishing boat models. The test results were expanded using the Schoenherr friction correction with 0.0004 allowance for roughness. Control resistance tests were
(2 m.) in the waterline, as
T"
II
Fig. 453.
Tim development of related models
with the
tame displacement but dtffennt prismatic
coefficients using the
Lackenby method
1431]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Fig. 454.
Practical development
of related models with
different prismatic coefficients. Beam and draught are varied but displacement, midshipsection coefficient and freeboard and profile kept the same
with the 0.575 model in 43.5 and 61 F (6.4 and 16.rC) water temperature in the Fishing Boat Laboratory Tank, and in the 26 ft. (8 m.) wide tank of the Japanese Transportation Laboratory in both 44.6 and 61.7F. (7 and 16.5C), the model speeds being from i
made
fied so as to
have the same profile, the same freeboard and the same dimensions of stem, keel and stern timber,
tests in this version.
fig.
454. Table 109 gives the ship's data for the resistance Fig. 455 indicates the difference between sections i, 1, 9 and 9J of models 0.525, 0.625
to 6 ft./scc. (0.3 to 1 .8 m./sec.). The results indicated that the tests were reproducible, that no disturbing laminar flow was present, and that there was no significant influence of side wall effect in the small tank during the resistance
tests in calm water (Yokoyama and Kobayashi, 1948). After resistance tests with the four models built
and 0.675, the parent model 0.575 naturally being the same in both versions. Fig. 456 shows the body plans, section area curves and design waterlines of the models
in the "practical" version. The results from the resistance tests with the "practical" versions are given in fig. 457. The models were tested on
according to the "true" method, the models were modi-
three displacements
and the design displacement with an
45$. Comparison
of"
true
"
and
"
practical
"
variation
offitting boat
lines to
produce different prismatic at the same displacement
1432)
SEAK1NDLINESS
**
1-
fr
Fig, 456.
Comparison of body plans, section area curves and water
lines
of four related models with
different prismatic coefficients
additional two trims. Due to the finer underwater lines and the longer "displacement-length" of the "true"
version,
the differences were not as great as in the
The results from the self-propulsion tests at the design waterline and in calm water calculated by the tank are given in table 1 10 and in fig. 459. There is a considerable
difference in propulsive coefficients between the models, the high prismatic one having the lowest. These differences might be due to scale effect but also to the fact that in the systematical variation, the lower waterlines
"practical" variations. The optimum prismatic coefficient seems to be about 0.575 and this is somewhat higher than
is normally deduced from standard series. This might be due to the fact that the small prismatic models were beamier than the high prismatic models. Fig. 457 also
of the high prismatic models turned out to be unneces-
shows the
EHP
for the trims
displacement indicating that reasonable from a resistance point of view,

Self-propuJsion tests
on the design waterline the selected LCB was
The propeller was to absorb 300 h.p. at 300 r.p.m. and was selected from the standard series of the Ship Propulsion Division of the Japanese Transportation Technical Research Institute. The resulting propeller was of its B3-3S type, with a P/D ratio of 0.6 and a diameter of 71.5 in. (1.815 m,). The results of open water tests are
shown in fig. 458 together with the corresponding of a comparable Troost propeller.
results
toward the ends, thus restricting the flow to the In fig. 460 the propulsive coefficients for the four models have been plotted over the prismatic coefficient, together with the propulsive coefficients from the Allan (1951) drifter tests in calm water, where also only one propeller was used. In these tests there is also a tendency towards reduction in efficiency of the higher prismatic model. The reduction, however, is not so great, due to the fact that the models were designed individually and were not directly related, each thus having the best possible flow of water to the propeller. To make a more "honest" comparison, it is tempting to split the propulsive coefficient into two components,
sarily full
propeller.
[433]

TABLE 109
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Ship's data for the resistance tests
Model y*
III
IV
Model'-9 0.575
III
IV
the open water efficiency of the propeller and a "rest" containing both the relative rotative and the hull efficiency, plus any other influences, such as scale effect. If this "rest" efficiency from Allan's tests at 0.575
efficiency,
prismatic
is set
at 100,
test in
7J and 9 knots
it will, on the average, for the calm water be: 96.5 per cent, at
0.625 and 88.5 (extrapolated) per cent, at 0.675 prismatic coefficient. new modified propulsive coefficient could then be assumed for the self-propulsion tests with the 0.625 and 0.675 models, being the product of the open water efficiency at the specific speed from the test, the rest efficiency of model 0.575 at the specific speed and the correction for the specific prismatic. In table 1 10 the modified propulsive coefficient and SHP for models 0*625 and 0.675 have also been listed. Fig. 461 show* the SHP plotted over the prismatic coefficient. broken line represents the SHP as calculated directly from the model tests. The 0.675 model thus would require 82 per cent, more power to make 9 knots in calm water than the 0.575 model, instead of 122 per
more, as determined directly from the model tests. might be argued that the self-propulsion tests should have been made by individual optimum propellers. In this case, the fuller models should have propellers with smaller diameters. These would have been subject to additional risks of scale effect and variations in wake and thrust would also have been introduced, and it is not too certain that the results would have been more quantitacent,
It
tively correct.
Wave tests
FAO consulted a number of specialists before suggesting

a programme for the wave tests. It was emphasized that wave tests cannot be too exact and only if the difference between two models is more than 5 per cent should a
definite conclusion
be drawn. In
spite
of the fact that
wave tests are often carried out with 5 ft. (1.53 m.) models, there was a general recommendation that the models should not be too small due to the risks of laminar flow. A model length of 6.55 ft. (2 m.) was as large as the
[434]
SEAKINDLINESS

SMp's
dftta for the
rafefcuce tests
would accommodate. One consultant was of the opinion that there would be a speed loss of 1.3 per cent, due to this small size. There was a difference of opinion whether the wave tests should be carried out as self-propulsion or as pure As the tank staff considered selfresistance tests. propulsion tests to be simpler to conduct and at the same time more exact, it was decided to make self-propulsion tests. Thus the models would be completely free and be able to surge in the waves. The tests were to be carried out both in head sea and stern sea, and it was decided to keep a constant wave height corresponding to 2.46 ft. (0.75 m.) high waves. The tests could only be conducted in regular waves. Lewis stated (1955) that "qualitative comparisons of the motions of ships intended for rough-weather service can be made from the results of tests run over a wide range of
available tank
case three wave lengths should be used, one equal to the waterline length of the models and the two others 1 \ and 1 f times the waterline length. The reason was that
waves of the short length of a small fishing vessel are rather moderate and do not really represent normal weather. Furthermore, synchronous motions would take place at very low speeds. Professor Lewis felt that one
should in this case compare the performance of the models on the longer wave length rather than on the shorter, as is standard for larger ships. It was comforting to know that quality comparisons can be made of tests
in regular waves. Naturally, additional tests in irregular
speeds in a regular wave of length equal to ship length the shortest wave component having major effects on motions)/' Professor E. Lewis suggested that in this
(i.e.
waves are necessary for any real quantitative comparisons. Little information is available on the longitudinal radius of gyration for fishing vessels. Mdckel (1955) gave an m-valuc of 0.275 for the outward voyage and 0.32 for the homeward one. The m-value contains both the longitudinal radius of gyration and a coefficient, taking into account damping from entrained water, etc. When suggesting the test procedure, the author wrongly spcci-
[435]

TABLE 110
Remits from Mtf-propulttai and
SEA BEHAVIOUR
fied the radius of gyration to be 0.3L, instead of specifying an m-value of 0.3L. Thus the models have a period of pitch corresponding to 4.33, 4.21,4.16 and 4.23 sec., which is longer than normal for boats of that size. long radius of gyration is said to amplify movements (van Lammeren
models 0.625 and 0.675, the modified
SHP
assuming the
same
the
SHP SHP
factor as explained earlier. Fig. 463 shows the for each model plotted over speed. Fig, 464 shows
in
coefficient
head sea for the variations in prismatic and fig. 465 for the wave lengths. These
and Vossers, 1955), which has the advantage of separating the results for the models of different shapes but the
disadvantage of giving them synchronous movements at too low speeds. Fishing vessels sometimes sail at speeds which could be called supercritical, i.e. when the period of pitch is longer than the period of encounter. Supercritical speeds are at present impossible for large vessels, even if it is stated that some slender ones like the vessel United States sometimes operate at such. The fact that
short fishing vessels sometimes operate at supercritical speeds might be the reason why a long period of pitch is advocated. Similarly, it has sometimes been said that a loaded fishing vessel is better in the seaway than an unloaded one. This could also be explained by the fact that the loaded vessel will be placed further into the This is a problem which requires supercritical zone.
study.
Fig. 462 shows the arrangements for the wave tests. In addition, an acceleration meter was fitted in the bow. The tests were carried out on the design wateriine with the displacement of 195 tons (193.75 cu. m.). Table 111 gives the results as reported by the tank and also for
diagrams suggest that the optimum prismatic coefficient in waves from the powering point of view is lower than it is in calm water. There is no indication that the best calm water hull form should lose its advantage in waves. Stern sea does not seem to have too great an influence
on the power,
as is evident from fig. 466. Ships motions determine the maximum sustained sea speed. Fig. 467 shows the angle of pitch for the four
factor.
models plotted on tuning

1
Only wave lengths
and If times the
ship's
motion; but unfortunately obtained from the 0.525 model to allow the peak to be determined. The curves indicate that models 0.575 and 0.625 have almost identical maximum pitch angles, and that they are about ten per cent, lower than model 0.675. If the lower slope of the curves for model 0.525 is considered, the impression is also obtained that the peaks of this model would be somewhat lower than the other models. Fig. 468 compares the bow accelerations of the models, and here again the impression is that the 0.575 model is in no way worse than the high prismatic models. On the other hand, there is a clear indication that the peak responses of the 0.525 model are the highest. Heave
length give synchronous reliable values were not
[436]
SEAKINDLINESS
EHF>
EHP,,
.
EHP
A -16180
ISO
en
cum
V2500
300
2DO
200
100
100
100
675
S2S
575
625
75
525
625
675
/y.
^57.
Tow rope horsepower
in
calm water for
light fmedium'Joad
and full load conditions
B-35
P/D--6
.0.6
i
\
0.5
o |
0.4
Diameter Number of Modes Poke ot Mode tip
Japontte sfondord Troost Mritt 145 mm.(5.7l
in.)
3
l32mm.(CX52ia)
Turning clockwise 0.200 Boss ratio
Pitch ratio
Oev. area ratio
S.0.3
0.600 0.350
02
Fig. 458.
Propeller charaeteristict
02
QS
0.4
as
as
0.7
Advonct constant * J
[437]
TABLE
Remits fran tats with
111
In
waves and caln water
Model 9
0.525
Model 9
0.575
14381
Model 9
0.625
Model 9
0.675
Note.
For calm water
denotes trimming and
Z average sinkage. r is given in radians and Z in m.
DO
[439]
BOATS OF THE WORLD:
SEA BEHAVIOUR
.675
525
,575
625
675
525
575
625
675
4t6
.
.670
59.
Propulsive coefficient, wake, thrust, hull, open water
and rotative
efficiencies
and
revolutions in calm water
normally has little influence on fishing vessels, and in the tests heave seldom .exceeded 3.3 ft. (1 m.). Fig. 469 gives the heave measurements, and from them it seems
should not matter whether the upsetting forces come from the stern or the bow, and this might be the reason why the curves can be connected. No stern sea tests were
an the models are equal, with, perhaps, 0.525 The tests were made in moderate tegular waves. Tests in higher waves would probably
that
slightly the best.
made
synchronous movements. All purposes, be considered as equal so far as pitch, bow acceleration and heave in stern
at speeds giving
models must, for
all practical
have shown the influence of the more flaring bows of the smaller prismatic models. Fig. 467, 468 and 469 also show the movements in the item seas, and it is interesting to see how in some instances the curves for stem seas and head seas can be connected. If a ship can be considered as a balance it
seas are concerned.
Trawttag tests
The four models were

3 knots.
also tested to simulate trawling at
The
first test
was made with the model dragging a
[440]
SEAK1NDLINESS
ascertain whether a ship while trawling has more agreeable motions than when sailing free. Table 113 sums up the results.
Generally it can be said that the models while trawling heave less and have a smaller angle of pitch. The heave
accelerations are, however, the same and the bow accelerations slightly more. The latter probably is because the
pitching centre has moved aft. The tests seem to confirm that the ship is damped by the trawl wire, and this might be the reason for the higher additional power required than when the ship is sailing free at trawling speed.
.575
25
Fig. 460. Decrease of propul-
sive coefficient
when the same
propeller was used for models with different prismatic

coefficient
Fig. 461. Shaft horsepower as calculated and modified to take into account unnecessarily abrupt endings
weight on the bottom of the tank, the weight being selected, as near as could be, to produce a warp pull of 3 tons at 3 knots. But this was not satisfactory because great fluctuations in towing force were recorded sometimes it was as high as 6 tons. By substituting a small net
remained constant. So the experiments were done with a net which was hung from the towing carriage to have the line of pull in the same direction as it would be when actually trawling. Fig. 470 shows the test arrangement, and table 112 gives the results from the tests. Both resistance and self-propulsion tests were made in calm water. As expected, the results from the resistance tests are practically equal, but the high prismatic models require more SHP due to their less favourable flow of water to the propeller. The trawling efficiency is from 0.389 to 0.323. Fig. 471 shows the results from the trawling tests in waves as well as those from tests without a trawl, but at
for the weight, the resistance
Fig. 462.
Wave
test
arrangement
Future work
Model tests in waves are time-consuming. The research described was to a very large extent carried out by the Japanese Fishing Boat Laboratory, without remuneration from FAO. It is therefore not for to specify
FAO
it
what further work should be done, but

interesting if additional tests could
would be
be conducted with a shorter longitudinal radius of gyration, or perhaps with the same period of pitch for all models, so as to obtain
comparable peak curves for the movements at somewhat higher speeds. Furthermore, it would be most interesting
to study, at least with the three lowest prismatic models, the influence of different displacements and of higher
the
same
is
is
3 knots speed.
It
appears as
if
the
power
increase
the boat
greater while trawling than when free and this in spite of the fact that sailing
is
somewhat
wave
the propulsive coefficient
motion
larger while trawling. The data were plotted in many different ways to
heights. It would also be of value to study changes in the form itself, particularly the damping effect of a
transom stern on the two lower prismatic models.
Fig 463. Shaft
hornpow*ri*cdm water art head wave* of differs
(441]

TABU
112
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Note: For calm water Y and
Z denotes trimming and average sinkage.
in radians,
Z in m.
[442]
SEAKINDLINESS
400
900
LEFT
Fig. 464. Shaft horsepower in calm water and head waves different length, plotted over prismatic coefficient
of
RIGHT
Fig. 466.
Shaft horsepower in stern seas
too
>
475
25
J75
Fig. 465. Shaft
horsepower in calm water and head waves of different length, plotted for each speed over wavelength
r\
Ftg. 467. Pitching angles for the four
models
Fig. 468. fitch accelerations for the four
models
[443]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Heave for
the four models
White it is indicated from recent research that tests in regular waves must be considered to be conclusive and that head sea tests are important in themselves, it goes without saying that additional tests with larger models in oblique seas and in irregular waves, in one of the new
establishments set
usefulness.
will
7ft (&Om.)
up for this purpose, would be of great The author hopes that the tests described
be considered important enough to stimulate such work. It would also be valuable if the tests could be done with somewhat different hull sizes and if careful measurements at sea could be correlated with the model
tests.
Fig. 470.
At the trawling test a floating net was used to create a steady

drag
SHP
}
A
in
prismatic coefficient of 0.575 seems to be the best calm water from the resistance point of view
to be the best calm water from the self-propulsion point of view prismatic coefficient of 0.525 seems to be the best waves
200
>
A prismatic coefficient of 0.550 seems

in
>
Fig. 471. Shaft horsepower at 3 knots when trawling and
A
in
Acki
The author
expresses his appreciation to the
Committee on the
Previous wave tests have shown that a lower prismatic coefficient than generally used is superior, provided the freeboard forward is not reduced.
Seagoing Qualities of Ships of the International Towing Tank Conference, especially Messrs. W. P. Walker and C. H. Hancock for valuable advice in planning the tests. Advice was also given by Mr, S. A. Vincent, Mr. Dwight S. Simpson, Dr. J. F. Allan, Captain W. Mdckel, Professor Cedric Ridgley-Nevitt and Professor W. P. A. van Lammeren. Special thanks are due to Professor E. V. Lewis for detail recommendations regarding the testing technique and to the author's collaborators in FAO, Mr. Peter Ourtner and Mr. Norio Fujinami, for working out the programme and results. He is also indebted to Mr. Y. Kimura, Director-General of the Japanese Fishing Boat Association, Mr. Y. Otsu, Chief of the Fishing Boat Laboratory of the Japanese Fisheries Agency and his
assistants,
Mr. N. Yokoyama and Mr. T. Kobayashi for
their
co-operation.
1444]
TRAWLER FORMS WITH BULBOUS BOWS

by
D.
J.
DOUST
Resistance and propulsion experiments have been conducted in calm water over a wide range of speed with two models, one a conventional long distance trawler and the other a bulbous bow trawler having the same overall dimensions and displacement. Two propellers selected from the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) standard series, suitable for free-running and trawling conditions respectively, have been tested with each form. The results of these experiments indicate that overall reductions in power of the order of 10 to 1 5 per cent, may be obtained in the bulbous bow form, due to reductions in resistance and increased propulsive efficiency. Additional experiments have been conducted to assess the relative performance of these forms in rough water. The bulbous bow design over the working speed range suffered a smaller reduction in speed than did the conventional design for the same resistance.
LES FORMES DE CHALUTIER AVEC
AVANT A BULBE
NPL
On a effectut des experiences de resistance et de propulsion en eau calmc, dans une large gamme de vitesses, avec deux modeies: un chalutier ordinaire pour la ptehe dans les eaux eloignees et un chalutier a avant a bulbe, ayant les m&mes dimensions hors-tout et le convenant respectivement pour les conditions deplacement. Avec chaque forme, on a essayl deux helices choisies dans la seric standard de route libre et de chalutage. Les resultats de ces experiences indiquent que Ton peut obtenir des reductions totales de puissance de 1'ordrc de 10 a 15 pour cent avec la forme a ayant a bulbe par suite des reductions de resistance et de 1'augmentation du rendement. Des experiences supplementaires ont effectuees pour eiablir le rendement relatif de ces formes par mer agitec. Le modele a avant a bulbe au-dessus des vitesses d'utilisation subissait une plus faible reduction de vitesse que le modele courant, pour la mcmc resistance.
mme
FORMAS DE ARRASTREROS CON PROA DE BULBO

Se Kan realizado ensayos de resistencia y propulsi6n en agua tranquila y en una extensa gama de velocidades con dos modelos, uno el arrastrero normal de gran altura y el otro un arrastrero con proa de bulbo de las mismas dimcnsiones y desplazamiento. En cada modelo se ensayaron dos helices seleccionadas de la serie normal del NPL, adecuadas para la navegacibn en ruta y remolcando el atte. Los
resultados de estos experimentos indican que mediante el uso de la proa de forma bulbosa se puede lograr una reducci6n general de la necesidad de fuerza motriz del orden de 10 a 15 por ciento, debido a disminuciones de la resistencia y a aumento del rcndimiento propulsor. Se han realizado otros experimentos para evaluar los rcndimientos relatives de ambas formas en aguas agitadas. El modelo con proa de bulbo experimentd reducciones menores de la velocidad en toda la gama de velocidades empleadas, que el modelo normal de la
misma
resistencia.
THE past, a great deal of research has been conducted to determine the resistance characteristics of bulbous bow forms in calm water, as compared with those of the more conventional types (van Lammeren, 1948; Lindblad, 1944 and 1948; Dillon and Lewis, 1955;
IN
going passenger liners, cargo liners, super tankers and naval vessels of all kinds (Dillon and Lewis, 1955). In the case of trawlers, which operate, at relatively high
speed-length ratios, up to
0.36), the
V/\/LBP=l.20 (v/v'gLBP^
resisit is
proportion of wave-making to frictional

greater,
Fergusson and Parker, 1952; Wigley, 1935; Bragg,
1930).
tance
is
much
and on
theoretical
grounds
Most of this work has been concerned with speed-length ratios below V/VLBP=1.0 (v/VgLBPÔ.30), and the
published results indicate in general that reductions in total resistance in calm water can be obtained by good design over certain ranges of speed. Except in rare cases, however, the order of reduction in total resistance seldom exceeds 4 per cent, at the usual design speeds. It is not
surprising to find therefore that opinions on the relative merits of bulbous bow forms and conventional ship
to be expected that larger benefits in ship resistance should be possible with bulbous bow designs for this
type of ship (Wigley, 1935). It is also apparent that the design of ship fprms based on model experiments conducted in calm water does not always necessarily produce the optimum forms suitable for sea-going conditions, and considerable attention is now being given to the study of resistance and propulsion qualities in regular and irregular seas. It was therefore considered
forms have differed quite materially. This is reflected in the diversity of hull shapes which have been produced for substantially the same requirements for large ocean-
essential to ensure that the benefits obtained in calm water with these bulbous bow trawler forms were not offset by any undue penalty in rough water performance.
[445]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Plf. 472. Post-war British super trawlers
have tines developed from the results of many model tests. The addition of a bulbous bow improves performance still more. Here are shown a normal form and one with bulbous bow
TABLE 114
Uttfch
fat
which the
howls
a pressure reduction in the region of the bow wave, thereby reducing the wave-making resistance of the form still further. This reduction of the normal bow
fortrawkn
Parameter
Most useful ranges

1.05 to 1.20 (0.31 to 0.36)
wave system is particularly marked at V/\/LBP=1.0 to 1.10 (v/VgLBP==0.30 to 0.33), and the main wave
system is then observed to be generated at a section just forward of amidships. Fig. 472 and 473 show the body sections and non-dimensional area and waterline curves for the conventional and bulbous bow models investigated. They have been designated No. 4006 and 3977
respectively,
V/Vt-BP (v/VgLBP LBF/B

<p
>160
5
to 30
>0.63
It
was hoped, indeed,
that
some improvement
and
their
in
resistance-speed characteristics
rough
water performance might be realized due to the pitch
damping produced by the presence of the bulb.

Rastetaace characteristics In calm water statistical analysis of the resistance of trawler forms in calm water has recently been completed at the Ship
were determined by conducting model experiments over a range of speeds corresponding to 4 to 16 knots for a 180 ft. (54.86 m.) ship. These models were made to the moulded lines and tested without appendages at the
(p.
Division of the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) 370 and Doust and O'Brien, 1959). Many results for bulbous bow forms are included in the analysis, and the
useful ranges of prismatic coefficient, speed-length ratio in which these forms show up to
in table 114.
and other parameters
advantage, relative to the conventional forms, are given
The improvement is partly due to the reduction in the half angle of entrance which can be introduced in the bulbous bow form whilst retaining the same overall
proportions and displacement as the conventional design, and partly to the specific effect of the bulb in introducing
7
473.
Area and watertine ordfnates for bulbous bow and conventional form
Fig. 474.
C\ and
EHP prediction
[446]
SEAKINDLINESS
were
flow.
BULBOUS BOW TRAWLERS
moulded displacement. Studs of 4 in. (3.2 mm.) diameter, k in, (2.5 mm.) projection and 1 in. (25 mm.) spacing
fitted
near the
bow
>
profiles to stimulate turbulent
The dimensions and form parameters are given in and EHP predictions using the table 115, whilst the Froude method of extrapolation are given in fig. 474.
It will
be seen that the after-bodies of both forms are bulbous bow form is fuller forward, between stations 8} and 10, and finer between stations 51 and 8 with the same overall dimensions and displacement. The effect of this type of modification is to
identical, whilst the
TABLE 115
Principal ship particular* corresponding to conditions for which model
tests
CALJ
V
ht
fr**)
were made
3977
bulb
180.0(54.86) 32.0 (9.75) loaded
(4.62) 5,9/stern (1.8/stern)
15.1
Hull model No. Scale of model Designed

.
....
.
.
Fig. 475. Particulars
4006
offree-running propeller S.I 20 and trawling propeller S.I37
conventional
180.0(54.86) 32.0 (9.75)
Length perpendiculars ft. (m.) (LBP) ft. (m.) Breadth moulded (B m id) Condition
between
loaded
(4.62) 5.9/stcrn (1.8/stern)
15.1
should be noted that the original design has nearresistance characteristics for a conventional trawler of these proportions and fullness.
It
optimum
Mean draft moulded

Trim at
rest, in
(T)
.
ft.
ft.
LBP
.
(m.) (m.)
Equivalent mean draft moulded at ft. (m.) level trim Designed rake of keel, in LBP
.
15.6
(4.76)
15.535(4.74)
Nil 1,395 1,403
5.881
Propulsion characteristics when sailing in calm water In order to ensure that unfavourable propulsion characteristics are not introduced as a result of modifications
made
to a particular
it
form
to improve
its
resistance
ft.
(m.)
Nil
1,395 1,403
Displacement moulded (AtmUi)tons Displacement with shell (A,) tons
Wetted surface
coefficient (s)
. .
Block coefficient (8) Midship-area coefficient ()
Prismatic coefficient (9) LCB in trimmed condition aft of ft. (m.) midships i angle of entrance of waterline (Joe) degrees ft. (m.) Length of entrance (L*) ft. (m.) Length of parallel (Lp ) ft. Length of run (L r) (m.) ft. (m.) Bilge radius in. (m.) Rise of floor Bulb area as of maximum area
.
6.054 0.543 0.910 0.597

7.8 (2.38) 6.5
necessary to conduct propulsion experiments for both the original design and any subsequent modifications. In the present instance, it is particularly
qualities,
is
0.546 0.910 0.600

8.2 (2.5)
15.0
99 (30.2)
81 (24.7)
99 (30.2)
81 (24.7)
important to establish whether the benefits of the bulbous in regard to resistance are offset in any way from the propulsion aspect. Due to the marked differences observed in the wave profiles of the two forms, it might be anticipated that some changes in propulsive efficiency would occur due to the change in flow at the stern.
bow form
not fixed
18(0.46)
5.0
not fixed 18(0.46)
(a/Am)
1.
Coefficients and cruiser stern, for
2.
3.
4.
The trim is designed rake of keel. Density of water for ship taken as 35 cu. ft. per ton (specific weight 1,025). Equivalent level draught used for coefficients was different from
LCB are for moulded displacement including moulded dimensions and level trim. relative to the moulded base line and excludes
mean
draft.
LCB position further forward as compared with the conventional design, and this is generally helpful in reducing the variation in trim in service conditions. The entrance is generally the same for each design, although
shift the
considerable fining of the load waterline has been made and EHP with the bulbous bow form (fig. 473). The curves indicate that a general reduction in power has been obtained in favour of the bulbous bow form, amounting to 5 to 7} per cent, at the operating speeds of 12 to 14} knots. In this speed range, the speed of the bulbous bow form is i knot greater than that of the
conventional design for the same
EHP.
[447]
Fig. 476.
Stern arrangements for the two propellers

IftrfPQKM
O-Tf
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Propellers S.I 20 and S.I 37 were selected from the N PL standard series to absorb 1,450 DHP at 250 r.p.m. in
the free-running and trawling conditions respectively. The main propeller particulars are given in table 116 and the drawings in fig. 475. The efficiencies for both propellers when working behind the models have been
determined over the range of 9 to 14.5 knots. In addition, overload tests at a speed corresponding to 4 knots have been conducted with both propellers under trawling The stern arrangements used in these conditions.
propulsion
experiments
are
shown
in
fig,
476,
the
BULBOUS &OW FORM CONVENTIONAL ?O*M

O'TO
0*65
bulbous bow and conventional trawler when sailing in calm water with free-running propeller S.I 20 ami trawling propeller S.137
fl(fr.
477.
QPC for
0-60
0-55
BULBOUS BOW FORM CONVENTIONAL FORM
0-50 9-0
to-o
11-0
12-0
11-0
14.Q
15-0
SHIP SPEED
KNOTS
\
1-00
rSltO
0-70
0-65
5.120
0*0
S07
0-60
0-2$
015
0-55
-ML.
0-50 9*0
0-IS
tO-0
tt-0
12-0
H-0
15-0
SHIP SPEED
Fig. 479.
KNOTS
Comparison ofpropeller efficiencies for free-running propeller S. 120 and trawling propeller S. 137
clearances of the screw in the aperture being representative of NPL practice. Fig. 477 shows the improvements
0-50
x IO)/DHP, in quasi -propulsive coefficient, for the bulbous bow form in the sailing condition, over the speed range corresponding to 9 to 14.5 knots. At
QPC=(EHP
1 .
and trial speeds of 13 and 14.5 knots, these improvements amount to 5 and 3 per cent, with propeller S.I 20, and 8J and 7J per cent, with propeller S.I 37. Similar benefits in QPC for some twelve propellers tested
the service
ID-0
O0
0*0
u-o
lft-0
behind eight bulbous

the
bow forms have
been obtained at
Fjf.478. Comparison of hull efficiencies. S.I 20 is the propeller designed for free-waning and S. 137 for trawling
NPL in recent years. ment in QPC relative to

Fig.
The average order of improve-
cent.
conventional designs is 4} per 478 and 479 show that the thrust deduction
1448]
SEAKINDLINESS
fraction
is the component of QPC most affected by the presence of the bulb and re-designed forebody lines, the
open and behind propeller
efficiencies
and wake
fractions
being only slightly influenced in favour of this design. The hull efficiency of the bulbous bow form is generally superior to that of the conventional trawler form, since the thrust deduction fraction is substantially reduced in this case. The average values of t which have been obtained at the NPL for bulbous bow and conventional
trawler forms are 0.197 and 0.220 respectively. shows the estimated powers and revolutions
Fig. 480 for each
BULBOU5 BOW FORM CONVENTIONAL FORM

teOO
1450 145O 1450 1450
247 249 310

311
14-
S2 14-26
14- 12
S.I20 BULBOUS 6M S. 12O CONVCNTtOfftk S.137 BULBOUS IOW
13-75
S 137 CONVENTIONAL
8137
V
DHP
ftKO
fe
45
tt5
Or
rpm
Fig. 481.
Performance curves for trawling at 4 knots
-400
20-
900
200
o-io
200
5O
(OO
2OO
KEY
3OO
rpm
100
9-0
tao
II-O
I?.O
0-0
u-o
15-0
PROPUflMODt
8420
9977
i4.
SHIP SPCCD
Fig. 480.
KNOTS
Ship propulsion estimates with free-running propeller

S.I 20
+--+ *-Â
:
S.I20
and trawling propeller S.I 37
0-40-
&f)7 S437
400* S977 4006
DHP is defined as (EHPxl.lO)/QPC. With 1,450 DHP available, the bulbous bow form shows an increase in ship speed of 0.26 knot with propeller S.I 20, and 0.37 knot with S.I 37. When absorbing
form, in which
at the propeller, the increases in ship speed 1,200 are 0.40 and 0.50 knots respectively.
DHP
Trawling conditions For trawling conditions at 4 knots, it will be seen from fig. 48 1 that there is only a small difference in performance between the bulbous bow and conventional forms. The
SO
Fig. 482.
100
r.pim.
ISO
200
250
X>0
Wake and thrust deduction fractions for trawling condition*

at 4.0 knots
[449]
FISHING BOATS OF THB WORLD:

to
~ SEA
BEHAVIOUR
TABLE 116
is due to an increased hull efficiency offset by a smaller reduction in propeller efficiency behind the model.
Miidf*l psrtfciilmof tto

t250r.p.m.
1*490
DHP
S.137
Vu
trawling Solid
Bronze
Performance in roaffa water Both models were ballasted to the conditions of loading and trim shown in table 115, and weights were adjusted longitudinally so that the radius of gyration about the LCB position was 23 per cent, of the length between perpendiculars in each case. Comparisons of speed, pitch and heave of these two models have been made
8.4 18.0
(2.56)
(457)
16.84(428)
5.04
(1.54) (1.51)
4.96
33.28
(3.09)
3.83 (97.3)
4.54(115) 10 0.167 0.590 0.60 0.045

Fig. 483.
ULBOUS OW FOftM-MODCLJt77 CONVtNTIONAL POMM - MOOtL 40O4
Effect
of wave length/ship length
ratio
on speed
3.55(1.08) 6.0 (1.83)
in near-regular waves conditions

:
for
the following
head-to-sea
14.0 (356)
Wavelength/LBP=0.80 to 1.80, Wave height/LBP= 1/45, Ship speed -6, 8, 10, 12 and 14
knots.
33.2 (843) 42.2(1.07)

23.5(597)
description of the apparatus used to record the pitch, heave and resistance of the models under test is
Mean face pitch is obtained by taking moments of pitch at equally spaced radii about the shaft axis. Prr/Er where Pr Face pitch at radius r. Pffl 2. Centre of propeller is taken at intersection of rake line and
1.
=
shaft axis.
wave height and period of encounter being recorded by means of a capacitance probe in conjunction with a frequency-modulated unit and pen recorder. The results of these experiments are shown in fig. 483 to 488. The sustained ship speeds given in fig. 483 have been determined for the condition at
given by Gerritsma (1957), the
when
r.p.m. of propeller S.137 designed to absorb 1,450 trawling at 4 knots, are 254 and 256 with the
DHP
bow and conventional form respectively. The corresponding pulls available for towing the trawl at 4 knots are 14.2 tons and 13.9 tons, giving an increased pull in favour of the bulbous bow trawler of some 2 per cent. The corresponding differences in pull, power and
bulbous
propeller revolutions for propeller S.I 20 designed for free-running conditions, are unimportant. The wake fractions and thrust deduction fractions for
trawling conditions are shown in fig. 482, and have been evaluated according to the principle of thrust identity. The main features of this presentation axe the marked increases in thrust deduction fraction which occur at low propeller r.p.m. The small benefit in favour of the bulbous bow form with propeller S.137 already referred
[450]
SEAKINDLINESS
ABOVE
J9T0cr
of tuning factor on pitch for bulbous bow form
BLOW
Fig. 495.
Effect
of tuning factor on heave for bulbous bow form
ABOVE RIGHT
Fig. 486.
J^ffkct
of tuning factor on pitch for conventional form
BBLOW RIGHT
Fig. 497. Effifct
of tuning factor on heave for conventional form
to rvNNto
MOO**
[451]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
form. The free-running speed range of these vessels is about 12 to 14} knots and the disadvantage of the bulbous bow form at the lower speeds is therefore relatively unimportant, since when trawling the normal motion of these vessels is usually damped by the restraining forces in the trawl warps. The non-dimensional pitch and heave amplitudes and phase angles may be compared by referring to fig. 484 to 488 in various wave conditions. Table 117 shows the ranges of wave length and ship speed in which the bulbous bow form is superior to the
conventional trawler form.
_
Fig. 488.
__
_
tingles
030
forms
comparison of performance of these two rough water may therefore be regarded as showing an advantage in favour of the bulbous bow form
The
overall
in
Phase
of conventional and bulbous bow forms
for all
than
The
which the mean model resistance in waves is the same as that required to tow the bulbous bow model in calm water at speeds corresponding to 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 knots respectively. It can be seen from fig. 483 that the loss of speed in all wave lengths covered by these experiments is less for the bulbous bow form at all speeds above 10 knots, below this speed it is greater than that of the conventional
wave lengths in the range of ship speed greater 10 knots (V/x/LBP-0.75 or v/VgLBPÔ.223). effects of the bulb and re-designed forebody on the
and heave amplitudes are contradictory in some show a benefit
pitch
cases, but in the free-running conditions in sustained ship speed.
Acknowledgments
The work described above has been carried out as part of the research programme of NPL, and this paper is published by
permission of the Director of the Laboratory.
[452]
TESTS OF FISHING BOAT MODELS IN WAVES

by
KANAME TANIGUCHI
in regular
Self-propulsion tests on models of a tuna longliner and a fisheries training boat of approximately 370 gross tons were carried out waves at the Nagasaki Experimental Tank in 1955,
It was found that ship motions in waves are in proportion to the wave height, and the thrust increase is in proportion to the square of the wave height. This shows, experimentally, that, for practical purposes, the problem in waves can be treated on the assumption of linearity.
For the
hull
forms
tested, the thrust increase in
waves
is
determined chiefly by the tuning factor for pitching and by the ratio of wave
still
length to ship's length, but depends very little on heaving and ship speed. The mean wake in the self-propelled condition can be presumed to be the same as in
water and the relative rotative efficiency can be
regarded as unity. The effects of the variation of the

increase.
Of the
Rolling was
bow section form are not very noticeable. The magnitude of pitching is contrary to that of thrust three hull forms tested, that having a large flaring and a sharp entrance of the waterline is the most scakindly. most violent when the waves approached the hull forms tested from 15 abaft the beam (75 from the stern).
ESSA1S
En
d'environ 370
tx. j.b.,
AU
BASS1N DE MODELES DE NAV1RES
DE PECHE, DANS LES VAGUES
des essais d'auto-propulsion avec des modeles d'un palangrier-thonicr servant a I'entraincmcnt des pecheurs* dans des vagues rtgulieres au Bassin Experimental de Nagasaki. On a trouve que les mouvements du navire dans les vagues sont proportionnels a la hauteur des vagues et que {'augmentation de resistance est proportionnelle au carre* de la hauteur de vagues. Cela montre exptrimentalement que, pour des buts pratiques, te probleme dans les vagues peut 6tre trait sur la base de relation lineaire. Pour les formes de coque essayees, 1'augmentation de resistance dans les vagues est determines principalement par le facteur de resonance du tangage et par le rapport de la longueur des vagues a la longueur du navire, rnais tres peu par la levee et la vitesse du navire. On peut presumer que le sillage moyen en auto-propulsion est le meme qu'en eau calme, et le rendement de carene peut fctre considere
1955 on a effectu
commc
Les
unite.
de la variation de la forme de 1'avant ne sont pas tres importants. L'ordre de I'amplitude du tangage est inverse par rapport a 1'augmentation de la resistance. Des trois formes de coque essayees, celte ayant un grand divers et des facons de 1'avant aiguts a la flottaison a la meilleure tenue a la mer. Le roults etait le plus violent quand les vagues arrivaient sur les formes de coques essayees en faisant un angle de 15 sur Parriere par
effects
rapport au maftre-couple (sous un angle de 75 par rapport a Larriere).
ENSAYOS EN ESTANQUES DE MODELOS DE PESQUEROS, EN LAS OLAS

ae
En 1955 se efectuaron ensayos de autopropulsi6n con modelos de un atuenero palangrero de unas 370 tons brutas, que tambien emplcaba para la capacitatidn de personal. Los ensayos serealizaron con olas regulares en el estanque experimental de Nagasaki. Se observ6 que los movimientos del barco en las olas son proporcionales a la altura de estas y que la resistencia aumenta proporcionalmente al cuadrado de su ahura. Esto demuestra experimentalmente que, para los fines practices, el probtema en las olas. puede tratarse basandose en la relaci6n linear. Para las formas de casco ensayadas el aumcnto de resistencia en las olas lo determina principalmente el factor de resonanda para elcabeceo y la relaci6n longitud de la ola cslora del barco, pero muy poco per las viradas y la vetocidad del barco. Se puede suponer que la estela media en la autopropulsi6n es la misma que en agua tranquilia y el rendimiento de catena puede
oonsiderarse
unidad. hnportantes los efectos de la variacidn de la forma de la proa. El orden de amplitud del cabeceo es inverso al aumcnto de la mktenck. De las tres formas de casco ensayadas la mas marinera fue la que tenfia un abanico muy fuerte y una entrada muy
como
No son muy
aguda en
la flotacion.
El balanceo era
mas
violento
cuando
las olas llegaban
las
formas de easeos ensayadas en angulo de 15
a popa de la cuadfa*
(tnguto de popa de 75).
[453]

and rolling tests were made, in regular waves, with models of a tuna longliner and SELF-PROPULSION fisheries training boat of approximately 370 GT. Four wave heights were used, the maximum being
0.072
SEA BEHAVIOUR
accurate values of heaving and pitching periods, because of the large damping forces in these motions.
electric resistance recorder,
LBP
relation
in order to test the validity of the linear between wave height and both ship motions and
resistance increase*
In the
tests,
thrust increase
was
and heights were measured by an which was fixed to the towing carriage at the forward quarter of the model. The actual wave length was determined by the period of encounter and the absolute speed. The value thus determined
lengths
0.3 per cent, throughout hundreds of measurements from that calculated on the basis of water level, amplitude and period of the wave-maker. The values of wave height, however, showed a variation of 2 per cent. The values obtained from the wave about recorder were used in analysing the results of the tests;
differed less than
Wave
actually measured. However, for the sake of simplicity the words "resistance increase" are sometimes used in 99 this paper instead of "thrust increase
.
Three pitching periods were chosen in testing the and pitching and heaving in waves. The relations between bow shape and seagoing qualities in waves were tested, one model with a Maier like bow form, and the other with a sharper waterline and a much increased flare. Investigations confirmed
relation between thrust increase
the
wave
profile
was regarded as a
sine curve.
Thrust, torque, propeller r.p.m. etc. were measured by the Mitsubishi inductance type self-propulsion dynamo-
performance in waves, the characteristics in smooth water can be used. So the results were analysed to find out the wake fraction factor and
that, for the propeller
relative rotative efficiency.
The forced rolling angle was measured in regular waves

approaching from six different directions while keeping forward speeds at zero. It is thought that the results of this investigation will be of value in both the study of fishing boats and of general ship form.
Methods and apparatus used
in the
experiments
carried out in the larger tank, 41.01 ft. (12.5 m.) wide and 21.32 ft. (6.5 m.) deep of the Mitsubishi Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd.
The experiments were
meter (Taniguchi and Watanabe, 1956). The vertical accelerations of the bow and the stern and the longitudinal acceleration of the centre of gravity were measured by a strain gauge accelerometer and a penoscillograph. Pitching and rolling angles were measured by a small gyro-recorder with an inductance pick-up and by a penoscillograph. The natural period of the small gyrorecorder used as a pendulum was about 30 sec. Seaworthiness and ship motions in waves were recorded by a 16 mm. cine camera. The sequence of tests was as follows: The wave maker was started and, when regular waves almost covered the whole length of the tank, the towing carriage was started. The model ran at the proper propeller speed, the towing
carriage speed being adjusted to
its
mean speed. Necessary
(Allan, 1957).
The
ship models (scale
Vw) were made
of wood and lacquered, and equipped with bilge keels, rudder and fenders (starboard only). To simulate actual conditions as much as possible, the fore parts of the models fo'cste, upper deck, bulwarks, hatches of fish holds, etc. were similar in construction to those of the actual ship. Masts of steel pipe, 0.6 in. (16 mm.) diam. were set up at the bow and the stern as guides. To prevent the models from drifting, these masts were put between two piano wires fixed to the towing carriage. Ballast was adjusted to ensure that motions in full load conditions were similar to those of an actual ship. Displacement and trim were adjusted to a pre-determined value, and the height of the centre of gravity was checked by inclination
measurements were recorded during the adjustment run of about 160 to 260 ft. (50 to 80 m.). Electric wires connecting the model to the towing carriage were made as flexible as possible and arranged so as to have no influence on the motions of the model. Fig. 489 shows the three hull forms. Table 118 gives the particulars. The after bodies of these models have
the
same form.
Confirmation of linearity
On the assumption that ship motions in regular waves can be expressed by linear differential equations of the second order, ship motions and resistance (thrust) increase in waves are given in the following equations.
Heaving: Z/h*=f(Az x/L, v/VgL) Pitching: v/v m =f(Ap, x/Lf v/VgL) Thrust increase: AT/^gBh^Â, x/L, v/\/gE)
,
.
was re-arranged so that the rolling and would be equal to the pre-determined values, giving the model a rolling or a pitching motion of t>mall amplitude in smooth water. Table 118 shows the test conditions of the models and of the
test.
The
ballast
the pitching periods
(1)
(2)
.
(3)
corresponding actual ship, but the value of the pitching period shown is the mean period of free pitching caused by pushing the bow or the stern of the model downward, so the effects of heaving may be included in these values.
Heaving periods were calculated from the difference between the heaving period obtained by pushing the bow downward and that obtained by pushing the stern downward, thus a high degree of accuracy cannot be assured. As a matter of fact, it is difficult to obtain
For the tuning factor in the equation (3), both and A, should generally be considered, but it was found that only Ap has to be considered in this case. To confirm the validity of this linearity, the parent model No. 1234 was tested in four wave heights between 3.94 and 11.8 in. (10 and 30 cm.). On the assumption that thrust increase is proportional to the square of wave height hw the values of thrust increase thus obtained were recalculated for hw=7,87 in. (20 cm.). In fig. 490,
Ap
these recalculated values are plotted against the tuning
(454]
SEAKINDLINESS
ratio
JAPANESE WAVE TESTS

The assumption of
extreme condition.
Influence of pitching and heaving on thrust increase (3) can be re- written asjpllows:
factor for pitching, using the wave length/ship length and speed as the parameters. The results for wave
length of the fore part of the bottom could be seen. linearity holds good in such an
heights of 4.33 to 11,42 in. (11 to 29 cm.) are in good agreement with the results for the wave height of 7.87 in.
(20 cm.), hence it is confirmed that the assumption of linearity holds good for practical use.
The equation
t
wave heights were analysed and plotted as shown in fig. 491 The plotted points fluctuated considerably, chiefly due
Pitching angles for various
(2)
AK = AT//>gBh;=f, (Ap, x/L, v/VgL)-f

.
by using the equation
to the inaccuracy of the pitching angle measurement; systematic errors could not be found. So the assumption
of linearity is valid in this case, too. At a wave height of 1.42 in. (29 cm.), the ship motions
1
became so
synchronism as shown in the photograph of fig. 492 that the water splashed over the fo'csle deck and fell on the deck when the bow was submerged. When the bow emerged, a considerable
violent, especially at
f.(A z ,x/L,v/VgL) (3') which of ft and f, in the equation (3') has the greater influence, the parent model, No. 1234, was tested for three pitching periods, based on a period of an actual ship, and 20 per cent, larger and smaller. The increase thrust AK ~ AT/pgBh^, were coefficients, calculated from these tests and plotted against A p in fig. 493. It can be seen that AK is influenced by A p and
.
.
To
see
>./L
only, independent of pitching period, when neglecting the small differences near 10 to II knots, which is also
TABLE 118
Particulars of models
Ship
Parent model
V-section
M.I 234
how M.I 235
Flaring h
>
M.I 236
LBPxB :D
L
ft.
132.7
<
m.
ft.
40.45
24.61 7.50
12.47 3.80
13.93
4.045
13.27 2.461 1.247 0.75 16 inc. skin .: 0.380

13.79 13.92
4.243:;
139.3
m.
ft.
42.456
10.15
in.
4.2456
4.2062
12.22 310.5
m.
Displacement including appe adages, v
(naked)
ton
3.095
mm.
kg.
12.18 309.5
12.15 308.5
680.08
663.5
663.2
663.8
0.7018
ft.
0.7018
in.
0.6993
5.984 152
0.70<k
5.984 152
Trim,
aft
4.986
1.52
m.
Distance from water line to
mm.
5.984 152
G
.
in.
mm.
7.716 196
0.7716
19.6
0.8268
21.0
0.7323
18.6
LCB
from FP
in
% of LBP
52.777
ft.
52.777
in.
53.015
6.913 175.6
54.43
14.68
52.604
6.838
173.7
5
LCB above
base line (KB)
m.
5.741 1.75
mm.
6.889 175
54.63
LCF
from
FP
in
% of LBP
54.63
ft.
Transverse mctacentre above base
linc(KMt)
line
Longitudinal metacentre above base
(KMO
.... ....
(CM)
. .
m.
ft.
12.14 3.701
167.3
in,
mm.
14.57 370.1
372.8
16.96 5.171
14.44 366.8
16.34
16.73
m.
in.
50,99
31.57
5.099
3.157 80.2
1.03
4.982
3.027 76.9
1.23
Metacentric height
mm.
sec.
802
3.89 6.24
4.3
3.279 83.3
1.23
Natural pitching period T p Natural rolling period Tr Natural heaving period Tr
sec.
1.23 1.49 1.973
1.956
2.099
sec.
~1.36
5.512
1.68
Appendages:
bilge keels, length x depth rudder trea/LBP.T
.
.
m xmm.
.
ftxin.
55.12x9.842
16.8
x250
0.9842 25
1/31.66
1/31.46
Main engine
(dieael)
650BHPx320r.p.m.
6.299x4.035 1.92 x 1.23
in.
Propeller, diam.
x pitch
ft.
7.559x4.849
192
'
m.
mm.
123
BE
[455]
- SEA BEHAVIOUR
Fig. 489.
design of a tuna longlfner
and
training vessel
was tested with three
different
bows
found in fig. 491. Iff* (as above) in the equation (3') is considerably greater than fj (as above) synchronism
must appear
at
A P =TP/TZ when A z ~l,
i.e.
Te ~T z
1.36 sec., the peaks must appear at A p =0.757, 0.904 and 1.095 corresponding to T p =1.03, 1.23 and
As
Tz
is
1.49
sec.,
x/L=1.4 and
There are small respectively. 1.49 1.7 corresponding to p
T =
"peaks" at
and
1.23 sec.
respectively, but these are not large enough to be taken
Therefore, it is assumed from this experiment, f (as above) is much smaller than fi (as above), and, judging from fig. 493, the effect of v/ VgL is not great, so that for rough calculations (3') may be 1 taken as: AK t =AT/pgBh fi'(A p ,x/L).
into consideration.
Finally,
it is
this test, thrust increase is
concluded that, for the hull form used in mostly determined by the
tuning factor for pitching and the wave length to ship length ratio, and is not much influenced by heaving and
Cu.
00
iw
ship speed.
Fig. 491. Affect
of tuning factor on pitch
in regular
waves
IP
Wake fraction
The
and relative rotative
efficiency in
waves
AT
characteristics of a propeller in waves, at a constant
advance speed and r.p.m., can be regarded as quasi-steady when coc/2U has such a low value as in the propulsion of a ship in waves ('--0.02). Therefore, it is assumed from the aerofoil theory for non-uniform motion, that the mean characteristics in waves are identical with those in smooth water, as confirmed by experiment, and the
effective
wake
factor,
relative rotative efficiency,
etc.
were obtained from the thrust, the torque, the number of revolutions and the mean advance speed in waves using the open characteristics in calm water.
Fig. 490. Effect
+
o
of timing factor on thrust increase in regular waves on parent model, No. 1234, T P **L23 sec. Original test 7.87 in. (20 cm.) wave height Recalculated from 9.68 in. (24.6 cm.) wave height 4.33 in. (11. Ocm.) wave height M 11.42 in. (29.0 cm.) wave height
Fig. 494 shows the results of an analysis of about 200 self-propulsion tests on the parent model, No. 1234. The values of relative rotative efficiency are distributed in a
narrow zone in the neighbourhood of unity; none of them passes over the 1.00 0.08 lines and most of them lie between 1.01 5 0.03 5, They should be regarded as
[456]
SEAKINDLINESS
JAPANESE WAVE TESTS
Fig. 492. Parent model,
M-1234, at synchronism
close to unity rather than to the curve of the smooth water tests. The mean flow behind the ship in waves resembles the flow in open- water condition, because it is
used in dealing with ship motions,
if
the energy spectrum
of waves
is
given (Taniguchi and lizuka, 1958).
disturbed when the ship pitches.
The
values of the
lying near the
wake fraction can be considered as smooth water values, except in the low
the speed
is
speed range.
When
values are distributed in a zone
over 7 knots, most 0.05 from the smooth
water values. For the lower speed range, the scattered is not distribution of the wake fraction (Taylor), w considered to be due to the inaccuracy of measurement, because the values of relative rotative efficiency, T? r are not scattered. Considering that the ship speed is nearly equal to the orbital velocity of waves, the difference could be explained that the relation between the mean ship's speed and the relative velocity near the propeller varies to a large extent.
t,
bow section form No. 1234 was the parent model; the forebody of No. 1235 had a V-shape, like a Maier form, and that of No. 1236 had an increased flare with a sharp entrance at the The aft bodies of all three vessels were waterline. unchanged. The comparison of the pitching angles is presented in fig. 495, and that of the thrust increase coefficients in fig. 496. The difference due to the bow is not so remarkable as is expected. The conclusion is that
Effects of
thrust in
Thrust increase in waves amounts to 15 times the smooth water in a range of low ship's speed. No relationship is seen between this thrust increase and the scattered values of w and q r
t
.
the foregoing practical purposes, that
From
it
may
t
in
be concluded, for all waves is the same as in
smooth water and
^ is unity.
This conclusion simplifies
the analysis in waves, and, if the propeller characteristics in smooth water and the thrust increase coefficient curves as shown in fig. 493 are known, the power and the
number of revolutions in any given regular waves can be easily estimated For irregular waves, mean thrust or mean power increase can be estimated by the method
[457
J
Fig. 493,
Thrust Increase coefficient In ngular waves (M-1234)
FISHING BOATS OF TH
WORLD:
SEA BEHAVIOUR
OA
:M
v.
*4eitttioitt
r.
494.
Wake fraction and relative
rotative efficiency in regular waves
(M-1234)
was allowed to drift freely with the waves. Fig. 497 shows the synchronous rolling angle due to the waves coming from each direction. Judging from this figure, rolling is most violent when the waves approach the abaft the beam (75 from the stern). hull from 15 The broken line in fig. 497 shows the values when the centre of gravity was lowered by 0.72 in. (18.2 mm.). As many fishing boats are overturned by waves from abaft the beam, there is a need, as this result indicates, to investigate the problem further.
ship
95.
Comparison ofpitching amplitude where differences

sections have only small effect
in
bow
the
bow docs
not have
in
much
influence
mance of a ship
head
seas.
The
on the perforsmallest pitching
angles correspond to the largest thrust increases.
No bow
had both small pitching angles and thrust increases. If one of the three bows is to be chosen, the sharper of model No. 1236 is considered best.
Be to the wares coming from any direction
Rolling tests are usually made with waves from abeam, but this does not ensure that the rolling angle reaches
maximum. The
out.
following tests were, therefore, carried

set to
The model was
meet waves from several
direci
being kept constant at 6. The angle between the ship and the waves was kept constant, the
tions, the wave slope
[
w*
ftf.496. Comparison of thrust increase coefficients
458]
SEAKINDLINESS
CmcluskNM
Ship motions
JAPANESE WAVE TESTS
in waves are in proportion to the wave and the thrust increase is in proportion to the square of wave height. For all practical purposes the problem in waves can be treated on the assumption
height
of linearity.
For the hull forms waves is determined

pitching but very
tested,
the thrust increase in
chiefly
by the tuning factor for
wave length/ship length ratio, little by heaving and ship speed The mean wake fraction in waves can be assumed to be the same as in still water, and the relative rotative
the
and by
can be regarded as unity The effects of the variation of the bow are not very noticeable. The magnitude of pitching is contrary to that of thrust increase. Of the three bows tested, that having a flare and a sharp entrance at the
efficiency
waterline
is
the
most seakindly
violent
Rolling
hull
is
most
when
the waves approach the
10
Fig. 497.
forms tested from 15 C 75 from the stern).
abaft the
beam
(that
is
Relationship between direction of waves angle of roll. M-1234. Wave slope
=6
and maximum
[459]
COMMENTS ON HULL DESIGN OF FISHING BOATS

by
H.
I.
CHAPELLE
For over 200 years the accepted approach to almost all problems in ship design has been through mathematics, and this has established in the minds of designers that apparent facts are less acceptable than a mathematical formula. The trouble in the mathematical analysis up till now has been that there were many qualities that could not be measured, and the mathematical treatment had to be supported by approximations and assumptions which resulted sometimes in over-simplification, as in the case of resistance. There are also certain forces not readily duplicated in model tests and trials, and which therefore naturally have not been explored, as in the case of seaktndliness. The intention is not to devaluate the mathematical approach, but to focus attention on the possibility that the optimum hull form for fishing boats could be a Held for scientific study similar to that which the hull form of large ships has received. Too often fishing boat designers use ruie-of-thumb, "art" and personal opinion, without much aid from mathematics or comparative and realistic model testing in fact without veil-formulated theories.
COMMENTAIRES SUR LA FORME DE COQUE DES NAV1RES DE PECHE

Depuis plus de 200 ans, il est admis d'employer les mathematiques pour resoudre presque tous les problemes se presentant dans le dessin des navires, et cela a mis dans 1'esprit des architectes navaJs que des faits apparents sont moins acceptable qu'une formulc mathcmatique. Jusqu'a present, 1'ennui dans Paralyse mathcmatique a 6t6 que beaucoup de qualites ne ppuvaient pas dtre mesurees, et le traitemem mathcmatique devait 6tre appuyl sur des approximations et des suppositions qui amenaient parfois a une simplification trop grandc, comme
dans
le
cas de la resistance.
II existe aussi certaines forces qui ne sont pas reproduites facilement dans les essais de modules et les essais r&ls, et qui, ainsi, n'ont pas cti explorers, comme dans le cas de la tenue a la mer. L'intention n'est pas de devaJuer la m&hode mathcmatique mais de concent re r Fattcntion sur le fait que la forme optimum de coque pour les navires de peche pourrait constituer un domaine pour une etude sclent ifiquc similaire a celle dont la forme de coque des grands navires a fait 1'objet. Ceux qui dessinent des navires de peche actuellement utilisent trop Tempirisme, *Tart" et leurs opinions personnel les sans s'aider beaucoup des mathematiques ou d'essais de modeles compares et realistes en fait, sans des theories bien formulees.
COMENTARTOS SOBRE LA FORMA DEL CASCO DE BARCOS DE PESCA

de
Desde hace mas de 200 aftos ha sido normal enfocar casi todos los problcmas de la construcci6n de barcos desde el punto de vista matematicas, lo que ha creado entre los proyectistas la impresibn de que las realidades apa rentes son menos aceptables que las formulas matematicas. Hasta ahora la dificultad encontrada por el analisis matematico es que hay muchos factores que no se pueden medir, por lo que el tratamiento matcm&tico ha tenido que apovarse en la aproximaci6n y la suposicion, con el rcsultado de que en ocasiones ha habido una excesiva simplificaci6n? corno en el caso de la resistencia. Existen tambien ciertas fuerzas muy dificiles de repetir en los ensayos y pruebas de modelo que no se han explorado, como en el case de la navegabilidad. No se trata de restarle me>itos al enfoque matematico, sino de destacar la posibilidad de que la forma 6ptima de los cascos de los pesquerps podria ser un terreno para la investigacibn cientlfica analogo al que presenta la forma de los cascos de los barcos mayorcs. Los proyectistas de barcos de pesca recurren en demasia al empirismo, el "arte" y la opini6n personal sin buscar la ayuda de las matematicas o de los ensayos de modelos comparativos realistas, en fin, sin teorlas bien formuladas.
las
FOR
in the
over 200 years the accepted approach to almost problems in boat and ship design has been through mathematics. This has seemed to be the
all
certain facts concerning this approach stated. The basic one is that there are
data of problems in design have been accumulated, might well be
many
qualities
is
method by which the greatest precision in results might be obtained. So firmly has this approach been established
minds of investigators that statements of apparent
fact, with the necessary qualifications, are less acceptable than a mathematical formula. Nevertheless, there are areas where statements of apparent fact are more effective than any attempt at numerical valuation. Now that a great deal of mathematical investigation
that have not been

sufficient reasons,
measured
precisely, for
good and
and so
the mathematical attack
supported by
that are far
many approximations and assumptions
from precise. This has been the case in the long study of resistance, for example. The difficulties in measuring with precision the various factors making up hull resistance are too well known to all concerned with ship and boat design to require enumeration here.
[460]
SEAKINDLINESS
COMMENTS ON HULL DESIGN

hull requirements and the taste of the observer, or upon the artistic sense of the designer. In regard to the comments that follow, it is necessary first to state that each of these is an opinion. They are offered to start discussion and, if possible, to raise
The chief difficulty in placing precise numerical values on hull design elements is that few of these are unaffected,
Thus, the numerical be based on an oversimplification of a problem. This produces an unsatisfactory result when the numerical value is applied in practical design, in which overlapping effects actually exist. This is one of the reasons for the difficulties in resistance measurements. Another difficulty is that there are certain elements in the design problem that are the result of forces not readily duplicated in test conditions and which therefore are not well explored to date. The establishment of useful seakindliness factors in design seems to be an example of this. Resistance and seakindliness are such important elements that success in design depends to a very great degree upon how well they are understood. If there is the slightest doubt as to the accuracy of the mathematical attack on these problems, it is necessary that some other approach be accepted for investigation.
individually, by other elements.
valuation
may
questions that should be answered by testing of competitive models and full-size craft. The opinions are based on a long study of successful designs and upon practical experience, but without the opportunity for measured model tests. Hence they are no more than hypotheses
and must be considered as such for the present. Having determined, in the usual manner, the prismatic proposed in a design, its possible effects on the hull form
can be considered.
There seems to be a very strong
possibility that the value of the prismatic is affected, so far as a precise indication of resistance is concerned, by the
hull proportions intended or required in a design.
RESISTANCE
That there are doubts as to the precision of certain mathematical approaches can be illustrated. For example
the widespread reliance upon the prismatic coefficient as a practical guide to the value of resistance at the hull design stage might be referred to. The extreme view has, repeatedly been expressed that this single coefficient is for practical purposes, sufficient indication of the resistance factor in a design. However, model tests and actual trials have shown that for a given prismatic there
Length-depth ratio Length-depth ratio seems particularly important. In a deep hull, such as that of an American wooden trawler, the length-depth ratio affects the steepness of the run and the camber of the bow and buttock lines. Simply stated, the proposition here is that the amount of camber in the buttock and bow lines has a definite relation to
wave-making; the greater the camber, the greater the resistance in the higher speed-length ratios. Such a hull
form, particularly with a large midship section, produces great camber when designed to a low prismatic; we have here a partial explanation of the apparent rise in optimum
prismatic value for fast boats. The effect of wavemaking caused in the very deep, fine-ended hull has been stated by Traung (1948) for fishing craft and Roach (1954) for tugs. On the other hand, a length-depth ratio that appears
be quite a variation in actual resistance (Nevitt, 1956). It is usual to excuse this failure of prismatic coefficient by reference to "good or poor" hull design. How, then, can we attain knowledge of "good or poor" hull design so that we may have greater precision in
may
Certainly, recognize that the prismatic coefficient is very useful but we must also accept the fact that the use of the optimum prismatic does not necesall
results?
we
or moderate camber and such a model can usually be driven without excessive wave-making at high speed-length ratios. However, the optimum prismatic
in
a shoal-bodied hull produces
little
in the buttock
and bow
lines
sarily produce a hull design of the lowest resistance for this given prismatic range. It seems apparent that small
prismatic variation
is
not indicative of a measurable

this particular
be high. This will normally result if a deliberate attempt is made to reduce buttock and bow line camber to a practical minimum, particularly at the stern. The
may
difference in resistance in all cases.
The drawing-board attack upon

has not been a popular one
investigator
problem
among
theorists.
One
a fast power-boat, becomes immersed in this case; therefore, the higher optimum prismatic becomes the logical result. It should be noted that the general
latter, in
went so
in
manipulation
influence
lines
far as to express doubt that any the lines drawing had appreciable
assumption that fixed values of the prismatic are indications of suitability for certain speed-length ratios is thus brought into doubt, unless it is first determined that the
hull proportions are in keeping with the prismatic.
*
on resistance; another thought a successful plan was firmly established by a few calculations on the back of an envelope. Few, if any, practical designers would accept such extreme views. However, it is fair to say that analysis of the lines plan, in basic design, is Indeed, it has been rare to see relatively neglected. anything in print on this particular subject. This field is that usually referred to as the "art" of design. The author considers this to be true only so long as the hull
factors.
not examined as such, independent of other Art should be a matter of beauty; a good hull form may or may not be "beautiful", depending upon
is
form
Length-beam ratio The length-beam ratio may also have a bearing on hull form design. One method of obtaining a desired prismatic is to employ relatively great beam, combined with fine entrance and run. Here again, objectionable wavemaking resistance may result. In a beamy fishing boat hull, the entrance angle may prove excessive; if a hollow entrance is used, objectionable shoulders may appear a little forward of the midship section which will create
[461]

in the higher speed-length entrance is not abnormally long. In the wide shoal-bodied hull, the run can usually be formed with slight camber in the buttocks, but the midsection shape and the beam may sometimes produce heavy quarters, with excessive fullness in the waterline below,
SEA BEHAVIOUR
wave-making
resistance
ratios, that is if the
which create marked quarter waves in some instances, though this can usually be readily corrected by small changes in the aftermost sections or in the stern form. This matter arises most often when the displacement is
relatively heavy.
drawing established by Dixon Kemp (1875) seems very and rapid. With the hull proportions established and the position and shape of the midship section known, the profile of the hull and half-breadth of deck are drawn. Next, the midship section form is designed. Then, in the half-breadth elevation, the shape of the forebody waterline is arbitrarily decided. In the
convenient
sheer elevation, the quarter beam buttock profile is also arbitrarily established. The rabbet elevation and half-
Proportions are often imposed upon the designer by

practical requirements of service. restrictions on form and prismatic
Hence the inherent
may
not always be
altered
With unsuitable proportions for high speed, neither optimum prismatic nor manipulation of form can produce the most efficient model for any appropriate speed-length ratio. This is a
on grounds of
low-resistance.
fact
breadth are next drawn on sheer and half-breadth plans. Thus, for all sections in fore and afterbody, three control points are established through which each section outline must pass. These sections are sketched in with due regard to the form characteristics the designer has in view. At this stage, preliminary calculations of sufficient precision to establish control are possible before much labour is
expended in
fairing
up the lines.
If the calculations, or the
too often overlooked
in
prophesies of the speed of

at least,
future fishing boats, of
some types
where
hull
proportions cannot be changed very much.
examination of the sketched-in sections, do not produce the desired results, the designer can correct his control lines or manipulate the forms of the sketched sections, without wasted time and effort in useless drawing.
Midship section
the midship section is also a matter for careful consideration in design, although the size of the
The form of
Shape of stern These are only the

design.
initial
considerations in hull form
midship section
requirements.
may
be fairly well fixed by service
selection of the suitable shapes for control lines requires some comment. Take the sheer elevation
:
The
Generally speaking, the length-depth ratio should have a considerable influence on midship section form. Where the speed is to be high for a given length-depth ratio, the use of deadrise, or deadrise-andhollow-garboards, is indicated: such a form makes relatively low-cambered buttocks and bow lines possible. In deep fishing boat hulls, deadrise in the midship section is thus vital if a very low-resistant form is desired. The necessary displacement can be retained by the judicious addition of beam in design, this is the most practical dimension to be varied without running foul of service or cost limitations. The position of the midship section in the waterline length is another factor of importance. Obviously, its position as well as its form and area may impose limitations on the length of run and the rise of the buttocks there; which is a matter of great concern, particularly in deep-bodied hulls requiring low resistance or
;
the
form chosen
for the stern will
have much influence
on the shape of the afterbody. The "lifeboat" stern is generally unfitted for motor craft of high speed-length ratios, for the propeller cannot be so well "hooded", in the extreme afterbody, that air is not drawn in to the
Likewise, this stern will usually a run of the buttocks to permit any too round produce but a low speed-length ratio. The advantages of the canoe, or "cruiser" stern, over the counter of the tugboat "fantail" have been the subject for discussion in the
propeller at speed.
past, and opinion is that the canoe stern is the better for the higher speed-length ratios. This is probably true
only because the canoe or cruiser stern, properly formed, allows the buttocks to be shaped with less camber as the stern is approached, compared with the usual high-
high propulsive efficiency. Tugs and trawlers are examples. Likewise, the position of the midship section not only establishes the length of entrance but also, td a marked degree, the angle of entrance. This, of course, becomes most critical in a wide hull with a large midship section. The area of the midship section and its position, combined with the half-breadth form of the sheer or deck line, may restrict freedom in the design of the ends, in wide hulls particularly. The location of the midship section is not always the optimum, for weight distribution may control its position. Before proceeding with the discussion of the details and analysis of hull form, the method employed to design to pre-determined hull form characteristics should be described. In general, the method of beginning a lines
tucked counter, or the round "fantail" of the tug and of some U.S. trawlers. The advantage of the cruiser stern would certainly be lost to some extent if compared with transom stern craft, which can have a longer run and can keep the buttock ends low and very near to the
loadline. However, for high speed ratios, say above 1.2, the cruiser or canoe stern must be very full at deck or sheer in plan, and very flat in section, to give passable
transom "square" stern, with immersed, gives better results. Here, again, a better run for relatively high speed, such as is now expected of small fishing craft, can be had with the square transom due to the inherent buttock form that is possible with this stern form alone.
results
in general, the
bottom
slightly
The
position of the propeller is a considerable factor in the design of the stern. It seems to be generally accepted
[462]
SEAKINDLINESS

this subject;
that the wheel should be well under the boat and forward of the after extremity of the loadline. "Hooding** the
seems to have been the first writer to have considered he analyzed a number of fast English yachts
by carrying the inner buttocks out, say, to the quarter-beam, well abaft the wheel, is undoubtedly desirable in a fast boat. This matter is therefore of importance in the design of the stern form and, in planked-up stern deadwood hulls, in the form of the run inboard of the quarter-beam and must be considered
propeller,
and came to the conclusion that the quarter-beam buttock should take the form of half a parabola. In keeping with
for mathematical valuation, he proposed a mathematical construction of the buttock profile. No proof was given, however, that such construction had special advantages. The camber of the buttock is fixed,
the fashion
early in design,
Bow
profile
The bow
profile is of relatively little importance in lowresistance design, except that the rather excessive rake, or cutting away of the forefoot, may shorten the effective
length of entrance and thus increase the angle of entrance to no good purpose. The design logic of the extreme bow rake, so often seen in modern fishing boats is questionable
must intercept the must attain, to fair into the stern form. It is true that most fast boats of a given type, whether shoal or deep, show quarter- beam buttock profile characteristics that verify Kemp's report. However, the form is not a mathematical parabola, and in fact, there is much variation even in craft of comparable size and type. In general, this buttock becomes straight in profile as it goes aft; often it is dead straight
obviously, by the depth at which midship section, and the height aft
it it
both in the elements of resistance and seakindliness.

Sheer elevation It caji be seen that hull profile may limit design freedom as the hull form is developed. For that reason alone, it should be carefully considered in the early stages of hull design and not looked upon merely as a matter of appearance. Indeed, the establishment of the sheer elevation in the early stages of design should be tentative.
as
it
crosses the load line in a counter or cruiser stern
Too
often designers are inclined to establish the sheer elevation by temporarily fashionable criteria rather than by functional requirements, even in fishing craft.
are also matters for careful examination. Designers of the older generation are inclined to be influenced by sailing hull elements of design. In power boats, a short keel may produce a hull
Drag and length of keel Drag and length of keel
or is straight before it reaches a "square" stern transom. In very fast shoal hulls of the launch type, the buttocks are often straight lines for about three-quarters of the total length of the run. Hence, the assumption might be made that the faster the hull is to be, the longer the straight-line part of the quarter-beam buttock. However, no determination has yet been attempted to show the relationships between the necessary lengths of straight buttocks for various speed-length ratios, and for the Observation does related length-depth proportions. have been carried needlessly that straightness may suggest far forward, giving an exaggerated flatness of run, in some fast hulls. The use of the straight-line buttock at the extreme stern, or where it crosses the loadline, appears to produce a much less disturbed wake than when the quarter-beam buttock is a continuous curve from midship section to stern or waterline intersection in any speedhull,
that
is
unsteady on
this result.
its
helm, and cut-away ends
may
also
length ratio above
.0.
produce
Width of stern
Thickness of stern deadwood The thickness of the stern deadwood,

or sheer in the halfsufficient fullness
Commonsense treatment of the deck

breadth plan merely requires
give a pleasing
bow
section. Aft, the
forward to width of the stern is
if planked up, is apparently governed by speed-length ratio. In the lower ratios, up to about 1.0, the deadwood can be carried
quite
obviously a matter of moment, depending upon the form of stern used, and the speed-length ratio required. Fast boats, unless very long and narrow, require a fairly wide
stern, say, at least five-eighths the maximum beam; and the higher the speed-length ratio demanded, the wider the
The
full, as long as it will fair into the sternpost easily. result is that buttocks close to the hull centreline,
The maximum is reached in some planing hulls and in the so-called "double-wedge" displacement models where the stern width may exceed the midship beam at waterline at least. Such extremes are not usually desirable
stern.
inboard the quarter-beam, may take a reverse-curve profile. This is done in small trawlers to allow the engine to be placed as far aft as is possible, while retaining a good buttock at quarter-beam. In fast boats the skeg is usually thin, which, of course, is desirable for the propulsive efficiency that is then required. Towing power seems to require about the same stern design as low-resistance in
this respect.
in fishing boats.
Quarter-beam buttock
profile
With the sheer elevation and midship section tentatively established, the form of the quarter-beam buttock profile can be considered. The position of the midship section
will
The curved quarter-beam buttock, carried rounded to the stern, is not seen in very low-resistant hulls. Reverse curve in the quarter-beam buttocks is very rarely seen in such hulls and appears only when the buttock crosses the
load line straight and reverses above in the topside, as in some steamers. Reverse in the buttock, submerged, seems to have some disadvantage, so far as resistance is concerned, but may be useful in obtaining propulsive
determine the length of the run, although the stern form, of course, will also be a factor. Kemp (1875)
[463]

efficiency in
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Kemp method
of drawing
lines, the
some cases. The author has had only

it
limited
In following the
experience with this form;
camber in the profile of the buttock-bow-line is great, reverse is rarely desirable at the quarter-beam, below the leadline, so far as resistance is concerned, or where maximum tow-rope pull is
desirable.
curves, connected to form least a short distance. If the
evidently requires very gentle reverse by a straight line for at
leadline in the afterbody and the quarter-beam bow-line in the forebody are not projected until the whole body
plan
is
sketched
in, or,
at least, until the control sections
However, the designer might sketch a tentative afterbody leadline and a quarter-beam bowline to guide in the formation of the body plan, particularly when he is well acquainted with the hull form
are established.
type.
Entrance angle A good deal of study has been given to the problem of the entrance angle and to the shape of the leadline. In practical design, these matters really depend more upon the length of entrance, beam-length ratio, and the desired position of the centre of buoyancy light and loaded, than upon optimum entrance angle and free design of the leadline shape. Obviously, the entrance angle should be as small as is practical for the given length of entrance. Hollow is rarely useful for it will usually produce shoulders, even though the entrance angle can thus be reduced. Hollow below the leadline
at forefoot
is
Therefore, some comments on the form of these lines are necessary. As to the profile shape of the quarterbeam bow-line in craft of the size and speed-length
into the
the
ratios of fishing boats, the buttock aft should merge bowline in a rather long and easy sweep through
slack
midbody and continue, as the bow-line, in a rather and easy curve to the height of the loadline, above
which it may reverse somewhat, or run rakingly straight and forward to the sheer, as required by the intended flare
in
the
bow
sections.
Hard curves
in
this
bow-line,
common in low-resistant hulls, the emphasis

the forefoot
below the leadline, are unfavourable to speed in the usual size of boat under discussion. In passing, the form
of bow-line profile recommended is also favourable to a seakindly hull form. It should be emphasized that the establishment of the quarter-beam bow-line, before the body plan is sketched in, produces only a tentative form, subject to some modification as the design progresses,
particularly in final decisions as the waterline whole entrance.
on hollow depending upon how pronounced
is in the bow profile. While too large an entrance angle produces excessive bow wave, a shoulder at the end of the entrance will produce an even more objectionable wave formation in most fishing boat types. A hollow entrance should be considered only in a relatively narrow hull, say, under four beams to the length, where the entrance is longer than three-eighths the leadline length. In such a hull the shoulders can usually be worked out in fairing. Manipulation of the position of the longitudinal centre of buoyancy in the design of the entrance need not be confined to alteration of the length and fullness of the load line. It can also be accomplished by increase and decrease of keel drag at rabbet, which will allow maintenance of a selected angle of entrance in many instances.
and the
Likewise, the tentative form of the leadline in the afterbody can be run in. Only very general comment can be given on the form to be developed. In fast and shallowbodied hulls the leadline will usually hump sharply at the quarters, except in the case of most "square" transomsterned hulls, with the bottom of the transom immersed. Here the leadline may run in a gentle curve through the quarters to end abruptly and "square" at the transom edge. In heavy displacement hulls, a sharp hump in the
Loadline In fishing boats, the leadline can usually best be formed by a straight line at the forward extremity, established at the desired angle of entrance. The reason for this is that the usual available length of entrance in these craft in relation to beam is not sufficient to permit a hollow form there, without marked shoulders developing further aft in the forebody. The straightness of the leadline can often be carried well aft, without shoulders appearing, unless the beam is large. However, the establishment of the entrance characteristics of the leadline should be tentative until the possible existence of shoulders is explored. At the speeds reached by most motor fishing boats of even the higher displacement-length ratios, a minimum of shoulder seems desirable. The appearance of shoulder in the leadline, and immediately above and below it, must be guarded against. The V-bottom, with high chine forward, is a very common offender. It is quite easy to state what should be done in this instance but difficult to effect. It is here, as in the quarterbeam buttock design, that the initial effects of the hull proportions are brought home to the designer
camber,
combined with heavy butteck not usually favourable to a low resistance, and the hump should be made as moderate as the hull proportions and stern form permit, as has already been
leadline at the quarters,
is
proposed.
Of necessity, comments on the ferms of these lines cannot be extremely specific since there is an infinite variation in proportions and hull form involved. The author has rarely employed diagonals, as tentative control lines, in the initial stages of design because their form is controlled to a very great extent by their angle to the body plan centreline. However, a diagonal through the tuck-in of a planked-up stern deadwood is sometimes
revealing to the designer when the after end is correctly projected (a task some designers avoid). Extreme fullness between the last station and the stern post, in this
diagonal,
is
to be avoided.
Warp
of plane
In sketching the sections afore and abaft the midship section, prior to final fairing of the lines, it is useful to examine carefully the relation of the sections, one to
[464]
SEAKINDLINESS
another.

models can be traced more to proper treatment of the warped planes in their hull form rather than to favourable prismatics or other factors. There seems to be a field for experimentation to determine the proper warping of
these
Take that portion of the deadrise of the midship section that is a straight line and consider this as a plane. Now, this plane must be carried fore and aft.
At the stem, the plane
bends and warps as
It
it
will
be narrow and
vertical.
It
may
approaches the midship section. continue to bend and warp in the same direction,
planes
for
given
speed-length
ratios,
though
is approached, becoming horizontal or nearly so in a fast displacement launch. This constant warp can be seen in the bottom of many V-bottom launches. If a round-bottom hull section is drawn by a series of straight lines, a number of these
as the stem
probably great difficulties will arise in establishing even approximate numerical values. The warped planes idea seems to apply with particular force to chine-built hulls, whether rectangular, V-bottom
or "simplified hull form" type.
designers, models, are aware of
great
many
practising
warped planes are developed.

"simplified hull" designs, these result of section forms.
Hence, in the so-called
warped planes are the
In some designs, the deadrise plane is warped very gently to the midship section and is then carried to the stern as an unwarped plane. In other words, the run is
experience with these what has been discussed. However, these matters are rarely considered in round-bottom hull design. The warping of the planes in such a design is far less obvious than in the "simplified hull form" or
the
to
who have had much
formed with sections having the same angle of deadrise right to the stern. This is seen in some fast V-bottom launches. In one type of V-bottom hull, without forefoot, in which the chine and keel rabbet in profile meet at the heel of the stem (this type is sometimes called a
"modified sharpie"), the deadrise angle may be constant or nearly so in all sections, from stem to stern. In trawlers, and some steamers, the deadrise plane may show a double warp in the run; the deadrise plane amidships is first warped to allow increased angle of deadrise aft, and then the warp is slightly reversed well forward of the stern. Another variation is to have the deadrise plane warp toward the vertical so that the plane is first warped from the vertical forward to the deadrise amidships and then back again to the vertical in the run. Treatment of this plane, and of all planes in a simplified hull form, can be based upon a simple assumption that was once well expressed by the late Charles Nicholson, the noted British yacht designer: "Water does not like to be
hull form", as compared V-bottom, it is probably safe to say the latter has the advantage in the higher speed-length ratios, as planing speeds are approached. However, if fore and aft camber in the chines, in profile, can be brought low, the V-
V-bottom design. With respect to "simplified
bottom may compare favourably with the "simplified form" in the lower speed-length ratios. This is another matter that requires more examination than has yet been given to V-bottom hulls. It is the author's opinion, however, that water flow is controlled more by the "warped planes" than by coefficients or even by the
hull
use of chines of special form. The use of chines in round-bottom hull forms is nothing new, for chines in the afterbody were employed in many high-speed steam yachts at the turn of the century and long before chines were employed in naval
Apparently its distaste for surprise increases rapidly with the speed it moves. It is this last that makes the warp of the planes an important matter in design.
surprised".
The chines were employed at the extreme afterbody to produce the "built-in squatboards" or supporting plane areas over the propellers and abaft them to reduce squatting of a fine-lined afterbody. The use of chines in the afterbody might be useful in the design of fast fishing launches and in fishing boats
vessels of high speed.
requiring speed-length ratios above
1.3,
where rough
This is another case in which it is easy to say what should be done: the warping should be very gradual and easy, but in actual design it is often abrupt by reasons
inherent
in
the
hull
proportions.
At any
rate,
the
abruptness and direction of the warp seem to be a very important factor in the design of low-resistant fishing boat hulls. A very gentle warp, with a gradual and constant increase from bow to stern, or the maintenance of constant angle of deadrise plane for the length of the run, or even for the whole length of the hull when possible, are all favourable to low resistance. Abrupt warping, or reversing the direction of the warp in the run, seem to be unfavourable to low resistance, judging by the study of hulls of known performance. These elements are, of course, of decreasing importance as speed is lowered, but in fishing boats, where the required speed is very high, these elements may be very important
water performance is also a factor in design. In the design of this stern, the use of continuous warp from bow to stern seems to be desirable. The use of chines in the run has generally been confined to narrow hulls and little information is available on the performance of beamy
hulls with this run.
Chine form forward and round bottom
aft
has been
tried in spite of the very obvious lack of design logic in the idea. In all cases, the results were disappointing so
far as
speed was concerned
for, as
one might expect,
squatting developed. The use of increased width of the warped plane, as the stern is approached, is an obvious manipulation in highspeed hull design. This actually develops in the socalled "double-wedge" displacement hull, as well as in
indeed to successful design. The good results obtained in some simplified hull form
planing models, as a logical treatment of the run. It can often be utilized in less extreme hull forms where the it could be used possibility of squatting exists. In fact, will cause it cruiser the in slapping under stern, although
the stern in any sea.
[465]

Shape of forebody section There are other factors in hull form than the warped planes. The use of V- or U-shaped forebody sections has
received attention so far as large vessels are concerned, with relation to both resistance and rough water performance. Less attention has been given to small craft in this matter. In general, small fishing boats seem to trend toward the use of V-scctions, for with their relatively shoal forebodies the U-shape produces slamming and wetness. This will be true with the bulbous bow in small craft, but the latter is usually impractical in such boats due to their common lack of length and hollow in the entrance. There is not space here to discuss many other factors in hull form design: these are, however, of somewhat less importance, in the matter of resistance
at least.
SEA BEHAVIOUR
forefoot
is
much rounded
seakindliness
is
of no
It
is
real value insofar as
concerned.
usually justified
on
grounds of its usefulness in quick turning. However, with good drag to the keel, and a rudder of proper area, located as far aft as is practical, a hull with a rather deep and angular forefoot will steer very well. That is the
author's experience,
professional opinion.
at
least,
and contrary
to
much
Shape of forebody section Dryness in a head sea is accomplished by the design of the forebody, to give gentle pitching, without slamming or bringing up suddenly at the end of a dive, combined with a form that Suppresses spray forming. Pitch is governed
to a very great extent by weight and displacement distribution. Exclusion of weight in the ends of the hull is
the easiest solution.
SEAWORTHINESS AND SEAKINDLINESS

The effect of hull form on seaworthiness and seakindliness is very important. These qualities depend upon distribution of weight
hull proportions
dives,
it
that, as it picks up buoyancy at a gradually increasing rate.
The bow can be formed so
Such a bow requires only moderate flare; in fact, a straight-sided V-section will do. The forefoot is usually rather deep so that it does not lift out of water readily.
There
is
and displacement, combined with proper and hull form.
fullness
no advantage on deck, nor
in
in
a very hollow flare and great the streamlined or "barrel"
Length-depth ratio and length-beam ratio ft is generally true that the most seakindly fishing boats are those in which no one dimension is carried to an
extreme in relation to the others. The norm appears to be
somewhere around three
to five beams to the length, and the draught one-quarter to one-half of the beam. Also, the more seakindly boats have trim by the stern, on the
keel shoe at least, so that they draw more at the stern post than at the stem. This is an absolute requirement to prevent a tendency to broach in a following sea. No set proportions exist but the wider or more buoyant the stern form, the greater the drag of the keel bottom or
so many "modern" designs, so far concerned. Flare in topsides can often be carried far aft and makes for dryness; the amount of flare need not be great. In fact, excessive flare makes for uneasiness and a snappy roll. On the other hand, there is no advantage in tumblehome in small craft. Flaring the topsides is sometimes a working substitute for additional freeboard. Often flare and tumble-home are governed by aesthetics rather than
that
afflicts
is
bow
now
as seakindliness
really practical considerations.
skeg should be. The author has added to the drag of the skeg on some wide, "square" sterned motor cruisers and found that this stopped tendencies to broach, in spite of an unfavourable stern form. The sharp or cruiser stern has no inherent advantage over the square transom stern or the counter, so far as rough water performance is concerned. The good qualities of any stern are less a matter of inherent design qualities* The choice in fishing boat design is usually a matter of prejudice and personal opinion.
Freeboard Freeboard is governed by proportions and by requirements of use in most fishing craft. Since there are generally practical advantages in relatively low freeboard at the working positions in these boats, sheer can often be utilised to make up some deficiencies. Sheer is too often only a matter of aesthetics but it is quite important in fishing boats for dryness, as well as for range of stability. These matters pertain to hull form design and should be manipulated to the utmost.
Balance of fore and after body

Seakindliness is most common when the fore and after bodies are well balanced. very wide buoyant stern,
Bow
profile
of very limited influence on seakindliness in fishing boats. Generally, overhang bows are of little value in power boats, for in a head sea such bows throw spray. A straight, nearly upright stem, with good depth of forefoot and a fine entrance, produces a dry
profile
is
The bow
combined with a
long, sharp
and wedge-shaped bow,
creates inherently unfavourable conditions. This matter of balance is often the basis for the preference for sharp
bow.
or cruiser sterns in fishing boats. However, balance is usually a matter that can readily be obtained in ahull with both ends alike, but the advantage is not worth the speed
The
clipper profile
now
seen in
no inherent advantage, except that
many fishing boats has it may make plating
and propulsive
in
efficiency losses that are usually
produced
such a model.
In short, the balance need not be
or the bow through the flared sections a little planking easier than with the straight stem rabbet or profile.
precise to obtain practical results. It can be obtained by drawing superimposed curves of area at various angles of
[466}
SEAK1NDL1NESS
Keel

very general one, for the proper manipulation of hull shape depends upon the type of fishing boat, which is the result of service requirements and has firmly established
and investigating the movement of the centres of buoyancy. In practice, a moderate movement aft is per-
missible as heel increases.
The
static
is
sented in this check, of course,

condition.
It
condition reprenot an actual service
others
well to repeat what has often been said by that a sharp-ended hull is usually seakindly; the only qualification is that there should be no abnormalities
may be
in hull proportions. However, any fishing boat driven at high speeds for her length will be wet and uncomfortable in a sea that is heavy for her size. The apparent dryness of full-ended boats is due to the fact that they cannot be driven at relatively high speed in a seaway, and not to their **dry hull form". The steady increase in the demand for speed in fishing boats has placed many boat types in critical speed ranges, so far as comfort, workability and dryness are concerned.
proportions which usually must be adhered to in design. It is not supposed that the ideas that have been stated are totally unknown to practical designers, and the justification for stating them is to focus attention on the possibility that hull form is a field for scientific study similar to that which numerical values in hull design have received. No numerical values of real importance have been stated here, for to the author's knowledge nothing of a reliable nature is available that can be applied to hull form design in detail. There have been a few studies made on the value of hollow entrance and, of course, upon length of entrance. However, more extensive research is desirable before final acceptance of the numerical values that have been recommended. Likewise, a more extensive study of run characteristics is
Shape of stern
of the whole form of the stern on seakindliness is perhaps less than that of the whole bow. The stern form is most important in a following sea. This matter was brought up at the first FAO Fishing Boat Congress, where transom versus sharp or cruiser stern was discussed. Therefore it is only necessary to state that if a "square" transom stern is used, it should be at a good rake and not nearly vertical, or falling inboard, as in many of the Cape Island boats. A compromise between sharp stern and flat transom, that might be considered in
effect
The
Once these are well explored, the other necessary. matters involved in hull form could be more readily examined and tested. As it is now, fishing boat designers
are proceeding in hull form design by rule-of-thumb, "art" and personal opinion, without much aid from
mathematics or model
testing,
and apparently without
well formulated theory. It may be practical to relate observations of flow tests
of models to hull-form, this would make such information a most useful guide in the drawing-board stage of design.
therefore encouraging to see the increasing interest in flow-studies in the model-testing field. The necessity for manipulation in hull form is very
It is
employ the V-shaped transom, in was which once quite common in motor view, plan
instances,
is
some
to
boats. In a fishing boat, flaring quarters are generally preferable, so far as seakindliness is concerned, to tumblehome. The latter has the sole advantage of reducing
great in the range of size of most fishing craft, for only by this means can the combination of service require-
ments and of speed demand be even approximated. So

far as small craft design is concerned, there is a wealth of hull forms in existence that can be explored. The
topside
vessel.
damage when
alongside a wharf or another
Conclusion This discussion of form
is,
of course, no more than a
neglect of this seems to be due, to some extent at least, to excessive reliance upon the mathematical attack, in spite of its obvious shortcomings, in actual design.
[467]
A METHOD TO DETERMINE FREEBOARD TO STABILITY

by
IN RELATION
OLGIERD JABLONSKI
The method for determining the minimum freeboard for merchant ships is not satisfactory for fishing vessels. There is also no method to determine freeboard in relation to minimum stability. A method is proposed to analyze the varying heights of the vessel's centre of gravity (KG) in relation to the displacement, namely
height admissible, considering the requirements of certain stability criteria KG, (index ~ operation) (index height resulting from the operational conditions intersection of the two curves determines the maximum permissible displacement and, consequently, the
established
two
characteristic quantities:
The maximum The maximum
stability)
KG
The
minimum
freeboard.
Some
stability criteria refer to the

.
curve of
statical righting
arms.
graphical
method
is
proposed to determine rapidly the data
KG 8 The methods of constructing a curve of KG is also explained. diagram should be made to keep the skipper aware of the stability characteristics of his vessel. A survey of safety conditions of fishing vessels should be organized internationally. Inter-governmental agreement should be made to establish practical freeboard
necessary to construct the curve of
special
standards for fishing vessels.
UNE METHODE POUR DETERMINER LE FRANC-BORD PAR RAPPORT A LA

II
STABILITE
n'y A pas
ies
La methode de determination du franc-bord minimum pour ies navircs marchands n'est pas satisfaisante pour les navires de p&che. non plus de methode etahlie pour determiner le franc-bord par rapport & la stabilite minimum. Une methode est proposes pour analyser les hauteurs variables du centre de gravitl (KG) du navirc en relation avec le emplacement,
deux quantites caracteristiques suivantes: La hauteur maximum admissible, en tenant compte des exigences de certains criteres de stabilite KG g (indice 8 = stabilite). La hauteur maximum resultant des conditions de fonctionnemcnt KG (indice o=fonctionnement). L'intcrsection des deux courbes determine le deplacement maximum possible et, par consequent, le franc-bord minimum. Quelques criteres de stability se rapportent & la courbe des bras de redressement statique. On propose une methode graphique pour determiner capidement les donnees necessaires pour construire la courbe de KG t L'auteur explique aussi les methodes de construction d'line courbe de KG II faut faire un diagramme special pour informer le patron sur les caracteristiques de stabilite* de son navire. Une enqudte sur les conditions de securiti des navires de peche doit etrc organises sur le plan international. II faut qu'un accord intergouvernemental etablisse des normes de franc-bord pratiques pour les navires de peche.
.
a savoir
METODO PARA DETERMINAR EL FRANCOBORDO CON RELACION A LA ESTAB1LIDAD

No existe
El metodo para determinar el francobordo minimo para los barcos mercantes no da buenos resultados en un metodo establecido para determinar el francobordo con relation a una estabilidad minima.
el
caso de los pesqueros.

ies
Se propone un metodo para analizar

cartcteristicas:
las alturas variables del
centre de gravedad
(KG)
del barco
con relacidn a
dos cantidades
La ahura maxima admisible considerando las necesidades de ciertos criterios de estabilidad KG, (indice * estabilidad) La aitura maxima que resulta de las condiciones de funcionamicnto KG (indice K fundonarniento) La intersection de las dos cttrvas determina el desplazamiento maximo permisible y, por tanto, el francobordo minimo. Algunos criterios de estabilidad se refieren a la curva del momento de adrizamiento estattco. Se propone queseemplee un metodo
practice para determinar raptdamente los dates necesarios para coostruir la curva
KG*. Tambien
se explican los
metodos para construir una
Debe preparane un diagram* especial para que el patron conozca tas caracteristicas de eetablidad de su barco. Deberia hacene una encoesta international de las condiciones de seguridad de los barcos de pesca, y formularse un acuerdo mtergubernamental para fijar normas
practical
de rraacobordo para lot brcos de pesca.
[468]
STABILITY
FREEBOARD IN RELATION TO STABILITY

In analyzing the operational conditions, it is necessary to examine a series of displacement values at various kinds
distributions of loads to determine the maximum operational heights of the centre of gravity. These values are corrected for free surface effect at the different dis-
OVERLOADING
beyond the limits fixed by safety considerations is common in fishing vessels and is due to several reasons. The
and
designer finds it more and more difficult to balance the hold's capacity with the carrying capacity. The long range
of operation and more powerful engines require quantities of fuel in relation to displacement and weight capacity. For instance, small Polish vessels and salt herring as far as the North Sea. Fuel and
take
large
deadcatch water
placements. The resulting values serve to construct the curve of
KG
up about 45 per cent, of the deadweight capacity. The holds are designed to receive catches in relation to the weight of consumed fuel and water. If catches are more abundant than those assumed in the design, a
deficiency occurs in deadweight capacity. This is usually disregarded by fishermen, and often results in serious overloading. There are no effective measures to make the
KG
ft.
m.
290
10-1
-
10-0-
fishermen take proper safety considerations into account. Some countries are seriously concerned with this problem. National regulations differ and vessels under various
flags fish side
9*
98 97
9-6
265
by
side
and observe
different standards of
solution to safety problems can be expected from national regulations, and a first requirement is to carry out an international safety survey on the fishing grounds. The simplest way to establish uniform standards of loading for fishing vessels is to deter-
maximum loading. No satisfactory
9-5-
280
9-4-
mine the minimum freeboard.

Fishing vessels are little affected by the International Convention on Safety of Life at Sea, 1948, and not at all by the 1930 Loadline Convention, which is only applicable to large transport ships. It produces too low free-
93-
92
9-1
275
board for fishing boats from the stability point of view. Since the 1930 Convention many countries have introduced experimental stability regulations and scientific investigations have been carried out. Even so, it will probably take a long time before international agreements are made on stability criteria for all types of ships. There is a definite desire to establish a load line convention for fishing vessels.
9-0-
8-9-
88350
*
Daplactrrent
i 1
674
270-
'
260
Draught
300
2*61
320
2-75 2
2-50
340 360 90 2-96 3K>

9-51
360 m*Hon) 325 m.

10-66
ft.
With this possibility in mind, a method for combining freeboard standards with stability criteria is presented.
Principles of freeboard
stability criteria
820
Freeboard
856
1-06
902
IO20
117
0-92 0-77
O69 057
167
0*42 m.
1-38
ft.
384
determination on the basis of
Fig. 498.
3<*8
302
^56
In applying a stability criterion, such as that of Rahola (1939), to a ship, the problem can be considered as a question Is there a critical height of the centre of gravity
:
height of gravity considering stability and normal operational height KC for various displacements
Maximum
KG5
beyond which the minimum requirements of

cannot be
fulfilled?
stability
Taking into account the various operating draughts (T,, T,, T., . .) and displacements (V,, V if V,, . . .), the critical heights of the vessel's centre of gravity (KGi,
.
curve
can be determined and plotted on a maximum height of the centre of gravity" for a specific stability criterion. If other stability criteria were used, different curves would result and such curves could also be used to
KG,, KG,,
.)
KG.
called "the curve of
compare various
stability criteria.
This curve is called "the curve of the maximum height of the centre of gravity" from operational conditions. The intersection of the curve of maximum permitted in KGs, and the curvq of operational maxima admissible determines the maximum 498, operational fig. displacement for a given vessel and, consequently, the indicates a lower freeboard minimum freeboard. If than the minimum of the Loadline Convention, the freeboard of the Convention should be used. intersect in the region of small If curves KG, and when the vessel, light, does not meet the displacements, criteria of stability, and ballast must be added.
KG A
,
KG
[469]

Stability criteria
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Graphical method for determining the curve KG. based on curves of statical righting arms include those by the Gcrmanischer Lloyd of 1933 and by Deutsche Schiffs Revision und Klassifikation of 1 956.
It is necessary to determine for intermediary values of the displacement the maximum height of the centre of gravity (KG). The following displacement values come into consideration: V =200, 300 and 400 cu. m. (~ tons),
The Rahola system,
as applied to
may
also be included.
is
criteria
the position arms, as well as to their range. In transferring the requirements into the maximum permissible heights of the centre of gravity (KG S ) for various displacements of a given ship, the work can be
stability righting
Dutch fishing vessels, The main condition of these and value of the maximum
Graphical operations of the analyzer will be discussed only with regard to the displacement =200 cu. m.
considerably speeded up by the use of a graph, called "the radial analyser of ship's stability". The graph consists of radii as shown in fig. 499 from the point O, situated at any place on the abscissa of the cross-curve diagram for a given ship. The radii are
Fig. 500.
Transverse section defining K,
M, KMy,
etc.
250
350
MO
400 cum
("font)
From
the point
displacement
=200
1 on the auxiliary cross-curve and cu. m., a line is drawn parallel to the
Fig. 499.
Radio/ analyser of stability of ships
inclined towards the abscissa at angles of the corresponding cross-curves. Any curve of statical righting arms for a given ship can be obtained by tracing from point O an arc with a radius corresponding to the actual height of the centre of gravity.
Then
it
is
parallel to the cross-curve axis.
possible to trace horizontal auxiliary lines, The distance between
them and the corresponding

:
cross-curves, represent the intermediary values of righting arms, because each value fulfils the equation GZ (KM 9 ~KG) sin 9 (see fig. 500) Then the curve is easily drawn (see fig. 501). Choosing a simple criterion, the analyzer can be used as
GZ
follows:
(1)
abscissa, the so-called "departure course" I. Along this course and across radii R 30 c and R eo a point is reached on the vertical line of displacement, 200 cu. m., corresponding to a heel of 60. In this case, the end point 1 appears above the 60 cross-curve. This means that, with a righting arm assumed to be 7.87 in. (200 mm.), condition (2) of the stability criterion will not be fulfilled. It may be stated, therefore, that the limiting condition in this case is the range of the stability curve. The "return course" must then be drawn against the 60 radius, then by an arc down to the axis. This shows that, with 200 cu. m. displacement, the stability criteria will be kept only if the height of the centre of gravity is less than 9.74 ft. (2.97 m.). On the "return course" are the cross-curves for 40, 30 and 20. The resulting righting arm values, 40 o^
KG
GZ
GZ.S 7.87 in. (200 mm.) for 9,== 30, and

9rS60,
is
(2)
where
9t
the angle of heel at which the curve reaches

its
GZ(KM<r-KQ)tin<
peak (maximum); GZ, is the ordinate at the peak point; is the range of positive ordinates 9r According to condition (1) the diagram must be supplemented by an auxiliary cross-curve (see fig. 502) running 7.87 in. (200 mm.) lower and parallel to the 30 crosscurve.
Fig. 501.
Stability curve obtained from fig.
499
[470]
STABILITY
Explonotiont:
FREEBOARD
IN
RELATION TO STABILITY
Figure* for inttrn*ory points on t* courses oft not undsrfintd
Dtporturt points
th
-of
Dtportun counts
cross-cur points of dtporturt ooursts. 1,2,3. ,,Rtturn courm from cross-cur* /.^. Initial and nd points of rsturn courses;!', 2,3'
End
m /$0*
ft* counts: j*,2*,3f for tht confreototfon wrth
^fCr
400
righting IVoluts
of ctotfcol arms.
GZ(KM f-KG)
m.
900
79
2SO
Fig. 502.
ZOO
HBO
1-00
040
O 20O
290
900
360
Radial analyser of stability of ships considering a certain stability criterion
8 ^=8.7 in. (220 mm.); lead to the conclusion that the peak point of the stability curve is approximately at 30 heel; thus, the height of the centre of gravity as determined
8.3 in. (210 5.9 in. (150
mm.);
GZ
mm.)
Determination of critical loadings for fishing vessels in order to construct a curve of KG

In cargo vessels there is a large number of holds and tanks of different shapes, placed in various parts of the ship, and a wide range of cargoes may be carried, all of which contribute to a variety of loading conditions. In order to compute a curve of for such ships it may be necessary to assume conventional conditions, which, will only, if at all, be realistic for a short while. The whole problem seems to be much simpler with for a fishing vessels. When computing a curve of fishing vessel, a special method may be used, consisting of an analysis of operational states of loading.
above
will
meet the
criterion.
similar graphical operations to the other displacements, the data for the construction of a curve of maximum permissible height of the centre of gravity,
By applying
KG
KG, can be
determined.
The curve of maximum height of centre of gravity from a specific stability criterion can be drawn directly on the radial analyzer as shown in fig. 503. For both the criteria chosen, 1 and 2, separate curves can be drawn, namely KGu and KG,.. From fig. 503 it can be concluded that the second criterion must be used for displacements up to about 300 cu. m., whilst
above the
first
KG
The method
91.87
ft.
is
explained below for a trawler-drifter,
and
(28 m.) long, fishing herring on distant grounds salting the fish in barrels. This is a small vessel,
criterion
must be used.
the two above criteria, others may be added, each of which will have its own curve of KG. Fig. 504 shows on an enlarged vertical scale, the two curves mentioned plus a third curve KG,,, based on a dynamical criterion, as in the Russian stability regulations* This curve is drawn from the assumption that the dynamical action of the wind will not incline the ship to
To
more than
FF
the
.critical limit.
operating up to 28 days per trip. The weight of stores, such as fuel, fresh water, food provisions, etc., on leaving port may be as much as 45 per cent, of the deadweight. These stores may diminish quickly and this calls for an 91 estimate of "momentary cargo capacity , a fact never encountered in ordinary cargo ships. When drift-nets are used, a fishing boat may have to take on board a very big catch quickly. When the fish is salted, put into barrels and placed in the hold, the
[471]

hatches remain open and the deck load is considerable, thus increasing the height of the centre of gravity with due effect upon the vessel's stability. In the determination of the operational loading combinations, the maximum available deck surface may be
SEA BEHAVIOUR
and water, the
the average daily consumption of fuel duration of the trip.
taken as the most disadvantageous from the stability point of view.
The total weight of stores on board (S) and of fish in the hold (F) are marked on the main ordinate scale. (S+F), expressed as a percentage of a certain, temporarily assumed, maximum total of these loads. The
diagram shows two more
vertical scales
:
The following simplifies the considerations: The vessel has no ballast tanks of considerable size The greater part of the stores are placed in bottom tanks* The level to which the tanks are filled influences the height of the centre of gravity The transverse bulkheads that divide the hold to
facilitate storage
The
scale of the total displacement of the vessel (in
tons)
The stores scale (in tons) The sloping straight line in the diagram connects the percentage and ton figures for stores and at the same time determines the percentage of actual stores, as compared
with the assumed maximum value for S-f-Fh (the maximum total of stores and fish in the hold). Fig. 505 shows all the possible load distributions of
of the barrels, do not induce considerable variations in the height of the centre of
gravity
barrels,
The weight of
constant
empty and
filled
with
salt, is
diagram
Thus, the load distribution may be reduced to three amount of stores consumed, the net weight of fish in holds and the displacement of the vessel. Fig. 505 shows a selection of load combinations. The percentage of stores on board, as compared with the maximum possible quantity on leaving port, has been assumed as the main factor. Its scale may be combined with another horizontal scale, showing, on the basis of
variables: the
By drawing vertical and horizontal lines, the divided for further analysis. Each point of intersection of the auxiliary lines is marked with two figures. The first represents the percentage of actual stores, and the second shows the percentage of fish in the holds, as compared with the maximum total of stores and
importance.
is
fish.
Assuming
that the actual stores rarely equal zero,
these load combinations

tion.
may be
left
out from considera-
In order to trace a curve of

lined twice are necessary.
KG
only the points under-
Each point represents a height
KM
sin? ond KG
400
sin
cum,
(tons)
30
3Q-7.9h.
02m>
Fig. 503.
Radial analyser with curves of maximum
KG*
considering
certain stability criterion
[472J
STABILITY
FREEBOARD
IN
RELATION TO STABILITY
of the centre of gravity which constitutes the maximum for the corresponding displacement. Only six loading combinations are shown in fig. 505 detailed computation of the after the final selection. is necessary for these, of centre the of gravity height and then a curve of according to fig. 498 can be drawn.
KG
m.
3.0
ft.
Las
.96
2.9.
.9.4
Fig.
505.
Combinations of loading, where the
left
percentages
2.8. .9.2
represent stores, the right catch offish
is less
.90
27.
.as
fig. 505 are calculated the displacement of which than "stability freeboard". is measured off from the correspondThe value of ing points of fig. 505 perpendicular to the graph plane, i.e. to the plane fixed by axes (S+F) and (%S). In this way a relief surface is obtained, which for the discussed vessel has the shape shown in fig. 506. Then the above surface is intersected by a series of
points in
KG
2.6
200
Fig. 504.
300
maximum KGs,
400
cum (* tons)
KGS A
-
Curves of
the curve
based on a
dynamical criterion
For the
vessel discussed
and for the
selected criteria of
stability the
operational displacement ought not to exceed 358 tons or 350 cu. m. in salt water.
maximum
This simple scheme of analysis may not, of course, always be suitable in the case of other types of fishing vessel, and necessary adjustments might have to be made. But, generally, variations in load distribution can be
foreseen.
20
30
40
90
flO
68
ten
Additional use can be
made of
the curve of
KG
for
Perspective diagram far ships' board control
"stability information** by skippers. For this purpose the values of
KG
for all the control
506.
of stability
[473]

planes perpendicular to the base of fig. 505, as well as to the axis (%S). 9' Thus a set of "cross-curves for is obtained, each of which corresponds to a constant value of stores (S). The curve of KG. is added to the set of "cross-curves for KG'* (fig. 507). So the skipper has on a single graph 9' all the "stability information data necessary for the of the safety ship. In making use of such "information" the skipper must first determine the amount of stores (S) on the ship and then find the corresponding curve on the graph. When the catch begins, the left end of the curve should
SEA BEHAVIOUR
KG
be studied, whereas in the
final phase, the right
end
is
the
Fig. 508.
Proposed freeboard mark for fishing
vessels
m
290
4
only to know the amount of stores etc.) he has on board.

Conclusions
(fuel,
water, provisions,
L2
2-tO
height characteristics of a vessel's centre of gravity are not directly useful when comparing the stability of various ships. However, a universal stability measure would open the way to finding the extent to which a given vessel in various states of loading fulfils the requirements
The
of the
2.70
stability
standards in force.
simplest measure for estimates of this kind is undoubtedly the height of the centre of gravity considered together with the displacement and compared
The
with the maximum height permissible to meet the requirements of the stability criteria.
to
70
290
30
00
590
90
360
68
3SS
ton
<SF)
A
300
310
3O>
540
ton
Fig. 507. Stability information for ships' board (obtained'from fig. 506)
A clear and simple principle is proposed for determining the minimum "stability freeboard", i.e. a freeboard based on the stability criteria. Generally speaking, it may be concluded that there are no methodical complications in the application of the stability freeboard principle to fishing vessels. It will be sufficient to adopt a suitable stability criterion. As fishing vessels are overloaded on fishing grounds, the control of obedience to regulations should be made at the grounds and not in port. Inter-governmental organizations have been set up successfully for the protection of the living resources of the seas and there should be no insoluble reason why inter-governmental agreements should not also be reached regarding stability.
The first and most urgent step is a preliminary international compromise concerning the minimum stability requirements for fishing vessels. The next step is an agreement on the method for joint treatment of the
stability and freeboard standards. Such agreements would pave the way for dealing with more detailed problems, such as the problem of the freeboard mark on fishing vessels being visible from a greater distance and when at sea. In this connection see fig. 508. It is proposed to introduce a single basic line
important one and the draught of the vessel approaches the freeboard mark. After locating the actual load condition on the graph the stability reserve of the ship is seen at a glance. It is
curve. the vertical distance from the If this distance is great the skipper may safely shift a part of the ballast or load upward, for example, for the purpose of decreasing violent rolling of the ship. Such a procedure is out of the question when the graph does not
KG
minimum
show a sufficient reserve of stability. As can readily be seen, the interpretation of
this
proposed synthetic "stability information" is very simple. Without any additional calculation the skipper knows the actual stability characteristics of his ship. He needs
for salt water with specific weight 1.025, as well as controlling marks for fore and after trim. This provides, of course, only a rough idea of the mark, which needs
careful discussing in detail.
[474]
NOTES ON STABILITY
by
ATSUSHI TAKAGI
built fishing boats are
Stat stics are

.
.
and
drautfit
GM
tee
en on the loss of Japanese boats. The principal dimensions and displacements of a selected number of iy recently shown, based on LxBx D. Essential factors in stability of fishing vessels are discussed, including freeboard, trim KG/D, etc. Fweboard greatly affects the reserve buoyancy, length and range of righting arms. should be within a gyration were investigated to determine the appropriate rolling period k h
tJ^ mm
GM
'
Japan has regulations for the

fishing vessels.
stability
The author recommends a
improved by further studies using data from
of passenger vessels and stability criteria have been proposed for smaller vessels, but not criterion for all types of fishing vessels, i.e. a safety index number, which he hopes will be all countries in which fishing boats are built.
NOTES SUR LA STAB1LITE

en se
sont
,
comprise entre 1,48 ct 1,97 (450 et 600 mm.). On a pi. appropnee du roulis pour quc lequipage travaille sans avoir
etre
*r\
.---.v...w|
fait
le
v*^*^r* v* *wu des recherches sur
GM
kttiv^t? %
et le
mal de mer.
\V IWIA VOVVfllVlil* rayon dc giration pour determiner

urlivril
VlV'tf
l/tl<*
VJ 1T1 doit VIVIl la p^riode
na vires, mais numtrique

sont construits.
peche
NOTAS SOBRE ESTABILIDAD

desplazamientos principales de varios barcos de pesca construidos recientemente, basados en LxBxO. Se examuian los factores esenciales para la estabilidad de los barcos de pesca, inclusive el francobordo, el asiento y el calado, GM, KG/D. El francobprdo tiene gran cfecto en la rescrva dc flotabiiidad, longitud debc y limite de acci6n de los pares de adrizamiento. cstar comprendido entre 1,48 y 1,97 pies (450 y 600 mm.). Se investigan y el radio de giro para determinar el pcriodo appropiado de balanceo para que la tnpulacion trabaje sin marearse. Japon tiene Iegislaci6n rclativa a la estabilidad de los barcos de pasajeros y se ban propuesto criterios de estabilidad para barcos mas pequcflos, pero no para los pesqueros. El autor recornienda un criterio para todos los tipos de barcos de pesca: un indice nwnirico tie segundad que confia scri mejorado por estudios ulteriores en lo que se empleen los datos de todos los paises donde se construyen barcos de pesca.
las diraensiones y
etc.
Se dan
GM
GM
ACCORDING
fishing vessels.
to Lloyd's statistics, losses of Japanese ships are comparatively higher than the average for the world. They are especially high for
Lack of skill in handling engine:

Inadequate maintenance Errors in maintenance
The
table
1
Wrong operation
Sea and weather conditions Misleading weather forecast Forced navigation in rough weather
:
statistics
19,
prepared by the Maritime Safety Board, shows that more than half the damages and
losses are fishing vessels, although in tonnage, they are only 15 per cent. The actual figures for fishing vessels
Insufficient refuge
Statistics of fishing ressd insurance In 1937 owners of fishing boats of less than 1,000 organized an insurance system based on the locality and the type of fishing. Such cover is reinsured by the Government. The insurance risk is expressed in terms of percentage of the damages paid in relation to the total insurance coverage. Table 121 shows the statistics of th&
are probably much higher, because many small boats such as non-power driven fishing boats are not included
in the statistics.
GT
Table 120 classifies the causes. Engine trouble accounts for 40 per cent. The main causes are: Lack of navigation experience:
Improper steering Insufficient knowledge of ship's position Inadequate watch Insufficient knowledge of channel
insurance.
The insurance [475]
risk for
powered
fishing boats
from

TABLE 119
I
SEA BEHAVIOUR
(Baaed on the
statistics
Of kmt of Japanese vessels Maritime Safety Board of Japan)
Expressed in units of 1,000 tons
TABLE 120
1950 to 19S5 was, on a yearly average, 3.06 per cent. average total loss was 1.79 per cent., and partial loss 1.08 per cent. The risk decreased with the increase in the size of ships. Vessels of 5 to 19 GT were the largest risk because many of them were old and were used on
;
distant fishing grounds. On the other hand, according to the unpublished statistics for merchant ships as prepared by the insurance
when the principal dimensions of a have been determined, more than half the problems in design have been solved. Fig. 509 to 519 give values of L, B, and D indicated based on the actual data of 1,500 existing by vessels. Larger deviation of f 5 per cent, from these
generally be said that
vessel
LxBxD
companies, fishing boats of less than 1 ,000 GT represented less risk than merchant ships. Losses have been attributed to the design of the boats rather than to lack of skill of the crew. Of course, even first-class seamanship cannot always overcome structural performance and other defects in a boat, and there is certainly a need to improve Japanese fishing boats to
THfltcc
TABLE
Insurance risk
121
( %) of power-driven Japanese fishing boats (1950-1955) (Based on the Japanese fishing vessel insurance statistics)
them safer.
Table 120 indicates, however, that half the disasters to fishing boats is attributed to lack of skill in navigation and in engine handling, which stresses the need for better training of crews.
Titoit te fraKi|Md wittc0HOiM of Tuiooi types
Improvements in design have been gradually achieved through experience gained over a long period. It can
[476]
m,
ft
JO
8
6 4
30
10
12
20
I
I
24
I
20 8
30
40
12
50
16
10
20
30
K)
cum x
I02
LxBxO
5678
I
O
Fig.
14
4 6 6
Fig.
cu.ft.xK)
Fig.
509
ft.
510
ft,
511
m.
10
ft
m.
m.
ft
20
30
5
15
2.5
5.5
6 4
20 4 5 3
K>
K>
6
IS
4.5
14
2
I
K)
20
30
40
UBxO
4 6
m.
2468
I
2345
'
cumxtO2
OU.ft.xlOl
'
0.2
15
2.5
.8
1.2
IB
ft.
m.
IB
ft.
2,5
1.5
4
14
4 2
UBD
8
Fig. 509.
234
12
Fig.
234
8
K)
2 cumxIO
cuftxIO
10
12
16
ib
10
F(r.
12
Fig.
515
516
Fig.
517
f/^.
575
519
Fig.
Main dimensions of Japanese steam trawlers (steel) Fig. 510. Main dimensions of Japanese diesel trawlers (sled) Fig. 511. Main dimensions of Japanese whale catchers (steel) Fig. 512. Main dimensions of Japanese tuna longline fishing boats (steel) 513. Main dimensions of Japanese skip-jack pole fishing boats (steel and wood). (Ls, Bs and Ds represent steel boat) Fig. 514. Main dimensions of Japanese small pair trawlers (steel) Fig. 515. Main dimensions of Japanese small pair trawlers known as Awa type trawler (wood) Fig. 516. Main dimensions of Japanese salmon drifters and Pacific saury stick-hew dipnel boats (steel) Fig. 517. Main dimensions of Japanese salmon drifters and Pacific saury stick-held dipnet boats (wood) Fig. 518. Main dimensions of Japanese purse seiners (wood) Fig. 519. Main dimensions of Japanese mackerel pole fishing boats (wood)
1477]

u
o&ft otm. o&ft*
SEA BEHAVIOUR
cum
o"-'
-at
a new consulting system of the Government. Facts were also obtained about boats lost at sea. All this experience showed that stability is the most important safety factor
in fishing boats.
Freeboard. Freeboard is measured midships from the waterline to the top of the deck. The international freeboard regulations do not apply to fishing boats. As
to
30
Japanese fishing boats are built to operate in distant fishing grounds there is a danger that freeboard will be sacrificed for greater fish hold capacity. As it is, most Japanese fishing boats of, say, over 500 gross tons, could not meet the requirements of the Japanese freeboard regulations for merchant ships of this size. If freeboard, as required for merchant ships, provides the standard of measurement of safety, then fishing vessels are not up to standard, but this is not established as a fact. The Japanese Fisheries Agency has the following freeboard requirements f- D x V M -i 0.66 ft. (0.20 m.) Wooden vessels
: :
K>
20
Steel vessels:
10
--
Whote
cotchoni
D<14.8
ft.
(4.5 m.),
Trovers
*
D
f Ithlng
14.8
ft.
(4.5m.),
f-Dx V,.-f 0.49 f-Dx

l
/
ft.
(0.15 m.)
10
TUOG long Hne
boots
with the
|
4 cumxIO 3
the depth midships. The sheer does not increase size of the ship in proportion to L and D. However, the larger the ship, the larger the superstructure. The freeboard requirements seem to provide
is
LxBxO
Fig.
a simple form for taking these factors into account. In

4
the past, the rule was 0.10D ^-0.66 ft. (0.20 m.), regardless of the type of fishing boat. The change has been based on experience and after consideration of the buoyancy of the
superstructures.
10
15
cuftxlO
520.
Main
and tuna
particulars of Japanese whale-catchers, longline fishing boats (steel)
trawlers
figures should only be
made
if
there
is
a special and
well-considered reason. Gross tonnage is the first decision and the basic factor in calculating the cost of a fishing vessel in Japan, and it can be conveniently used for the selection of L, B and D. Japanese regulations limit the gross tonnage in some types of fishing, which, of course, affects the principal dimensions. Fig. 520 to 523 illustrate the relationship of L x B x D, the main engine output, and displacement for both light and load condition. This relationship varies according to the type of fishing. The principal dimensions shown in the figures influence to some extent the stability.
Stability
Jon
.
ouH
30
to establish criteria for stability of has been studied by specialists of many fishing countries. It remains, however, to make use of the experience of designers, builders and fishermen throughout the world to establish a common criterion for all fishing vessels. The problems can be illustrated by using Japanese fishing boats as an example. The author has participated in the design of subsidized fishing boats since 1931. The results of the trial and inclining experiments for one vessel were used for the design of the next boat. Data were accumulated over many years, especially after 1947, when information on the advantages and disadvantages of the designs of
specific vessels
The problem of how
o Skip-took
pott
ffehkq
boots
Smott
poir
trawlm
300 to 600 fishing vessels every year was provided through
521.
Main fwtkttlars of Japanese pole fishing boats, small pair trawlers and salmon drifters (steel)
STABILITY
JAPANESE EXPERIENCE
ftr
Bum.9t
20
Freeboard varies with the type of fishing from 0.10D to 0.30D. larger freeboard seems to have been adopted for new vessels. The larger the freeboard, the larger the angle at which the deck is submerged. This may be
expressed:
tan 9
=2f/B
/$.
which 9 represents the angle of inclination and f the As the sheer increases, so does the angle of maximum stability, and the range of stability.
in
freeboard.
20
The
who,
safety of ships depends largely
on the skipper,
could endanger even those with adequate freeboard. It is desirable that the superstructures have few openings and that they be watertight. If not, superstructures could become dangerous to stability instead of adding to safety. Superstructure openings should not be placed on the side liable to exposure to waves. Unless unavoidable, no opening is made on the starboard of Japanese fishing boats, because this side is usually to wind and waves. The coamings should be as high as possible. There are many instances of boats being lost because of the apparently minor reason that water was shipped through low hatches, the covers of which were left open or had been washed away.
if careless,
It
to
*-
Skip-joc*
*
polt
fishing
boots
Tuoo
long
Not
fltNng
boots
5 L
6
L.B.O
cumxIO2
cuft.xlO
"20
Fig. 523.
Main particulars of Japanese skip-jack pole fishing boats, tuna longline fishing boats and salmon drifters (wood)
is
difficult
to establish a freeboard criterion for
be
recommended
to
take precautionary measures in
fishing boats because their loads
change during fishing. Skippers of boats with a sub-standard freeboard should
rough weather.
Draught and trim.
boats need to
Despite their small
size,
fishing
"nSiF
ton
cuft.
Jon
&&\\ V
_
15
cum*
JfiG_ cu.m.
X
i 1
to
cu.ft
io-
io-
through wind, tide and waves, which calls for comparatively large power to produce the required speed at all loads. The stern has to be designed to maintain the draught to allow the screw to work effectively even in the light condition. With the increase of loads, the fore draught increases more than
make
their
way
safely
the aft draught. The aft draught in the light condition ranges between 0.85 and 1.05D, except for trawlers in which the range is 0.95 to .20D. Thus, deeper aft draught is necessary for trawlers, otherwise pitching would make the screws race. Once the ship is brought to a stop, the wind and waves would force her to turn round. A deep draught is more important than a large free1
board
20
in light
condition for
some
fishing boats.
For ease
of navigation, vessels need to have proper trim by the stern. The fore draught, also, must be adequate to give directional stability in wind and waves.
10
GM. The metacentric height, CM, is used as a criterion

10
the stability. It trawler must have a

for
is
Small
pair
trowltrs
Punt seintrs "MocMrti polt
fishing
bocts
(380 mm.) in the ligfrt condition and over 2 ft. (610 mm.) in the load condition. It would be most desirable to determine a value for the worst condition in fishing. The minimum
1
GM value of over
generally
established
.25
ft.
that
GM
GM
is
the value of
4
10
cumxK) 2
15
established in Japan by the Fisheries Agency, and in the load condition is required to be
GM
larger than those given below:
cullxlO
fig, 522.
Main particulars of Japanese small pair trawlers, purse seiners and mackerel pole fishing boats (wood)
Purse seiners: The larger of the two values given by B/23+0.88 ft. (0.27 m.) or L/12Q4-0.88 ft. (0.27 au). If both values are less than 1.48 ft. (0.45 m.), 1. 48 ft. (0.45m.) is taken
[479]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
56789
Period of
roll in
tte. K>
II
period of roll and increases acceleration, which has an unfavourable influence on the operational efficiency of the crew. In the toad condition the distance of the metacentre from the keel, KM, increases and the tends to be excessively large. Such tendency could be
GM
20
prevented in the design.
KG/D. KG, the height of the centre of gravity above the keel, is determined by the distribution of the weight must be fairly of the hull and the load distribution.
KG
Th* orto
1.5
*o tht right
of fht curvft
rtp-
rtMntt tht orto trM Cf^W flWMt probably wilt twoomt

tootfok
1*0
small even when the ship is loaded. In recent years, has increased because of larger superstructures, necessary to meet the need to fish on distant grounds.
KG
The ratio KG/D exceeds 0.80 in the light condition. In some vessels, however, KG/D exceeds 0.80 even in the
load condition.
CVJ
The superstructures influence a ship's stability unfavourably because of the exposure to wind and waves, but their buoyancy counteracts this to some extent.
Rolling period. The smaller the angle of roll and the longer the period, the more comfort for the crew. In general, the rolling period has the following relation to the
stability:
1-0
2-0
3O
10
4-0
m.
15 ft
(ft.)
(m.)
5
h-sin<f
l/2
maximum
angle of
roll
Fig. 524. Acceleration duff to rolling
Skipjack pole Ashing boats: When B is smaller than 23 ft. (7 m.), the larger of the two values given by B/25 4-0.49 ft. (0.15 m.) and L/143+0.49 ft. (0.15 m.) or 1.41 ft. (0.43 m.). And when B is equal to or larger than 23 ft. (7 m.), the larger of the two followtaken: [B-23 ft. (7 m.)]/12-t-1.41 ft.(0.43 m.) or [L-131 .2 ft. (40 m.)]/70+ 1 .41 ft. (0.43 m.)
ing values
is
the is small or This means that the cannot be too ship rolls more moderately. The small. In order to increase k , the weights should be placed far away from the rolling centre. Side tanks filled with liquid have been proposed. Data on seasickness suggest that crews feel worse when the rolling acceleration exceeds 0.1 g, which equals 3.21 ft. (0.98 m,)/ sec 2 This may be considered as 3.28 ft. (1.0 m.)/sec 2
roll increases
is
The period of
when
GM
the radius of gyration k t
large.
GM
sin
9)>0.1
ft. (1
m.)/sec
Other type boats:

(7
When B
is
smaller than 23
In the above 9 is half the maximum angle of rolling. 45 roll to one side may cause only a 15 incline to
ft.
of the two values given by B/25+0.39 ft (0.12 m.) or L/150 f 0.39 ft. (0.12 m.). And when B is equal to or larger than 23 ft. (7 m.),
m.),
the
larger
the larger of the two following values is taken: [B-23 ft (7 m,)]/12-fl.3 ft. (0.40 m.) or [L-138 ft. (42 m.)]/72+ 1 .3 ft. (0.40 m.)
The maximum angle of roll being 60, 9 is 30 This is illustrated in a simple form in fig. 524, where the curve A is shown by the upper and left scale. From the period of roll 4n z /T r t can be found, and h sin 9 is
the other.
.
The degree
h sin 9
indicated by the bottom scale and the three straight lines. at which the rolling is accelerated can be seen by whether the co-ordinate expressed by 47t f /Tr 8 and
Until fishing boats reach the fishing grounds, their displacement decreases as fuel and other supplies are consumed, thereby changing the draught and trim and, naturally, the GM. The centre of gravity is highest and the smallest when the majority of the crew and catch should are on the deck. The minimum value of the then be 1.31 ft. (400 mm.). The value of the decreases in winter because of icing. Care must be taken to ensure that the never becomes negative. Japanese value between 1.48 ft. fishing boats keep the
GM
is on this side or on the other side of the curve B. In estimating T r from GM, or from Tr a problem is what value should be taken for k With k =mB, the value of 0.32 to from 0.49. T r of Japanese ranges
GM
t .
GM
GM
GM
GM
(450 mm,) and 1.97 ft. (600 mm.), depending on the type of ship. A value larger than necessary shortens the
GM
is now being measured systematically. The measurements are taken when the ships are at anchor in a harbour and Tr includes the effect of the depth of water: therefore, the results can only be approximate. Few data have been obtained for the load condition. It is necessary, then, to use the figures obtained near the is between 0.32 and light condition. The range of 0.54: from 0.39 to 0.45 for steel ships and from 0.44 to
fishing boats
[480]
STABILITY
0.51 for
JAPANESE EXPERIENCE
for
wooden boats. An approximate expression m-kt/B, by Kato (1956), is:
Of the Japanese studies on stability, Kato's (1956) method was considered simple to judge the stability
The method employs
stability,
f 0.020" (l i 3.7"V~+- 027 ^ ^Y===Q-125~ B4 BJ ToV T, ) J where H-=D t- A/ L,T Alight draught, T,^ load draught.
not only of fishing vessels, but of any other small ships. safety index numbers based on the data of ships which have the minimum permissible
Comments on a few stability
criteria
and whale-catchers, the methods and of construction of the the fishing techniques vessels were introduced from Britain and Norway, and with this introduction came an established standard for was 1.25 ft. (380 mm.) in the and freeboard. light condition and 2 ft. (610 mm.) in the load condition. The freeboard was 2 ft. (610 mm.) or more depending on length. However, it was difficult to adopt this standard
In the case of both trawlers
according to Japanese experience. In considering this problem, an analysis has been made of the stability of small warships of the former Japanese Navy
(Kawashima and Asakura,
1954).
GM
GM
value of
structure
larger
GM
in
trawlers with freezers in the super-
KG/D.
costly
of steam engines, having a Designers and builders secretly installed ballast; this effort decreased load capacity.
diesels instead
and
Bearing in mind how the fishing operation is actually carried out, designers should decide which is the more by changing the design advantageous to increase or to carry ballast to lower the KG; the latter results in a
9 Proposal for the assessment of fishing vessels stability In designing fishing boats, it is usual to look at similar vessels in operation. However, there are cases where operational requirements have resulted in less stability than desired. This made it necessary to carry ballast to lower the centre of gravity, which, in turn, resulted in too small a freeboard. However, the vessels were safely operated because the crew knew of the defects and counteracted them. But there have been ships which were considered to have maximum stability but which
GM
capsized. In calculating the righting arms, the watertight superthe poop, deckhouse and back structures are included.
smaller freeboard and decreases reserve buoyancy. Many papers have been published on this problem, based on experience, especially in U.K. where so many fishing boats have been built. There are some indications is satisfactory in the light that if 1 .25 ft. (380 mm.) of
For
fishing boats,
it
it is
when they trim by

sider
necessary to consider the changes the stern. The author does not con-
GM
condition, a
ft. (610 mm.) should be permissible in a load condition. It has been discovered that a crew often operates a ship
little
less
than 2
with half the

necessary.
GM
value which the designer considered

roll
The ship has a longer period of
and
feels
the crew a false sense of safety. Rahola's (1939) work, based on extensive investigaIt is very difficult, however, for tions, is valuable.
more comfortable, giving
reasonable to include a forecastle in the superit has effective buoyancy only when a ship lists considerably, in comparing ships, all conditions must be equal. Tables 1 22 to 1 33 show the stability data of 96 Japanese fishing boats classified in six types of steel and six types of wooden boats, each represented by eight ships. The data are chosen at random. Both light and load conditions are given. "Light" means a ship without load, weight of the crew and fishing gear: it is the weight of "Load" means a ship fully loaded, the ship only.
structure because
Japanese fishing boats to fulfil a value greater than GZ^0.66 ft. (200 mm.) in the condition of 30 or even 40 of inclination. The vessels usually trim by the stern except when shipping a head sea or when a following sea submerges the stem and lifts the stern. It is unusual for the forecastle to be submerged for a long period, so that if this is included in the stability calculation, the GZ
in
carrying the crew and effects, fishing gear, fuel, provisions, fresh water, fish bait, ice and other supplies. Sometimes a ship displaces a greater tonnage when leaving the fishing grounds than when leaving port but the two conditions are assumed to be the same in these
tables.
static
KM
curves.
and KB were obtained from the hydroThe breadth, B, does not include the
some
vessels
is
seldom as much as 0.66
ft.
(200 mm.).
is generally only a Actually, the maximum value of little over 0.33 ft. (0.10 m.). Observation of larger cargo boats at sea proves that the forecastle should be included
GZ
thickness of shell plates, although they are quite thick in wooden boats. Consequently the real KB of the wooden ships in the examples is greater than that of steel ships.
In
some
ships the
GM hardly reaches
.48
ft.
(450 mm.),
in stability calculations,
which would permit, in the case of fishing boats, a lower criterion than proposed by Rahola.
although designed to be from 1.48 to 1.97 ft. (450 to 600 mm.), according to Japanese regulations. This defect is often compensated for by a large freeboard.
De Wit (1955) states that the stability requirements of Dutch fishing vessels is based on Rahola's criterion. When compared with Japanese ships, these Dutch vessels seem to have somewhat larger freeboard and GM Japanese fishing boats of over 400 GT have freezers on deck and large fish holds, so it is difficult to give them as is considered as large a freeboard and value of
.
GM
could be increased by increasing B, but this might again produce a greater value of KG/D. In discussing freeboard, the angle at which the deck is
is increasimportant. Up to this angle, the the the ship, larger the larger ing. Generally speaking, value of 2f/B. When tan 9 is from 0.12 to 0.22, 9 is between 7 and 12 in the full load condition. The maximum arm in a statical stability curve are nonnaHy twice the angle to which the deck is submerged, or 14
submerged
is
GZ
GM
necessary in Europe. free conditions.
Japanese trawlers operate in
ice-
[48i]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
5.09
x
1.17x16.70
'ills
44.42
x14.
x4.50
v;^f<lm - ~
'
.50
,38
5315 2,716
471
! |
5JJO
184.3 56.17
!
oo oi v>
'
'!!
163.3x27. 49.78x8.5
<**>
16. .90
x
.65
994.83
3 04 58
1953
l|g|?
34.44x17.39
10JO
'
179.4x30.12
598.6 3,000
54.69x9.18
x13.78
'odd-
<Mr-
fno O
JrjfnvC^jj***^
x4.20
.21
5 23 74
333238
146.9
r4i*>Vd^v^
\C<^>M*^"-Or^M
dodo-
44.80
'Safe
x
850
8,20
495.22
16.37
4.99
1956
59,046
1,672
I
153,9x26.90x
9,000046.90
7.1 .04
M *<*
rl
fS
nW^'Nr4'lr4d^
<*>
f>
s*
.70
!
181
6. 10
"^j2**!C **fc
odors
8
x x
I
1 ^
.61
80 56
,568
2,961
ddddd
226.4 69.00
196.4 59.85
odd-
3.29
1
x
i2s=s
4.05
x
7.20
23.62
30
70 19
42.
1,
743.48
2,949
1957
3,280
104,144
x x
.74
36,9
4V^~*>i^
'
196.4x31.82x16. 59.85-9.70x5.08
000-
4.50
x14.76
- s.
535. 1,00
"I!
N
!
16.40
.00
o*
iss
odd
195
66,3
1
186.8x 56.95x
167.0x26.
50.90x8.2
'III?
700
24.28x13.45
1956
47,11
1.33
1956
494.83
2.122
74,939
7.40x4.10
369.7
2,700
2S551I
CE
'
'
II
.5x28.15.
27x8.75x4.64
1=52^5= Iirr4r4no*^f
ci
'eg
...*<
F7VTr
.<*
d EC EC EC ECS
^ *
SO
Z n O 1
HfiJOOl
tf
[482]
1
h H <
X ^ ^
S o O *
STABILITY
353358S5533S
650
24.6
349.21
JAPANESE EXPERIENCE
Is
12.4 3.80
dos^vi
iîs
dNO
lil!
<
1.188
1958
41,954
II
x
36.8
1.70x7.50x
-*&*JsSP&ag;
2^^2*2
5333333383
dddo-
14.60
.45
z?
?:*-
x x
ii !!
odd-
X X
3* 5*
ii
I I
rêcioie-
s7
I
*>s *o3
1.71
1956
27.56
(NO<N*KCotO*<SO'*%
isrk
<)- ^ ^
^*s
O**
8.40
498.1
1,000
60,49
|SS2
odd
aodddd-
I
I
157.5
48.00
12. .80
i
8
x24,
X X
j
i '
a -
'ddd140. 42.8
obddddd
1 i 1
.48
rt ri '
fjcoass
O ^ rs 5
o6fNrvidSO
1
3.50
ddd-
K-OOs
ri
I>*'f4
d<SO
obo-
943
550
22.97 7.00x
276.26
1957
33,302
x
<9
26.3
38.50x
X X
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ti
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00
[487]
- SEA BEHAVIOUR
and have a
large value of
are seaworthy
KB and a
small
value of BG,
ZOM
Snips
foi
of Mftty
Taking into consideration the various items mentioned, the author introduces the idea of the safety index number
for fishing boats by:
w mo
oroo to tho
of tho oofoty ourvo oro
C=(GMx2f)/(pG)xB).
fOQorooo
Mfioitnt
Thooo
BG
itotoity.
In the above equation, fl(BG) can be represented by for the sake of simplicity, and the value of C is
Mow
tho dongor
considered as a constant Thus;
ourvo oro rogordod 01

looking itobillty
CHGMx2f)/(BOxB)
Tables 122 to 133 and the experience of the author
lead to the following conclusions; Ci=0.075 in the load condition
SoWv
curv
Ci=0, 100
in the light condition
Donwr
curvt
to this standard,
There are vessels in operation which do not come up and probably the value of Ci is less than
0.100 in many.
into 2f/BG and possible to split the formula of Ci in the form of BG/f, written be can also GM/B; f/BG
It is
0*2
Values for BG/f are given in tables 122 to 133. BG/f varies between 0,7 and 2.4. Only when BG/f remains
nearly the same, can the stability be expressed by
as sometimes suggested.
GM/B,
01
02
03
0-4
of tfe)
The minimum
stability
2f/B
Fig. 525.
(fiFrooboord, B Brood th
studied further but a solution
of fishing vessels has to be is proposed in fig. 525. This

but also the
Proposed criterion of stability for Japanese fishing boats
covers not only load
and
light conditions
worst conditions during operation. The form is GM/BG2f/B, based on data for Japanese fishing boats. The four
thin curves show lines of CiÔ.OSO, 0.075, 0. 100 and 0. 125, and the two thick curves show, respectively, a safety curve and a danger curve. If the GM/BG and 2f/B go
can be expressed in a simple form a to x 2f/B up given angle of inclination. by the In discussing safety of fishing boats, external
to
24. The
stability
GM
must be taken into account, such as the effects of wind and waves, ship's motions, etc, The effects of wind is a moment equalling the product of wind pressure,
forces
below the danger curve, the ship is not safe. The value of Ci is subject to change, according to the values of GM, BG and f therefore, both designers and crews should
;
exposed area and the vertical distance from the centre of gravity of this area to half the mean draught,
always bear in mind the safety of the vessel. It is hoped that the proposals will be improved
when
The
influence of external forces
is
considered as a
function of BG. In a ship under the influence of wind and waves, the virtual centre of gravity is higher than that in a
ship free from such influences. This decreases the and increases the value of BG. Among pre-war Japanese
fishing boats not
data on an international scale are collected. If agreement could be reached on international action along the following lines, it would lead to an improvement of
fishing boats' safety
GM
throughout the world:
t An
international standard for stability calculations
many had a
8=0.6
in
hull
block-coefficient
the
shape exceeding a full load condition.
of fishing boats
All countries building fishing boats to publish the
results
this
post-war ships more and more have a 5-value greater than 0.65 because of a trend towards larger fish holds, and such vessels seem to be more influenced^
Among
of the
tests
of completed boats and to

all
make
data available to
FAO
to organize a standing committee to
promote
external forces than others, Vessels with a fine hull shape
the safety of fishing vessels
TRANSVERSE STABILITY OF TUNA CLIPPERS

by
JOHN
R.
PAULLING,
Jr.
The tuna clipper of the U.S. Pacific Coast is characterized by extreme dissimilarities in the form of the fore and after bodies. As a result of this difference, together with the method of operation, this class of vessel has been plagued with transverse stability problems perhaps more severe than those encountered in most other types of fishing vessels. A number of writers have on several occasions suggested that the conventional stability computations fall somewhat short of adequately describing the stability of these vessels. A discussion is given of the shortcomings of the transverse stability diagram computed for a tuna clipper by the method of cross curves, it is shown that, as a result of the extremely low freeboard aft, tuna clippers trim by the stern as they heel, thus violating the bask assumption of no trim employed in the cross curve computation. This trim results in an actual calm water transverse stability which is method is given whereby the transverse stability can be computed appreciably less than that computed by the method of cross curves. while permitting the vessel to trim, thus satisfying completely the conditions for static equilibrium. The method is only slightly more complicated than the usual computation and is much more general in its application. The computation is applied to two example vessels and yields righting arms substantially less than those obtained conventionally in both cases. A significant extension of the computational technique is its application to the calculation of the transverse stability of a ship in a seaway. Under the condition described in 1953 by Mockel as most dangerous with regard to capsizing, i.e., running at high speed before a high following sea, it is shown that the transverse stability is greatly reduced when a wave crest is amidships. For the first example considered; the static stability curve, while showing reasonable values for the righting arms and range of stability in calm water, becomes almost entirely negative when a wave crest is admidships. For a second example, the very generous righting arms are reduced, in the wave crest, to only about one-half the values computed by cross curves or about two-thirds the exact still water values. Model test results are given which substantiate the computations. It is concluded from these results that the proper assessment of the transverse stability of a tuna clipper requires somewhat move refined techniques than those usually used. Only when the proper computational procedure is known and applied to produce an accurate evaluation of the vessel's stability can stability criteria be formulated and incorporated in the design process. The procedure described here fulfils these requirements in providing the naval architect with a means of more closely approximating on the drawing board the actual behaviour of the vessel at sea.
LA STABILITY TRANSVERSALE DES TUNA CLIPPERS

la cdte du Pacifique des E.-U. est caracterise par d'extrfcmes dissemblances dans la forme de 1'avant et de en resulte qu'avec la m&hode d'utilisation, cette classe de navires a rencontre des difficult^ de stabilite* transversale peut-dtre plus seVeres que celles anrontees dans la plupart des autres types de navires de peche. En plusieurs occasions, un certain nombre d'auteurs ont suggr6 que les calculs conventionnels de stabilite" manquent quelque peu leur but, qui est de decrire convenablement la stabilite* de ces
Le "tuna clipper" de
II
1'arriere.
bateaux.
L'auteur discute les insuffisances du diagramme de stability transversale calcute pour un "tuna clipper** et qui donne les courbes de stability aux grands angles d'inclinaison. II est montre que, par suite du franc-bord extremement bas a I'arriere, les "tuna clippers** sont en difference quand ils gtent, violant ainsi le postulat fondamental de ne pas employer Tassiette dans le calcul des courbes de stability aux grands angles d'inclinaison. Cette assiette a pour resultat, en eau reellement calme, une stability transversale qui est appreciabtement inferieure a celle calcul& selon la m&hode donnant les courbes de stability aux grands angles d'inclinaison. L'auteur donne une methodc scion laqueUe la stability transversale peut &tre calculee tout en permettant au bateau d'avoir de Tassiette, satisfaisant ainsi completement les conditions et son application est beaucoup plus d'equilibre statique. La methodc est seulement legerement plus compliquee que le calcul habituel, generate. Le calcul est applique & deux navires servant d'exemples et donne des bras de redressement substantiellement inferieure a ceux obtenus conventionnellement dans les deux cas. Une extension significative de la technique devaluation est son application au calcul de la stability transversale d'un navire par mer forte. Dans les conditions decrites par Mockel comme c*tant les plus dangereuses en ce qui concerne te chavirement, c'cst-a-dire faisant route a grande vitesse devant une mer forte de Tarriere, ii est montr que la stabiliti transversale est fortement rtduite quand une crftte de vague se trouve au milieu du bateau. Pour le premier exemple consider*, la courbe de stabilit statique, tout en montrant des vatoun raisonnables des bras de redressement et de la gamme de la stabilite en eau calme, devient presque entierement negative quand une crttc de vague se trouve au milieu du bateau. Pour un second exemple, les tres genereux bras de redressement sont nSduits dans la crftte de vague, a seulement la moiti* des valours estimees par les courbes de stabilite" aux grands angles d'indinaison, soit environ les deux tiers des vateurs exactes en eau calme. II est donn6 des resultats d'essais de modele qui appuient les evaluations. L'auteur deduit de ces resultats que revaluation convenable de la stability transversale d'un "tuna dipper** necessite des techniques quelque peu plus eiaborees que celles uttlisees habitueilement. Les criteres de stabilite pcuvent tfre tommies et inoorpores dans I'etabHssement du projet seulement quand on connalt le prooide convenable devaluation et qu'il est appliqu* pour produirc une evaluation precise de la stabiliti du bateau. Le proc&tt decrit id satisfah ces exigences en fournissant a 1'architecte naval un moycn de donner une approximation plus exacte tur la table a detiin du comportement reel du navire a la mer.
LA ESTABILIDAD TRANSVERSAL DE LOS CLIPERES ATUNEROS

f El dipcr atuncro de la oosta del Padfico de k EJJ.A. se carictcriza pot clase de barco ha la maiicra en qiic es utilizado, diversas ea crnsl todos los otros tipot de baicos do pesct. .En cûOonea vrt os aotot^ posibJemente n3u7vms que las que se pmentan
deproaydepopa. Debido a dk> y a
b<*^ ^**>^*^ 2^JL^2!S25
Gmsuieridoquek)sc4)c^
1489}
SEA BEHAVIOUR
El tutor diacutela inmfidencut del dtagnunadeettabilidad transversal cateutoda para el diper atunero por ei mftodo do lat curvas tnntvmafet. Se ha demostrado quo, debkto a lo bajo gue es ei ftincobordo a popa, los dipperat atuneros se asientan mucho por la Este popa cuando so baiaaccan, viotawlo aai d postulado fundan^ trimado tiene por raukado, en aguaa totalmente en catena, una ettabilidad transversal que es aensibtanente inferior a la cateuiada por ei 1 el cual calcular la un mftodo se eatabilidad transversal autor propone m&odo de las curvas tnnsvenaks. puede permitiendo que legun el b*rco tenga el asfento y satisfactendo asi por complete las condidonet de equilibrio cstAtioo. El mttodo es 61o un poco mas complicate 2 a de su El dUculo sirven mas en se barcos el c*fcuk> habitual y mucho aplicacton. aplica que ejemplo y da brazes de general que adrizamiento bastante mis pequeflos que los obtenidos conientemente en los dos casos. Una extenti6n significativa de la tfentea de la cvaluaci6n es su apticadfa al calculo de la estabilidad transversal de un barco que navcga en mar grueaa. En las oondick>nes descritas por Mtickd en 1953, como las mas petigrosas en k> relative al vueko, es detir, navegando a mucha marcha con mar gruesa en popa, se demuestra que la estabilidad transversal se reduce mucho cuando la cresta de una ola se encuentra en la mediania del baroo. Para el primer ejemplo oonsiderado, la curva de estabilidad estadca, aunquc muestra valores razoaabte para el bcazo de adrizamiento y la gama de estabilidad en agua tranquila, se convierte en casi enteramente negativa cuando la cresta de una da esta en la mediania. Para un segundo ejemplo, los muy generosos brazes de adrizamiento se reduoen en la cresta de la ola a la mitad, aprox., de los valores estimados por las curvas transversales, o en unas 2/3 partes de los valores exactos en agua tranquila. Se dan los resuhados de ensayos con modelos que confirman las evaluaciones. El autor deduce de etlos que la evaluaci6n adecuada de la estabilidad transversal de un cliper atunero cxige tecnicas algo mis elaboradas que las que se emptean habitualmente. S61o cuando se conocen los procedimientos de evaluacibn adecuados y se aplican e incorporar en el establecimiento del proyecto los cntcrios , se pueden formular para oblener una evaluac&n exacta de la estabilidad del barco, fac al arquitecto naval un medto de aproximarse mas de estabilidad. El procedimiento imiento descrito aqui sattsface estas exigencias al facilitar exactamente en el tabtero de dibujo al comportamiento real del barco en el mar.
THE
geometry, internal arrangements, and fishing clippers of the Pacific Coast of the U.S.A. have led to a number of transverse stability problems which are peculiar to these vessels as a class. During recent years certain pf these problems have been
method of the
The general problem of transverse stability confronting the naval architect may be divided into three parts. First, the transverse stability must be expressible quantifrom a knowledge of the vessel; second, the of the vessel must be made so as to ensure adequate design stability without impairing her function; and third, "adequate stability" must be defined in the same quantitative terms utilized in the first part. Thus it may be seen that in order to apply the knowledge implied in part
tatively
discussed by several writers, notably Snyder (1946), Dickie (1947, 1949) and Hanson (1955). In the discussion of Hanson's paper, for instance, it is pointed out that
die conventional computational procedures yield an inadequate assessment of the transverse stability of this type of vessel. This results from the vessel's strong tendency to trim by the stern at angles of heel greater than that at which the deck edge is submerged. Consequently, the basic assumption of the usual cross-curve computation, i.e. no heel induced trim, is violated and the results so calculated will not accurately represent the actual behaviour of the vessel. This leaves in general a
three to satisfy the requirement expressed in part two, the procedure noted in part one must be known and must
set
be valid. In other words, before stability criteria can be up and before the design of the vessel can be made to
conform to these criteria, what is meant by the stability must be defined exactly. It is in this definition that the conventional methods, which depend for their validity on extensive experience with more conventional vessels,
the special case of tuna clippers. the purpose here to discuss in greater detail the shortcomings of the conventional methods when used
fail in
great portion of the final judgment of the vessel's stability to the experience and intuition of the designer. That this is not a desirable situation may be inferred from Hanson's
It is
noting the loss of some 75 of these vessels in a three-year period with the implication that a significant number of these losses is attributable to inadequate transverse
stability.
in expressing the stability
of tuna clippers and to show
they may be improved upon. Two separate situations are considered in which are obtained much closer approximations to the actual transverse stability of these
how
In an attempt to partly offset this lack of analytic design knowledge, the underwriters have required multiple inclinings of the completed vessel in conditions representing, as nearly as possible, the loadings assumed during the various phases of operation. While such multiple inclining experiments yield valuable insight into the initial stability of the vessel, it must be remembered that ships, when capsizing, exceed by a considerable margin the range of heel angles for which the initial meUccntric height governs the behaviour. Moreover, the low freeboard-to-beam ratio of tuna clippers results in submergence of the deck edge and consequent radically altered shape of the immersed volume at relatively small angles. Consequently, the initial metacentric height is even less valid as a criterion of stability than in the case
vessels
when operating
at sea.
Effect of trim
on traverse
stability
conventional cross-curve computation, it is assumed that the vessel rotates about a'longitudinal axis which is fixed in the ship and which always remains parallel to the water surface. As a result of fore and aft
In
the
asymmetry this assumption is not, in general, satisfied by actual vessels, and the departure from this condition
is
fore
exaggerated the greater the dissimilarity between the and after bodies. For seagoing vessels of normal merchant ship form, however, the fore and after bodies
are sufficiently similar that significant errors in predicted arms are not introduced as a result of this
righting
of most other vessel types.
assumption. On the other hand, there are certain classes of vessels
[490]
STABILITY
TUNA CLIPPERS
In order to maintain equilibrium the ship must trim by the stern until die centre of buoyancy again lies in the same longitudinal position that is occupied for the upright ship. This equilibrium waterline is shown in in the forcbody fig. 526 as WLi. It will be below
WL
Noting the location of the centroid, b, of the increment of area, it is seen that the change in the local righting moments in both of these regions is negative. In the forward sections an area having a positive moment with respect to the total area is removed, while in the after sections the moment of the added section is negative. Thus, as a result of trim,
in the
Fig. 526.
and above
WL in the afterbody.
Inclined fore and afterbody sections illustrating the effect of trim on local righting arms
displacement having a positive righting moment is lost forcbody and displacement, which has a negative
moment, is added in the afterbody. The vessel's trim by the stern, which results from the heel, therefore
righting
that possess form peculiarities which render the stability calculations performed under this assumption practically meaningless. Such a vessel type is the tuna clipper
characterized by great freeboard and somewhat V-shaped sections forward, combined with practically no freeboard and extremely broad flat sections in the afterbody. With
to
such a freeboard distribution, an angle of heel sufficient immerse the deck edge aft will invariably result in a trim by the stern. This may be deduced quite easily by
reference to
fig. 526, which shows typical forebody and sections of a tuna clipper inclined to a large afterbody is that angle of heel. The water surface marked
WL
assumed in the usual cross curve computation allowing no trim. In the forward sections it is noted that the area of the immersed wedge is larger than that of the emerged
OICK
Fig, 528. Profile
PLAN
wedge because of the flare of the topsides. In the after sections, on the other hand, as a result of the extremely low freeboard, the immersed wedge falls far short of equalling the emerged wedge in area. Consequently, in the heeled condition there is a deficiency in volume in the afterbody and a surplus of volume in the forebody,
resulting in
and deck arrangement plan showing areas assumed

watertight.
Vessel
shift
forward of the centre of buoyancy.
reduces the actual righting moment as compared with the righting moment computed by the conventional cross-curve method, assuming no trim. The magnitude of this trim-induced error in the conventional stability computations has been determined for two tuna clippers, one representing the typical broad square stern form and the other incorporating somewhat different stern lines finished off with a semi-cruiser stern.
PROFILE
Outboard profiles and deck arrangement plans of both vessels are given in fig. 527 and 528 showing the portions assumed watertight for the computations in each case.
Table 134
lists
The procedure 'which
the principal dimensions of these vessels. is used in performing the
OfCK
KM
stability computations is illustrated by fig. 529. At each of ten stations, for a fixed angle of heel, the area and moment of area up to each of several parallel waterlines are obtained by means of an integrator in exactly the manner followed in the usual cross curve computation. These values, for each station, are then plotted as
Fig. 527.
eck arrange Pro/Ue and deck arrangement plan showing areas assumed
Wf&tfttfnt*
abscissae
station
on an ordinate located at the appropriate on a profile of the heeled ship. The resulting plots
[491]

are heeled Boqjean curves and similar curves of transverse
SEA BEHAVIOUR
moment of area as in fig.

If
530.
superimposed on fig. 530, as denoted by WL, the area and moment of area of each station up to this wateriine may be read (indicated* for example, at station 5 as di and d, respectively). The condition of
is
a watcriine
equilibrium requires that the displacement and the longitudinal position of the centre of buoyancy be the same for the heeled vessel as for the vessel in the original
upright position.
Thus:
L
A(x)dx
o
L
=
0)
Fig. 530.
Curves of heeled station areas and moments for
y30
VesselB
|xA(x)dx=XB
Here A(x)
integration
is
the station area
up
to
WL read for tabular

at
by Simpson's Rule as d,
each station from
of loading in each case corresponds to that of the vessel of dry frozen fish and with double bottom fuel tanks full. This loading, while not always the condition which results in minimum stability, generally results in a value near the minimum encountered in operation and is typical of the loading under which the vessel operates during an appreciable part of the time. The most striking feature of the stability curves in behaviour of fig. 531 and 532 is the markedly dissimilar
full
GM
TABLE 134
Principal dimensions of example ships
Vessel 'A
'
Vessel 'B
in.
'
LOA
B
.99ft.
.
in.
(30.18m.) 127ft. 4
(7.62m.) (3.65m.)
(38.81m.)
(9.30m.)
(3.82m.)
25ft.
11
ft.
Oin.
Ill
in.
30
12
ft.
in.
ft.
6*
in.
475 tons (470 cu. m.)
693 tons (686 cu. m.)
Fig. 529. heeled section
ilfiat rat ing
calculation
and plot ting of area
and moment curves

530, x is the longitudinal co-ordinate of A(x); V is the volume of displacement of the upright ship, XB is the longitudinal position of the centre of buoyancy of the ship in the upright position. By trial and error, the heeled wateriine, WL, is located so that conditions (1) are simultaneously satisfied. Once is so located, the transverse moment of area may be read at each station <noted on fig. 530 as d,) and integrated over the length of the ship to yield the net righting moment. This procedure is repeated for several Angles of heel and the results plotted as a curve of transverse stability in the usual
fig.
the cruiser stern and the square stern vessel. The great disparity between the results with and without trim for the latter results primarily from the extreme difference in the shape of section fore and aft. In the cruiser stern
design, the after sections have more nearly the same shape as the forward sections below the wateriine and differ primarily in the amount of freeboard. The bait
WL
tanks located aft compensate for this lack of freeboard to some extent in both cases, however, so it is concluded that the more pronounced effect of trim in the case of vessel B is felt as a result of the very wide, flat sections.
manner.
curve of transverse stability was so obtained for each of the subject vessels, together with a second curve computed by the usual method of cross curves. The results ate given in fig. 531 and 532* All four of time curves give values of righting arms corrected to an initial obtained from the stability booklet prepared for Hie actual vessels. The condition
*Y GROSS- CURVE* (NO TRIM)
K> tO 50 40 50 ANGLE Or HEEL -DEGREES
GM
TUNA CUPPER A
Fig. 531.
GM'gQjfi Transverse stability M calm water
{492}
STABILITY
The
transverse stability in longitudinal waves
TUNA CLIPPERS
The heeled Bonjean and transverse moment curves given in fig. 530 are not restricted in their use to stability computations in
calm water. In general they may be used for
computing the restoring moment acting on the ship at an angle of heel if lines of intersection of the water surface at all sections of the ship are parallel and therefore the buoyancy forces at all sections act in the same direction. Thus, the transverse stability of a ship in head or following seas can be computed using these curves, since when the ship lies normal to the wave crests the intersection of the water surface with each station is a straight line and
of these lines are parallel to the line of wave crests, hence parallel to each other. If the position of the vessel relative to the wave can be determined, and if an assumption of a hydrostatic pressure distribution throughout the wave can be made, the stability computation can be carried out as described in the preceding section by substituting a wave profile for the straight waterline. The first of these conditions requires a knowledge of the pitch-heave motion of the vessel as related to wave phase and geometry. Thus the problem is first of all one of ship-wave dynamics. However, a very important special case may be considered which requires no lengthy analysis of ship-wave dynamics. A number of writers, particularly Mdckel (1955), observe that a small highspeed vessel finds itself in greatest danger of capsizing when running before a high following sea at a speed nearly equal to the wave speed. In this "most dangerous condition" the period of wave encounter is relatively large when compared with the ship's natural period of heave and pitch. Under such a condition, the heaving and pitching accelerations of the vessel are small, hence acceleration forces are small compared with static forces,
all
Fig, 533.
30 EO ANGLE OF
Transverse stability in waves and calm water. Series 60, Cfc0.60. Comparisons of computed and measured values
In this condition the sum of the vertical components of pressure forces over the immersed surface of the hull must equal the displacement of the ship. As a first approximation the pressure in a wave may be assumed to be hydrostatic. This is analogous to neglecting the "Smith
Effect" in the conventional bending moment calculation, together with the assumption that the presence of the vessel does not appreciably disturb the pressure distribu-
Under these assumptions, i.e. static equilibrium of ship on wave and a hydrostatic pressure distribution, the transverse stability in a following sea is computed as wave profile of desired length and height is follows: superimposed on the heeled ship profile (shown dashed on fig. 530), the areas of stations up to the wave profile are read from the heeled Bonjean curves (co-ordinates d'i) and the volume and longitudinal moment of the volume obtained by integration of these areas. By trial and error, the location of the ship on the wave is found such that the equilibrium conditions, equations (1) are
tion.
and
the vessel's orientation
on the wave
is
consequently
approximately that of static equilibrium in pitch and heave. In the limiting case, the ship speed equals the wave speed and the relative orientation of ship and wave
is
satisfied. Thereupon the transverse moments (coordinates d's) are read at each station and integrated to obtain the righting moment. This process is repeated for
exactly static.
several angles of heel at the same longitudinal position of ship on wave in order to obtain the complete curve of static stability. Such curves may be computed for several longitudinal positions of ship relative to the wave crest.
ft.
However, Grim (1952) and Wendel (1954) show

SHOSS-CMRVCS
<
that, in
0.40-.
NO TRIM)
TflHI
PERMITTED
moments result when the wave crest is nearly amidships and the wave length is approximately equal to the ship length. The maximum righting moments occur when a wave trough is amidgeneral the
righting
ships.
minimum
SO 50 40 30 10 20 ANGLE OF HEEL -DEGREES TU*A CLIPPER 6 OM3.2Sfl.

Fig. 532.
Model experiments to measure the transverse stability of a ship in waves have recently been conducted in the Ship Model Tank of the Department of Naval Architecture of the University of California, Berkely, California, U.S.A. In these experiments the righting moment acting on a heeled model towed in following seas was measured. The purpose of the experiments was twofold: First, to test the applicability of the computational procedure
described in the preceding paragraphs, and second, to determine experimentally the influence of variations in
ship geometry
Fig. 533 taken
Transverse stability in calm water
on the wave-induced stability variations. from Faulting (1958) gives a comparison
[493]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Fig. 534.
Model being towed at an angle of heel
to
measure
its
transverse stability in a following
seaway
of measured and computed righting arms for the basic model used in this study, a 5 ft. (1.S2S m.) long model of the David W. Taylor Model Basin Series 60 Block 0.60 form having a scaled sheer and freeboard approximating that of a modern shelterdeck cargo vessel of about 400 ft. (122 m.) length. This model and several others incorporating variations in beam and freeboard were towed heeled at several angles over a range of speeds in following seas and the righting moments were continuously recorded. Fig. 534 is a photograph of one of these models being towed at a heel angle of 30 in a following seaway. The resulting records showed, in general, a maximum righting moment when a wave trough was amidships, while a minimum resulted when a crest was amidships. The upper and lower curves shown in fig. 533 are respectively the maximum and minimum model righting arms in waves, while the middle curve is the curve of the righting arms in calm water. For these three cases, values computed by the proin addition to the experimental results.
between computed and experimental values is remarkable, especially in view of the extreme simplification of the problem inherent in the assumptions of hydrostatic
and static ship-wave orientation. Preliminary showed that the measured righting moments are independent of model speed for a range of zero speed up to a model speed equal to the wave speed. From the agreement between computed and measured values, it is
pressures
tests
therefore concluded that the assumption of static equilibrium and hydrostatic pressure distribution leads to results which are of acceptable accuracy in representing
the following sea situation.
The
results given in fig.
533 were obtained for a wave
length equal to the model length and a wave height of series of tests conducted in one-twentieth the length.
waves of various lengths and of heights one-twentieth the length showed approximately constant maximum and
righting moments for wave lengths equal to or greater than the ship length. For lengths appreciably less than the ship length, the w&ve-induced stability changes
minimum
cedure described in the preceding section are indicated, The agreement
become less pronounced and thus less important. Consequently, it is concluded that the wave of length equal to ship length and height of one-twentieth the length
represents
a reasonably attainable "worst situation"
-0.4
TUNA CLIPPER A
Fig. 515.
QM
2.06
ft
IDASmJ
Transverse stability in a following sea.
Wave length-
which may be adopted as a standard of comparison for computation of stability in waves. On the basis of the preceding, the transverse stability in the standard L/20 waves was computed for the tuna clippers A and B described in the previous section. Resulting curves of righting arms are given in fig. 535 and 536 respectively. Here the same stability reduction in the wave crest shown by the Series 60 design is apparent, exaggerated to an extreme degree in the case of Ship A by the rather poor initial stability of this vessel. In the case of vessel B, while adequate righting arms are main-
[494]
STABILITY
~ TUNA
CLIPPERS
tained in the wave crest, the maximum arm is reduced to about two-thirds of its value in calm water and only about one-half the value computed by the conventional method of cross curves. From these results, it will be
concluded that the transverse stability of a tuna clipper at sea may bear little resemblance to the transverse stability of the same vessel on the designer's drawing
board.
Conclusions
metacentric height is sufficiently small even though apparently adequate for calm water the transverse a stability of the ship in a wave crest may be reduced to with actual value. The low experience dangerously is illustrative of this situation. In calm water, vessel the metacentric height and righting arms, while relatively low, were considered acceptable, since the range of positive righting arms is fairly large. In waves, the righting arms, crest amidships, are vanishingly small or
Two factors which may cause the transverse stability of a ship to differ from that predicted by the designer have been investigated. They are: (a) trim which occurs during heeling as a result of fore-and-aft asymmetry of the ship form and is neglected in the conventional crosscurve computation of stability; and (b) a longitudinal
negative over the entire range. This vessel, having marginal stability to start with, capsized and sank on her maiden voyage. Perhaps fig. 535 and 536 contain a clue. Tuna clipper B is one of the newest and most modern
in the California fleet.
With her rather generous initial metacentric height she possesses apparently adequate transverse stability both in calm water and in waves. However, it is interesting to note the appreciable error in her calm-water stability, as predicted by the conventional method of cross curves. In view of this large error, it is apparent that transverse stability curves computed
in the conventional
manner cannot be
relied
upon too
heavily in the case of the usual broad, flat counter stern
type tuna clipper.
Two recommendations to the designer are suggested by the foregoing discussion. As a result of the large
computed
trim-induced error contained in the transverse stability for the tuna clipper by the conventional methods, a more exact investigation of the still-water
40 30 50 10 20 ANGLE OF HEEL- DEGREES
60
(1.00m,)
The stability during the design process is indicated. inclusion of a "generous margin" of unknown magnitude The prois no substitute for more exact knowledge.
cedure described in the first part of the present paper is only slightly more involved than the conventional method and yields results which are a much closer approximation
TUNA CLIPPER
Fig. 536.
GM
29
(t.
Transverse stability in a following sea. Wave length ship length, wave height =2/20 wave length
of the actual situation. As the second point, reference to
seaway, in particular a following sea, which alters the transverse stability of the vessel by altering the shape of the immersed form as compared to the calm water
situation.
As a consequence of peculiarities
in the tuna clipper's
geometry, heel-induced trim nearly always results in transverse stability appreciably less than that predicted by the cross-curve method of computation. This error in the predicted versus the actual stability is aggravated by the extremely low freeboard aft and wide shallow
fig. 535 and 536 shows the very severe stability reductions possible in a seaway. Here it is shown that the most dangerous situation occurs when a wave crest is amidships. In this case the immersion of the deck edge amidships occurs at a smaller angle of heel than is required in calm water, or, at the same heel angle, the deck edge is more deeply immersed in the wave crest than in calm water. The case by an righting moment will be increased in this
of normal broad square stern tuna clippers. A cruiser stern with deeper and narrower sections would reduce this effect because there would be greater simithe same larity between the fore and after sections. At after narrower the that in mind be borne it must time, watcrlines associated with the cruiser stern increase the difficulty of obtaining adequate initial metacentric height. When the vessel operates in a following sea, the transverse stability varies with time as the ship encounters is succeeding waves. In general, the transverse stability initial If the is wave crest a a minimum when amidships.
after sections
increase in freeboard amidships. Consequently, it may be possible to serve the needs of the fishing method by freeboard to a minimum aft and, at the same
keeping
the time, materially improve the "'seagoing stability' of vessel by raising the freeboard amidships.
Acknowledgments The author expresses his appreciation to the University of Califoni^ and the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Eomnecri for their joint rapport, in the form of research grants, ofSe investigation
results are presented here. Acknowledgment is also made of the assistance of the following individual* or organization*: Mr. Gabor Dobfty, graduate student in naval architecture, for his atnittaiKt in Denorming and checking calculations: Dwight S Milter; Wendell H. Calkins; Morris Simpson; GuiSnfck; and National Steel and Shipbuilding Corporation,
whose
WiWC
[495]
SAFETY FROM CAPSIZING

by
KURT WENDEL
Casualties in recent years show that even new ships are not safe from capsizing. Hitherto naval architects have used empirical data derived from statistics of casualties to determine stability. But these data are only useful for similar ships operating under nearly similar conditions. The only way to solve this important problem satisfactorily is to compare numerically the various simultaneously acting heeling moments with the righting moments. As there are uncertainties on some heeling moments and there are other factors which are neglected, the paper gives some information how to estimate them. The influence of a seaway in reducing the smooth water righting moments is also discussed in the light of some recent research. Finally, instruments to determine the actual stability on board ships are briefly described.
LA PROTECTION CONTRE LE CHAVIREMENT

les accidents ont montrl que meme les nouveaux na vires ne sont pas a 1'abri du chavirement. Jusqu'a present, navals ont utilise" des donnees empiriques provenant des statistiques d'accidents pour determiner la stabilite. Mais ces donnees sont utiles scutement pour des navires similaires operant dans des conditions presque identiques. La seule facoa de resoudre cet important probleme d'une maniere satisfatsante est de comparer numeriquement les moments de redressement. Comme il existe des incertitudes sur quelques moments de chavirement et que d'autres facteurs sont negliges, la communication donne des informations sur la facon de les estimer. înfluence des vagues qui reduisent les moments de redressement en eau calmc est examinee aussi a la lumiere de recherches recentcs. Finalemcnt, 1'auteur donne une breve description des instruments pour determiner la stability rêlle a bord des navires.
Ces demieres annees,
les architectes
LA PROTECCION CONTRA EL VUELCO

Los sintestros maritimos ocurridos en los ultimos aftos demuestran que ni los barcos nuevos estan a cubierto del peligro de volcar. Hasta ahora los arquitectos navaJcs ban determinado la estabilidad empleando datos empiricos deducidos de estadisticas de siniestros, perp estos datos s61o son de utilidad cuando se trata de barcos similares que trabajan en condiciones cast analogas. La unica soluci6n satisfactoria de este probkma constste en comparer nume>icamente los varios momentos de escora y de adrizamiento que actuan simultAneamente. La ponencia explica la manera de estimar algunos mementos de escora sobre los que no se tiene seguridad y ostros factores de los que se hace caso omiso. Se examtna a la luz de algunas investigaciones recientes el efecto de la mar gruesa en la reduction de los momentos de adrizamiento que exitten en mar liana. Finalmente se describen con brevedad los instrumentos que existen para determinar la estabilidad real a bordo.
occurs more frequently than is generally anticipated. In 1957 there were no less than 23 cases of capsizing, 19 of which led to total losses. By these accidents about 250 men lost their lives
\S
It
Most of the ships involved were carrying dry bulk cargoes, thus shifting of cargo plays an important role is worth noting that during the last 50 years the
(Journal of Marine Catastrophies, 1958). Manley (1950 and 1958) has evaluated the losses of ships registered by Lloyd's Register since the beginning of this century. He shows that the number of small ships reported abandoned,
foundered and missing is progressively increasing. Ships of 200 ft. (61 m.) and below amounted to 36 per cent, of the casualties in 1899 to 1913, 48 per cent, from 1919 to 1938 and 66 per cent, from 1946 to 1955. Only 20 to 30 per cent,, however, of the world tonnage is of this size. The analysis of the disasters shows that: More than 70 per cent, of the casualties happened
lost
wind and sea play an important role Newly-buih ships were as numerous as the older vessels, thus implying that wear and tear was not the important factor Most of the ships lost had one deck with short
in winter, thus
U.S.A. and the Netherlands were much below the average, from which follows that losses can be minimized by improving design or by complying with certain rules. Abandoned, foundered or missing are terms of wide scope, but disasters caused by collision or lack of strength are not included in these statistics. Manley (1950) states: "It can be assumed that in the majority of cases of ships reported abandoned, foundered or missing, a major failure has occurred; that is, the ship has been overwhelmed by forces, the effect of which she was built to withstand". A ship can go down either on an even keel, over the
losses in the
bow or the stern, or after capsizing. Most of the accidents reported may have happened by capsizing. GeneraUy,
capsizing is followed by sinking, this assumption being derived from the author's research on stability as well as
superstructures or raised quarterdeck and therefore effective freeboard, thus it can be assumed that freeboard is one of the most important factors
had a small
from reports of survivors. The author does not know of any similar careful and extensive investigation of losses of fishing vessels ; but based on many losses and numerous reports and discussions (Traung, 1955) about the dangers
[496J
STABILITY
that fishing boats have withstood, he thinks that they are no safer than comparable sized merchant vessels, which Manley's investigations deal with. Some dangers may be
in a Ashing boat, e.g. shifting of cargo. Others, such as those from the sea and icing, are more serious in the Arctic fishing grounds than in the seaways used by merchant vessels.
of secondary importance
!
Capsizing Hitherto the naval architect has been interested only in the righting moments. It is known that these must be sufficient in order to counteract the heeling moments, but numerical comparison of heeling and righting moments has not yet become common. The heeling forces can be found by calculation. Their
rtr
Angb
of tocttnoton
50*
Fig. 539. Righting and heeling levers. GZr Bright ing levers, GZk^ tan a^metacentric heeling levers, OL^ slope of GZr curve at height
90,
heeling without
appreciable
acceleration.
ships,
Nearly
all
-f
Fig. 537.
greater
it is
lists,
which endanger
are of this type.
Forces acting on a ship
in upright position
Exceptions are inclinations caused by heavy rolling, but impossible to capsize a ship by rolling in transverse waves. The maximum angle up to which a ship may be inclined depends on the curves of righting and heeling
moments.
In fig. 539 the maximum angle is 9t where the two curves are tangent. The static upsetting angle must not coincide with the angle of the maximum righting lever, as believed for a long time (Rahola, 1939); it can be located at any angle with a positive righting lever,
moments can be
plotted against the angles of heel. The points of stable or unstable equilibrium are the points of intersection between the curves of righting moments
and heeling moments. A free moving body is influenced by the amount, direction and point of application of forces, usually changing with the angle of heel as shown in fig. 537 and 538. It has been found more practical to draw curves of levers instead of moments. Fig. 539 shows a curve of righting levers GZ r and some curves of the heeling levers. The
equation
GZ -GZh-0
r
(1)
gives points of intersection or a point of contact. equilibrium is stable only when
The
u GZ, -- GZ h >0. 09 09
-T
i.e.
(2)
60
90*
the curve of heeling levers intersects the curve of righting levers from the top to the bottom going from
when
Fig. 540. Static upsetting angles and angle of stable equilibrium for three different curves of righting levers intersected by the same curves of heeling levers
Fig. 538. Forces acting on in inclined position
a ship
depending only on the shape of the curves. Fig. 540 shows one curve of heeling levers and three different curves of righting levers. It can be seen that the same heeling moment can incline the two ships of curves 1 and
to right. This condition is fulfilled in fig. 539 at 9!. heeling beyond the angle <p lt the righting levers exceed the heeling ones and thus the ship will return to
left
from the upright,position to the static upsetting angles 9 1 and 9* although the curves have different maxima. It is merely the upsetting angles that are different Curve 3 even has a point of stable equilibrium at 9., though the
2
When
maximum
righting fevers are smaller,
that angle.
The
ship
static upsetting angle is the angle beyond which a will capsize if "statical" heeling takes place, i.e.
Dimensioning of righting levers The problem is now to dimension the righting levers in such a way that they ate greater than the heeling
[497]

of heel. The worst possible condimust be considered; average conditions are of no use. As the righting and heeling levers can easily be added or subtracted they can be compared like items in a balance sheet. Such a balance sheet must be established
levers at large angles
SEA BEHAVIOUR
These
the co-ordinate axes being those of the ship.
tions
moments have to be calculated for all partially-filled tanks, summed up and divided by the total displacement
of the ship, thus giving the heeling lever of
filled
partially-
tanks.
Fig. 541. Shtft
of centre of gravity
--fromGtoGiin a partially filled

a
tank at small angles of inclination, and b are wedge-shaped
Shift of cargo or other weights. It is sometimes said that naval architects have nothing to do with the dangers caused by shift of cargo; in some cases, however, it is
volumes of equal size and shape
impossible for the seamen or stevedores to prevent this shift. If the calculation shows that the resulting heeling moments cannot be compensated by righting moments, alterations in the design of holds and coal bunkers must be made.
Additional weights. The quantity of water which will remain on deck after shipping a sea depends on the height and design of the bulwarks. Experiments on the effect of bulwarks (Wendel, 19S4) on a coastal cargo vessel of 260 ft. (80 m.) length, showed that with a bulwark height
at
It
an early stage of design in order to ensure a safe ship. has to contain:
Draught
T
A
Volume of displacement, V
Total weight (displacement), Height of centre of gravity, Height of metacentre,
KM
=
KG
and for the angles of
inclination
<p
30, 45 and 60,
the heeling levers caused by:

(1) Partially filled tanks (2) Shift of cargo or other weights
(3) Additional weights, such as water on deck, water in holds and other compartments, icing (4)
G' Fig.
Detail of Fig. 542. 543. y** inclination, y=* horizontal shift

centre
shift
of
of gravity. z= vertical of centre of gravity
Wind
pressure
when turning Extraordinary heeling moments, such as grounding, transverse pull, hanging weights (9) Correction to righting levers for seaway (10) Safety (amount of balance)
(5) Centrifugal forces
(6) to (8)
and the righting

(1)
levers for:
The load condition considered, including corrections for additional weights (2) Watertight erections and deck cargo
m.) and freeing ports of 0.1 sq. ft./ft. (0.03 sq. m./ m.) length, about 50 per cent, of the water coming on deck was still on the deck after 40 sec. Calculations for the same ship showed that if there is a period of encounter of 15 sec., and an average volume of water of 20 tons comes on the deck from each wave, there will remain:
of 3.3
(1
Fig. 542. Shfft of centre of gravity at large angles of heel. With no tank top the fluid level would have reached the dotted line
10 tons after the passing of one wave; 25 tons after the passing of three waves; and 30 tons after the passing of five or more waves.
Specification of
ParttaBHffled tanks. As a rule water and fuel tanks are not full, so the free surface effect must be considered. Provided the inclination is small, the liquid will shift so that the volume of the emerged and immersed wedges are equal (fig, 541), As soon as the level of liquids reaches the top or bottom of the tank (fig. 542 and 543) the shift of the centre of gravity will become smaller.
These values have been confirmed by experiments. M5ckel (1949, 1955) reported that for a considerable time the whole deck of a trawler was filled with water nearly up to the bulwark rail. Icing causes considerable heeling moments. The effects of icing have been shown by the BSRA (1957 and p. 51 1) model tests where a 180 ft. (54.8 m.) trawler of 1,1 15 tons displacement capsized due to 150 tons of ice. This
report also gives detailed information about the distribution of ice. Two-thirds was stated to be on deck and the
The
heeling
moment
will
be
where W=wtight of the
liquid, y=*horizontal shift
and
z=tvertical shift of the centre of gravity of the liquid,
and one-third in the rigging. Traung (1957) gives figures from the Russian stability rules which allow for 6.1 Ib./sq. ft. (30 kg./sq. m.) of ice on deck and 3.35 Ib./sq. ft. (16.4 kg./sq. m.) of ice on the rigging and spares up to a height of 33 ft (10 m.). These figures may be somewhat high in the opinion of
superstructure
1*98]
STABILITY
many
naval architects.

ments were conducted because some trawlers and ferry boats were lost in a strong gale. At 45 inclination the heeling moments were only half of those. in the upright
As
these weights are additional,
and the draught increase. The weights added masses of ice must be estimated, multiplied by each other and, after division by the total
the displacement and levers of the
displacement, put into the stability balance.
Wind
pressure.
The
is:
side
wind moment on a ship

w
in
upright position
where
Mw=W2.Vw*.A.d. = density of air pa
...
10, 12
1!
(3)
ffcfe*
ft* fcmwto 0.25 +
0.70o*V
Vw =wind velocity; Beaufort 6, 8,
means
A = lateral
d
about 23, 35, 50, 58 knots, (12, 18 25, 30 m./sec.) respectively; a velocity of 115 knots (60 m./sec.) has sometimes been recorded
area including erections rigging exposed to the wind ^distance between the centre of
in practice, this
is
and
wind water and the of centre pressure pressure:

taken as the vertical distance between the centre of the exposed area and a point at half draught
Jp
ff*
JP
Wind pressure
heeling
Fig. 545.
moments
=wind
pressure coefficient; according to

full-
model experiments (Horn, 1943) and

scale experiments (Wendel, 1958)
1.3
condition.
The measured
f (9)
values can be approximated by

8
about
to
the formula:
= 0.25+0.75 cos
list
(4)
The wind moment has often been assumed

constant at
all
be
The constant term shows
that a percentage of the
wind
angles of heel. There are even formulae based on the assumption that the wind moment is greatest at an angle where the ship has the largest
moment is
still
acting at a
of 90. Thus wind pressure
results in the following heeling lever:
exposed area (Rahola, 1939, gives an extensive list of papers). The assumption is wrong that the wind force
proportional to the projected area, (ii) is acting in the centre of area, and (iii) is acting with the direction of the wind. Ships are box-shaped structures if masts, When a box is sails, rigging and rails are neglected. inclined, the distribution, magnitude and direction of pressure varies (fig. 544). According to fig. 544c and d, the moment decreases with inclination, although the projected area increases, this being confirmed by wind tunnel tests in Japan (Kinoshita, 1957). These experi(1) is
GZh^-r^.f^)
...
(5)
Centrifugal forces when turning. An upright ship turning is acted on by the moment
when
from a couple due to the centrifugal force the reaction force of the water, where and m.v*/R m A/g=mass of the ship, v=peripheral velocity, and
resulting
R= radius of the turning circle.
The centrifugal force is acting at the centre of gravity, the reaction force at a point about half draught, thus 1 is the vertical distance between these two forces. Trials
a number of ships proved the moment not to be maximum at very small turning circles because of the reduction in speed. The maximum moment was found at a circle diameter of about four times the ship's length, the speed then being about three-quarters of
carried out with
full sailing
speed
Extraordinary forces. Trawl warp pull and hanging weights may cause considerable moments, but as these are acting only in comparatively good weather when Ships lying at fishing, they can often be neglected.
anchor in a heavy seaway require special considerations,

because extraordinary moments are acting. On ships in an inclined position the immersed part of the hull is asymmetric and resistance has a component athwartships which causes a heeling moment. At normal speeds
544. Distribution
of wind pressure on a prism
[499]

this
SEA BEHAVIOUR
moment is of secondary importance like those caused

wave pattern or by
trim.
by the ship's
At any
Tfce rfcfatfng terns angle the righting lever in
fig.
546
.
is:
.
GZ=c-BG
sin
(7)
righting levers must be known at greater angles of heeh There are some approximations, based on a comparison with finished ships (Krappinger, 1958); it is, however, advisable to draw a preliminary lines plan and to calculate the righting levers at angles of heel of 30, 45 and 60. The centre of gravity must be calculated for the most dangerous load condition. There are different opinions as to whether erections
are to be included.
The implication
that erections give
Fig. 546. Forces acting
on inclined
ship
not always correct. Doors and openings be forced may open and water collected inside, resulting in additional heeling moments. Draining might be slow; in addition, the hull may be filled by more water from subsequent waves. An erection excluded from the stability calculation is not only "non-existent", but is
greater safety
is
also dangerous if flooded.

If the ship is considered wallsided the immersed and emerged wedges have the same shape. Then
GZ= ( GM+BM tan*9\

This equation
sin si
(8)
-;
is valid as long as the sides can be considered parallel, not when the deck edge is immersed or the bilge emerged. To calculate the righting levers the ship may be divided into sections, and moment and
volume of displacement calculated by numerical integraThe fraction moment/volume gives the lever tion. sin 9 if the axis is put through the keel K. The
KM
righting lever is naturally smaller because the centre of is located above K, gravity
G GZ=(KM -KG)sin9
t
...
KM,
.
(9)
is
The
calculation of the righting lever
sin 9
geometric problem which many naval architects and mathematicians have dealt with, nevertheless the methods are very tedious. It can be facilitated by the use of
mechanical or electronic computers. As early as possible, at least approximate values of the
Influence of seaway on the righting moment, a section in the foreship, midship section t c section in the aft ship, A ship's
Fig. 548.
b~
weight
The
Alterations of the righting levers doe to waves sin 9 and the height of the centre of lever t
KM
in heavy head or following decrease the righting levers, generally therefore the decrease is included as a part of the heeling levers, although the deduction can only be calculated at
buoyancy vary considerably

seas.
Waves
same time as the righting levers. The most unfavourable case occurs when a wave of the same length as the ship is slowly overtaking. Fig. 547 to 549 show three sections of a ship in smooth water and on or between wave crests. It will be found that the maximum lever occurs with the wave through amidships, this lever being even somewhat greater than that in smooth waiter because the ends of the ship produce larger righting levers {Arndt and Roden, 1959; Grim, 1952/3; Wendcl and Platzoeder, 1958; Wcndcl, 1954).
the
Whh the
1%. 547. influence of seaway on the
righting
moment. *** section
in
t*eforeship,b=; midship action, c ^section in the aftship t weight
^^ ship's
smaller because
righting levers.
crest midships the righting lever is very much most of the hull sections do not produce
Fig.
550 shows A record taken during
1500]
STABILITY

TABLE 135
Righting fevers and
tfceir
model tests. The model, inclined to 30, was overtaken by waves of about the same length as the model with a height/length ratio of 1 :2Q. The record not only shows
righting lever varies during the overtaking period but also that the mean righting lever was considerably smaller than in smooth water. Every seaman
that the
decrease IB
seaway
Ship No. 1
Length,
Ship No. 2
310.0 94.49
knows a ship
There
to be "soft"
when
riding
on a big wave.
ft.
268.0
m. 81.60
Beam,
will generally not be enough time for the ship to capsize because the righting lever will soon increase. The mean reduction must, however, be considered in the
stability balance.
B
depth, D
ft.
43.25
45.90
14.02
m. 13.20
Moulded
ft.
This decrease of the righting lever in waves may be explained by a prismatic body having any shape, immersed to a displacement with maximum righting lever.
m.
Draught,
25.90 7.90
17.90 5.43
27.80
8,48
T
f
ft.
m.
Freeboard,
ft.
m.
Displacement,
8.10 2.47
ton
ft.
4,575
6,420
Wave
length, x
m.
262 80
sec.
Wave
height,
hw
ft.
23.0
7.0
m.
Maximum GZ
Angle of
in.
8.65
cm. 22.0
GZmax
deg.
in.
35
2.76
30
3.15 to 4.33 8 to 11
30
5.91 to 7.48 15 to 19
45
2.76 to 4.33 7 to 11
45
5.12 to 7.08 13 to 18
Decrease of GZmax
cm. 7.0
insufficient safety, the design

Fig, 549.
Influence
of seaway on the
righting
moment
When
it is
this condition is fulfilled for the
body
also fulfilled for each of the sectional areas.

is
as a whole, If the
immersion of some section areas
changed by a wave,
the righting levers will be less. The influences of the sea on stability are still not fully known, but the following can be stated: the deduction from the smooth-sea righting levers depends only on the
must be changed or the master be instructed how to increase stability during This latter solution is unsatisfactory but voyages. difficult to avoid in some cases. The moments resulting from free surface fluids can usually be decreased considerably by longitudinal bulkheads. Dry cargo or coal can be secured in the same way, generally with removable wooden boards. The accumulation of additional weights, e.g. water on deck or icing, can be avoided or decreased. There are various appliances for de-icing superstructures. Masts can be built without
stays
shape of ship and wave; it is in no case proportional to the smooth-sea levers. If displacement, rate of heel, position and shape of waves are fixed, the deduction is constant and can be compensated for by larger smoothsea righting levers.
and shrouds. The
BSRA researches (1957)
showed
Table 135 shows the righting levers of two ships in a seaway as calculated by Arndt and Roden.
Safety allowance
The
be safety allowance is the heeling lever which must added. ship may be considered safe when at angles of heel of 30*, 45 and 60 the balance appears on the left, i.e. in the heeling lever column. In the stability balance, unfavourable conditions should be investigated. AH of them will rarely coincide. If the stability balance gives
Fig. 530.
Righting moments measured by model teats In
a seaway
ISM]

that a strut of 18 in. (46 cm.) diam. iced to only 27 Ib./ft. (40.2 kg./m,), while a wire of 2 in. (51 mm.) diam. iced to 37 Ib./ft. (55.1 kg./m.) under the same conditions.
SEA BEHAVIOUR
A bulwark with a continuous opening will clear the deck from water much faster than the old-fashioned freeing port. Such openings may not be desirable for conventional trawlers, where the catch is handled on the
ft. (1.5 m.) broader, and curve freeboard increased by 3 ft. (1 m.). higher freeboard gives the best improvement, especially at large angles of heel Larger beam increases the mctaccntric height, which should not be too high for seakindliness, but it also increases the moments due to the shift of liquids in partially-filled tanks. Thus, in general, it is better to With increased freeboard, increase the freeboard. sin <p increases and thus the factor however, causes a greater deduction in the equation (7); but as the is greater, the result is an improvement. increase of and thus better means a smaller greater seakindliness. The stability loss due to waves becomes appreciable at greater angles of heel, and to counteract
prism 5
KG
BG
GZ
KG
GM
this loss
it is undoubtedly better to increase the freeboard than the beam. The trawler of table 136 and fig. 551 and 552 is not
An increase of freeboard resulted in a safety allowance of 2} in. (6.7 cm.) at 30 and i in. (0.6 cm.) at 45 (table 137 and fig. 553). In this load condition the
safe.
Fig. 551.
Righting levers and heeling levers of trawler in head seas --according to Table 136. The ship is unsafe
weather deck, but on stern trawlers, where the catch is handled in the 'tween deck, side openings in the shelterdeck bulwarks should be used. The heeling moment caused by the wind can hardly be reduced. The moment due to turning can only be reduced by lowering the centre of gravity. Further, it is almost impossible to reduce the loss of stability due to waves but it can be compensated for. The righting levers can be increased by solid or liquid ballast. Alterations in the main dimensions may induce a considerable improvement: this is illustrated by considering the rectangular prism in fig. 554. The height of the centre of gravity above the keel may be constant. The curve "a" is valid for the dimensions given. At a list of 15 the deck edge becomes immersed and up to this point the equation (8) is valid. Curve "b" corresponds to a
Fig. 553. Righting levers and heeling levers of trawler in the sonic case as fig. 557, but with increasedfreeboard according to Table 137. The ship has sufficient stability. (Superstructure not included in
calculation in all three cases.)
trawler will be safe

(forecastle,
when taking account of superstructure deckhouse) which were not included when
calculating the righting levers.
Stability criteria
Fig. 552.
lighting
lews and heeling levers of trawlers in beam seas -according to Table 136. The ship is unsafe
There are so far only empirical formulae and various criteria for minimum stability, and they are either not valid or are confined to special types of ships. In spite of the well-known and great influence of freeboard on stability, this was not considered at all when the international freeboard regulations were formulated. The mctacentric height (GM) is not sufficient for a detailed stability survey. Any search for a minimum righting lever or moment, which would be valid for all types of ships, is only a waste of time. It will not lead to any more satisfactory result than the search for a single formula for estimating the power of a ship of which
only the displacement
is
known.
1502]
STABILITY
TABLE 136
-Trawler
174
ft.
T15ft.
A =1,368
(53.00m,) (4.59m.)
B
f
ton
OM-3
HEADSEAS
Heeling moment 30 45 60
21 (8.00 m.) - 1ft. 4 in. (0.41m.)

ft.
-26
in.
ft.
(0.91 m.)
Righting
moment
60
Fig. 554.
Heeling angle
30
45
Righting levers for a rectangular prism
according to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1948, the balance method is commonly
used.
Something like table 138 is required, from which the curve of righting levers, giving adequate safety, can easily be determined.
Measuring
stability
The righting levers of a given ship at a given displacement can be altered only by changing the position of the centre of gravity. The rise of the curve of the righting
levers at the angle of
throughout
BEAM SEAS
thus defines that curve value is defined the value the defines, for a given by displacement, ship at a given displacement, the whole curve of righting should not be used to compare the levers, although righting lever curves for two different ships or for two different displacements. Having calculated the righting levers required for a given ship, e.g. by the method indicated above, the result may be expressed by a table,
its
90
whole range. As the
GM
KM
GM
showing the
minimum
values
required
against
the
master was able to measure the metadraught. ccntric height even while stowing, he could make sure that cargo was stowed so as to get sufficient stability; hence ships could be safe in all circumstances.
If the
TABLE 137
Stability balance
Trawler
ton)
(A- 1,112
HEADSEAS
Sufficient stability
can be ensured only by balancing
righting and heeling levers. The methods for calculating the heeling levers are not yet complete. Some of the heeling levers can easily be calculated, such as those due
to internal free fluids or shift of cargo. Others require more complicated calculations. Even if single items are doubtful, this method should be used. In this paper
a new concept is advanced regarding the wind moments, and some data on the loss of righting levers in a seaway are reported. Some full-scale and some model experiments seem to prove it, and detailed results are expected soon. The author succeeded in explaining some recent tragic cases of capsizing by the balance method. When calculating the stability of a ship in a damaged condition, which is, required for passenger vessels
HH
1503]

------------TABLE 138
SEA BEHAVIOUR
mwn
righting
slope of
towr curve
Inclination^
GM and GZ
Maximum GZ
Righting lever
Metacentric height Righting lever
in.
cm.
45.7 25.4 33.0
5.1
Oc
30
37"
CM
GZ GZ GZ
60
62^
18 10 13 2
QZ
00
The metacentric
height can be obtained either

test.
inclining or a rolling
from an Both methods have advan-
tages and disadvantages. As a rule, the inclining test is preferable. It can be carried out with water tanks at both sides of the ship which are filled alternately to a
known volume. Measurement of the small angle of heel is not easy, but can be made by a sextant, or a water
gauge.
curves.
CM
can be calculated with the aid of tables or
J
\Minatlon by heeling
forc*st e.g.wind pressure
Fig. 556.
An advantage of the rolling experiment is its simplicity,

especially when dealing with smaller ships which can easily be made to roil. Measurements of the radius of
gyration are published, so that this quantity can be estimated fairly accurately (Horn, 1953; Thode, 1954; Weiss, 1953). ft is difficult, however, to determine the natural frequency of a ship among the forced oscillations
Oscil/ogram front stability-at-sea recorder.
represents the
mean
slope
offluctuating
The thick line righting-lever curve indication
caused by sea.
self-acting instrument working on the principle of the inclining test has recently been developed by Arndt and Roden in the author's department (Boic, 1958; Hebecker, 1958). The test is carried out automatically
and the curve of righting levers in indicated by luminous points. The apparatus includes a computer with which the influence of the load can be calculated before
stowage. With a knob, the master brings a luminous indicator to the point where the weight will be loaded or unloaded. After having inserted the weight with another
in a few minutes. Fig. 555 shows this apparatus, which is the size of a wireless set. On the right panel are the
draughts and the displacements

water.
On
freshwater and seais shown the centre panel, the value of

in
GM value to be expected. This based on exact measurecalculation errors. ment of the initial GM and exludes
is
knob, he immediately sees the righting lever curve and the

all
GM
Another apparatus, also developed in the author's department by Roden and Baumann, is designed mainly for research. It presupposes motions of the ship, but it is not based on simple measurement of periods. According to the law of circular motions, the sum of moments acting is equal to the moment of inertia, multiplied by the
angular acceleration. As the ship's moment of inertia can be assumed to be constant for a certain load condition* the measured angular acceleration allows calculation of the moments acting (Boie, 1958; Hebecker, 1958). This apparatus should help to determine accurately the decrease of righting levers at sea and those of other heeling moments. Fig. 556 is a typical result from this instrument as shown on its cathode-ray oscillograph
screen.
The author wishes toexpress Disappreciation to Deutsche ForschungsFig. 555.
Front of stability measuring and indicating instrument. Right panel: draught and displacement indicator. Middle panel: and righting lever indicator. Left panel: arrangement for calculating the influence on other weight distributions
GM
gemeiiMchaft for financial assistance given for the Stability in a Seaway investigation and the development of the stability-indicating instruments mentioned. He also withes to acknowledge the valuable help of B. Arndt, C. Boie, O. Krappinger, S. Roden and U. Wagner in the preparation of this paper.
[504]
CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
by
Wm.
The need
losses at sea
C.
MILLER
tor safety at sea is just as great as it is ashore or in the air, as nature is an immeasurably destructive force. Records of however point out that the forces of nature are no more responsible than the failings of the crews. In the last six years, 29 California tuna clippers of more than 200 GT each have been lost, resulting in a financial loss of 4,650,000 ($13,000,000) disregarding the loss of earnings. 37 per cent, of the accidents were caused by human failure, 7 per cent, by physical failure and 56 per cent, by a combination of both. The causes of the loss of five clippers were reported. A was lost because ballast tanks were not filled as instructed. B sank, losing two lives, because an internal bulkhead gave way. The reason for this loss was determined by the help of a plcxiglas model, which could be filled at will by water in the various tanks. Vessel C was lost due to failure in the steering machinery in which, six years previously, an electrical safety circuit had been cut. D was at anchor, with her auxiliary engines stopped, awaiting better conditions. She was flooded, due to a leak, and because of the fact that the boat could not be pumped, she became a total loss. Vessel developed a fire in the engine room when the engineer on watch was drinking coffee in the galley, and it had got out of control before it was discovered. Training programmes must be established to give the seagoing personnel in the fishing industry the knowledge and experience required to prevent accidents. The task of designing and building a successful fishing vessel is difficult, but it seems to be still more difficult to introduce reforms in an industry that has been ruled by tradition and technical indolence for hundreds of years.
LES CAUSES D'ACCIDENTS

La necessite de la securite en mer est tout aussi grande qu'a terre ou dans Pair, car la nature est une force destructrice incommensuCependant, les releves des pertes en mer font ressortir que les forces de la nature ne sent pas plus resppnsabtes que les defaillances des equipages. Pendant les six dernieres annees, il a cle perdu 29 tuna clippers californiens de plus de 200 tx de jauge brute chacun, causant une sans tenir compte de la perte de revenus. De ces accidents, 37 pour cent etaient dus a des perte financier? de 4.650.000 (13.000.000$) defaillances humaines, 7 pour cent a des defaillances physiques et 56 pour cent a une combinason des deux. Les causes de la perte de 5 clippers sont rapportees. A a etc perdu parcc que les water-ballasts n'ont pas etc remplis comme il etait recommande. B a sombre, en perdant deux hommes, a cause du lachage d'une cloison interne. La raison de cette perte a etc determines a Taide d'un modele de pfexiglas. dont les divers reservoirs pouvaient &tre remplis d'eau a volonte. Le navire C a etd perdu par suite d'une panne de la machine a gouverner ctait ancre, attendant de meilleures conditions, et les dans laquclle, six ans auparavant, un circuit electrique de securite avait etc coupe. moteurs auxiliaires etaient arretes, mais il a etc perdu par suite d'une voie d'eau et du fait qu'il ne pouvait pas faire fonctionner les pompes. II y a eu un incendie dans la salle des machines du navire E, pendant que le mecanicien de quart prenait son cafg a la cuisine, et 1'incendie ne pouvait plus etre maitris quand on Fa decouvert, 11 faut que des programmes d'entrafnement soient etablis afin que le personnel des industries de la peche prenant la mer ait la connaissance et I'experience necessaires pour prevenir les accidents. Le dessin et la construction d'un bon navire de pechc sont une tache difficile. mais il semble plus difficile encore d'introduire des reformes dans une Industrie qui est gouvernee par la tradition et {'indolence technique
rable,
depuis des cental nes d'annees.
CAUSAS DE ACC1DENTES
tierra o en el aire, porque la naturateza es uni fuerza destructora inmensa, poncn de relieve que las fuerzas de la naturakza no causan mas accidents que las flaquezas de las tripulaciones. En los ultimos seis aftos se nan perdido 29 cliperes atuneros de California, de mas de 200 tons, brutas cada uno. que nan producido una perdida nnanciera de 4,650,000 ($13,000,000) sin contar la perdida de beneficios. El 37 por Ctento de lot accident** se debieron a flaquezas humanas; el 7 por cicnto a debilidad fisica y el 56 por cicnto a una combinacion de ambos. Se conooen las causas de la perdida de 5 cliperes: A se perdi6 porque los tanques de lastre no se llenaron siguiehdo las instrucciones dadas; B se fu a pique, con la perdida de 2 hombres, por haber cedido un mamparo interno. La raz6n de esta perdida se determin6 con ayuda de un moddo de vidrio ptexi, cuyos tanques se podian llenar de agua a voluntad: el cliper C se perdi6 por aveiia en el aparato de gobierno, en el que 6 anos antes se habia cortado un cirouito electrico de seguridad. D estaba fondeado esperando que mejoraten las condkaonci y tenia parados to*, motores auxiliara, pero se le abri6 una via de agua que lo aneg6 y se perdi6 porque las bombas de achique no se pudieron poner en marcha en E se inici6 un incendio en la sala de maquinas micntras el maquinista de guardia estaba en la codna bebiendo cafe, y para cuando se detcubrio no se pudo dominar. Debcn ettabtecerte programas de capacitaci6n para que el personal que tripula las embercaciones de la induitna pesquera adquient lc(xmc<imientoty wpwieiKîieo^ric^^ impedir accidentes. Es diffcil proyectar y construir un buen banco de pttca, pero pome ter mas <Hfidl todavfa introdudr wformas en una industria regida por la tradicion y la indotenica ttoiica durante dentoi <k *Aos.
La seguridad en
el
mar
cs tan necesaria
como en
Sin embargo, los relates de los siniestros maritimos
[505]

AFETY of personnel and preservation of equipment
gear are important to the fishing industry. The physical and moral responsibility are undeniably
in
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Based on insured value, these 29 losses have resulted a financial loss of 2,710,000 ($7,595,000) to the
industry and/or insurance underwriters, or
an average
the burden of the boat owners. The financial responsibilities are often borne partially, if not entirely, by insurance underwriters who compete for fishing vessel business. Several basic facts should be considered: Where personnel and equipment are not insured, a single accident can result in financial failure Tor the
yearly loss of 452,000 (81,266,000). The industry has also suffered the loss of the difference in the amount recovered from the underwriters and the cost of new
owners Because of the frequency and financial severity of such accidents, insurance premiums are at a high level and may seem an overburdening load to the men who pay them Risks are unavoidable, but injuries, loss of life and damage to or loss of equipment can be kept to a minimum through safety practices and the full co-operation of crews. Prevention of accidents, therefore, becomes the
personal problem of each individual, but, as always, responsibility rests with the leaders, who must have the
will to plan and put into effect a strong prevention programme based on technical details, experience, honesty and common sense. Much good material is available to help plan such programmes, but this generally covers only usual
1,950,000 (85,455,000) equipment, estimated to be total or 67,000 ($1 88,000) per owner. The total combined loss for six years is 4,660,000 ($13,050,000). These figures do not take into consideration the loss of
earnings.
loss
Another aspect not dealt with here is that of partial due to equipment failure and breakdowns, which,
in
some
mium
years, has almost equalled the insurance preand, in others, has exceeded it.
The figures show that fire, foundering and stranding comprise the most serious loss group but a study of the cause of loss records in official files shows that 37 per cent, of all accidents are clearly caused by human failure, 7 per cent, by physical failure and 56 per cent, by a combination of both, where the cause is not accurately
determinable. Thus in the past six years in Southern California alone, the annual monetary loss from total loss of vessels of more than 200 each has been as follows: Losses caused by personnel failures, negligence, etc:
foresight
and
accident
GT
It is necessary to prepare special precautionary requirements to cover local conditions and unusual circumstances. Then the success or failure of such a plan depends on how well the crews are trained to observe it. The need for safety at sea is just as great as it is ashore or in the air. But at sea, the most imminent dangers would seem to come from the sea itself, combined with wind and storm and other natural elements, which are immeasurably destructive. Yet records of losses at sea point out, on a comparative basis, that the forces of nature are no more responsible than the failings of crews. Thus, a destructive force equalling that of the powers of nature exists among the crews, and, although we have the intelligence, skill and organization to overcome
conditions.
287,000 ($805,000). Losses caused by physical failures of equipment: 54,000 ($152,000). Losses caused by a combination or one or the other:
435,000 ($1,21 8,000). If such losses are to be avoided the accidents must be prevented. A study of accident records must be made and every accident must be considered not only as a result important in itself, but also as a symptom of faulty condition. The results of such a study will form the
basis for a
sound accident prevention plan.
Some
accidents and their causes

identical steel tuna clippers,
Two
100
ft.
(30.5 m.) in
the
human failings, we
rarely use them to the
full extent.
and each with a crew of 14 men, length overall, 210 were built in California in recent years. One capsized and sank suddenly during her maiden voyage. The other made one trip and then a false keel was installed containing ballast to add to stability. She operated successfully for several years and then sank, but a very different behaviour pattern was reported for her during sinking
than for the earlier loss of her
these vessels as
sister ship.
GT
Accident types
There have been numerous spectacular losses of all sizes of fishing vessels, which provide excellent material
for the study of accident prevention.
The
California tuna
dipper fleet has contributed its full share of serious financial losses. In the last six years, 29 vessels of more than 200 GT each have been lost despite the fact that they operated in ocean waters almost totally free from serious storm hazard. Records show the loss percentage relative to cause to be as follows:
Per
cent.
Consider
A and B.
Foundering
Fire
Stranding Capsizing Heavy weather

Collision
....17 ...
.
.34
27
10 7 5
The loss of A was unquestionably due to failure of the crew to ballast the ship properly to provide minimum stability. Capsizing occurred in a calm sea, before any fish had been stowed in the freezing wells, white fuel oil was being transferred from a combination fuel and
freezing well to the fixed fuel tanks.
The
side well's
inboard longitudinal bulkhead was 2 ft* (0.6 m.) off the centre line. The well was shaped to the hull from the bottom to the weather deck and contained 22 tons of diesel oil. The loss was caused by filling this well without
[506]
SAFETY AT SEA
ballasting as specified
CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
The model required to obtain precise results was accurate in all details. It was constructed of clear plexiglas so that all interior spaces and equipment were
in view as
ballasting available.
by the written instructions for and loading, which were on board and
Apparently, the captain felt that his past experience in similar vessels made it unnecessary for him to refer to the technical instructions for the ship's
safety in this operation. Vessel B, in sinking, took the lives of
shown
in fig. 557.
Two
basic considerations were kept in
mind during
White cruising
in
two of the crew. calm water, with only a low flat swell
construction and ballasting. The first was the form of the hull, which was reproduced with great accuracy: the second was the exact location of the centre of gravity.
running, this vessel suddenly took a hard port list which gradually became worse. Suddenly, she trimmed by the bow and disappeared. The survivors stated that.
Other factors requiring attention were accurate reproduction of free surface, volume and surface permeability of
liquids.
Fig. 557.
Stability
model of Vessel
at the first list, her small boats were lost overboard so the crew were compelled to swim and cling to floating debris until the captain found a net skiff and managed
The model was approximately
5 per cent, lighter than
the equivalent ship structure to avoid any chance of being overweight. The first step was to locate the centre
to pick
them
up.
This loss was thought by the owners to be the result of failure of a recent hull repair but the technicians
concerned thought that the sudden list came from an internal shifting of weights caused by a failure of the
structure.
tested,
model was built and which revealed a trim condition affecting stability not previously recognized in the clipper class. These results can be useful in effecting greater stability in future
Investigation by model In an effort to establish the facts, a
vessels.
of gravity of the model in the position corresponding to that of the subject vessel at the time of the disaster. By referring to the original inclining experiments of the ship and to the testimony of the crew regarding its load condition and other pertinent data at the time of loss, the centre of gravity of the ship was accurately determined. The model was weighed in the light condition and. since the total displacement of the ship was known for her condition at the time of loss, the amount of weight required to be added to the model to duplicate the ship's condition was determined. The weights required represented crew and effects, frozen cargo, liquids, and
[507]

and
Sheet lead was used to represent crew stores but the representative weight for frozen fish presented a problem because the volume of the wells
useable stores.
SEA BEHAVIOUR
hypothetic conditions of floodittg were on paper, using both the lost buoyancy
the
Several
investigated
method and
had to be filled and the weight and density kept accurate and equaQy distributed in each well. After some searching, it was discovered that lead wool fulfilled the need. The remaining tanks were filled to the proper levels with water. This left approximately 5 per cent, more load to bring the model to accurate displacement. This deficiency was corrected by the addition of lead ballast which was experimentally moved about until the trim of the model represented that of the ship at the time of
the disaster.
series of inclining experiments were performed to position the centre of gravity accurately. Two methods of measuring the angle of heel during inclining were
significant to note that the
added weight method, and it was model performance was in
close agreement with calculated results at small angles of heel and trim.
At large angles of heel, the experiments frequently bore out the results of calculations but in certain areas discrepancies were noted. This is not to imply that the model impugned the results of the calculations or vice
versa.
Actually, the
model was able
to reveal certain
employed; one using high intensity
on
a
to a small mirror
on the
hull side
light rays projected and reflected on to
vertical
measuring
scale; the other using the
common
pendulum as in full-size inclining experiments. The pendulum was suspended from the crow's nest to the top of the deckhouse where a small graduated scale was attached. The scatter of plotted points when the model was inclined indicated an accuracy comparable to full-scale
were completed during which many minor characteristics of the model were developed. But the centre of gravity was accurately placed and other factors of load and trim were satisinclining experiments.
phases of damaged stability which could be deduced only with great difficulty by calculations. In at least one condition of flooding the model showed a complete loss of stability and capsized, whereas calculations had indicated that stability would be maintained. However, because of the locations of the flooded spaces in this condition, the model assumed a trim by the stern which had not been considered in the calculations and the geometry of the hull resulted in considerably less reserve of stability than the calculations had indicated. The experiments with the model showed that certain nuances could be explored more readily in this manner than by
calculations.
Fourteen
tests
For example, effects of minor changes in loading could be determined in a few minutes experimentally,
while to arrive at the same results by computation
would require
several
hours of work.
The
variable
factorily obtained during the first five tests.
Every point Since the sea was reported to be calm on the morning of the loss, it was felt that the tests should be held in static conditions only. The modelling laws to be satisfied in the case of purely static tests were those which stem from the geometry and condition of equilibrium of
static forces
factors affecting stability at large angles of heel such as free surface and permeability, affected the results These radically for small additional angles of heel.
effects are difficult to evaluate
by computation and.
in
some
instances, several trial

static angle
and error approaches were

the necessity for
used before the
of heel could be determined.

the
results
An
accurately built
model obviates
computers
and
produces
automatically.
by the
first
and moments. On this basis, lengths scale power, areas by the square and volumes by
results as static angle of heel, moment to incline, trim and other criteria can be measured this wa\ in a
Such
the cube of the linear ratio. If a model is to float at a waterline, obtained by the application of these laws in a medium, the density of which differs from that of the medium in which the
few minutes.
prototype floated, the displacement of the model and static forces will be scaled by the volume ratio multiplied by the ratio of densities. The dynamic effects involving flow of fluid from one location in the ship to another location are, in general, difficult to duplicate on a small scale because of the presence of viscous scale effects. However, such dynamic effects would be of minor importance so long as the time required for them to take place is large in comparison with the natural period of response of the ship to the mode of excitation in question. Evaluation of the testimony of the crew indicated that the movements of weight before sinking occurred over a period of minutes and, as the average period of roll of a typical tuna clipper is of the order of 10 sec., it was felt with a high decree of certainty that the situation could be considered
all
Cause of loss was found The model accurately reconstructed every detail of the sinking as reported by the vessel's master and crew. By repeatedly sinking the model, it also proved without
question the exact cause of the loss because the reported pattern condition occurred by only one shift of internal weights. In all other conditions of flooding, whether
from internal tanks rupturing or from the hull opening to the sea, the model's behaviour pattern in sinking was radically different from the detailed testimony of the crew.
Before leaving this incident it should be noted that during the study of this loss it was determined that exterior hull and deck openings, vital to security, were open when the vessel's initial list occurred. Also, it was shown by the model test that had these openings been dosed, as they were required to be by instructions to the master for maintaining stability, the vessel would not have been lost.
static.
1508)
SAFETY AT SEA
Time huU
The court found
CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
electrically, in the case of or partial damage in the system, the clutch at the master wheel may be engaged by the helmsman without danger to himself, such as having his arm broken by a spinning wheel He may take over manually, completely by-passing the electro follow-up mechanism.
openings were not the reason for the list. that a halt well bulkhead bebw deck and/or its water supply Itees broke, due to poor maintenance, allowing approximately 30 ton of water to empty into the shaft alley bilges. This started the list which submerged two of the hull openings A study of this kind is sometimes costly when considered in relation to a particular incident but when it results in knowledge to use in forestalling other accidents, such a cost is more than justified.
tion.
When
being steered
power
failure
The system on C consisted of the electro-mechanical column on the bridge, and a manually controlled steering stand and an electric controlter forward of the The controller was reported to be in pilot house. operation at the time of the accident. With this controller
steering
activated, the outside wheel of smaller diameter followed the movement of the rudder control shafting, etc. This
Another case investigated Another loss concerned a vessel, C, a 90.4 ft. (27.5 m.) overall, 214 GT typical wood tuna clipper, carrying a crew of 15. She was lost within sight of her home port
to
which she was returning
in ballast after discharging
cargo elsewhere. While cruising at approximately 8 knots and not fully down to her loaded line, C suddenly took a hard port turn, causing her to heel heavily to starboard. The captain stated that, in this condition, seawater entered
through open engine room portholes and also through deck hatches and doors which, by instructions for maintaining stability, must be closed when under way. She continued to turn and so capsized and sank. In the attempt to discover the cause of this loss
astounding facts came to
light.
normally gives the helmsman the opportunity of grasping the wheel and following the motion of the system. The arrangement at the outside bridge wheel, however, would not allow the helmsman to take over from the electrical system in the case of failure as there was no manual clutch installed at that position. Even if the man could have taken over at the outside wheel, its circumference was too small to allow him to apply enough force to overpower the system. On the other hand, a manual clutch was originally provided at the main wheel inside the pilot house for just such occurrences, the wheel being smooth rimmed for safety. The helmsman, under
conditions such as were reported, should have immediately entered the pilot house, engaged the manual clutch and taken over from the electrical system, applying opposite rudder to counteract the forces causing C to heel to port. In C, however, six years before her loss and while undergoing some shipyard service, the electrical circuit to the pilot house wheelstand had been cut, therefore the only safety appliance in the system which allowed a man to take over and manually steer the vessel, was not No counteracting rudder force could be operative. applied. It was also learned that, during the previous six
years, when manual steering was required for manoeuvring, such as docking, the engineer had broken the contacts at
The
instructions
for maintaining stability required
that four fish freezing wells below the weather deck
should be maintained at capacity flooding with seawater ballast, fish or fuel, at all times when underway and manoeuvring. The master stated that his wells had been leaking for some time and that in approximately 7 to 8 hr. the head of water in the tank would drop 10 to 12 in. (254 to 305 mm.), and would be 3 to 4 in. (76 to 102 mm.) below the top of the well, thereby establishing a substantial free surface effect of the water in the tanks. Displaced caulking and deteriorated bulkhead structure were responsible for the leak. It was also stated that,
during the trip on which the loss occurred, bilge pumps were not kept in operation and that the circulating pumps, normally used to keep the tanks full, were not
in operation. It was believed that the electric bilge alarm was not turned on. The helmsman at the time of loss contended that the
the steering motor in the engine room by using a screwdriver. resulted from The torn which caused the toss of corrosion in the steering motor contacts, which caused the
system because the outside bridge wheel had been pulled so forcefully from his grasp that it could not be returned to neutral.
failure occurred in the steering
motor to put the helm hard over. The causes of loss of A, B and C were decided with certainty and proof established but there are many losses of which the causes are never clearly established.
Uncertain. Vessel D, a tuna clipper of 125
The
all
steering
equipment
installed
on C, although not
of one manufacture, made up a common electromechanical steering combination which affords the greatest amount of safety to any vessel, and is almost
an
essential system for vessels carrying valuable cargoes, plying inland waterways, or sailing in congested or treacherous waters. The system provides not only follow-
ft. (18 m,) length and with a crew of 1 5, anchored in the lee of an island to await better fishing conditions. The sea was calm at 7.30 a.m. when the anchor was dropped and at 10.00 a.m. the auxiliary engine stopped and electrical
395
GT
power
ceased. The man on watch went to the engine room and found it flooded beyond hope and without
up electric power steering, but also direct hand steering with the same steering wheel. The advantage of such a system is immediately apparent when one considers the steering difficulties which may occur during any opera-
sank on her anchor in water for the pumps. too deep and in an area too remote to make salvage economical* This situation has occurred many times, but generally
power

with the vessel under way or moored in harbour and
unattended. When the condition occurs at sea, vessels have been lost In port, they have been salvaged and restored to use at high cost. The losses at sea must be analysed in the light of immediate or recent sea and weather conditions and, where heavy seas can be ruled out, the causes can be compared with those of the vessels which sink in port. Some of these causes are: deteriorated hull fittings, valves, pipes, etc., due to lack of maintenance or the owner's desire to extend the useful life of such equipment beyond reasonable limits. Another cause has been accurately identified as deterioration of the steel shell and deck plating and/or hull planking. In several cases, the hull planking has been so badly eaten by marine borers working from the inner surface that the timber could no longer withstand the pressure of the sea. Deterioration of steel shell plating from the inner surface
SEA BEHAVIOUR
up by another
clipper
in the
remained. The crew was picked
working
same
area.
This type of accident has its beginning in some very small fire, generally caused by generator or electrical motor brushes arcing or by some electrical short circuit. Such fires are very easily quenched with a small portable hand extinguisher if the man on watch is at the scene when the fire starts. In the history of accidents resulting in total loss from fire in the Southern California clipper fleet, it is common to find that the blaze was not detected until it could not be fought successfully with the equip-
ment
available.
Conclusion
The seagoing personnel in the fishing industry must be afforded the best available materials to work with and
they must be taught the physical endurance limits of these products. Training programmes must be established to give them the knowledge and experience required to prevent accidents.
has also been a cause. It is not uncommon in the tuna clipper fleet to load the vessel until the fishing deck from amidships to the steel clipper, which recently sank stern is submerged.
Some recommendations:
Training under qualified instructors in Principles of seamanship Safety aboard ship Lifesaving at sea
Fire fighting on shipboard Damage control
:
in port, cost 75,000 ($210,000) for salvage and repairs, the salvage operations alone requiring 13 days. At the
time of sinking, the deck aft was submerged and during

repair this section was found to have many holes in it, under the bait tanks on the deck. Lack of proper periodic examination of the deck underneath the bait tank caused this loss.
Planning:
by fit* Fire has been a frequent cause of destruction and vessel E, of 125 ft. (38 m.) length and 390 GT, is only one of many lost through fire. While cruising, E was maintaining the customary ship's watches. The helmsman was intent on steering an itinerant course at the direction of
i
Respect for advice of technical men ashore Planned and punctually executed maintenance
programme
Planned and properly executed operation of ship and equipment This paper has dealt with some of the accidents which resulted in the loss of 29 vessels of more than 200 GT each in 6 years (1953-58). During the same period, 56 smaller vessels in the Southern California clipper fleet have also been lost in similar circumstances. Thus the tasks of the fishing boat designers, builders and maintenance technicians are not easy by any standards and the difficulties in building a vessel which * is "worthy of the sea in all respects and, at the same
9
the captain, who was scanning the sea to locate schools of tuna. The assistant engineer on engine room watch was drinking coffee in the galley and the others of the
crew were turned
in
and
resting.
captain, going aft on the raised deck to scan an area for fish, noticed dense smoke pouring through the
The
uptake vents of the funnel. He called the engine room watch from the galley but they found it impossible to
enter the engine room door. The engine room was ablaze. The alarm was sound and the fixed full flooding
time, will
make a
profit in fishing,
may seem
hi
at times to
be insurmountable. But they are almost

difficulties
trivial
was released after accessible deck doors with the compartment had been closed. White this was going on, the others of the crew launched the small boats and then the entire crew left the vessel. They went about a quarter mife off and watched until the fire became so bad that no hope of saving the ship
inert gas extinguisher system
m* to tryfcg to introduce reforms which seek
comparison to the
to eliminate the loss of Hfe, boats and to tonum faOore.

It
calb for overcook* At prejudices in the mtakb of ** t AM lJI^M4vmr Ifr M.4 *~M^l^^ fcr tmnMtilnm ana nun. tan IIA^M oeemuiefi
m mwirj
1
for
wy MBMreos of years*
mmm
(510]
FORMATION OF ICE ON TRAWLERS

by
H.
LACKENBY
"Trawler-icing" came to the fore in 1955 with the loss of two trawlers in Arctic waters and the BSRA initiated an investigation to throw light on the problem. This took the form of icing experiments on a model in a climatic chamber from which the weight and distribution of ice accretion was determined for various attitudes to the wind and different rigging arrangements. The loss of stability due to the added ice was also determined. The tests have shown the importance of removing as far as possible ice-catching details such as shrouds and ratlines and cleaning up the ringing generally. This has been underlined by the better performance of the tripod mast arrangement as compared with conventional rigging, ft is understood that this investigation has resulted in more attention being given to these matters. Attention has also been drawn to the importance of freeboard in this class of ship which has resulted in more adequate provision being made for this than had formerly been the practice. In spite of improvements on the lines described above, it is pointed out that any advantage gained would be lost if ships remained long enough in icing conditions and it is stressed that the only sure protection is to withdraw from such conditions as quickly as possible.
LA FORMATION DE GLACE SUR LES CHALUTIERS

Le "givragc des chaluticrs" est pass au premier plan en 1955 avcc la perte de deux chalutiers dans les eaux arctiques, et la BSRA a commence des recherches pour ieter la lumiere sur ce probleme. Ces recherches ont pris la forme d'exptriences de givrage sur modele dans une chambre climatiquc, d'apres lesquelles on a determine le poids et la distribution de la croute de glace pour diverses positions par rapport au vent et differents types de grement. On a aussi determine la perte de stabilite due a la formation de glace. Les essais ont montr 1'importance de la suppression maximum des details qui retiennent la glace, tels que les haubans et les enflechures et, g6n6ralement, de (a simplification du grement. Cette importance a et6 souiignee par le meilleur rendement du mat tripode compart au grernent convcntionncl. II va sans dire que le resultat de ces recherches a etc de faire porter une plus grande attention a ces questions. L'at tent ion a aussi et6 attirie sur Timportance du franc-bord dans cette classe de navires, ce qui a eu pour resultat de faire prevoir un franc-bord mieux approprte qu'on ne le faisait auparavant. Malgre les ameliorations des ligncs, decrites ci-dcssus, on fait ressortir que tout avantage gagne serait perdu si les navires restaeint assez longtemps dans des conditions de givrage, et Ton fait observer que le seut moyen de se protger de ces conditions est de s'en etoigner le plus rapidement possible.
LA FORMACION DE H1ELO EN LOS ARRASTREROS

raiz La formacibn de hielo en arrastreros adquiri6 gran relieve en 1955 con la p6rdida de dos de etlos en aguas articas. del suceso, la inicid una investigation para resolver el problema, basada en experimentos de formation de hielo en un modelo en una camara climatica, determinandose a partir de ellos el peso y la distribucidn del hielo acumulado con viento de diferentes direccioncs y con diversas clases de jarcias. Tambi6n se determine la perdida de estabilidad causada por el aumento de peso del hielo. Los ensayos demostraron la importancia que reviste el suprimir cuanta proyecci6n y detalle, como obenques y flechastes, sea factible y simplificar la jarcia. De esto es prueba el mejor rendimiento logrado con el mastil de tripode en vez de la jarcia normal. Se entiende que uno de los resultados de esta investigacidn ha sido que se preste mas atenci6n a estos detalles. Tambien se ha puesto de relieve la importancia del francobordo en esta clase de barcos, lo que ha culminado en la toma de medidas mas adecuadas de lo que se acostumbraba anteriormente. pesar de las mejoras chadas, se hace hincapie en que cualquier ventaja lograda se perdera si los barcos permanecen tiempo suflcfente en lugares en los que existan condiciones propicias para la formaci6n de hielo. Se recalca que la unica protecci6n segura es
BSRA
alejarse
de esos lugares con
la
mayor rapidez
posible.
THE
question of 'trawler-icing" came very much to the fore early in 1955 with the loss of two trawlers in Arctic waters and, arising from this,
investigation on the model scale with a view to throwing light on the problem. This took the form of icing experiments on a scale model of a British trawler in the climatic chamber of Vickers-Armstrongs
(Aircraft) Ltd., Weybridgc, England. The object was to ascertain the weight and distribution of ice accretion and the consequent lots of stability for various attitudes
BSRA initiated an
and permanent rigging. The above-water profile of the ship and the rigging is shown in fig. 558. It will be noted that the masts were supported by centre-line stays with shrouds and ratlines.
fittings
Test conditions
The model was floated in a tank of water in the icing chamber and ballasted to give the displacement and trim corresponding to the condition on the Arctic fishing
grounds, viz.: 1,115 tans Displacement 1 3 ft. 7 in. (4. 14 m.) moulded Draught amidships Freeboard amidships 2 ft. 5 in. (0.74 m.) 8 ft. 2 in. (2.49 m.) Trim by stern
wind and different rigging arrangements* The model represented to a scale of 1/12 a steam trawfcr of 180 ft Lit* x 30 ft. 6 in. beam (54,86 x 9.30 m.) and was complete wkh all superstructures, major deck
to the
1311]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Fig. 558.
Rigging arrangement of a typical British trawler 1948
Icing conditions were then simulated by subjecting the model to a cold air stream containing fine water particles injected by spray, but the water in which the model
floated was kept above freezing point. The speed of the air stream reproduced, to scale, wind speeds of 45 to 55 knots (23 to 28 m./sec.) corresponding to Beaufort numbers 9 to 10 such as would be met in strong gales. The following attitudes to the wind were tried: Head to wind
patterns and relative weights of ice produced were considered to be fairly typical of those encountered on the
full scale.
On the other hand, the rate of icing on the model was not considered to have any particular significance as far as the ship was concerned. It was shown, however, that the rate of icing, which could be varied by changing the air speed and spray settings, did not affect
the general distribution of the ice deposited. The weight of the ice was determined from time to time
Stern to wind
Wind at 30 degrees on the bow la the head to wind condition a tripod mast arrangement was tried in addition to the normal rigging with shrouds.
Results obtained ice accretion
is
by reading the draughts and calculating the increase in displacement. The centre of gravity of the ice was calculated from the loss of metacentric height (GM) determined from inclining experiments carried out at the same
time.
The
conditions
on the model for the ahead and astern shown in fig. 559 and 560 respectively. The
veniently
expanded to the full scale, are consummarized in fig. 561, where the vertical centre are plotted on a of gravity of the ice and the loss of
results,
The
GM
Fig. 559.
Typical tcr formation
tiY/A
model he aft to
[
wfrid.
Estintaied fre airier/ *qui\vltnt to 140 tons
512
SAFETY AT SEA
FORMATION OF
ICE
ON TRAWLERS
Fig. 560.
Typical ice formation with model stern to wind.
Estimated ice weight equivalent to 90 tons
base of weight of ice deposited for the different conditions. For a given weight of ice it will be seen that Stern to wind the loss of stability in terms of
:
to be deposited high
up
in the rigging
and the model
GM
eventually capsized with less than half the ice present in the head to wind condition.
only about half that centre of gravity of the

is
in the
ahead condition, the

Stern to wind
ice
being considerably lower
With the wind on the bow the centre of gravity of the ice is highest of all and the loss of is about
The foremast and
its
GM
associated rigging were largely
50 per cent, greater than in the ahead condition Tripod masts are a distinct improvement on normal rigging when head to wind, the centre of gravity of the ice being significantly lower and the correabout two-thirds that for sponding loss in
blanketed by the superstructure which, for the same weight of ice, resulted in the centre of gravity of the ice being about 7 ft. (2 m.) lower than for wind ahead.
GM
normal rigging
The following observations

Head
and
to
will also
be of interest:
wind
model iced steadily until it capsized 559 shows it just before this took place. The greatest weight of ice it was found possible for the model to carry and remain upright was equivalent to 150 tons on the full scale. In this condition the freeboard was reduced to 12 in. (30 cm.) resulting in a very small range of stability and the force of the airstream, although very
In this condition the
fig.
General comment The tests have shown the importance of removing as far as possible ice-catching details in the upper works, such as shrouds and ratlines, and the desirability of cleaning up the rigging in general. This has been underlined by the better performance of the tripod mast arrangement compared with conventional rigging in that the centre of gravity of the ice deposited was lower. This also points to the advisability of stowing derricks and tackle in the lowered position to keep the ice deposit as low as
possible.
fine
on the bow, was
sufficient to
blow the model
over.
pertinent to point out that about one-third of the total weight of ice was collected by the masts, derricks, rails, radar and rigging generally with a centre of gravity
It is
emphasized that while the removal of ice-catching would improve matters considerably, the same loss of stability and freeboard would occur if the ship remained long enough in icing conditions. Accordingly it is stressed that when such conditions are encountered the only sure protection is to withdraw from them as
It is
rigging
about 30
ft.
(9 m.)
above the deck edge,
quickly as possible. more detailed account of this
work
is
given in
Wind 30 on the bow The ice settled largely on
BSRA Research Report No.

the
windward
side causing the
(1957). It is
221, Trawler-Icing Research understood that the circulation of this report
ship to heel into the wind. This in turn caused
more
ice
has resulted in more attention being paid by owners and
[513J
SEA BEHAVIOUR
MAIN eecK
AMIOSMM
Fig.S6L
Effect
of icing
builders to certain aspects of trawler design. Action has been taken to streamline the mast structure and superstructures and to eliminate any unnecessary excrescences which could help the accretion of hard ice. The Ministry of Transport has assisted by accepting inflatable rubber dinghies as the main means of lifesaving with the addition of a single working boat stowed on the centre-line under a single arm davit The attention drawn in the report to
proved along these lines, increased freeboard has no proved to be a handicap to successful fishing. Fig. S62 shows the above-water profile for a more modern trawler than that in fig. 558 with the upper works cleaned up on the lines described above and including a
tripod mast.
Mlgfl
At!
the importance of freeboard in this class of ship has resulted in more adequate provision being made than
had formerly been the practice, dictated to a large extent by the fishermen's preference. It has been found that in
several distant-water trawlers with characteristics
were carried out for BSRA by Vickers-Armstrongs (Aircraft) Ltd., and Vickers-Armstrongs (Shipbuilders) Ltd., in the climatic chamber at Wey bridge, England. The author is indebted to the Council and Director of Research of
The
tests
im-
BSRA for permission to publish this paper. He also wishes to express his thanks to Mr. Ambrose Hunter of Messrs. Cook, Welton and Gemmell Ltd. for advice in the preparation of the paper*
Fig. 562.
Rigging wrangtinent of a typical British trawler J95S
[514]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
PROF. G. P.
DISCUSSION
beached at Swampscott where an inner chine was added and bolted in. The boat is still in service. In spite of its crudity, the positive qualities of this V-bottom
predecessor of M-2, more precisely its suitability for lobstering as it has recently developed in Cape Ann waters, has inspired a small fleet of similar V-bottom launches. The shortcomings of these V-bottom boats, on the other hand, as well as the fluid requirements of a fast-changing fishery, has occasioned no little experimentation of late, some not particularly successful. M-2 is the latest development in this line of experimentation, or to use ChapeUe's term, "manipulation of
design".
WEINBLUM
is
of
resistance, propulsion
together. It
Vice-Chairman (Germany) Problems and seaworthiness will be treated important to consider the experience of small
:
boat designers and it is necessary to weigh the different requirements of a boat. Fishing vessels can be treated as large ships but proportions are different and therefore it is of great importance to discuss the peculiarities of fishing boat design.
SMALL BOAT RESISTANCE

GARDNER (U.S.A.): The model tests of light displacefishing launches carried out in 1958 by Gillmer are notable in several instances. The project is the first public and
MR.
J.
ment
U.S.A. of hitherto neglected problems of small fishing boat design. Again, the project is organized as a voluntary co-operative endeavour with pooling of knowledge, skills, labour, and testing facilities. In this way the financial handicap is surmounted, which, more than any
scientific investigation in the
M-l, regardless of hydrodynamic superiority, is now obsolete so far as the local Massachusetts fishery is concerned. Its construction is relatively costly. Its slack-bilged, comparatively narrow hull has insufficient lateral stability, and does not afford optimum cockpit space for lobster traps tied in series on a single long buoyed line. Further, displacement is too small for new fishing requirements, in particular winter netting and longlining with which fishermen are finding it
other factor,
Thirdly,
studies,
is
now
this
project,
retards small craft study. unlike some abstract
theoretical
directly practical. Its findings are already being new lobster boat built taken account of in the industry.
increasingly necessary to supplement summer lobstering. The relatively low cost of building chine boats was and
is
on the lines of the V-bottom, M-2, at Salem, will be powered according to recommendations from this study. If the performance measures up to expectations, its influence will be felt in the New England lobster industry. In any case it will be possible to check the model test findings with actual performance under fishing conditions. So far, for obvious reasons, the project has boen confined to hydro-dynamic testing. Within the limits of this design, the older, round model, M-l, was just as clearly superior. M-2, while good (hydrodynamically) gave "considerable promise** for improvement with "only slight modifications**. But the hydrodynamic factor is by no means the only one, nor the principal one, to be considered. At least three other major factors have to be taken into account: seakindliness, construction, and suitability for the specific fishing operation. To illustrate the close interaction of these components and how they all figure in making an economic and workable boat, it is enlightening to consider the background of the two designs, M-l and M-2. The 34 ft. (10.36 m.) M-l was built by Frost in Portland, Maine, in 1946 for a Gloucester, Mass., lobster fisherman.
closely
point in their favour. Second, their great initial stability makes for easy, comfortable fishing, especially considering the increasingly long hours fishermen must stand at the winch due to growing competition and scarcity of lobsters. steady boat also makes it easier to balance stacks of pots on the narrow side decks. In addition the chine boats have great cockpit capacjfy, of which there cannot be too
first
the
The construction of this well-made, but lightly-built roundbottom carvel hull compared favourably with superior yacht
work. In
fact,
a few years
fast
later
a Gloucester builder copied
and very handsome sport fishing boat. The year following the import of M-l from Maine a small builder in a Cape Ann town adjacent to Gloucester built a V-bottom fobttor boat of the Mine approximate length and displacement for a local fisherman. It probably did not cost half the price of the Maine boat. The construction was rough and heavy, and so poorly fastened that the bottom actually The boat was fell out within eitfit months pf launching.
this hull for
Essex County V-bottom boats a head sea. This would seem to be due in part to a full, blunt entrance and in part to a rising chine that broke water at its intersection with the load waterline. These boats require a lot of power. The automobile engines with which these chine boats have been equipped could supply ample power but at the cost of excessive fuel consumption. Fishermen often cannot afford to run their boats at high speed. By its comparatively fine entrance (14 degrees half angle) and its entirely submerged chine which fairs out completely in the forward sections, M-2 seeks to achieve an easy driving boat and a dry boat in a head sea. Her considerable flare carried well aft is also expected to help dryness. This flare also contributes to make the largest working cockpit of any of the local lobster boats so far, namely 17 ft (5.2 m.) long by 8 to 9 ft. (2*4 to 2.7 m,) wide inside the coamings. M-2's extra ton of displacement (over M-l) is needed for netting and other winter fishing operations, as well as for carry ing upwards of 60 soaked pots as is now sometimes required
first
much for modern fishing. One chief fault of the
was
their excessive wetness in
M-2 is comparatively inexpensive to build, and would cost appreciably toss than M-l with steam-bent frames and shaped planking. Economy in construction is made possible by M-2's straight section lines and moderate longitudinal curves
[515]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
or even considered, to help boat design and construction catch up with present needs, Gi timer's model test study is one
step in the right direction.
Exploratory tests
MR. H. I. CHAPELLE (U.S.A.): He had ucted as an adviser in Gillmer's tests of fishing launches. The models used were of fishing launches whose plans were available, and the tests were primarily exploratory. These represented types that had not been tested. Fig. 311, hull M-1, represents a highly
developed round-bottom launch-form that has become popular with many New England lobster fishermen. These launches are relatively fast and, if properly loaded, fairly good sea boats. They should be loaded aft, of course. Fig. 312, hull M-2, is an experimental design and rather unusual for a V-bottom. Though theoretically a high-chine V-bottom, the entrance is so fine that the chine disappears in the fore sections, as close inspection of the body plan will show. This model is based on the Hatteras Boat type in the
forebody. Fig. 313, hull C-l, was a composite design with the design feature that marked a great many modern Chesapeake Bay launches. The shoulder in the chine is perhaps a bit more marked in the model than in many of this type of launch, but the drawing represents a trend toward a fuller forebody that
563.
Existing Turkish fishing heats of the Taka type having market! forward shoulders
Minimum fast, easy framing and planking. required: no moulds and no steam bending in any part of the boat. It is possible that the cross-plank bottom and other features of deadrise construction found in Chesapeake Bay work boats might be even more economical.
which allow
is
lofting
However, sudi is not to be considered for New England fishermen and builders would never stand for it. How M-2 will behave in a following sea remains to be seen. As insurance in this respect, the boat now building has been given nearly four more inches (100 mm.) of keel drag aft than the original lines called for. A rather large rudder should give additional help in this connection. However, there are other factors involved, and these are not so precisely understood as yet in their total interaction as to make forecasting a simpk matter. It might be that M-1 could be altered to give greater
cockpit capacity, increased lateral stability in moderate weather, and additional displacement without reducing the model's hydrodynamic superiority, as well as its other excellent qualities. It is doubtful if its construction could be so simplified as to substantially reduce its building cost.
It would seem that by lines manipulation, derivative hulls from M-1 and M-2 could be brought rather close hydrodynamically, and this might also prove true for all other aspects except building costs. In this one department, Mr. Gardner was inclined to believe that the chine boat would always have the edge. But even in this respect the cost spread might be worked down to minor proportions. For all their differences, including round hull versus V-bottom hull, M-1 and M-2 have much in common. The fact is that the form of M-2 was much influenced by M-l's prior design, as can be appreciated when the lines of earlier Essex County chine boats, the predecessors of M-2, dre examined* The fine, gradual entrance, the flare, the run, all how a baric similarity in M-1 and M-2. When the boat presently being built in Salem is in the water, and her performance under various conditions is known, there will be a much fuller basis, than is afforded by model tests alone, to see how she measures up to the present moods of Massachusetts iobstormen* There is no doubt at all that farther manipulation of design will be required. It is certain that the fishermen are far from satisfied with any design used so far. This fishing situation steadily ôws more critical, and this {treasure bears directly upon the boats. With mounting ofcrts and competition the factor of boat design grows important. So far, not enough has been done,
seems to be
service.
in process.
These launches were heavily
built,
in
compared with M-1, but carry about the same cargo loads
Fig. 314, hull C-2,
built,
was an old launch of a type no longer

in service.
but which
is still
This type
is
heavily built.
Fig. 364.
7ft*fri*&* T*katypefM*s boat* having good ttak
1316]
RESISTANCE, PROPULSION
AND SEAK1NDLINESS
1
DISCUSSION
Fig.
565 Lines of Taka
type,
model 38
compared to M-l, but does not usually carry quite the loads. These launches are always rather narrow and the lines are typical in form and proportion. Unfortunately, the launches are not of the same displacement, nor dimensions, and comparisons require care, since the design purposes of each model were not the same. However, it would be almost impossible to obtain such similarity using actual working or representative designs from widely-spread areas of the country. As to the seaworthiness of these models it can be said that C-l was used in the Bay winter and summer, and the Chesapeake could be very dangerous for small craft. C-l is less seaworthy and comfortable; M-2 is as seaworthy as M-l both require careful loading aft, and this is also true of C-2. Mr. Chapellc emphasized that none of Gillmer's models had high chines and the angular shoulder, where the waterline
:
was chance that three of the models were basically of the "double wedge*' form, for selection was not on this basis, M-2 was the most extreme in this respect. He said it was rather difficult to see what marked improvement could be made in M-l, resistance-wise, without loss of desirable practical characteristics. She was a rather extreme model of her type. These boats were not well designed for much variation in load, of course; the practical and safe loading of each would surely increase resistance by immersion of unsuitable stern forms. Hence the conclusions should possibly be qualified. It was evident, however, that C-2 as well as M-2 could be improved. C-l showed that the existing trend in this type was not going to produce a desirable boat as far as resistance characteristics were concerned.
It
crossed the chine, as seen in Colvin's drawings of the larger gillnet boats of the Great Lakes, that usually marked the V-bottom form. That was something for further testing, M-2 and C-l did not show this particular and common feature.
Turkish experience PROF. ATA NUTKU (Turkey): The popular Turkish Taka originated several centuries ago. The hull has a comparatively fine entrance and hollow waterlines forward, both in light and trimmed condition. There is a marked forward shoulder, and great sheer and flare forward, as shown in fig. 563 to 566. These characteristics are believed to contribute to the seaworthiness of the Taka. The waterlines aft are blunt and full
The buttocks are
fair,
bending up at the
stern,
and ending in a
high, shallow transom.

stability in following seas.
The
ending in a deep deadwood,
sections aft are nearly flat, which gives good directional
The good sea-keeping

of the reasons for the
little
qualities of these boats may be interest from fishermen in
one any
Fig. 566.
U*t* of Taka
type cargo boat simihr to the fishing boats,
improvements in their form after their motorization. However, a first step has been the introduction of the cruiser stern, which gives longer waterline length and helps to prevent squatting. Many boats with transom stem are, however, still being built. It is claimed that transom stuns are better in following seas and do not cause pounding due to stem overhang. A high narrow transom helps to keep the boat stable in quatering seas and to prevent it capsizing while being beached in a surf. Model tests were carried out in the Turkish Tank to investigate possible improvement in the hull forms of existing old craft. Fir#, two Takat one used tor fishing, another for
[517]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Figs. 567.
Local builders have themselves improved the Taka type

This type
is
called
MGl
adopting a cruiser stern and reducing the forward shoulder and sheer.
tested
and a model No. 20 has been
cargo carrying were selected as representative of their class. The tines of these boats are shown in fig. 565 and 566, models No. 38 and 39 respectively. No. 38 is called Taka L The second step was to test models of hulls which had been created by local builders by modifying the existing old types, in adopting a cruiser stem and reducing the forward shoulder and the sheer. These boats were typified as MGl and MG3 respectively, models No. 20 and 21. Their lines are presented in fig. 567, 568 and 569, 570. The third step was to design new hull forms, on the basis of experience obtained from sea trials and the model tests with these types of boats. The forward shoulder and aft shoulder were reduced, and the aft waterJines were fined; thus the Taka II form was produced. This is shown in fig. 571, model No. 28. Mr. H. I. Chapelte while on a FAO mission in Turkey made the design DG3, model No. 14, which is another boat in this category. The lines are shown in fig. 572. Another boat, designed by the Tank for fishermen, has a normal cruiser stern; her lines are presented in fig. 573, model No. 22, The considerations determining the design of Taka //, No. 28, and model No. 22, were to attain hull forms for maximum economy up to 8 knots, with reasonable engine powers of 50 to 60 BHP, as previously tested models of existing craft have proved that engines of 150 to 200 BHP usually fitted in such craft were not justified from engineering
(model No. 22) is slightly superior, the unit resistance being about 0.0007, which corresponds to SHP=50 and V = 7 knots
for the boat.
From V/VL- 1 to 1.3, the modified Taka //, model No. 28, has the lowest resistance, both in light and loaded condition.
But above V/\/L- 1.2 the resistance increases sharply. The original Taka /, model No. 38, has the highest resistance up to 9 knots. She is fuller than the other models and her aft shoulder results in separation and considerable eddies. The position of the forward shoulder causes unfavourable wave resistance. Above V/v/L=1.32 the original Taka I seems to improve. This is, however, an abnormal speed for fishing boats; in fact it would require about 3 times as much power as is required at 8 knots for an economical boat type. Trimming both by head and stern causes an increase in resistance. Heavy squatting occurs above \/<\/L^\.2 when
the
bow
rises considerably.
Photographs of the models of Taka I and Taka //, showing the wave formations at a speed-length ratio of around 0.9, are given in fig. 584 and 585. The effect of the forward shoulder of the Taka I is easily recognised by the trough in the vicinity of the shoulder and the high bow wave. The Taka If has a
and economy
considerations.
In addition, a new type of form, being a combination of the Taka and Maier types, with straight parallel sections, has, also been studied and the results are included in this contribution as a matter of interest. Two boats built with this form have
had
fig.
satisfactory service for years.
The
lines are given in
574 and 575, model No. 29. The dimensions and coefficients of all models are given in tabie 139. The great differences of the models have enabled a study of rtaistanec of this type of boat. In fig. 576 to 582 the sectional area curvet of the boats are given, which help to explain the resistance of the different models especially wave formation and wave rtsistaope. Fig, 583 shows for boat lengths of 46 to 49,3 ft (14 to 15 m.) values of Rt/ A (total resistance to kg, per ton displacement in i/ *Vi/EHP. TbeRt/V ourves show that salt water) and CJ At V/VL*0JO to 1*0 the normal form with cruiser stern
=v
Fig.
m.
Body plan of model No. 20
[518]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
DISCUSSION
Figs. 569.
Taka improved by
local builder, type
MG 3. Model 21
longer
bow wave
still
The form
waterlines
seems to
with a trough behind the midship section. suffer from abrupt changes in the
wood
and diagonals.
Residuary resistance per ton displacement are plotted over l/ ' v/\/gV in fig. 586, including model No. 39, which is a cargo-carrying Taka, the lines and particulars of which are not given in this contribution. Model No. 22 with cruiser stern has the least R r/A up to her design speed of 7.5 knots (Fy= 0.725). The modified Taka II, model No. 28, is best up to F v ="0.825, after which DG3, model No. 14, is superior up to Fv=0.95. This is, however, not the case when the resistance results are compared on the basis of C x values, as shown in fig. 587. The wetted surface ratio of DG3 is S/v i/a 7,635 against 6.5 of MG1. Therefore, she is better up to F v 0.7S, At higher speeds, DG3 has relatively less residuary resistance, due to her fineness, A /(L/ 100)' -281 against 438 of MO1. But the unfavourable position of her LCB (+1.3 and 2.7%) may be the reason for the increased
FV=
aft form with deada high propulsive efficiency and directional stability in waves. The wave formation is shown in fig. 588. The resistance, according to fig. 583, is much lower than that of other boats. At V/VL=1.4 the total resistance/displace-
and uniform along the diagonals. Hie

results in
ment Taka
/,
coefficient is 0.0025 against 0.0040 for the original the best of the others at this speed. This corresponds
to approximately 1.5 knots increase of speed with the same power. Two boats were built with the form of model No. 29, and full-scale trials confirmed the model tests. The boats have also proved themselves economical and good sea boats
in service.
MR. H.
I.
CHAPBLLE (U.S.A.): The Turkish
studies of their
fishing craft, conducted by Nutku, are of great interest to small craft designers. The Taka type is extensively used in
resistance at higher speeds.
Model No. 29 (fig. 574 and 575), with straight parallel a compromise between the Taka and the Maier form. It has harmony between length, prismatic and midship section coefficients. The flow around the hull is uninterrupted
sections, is
Turkey, and it was his opinion that the motorized version was decadent, at least when compared to the small sailing types seen on the Black Sea Coast in 1957. He proposed an improved Taka type hull in that year, and it gave him great satisfaction to see that Nutku's improved form closely approximated his design particularly in view of the improved performance reported. With regard to the Maier type model, he felt chines might
well be retained if
wood
construction were intended
for
it
would then be easier to build. The report on the Japanese model indicated that good results could be obtained in this
chine modification.
Trawler
<
PROWCIE (Canada): Tothill in his contribution cm "trawler economics" "did not make it dear what items of cost he included in "power costs". It is also quite obvious that his "net earnings'* are "residual*' after deducting power costs from grots earnings. In the absence of an assessment of other costs, TothilTs conclusions are subject to doubt. Investigations indicate that fishermen usually want a
J.
MR.
higher powered engine than is normally recommended bynaval

architects
and marine
engineers.
White
this desire
may not
Ft/. 570.
Body plan of model No. 21
some weight should nevertheless be given to the man who woiks the equipment and pays the bBb.
have
scientific
becking,
KK*
15191
'PISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD:
SEA BEHAVIOUR
6
.
K>
12
14
571.
Taka II designed by the Turkish Tank, model 28
During the past seven years the Canadian Department of made a study of #6 modern boats, of which 102 wore longliners, and 114 trawlers under 70 ft. (21.5 m.) LOA. In general, the conclusions from this study indicate that higher powered boats usually have a better performance, higher productivity and profitability. There are exceptions to this generalization, of course. These differences may be accounted for, in part, by variations that exist in type of bottom and in hydrographic conditions generally on the
Fisheries has
fishing grounds a4jacent to the shores of the Atlantic seaboard. The trawling technique, as known at present, is inapplicable
on some grounds and on parts of others. This is accentuated by the species caught and landed. For these reasons, type and size of boat and horsepower of engine will vary from area to area for successful and profitable operation. White
it is impossible to review the results of the investigation for all areas covered, one or two examples may be sufficient to illustrate the points under discussion. Example /compares two groups of trawlers operating in
the
Bay of Fundy: a 50 ft. (15.25 m.) LOA boat powered by a 200 h.p. diesel engine and a 59 ft. (18 m.) LOA boat powered by a 150 h.p. engine. The total average investment
Fit. 572.
Chaptlle while on
FAO m
model J 4
[520]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
TABLE 139
DISCUSSION
DimenskMM of model
in the former (trawler A) was 11,450 ($32,032), of which the engine acounted for 5,380 ($15,102), and the latter (trawler B) had a capital investment of 17,000 ($47,614), of which the engine accounted for 4,500 ($12,603).
Item
Days at sea Hours trawling.
Landings in tons Landings per hour of trawling
... ...
in Ib. in kg.
. . .
Trawler 112
773 619
1
Trawler 126 735
569
1
,829
,736
Comparison of performance, productivity and profitability of these two dasses of vessels, based on two-year averages (1956 and 1957) was as follows:
830
32,698
20.1
in
796
31,542
12.0
Grow
stock in dollars
Rate of profit on capital invested percent

[
KK*
321
PISHING BOATS OF TH
WORLD:
SEA BEHAVIOUR
It is apparent that the higher powered boat in this area has a definite advantage over the lower powered boat. Further data on these classes of trawlers can be examined in table 140. From these data it can be seen that the average fuel, oil and grease costs per trawler was less than 10 per cent, of the gross receipts in both cases, the figure for trawkr A
was 9.7 per cent, and for trawler B it was 9.3 per cent. Example //compares 60 ft. (18.3 m.) LOA trawlers operating in the Gulf of St. Lawrence for a three-year period, 1956*1958. The relevant data are summarized below:
Item of diesel engine Capital investment in Of this, engine cost $
SHP
Days at sea Hours trawling.

Landings in tons Landings per hour of trawling in
oil
Ib.
in kg.
Fig, 573.
Fishing boat, model 22, designed by the Turkish Tank
costs as a percentFuel, ate of gross receipts Profit as a percentage of gross receipts
and grease
9.1
10.5
10.6 10.6
8.0 11.9
INFLUENCE OF NOZZLES
F. GUTSCHE (Germany): The very interesting design of a *fishing boat of the near future*' by Tothill reveals some striking aspects of performance. Considering the real task of a fishing boatto catch fish on the fishing grounds and bring them home in the shortest time he thought the design has not yet been investigated in all service conditions the fishing boats have to endure. Tothill has developed a fine boat from only one hydrodynamic point of view, i.e. '*fine weather 9 Several other points, and surely not of less importance, speed are the behaviour of the boat in normal sea conditions on the fishing grounds in a seaway up to Beaufort 7, including
Additional information on costs and returns can be found Although the results of this group of boats is not as dear cut as those in the first example, nevertheless, indications are that there is some slight advantage in the
in table 141.
DR.
higher powered boats, Conclusions: If other things were equal then the level of power costs would determine the proper size of boat and engine power as Tothill has concluded in his paper. However, other things are not always equal. For example higher power costs may be offset by higher volume of output and thus decrease fixed unit costs of production. Thus the rate of profit may be maintained or even increased. Again there are For example, Tothill's choice of a institutional factors. 75 ft. (22.9 m.) trawler for the Canadian Atlantic coast is
'
not the best selection. Canadian fishing regulations prohibit trawlers over 65 ft. (19.8 m.) in length to fish within 12 miles of the coast in specific areas. On the other hand, 75 ft. (22.9 m.) trawlers based in Nova Scotia ports are too small for successful operation on the Grand Banks. In spite of all this, Tothill has made a valuable contribution in his paper, which should stimulate further thinking and research on the subject of his investigation.
manoeuvring, especially when going astern. He felt that the design of the rudder nozzle, together with the contra guide stern skeg shown in fig. 332, has not yet solved the problems arising in steering astern, and he would be glad to hear what experience Tothill has had with the simple nozzle without fins and stabilizer, and also with the small clearance between nozzle and stern aperture. The statement that today on the average, a 9-knot hull is powered by an 1 1-knot engine, is without doubt correct, but considering that this statement is based only on model tests it should be confirmed in practice under severe weather
Ftg.174.
H*U being limitation of Taka art Maier form,

[522]
model 29
AND SEAKINDLINESS
as building costs,
DISCUSSION
fuel consumption, distance to fishing grounds and many others. The results of wake measurements within the nozzle without a working screw may hardly be regarded as an indicator for the homogenizing effect of the nozzle. The screw in the forward part of the nozzle with the contracting nozzle wall is the only source of this effect, and the heavier the load on the screw the greater will be the homogenizing effect; in the special case without a screw, the effect becomes
Fig. 575.
Body plan of the combined Taka and Maier form
conditions, where
it
might be found necessary to have some
margin of power.
The "seventh power law*' used for fixing the point of "optimum speed" may have only a very limited value for this
special boat design and it rule for the other vessels.
meaning
in
cannot be regarded as a general "Optimum speed" has a special every case, influenced as it is by many factors, such
very small or practically vanishes. With regard to the pitch distribution of the screw, the proposal of Dickmann (1955) and van Manen (1957) to design the nozzle-screw in line with axial blow pump theory, so as to reach a constant pressure increase over the whole propeller disc, is, in the special case of a race without tangent velocities, fundamentally the same as TothilTs proposal to aim at a constant axial velocity within the tail race. The problem remains, how far can an approximation to this ideal state of race be expected by the proposed nozzle arrangement without any rudder or stabilizer in the rear part of the nozzle. The last question is what will happen with the pitching great nozzle in a heavy seaway ? Only model investigations
TABLE 140
Average and Percentage Distribution of Gross Receipts of Bay of Ftmdy trawlers
Trawler
A
Percentage
2-year
Item
2-year
Trawler B Percentage
distribution
Average
distribution
Average
$
RECEIPTS
Fish sales
%
97.8 2.2
31,542
Other receipts
710
32.252
TOTAL RECEIPTS
EXPENDITURES Maintenance and repairs
Hull
1,244
.
100.0
Engine
Winch and gallows

Catching gear Other equipment
Sub-total
.
853 75
1,797
273 639
12
0.9
2.0
2,220
142
4,111
12.6
400
3,544
Other operating expenses

Fuel, oil, grease Ice .
3,164 134
Provisions
Wages
Wharfage and
Miscellaneous
Sub-total
.
773 435
rentals
.
9,7 0.4 2.4

1.3
1.2
2.0
1,187 103
3.6 0.3
17.7
0.4
12.?
5,7%
193
Fixed charges
Interest
Marine insurance
.
240
51
.
Taxes and other

Depreciation
Sub-total
.
0.6 0.7 0.2

5.1
1.2
3.5
0,4-
1,684
*.*
Crew shares
43.4
80.3
44.6
82.4
TOTAL EXPENDITURES
NET EARNINGS OP BOAT
6,434
19,7
5,689
[5?3]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
HECEIPTS
ft*k*
Other,
TOTAL RECEIPTS
EXPENDITURES Maintenanc
Hull . Engine
2.7
1.4
Winch
Catching gear Other equipment
Sub-total
0.8
5.2
0.2
fee
Provisions
Wages
Wharfage an
Miscellaneous
Sub-total
8.0 3.3 4.3 0.3
"o.3
16.2
Fixed charfes Marine insur

Interest
5.0 4.0
0.1
Taxes and ot
Depreciation
Sub-total
.
13.4
Crew
shares
39.1
TOTAL EXPENDITURES
89.5
HUB
89.4
88.1
MMMi
10.6
11.9
NET EARNINGS OP BOAT
10.5
or
practical experience in such a
seaway can give a satisfying
he discussed. With the nozzle, the very

to be
fine clearances
have
answer.
MR. H. KLAASSBN (Netherlands): Tothill attributed the homogenizing action to the wake created by the nozzle. This
is not the right explanation because it neglects the fact that the mutual effect of the propeller and the nozzle materially changes the velocity field in the nozzle to such an extent that a comparison between the velocity fields cannot be made without the propeller action being taken into account. The homogenizing action of the nozzle is the result of the velocity field set up by die circulation around the nozzle airfoil profile, Tlti* velocity field is circumferentially equal for reasons of symmetry, and is superimposed on the wake behind the ship. The result is that die field must be circumferentially markedly more homogeneous than the field without a nozzle. In conclusion tie stressed that the propeller and the nozzle should be treated as one means of propulsion and that the nozzle should not be taken as a part of the hull.
remembered and also the very rapid erosion which will probably go right around the nozzle unless it is taken care of at regular intervals. Perhaps the metallurgists might be able to help there. A question might be raised about the advantage of the pronounced flare; it might lose considerable speed in bad weather. There again model tests in waves might help.
Closer turn with nozzle rudder
(Netherlands): If he had understood steering trials with the nozzle rudder yet, but thought that the rudder effect of the nozzle rudder is likely to be about the same as that of a normal rudder. In 1945/46 he had built several steel fishing craft: Five 55 ft. 9 in. (17 nt) LOA, with 70 h.p. engines
correctly, Tothill
MR. W. ZWOLSMAN
had not made any
MR. A, HUNTER (UK.): Tothill rightly endeavoured to obtain the best of aU worlds in his project design. One might question the advantage of a bulbous bow in ships of the length
59 ft. (18 m.) LOA, with 80 and 100 h.p. engines 65 ft. 8 in. (20 m.) LOA, with 120 h.p. engines. Of each of these classes, one boat was fitted with a nozzle rudder, which made a good comparison possible. The 59 ft. boat with nozzle rudder was added to his own fleet, as well as one of the 65 ft. 8 hi. boats, also with a nozzle rudder. The general design of the nozzle rudder is given in fig. 589.
Seven
Four
[524]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
DISCUSSION
Fig. 576. Section
area curves with LCB for fishing boat model 38 tested in the Turkish Tank
The steering effect of the nozzle rudder turned out to be much greater than that of a normal streamlined rudder. In a
small fishing port, where the boat with normal rudder has to go several times ahead and astern in order to turn round, the boat with the nozzle rudder can turn without manoeuvring ahead and astern, occupying only half the distance required for the boat with normal rudder. As the 59 ft. boat, which was equipped with an 80 h.p. two-cylinder 350 r.p.m. engine, fished for ten years from a harbour from where some other 59 ft. boats also fished one of which was provided with a similar engine and the other with a 100 h.p. two-cylinder 320 r.p.m. engine he also gained a clear impression of the improvement of the tractive efficiency of the nozzle rudder during this long period.
The 59 ft. boat with the nozzle and 80 h.p. engine made the same catches as the boat with the 100 h.p. engine, and left the
boat with the 80 h.p. engine regularly 20 per cent, behind. This was not due to a better crew, because the crew was changed several times in the course of the ten years. Another advantage of the nozzle rudder is that the propeller is protected from being hit by the trawldoors and that warps cannot get tangled in the propeller. When the boat was ten years old, she still had the same propeller which was un-
damaged. Tugs get increased efficiency
MR.
P.
CHARDOME
particularly
had drawn
(Belgium): Tothill raised one point which his attention because he had also
I
I
Loaded
Light
Fif.577. Section
aw curves with LCB for fbM*fbo*tmMkl2Stest^

[525]
2
mft
SEA BEHAVIOUR
tqjn. ftqfi
V
>cum)
T30
U20
JO
Fig, 578. Section area curves with
LCB for fishing boat model 22 tested in the Turkish Tank
advocated for a long time the use of nozzles. This system was invented 25 years ago by the late Mr. Kort, and has been
perfected since by Kort and his collaborators. However, Tothiil baaed his suggestions merely on the studies made by
van Manen in an experimental tank. Mr. Chardome wanted to support his view by reference to a few practical trials that he
trawler nozzle should be a compromise between giving added thrust and increased sailing speed. Regarding increased thrust or towing power, Mr. P. Chardome first mentioned the case of a 74.5 x 19 ft. (22.75 x 5.80 m.) trawler with 10 ft. (3.05 m.) draught aft, and an
engine developing 120 h.p. at 375 r.p.m., where practical

tests
had folk)wed.
and very numerous tests and trials have shown, nozzles are most effective for tugs and especially for slow ones. In bollard pull tests, tugs showed an increase in
theoretical studies
had shown:
Bollard pull test
As
Power
r.p.m.
With nozzle Without nozzle 99 h.p. 103.5 h.p.
of about 45 per cent, when equipped with a nozzle. However, the shape of a nozzle that gives such a high increase in efficiency is not favourable for sailing speeds; these are diminished rather than increased. For an ordinary tug this is not very important, whereas a trawler must have a high sailing speed. A nozzle should increase the speed of a trawler rather than diminish it. However, trawlers also function as tugs when trawling and when sailing against rough seas. Consequently the design of a
efficiency
310
.
337
2.035 ton (increased to 2.225 ton by modifying the propeller) 2.25 ton 32.2 per cent.
Towing force
1.76 ton
Towing
force per 100 h.p. 1.7 ton Efficiency increase

.
Sailing trials
Power
r.p.m.
Average speed
With nozzle Without nozzle 119 110 376 362 8.01 knots 7.S9 knots
0*tow*mrifttALW^
fS26]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
DISCUSSION
Fbr rtp
36
.1000
ISO
QSB26 hg.) K*5caft (26.78 ourO
.800
KX>
'800
400
40
60
80
100
ML
Fig. 580. Section area curves with
LCB for fishing boat model 20 tested in the Turkish

Also these
necessary
trials
Tank
The nozzle proved particularly useful in rough seas, because one trawler with nozzle returned at the same time as another without nozzle, and which normally sailed 1 knot faster.
also able to keep up with the trawler without nozzle for 24 hours; the latter only picked up its higher speed
first
showed
rather than decreased.
The
compromise.
that the sailing speed was increased figures also give an idea of the It is sufficient to compare the
The
in
was
efficiency gained at the bollard pull tests (34 per cent.)
with
calm
seas.
Moreover,
in the crew's opinion, pull
when
In other that normally obtained for tugs (45 per cent.). words, when using nozzles on trawlers, one sacrifices from
10 to 20 per cent, of the possible increase in thrust in order to maintain the sailing speed. When one says that the sailing speed is maintained or is
was also increased, although no measurements with dynamometers had been taken. Another instance was that of a trawler with 66 ft. (20. 1 m.)
trawling
length in the waterline, 19.7
ft.
(6 m.)
draught
aft
and a 200
h.p. engine
beam, 11.5 ft. (3.5 m.) running at 300 r.p.m.

With nozzle
171 h.p.
only slightly increased by nozzles, one strikes too pessimistic a note because fishing boats are among the type of craft that
are most exposed to rough seas, their length being the same as that of the waves. As mentioned in the first case, a boat equipped with a nozzle can keep up with a rival in bad weather. Other observations have shown that a boat which can make
seas but
Bollard pull test
Without nozzle
151,5 h.p.
Power
r.p.m
Towing Towing
force force per 100 h.p. Efficiency increase

Sailing trials
231 2.700 ton

1.775 ton
230
4.072 ton 2.380 ton 34 per cent.
Power
r.p.m
Without nozzle With nozzle 185 h.p. 193 to 225 h.p.
knots in calm water, may slow down to 5.6 knots in rough when it is equipped with a nozzle it can maintain a speed of up to 7.9 knots. It is therefore not accurate to say that there is no change in the sailing speed as this depends on
1 1
308
9.05 knots
268 to 278
9.16 to 9.29 knots
the weather.
Average speed
He
could give other examples but he merely wanted to
For
tNp K36
qJn. ttycm.
ISO J-
1000
ab
40
to
to
too om.
Fig, SSI. Section area curves with
LCBfor fishing boat model 21 tested in the Turkish Tank

[527J
SEA BEHAVIOUR
.too
'
*
40
6
n>/rt
12
14
10
.
Kn.
LCBfor fishing boat model 14 tested in the Turkish
is
52.
fee/ton arm curvet
Tank
support TothilTs theoretical conclusions by a few practical examples. Nozzles will no doubt be an important feature in the perfect trawler of the future because they provide increased
a profiled ring shrouding the disc of the propeller turning therein. This ring either forms a fixed appendix to the vessel's stern or takes the place of the rudder. In the latter
case
it is
towing force, smoother running of the engine and increased speed hi heavy seas and protection of the propeller.
falls in line
connected to the rudder shaft, the centre line of which with the turning disc of the propeller. The pur-
MIL E. K. ROSCHBR (Germany) contributed a few comments on Kort nozzle propulsion for trawling. The Kort nozzle
is to increase materially the average sea speed. On trawlers this average will be about 1 knot during the year in Northern waters. It furthermore increases
pose of the Kort nozzle
traction
at equal propeller diameters of the diesel engine.
power when trawling between 30 or even 40 per cent, and when using the full torque
The nozzle rudder also allows positive steering ahead and astern even when the vessel is practically at a stand-still. This
latter possibility has proved its advantage when setting out or hauling in the trawl and when emptying in partitions a great catch out of the codend. The papers of SUberkriib, Tothill and van Marten deal with the problem of the nozzle but all exclusively under the aspects
Fig. 584.
Taka
I,
model 38, tested at speed-length
ratio 0.9
of model tests. Van Manen's paper is noteworthy in so far as it gives trial data of a trawler model in artificial seaway. Mr. Roscher said he had co-operated with the inventor of the Kort nozzle, Mr. L. Kort of Hannover, Germany, for more than 26 yean. During this time about 2,500 vessels with powers up to 3,000 lip. per unit have been fitted with the device all over the world. The majority of these vessels were tug boats used for service on rivers, in harbours and in the open sea. The duties of the teller can be compared with those of a trawler when trawling. Before World War II, 13 steam trawler* of about 400 IHF were equipped with the nozzle as well as 6 new boats of 730 IHF each. After the war, eight
Fig. 583,
Comparison qf resistance/tons displacement and Admiralty
1 ,000 h,p. motor trawlers of the "Pysbc" in Spain, one 300 h.p. trawler in Holland and twelve 000 h,p. drifter-trawlers in
Germany, the
latter in
connection with propeller rudders,
[528]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
600
DISCUSSION
Fig. 585.
Taka
If,
model 28, tested at speed-length
ratio 0.9
were fitted with fixed nozzles. Nozzle rudders were fitted in Holland to a 420 and a 700 h.p. trawler, in Germany to three 400 h.p. drifter-trawlers and to a 1,500 h.p, stern trawler. Another 1,200 h.p. side trawler with nozzle rudder is under construction in France. Negotiations are pending for a repeat of the 1,500 h.p. stern trawler. The post-war trawlers were all diesel driven. With regard to van Manen's paper and his model tests with a nozzle fitted trawler in smooth water and in a seaway, Mr. Roscher felt that he could not accept the conclusions drawn. These conclusions were contradicted not only by quite a number of model test results from the Hamburg model tank, but particularly by the wide experience gained from actual practice with sea-going tugs and trawlers. If the van Manen statements were correct, there would be no reasonable explanation as to why the nozzle fitments have been accepted for a great many sea-going vessels for more than 20 years by owners and naval architects. It may be that his investigations were based on a shape of the nozzle ring designed on purely theoretical conceptions. The wall profiles of the van Manen rings are in many respects different from those of what might be called "the genuine Kort nozzles". Mr. Roscher conceded, however, that this explanation might not be sufficient. About 20 years ago comparative trials with and without the nozzle in smooth water and in artificial seaway were made in the Hamburg tank with the free running model of the
Fig. 587.
Admiralty constants for Turkish fishing boat models
500 h.p. motor trawler Volkswohl, which had a length of 164 ft. (50 m.) and a propeller diameter of 8.2 ft. (2,500 mm.) In smooth water the speed was about 1 1 knots without and with nozzle. When going against a wave length of 1 2 ft. (34 m.) equal to about */ of the ship's length, the free speed without nozzle dropped to 5.6 knots at 512 SH P, while with nozzle 7.9 knots at 480 SHP were measured. The speed gain obtained by the nozzle in this seaway was thus about 40 per cent. Another interesting comparison was made on a tug boat in Falmouth. For years this boat had been daily towing the same hopper barge put to open sea without a nozzle. Later a Kort nozzle was fitted. Carefully screened log-book data taken before and after fitting revealed as a mean result of a full winter season, that with nozzle the towing time was about 25 per cent, less than without nozzle and that in addition there was a saving in fuel consumption of 1 3 per cent. In the light of his own experience and from similar examples, Mr. Roscher wished to state that The free speed in smooth water will not decrease In seaway the yearly average speed gain will be at least between and 1 knot The pulling power, when trawling at 4 knots in smooth water and applying the full torque of the diesel engine, will rise between 30 and 40 per cent.
1
:
5W. Residuary resistance per
tans displacement for fishing boat
Fig. 588.
Model of a combined Turkish Taka
ad Mater type Art,
mod*Js tested in the Turkish Tank
No. 29 at speed-length rath 0.9
[529]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Fig. 589. In the Netherlands owners have
had good experience
with this type
of nozzle rudders
When trawling in bad weather, a nozzle fitted boat can keep up fishing much longer than the same boat with
open propeller The statement that such a big increase as 40 per cent, of pulling power is possible is explained not only by the increased thrust per h,p. but also by the increased r.p.m. and thus the developed power of the engine. By quite a number of model tests and also in practice it has been ascertained, that at constant torque the drop of r.p.m. between sailing speed and trawling speed is only about 50 per cent, of what is normal with an open propeller of same diameter. In other words, the
nozzle performs in part as a two-speed reduction gear designed for full power at both sailing and trawling speed.
This demanded a rather small midship section coefficient .73. With a block coefficient of about .49 this resulted in a prismatic coefficient of about .67. This was, of course, a bit too big for good speed but it undoubtedly gives a more seaworthy ship. LCB is about 4 per cent, aft of midships. Fig. 590 to 593 shows how the bulbs were fitted to the hull.
of
It
was done
results
in
the
way recommended by Taylor
(1943),
The captain of the 1 ,500 h.p. trawler Carl Kampf (fitted with nozzle rudder, and in service for about 2 years), when asked by his owner whether he would prefer a repeat construction of the boat without or with nozzle rudder, replied that he would not like to have another trawler without a nozzle.
BULBOUS BOWS
From the autumn of 1955 and have been conducted with bulbous bows on trawlers in the Swedish State Shipbuilding Experimental Tank (Johnsson, 1956; 1958) for reasons which are well explained in Doust's paper. The need is perhaps more urgent for Swedish conditions, as their trawlers are driven at a higher relative speed, right at or even above the squatting speed, which means a speed-length ratio of 1.2 or more. The tests were made as calm water tests as, unfortunately, there Was no wave-making apparatus available, The effect of a bulb on the behaviour in waves could only be guessed on the basis of tests with similar types of ships. Therefore, Doust's paper was mid! with great interest and particularly the part concerning nMBtftWc and behaviour in waves. The parent form, fig. 590, Swedish models wts of a type suitable for Swedish hich meant ft vessel of the following dimensions :
M*. N.
V. JOHNSSON (Sweden):
tests
onwards
9 ft. (2.73m.)
which
fvn
_._.. ratio.
21?toM(2l5oitin.) LBP/B-= 3.95 end B/T-2.3I, i.e., a rather

..'
oeAiiiy boat.
but a somewhat altered position of the LCB. The respective sizes of bulbs were, in loaded condition, 3.45 per cent., 6.36 per cent, and 9.18 per cent. The results of the tests are shown in fig. 594 to 597. Doust is of the opinion that bulbous bows would not result in gains for prismatic coefficients over .63. However, the Swedish tests have shown that gains of up to 12 per cent, in loaded condition and up to 19 per cent, in light conditions with 4 per cent, stern trim can be had. He thought the statement had to be restricted to the types which Doust had envisaged; that means forms of more slender design than the Swedish fishermen use. It was difficult to set up any general rules for the use of a bulb or a resistance decreasing device of any kind. The only thing to be said is that an optimum design from a speed point of view is the best. As soon as one has to depart from this design because of reasons such as stability, the use of a device as mentioned above might help, and the degree of this, application is in relation to the degree of departure from the optimum design. In the results of the trim curves it was found that the action of the bulb and the resulting shift in LCB meant an constant gain in resistance increase of the squatting speed. above this speed was also found. It follows that for these forms there is no upper speed limit for the use of a bulb. certain influence of the bulb upon the stability characteristics is unavoidable but not difficult to control. Fig. 598 shows the decrease in metacentric height for growing bulb. size. The biggest bulb shews a decrease of about 4 per cent, or 5 in. (127 mm,), but taking into account a lowering of the centre of bouyancy because of the bulb, a net reduction in metacentric height of 3 in. (7 to 8 cm.) occurs which can easily be compensated if necessary. Mr. Johawon regarded TothilV* design, on the whole, as a basU for discuwon rather thin as a final design. The flatness of the bu/b would probaWy cause considerable slamming. He
which
in
constant displacement
[530]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
7
DISCUSSION
had himself (Johnsson, 1956; 1958) warned against this risk, and had also suggested icmie altenUk>ns to prevent it. He also felt that the above-water form was unsuitable. This had convinced htm dial Tothill's design was intended for tests in a towing tank rather than for rough seas. The lines were beautiful as such, and the attack on the pure flow problems
appeared correct.
Deta&edtestetobei DR. D. CSUPOR (Switzerland): Tothill's endeavours to find a standard hydrodynamic solution to a wide range of sizes of fishing boats has led to a hull form with features remarkable at least for the size of the ships in question. They should be reviewed not only from the point of view of speed and power in calm water but also with regard to all phenomena which
L_L CW.U
C.W.U
might influence the general service performance. The bulbous bow of the flat bottom type applied on the forebody has, according to Tothill, advantages with regard to the resistance characteristics under trial conditions. The sharp roundings at the sides of the bow bulb will contribute to the damping forces when pitching. However, there still remains
Fig.
59 J.
3.45 per cent, bulb on
tvpical Swedish fishing vessel,
Fig. 592. tvpical
model 729
6.36 per cent, bulb on Swedish fishing vessel* model 727
?-
CWL
Fig. 593. 9.18 per cent, bulb on tvpical Swedish fishing

'vessel,
model 728
681
some problems
to be solved
and
it
would be
interesting to
know whether Tothill has investigated the following points: (a) What type of structural construction is proposed for this bulbous bow? Will it be made of wood or steel? Certainly it would be possible to make a composite construction consisting of a wood or steel stem and a
prefabricated bulb of glass fibre or of any other synthetic material. In the case of such a construction, what
kind of structural connection should be provided to withstand the appreciably changing pressures acting on
the bottom
Even
if
the
when slamming ? damping forces given by the flat type bulb
were very high, under certain conditions in a heavy sea, slamming would be unavoidable. Szebehely (1952), Korvin-Kjoukovsky (1958) and Kazuo Ochi (1958) have made an outstanding experimental and theoretical
analysis of the problem.
Of
special interest are the
Fig. 590.
A typical steel constructed Swedish fishing
vessel having also
been tested with the addition of bulbs
comparative figures No. 6 and 7 of Ochi's paper, showing maximum slamming pressures measured on a series 60 model and a V-frame model. These very instructive diagrams show a relation of 6:4 between the maximum
{531]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
with its extremely broad wateritne comes to the surface, thus, creating a new temporary Boating waterHne. Information on the results of any manoeuvrability measurements taken in this condition would be
interesting.
In the fully loaded condition the vessel is floating on an extremely hollow waterline which, together with the contraction of the foreship frame shapes builds up concave sidewalls. Such a design does certainly help to decrease the resistance at higher Froude numbers, but there are some further points to be
clarified:
(a) Is the
(b)
trimming of the ship not too sensible when loading and unloading? What is Tothill's opinion on the strength of a concave shell against ice pressure and on the general behaviour
when sailing in ice? The pronounced flare of the frames in the foreship immediately below the main deck has been designed in order to give better damping characteristics when pitching.
Influence
of bulb on resistance at average displacement
(a) Is this
hollowness not situated too high above the waterbe effective during any longer fraction of the pitching period? In order to produce some appreciable energy dispersion the flare should start lower.
itne to
slamming pressures of the two models under the same conditions, the V-frame forebody with sharper stem and foreship bottom giving the lower values. As the bulbous bow of the Ottawa model has an even wider and flatter bottom than the series 60 ships, one should also expect higher slamming pressures on the flat type bulb. Serious attention should be paid to this problem, keeping in mind that slamming not only can seriously damage the foreship bottom plates, but, as statistically shown, is also the main cause for intentional speed reduction in bad weather. It would be of interest to know whether some measurements of the slamming pressures on the Ottawa model in an irregular heavy seaway are available. The
results
O
r.pm.
5.0
TRIM
V2l6m
V.
211
^
(v
tons)
0.0%
3i45%
m1
***
H
v.212
636%
500
40
310
of such
tests
could give some
new
aspects to
2.0
slamming research.
(c)
In the light condition the flat type bulb is hardly sub* merged. Therefore, when the vessel is pitching, the bulb
1.0
10
||
ft
|J
ASTER.M
Fig. 596.
Self-propulsion results for

sizes
a model with bulbs of different
(b)
As
stated
by Korvin-Kroukovsky (1958),
in
some
destroyer constructions greater slamming pressures occur, on the above parts of the foreship. The frames of these vessels have a sharp curvature and a big flare
situated in a position very similar to that in the
Ottawa
been investigated whether the flare is not introduced too suddenly to promote such phenomena? It would be of interest to know whether Tothill made comparative tests with and without the contra guide stern skcg and how much is the relative rotative efficiency augmentation due to the application of this device. What happens
design.
it
Has
r*
Ft. 595.
on resistant* at Ufht displacement or*! stern
trim
when moving astern. Tothill gives some information on the wake distribution, the wake fractions varying between tad 90 per cent, at different
points of the propeller disc. This high degree of variability has always been observed behind this type of stem. This means that, applying a contra guide skeg, one should also take
{532]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
ft
DISCUSSION
into account correspondingly strong oscillations of the hydro-
dynamic forces on the propeller which should toad to longitudinal and torsional vibrations of the shaft. It is not known whether the Shq> Laboratory of Ottawa is equipped with instruments for the measuring of the oscillations of torque and thrust. Such measurements belong, in some of the European model basins to their standard tests. If they should have been carried out in Ottawa, measured data for this ship would be
useful.
nv
K>
Tothill used a two-bladed propeller in order to ensure high

efficiency.
Furthermore, the blade profiles of the two-bladed propeller, having the same area ratio as a screw with more blades, are finer, because of the lower thickness-length ratios which result in a better safeguard against cavitation. On
the other hand, one must take into account that two-bladed propellers are suspected of being the source of strong vibrations, especially in such cases where the unequality of the velocity field is very pronounced and is of the same order as the number of blades. As the inequality of the wake behind the
stern of a single screw ship has always a very strong component of the second order, the working together of a two-
bladed propeller and a contra guide stern skeg must lead to extremely strong exciting forces. Had Tothill investigated this problem, and what type of damping would he advise to apply in order to save the gear, the thrust bearing and the shaft line? If this problem is solved in all details, the example of Tothill in applying a two-bladed propeller for a single screw ship would certainly be followed by the majority of naval
architects.
Most naval
which give
less resistance to
architects like to give trawlers stern forms, waves coming from the stern and
avoid strong transverse forces in irregular seas. The stern form applied by Tothill does not seem to fulfil this requirement, although, on the other hand, it certainly has some advantages, e.g. the preventing of greater dipping when trawling and the possibility of applying a bigger propeller.
5
Bulb
fig. 598.
10%
Influence of bulbs on the height of the metacentre
However, it is felt that manoeuvrability and coursekeeping could be disturbed when trawling at low speeds in a stern sea. Dr. Csupor has had no experience with the behaviour of such a type of stern under the above conditions and, therefore, he would like to have TothilFs opinion.
cent, of the draft
Tothill applied a nozzle rudder with a diameter of 90 per and expects that during severe pitching, when
the nozzle emerges from the sea, it will throw up a wave and full of water. It is felt that the crest of such a thrown up wave would be situated above the nozzle and not where suction
remain
v-157
mf
m'
tOClS)
0.0%
3.45%/
v
rpm
5.0
If 3
156
m*
6.36%
3,0
20
10
12
V
KMOT8
(25 m.)
Fig. 397. Influence
of bulbs on power and r.p.m. form 82 ft. fyhtwveuel of Swedish typ*
it is a question which should be investigated in a wave pattern of heavy irregular seas. One should raise the question whether the gain in propulsion by the application of so many unusual features is enough to justify the costs of building and operating such a vessel. To answer this question, fig. 331 of the paper can be referred to. In this Tothill gives a comparison of the propulsion curves for several vessels designed by outstanding naval architects. This comparison does not refer directly to the quality of the hull lines because they all have different main dimensions, propellers, numbers of revolutions and are designed for different Froude numbers. Some of these features are possibly "owners' requirements'* which might have given some handicap to one or the other of these ships. However, a rough estimation can be made on the basis of this diagram. Dr. Csupor would especially refer to the power curve of model No. 85A being a Maierform model with a "saturation speed" of 1 knots, according to Tothill. The Ottawa modd 149A has however, a "saturation speed" of 10.5 knots. These differences are self-explanatory, the Ottawa model being 4.6 per cent, longer than the Maierform model. The power curves of the two models up to 9 knots speed,
forces are prevalent, but certainly
[533]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
MS
MS
M
ftf. 599.
136
Model 136 having
the largest
Body plans of three
191.5ft. (58.4 m.) trawlers with different midship section areas.
which is about the average service speed of the Maierform model, are similar, i.e. up to this speed the special devices applied on the Ottawa model gives apparently no measurable gams. In the speed range over 9 knots the Froude number has
increasing importance, and me Ottawa model becomes better with increasing speed. Being very familiar with the Materform lines Dr. Csupor was confident that, based on the experience gamed by the development of over 4,600 Maierform vessels,
of another model built to the same scale and constructed exactly on the basis of the Ottawa design. These tests will be started in the autumn of 1959 at the Vienna Model Basin and will be given full partithe Fishing Boat Section of the culars on the results. The typical Maierform ship would avoid high slamming pressures, would better withstand ice pressure and would have best manoeuvrability and coursekeeping
FAO
qualities in
bad weather.
itwouldbepossibtetodesignashipwitha^saturatkmspeed^ of 10.5 knots with the same length as the Ottawa design, which would show such results that not only could many of the feature* proposed by Tothill be waived, but an additional gain ie power ccttrfd be adiieved. So it would be interesting to develop such a design wirii the same main dimensions and the same power a* thr Ottawa model Dr. Cooper's firm has decided to carry out tests with a model acoording to liiis description and to compare the propulsion results with those
MR. W. HBMSCHKB (Germany): Tothilfs and Doust's papers showed trawler designs with bulbous bows and gave interesting results from model tests with them, in the tank at BeriinPotsdara several 191.5 ft (58.4 m,) LBP trawler models have also teen tested; the body pten of the original model 55 is shown in fig; 599, ttêîer with those of two iwxlels (No. 154 And 1 36) having the same dimensions but larger midship area
1534]
coefficients: thus they
AND SEAK1NDL1NESS
DISCUSSION
had smaller prismatic coefficients. At 10 knots model 154 was 3.5, and model 136, 7 per cent, better than model 55. At 15 knots model 154 was 13.5 and model 136, 19 per cent, better than the original model 55 with the high prismatic coefficient. Fig. 600 shows the EHP curves for models 55 and 136 but not model 154. In addition fig. 600 shows the EHP for a model 206. Model 136 was then modified with four different bulbous bows having 1.65 to 6.55 ft. (.5 to 2 m.) width according to fig. 601. The results are given in fig. 602. At the light displacement the bulb reduced the resistance at speeds higher than 14 knots, and the largest of the investigated bulbs was the best. At mean displacement the bulb made no appreciable influence on the EHP and at loaded displacement the smallest investigated bulb was the best one. The largest improvement in resistance was about 5 per cent, and was achieved at the
light displacement.
MR. H. LACKENBY (U.K.): Fishing boats, and trawlers in particular, are generally quite highly driven, their speed-length ratio being about unity (in terms of knots and feet) and in this
respect they are comparable to Atlantic liners. In the circumstances, there is scope for such devices as bulbous bows and transom sterns to ease the "over-driving", and he was very interested in the particular applications made by Tothftl, together with the steerabte nozzle, wide-tipped propeller and
contra-guide skeg. From the results given the combined effect of these devices appears to have had a very beneficial effect indeed. He asked Tothill whether he could give a "breakdown" of the overall improvement and, in particular, what he would consider the improvement due to the nozzle and widetipped propeller would be worth as compared with a normal
stern arrangement.
In order to check these results additional resistance tests were made with a model 206. This model was only different
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF RESISTANCE

V. LEWIS (U.S.A.): Doust's paper is noteworthy PROF. having implications beyond the realm of trawler design alone. He has demonstrated that statistical methods provide the means of bringing orderly trends out of a large amount of trawler resistance data; perhaps they can do the same for the vast accumulation of model resistance test data on ships of
.
were concerned. The EHP curve is given in fig. 600 and it is similar to that of model 55 up to 13 knots. Model 206 was then modified with bulbs having widths from 1.65 to 6.55 ft. (.5 to 2 m.), fig. 603. Model 206 was, from the resistance point of view, not optimum and the addition of the bulb did not make the model any better than model 136 without bulb.
from model 55 as
far as sections aft
a improvements possible with a bulb are comparatively small and the influence of the bulb upon the sea behaviour is still a controversial matter. It would however be good if more resistance tests and especially tests in waves could be made soon so that this interesting problem could be clarified.
Practical experience good
best to give trawler the best possible shape without bulb, because the
It
it
was
his opinion that for the time being
was
other types as well. Of course, the choice of form parameters and variables
is
300Q
EHP
delivered four (57 m.) trawlers with bulbous bows, having a bulb area of roughly 5 per cent, of the midship area. They appeared to perform very well in practice and there had been no bad
MR. A. HUNTER (U.K.): His company had

185
ft.
2000
reports of slamming. Indeed, the comparison seemed to be boom rather than the bang of the normal form. One advan-
tage which had not been pointed out is that the LCB position can be moved forward with the bulbous bow, which should be of great advantage for some complicated machinery taking up more space than normally, with little penalty. Research was carried out with a very small bulb on one very good form which it was thought impossible to improve, the bulb being added without disturbing the rest of the form. Nevertheless it was found that there was a 5 per cent, reduction in resistance, The fact that pitching can be reduced seemed to be borne out in practice, and experience encouraged further research. But as Vossers said, it might be necessary to do more wave tests. In practical research, a gain in speed of i knot was obtained in a larger trawler with the same horsepower at a very small
initial cost,
full
1000
OJ5
O20
O25
090
notwithstanding the fact that, for stability reasons, advantage could not be taken of the optimum bulbous
characteristic.
bow
WEINBLUM Vice-Chairman (Germany): The can be quite different with respect to the usefulness of the bulbous bow dependent on the prismatic coefficient, but it is not only the prismatic coefficient that is important. The shape of the section areas as such also has a great influence. Hence there is no contradiction between the results presented by Doust, Johnsson and Henschke.
PROF. G. P.
results
Fig. 600. Resistance of trawlers, moatls 55 and 136, with the fame dimensions* but 136 having larger midship section ana and smaller prismatic coefficient. Trawler 206 has the same forebody as 55 but other sections aft
[535]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
M 736 b
Fig. 601.
M 736 c
L65
to 6.55 ft. (0.5 to
M 136 d
2 w.) to trawler 136
Addition of bulbs with widths from
important part of the whole procedure. The six parameters here seem to have been very well chosen, leading to significant and useful results. The use of cross-coupling terms is a refinement which appears to be worthwhile. However, it appears that the quantities RL/AV* and V/ v/L may not be the optimum choices for the basic variables because they fail to show, when a particular speed is sought, the advantageous effect of increasing length on V/VL. The use of V/ A */' or <g),on the other hand , focuses attention on the minimum resistance for a given size (A) and speed of the ship or boat. For the other variable, either R/A or is suitable. Perhaps A/(L/100)' would then be a more satisfactory form parameter than L/B. Doubtless Doust has given the matter considerable thought already, but perhaps he can give further consideration to means of allowing for length. Professor Lewis wanted also to refer to his paper: "Optimum Fullness for Deadweight Cargo Ships in Moderate Weather Service", published in Journal of Ship Research, November 1957. Some attempts at statistical analysis of model data at the Davidson Laboratory (Morrison, 1954) were handicapped by the necessity of using data from models of different sizes
vitally
Doust's paper
will be given attention by the staff at model basins from the viewpoint of possibly more general application.
MR. A. HUNTER (U.K.): The form parameters taken by Doust in his resistance paper had always been found significant in trawler design. The plea was made that the application of Doust's paper should not eliminate model tests. Perhaps Doust could also lead in some reference to the effect of skin
roughness.
contribution for two
MR. N. FUJINAMI (FAD): Doust's paper is an outstanding main reasons; (1) The resistance of trawlers which have the six form
parameters within the range of the experiment can easily be computed, either graphically or by an equation.
in a form which allows fairly free of the parameters, and it is possible to check the influence of each form parameter on the ship's resistance; thus an idea of the optimum combination of the parameters can be obtained. Here Doust's diagrams win be used to study item (2).
(2)
The equation is set out

selection
tested at different laboratories. Other form parameter* included were vertical prismatic coefficients of entrance and run* and length of parallel middle body. It is hoped that
Fig. 349 to
352 show the
effect
of
the combination
of
and Bjd.
Cp
[536]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
B/d, aad die
DISCUSSION
less resistance at
is
For V/x/L of OJO, 0.90 and LOO respectively: (a) when B/d is 2.5, different values of Cp have almost no influence on the resistance; (b) when B/d is more than 2.5, lower value of Cp results in less resistance, and (c) when B/d is less than 2.5, higher value of Cp gives less resistance. Generally the smaller value of B/d gives less resistance, with the exception of v/vt of 1.00 when Cp is 0.60 to 0.64. For V/yt of 1.10,
lower values of Cp result in
any value of around 2.25. This analysts gives the impression that the B/d value should be between 2.2 and 2.3 for fishing vessels which usually have a rather high V/x/L, and for such a low B/d value, higher value of Cp will result in lower resistance. However, the maximum difference of resistance caused by the lowest and
optimum value of B/d
3000
3000
V* 12823
EHP
omit
V-K45
EHP
aim
17
2000
MB
JfiL
IS
1000
KXX>
Ji-
K>
K>
9000
EHP
2000
1000
typ.
Matt NftB6 LBP 191.5 ft. (5840nO 318 tt (1030 m) B
20
IS
U>
of bulb width OH resbtoiux oftrawhr 136
Fig. 602. Influence
[537]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD: ft 6 4 2
SEA BEHAVIOUR
nr
How
,<|uiL
rr
2000
las
IS
1000
1000
a
12
(3
(2
10
10
m. ZJO
L5
IX)
OS
m.
20
is
io
QS
Bulb width
Bulb width
V-WI5
3000
17
cum.
\M75tartt _
16
2000
typt
1000
33B ntKXSOm.)
t <tft 1
highest
AND SEAKINDL1NESS
DISCUSSION
namdy
Cp has only iittk influence on the total resistance, 1.1 on Ft scale when B/d is 2.0 at 1.0 of V/yX, as
360.
TWs trend is quite remarkable around L/B of 5.0 to 5.8, and the maximum difference of resistance, between the best and
worst choice of L/B, results in as much as 15.0 on FJ, for example, the difference between F; value for 0.70 of Cp at 30 of ie in fig. 384 and 388 and, on the other hand, the maximum resistance, usually appears in the range of L/B of 4.4
to 5.0*
shown in fig.
Fig. 353 to 356 on the resistance.
show the influence of combined Cp and LCB For any value of V/\/L, each LCB has its
own optimum
combination with p to result in the lowest resistance, these optimum values of p usually being toss than 0.65. The difference in resistance for the best and worst
The above
LCB is fairly big, even when Cp is less than 0.65, namely about 6.3 on F, scale at 1.0 of V/yX and -6 per cent, of LCB in fig. 355. This difference becomes still greater if the whole range of C p up to 0.70 is taken into consideration, namely 9.3 on F, scale at 1.0 of V/yX and +6 per cent, of LCB in fig. 355.
Thus the optimum Cp obtained here differs greatly from the optimum obtained in connection with B/d. More attention must be paid to the combination with LCB, because of its
greater influence. Fig. 357 to 388
choice of Cp for a fixed
invites serious attention, especially
analysis of the combination of p and L/B if the vessels sail at
UOofV/yX.
The
influence
among the six namdy, higher
C, and
iv
on
when
i<xe is
show the influence of the combination of Generally speaking, at any value of V/ V/L, 17| to 20, different values of C p have little
is
influence
the resistance.
When V/ V X L
0.80 and $*,
is
more than 17*
to
20, the
optimum value of
around 0.66 to 0.67, and when i<xe is to 20", it is 0.60 and 0.70, thus it has two less than 17} extreme values, but in any case the difference caused by different values of C p is not so great as in the cases of 0.90, 1.00 and 1.10 of V/yT. When V/yt, is 0.90, 1.00 and 1.10, and $0* is more than 17^ to 20, higher value of C p gives less resistance, and when
is
Cp
m on the resistance is the most simple parameters, as clearly shown in fig. 389, value of C m gives less resistance, but the maximum difference of the best and worst value of Cm gives of 1 .00. only 2.8 on F. scale at V/ The preceding analysis, taken in conjunction with a study of the magnitude of the influence of each individual parameter, will give a clear indication of the best combination of parameters, i.e. Cm is as big as possible; on the other hand m has no serious influence on the resistance. It is preferable for B/d to be between 2.2 and 2.3, but the difference of B/d does not have any serious influence on the resistance
of
yX
L/B has no
definite
optimum value and

if
serious attention
to 20^, lower value of C p gives less than 17 This means that in most cases of V/yX, the optimum value of C p is dependent on whether i c is smaller or larger than 17i to 20. Moreover, the combination of C p and ie has a very great influence on the resistance especially for big values of V/yX over 1.00, and the best and worst combination results in a difference of resistance of about 16.0 on F, scale at 30 of in fig. 380, and also at 5 of }* e in fig. 382 to 386. It is } interesting to note that a combination of 5 of |oe and 0.60 of Cp often results in almost the same resistance as a combination of 30 of i<xe and 0.68 to 0.70 of C p The above analysis indicates that there is no optimum value of Cp without taking iotc into account; namely, the optimum value of Cp for any V/\/L and L/B, is dependent on ô, and the best combination appears at the extreme value of C p , namely 0.60 or 0.70, except when V/yX is 0.80 and io* is more than 20. Which of these two extreme values of Cp should be chosen must be considered, together with other parameters. Fig. 357 to 388 also show the influence of LIB on resistance. Generally, when V/yX is 0.80, a smaller value of L/B (thus more breadth) gives less resistance regardless of the value of Cp, and the maximum difference of resistance for smallest and largest values of L/B at certain fixed }<x readies about 5.0 on FJ scale, for example, the difference between F; value at 0.60 of Cp and 30 of io. in fig. 357 and 364, When V/yX is 0.90, the smaller value of L/B still gives the lower resistance, but the maximum difference of resistance resulting from the value of L/B becomes less, namely about 3.5 on scale; for example, the difference between F; value
|ote
is
less
resistance.
high values of Cp are applied The most serious consideration should be paid to the combination of Cp and |o in connection with LCB When only the combination of Cp and ie is considered, there are apparently two different optimum combinations with contrary values of Cp and i<xe ; for example 0.60 of Cp and small value of i*e and 0.70 of Cp and 30 of ie. It must however be reminded that larger $0e always gives more resistance under low V/yX as shown in fig. 358 to 364. On the other hand, from the LCB viewpoint, Cp value should always be less than 0.64, especially at high V/yX. for example, Thus, the advantage of 0.70 of Cp and 30 of is offset by the disadvantages of LCB. Thus one may conclude that the lowest value of Cp , and accordingly smaller ie less than about 15 and +2 to +4 per cent, of LCB, is the best combination from a resistance point of view. Based on the above conclusion of the optimum combination of the parameters, it is possible to reach more precise determination of their values. Table 94 can be used for this purpose, as the original form parameters of L/B: 5.40, B/T: 2.53, Cm 0.909, Cp 0.60, 15 are quite near the optimum comand LCB: 4.31
should be paid to L/B
},
$:
bination.
So far as the table is concerned, the best result appears in a combination of L/B: 5.40, B/T: 2.53, Cm 0.909, Cp : 0.60, LCB: 4.3 per cent, and 0,: 7.5, but a slight improvement may be reached by changing L/B and B/T.
:
Fishing vessels are often designed far from the optimum values of these parameters and the power loss may be great It is amazing that parameters such as Cp, LCB, and Cm*
i,
which could have been selected from publications on resistance or from model tests, are far from the optimum values.
The
results
of Doust's investigations indicate that until
now
Fj atO,60of Cpand 30 of 4*. in fig. 358 and 372. However, when V/yX is UO, the trend becomes con* trary,and thebigper value of l^S (thus less breadth) generally
gives less wsfrtance, especially at the high value of
the design of fishing vessels has not always been optimum. What is now needed is a similar study for parameters typical for fishing boats of smaller size.
MR. H. LACKENBY (U.K.): He thought

that at about the service speed of
12
Cp
that it was fortunate knots, the resistance was
1539]

beam. Hence, if an increase in the initial wanted, this could be done without unduly penalizing the resistance related, of course, to smooth water
insensitive to the
is
SEA BEHAVIOUR
stability
conditions.
From this argument it might be tentatively concluded that the ground friction drag of a bottom trawl should be as smalt as possible, its mouth area should be kept large, and that in these conditions its resistance would vary more nearly as
speed squared.
It might therefore be necessary to reconsider the power requirements for gear towing, if gear of generally greater efficiency can be developed. It is, of course, possible that such gear would have the same resistance as now at the normal speed of trawling, but would be less at lower speeds. Even so, the transient loads on it at the momentarily greater speeds which occur in shooting or
Vice-Chairman (Germany): He thought that damping by increasing its beam would be slightly increased so that the motion of beamy vessels should be better* It is more difficult to say what happens to resistance, but since refraction is not too large he did not believe that it matters too much.
PROF. G.
P.
WEINBLUM
FISHING GEAR RESISTANCE

MR.
P.
hauling, could be greater. Therefore attempts to increase
hydrodynamic
efficiency are
most
R. CREWE (U.K.): Dickson's experiments suggested
that the resistance of bottom trawls varied almost proportionately to the towing speed. The towing pulls given in
likely
to be disappointing unless due regard was at the time paid to structural implications.
416 and 417 of Mflckel's paper were obtained over a very narrow speed range, but they were not inconsistent with the assumption of being directly proportionate to speed. Was this type of variation of gear resistance with speed desirable in practice, or did it indicate a possibility of improving the gear, which if successful might make the present results unreprefig.
if Dickson was right assuming that by towing with and against what he imagined to be the tide, he got the true answer. The strength of the tide could vary from the surface to the bottom, but methods
MR. A. HUNTER (U.K.): He wondered
in
used by oceanographers might give the truer effect. He suggested that delivered horsepower might be a better basis than shaft horsepower as this would take propeller efficiency
into account. The powers given for hauling, too, would perhaps be of more interest for the designer, where he has to think of generator capacity, if it could be referred to the input end in other words, the winch efficiency should be taken
;
sentative?
Before enlarging upon this point he explained that his tank had been commissioned to make a survey of the extensive technical literature on the performance of trawls, and compare the reported findings with some analogous results in other fields involving the motion of bodies in fluids. Structural considerations were also being given serious attention. Later it was hoped to conduct some theoretical studies, and contribute some model and full-scale experiment results. While much excellent work had been done, it would perhaps be agreed that it had not yet achieved the co-ordinated presentation and degree of co-relation between experiment and calculation that a scientific discipline demands. In fact, as had already been mentioned, the development of
into account.
J. TYRRELL (Ireland): He regarded Dickson's informaand remarks on the stability of smaller vessels as of the greatest importance. A vital factor in this matter was the height of trawl gallows, which was virtually the same in vessels of all sizes, and provided a serious heeling lever in vessels of
MR.
tion
the 50 to 70
ft.
(15 to 21 m.) range.
a generally accepted fishing gear technology was at its beginning a beginning that had been greatly assisted by the 1957 FAO Fishing Gear Congress, and the transactions (Kristjonsson, 1959) that had resulted from it.
regards the technical point raised, if a trawl is moving, in midwater, its resistance would be expected to vary as the speed squared. It might, however, show some departure from this behaviour if relatively large areas of net are inclined at fine angles to the direction of motion, for then forces equivalent to fluid skin friction become significant. However, such fine angles limit the tendency of the net
itself to
SEA BEHAVIOUR THEORY

MR. A. HUNTER (U.K.): Almost every aspect of trawler design like other ships had to be considered in two conditions, thus:
smooth water as compared with speed in waves Trawling in smooth conditions as compared with trawling
Speed
in in
As
rough seas
hull
Clean smooth
as
compared with a fouled or
roughened
in
hull
so
produce water forces, which would hold it opcn,,and seemed reasonable that a tendency for resistance to vary as speed squared should be an indication of satisfactory
it
9 Vibration in calm seas and vibration as a result of working

waves
loading
in Static
Turning to the bottom trawl, the variation of resistance might tend to be nearer to a linear than to a speed squared condition, because of the fractional resistance between the otter boards and the sea bed, and also between the net and the aa bed. Such resistances tend to remain nearly constant or decrease as speed increases. Furthermore, if the spreading power of the otter boards increases with speed, too fast relative to the net forces, the net mouth will be overspread and its area win decrease, thus holding down the net resistance and accentuating a tendency which, depending on the way the ftfh arc shoaling, might **H
imposed
trawler
conditions as compared with loads waves were perhaps of less importance in a
There is little use designing only for smooth water conditions. Naval architects have perhaps done fairly well in designing seakifidly forms and that this had been achieved without fundamental rough water research was perhaps a testimony
to their
skill.
General practitioners like himself would welcome the further knowledge which could accrue from the results of research in the eakeeptng basins. Vossert* paper whetted this appetite. He suggested that trawlers deserved a high priority
(540)
at the earliest possible date.
AND SEAKINDLINESS
tank personnel
directional
DISCUSSION
in rough water research and made the plea that the various scakecping basins should combine to further this research
who want
spectra
to reproduce in their towing tanks comparable to those which exist in
nature.
(U.S.A.): It is only a few years since the marriage of naval architecture and oceanography, but they have been most productive years in regard to the understanding of the behaviour of ships operating in the ocean's irregular wave systems. Vossers' splendid paper clearly indicates some of the important strides which have been made in the statistical study of the characteristics of wind-generated ocean waves and how the motions of
Jr.
MR.
F.
MINOT and DR.
E. CARVER,
It is planned to continue the project to include the expert* mental measurement of the motions of a remote controlled* self-propelled model of one of the WHOI's existing research vessels. Such a model would be operated in the vicinity of the
tower; the heave, pitch, roll and perhaps yaw would be recorded from telemetered data emanating from the model, and the necessary wave data obtained from the tower from which the directional spectrum of the seaway in which the model is operating could be computed. The motions of the
ships can be related to them. The characterization of irregular
model would be measured
in this
way
for several different
wave patterns by energy
headings.
spectra has been a truly significant step forward in bringing order out of the chaos that seemingly existed in the study of
Having a model of an
to
existing prototype also lends itself
some very important experiments concerning the nature of
natural surface waves. The spectrum of a particular response of a vessel is then related to the spectrum of the waves by Eq. (12) of Vossers* paper. The complete description of an irregular wave system, as he has indicated, must embody both wave frequency and direction, and the resulting spectrum is then referred to as a directional energy spectrum. Vossers is correct in his assertion that occanographers are still "at sea" regarding the shape of the energy spectrum, and he pleads for more elaborate and numerous measurements to be made in the future in this connection. Such research is
currently in progress at the
Institution
the scale factors involved in the prediction of prototype behaviour from model experiments. It is in the case of the irregular seaway that the nature of the scale factors for model and prototype seaway spectra is important. It is hoped to
insight into the nature of these scale factors by measurement. The measurement of the motions of a full-sized vessel are not difficult to undertake; however, the measurement of wave heights aboard a vessel, it is felt, needs considerable refinement before the results can be considered accurate. The problem of wave interference by the vessel exists whether she is under way or not. Some devices depend upon doubk integration of the vertical acceleration of the vessel but suffers from the fact that the theory is better than the electronics.
gain
some
direct
Woods Hole Occanographic

brief description of the
(WHOI), and a
wave
investigations there should be of some interest. The directional spectrum is customarily expressed as the
product of a one-dimensional or point spectrum and an operator which is a function of wave frequency and direction. A point spectrum can be obtained from the wave-height measurements of a single detector with little difficulty; the more formidable experimental difficulties are associated with the characteristics of the operator. In 1954 a research programme entitled SWOP (Stereo Wave Observation Project) was undertaken by the U.S.A., in which a portion of the North Atlantic Ocean was stereophotographed and after a laborious process of data reduction a directional spectrum was obtained of an actual seaway. There are not more than three or four actual ocean directional spectra in existence today, and it is not surprising that little agreement exists concerning the shape of the curve. A comprehensive programme of research was therefore instituted at WHOI, having as its initiat objective the measurement of the directional spectrum of actual wind-generated ocean waves for a variety of wind conditions. For this purpose a steel-framed wave observation tower, 60 ft. (18.3 m.) in height, was installed in Buzzards Bay, Mass., in 40 ft. (12.2 m.) of water, and securely anchored to the bottom. Such a tower has the distinct advantage of providing a fixed platform from which wave height measurements can be made with great
accuracy. Hence, the resulting point spectrum thus computed would also possess a high degree of accuracy. detailed discussion of the method of wave measure-
Nevertheless, it is probably quite safe to say that much more data of this sort is needed if it shall be possible to fully understand the complex nature of wave motion and hs effect on the motions of ships.
P. DU CANE (U.K.): Vossers has done well to describe the nature of the path of progress in describing the realistic or irregular short crested sea since 1953. As far as the design of trawlers is concerned this is mainly of value in an attempt
COMDR.
to make model testing in waves of more value. Much of this technique has been derived from the processing of statistics and the mathematics of probabilities which has been developed in other branches of engineering, notably electricity and nuclear physics. As mentioned by Vossers in the case of the narrow spectrum, which is on the whole the type of spectrum which is likely to interest the ship designer and operator, the significant waveheight, which is the average of the apparent height of a third of the highest waves, is the height of wave likely to be observed
from the ship. It is probably a fair wave to assume for most design purposes, but it does not by any means represent -the maximum likely to be met with in the course of a ship's life.
It is
important to bear this in mind, because no
statistical
ments from which the directional operator would be obtained is beyond the scope of this comment. It involves the use of a line array of wave detectors suspended from the tower in such a way as to be capable of being rotated at various angles with respect to the dominant wind direction. The distinct advantage of the experimental programme is that it provides a means of obtaining directional spectra for actual ocean waves under
various *ind conditions with good accuracy and rapidity. The data so obtained should prove especially valuable to towing
methods will really supply the answer to the question as to what are the dimensions and frequency of the biggest wave a ship will ever meet *nd presumably survive* Vossers and others mention the bulbous fore foot and claim for it a reduction in the vertical accelerations at die bow. This may be expected to apply to pitching, but there seems a strong possibility that once conditions are readied such that "slamming" is a possibility, the position may wefl be reversed and it may be found that the incidence of slamming is increased by the bulb. Vossers' fig. 409 shows that liability to seasickness is dependent upon the magnitude and frequency of the vertical
1541]

accelerations imposed on the human body. It It submitted for consideration that there is probably another factor which has to be taken into account here. It is well known that the liability to seasickness is much reduced in the planing type of
SEA BEHAVIOUR
sea patterns. They were trying to gather information on full-scale ships which could be used as a guide for testing
models.
co-ordinating committee comprising the BSRA, the Admiralty, the National Institute of Oceanography and the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) had been appointed. This committee was devising methods for taking measurements of sea state, ship motion, ship power and speed on fullscale ships, and correlating these data between the model and
the ship.
boat or rescue tender despite the fact that vertical acceleration up to 4 g and even more are occasionally recorded. Certainly 1.5g to 2g is quite common. This is approaching ten times Nieuwenhuysen's figure for normal types of vessel. If one supposes that acceleration is the stimulus which xches the systems responsible for nausea and vomiting, it is unlikely that the responses of these systems are related to duration or intensity of exposure (to accelerations) in a linear manner. With vision, for instance, the relationship
fast patrol
He
the height of the
asked Vossers to give a definition of the significance of wave was it from crest to trough?
OBSERVATIONS OF BEHAVIOUR AT SEA

CAPT. S. REM0Y (Norway): He agreed with Mockcl that should not be too low below 2.3 ft, or .7 m, for motor trawlers, but if too high, the ship will be working too heavily, shipping water and exposing herself to icing much faster than she would do if is kept to a minimum with regard to the conditions in which she is navigating. Norwegian seal-hunters do not have a large GM, but they have a very high foremast and a comparatively heavy deckhouse structure which gives long rolling periods. These ships are often exposed to heavy strain when riding
CM
GM
strong gales in Arctic waters. With powerful machinery they also often suffer from damage to bulwarks and superstructures
often than when their engine power was much lower. In order not to break down, they use sails, even today, so as to be able to keep the ship close to the wind and sea. In his opinion trawlers and ships up to 600 tons d.w. should as on the seal-hunters use sails to avoid heavy strain on the ships and machinery, and also to reduce icing. Seal-hunters use a fore staysail, a three-hooked mainsail on the foremast and a mizzensail. All are close-hauled to keep the ship close to the wind and sea. The engine is only used now and then if needed to bring the bow up again if it falls off. By doing this the strain on hull and engine is only a fraction of what it would be if the ship had to be forced against stormy weather by engine power only. In addition, the fuel consumption is also a fraction of what it would be with a forced speed. ship drifting freely in open sea or attached to a longor when processing fish, such as herring, can line or gillnct often reduce rolling and increase processing work considerably by hoisting a three-hooked sail on the foremast. It need not be a large sail, but kept tight by tacks amidship it is surprisingly effective, and costs very little. If the rolls are
more
Threshold
fig.
604+
Seasickness is perhaps not always dependent on the magnitude and frequency of the vertical accelerations
between stimulus and sensation

in
fig.
is
somewhat as represented
604.
Within reason it has been possible to express the relationship

in the form:
Sensation
=K log I+C
C
is
where I is intensity of stimulus and or duration.

tion,
threshold intensity
This indicated that if the stimulus, in this case of accelerais applied for a sufficiently short period to be within the "threshold" no sensation will result, or at least seasickness will not be caused. It is quite reasonable to suppose this explains why the short period acceleration experienced io the planing craft does not have the same effect as in a large ship whose motions are relatively deliberate. It can go some way, perhaps, towards explaining the influence of frequency demonstrated in Vossers' fig. 409. Of course, seasickness is not in fact much of a problem in fishing vessels as most members of the ship's company are quite inured to this
distressing sensation.
long and heavy it is possible to increase the work on deck with anything from 10 to 50 per cent., all according to
conditions.
P. DU CANE (U.K.): Once again Mockcl has given us a wealth of valuable and detailed information based on practical sea-going tests of trawlers. It is not possible to as a measure of initial quarrel with the figures given for stability: that is to say, stability near the vertical. It will be appreciated, however, that in order to avoid excessive motion in the rolling plane or shipping of water while fishing, the of say 1 ft. (0.3 m.), same could be achieved with a provided damping was adequate and the freeboard could be
COMDR.
GM
paper very interesting, especially the new facilities developed at Wageningcn. At the JNPL they were building a new towing tank, with a large wave-maker at the end, and also a square seakeeping basin with arrangements to make all types of waves, lo run models at different angles to the sea and also in irregular
OIL F. H. TODD (U.K.): He found Vossers
GM
increased.
In other words, the margin of stability required relates chiefly to the necessity to provide for a reserve of stability in
[542]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
DISCUSSION
case of icing and to allow for carrying water on deck due to shipping sea when handling the catch. Many naval architects will probably agree that a consideration of the curve of righting levers (GZ) is on the whole a superior criterion of safety than is GM, provided the ship remains intact. The work of Rahola will not be unknown to most. AH of this leads the observer to conclude that there must be very great advantages in fishing over the stern which would allow the ship to be designed to have adequate freeboard, incidentally also the fitting of activated roll damping fins in such vessels should be quite practical either at the turn of the
appreciable distance below deck level, giving a vertical side from the knuckle line to the rail. This has given a very strong topside, immune to damage when the boats are lying together.
Apart from this feature, it provides greater reserve buoyancy, allows a greater degree of fineness of the wateriinc, and provides increased internal space. Vessels with this bow design preserve their trim when carrying loads in excess of 50 per cent, of their standard
displacement. Hunter's statement that a transom stern resulted in 20 per cent, more resistance he found it impossible to accept. The value of the transom stern was at deck level where great width was wanted. It was quite practical to design an efficient transom stern with a load waterline having an aft ending no fuller than normally shaped for a cruiser
stern.
through the keel. cannot be denied that a low block or prismatic coefficient will lead to improved seakindliness, but it has to be remembered that the fine ended ship can be put down by the head easier in the course of filling the fish hold. This can lead to unpleasant behaviour in following sea conditions. it is of interest to notice that most naval architects seem to discuss the prismatic coefficient in this context, whereas Mockel adheres to the block coefficient which seems less
It
bilge or retracting vertically
MR. T. TSUCHIYA (Japan) said that over the last ten years sea performance data of fishing boats had been collected in Japan. The results however were often unsatisfactory
because of inaccuracy of measuring instruments, especially those for determining SHP. The importance of sea performance tests is however becoming recognized. Referring to Mockers contribution, Mr. Tsuchiya assumed that the important results reported were obtained only after overcoming difficulties concerned with the methods of
fashionable in these days.
MR. A. HUNTER (U.K.): Was Mockel satisfied that the skin roughness of the four trawlers investigated was comparable? Mockel brought out the advantage of longitudinal weight distribution and its effect on the longitudinal radius of gyration. Mr. Hunter also found that by putting the reserve fuel oil forward and discharging to amidships when about 1,000 kits (63.5 ton) had been taken into the fish room, a much easier motion of the ship could be obtained and the fish room placed in a much better position in the ship. He agreed with MockeVs observation on the effect of the metacentric height in fig. 429, although not long ago many fishermen would have
objected to
it.
measurement.
In Japan the various tests were at first made separately because there was no opportunity for simultaneous investigation of the boat's speed, r.p.m., SHP, net pull force and shape of the trawl used from two-boat trawlers. Recently, simultaneous measurements had been made on board the Yagami Maru (about 100 GT and 260 BHP diesel engine). The principal dimensions of the trawler are given in table 142. The torque of the main engine was measured by an instrument consisting of an amplifier acting on the electric current taken from a cross type wire strain gauge fitted on the shaft. The instrument is easy to install and requires only 8 in. (200 mm.) free length of the shaft, and it can be used also in small fishing boats having a short shaft with limited space around it. One difficulty with the instrument is that the zero
point is apt to shift. It is, therefore, necessary to calibrate the zero point of the instrument before and after measurements. In these experiments the zero point could not be checked after trawling because this would disturb the commercial operations. In addition, because of the diesel propulsion, torque fluctuation was so large that the torque records could not be amplified sufficiently, and thus the accuracy of SHP was not satisfactory. The draught and displacement of the Yagami Maru and the results of SHP measurements are also shown in table 142 and
fig.
desirability of all operating personnel receiving tion in matters of trim and stability.
Designers would no doubt agree on the more educa-
DR.
F.
H.
TODD
objective
(U.K.): He endorsed Mockel's plea for more information on the performance of the ship.
and he
Mockel's speed measurements were made by a resistance log felt that this was not very satisfactory in ships making large waves. He found that the steep rise in power curves at high speeds
would indicate that there was little point in further increase in What was needed was to reduce the resistance, by making the ships longer and finer. In Mockers analysis of the behaviour of the three ships, F, G, H, having similar characteristics, there did not seem to be a strong case for the motor ship. If Mockel felt that the incidence of seasickness was attributable to the linear acceleration, this was in agreement with the work done by the U.S. Navy.
power.
T) t
605a and b. should normally include the hull resistance in spite of
MR. J. TYRRELL (Ireland): As regards the shape of the bow, he noted that Chapelle did not favour rake to the stem and flare to the bow. However the flare on Irish fishing boats designed by his company had been found useful in single boat operation. It permitted a finer entrance with reduced resistance, was drier in a head sea, gave greater reserve buoyancy and easier motion. However, when they were asked to design vessels for use in pairs at ring-net fishing, where the boats come alongside each other at sea, it was recognized that the bow with normal flare would be vulnerable and easily damaged. Therefore a knuckle was introduced in the bow at an
comparatively small value, but it was calculated from ty6.88P (ton)x V (knot)/SHP to compare it with Mdckel's results. The result was as follows: i?t=6,83x (3,682 x 1 .85)/(2,204 x %)= 0.220. This value of ty seems small compared with Mddcel's results, but it is not abnormal because Japanese two-boat trawlers generally have high r.p.m. t low
its
the equation
trawling speed, and a fixed-blade propeller, the pitch being selected at the request of the owners to give the hitf*st
efficiency
when sailing. MdckeTs determination of
the acceleration in waves
on
various places in fishing boats suggests that the efficiency of tte crew should next be investigated.
[543]

TABLE 142
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Principal parttariars and tea performance
Principal particulars:
LBPx Bx D
Propeller
ft.
(m.)
.
91 .86 x
Main engine
in.
260
BHP x 380 r.p.m. x 4-stroke diesel

(950)
7 .72 x 8.86 (28.00 x 5,40 x 2.70)

pitch;
(mm.)
58.31 (1,480) diam.x 37.43 ratio 0.350; 3 fixed blades.
developed
blade
area
Oil trials:
ft.
(m.)
6.04 (t .84) fore ; 10.37
(3.
6) aft
ton
235.95
1/4
Load of engine Speed, knots
6.69
2/4 8.22
3/4 8.89
4/4 9.30
240 62
302
132 0.857
(0.256)
V/-/LBP
(v/v'gXBP)
0.698
(0.208)
345 199 0.927

(0.276)
380 263 0.970

(0.288)
Data from trawling: Main engine output

Speed of boat, knots
96
Ib. (kg.)
ft.
SHP at
249 r.p.m.
1.85
Advance component of pull

Distance between boats
.
3,682(1,670)
(m.)
'
920 (280) Approx.

trawling
sailing
Engine output
SHP ~ Afl 4*' SHP

VV.
/
SHP at
trawling SHP full load of engine
36.5%
Torque
0AI%A
sailing
f\
/0f AV _, jftYH If^njt at full load
i-kf
of engine
Mockers proposal to measure the by measuring the natural rolling period,
GM value during trips

Tf
,
seems satisfactory
the small error caused by the scattered values of is It is, however, difficult to measure the Tr value accurately on the open sea because of disturbance by waves.
when
ignored.
Fig.
nected with the owner's economy. The data of European good evidence of this problem. The majority of sea accidents of fishing vessels are considered to be due to lack of stability, and this factor was
fishing boats give
605c shows both normal maximum and occasional maximum rolling periods measured from the Yagami Maru in irregular waves, and the values coincide fairly well with the r value of 6.97 sec. This can be proved by the rolling theory
the inclination
inclination of
of ships in irregular waves. Waves in port often cause difficulties during test, when measuring the accurate angle of
small fishing boats. To overcome this, a glass tube clinometer was made, being about 8 in. (200 mm.) long, and having about 6.55 ft. (2 m.) radius. This instrument was designed so that the size of the air bubble in the clinometer could be controlled, thus the movement of the air bubble could be damped by changing the bubble size. It was possible to read the mean inclination, even when small waves were present. In order to increase damping further, a more viscous liquid can be used. Hie measured conditions of the Yagami Maru for full load departure, fishing and arrival conditions, are shown in table 141, and die corresponding statical stability curves are shown in fig. 605d. These data show that the Yagami Maru
experienced also during the experiments in October 1957. One night, the Yagami Maru, under the condition of table 143, got a large quantity of water on deck, suddenly heeled 35 to 40 degrees to port side, and could not right herself for ten seconds. The condition of the sea at the time is given in table 143. The boat was drifting with the sea, with wind and waves from starboard. The crew were stowing fish into her holds. When the water came on deck, a part of the catch was swept overboard, and sea water flowed into the hold through the hatchways. Fortunately, the boat could be stabilized gradually because the crew started the engine immediately and turned her against the wind. The stability curve and heeling moment lever curves caused by the wind and sea water on deck are shown in fig. 605e. These curves show an apparently dangerous situation. It is quite clear that the direct cause of this critical heel was the great quantity of water on deck. There were no more similar incidents even when she was drifting under almost the same condition, and it is felt that such a dangerous situation happens only accidentally.
However, sometimes ship owners report such happenings and they should be taken into account when considering
stability.
has
less stability
than European trawlers, mainly due to
its
smaller freeboard. This boat might have had more stability on her maiden voyage. It is well known that the displacement of boats often increases with time because of the addition of unknown weights, often in a high kxatkm. This is thought to be the main reason for die small freeboard. The problem is how to maintain sufficient stability of the introduction of minimum freeboard fishing teats* regulations is difficult because the freeboard is closely con-
Unfortunately, at present few fishing vessels are safe from a purely naval architecture point of view, and it seems that 100 per cent, safe fishing vessels are difficult to design, due to the commercial requirements of the owners; therefore, the safety of small fishing vessels has to be obtained through the seamanship of the crew. Fishing vessel design should be further improved and the onus on the crew reduced. Mockers work is very instructive and shows how the
[544]
300Spaed
trial
AND SEAKINDLINESS
DISCUSSION
at
full
departure condition
200CL
Trawling
CO
100
Measured
values
2345
3
(rptm.)
6xlO
Fig. 6Q5a.
Yagami Maru:
SHP against
cube of r.p.m.
0.020
10
^0015
20
30
ANGLE OF ROLL
QOIO
0.20
Fig. 605c.
0.25
0.30
Relation between rotting angles and rolling periods when TT **6.97 sec.
Reference:
O,* A, A
drifting;
Q6
OB
V
09
LO
running slowly against wind Black: occasional maximum rolling angle White: usual maximum rolling angle
Fig. 605b.
Torque coefficient against Froude numbers measured speed trial at full departure condition
in
cm
15
J.
10
to
10
20
30
40
HECUNt
Fig. 605d.
AN4LC
Statical stability curves
Jr*
Yagami Maru:
Yagami Maru:
curves caused by
Reference:
_.
Mark
under deck only , including deck house and forecastle (see Table 143) A, B
Reference:
AC
_ _
............
HEELING
AN6LC
Statical stability curve and heeling kv* deck water and 82 //./arc. (25 m./iec.) beam wind
Statical
----- Statical stability stability

__ Heeling
curve undtr deck onty curve including deck-
house and forecastle lever caused by wind Heeling lever caused by deck water
[545]

research
future.
SEA BEHAVIOUR
TABLE 143
work of naval
architects should
be directed in the
Stability profttrtki for
MODEL TESTS
MR.
J.
IN
WAVES
Full departure Full arrival
O.
different
TRAUNO (FAO): Taniguchi showed that bow types gave nearly the same behaviour
three
in
Mark
in fig.
605d
ton
ft.
Fishing
B
230.2 6.59
2.01 20.1 0.51
Displacement
seaway; thrust increase was about the same. The question arose as to what was the calm water power, if one bow required less power than another in calm water that bow plus thrust increase in waves would give the best ship. Tyrrell mentioned that if care was taken, a transom could be better than a cruiser stern, this was also his experience. The problem with factory ships seemed to be that they need to have considerable body under the water to get the wide stern ramp close to the water. This might be the reason why a transom was not so good on a stern trawler with ramp. Dickson emphasized the importance of investigating the behaviour of small fishing boats when the trawl comes fast. Scottish fishing boats (MFV) generally had a of 3 to 4 ft. (0.9 to 1.2 m.) about the same as Swedish boats. He was interested in Johnsson's statement that a high prismatic was good for boats making high sea speeds. During a fishing trip on a Swedish trawler of very recent design with a 500 h.p. engine, he found that seldom more than 250 h.p. was used when steaming, movements otherwise being too
KG
238.9 6.92
2.11 16.6
GM
Tr (natural)
Freeboard
.
.
(m.)
in.
233.0 6.86 2.09

17.3
sec.
in.
0.42 7.14
10.6
(m.)
0.27
6.47 12.6 0.32
0.44 6.97
12.2 0.31
Days after departure
30 days
7 days when serious heeling occurred.
GM
3
Fig. 606.
78.5 ft. (24 m.)
German
itetl fishing boat,
model 91,
y-
[546]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
DISCUSSION
violent and fuel consumption too high, and that the boat seldom did more than nine knots, the average being eight knots. This boat operated well below the transition of 1.2 speed-length ratio when a tow prismatic became advantageous, Had Johnsson done any sea experiments since having received the report on this fishing trip, indicating that the sustained sea speed of any Swedish vessel was so high as to justify having the high prismatic coefficient he advocated? Johnsson stated that a high prismatic "undoubtedly gives a more seaworthy ship"; some elaboration on this statement would be highly interesting. Traung believed that fishing boats sometimes operate in supercritical condition (Lewis, 1955). Mockel advocated, and Hunter agreed, that the main weights be distributed towards the ends of the ship. This was typical for supercritical condi-
Fig. 608.
78.5ft. (24 m.)
German
steel fishing boat model,
y~
The prismatic coefficient COMDR. P. DU CANE (U.K.): He wanted to congratulate Traung on a very fine paper, over which exhaustive research and much trouble has been taken. The conclusion that low prismatic coefficient will lead to optimum performance in a seaway, both from the viewpoint of propulsion and pitching motion in waves, is clear from this paper, and in fact seems to be a theme running throughout the papers. Whether trawler owners as a whole will accept this conclusion and incorporate a low prismatic coefficient into their trawlers is another matter. His firm delivered a ship based on these principles about 18 months ago, and on the whole the
Fig 607. 78.5
.
ft.
(24
in.)
German
steel fishing boat ntodel,
9 = .612
tions since under subcritical conditions the weights have to be concentrated amidships.
would
coefficient certainly resulted in outstanding performance. They had since carried out comparative model tests in waves in head and following seas, making use of this form and another form noticeably fuller at the ends. When at designed trim there was nothing much to choose between these
low prismatic
MR.
T. MITSUI (Japan): The answer to Traung is that the delivered horsepower at 10 knots in still water is as follows:
Condition
Full load
.
forms, though, undoubtedly, the finer form was easier driven. However, if a low prismatic is made use of it must be appreciated that it is relatively easy to put her down by the head in the course of loading the fish holds and as fuel is
Model No.
I234(parent) 100 per cent. 100 100
Model No. Model No. 1235 (Y-section) \236(flaring bow) 103.6 per cent. 104 per cent
102.4 118
96.3 97.8
Half load
Light load
PROF. G. WEINBLUM Vice-Chairman (Germany): Mockel, Hunter and Traung have pointed out that fishing vessels may sometimes operate under supercritical conditions. This involves lengthening of the natural pitching period, essentially by increasing the pertinent mass moment of inertia. Dangers are herewith possible in the resonance zone because the exciting force is in general appreciably increased and the dimensionless damping slightly decreased as compared with
corresponding conditions for a normal design. The appraisal of favourable ship parameters is greatly complicated by the
possibility discussed.
Problems of transverse stability in a seaway obviously u belong to the subject sea behaviour**. Mdckel succeeded in establishing a fairly narrow band for the desirable values of trawlers, thus contributing valuable information to the
difficult
problem of
stability standardization.
Fig. 609,
78.5 fl. (24 m.)
German
steel fishingm boat mode/,
9-. 560
[547]
SEA BEHAVIOUR
LBP, 21 ft (6.4 m.) beam, 8.3 ft. (2.53 m.) draught and a displacement of 135 ton. This displacement-length coefficient A /(. 1 L)f for the vessel was equal to 14.71 The parent model, M.91, fig. 606, had a prismatic coefficient of .612 and the four models in fig. 608, 609, 610 and 61 1 were designed so that
.
length,
beam, draught and
LCB
were kept the same, whilst

In this
the midship section was made
fuller.
way the following
models resulted: Model No.

0.655 92 0.682 97 0.711 0.739 119 120 0.803 Fig. 612 to 614 give the results
91
8
0.401
0.612 0.584 0.560 0.539 0.496
0.398 0.398 0.398 0.398
606-607 608 609 610

611
and the minimum
EHP
for
each speed
is
joined
prismatic. It is the same for all three displacements. study of these figures shows that the curve has about the
curve, thus giving the optimum to be noted that the position of this curve is
up by a
Fig. 610.
78.5 ft. (24 m.)jQerman steel fishing boat model,
EHP
a ship becomes substantially trimmed by the head she may become very unpleasant in a following or
used.
If such
110
ton
quartering sea. It is here that the fuller ship will score because the same load will not put her out of trim to a comparable
extent.
Dn.*F. H. TODD (U.K.) fek that Traung's paper gave a good review of the whole subject of the design of small trawlers and the use of prismatic coefficient as a design parameter, and the conclusions corresponded generally with experience at the NPL as regards low prismatic, low half angle of entrance, and an aft position of the LCB in smooth water.
He felt that the tests done in waves called for a still finer prismatic coefficient, but such wave tests were still in their infancy, and they should gain much more experience in the use of the new facilities before making any attempt at generalisation.
20
MR. W. HENSCHKE (Germany): The tank in Berlin-Potsdam has tested a number of fishing boat models in order to determine the influence of the prismatic coefficient on the resistance. The fishing boats had 78.5 ft. (24 m.) LOA, 67.3 ft. (20.5 m.)
Fig.
612.
Influence
of prismatic
coefficient
on resistancelight
condition
same tendency as that shown in fig. 457 of Traung's paper. For a displacement of 135 ton it is possible to determine from fig. 613 that the resistance increase in relation to the
prismatic coefficient of .55
is:
V (knots)
7 8
<p~0.50
10.2 per cent 9.7
7.1
9^0.62
6.1
per cent.
9
10
17.1
11.4 14.2 5.9
lt
The optimum prismatic coefficient in this case seems to be between ,55 and .56 and the results correspond very well with Traung's investigations if compared at the same relative speeds. Mr. Henschke did not, however, want to comment upon the influence of the prismatic coefficient upon the behaviour in the seaway, as his model tests in waves were only due to start.
PROF.
Fig. 611.
78Jft. (24m.) German steel filing boat model,
y~.
V. LEWIS (U.S.A.): Timing's paper assembled a considerable amount of valuable evidence from both
.
1*48]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
EHP
DISCUSSION
published papers and new FAO-sponsored model tests on the effect of prismatic coefficient on resistance, propulsion jmd sea behaviour of trawlers. His comments were confined to the FAO model tests in waves. The final conclusion stated: "A prismatic coefficient of .525 seems to be the best in waves/* He believed that this statement required some qualification, except from the point of view of power requirements. Perhaps the comparative performance of the four models in waves can be clarified by replotting the data in table 1 1 1 directly on a basis of speed instead of on tuning factor. Fig. 615 shows that the peaks of pitch amplitude occur at higher speeds as fullness increases. Although the tests were not made to low enough speeds to show the peaks for the 0.525 model the difference in heights of the peaks is not great. It.secms apparent from this form of plotting that the most significant difference among the models is the speed at which the peaks occur. This in turn depends mainly on the natural pitching periods. Similarly, the most
<60 ton
20
EHP
A 135
ton
.48"
X
Influence
56
coefficient
BO
on resistance
full
Fig. 614.
of prismatic
load
Fig. 613.
Influence
of prismatic
coefficient
on resistance
average
load
bow accelerations is the location rather than the height of the peaks (fig. 468). What then is the significance of the location of these peaks? In irregular storm seas if there are no important wave components present longer than 1 50 ft. or 46 m. (1 .75 L), the finest
significant difference in
ship should be able to proceed comfortably in a supercritical condition at around 6 knots, whereas the other ships would
pitch violently at this speed. The fuller craft might become comfortable at 8 to 10 knots, if such a high speed could be attained. On the other hand, if there are important wave components present 200 to 300 ft. (61 to 91 m.) in length, all of the craft would probably be subject to violent motions. To confirm this it would be desirable to include tests in waves of 200 ft. or 61 m. (2 L) which would give synchronism at the top speed of 8 to 10 knots. (The recommended wavelengths were thus too limited in scope). In such waves, speed reduction would be necessary, and the advantage would shift to the 0,675 model which would be able to operate at a higher
subcHricaJ speed. From the above, it is apparent that the question of relative superiority of the different hull forms depends mainly on the
V
Fig. 615. Effect
fei
ofprismatic
coefficient
on pitching angle
[549]

nature of the seas actually encountered. If wave components in the irregular seas are seldom larger than 150 ft. (46 m.), comfortable supercritical operation might be possible with the finest hull. If longer components ate often present, the fullest ship (or a compromise) would probably be preferable in order to obtain better behaviour at low speed or hove to. One would expect the latter condition to be typical when the sea is rough with important long wave components present, except for the case of a very light sea or a very short fetch. Hence, Professor Lewis was doubtful that trawlers can operate in the supercritical condition in really rough seas. On the other hand, Mockel stated in his paper that, "at Beaufort 6, trawlers in the northern part of the North Sea travel at a wave-length/ship-length ratio of from 0.9 to 1.1." He is speaking of trawlers of about 175 ft (53 m.) length, and it certainly does appear that supercritical operation would be possible for these larger vessels in such short seas. Because of the importance of the speed at which motion peaks occur and hence in the natural pitching period, the ballasting of the models is of considerable importance. Although the value of 0.3 L for radius of gyration may be
SEA BEHAVIOUR
small tank described by Traung, and this tank is also used for experiments with fishing gear. In addition to the individual model tests, the Department has carried out several tests with model families. The results have been published in the v Japanese fisheries literature, as well as in FAO s Fishing Boat Tank Tests, and some are also given in Mr. Otsu's paper,
p. 348.
The prismatic coefficient has not been considered very much

in the design of fishing vessels in Japan in the past, despite the fact that Takagi (1950) used it as a parameter in his fishing boat standard series. Owners and builders usually think in
terms of block coefficient, probably because Japanese fishing boats have a very large midship section and there is little possibility of changing the midship section coefficient. However, in the design of larger Japanese vessels, such as round-bottomed tuna longliners and 100 pair trawlers,
GT
Variations in the prismatic coefficients are possible. The prismatic coefficient is naturally a more refined way of
defining longitudinal distribution of the displacement than the block coefficient, if one has a certain freedom in the shape of
somewhat high, it is believed that Traung was correct in assuming the same value for all models. To have worked to the same m-values would have vitiated the entire comparison, since the most important hydrodynamic factors affecting the
comparative behaviour of the models in waves are those which determine their natural pitching periods. It would be of interest to know the method used for determining the periods of pitch of the models. The value of 4.23 sec. for the fullest model does not follow the general trend and should perhaps be rechecked.
the midship section. When therefore proposed the tests described by Traung, staff of the Fishing Boat Laboratory devoted much of their time to refining the wave test technique. However the tank was rather small for such experiments, and some of the
FAO
resulting
test
Traung had
figures might include measurement errors. rightly said that the object was to find a qualitative
rather than a quantitative comparison, or, in other words, establish a trend of development which could be utilized for
The FAO experiments fe Japan MR. Y. OTSU (Japan): Model tests of fishing boats have been
courted out in several Japanese commercial tanks. In addition, the Government Fisheries Agency have their own fishing boat laboratory with departments for ships, engines, echo sounders
sure that they were adequate noted from the discussion that contributors had kept closely to the issue, i.e. whether one could with advantage depart from the high prismatic coefficients used in many
further
for this.
work and Mr. Otsu was
He
and
structural tests of ships.
The Ships Department
uses the
Japan included, and had refrained from going into test technique. The tests certainly showed that a reduction would result in advantage as regards fuel consumption, even if it brought about no definite improvement in the behaviour of the low prismatic models. Fuel Consumption
countries,
details
of the
TABLE 144
Cakotatioii of
SHP according to Otsu
1530]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
SHP
Tank
DISCUSSION
costs wore, however, an important item and, as long as the result was not advene behaviour, these possibilities should be
exploited.
Mr. Otsu then commented upon a few points in Timing's interpretation of the teat reports from his tank. As regards the resistance tests, Traung found that the optimum prismatic coefficient for the four models was about .575, and he stated that this was higher than that shown by Taylor's and Takagi's standard series. This was. also the case in the discussion presented by Henschke, whose optimum was between .55 and .56. Traung made his lower prismatic models wider and deeper and kept the midship section coefficient the same to keep the displacement the same, and he felt that the reason the optimum was higher than normal was because the small prismatic models were "beamier". Mr. Otsu thought that this was somewhat of a generalization and that the changes in draught and the angle of entrance were also
responsible.
SHP SHPrtK)dfied {lh3ur^
300
When discussing the self-propulsion tests, Traung said that the differences in propulsive coefficient might be due to scale effect. However, as there was only one propeller, there was no change in scale and the propeller would thus have the same
scale effect in all the tests.
that only one propeller was used with the four models, as it was no doubt more efficient in certain tests. Traung's effort at a more "honest" comparison was interesting because he had tried to take into account the full ends of the lower waterlines of the high
It
was rather unfortunate
in the tests
prismatic models resulting from the Lackenby variation. Another way of making such a comparison would be to
calculate the "rest efficiency" for each individual model and speed, and assume that different propellers could be designed
525
.575
625
.675
Fig. 616. Comparison of SHP derived from test with four models and one propeller, and modified SHP assuming individual propellers
for the individual models having the same open-water efficiency as the present propeller had for model .525. The modified propulsive efficiency would then be the rest efficiency for the individual model by the open water efficiency for model
.525. The calculations are shown in table 144 and the results are plotted in fig. 616. This comparison shows roughly the same tendency as in Traung's fig. 461, the high prismatic models requiring considerably more power in high speeds. It is difficult to compare model tests in waves. Mr. Otsu did
not agree with Traung that one could use the modified
SHP
for the high prismatic models in the wave tests, as no EHP had been obtained in waves. He had plotted the relation between the wave SHP (tank) and the calm water EHP in fig. 617, and had found that for the high speeds the SHP increase was proportional, so that the low prismatic models from the powering point of view were still of advantage as shown in Traung's fig. 464. Mr. Otsu agreed with Lewis that it might be wise to plot the results from pitch and heave over speed instead of over
Fig. 617.
Ikiatto* between
SHP in
weves and calm water
[551]

en
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Traimg's remark that .525 "being slightly the best*' might be an wider-statement. In this plot the ,525 model has considerably less heave, and this seems to confirm Weinblum's statement that increased beam results in increased damping. Actually, the Allan (1951) low prismatic model with the smallest beam had greater heave than the other two (p. 430). Answering Lewis's question about the method for determining the natural period of pitch, Mr. Otsu said that the models, each witlTa bowsprit, were placed longitudinally in the tank in calm water. light beam was thrown athwartships
through the bowsprit and was picked up by a photocell connected to an oscillograph. Pitching was started manually, and as the bowsprit cut the light beam, the pitch was recorded on the oscillograph. The periods were determined several times for each model and as they agreed well, it was difficult to explain why the period for the fullest model did not follow the general trend. A check of the period for the .675 model gave 4.21 sec., instead of 4.23 sec. which indicated a weight adjustment error of 2.5 per cent. Mr. Otsu felt that tests with fishing boat models in a wavelength equal to ship-length were of minor importance, although
675
Fig. 61&.
Pitching angles of the four prismatic coefficients
FAO
models with different
tuning factor. Even if the natural period of pitch could be determined exactly, the period of encounter was more difficult to determine, and great errors could be introduced, as shown by fig. 467, where the peaks did not always correspond with tuning factor 1. In fig. 618 the pitching angle is plotted over
the prismatic coefficients showing the variations for individual
speeds. This is another alternative to Lewis* plotting in fig. 615. Fig. 618 confirms Traung's statement that there is little difference between the .575 and .625 models, and that
they have some 10 per cent, less pitching angle than the .675 model. However, this plot indicates that model .525 not only has a "somewhat lower* pitching angle, as stated by Traung, but considerably lower angle of pitch. Fig. 619 shows a similar plot for the bow acceleration, and this gives a rather confused picture. The .575 model has, with the exception of the 7 and 9 knots speed in the 1J wave-length, the smallest accelerations. On the other hand, it seems that the .625 model has on an average the lowest bow acceleration. Again, the peak responses of the .525 model are rather high, possibly indicating that the low pitching angles of this model were caused by the high damping of its flaring bows, resulting in considerable acceleration, even though these accelerations might have been of short duration and would not necessarily be of great discomfort Fig. 620 shows a similar plot for the heave, and here again
1
.525
Fig.
575
Bow
coefficients
625
675
619.
geeileralas of models with various prismatic
[5S2J
they
AND SEAKINDLINESS
19.0
DISCUSSION
had a
certain academic interest
when comparing
fishing
boat behaviour with the large ships which were often tested in this wave-length, which for them was important. He felt that in comparing the models one should concentrate on the results from 1| and 1} wave-lengths, and he agreed with Lewis that additional tests in a wave-length of 2 L were needed. As the tendency now was for the magnitude of the accelerations to increase with increased wave-length, and as it was not certain that one would obtain a maximum, even with a 2J wave-length, he would even suggest tests also in a still
longer wave-length, say 3L. Any vessel must naturally be designed to avoid the predominant wave-length where it will operate. This can be done by changing length, speed, or perhaps prismatic coefficient. Unfortunately, there is today little knowledge of the predominant wave-length for the fishing grounds of the world, but with the advance of oceanography and the use of elec-
14.0
such predominant wave-lengths might soon be determined. The establishment of new international freeboard regulations will no doubt also bring clarification
tronic computers,
0.60
0.70
0.80
Q90
LOO
1.20
1.30
140
V//L
62 L Relation between residual resistance coefficient and Froude numbers for tugs of various prismatic coefficients and with a ~4.5 (Roach, 1956) 195
Fig.
.
about wave conditions. It is important to study now the responses of small craft so that when the wave-lengths have been determined it is at once possible to design the best ship. Mr. Otsu felt that the order of priority of any further tests should be as follows: Resistance tests in waves, to establish the EHP in order to study the influence of the propulsive coefficient in
waves
Tests in a wave-length of 2
in 3 ship's length
fish
ship's length, or possible also
Tests with a loaded displacement and bow trim, as the hold will be forward of midships, to find out the influence of the larger bow trim of the small prismatic
models on behaviour and
resistance, although it is realized that the freeboard forward can be corrected at
the design stage to avoid shipping of water
Manufacture of a model with still lower prismatic, possibly .475, to cover a longer range and make the fairing of individual plots more accurate Tests of at least the .525, .575 and .625 models in a higher wave height to study the influence of the differences
1.0
in flare
of the
bow
some of the models with transom sterns and bulbous bows Such additional tests in regular waves, rather than a repeat of the present tests in irregular waves or oblique seas, would be of even more* immediate interest to naval architects endeavouring to follow FAO's aim in producing seakindlier and more economical fishing vessels.
Tests with
675
Fig. 620.
Heaving amplitudes of low and kith prismatic
indicating that the low prismatic models heave less
MR. N. V. JOHNSSON (Sweden) felt that Traung had misunderstood his statement about speed and seaworthiness. Mr. Johnsson had said in his contribution that the prismatic coefficient should be less than 0,67 for the speed-length ratio 1.2. He would suggest 0.62, which Traung might ibid agreeable if he studied fig, 621 (Roach, 1954; Traung, 1955; and
[553]

Johnston, 1958), and if die vessel's relative calm water speed were assumed as being between 1.2 and 1.3, say 1.25. In rough weather all available power can be used up to a certain windforce, the speed decreasing with increasing seas, the speed loss is due to increase in resistance. At a certain condition of weather (about 6 Beaufort in the North Atlantic for ordinary merchant vessels), the movements of the ship become violent, so the skipper must cut the speed, and a decrease of power output will be necessary. The reduction of power depends upon the type of waves and
SEA BEHAVIOUR
upon the type of ship. The fishing vessels referred to by Traung were probably in a sea state in relation to the ship type giving violent motions. Mr. Johnsson did not, of course, envisage a trawler steaming, with full power, head on into
also
own movements, but as time goes in a state of motto* with the same period, the second term e^.B fades, because of the exponential expression. After some waves coming in the train of regular waves, only the first term would A. be left and the second would be damped out, i.e. But in irregular waves the second term would remain as the state of motion with unchanged period does not usually continue for more than half a period. This means that every motion would have a "residual motion" from the nearest preceding motion. This is a very important statement when one studies the motions of fishing vessels. This second term will show when and why vessels plunge head on in seas, which will not be
be the ship's
apparent when using the linear superposition theory. It is necessary to be very careful when making model tests and statements based upon them. Mr. Johnsson believed most in tests in irregular waves, because motions in regular and irregular waves showed such physical differences.
Tests in regular or Irregular waves PROF. E. V. LEWIS (U.S.A.) Johnsson's remarks are interesting
:
waves of 6 to 7 Beaufort But he knew that Swedish fishermen used full engine output whenever they could. Recently he had met with fishermen who wanted to build a vessel of his
!
design only if ratio of 1.32.
it
could
He was
make 12 knots, that is a speed-length therefore convinced that the fishermen
wanted speed, if they could have it without sacrificing stability and seaworthiness. Mr. Johnsson then commented on Traung's request for
clarification of his statement that
a prismatic coefficient of 0.67 gives better seaworthiness. It is well-known that a fuller waterline gives more damping of the motions than a finer one.
This
is
St. Denis however result in a higher prismatic coefficient, unless one gives the hull an almost unrestricted amount of V-form. To a certain extent a V-form would improve the damping qualities, but it will increase the resistance, as shown by the fact that different degrees of U-form give the least resistance. This is also supported by the wave-making resistance of ships calculations on (Weinblum, 1957). For these reasons good performance in a seaway means, indirectly, a fuller ship. The speed loss, due to increase in resistance, is only of importance up to a certain wind force. Then the movements govern the speed! This might not be reproduced in model tests where the movements are not under full observation. As fishing vessels are relatively small, Mr. Johnsson believed they mostly met sea conditions where the
confirmed theoretically by Weinblum and
(1950).
fuller waterline will
and he was pleased to offer a few comments. Irregular waves can be of great value for determining the comparative behaviour of different hull forms by model tests. When motions are moderate, it seems that linear superposition work very well for pitching and heaving and the transient effects Johnsson describes are properly allowed for in superposition. However, when motions are violent, with bow emergence and wet decks as is common with fishing vessels there is no doubt that superposition breaks down. It is then
that direct comparative tests of alternative hulls in irregular tank waves are of great value. Such tests have been carried
some time at the Davidson Laboratory (as described a paper "The Feasibility of Higher Sea Speeds" presented before the Metropolitan Section, SNAME, and to appear in its 1959 Transactions). The particular need at the present time is for more recorded data on ocean wave spectra in order that the model irregular seas will be realistic for the ships under study. Meanwhile, however, it seems we know enough about the sea to obtain much more meaningful results than can be obtained by regular wave tests alone.
out for
in
movements are
the cause of speed reduction. In this connection, he issued a warning against model tests in regular waves which, although giving answers to many questions, might also lead to the wrong conclusions, as the
basic motion in regular waves differed
MR. Y. OTSU (Japan): One might easily get the impression from Johnsson's statement that he did not at all accept the results of model tests in regular waves, but Mr. Otsu did not
think that he implied
It this.
from that
in irregular
waves.
Much has been written in the past few years about ship movements. A statistical model of ship behaviour was made by Pterson and St. Denis (1953), who assumed linear relation between ship motions and wave motions. With this assumption, they and many others believed much in model tests in regular waves. Through carrying out tests in regular waves of different frequencies, they thought it possible to produce a response spectrum for the ship in irregular waves. However, Mr. Johnsson was not sure that the assumption of linear superposition would be valid in that case. If one
motion
solves the differential equation for the damped oscillatory in waves for a ship with just one degree of freedom (only pitching or rolling or heaving) the solution would consist
an approximation, confirmed by many, including Lewis, that the ship's responses in a few different regular waves was equal to a ship's response in an irregular wave. Accordingly, phenomena which did not occur in regular waves might happen in irregular waves, if details were
really
was
considered. It is well
known
if
that the
model
is
hardly upset in regular
synchronism of rolling occurs, and furthermore shipping water rarely happens in regular waves. However, in irregular waves the model is often seen to be upset, which might also happen in the case of pitching motion.
waves even
The model experiments are to give important data to the designers, and it should not be necessary to introduce all detailed factors of the motions of the real ship into the model
It is
of two harmonic terms. The first wouid however be fitted with a factor e** where c is a factor depending on the damping characteristic of the ship and t is time. The equation could be written simply as: </<= A+e^.B; + being the pitch angle and A the motioe forced upon the ship by the waves. B would
however
essential to find the trend of
each main factor.

regular regular
As mentioned, shipping water does not happen in waves, but one can find symptoms of this even in a wave test.
It
should not be necessary to depart from regular wave
1554]
tests
AND SEAR1NDL1NESS
DISCUSSION
because of their weak points, but one must naturally be when judging the results. If one is too conscious of minor phenomena, one might make great mistakes. Mr. Otsu rather thought that it was enough to test models only in regular waves at present. From the academic point of view, Johnston's desire for tests in irregular waves is quite
careful
correct.
produced, to regard this as "good enough", and to relax further investigation. Aiding this view is often the requirement for a number of standard vessels from a given design,
which
is
As an
quite legitimate from the economic standpoint addition to experience and observation a* noted
The
influence of Johnsson's second item

it is,
is
great in irregular
roughly speaking, caused by the difference of phase between the wave motion and ship motion. When the damping effect is considered one must, correctly speaking, think of all the preceding movements of the model, as it is not enough to think of the motion only at the instant of taking records. The phase difference between the model and wave can be of an infinite number of combinations, depending on
the wave starts, when the wave is stabilised, when the model carriage starts, and also on the amount of acceleration of the model carriage. It is quite impossible even in a very long tank to make waves which include all phenomena of the
waves, and
above, he had found the Fishing Boat Tank Tests, published by FAO, of much assistance in verifying personal observation, and in pointing out possible new approaches to the problems of hull shape. Prismatic coefficient: The data available on this is of considerable value, but it must be interpreted in a practical manner. He fully agreed with ChapeUe that there may be a considerable variation in resistance on a given prismatic. He
was
at present getting
good
results
from a
relatively high
value.
is no doubt that this has great the resistance as pointed out. Midship section In conjunction with a high prismatic value, the mid-section can be relatively easy at the bilges. This helps to reduce the angle of entrance, and helps to produce a more
when
Length-depth ratio: There
influence
on
Therefore, in such a short tank as the Japanese Fishing Boat Laboratory's, irregular wave tests would cause unsea.
necessary confusion.
However,
this
does not mean that they do not care for
irregular wave tests. There are still many opinions in Japan as to the best method for irregular wave tests, and Mr. Otsu
seakindly hull. Position of propeller: He was not convinced that the propeller should be well under the boat; this position is likely to cause undue snubbing of the hull where approaching the
sternpost.
did not think it was possible to reach any quick agreement on the method of such tests, as long as there is not yet any definite agreement even for the test methods in regular waves. Mr. Otsu concluded that the relative trend obtained in regular waves was not opposed to those obtained in irregular
Entrance angle: There should be no need to have pro* nounced shoulders following a relatively hollow entrance; this matter is closely tied up with the shape of forebody above
the waterline.
wave
tests.
MR. G. VOSSERS (Netherlands): Johnsson's view concerning the difference between regular and irregular waves is incorrect, since it can be shown (which is beyond the scope of this
discussion) that the summation of the transient solutions, as given by the terms e^.B in his equation, is equivalent to the
steady state transfer function, which is used for converting wave spectra into motion spectra. However, this applies only as far as the motions are linear with the wave height. Recent measurements indicate that this applies fairly well as long as wave height/length ratios do not exceed values of 1 30. From these tests it appears that the characteristic differences between the irregular and regular wave tests can be adequately described by the St. Denis-Pierson technique. For higher waves, some modifications occur, and other techniques have
:
Balance of fore and after body: This balance is essential to vessel, and the balance must be maintained for almost the full freeboard height. Checks are most desirable for shift of LCB at increasing draughts, both in upright and heeled conditions. The more these shifts of LCB can be minimized, the better is the prospect of having a well-behaved vessel, with good steering qualities, particularly important in a following or quartering sea. Diagonals His experience was that a diagonal at 45 degrees, drawn from waterline level, is of the greatest assistance in helping to balance the underwater fore and aft bodies. It shows quickly any undue fulness or snubbing of the approach
any successful
to sternpost.
Topsides: There does not appear to be any good reason for tumble-home in a fishing vessel. On the contrary, moderate flare provides useful reserve buoyancy, and provides a means by which the architect can minimize changes in trim at
increasing draughts. Shape of stern : There are many practical points in favour of transom sterns on fishing vessels. Such sterns can be designed to preserve balance in no way inferior to that of cruiser
types.
to be used for converting regular
wave
tests into irregular
wave
tests,
but not a technique based on the criticisms of
Johnsson.
GENERAL DESIGN
MR.
is,
J.
TYRRELL
(Ireland): Chapelle's
he thought, the same as that of
all
approach to this subject designers and builders

'"from long study of
of the smaller fishing boats; that
is,
successful design, and upon practical experience, but without the opportunity for measured model tests".
MR. J. T. TOTHILL (Canada): Bulbous bows have received a great deal of attention, and rightly so because they reduce the resistance and improve the propulsion, when running free, in the speeft range now used in trawlers (Doust, Henschke, Johnsson, and Tothill). It is significant that the
finer the form is in the first place, the less is the improvement due to a bulb. The main effect of a bulb is to make th* load waterline entrance finer and the bow wave smaller* and it is to be expected that with a sufficiently fine waterline a bulb might be of no advantage at all. However, in die light of Doust's pitching tests, in which a bulb of only 5 pef cent, area reduced the maximum angle of pitch by 36 per cent,, he thought that bulbous bows have a far more important function
Sound development of design is possible, and is frequently achieved in large measure, when the designer is engaged on the continuous development of a type within a fairly restricted size range. Much can be done and has been done to improve hull form, particularly in the 50 to 70 ft, (15.3 to 21.7 m.) range, where the performance of successive boats can be closely studied and assessed. Unfortunately, there is sometimes a tendency, when a reasonably good craft has been
[555]

than to save * few per cent on power and that is to reduce the motions in the forecastle to a most significant degree. Taken with MflckeFs measurements of up to 0.9 g in the forecastle, this discovery may be regarded as a major achievement
SEA BEHAVIOUR
results are far outweighed, however, by the large effect of a bulbous bow (Doust) in the region of synchronous pitching.
and there
is no doubt that a good big bulb will be a normal feature of fishing vessels in the years to come. Nozzles have been discussed in two papers. Van Manen,
Vossers, and Rijken compare a normal propeller and a nozzle propeller in still water and in waves, with results that are mainly unfavourable to the nozzle. Had they adopted a steerabfe nozzle in place of the rudder and moved the propeller aft, as in his model, he thought they would have found a substantial improvement in the performance of the nozzle
In a film from Wageningen's oblique sea tank, a model in a confused sea was seen to build up a large pitch angle over several cycles, and it was apparent that a little extra damping at the bow would have ironed this out. What is needed is a bulb or bow planes beneath the water surface rather than reserve buoyancy above. Technical efficiency is important in good or average weather at sea, but in severe weather it becomes even more important if it can enable a vessel to continue steaming and trawling
others are forced to heave-to. Progress in this direction crew comfort on the one hand, and to the reserve of power available on the other. In Mockers vessels it was
is
when
related to
propeller. The "hood" extending forward from the top of their nozzle must cause unnecessary resistance, especially
the reserve of torque that
was
critical,
but in his
own model
pitching, and he found it hard to see any merit in this feature* When considering whether or not to adopt a nozzle, the choice should evidently lie between a conventional propeller ahead of the rudder, and a steerabto nozzle where the
is farther aft, higher up, and can be made larger. His work and van Manen's valuable nozzle experiments show that in many practical cases a steerabk nozzle can improve the trawling efficiency without loss in free-running efficiency,
when
propeller
higher powered for trawling) a 33 per cent, reserve of power and torque is released as necessary by the governor when steaming against wind and sea. The pull and speed of nets is of great importance in the total design of a trawler. The results of Dickson and Mockel are most welcome, but a dimensioned description of the nets is also necessary for design purposes. He was under the impression that the hydrodynamic aspects of trawls are beginning to
(which
is relatively
and he believed that steerable nozzles will become commonplace on trawlers in the future. Rough water tests and measurements have deservedly been given much attention, and the standard of the papers prevery high. There are so many different aspects of rough water work that it is necessary to define some objectives before applying any results to the design of an actual boat. To his mind the objectives to be achieved at sea must be considered in the following order: Safety of the ship Comfort of the crew Technical efficiency For safety of the ship the critical situations include icing,
sented
is
receive
more attention in several countries, and surprised to see revolutionary developments.
would not be
steering in quartering seas,
and heavy rolling. For comfort of the crew the critical situations include synchronous pitching, heavy rolling, and to a minor extent
heaving.
For technical efficiency the critical situations appear to be steaming and trawling in head seas with strong winds. Progress has been made in most of the above categories. Icing danger can be delayed by cleaning up the rig (Lackenby) and could be delayed further by incorporating a tank of fuel or fresh water in the upper superstructure which can be drained when danger threatens. Steering in quartering seas can now be investigated in model tests (Vossers), and heavy
rolling is alleviated
Bulb rudders for small craft MR. W. P. MILLER (U.K.) was much concerned with the economic operation of the small wooden fishing boats. In reading the papers presented, he regretted that no reference had been made to the fitting of a bulb type rudder. From his experience, this very cheap form of improvement was very much worthwhile. On a 53 ft. (16.2 m.) 25 ton seine netter fitted with 114 h.p. engine, experiment gave an increase in speed of .12 knots and the turning circle was reduced by 20 per cent. Another experiment on the same boat was the fitting of a fairing piece to the stern post. This gave a speed increase of .45 knots, along with a big decrease in propeller noise. The discusser's yard was an ordinary boatbuilding yard without the facilities for carrying out extensive experiments, but he thought it would be to the general advantage of the small fishermen if such economical fittings could be
further investigated.
Transom
CAPT.
sterns
and actuated
(Mockel),
fins,
by bilge keels (Vossers), steadying sails values plus the use of moderate
OM
EDGE (U.K.): With regard to transom sterns, the experience of Kelvin, sistership of several oil-fired vessels of the same size and operating under identical conditions, was that this transom stern vessel gave about .25 knots more speed, with .2 ton less fuel consumption. She was also felt
P. F.
Synchronous pitching does occur at sea, in his experience, even in a confused sea where it happens irregularly every few minutes whenever a component of the wave system has the right period. Attempts to alleviate the pitching have usually been centred upon the fullness or fineness of the form (Traung) or the choice of section shape and flare forward (Taniguchi). Of theae the fineness of the form appears to be the more effective and for a long time the adage that 'the best form in still water is the best form in head seas'* was generally found to be true, not only as regards resistance and propulsion but also as regards pitching. Now we have strong evidence (Traung) that the best form for propulsion in head seas is
finer
to
show
better
movements when steaming
free in
a heavy
following sea.
DR. R. G. INKSTER (U.K.): From
the viewpoint of a yachts-
interested in small cruisers liable to be caught occasionally in what is, for the size of the boat, very rough weather,
man
at
still, although die least pitching and accelerations occur a prismatic coefficient which upholds the old adage. These
the papers have been of very great interest. The yachtsman and the fisherman have two things in common, the need for reasonable comfort and die necessity of getting there and back in safety. It follows, then, that the boat must be as seakindly as possible and completely seaworthy. These two requirements can scarcely be separated for, though no small boat can be called comfortable in way, it is obvious that, the more seakindly she is, the teas
cruising
i
some of
[556]
tiring will
AND SEAKINDUNESS
will
First,
is
DISCUSSION
be the work of her crew and risks of accident be correspondingly reduced.
He would like to refer particularly to two points. ChapeUe stated, without giving reasons, that "there advantage in tumble-home in small craft". If the boat
open decks forward ... for low speed ships this can be done with convex bow load waterlines, V-shaped transverse sections, the stem raked well forward and a quick rise of floor
along the entrance'*. Dr. Inkster had, in fact, abandoned two deeply rooted prejudices favouring a raked stem and a pointed stern for small boats. third, however, still remains in the form of a strong liking for a full displacement forward with a maximum beam situated about one-third of the overall length from the stem. This may have been perpetuated by being, on one occasion, in a boat when she was "sailed under" by an overenthusiastic racing helmsman. It would be nice to know whether this one longstanding bias can usefully be retained.
all
is
no one
that may heel considerably, he could not agree. His own boat has a high freeboard and about 7 in. (178 mm.) of tumblehome on each side in a beam of 7 ft. 9 in. (2.36 m.). When she heels over to bring the sea well above what would be a normal
sheer
line,
vertical
a wave will meet the tumble-home as an almost bulwark and is easily reflected. vertical or flared
so heeled, tends to scoop in water. This argument does not, of course, apply in the same way to a flared bow or a vertical transom but, amidships, even the psychological effect of the tumble-home may be worth it.
bulwark,
when
The second and
closely related point
is
that of freeboard.
low freeboard amidships may be necessary in a working boat designed to do her job well but it can be overdone and is unnecessarily common. The old Shetland "haaf" boats, the sixareens, had a freeboard of less than 2 ft. (0.6 m.) dictated by the need for oars to a 30 ft. (9.14 m.) length. They were light, fast and excellent seaboats but required skill and constant vigilance to get them home in very heavy weather. A big storm such as that of 1881 could be disastrous and any boat which requires specially skilled handling to counteract such a deficiency in freeboard becomes a danger the moment such skill is lacking, whether from lack of concentration, accident or for any other reason. Green water coming over the gunwale of a hardpressed open boat with insufficient freeboard can be very
dangerous. The consequences of insufficient freeboard (in this case in the after sections) are well shown in Paulling's paper, where he refers to the loss, though not, Dr. Inkster supposed, all from this cause, of 75 vessels in three years. The greater one's experience of boats, the less is one inclined to be dogmatic but a relatively high freeboard would seem to be sufficiently desirable to warrant emphasis even though many if not most modern boats are quite well designed in this respect. Modern yachts can possess a very high freeboard indeed, in conjunction with a reverse sheer, and the trend is such that "Argus" can truly write in Yachting Monthly (vol. 106, p. 103) that "the importance of adequate freeboard in the hard-sailed yacht of today has become well known**. Perhaps the development of stern trawling will lead to an increase in freeboard in trawlers. Kent (1958, pp. 166 et seq.) gives a clear account of the effects of the type of bow-wave on the chances of shipping sea water and links this with the need for good freeboard at appropriate places. But, while the shape of the bow and the consequent bow-wave have as much importance as freeboard in obtaining a dry ship, this is something which can hardly be worked out except by the designer to suit each individual case. For small boats of shallow draught a nearly vertical stem, convex bow lines and V-shaped sections forward would seem to be increasingly acceptable but enlightenment on the question of upright or raked stems would be appreciated. Chapclle refers to "a straight nearly upright stein with a good depth of forefoot and a fine entrance*' as producing a dry bow. Fine sea-boats such as the old Shetland sixareens, which could ill afford to take in water, had a very pronounced rake to the
stem,
(U.K.): Chapelle's courageous paper is has been proved that the "sheers and beuls" method of getting out the "lines" of a boat is simple and quick. This method is based on the projection of the lips of the strakes of the clinker construction method in elevation
.
MR.
MCGRUER
it
timely, for
Kemp method, as Chapelle names the "grid" buttocks and diagonals, is wasteful of time in the sense that the boat builder does not use these planes of reference in setting-up the skeleton frames, though he sometimes uses a horning diagonal. He uses ribbands, and the sheets and beuls method gives him the location of his constructional ribbands. Chapelle's hypotheses and opinions are based on the appearance or shape of the edges of planes of reference not usually corresponding with the paths of flow of the water at the surface of the hull, though in the case of fast boats the buttock lines may well represent these, as Chapelle points out, for in boats with a flat run the fluid pressure would normally follow the line of a flat buttock parallel with the middle line. The pressure of water on the hull is normal to the surface, therefore a sheered diagonal ought to be a better plane of reference. straight ribband offered against the midships frames at or below the turn of the bilge and allowed to make its own track without restraint is an ideal fairing device. It is the boatbuilders ribband, and this is to be preferred to level lines and buttocks and bow lines; or even to plane diagonals. The edge of a parabolic sheer seen in elevation is also the lip or beul (gaeiic for lip) when seen in plan, ftiid is seen in end elevation as a sheered ribband or sheered diagonal. This is a true line of reference controlled directly by the shape of the master section and its inclination and fore and aft position. If then one makes the ribband lines parabolas in the "plane" of a parabolic sheer, one is bound to produce a "fair"
of level
lines,
and plan. The Dixon
hull.
If the parabola is too fine as, of course, it must be for a then is decided fishing boat of considerable displacement the deck edge or mouth line required and in direct progression
mouth line is reduced to a parabola at the keel. The design of an 80 ft. (24.4 m.) fishing boat, fig. 622, is produced by the sheers and beuls method. This boat will be
this full
used for "lining" mainly and will operate from Aberdeen
from September 1959. Economic factors
stem necessary in the combination mentioned by Chapelle or is the rake in the sixareens counteracted by other features? And again, Kent (1958, p. 272) *4 writes to keep large quantities of spray from wetting the
this upright
MR. J. GARDNER (U.S.A.): The biggest barrier to break through in hull-form design of smaller Ashing craft is possibly the economic one. Research is retarded more by lack of funds and facilities than by partisan adherence to any limited approach, mathematical or otherwise.
MM
[557]

80
ftr.
SEA BEHAVIOUR
fishing boat
2.
L/nrs drawing according to the "sheer and beuls" method
it is.
Scientific level in small-craft design should be higher than Chapelle is all too correct in submitting that designers
efforts
of generations of workaday builders turning out good boats and bad, but always under economic pressure to build
better.
still proceeding mainly by rule-of-thumb, "art" and personal opinion, without much aid from mathematics or controlled model testing, and apparently without wellformulated theory. What too often passes for science is vague, highly generalized mathematics from which precise numerical values for a given practical situation are not obtainable. After piously invoking the usual shibboleths, designers frequently fall back oh intuition and personal hunches. As one way out of the impasse, Chapelle suggests what he calls the "drawing board attack", that is to say, "manipulation in lines drawing'*. This technique is neither new nor unknown but it is not used as much as it deserves to be, and is sometimes
are
something
great preliminary task of a science of small craft design is to collect and to record the details and characteristics of the small craft heritage. So far, the most fruitful and mostly the only possible method, has been the assemblage
The
of the lines plans of the great diversity of boats already built. This labour has meant innumerable hours in libraries and museums, unending search in far-flung boatshops for sketches,
half-models, moulds, and like artifacts, and the exacting process of measuring the boats themselves, wherever found, in the water, on slipways, or rotting quietly among the weeds on the bank of some forgotten backwater.
For upwards of three decades Chapelle has occupied him*

with this task. The wealth of information he has himself assembled is both the inspiration and the despair of those likewise ambitious in this endeavour. Of late a growing amateur interest has come forward in what might be called the historical approach to small craft design. And not a few amateurs are making contributions in this field. Indeed, something of an anomalous situation now obtains with amateurs showing more interest than many professionals. One great limitation to the historial approach to boat design as it has developed has been lack of performance data. Performance characteristics have had to be taken mostly on
self indefatigably
disparaged as being unscientific. The truth is, however, that "analysis of the lines plan" is not merely a methodology of great practical utility, but it is perhaps the most precise, that is to say, scientific, means developed so far for recording and comparing the complex variables of hull form in their organic interrelationships. From the lines plan the trained eye can quickly synthesize a wealth of interrelated detail wholly lost in the generalized ' formulae of the standard treatises. very great deal has been accomplished over the years in mail craft design by empirical methods. Not solely the occasional illuminations of genius, but the steady up-hill
and design
detail that
[558]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
test their
DISCUSSION
ii*
hearsay, or inferred upon circumstantial grounds. Of course, it is impossible to test directly boats no longer in the water. For boats still in service, the economic obstacles to reliable performance testing have usually been insuperable, up to now.
own
boats under suitable professional supervision
slack periods between fishing.
Simply to obtain the necessary measurement required for an accurate lines plan of a boat in service is often difficult enough to tax the patience and ingenuity to the utmost. To test the boat in use both for factors of resistance and seakindliness would be impossible in many cases. It would cost too much to take the boat out of service for testing and to pay for labour and fuel required during the testing period. And secondly, suitable procedures and standards for testing performance of smaller fishing craft in use still remain to be worked out. science of design for fishing boats of the smaller class must concern itself with at least four interrelated categories of data, namely, resistance, seakindliness, construction and suitability for the specific fishing operation. In the background is always economics. Fishing must pay, whether measured by direct cash value, or justifiable expenditure of labour time. Is small-craft fishing of sufficient economic importance to pay for scientific investigation of design? This is a question to ponder. With small-boat fishing a division of a depressed industry, as in the U.S.A. today, is it wishful thinking to look for much progress in design? Vet the means and methods are at present at hand to bring in overnight, as it were, a full-fledged science of small-craft
Fishermen, builders, and designers, as individuals, cannot afford testing, nor is it likely that private industry can be persuaded to underwrite extensive test programmes for the
advancement of public knowledge, that is to say, science. Research investigations calling for any considerable expenditures, would apparently depend upon organizations supported by public monies or by research endowment funds. But the financial barrier can be bypassed in some cases by joint voluntary efforts of groups of interested individuals
pooling contributions of
testing facilties,
skill,
time,
materials,
access to
and the
like.
One such
the first of its kind in the U.S.A., is under the direction of Gillmer. In his discussion of lines analysis, Chapelk offers a number of comments on hull-form design components to be considered as hypotheses for exploration in subsequent testing. He has wisely refrained from suggesting numerical values for these components, leaving such to be determined in the future
co-operative project, the one now in progress
be that an eventual absolute need to augment will over-ride ordinary economic considerations, forcing an all-out scientific effort in all phases of the fishing industry, regardless of cost. Chapelle's criticism of the traditional mathematical approach to small-boat design must not be taken as rejection of mathematics, per se. What Chapel le has done is to question the relative usefulness of certain limited mathematical generalizations drawn largely out of the frame of an obsolete nineteenth-century science, and now hardened into something of a dogma. His objections are not to be confused with the position of a few extreme critics of the mathematical approach, who assert that the interacting variables of hydrodynamics and seakindliness are so complex as permanently to resist useful mathematical formulation. Complexity defying formulation at the turn of the century and even for some decades after is no longer impregnable today. The development of electronic computers and their rapid advancement during the last two decades, first in nuclear research and now in the missile programme, makes simple the solution of heretofore insoluble problems, Certainly the variables encountered in rocket research are as numerous and as complicated as those clustered about the hydrodynamics of small displacement and semi-planing fishing craft. Surely the hydrodynamics of a 30 ft. (9.15 m.) lobster boat are not in the same order of complexity as those of a modern nuclear submarine. It is not that mathematics will not work for small
design. It the world
may
food supply
by controlled experimentation. For one of these components, the entrance angle, Gillmer's findings indicate that, hydrodynamically, a half-entrance angle of from 10 to 12 degrees is optimum in light displacement power launches of the kind tested. This with a prismatic of from .65 to .70 resulting from a fiat run and evenly distributed displacement from amidships to the transom. As the project continues, it will undoubtedly be possible to adduce additional optimum numerical values
components listed by Oiapelle. project reported by Gillmer may be taken as a concrete example of the method and approach suggested by Chapeilc. Actually it was Chapelle's prior work (such as Chapelle, 1955)
for other hull-form
The
and his subsequent suggestions and advice that more than anything else inspired this project in the first place. Thus the practical value and workability of hull-form analysis and testing advocated in Chapelle's paper is demonstrated in this
present example.
REPLIES BY AUTHORS
MR. J. T. TQTHILL (Canada): Replying to P. Chardome, he expressed thanks for an intelligent discussion of nozzles with which he was in full agreement, and for the information on nozzle performance of two fishing boats. The benefit of a nozzle increases in adverse weather and is especially pronounced when the propeller loading is high due to restricted diameter or high r.p.m. In his own model the propeller loading was light and a large gain in efficiency due to the steerable nozzle was not to be expected when running free. Indeed, the propeller appeared to act as if the nozzle were not there. Increased resistance due to adverse weather or the drag of the trawl brought the advantage of the nozzle into
play.
it is simply that the fishing industry at present appears unable to pay for the sort of mathematics that will work. Seakindliness is obviously more difficult to investigate with tank models than is hydrodynamics. This is not to exclude model tests for seakindliness nor to deny their utility. But wherever working tests of full-size boats under actual sea conditions can be made, those would seem to be more
craft design:
Csupor had
raised
many
questions and he thanked
him
for the interest displayed.
He thought that construction of the
directly significant. Here, again, the cost factor

It
is
is
the obstacle.
extensive
afford any Perhaps the most promising expedient, here, is the organization of co-operative testing programmes among groups of fishermen who would
if
doubtful
the fishing industry can
now
bulbous bow would present no particular problem in steel, aluminium, or fibreglass. In a wood boat it was more difficult but, he thought, by no means insurmountable. With regard to slamming, he was optimistic that the large damping which could be expected from the bulb would eliminate most of the situations where slamming occurs in conventional boats*
testing
with
full-size
craft.
He was preparing the equipment to do wave tests on the model

which would throw more
light
on this question.
In the light condition the bulb was dose to the surface in
[559]

When running the bulb pulted the almost to the medium wateriine. This characteristic provided an answer to the question as to whether the flare in the bow sections was too high up to do any good. The fine bow undoubtedly increased the sensitivity to trim, but the broad stern sections compensated for this and he did not find the mode) to be abnormal in this respect. The main consequence of the fine bow as an easily-driven vessel in which the engine room could be materially shortened, thus allowing the fish hold to be placed farther aft where the fish load would not affect the trim unduly. He did not believe that fishing could be done in ice and had not considered ice-breaking when designing the form. Nevertheless, he thought a concave surface should be toss liable to buckling under ice pressure than a convex surface, and in the present case it would be reinforced with transverse struts in the region of the wateriine to provide panting strength in
in the static condition.
SEA BEHAVIOUR
Tothill agreed
Welcoming the discussion by Gutsche, Mr.
bow down
that rough water performance was important and thought he had indicated in the paper a number of features which
would be conducive to good performance at sea as well as in smooth water. Among these were the fine bow, the bulb, the bow flare, the flat run, and the steerable nozzle. With regard to steering astern, he referred to his reply to Csupor. As for the margin of power required for seagoing conditions, it was his opinion that small boats, which are always relatively highly powered, do not need a margin of power because they very soon have to reduce power voluntarily in a bad sea. Bigger vessels which are relatively lower powered usually do need some power margin, and in the case of slow cargo vessels and tankers this might run as high as 30 per cent.
In the trawler version of his own design with a single-speed gearbox, a power reserve of 33 per cent, was available but he did not think it would be used except when trawling. He agreed that the optimum speed for a given duty was best determined by economic considerations, where these were known with reasonable precision in advance. However, he stressed that the seventh power law gives a saturation speed and power for heavy vessels which it is illogical to exceed on " economic grounds, since an o versa tura ted" vessel can always be beaten by a slightly bigger "saturated" vessel which will carry more at the same speed with less power, yet cost the same. He could thus visualize no situation in which the "economic speed" would exceed the "saturation speed" and for the present he was content to use a designed speed 5 per cent, below saturation for small fishing vessels. Both the "economic speed" and the "saturation speed" are defined by a tangent to a curve so that 5 per cent, error makes very little
difference.
any case.
The
real test
of the effectiveness of the contra stern frame
would be to measure the rotation of the flow behind the

propeller. If this turned out to be zero, the contra stern frame
would be achieving its purpose. This test had not yet been made. He did not blame the contra stern frame for the variation in wake over the propeller disc, which was normal for a single-screw vessel. It could be blamed for a certain asymmetry in the wake shown by the tests, but he did not
regard this as important. With regard to Csupor '$ question concerning vibration from a two-bladed propeller, he agreed that there was always some risk. In the Ottawa tank the torque was measured on a spring and the fluctuations of the needle gave a rough indication of
the torque variations. The present model had surprised him in giving exceptionally steady torque readings and he thought that the homogenizing action of the nozzle-propeller com-
by other contributors, might be responHis preferred approach was to start with two blades and change to three or more if vibration proved to be troublesome, because a two-bladcr gave a real gain in efficiency and was easy
bination, referred to
sible.
He could not agree that his proposals regarding pitch distribution for a nozzle propeller were fundamentally the same as those of Dickmann (1955) and van Manen (1957), they were fundamentally different. Recent tests of the pitch distribution by van
Manen and Superina
(1959)
efficiency at all but the lowest loadings
to
make.
Several
regarding manoeuvrability had been asked by Csupor and an account of the manoeuvring tests on the model might be of interest. When moving ahead, the steering was stable and the turning circle appeared to be
questions
excessive
ordinary Troost series. He thought that hub vortex losses caused by overloading of the root sections, which is a consequence of the "constant disc pressure*' pitch distribution. This convinced him, for the
present, in preferring his
showed a loss of compared with the this might be due to
normal in relation to rudder angle. When stopped, the stern could be kicked to port and to starboard by applying appropriate rudder angles, when going either ahead or astern. When moving astern, the steering was under control for small rudder angles up to about 5, and the model could be steered in a slow curve either to port or to starboard. Larger rudder angles appeared to cause a breakdown of flow around the nozzle and steering effect was lost. Steering torques were light at all times. In the light of these results he did not think that the manoeuvrability due to a steerable nozzle need be seriously
Csupor*s reference to fig* 331 of the paper were in error; time were elective power curves, not propulsive power. With regard to the model with a Maierform type bow referred to thereto, Mr. Tothill did not agree that a 4,6 per cent, increase in length would be sufficient to increase the saturation speed by 5 per cent He agreed that the model in question had almost equally low effective power below 9 knots, assisted by a lower beam/draught ratio which would not provide the stability required for rnodd 149A. It would indeed be interesting to ee
objectives,
pitch distribution. Klaasen for their explanations of the homogenizing action of the nozzle on the wake, as being induced by the propeller.
own He thanked Gutsche and
Henschke's interesting results for bulbous bows, when

contrasted with Johnsson's, tended to suggest a conclusion that the better the basic hull form was, the less benefit it would derive from a bulb, in smooth water. Doust's results, on the other hand, suggested that the bulb could well be exaggerated to improve the pitching characteristics, and this now seemed to Mr. Tothill to be the main justification for
using a bulb. He could not agree with Hunter that a bulbous bow was of questionable advantage in small vessels. If it helped a 100-tonner it would also help a 10-tonner or a 1,000-tonner in the proper speed range. Lackenby had asked for a breakdown of the overall improvement due to the separate features of the model, compared with normal arrangements. One had first to decide what was normal and a main consideration on his own particular model would be a loss of perhaps 17 per cent, in propeller
the results for a Maierform hull designed for the and tested in the same manner.
same
diameter and a 50 per cent, increase in revolutions. breakdown might then look somewhat as follows.
The
[560]
Resistance Propulsion Trawling
AND SEAKINDLINESS
As Hunter bow trawlers
designers.
DISCUSSION
Bulbous bow Contra stern frame

2-blade propeller Steerabfc nozzle
-1
-3
0250
4
5
3
1
Synchronous
pitch angle
pointed out, the performance of the bulbous at sea has fulfilled the expectations of the
40
30
In giving these figures he hoped he would be credited for courage rather than being blamed for fooihardiness; they were based entirely on indirect evidence. Proskie had cited two cases where an increase in power had given better profits in trawlers. He agreed that this might be
MR. W. DICKSON (U.K.): He thanked Tyrrell for his not very reassuring remarks concerning the relative heights of the gallows on big and small trawlers. The question of stability of small 75 ft. (23 m.) fishing boats caught with their trawl at the bottom ought to be thoroughly considered. Crewe had
answered his own questions so far as they can be answered at
this stage.
Regarding Hunter's query of the
tide
and the
effect
of the
some cases, but not in others. Each case had to be considered on its merits. Very often the demand for more power was a consequence of poor efficiency rather than too little power, and he could cite cases where the adoption of a steerable nozzle was equivalent to fully 50 per cent, increase in engine power when trawling, and would show a far greater
beneficial in
difference between the speed of the boat and the speed of the net, he would like to measure the speed of the net. But there
return in the economic analysis. He was not necessarily advocating a 75-ft. (22.9 m.) boat for the Canadian Atlantic provinces; his model could be scaled
without affecting its merits. He had simply or more properly 100 ton, as a convenient basis for comparison. Finally, he expressed thanks to Roscher and
up
to
any
size
used 75
ft.,
Zwolsman
for their reports on fixed and steerable nozzles, which went far to prove their advantage and practicability, and thanked the other contributors for their valued comments.
MR. D. J. DOUST (U.K.) thanked Lewis for his encouraging remarks and hoped to extend the statistical method given in this paper to other classes of merchant vessel. As far as the choice of form parameters is concerned, the cross-coupling of terms referred to by Lewis is also an essential part of the procedure if the regions of minimum resistance are
to be fully explored in the analysts.
were at the time no instruments for this, so measuring the speed of the boat and assuming it to be the speed of the net was all that he could do. Regarding Mockers paper, he had compared some of his own results on the Explorer and found that the drag was less and the speed somewhat higher. He attributed the discrepancy to the gear which was used. Another reason for the difference might be that Mockers ships might have been working in deeper water with more wire out. On the Explorer iron bobbins were not used but heavy rope bosoms of 14 in. (356 mm.) diam. All the same, Mockers figures on the drag of the gear appeared high. A calculation of propeller thrust of both vessels should give some cross checks on results. He was interested in Mocked He had fig. 429, the diagram of stability and rolling time. taken the rolling time of two Scottish 75 ft. (23 m.) MFVs, which appeared to correspond with Mockers curve, although both were a little on the stiff side of the graph.
The Ca-V/x/L presentation has several advantages in an analysis of this type (Doust and O'Brien, 1959) although Mr. Doust agreed that the system is a possible alternative
which might give satisfactory results. However, it should be remembered that once the regression equation based on the CR-V/ Y/L system has been built up, the effect of changes in length can be calculated directly by substituting in the equation. The use of an electronic computer such as "Deuce" is of course invaluable in the assessment of changes in single parameters, since programmes can be prepared which yield
the required information very readily. The changes in length ft. (61 m.) do, of course, entail small frictional corrections in CR which are calculable.
from 200
Mr. Doust was interested to hear of the attempts made at Davidson Laboratory to statistically analyse model resistance data from various sources. Due to the differences in model sizes, turbulence stimulators, tank boundary interference and other discrepancies between the various tanks he discarded a considerable amount of trawler data to avoid these anomalies. In this way the changes in resistance used in the analysis are more truly representative of the changes in form parameters. A wider range of parameters could only be used after more data from model tests became available. Johnsson commented on the effect of proportions in the use of a bulb, and particularly its use in fuller ships. Doust, in his paper, had been careful in laying down the limits of the different parameters within which this analysis was valid. Anyone referring to this paper should, therefore, be sure to keep within the limits of parameters which Doust has defined.
the
MR. G. VOSSERS (Netherlands): Measurements of waves were a necessity in future seakeeping research; as long as it is not known what waves are encountered, one cannot predict the behaviour of a ship. Therefore the work of Occanographic Institutions such as Woods Hole is absolutely necessary. Du Cane's remarks are highly appreciated. His observations on seasickness were new to Vossers and the explanation offered for the rare occurrences of seasickness on board high speed planing vessels seems very reasonable. In reply to Todd, he said that the significant wave height is defined from crest to trough and it can be arrived at with the following procedure: tabulate the observed apparent wave heights from a record with increasing wave height; count the number of apparent wave heights and divide by three. Take the highest waves, the next highest wave, and so on until onethird of the total number of apparent wave heights has been selected. The average of these apparent wave heights is called
the significant wave height. It is true that the theoretical support for the resistance decrease in head seas was found in calculations of an oscillating ship in still water, as is remarked by Wetnblum. Eggers' calculations will be studied with much interest as they seem to indicate that this .theoretical support is not correct. The
experimental evidence of this

length.
phenomenon remains, however,
present, although not in waves higher than 1/40 of the wave-
CAPT. W. MOCKEL (Germany): Measurements of horsepower, speed and warp pull have been made at the Hamburg Tank during the last few years. Problems relating to the influence of the sea bottom on pull and power requirements have still to be solved. On one occasion during the expert-
[561]

ynont the speed fell to nought while the engine was still working ahead. No research data Is available on these problems. During the investigations, the length of warp was from 525 to 725 ft. (960 to 1,370 m.). Iron bobbins and ponies were tiled. Due to the seaway the instruments sometimes were difficult to read. The pull was taken from each warp by two calibrated dynamometers. The results have been confirmed by other observers working with a different kind of dynamometer.
SEA BEHAVIOUR
craft,
Japanese
while they differed slightly
on
the
German
trawlers according to the load condition of the individual stages of the voyage, as shown in table 143.
When measuring the speed with a Kempf log a small metal cone was towed 20 ft. (6 m.) off the ship's side behind the vessel at lengths of the logwire, ranging from 330 to 560 ft. (100 to 170 m.). Measurements were taken at each 16.5 ft. (5 m.). The ship's speed was calculated by means of calibration curves as the average of the 15 single measurements. Numerous trials on the measured mile showed a very good agreement of the results of both methods. The fish load is decisive for the fore and aft accelerations. These also depend on the body shape fore and aft and the radius of gyration. Natural rolling periods of small ships are not easy to determine due to wave influence. Sometimes 50 to 60 measurements were needed for an average reading. Measurements made by other workers generally corresponded to those
described here.
DR. J. D. VAN MANEN (Netherlands): In answer to Roscher, he would like to state that the trawler with nozzle-propeller was actually tested over a wide range of wave-lengths, speeds, directions and wave-heights. In practically all cases the nozzle had shown a better performance than a propeller without. Under some conditions, in a head sea, for example, with wave-length equal to ship's- length, the nozzle showed bad results, with less thrust, and did not give as much damping as expected. The same tests were done with another nozzle on the same model and the results confirmed the previous tests.
MR. J-O. TRAUNG (FAO)
If one
fishing boat design can be improved, there are quite a things to consider, among them being:
wants to determine whether a few
Distance to fishing grounds and weather conditions Fish availability and behaviour; fishing methods General layout is the size economical ?
Ships F, G, J were investigated about one month before docking. Examination in dock showed that none of the ships had any fouling, and bottom painting was still in very good condition. The skin roughness of these three ships may was somebe regarded as equal. The skin friction of ship what less since the bottom of the vessel had been painted just before the start of the voyage. As du Cane stated, excessive rolling and shipping of water can be reduced by the increase of freeboard and damping. Fig. 429 is intended to show by simple means how conventional trawlers of different stability behave in waves. These vessels are of the same type and have freeboards that differ
Are the lines the best possible to give most comfort, thus highest fishing efficiency, and economical propulsion ? Is the safety adequate? If the type of fish to be caught and fishing method are known, then the general boat type and size are more or less
fixed.
made. Length
then to see where improvements could be difficult to change because it is such an important cost factor. It might be possible to reduce the hull weight by choosing a lighter engine, by carrying less permanent
task
is
The
is
very
by improved insulation, therefore loading less ice, and by reducing scantlings. But not very much can be done with 1 8 The beam must be selected the displacement, and thus L/y to ensure the correct and previous discussion has shown that this matters little to the resistance. The draught and also the depth are very much determined by the propeller diameter,
ballast,
'
.
GM
so they are difficult to manipulate, therefore the
B/T
ratio is
only very little.

It is difficult to find
means of much
greater
damping
effect
than produced by the normal bilge keel. It is to be doubted whether the dynamic lift of activated fins at the low trawling speed of about 3.5 knots will reduce rolling, to say nothing of when the vessel is drifting and making no headway at all The shape of a ship is more precisely defined by the prismatic coefficient, and this coefficient was therefore adopted in Because the prismatic coefficients of the cargo fig. 412. ships formerly investigated in the U.K. and Germany were not known, comparison of the loss of speed of these vessels and trawlers was based on the block coefficient. Captain Mockel, referring to Tsuchiya's contribution, hoped that in Japan, where so many naval architects were
given. The location of tanks, engine, fish hold, etc., can be used to bring about a certain shift of LCB to give less resistan ce on the lines. Similarly, one can consider the use of such
resistance-decreasing features as a transom stern or a bulbous 1 bow. However, the normal situation is that L/y /a , L/B, B/T
LCB are more or less fixed, and the question then is what the important parameter to consider in order to see whether any improvements are possible.
and
is
Chapelle rightly stressed in his paper the importance of a
commonsense approach when designing
lines, and issued a warning against the "mathematical attack". Nevitt's (1956) findings that there could be a variation in resistance of as much as 27 per cent, when testing fishing boat models of a fixed prismatic coefficient of .65, had apparently made a deep
employed by the Government Fisheries Agency, many more full-scale observations would be made from different types of fishing boats. This would form a most important contribution to a third Congress. He also felt that other countries should do similar research, which would be of great assistance when
designing better fishing boats. Tsuchiya's results tended to agree with the data obtained on German trawlers. The differences lay mainly in the shape and size of the vessels and the lower efficiency, which was probably doe to the comparatively high speed propeller used in the Japanese boat It was, of course, easier to measure rolling periods on board a large trawler than on a small fishing boat The real difference existed in the m-values, which wore 0.428 respectively for the three given loading stages of the
impression on Chapelle and Tyrrell. It is true that Nevitt somewhat of a sensation when he published the results of these tests, but Chapelle and Tyrrell seemed to have overlooked the fact that all individual models in the series were not really designed with practical construction in mind. Nevitt wanted his students to find out how much difference could be obtained by making very extreme variations and using rather distorted shapes in some models, and thus great Had the models been variations in resistance resulted. designed with practical construction in view, the variations would not have been so much. Professor Nevitt, who later tested models of .55, .60 and .70 prismatic coefficients, had permitted the preliminary results to be published at this
created
state
fig.
623.
[562]
AND SEAKINDLINESS
DISCUSSION
Four models of .55 prismatic had boon tested, and each model was designed with a "commonsense" approach. The difference between the models was not greater than 4 per cent. It was Nevitt's feeling, however, that this spread would have been larger in the .65 series, and it seemed as if the variation between models was reduced if a lower prismatic coefficient was used, and as long as one kept within reasonable shapes. In the .60 and .70 series only one model had been tested. 1 With parameters like L/V '*, L/B, B/T and LCB fixed, to the according general arrangement, size and type of the vessel, and using a commonsense approach in design, Chapelle would probably agree that the prismatic coefficient was the most important numerical factor to consider in
design.
The choice of the magnitude of the prismatic coefficient, from the point of view of resistance in calm water, is much simpler than is generally realized. A hull with a low prismatic coefficient has less wave interference effect, and thus there are fewer humps and hollows in the curve of the calm water resistance coefficient, as evident from fig. 623 and Johnsson's This was nothing new. Taylor had shown these fig. 615. effects many years ago for the lower displacement-length ratios. A low prismatic is always the best below a speedlength ratio of 1.17, according to fig. 615, and 1.13, according
to fig. 623, say 1.15. At higher speeds, the larger prismatic gains in importance. However, the difference in resistance between low and high prismatics at a speed-length ratio of, say, 1, is several times greater than at, say, a speed-length
ratio of 1.3.
Now, if fishing boats operate at less than, say, 1.15, the choice is simple, but if they should, under very ideal conditions such as absolutely calm water, be able to run at higher speedlength ratios, one must determine whether it would be more economical in that case to choose a slight decrease in resistance at the ideal condition and take the very heavy loss as soon as the speed drops down below the transition speed. Even if calm water operation should constitute 50 per cent, of the
always be more profitable to have a because of the saving in fuel at the lower speeds. At a speed-length ratio of 1 .25, a .62 prismatic would have a residual resistance coefficient, according to fig. 615, of 7, and a .56 prismatic a coefficient of 8, or about
or
at
10
14
V//L
low prismatic
total operation, it would coefficient
Fig. 623. Resistance curves of the high displacement-length series of trawler hulls being tested by Professor Cedric Ridgley-Nevitt at the Webbs Institute of Naval Architecture, Crescent Beach Rood, Glen Cove, New York, U.S.A. The .552 and .65 prismatic series are final but for the .597 and .698 series only one model has been tested of each
14 per cent, more, and perhaps only 7 per cent, more in total resistance. By a speed-length ratio of 1, the resistance coefficient for the .62 model would be 4.15, and 2.05 for the .56 model. Thus the high prismatic model would require twice the residual resistance and perhaps 30 per cent, more in
fishing trips with boats from many countries, including Sweden, he had never found that these speeds were attained. There is very little realistic information on operating speeds of fishing vessels, disregarding those given in the Japanese fishing boats register, but some had been published in a
on
Johnsson chose a prismatic of .67 to "provide less motions in a seaway", and that would require a residual resistance of about 8.2, or four times that of the model with the lower prismatic. Doust's diagrams show, according to Fujinami, that the choice of low prismatic and high prismatic depend very much on the angle of entrance, and that a combination of high prismatic and large angle of entrance can sometimes compete with a combination of low prismatic and small angle of entrance. The diagrams, however, also indicate that a large angle of entrance always gives higher resistance speed-length ratios below 0.9. In practice, NPL seem to choose the combination of low prismatic and small angle of entrance for
total resistance.
diagram (Traung, 1955), now reprinted as fig. 624a. The maximum speeds recorded in Mocker s paper and in Tsuchiya's
had been introduced into this figure, as well as from a fishing trip in 1956 in a newly-built Swedish trawler with a .66 prismatic coefficient. Fig. 624b gives a record of the speed observations of the Swedish trawler, which had the following dimensions:
discussion
results
fishing boats.
What speeds do fishing boats normally make? Johnsson met a skipper who wanted to make 12 knots, or a speed-length ratio of 1.32. Mr. Traung had also met skippers claiming both high speeds and the desire to make them, but, when checked,
[
563
SEA BEHAVIOUR
0.1
Fig. 624a. The top diagram shows curves with trial speeds of good boats. The medium curve indicates normal speeds obtained in smooth water by modern boats and the lower curve is an estimation of the average sea speed at which fishing boats normally soil. The lower diagram shows the same Information expressed in curves for non-dimensional speed-length ratios. The diagram is based on data available at FAO and was originally published by Traung (1955). Now additional plots have been introduced for results given by Mockel, Tsuchiya and Traung in this discussion. The limiting line for speed-length ratio of 1.15 indicates that fishing boats normally sail at speeds where a low prismatic coefficient is profitable
It
was unrealistic to believe that fishing vessels normally operate at a higher speed-length ratio than 1.15. For operation in waves, it is naturally important to consider whether the low prismatic would also give low resistance, high propulsive efficiency and moderate motions. Du Cane stated that this "seems to be a theme running throughout the 4 papers '. Hopwood and Mewse, the latter an experieitccd superintendent of a large trawler fleet, stated in their paper, on p*ge 276, that a fine hull produced a seakindly ship. Tyrrell, although doubtful about a low prismatic coefficient, said that a finer bow gives less resistance and is drier in head seas. Sir Fred Parkcs gave a vivid account on pages 357 and 370 of Fishing Boats of the World of the behaviour of the low prismatic model-tested British super-trawlers. There seems to be little question that the larger trawlers have less
motion
if
large super-trawlers. They should also behave in practice as indicated by the reported model tests. It was difficult to understand why Johnsson had to issue a warning
and the
against the findings from the model tests reported because they were made in regular waves only. The model testing technique is still being improved and the
user of test results should naturally be aware of the risks which interpretation and extrapolation involve. Laminar flow, for
example, has been a rather difficult problem. Similarly, the question of whether to test in regular or irregular waves is important. The essential thing, when judging model tests, is to observe the trend and look upon them more qualitatively than quantitatively, which was emphasized in the paper, and
they have a low prismatic coefficient, and everyone "playing about in small boats** will certainly confirm Gardner's statement that excessive wetness in a head sea is due to a full, blunt entrance. The types covered in Mr. Traung's paper were of a size between such small boats
who has been
always to apply commonsente to the results. While the warning against model tests in regular waves had partly been modified by the statements of such tank experimenters as Lewis, Otsu and Vossers, it would have been interesting if there had been funds available to test the FAO models in both
irregular and oblique waves to get a quantitative comparison. But Mr. Traung did not think that the regular wave tests
[564]
made the low prismatic models appear the high prismatic ones.
more
AND SEAKINDLINESS
BHP
DISCUSSION
attractive than
Johnsson quoted Weinblum and St. Denis* (1950) paper to answer a request for elaboration of his rather flat statement that a high prismatic "undoubtedly gives a more seaworthy ship". Johnsson now limited his statement to: "A fuller waterline gives more damping of the motions than a finer
one.'
40O -
Weinblum and
St.
Denis stated
in their
1950
SNAME
paper that "the damping coefficient is now proportional to the square of the moment of inertia of the water plane" and that "under comparable conditions ships with fuller water lines experience lower pitching amplitudes in long waves**. They quoted an investigation by Perelmutr, and said that his "experimental results confirm our theoretical deductions that in this region of wave lengths finer waterlines lead to heavier
motions.* In their summary they stated that "the damping of heave and pitch is increased by (a) increase of beam (b) decrease of draft (c) decrease of vertical coefficient (increase of V-forms)." Johnsson had probably not read the discussion which followed Weinblum and St. Denis' paper during which Todd
:
300
200
stated
"In their summary, the authors state that in longer waves vessels with full wattrlines are likely to heave and pitch less than vessels with fine waterlines. While this may be so, perhaps it does not follow that the vessel with full waterlines will still be a better design from all points of view. Some years ago an attempt was made to introduce a new design of ship into the trawler fleets in Great Britain. As a result of exhaustive model tests, both in smooth water and in waves, it was found that the design with a fine waterline forward, adequate freeboard at the stem, and a great deal of flare above water, gave the test results from the point of view of minimum horsepower, minimum loss of speed in \\aves, and dryness of the decks. Some of the trawler captains were extremely sceptical when shown these designs
in model form, and still more so when they saw the first ships ready for launching; in particular, they voiced grave objections to the fine waterlines and the probable result on the ship's behaviour. However, in service these vessels
proved themselves extrerrely successful. They were able to maintain a better sea speed than other ships in their fleet of the same general size, thus reaching their markets sooner
Fig. 624b. Estimated speed-power curve for a 1956 wooden trawler and records of actual steaming speeds and engine outputs at various wind and wave conditions. The boat had a controllable-pitch propeller and an engine of 450/495 h.p. at 375 r.p.m. The engine speed was between 295 and 330 r.p.m. and the output never higher than 250 h.p.
during the actual fishing trip at which these records were taken
At the same time they proved more economical on fuel and generally much drier and more seaworthy craft, it was not long before the captains of the older craft were demanding boats
and obtaining
better prices for their cargoes.
of the
new
type."
:
a high prismatic. Their beam is increased, and this, according to the Weinblum and St. Denis* paper, is a means of decreasing pitching. Similarly, the beams of the low prismatic models
in Mr. Traung's paper were larger, so that all ships should have about the same transversal stability. As a result, the differences of the longitudinal moment of inertia of the waterline v\ere reduced, compared with what the case would be if all the models had the same beam. Todd*s 1950 discussion and his confirmation now, as well as
serious reflection. considered, a finer \vaterlinc may well be superior. Although we are unable to judge what other features may have been responsible for the success of the
Weinblum and St. Denis* answer was "The remarks on trawler forms merit
resistance
is
When
design discussed, we admit that the example indicates how necessary it is to remove some of the restrictions underlying the present work when one attempts to judge the over-all
principles,
the fact that large British trawlers are built according to these were further confirmed by M5ckel*s paper, which
performance of a
vessel.*'
Todd's contribution to this discussion confirmed his 1950 observations. One reason why British trawlers with finer waterlines behave better in a seaway may be that trawlers with a low prismatic Coefficient naturally have to be made wider to maintain the same transversal stability as those with
and fig. 431 shows that the more slender trawlers F and G had less pitching angle than H and J. Chardome in Belgium is on the same line, and Ringhaver's paper states that his shrimp trawlers, of the same size as those under review and with a prismatic coefficient of .54, behaved well in head seas.
clearly shows that also lose less speed,
German low
prismatic coefficient ships
[565]

It is
SEA BEHAVIOUR
unfortunate for
Zwotoman
that
he has had such bad
experience of low prismatic vessels. His example, fig. 440, is not a very good one. Perhaps the bad behaviour of this vessel was not caused by the shape but by the low metacentric height. It appeared that ballasting improved behaviour. Zwolsman also advocated high prismatic vessels as being more economical because of their larger carrying capacity. This is not the case with the FAO models. They have all the same displacement to the same waterline length and, as the freeboard is the same, the carrying capacity should also be the same. Actually, the low prismatic FAO models with larger
crew accommodation. Also, because low prismatic ships have to be somewhat beamier to maintain the same stability, the larger beam will increase the scantling number and require
beam have even a
larger carrying capacity.
Mr. Traung thanked Lewis and Otsu for their constructive contributions, and the co-operation he had experienced with
their laboratories. The prismatic coefficient as a simple design parameter was also little used in Europe, despite Taylor's work. This was because cargo vessels have an almost maximum midship section coefficient, and thus the block coefficient is in direct relation to the prismatic coefficient.
it was most important to study should be possible to change the midship section area of many Japanese fishing vessel types, and thus the prismatic coefficient, by changing beam, draught, or both. The FAO tests had been appreciated in Japan, although the models had been based on boats from northern Europe and North America, where more attention should be given to the
Simpson showed on page 185 that it did not matter much when the prismatic was varied, but he did not take into account the necessary increase in beam. On the other hand, as low prismatic ships can be driven faster in a seaway, the extra scantlings might not be any harm. Too little was said about the craze for over-powering of fishing vessels. Proskic's example II was a good one. The ship with the largest engine landed more fish but, as indicated in table 141, the fuel costs were less than those of the lower powered one, so it was evident that the captain had not made full use of his large engine. It had given him only moral backing. If such skippers could be made equally enthusiastic about improved design, transom sterns, bulbous bows and, perhaps, nozzles, and these would give them the same moral backing as the BHP particulars of the name plate on the engine, the owner would at the same time have less investment
heavier scantlings.
For
fishing vessels, however,

It
and
less
running costs.
both.
Tyrrell stated that a knuckle in the bow at an appreciable distance below deck level gave a very strong top side, and that it provided greater reserve buoyancy. This permitted a
greater degree of fineness of the waterline with reduced resistance as a result, and a boat that was drier in a head sea
prismatic.
and had easier motions. This confirmed Mr. Traung's experience (Fishing Boats of the World, p. 374) and had also
been confirmed by model tests (Newton, 1960). Lewis wanted some qualification on the finding of "a prismatic coefficient of .525 to be the best in waves". That
lately
The expression "beamier" was an over-simplification, and Otsu was right in saying that angle of entrance and draught might also play their part. Any systematic variation had its limitations, and one should never think that the optimum prismatic is the same both for a large cargo ship and a small
fishing vessel
With regard to Otsu's suggestion for making a more "honest" comparison of the self-propulsion tests, Mr. Traung found it difficult to understand why the rather abrupt endings of the FAO high prismatic models, caused by the forced design method, should not influence the flow of the water to
the propeller.
best.
The
essential thing was,
however, that Otsu's
comparison also showed the lower prismatic models to be

In order to form an opinion on the behaviour of the four models, he had also plotted the results in various ways, even if he could only present a few diagrams. Lewis' and Otsu's additional plots now gave the reader a better perspective and also indicated that the statements in the paper were not too sweeping. Otsu's suggestions for further tests were welcome. Additional work on the influence of the period of pitch might also be enlightening. Above all, it would be valuable if one could obtain more observations of the behaviour of fishing boats of the SO ft. (25 m.) length group in operation, similar to those obtained by Mockel for larger trawlers. Ou Cane had rightly pointed out the sensitivity of low prismatic hulls for trimming. Such hulls require more care in design and in the placing of fish holds, tanks, etc., and too much trim by the bow might arise if fishing conditions are not studied carefully and competent professional advice "rule of thumb" boatbuilder, obtained before construction, without drawings, but who may be convinced of the advan-
meant simply that the power requirement in the operating speed range was lowest when the motions were no worse. The practical limitations were those of trimming and the use made of the end space. Sea behaviour was not a question of coefficients as such, but of shape and weight distribution, of which coefficients were an expression. More work on the question of supercritical speeds was needed. If investigations should establish that fishing vessels normally work at such speeds in heavy weather in the short waves of shallow water, it would change present
ideas about concentrating weights amidships and there would be a better explanation why fishing boats with a low prismatic coefficient, such as the super-trawlers, are so successful,
MR. H. I. CHAPELLE (U.S.A.) The proposal made by McGruer was most interesting. First, however, he wanted to submit that the conventional method (or "grid", as McGruer called it) was almost a world standard and therefore he believed he should approach the matter on that basis or convention. He also stated that it was his considered opinion that no known form of the lines plan, that was useful practically in the mould
:
loft, contained true indications of actual lines of flow or of eddy-formation. The application of McGruer's system, at this late date and some 300 years after the conventional lines plan was first developed, would certainly cause great difficulty in
comparative lines analysis. His only personal experience with diagonal, or "normal line" projection produced an unfair hull on the mould-loft floor. Perhaps he was prejudiced, but it did not seem to him that the proposed line system gave sufficient means of form analysis, for the average designer or
boatbuilder at least. In reference to TyrreH's commentshe did not recommend any amount of flare as a criterion, for the quantity was due to requirements of design established by distribution of weight
fore
tages of a low prismatic coefficient might easily run into trouble if be changes the shape without taking into account this sensitivity for trimming.
There
is
another disadvantage.
It
may be
good use of the sharp bows of small, low
difficult to make prismatic ships for
and
aft,
which he assumed would be determined by
[566]
AND SEAK1NDLINESS
With
thciC
is
DISCUSSION
design requirements and not wholly free predetermination of the optimum. What he desired to convey was that V-shaped flare was preferable to the usual hollow-V. Rake of the stem, beyond enough for aesthetic purposes, was wasteful of waterline length. He stated that rake was overdone in compliance with a wholly illogical modern fashion. With regard to the "trawler bow" fore section mentioned by Tyrrell, he referred to Gueroult's comments during the first Fishing Boat Congress. This form was not very strong in wood, for the stanchions above the deck or knuckle did not have much depth
respect to Inkster's comments Mr. Chapelle believed a great difference between the requirements of most motor fishing boats, where relative high speed is usually desired, and those of rowing-sailing craft like the Shetland sixareen and of yachts. Freeboard and flare in the sides of a
fishing launch are obviously related and both would obviously be desirable. However, freeboard is commonly limited by
He
below the planksheer for strength unless crooks were available. believed his comment answered Hunter's reference to flare
in the fore section.
of transom and "cruiser'* or "canoe" must be guided by the speed-length ratio sought. His contention was merely that the transom, overhung byond the stempost, was inherently the faster and easiest to design with
Any comparison
stern
The requirements for high speedlength ratios on one hand, and of seakindliness on the other, were often incompatible. For the fast boat the transom should be wide at the waterline and flat, or nearly so, in deadrisc. The demands for seaworthiness required sharp deadrise in the transom bottom, and high and easy bilges there. In the U.S.A. the stern was more overhung in both transom and cruiser stern, to hood the wheel and in compliance with requirements for high speed-length ratios than seemed to be the general
suitable buttock forms.
use requirements and this is not a matter to be changed by design theory. Regardless of where the maximum beam is placed at deck, it must be at or abaft mid-length on the loadlinc to achieve speed and seaworthiness in combination. The fallacy of the full entrance as a prevention of "sailing under'* by hard driving in sailing craft was exploded by the middle of the last century. As a matter of fact full-ended heavy displacement sailing yachts tend to "bore** if pushed. Mr. Chapelle wished to express gratitude to those who commented particularly as they were all talented, practical
and much-experienced designers.
THE CHAIR'S SUMMING UP

PROF. G. P. WEINBLUM, Vice-Chairman (Germany): Problem of resistance (powering) and sea behaviour are closely connected as far as their influence on the development of ship forms is concerned. It is therefore advisable to treat these
topics as far as possible simultaneously as case.
practice in Europe. However, the usual advantage of the transom over the cruiser stern was that the former usually allows flatter buttocks the exact form of either stern being a matter of decision and compromise speed to seakindliness. Chapelle made a plea for more complete lines illustration in model test reports. The average small craft designer had little time for reprojecting sketchy model test illustrations. He strongly suggested that model test reports show i beam buttock form and waterline form as well as profile and body plan. Model test illustrations showing level trim lines but tested with keel drag were most objectionable in lines
analysis.
done
in the present
work can be distinguished the purely which requires that a clearcut problem should be treated in the most general way, and another one reflecting the wisdom of artisanship, which consists to an appreciable
aspects of this
:
Two
scientific one,
extent in appraising or weighing the various requirements involved. To some extent the different attitude of the research
The model
test lines illustration
should show body-plan with
sections perpendicular to load line, the load line in halfbreadth, and the quarter-beam buttock profile at least he
saw no good reason why a proper

to illustrate the hull form
4
might not be used was to be restricted. The usual test report illustration cannot be 're faired" due to lack of longitudinals and the common distortions of reproduction. With regard to conclusions on form drawn from model tests, he suggested that the number of models tested was of little account it was the variety of
lines plan
unless information
and design engineer are described by the two tendencies mentioned. Although problems presented by powering and sea behaviour of fishing craft should be dealt with by general principles used in ship theory, there are mainly two reasons why a separate treatment has been developed the existance of special practical conditions and the bluntness of forms by which many types of fishing vessels are characterized (large 1 8 V/L or small L/y ")- Fortunately, there was a strong link to the specialized information with the more tendency up general field of knowledge, especially to state as to how far well established general rules can be applied to the fishing
:
form represented.
Furthermore, he was of the opinion that many models are and accepted as worthy of serious discussion, by the present criteria of "hydrodynamic theory", that are very poor designs. This opinion was based upon examination of many tests of fishing boat hulls. If this is possible in model testing, within the criteria of "hydrodynamic theory", it is also
tested
vessels. It was his aim to dwell at some length on this topic and he asked for permission to refer to some of his papers perhaps less known amongst the fishing boat experts. Speaking about ship forms of low resistance, it is necessary to determine the range of speed-length ratios or Froude numbers, \/\/L or v/VtfU to which our reasoning should
apply.
The establishment of such ranges
for various types of
possible in actual design using this same guide. The prevalent references to "good** and "poor" design in model report discussions were additional support to Mr. Chapelle's opinion. It seems to follow, then, that "hydrodynamic 9* as a guide to design and model selection for testing theory now requires some additional basis of criteria to insure
fishing vessels has been emphasized by Traung (1955) as a prerequisite for useful discussions. The present discussions should be restricted to those forms which are operated in the
range of the so-catled second hump of the wave resistance curve and the adjacent hollow, i.e. below V/\/L^l.l or v/VgL=0.33. Up to this limit the sectional area curve A(x), the curve of the longitudinal displacement distribution, is the
"good" design being selected in both cases. Unless research reports are in error in the use of "good", and "poor" design
there
is little
practical evidence that the sole

.
answer
is
given by
hydrodynamic theory
most decisive form characteristic of a bull; although this statement applies to displacement vessels in general, at higher Froude numbers hulls with chines become competitive and the design of the latter may become extremely important. In general one tries to avoid operating commercial vessels
1567]

i.e., in the speed range hump** a class of fishing vessel presenting an exception is treated in the paper by Gillmer. Professor Weinblum did not feel competent to suggest eliminating this exception by slight reduction of speed and increase in length. The development of ship forms in this higher range of Froudc numbers is a thrilling subject and more problems are still left open than in other domains. The preceding remarks made use of the fact that because of 1 the high volume coefficient V /L and relatively high Froude numbers the wave resistance was a decisive element in shaping hull forms of fishing vessels. The hydrodynamic theory of
SEA BEHAVIOUR
above
V/VL** 1.175 or v/VgLÔ.35,

rise
corresponding to the
of the
"first
it was to be expected that semi-empirical "theories" based on systematical experiments would reduce the need for a statistical approach, the stimulating effects of the latter should be highly esteemed. The objective attitude of Doust precluded the
necessity to dwell upon the shortcomings of the analysis so far carried out, tike the omission of the t-value (in addition to e!) and the statement regarding the influence of p which
though
restricted,
could be estimated reasonably well by

.
wave
resistance presented, therefore, a valuable
means of
understanding the phenomena involved, notwithstanding the shortcomings of the former, especially when blunt (flat) forms were involved (Weinblum, 1959). In the light of hydrodynamic theory many popular ideas on advantageous hull
LCB position, R. Froude's hypothesis on the preponderance of the forebody with respect to wave making was a useful heuristic approach. It explained not only the need for fining the forebody at the expense of the afterbody (<pf<9) in the speed range considered as long as the actual 9 was larger than optimum 9, but helped to solve still more intricate problems, dealing with the shape of the lines involved rather than with prismatic
(Weinblum, 1938). Recommendations as to the optimum LCB position had to be given in detail with respect to speed and form parameters. Possibly in the field of fishing boats a similar erroneous approach had developed as earlier in the design of some liners, The Congress i.e. to choose too high prismatic coefficients. had contributed appreciably to the clarification of the
situation.
theory. In appraising the influence of the
forms lost their significance as far as wave phenomena are concerned. Conditions were different for the viscous pressure resistance (eddy resistance in Froude's nomenclature). It was suggested that more data should be collected by known methods dealing with the total viscous drag of fishing vessels. The sectional area curve is a means of describing some of the
most important hull properties, and the prismatic coefficient 9 is only one though precise parameter determining the sectional area curve. Therefore doubts expressed by various contributors as to the sufficiency of 9 in hull description were legitimate. However, theoretical considerations which were well supported by general experimental evidence proved that
in the actual
speed range for fishing vessels the prismatic
coefficient
was the most important form parameter when dealing with the resistance of good forms. To avoid a vicious circle, the question must be answered how can "good forms"
:
Two papers and several substantial discussions were devoted to the bulbous bow problem. Those valuable communications indicated that by and large results derived for shapes of ocean vessels could be applied to fishing craft forms, well known experimental data as well as less known The latter could be theoretical ones (Weinblum, 1934).
summarized as follows
:
be determined? In principle this answer could be given by hydrodynamic theory. The well established concept "hydrodynamic theory*' should be substituted for the somewhat nebulous designation "mathematical approach*', within the range of its limited validity (Weinblum, 1957). For research and design work empirical methods are frequently but not always used to find "good" lines. When planning systematical model series it was customary to start with a parent form and to keep the shape of sections unchanged, while varying the
longitudinal displacement A(x). In developing, for example, the Series 60 sectional area curves, A(x) for various block (prismatic) coefficients were derived from empirical material so that good resistance properties might be expected. The
bow could be essentially explained by the change in the sectional area curve caused by its application. The pear-shaped forms of the sections was accidental (or even detrimental) from the resistance point of view, but essential to avoid spray. The speed range considered V/\/L=.84 to 1.3
The
effect
of the bulbous
(v/\/gL=0.25 to 0.33)
and considerably beyond was a bulb application The effectiveness of the bulb depended upon its "strength", measured for example by Taylor's "f" ratio, and the shape of the basic sectional area curve; with
in principle suitable for
same applied evidently to Taylor's Standard Series. There are well-known geometrical methods by which the A(x) of the parent form can be transformed in such a way that a prescribed
increasing 9 and decreasing t (increasing hollowness), the effectiveness increase for a given f, respectively higher f values became advantageous. Further, if two "normal" A(x) with equal 9 and t were given, there were reasons
to expect that by applying the same bulb in both cases stronger improvements would be reached for the inferior normal A(x). Within the speed range considered there existed good "normal" sectional area curves (ship forms) with low 9, suitable t and duct of line, such that no appreciable gain by a bulb was to be expected. These conditions were reached for example by a good form with 9=0.56 and t~l, while for a closely resembling
new
methods
*>f
prismatic is obtained. The shortcoming of these the simplest one, the so-called 1-prismatic
0-9) method, and of another one was pointed out ty Traung. Obviously, curves designed from the point of view of expediency in determining a fixed area can fail completely from the point of view of resistance even if the starting curve
was good.
description of resistance properties of a sectional area curve by Taylor's tangent value t, as a second parameter, was useful but not yet always sufficient, even leaving aside full
A(x) the use of a bulb led to an improvement (Weinblum,

1938)
The
forms with parallel bodies (Weinblum, 1957). This led to Doust's statistical methods which, in Professor Wcinblum's opinion, filled out a large gap in the evaluation of resistance data. This refen^ especially to fonrir>arameters, the influence of which could not at the present be dealt with by hydrodynamic theory, such as the optimum LCB position. Although
For the sake of curiosity, it was mentioned that the application of an additional stern bulb resulted in a fuither improvement. So far a practical solution for the latter had not yet been developed. Summarizing, the bulb might be a valuable means to improve sectional area curves which for some reasons departed from the optimum, from the resistance point of view, especially
because of excessive prismatic coefficients.
[568]
STABILITY
The papers and discussions proved that the appraisal of seagoing properties of ships was fortunately losing its mystical character nourished by practical people especially in the field of small craft. At the same time a gratifying modesty in scientific claims forwarded by the authors was acknowledged a fact which differed so favourably from the earlier habit of immediately presenting "final" solutions. Traung had put forward as an urgent topic the discussion of a fishing vessel's behaviour in an irregular seaway. The quantitative treatment of the latter problem (theoretically and experimentally) had decisively contributed to the de-mystification mentioned before and established confidence in the applicability of pertaining studies to practice. However, because of the large number of problem parameters involved and the numerous inherent difficulties, it was Professor Weinblum's contention that simplified investigations in calm water and in regular seaways should be stressed at the present to establish explicit
dependencies upon form, mass and wave properties. As long as investigation is restricted to small ranges of main variables, contradictions in "conclusive" practical results were almost inevitable, not to mention the lack of accuracy in experimenting as a source of possible errors. As to concrete results the properties of U and V sections and of the bulb were re-established (Kempf, 1935); this meant that the prejudice against the latter was destroyed. The statement regarding a strong influence of a large flare Taniguchi's paper on motions disagreed, however, somewhat with
earlier findings (Perelmutr, 1946).
DISCUSSION
ones on the actual loads experience by a ship, were necessary
prerequisites for working out reasonable stability standards on which the safety of ships depended to an appreciable
extent.
MR. D. S. SIMPSON (U.S.A.): Mockel's paper on the use of the rolling period as a handy safety criterion, and at the same time an indication of most "agreeable** rolling was an excellent one. Unfortunately it was difficult to apply in New England.
Since 1930, and after considerable experience with the U.S. East Coast fishing fleet, he had been able to make inclining experiments on only four designs (from which 14 vessels had been built). By the time a vessel reached the stage
where an inclining test to put her to work. time for the test.
No argument
was possible the owner was too anxious will persuade him to spare
Except for trials, it was almost impossible to get a passenger aboard a fishing vessel so that the determination of rolling
periods was equally difficult. Skippers and engineers appeared to be poor observers. Over a period of five months, in an attempt to get data for this discussion, he selected six vessels reputed to be good or bad performers, carefully instructed the skippers and provided them with stopwatches, only to get two useful reports (none of these boats had been inclined). Both were for "good" boats and both plotted nicely between Mockers two "good"
lines.
the superiority of fuller yet been established, ing and exciting forces
solution.
was quite natural that ends with respect to motions had not although considerations on dampIt
(in
large
waves)
favoured
this
It was noted with satisfaction that more emphasis was laid again on the investigation of resistance increase. The big surprise was the discovery by Vossers and his collaborators of resistance decrease when heading into medium length shallow waves. The theoretical support claimed for this effect referred to the discusser's knowledge to forced oscillations in
Of the four boats inclined (no roll periods available), one with a ready for sea of 2.22 ft. (.676 m.) and a return to of 1.32 ft. (.402 m.) was treated to an unknown port quantity of additional ballast by her captain. Another with GMs respectively 1.65 ft. (.503 m.) and 2.10 ft. (.64 m.) was also given additional ballast after a couple of trips. The other two, known as "good" boats, had GMs varying between 2.02 ft. (.615 m.) and 2.31 ft. (.705 m.) and also plotted nicely between the Mockers "good" lines. Although sparse data, all this appeared to confirm Mockers conclusions and indicated, at least tentatively, a rule-of-
GM
GM
calm water; following Eggers (1959), in waves of normal steepness.
this effect
disappeared
thumb
criterion to the effect that
no
less
fishing boat,
under any
(.685 m.),
condition, should have*a
CfM of
than 2.25
ft.
STABILITY
PROF. G. P. WEINBLUM (Germany): In his great memoir presented to the IN 1898, A. N. Krylov promised to solve the problem of transverse stability in a seaway. Neither he nor his followers so far have reached this goal. However, earlier attempts to find approximate solutions now became
more successful. Paulling demonstrated firstly that for unusual ship forms the routine stability calculations might fail even for calm water conditions, thus indicating the need for a "three dimensional" treatment. Secondly, he presented a
comparison of Reed's diagrams for ships moving normally to wave crests obtained by hydrostatic calculations and model experiments. The heavy reduction in the magnitude of
stability levers, as compared with routine calculation results, agreed well with earlier findings and was of primary practical importance. Wendel had started a rather ambitious programme on stability research based on calculations, model experiments
and full sine investigations. The dynamic facility mentioned was a promising ingenious contribution to the field of fishing boats, notwithstanding possible minor trouble due to damping effects, Pertinent investigations, as well as corresponding
nor more than 3 ft. (.91 5 m.). Based on a short investigation, that figure seemed to leave plenty of room for the winter icing up. It was encouraging to see several papers concerned with freeboard. Too little attention had, in the past, been given to this most important ingredient of a comfortable and safe ship. Many European trawlers appeared to have very little freeboard. The U.S. pre-war vessels, and many of those built in the late forties, had very little freeboard. This was probably a carry-over from the old dory days when fish had to be lifted over the side, and dories hoisted aboard. Since dories, fish and nets were no longer manhandled there was no reason for the low freeboard, wet vessel of bygone years. Old vessels, from 110 to 150 ft. (33.5 to 45.7 m.) long, coming in with freeboards of 12 in. (.3 m.) or less had to stop fishing early through the winter months to be safe. Modem 1 15 ft. (35 m.) vessels came home with a full trip of 350,000 Ib. (1 56 tons) and had still a freeboard of 3 to 3.5 ft. (.9 to 1.07 m.) and the crews liked them. They had a much greater range of stability. They could fish in rough water when other vessels had to quit. They were much dryer on deck and did not ice up as quickly or as much. The greater freeboard usually carried with it slightly greater beam and probably a bit more in cost, the greater safety and comfort of the crew was well worth the change.
[569]

CAFT.
winter
S.
lie
SEA BEHAVIOUR
TEST 2
RBUOY (Norway): During

had had the opportunity
to
the herring season of last make eight rolling tests
172GT-84NT
L=117ft.
(35.7
with typical fishing vessels in his home port, As time, during a very hectic fishing season, is a limiting factor, he never had the opportunity to do many extensive tests. For instance, he would have liked to make rolling tests on each ship in several conditions Empty without ballast Empty with ballast Loaded with fishing gear on board and all tanks hardened
:
m.);B20.7 ft. (6.3 m.);D~ 12ft.
(3.66m.)
300 h.p. diesel Oil bunkers: 8 tons (can take 18 tons) Fresh water: 1 ton (can take 2 tons) Ballast in fish hold: 30 tons Nets: One purse-seine on boat deck dry
The
up The tests were made with empty ships with their purse* seine nets and net-dories on board some fully bunkered, some not. But all was ready for fishing. The conclusion was that the rolling method was a convenient, informative and proper
;
1.26 ft. (.384 m.) Rolling period 7.5 sec. ship could heave one net-dory without difficulties. Skipper said she was too stiff when water tanks and oil bunker tanks were all filled and when the net-dories were not in the
:
GM=
davits.
TEST 3
aid to the skipper as to the stability condition. The interviews with the skippers about
154GT-68.5NT
stability
and
behaviour
tests.
in
a seaway confirmed the results from the rolling

to incline at least five of the ships investigated of buoyancy and the When
He hoped
this
in order to find the centre
GM.
was done, one could
arrive at
more dependable conclu-
ft. (6.66m.); D=8.5ft. (2.6m.) 180 h.p. Bunkers: 7 tons (can take 15 tons) Water: 11 tons (can take 14 tons) Ballast 2.5 to 3.0 tons in the fish hold, covering the keel only Nets: Two on boat deck one dry, one wet
:
L= 112ft. (34.1 m.);B=21.85
sions.
Rolling period: 6.5 sec.
GM=1.8
ft.
(.55
m.)
The formula used was:
^ GM=(
/0.4xB\'
She could take one net-dory without difficulties. This ship is an old Dutch trawler with a small draught. Skipper very
a constant factor in ft. midships and it was taken from the tonnage certificate Tr is the time of the rolling period over-and-back in sec. All ships had their net-dories in the davits with or without a purse-seine in them; if not in the net-dories, the purseseines were placed either on the main deck or on the boat deck, or one purse-seine would be on deck and the other on the boat deck. The net dories weigh approximately 7,200 Ib.
is
where 0.4
happy with
92.72
her.
TEST 4
B is the beam
GT- 27.2 NT
ft.
L-81.1
:
(24.7 m.);
B-19.2
ft.
(5.85 m.);
D-9.6
ft.
(2.93 m.)
Bunkers 2 tons (can take 9 tons) Water: 2.6 tons (can take 3 tons) Ballast 20 tons in the fish hold (from end to end) Nets: One on the boat deck wet; one forward on deck
:
(3,200 kg.). The "fish-detecting boat** weighs approximately from 2,400 to 3,300 Ib, (1,100 to 1,500 kg.). The approximate weight of a purse-seine is 4,400 Ib. (2,000 kg.) the average weight being about 2.5 tons. In a wet condition the purseseine
is
dry Rolling period: 7.6 sec. GM-0.96 ft. (.292 m.) Ship could not heave single net-dory, without hooking on other side. Skipper very satisfied she was easy and gentle. Processing work (in open sea) not delayed by rolling,
:
said to double
its
weight, but this

in order to
was
difficult to
confirm.
TEST 5
check the rolling period. Thus, if listing the ship to starboard the trigger of the stop watch was only pressed when she had rolled over to port side. All tests were made in good weather conditions in the harbour and the skippers were all very helpful and showed great interest. All tests were made using the "fish-detecting boat" as listing weight. The results were
least
tests
:
At
two
were made
179GT-81 NT
L=
19
ft.
(33.2m.);
:
B-22.33 ft.
(6.8 m,);
D = 9.5
ft.
(2.9 m.)
240 h,p. Oil bunkers 5 tons (can take 9 tons) Water: 5 tons (can take 5 tons below deck) Ballast: 15 tons in hold
Nets:
One
net in the net-dories

difficulties.
TEST
179GT-58NT
L-110
ft.
Rolling period: 5.8 sec. GM-2.37 ft. (.723 m.) This ship could take one net-dory without any She was rather stiff.
ft.
(33.5 m.);
B=20.5
(6.25 m.);
D-10.7
ft.
(3.26 m.)
TEST 6*
?
520h.p. diesel(18tons) Oil bunkers 10 tons (can take 1 8 tons) Water ballast: 19 tons below crew quarters forward from bow to two frames aft of crew quarters bulkhead. Nets: One on deck dry; one on boat deck dry; one in the net-dorieswet,
:
GT- ?NT
L-107
20.33 ft. (6.2 m.); ft. (32.6 m.); Oil bunkers: 15 tons all tanks filled Ballast: 20 tons in the fish hold
B-
D= ?
Rolling period: 11. 5 sec.
GM-0.51
ft.(.155m.)
difficulties.
The ship could heave one net-dory without
Master complained about low speed. 520 h.p. should give considerably more than 9.5 knots. Behaved fine when wind and sea abeam but bad with sea on the quarters.
Nets: Rolling period: 10 sec. GM-0.66 ft. (.209 m.) This ship could not take one net-dory without capsizing the ship had to be hooked on the other side before heaving. When doing the test, the net was in the net-dories (wet). Skipper said he had to be very careful with the ship when the net-dories were in the davits in order not to capsize her.
1570]
STABILITY
TEST 7*
DISCUSSION
The m-factor waft bound to cause errors as it would not be same for ships with different fishing gear and rigging: thfe was most obvious in the case of purse-seiners. However, if the m-factor was clearly determined for a
the
138GT--60NT
L= 106.33
ft.
(32.4 m.);
B19.5
ft.
(5.95 m.);
D10.1
ft.
(3.08 m.)
240 h.p. Bunkers: 6 tons (can take 12 tons) Water: 0.5 tons
Ballast:
?
Nets:
Two on
boat deck
wet
-0.69 ft. (.210 m.) Rolling period: 9.4 sec. The skipper said he had some ballast in the fish hold. There was no time for a proper interview before ship had to leave, but skipper said he had to be careful while the net-dories were in the davits. Knife and axe were always ready near the davits in case they were needed. She could not take one net-dory without capsizing.
TEST 8
CM
such as purse-seining, longiining or then one should have quite good criteria for an easy check of stability when needed. large number of Norwegian fishing vessels were operating with very low values. Shippers could not use ships with very high values, as those ships were too lively and delayed processing work at sea by as much as 40 per cent.
special type of fishing,
drifting,
GM
Hailed as a classic paper
MR. A. HUNTER (U.K.): Yamagata's

would be a
come.
It
(1959)
1NA
paper
classic
on the treatment of
stability for years to
78GT-25 NT L=75 ft. (22.9 m.) B- 19.5 ft. (5.95 m.); D- 10 ft. (3.05 m.)
;
180 h.p. Oil bunkers: 6 tons (can take 8 tons) Water: 3 tons (filled up) Ballast: None in fish hold Nets: One in the dories and one on the boat deck
concerned passenger vessels, and there were some applying such stability calculations to fishing vessels because of their lack of space, different loadings, varying weather conditions, etc. Above all, there was the spirit of adventure of the fishermen, who would not study the
difficulties in
both
underlying principles. In Britain the freeboard used to be low. The naval architect was criticized for giving too stiff a boat if he provided a ship with a high freeboard for stability reasons. The BSRA icing
dry ft. (.305 m.) Rolling period: 7.7 sec. This ship could not take one dory without capsizing. She was very nearly the same form and dimensions as one that capsized in the open sea on her way homeward in ballast.
GM^l
All hands were lost.
experiments helped enormously: they were actually supervised by an experienced trawler skipper. As a result it was found that bigger ships with greater freeboard and a higher metacentric height performed very well. Some vessels did not have to face icing conditions. It was not the black frost which started to build up on the mast and rigging that counted, but the getting into conditions of sea
value of test 1 is possibly too low because the skipper said he could heave one net-dory (weighing over 4 tons) in the davits without capsizing the ship. The weights on board were: .18 tons Engine 10 Oil 19 Ballast
. .
.
The
GM
and the
critical air
temperatures, whereby keeping head on
into the seas, the spray with the aerodynamic effect of the hull sprayed it high on the superstructure and the weights built
up rapidly. With better weather prediction it was hoped that skippers would take early note of icing condition and turn round quickly to get the weather astern. No ship could survive heading into such conditions as with increased list due to weight of ice high up the effect of rudder would
47 tons
No
ballast
was placed close
to the keel. tested
Another very similar ship, test 2, which was same conditions, had 50 tons on board
:
under the
Engine
Oil
.
.12
.
tons
Ballast
30
50 tons
was close to the keel, in the fish hold. Here the skipper complained that she was too stiff when the net-dories
ballast
The
were not
in the davits.
become less and less. The arrangement for fishing on one side only had also helped, as with accommodation on the port side from the stern side almost to amidship, a high shoulder was given to come round against the bad weather. Under a variety of conditions, obviously different ships would require different treatment. The near-water ships would not, perhaps, require the same provision. Without the space to give, perhaps, the safety factors, one would like to build in, say, a tank high up which could be filled in normal conditions and emptied or transferred to a bottom tank when ice started depositing. This, like all shipbuilding, was a matter of compromise. One did not want to saddle the ship with too much weight and thus
reduce the speed or increase fuel consumption. He returned to his plea for more education of the operating personnel as to what stability meant. Many skippers thought that their ship was' stiff when in fact it was not so, and the
converse applied.
The results
purse seiner with dories.
indicated that the m-factor 0.4 was too low fora The radius of gyration was at its
maximum when the net-dories were in the davits with half the net in each. Takagi reported quite large variations in the mfactor, ranging from 0.32 to 0.49 or even more. It should therefore be of interest to have his opinion as to the masts,
rigging, weight of superstructures on board the ship concerned in his paper in order to have a discussion on the variation of the m-factor.
*
The
stability
paradox
J.
PROF.
DR.
RAHOLA
(Finland):
Mdckel had
collected
longline fishing*
identical.
Formerly old British trawlers re-built for purse-seining and Their hull shape and dimensions are almost
interesting facts concerning the value of the metacentric heights of trawlers, and the crew's view of stability and
behaviour of the ships. In other papers also the importance of metacentric height was discussed at some length. On account
[571]

of
this there
SEA BEHAVIOUR
was good reason
for saying
a tew words of
made a ship really tender, but in heavy seas it might also give the crew a feeling of security which did not exist. The known fact was that a tender ship did not always roll even in the high waves as heavily as a stiff ship with a greater GM. This is the well-known paradox of stability which might be dangerous. Therefore one ought to avoid judging stability only on the ground of mctacentric height. The other factors of a ship's form, especially the freeboard and the stability arm curve, must be taken into consideration. According to his experience, it had often occurred that the ship's captain had made an error in his judgement of the ship's seaworthiness when he had based his opinion on the the ship's rolling in waves. The misjudgement had even reached such a point that the captain had argued that his ship was very seaworthy although, as a matter of fact, her stability had been so poor that her capsizing had only been a
question of time. Professor Rahola had not had the opportunity to investigate more exactly the Japanese method of judging the stability of fishing boats and other small ships presented by Takagi, but he had reason to suppose that the Japanese method was not M as strict as his. Takagi said that it is very difficult to fulfil arm a value of statical stability greater than .66 ft. (200 mm.) in the condition of 30 or even 40 degrees of inclination" as
1
warning. Low metacentric height
GM
very
taining adequate stability hi fishing vessels. It was to be hoped that the increased freeboard and improved watertight integrity in large trawlers, made possible in stem trawlers, might be attained in some similar manner on small trawlers and other small fishing vessels. In view of the amount of water which was apt to be present in the fish hold and bilges of small fishing vessels, was a loaded
of only 2
ft.
(.6
large free surface effect? Takagi's
m.) likely to care for the occasionally comment on this would be
much
The
appreciated. discusser strongly endorsed Takagi's suggestion that

stability.
FAO
should organize a committee on fishing vessel
MR. O. JABLONSKI (Poland): Takagi in his paper proposed a very interesting system of simplified criteria for a combined regulation of stability and freeboard. Those criteria were based on a study of statistics for a number of existing ships. The question arose, however, whether the approximate estimates in those proposals were not far-fetched. For example, Takagi assumed that in order to take into account individual stability characteristics of different ships x 2f/B. That it was enough to use an index of the type approximate estimate was, however, too inaccurate and did not take into account the considerable differences in the shape of the underwater hull as well as of watertight super-
GM/BG
structures.
Professor Rahola had proposed. addition to those values the stability of ships could and must also be judged on the basis of the dynamical stability arm at a
It
should be noticed that in
predetermined angle of inclination (at maximum that the dynamical arm ought to be at that point at least 3. 1 5 in. (80 mm.). This dynamic judging method afforded greater freedom to determine the other factors of stability including the metacentric height than the statical method. That is why the dynamical method, in his opinion,
certain
Probably it was not necessary to reckon the forecastle in the buoyancy lever, but all other superstructures had to be included in the calculations, at kast as high as the coamings. In addition there was the important matter of whether the
40 degrees) so
was preferable.
If the Japanese method really was less strict, there was reason to fear that it was too low. He knew, for instance, that his method was less strict than that required by the Russian regulations of 1947. The new Russian regulations of 1956 were somewhat easier to fulfil than the old ones, but they too were stricter than his. In Finland many ships had been constructed according to the Russian regulations and there had been many difficulties in fulfilling them. The demands of his method did not cause any difficulties as to those ships. Therefore he felt that one ought to be very careful about the judging of stability if the regulations were not at least as
strict as his
and shape of the ship were correctly designed. Takagi assumed that the approximate influence of external forces (especially wind) might be considered as inversely proportional to the vertical distance between points B and G. For ships of the same type and materials, that approximation might be satisfactory. If, however, the present possibilities of using superstructures of light materials (aluminium or plastic) were considered then the index numbers suggested
cross dimensions
might prove
insufficient.
dynamical method.
In conclusion, he wanted to support Takagi's proposal that FAO should organize a committee to promote the safety of Ashing vessels. He hoped that in the work of that Committee special attention would be paid to the causes of ships
capsizing and to their stability.
Generally speaking, the simplification proposed was attained by sacrificing accuracy, so important to the safety of the ship. Takagi's criterion might lead to an increased deadweight for poor stability ships and to a decreased deadweight for good ships. So the question arose as to whether it was necessary to deviate so far from the exact methods. Although the indexes were very simple in form, making use of them required almost all theoretical ship calculations, e.g. there must be hydrostatic curves, Bonjean scale, load calculations for various conditions of displacement and
KGandGM.
cross-curves of In Mr. Jablonski's opinion, the design of ship lines with cross-curves calculation should always be checked, the more so as that could easily be done with the help of calculating machines. It could be assumed that cross-curve calculation would gradually be used for the smallest units. Then the minimum of stability could be determined easily and accurately on the basis of the righting arm curves (GZ). As to matters relating to methods of combining regulation of stability minimum and freeboard minimum, Mr, Jablonski's proposals furnished a simple way of solving the problem on the basis of KG. and curves, It might be added that owing to an ever increasing practice of measuring rolling periods, a return to the traditional
stability (levers ofbuoyancy forces).
The only thing not necessary were the
JCBMtt
._
_.
_j
^ *Mdi
jj
The U.S.S.R. fishing boat authorities considered that the stability of fishing vessels was a matter of the greatest importance. It was for that reason
M*. A.
fuHNlliy IfglHilMMII F. JOUDINSTEV (U.S.S.R.):
and experimental work, the U.S.S.R. introduced at the beginning of 1931 special standard regulations, the need for which had been clearly indicated at the Congress.
that, after extensive theoretical
KG
F. MINOT (U.S.A.): Takagi had made a valuable contribution to the difficult problem of providing and main-
[572]
STABILITY
judgement of
DISCUSSION
The only exceptions were
international treaties regarding safety and related matters. the freeboard regulations and therefore he wanted to support Jablonski's suggestions on die
(GM) was
stability with the help of metacentric height was probnoted. But that renascence of the
CM
ably a passing one.
On
principle, however,
judgement of
stability must he based on righting arm curves which depended than on cross-curves and KG. toss on As to the possibility of ap^rofcShatrng stability from the
QM
study of freeboard regulations. He did not agree with Jablonski that no satisfactory solution to safety problems could be expected from national regulations, as was stated.
said in Paris in 1953, the Dutch started Rahola criterion as a standard and they were still using it. The Rahola criterion fulfilled their expectations completely. In the Netherlands they did not want another stability standard and they would go on with Rahola's for the time being. However, there was the question of stability in waves. It would be desirable to extend Rahola's work from smooth water to waves and to see whether a review of his standards became necessary.
to use the
measure of rolling periods, special calculations might also be prepared for the master of the ship which would enable him value. but the to find not He added that, on the basis of his own paper on the graphical method called "The radial analyser of ship's stability", it was possible to construct a very simple instrument for the mechanical modelling of the righting arm curve, for every load condition. It was only necessary to set this instrument to
As Mr. de Wit had
GM
KG
the proper displacement
and KG.
Differences noted MR. F. THIBERGE (France): With reference to Takagi's paper he noticed that there was a very great difference in the length
PROF. ATA NUTKU (Turkey): The initial stability in calm water cannot be a true criterion for a boat's behaviour and
between the short French and long Japanese boats when

considering freeboard.
The French wooden boats are too small to have an international freeboard, yet under French law they are now forced to have freeboard marks when the gross tonnage exceeds
25 ton. The ratio between overall length and moulded depth varies, generally speaking, from 5.5 to 7.5. Takagi mentioned that the freeboard from the regulations
Even when cruising in calm water, the and the variation of pressure distribution along the hull influence the righting moments. In a seaway, the forces tending to heel and trim the boat have
performance at
sea.
distorted surface at the waterline
Curves of
righting
mom-
ents of croes sections
of the Japanese Fisheries Agency, in relation to moulded depth, was 1 :15 of the moulded depth + Sin. (20cm.). The freeboard allowed to French boats by Bureau Veritas seems to be slightly greater than that envisaged by these regulations, But above all, the difference seems great if the freeboard is related to the length of the boats. This ratio, together with certain sheer requirements, may be the cause of the boats tendency to become submerged and lost stability in rough seas. Then the ratio of the freeboard to the lertgth of many Japanese boats seems very small. It is to be hoped that research on ship behaviour in rough seas will make rapid progress. For the present, however, it seems extremely complicated to deal simultaneously with the freeboard of very short and very long boats, which really depends on the very different techniques employed.
KM t sin<?
curves
Fig. 625.
Calculation of the contribution of each section to the total

righting
moment
MR.
J.
national
G. DE Wrr (Netherlands): Takagi suggested an interstability standard, and Jablonski suggested an
widely varying values. Dynamic pressures created along the bottom and sides of the hull when rolling, pitching and heaving affect the buoyancy and righting moments, according to the position of the boat in the waves. Graff and Heckscher (1941), Stenvaag and Garberg (1953), and Paulling (1959) observed changes in the stability of models at speed. It has been the practice in the Turkish Tank to investigate
stability by ascertaining the contribution of each section to the total righting moments. This gives an idea of the stability efficiency of each section at different draughts and heel angles. This contribution is restricted to hull-generated
international freeboard standard for fishing vessels. Takagi should organize a standing comfurther suggested that mittee to promote the safety of fishing vessels and to study the subject. The discusser had been informed that it was not
FAO
within the scope of the Congress to organize such a committee; the only thing the participants could do was to ask their respective Governments that the Government delegates to conference would be entitled to ask to the next the He recommended committee. a such standing organize
form
FAO
FAO
participants in the Congress to submit to their Governments the points which Takagi and Jablonski had raised. He agreed with Jablonski that fishing vessels were little
by the 1948 International Convention on Safety of Life at Sea; he supposed however, that they would be by the next one. Fishing vessels were not dealt with by that Convention. Every Government was completely free to declare resolutions of that Convention to be enforced for fishing
affected
vessels*
waves, as it is impossible to consider at present the influence of pressure distribution in seaways. For this purpose, t sin 9 values of the horizontal projection of distance from keel to metacentre are plotted on respective wateriines and heel angles, a shown in fig. 625.
KM
By
righting
multiplying these values by the corresponding areas, the moments are obtained
:
M-A(KM
-KG)sin<p
In the Netherlands it was usual to allow the man on board the fishing vessels to participate in the benefits of those
the righting moment curves, are also drawn in fig. 625 and 626. The contribution of the forebody of V,th ship length is negligible in normal wateriines. The righting arm curves at
M,
KN
(573]
FISHING BOATS OF THfe WORLD:
SEA BEHAVIOUR
further emphasized the deficiency of the tuna clippers as compared to the trawler forms. It should be further noted that the stability reduction in waves WAS an absolute quantity,
not a percentage of the calm water righting arms* Therefore, for lower values than those illustrated, the tuna clippers would compare even more unfavourably. of B/10 represented the upper bound on the Since a range of values encountered in service with those vessels, it was seen that fig. 630 gave a conservative comparison of the two types and in practice the tuna clippers might well be worse off than indicated there. It could be concluded, therefore, that the number of those vessels lost as a result of capsizing was not greater primarily because of the moderate weather and sea conditions characteristic of the areas in which they operated.
GM GM
14
ft
MR. H. C. HANSON
was required
deck.
(U.S.A.):
He felt that some good
thinking
Fig. 626.
Righting moments for different water lines at 10" heel
different speeds are shown in fig. 627 as obtained from The loss of stability for hull-generated waves at fig. 626. V/\/L1.4v 1.2 and 0.9 is 10.2, 6.4 and 12 per cent, respec-
on to the The papers of Paulling and Wendel took care of certain parts and left the rest to the human factor. As regards the liquid cargo in the boat, if a loadline was established, many people might go out of business. People fishing in the North
Atlantic were not faced with that problem.
in fishing boat designs. Many boats loaded so heavily with fish that the water came
were often
by a stern wave, as shown in fig. 627, the stability loss amounts to about 13 per cent. It appears from fig. 626 that most of the stability is contributed by the middle body in this type of boat, which has a shallow draught and wide beam, and, contrary to the normal type of ship, the wave condition amidships seems to be critical. For comparison, the sin 9 and curves of rectangular and triangular sections are reproduced in
tively.
If the
boat
is lifted
Swedish use of ballast CAPT. H. HANSSON (Sweden): The goal of the Congress was to get lighter, cheaper, speedier and safer fishing vessels. It had been rather a shock to him to hear about so many accidents in different countries. He knew that accidents to Polish and Icelandic fishing boats had been caused by lack of However, the Swedish trawlers operating in the stability. North Sea and the North Atlantic under very severe weather conditions had not had any capsizings. The Swedish boats were not necessarily better boats, but they had a very low frequency of accidents, possibly because the boatbuilders
KM
fig.
628.
PROF. J. R. PAULLING, JR. (U.S.A.): The stability curves, 629 and 630 were presented as additional evidence to support the contention that the tuna clipper stability problem differed from that of vessels of more normal form. Those curves consisted of dimensionless righting arms in the form of the ratio of righting arm to beam vs. the heel angle for three tuna clippers and two New England trawlers. The initial was taken as B/10 in each case. In fig. 629 the statical stability curves in calm water were given, the solid curves being computed in the conventional manner by the method of cross-curves and the dashedcurves by the method outlined in his paper. comparison of the two stability curves for each of the two trawlers showed that the conventional method yielded satisfactory results for this type of vessel. That result might have been expected since the dissimilarity between the fore and after bodies was not excessive in the case of a trawler of normal form and arrangement. For the tuna clippers, in every case, the method permitting trim yielded lower righting arms than were obtained by the conventional method. In addition, the maximum righting arms were considerably toss than those of the trawlers in all cases. The reason for the first of those effects was given in the paper. That was the extremely dissimilar fore and after bodies of the tuna clipper resulted in trim as the vessel heeled, and a consequent reduced righting as compared with that obtained by the conventional computation. The deficient maximum righting arms characteristic of tuna dippers resulted from the extremely low freeboard possessed by those vessels over a major portion of the length. Fig. 633, giving righting arm curves for the same example *n on the crest of a wave of length equal to ship-length,
fig.
Low
of
102%
CM
JA
.417
12
357
09
268
Fig. 627.
Righting
arm
by a stern wave. Full
curves at >ai$erenim different speeds and (d) when lifted lines corresponds to stationary ship
(574]
STABILITY
added a
of permanent ballast, In the midwater trawl heavy catches of up to 15 tons in one haul. Therefore, it was difficult to find a compromise for a good platform to work on and adequate safety, and at the same time have economical propulsion. Model tests had been made in Sweden but no authorities* advices or instructions based on the results from these tests had been given to boatbuilders and fishermen to help them to design and build more economical boats. The Swedish boats sailed far, and it was important that they went to the grounds
lot
fishing, they got
DISCUSSION
04
the lightest condition. On the fishing grounds heavy loads were added and they were also subject to icing: it was then that the ballast was necessary. Hunter's ballast tank suggestion would be one way to solve that problem. JCaptain Hansson asked if possibly a bottom tank could be a solution but then it is necessary that the crew be educated how to handle it. He did not think that any international rule could
in
Fig. 629.
calm water indicating a deficiency
Statical stability curves for tuna clippers

in stability
and
trawlers
tor
of the former
Riohtina
moments
KM t sinl
Deck
He was glad to note that H. Hansson seemed to realize the paradox that an agreeably rolling ship could lack sufficient stability and vice versa. Unfortunately fishermen were not
always equally enlightened on this point, and the reason for the amount of permanent ballast they sometimes added was their belief that they could slow down the rolling motions in that way. Ballast in itself was naturally not the only means to achieve sufficient stability. That could also be had by increasing the beam. Fortunately enough, as the resistance discussion had shown, increased beam did not influence resistance
appreciably, not even in head seas. H. Hansson seemed to believe, together with many nonnaval architects, that there should be a similar paradox
between adequate safety and economic propulsion. The fuel consumption, i.e., the power to propel the ship ahead, depended especially on length, hull shape and weight. That was in a way the longitudinal characteristic. The safety
against capsizing, i.e. the stability, depended particularly on the beam, freeboard and the vertical position of the centre of
gravity,
and
that
was an athwartship
characteristic.
Both had
Fig. 628.
KM\
sin
9 and righting moment
curves for rectangular
and
nothing really in common, and it was possible to design a very economical ship from the propulsive point of view which, at the same time, had such high stability that there should have to be a cowboy riding on her Now naval architects knew
!
triangular sections
b: made applicable for boats in different countries, but believed in a better co-operation between fishermen, boatbuilders and naval architects. He proposed that surveyors
and naval
architects should
make
practical tests
by loading
fishing boats with the
same weights as could be met under icing conditions or when a catch is taken on board and make
these tests at sea under improved weather conditions in order
to give a realistic demonstration of the stability needed for different types of boats and to find a rule for minimum stability.
10
cz/e
MR. J-O, TRAUNO (FAO): The extensive model tests made in Sweden had been reviewed in many articles in the Swedish fishing papers, and a full review was also given in the proceedings of the 1947 Scandinavian Fishing Boat Congress has later published the results from all (Traung, 1948). tests as data shafts (Traung, 1955; 1959).
FAO
Fig. 630.
Stability
of tuna clippers and trawlers in waves \to ship's length, with crest amtiskips
of length
1575]

* great deal about the necessary stability. Rahoia's (1939) work and MdckeTi new curve (fig. 429) were particularly valuable guides for a stability which gave good compromize between adequate safety and agreeable rolling motions, it should, therefore, not be necessary to add ballast to achieve a still shorter period of roll than recommended by
by loading boats with weights resembling icing and a heavy fish catch on deck would certainly be most convincing to non-technical men. Any such test should, however, be combined with a study of the characMdckel.
Full-scale
tests
teristics
SEA BEHAVIOUR
centrifugal forces tending to
menoed the effect of the

ship outward,
bed
the
It is furthermore well established that the effect of rolling is to reduce directional stability. He suspected also that there is an additional force possibly of overriding importance due to an effective shift forward of the of the lateral area presented to the oncoming fluid (relative to the ship). This force like the centrifugal heeling effect will be proportional to the square of the velocity through the water.
CG
of the
vessels, including participation in fishing trips
by experienced observers. Actually technicians could, with general knowledge of naval architecture and the help of the fishing boat experience data presented in this book, do much to produce a aeakindlier Swedish fishing vessel without in any way taking any risks so far as safety was concerned.
This force he suspected becomes the most important in considering this "broaching" behaviour and in effect arises from a modification of the "derivatives" found in still water by the rotating arm process. It can also lead to the result that in practice the worst condition for broaching may not of necessity be frequency
of encounter zero.
It
may well occur when
V wave
MR. H.
E. STEEL (U.K.): Safety at sea required three basic
rules to be observed:
Complete watertightness of the hull Water shipped must be cleared overboard as

possible
fast as
In describing the apparatus developed by Roden and it appears that the moments in which one is interested are proportional to the moment of inertia multiplied by the angular accelerations. Presumably the acceleration here applied to the rolling plane.
Baumann
Weights on board (cargo, stores, equipment) must not under any circumstances He felt it was not so much the lack of stability that caused many accidents as the fact that the hull was not completely watertight. Stability should be ample and not just enough. Statical stability calculations should be based on two addishift
Now
it
would seem
that the results for righting
moments
tional conditions:
presented by this apparatus would not be able to allow for any effective reduction in righting lever brought about by the dynamic effects mentioned above. Probably the added inertia due to the added mass of entrained water is small in the rolling plane, but possibly is not so small when the yawing and drifting motions are considered.
The ship having a heavy catch on deck and The fish catch still on deck, with another catch coming on
;
He apologized
for admittedly departing
somewhat from
the
board
PROF. A. TAKAQI (Japan): The tables in his paper were compiled from data selected at random, it would be seen from the tables that the freeboard of Japanese boats was quite small. It was to be remembered, however, that the freeboards shown were the difference between the depth (D) and the draught (T), and that no correction had been made for deck erections, etc. With regard to icing, practically no Japanese fishing boats operated under icing conditions, and this might be one reason
for the small freeboards.
subject covered by Wendel's paper by introducing dynamic terms in other planes, but hoped nevertheless they may be
considered of interest in considering the general subject of seaworthiness, seakindliness and stability, which must, of necessity, be somewhat interlinked in any serious consideration.
MR. S. RODEN (Germany): Du Cane emphasized that when a ship in waves broaches, heeling movements take place which, according to him, are very dangerous for the safety of the ship. No doubt such moments arc not as small as to be
disregarded. The same goes for either direct or indirect heeling moments created by bad weather and heavy seas, such as moments due to wind pressure, shifting of cargo or flooding. Only a careful summing up of such single moments will give the value of the total forces which must be balanced
that one may give For such a consideration, only be used. Wendel has shown that in a seaway moments of stability will be imposed on the ship under speed which differ from those in calm water. With the instrument lor measuring stability in waves, the product of the mass moment of inertia of the ship, plus the moment of inertia of the entrained water and the angular roll acceleration equal the moment of stability, if the damping is disregarded exactly as du Cane assumes. Du Cane is now afraid that when turning or drifting the entrained water mats will change considerably and therefore give incorrect stability values. The normal procedure of taking into account hydrodynamic moments by making an
Sometimes the freeboard was sacrificed for other reasons, such as heavy machinery or large holds. A few boats were once designed in Japan following the Rahola criteria, but the design resulted in too short a rolling period and the crew complained of difficulty in working
against the existing
moments of stability, so
on deck.
Eventually, the various seas of the world might be divided into zones according to climatic and topographic similarity, when it might be possible to adopt a freeboard standard for
safety. existing stability criteria must
a judgement on the
each zone.
COMDR.
P. DU CANE (U.K.): He had studied Wendel's paper with very great interest, more particularly because he was in the process of attempting to study the broaching phenomena analytically. Directly or indirectly he regarded
this as one of the greatest menaces to safety at sea, certainly for small ships at the present day. Here is not only the reduction in stability due to waves as described by Wcodd, but also once the "broach" has com-
addition to the mass,
is
naturally only possible for hydro-
dynamic moments which have the same direction, the same frequency and the same phase position as the original
[576]
STABILITY
is only so far as rolling is concerned with turning or drifting this is not the case, in addition, the vector of the total hydrodynamic moments does not lie in the same plane and furthermore is not in the same phase. It can be
DISCUSSION
to 6.3 in, (160 mm.) or more in unfavourable circumstances. Evidently tilts endangered the ship if k had the same or neariy the same speed as the wave
moments. That
came up
considerably larger than for a simple roil. It is however not known if the component in the rolling plane and of the same phase is considerably different from the component at the normal rolling movement. It should be possible to look on the rolling stability movements as correct also.
PROF.
If the longitudinal waves came from ahead or overtook the vessel fast* the decrease lasted only a short time, and a
A. TAKAGI (Japan), answering Thiberge, said that
ship would not have enough tone to capsize even if the righting lever was temporarily negative. In this case the mean value hi longitudinal waves was important, in most cases it was also lower than the still water value, but the decrease was only a fraction of the value in the wave
crest.
from various data of Japanese fishing boats, one can naturally establish some criteria due to the long Japanese experience. In the ranges of principal dimensions, their ratios, the hull shape and its coefficients shown in his paper, one can reach
In the case of smaller boats, they have sufficient sheers to prevent the dangerous condition otherwise
This was confirmed by model experiments
These conclusions were only valid if the ship heeled to such a degree that the deck became immersed. This was not the case at small inclinations or a great freeboard
such a criterion.
caused by the sea water coming up on deck. He was sorry but he could not show their profiles in his paper. He wished to be able to find a common way of establishing criteria based on the actual data in the world. Professor Takagi thanked Jablonski for his detailed discussion. It seems that the standard of stability to be required should be a dynamical one up to some inclination angle, say 30 to 35 degrees. In calculations, perfect watertight superstructures are
when the ship would on the contrary become longitudinal waves. The reason was the centre of buoyancy, B, and the metacentre, M. The centre of gravity would not shift, so a greater metacentric height. GM, must result. This was confirmed by measuring the
amidships,
stifTer in
assumed which may result in larger and larger angle of stability range, which one has in practice. Perfect water-tightness in rough sea is, naturally, desired.
GZ
on the research ship Anton Dokrn in transverse waves. The apparatus mentioned in his paper was used for measurement in a seaway. In calm water and in was nearly 2 ft. (0.6 m.), whereas transverse waves in longitudinal waves 5 in. (0.127 m.) more was measured. The ship had a shelterdeck, it heeled only to 8 degrees, so it was not possible to measure the decrease at great
GM
GM
inclinations
As
described, external forces are considered as a function of BG plus other factors, but now has been used for simpli-
BG
fication.
is
For
light alloy superstructures,
a correction of
KG
naturally necessary. In the initial design stage,
stability easily.
ensure safe
period wilt
one must be able to determine the and crew to navigation and fishing. The freeboard and rolling be good parameters at any condition and for any
This
is
also true for the master
persons. as used in his paper was not to be calculated by equation but to be determined in each case. Because the hull and thus the shape has a great influence on the location of
GM
GM.
it
cannot be said that the hull shape was not taken into
account.
Wendel made one historical remark to the effect that a prediction of some of those seaway effects were found in the famous books of Pollard et Oudebout, published some seventy years ago. But only recently naval architects had begun to study those effects more carefully. He added some remarks on the investigation of Nutku concerning stability in hull-generated waves and supposed that if Nutku would make experiments to check his calculations he would find some alterations of the righting lever. But the cause would be the change of righting levers according to ship waves as well as the lift force, which must come into action if the submerged hull is assymetrtc. That unfailingly happened if the ship had a list and a speed. Perhaps those two effects would summarize perhaps they would cancel. Wendel supposed they were of the same order of
magnitude. Many naval architects wanted freeboard regulations for fishing boats and he thought FAO should promote that. But in his opinion it would be absolutely necessary to include stability to reach this aim. Some further investigations and much calculation would be required. Jablonski had made a proposal of this kind and shown a formal way to find a maximum admissible displacement with the help of the cross-curves, and consequently a minimum freeboard. But the difficulty was not the formal side of the subject. It was firstly necessary to gain clearness about the minimum necessary righting lever. This was a matter of physics. Jablonski chose referring to Rahola the criterion:
Righting lever
for
PROF. J. R. PAULLING, JR, (U.S.A.): There were no comments directed specifically on his paper, but he concurred with Simpson on his remarks regarding the necessity for adequate
freeboard.
many tuna
on the
PROF.
He was convinced that the only thing that brought clippers back home was the watertight bait tanks
WENDEL (Germany):
after deck.
Paulling's paper confirmed obtained in Hannover and Hamburg. Furthermore his paper gave a lot of numerical information about the decrease of righting levers for tuna clippers. Calculations and experiments in Russia gave practically the same results. The reason for the investigations in those three countries was capsizing accidents of fishing boats and bigger ships. In Germany there had been further studies on the subject, with results summarized as follows :
1C.
fully results
GZ
in.
(200
mm.)
an inclination of 30 degrees and a stability range 60 degrees

That was hardly tenable
culars
in his opinion; for furtner parti-
* Longitudinal waves altered the righting lever;

waves did not
transverse
Wendel
referred to his paper.
If longitudinal waves overtook the vessel directly or obliquely the decrease was considerable. The worst condition occurred when the crest of a high wave of ship's length was situated amidships. The decrease then
He thought, however, that that was a very important matter and proposed that FAO should form a committee which would participate at the International Safety Conference in
London
in 1960.
[577]
T#E
:
'
2 i~
SEA 'BEHAVIOUR
SAFETY AT SEA
According to
ttte
iM
'
>w*k an f^'Ôff^
heefinf HKMTWrts, into action if the
lof die
& am*
They considered the moments, crowded together on
D*.
L. CRISTIANI (Italy):
researches
made
after 1945, Hfesavtag
means should be such

a
list
Watanabe had given a paper on this sutyect to the Institution of Naval Architects. The experiments concerning size ju*d decrease of the wind-pressure moment executed by Kmoshita and Okada had already been mentioned. For fishing boats a lot of useful information was found in the paper presented by Takagi. The work of the Japanese naval architects would be very useful for the numerical calculation of the heeling moments.
But the chief object of the Japanese work seemed to be to up new criteria for minimum stability. Such criteria 50 years ago demanded a minimum GM. Later, initiated by the very comprehensive work of Rahola, a minimum righting In lever was recommended. Surely, that was progress. Japan naval architects were trying to improve those criteria and to adapt them to special ships. But he supposed this procedure should be abandoned. Compared with resistance and propulsion, the general stability criterion corresponded with the Admiralty formula or similar summary formulae for estimating the necessary SHP. Those formulae were of practical use only for similar ships. They were by no means of
set
Enable the ship to be
in service with
of more than
15 degrees Protect the survivors from sea and bad weather
Be easy to locate Inflatable liferafts could satisfy those requirements. Rafts were small in volume when stowed, and their weight was
limited 392 Ib. (178 kg.) for a particular raft for 25 persons. Rafts for merchant vessels ranged in capacity from 4 to 25 persons.
They were made of rubber
fabrics,
having special
properties.
characteristics as regards resistance
and chemical
they had an entirely self-supporting arch tube structure; they were provided with accessories like a seawater operating cell without electrolyte for lighting purposes and a complete emergency outfit. They could also be equipped with a wireless apparatus. To make sure of their good conFurther,
on board, periodical inspections could be made through a chain of land stations, as was done in the U.K. The price of a rubber liferaft and its equipment was favourable in comparison with a conventional lifeboat of the
dition
same capacity.
to 1959, 107 human lives had been saved by inflatable of one particular make. The record of rescue operations carried out in 1958 and in the first quarter of 1959 were as
general validity. Further, they put together very different things friction, wave and eddy making, resistance, propeller efficiency, wake, thrust deduction, etc. The modern achievements in resistance and propulsion had not been possible if naval architects had refused to accept a physically correct conception of predicting SHP.
Up
rafts
follows:
1958
1959:
There were no general valid stability criteria and it was impossible to establish such general criteria. Ships varied not only in shape and principal dimensions but in cargoes, stores, subdivisions and in erections, and they encountered different
weather conditions on their voyages. Good progress could only be achieved if further material were collected and worked out, with the aim of making possible the numerical prediction of the single heeling moments in the worst possible condition. Their sum must be less than the righting moment over a sufficient range. That was the only criterion suitable without exceptions and which would give safety in all cases. As soon as the necessary information about the different heeling moments was collected that procedure would not be more tedious than the search for the suitable criterion, the number of which was nearly as great as the number of naval architects
vessels were saved 9 January the Fisheries Protection Vessel, Freya, heeled over to 45 degrees in rough sea (60 m.p.h.
The crews of six stranded
On
wind); 17 persons saved
On 9 March the motor-drifter, Primrose, grounded off

Stornoway the crew was saved by using a
;
raft
On
the trawler, Stella Carina, collided with a cargo vessel while going out from Victoria Dock at Hull; the crew was saved by using a raft
10
March
The Government of Iceland had since 1953, the U.K. and later, made regulations for the use of inflatable liferafts. He felt that it was time to propose regulations regardFrance
ing the use of inflatable liferafts by all Maritime Countries.
engaged in this matter.

further advantage would be connected with this procedure. It would stimulate the search for methods or devices to reduce the heeling moments: for instance, the heeling moments and the rise of the centre of gravity caused by icing which especially endangered fishing boats. They were small ships and the king was proportional to the surface, consequently to the second power of linear dimensions, whereas the righting moment was proportional to the displacement, consequently to the third power of linear dimensions.
Recently an incident between Greenland and Iceland was reported to him: die crow of a trawler had to throw their ice-covered lifeboats overboard in order to avoid capsizing. The icing in die wont weather conditions could probably not be overcome by a sufficient righting lever. This was in fuH agreement with die experiments referred to in Lackenby's paper. It was necessary to search for methods to get rid of the ice or, better, to prevent the gathering of too much
ice.
MR. H. R. BARDARSON (Iceland): In Iceland rubber liferafts had been used for many years, and they had been regulation equipment for all vessels for nearly two years. Fishing vessels below 80 GT had no lifeboats, and were relying on the rubber rafts. Inspection by specialists on land was required every year for rubber rafts, and the training of the crews in the use of the rafts was very necessary. This was done mainly in swimming pools, to give the crews an idea what the rafts looked like when inflated. A picture poster was placed on board every Icelandic ship, showing what to do in case of emergency. Every seagoing Iceland fishing vessel was fitted with radio telephone to call for help. Life-saving equipment had to give effective shelter to the crew for relatively short periods, as help would usually come soon with the use of planes and rescue vessels. A reflector for radar and light beams was required and a safe and simple automatic transmitter on board the rafts should send out SOS signals with the biggest possible power on the wavelengths used for distress signals for vessels and aeroplanes. He requested firms producing radio equipment to
continue experiment* with such transmitters.
When
suitable
equipment became available, he felt sure comed by all concerned with safety at sea.
it
would be wel-
[578]
AT fiA^
PROF.
II JACOWSON and Ovrr, H. HANSSON (Sweden) When

:
accidents happened at tea, it was of the utmost importance that those in distress had the means of sending out distress
and
signals by radio and with other apparatus. In bigger ships also in large fishing craft radio telephone was a common instrument. In small Ashing craft, however, the owners had
The sea still claimed too many victim* and, evwy year on the globe, thousands of human bem*, fufi of bope* and plans for the future, disappeared to the wave*/ When a sailor was washed overboard, the ship immediately turned round and everything was set in motion to recover the unfortunate man. When two ships ran foul of each other, the less damaged one gave all the possible help to the other one.
not the technical means to
install,
nor could they afford to
buy the rather expensive instrument.

Since the last war, the Swedish Sea Rescue Institution had asked for a small and cheap automatic radio transmitter for use in small fishing craft, lifeboats and rafts and by yachtsmen and aviators. few years ago a British firm produced such an instrument for the RAF and airlines in the U.K., but this was too expensive for civil use. The same British firm had made a cheaper version and it is to be used by the Swedish RAF and the Swedish Sea Rescue Service for a safety system. They had decided to introduce
ship in distress in a storm or having collided with an iceberg had generally time to send an SOS, an airliner in difficulties could signal her position. Help action was immediately organized and all the possible assistance was
generously given, irrespective of race and nationality, by the great brotherhood of the sea and air. All shipwrecked people, however, were not rescued: some had been caught in their sleep, others had been wounded or
and rescue
light
those instruments in small craft, aeroplanes, searching planes cruisers on the Swedish coats. It was also planned
that special automatic alarm receivers should be fitted in high towers and radio masts on the coast.
After a meeting in London in 1958 with NATO, the U.S. Coastguard and the British authorities concerned, the Swedish Sea Rescue Institution proposed to all those international bodies interested that that safety system should be internationally adopted because such a safety system at sea could be effective only when accepted all over the world. The price of this pocket transmitter, DIANA (in England SARAH), was in 1959 about 27 ($75) but if it is massproduced the price would drop to less than half. As the Congress had a special interest in safety at sea, it was proposed that it should accept the following resolution: "The 2nd World Fishing Boat Congress recommends that all maritime nations and all sea rescue organizations should study with the greatest care the proposal for a safety system with pocket distress radio transmitters, DIANA, which proposal will be presented at the International Lifeboat Conference in Bremen on 23 to 25 June, 1959, and if the proposal is accepted in Bremen, work for its introduction throughout the world/*
Reflectorizatkm
a collision or explosion; others were not saved because the ships and planes taking part in the rescue did not see them. man in a life vest, a raft, even a larger lifeboat, was really not much in the immenseness of the ocean. By day, they were not easily sighted even when the sea was calm and with powerful glasses. At night, when darkness limits the visibility and cancels the contrast effects, the unfortunate passengers of those precarious rescue appliances were likely not to be seen at all, in spite of the powerful projectors. And they drift, drift more
killed during
and disappear. Normally shipwrecked people very often only had makeshift means at their disposal to draw the attention of rescuers.
.
.
an
Privileged shipwrecked persons passengers of a steamer or airliner, pilots who had to bail out, castaway crews
an electric light and one or more and made themselves recognized. Those devices were no doubt very effective and had certainly saved many lives already. They, however, did not perform for hours and days and people had to be fully conscious to operate them. If they were sick, tired or wounded, or had fainted, they could not indicate their presence to the ships and
generally
set,
had a radio
flares to signal their position
planes searching for them. In order to be fully effective under any circumstances, a signalling device must perform without any co-operation from
the
doomed man. Modern industry had perfected a material which performed
MR. M. DUTRUIT
characterized
by,
(Switzerland):
The
last
50 years had been

strides
amongst
others,
the prodigious
made by science in all its various forms, and the lives of a great number of people had been greatly altered by a multitude of technical devices. The part of human activity which
normally exerted
itself
on the oceans
fishing,
merchant
navigation, cable laying, marine research, etc. had naturally been greatly influenced by scientific conquests and the risk and
peril
of the sea, fortunately enough, were not any longer as
bad as they were half-a-century ago.

airliners
Modern
vessels
and
were equipped with high-precision devices radio telephone, radio goniometers, radar and echo sounders which permitted more precise navigation to increase safety. In spite of that, there was not a week without a disaster at sea! Recent and, if permitted to use the term, spectacular catastrophes such as the one of the Stockholm and the Andrea Doric, or the Pamir, or the most recent one of the Hans Hedtoft, had shown that, undo* certain circumstances, the best instruments could fail and also that their indications could be misinterpreted by the crew members, because the human factor had remained more or less what it was in the olden days.
continuously without any operation from the persons in peril, which did not unload or exhaust itself and which was very suitable for the marking of life vests, rafts and buoys the retro-reflective sheeting. This sheeting could be applied on to the flexible surface of life vests and rubber dinghies as well as on to the rigid surface of rafts and boats of wood, light metal or reinforced plastic. The flexible sheeting was a retro-reflector (auto-collimating), not a phosphorescent nor a fluorescent material; it was a reflecting product which did not emit any light of its own but which reflected back to their source all the light rays which strike its surface, without any divergence, i.e. without noticeable loss. retro-reflector must be illuminated so as to be visible, and every observer placed within the luminous cone or close to it would see the full effect. Objects reflecterized with this material get a capacity of visibility in darkness far superior to the capacity of similar objects painted with conventional colours, even very brilliant ones. By day, reflectorized objects looked exactly the same as non-reflec-
At night, when caught in the beam of a light they lit up as if by magic, and when illuminated by a strong projector they were visible in the dark at a longer range than by day. The diflbse "border" light of a beam was sufficient
torized ones.
[579]

to render the reflective material very brilliant against the dark background, and reflcctoruatkm practically increased the imnf* of headlights and projectors, because a reftectoriod
It
SEA BEHAVIOUR
buoy or dinghy were visible at night even beyond the area illuminated by the projector. Moreover* the reflective sheeting was wide angle and reflected luminous rays under any angle of incidence up to 75 degrees. great advantage of reflectorization lay in the fact that any
boat stations* etc. As a matter of fact, in one of a disaster. very often happened that electric power failed at was cut off and, when that happened at night, the entire ship was plunged into darknessdarkness which generated panic and confusion. small hand torch was sufficient to make
reflectorized panels and signs perfectly visible and legible in the dark, in the same shape and colours as by day. Opera-
tions were greatly facilitated
ship or plane fitted out with a projector today every craft, even the smallest tramp or fishing vessel was equipped with a powerful lightcould take an active and effective part in the rescue action. How often does one read in the papers:
".
.
.
and the necessary measures could be taken without loss of time and without confusion. Net buoys could also be reflectorized for quicker location and identification at great distance in the night with a small
Search had to be interrupted at nightfall and will be

at earty
projector. Reflectorization
resumed next morning

throughout the night.
dawn.
," Reflectorization,
all
was not a universal medicine but it certainly was an important additional safety factor which should be
used aboard
all ships.
on the other hand, enabled
the search action to go ori
The
0.008
retro-reflective
sheeting
had a thickness of only

things, reflector
in. (0.2
mm.) and was composed, amongst other
of metallic layers performing as a spectacular (mirror reflector), which was also a good reflector of radar waves. metallic object covered with this reflective material was naturally not more visible on the radar screen than the same object without any reflecting material, but the radar echo of wooden seamarks or rubber boats, was notably
increased through reflecting sheeting. Reflecting materials have been used for over 12 years for road and railway signs, for police equipment and vehicle
Oer-icing increased CAPT. S. REMOY (Norway): He felt that high the danger of over-icing considerably, due to the violent motions of the vessel. Over-icing of the standard rigging was extremely dangerous and it might happen that an icedup radio aerial could break. During the winter of 1952. five Norwegian ships were lost in the North Atlantic, three of them having lost connection with sister ships. He advocated the use of a plastic cover for radio aerials and standard rigging.
CM
Many
years ago,
when
sailing,
it
was comparatively easy
markings, and has proved their usefulness and suitability under all climates. They were also being used for maritime signalling because they were not affected at all by salt water,
sun's rays and
ice.
to keep a ship against the weather, thus reducing over-icing. Mechanized ships tended to be driven too fast, and he
suggested the use of a small sail to be able to reduce engine speed when lying against the weather. Iron and wood collected ice readily, canvas very much less,
The technique of reflectorization of rafts, dinghies and life vests had already been adopted in many countries and was being used by the following organizations: U.S. Navy and Air Force, Swedish Air Force, German Navy and Air Force, Italian Navy and Air Force, Belgian Navy, French
Naval Air Force. Tests and trials were being conducted in other countries and the British Admiralty was about to make compulsory the reflectorization of certain types of buoys, seamarks and
life
and rubber was nearly free from icing. There was now on the market a plastic material which was an effective anti-icing cover for stays, halyards, radio antennae and similar exposed
cover
parts of the ship. Heavy icing on radio antennae could it to breaking point and in arctic conditions repairs
saving appliances.
entail high expenses,
were very difficult: this could lead to loss of contact with shore and other stations. So the plastic material was very valuable. It did not in any way hinder transmission or reception. It should be applied to the antennae halyards, as well as to the antennae itself.
The use of this new technique did not
and existing life saving equipment could easily be reflectorized for a relatively small expense compared to the cost of the equipment itself. When it is thought that for a few dollars a human life could often be saved, one wondered why reflectorization was not in general use on board ships. Why had the technique of reflectorization already been adopted by many military, naval and air force establishments, and not by civilian companies? The answer was to be found
in the International Convention of Safety of Life at Sea, signed in London in 1948, which did not contain any recoittmendatton or obligation to reflectorize life saving appliances. That was natural enough since retro-reflective materials were just beginning to be used for road signs at the time when the Convention was tinder discussion. That was something lacking in the Convention which, it was hoped, would be made good in 1960 when the Assembly will revise the
MR.
had
J.
H0JSOAARD (Denmark): He pointed out
that
Remoy
successfully covered the wires of his radio transmitter with a plastic coating which had reduced icing considerably. The U.S. Navy had found that paint made on a silicone base
attracted only
two per
cent, of the ice as
compared with
normal paint.
In a hurricane a captain would turn the stern against the waves and steam ahead at low r.p.m. to keep the ship on course. But engines were not built to run at very low speeds and engine trouble might, therefore, very soon arise. That was an added reason, he felt, to adopt the controllable-pitch propeller, with which engines could run at normal r.p.m. and the ship's speed could be controlled simply by manipulating the pitch.
1MCO
Mm. H. KLAASSBN
(Netherlands):
Hojsgaard stated that
merchant sailors, airmen and passengers had a right to profit by the same technical achievements as military personnel, and it was therefore hoped that the new Convention would contain a paragraph making
Convention.
Fishermen,
several losses of ftshing vessels in gales must be attributed to the engine stopping after prolonged work at very low output
neflectorizaiion of life saving appliances compulsory. Reflective material could also be used aboard ships for the
marking of pumps,
fire extinguishers,
emergency
exits, life-
and low r.p.m. H0jsgaard claimed that a number of these ships could have been saved if a controllable-pitch propeller had been fitted, and in such particular cases operated at low pitch and high rp.m. The above point of view might be explained by Mr. Kfaassen's previous fig. 262, because at
1*0 J
SAFETY AT SEA
low pitch values Gust keeping enough water pressure on the rudder) and maximum r.p,m., the engine output C is in the order of 15 to 45 per cent, of the maximum engine output A. It is here that another advantage can he added to die already known advantages of twin engine installations driving a controllable-pitch propeller. If one engine is shut down, the remaining engine will be loaded between 70 and 90 per cent,
at
BISCUSSION
New England ports by the U.S. Coast Guard, these 120, 84 cases were due to engine failure, 72 (60 per cent, of the whole) being definitely traced to lack of lubricating oil in other words, incompetent or inattentive engineers.
towedin to
Of
maximum
r.p.m.
On
most convenient
in case
top of that the second engine will be of an emergency.
U.S. fishing vessels of up to 200 (roughly, a $200,000. 71,000 investment) required no licensed personnel. A man was a captain or an engineer on his own assertion until experience proved otherwise. The U*S. Coast Guard had no control over those vessels and he believed he was correct in saying that they did not want it (in his opinion they should
GT
or
MR. J, G. DE WIT (Netherlands): Miller's paper related to what had been said so many times about automatic steering gear and radar. The advantages of an automatic steering gear was evident, but there were dangers of negligence. In the Netherlands it was not permitted to have less than two men on the bridge for watch-keeping, but that was, unfortunately, not always the case. Automatic steering might have the
disadvantage that watch-keeping was left to the automatic steering gear. Radar had the disadvantage that fishermen thought they could operate at full speed in bad weather. New navigation equipment would, of course, be brought into use. but people who were to use it should study carefully when the instruments were to be used, whar their limitations were, etc. The nautical schools should direct their attention to any neu developments before they came into use, rather than after.
Training of crews MR. D. S. SIMPSON (U.S.A.): Once again he was delighted to note that Miller agreed with him in a matter that he had been trying to bring home to the fishing industry for many years. Most of the fishing vessel accidents could be avoided if there had been properly trained crews. To paraphrase a recent remark of friend Chapelle "we can model test a hull no end but we can't model test a crew or a skipper" Whatever the New England crews might be, by and large the> were not seamen. The majority of them were not even
!
not have it) until and unless new regulations for both vessels and crews were devised and made suitable to the service.
A fishing captain did not need to know how to take his ship
Timbuctoo. In these days he did not need to know navigaHe does however need to know how to handle his ship in rough weather; he does need to know how to fight fire, how to launch and handle his lifeboat, and how to interpret his electronic equipment. An engineer did not need to know how to build an engine: he does however need to know how, when and where to oil it.
to
tion.
Since the Government had not seen fit to furnish funds for the establishment of proper regulations, the next logical sponsor would be the insurance companies who would
by fewer accidents. While he was in hearty agreement with Miller and Takagi in their desire for training courses for fishermen he doubted if an FAO committee would provide the method of getting at it, or even of working up a set of regulations to propose. That would be a long and arduous task for men of special knowledge and experience and they should not be expected
benefit
to
work at it without compensation. The regulations and examinations
in existence in the
U.K.
helmsmen.
Miller
felt
They were careless and inattentive. Obviously same about the West Coast crews, and Takagi brought up the same troubles with Japanese crews. They
the
(which were sponsored by the insurance companies) would, he felt, make a splendid starting point. The influence of an FAO committee should, however, be of great service in stirring up an interest among those who should be the sponsors.
uncomplainingly go to sea time after time with faulty arrangements of gear, faulty equipment and even in unscaworthy ships. When an accident did occur, the owner took the blame, although generally he was just a business man and could not
be expected to
make
corrections unless the fault
was brought
CAPT. S. REMOY (Norway): He found Simpson's remarks most interesting. At the Norwegian School for Fishermen it was possible to get a certificate authorizing the holder to be captain of a ship up to 500 GT. He would like practical and theoretical training combined much more than has been done, and if possible on board a training ship.
L. SICKLES (U.S. A.): He augmented the conclusions derived by Miller, listing the causes of marine accidents, and
to his attention.
for their winches, either unaware of ones or too careless to rig them. Small boats and life preservers were lashed down with twisted wire. The most convenient place to stow a spare propeller or anchor appeared
They used wrong leads
COMDR. G.
safer
to be
on the
life raft.
steer their vessels properly. Through inattention, a helmsman might find himself20degrees off course and in a hasty attempt to correct would immediately find
Few of them could
to owners and skippers, in particular. owner or operator spent thousands of dollars having a vessel designed and built to do his job in the most efficient and profitable way, he left too much to chance in not guaranteeing that those who manned his vessel were aware of the capabilities of all the life saving and fire fighting equipment
made an appeal
When
the
himself 20 degrees off in the other direction. In his own mind he had not changed course and would so testify in court. Fishermen do not understand whistle signals nor the "rules of the road". Steamship officers had told him that they seldom bothered to signal fishing vessels for this reason. A few years back a trawler was lost with all hands. The last word heard from her, the skipper and crew were arguing as to * nether or not they should be paid overtime for chopping the ice from the rigging* Obviously neither knew enough to realize that their ship was in danger.
placed aboard the vessel. In most countries those vessels were required by regulatory agencies to maintain a minimum standard of amount and size of life saving and fire fighting equipment. Too often, those
pieces of expensive equipment were left to deteriorate due to lack of proper care or were disregarded because of ignorance
of how to use or maintain them properly.
few years ago Mr. Simpson had occasion to investigate the causes of breakdown-at-sea of some 120 fishing vessels
He referred, in the latter instance, to fire fighting equipment. If all ship's personnel were exposed to an indoctrination period as to the use of such equipment, those items would cease to be a worricsome thing that had to be maintained just to satisfy
the inspectors.
[581]

He had learned, by experience, that firo on board was no longer a thing to be feared, if one was properly trained in the use of the various pieces of equipment He did not need to elaborate on the various types of the equipment, as that would be already known, but he raised the question whether it was also known how and when to use it If this raised a question in the mind, it must be asked "If I don't know, how am I to be sure that my skipper and crew know!" The answer to this should be *Tli provide for them being taught properly". That was a very small premium to pay for so much
insurance.
2
life
SEA BEHAVIOUR
in maintaining
So much depended on the human element

safety of
and property
at sea.
No ship was any more sea-
worthy than her crew, No cheaper insurance could be had by the owners than the investment in education of the crews that manned the vessels, in matters pertaining to the proper use of the safety features which have been placed aboard the vessels at such great expense.
MR.
J-O.
TRAUNO (FAO): Some
countries
had training
facilities
for fishermen
and others not, and
FAO was therefore
In regard to the life saving equipment, a lot of good money was paid to have it placed aboard. One should insist on it
member was
trying to provide a bridge between those countries. One staff in charge of making a review of the training
being maintained in a seaworthy condition. He referred in that instance to life rafts, boats, buoyancy apparatus and life
Another important piece of life saving equipment the vessel's radio telephone apparatus. Too often the regulations pertaining to its use were violated. In every
preservers.
was
instance this
was done carelessly and
thoughtlessly
and
to the
jeopardy of all concerned. With the advent of radar, the tendency to rely on this valuable instrument was ever increasing. There was no legal premise in its being used as a substitute for a proper lookout, under International Rules. The interpretation of data obtained from radar and other electronic navigational aids was a matter of education and training of the individual using the equipment. It was not
He was an facilities for fishermen in various countries. experienced trawler skipper and had been teaching at a fishermen's school in Ostend for many years. Traung agreed with Sickles that training was the cheapest insurance an owner could have for his ship. It was therefore amazing how it was possible that they could select a man to run a quarter million dollar boat without at least testing him. But this was, of course, up to the owner, and FAO could only
interchange information between countries.
MR. J. G. HUTCHINSON (Canada): In Canada the RCAF were operating a search and rescue organization, which alerted all ships in an area whenever a distress signal was received. search Many ships then converged on the danger area. master on the scene was appointed to take charge. He would
enough to know how to
service the gear; one must to use the information put out by the equipment.
know how
decide
if aircraft
were necessary. That practice had proved
most
successful.
1582!]
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j4'
^^ '^^
I !
';,
"'"V.:,; \
/^'^;'^^^ ^?H^ ;
'
'
'
,
'
/;v'v:^''T,i>
"
'',!,'
'''
['_,.
*f
''
,'
DEVELOPMENT OF A BOAT FOR

by
INDIA'S
SURF COASTS
PETER GURTNER
India has a coastline of about 2,900 miles (4,630 km.) which is mainly surf-bsaten, with very few shelters for its vast number of indigenous fishing craft that operate all along the coast from numerous scattered villages. These craft, which are mostly catamarans and dugout canoes, are small with very limited range and capacity for fishing, and are not well suited for mechanization. The need of this large fishing community is a suitable beach landing craft which will give them the benefits of mechanization, help them to do better fishing, and increase total output of fish, thereby adding to their own prosperity. Work on evolving a suitable beach landing craft has been undertaken over the years and from 1953 FAO has been closely collaborating with the Government of India on this project. Since then, five types of boats have been designed. Experiments are now being conducted with the fourth type, built in accordance with experiments gained with the earlier versions. This project, apart from its technical side, has an equally important economic and social aspect. The kind of information gained during the investigations could well benefit communities in other parts of the world who have to contend with similar conditions.
MISE
AU POINT D'UN BATEAU POUR
LES COTES
A BRISANTS DE L'INDE
L'Inde a environ 2.900 mi lies (4.650 km.) de cdtes qui sont surtout battues par les brisants, avec tres peu d'abris pour les nombreux bateaux de peche indigenes qui travatttent tout le long de la cdte et sont base's sur un grand nombre de villages e"parpills. Cos bateaux, qui sont surtout des catamarans et des pirogues monoxyles, sont pstits, avec un rayon (faction et une capacitfe tres limited pour la peche, et ils ne conviennent pas pour la motorisation. Pour tous ces pdcheurs, il serait necessaire cTavoir un type de bateau pouvant tre echouc sur les plages et bien adapti, qui leur assure les avantagcs de la motorisation, les aide a micux pecher et augments la production totale de poisson, amlliorant ainsi leurs conditions de vie. Depuis des annexes, on a entrepris d'&aborer un bateau pouvant tre echouc sur la pla$e, bien adapte*, et depuis 1953 la FAO collaborc 6troitement avec le Gouvernement de Tlnde sur ce projet. Cinq types de bateaux ont deja etc dessines. Actuellement on cffectue des experiences avec le qua trie me type, qui a &e construit d'apres I'expeiicnce acquise avec les versions pr&6dentes. Ce projet, en plus de son cdte* technique, a cgalement un aspect important au point de vue economique et social. La somme des donnfes acquises pendant les recherches pourrait e"tre profitable aux pccheurs d'autres parties du monde qui doivent affronter des conditions similaires.
CONSTRUCCION DE EMBARCACIONES ESPECIALES PARA LA COSTA DE LA INDIA BATIDA FOR LAS OLAS
La India, con una costa de 2.900 millas (4.650 km.) casi toda batida por las olas, tiene muy pocos abrigos pant la infinidad de embarcacioncs de pesca que operan desde numerosas aldeas desperdigadas por todo el literal. Estas cmbarcaciones, casi todas catamaranes y canoas de troncos ahuecados, tienen limitadisimo radio de acci6n y capacidad de pesca y no se prestan para la mecanizaci6n. La enorme communidad de Pescadores necesita una cmbarcaci6n adecuada para atravesar las rompicntes y subiria a la playa, que les proporctone las ventajas de la mecanizaci6n, les ayude a perfeccionar las actividades pesqueras y a incrementar las capturas, mejorando ast su propio bienestar
Desde hace aftos se busca una embarcacidn adecuada para subiria a la playa y desde 1953 la FAO colabora con el Gobierno de en cste proyccto. Desde ese ano se han proyectado cinco tipos, En la actualidad se hacen expertmentos con el cuarto tipo, construido de acuerdo con la experiencia adquirida con los tipos anteriores. Ademas de su aspecto tecnico, este proyecto presenta importantcs facetas economteas y sociales. Los datos recogidos y la experiencia adquirida durante las tnvestigaciones pueden ser de la mayor utilidad para comunidades de otras partes del mundo donde se encuentran condiciones analogas.
la India
y prosperidad.
INDIA
While
has a coastline of about 2,900 miles (4,650 km.) which is, to a large extent, open and surf-beaten. Fig. 631 shows the main areas under consideration.
it is
60,000 indigenous craft in these four States are regularly used from the beaches by about 200,000
fishermen.
Some
generally recognized that fishing activities will ultimately be concentrated in sheltered places and harbours, the widespread fishing communities on the
beaches must as an intermediate step be provided with efficient mechanized boat until such sheltered places are readily available. This has long been recognized and provision has been made in the development programmes of the maritime states, as well as the Central Government, to support such efforts.
The bulk of these craft are catamarans, with dugout and simple Wih-up boats of distinct local characteristics completing the number. Fig. 633 and 634 show fishermen at work with their catamarans on the
canoes
beach.
an
Catamarans and dugout canoes are difficult to mechanThey are of small capacity and radius of action, especially the dugouts, and even if an engine could be installed it would not result in a substantial increase of
ize.
rsssi
BOAT TYPES
number of days for which a wave height of to ! ft. (0 to 0.30 m.) prevailed were grouped together for each post and expressed as a percentage of the whole five-year period, Wave heights of 1 to 2*5 ft. (0.30 to 0.76 m.). 2.5 to 4 ft. (0.76 to 1 .22 m.), 4 to 5.75 ft. (1 .22 to 1 .75 m.),
5.75 to 7.25 ft. (1.75 to 2.18 m.) and 7.25 to 9 ft. (2.18 to 2.74 m.) were similarly grouped. These wave height ranges are shown on the graph as blocks from left to right. Observation indicates that waves up to 2.5 ft.
(0.76 m.)
would not
result in breakers
too severe to be
regularly negotiated
1 and 2, summed wave heights of
specially designed boat. Blocks up, give the percentage of days on which to 2.5 ft. (0 to 0.76 m.) prevail in fig. 632,
by a
Table 145 gives similar percentage figures for wave heights up to 4 ft (1.22 m.). Along the west coast, up to Bombay, sea conditions are relatively calm; only during the monsoon months are wave heights over 2.5 ft. (0.76 m.) registered. The Saurashtra coast (Porbandar) has somewhat rougher
Along the east coast, wave heights, and thus become generally worse going north, and are very unfavourable along the Andhra coast. The Orissa coast is even more surf-beaten than Andhra, although the data available shows diminishing wave heights. Wave periods were generally between 7 and 10 sec.
conditions.
surf,
Fig.
631.
The open and surfbeaten coastline of India (hatched}
the craft's earning power. The sewn boats and the majority of the planked boats are likewise not suitable for mechanization, with the exception of the vallams in
South Madras
State.
is to develop a small, open or half-decked, mechanized boat for regular beach fishing, capable of operating through moderate surf. This paper
Hence the imperative need
endeavours to relate
1959.
this
development up to March,
SURF CONDITIONS
Wave
It is
height and period
almost impossible to measure the height of breakers but by estimating the height of deep-water waves before they break, a sufficiently accurate estimate can be record of mean maximum wave heights has made. been kept in India and its results are presented graphicP. K. ally in fig. 632* the data being contributed by Kutkarni, Chief Research Officer, Central Water and Power Research Station, Poona, Bombay State. The Meteorological Observatory has set up 24 observation pott*, 13 on the west and 11 on the east coast, recording twice daily deep-water wave heights, periods, directions and wind speeds. Hie graph gives the results for the first five-year period of observation in 12 localities. The
in surf,
Mr
Hg. 632. Mean maximum wt* heights 1950-55 along the coast of India. Histogram blocks (from left to right)
a -/
(2) / (3)
2~4
-7{ /f
ft.
Percentage figures indicate sum of Mocks I attd 2. Locations withcitt higher waves hevefiF*w blocks
ft.
1596]
SHORT INSTANCE
Type* of wave
Patrick aftd Wicgd types of breakers:
(
~ BOATS
main
FOR SURF COASTS
I9SS) distinguish between three
(a) Spilling: In general associated with steep deep-
water waves on flat beaches (ratio wave height to wave length, hw /x, between 0.06 and 0.03).
(b) Plunging:
h w />. ratios of 0.03 to 0.009 beaches, but mainly steeper ones.
on
all
(c)
Surging: waves with h w /> ratio below 0.009 on steep beaches.
h w /> ratio and the beach slope, and the currents winds, presence of an offshore bar will also influence the breaker characteristics.
In addition to the
Fig. 634.
Indian catamaran
When waves run from deep into shallow water, their period will generally not change, while their length and speed decrease and the height increases. A trochoidal wave would break on the beach when the wave face slope becomes 90 (Patrick, 1955; Kent, 1958). This usually occurs at a depth of water between 1 and 1.5 times the height of the wave. On moderately steep beaches waves tend to break farther out at low tide and near the shore line at high tide. The presence of a bar would be indicated by one line of breakers at high tide, but several diminishing lines at low tide. Waves usually approach the shore at an angle. They will also break at an angle on the beach, and a current is set up parallel to the beach. This longshore current is a very treacherous phenomenon when landing a boat
Waves of an hw/>> ratio around 0.03 tend to flatten the beaches and produce an offshore bar. Flatter waves (h w /> less than 0.02) tend to steepen the beach face a little and deposit sand; bars tend to disappear and a distinct step is formed in the beach face. For a given deep-water wave steepness, the breaker height will increase with a bigger bar and with its distance from the beach face. Bars also tend to increase in height with decreasing beach steepness. Personal observation, and a scrutiny of the scanty material available, indicate that surf in India consists mainly of plunging breakers, sometimes with a tendency
to
spill.
through
surf,
and
is
largely responsible for the tendency
to broach.
Many
factors tend to influence the shape of a beach,
1950, when employed its first naval architect, there has been a constant search for a suitable type of boat which could be used under surf conditions
Since
DEVELOPMENT FIRST PHASE FAO
and thus the kind of breakers that will be encountered, such as the geomorphology of the land and the local
hydrography, the type of beach material, the quantity of material and the interaction between waves and beach
(Patrick, 1955).
The
last is
of particular interest
in this
such as those in India. In 1952 FAO made a thorough survey of beach fishing boats used in Europe (Zimmer, 1955). At the same time, enquiries were made about similar boats used in North America. Later visits and enquiries were made in Australia, California, Hawaii,
connection.
Japan and West Africa. Similarly, military landing craft were studied, especially in the U.S.A. On the whole, existing motorized beach boats are large
<
and expensive
Efforts to
interest
at first cost, especially the military ones. freelance naval architects brought
about a number of ideas, but no concrete designs, which could be considered ready to be introduced. It therefore became necessary to develop a new design.
Prototype, 1954
first prototype was built in Madras in 1954 to the design of Mr. P, B. Ziener, then FAO Naval Architect in India. Fig. 635 gi\*es an idea of this boat, which measured
The
20
ft.
(6.09 m.) overall, 5

ft.
1
and 2
in. (0.63
ft. 9 in. (1.75 m.) max. beam, m.) depth. The boat was equipped
with a water-cooled engine, and difficulties wefc experienced with sand getting into the cooling system. White the boat was successful in negotiating moderate surf, she was found to be a bit heavy for beach handling, in spite of the fact that she was of Ught construction, Apparently
Fif,633. Iwtomfahermtn at work with their catamarans
the intention
was to
lift
and carry
the boat.
[587]
FISHING BOATS OF 'TUB WORLD:
BOAT TYPES
Fig. 635.
The first prototypes, swfboats, 18ft. (5.49 m.) and 20 ft. (6.10 m.), designed by Mr, P. B.
Ziew
Prototype, 1955
but lighter prototype was designed, essentially of the same shape as shown in fig. 635, but only 1 8 ft. 3 in. (S.56 m.) overall length, 5 ft. 5 in. (1.65 m.) beam and 2 ft. (0.61 m.) depth. Altogether five boats were built,
A second
two by State
Fisheries
first
Departments and three by FAO.

h.p. air-
In late 1955, the
boat, equipped with a 3
cookd
moderate surf, and the danger of the boat being pushed back by the breaking
Fishing trials showed that a 3 in. (5.56 m.) boat was not an attractive economical proposition to the fishermen, as it could not take sufficient gear on board for a profitable catch.
1
diesel engine, was tried. only just sufficient for very
The 3J
h.p.
proved to be
FAO's Master Fishermen, gave a of demonstrations. The fishermen, however, would not use the boats from the beach, but preferred to operate them from a sheltered cove. One reason might have been that the fishermen were not sufficiently acquainted with the technique of taking a mechanized boat through surf and were afraid to lose the boat and their catches. Further trials were then discontinued, mainly due to lack of funds and personnel.
Illugason, one of the
series
wave was apparent.

8
ft.
CONCLUSIONS FROM FIRST EXPERIMENTS

Sea and
surf.
Fig. 632,
supplemented by table 145,

their resulting
indicates that
mean maximum waves, and

to 2.5
ft.
were held early in 1956 with all three FAO boats, mainly to compare engines of different power, stern gear, and to simplify beach handling. Even if the type was too small for commercial fishing, it was felt that the tests should be made as a kind of model test to gain experience for a larger type. The engine tests
Extensive
trials
breakers, of
up
(0.76 m.) height
must be
safely
TAM*
Wave luiiMi
145
indicated that 6 h.p. was adequate for going out through moderate surf; it also became clear that bigger boats could be handled on the beach, provided suitable gear was available. During the trials it became obvious that the boats 'were of too light construction and would have
to 4 ft (0 to 1.22 m.) fro PcrcMrtage of five years
to be considerably reinforced. They also showed a marked tendency to be rough and wet at sea due to the flat bottom, which had been devised to prevent capsizing in a breaker, taken at an angle. Tests with a deep keel indicated that there was no such danger.
After tbe trials, local fishermen were encouraged to use the boats from the open beach ear Madras. Gudjon
158S]
SHORT DISTANCE
at
BOATS FOR S0RP COASTS

resources and did not always require the receiving country to match the expenses from their own funds. There were no immediate responses, but in the meantime the author,
negotiated by the boat. Setting the standard higher, Le. 4 ft. 0.2 m.) ** required by Andhra and Orissa, would unnecessarily penalize a design for the remaining areas
with regard to required strength of construction and safety. It was suggested that Andhra and Orissa should be treated separately, and a special boat developed for
these States.
who at that time worked at FAO headquarters, was given

the task of developing a new design, in this work he received valuable assistance, especially from H* L naval architect in Turkey* Chapelle, who worked as
FAO
Beaches. Most beaches considered for mechanized boats are only moderately steep and will not prove too difficult for beaching. Narrow, flat beaches, with a marked step near the water, will be the most difficult.
careful
Prototype, 1957
BB-57
study of simple, effective beaching gear is, however, required for all beaches. The majority of beaches consist of fine sand, forming a soft surface. This will have to be remembered when deciding the bottom shape of the boat, and when
designing beaching gear.
The outcome was a preliminary design of a boat 24 ft. (7.31 m.) long, 6 ft. 4} in. (1.94 m.) wide and 2 ft. 7 in. (0.79 m.) deep. She was to be equipped with a IS h.p.
at 1,500 r.p.m. direct-drive air-cooled diesel engine, installed off-centre, giving her sufficient reserve power
requires
boat that has to be handled in breakers Operation, its centre of gravity as far aft as possible. The
forebody should have maximum reserve buoyancy. To minimize broaching risks, the boat must have the best possible directional stability. Sensitive steering is of the utmost importance. Draught must be as small as possible to keep the boat afloat near shore. Clean waterflow is essential to make the most of the small propeller that can be fitted in a shallow draught boat. The propeller has to be well protected as frequent grounding will occur; this necessitates a strong stern construction. Due to severe slamming when going out and touching the bar and shore when landing, the forebody must also be
extremely strong. Air-cooled engines are preferable as the boat will frequently operate in very silted waters, and the engine has to be kept running on the beach before taking off. Closed circuit fresh-water cooling systems could also be adopted, but they mean added cost and possibilities of failure.
Handling. The weight of the boat must be restricted to The engine must allow handling by manpower only. maximum weight of the have a low weight/h.p. ratio. complete boat of 2 ton was considered suitable.
when going out and even allowing the use of a small The drawings were sent for comments to a trawl. number of FAO field workers and to naval architects in many countries. As a result of the comments received, a new design was prepared in May 1957, called BB-57. The main dimensions and scantlings were: The length to remain at 24 ft. (7.31 m.), with 6 ft. 10} in. (2.09 m.) beam and 2 ft. 10 in. (0.86 m.) depth. The same
engine as before.
The backbone to be made up of a IJxS in. (38 x 203 mm.) hog keel, keel plank of } x3 in. (19x76 mm.) and a shoe of 1 x 3 in. (25 x 76 mm.). The hog continuous fore and aft, the keel plank stopped short about 2 ft. (0.61 m.) aft of midships, where the heavy 3 in. (76 mm.) centre skeg begins. This skeg to be tongue-and-groove joined to a 3 in. (76 mm.) stern post just forward of the transom. The transom to be conventionally built up over a transom frame and joined to the hog with a heavy transom knee. A single piece 3 in. (76 mm.) stem, joined to the hog by a long knee, to complete the backbone assembly.
Planking to be in clinker (lapstrake) fashion, using of | in. (16 mm.) thickness per side. Frames to be steam bent, IJx J in. (38 x 13 mm.), spaced 5 in.
11 planks
Economics. Low initial cost is essential, should the boat be made available to the majority of the coastal fishermen. This means a careful study of all possible methods of mass production, including such modern
techniques as fibre glass moulding.
to its greater initial cost compared with existing boat will have to carry a larger quantity of the craft, fishing gear to bring home a larger catch. The boat
mm.) centre to centre. 1} in. (38 mm,) floors set on every third frame (each frame under engine), reaching up to the bilge stringer and covered by a half frame from stringer to stringer.
(127
Due
should not be too small, because a bigger boat provided there is sufficient depth of water.
is
safer
DEVELOPMENT SECOND PHASE

experiments were followed closely by FAO's headquarters, which also endeavoured to interest some of the bilateral technical assistance organizations to take up the task. These bodies had much greater financial
Longitudinal strength members to include 1x3 in. (25x76 mm.) gunwale, 1 x3 in. (25x76 mm.) covering board, $x2 in. (19x51 mm.) rubbing strake, |x3 in. (19x76 mm.) short stringer carrying the outside grab rail, } x 4 in. (19 x 101 mm.) bilge stringer and very long, 2} in. (63 mm.) engine bearers. Transverse stiffening to be added by a 2 in, (51 mm.) thwart forward! forming a base for the gurdy, thwarts aft for the helmsman and 1^x3 in. (38x76 nun.) beams at either end of the engine well cambered foredeck of J in. (6 mm,) marine box. plywood with an oversize, raked splash board to provide
The
first
protection against spilling waves.
An air-cooled diesel engine of 15 to 18 kp. was proposed on the port side with shaft parallel to the centre line, and the propeller on the tide of the skeg, thus
[589]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORL0:

protected by the skeg. There were two main reasons for this unconventional engine disposition; rigid centre line installation, with shaft tube through the skeg, is expensive and would be subject to severe shocks when the skeg hits the bottom.
BOAT TYPES
when
long pintles and allow it to lift without coming adrift grab rait to be fitted about hitting the bottom, IS in. (380 mm.) below the sheerlinc, running from
station
2 to
8.
These shocks would create misalignment and might

resuh in damage to the crankshaft bearings and the propeller shaft. The shaft was now only to be supported by a single strut bracket with rubber bearing at the propeller end, being ted through the hull planking in a copper tube with flexible stuffing box. The shaft bracket was to be fastened to the hull side and not to the skeg
succeeded in inter* the design was ready, esting the I ndo- Norwegian Fisheries Project (INP). to build one boat in Norway, for subsequent testing at their
project area in India,
When
FAO
and another was ordered by FAO and built at Sekondi, Ghana, West Africa. Fig. 639 shows one of the boats on the beach.
West African tests Tests were run at Sekondi, Ghana, in January-February,
Fig. 636.
The fourth surfboat prototype
BB-58
With this arrangement it was possible to use a larger diameter screw well tucked away under the stern of the boat. Earlier trials with the 18 ft. (5.48 m.) boats indicated the desirability of having the propeller as far forward as possible, to prevent it from loosing its grip when the stern came out of the water further advantage was considered to be that a solid skeg could be built without aperture and consequent weakening at its lower edge. The probable unbalanced steering was foreseen, but it was left to see what could be done about it* The engine was, however, placed so that the turning moment of the propeller would neutralize the
1958. It was immediately found that the steering arrangement was unsatisfactory, and the rudder was moved to port and hung directly in the propeller wash. Steering then became easier, although it was stiH an effort to turn the boat in a tight circle to port. Very good speeds were recorded, 8 knots at 1 ,400 r.p.m. and about 12 h.p. and 8.1 knots at 1,700 r.p.m. and about 17 h.p. A marked tendency to squat was noticed under speed and the stern wave was great. It was obvious that
be
IS to 18 h.p. was too much and that 10 to 12 h.p. sufficient for normal sailing.
would
turning
moment of the off-centre
thrust to
some
extent.
Hie air cooling of the engine would require a complex

system of ducts built into the removable engine cover. The eagine box was to be spray tight to protect the engine when crossing the turf* Both gear and throttle controls would be in the helmsman's cockpit. A simple hand Wge pump, arranged on the forward engine bulkhead to discharge directly overboard. The rudder was designed in the centre-line on the rtern post, to hang on
The boat's behaviour in breakers was studied by running her through the breakers in deep water at the harbour entrance. She behaved very well there ; no tendency to broach was found and her directional stability was exceptional. She proved to be very dry slamming across the waves, due to her very sharp forebody and the extreme flare of the topside*.
Few beaching trials were made on hard* flat beach, with shallow water extending far out. To move the boat up the beach without great difficulty 16 men wee iwded,
I590J
SHORT DISTANCE
while 10 strong
BOATS FOR SURF COASTS
men were
required to haul her with rope
and tackle. The same number could easily handle her on slide ways and turntable. But all these tests were made with an empty boat; with fishing gear and catch it would have been more difficult.
Landings were made in moderate surf In the hands of an experienced helmsman the boat came in and out
.
easily,
safely
and it was evident that much higher breakers could be negotiated. The builders reported successful
trials in
surf crossings in much higher seas during subsequent the summer of 1958. The following changes to the design were found desirable: The freeboard midship to be 3 in. (76 mm.) higher to
prevent following waves from spilling in. Drain plugs in each compartment to facilitate draining the boat on the beach.
Fig. 638.
The
FAO surfboat
BB-S7
One
additional
hand pump and
engine-driven bilge crossing the surf.
pump
if possible an to speed bailing after
22
the
ft.
FAO
(6.70 m.) INP boat showed similar deficiencies as 18 and 20 ft. (5.48 and 6.10 m.) boats of earlier
cockpit and main cockpit. This should be done by lowering the side deck on the off-engine side.
A passageway between aft
years.
and she showed
were made with BB-57 Again, the need for higher freeboard midships and the necessity of providing side keels for easy beach handling was felt. The side keels should run from about station 3 to 7 approxiSeveral landings
and
take-offs
definite possibilities.
mately 18 in. (457 mm.) out from the centre-line and should be at least 3 in. (76 mm.) deep and 2 J in. (64 mm.) thick at the base. These keels, apart from helping to keep the boat upright on the beach, would also further protect
the propeller.
into the propeller race
Fig,
The rudder was moved from the centre line of the boat and was equipped with a balance
637.
FAQ
designed surfboat prototype BB-57 built
with
Norwegian funds for work at the Indo-Norwegion Fisheries Project
Complete watertightness of the compartments was not to be of top importance, provided sufficient pumping capacity could be built in.
felt
which was being about one-fifth of the rudder area. This made the steering completely satisfactory; as a matter of fact, the turning circle proved to be the same both starboard and port, which is rarely the case with centre-line
installations.
Totkorin
Quiloo
tests
tests
symposium "The Boat and the Beach", was held
in
corin,
March 1958 at the INP camp in Quilon, Kerala, to discuss general beach boat problems, to compare boats of various designs and to reach conclusions on how to
The practical part, trials of the was hampered by the absence of moderate surf, and only general observations could be made. Various design aspects were discussed, and the FAO team explained the features of its off-centre engine
improve these boats.
boats,
installation,
Beaching trials were held in June, 1958, south of Tutiunder the guidance of INP's beach landing The boat was at that time tackling surf specialist.
conditions nearly approaching those normally encountered. Her behaviour left no doubt that she was
while
the
INP
experts
expected
better
from a centre-line installation. The outcome was that INP and FAO should co-operate and that both systems should be tried, preferably in the same type of
results
boat.
Three boats were used for practical work during the symposium, a 22 ft. (6,70 m,) INP built boat with canoe stem, a 25 ft (7.62 m.) INP boat and the FAO designed BB-57, 34 ft. <731 m.) long. BB-57 proved to be superior in all respects, the 25 It (7.62 m.) INP boat being much heavier and too cumbersome on the beach, white the
Fig. 639,
The
FAO surfboat **>57
00

capable of coping with much worse conditions in ex* pcrieaced hands. Fig. 637, 638 and 640 give an idea of the ease with which the boat was driven through the breakers. Maximum breaker height during these trials was estimated at about 4 ft. (1.22 m.). As many local fishermen
easy.
BOAT TYPES EXPERIENCES FROM THE

2
BB-57
TESTS
Reaching the shore Fig. 641 attempts to give a schematical idea of how to. and how not to, bring a mechanized boat through the
breakers
right
was quite became once more obvious, however, that she could not be managed manually by only ten men. The response of the local fishermen to the boat was very positive and enthusiastic.
assisted in beaching the boat, the handling
It
when
reaching the sea shore. Arrows to the
Nagapatteui
tests
The boat was operated at Nagapatinam for a few weeks on fishing trips. Although the locality is not conspicuous for its surf, it was important to have experienced fishermen use the boat for some time and comment on her suitability for fishing operations. The fishermen complained mainly of the low freeboard midships and the lively motion in heavy seas. The latter will probably be difficult to remedy without sacrificing the good surfriding characteristics of the boat. Some criticism was
heard about the engine, which the fishermen found to be very complicated and requiring detailed maintenance. The exhaust, taken straight over the side from each of the opposed cylinders, was a source of trouble, as water entered the silencers and even the cylinders. Beach fishing trials were also to be made at Madras and the boat was moored outside the harbour in shallow water, together with six other fishing boats. A very short, powerful storm ripped her off her moorings early in October and she was thrown on to the boulders outside the harbour breakwater, becoming a total loss. Examination of the wreckage did not indicate that constructional weaknesses played any part in the loss. Three heavily built 25 ft. (7.62 m.) fishing boats were also lost under
similar circumstances.
of the boat outline roughly the direction of the boat's motion in each phase. Correct beaching procedure through plunging breakers is considered to be as follow s While nearing the beach or inlet, the helmsman will carefully observe the local wave pattern and count the number of small waves and the following single or multiple big wave. He will then try to locate the breaking point of the inrolling waves, a task that can be very difficult from a small boat with practically no height of observation. Approaching this point at low speed, the boat should be kept just off the breaking point until the last big wave of the pattern runs in. As soon as this wave has passed the centre of gravity of the boat, i.e. when the forebody starts to lift, full speed ahead will bring the boat riding in behind the wave like a surf board. Any tendency to overshoot the wave can easily be controlled by the throttle. During the riding in, the helmsman must be very careful to counteract any broaching tendency of the boat in the longshore current. This is not easy, as the boat will make very little speed through the water, with consequent loss of manoeuvr:
ability.
The wrong way of beaching is shown in the right half of fig. 641. It is seen that a boat with its centre of gravity forward of the breaking point of the wave will tip head over, with the breaker very likely swamping her and
broaching in the longshore current following. Beaching a catamaran in surf may be equally, if not more, difficult as the raft has no means of correcting its position relative to the breaking point of the wave. Thus overturning of catamarans occurs quite frequently on the East Coast.
The impact on the boulders must

all
have been tremendous, as

pieces.
boats were shattered to
Fig. 640.
Tke
FAO surfboat BB-57
1592]
SHORT DISTANCE
CO

CO
CO
of boot tkghNy behind
avc crfrt at breaking point
CG
of boat
forward of wovo crii
Ooot rtfi
in
on wovt
Surfboard
'
Boot
it
overrun ey
brtokmg wovt
Moy
get
twompcd
or brooch
CORRECT
WRONG -DANGEROUS
Schematic idea of (he right ami the wrong way of handling a mechanized boat through the breakers
The sequence of taking

there
is sufficient
off
is
shown
in
fig.
642.
If
deep water between the shore face and the breaker line for the boat to pick up speed, this operation is not very difficult. There is a critical point again, however, when the boat crosses the second inrunning wave. It must be well over the crest before this wave
starts to break, otherwise the released
the next wave before it breaks. This wave period of 7 to 10 sec.
is
not easy with a
energy will tend
to
push the boat back and under, swamping it. This is indicated in broken lines in phases III and IV. Crossing the second wave will always be followed by severe slamming of the boat, indicating the need for very strong
forcbody construction. With breakers almost on the shore
line,
and a
fairly
steep beach, for example,
somewhat
difficult.
The
at high tide, launching is boat will have to be steadied
against the onrush of the breakers, grounded to a standstill, with engine running and gear in the ahead position.
the boat
Immediately after the biggest wave in the pattern breaks, must be pushed clear and pick up speed to clear
no great difficulties when the boat te hauled by winches or a tractor, beaching is an irksome business when the boat has to be handled by manpower alone. This is the present position in India, and it is doubtful whether even a successful mechanized boat will bring many mechanical beaching aids into use. The power to drag a boat up the beach depends primarily on the weight of the boat, but to no small extent also on the composition of the beach and the shape of the boat in contact with it. Flat bottom boats proved to be undesirable as a combination of sharp forebody and flat bottom produces a marked plough effect and the boat tends to dig deeply into the sand. Table 146 gives the results of measurements taken with a spring balance hooked into the towing line while different boats were
Difficukks While there are
TABLE 146
Beach-resistance of beach boats
BOAT
Type
PULL
LOA
//. (m.)
.
Weight
(ton)
1.2
On sleepers
Ib. (kg.)
On
rollers
On samf
1422 to 1,764
(600 to 00)
1,874 to 1,9*4 (850 to 900)
Ib. (kg,)
1NP
22
(6.70)
772 to 1,587 (350 to 720) 772 to 1,146

(350 to 550)
441 to 551 (200 to 250)
FAO
INP
BB-57
24
(7.32)
1.5
25
(7.62)
2.1
(650 to
1,433 to 2,204 1 ,000)
1,102 to 1,543 (500 to 700)
2,304
(1,000)
[593]
BOAT TYMBS
Flf.642. Taking offfrom th* beach
towed up the beach by a
tractor at Quilon. It illustrates the effect of simple beaching aids in minimizing the necessary putt. Speed of advance was 1 to 1 i ft/sec. (0.30 to 0.46 m./ run on planks or beams as otherwise sec.). Rotters had to
they dug into the sand. The results were obtained on moderately soft sand. The earlier observations in West Africa gave the impression that much less pull was needed, but the beach was very hard. The figures in table 146 substantiated by earlier experience in West Africa, would indicate that the boat should not weigh more than 2 ton when being
with this system is exceedingly easy. The use of ladderlike roller conveyers will also have to be tried. In many localities the boats could be anchored in deep water during part of the year when there is little or no surf; or existing river inlets with a surf bar offshore should be used, reducing the need for beaching whenever
possible.
PROTOTYPE,
and the
1958
BB-58
As a result of the symposium, "The Boat and the Beach",

trials described above, certain improvements were suggested. It was decided that the boat should have more beam, and more freeboard midships and aft. As
1
handM
by men without any mechanical assistance; if it does, rollers would be necessary. The maximum effort is required as soon as the forefoot of the boat touches the beach. She must thai be manually moved as fast as
poseible up the beach so as to bring her out of reach of any following breakers. The development of suitable beaching gear must be given priority and keep in step with the development of
5 h.p.
was considered too much power for
sailing,
and
trawling not being likely, it was decided to install only 10 to 12 h.p. in future boats. Furthermore, the fairly
marked deadrise in the boat's bottom did indicate that side keels would be a great advantage for beaching. At the same time, it was felt that such keels might help somewhat to dampen the lively motions of the boat in a
seaway.
the boat It is reasonable to believe that a mass production model of the selected boat will be considerably lighter than the present, conventionally built proto-
Then, simpte wooden rollers, rolling on planks or beams, together with a heavy rope and tackle fixed to a pahntree or anchored a good way up the beach, should be jMjhpqp^ beaching aids for a pug of 8 to 10 men. Another iyrtem, as tried in West Africa, would be to have two slide ways, each about 12 ft (3.66 m) long, one with a pivot brie in the centre, as weB as a simple
types.
tunttabfe.
first slide
Withthksystemthcboatiflhauledupcmthc
ii
way, the second one, with the turntable under, jdaced in front and the boat hauled. Turning the boat
were prepared with these improvements in 636 shows BB-58, One boat has been built to this design in Madras, but no trials have as yet been made. It is of carvel construction, as no carpenters experienced in clinker building were available in Madras, and it win be interesting to see if this will be strong enough for surf work. A second BB-58 is at present being built in the INP's yard at Quilon and should be commissioned early in April, 1959. Both boats will be equipped with 10 tup, air-cooled diesel engines, the Madras one with reduction fear and 16 in. (406 mm*) propeller, the INP one with directive and 13 in.
lines
New
mind, and
fig.
C594J
SHORT DISTANCE
Indie
It i*

be possible to move easfly from midships to the aft cockpit Onesuch boat will be built in 195totheoler of the Indian Ministry of Food and Agriculture, and INPr and the Madras Government have tentatively decided to build one more boat. The INP boat wffl be built of marine plywood without plastic bonding, and it is-
(330mm.) *crcw. In addition, INP will test the FAO owned BB-S7, built in Ghan*, which has been sent to
hoped that the Madras built BB-58 can be
sent to
Quilon for trials, thus there will be three boats available for comprehensive testing. The main object of these trials will be to find any possible structural weakness in the design, and the boats will be driven as hard as
possible.
The
tests
wiH also show whether the shape can
be improved*
Mbtttetfi At the suggestion of the Central Water and Power Research Station, Poona, it was decided early in 1958 to try to simulate surf conditions in a wave channel and test various designs there. The task proved to be very difficult, and to date there are no conclusive results
available.
The tests are run in a long, narrow channel, all waves approach the beaches at 90, thus not creating any long* shore current. The models are self-propelled, speed and rudder being controlled by overhead cable. It seems that
the main difficulty is to simulate "real" operating conditions. Due to the model scale, manoeuvring has to be done very fast and is exceedingly difficult, the helmsman's touch on the tiller is simply missing.
Fig. 644.
Arrangement of BB-59
FUTURE WORK MASS PRODUCTION OF
BB-59
On the bases of the BB-57 and BB-58 designs, a new design has recently been made for plywood construction, and a hard chine hull. Fig. 643 gives the lines of BB-S9, while fig. 644 gives an idea of its layout. The first boat
will
be
built
by bonding together with

in. (12.7
fibre glass re-
mm.) marine plywood panels. The boat will have longitudinal framing and watertight buoyancy compartments forward and aft. A
inforced plastic the }
planned to re-design the aft body, giving it a hollow keel permit the installation of a bigger propeller in the centre line. To protect the propeller, and still keep the shaft line shock free, it is proposed to use a propeller guard such as those on recent types of LCVP in the U.S. Navy (Moore, 1958). The Madras boat will be conventionally planked, and it is intended that she should have a centre-line installation, too, and the new propeller guard. The plywood boats will be considerably lighter than those built so far, and they should allow reasonable conclusions with regard to beaching gear to be drawn*
line to
Fit. 643. Lines
of the 24ft. beack boat BB-59buUt of plywood bonded with reinforced plastic
l#S]
FISHING BOATS &F THE WORLD:
BOAT TYPES
JJ-59
<wi
Me
teoeA a/ Pun\ Orissa
TABLE 147
Ml putfcttlaii
of the beach boat BB-59
LOA
T max.
Bmax.
.
.
.
.
Weight unloaded
Loading capacity
Engine
Propeller
m.) m.) in. (0.56 m.) Conventional construction: approx. 1.8 tons Plywood boat: approx. 1.3 tons Conventional construction: approx. 1.0 tons Plywood boat: approx. 1.5 tons 10 h.p. air-cooled diescl, direct-drive at approx, l,500r.p.m.
7
1
24
ft.
ft.
6i
in, (7 in. (2.3
J2
ft 10
13 in. (330jnm.)diam.
8,
9 and 10 be tried
in. (203,
228 and 254 mm.) pitch to
start of the third Indian Five Year Plan in should be possible to start mass production of a thoroughly tested, suitable type of boat. The first production models would only be given to trained fishermen, who in turn would have to train other men in their localities. During the first year about 100 boats may be made available. This fleet would no doubt furnish further specific ideas for improvements to be incorporated in the next production batches. The main difficulty of getting this ambitious programme through will perhaps not be the boats. The real hurdle is the financing and getting engines in large numbers. The latter will most likely only be possible if good air-cooled marine engines of suitable type can be
With the
it
1961,
Later in the year, probably during October, it is proposed to move the available BB-59's to Orissa for the North-East monsoon to make a series of tests.
Trials can only be run when surf conditions are right at the testing place. Any improvement or change as a result of trials means building a new boat. Normally
produced in India, as imports are severely restricted due to the difficult foreign exchange situation. Table 147 gives the principal dimensions as adopted for boats now being built.
[Editor's note: Extensive trials were made along the Indian coast up to 15 February 1960. The main conclusion was that the FAO designed boats have proved to be technically qualified to be operated from beaches
about one year lapses before changes can be tried* This will explain the dearth of reliable, exact data, and the belief that it will take at least another two years until a suitable, economical design can be finalized.
under certain limited conditions. Fig. 644A shows the BB-59 on the beach at Pun, Orissa].
COMMERCIAL OUTBOARD FISHING CRAFT

by
DAVID
The mass produced U.S. outboard motor accounts
in recent years.
D.
BEACH
'
for a very large portion of the internal combustion marine engines manufactured * These engines, primarily designed for pleasure boating, provide the power for many craft engaged in commercial f This paper is an attempt to indicate the nature of the craft which have evolved in the U.S.A. in recent years, mom i since the advent of the larger motors. The several types chosen as illustrations are discussed in some detail, with some attention given to the means of fitting the motors in the boats. Drawings of the several types are provided which, with the photographs, can be used for building duplicate craft and will stimulate thinking in other parts of the world on installing outboards in local types of fishing boats.
LES BATEAUX
DE PECHE INDUSTRIELLE A MOTEUR HORS-BORD
Les moteurs hors-bord fabriques en scric aux E.-U. representent une trcs grande partie de la puissance en c.v. des moteurs marins a combustion interne produits ces dernieres annexes. Ces moteurs, concus tout d'abord pour la navigation de plaisance, fournksent la puissance de propulsion de nombreux bateaux pratiquant la peche industricllc. La pr*sente communication essaie d'indiquer la nature des bateaux qui ont 6volu* aux E.-U. ces dernieres ann&s, plus particulierement depuis I'apparition des gros moteurs. L'auteur examine de facon assez detaillcc les divers types choisis comme illustrations, et porte son attention sur les moyens de fixation des moteurs sur les bateaux. Des dessins sont fournis pour les different* types; ils pourront etre utilises avec les photographies pour construire des bateaux semblables et, dans d'autres parties du monde, stimuleront Fidec d'instalter des moteurs hors-bord sur les types locaux de bateaux de peche.
EMBARCACIONES DE PESCA INDUSTRIAL CON MOTORES FUERA DE BORDA

Los motores fuera de borda fabricados en scric en los E.U.A. representan una gran parte de la potencia en c.v. de los motores marines de combustion interna producidos en los ultixnos aftos. Estos motores, proyectados principalmente para las embarcaciones de recreo, suministran la potencia de propulsidn de muchas embarcaciones dedicadas a la pesca industrial. En esta ponencia se trata de indicar la naturaleza de las embarcaciones que se han perfeccionado en los E.U.A. en afios recientes, y en especial, desde la aparicibn de los motores mayores. El autor examina con bastantes detalles los diversos tipos elegidos como ilustraciones, poniendo de relieve los medios de fijar los motores a las embarcaciones. Se facilitan pianos de los diversos modelos, que, juntamente con las fotograf fas, pueden emplearse para construir embarcaciones analogas y cstimular en otras partes del mundo la idea de instalar los motores fuera de borda en los tipos locales de embarcaciones de pesca.
,
board motors only superficially and in a way which suggested that the authors and discussers were not familiar with recent developments, inferring that the twostroke outboard remained unreliable. But the feats of performance and endurance by these motors have
proved
their reliability,
THE
papers and the discussions at the first World Fishing Boat Congress in 1953 mentioned out-
are shown, for example, in fig. 645 to 647. These craft, however, are representative of many of the outboardpowered boats which make a living for their operators,
especially in fishing for lobsters, shrimp and scallops which command such good prices that even small catches
are profitable.
which
is
further stressed by the
acceptance of them by fishermen. In general, the craft discussed have been tested in operation. The advent of the 25 h.p. outboard motor, with its separate fuel tank and a neutral and reverse gear, gave considerable impetus to the adaptation of the outboard to fishing boats, which has been particularly rapid since World War II. Hundreds of these craft have
Florida Mallet gillnet skiff small boat suitable for gillnetting in placid waters seems to be of first importance. Many areas in the worid abound in such waters where large catches may be made
close to the fisherman's base of operations. Such a craft is the Florida mullet skiff; fig. 648. These boats abound
been built and used, and the of models*
result is
an accepted
series
waterways in the southern states, from southern Georgia around the Florida peninsula into Texas. They are built with planking of sheet plywood,
in the inland
No great consideration is given to the adaptations of the standard transom pleasure craft for which the outboard motor was first developed. Such adapted craft
and, generally, they have an overall length of about 20 ft (6.1 nt) with beams at the transom approaching 7 ft. (2.13 m.). The depth is usually less than 2 ft (0.61 m.); because they operate in sheltered waters,
[597]

Some
BOAT TYPES
boats are built more heavily than that shown in 648 having f in. (19 mm.) tide planking on closer fig. and 1 in. 025.4 mm.) cro-planked bottom. frames spiced The dimensions do not vary appreciably, except for a somewhat increased beam aft. In normal operation, the one- or two-man crew sit forward and the boats run quite well both light and loaded. The sloped after end of the well does not seem to affect the performance and little water splashes into the boat. A transverse wedge is fitted across the inside of the well to suppress any splash in
waves.
Fig. 649 provides curves of the speed-load pushing capabilities of a wide range of standard motors. The bare weight of the boat is 660 Ib. (300 kg.). With a 10 h.p.
niotor,
ftiel
containers
and a two-man crew, the
dis-
Fig. 645.
The conventional application of an outboard motor to the transom of a small lobster pot tender is an example of a planing type working fishing craft. Where pots are set some distance from base, a larger craft must be used
placement exceeded 1,100 Ib. (500 kg.). At this displacement the speed was 10.3 knots, which decreased to about 4.9 knots, as more than 1,300 Ib. (590 kg.) of Corresponding fishing gear and catch were added.
performance curves are shown for the 18 h.p. and 35 h.p. motors, which indicate that these craft are not truly responsive to increased horsepower in the loaded
seaworthiness is not a prime requirement. The shallow gillncts are set and hauled over the stern, and so require substantial buoyancy and working room in the stern. The nets are often carried on a self-bailing tray, while the
normally carried in a built-in or loose box As a clear working space is required aft, the motor should be mounted elsewhere. The mounting well shown in the drawing allows the motor to be both
catch
is
athwartship.
steered
and pivoted.
of this type is the use of the standard large sheets of plywood, which is widely used in the U.S.A., for small boats of all types. The
A feature of the construction

is
bottom
20
ft.
(6.1 m.),
ft. (1
cut from the standard panel 6 ft. (1.83 m.) by while the two sides are cut from a single
.22 m.)
Fig. 647.
This twin mounting of large outboards is required to drag a pair of heavy scalhp dredges
by 20 ft. (6. 1 m.). The bottom longiand provide for nail fastenings to the bottom planking. The inner longitudinals are spaced so as to provide a landing for the sides of the motor well. When not in use, the motors are usually tilted up because they are not protected by marine paints and would foul if left in the water. The metallic additives in anti-fouling paint are not completely compatible with the aluminium die-castings from which the motors are made.
panel 4
tudinals are heavy
The power most popular with the fisherman along the west Florida coast is in the 12 to 20 h.p. range, going occasionally up to 25 h.p. The 18 h.p. motor permits speeds of 10.7 knots light and over 4.9 knots with half a ton of catch aboard. These performances, it should be pointed out, are not optimum, as they were run with standard propellers. As the speed decreases
condition.
due to increased load, the engine speed also decreases

because of the excess pitch of the standard propeller and the power falls off considerably. The fishermen are aware of this and equip their engines with lower pitch
propellers
to
attain
power development.
full engine revolutions and full This increases speed at least 10 to
15 per cent, over that shown in the curves. Some of these craft, photographed in Naples, Florida, U.S.A. are shown in fig. 650 to 654.
Flr*646. Theklghthruttof the larger outboard is needed to tow this small shrimp trawt
There are numerous deep-water rivers along the eastern seaboard of the U.S.A. which lead to the spawning waters of fish such as the shad. Examples are the
SHOUT DISTANCE
OUTBOARD FISHING CRAFT
v*
..,..*
*
///i
-f
i
///^-^t^
<W5. 20//. (d./ m.) F/or/</a mi///e/ ^///w/ skiff of usual design
Delaware, Hudson and Connecticut rivers. In these tidal placed on poles driven into the river bed, the nets being below the surface at high tide and often at the surface at low tide. type of craft something like the Florida mullet gillnet skiff has been evolved to tend these nets which are often set in waters where tidal flows approach 2.5 or 3.3 knots. When the nets were tended by rowed craft, using two pairs of oars, the normal mode of approach to the net
rivers, gillnets are
The novel feature of this craft motor mounting well of heavy gauge pipe. The motor is placed in the well and clamped on. The operator sits on the thwart forward of the motor, and operates the throttle and reverse gear
need to
is
tilt
the outboard.
the use of a cylindrical metallic
while facing aft so that he can best observe the net handlers. The construction details shown indicate bevelling of both planks at the lapstrake, a method not normally used. Only the top edge of the planks are
*
stern against the tide. The oarsmen would row to hold the boat itern against the net while one or two fishermen would had the net up and pick out the catch.
was
usually bevelled.
Oyster gftrrey
the fishermen would move
the craft along the length of thenet with the oarsmen keeping the boat in place. Hie boat shown in fig. 655 is of the lapstrake type,
built in the Highlands.
The
hull
form discussed by Chapclle (1955)
is
also used
for outboard craft.
These boats have a simple motor
well gbout 6 ft. (1*83 in.) from the stem, which is entirely suitable for operation in deep water where there is no
Chapclle provided the information for preparing the drawings in fig. 657, This craft, 27 ft. 9 in. (8.45 m.) in length, with a beam of 7 ft. 3 in, (2.21 m.) is a recent development in the oyster fisheries. Chapelte has written that he thinks the future of the
[599]
BOAT TYPES
Fig. 649.
Performance curves for 20
ft.
(6.1 m.) mullet gillnet
Chefneux
Fig. 651.
Mullet gillnet
skiffs are often fitted with for night fishing.
an
electric light
A fate
m^ g&mt s*&
ChtfaMix
is
a simple
craft,
&
often
Fig. 652.
boot of imw tub*

to
rt^r is often fitted around th* motor
ha*it*i*rh<dfaton
offish.
r*dce
the splash toto the boat.
SHORT DISTANCE
outboard in the commercial fisheries lies in the heavy duty motor, not made as yet in the U.S.A., and fitted to larger boats. He feels, with some measure of agreement by the author, that outboard powered fleets would be an economic operation if more motors than boats were available and maintenance was provided on a fleet basis. A feature of this craft is the use of twin skegs which
provide protection against grounding, and make it easy to beach and launch the boat. The motor is mounted on a heavy cross-framed bulkhead at Station 12, and projects through the bottom motor cut-out between the
skegs. The transom is cut out, as indicated on the body plan, to permit easy after flow of the wake and to permit the escape of exhaust fumes from the by-pass without
contaminating the air taken in by the carburettors. The garvey is popular along much of the New Jersey coast and in Chesapeake Bay. It is generally considered a craft for sheltered waters, but the substantial construction, together with large beam, could allow operations
in fairly
rough waters, as indicated
in their offshore use
Chofimix
Fig. 654.
Mullet
gillnet skiff from
Naples, Florida
New Jersey inlets. One of a substantial fleet in the Maryland oyster fisheries, with only one operating 25 h.p. motor is man as crew, is shown in fig. 658. generally used in a boat of this size and operators report speeds of 12.4 to 14 knots in light condition. The boat is not fitted with the remote controls such as are used in, for
through the
New England lobster boat The arrangement and fitting of the motor well is shown in fig. 659, and the craft under way is shown in fig. 660.
example, the
Salmon net
Perhaps the largest commercial use of outboard* for fishing is in the salmon fisheries in the Pacific Northeast and the State of Alaska. The craft shown in fig. 661 is rcjtfesctttative of the veiy heavily built type wfyfa fo widespread in the area. It has proved entirely satisfactory for the rough waters as far north as Cordova Bay on the Alaskan coast* The motor is fitted in a wefl aft, and the craft is operated from aft, but as notod on the plan \n^ in fig. 661, the motor may be kxmttd off tiie
Ft/. 653.
slightly dlfftrcnt
*
mil
20 ft.
far the outboard (6.01 m.) ****/
motor
in
[601]
W (*)
ivf
-'!
-r-V
*4"
r-4f
r--
rr1
~"
<
'
'
~1
i'
p.
655. 20ft. (6.1 m.)
^/
gillnet fishing
boat oj the lapstrake type
^ê^L
ABOVE: /^. 59* The motor to the stern efthto 26 ft. (7. 92m.) oysterman's croft if fitted in a mli which permits only tlithttHtinf. which satttfectory far deep waters over the oytter bed*
LEFT: Fig. 656, The thad fishermen in the Hudson river, opposite the upper end of Manhattan {gland, US.A. handling fUlnets. the mot*' is a JO h,p, model with reverse gear
[602]
~1
3*ii
"-L
r-9*
i-o-
Ffc. 657. 27.75 /r.
(.6
m.) Chapelle designed crabbing and oyster garvey
Fif. 656. 26ft. (7.92 m.)
Chesapeake Boy gamy
*W
[03]
BOAT TYPES
Fly. 660.
When light,
the Chesapeake
Bay gamy boat rides a bit down by the bow, when driven 123 knots.
at
a speed-length
ratio
of 3 t approximately
tfff/.
26//. (7.92 m.) salmon net tender
and utility boat
C604J
SHORT DISTANCE
662. The off-centre motor installation provides room at the transom for working the nets in this 26ft. (7.92 m.) Seattle-built boat
Fig.
ofa
25 ft. (7.62 m.) salmon skiff with bow well installation outboard motor, fitted with full width transom roller for net setting and hauling. This is a typical Cordova Bay (Alaska} salmon skiff
rig. 664.
h.p.
Fig.
similar to this Seattle-built 26 663. Nearly 500 boats very (7.92 m.) skiff" are engaged in the Alaska salmon fisheries
ft.
Fig. 66S.
25. S3 x 8.25 ft. (7.9 x 2.5 m.)
New England Muter boat
[60S]

-*
J
r*
BOAT TYPES
>
"
*r*-*U~
r.
666. 20 ft. (6.1 m.)
beach landing outboard salmon
troller
H. Stratford
Fit. 667.
Enpbyiw the wdwsal method of lauxchiw turf boots, the

trotter into the Pacific
*3mon dory is pushed from it*

RIGHT
on the Oregon
cooM.
through the iurf before drooping Fif.668. The sdmo* dory is the motor into place for salmon trolling. The outrigger* or* inboard while launching through the s*rf
ro^
[606]
SHORT DISTANCE
centre-line to the chine.
This installation provides a wide working area at the transom for the handling of nets. The area inside the boat is illustrated in fig. 662. The boat is shown in fig. 663. This type is also fitted for forward installation of the motor, in a well not unlike that used by the Florida mullet gillnet skiff. The forward installation is very well adapted to the stern handling of nets by one- or two-man crews. The fitting of transverse bulkheads varies with the operators, but generally follows the arrangement in fig. 664, which also shows a net roller fitted across the transom.
New
The
England lobster boat

lobster fisheries in the North-eastern U.S.A. extend
T.Neihoii
Fig. 670. Salmon trailers with commercial trolling fear: the stainless steel wires are led to the handgwdle drums over large sheaves. Four lines are trolled from most 20 ft. (6.1 m.) dories
over many hundreds of miles of coastal waters up to Canada, where the fisheries in the Maritime Provinces
craft
makes a
circle
own length. The lobsterman can

catch, rebait the pot
with a diameter about equal to its haul the pot, remove the
and throw it overboard in a very short time during which the craft does not lose its position. Of course, in heavily potted waters this is not possible, so the usual weather approach is made and easy handling by the remote throttles permits the rebatted pot
to be replaced almost exactly
where it was. These boats have very easy driving characteristics and the 25 to 35 h.p. motors normally used have proved to be
adequate.
Salmon
H. Stratford
Fig. 669.
is
trolling dories
the outer bars are passed, the outboard motor dropped into place and the 20 ft. (6.7 m.) dory can then troll in deep water for the large salmon
As soon as
are well developed.

(2.5
m.) craft
is
The 25 ft. 10 in. (7.9 m.) by 8 ft. 3 in. shown in fig. 665 is representative of the
seakindliin small,
In the Pacific Northeast, along the very stern Oregon coast, there has evolved a species of dory which is used through the surf, and is a small beach-landing outboard fishing craft. It is used for both sport fishing and commercial salmon trolling offshore in fairly heavy seas. typical boat is shown in fig. 666 to 671
type which
replacing the typical inboard lobster boat.
The New Englander demands a measure of ness and shelter that is not always possible
working
craft.
Also, the craft must be efficient
and
inexpensive,
is
and capable of one-man operation.
The craft has lines adapted to diagonal planking, and often so planked. The lines are characterized by a deep forefoot and as long and smooth a run as is possible.
This form provides a combination of characteristics which makes it ideal, with the outboard motor, for pot hauling. The lobsterman pilots his craft from the little shelter forward where he has excellent vision as he approaches the lobster pot buoy on his starboard side. As the pot comes alongside, he reduces the throttle, and makes a hard starboard turn as he picks up the buoy with his hook. White he hauls the pot over the block fitted to the davit aft of the shelter, the craft makes a tight circle to starboard, pivoting about the deep forefoot with the motor thrust as far over as possible. Such a
Fig.
coast
67J. The wider transom of the eastern dory is used on the west of the U.S.A. in some types. The wider transom with wider
bottom with
less rocker therein
permits higher speeds
[607]

These boats
are, for the
BOAT TYPES
most
part, constructed
from
ptywood Overwze 22 ft. (6.7 m.) panels arc used for rides, and standard 18 ft. (5.5 m,) by 4 ft. (14 *&) panels for the bottoms. Fir frame* are used, with double plywood gussrts at the chine joint of side and bottom frames, The craft are provided, as shown in
fir
Doâs
extreme rocker of the bottom, they tend to squat at speeds above 5.8 to 6.6 knots. In plywood or conventional dory planking, this is a type of small powered craft which might be used in many parts of the world.
the photographs, with fish wells that are frequently open to the sea to provide circulating water for the catch. The motor well as in flg. 666, is often only a bulkheaded opening in the bottom through which the small motor is dropped after the boat has been rowed through the surf. Some boats allow the motor to tilt, but these are rare as a long cut out in the bottom is not practicable in the dory ends. These dories, true douWe-cnders or with the wider
The fairly light construction might give some cause for concern, but where the shores shelve gradually and there is no pounding surf, such flat-bottomed craft give
admirable service.
Conclusion
variety of methods whereby outboards can be fitted to small fishing craft should serve to stimulate designers and builders to adopt outboards for other types of boats. It is regretted that so little specific performance data are
The
"tombstone" transom shown in fig. 671, are launched from trailers or rollers directly into the surf. They troll under power, at 2.5 to 4 knots with motors that seldom exceed 12 h.p. They row very easily but, because of the
seems to be general by the fishermen. While they are satisfied with the performance, they do not know exactly what it is, and show little interest in
included.
The reason
for this
satisfaction with the boats felt
finding out.
TRAP-NET BOATS AND HARPOON BOATS

by
VITO FODERA,
RAIMONDO SARA
and
ALBERTO CAMBIANO
The first part describes the boats used in Sicily for setting the tuna traps, operating them and recovering them after the fishing season. These boats are a compromise between sometimes opposite requirements, and their features are due to the need for muftipuftpoae craft The second part deals with swordfish-catching boats, a fishery that was practised in the Messina Strait and is now devek to the introduction of a motor boat. The boats used for locating and harpooning the fish, and the new type of motor boat are < This boat has made an increase of the campaign possible and has extended the fishery from the coasts to the high
i
DES BATEAUX DE PECHE SICILIENS SPECIALISES

La premiere partie de la communication d&rit les bateaux utilises en Sicile et servant a la construction des madragues, a la pdche madragues et & la recuperation du materiel a la fin de la saison de peche. Ces bateaux repr6sentent on compromis entre deux exigences parfois opposecs, et leurs caracteristiques sont en relation avec le besoin de bateaux a plusieurs usages. La seconde partie de la communication traite des bateaux utilises dans la peche de j'espadon, une ptehe qui ftait pratiques seulement dans le Detroit de Messine et qui est en voie de developpement en raison de 1 introduction d*un bateau a moteur, Les auteurs decrivent les bateaux utilised pour le reperage et le harponnage des poissons, ainsi que k nouveau type de bateau a moteur. Ce bateau a permis d'etendre la durec de la campagne et a transform^ une peche cotiere en ptehe hauturicre.
a vcc
les
EMBARCACIONES PESQUERAS ESPECIALIZADAS DE
SICILIA
La primera partc dc la ponencia describe las embarcacioncs empleadas en Sicilia para calar, cxplotar y levantar, despucs de la campafta de pesca, las almadrabas atuneras. Estas embarcaciones son un termino medio entre neoesidadesen ocasiones antagonicasy suscaracteristfcas se deben a que es imperative disponer de embarcaciones de usos multiple*. La segunda parte de la ponencia trata de las embarcaciones dedicadas a la captura del pez espada, que es una clase de pesca que ae practicaba en el estrecho de Mesina y que actualmente se propaga a otros lugares gracias a la introducci6n de la embarcacion con motor. Se dcscriben las embarcaciones empleadas para localizar y arponear el pez espada y el nuevo tipo de embarcacion con motor, el que ha permitido ampliar la campafta y propagar esta pssca desde la costa hacia alta mar.
Sicilian fisheries are
one of the most important
THE
in the Mediterranean. Fishing for tuna and swordfish is carried out by small vessels in coastal and
The fishing methods used are the trap net or "tonnara" for tuna, and the harpoon for swordfish. This paper describes these two methods and the vessels
offshore waters.
opposite requirements, they work efficiently and well. For the nine months of the year between seasons the boats are beached and kept under shelter. A tuna trap consists of a framework of ropes and moorings and nets. The frame is built by putting each piece into place separately. For this operation, generally
four of the small boats are needed, each carrying about 4 tons, and assisted by two other small boats not used for transport. To put the frame of the largest trap into place takes from four to five days. The number of
from which they are operated.
TUNA TRAP-NET BOATS
A very great
to set
number of fishermen and boats
are needed
trap, a highly complicated structure weighing several hundred tons. The season is about three months, of which half is spent in fishing, the rest in setting and removing the trap. Multi-purpose
and operate the tuna
boats varies sometimes, depending on time in hand and
on crews available. The body of the trap

where the
consists of a series of
chambers
boats are used to reduce either the total number of boats required for operating the trap, or the number of men. Two types: main boats in two sizes, large and medium, and small boats (these can generally be used interchangeably)
are designed so as to meet all essential requirements for the setting and removing of the trap, and for fishing. Although these boats are the result of a whole series of compromises and adaptations to different, and sometimes
and enclosed before passing into the death chamber (an independent part). The body is divided into two symmetrical parts which can each weigh up to about 30 tons for nets with the maximum depth of 200 ft. (60 m.). They are immersed in one single operation. The lead nets are divided into pieces of such length as the capacity of the boat permits and
fish are gathered
set separately.
As
the nets are
set,
they are ballasted with large stones.
[609]

148
BOAT TYPES
death chamber. To retrieve the ropes and moorings (which are sometimes sunk deep in mud) large boats are needed. Table 148 summarizes boat requirements
Boats
during the various operations.

Small
Operations
Large
Medium
Fishing boats
Fig. 672 shows the design of the small boats. The sail, mast and rudder are used only for movements outside the trap ; within it and during fishing, the craft is propelled by six oars. Fig. 672 (c) shows the side profile during
fishing.
The dimensions
are
shown
in table 149.
40 tons
all about 100 tons for the body and about for each mile (SO tons per km.) of the lead net. To transport these stones* at least two large boats are needed, one of which is later used to transport and put into place the death chamber, and to haul it out at the
weighing in
Two of the small boats which do not transport material

during fishing are also used for the night watch, and are provided with a deck aft up to the first bench. Another peculiarity of these boats is that the stern, shown in fig. 672 (c) (2), is not raked on account of a technical necessity connected with the laying of the mooring ropes. The small stern mast, shown in fig. 672
-end of the fishing season. together with its load.
It
must then be beached
During the fishing, one large boat lies at one of the aides of the square where the fish are caught. The netting of traps set in shallow water is short enough so
that
it
can be retrieved at the end of the fishing season,
using the same large boats. For fishing, it is necessary to have six small boats to attend to the openings and to keep watch; one large boat to raise the death chamber; one medium-sized boat to hold the other end of the
Fig. 673.
Large non-mechanized Sicilian trap-net boat
(c), is
used for supporting a canopy which also serves
as a rain-awning. In the final phase of fishing, when the two sides of the death chamber square are formed by small boats, it serves to hold up the two corners of the
on the medium-sized boat side. shows the design of the large boat, the mediumis built on the same lines. Table 150 shows the dimensions, and table 151, the scantlings. Fig. 674 shows the profile of the boat equipped with all the
net
Fig. 673 sized boat
accessories required for the various operations. lengthwise bulkhead, shown in fig. 673 (10), protects
TABLE 149
i
trap
m.
fig. 672.
Small non-mechanised
Sicilian trap-net boat
[610]
SHORT DISTANCE
for
TRAP-NET AND HARPOON BOATS

TABLE 151
i
the crew during fishing from the blows of the fish, which continue to struggle on the bottom of the boat
some time after they are pulled aboard. The capstan is worked by six detachable crankhandles; its function, when the nets are being lowered into the water, is to draw on an anchorage so as to stretch and thoroughly tighten the surface cable attached to the first bench aft. The capstan is used again when the
moorings are
retrieved.
tap tart
cm.
Keel oak
During
fishing, the
capstan
is
oak Frame or timber spacing Knees, oak or mulberry 6 fixed benches, oak
Floor-timber*,
3 movable benches, pine Bottom strokes, pine
4?
x4 x3
20X20 12x13
35
12x1$ 18xlg
removed
bow; the deck forward is also removed. The capstan is supported on one side by the last bench forward, and on the other by a movable
in order to lighten the
.pine
External
I
6x10 4X8
20x15
5
in pitch-pine thickness
bench. placed very far back so as to make it possible to fix into it the two supports of the swivel crane (19), which is required for raising the moorings. This is a pulley with block extending as a long arm hinged
first
Bottom
The
bench
is
Keelson, pine Capstan, cast iron, height x diant Horizontal and vertical gussets,
St*?.
oak;
ftr;
ia
294xiill
longitudinal Rails, iron
20x15 25x30 75x30

bulkhead
O'stkato"), pine; flooring,
When the boat is loaded with nets, the first bench aft must be cleared of any obstruction so that the surface rope which supports the whole of the tuna trap can be fixed there andean be tightened when the nets are lowered. During fishing, the boat is equipped with two masts as shown in fig. 674, with two spars which are used for transferring the tuna to the boats that will carry them ashore. During bad weather, the freeboard is raised by wash-boards (18), which are detachable as they would
hinder the work during fishing or while the nets are being lowered into the water. The keelson is very thick in cross-section order to withstand the strain when the nets are loaded, the boat being on land. The side keels ensure a broad basis of support on the ground by distributing the weight of the load and thus ensuring stability at launching time. In the water, such keels also help to dampen rolling. The medium-sized boat is of the same type, having, however, smaller dimensions (table 152).
Fig. 674. Profile
of vessel
in fig.
673
on two brackets lying on the aft bench and on the stern bulkhead. The extended block with the pulley is so capable of tilting lengthwise on the bench ah. The rope
by the capstan and passes through the pulley; the mooring ring comes under the pulley, the rope can only go further by making the crane swivel; it rises and then falls towards the centre of the boat, drawing the shank of the mooring which can thus be easily pulled
is
stretched
when
TABLE 152
ofttei
aboard. The davits (20), are used only for lowering the nets. The fixed cranes, shown in fig. 673 (c) (21), eight in number, are set along the port side of the boat; each has a pulley for the rope which serves to raise the door of the death chamber quickly. Once this is raised, the cranes are dismantled so as not to hinder subsequent
fishing operations.
A
Length
overall,
.
m.
14.00 3.60
1.07
LOA
46
11.8 3.5
Beam,B
Depth, D. Gross tonnage,

.
GT
The only difference is that the capstan is set on the two central benches and on the deck, on a level with the gunwale, resting, on them and on the two other benches at either side. There is no longitudinal bulkhead.
m.
55*4
14.2 3.8
16.90 4.35
1.15
SWORDFISH (XIPH1AS GLADIUS) HARPOON BOATS

Swordfish fishery, as practised for centuries in the of the Strait of Messina, is far better known for its pkturaqueness than from the technological standpoint. Swordfish appear at the beginning of spring,,
vicinity
3.1
0.55 0.95
30
[611]

towards the Upari Islands and, somewhat later, along the coast of Calabria. During May and June, they enter the Strait of Messina and reach the Ionian Sea.
first
BOAT TYPES
They swim near
the surface
and
their average weight
boat anchored a few hundred feet off the coast and carrying a mast about 65 ft. (20 m.) high, at the top of which the spotter is stationed.
Types of boats
Two
types of boats are used for fishing: Searcher. This is a boat with a canoe stern.
It
is
from 40 to 46 ft. (12 to 14 m.) long, 13 ft. (4 m.) wide and 6.5 ft. (2 m.) deep. It is decked from stem to stern and has no peculiarity except for the mast amidship, which is 65 ft. (20 m.), and sometimes 82 ft. (25 m.) high, and is held in place by stays. A cross-piece 2.6 ft. (0.8 m.) below the top serves as a foothold for the
Ftg. 675.
Catcher boat, having good manoeuvrability and being fast
spotter.
Catcher.
is between 220 and 240 Ib. (100 and 110 kg.). During July and August, swordfish approach the Sicilian shore off the Strait of Messina, coming from the south and going towards the Tyrrhenian Sea. They weigh on an average between 90 and 1 10 Ib. (40 and 50 kg.). Although swordfish are often caught with gill or tangle nets during the fishing of albacore and especially in the tuna traps of the north and east coasts of Sicily, the specialized
The
catcher,
is
shown
in
fig.
it
manoeuvrability and
very fast;
675, has a good has a canoe stern
method
is
afar, it is necessary to have a high so as to be able, in a calm sea, to see to a depth of 10 to 13 ft (3 to 4 m.) below the surface within a radius of at least 1,000 ft. (300 m.). In Calabria, where the high coastline offers an advantage, the spotter takes up a position on a cliff. It is from this position that he gives instructions for catching and he must therefore be stationed within earshot. In Sicily, where the shores are low, it is necessary to use a special
To
detect the fish
by harpoons. from
fairly
look-out point
TABLE 153
i
of fee old type catcher
A.
B*,B
Length
ovenrfl,
,
LOA
.
*l>
-t
20.4 5.6 2.0 9.9 18.7

c; kneet,
6.20
1.70 0.61
3.00 5.70
Ka*J, oak; fkx
mulberry side planking, pine

Fig* 676.
1
Catcher boat for sworjfith
612]
SHORT DISTANCE
TRAP-NET AND HARPOON BOATS
Fig. 677.
Combined swordfish catcher and searcher
vessel
which
differs very little from the bow. The fish are approached from the rear* It carries amidship a mast of 10 ft. (3 m.), on which a spotter is stationed who
possible for this fishery to expand into the high seas, and the fishing grounds formerly limited to the im-
the pursuit, together with the spotter in the searcher, plank platform which juts out beyond the
directs
to a length of 20 ft. (6 m.) carries the harpooner. There are two outriggers bearing the rowlocks of the
bow
two stern oars. A catcher carries a spotter, a harpooner and four rowers. The two special characteristics of this fishing are: The need to wait for the fish to come within the range of visibility of the spotter watching either on land or on the mast of the searcher. The need to guide the catcher almost on to the fish in order that the harpooner can work properly. The extended bow platform, introduced in recent yews, has increased the "size" of the boat by up to
20
ft.
mediate vicinity of the Strait of Messina now extend as far as the Lipari Islands. Fig. 677 shows the profile, design and cross-section of the new boat, which combines the characteristics of the searcher and the catcher and can, because of its long bow platform, carry the harpooner over the fish when the stern is still from 80 to 100 ft. (25 to 30 m.) away; this boat can therefore be fitted with a motor. In the month of July, this type of boat is authorized to fish in the Strait, but it must keep at a distance of at least 2,600 ft. (800 m.) from the nearest searcher. Table 1 54 gives the details of this type of boat.
This type of boat proposed:
to
is
to be
improved in the future and
it is
(6m.).
New type of boat
new
boat, introduced quite recently, has
made
it
make the bow platform retractable (fireman's ladder type) so that it can be drawn in during navigation or in bad weather. This would improve seaworthiness;
[613]

to install a chain drive along the mast to enable the spotter to work the rudder directly without having to give his instructions to the crew on deck; and
BOAT TYPES
% to increase transverse stability by means of outriggers.

must be pointed out that during the autumn and bow platform and mast are dismantled (fig, 678) and the swordfish fishing boat is converted into a normal boat which is used to fish for tunny by trolling or hand line, or for fishing saury pike (Scornbcresox SOUTHS W.) with drift nets. With the adoption of the motorized swordfish fishing boat, the harpooning of swordfish has gone beyond the small-scale fishery phase and has become the most important fishery in the Strait of Messina area.
It
winter the
Not*: The part on the tuna boats was prepared by Dr. V. Fodera and Mr. A. Cambiaoo and the part on the harpoon boats by Dr. R. Sard and Mr. A. Cambiano.
Fig. 678.
Swordfish catcher boat converted for
common fishing
[614]
DESIGN AND MASS PRODUCTION OF SHRIMP TRAWLERS

by L. C.
RINGHAVER
The design of the Florida shrimp trawler is based on a Greek sponge boat. These boats are now spreading into Central and South America. The typical vessel is 67 ft. (20.4 m.) long with the deckhouse forward, the mast and winch amidships and a wide working space aft. The main points of the design are the low cost of construction, the simple and safe handling by only a small crew, comfortable accommodation and seakindliness. Standardization of the design is another point in its flavour, as American trawler crews frequently change
ships.
The scantling materials used are detailed, and a new trawling device, the The method of mass producing this type of boat, using a 67 ft. (20.4 m.)
double-rigged trawl net, it described. trawler as an example is fully explained.
LE DESSIN ET LA PRODUCTION EN SERIE DES CHALUTIERS A CREVETTES

Le dessin du chalutier & crevettes de Floride est bas6 sur un bateau grec pour la peche des tponyes. Ces bateaux sont en train de se repandrc en Am&ique centrale et en Amerique du Sud. Le navire type mature 67 avec un deckhouse & 1'avant, le mftt et le treuil au mtfeu du bateau et un large esjpace permettant fe travail A 1'arrierc. long
pi. (20,4
m.) de
La standardisation des plans est un autre point en sa faveur car tes rtduit, des logements confortabtes et une bonne tenue i la mer. Equipages des chalutiers amtricains changent fr^quemment de navire. L'auteur donne des details sur tos echantillonnages et decrit un nouveau dispositif de chalutage: fe chalut & double grement. La mtthode de production en serte de oe type de bateau, en prenant comme exempte un chalutier de 67 pi. (20,4 m), est expliquee en detail.
PROYECTOS Y PRODUCTION EN SERIE DE ARRASTREROS PARA LA PESCA DEL CAMARON

La forma del arrastrero de la Florida para la pesca del camaron so basa en la de los barcos griegos para la pesca de la esponja. Estos arrastreros comienzan a aparecer en America Central y del Sur. El barco tipico tiene 67 pies (20,4 m.) de eslora, caseta del timon a proa, mtstil y maquinilla en la mediania y una ampUa cubicrta de trabajo a popa. Sus principales caracterfsticas son bajo costo de construccidn, sencillez y seguridad de manejo por una tripulacidn pequeAa, alojamientos c6modos y buenas condiciones manneras. La normaJizaci6n de las formas es otro detallc en su favor, pues a las tripulaciones de los arrastreros de los E.U.A. les gusta cambiar de barco con frecuencia. Se dan detaltes de los materiales empleados en los escantiikmes y se describe el nuevo arte doble de arrastre. Se explica con pormenores el m&odo para la production en serie de este tipo de barco, empieando como ejemplo un arrastrero de 67 pies (20,4 m.) de eslora.
| *HE origin of the Florida shrimp trawler is regarded the Greek sponge boat. Many Greek fishermen settled in Florida and brought their own designs and construction methods. Even today many of the smaller boatyards are owned and operated by Greek builders. It was only natural that these builders should
>
Ias
enter the trawler
field.
Many
Greek
origin had no winch manually ; therefore, the crew
years ago the typical small shrimp trawler of and the trawl was hauled
working space
aft,
wanted a maximum of free and any cabin would be built forward.
Thus, when many other U.S. trawlers were locating their deckhouse aft, the shrimp trawlers deliberately placed theirs forward, and the design and layout has remained
the same to this day.
spreading into Central and South America. a typical Florida shrimp trawler is a 50 to 70 ft. (15 to 21 m.) wooden vessel, with a rather fine bow, full lines amidships and aft, and a transom stern. Ample sheer forward and aft ensure a dry vessel. The deckhouse is forward, the mast and winch amidships and the working deck space aft. The engine room is located under the deckhouse and the fish hold is aft. The most popular size is the 67 ft. (20.4 m.) trawler because of its cruising range, seaworthiness and flexibility. Fig. 680 shows such a trawler, which is able to undertake 50-day fishing trips to the remote areas of the Gulf of Mexico. Smaller vessels, as shown in fig. 681,
type
is
now
Briefly,
fish inshore close to the
The Florida shrimp
trawler
shown
in
fig.
679 has spread
home port, and trawlers under (15 m.) engage in bay and sound fishing. The builder aims at a large, clear working area aft so that the crew has room to handle the gear safely and to sort and head the catch comfortably. Ample sheer, at
50
ft.
to Texas, hundreds have been built in
Mexico and the
the stern tends to keep this working area dry even in
[615]
BOAT TYPES
Fig, 679.
typical mats-produced shrimp trawler
on
trials,
rigged for double trawling
W.
67ft.
(X.4 m.)
tMmp trawler optratlng In the Gulf of Mexico

[61*]
MEDIUM DISTANCE
SHRIMP TRAWLERS
Fig. 681.
53 ft. (15.9 m.) shrimp trawler, rigged for single trawl, and used for inshore fishing
seas. The round-bilge hull form, fig. 682, has a tendency to roll quickly in a seaway but the design is good in a head sea. With ample sheer at the bow, perhaps excessive to some eyes, the vessel is assured of a relatively
choppy
dry deck.
trawling gear radical change in recent years is the system employing two smaller trawls in lieu of one large. The
New
The most
most important reasons for this change are the easier handling of gear, the lower gear replacement expense, and the greater production of shrimp. Virtually all new vessels are now being double-rigged, and the majority of the existing fleet has been converted. Fig. 683 shows a double-rigged shrimp trawler towing two 40 ft. (12.2 m.) trawls. Many theories have been advanced for the superiority of the double rig over the single, the most likely of which is that a smaller trawl
"
,-_U
692, FlorUa tkrhap trawl*
1617]
BOAT TYPES
HALF VIOTM
TtttT
UMMM TOW;
tOftft
CLfAHAUCt SPACt ttTWtIN HITS
Fig. 683.
DoM*-rigg*d shrimp
trawler with two 40ft. (12.19 m.) shrimp trawl nets
and 24 ft. (7.32 m.)
outriggers
inherently fishes better because in the bottom more easily.

Fig*
it
adjusts to irregularities
fishery for industrial
and reduction
fish
during this
period, using shrimp trawlers rigged with purse seines

it was considered satisa Campeche Banks trawler to produce 80,000 Ib. (36,300 kg.) of shrimp (heads off) per year, but today a good yearly catch would approximate 50,000 Ib. (22,700 kg.). An average price, ex vessel, would be
684 represents two common outrigger trawling designs; there are many variations of these basic designs but most well-designed booms are built around used or discarded oil-field drill-stem pipes. In Texas and
boom
or lampara nets. Some three or four years ago

for
factory
nearby States, the oil-well drilling companies use 24 ft. (7,3 m.) heavy-walled pipes, 4 in. (102 mm.) diam. After the walls are worn down to about i in. (13 mm.) they are
discarded* Such pipes make fine outrigger booms when properly braced and they are quite inexpensive. Fig. 685 presents details of a typical double-rigged trawler.
Od. (U.S.90.70). The long-distance trawler stays at sea approximately 45 days and sends the catch home weekly on vessels returning to port.
5s.
When used for freighting shrimp from remote grounds,

the 67
ft. (20.4 nu) trawler will carry 40,000 Ib. (18,000 kg.) of fresh, well-iced shrimp.
The catch of shrimp
varies greatly with the season and January to June is the poorest season in the Gulf of Mexico. Efforts axe being made by the industry and Government experimental units to develop a part-time
Engine output and Fuel cost is an important factor and the vessels are usually powered with 150 to 200 h.p. diesels; with such
t*-M.HIM M
I
rMT4f
694.
Two*
16181
MEDIUM DISTANCE
SHRIMP TRAWLERS
Rigging arrangements required for double rig shrimp trawling: A towing boom or outrigger; & boom topping stay; topping lift preventer; C topping lift tackle; D or D-J towing boom outrigger back stay; either one may be rigged, but not both; E towing boom outrigger bow stay; F modified boom
Fig. 685.
towing
superstructure; topping lift stay;
centre drum for try net wire; towing wire; R leading block for try net; S-/, 5-2, net lead block; any one fish tackle tail block; U-l, U-2, U-3try net lead may be used; block; any one may be used to accord with selection ofS-l t S-2 or S~3; chain stoppers shrouds; for outriggers
Gboom back stays ratline structure; Hboom back stay plate on transom; Jboom K single block tackle; Lstngle block tackle; M modified trawl winch; N gypsy heads
O
Q Tmatn
two on trawl winch;
S-3try
Vboom
power they will average 8 knots sailing speed and will properly tow a pair of 45 ft* (13.7 m.) trawls. Data on trawling speed is not really available but is considered to average 3 knots. Recently, where radar
bearings were used to plot the speed, a typical 67 fit. (20.4 m.) trawler towed a disabled vessel, at normal trawling engine r.p.m., at 3.4 knots in the open sea during fairly calm weather.
Experiments with a Scandinavian controllable-pitch propeller connected to a ISO h.p. diesel are now being carried out to determine both speed and trawling
pull.
Construction materials It is important to use the best domestic materials obtainable, properly seasoned, and resistant to rot It is necessary to soak important members thoroughly in copper naphthenate solution as a rot preventive. Stems are of choice Apalachian white oak to provide resistance to shock; keek are one piece of Douglas fir or pine, and planking is of cypress from keel to watcrlinc and Douglas fir from waterline to deck. Frames are steam-bent white oak. The structural members in the average 67 ft
(20.4 m.) type are
shown
in table 155.
The typical 67 ft. (20.4 m.) shrimp trawler is equipped to fish anywhere in the Gulf of Mexico or Caribbean Sea and has a fuel capacity of at least 5,000 Imp* gal.
(6,000 U.S. gal. or 22,712 1.), and a crushed ice capacity of 45 tons. Since they stay at sea 45 or more days, ice-holding ahflttty is as important as ice capacity* Normally, the
vessels
Fastenings are f in. (22 mm.) galvanized steel bolts for the stein, keel and shaft-log and other heavy components, and 3 in. (76 mm.) galvanized boat nails for planking. Galvanized nails are used for decking* The average 67 ft. (20.4 m.) trawler will require
have 6
in.
(152
mm.) foam
insulation with con*
crate plaster cover.
approximately 25,000 board feet (2,080 cu. ft. or 59cu.m.) of timber, broken down as follows: 3,000 board feet (250 cu. ft. or 7.1 cu.m.) of white oak 7,000 board feet (580 cu. ft or 16.5 cu. m.) of cypress and fir, air dried
[619]

15,000 board feet (1*230 cu, leaf yellow pine, air dried
ft.
BOAT TYPES
cost, the
or 35.4 cu. m,) of long-
card
file
which shows the
name of an
in stock.
alternate
supplier,
and the number of items
Crew's contort
It is essential that
must be comfortable, and

small crew,
i.e.,
the vessel should be easy to operate; it it must be designed for a the captain and one man. Normally, a
67
ft.
(20.4 m.) vessel will carry three
men, but
in difficult
Scheduling of sub-assemblies is also important. One and a helper do all the turning work. Four welders fabricate all engine mufflers, masts, outrigger booms, intermediate propeller shafts and other miscellaneous items. By careful attention to scheduling, the sub-assemblies are ready when needed and the
full-time machinist
times or poor fishing it must be capable of operating with two. In times of rich fishing, such as on the new shrimp beds in Honduras, an additional three or four men may
mechanics, for example, will find the 3 in. (76 mm.) bronze tail-shaft ready for installation when they want it.
be carried to handle the catch, but the design goal is a two- to three-man crew. By and large, crews find the vessels comfortable to work, even on the long voyages to the Gulf of Mexico Campcche Banks. There is a trend towards building all
sleeping accommodation above deck, for coolness, and the galley is roomy and well-appointed. The interior is finished in cypress, and, while not luxurious, does contribute to the morale of the crew.
Nearby they will find the propeller, bored and keyed for the shaft, ready to install. Any engine can be fitted, as the purchaser requests, usually in the 100 to 200 h.p.
class. The average engine is medium or high-speed, and has to be on hand at least a week before installation. To facilitate operation, a 60-page handbook is provided for each vessel. This handbook is written as a guide to proper in particular, preventive maintenance.
from the crew standpoint, that U.S. trawler crews often change vessels. Since the master of this type of vessel is also the
further consideration
One
vital
one
is
In addition, it provides specifications covering all major machinery parts in the vessel. If a part breaks down, the captain can radio for it to be sent to him. Normally, two copies of the handbook are supplied: one for the vessel and the other for the owner's office.
engineer, radio operator, and occasionally winch man as well, part of the success with some designs may be due
to standardization. If all gears and machinery are in the same places on different vessels and a fleet owner wishes to switch captains or crews he can be assured that the crew is familiar with the vessel after an hour or two on
The assembly line At the water's edge there is a trawler hull ready for launching, next to her, or "up" the production line, is a
trawler planked but in the process of receiving the keelcooling system, rudder, shaft and propeller; next there is another receiving the finishing touches to the planking, above is a vessel just being framed, and the first vessel on the line is merely a keel and stem: the mould crew is
setting the
is
board; the master can quickly locate all light switches and other working gear, because their location and operation have been standardized.
moulds
all
in place.
launched,
line.
the hulls
As soon as the finished hull move one step down, and a new
is set
The trawlers from the author's shipyard are built on an assembly line serviced by 12 different departments. Each of the 11 construction departments is headed by an experienced foreman.
Proper purchasing is important to any assembly line operation and the parts and supply inventory must be constantly watched. Every item bought is entered in a
keel
and stem assembly
in place at the beginning
of the
In operating this assembly

the watchwords:
line, efficiency
and speed are
no workman must fumble and search for tools. Therefore, there are many electric hand tools, saws, drills, planers and other portable tools, as shown in fig. 686. These are assigned to each man and he does not
TABLE 155
"
Jneifiber
Material
Nominal size
Remarks
(tee piece
in.
Keel
White oak Douglas ftr or yellow pine Yellow pine Yellow pine
Yellow piae Yellow pine
9x12 in. 029x305 mm.) 9x12 in. (229x305 mm.)

2
in. (51
mm.)
thick,
in.,
doubled
3X10
in.,
3x12
and 3x14
(76x254 mm., 76 x
305 mm., and 76x356 mm.) 4x4 in. (102 x 102 mm.) on 12 in. (305 mm.) centres
2x4 fat (51x102 mm.)

It
In.
(38
YoHowpfae
rutee
3x4 in. (76x102 mm.) D 1
mm.)
thick
Ux 4 in. (3* x 102 mm.) l|in.(38imiLXdoabbd

2J x4*
to. (57
Three bulkheads,
non-watertight
White oak
x 108 mm.) do
12
in.
(305
MEDIUM DISTANCE
have to make time-wasting trips to a store to draw what he needs, nor does he have to carry awkward or heavy pieces of timber. Men are specialized to learn their jobs thoroughly: the planking crew work exclusively on planking, the stem and forefoot crew work exclusively on
stems.
SHRIMP TRAWLERS
Where timber must be handled, as in the stem department, overhead tracks support small electric hoists which enable one man to do the work of several without risk of injury. The operation has a fine safety record because
safe practices are
electrical
system
is
emphasized to the men. Further, the earthed so that electrical injuries from
the portable tools are very rare. Stem and keel crews cut out the stem from heavy pieces of oak, fit it to the forefoot, and scarf-joint both into the 50 ft. (15.24 m.) keel, a single piece of Douglas
or longlcaf yellow pine. The keel crew will consist of four men and they will spend two and a half days setting up the keel, stem, shaft log assembly and transom. Once this assembly is set up on the line, the mould crew, consisting of six men, will set up the moulds and battens. The framing crew then take over. Two men bend the
fir
oak
ribs after
steaming them for
hr. at 10 Ib./sq. in.
(0.7 kg./sq. cm.), and four men put them in place and nail them to the battens. The oak ribs vary in length
from 14 to
(305
18
mm.)
ft. (4.3 to 5.5 m.) and are spaced on 12 in. centres. Once the frames are in place the
moulds are removed. The whole framing normally takes one day. The 14-raan structural group then moves in and spends three and a half days installing longitudinal stringers, clamps, deck beams, engine beds, floor timbers and decking. This group insures that all longitudinal clamps and stringers are bolted to each frame with f in. (9.5 mm.)
galvanized carriage bolts. Top planking, from the deckline to the waterline, is 4 in. (102 mm.) wide Douglas fir, while the planking from the waterline to the keel is of cypress and may be as wide as 12 in. (305 mm.). The four-man planking crew spends a day and a half installing 15 strakes down from the deck, and then another day and a half installing a further 17 strakes just to pass the turn of the bilge. Wide planking is used here and three men are employed on each side of the hull. They will require another two days to finish the planking; two helpers counter-sink all nails. In addition to the usual galvanized boat nails, each plank has at least two screw-nails, sometimes called "hold-fast" nails. Planking is installed with fitted seams and no caulking is required except at the garboards and butts. When first launched, the hull will leak slightly for several
Fig. 686.
ready at
Portable electric power tools assigned to each man, kept working station, contribute greatly to efficiency. Here a carpenter uses an electric planer In fabricating a stem component
Ms
of nine
6J
ft.
men
start
ft.
work on
the deckhouse, which is
approximately 21
(2 m.) high,
(6.4 m.) long x 9 ft. (2.7 m.) widex and contains the whcelhouse, galley and
is
crew quarters.
constructed of well-seasoned cypress. important and good joinery work on lockers and cabinets is essential. It takes three and a half days to complete the deckhouse. As soon as the painters have finished the hull, a mechanic and helper will install the propeller shaft,
It is
The
interior finish
propeller, stern bearing, stuffing box, engine keel-cooler,
sea-cocks and other underwater fittings and prepare the boat for launching. The crew of mechanics will require three days. After launching, last-minute carpentry is carried out and the fuel tanks are installed. This stage requires seven men, working for two and a half days, and then the 12-
man
rigging crew fixes
all
the wiring, piping installation
hours but as soon as the planking expands slightly the leakage ceases and the hull is not only tight but virtually
free
from expensive re-caulking.

electric
and alignment of the engine and auxiliaries, installation of mast, booms and winch, etc., in about three days. The vessel is then taken on a shake-down trip to check the
machinery in operation.
five-man painting crew paint the vessel in two days. By this time the vessel has been equipped with fire extinguishers, life jackets, galley stove, and is ready for the installation of insulation in the fiah hold and electronics in the wheelhouse. The
The two-man sanding crew equipped with
sanders will take three days to prepare the hull for its priming coat of paint. Four painters putty all nail holes and prime the hull with first and second coats of oil paints, taking three and a half days to complete the job.
The
final
inside
and out
During the planking operation* the pilot-house crew
[621]

TABLE 156
cast of
BOAT TYPES
(U.S. cents per pound,
Regkml
Item
</l vessels)
Region If (2 vessels)
1952
1953 1954
Region
HI
Region
IV
1953
1954
{12 vessels) 1954 1952 1953
(13 vessels) 1952 1954 1953
Trip expenses:
Crewwafes
Ice
18.14
1.96 5.59
Orooones
Fuel Paokinf and unloading

Miscellaneous
3.29 0.47 0.01
13.35 2.26 7.30 3.47 0.48 0.03
19.00 1.24 2.87 3.79
20.10
1.54
4.08 4.18
17.04 2.49 5.98 4.88
12.34 2.24 3.90 0.03 2.48 0.02

21.01
15.95 2.95 5.02
10.01 2.61
4.78
.02
0.02
2.83
0.06
26.83
2.76 0.03
20.21
15.08 3.08 3.92 0.55 1.09 0.11
17.94 3.05 4.57 0.29

1.14
13.87 3.26 4.44
0.30
1.24
0.08
0.03
Total trip expenses
29*46
27.09
26.90
29.90
30.39
23.83
27.07
23.14
Boaii
\ and maintenance Boil supplies
8.16
1,45 2.03 1.93 3.41
license and tax Miscellaneous
0.33 0.39
0.91
18.61
6.62 1.39 1.86 1.89 4.57 0.09 0.33 0.92

17.67
3.05 2.32
1.41
4.46
4.21 1.95 2.36 3.09
3.34 5.06 2.01

3.21
4.42
1.13
4.14 2.63
3.00
1.49 1.57
0.98 3.39 0.60 0.37

1.58
0.52 0.43 1.12

18.14
3.84 0.69 0.76 1.69
2.45 0,87 2.68 0.09

0.01
Z53
0.90 2.55 0.19
*
5.56 2.47 2.89

1.95
7.39 2.64 3.14

1.86
5.89 2.32
2.51
0.87
2.61
0.01
3.13 0.35 0.01
0.39
12.04
0.44
13.38
0.59
10.14
0.86
17.22
3.22 0.40 0.01 1.27

19.93
2.14 3.98 0.39 0.02 0.86

18.11
Total boat exp
13.70
20.60
50.99
Tool
expenses
48.07
1
44.76
40.60
48.04
33.05
40.21
30.35
41.05
47.00
41.25
*Lm than 0.01
U.S. cent-0,86 penny (English)
owners have a wide choice of insulating and electronics

often get these from outside contractors. The vessel is now ready to fish; in fact, some customers actually put their fishing gear aboard when they take
Cost and finance

ft. (20.4 m.) Campcchc Banks trawler will cost approximately 17,000 (U.S. $47,500) when fully equipped with 6 in. (127 mm.) of foam plastic insulation in the fish hold and completed with the usual echo-sounder, radio telephone and automatic pilot. The builder strives to offer a sound, profitable vessel of minimum cost. It is possible to build a more expensive
and they
The 67
delivery
and
"fish their
way home".
This saving of time in construction has been brought about by paying careful attention to die suggestions of owners, captains, marine surveyors and others.
TABLE 157
Production and grots receipt! of typical shrimp trawlers
Region
Year
Number of vessels
11
Total production
Gross receipts
(U.S. dollars)
220,048. 153,719.
Weighted average
(U.S. cents)
(pounds)
Region South Atlantic
1953 1954
11
353,197 325,162
62.30 47.27
II
Florida West Coast 1952 1953
1954
166,602 183,547 101,907
104,629. 114,476. 47,036.
62.80 62.37 46.16
Louisiana
1952 1953 1954
517,391
214,559
237,160. 173*269.
12 12
468,673 470,915
41.47 5p.60 36.79
JV
1952 1953 1*54
13
861,597
13
906^26
843,015
1
13
411,348. 556,303. 351,040.

1
50.06 60,66 41,64
production
is
expteased as
UJL
poond*, heada-olt
U& cent~OJ6 peony (EnfUah).

|622]
-U& 12.78
MEDIUM DISTANCE
boat but
it is
SHRIMP TRAWLERS
into four regions: Region
I, the south Atlantic coast from North Carolina to Key West, Florida; Region H, Florida west coast where most of vessels fish die Campeche Banks off Mexico; Region in, the states of Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi; and Region IV,
more important
to build
one which the
shrimp industry wants and can operate and maintain economically thereby getting a good return on their investment, which has been proven by the large number of boats that have been constructed Financing the purchase of a new shrimp trawler is not difficult as the post-war profit-history of these vessels,
plus the standard designs, have encouraged financial institutions to readily lend funds for their purchase* No other fishing vessel in the U.S.A. is as readily financed as
the state of Texas*
Great variety
vessels
exists in the character
of the
fishery, the
and the economics of these four
areas:
Region
for example, has many in-shore vessels and a high production of smaller shrimp boats. Region II is com-
m,
a shrimp
trawler.
posed almost entirely of larger vessels which cross the
TABLE 158
Operatiag
profit
and
loss
of typical ftrtmp trmwftcn (U.S. cents per pound, heads-off) Region II 2 vessels
1952
62.80
Item
Region I 9 vessels
1953
Region /// 12 vessels 1954

46.16
50.99
Region iy 13 vessels
1954
1954
47.27
1953
62.37
1952
41.47
33.05
8.42
1953
50.60
40.21
1952
50.06
1953
60.68
1954
41.64
41.25
Gross
receipts
62.30 48.07
14.23
36J9
30.35
6.44
Costs of production
Profit
44.76
2.51
1
40.60
48.04
14.33
41.05
9.01
47.00
13.68
or loss
22.20
-4.83
10.39
0.39
U.S. cent -0.86 penny (English)
Since the purchaser will usually borrow 75 per cent., he is required to make a down-payment of 25 per cent, of the cost, and the balance, with added payments of 5 to 6 per cent, interest, is divided into 48 equal monthly payments. Lending institutions demand that the vessel be fully insured and also that the mortgagee be named in
the insurance policy.
Gulf of Mexico and remain at sea 40 to SO days. Hie Texas area, Region IV, depends almost entirely on the
off-shore grounds for the fishing. While wages or shares will vary, as will production itself, an examination of table 156 will show that despite
The money
lent
by
the
bank
is
protected by a preferred maritime mortgage on the vessel.
the variables involved, the ratio between trip expenses and vessel expenses is relatively constant in all areas: trip expenses account for roughly three-fifths of total
production expenses and vessel expenses account for
Economics
the other two-fifths.
The
depend upon her production. Due to the reluctance of fleet operators and owners to disclose their records, it is difficult to obtain precise figures on trawler earnings. However, it can be stated that an average new trawler will earn its monthly payments without difficulty and that it will pay for itself
in four years.
success or failure of a vessel will
Various organizations under contract to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service have studied the cost of operation and earnings of shrimp trawlers in the U.S.A. For convenience, the shrimping grounds have been divided
Table 157 compares production and gross receipts over the period studied, 1952 to 1954. In 1953 prices for shrimp increased significantly and the shrimp industry experienced a major expansion; in 1954 shrimp prices slumped and the industry experienced a major recession. Table 158 summarizes operating profit and loss for typical shrimp vessels and emphasizes that the shrimp industry, while speculative in many ways, can be made to yield a fair return if market prices are reasonable
and good
lowed.
business
management
practices
are
fol-
QQ
[623]
DEVELOPMENT OF A TRAWLER OF UNORTHODOX DESIGN

by E. C. B.
CORLETT
A
and
J.
VENUS
The recent practice in trawler design is to use fine entrance angles and small water plane coefficients. This, however, results in new type of hull with double chines has been developed, and it has a good lack of stability and expensive work for the fore body.
perfonnance*
The trial results of a 1 IS It. (35 m.) vessel of the new type tallied closely with the predicted resistance obtained by model tests and the vessel was about 1 knot faster than an ordinary type of the same size and engine output. There is also a big advantage in the simple method of construction and subsequent low cost of building. The main merits can be summarised: Cheaper, due to lower hull costs. More economical to operate due to the lower power required for equivalent service. Cheaper because of smaller and lighter machinery, if required only for a given speed. As efficient as the best normal ships in respect of fish caught, which are brought back without delay even in the worst weather. The paper describes a practical way to introduce the type into under-developed areas, and mentions prospects for development, especially a smaller size under 100 ft. (30 m.) with twin screws.
DEVELOPPEMENT D'UN CHALUTIER D'UN TYPE NON-ORTHODOXE

ie dessin des chalutiers est d'utiliser un angle d'acuite aigu et un faible coefficient de remplissage & la en resulte cependant un manque de stability et un travail couteux pour 1'avant du navire. On a mis au point un nouveau type de coque avec double bouchain, et il a donne de bons resultats. Les rtsultats des essais d'un navire du nouveau type de 1 15 pi. (35 m.) concordaient e*troitement avec la resistance prtvue, obtenue & I'cssai de modele, et il etait plus rapide d'un noeud environ qu'un navire du type courant de m&rnes dimensions et ayant un moteur de mtae puissance. La mfthode de construction est simple, ce qui pr6sente un gros avantage, et le cout de la construction est, en consequence, peu 61cv^. Les a vantages principaux pourraient toe resumed comme suit Meilkur marche, par suite du coOt plus faible de la coque. Fonctionnement plus tomomique par suite de la plus faible puissance n&essaire pour un service Equivalent. Meilleur mavch parce que la machinerie est plus petite et plus Ugere, s'il est demande* seulement une vitesse donnee. Aussi bon rondement que tea meilletirs navires normaux en ce qui concerne les poissons pcch6s, qui sont amends au port sans retard, meme par les plus mauvais temps. La communication decrit aussi un moyen pratique d'introduire ce type dans les regions sous-dveioppees et mentionne des perspectives pour le dvetoppement, specialement d'un navire plus petit de moins de 100 pi. (30 m.) avec deux htlices.
La
pratique recente dans
flottaison.
II
PERFECCIONAMIENTO DE UN ARRASTRERO DE MODELO HETERODOXO

Ultimamcnte, al proyectar arrastreros se tiende a emplear Angulos de entrada agudos y coeficientes de la flotation pequefios, lo quo da por resultado una falta de estabilidad y un trabajo costoso para el cucrpo de proa. Se ha perfeccionado un tipo nuevo de casco con doblc arista que ha dado buenos resuhados. Los resultados de los ensayos de un barco de 115 pies (35 m.) concuerdan muy de cerca con la resistencia prevista, obtenida en el ensayo de un modelo, y era, aproximadamente, un nudo mas rapido que un barco de tipo corrientc de las mismas dimensiones y con motor de igual potencia. Tiene la gran ventaja de que el mtodo de construcci6n es sencillo y, por tanto, los costos menores. Lasprmcipales ventajas pueden resumirae como sigue: Mas barato por costar menos los cascos. Funcionamiento mas ecomico por necesitar menos potencia para un scrvfcio equivalente, Mas barato porque la maqutnaria es mas pequena y mas ligera si se pide solamente una velocidad dada. De igual rendimicnto que los mejores barcos normales en k> relative al pescado capturado, que se Iteva a puertos sin retrasos incluso en mat t tempo. Sedescribc una mancra practka de introducir este tirJo en las regiones insuficientemente desarrlolladas y se mencionan las posibilidades de conttruir ottos barcos, en particular uno mas pequeno de menos de 100 pies (30 m.) con dos notices.
two years trawlers of a new hull form Aberdeen and Grimsby JL with success on the Faroes grounds. In design they embody several features which run counter to generally hdd deftip1 tenets in the U.K. and yet it is these very features that give them what is regarded as outstanding
1H
the past
Government support system.

are as follows:
Generally, these groups
have been
fishing out of
Group
Group
1.
2.
Deep-sea or distant-water: 160 to 220 ft. (49 to 67 m.) registered length. Middle-water: 130 to 160 ft. (40 to 49 m.) with some 115 ft. (35 m.) ships fishing in
the group. Near-water: 100 to 1 15 ft. (30 to 35 Inshore: 50 to 100 ft, (15 to 30m.).
in,).
performance. In the UJC trawlers are built in four or five distinct groups as a result of operating experienc* and the
Group Group
3-
4.
f24]
MEDIUM DISTANCE
and 3
at 115
ft.
TRAWLER OF UNORTHODOX DESIGN

relatively susceptible to increase
The initial approach to the new design was in Groups 2

(35 m.) registered length. Dimensions here are virtually standard, the registered length representing a subsidy step while the breadth is usual at 25 ft. (7.6 m.), the depth at 12} ft. (3.8 m.) and * around
It is common practice to fit 650 to 750 h.p. provided by a direct-drive diesel engine running at about 250 r.p.m. These dimensions have been found well suited to the Faroes grounds and generally result in a ship capable of about 10} to 1 1 knots in the two-thirds fish load condition leaving the grounds, with a fish hold in the region of 6,500 to 7,000 cu. ft. (185 to 200 cu. m.). The trawl winch is generally electric with about a 100 kW direct-drive diesel generator situated at the forward end of the engine room in line with the main engine.
of breadth. At the
time, the main flow of the screw has strong horizontal characteristics and, as a result, quite moderate pitching
the 0.58 mark.
screw unduly, due to air drawing and of homogenity in the flow. It was decided, therefore, that a stem of basically buttock flow type should be adopted with the buttocks so arranged that any pitch up of the stern was minimized due to immediate and appreciable loss of buoyancy aft. The buttocks were kept straight or slightly hooked aft to minimize
may
effect the
general loss
squatting at the higher speed-length ratios
and the
lines
were designed to give a breakaway to the flow such as is obtained in a carefully designed transom stern. This is, of course, only possible with buttocks which do not have any convexity downwards immediately forward of the
breakaway point.
DESIGN
a marked tendency to adopt exceptionally fine of entrance in modern trawlers and this has become angles extreme recently with the adoption of bulbous bows. Low resistance forms have been produced but the resulting low waterplane coefficient has required a substantial increase in breadth to maintain adequate stability and this has offset some of the original resistance advantage. Also the very fine angle of entrance makes the fore
In association with this stern,

to design a bow that would give body consistent with that the
it
was
clearly necessary
There
is
a flow over the midship
stem was intended to
accept. For instance, a bulb bow would be inconsistent as clearly the waterline flow forward would have to
change to buttock flow
aft
with a long resultant flow path
incorporating large local velocity variations.
A bow
body difficult and expensive to construct, while, although model tests show small pitch and heave responses in heavy regular seas, many question whether this hull form
represents the best fishing platform obtainable in prac-
giving a diagonal flow, having markedly V-sections and feeding water into a mainly buttock flow stern, was designed with a much greater half angle of entrance than
Certainly this widespread trend represents an acceptable type of vessel, but it was felt it could not be the only one and accordingly the development of a new
tice.
design was started. Hulls with a fine angle of entrance are of substantially waterline flow type forward and, as such, resistance is
was made developable, using the surfaces of various irregular conical and cylindrical bodies. This was not only possible but advantageous and added the advantage of simplified methods of construction and prefabrication. The exact methods of doing this are the subject of patents. The dimensions and
given under ship
coefficients
the normal type. The entire surface of the hull
of form resulting are
in table 159.
direct-drive four-
JLJLJLJL** * i
Fit. 687. Star
of Aberdeen, a 115ft. (35 m.) nar-wafer frwwfcr *f*HM9*to*
1625]

stroke dteet
250r.p*ra.
BOAT TYPES
with *n output of 760 tup. at

687.
The general arrangement it shown in fig.
nevertheless, the propulsive efficiency predicted was comparatively good. Table 159 compares the predicted performance with those for a trawler of normal type and form and of good average quality. Fig. 690 gives the ship prediction on the measured mile corrected to the two-thirds fish condition, compared with the same conventional ship. The vessel of the new design is a knot foster in service than the normal 115 ft. ships, and this is so in all
An interesting point is that the actual vessel appreciably better at high speeds than the model test predictions, largely due to the effect of the rudder,
weathers.
is
which may not be properly accounted for in a model test due to scale effects. The trials were run on the Newbiggin deep sea mile, using a calibrated torsion meter, and extreme care was taken to obtain reliable
results.
Stability
Because of the unusual double bottom under the fish hold it was possible to place all the solid ballast in the
Fig. 688. Bulb post rudder (patented}, originally developed for tugs, fined to Star of Aberdeen
A patent bulb post rudder, fig. 688 and 689, originally developed for tugs with the same type of hull, was fitted
and
is
to
some
efficiency achieved.
extent responsible for the propulsive It is simple and robust and has a
large turning moment at comparatively small angles, with constant steady torque values at varying angles but constant speed More important, however, due to its marked centra-rudder characteristics at varying angles of inflow, it exerts a beneficial effect upon the propulsive
efficiency
both when trawling and sailing.
All-welded construction was used, with very robust scantlings, and a double bottom was fitted in way of the an innovation in this class of trawler which fish hold has well proved its worth and is only possible in an all-welded hull.
The form was tested at NPL and proved to have very good resistance and propulsive characteristics for the type and size. The influence of the bulb rudder was, as
expected, not markedly apparent due
to*cak effect,
but,
Fig.
fttfj
MEDIUM DISTANCE

TAKE
139
Normal &115A ft
kip
(35.1m.)
18 ll5ft.O5.fi
nodded
Ill ft (33.9 BL)
Bnsadthji
25 ft (7.62m.)
DepthTD
Displacement,
lZ5ft(3^1m.)
10.64 It CW4m.) 5.5 ft (1.68 m.) 0.578 0.67
110 ft (33.5m.) 25 ft (7.62 sn.) 1X5 ft (3.81m.)

10.90 ft, (3.33 m.>
Draught
DragofkMl
o
6.0ft(K83m.>
0.580 0.68 4.6 ft (1.40m.)
LOB aftofH
Ptopdtar
3 ft (0.91
mj
Mean effective pitch, Pe

Disc area
ratio,
DAR
28,0 6.75 ft. (2.05m.) 5.7 ft (1.74 m.) 0.43
323*
74)2 ft (2,14m.)
5.7 ft (1.74m.)
OJ5
12
Predicted
Trial
BMP
SHP
Note:
I
Ship
n,
10 knots
11
1X4
QPC
3.5* 0.63
knots
QPC
0.56 0.62
knots
1,065
QPC
Oi61
knots
QPC
-I"
0.696-
Corrected
BHP at 430 tons displacement trial BHP 490 tons displacement
B B
Predicted trawling pull at 4 knots and 500
A
B
*
366 244 280 310
715 478 465 518
812 620 760
760 835
5.30 tons 6.10 tons allowed for shaft losses
most advantageous position, namely, aft of amidships. It was a requirement that the metaccntric height should not be less than 2.S ft. (0.76 m.) in any condition. Later this requirement was reduced, due to owner's modifications, to 2.4
ft. (0.73 m.). Particulars of vessel :
Weight of
etc.
Wood and
Machinery
Ballast
.....
outfit
.
.
steel including belting,
156 tons 88 69
an important feature of these shown left in fig. 691 were fitted but this proved inadequate and those shown right in These are most successful fig. 691 were substituted. and may set a fashion. It is necessary to construct them as shown because flat plate construction suffers unduly from trawling warp damage and from budding due to
vessels.
Bilge keeb Effective bilge keels are
Originally, keels as
water pressure when rolling, for it is not unknown for these ships to continue fishing in Beaufort 10.
48
Lightship
361
i.e.,
COST OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION A trawler fishing in northern waters is very complicated
the
The make-up of
Lightship Fish and fee
Oil fuel
the normal load condition,

is
two-thirds capacity fish condition,

.
.
given below: 361 tons
70
.
Fresh water (50% capacity)
11
(60% capacity)
etc.
.
Nets and gear

Stores* crew,
....
.
22 tons
and expensive. In some part, this is due to the comprehensive navigating equipment, but the hull of a normal steel trawler forms a considerable percentage of the total cost There is considerable curvature and bevel in all frames and many of the shell plates have intricate double curvature. If it is possible to eliminate this expensive shaping, a considerable saving in building
cost
20 tons
6
and building time would result. Straightiine framing and singk curvature plating has often been used in the
Total
490
.
OM (corrected for free surface)

Draught forward
aft
. .
. .
2.41 ft (0.73 m.) 7.73 ft. (2.35 m.)
but usually with the result that the performance, as regards speed and sometimes also seakoeping. has been adversely affbote& The advantages of tWs special huB type are that, white
past,
(4.34m.) IH all other standard conditions, such as ready for sea, ftitt load departure from grounds and arrival at port, the meOceiitrk height is between 2.40 and 2.50 ft, (0.73 and 0.7 at), corrected for free iurfece, and the trim between OJ ft (0> 15m.) from the basic rake of keel.
.
.
14.23
ft.
preserving the simplicity of construction of the hard chine hull, it gives improved performance in speed and
seakeeping compared with most tradi In addition, the capital equipment required in a shipyard designed to build such ship* it not nearly so great as that necessary for the production of round bottom Plate and frame furnaces are not necessary and,
[27]
WISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD:

of all-welded construction, heavy prefabricated units, requiring large and expensive cranage, have been dispensed with* A simplified form of construethe vessel
is
BOAT TYPES
and the time taken to erect the greater part of the and decks is only 10 to IS working days. This, of course, is before fairing has taken place and before any large-scale welding has commenced. The fairing of the
starts
hull
in the
steelwork runs concurrently with the gradual increase number of welders and, after about 5 to 6 weeks from the commencement of construction, the maximum number of welders can be employed economically. As
the overhanging stern would present a certain amount of difficulty if erected entirely in plates, the framework of this structure is usually built on the ground and the
plating welded
900
400
300
on after erection During fitting out it is of considerable importance that an economical number of men should be kept employed. Trawlers are complicated and the interior very crowded, particularly in the engine room and living accommoda.
tion.
200
IO
-
It is, therefore,
amount of
i
access throughout the vessel
necessary to see that the maximum is created by
providing temporary openings through bulkheads, etc,, during the fitting out process. These particular vessels are comparable with any of the size afloat today and this seems to dispose of the contention that decades of experience are necessary to design and construct deep-sea trawlers satisfactorily. It is
essential that there should be continuous consultation with the owners and the men who are to fish. It is
necessary for the owners to state clearly and unambiguously all their requirements of performance. The design is then a matter of sound naval architecture and the arrangement of the trawler and the detailed layout of fishing gear, accommodation, etc., can best be laid down by an owner in consultation with a builder rather than
035
by any
builder,
however experienced.
Fig, 690. Performance curves from meowed mile trials with the predictions from model tests
compared
A comparison of the new trawlers in service with normal

ships
Comparison of the new and normal type
shows that the former are
coupled with a relatively inexpensive shipyard layout, must become attractive in parts of the world where a large reserve of skilled labour is not available and whore money for capital investment is scarce. Although each owner has his own particular preference in the matter of deck arrangement and accommodation, it has been possible to standardise to a considerable degree the shape of the hull, and the drawing work has
lion
Cheaper due to lower hull costs More economical to operate due to the lower power
required for equivalent service Cheaper because of smaller and lighter machinery if required only for a given speed As efficient as the best normal ships in the quantity of fish that can be caught and brought back to port even in the worst weather
thus been lightened considerably.
After the whote steelwork is lofted, all plates and bars are cut exactly to size. So-called frame rings are fabricated to give transvene stiffness during erection. They consist of floors, tide frames, brackets and deck beams,
and where an opening is required
in the hull in the
way
of a frame ring, this is carried right across and the opening cot after erection. The thel! and deck plates
MilMil|llfr'fM
afl the
rtcdwodc, as it J made, if carefuHy arranged on the groasrfalongiide the buUdiog berth in the sequence that wjffl be requked during bttflding. Then erection
V
Fig. 691.
Left: oriftoal
bike
keel.
Rifht: modified bilge keel fitted
[62*]
MEDIUM DISTANCE
To illustrate these points, it is worth considering specimen records for voyages for two ships; one the Star of
Aberdeen* the other a normal vessel of similar dimensions and power belonging to the same owner. These records relate to trips made at about the same time.
At approximately 650 h.p, the new type vessel made an average speed of Hi knots and for a trip of eleven days the fuel consumption averaged 1 .5 tons per day. The fish landed amounted to 700 Aberdeen boxes, being an average of 64 boxes per day for the trip. The normal vessel averaged 10} knots on a fuel consumption of 1.75 tons per day, the catch for a twelve-day trip was 742 boxes, averaging 62 boxes per day. As the new type requires a smaller investment, it can be seen that the advantages claimed are maintained in service.
LICENSED BUILDING
further advantage of this system of design and construction is that it is very suitable for countries in which
ng
693
Star of
Abcrdcen. Notice
the
doubk
chines
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
bilge types
Development of the new trawlers of chine and round is being carried out in both the distant- and
near-water classes. A very successful 100 ft. (30.5 m.) form has been produced for the Scratcher class and work is almost complete on a 180 ft. (55 m.) distant-water
design. At the
same timew,
hile all these types offer the eco-
Fig. 692.
Star of Aberdeen
this size of vessel
has not hitherto been constructed. The
cost of the necessary shipyard is generally less than the cost of a single vessel and the design lends itself more
readily to construction with a
minimum of
skilled
men.
The procedure adopted in setting up a yard abroad for building the new type of trawler is that, first, the principal
requirements are investigated in conjunction with the prototype persons who, ultimately, will run the yard. is then constructed in an experienced shipyard, while the
key personnel who eventually will manage the new yard are present to study the entire construction. They are given access to all building costs, including a detailed breakdown of man-hours and detailed costing of all the
material supplied Meanwhile, the new yard is being built and when the first vessel is finished, the material for the second vessel is despatched to it, together with a representative from the parent yard to give all assistance during assembly. The third vessel is constructed entirely
by the new yard with the assistance of the parent yard Whenever necessary, materials for this and subsequent vessels can, if desired, be ordered and progressed for correct delivery by the parent organization. This scheme is working satisfactorily at the present moment.
Flf.694. Foirfag of (h*bkcki**s Into stem
[629]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD: 2 much mem nomkpo*sibility of high service speeds fo^
length,
ft is
BOAT TYPES
severe, especially
on
the Faroes grounds,
methods
ii
timwling is (55 to 67 at) til* group and, indeed, might become standard practice in tome countries Much thought has been gi vcn to the dwign of a ship of test than 100 ft. (30, 5m.)
registered length, capabte
fishing,
considered tiuu a drastic revision of fithing long overdue in the smaller ships. Stern not uncommon now in the 180 to 220 ft.
and the reasons for adopting the basic layout are hmdabetween non-resonant pitching and rolling of the order of 6 or 8 to one and this alone is a feet of tremendous advantage to these small ships if
ratio
The
angles
is
item trawling
is
adopted.
Twin screws
are highly
of both near- and middk-water
because mall ships suffer badly when side timwling. at freeboard and rolHng are deficient by comparison with large trawlers, while power and abiHty to punch through bad weather tuffer likewise. The lolution may be twin screws for sustained sea power in a huU so tangoed that the screws do not tend to race whatever the weather, a forecastle carried aft to about amidships and, of course, a stern trawling layout. This layout is akin to that developed by combination boats on the Pacific Coast of the U.S.A. The North European conditions for this size of ship, however, are
desirable for seakeeping and manoeuvring reasons, but it is essential that the vessel shall be capable of steaming
on one screw with a maximum of, say, five degrees of helm only. This, combined with direct bridge control, using oil-operated reverse reduction with dutches, and a clear view of the working deck from the wheelhouse, ensures simple and effective control by the skipper. The key to the fishing gear is at the extreme stern itself and an original arrangement has been produced. This
new
bility
trawler type, in different sizes, may offer the possiof covering much single ship trawling with one
multi-purpose type.
(630]
THE NETHERLANDS POST-WAR FISHING FLEET

by P.
BOOGAARD
The Netherlands fishing fleet can be divided into large sea-going boats and small coastal fishing craft. The former consist of cutters, and trawlers. Tie total number of boats in the sea-going fleet has not changed since 1938, but its composition has altered considerably, and the individual boats have also been greatly improved in size, output and fittings. Four examples are given to show typical
trawler-drifters
small sea-going shrimp trawlers, cutters, trawler-drifters and trawlers.
LA FLOTTE DE PECHE DBS PAYS-BAS APRES-GUERRE

La
flotte
de peche des Pays-Bas peut 6tre divisec en grands navires de haute-mer et en
petits
bateaux pour la pechc cotierc. Les
de chalutiers.
LA FLOTA PESQUERA DE LOS PAISES BAJOS EN LA POSTGUERRA

La flota pesquera de los Palses Bajos puede dividirse en embarcationes grandes para la pesca de altura y pequefias para la pesca de bajura. Las primeras consisten en cuteres, arrastreros y barcos mixtos para la pesca al arrastre y a la deriva. Desde 19*8 permaneoe inalterado el numero de barcos de la flota de altura, pero su composidon ha variado mucho e individuahnente los barcos ban experimentado grandes majoras en cuanto a tamafio, rendimiento y armamento. Se dan cuatro ejemplos tipicos de embarcaciones pequeftas para la pesca del camaron al arrastre, cuteres, arrastreros y mixtas para la pesca al arrastre y a la deriva.
1HE
1
fleet
Netherlands fishing fleet can be divided into large boats, operating mainly in the North Sea, and small coastal fishing craft. The sea-going
some
consists chiefly of cutters, drifters and trawlers, for combined trawling and driftnet fishing. The
In the cutter class, the trend is to increase the dimenand the output of the motors to be able to go beyond the over-fished areas; in 1938 the length of the cutter was about 49 to 65 ft. (IS to 20 m.), with an engine
sions
coastal fleet contains a great variety of types, obsolete and usually built of wood.
some
fishing fleet at present numbers about which was its strength in 1938, but its composition has changed considerably. After World War II reconstruction started in such an energetic way that the Netherlands had an effective fishing fleet within a few years. This post-war recovery, stimulated by profitable catches, has led to further modernization and renewal. The three main types are: (a) small sea-going craft and cutters ; (b) trawler-drifters and (c) trawlers. In 1938 the proportion of the types was about 7:6:2, and it is now 9:4:% that is, an increase in the cutters, a decrease in drifters, while the trawlers have more or less
The sea-going
vessels,
600
between 80 and ISO h.p. The new cutters have a length of 65 to 88 ft. (20 to 27 m.) and the engine has increased to about ISO to 300 h.p. No more drifters are being built, thus they are decreasing in number. Drift-netting is still important, even though it cannot be carried on throughout the year. The older drifters, with a length of 79 to 92 ft. (24 to 28 m.) and with diesel engines of 80 to ISO h.p., or from 92 to 108 ft (28 to 33 m.) and powered by steam engines of about 180 to 250 h.p., do not have sufficient power
for trawling, which decreases their production. Almost all steam vessels are out of service but some have been
rebuilt
and
fittc4
drifters, fitted
number of motor with diesels. with more powerful engines, continue in

rebuilt vessels
service,
and these and the
now
trawl
and
kept their position.

craft"
acre
The
so-called
"small sea-going
do
primarily for shrimp trawling. To productivity, this type is also used in coastal waters for flat-fish, by increasing the power of the engine from 80 tup. to 120 kp. It has good navigation
built
drift-netting as well In addition, new combined trawler-drifters were built after 1948 with a length of
increase
its
qualities and
shows profitable returns.
10S to 115 ft, (32 to 35 m.) and with 250 to 400 h.p. motors. Gener^y,favourableres\ilts have been obtained because fishing is earned on throughout the year. Important changes have also taken place in the trawter
1631]
BOAT TYPES
Fig. 695.
Small motor cutter
Lines
In 1938 the length of the trawlers averaged 98 to 125 (30 to 38 m.), with steam engines of 300 to 600 h.p. They are being replaced by motor trawlers, a few of which were already in service before the war. The new trawlers have a length of 115 to 138 ft. (35 to
fleet.
ft.
fish in the
42 m.), with engines of about 500 to 1,000 h.p., and most northern waters of the North Sea and in higher
latitudes.
From the following examples of recently-built vessels the characteristics of the modern Dutch sea-going fishing vessels can be observed. The plans and descriptions were kindly submitted by:
1.
Shrimp trawler (fig. 695 and 696) Trawling for shrimps takes place both to port and starboard, and the net is lifted by steel derricks on the foremast, to which the fishing tackle is fastened. Hoisting and lowering is done by the drums of the winch, which extend on each side of the wheelhouse. The winch, operated from the wheelhouse, is driven from the main engine by a belt with a tension roller. The winch has two in. drums each containing 1,000 ft. (300 m.) of (1 1 mm.) wire. The hauling-in speed is 330 ft. (100 m.) per min. with a pull of 4,400 Ib. {2,000 kg.). The shrimps
&
Shrimp
trawler:
Shipping Department of the Netherlands Ministry of the Building Industry.

2.
are kept alive in the fish well before processing. The vessel is divided, as shown in fig. 696. The forepeak can also be used as a ballast tank. There are four bunks in the crew's quarters, with lockers, table and
Motor cutter:
N. V, Scteepgbouwwerf "De Industrie" D, en Boot, Alphen a/d Ryu.
benches, dresser with sink and pump, and space for a gas range and a coal stove. Electricity for lighting is
3. Trawler-drifter:
N.V. Sdweptbouwwerf "Dc DagenuuT v/h Wed.

J.
Boot, Wotibrugge.
4. Trmwier:
N.V. Schp*bouwwerf "Dc Hoop" v/h Gebr.

Boot, Leiden.
provided by a 24 V dynamo and battery. The vessel has steel masts. The wheelhouse is of teak. The steel weight is 24 ton. The hull is partly or totally welded. The fuel oil tanks, with a total capacity of 4 ton, are on both sides of the fish well The diesel engine is normally 80 h.p., but 120 h,p. is necessary when trawling flat-fish. For this type of ship, a medium tpeed diesel
[632J
MEDIUM DISTANCE
NETHERLANDS FISHING FLEET

The principal dimensions are:
is preferred, the speed of the propeller being reduced to 300 r.p.m. Particulars of the propeller are: three blades, 39J in. (1,000 mm.) diam., 34 in. (860 mm.) pitch, and 52 per cent, blade surface. The diameter of the
LOA
LBP B
88 77
21
ft. ft.
ft.
in.
(27m.)
propeller shaft is 3.5 to 4.0 in. (90 to 100 mm.). Speed: 8 knots, trawling depth: 1 to 6 fm. (2 to 11 m.), speed during fishing: 3 knots. The ship has a liferaft.
D
T
A
Fuel
oil
.
Motor
cotter
(fig.
697 and 698)
These ships fish in the North Sea in winter, about latitude 5330' N. and between longitude 40' and 50' E., at a depth of 20 to 35 fm. (37 to 64 m.), with a trawling speed of about 3 knots. In summer they fish between latitude 56 and 58 N. and longitude 3 and 430' E., at a depth of 30 to 50 fm. (55 to 90 m.), with a trawling speed of about 4 knots. One fishing trip takes about 10 to 11 days, the distance from Ijmuiden being 300 to 360 miles. The fuel oil consumption is about 1 ton per day. With the bunker capacity of 25 ton, a trip of about three weeks is possible.
Freshwater Fish hold

Speed
p
10 ft. 8 ft. 21 in. (2.5 m,) 180 ton 917cu.ft. (26ciumO 275 cu. ft. (7.8 cu. m.) 650 boxes 10 knots 0.50 0.80
0.63
9 in. (23.7m.) 4 in. (6.5m.) 6 in. (3.2 m.)
mainly welded, only the frames and seams being riveted. The hull is of strong construction, prohull
is
The
on the gallows sides by 3x 1$ in. (76x38 mm.) half-round bars. The total steel weight is about 75 ton. The fish hold has a capacity of about 38 ton. The insulation consists of cork layers, 5 in. (127 mm.) thick
tected
CCTON
AT FRAME
M.
Fig, 696.
[633]
BOAT TYFES
Fig. 697.
Dutch motor
cutter
-Una
barrel diameter.
under deck, 4 in. (102 mm.) on the hull and 3 in. (76 mm.) on the bulkheads, covered with a layer of cement. The fish hold is divided by wooden bulkheads fixed in galvanized iron stanchions, and the shelves are of pine. There is accommodation for six men aft; the skipper has his berth in the chart room. The main engine is a 6-cyiinder diesel, developing 300 h.p. at 460 r.p.m., with a reduction gear of 2:1. The propeller has a diameter of 6 ft. 5 in. (1,950 mm.), four blades, 4 ft. 2 in. (1,280 mm.) pitch, 40 per cent, of blade surface. An auxiliary engine developing 20 h.p. at 1,000 r.p.m. and two generators of 7.1 kW, 1 10 V DC are fitted in the engine room. The trawl winch has 420 fm. (768 m.) of 2} in. (63.5 mm.) steel wire, and a capacity of 7,700 Ib. (3,500 kg.) at
medium
lifeboat
Each ship is equipped with a or dinghy. The gross tonnage amounts to 1 19 and the net tonnage is 42.
(fig. 699 and 700) 9 J knots, and 3} knots when trawling at a depth of 22 to 27 fm. (40 to 50 m.), and the ship can remain at sea for 21 days. The fuel consumption is about 3,900 Ib. (1,775 kg.) in 24 hours. Gross tonnage: about 118. Net tonnage: about 42. Other main particulars are:
Trawkr^drifter
The speed
is
LOA
LBP B
118.38 104.75
ft.
ft.
22.92 12.46
ft.
ft.
(36.05m.) (31.95m.) (7.00m.) (3.80m.)
Fig, 698.
Dutch mttar cutter
General arrm
MEDIUM DISTANCE
Fig. 699.
Dutch
trawler-drifter
Una
Tfw<L
aft
GM
... .... ...

.
.
7.58
12.29
ft. ft.
(2.31 m.)
(3.75 m.)
329 ton
3
1.51
The ship is divided by five watertight bulkheads. The forepeak is used as a chain locker. The insulated fish hold has eight partitions with four rows of galvanized iron
pillars
Frame spacing fr. 28-57

elsewhere Fuel ail capacity Freshwater capacity Fish hold capacity
Barrel capacity
(920 mm.) ft. (460 mm.) 1.48 ft. (450 mm.)

ft.
l,554cu.ft.(44cu.m.) 283 cu. ft. (8 cu. m.) 4,415 cu. ft. (125 cu.m.) 650
18
and three barrel stores. The insulation is 4 in. thick expanded cork at the sides, fore and aft mm.) (102 bulkheads 2 in. (51 mm.) cork plates, and the deck has 5 in. (127 mm.) cork plates. The whole fish hold is sheeted with pine, has a wooden floor and is divided by a wooden bulkhead. The rope store is only on the starboard side and there is a double barrel store on the port
side.
Accommodation
5
men
....
0.459 0.835 0.593
Both the fore and the aft cabins have eight bunks. In is a messroom, a shower and toilet washing place, entrance to engine room and aft cabin.
the deckhouse there
'
......
';:"' in iffi _Lj.

.1 J i
.1.
.
.-*.
7 is J_a..i _i..j_
>.
T7l,,rr?
.
JL-l.
i.^.
Fig. 700.
Dutch
1635]
BOAT TYPES
Fig. 701.
Dutch trawlerLines
The captain's cabin is also the radio room with the Decca navigator and direction finder. The echo sounder is in the
wheelhouse.
On
the aft deck, under a steel watertight
seams and frames and welded butts, welded bulkheads, bottom tanks and decks. The bar keel is welded to the keel plates. Two built-in freshwater tanks are arranged on both sides of the engine. The scantlings of the midship sections are:
caging, is the hand-hydraulic steering gear. The ship is constructed of steel with riveted
as well as one general service pump of 8 10 cu. ft. (23 cu.[m.) per hr. capacity, one stand-by compressor of 1,060 cu. ft. (30 cu. m.) per hr. capacity, and one stand-by lubricating supply, there is pump. In addition to the main 1 10V hr. with a lead-acid 190 an emergency plant of 24V
DC
DC
battery. The main switchboard is in the engine room, and the distributing boards are on the bridge. There is also
pump of 210 cu. ft. (6 cu. m.) per trimming the fuel from the fore bottom tank to each of the side bottom tanks.
an
electric fuel transfer
hr. capacity for
Barked
Keelstrake
8x2 in. (200x50 mm.)

strakes
.
Garboard
Bilge strake
Sheer strake
Strake below
Bulwark
Floor plates Center line keelson
mm.) mm.) 0.38 in. (9.5 mm.) 0.44 in. (11 mm.) 0.38 in. (9.5 mm.) 0.28 in. (7 mm.) 16x0.32 in. (400x8 mm.)
in. (11
in. (8
0.44 0.32
Trawler
(fig.
701 and 702)
this ship, trawling is possible at a depth of 55 fm. (100 m.) at 4 to 5 knots. Radius of action: about 1,250 miles. Fuel oil consumption: 2.55 ton (3 cu. m.)
With
in 24 hr.
Gross tonnage: 275. Net tonnage: 126. The
trawler's principal dimensions are: 132.1 1ft. (40.25m.)
LOA
5.5 x 5.5x0.32x0*48 in. I
Frames
Deck beams
(140x140x8x12 mm.) 4 x 2.5 X 0.32 in. L (100x65x8 mm.) 5 x 2.5 x 0.32 in. L (130x65x8 mm.)
LBP B
114.83
.
ft. ft.
ft.
D
8
24.94 12.47
(35.00m.) (7.60m.) (3.80m.)
Deck stringerplat 20x0.32 in. (500x8 mm.) Deck tic plates 2x24x0.32in.(2x600x8mm.) The main engine develops 400 h.p. at 350 r.p.m. and has a reduction gear of 2:1 with a built-in clutch. This special dutch absorbs sharp pulls on the rope when trawling. A diesel of 100 h.p, at 1,000 r.p.m. on the port side, drives the winch through a shaft and V-pultey, The winch lias 710 fin. (1,300 m.) of f in. (22 mm.)
25 h.p. at 1,250 r.p.m. auxiliary diesel drives an intermediate shaft by means of a flat belt from which
twogeocratoriof 7JkW,
1
Frame spacing
Fuel capacity Fish hold capacity
0.599 0.863 0.694 19.40
10V DC are driven by V-belu,
Sailing speed 4.91 knots Trawling speed Departure: Mean draught (exci. keel) 9*65 ft. (2,94 m*) 16.550 cu. ft. (468 cu. m.) Displacement moulded The deck gear consists of: (a) a hydraulic-driven trawl winch, each band having 1,000 fin. (1,830 m.) 3 in. (76 mm.) wire rope; (b) a windlass, driven by the trawl
.
in. (500 mm.) 16,500 Imp. gal. (74.9 cu. m.) 9,540 cu. ft. (270 cu. m.) 2,700 boxes 10.75 knots
MEDIUM DISTANCE
winch (with one of the trawl
(hand-hydraulic).
insulated, with

The main engine develops 750 h.p. at 380 r.p.m., with a reduction gear of 2:1. The main engine has a freshwater cooling pump with a capacity of 10 ton per hn The auxiliary engines consist of a winch motor of 230 h.p.
at 600 r.p.m., an air-cooled auxiliary diesel of 40 h.p. at 1,200 r.p.m., a harbour set of 8 h.p. at 2,000 r.p.m,, with a 4 generator and 600 cu. ft. (17 cu. m.) per
wires); (c) steering gear
is of steel. The fish hold is cork cement ceilings. The metacentric heights (GM) under the various con-
The tripod mainmast
ditions are:
Leaving port
Arriving fishing grounds
Leaving fishing grounds

Arriving port The crew quarters dates ten men.
.... ....
. .
.
aft,
under the
mm.) (636 mm.) 2.25 ft. (686 mm.) 2.11 ft. (644 mm.) maindeck, accommoft.
2.13
(646
kW
2.08
ft.
superstructure extends to the port side, and here located the galley with gas stove, a provision storeroom with refrigerator, mess-room, three cabins,
The
is
there
hour compressor, and two generators, each of 22 kW, All engines have freshwater cooling. Other 220V. equipment in the engine room is: one electric pump for deck washing, capacity 23 ton per hour; one electric fuel transfer pump, capacity 4 ton per hour; one bilge pump, capacity 19 ton per hour; one electric spare lubricating oil pump, capacity 3 ton per hour; one
compressor, capacity 1,300 cu. ft. (36.8 cu. m.) per hour; one salt-water automatic water pressure system, capacity 33 Imp. gal. (ISO 1.); one freshwater automatic water pressure system, capacity 33 Imp. gal (150 1.); one electric separator with heater, for both fuel and lubricating
oil.
washing place with shower bath, two
engine casing and stairs to the crew quarters and the wheelhouse. Aft of the wheelhouse is the combined wireless chartroom and captain's cabin. The crew quarters, cabins and engine room are heated by means of an oil-fired central heating system, the boiler of which is in the engine room.
toilets,
The
hull is
welded and the
total steel weight is
82 ton.
Flg. 702.
Dutch trawler
General arrangement
DESIGN STUDIES FOR STERN TRAWLERS

by
HEINZ HEINSOHN
The underlying ideas and design problems concerned in building the stern motor trawler* Heinrich Meins, Carl Kanpf and Sagitta are discussed. Theae vessels, the first of their size and type, opei^ conditions and on the same fishing grounds. Although designed and built by the same yard, they differ, reflecting the opinion of their owners and the uncertainties arising from trying out new ideas which have not been proved in practice.
ETUDE DES PLANS DE CHALUTIERS PBCHANT PAR L'ARREBRE

L'auteur examine fes idees fondamentales et les probfemes d'&ablissement des plans, consideYes dans la construction des chalutiers a moteur pftchant par Farriere: Heinrich Metns, Carl Kampftt Sagitta. Ces navires, les premiers de cette taiUe et de ce type, travaillent avec le meme engin que celui qui est utilise dans les mftmes conditions et sur les mftnes lieux de peche par les chalutiers courants. Bien que dessfnes et construits par le meme chantier, its different entre eux, rtflechissant 1'opinion de leurs armateure et les incertitudes provenant de I'cssai d'idees nouveiles qui n'ont pas 6t6 prouvees pratiquement
1
ESTUDIOS DE LOS PROYECTOS DE LOS ARRASTREROS QUE PESCAN POR LA POPA

Se estudian las ideas que ban inspirado los motoarrastreros Heinrich Mcins, Car! Kdmpfy Sagitta y los probtemas que se encontraron cuando se proyectaban. Estos barcos, los priroeros de su tamaiio y tipo, emptean el mismo equipo que los arrastreros corrientes, trabajan en las mismas conditiones y explotan los mismos caladeros. Aunquc proyectadoi y construidos por el mismo astillcro, son distintos, reflejando las opiniones de sus armadores y las incertidumbres que presenta el ensayo de ideas nuevas que no se han probado en la practica.
productive time of a trawler,
when
the trawl
on the bottom, is comparatively short. The steaming time to and from the fishing grounds can only be reduced by higher speed, and it is very
THE
is
Fairtry and the Poushkm size were beyond the financial resources of German trawler owners. They had to
restrict
size
themselves in their first venture to ships of a comparable to the present distant-water trawlers
expensive.
Much
time
is
required for handling the net
fishing over the side.
and if this could be reduced, valuable fishing time would be gained. Hauling is mainly a question of winch power, and shooting depends mainly on the weight of the gear and the ship's speed. The time and work of bringing gear and catch on to the ship, emptying the net, making repairs, and paying the gear back into the water is reduced by fishing over the stern. Trawl warps are less liable to wear and tear and are led over the stern in a simpler and more symmetrical way. For example, only one gallows roller is used per warp. Heavy manual work is reduced and conditions arc
Influence of length of gear It was decided that normal gear should be used, perhaps with small adaptations. When the ships were in opera-
made lifer far the crew. The anew ate protected against cold and stormy weather by working on the high upper deck while handling the trawl, and are under cover on the 'tween-deck
while gutting the fish. There is .also less danger of capsizing because of a substantial freeboard and a much
larger range of positive stability levers. The final solution for fishing on distant grounds is
improvements or new ideas could be tried and, in nylon for the codcnd and lengthening pieces have already been introduced with success. The trawl, when hauled through the narrow stern chute, as shown in fig. 703, is about 183 ft. (56 m.) long. Ideally, it should be brought to the deck in one pull. The length makes this impossible, but it is imperative that the number of pulls be kept to a minimum to save time and labour and to reduce stresses which may occur
tion,
fact,
when
strops, beckets, etc., are applied.
thought, in Germany, to be the factory ship. But the first costs and dries involved in factory trawlers of the
Three points are clearly indicated where to apply the pulls: the danknos or small doors, which are mostly used on German trawlers* the ground tackle and bobbins, and the codend and lengthening piece* The distance between the upper endof the stern ramp, which is the first safe position where a strop can be applied, and the centre of the drums of the trawl winoh
LONG DISTANCE
should be at least 70 ft. (21.4 ro.). This is the length b, 64 ft. (19.6 m.) plus an allowance of 6 ft. (1.8 HL) for the distance of point B to the drums (fig. 703). This is the bare minimum, and it is one of the fundamental measures of the design, although it varies with the size of the trawl. For example, these distances are 973 ft. (29.7 m.) for the Heinrich Mei*s> 84.5 ft. (25.8 m.) for the Carl KSmpf, and 71 ft. (21.6 m.) for the Sagitta.
STERN TRAWLERS
with compressed air which is drawn from a compressor in the engine room, no extra compressor being necessary, The joint with the deck can be steam-heated to prevent
freezing.
Conveyor
belts
they should preferably
cany both fish and offal, and work in both directions.
Manoeuvring of ship daring hauling and shooting
Two main decisions were taken
The ship's speed must be controlled from the bridge by the skipper himself One bridge must be sufficient, the stern being easily observed from it. (This saved costs and avoided handing over command from one bridge to the other, which would have involved more crew)
Fish holds All three trawlers were intended mainly to land iced fish, so the fish holds could be of conventional type with 18F or refrigerated hold ( pounds and shelves. 28C) for frozen products was also arranged on the
fish-meal plant, with a maximum capacity of 20 ton of raw material per day, was installed for processing offal and surplus fish. If bad weather holds up fishing, the catch already made is put through the plant, so that a fresh start can be made, because iced fish should be landed within 16 days of being caught. The plant consists of steriliser, press, steam-heated dryers, and
accessories.
different
The various items can be arranged

suit the available space.
in
ways to
In addition to the complement of about 26 men for fresh fish trips, space had to be provided for salters on salting trips and for factory workers. As there were no figures available for the number of factory workers required,
fish, unloading had to be done in one night by normal methods. Although the common small hatches used on side trawlers were sufficient, it was necessary, for quick unloading, to have only a small distance from the aftermost pound to the aftermost hatch; therefore, most of the main deck over the hold had to be free from superstructures. When quick unloading is not necessary, as with frozen cargo, obstructions over the hold can be accepted. shaft alley in the fish hold was eliminated because it would interfere with loading and unloading and take up
Heinrich Meins and the Sagitta. As the main catch would be iced
Fig. 703.
Shape of trawl when hauling

as
the available space
was used to accommodate
many as
possible. The Carl K&mpf, with no processing plant, has the smallest complement (38 men); the Heinrich Meins,
valuable space.
with the biggest plant, has 46 men.
The
Sagitta has
fish
accommodation for 43.

Transport of
fish
from stem to bold
Because drainage could not be provided above the
On all three ships the catch is fed from the codend direct
to the working deck. At first it was intended to work with a double codend, so two hatches were provided aft, leaving enough space between them for the net. The full codends were to be lifted vertically over the two hatches to release the fish directly to the working deck. The
holds, the galley and sanitary rooms were kept clear of them. Officers and crews have separate quarters away from the working spaces and both have easy access to the
upper and working decks.

Lifesaving appliances
Inflatable
liferafts
passage from the shelter deck to the main deck was rounded, started nearly vertical at the shelter deck and then sloped forward into the main deck, an arrangement influenced by the location of the fish-meal plant. Later, a new method was adopted with a flap just forward of the upper radius of the stern ramp. After
and a rubber boat were
installed
instead of lifeboats, by special permission of the authoriSince then experience has demonstrated the ties. superiority of this lifesaving equipment over the con-
ventional lifeboat It is now compulsory for German trawlers to carry a small liferaft for four persons, which
as
untying the codend knot with the full net still lying on the deck just forward of the hatch, many fish flow out, thus relieving the pressure when the net is lifted between the samson posts. This arrangement is very efficient and only redfeh are difficult to get out of the codend.
very useful, handy and quickly available.
Classification society regulations for trawlers do not apply to those fishing over the stern, so the rules for
shelter
Many different flaps with different drives were designed

a strong, inexpensive one was developed. This flap swings on throe bearings aft and is oounterbalanoed, aod is operated by a douWâcting cylinder working
until
deck
vessels
were mainly used*
Reasonable
amendments were agreed with die Oennanischer Uoyd* The sheU plating of die transom stem is strengthened (0.55 in, or 14 mxnu) and the stern ramp was increased in
[639]

sufficient.
BOAT TYPES
thickness (0.4? in. or 12 mm.). This has been found The upper rounding of the item ramp to the
deck kvel was provided with doublings which can be easily replaced when chafed by the trawl warps. Strengthening for navigation in ice was done to the normal requirements of the classification society. The minimum freeboard regulations for shelter deck vessels were adhered to, the height of coamings and sills of doors being increased considerably where possible. Sills to entrance doors on the upper deck, as well as from
the working space to cabins on the main deck, are 2 ft. (610 mm.); hatch coamings for the fish hold on the main deck are 9 in. (230 mm.) and 2 ft. (610 mm.) on the upper deck. Scuppers from the working space on the main deck are of the non-return type, with a second independent watertight cover in case the flap should become choked by offal. Because of the low freeboard in loaded condition, scuppers are provided draining into special tanks which can be pumped out. Therefore the scuppers to outboard can be completely closed in heavy storms. The fish-meal plant also drains into this tank.
the system is very safe, and requires little or no maintenance. Real troubles with diesel-electric plants usually originate, to the author's knowledge, in the diesel
engines. Diesel-electric propulsion is very expensive if used with prime movers of moderate load and r.p.m.. although costs can be reduced to some extent by the use of modern supercharged high-speed dieseis of advanced
design.
Savings in space and weight are gained only with high-speed dieseis, but such engines raise the centre of gravity, which means either ballast (loss of the weight saved) or more beam, which leads to other problems. An arrangement providing a main compartment for the prime movers and generators, auxiliaries, etc., and a
propeller motor compartment, makes diesel-electric drive very attractive in special cases. But it is a common error to believe that the propeller motor can be near the
propeller. Unfortunately, the electric motor, even if geared to reduced size and first costs, has to be placed at a
considerable distance from the propeller because of the

fine lines of the afterbody.
Choke of main As the ships were mainly

had
to be high
"Father and
son" propulsion
and
for iced fish, the sailing speeds the trawling qualities had to be good
for fishing in deep water and rough sea. Some convenient and not too expensive form of emergency drive was also wanted, in case of a breakdown of the main engine, as well as a shaft generator for the electric
system. The trawl winch drive also had to be considered. This
should not, if costs allowed, be operated by only one prime mover. For better efficiency and lower maintenance costs aU power, including auxiliaries, should be provided
The "father and E son'* propulsion was developed for owners who want one slow-running main engine moderately supercharged and substantially constructed. It is a development of the well-known "father and son*' system, the main characteristic of which is that the main diesel engine ("father") and the auxiliary diesel ("son'*) driving the winch generator, work together through a common gear with couplings on the single shaft. The power of the diesel winch generator can therefore also be used for propulsion. The drawback is that the gearbox requires much space, especially in breadth, and
consequently cannot be placed so far aft as a single motor. With the "father and E son" system, the winch generator set does not work directly on the gear but through a separate electric motor, the "E (electric) son"; so it is possible to place the winch generator in any convenient position and the "father" engine works directly without any gear on the shaft. The gear of the "E son", the size of which is governed only by the output of the "E son" and not by that of the "father" engine, is of moderate size and very narrow. Therefore the main engine can be placed further aft Of course, there are merits only as long as a direct working "father** engine is used, which was the case in the Carl Kdmpf. Here also, the gearing of the "E son" could be dispensed with by having a big motor-generator directly on the shaft fine, which works either as the trawl winch generator when fishing, as the booster motor when steaming, or as reserve drive if the main engine breaks down after uncoupling the "father" engine. There are two auxiliary diesel generator sets, a big one for the trawl winch, or the booster motor in the shaft-line or the ship's mains, and a small set for the ship's mains. This system combines tome of the flexibility of the die*d-dectric system with the robustness of the sk>wmnning mam engine. In first costs, it comes between the
by the main engine, the auxiliary dieseis acting as booster engines and a reserve. Steam machinery was out of the question because of
its
high fuel consumption, weight and space requirements. Three possibilities existed for diesel propulsion direct drive, geared drive, and diescl-electric, the
:
former two only in conjunction with controllable-pitch

propellers.
From
electric
the purely technical point of view, the diesclsystem appears to be ideal and its flexibility is unchallenged, although the operation is not as simple as Is sometimes believed. Electric current for propulsion and the ship's mains
must be taken from different generators which, of course, can be driven by one prime mover. The trawl winch drive, whether of the Ward Leonard system or similar or the constant current system, adds to the complications. For real flexibility, a substantial switchboard with many
nitcflocked circuit-breaker safety devices, etc., is necessary, and this requires space. The heat generated ha* to be removed by big fans without bringing too much mowtwre into the engine room. Highly qualified eogifiwmki run the plant. With these cotuiitions fulfilled
nem
LONG DISTANCE
dicscl-clcctric
STERN TRAWLERS
could not exceed about 17 ft. (5.2 m.) as the vessels had to pass through the lock at Bremerhaven at tow tide. This limited the maximum diameter of the propeller to about 9.5 ft. (2.9 m.), a satisfactory figure, as controllable-pitch propellers of large diameters axe becoming quite expensive. Furthermore, on the Carl KSmpf, gearing for the main diesel, which ran at 250 r.p.m., was not necessary when the propeller diameter was reduced to 8.5 ft. (2.6 m.). Model tests with a rudder nozzle showed that, in smooth water, it had no measurable effect on the trial speed. This meant that, apart from trawling where a considerable improvement in pull was to be gained, especially in rough water, the nozzle would be a paying proposition by saving oil fuel or by improving the speed. The nozzle replaces the rudder and provides very good steering power even when turned only a few degrees. Furthermore, the propeller is better protected against the trawl warps, although this was believed to be of minor importance. The Carl A2mg/*was, therefore, fitted with a nozzle rudder. The Sagitta, with its 9.17 ft. (2.8 m.) propeller, did not need a nozzle. The Voith-Schneider
propellers in the forebody were made as large as possible for the Heinrich Meins. Larger diameters would have
system and the simple reversible diesel with an independent winch generator set.
Gs turbine propulsion
A
gas turbine, with Pcscara free piston gasifiers, a type increasingly popular, was installed in die Sagtita. Although its specific fuel consumption is higher than that of dicscls, a cheaper oil of lower quality (a somewhat improved Bunker C oil) is used. This results in
now becoming
considerable savings in the fuel bill
And
as there are
few moving parts to wear away, and these are comparatively cheap and easy to renew, it is hoped that maintenance costs will be very low. The two gasifiers are of standard design with a maximum of 1,000 h.p. each at the turbine coupling, giving ample reserve of power for bad weather. The whole plant normally has an output of about 1,500 h.p., which is sufficient for a speed of about 14 knots. The plant can also run with one gasifier only,
thus giving the necessary reserve. The turbine itself is very safe, and has a controllable-pitch, non-reversible generator for the ship's mains, as well as for propeller. the pumps for the hydraulic winch drive, is driven from the intermediate shaft of the articulated double reduc-
tion gear. For harbour duties these pumps are driven from the generator which works as a motor, the power
diesel generator harbour sets. with "father and E son" propulsion of the Compared same output, this system results in a saving in headroom but not in space. There is some saving in weight and the centre of gravity is low.
coming from two
Voitil-Schneider propulsion
For the Heinrich Meins, which was

diesel-electric drive, the
:
first
planned for
Voith-Schneider system seemed to be ideal for these reasons Only one engine room, which reduced watch keeping
and maintenance
No propellers at the stern, therefore fouling the net
no
risk
of them
Superior steering qualities Against these advantages was the fact that there was no real experience with Voith-Schneider propellers in the bow of ships of the size of the Heinrich Meins, although there was experience with smaller craft, especially tugs, which applied to trawlers. The first costs were favourable
meant bringing them further aft with corresponding changes of the forebody. This would have spoiled the general arrangement and brought the fish hold too far aft. Diesel-electric propulsion has an electric efficiency of about 84 per cent., but about 5 per cent, could be gained by using a fixed-bladed propeller, compared with a controllable-pitch propeller of 8.5 ft. (2.6 m.) diameter and 250 r.p.m. It could be further improved by more than 10 per cent, by the use of a large slow running propeller, but this was impossible. Such possible improvements should always be kept in mind when comparing electric propulsion systems with smaller propellers of high r.p.m. The Voith-Schneider propeller in the forebody, besides having a high specific load, could not make use of the wake as does the ordinary aft propeller, and it also had friction drag. However, compared with the diesel-electric drive, the disadvantages were more than offset because the system avoided electrical losses. The total efficiency of the four propulsion systems does not differ very much, but slightly favours the "father and E son" as long as only the "father" engine is working. Therefore, the choice of the systems was based on their
other merits. Lines and stability Experience shows that the stability of a trawler should not be too high, otherwise it will be "stiff". long range of positive stability levers is more important for safety
compared with diesel-electric and, after extensive model tests (also in an artificial seaway), it was decided to take
the risk.
Propeller arrangements and diameters fishing over the stern seems likely to foul the propeller, this is more apt to occur in fishing over the
Although
side, always moving forward during hauling. The only danger is that the motor stalls when going dead slow, and does not re-start before
because a stern trawler
is
than a great initial stability, and this Is typical of a shelter deck ship which has ample freeboard, compared with that of a single deck trawler. The most dangerous condition, apart from icing up, would be in harbour after landing
the catch, when the ship is empty and theft is some ice on the upper deck, with many pound boards put there for cleaning. The transom stem, which is necessary for a ston trawler, improves stability for a ship which trims
the vessel drifts backwards over the trawl warps* It is overcome by a controllable-pitch propeller or diescletoctric drive. Also a large distance between the propeller
and ramp reduces the
risk.
The maximum draught
aft
[641]

10*
m. m. m.
(
BOAT TYPES
<iQ&4ft) 323ft)
fig. 704. Hcinrich Meins, stability
and trim
considerably aft in light condition. It also improves stability when the boat is loaded. Therefore the lines of a successful type of side trawler could be used for the Cor/ AiJm^/. Only a new afterbody hfr*i |0 5e designed, the main dimensions (LBP, beam and dmiigbt) being the same. Stern trawlers also have comparatively small superstructures, and the centre of
AH three ships roll gently and ship little water. For further stability information, see fig. 704, 70S and 706. Model tests showed that, for the indicated range of
speed, the transom stern is at a slight disadvantage compared with the cruiser stern, as shown in fig. 707, but there seems to be some room for improvement. Only the EHP can be compared The SHFs include the higher propeller efficiency of a slow running large diameter fixed-blade propeller, the lower efficiency of a controllable-pitch propeller with smaller diameter and higher r.p.m. The Ones of the Heinrich Meins were consideraby improved after additional model testing. The EHP is exceptionally food but the SHP is not, doe to the
propeller eniciency*
was raised only about 1.4 ft. (0*43 m.). The type with engine forward, and, consequently, head tribi in light condition, is far more of a problem. It benefits from the transom stem in loaded condition but
gravity
not much in light condition. This type, therefore, must have more beam. In the case of the Helnrich Afeftu, because of the special form of the forebody for the Vofth-Schnekkr propellers and the transom stern, the metaoeatte was exceptionally higfc, compared with a and bar beam of only 32-8 ft <tO m.) is
'
(
Itamt
The
twt winches are basically the ume at on ordinary U WM tho^ to be pwctical to hve tnOtlier
[6421
LONG DISTANCE
two small drums for net hauling. This would avoid having too many wires on the warping heads. It was also thought to be useful to have some net-hauling reserve in the event of a method being developed for the use of
throe or four warps for pelagic fishing. However, these small bands are not necessary and, for economy's sake, were not fitted on the Sagitta. Instead, a second shaft with two further warping heads was installed, as in most
side trawlers.
Sagitta. the trawlers with engines aft, there were difficulties with die winch drive. The winch drive had to be arranged as far forward as possible and then interfered with the engine casing.
STERN TRAWLERS
The hydraulic drive is ideal for saving space at the trawl winch. Hydraulic motors are so small that it it possible to arrange them on the winch bedplate at very little cost in space. The drawbacks ate that hydraulic pumps in the engine room may require more space than electric generators (depending on the system employed) and that the hydraulic system cannot serve, except at extra cost and complications, the different purposes met son" system. Furthermore, the by the "father and hydraulic system can be noisy and the ratio between maximum and slowest speed for full power is smaller than that of an electric motor, so the gear ratio between pump and trawl winch shaft has to be carefully chosen.
In the Carl
K&mpf and
eaoft 31. 5
ft.
(MOmJ

"'
ftttm,
~ OAT
TYPES
CAfUKXMPf
Sm. 4.90m
IJSBlm,
/Cf
MGHTIHG
LWS (G-)
Ift
&.
910
3.H
Oft
m,
Qfi
Ob
70
690
Jjt?
ft
04O7
ft.
04
V 0C&
10*
30
SO*
70*
sir
crow
tCE AND POUND BOARDS
OfiCX:
*,
70
ONUPPBZtXCK FUEL at
933
345 M?? 0377

/A38 f450
V
W ^^
122
140
Ofi
DfPARTUGt
70
1176
/.9/
o
IC:
124
itr
70*
m
115
^::.2
WOUNDS
60
1122
330
4,140 0.54
30*
J04
rot*
fJSMNO GROUNDS
JO
104
70
40
1427
45? S64
0.742
3cr
so'
USPAKfURt FROM 7H
W:
162
ONLY HALF rtSH LJOAD
MW
22
vori
70
40
1226
434
407SQS95
70*
BUNWKAS3Q
15
9CT
w
Oft
92
ASM;
FULL FISH LJQAD
320
45
1373
30*
104
W:
ftp
45
30
JOr
11S
Jtr
1*9
706.
Cad Kivf,
stability
and trim
LONG DISTANCE
The performance depends in put on the way skippers handle their ships during hauling. Most of them believe that the ship should go "full speed ahead** at the start of a haul so as to lift the net quickly from the bottom. With the high engine powers of modern trawlers, this
hydraulic motor is adequately geared for this, then, in the second half of the haul, the necessary high speed at less torque of the winch will be too low.
practice requires
STERN TRAWLJERS
of 8 ton per day working with Freon 22 and direct evaporation. For further details see fig. 708 and 709.
CartKimpf
cost
a very high winch torque.
If the
The electromotor
is
more
flexible
and
errors in selec-
tion of gear ratio are, to a certain extent, simple to correct.
made to develop a design which would more than an ordinary trawler. Diesel-electric propulsion was too expensive and the position of the engine right aft was impossible because a central engine casing would interfere with the trawl winch. The vessel had too little beam for casings on each side to give enough space for pulling the net through. On bigger
Studies were
little
Heinrich
Meim
trawlers (for example, the large trawlers fishing off Newfoundland for cod) this arrangement would be
possible,
This design is the oldest of those under discussion. First, a suitable way for handling the gear was worked out with models. conclusion was that the trawl winch had to be placed as far forward as possible. Therefore it was decided to place the engine room forward, the fish hold midships and the fish-meal plant aft. Because the engine room was forward, a diesel-electric drive was chosen. The first general arrangement plans indicated considerable loss of space aft where the propeller motor
and would be
ship.
similar to the arrangement in a
whale factory
However, as the fish-meal plant, which above this room, could be moved one deck higher up, this was not of great importance. In case more fish were caught than could be immediately gutted, ample storage space was provided in the 'tween deck
sited.
room was
had
to be
This general arrangement gave a clear and simple division between the crew's accommodation forward with the engine room below, working space midships with the fish hold below, and gutting space aft with the fish-meal plant below.
It
next to the fish-meal plant.
was thought that

it
very easy
after
vessel
arrangement would ensure However, was decided to install a processing plant when the
this
Comparison of resistance curves of stern trawler (Carl side trawler (Cotdstreamer). Lines of Coldstrcamcr (ordinary trawler with cruiser stern) amended only by a transom
Fig. 707.
K&mpf) and
movement of the
fish into the holds.
stern for Carl
K&mpf. Same dimensions and nearly same displacement
was already on the stocks, it was discovered that the transport problem was not so simple, the gutted fish had to be sorted and then moved forward either into the processing plant or through the hatches into the hold.
This became difficult when the aftermost pounds had been filled and the foremost hatches had to be used. Both sides of the working deck were blocked by the processing plant
By having the fish-meal plant and hold aft of the engine room, it seemed possible to move the trawl winch far enough forward to allow sufficient space for pulling the net onto the deck. Length was gained by making the ramp steeper and by developing the flap for emptying the codend. The narrow but high fish-meal plant of previous trawlers, including the Heinrich Meins, had to be
modified.
and manual transport
in baskets, as
on
ordinary trawlers, was impossible. The difficulties were eventually overcome by using conveyor belts which had, in any case, to be installed for the processing plant. As a result, the work of the crew is easier and quicker, thus improving productivity, and the conveyor has proved to be a real asset.
The bridge front was moved as far forward as possible, the skipper's accommodation and the wireless room were placed on the shelter deck, and a very narrow chart room
was made a part of the funnel casing. Ordinary lifeboats in luffing type davits were provided, but the space between them and the funnel casing was just sufficient to allow a view aft from* the whedhouse. Unfortunately, the
The processing plant was arranged in two sections, one on the starboard side to deal with ungutted redfish,
consisting of a filleting machine with two de-skinning machines, and the other on the port side to deal with gutted whhefish, consisting of a beheading machine, The filleting machine and two de-skinning machines.
fillets
drop from the de-skiimingmadunc into trays whkh
are part of the tables where the fillets are packed before they are frozen by a horizontal plate freezer at the rate
motor of the trawl winch had to be moved about m.) to starboard from midships and be equipped with small drums on the port side. The arrangement in the 'twcendeck was very satisfactory, as the fish art carried to the hold by conveyors in a straight flow, which saves labour. A rotary drum type of fish washing machine, about 2 ft (0.6 m.) internal diameter and 20 ft. (6.1 m.) long, was installed in the
electric
ft.
(0*9
1645]
BOAT TYPES
Fig. 70S.
Hdnrich
Metm
pipe in the upper part of the drum the as they are moved forward by a iinaU worm sprays fastened to the drum. Gutted fish are carried by conveyor into the fish hold, being drawn off at the hatches through removable slides. There are ftmneta with a4justaWe chute* at the hatches to feed the flsh into the pounds.
conveyor {low.
&h
Itwaffdtf howevo*> thatakjngthof59ft.0m )from

<
the stern chute to the trawl winch was too short, so the
winch was placed forward of the engine casing, behind This was the afteraost hatch, with the electric ira possible became the warp Arums were distant from one another to allow an unobstructed run to the gaiiow rollers aft. Sheaves had to be provided for the small dram. The engine casing is no hindrance because the net boaom kavw enough free space midship* Indeed, die casing prevents the bosom add the heavy bobbin
[646]
LONG DISTANCE
is rolling.
STERN TRAWLERS
gear from swinging from side to side when the vessel But the view from the winch to the stern is
not very good, only just had to be accepted
sufficient
a disadvantage which
The captain's quarters and the wireless room had to be placed behind the wheelhouse above the trawl winch, which is under cover and protected from the sea. Small trolleys, fitted to strong webs welded to the underside of the bridge deck, are used to lift heavy parts of the winch when repairs have to be done. One drawback is that a small fishing bridge at the rear end of the deckhouse had to be provided. It was equipped with levers for manoeuvring the controllable-pitch propeller. voice pipe leads to the helmsman on the front bridge. The lifeboats had to be replaced by a rubber boat and inflatable liferafts. For further details, see the general
and engine room arrangements plan

713.
in fig. 711,
712 and
Sagitta
This vessel is basically an improved Carl Kdmpf and a small processing plant was included in the design from
the beginning. The required space for this plant, as well as for the more powerful propulsion machinery, made it
Fig. 710. Carl
K&mpf
>fcif design
necessary to lengthen the hull midships by four frames. The greater length of the engine room and the decision to unload the refrigerated hold through a side port, made it possible to place the trawl winch behind the engine
casing, the length from the trawl winch to the stern chute of 71 ft. (21.6 m.) long being just sufficient. However, an hydraulic winch drive had to be used for the
first
funnel to the offal hopper, a filleting machine, a deskinning machine and a small freezer of the same type as in Heinrich Afeins. The filleting machine was placed forward to process fish already stowed in the fish hold
because the capacity of the plant was too small to process a normal catch immediately. It was planned to stow the catch first and always to fillet the oldest fish so as to
lengthen the
for the crew.
trip.
time in
Germany
for trawl winches of this power.
There were no
difficulties in
providing accommodation
The experience with smaller winches of 125 h.p. on combined drifter-trawlers had been good, and by doubling up the hydraulic system the necessary power was obtained. At the same time, ample reserve was provided as each system was independent. The refrigerating machinery and processing plant were located on the starboard side midships and on top of the fish hold on the 'tweendeck. The plant consisted of a beheading machine on the working deck alt, besides a
The position of the trawl winch behind the engine casing made it possible to have a good view to the stern from the bridge. Fig. 714 and 715 show the general and engine room arrangements. Fig. 716 shows
the vessel ready for fishing.
Performance
The main
table 160.
particulars of the stern trawlers are given in Shooting and hauling the trawls worked far
better than had been anticipated, as both skippers and crew quickly gained experience in the new technique. A main improvement, developed independently on the first two trawlers, was to apply a "third" and, if necessary,
70&
HwttncSi
more pulls from a tackle suspended more or less in line with the slope of the stern chute. This considerably eased the pressure on the codend and lengthening piece when they were hauled over the upper radius of the stem chute. On the Heinrich Meins, with a longer distance from the stem chute to the trawl winch and, consequently, a shorter "third puH", the forward derrick on the samson post aft was used. On the Carl K&npf *n&, later, die Sagitta, short pole masts, stayed to the ship's side and the funnel, were erected as far forward as possible, i.e. directly behind the rubber boat platforms, the distances to the stern flap being just sufficient to avoid a "fourth pull". This improvement prevented the net from bursting open with a big catch when being pulled throu^ the
{647]
BOAT TYPES
Fig. 71 /.
Carl KIdipf, tulmlh
LONG DISTANCE
STERN TRAWLERS
fff*M CM*f
0f
/****
Fig. 712.
Carl K&mpf, engine room arrangement
stern chute, because before sufficient experience was gained, this happened occasionally, especially when the ships were pitching heavily in bad weather.
The explanation
for this
is that,
when quick and heavy
pitching occurs, the transom stern throws the water with such force aft that a momentary "cave" is formed in the
The
best
and
safest course in shooting
and hauling
in
heavy seas is not against the sea, as first was believed, but with the sea. This also applies when sailing at full speed. Several times, when sailing under fall power against the sea, the very robust steel doors closing the
stern chute on the upper deck level, were severely damaged. They tod eventually to be replaced by open guard rails*
wake. The crest of the wave at the end of this "cave" breaks forward and, with the support of the drag behind the transom stern, rushes up the stern chute with very great force. There is little pitching at the stern when sailing with the sea because the waves pass slowly and the upsetting forces are small The biggest catches brought safety to deck by the three
,
[649]
BOAT TYPES
The crow of the Heinrich Mems had to accustom themselves to the Voith-Schneider propellers in the bow, a device never before tried on a ship of this size. During the
first year of operation it was found that the propellers were too small, hydrauiically as well as mechanically. The speed dropped too much in rough seas because too much power was consumed for steering, and wear and tear of some highly loaded parts was high. Both troubles could be overcome by using propellers of larger size and with slightly increased output of the main engines. However, new propellers with a larger diameter could not be fitted to the existing hull and the
Fig. 713. Carl
Kftmpf
vessel was, therefore, converted to diesel-electric drive. This was comparatively simple because the design was first made for diesel-electric drive. The electric generators were fitted in the space the Voith-Schneider propellers had occupied, and two cod-liver oil tanks aft and the last pound of the fish hold had to be sacrificed to provide
vessels
have been more than 500 Korb (German measurement, about 25 ton or about 400 kit), and nylon codends with special strengthening were developed to make it
space for the electric propeller motors and gears. Double propellers were chosen because of the lines of the aft
body.
It is only fair to mention, however, that, although the Voith-Schneider installation had to be removed, the principle is basically sound and can be used with advan-
possible.
still
With further improvements and

in time
strengthening,
bigger hauls can be made.
The saving
by
stern trawling is considerable,
especially with bigger hauls.
A record taken during one
mean time for the trip of the Sagitta showed doors to be out of the water was 24 min. Of this, 10 min. were used for repairing the trawl and 4 min. for collecting fish from the fore part of the net. Therefore, only 10 min. were used for clipping and unclipping the
that the
tage in special circumstances. The system would have propellers of larger size, but they were not chosen because of lack of experience. The crew, once they became adapted to the completely different way of steering and handling the ship, were impressed by the
worked with
doors, hauling the trawl on deck, emptying the codend and shooting again. At the time of writing this paper (November 1958) the performance of the Carl KMmpf has been good. There has been no engine trouble, and the vessel's behaviour
superior manoeuvring qualities and would have preferred to retain the system with, of course, larger propellers.
After replacement by conventional propellers, it was also found by comparison that the Voith-Schneider propellers had worked to some extent as stabilisers, the vessel
rolling
has been very good.
The
more without them. Sagitta also had teething
troubles with the gas
TABLE 160
Ma* pftrtkafen of fee torn trawien KMnrhk Mci**, Ctrl Ktmrf md Smgitta
Heinrich Meins
Length overall,
i
LOA
.
CarlK&npf
212.8 (64.87) 199.4(60.77)
181.1 (55.20)
ft.
(m.)
in the waterline
227.0(69.20) 212.6(64.80)
32.8(10.00)
23.6/16.1 (7.2/4.9)
Sagitta 220.7 (67.27) 207.3 (63.17)
Breadth mid.,
Depth mid
Draught, amkfchipf without keel, T Draught, aft with keel, Ta

.
31.5(9.60)
23.4/16.1 (7.15/4i9) 14.1 (4.30) 15.7(4.80)
189.0(57.60) 31.5 $.60)

23.4/16.1 (7.15/4.9) 14.1 (4.30) 15.8(4.82)
13.6(4.15) 14.9(4.55)
___.,__
natihoid
.
cu.
ft.
(cu.
m.)
Fiahhoid
imide of linings
Fkb-medbold
Fithmnd liver oil 1
Fuel oil tanki Freshwxter traks
.
5,224 ( 16,0611 4,765 fl33 1,800(51) 9,990(283) 3,177
3,177
20,121 (570) 2,541 (72) 1,130(32) 7,201 (204) 2,471 (70)
153851
2^30
8,9*11 3,000
to
OT NT
...
triali
825,74
347J*
1,200
681.13 277.59
1,25ft
720,21
257.17
1,500
Engine output normal
Speed on
knots
"TT
[630]
LONG DISTANCE
STERN TRAWLERS
77.
Sagitta,
general arrangement
turbine
and the hydraulic winch drive. The gas turbine troubles were of a minor nature and these have been more
or less overcome.
As mentioned, the hydraulic components of the winch drive were the doubknup version of a successful unit used erne did not turn out to on drifter-trawlers, but one
be two, as so oftro happens practice. The main failure so it too tow gear ratio between motor ami winch, maximum the pros* that the system always worked with
plus
was
the winch started too quickly; and a broken ball bearing, which was only bad luck and could have happened to any drive. But it was possible to carry on work with the other unit. After putting in two gear wheels of a more suitable the winch gear ratio, the oil pressure went down and this worked more quickly and smoothly During repair, some slack in the connection between the control wheel on the winch and the governor was detected and corher trouble of importance rected. Since that time no
.
suwwdinii^^
There was also governor trouble in operating ths and clutches, the revolutions could not be reduced enough
has occurred. Other minor improvements in handling the fear haw been made for quicker and safer hauling of big "bags"
[651]
BOAT TYPES
Fig. 715.
Sagitta, engine
room
aboard Where there are strong can only be done in one direction,
currents and fishing as off the Norwegian
immediately after the turn, but the ordinary trawler has to stop, bring the gear out and turn round before paying
out.
coast of Andcnes, etc., considerable time is saved because the stern trawler can start the return trip the moment the net is out of the water. The ordinary trawler must first bring the catch aboard and then haul in the gear. On the other leg of the round trip, the stern trawler shoots
The stern trawlers can shorten or lengthen the warps during trawling as desired, but the ordinary trawler would very quickly ruin her warps in the towing block if she tried to do the same. This may also be of some
i;
"<
"IfT
ii^piKisiiw^^
Fit. 716,
(S21
LONG DISTANCE
importance on difficult fishing grounds off the Norwegian coast and elsewhere, where the depth of water changes rapidly. The stern trawlers can fish in heavy weather up to Beaufort number 9, with the crew remaining dry. In cold weather, with temperatures below 32F (0C), very little icing occurs because of the large freeboard, which means that less spray is shipped. Decks and freeing ports of ordinary trawlers are sometimes iced up, which does not happen so frequently on stern trawlers. The quality of
STERN TRAWLERS
the fish appears to be better because the death struggles of the fish are shortened and they are protected from the sun by the shelter deck before being gutted* fourth stern trawler is on order for one of the owners of the first three. All the experience gained so far has
been used in the design. The vessel will be of the Sagitta size, with improved machinery of the Carl Kdmpftypt, while the general arrangement will embody the most favourable details of all three ships. The new ship, therefore, will be a synthesis of its three forerunners.
FRENCH DEEP-SEA SALT COD TRAWLERS

by E. R.
GUEROULT
fishery
haw
The author discusses the development of the French trawlers fishing cod for salting aboard. The special requirements for that gnat range, kmg duration of the trips, adoption of the dkeel engine, the ratio between power for trawling and power for sailingbrought along changes of the hull and propulsion systems. A brief description of five recent trawlers gives a picture of the actual
trends in the construction of French trawlers engaged in that fishery.
NAVIRES FRANCAIS DE GRANDE PECHE SALEE

L'auteur examine le ttevelopperoent des types de chalutien de ptehe satte en France. Les exigences sp&iaJcs de ce genre de pftche grand rayon d'actton, durie de chaque voyage, adoption du DteieL rapport puissance en pftche/puissance en route ont entrain* d'importantes modifications de la cootie et des systems de propulsion. La breve description de cinq chalutiers i&ents donne une image des tendances actoeifes de la construction tfes chalutien francais engitgts dans cette p6che.
LOS BACALADEROS FRANCESES

El autor reaefta la evolutifa de los bacalderos franceses. Las neocsidades espcciales de la pesca a que se dedican: gran radio de pesca -potencia en ruta, han culminado en importantes modificackmes en dcasco y en los stttemas de propulsion. La breve description de cinco arrastieros de construccidn reciente da una idea dara de las tendendas actuates en la construcci6n de los barcos bacaladeros franceses.
action,
vi^delarga duration, adopci6n del motor Diesel, relacftn de la potenica en
when cod fishing Newfoundland banks was carried on JL 3L exclusively by non-powered, sailing boats, using longlines from dories, several steam ships tried trawling with the equipment known at the time. The results were encouraging and trawling eventually replaced tine fishing in the French distance fishery and spread to the Spanish, Portuguese and Italian. It is now also practised by the British and the Germans with large trawlers. The first boats in 1905 had 700 h.p. steam engines and
beginning of the century,
off the
T the
gives sufficient speed for crossing the Atlantic without undue power requirements. The sailing power can there-
fore be taken as 1.25 of the trawling power. High speed a priori would require, in the case of the loaded codfishing boats, a power requirement and fuel consumption which would upset the financial balance sheet of the
fisheries.
As
time
the displacement rose

first
it
power increased
from 1,000 to 2,000 ton, the from 700 to 900 h.p. and for a long
did not exceed 1,000 h.p.
were 148 ft (45 m.) long, they crossed the Atlantic in fifteen days and had to slop fishing to refuel in Newfoundland or Canada. Despite the large tonnage of some
of the steam trawlers and their large bunkers, refuelling difficulties made them obsolete as they were unable to compete with dtesri trawlers. Even modern steam trawlers have also to cany fresh water for their boilers.
Starting from the 148 ft (45 m.) long trawler, shibuilder* adapted it to the needs of the "Bante" fbherto. Fuel economy da long-range enures influenced the choice
After the Island*, a 210 ft (64 m.) steam trawler, was put into service in 1926, it was followed by the Victoria, the first dtesel trawler, which was 190 ft. (57 m.) long. This was a compromise vessel with a dtesel motor for propulsion and steam-driven auxiliaries and winches, thus only
pan of the machinery saved fuel.

Victoria proved that the diesel engine had sufendurance fc* a nine-months fishing period in the year, covering two or three trips, so from 1929/30 on-
The
ficient
The weight of die fed* water, wit and protwo trips a year very soon convinccd of the need to incfpano the tonnage, which was doubled in twenty years from 1905 to 1925, white the length was increased from 146 to 213 ft (45 to 65 m). Such a length results in a low speed-length ratio and
of engines. visions for
<
wards, confidence was established in the slow, directdrive dic*d engine, running at from 135 to 175 r.p,m. During the decade 1930/1940, the deep-iea cod trawler became standardized as regards dimensions, power,
crew and quarters, equipment and fishing gear, and
DISTANCE
- SALT COD
TRAWLERS
wbiequent evolution took place slowly until the present type was developed.
fishing gear, the speed
fihmg grounds and
of the trawl, the depth of the the state of the seTlSe
Mbfcratnmfen
Thetrawters recently put into service do not
differ
8
very
fleet
Md ""*
which
t0 ' or droP"ed
lost d rin* leng Perpendiculars is still (68 to 70 m,) with some exceptions, described farther on. On the other the
&"*A ** w^STr?^ I"** between

?
JftoJM
\ ft.
rno to 2,000 h.p.,

1^,800
8peed """PONfow to the ratio between the averagepowen
Mwr
hand, power has been raised since the 1947 design (Gueroult, 1955). The power increase is die result of the demand for
the shipowners, despite the fact that power required for trawling has remained subthe lame. The power for
fishing
700
=B >37
cruising 1,900
powb from
One engine caonot

with
'
satisfactorily
work continuously when
*auy
trawHng, measured wa, ranges between 500 and 900 h.p^ depending on the
than normal torque. The engine stalls and wgines are particularly apt to do this. There must therefore be a division of the total
power and the
1655}
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORL0:

installation
BOAT TYPES
is difficult
of three engines. This change has ted to modifications in the types of propulsion engine and to abandoning the flow, direct-drive diesel. In the present French fleet, &5 per cent, of the engines are four-stroke
not to upset the balance of weights which achieve for a 120-day range.
to
Ovfo
The
and supercharged. The power required
for paying out,
which
is definitely
higher (approximately 1,200 h.p.) than thai for trawling, must also be taken into consideration. It excludes, with
capacity and stabfflty loads, on departure and on arrival, for the boats and are given in table 161. The fishing gear and the provisions for 65 men for three months are important
items.
two engines only. The higher sailing speeds required from 1 1 to 14 knots have led to finer hulls* The prismatic coefficient, which was 0.68, has been brought down to around 0.60 to
the present powers, solutions involving
0.61, the midship section coefficient remaining at 0.96.
The increasing demand for hot and cold potable fresh water raises a problem of storage capacity in the doublebottoms. The production of fresh water by distillation consumes too much fuel. The rationing of fresh water is inevitable, despite the 200 ton or so that are stored in the
double-bottoms.
Salt is carried on board at the rate of 550 to 600 kg. per ton of salted cod, or 650 to 700 ton in the case of 223 ft. (68 m.) boats. On the return journey the load of
The LOB is moved aft. In fact, these boats have the same relative speed and shape as fast, small cargo boats. As
with cargo boats, fuel consumption per ton-mile is an as operational item which must not be overlooked so
1%.
718.
Boat Bwltk two-stroke
rffew/, 1,750 h.p.
170 r.p.m.
LONG DISTANCE
cod varies in density depending on the duration of the voyage and the stacking of the fish in piles of from 3,6 to 4.25 ft, (1.10 to 1.30 m.) in bad weather, often being higher in certain units. It is, however, advisable to allow for a density of 0.85 for the main hold and betweendeck storage holds. The cod-liver oil storage capacity varies from 50 to 120 tons. The trim varies very little during a voyage. The salt is shifted from one place to another during salting, etc., and the distribution of the load is regulated by the captain so as to balance decreases in fuel and water
sailed
supplies.
SALT COD TRAWLERS

vide for additional freeboard because of a possible extm load of 200 ton at the start of fishing if the haul is targe and before the corresponding Aid stocks and water supplies are reduced. Fig. 722 shows the stability curve* and metacentric heights (GM) of the boat C, under the
following five typical conditions:

(1)
ship (2) Departure for fishing grounds
Empty
0.56 ft (0.17 m.) 3.24 ft (0.99 m.)

3.1 1ft.
(3) Start
of fishing
(0.95m.)
(4)
(5)
Leaving fishing grounds. Return to port

their large crew,
2.29 ft (0.70 m.)

1.64ft. (0.50m.)
Deep-sea trawlers have a freeboard ranging from 2.62

to 2.95
ft.
(0.80 to 0.90 m.), as authorized
Veritas.
Despite their
by the Bureau large superstructures and their
marked sheer, the freeboard is much more generous than on cargo boats of the same size. It is advisable to pro-
is engaged in although pan handling and preparing the fish, the catching rate is rapid when fish are abundant. Loading 900 ton of salted fish in the hold in 30 days, works out at 60 1o 90 ton ungutted fish hauled in on deck per day.
With
of it
/If. 719.
Moot
C with Mra* sets 900 kp.. 900 np.m.
[57]
BOAT TYPES
HZCji UL<, Mi & f-t-^-arf-r-i
r. 720.
Jtoaf Z) with 1,680 h*p. t
200 r.p.m. two-stroke engine
Short ikscriprtQM of typical Table 162 gives the specification! for five recent trawlers. brief description of each of them is: A. 205 ft (62.50 m.) trawler (fig. 717) intended for three voyages a year. While having the same fishing capacity as the biggest boats, it has a limited hold
B. Whereas type
the
fleet,
A is the smallest deep-sea trawler of
(fig, 718) is the biggest. In principle, the type trawler was designed to make two voyages per annum to fill the very large 60,000 cu. ft, (1,700 cu. nt.) hold each
The owners aimed at an average production combined whh minimum operating costs. The machinery is a geared diesel with a multi-speed jBarbox,U500h*p. at 275 r.p.m, Dafly fad consumption
capacity and range.
is
lew, owing to
li^ propulsion effiaeaicy. Consumption
per ton-mile is however higher than that of the standard 223 ft. (68 ik) boats and less than that of the most recent
fast boats.
can of course make three a with two-stroke engine developvoyages. equipped ing 1,750 h.p. at 170 r.p.m, This is the standard 223 ft (68 m.) type (fig. 719) with diesel-electric propulsion. It is equipped with three dieseb developing 800 h*p. at 800 r.p.m. Hie dieseldectric propulsion has been a success, The port side of the deck is enclosed with a gangway which serves as a passage from fore to aft and protects the men while at
time.
fishing, ft
It is
With good
work.
[658]
LONG DISTANCE
IX Tte special feature of this boat (fig. 720) is its work deck which ii three-quarters covered leaving a gangway on the deck level for taking in the trawl. The sorting, handling and preparation of the fish is done entirely under cover. Space between decks allows for the installation of processing machinery and filleting machines. The boat is
propelled by a two-stroke engine developing 1,680 hup.
at
SALT COD TRAWLERS

E.
fish has, since
This deep-sea trawler (fig. 721) for landing being put into service in 1951, had equip-
freezing at -22" to -31*F (-30 to In the insulated forward hold, with a capacity of 9.000 cu. ft. (2SS cu. m.), 140 ton of frozen fillets in 44 Ib. (20 kg.) cardboard boxes ready for sale can be stored at a temperature of C). The propul-
ment for
-35O
installed.
4F (20
200 r.p.m.
sion
motor
is
a four-stroke engine developing 1,150 h.p.
ULU
Lffl
IS9J
BOAT TYPES
Two trawlers of this type have been same company since 1952.
in
at 165 r.p.m. service in the
The
salt cod trawler has been used for testing a number of improvements and innovations: the diesel engine in 1927, electric trawl winch in 1929, asymmetric deck
arrangement, diesd-electric propulsion in France, and

freezing about 1934. At present, as in all specialized fisheries, after fifty years of continuous improvements, deep-sea trawling for salt
cod
is threatened by new developments. The very heavy investments and high operational costs are too burden-
Fig, 722. Stability c*n*tf*r boat Cat five typical conditions given in text
TABLE
161
to port
frofls attd lefsjiHJBg
Conditions on departure for ft*hng

ton
Salt
ton
Fuel
Oil
430 350
10 104
645 535
15
Freshwater
Provisions
167
20
5
40
7 35
Crew
Fishing
few
25
M44
O^nditkMis on returning to port Fish and saH
some for a cheap product, the consumption of which is on the decline. With crews accustomed to long fishing seasons, partial but satisfactory experiments with fish processing, and the new methods and organization of the shipbuilding business and the fisheries, they are in a good position to change over from the existing type boats, to the shelter deck boat, fishing Over the stern and processing the whole of the catch on board ship.
The
and
their
is
OxWivtrofl
Fuel
1
TtaMh water
720 50 50 10
5
1225 100
Cfow
90 SO 7
5 35
cknowted^dTTypc A, Armament A. Ledin

Chantiers
; fi
and shipbuilders provided information

Loire
Bordeaux,
Norroaadie
2 25
Ormnd
-
Qoeviliy
Type C. Let Factories do

it
Seine MaritimeH-Le Trait (S.M,)

f
15
V.Plev-^.MJo ChamiersVanDuyYei^ C3iantiers Loire
OMnOe de Grande Ptehe,
{*]
DIESEL
WHALE CATCHERS
by
SEISUKE TAKAHASHI
An experiment was made in Japan in 1936 to determine the influence of dieaei engine noise on whales. Since the results were successful, diesel catchers have gradually been developed, and thus cruising range has been extended. Good manoeuvrability is maintained by the use of an "air brake*' system. At first only small boats were used because it was thought that only they would have the necessary manoeuvrability, but this was disproved, so since 1941, and especially after 1950, the size has been increased.
new devices have been introduced from time to time, such as the electrically-driven whale winch, replacement of the bar use of bilge keels, echo sounders, and friction clutches and metal brakes on steam-powered catchers. A controllablewas also tried but did not prove successful. In the field of fishing gear, the flat-headed harpoon, radio buoy and nylon pitch propeller rope have also been introduced. Modern catchers of between 600 and 700 GT have been built recently, an example of the newest vessel of this size being the
Several
keel
by the
flat keel,
Seki
Maru No.
18, built in 1957.
CHASSEURS BALE1N1ERS A DIESEL

En 1936, une experience a 6t6 faite au Japon pour determiner r influence du bruit du moteur diesel sur les baleines. Les resultats ayant et favorables, les chasseurs baJeiniers a diesel se developpent gradueUement et le rayon (faction a ainsi 6t augmente* . L'utilisation d'un systeme de freinage par arrtt de I'injection de carburant maintient une bonne manoeuvrability Au d6but, on utilisait seulement de petits navires parce qu'on pensait qiTiis ftaient les seuls a avoir la manoeuvrability rcquise, mais cela n'a pas ete prouvt; aussi, la dimension des navires a augment* depuis 1941, et surtout depuis 1950. A diverses reprises, de nouveaux dispositifs ont introduits, tels que le treuil bateinier 4toctrique, le êmplacement de la quilk massive par la quille plate. 1'emploi de quilles de roulis, les sondeurs a echo, et les embrayages a friction et les freins a machoires mftalljques a bord des chasseurs baleuiiers a vapeur. On a aussi essaye 1'heiice a ailes orientables, mais les resultats n'ont pas ete satisfaisants* Exam le domaine des engins de chassc, le harpon a t6te plate, la boufe-radio et la corde de nylon ont aussi ete introduits. On a construit recemment des chasseurs baleiniers dont la jauge brute varie entre 600 et 700 GT; le Se*/ Maru No. 18, construit en 1957, est un exemple du plus recent navire de cette tailte.
BALLENEROS CON MOTOR DIESEL

Japon para determinar el efecto que tiene en las baltenas el ruido del motor Diesel. nan ido pcrfeccionando y con ello ha aumentado su radio de acctoa. Se mantienc una buena maniobrabilidad empleando un sistema de "frenos de aire". Al principle solo se empleaban balleneros pequcftos porque se creyd que serian los unicos que tendrian la maniobrabilidad sufidente, pero como esto result6 ser false, su tamano ha ido en aumento desde 1941, y especialmente desde 1950. De vez en cuando se han introducido nuevos dispositive^ inclusive la maquinilla ballenera accienada ek6ctricamente9 la quilla plana en vez de la quilla de barra, el empleo de contraquillas, ecosondas, embragues de friction y frenos metalkos en los balleneros de vmpor. Tambien se ensayo. aunque no tuvo exito, una heiice de paso variable. En lo referente al equipo de pesca se han introducido el arpon de punta plana, la radio-baliza y los cabos de ny!6n. Recientemente se han construido balleneros modernos de 600 a 700 tons brutas, siendo ejemplo de los barcos mas modernos de este tamafio el Scki Maru No. 18, construido en 1957.
En
Como
1936 se efectud un experimento en
el
los resultados fueron satisfactorios, los ballcncros Diesel se
first
started Antarctic whaling in 1934 with
vessels
powered by steam reciprocating engines.
days the adoption of the diesel engine its speed and manoeuvrability were superior to that of the steam boats used for coastal whaling. In addition, the diesel was considered to be more economical in fuel consumption and re-fuelling was quicker and less troublesome. All these factors resulted in increased operating efficiency of the mother ship and
was advocated because
In those JAPAN
catchers.
vends because they
Owners, however, hesitated to adopt diesel believed that the noise of the engine wouW frighten whales, and also that the steam engine had
in
Takagi (19SS) reported a 1936 experiment with a submarine chaser which had determined the maximum speed of whales to be about 14 knots. The experiment also disclosed that the noise of the diesel did not matter if the speed was high enough. Nevertheless, every effort was made to produce a noiseless diesel to meet the demands of whale catchers. The first dieaei Antarctic whale catcher, Seki Maru, was built in Japan in 1937 and since then diesel has gradually replaced steam. The Seki Maru was 298 GT, 900 h.p. was developed at 200 r.p.m., by the airiesa
diesel-driven
4
greater manoeuvrability
chasing,
was stronger
of the
hull.
in
injection, single-acting, two-stroke, trunk-type piston, setf-reversmg diesel engine* In this vessel tn engine
towmg power and caused
less vibration
brake was considered essential because if the propeflor
[661]
continues to revolve after a harpoon hits a whale and the engine is stopped, the harpoon rope often gets severed by becoming entangled with the propeller. For this, an
Increase of boat sire an larger catcher of 456
GT was
built in 1941,
having a
1 ,600
h.p. diesel with a
maximum speed of about 1 6 knots.
was devised, in which the main engine worked as a compressor when the fuel supply was shut down. The torque caused by the sway of the ship was absorbed by the cylinders and the propeller stopped in a few seconds. No harmful hull vibration was felt in the Seki Maru. Although die was not quite noiseless, even at slow speed, she made good catches in the Antarctic, and fuel consumption was only one-third of that of steam vessels of similar size. She proved that the various anxieties about diesel had been quite groundless. The owner had two further dksel catchers built the following year. The opinion then was that catchers should have a gross tonnage of not more than about 350, to ensure good manoeuvrability, and that the
"air brake"
cylinders
After World War II, the Japanese whaling fleet was equipped in a short time with 1,600 h.p., medium-speed, four-stroke diesel catchers of smaller size. Almost all of them were of 300 to 370 OT and their maximum speed about 15 knots. These boats obtained fairly good results, but the success of the larger foreign catchers stimulated Japanese owners to order larger vessels, so after 1950, 430, 450 and 470 GT types were built Itwas then found that a larger and faster boat made a better catch, and in 1953, catchers of 600 OT and 3,000 Lp., with a top speed above 17 knots, were built. The main specifications of representative types of Japanese catchers buih in recent years are shown in
table 163.
speed should be approximately IS knots* These two boals had a maximum speed of more than 14.5 too*, about 360 GT, 139.40x25.26xl 4. 10 ft. (42.30x7.70x4.30 m.X and the engmes developed 1,200 kp. at 210 r,p,m. One of them made a larger catch than any other bwt during the 1938 wfcdi^
maximum
we
At present it is believed that a catcher with a speed of 17 knots in a cahn sea will not miss any whak in the Antarctic, But speed knot the onty consideration. Finding a rich whaling ground also is important, and this has
difficult, and mobility and teua work of of greater importance. While these large highspeed calchers were expensive, they tefly satisfied
become
mm
the fleet
the owners' expectations.
16621
- WHALE
CATCHfifc*
Light load
Draught, fore
aft
Tr Ta
meanT
Trim, excluding designed trim Displacement o
ft (m.) 7.51 (129) * 13.64(4.16) 10,58(3.23)

1.21 (0,37)
9.28 14,56 11,92
0.36(0,11)
A, (A)
759 (771)
0.446 0.573 0.779 0.694
907022)
0.476 0.593 0.803 0.738 15.02 (4.58)
9
Fig. 723. Seki
Maru No.
18 diesel whole catcher
KM
New devket OB
several
catchers
Parallel to the increased size
and speed of the boats,
KG
KB
ft.(m.) 15.02 (4.58)
6.46(1.97)
13.15 (4.01) 1.87(0.57) 6.66(2.03)
7.250.21)
12.56(3.83) 2.46(0.75)
5.81 (1.77)
CM
LCGaftofjH
1237(3,7
2.92
<
new
devices have been introduced in recent years.
7.5H
3.05(0.93) 1.06(0.322> 28.8 64.8
Nearly all Japanese whaling companies now install two diesel-driven generators in place of the steam auxiliaries, and use electric power for the whale winch,
GZmax GZ max.
Stability
at.
range
0.97 (0.297) 32.0 59.3
4.79(1.46) 1.17(0.358)
63.4'
and capstan. The first all-electric system was applied to the Fumi Maru, built in 1950 as the first boat of the 450 GT class. This increased the cost by about 20 per cent, but reduced the consumption of both fuel and fresh water; thus the vessel's efficiency was
steering engine
the whales, but experience showed this fear to be groundless. The bilge keels were of a double-plated, built-up type: their ends were streamlined so as not to interfere with the harpoon rope. These changes proved successful in the Antarctic and were adopted by all Japanese
TABLE 164
and partkulmn of the white catcher Seki M*r* No. 18
owners. 'The next improvement was the whale echo sounder.
The
transmitter
and
receiver were installed in
a dome
placed at the bottom of the hull. Compressed air was used for setting and retracting the dome, and electric
TABLE 166
Trinl
CONDITION
Date
Tf Ta T
27, 1957 Sea condition Slight swell Wind Light air
August
812 tons (825 ton) 186 ft. (56.7 m.)
S
8
7.87 ft (2.40 m.) 14.24 ft. (4.34 m.)

11.05 ft.
Trim
Engine load
6/5
6.36
ft.
(3.37m.) (1.94m.)
SPEED
5,877 sq.ft. (546 aq.rn.)0.457 0.580 0.789 0.711
Speed, knots
17.69 17.13 16.30
r.p.m.
increased by decreasing her dead weight. The most difficult problem was how to use electric power for the
electric winch was designed and constructed whkh was easy and safe to operate by remote control from the bridge. In 1951 several improvements were made in the 475 class catcher. The flat plate keel replaced the traditional bar keel without impairing the vessel's coursekeeping ability. In order to reduce the rolling and im-
4/4 3/4
1/2 1/4
216.1 199.9
180.1
15.10 12,63
158.6 127.8
4.27 0.02 5.88 11.35 15.56
2J&
1,150-
3,540
535
whale winch, but an
TURNING
Initial
speed 17.13 knots
Helm angle
60
18 19
35*
GT
30 Turning angle, <teg. 15 12 Port 8 Time, tec.: Starboard 7.5 12
90
13
180
43.5 41.5
270*
67
$7.5
24
93
prove seaworthiness* and also to increase the percentage of hits with die harpoon, bilge keels were fitted Some ownm foarsd that the bilge tods would be crushed by
TnHUnf
Turning dide, dkm,:
Port
Starboaitl
(133 m.) 480ft. (146 tt.)
436
ft.
471 It JJ44 499ft (152 m.>
m>
BOAT TYPES
Fig. 724.
Scki
Maru No.
18.
Genera! arrangement
motors for turning it The apparatus was controlled from the bridge, and the operator was able to detect the presence of whales by any of three methods: earphone,
cathode-ray tube and recording paper. As the dome could be retracted in a few seconds, it was entirely -safe
clutch in order to free the warping drums. If this is not done, the excessive tension on the harpoon rope may cause an accident. The conventional gear clutch of the steam
winch was unsatisfactory, but the
friction clutch
and
from damage by the harpoon rope. Some British catchers were similarly equipped in 1956. The diesel catcher seemed to be somewhat handicapped in the use
of the echo sounder because of engine noise and vibration but this was ova-come by suitably training the operator. Once he became familiar with the peculiar tone of the whale the apparatus proved to be very useful. A faction dutc* and a itwtal brake were added to the fteam winch, which was stiH used in some vessels even
after the intiXKluc*i^
metal brake solved the problem. few years ago a controllable-pitch propeller was tried but it reduced the maximum speed, probably because of its comparatively large boss. White controllable-pitch propellers have certain advantages, such as greater towing capacity, they do not justify the high
cost involved.
The Scki Mar* No. 18 was
built in
1957.
Some
harpooned whaks &y detpemrtely to escape while being <fcawn to the catcher, so it is necessary to release the
specifications of the vessel are given in table 164, photograph in fig. 723.
The main and a
Hie
vessel
has a flush deck, a high raked and rounded
f4]
LONG DISTANCE
*tem, a long-stretched cruiicr stern and a larfe overhung rudder, at shown in fig. 724. The bow is designed with 4ue consideration for the harpoon gun, seakindliness in a rough sea, and convenience in handling the whale. The step at the collision bulkhead is so arranged as to reduce the height of the gunner's platform above the deck, the
gradient of the fore deck and the distance of mooring holes from the water. Although the bow is well flared,
WHALE CATCHERS
Ml speed, about 2& sec. to turn and about 90 sec. to turn 360. Fuel and freshwater tanks are arranged to prevent
vessel, at
negative trim in any condition of loading, and to give her positive trim when whaling. The midships fuel tank has three compartments to reduce the freesurfaceeffect Valves
her bulwarks are vertical as far as possible, and accordingly there are knuckle lines at the deck. The rudder has an ample area of 1/26.8 of the underwater profile of the ship in full load condition. It took the
on the partition bulkheads far refuelHng at tea. The living quarters and engine room are ventilated by two reversible axial flow Mowers, and there are electric heaters in the cabins, crow's nest and the top of the bridge. A small boiler in the engine room is installed for tank heating and miscellaneous deck uses.
are fitted
TABLE 167
Icnlan of rat whate catchers
[665]

For anchoring, detachable gypsy-wheels are provided
at the outer ends of the twin winch drum. The gypsywheel is parallel to the anchor chain line, and the warping
BOAT TYPES
drum
nearly parallel to the harpoon rope Hue; therewinch warps the chain or rope very smoothly. ladder is fitted on the front of the deckhouse to facilitate communication between the bridge and the winch. As it is convenient for the winch-operator to be able to measure the tensile force of the harpoon rope, a dynamometer is fitted on the back of the foremast To lessen the
is
fore, the
The thickness of sheU pUting is increased with a large number of intermediate frames in front of the collision bulkhead, along the engine room and the bilge keel. The stringer angle is attached under the deck so that seas coming on deck can flow out quickly. The vessel has a single-acting, two-stroke, airless injection, 10-cyl., cross-scavenging trunk type piston, selfreversible diesel engine. With a cylinder diameter of 19& in. (490 mm.) and a stroke of 28f in. (720 mm.),
of cast
steel.
and
fitted
wear and tear of the rope, the bow-roller housings, made

of built-up
steel plate, are
All the roller sheaves
on rope
covered with brass mouldings. lines are of brass, with ball-
the engine develops 3,000 h.p. at 200 r.p.m. The engine was designed mainly for the catcher, with emphasis on reliability, simple mechanism and easy handling, and uses the "air-brake" system. This is
bearings wherever practicable. New devices relating to the harpoon gun are the ropebasket and spray-screen. The rope-basket, made of steel bars, is superior to the traditional plate-table, when nylon rope is used, and is fitted just in front of the gun.
detachable folding screen in front of the gunner's guide plate platform, protects the gunner from spray. at the aft edge of the platform, also one of the new devices, enables the harpoons to be lifted up to the platform from the deck with ease and safety. The hull is mostly electrically welded. Rivetting is applied only to the lower seam of the bilge strake and the
stringer angle.
ice.
The hull is strengthened for navigation in The stem and stem frames are streamlined and made
TABLF 168
tafcte
operated by setting the starting handle to its starting position when the fuel supply is shut down. It takes only about 7 sec. to stop the revolving propeller even when the vessel is running at full speed. Each fuel cam, 10 in all, is devised for going ahead and astern, so reversing can be done in a comparatively short time, as it is unnecessary to shift the camshaft. All the auxiliary machines, including those on the deck, are powered by electricity from either of two generators. These generators are of 120 kW, 250 V, DC, attached to a 7.5 kW, 1 15 V, AC generator, and are driven directly by a 190 h.p. diesel. The peak consumption corresponds approximately to the full output of one unit, so the dynamos are generally driven alternatively. Each unit of the twin whale winches is driven independently by a SO h.p. motor, and its warping speed is variable to suit the load up to 262 ft./min. (80 m./min.) when there is no load. The maximum load is limited to
easily
of actual
mOts
of dfesd-catdwr mad
20 tons.
Classification
GT
Name
Diesel cutfrhfy To$ki Maru No.
Steam catcher
3
720
Toihi
Mont No. 5
The steering engine is of a Rapson-slide type and is driven by a 20 h.p. motor. It takes only about 10 sec. to turn the rudder from hard-over to hard-over at
LxBxD
Main engine
ft. 165.00x3X00x18 (50.29 x 9.75 x 5.64m.)
maximum
speed.
stability,
Diesel 2 stroke
3,500 BHP 180 r.p.m.
Steam reciprocating Quadruple expansion
Table 165 gives particulars of draughts and and table 166 the results from trials.
2.750IHP
182 r.p.m. Scotch 1 6.75x12.5 ft. (5.12x3.81 m.) 225 IO./SQ. in. (l.SBkg./sq.cm.) 2sets
Main
boiler
Donkey
boiler
Scotch 16.75x12.5 ft. (5.12x3.81 in) 225 lb./sq. in. <1.58kg./sq.cm.) laet
Comparison of dked and steam propubtai It would be theoretically possible to make a very precise comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of these propulsion systems. However, in practice it is difficult because the catch is influenced by various conditions which can neither be calculated nor foreseen, such as the fishing grounds, weather, etc. Also, the cost of operation and maintenance varies a great deal, according to how
the fleet
is
managed by different companies and countries.
Maingmnttor
Dfesdx70kWx2
110
BHP
DC
Trial speo4,
max. Avwsgs consumption

taken ftamghottt the
DC
15.4
consumption record of Antarctic whaling 19S7 and 1958 did, however, throw some light during on the subject. The catchers taken as examples were from the three whaHng fleets of the Taiyo Fisheries Co. Ltd,
fuel
The
and
16.5
their principal particulars are
shown
in table 167.
Fiwfa
IJlOgal./dav (7,800L/day) 1.05 ton/day
3,500 ittl./day (15,9001. day)
As no steam catchers are built in Japan, the imported ships Tostt Mont No. 3 to 11 were used at examples of steamers. The Toshi Maru No. 1 to 3 *re also imported steamers, but their engines have been replaced by diesel
Fig. 725 shows the average daily
ftttt
iMtinffXty
consumption of
LONG DISTANCE WHALE CATCHERS

engine of the individual catcher boat. Roughly the ftid consumption of a diesel catcher equipped with a donkey boiler is only a little more than one-third of that of a steam catcher* Fig. 725 also shows that the fuel consumption of a diesel catcher with electric auxiliaries is approximately one-third of that of the steamers. The fuel for steam engines, however, is of lower quality compared to the fuel required for diesel engines, and thus the difference in fuel costs is not as great as the difference in the amount of fuel used shown in the diagram. However, it must be taken into consideration that with lower fuel consumption less time and labour is needed for replenishment, and thus the total efficiency of the work is increased. Table 168 gives a comparison between the Todti Maru No. 3 and the Toshi Maru No. 5, the former being a diesel boat and the latter a steamer. The maximum trial speed of the Toshi Maru No. 3 was
speaking,
Fig. 725.
A verage dally fuel consumption ofdifferent typei qfengines

taken throughout the whaling season 19S7-8
16.5 knots, the Toshi
Maru No. 5 was one knot

amount of Aid.
slower,
although using double the
[667)
BOAT TYPES
SURF BOATS
MIL PAUL B. ZIENER (Norway): He had worked with small turf-landing fishing boats for 15 years in Peru and Chile, and 5 years in India, and had made occasional observations of surf operations in Brazil, Portugal and Norway.
Problems of "surf-landing" should be distinguished from those of beach-landing. The type of surf depends mainly on the contour of the bottom where the energy of the wave will be dissipated. Three basic surf patterns, i.e. spilling, upwclling and plunging, are shown in fig. 726. Spilling surf occurs when ocean waves approach shore with unchanged bask wave pattern, dissipating the wave energy gradually over a long distance. The typical spilling surf will calm down to a gentle surge on the beach. It is the feast difficult and will normally allow the use of conventional
boats.
DISCUSSION
Varied type* of boats
Boat types are naturally influenced by the surf patterns, but not necessarily so. For spilling and upwelling surf patterns, the main problem will be the beaching devices. Where heavy plunging surf occurs, the nature of breakers is important. The craft must be able to pass the breakers during a sufficiently long period of the year to make the fishing a paying proposition. The big breakers are occasionally but suddenly formed when one wave overtakes another. Such "bottom" breakers can become very high in shallow water and have tremendous force, and there is no way of predicting their formation. Their occurrence and intensity vary widely from place to place. They seem to be present to some degree wherever heavy plunging surf occurs and they are the decisive factor
Careful planning is therefore needed, including continuous observation over a long period. Records of wave heights, taken once or twice a day, are of no value in this connection. Mechanized and unmechanized boats of the same type often work side by side, indicating that motorization is not a difficult problem. Small boats for manpower hauling on the beach are generally preferred. Where displacement type
is
for the boat design.
Upwelling surf
is
formed when long ocean waves approach
rising steeply from great depth. The waves will maintain their characteristics of calm swells right into shore
a beach
and cause an upwclling of water on the beach, followed by recess of the water masses deep down the beach slope. The problem is that of launching and landing. Any type of boat can be used, provided it can be lifted over the surf; for example by a crane.
Plunging surf is caused by ocean waves gradually building up higher and steeper as they approach shore. The top of the wave, encountering less resistance, will move faster and finally plunge down. plunging wave will normally break in a water depth equal to its height. For discussion of surf-landing, plunging surf must be divided into two types: A, breaking at a distance from the
boats, not catamarans, have developed, a sheltered harbour usually within reach.
shore; and B, breaking on the beach. Plunging surf A is common with a slack and uniform slope of the bottom. As shown in fig. 726, waves will break at a certain distance from the shore, leaving a calm launching zone between the breakers and the shore. As waves will break in a depth approximately equal to their height, the breadth of this launching zone will vary with the heigh* of the waves. The danger zone is from the breakers through a few waves near the breaking point, and the problem here is that of designing a boat that can pass the breaking zone. Plunging surf B has the danger zone dose to the beach. The problem here is
of launching and landing. Combination of surf patterns must also be considered, if fairly distinct surf patterns prevail. Mr. Ziener had frequently observed a combined plunging/upweUmg surf. On beaches with great variation of tides, surf patterns can chaste with the tides. Local winds can also influence surf
maiirfy ttwrt
Boats for upwelUitg surf Upwelling surf is mainly associated with hard beaches, such as rocks, pebbles, or hard sand. In this case, the construction of boats is influenced mostly by the kind of fishery, less by landing method, and not by surf conditions. All boats now used have a keel. If they are landed on the beach, but not hoisted, the keel must be strong. The size of the boat varies considerably. The North Norwegian boats and the Peruvian "fahicho" are good examples. Fig. 727 shows a North Norwegian boat type, of which several thousands have been -used for commercial and subsistence fishing on surf-beaten shores. The way of diminishing the force of the upwelling surf by making a narrow landing canal from the main shore is shown on the sketch at the right. A few hundred boats are still in use, some motorized. Fig. 728 shows a Peruvian tuna fishing boat, Many such boats fish from a shore so severely surf-beaten by upwetHng that they must be hoisted over the beach. They are con* ventional boats, mechanized. Smaller boats of the same type, unmechanized, are launched on the same principle as the North Norwegian boats, from narrow landing canals or natural coves between cliffs.
Plunging surf
A is mainly associated
with toft beaches such
SURF BOATS
The typical boat is long and narrow, with flat midship without Iced, and vary long and sharp bow and stern. All boats are small and their shape is influenced by surf navigation and landing, not by fishing method. The Malabar monsoon canoe* Andhra nava, Tirunevelli boat catamaran, Chilean bongo, and the two-hull catamaran of Polynesia, are all examples of this type. The problem is to pass the breakers with a safety factor to boat and crew equal to that of conventional fisheries. The log-catamaran shown in fig. 729 solves the problem by passing through a breaker with low resistance and great directional stability, and, generally speaking, has a decided
as sand.
DISCUSSION
Fig. 727. Surf-landing boat as

is
upwetting
surf Boat
is
20x5x2 ft.
used in Northern Norway where there (6.1x1.52x0.6 m.)
mounted stem and

structure
is
stern
and engine.
Around
this rigid
Spilling surf
swept a very thin clinker skin of springy wood, i in, (13 mm.) thick, which can sway and adjust itself to the impacts of waves and when grounding. Construction is
simple and cheap. Engine specification 5 h.p. Trials were made with several such boats, with different engines: 3 h.p. air-cooled diesels were installed in two boats which were tried over a long period. The boats proved entirely satisfactory within reasonable limits although the for plunging surf 34 h.p. diesels were rather weak.
Upwelling surf
Boats for plunging sorf B Plunging surf B on any kind of beach seems to have
attraction
little
for
surf-landing,
due to
its
violence.
Where
Plunging surf
Plunging surf
Fig. 726.
Each principal type of surf requires a surf boat of a different

design
attempted only on sandy beaches, the characteristic boat is broad and buoyant, with flat bottom and without keel; it has a broad raking bow and stern and strongly flared sides. The Indian Masula boat and some barges are of this type. The boat shown in fig. 730 differs greatly from the foregoing types. One outstanding difference is that white the centre of boats should be placed as far aft as possible, gravity of surf This is because of the it must in this type be amidships. unpredictable directions of surf impacts. Obviously* any kind of outside keel, skeg, rudder or propeller, should not be used. Plunging surf B is severe and its tendency to dig out and steepen the beach makes things more difficult. Boats must be launched and landed high up on the beach, which means that they must float in the least possible depth of water. Lightness and flexibility of the hull are more important than strength. Launching must be done by manpower, and experience has shown that this is possible with boats up to 2 tons. Retractable propeller and rudder are necessary. It seems practical to use a
advantage over any displacement boat which must climb the breaker. In a sense, the catamaran is at present the safest craft for heavy plunging surf A. If a log-catamaran is caught in a breaker, as sometimes happens, the logs will hit the bottom with great impact and the ropes will be burst. The crew will through experience jump free of the separating logs and all will be washed ashore. With new rope the catamaran is again ready for use. This is still a minor accident, compared with what could happen to a displacement boat in the same situation, and if the size and shape of the craft were incompatible with the breaker it might be destroyed. There is a critical sine and shape of a displacement boat for a given depth of water and corresponding height of breaker. The preference for relatively small boats with sharp foirdiipforplungingsurf A may be ascribed to this fact. designed by Mr. displacement boat for plunging surf Zieoer for India, was ihown in fig. 635. The idea behind the design is a very rigid flat keel of leak, on which is rigidly
built-together propulsion and steering unit, hinged on the engine bearers so that, when not in use, it can be tipped up sufficiently to bring the propeller and rudder inside the hull.
Fig. 728.
Mfl. (9J5
*.) tuna boat (P*v) fix upweQteg tifled ******
mrf a***
[669]
BOAT TYPES
LOO -CATAMARAN.
INDIA.
THE CATAMARAN WAY
REGULAR BREAKER
Fig. 729.
BOTTOM BREAKER
raft craft
Comparison of surfpassing with
and motorized boats
surf is
boat for the combination of plunging A and upwelling shown in fig. 731, Le. a Chilean bongo. More than 600 bongos fish on the heavily surf-beaten coast of Central Chile nearly 300 are motorized with outboard*, and a few with inboard engines. They have the characteristic long and narrow
:
shape. The construction

size
flat
is light
it
bottom ensures safe upright landing. The and simple as, if a surf boat is of suitable
and immediately hauls the boat with catch high up on the dry beach, before the next wave breaks. The wave period is 14 to 15 sec. team can land one boat per minute. Payment is some fish from each boat. Two or three teams are sufficient. Mechanical hauling has been tried, but it was found that no winch could offer the split-second precision required for
receiving,
steadying and rapid hauling.
Manpower was
and form,
does not need to be particularly strong.
Beaching tactics are important for safe operation of the boats. NerttMra Nonmlan boats. These very light boats of 660 to 1,100 Ib. (300 to 500 kg.) shown in fig. 727 are launched and landed by their crew only on outgoing and inrushing swell. The wave period is about 10 sec. For landing on wooden slippers, an iron band is used underneath the keel: for landing on pebbles, a wooden keel The hauling force increases about 40 per cent, if an iron keelband is used on pebbles or rock. Svrfbofttft, Madras beach, Iwlk. The weight of the boat shown in fig, 635 is 1,000 Ib. (450 kg.) with engine, and die wave period is 15 sec. Surf pattern is plunging A, The boat is placed low on the beach, bow to seaward, with engine running, and is pushed out on an outgoing swell. It will then navigate under its own power in the calm zone between beach and breakers, awaiting the right moment for going out When a suitable wave breaks, the boat will give fun q*ed through Hie calm water that follows and will cross the next wave before it breaks. The principle is thus to avoid the breaker. After crossing a few waves more, the boat is out in calm sea. landing was found to be easier than launching, as the boat could ride dote behind a wave and thus avoid die breaking part of it. The Chtafl beo*M shown in fig, 731 are launched by their crew 00 the receding swell and paddled throutfi die breaker, after which the outboard is swung down and started. Landtag
found to be cheaper, faster and more reliable. Mechanized surf boat operation must necessarily be expensive. Boats must be relatively small for ease of handling, and loading capacity will also be smaller than for similar boats operating from sheltered harbours. There is also a risk of damage or loss that, for plunging surf, rises sharply with increase of height of the breakers. While 3 ft. (0.9 m.) breakers can be considered harmless, a 5 ft. (1.5 m.) surf will
17
A landing
team of six men stand* ready in the water, three on each side,
Fig. 730. Indian tout Coast M<mta btachtttntt* tnstathtton tf IffiaM* *nfa. Original boats mr* **d far
**&
typ*
Band a typ& **** 24x8* 3 fl.\7J9x 244x031
1*701
SURF BOATS
demand
substantial investment in high quality craft, and 9 ft. (2.74 m.) breakers cannot be negotiated with any mechanized surf boat in use today. It is found that hulls are more liable to total losses in case
DISCUSSION
developed. There can be no question, of course, that in the early stages of development in a given aim, where only the most primitive craft are used, the small motor surf-working
This should be considered when calculating the economic risk. Surf boats must be cheap if they are to be accepted by the poor fishermen of underdeveloped areas. As engine cost is fixed, effort to make cheap boats must be directed to the design of the cheapest possible hulls. The cost of the surf boat in fig. 635 in 1955 was 107 (US$300) for the hull, and 225 (US$630) for the engine, or 32 per cent, on the hull and 68 per cent, on the engine. The same relation applies to other surf boats. To keep the engine cost to a minimum, a reasonably low h.p. should be aimed at. Over-powering should not be necessary if well-designed hulls are developed. If over-powering has to be resorted to in a specific area for forcing the waves, this is in itself a sign that the operation is not safe. The design of surf boats is a complicated problem which in no case can be looked at as unrelated to a great many
of accidents than the engines.
boat has a place. Then it can be determined whether the fishery has sufficient economic possibilities to permit farther
development locally. It may be that, in some areas, the limitations of the small, mechanized surf-working fishing boat must be accepted but this is not an automatic conclusion in all cases where beach work must be done. It is obvious that the mechanized beach-fishing boat will cost a great deal more than the local and primitive types hi use. This is an inherent difficulty in introducing mechanized boats in this field. It would appear logical, therefore, that the design and construction problems should not alone be factors for study. Beach working equipment becomes a must in the development of mechanized beach*fishing boats to overcome their economic handicap in the first stages of development. The weight of the motorized beach-fishing boat alone is sufficient to handicap its usefulness with primitive launching and hauling means, compared to primitive rowing, paddling and sailing craft. If a motorized boat can't get off the beach, and haul, as often as its primitive competitor, it seems apparent that the greater part of the economic advantages of the motorized boat in fishing are lost. If this reasoning is acceptable it follows that the whole approach to the mechanized beach-fishing boat design must be predicted upon improved launching and hauling means, as well as sound hull and mechanical design. Ziener's discussion is, therefore, of limited value in establishing motorized beach-fishing craft.
MR. E. McGRUER (U.K.): Regarding Gurtner's surf boat, he mentioned that similar boats used to fish about 40 miles off
the Shetland Islands on the 100 fm. (183 m.) shelf edge, These boats were manned by six men at oars, and they could be beached easily. The boats are rather full forward and fine aft. One such boat will be mechanized and the after part will be made somewhat fuller. The idea of the fine stem is that a following sea will not lift it too much. When taking these boats off the surf the propellers should be put to seaward. The propeller should run at sufficiently high revolutions in reverse gear to ensure its grip on the waves of translation. This launching technique followed the principle of the Yorkshire Coble.
Fig. 731. The Chilean Bongo is a typical boat for a combination of plunging and upwelling surf. This has the dimensions 23ft. x 4ft. 8 in. x 2 ft. (7x1. 4x0.6 m.)
operational and local conditions. The interpretation of such conditions is necessary for arriving at the most efficient surf
boat designs for a specific surf and

FisWfl
fishery.
MR. HOWARD
I.
CHAPELLE (U.S.A.): Ziener's
classification
of surf conditions is, of necessity, an over simplification as he admits. On most beaches there are a variety of surf conditions, depending upon wind, locally or in vicinity, as to force and
direction.
In discussions of surf boat design, for fishing purposes, it is important we be reminded that fishing operations come first in requirements of design. Without compliance with this first consideration, the best surf boat is useless for the purposes under discussion. In getting off the beach, with gear aboard for fishing, it seems obvious that weather-and-surf conditions will and do limit operations. As the long history of beach working craft show, it is usually easier to land in heavy turf with a well-loaded boat than it is to get off the beach, Heoce getting off is of first importance, to achieve
Zieoer's examples of surf boats are all small and, except for the Peruvian 10 ft. (9.15 m,) tuna boat, are apparently to be operated without any beach gear, in the most primitive manner. In Mr. Chapdto's opinion, this is not the direction
in
DR. K. GOPINATHA PILLAI (India): The development of a became necessary because of the thousands of miles of open coastline and the absence of well developed harbours. It was also necessary because of the population distribution along the whole coastline. He suggested the use of a lifting propeller arrangement as outlined in Inamura and Ninomiya's paper, p.295. Regarding outboards for surf boats, attention should be drawn to the fact that fuel is tremendously costly in India and beyond the means of the ordinary fisherman. The outboard is also too delicate an instrument to be handled roughly by uneducated fishermen.
surf boat in India
The power
MR.
J.
M* TITO (U.K.)
Little attention
had so
far been given
which mechanised surf-working
fishing
craft
can be
There are as regards engines, engine weight, cooling, manoeuvrability, but the modern outboard engine should be able to solve the majority of these problems. In order to illustrate the outboard theory, two similar boats were bulk in the U.S.A., one with a 25 h.p. inboard engine and the
to the
power unit to be put
into Gurtner's boat.
many problems
TT
[671]

other with a 25 h,p. outboard engine. The tests were rather impressive a* the outboard powered veisd gave a speed of 7 knots In the loaded condition and 14.7 knots light, as opposed to 5.2 knots loaded and 7 knots light with the inboard engine.
all
BOAT TYPES
There was also more cargo space

(9.1 against 7.1 cu. m.).
322 against 250 cu. ft. 550 ($1,540) against 840 ($2,345) and the manoeuvrability of the outboard powered boat was better, having a turning radius of 30 ft. (9.15 m.) against 100 ft. (30 m.) for the inboard boat. Outboards might also be installed in a well inside the hull if
The
cost
was
be strong enough to withstand natures fury in the surf and time requirements have to be incorporated in a boat which should not be expensive. India ranks 8th in the total catch of fish in the world with an annual output of 1.1 million tons of fish and a major percentage of this output is from the thousands of indigenous fishing craft that operate all along the coast of India. The importance of the surf boat problem is thus self-evident.
Gurtner in reply
special conditions so warrant. He said that in many parts of the world
the natives'
traditional boats are being used with
outboard engines.
not agree with Gopinatha Pillai's statement that modern outboards were too delicate for illiterate fishermen
to handle, since the Authorities in Jamaica, for example, are helping in the financing of outboard engines for the fishermen.
He could
MR.
field
S.
OMEALLAIN (Ireland): He thought there was quite a for the use of modern outboard engines. Inshore
some years used outboard
fitted
MR. P. GURTNER (FAO): In answer to McGruer's remarks he said that he did not believe in launching beach boats stern first. It seemed an illogical thing to do. It would also create new difficulties, should a propeller have to be designed and made that had a better efficiency running at high revolutions astern than ahead. Furthermore, launching stern first through even moderate surf would create serious difficulties with regard to steering. The Shetland "Sixareen" boat looked interesting, and he promised McGruer that he would study the lines carefully. It was said to have finer lines aft than
forward; that was probably the reason why stern launching with oars was easier. He assured Tito that the question of using outboard motors for these beach boats had been considered before. However, he felt that outboards would probably have to be built into a well in these boats. He doubted very much whether a well could be made watertight in a boat which was subject to severe shocks when landing.
suggestion regarding retractable propeller to complicate the issue, however the technique will be further studied. It might interest him that this propeller
lobster boats in Ireland have for
quarter. They were now trying to develop a boat for use in isolated places, to be fitted with an outboard. This boat had to be light to be beached, as it
motors
on the starboard
in very exposed areas. The boat would also have to be very seaworthy.
would be used
Experience la India
MR. D. A. S. GNANADOSS (India): The problem of evolving a suitable surf boat has been a challenge to all those concerned
with the development of mechanized fishing industry in India. Several attempts have been made to solve this problem and the FAO has played a notable pan in this work. The results obtained so far have been promising and indicate
possibilities.
Gopinatha
felt
Pillai's
gear was
He-added a few supplementary comments

naDer. t"*i*^"*
to Gurtner's
some length in FAO report No. 945 to Government of India on Fishing Boats (FAO, 1958). He wanted to remind Gnanadoss that extra buoyancy was indeed foreseen for the BB-59 boats in the form of watertight compartments forward and aft.
gear was treated at
the
The catamarans, dugouts and other indigenous craft operating from the beaches of India are so built that they will sink or sustain much damage if they capsized. Experience in working the mechanized boats in the surf has shown that any capsizing resulted in considerable damage to the boat
and engine. Such mishaps will naturally dishearten fishermen and put off the progress achieved. Hence
the
this
with his own.
Ziener's definitions of surf patterns were in close agreement He would disagree with Ziener regarding the
aspect should be taken into consideration which calls for lighter engine and increased buoyancy, without sacrificing
working space. For a surf boat, the air-cooled engine has been favoured
for reasons given in Gurtner's paper. The water-tight engine casing necessitated provision of air-ducts which are not always
satisfactory.
There is also the risk of the engine getting flooded while crossing the surf As engine failure at such a critical moment would be disastrous, it is most important to keep the engine working under such extreme conditions without any damage. It is also of utmost importance that the fishermen who have to work these boats are given necessary training in handling die boats in die surf. The BB-57, BE* 58 and BB-59 marie the progress made and the stage reached in one series of experiment. As Gurttier agreed, these boats are not the final word in the matter. Xhe surf boat problem is a paradox in many ways. The conditions call for a boat big enough to operate sufficient ftun&er of acts to make it economical The boat has to be
.
indigenous craft he claims were influenced by the need to pass through surf zones. He suspected that these craft (Malabar canoe, Andhra nava, Tirunevelli boat catamaran and possibly the bongo and two-hull catamaran) are less a development for surfing than rather a first and logical development from the most primitive types, the dugout and the raft. While it is a fact that with certain craft, mechanization does not offer many difficulties, he would regard Ziener's statement to this effect with some reserve. He did not agree with the idea that surf-landing boats have to be designed to cope with the outside limit conditions of bottom breakers. It is economically not feasible to design boats for these conditions; surf boats should be designed for moderate surf conditions only, and it is furthermore very
unlikely that they
would ever encounter such freak bottom
breakers
It
skippered by an experienced man. seemed doubtful that a flat bottomed catamaran with
if
little draught will have superior directional stability when passing surf. Practical trials at the tiller of different boats had taught him the necessity for giving surf boats a good lateral plane for exactly this reason. While he agreed with Ziener, that surf-going boats should be in a certain size relation to the breakers they have to
very
pass, he felt it would have been a most desirable addition to Zieaer's statement if he had included figures tor what he
light to
be handled by a few men on the shore.
It also
has to
considered to be the optimum relation between size and shape of craft and breaker contour. Similarity it would have been
1672]
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING

interesting to know the limits Ziener's 18 ft 3 in. (5,6 m.) surf boat was intended to operate within. When discussing beaching arrangements in Chile, the important question is Two or three beach gangs are sufficient for how many boats? In his notes on economy, Ziener mentioned clearly the need for planning boats for moderate conditions. It is however doubtful whether anybody would ever attempt to go out fishing with even catamarans when an effective breaker height of 9 ft. (2.74 m.) is apparent. Such attempts would rather be "sporty", as the mentioned over-powering of
;
DISCUSSION
undoubtedly a superior product mechanically. Indeed it is something of an engineering triumph in its narrow, specialized
field,
limited to the requirements of light, fast pleasure craft.
That it is not equally suited to fishing needs might not occur for sometime to enthusiastic newcomers to the dimension of outboard power, whose only alternatives are going back to oars, sail, or to more expensive and cumbersome inboard
engines.
Nevertheless there are indications from both coasts of U.S.A., that reveal critical thinking not to say some disillusionment. The most frequent complaint is high fuel consumption.
displacement hulls for forcing the breakers at all cost. He would like to emphasize once more the need for developing a suitable beach-landing craft, conceived in such a way as to make it possible for the boat to negotiate moderate
surf.
Another
steadily
is high maintenance costs when motors are operated under hard working conditions, and likewise, com-
paratively rapid obsolescence.
The standard
pleasure out-
board
is
a high-speed motor
utilizing
a small propeller with

Rapporteur): He said that there were comparatively few papers on small craft at this Congress. As small craft were seldom designed by naval architects there had not been many good papers of this sort offered. On the other hand, many of the papers in the other sections had an important bearing on small boat design, and he drew special attention to the paper by Gillmer. This was a model testing paper, where four small typical craft were shown, and he was sure that many small craft designers would make much use of that paper. Colvin's paper, and naturally the scantling
large pitch driven at high r.p.m. to achieve its rated h.p. As Beach explains in his section on the Florida mullet gillnet skiff, the standard motor equipped with the regular larfopitch propeller cannot deliver the thrust at reduced speeds to push heavy loads.
Besides,
MR.
J.-O.
TRAUNG (FAO,
responsible spokesmen for the UJ3. outboard
do not deny a genuine need presently existing for * heavy-duty work outboard utilizing a larger propeller of less pitch turning at lower r.p.m., probably under 1,500, and quite likely utilizing reduction gearing. At the same time they contend that the potential demand is too limited to-make it profitable for them to produce and to market such a heavyindustry
papers, were also important.
Heavy-duty needs raised
MR. JOHN GARDNER (U.S. A.) The enormous recent expansion of pleasure outboarding in the U.S.A. has spilled over into the fisheries. Not a few enterprising U.S. fishermen since World War II have taken up outboard power. While such are often small marginal operators existing on the fringes of
:
the
Just
industry, their number is considerable and growing. how considerable, and just what the rate of increase is,
no one
that
is
been paid to the outboard fisherman, to his special needs and requirements. The U.S. outboard motor industry, up to now, has ignored the commercial fisherman, concentrating exclusively on the and lucrative pleasure boat market.
really knows. Little attention has
duty outboard. With nothing in sight on the domestic market in the way of a work motor, some have begun to investigate the products of European manufacturers. Several heavy-duty European outboards have made good service records in the fishing, industry in various parts of the world, but none seems likely to achieve wide distribution in the U.S.A. In brief, the world fishing industry awaits the of a new work outboard, that is to say a rugged, heavy-duty engine in several power ranges, one of which most be large enough to meet the requirements of heavy work boats up to 30 It (9.15 m.) long. There are reports whkfa fedkate that European motor builders are becoming aware of world
aimed for the world market
booming
This
is
a good
start,
however, in opening up this terra
incognita that Beach has made in his paper. His approach, by way of the boats on which outboards are now used for
commercial fishing, is well conceived. The building details that he provides will be highly useful in spreading tested designs for a wider trial of working outboards. It is unfortunate that there is so little reliable performance data as yet available for working outboards. How explain Beach's finding that fishermen seem generally satisfied with outboard performance, appearing to be not interested in the precise details of such performance? This seeming lack of interest may well be at the bottom, lack of awareness of
reasonable performance potentials for well-designed heavyduty work outboards as contrasted to the light, highlyspecialized pleasure motors, the only kind available, and the only kind most U.S. fishermen have ever seen or even heard of. For some types of modern small-boat fishing there is no
economic and practicable substitute for outboard power, once it has been uaod. Any outboard is preferable to no
outboard.
And
the
new
specialized pleasure outboard is
One promising suggestion has been made for a heavy-duty outboard powered with an air-coded diesel. This could be the solution to the economy problem. Previously, when high fuel costs have been thrown up to the outboard people, they have always countered with the truism that fuel must be burned to get power, and that gasoline is expensive. It is highly significant to note that all the work-boats shown by Beach utilize some type of outboard motor well, except the Oarvey, which has a semi-well transom cut-out for mounting the motor. Efficient motor wells are critical for the successful application of outboard power in commercial fishing. The engineering of motor wdls is not as simple as might appear, and numerous technical and hydro* dynamic problems in this connection remain to be wortood out Up to now, motor welh have frequently been haphazard, makeshift contraptions; nor is it strange that tbey Iwe frequently worked badly. As a result, motors have been blamed for motor well failures, and further, the choice ef boat types fcr outboard power has teen restricted, for without suitable weds sow of the best of the timo-teted double-end displacement types could not be adapted for outboard use* Motor well research is badly needed, and some of the.
1673]
BOAT TYPES
fishing boat, locaQy called
DR. M. RAHIMULLAH QURBSHI (Pakistan): Only one type of Balam, is operated in East Pakistan. Hie largest boats, the Bara Balam, are used for long distance transport along the coast, with fishing as a tide-iine. The
Modhyam Baton
and the smallest boats
or medium-sized boats are used for fishing, called Chota Balam are used for
carrying water to the fishing settlements. Bara Balam is usually 50 ft. (15 m.) in length with a 14 ft. (4.3 m.) beam and 6 to 8 ft. (1.8 to 2.4 m.) depth. The bow and stem are raised, and are painted, sometimes with an "eye" or the picture of a goddess, fig. 732. The bottom is a
dug-out from a tree called Gurgeon (Dipterocarpus spp.) and above this the wooden planks made from Jarul (Lagerstrocmia ftos reginae) are tied with thongs or "rattan". The mast, also made of this wood, carries a square sail, the top of which is supported by a long bamboo. The deck is partially covered by planks fore and aft, the fore part being
732. East Pakistan fishing boats are often painted on the stem " " showing an eye and the picture of a goddess
Fig. 734.
Two East Pakistan
fishing boats sailing
funds expended on advertising could be more profitably spent by the manufacturers on the engineering of motor wells. As already pointed out elsewhere, motor well units of metal and plastic fitted to the motor, if not integral with it, and designed for easy installation in displacement craft of conventional construction, should have been developed and put on the market by the industry years ago.
used for storing fish, and the aft for utensils and cooking and for storage of the nets when ashore. A detachable gunwale is fixed when the boat is in operation. The Bara Balam is manned by 14 fishermen who use oars when the wind or current is unfavourable. This kind of boat usually operates the Behundi Jal or fixed bagnet, which is used in shallow water along the coast, and also the larger stake nets known as Char Patta aad Khal Patta operated on the sand banks near the mouths of the rivers. The nets are made of "sunn hemp" (Crotolaria juncea) and the stakes are of wood or bamboo. Usually the fish is carried by larger boats which have raised decks and greater depth. Modhyam Balam are die typical fishing boats, varying from 30 to 40 ft. (9 to 12 m.) in length. See fig* 733. Construction: The bottom is made up of a dug-out and is planked over. The planks are either tied with thongs or "rattan" or nailed to a height of 4* ft. (1.4 m.). The boat is foot strengthened by ribs of Telsur (Hopta odorato). behind the bow the boat is decked over by planks of Telsur, a little space being toft behind the planking for putting in fish, and a strong wooden beam with a hob being provided to support the mast Also hero the deck is partially covered with planks, and used for storage and cooking and for ttoring nets when ashore. This portion is covered with woven bamboo for
sfielter
from sun and
rain.
[674]

The measurements of a boat am:
(12.19m.) (8.08m.) . 8ft. . (2,44m.) Beam, B 6ft. (1.83m.) Depth, Mast .18ft. (5.5m.) Width of the sail 16ft. (4.88m.) 17ft. Length of the sail (5.18m.) Some boats of recent construction are built only of planks and have no dug-out bottom. The wood used for the construction is Gurgeon (Diptocarpus turbinatus). The cost of such boats varies from Rs. 400 to Rs. 450 (30 to 34, *85 to
overall,
.
DISCUSSION
Length
LOA
LBP
.
.40ft.
.
.
26*
ft.
Oft
I
$95).
Gear Used: These boats operate giilnets, mostly off the coasts of Chittagong and Cox's Bazaar. The net is made up of sunn hemp twine, each piece being 10 fm. (18.3 m.) long and 18 ft. (5.5 m.) deep, with floats of light wood which is called locally Kura maragas. There are no sinkers. Forty pieces
Fig. 736.
40ft. (12.19 m.) typical East Pakistan boat
Turkish experience PROFESSOR ATA NUTKU (Turkey): Various kinds of fish pass through the straits of the Dardanelks-Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara in different seasons. Therefore, the problem is not one of going out to open seas and travelling great distances, since the fish themselves come to the coastal waters. As trawling is prohibited in Turkey, most of the fishing is
by purse seining. Freezing and processing plants are few and of inadequate capacity. Frozen fish is not consumed by the people of the country. Export and exchange difficulties hamper the fishing industry, and the annual catch is therefore
limited.
Fig.
735.
East Pakistan fishing boat arrangement
construction
and
internal
of net are joined together during operations for catching Pomfret (Stromateus sp.) less when fishing for Hilsa (Hilsa ilishd). The meshes vary according to the size of the fish. The cost of the complete net of 40 pieces is Rs. 1,000 (75, $210). The nets are tanned with the extract of Goran bark. The number of fishermen varies between 4 and 6 and the proceeds of the catch are shared amongst them. The fishing season lasts from November till about the second week of March, after which monsoon conditions set in and it is not possible for these flat-bottom, small boats to go out to the sea. See also fig. 734 to 736. The need for introduction of mechanized fishing boats has been under consideration, in order to extend the fishing period
9
and
also to facilitate transport offish
from the catching centres
ft. (18.9 m.) overall length with 18 ft. (549 m*) beam, insulated fish holds and other features as recommended by FAQ, are under construction on the beach at Chittagong in order to demonstrate to the boat builders the design of the West Pakistan boats, fig. 737, These boats are expected to be in operation from the November 1959 fishing season. Construction of eight smaller mechanized fishing boats is also being undertaken. If the trials prove successful, it is planned to construct more boats
to the ports.
Two mechanised
boats of 62
Fig. 737.
Om of the two mechanized West Pakistan type fishing boats

under construction at Chittagong, East Pakistan
to be handed over to the fishermen
on easy terms of payment
[675]
BOAT TYPES
dugouts, of more than three gross tons, and motor launches. The former are under the control of the municipalities which administer the waters where they operate, while the commercial boats are under the control of the national government through the Bureau of Fisheries and can fish anywhere around the Philippines.
fig. 738. In Turkish purse-seining operations, a targe Js used, towing a smaller boat. The boats divide the net
powered boat between them
The boats
is mostly carried out by private enterprise. are therefore small (40 to 50 ft. or 12 to 15 m.), to be within the reach of individual fishermen. Another reason is that the distances and cruising times at sea are short.
Turkish fishing
Dugout fishing craft Non-powered dugouts are propelled by paddles, oars, sails or a combination of these. Some dugouts are power-propelled,
the engines being converted World War II surplus power Bigger dugouts are equipped with gasoline high-speed engines up to 225 h.p. The dugouts are constructed from whole trunks of trees, the main species being mayapis (Shorea palosapis), tanguile
units.
Seaworthiness, with respect to wave-fength, must, however,
be high. Another important requirement is towing. The large purse seine is partly canted in a long, narrow rowing boat, towed by the power boat This use of an auxiliary boat is supposed to be economical and more practical than just a single power boat, and with it the handling can be varied considerably. The main boat acts as the searcher, and also serves as a canter, any surplus catch being canted by a towed boat. This method is adopted generally in sheltered waters, such as the Sea of Marmara and coastal waters. See fig. 738 and 719. Speed is considered to be important to reach the fishing grounds early and to get the catch to the market before the skwer boats. In spite of the higher fuel cost, high speed is
considered justifiable by the fishermen, but
it
,4
results
in
abnormal powering.
In the Black Sea, where the weather can be extremely unfavourable, beaching is sometimes necessary. The lack of sheltered harbours is another factor demanding easy beaching. This imposes restricted draught, demanding small diameter propellers having tew efficiency and resulting hi high power. The steep, rugged shores break up the waves, and thus the boats need to be very seaworthy.
Fig. 739.
larger
In Turkish purse-seining, two boats work together, the powered one as searcher ana tow boat, the smaller to carry part of the net
(Shorea polisperma), red lauan (Shorea negrosensis) and white lauan (Pentacne contorta) which are light and do not easily crack when exposed to the sun. A log is cut to the desired length and then hollowed out as shown in fig. 740.
Outriggers are fitted to make the craft stable in the water. Such types of dugouts are used in rivers, lakes, bays, and in coastal waters for fish corrals, traps, and other subsistence
fishing
MBSBR& SANTOS B. RASALAN, J. B. MAUO AND ILDEFONSO LACHENAL (Philippines): The total fish production in the Philippines in 1957 was 855,000,000 Ib. (388,000 ton), 65 per cent, of which was from municipal and subsistence
27 per cent, caught by commericial fishing vessels, and 8 per cent from fish-ponds. The landings from municipal and subsistence fisheries were made by dugouts of three gross tons or less, while the commercial catch came from big
fisheries,
methods.
They
are also used as auxiliary boats to
some commercial
fishing vessels.
Handline dugout Handlining in both shallow and deep waters is one of the most common methods of subsistence fishing in the Philippines.
tig,
m). Hmdtfa dugout jmmt)*fkiHppii*t
[676]
DISCUSSION
Fig. 741.
Baby
trawler dugout with outrigger from the Philippines
Sometimes the
size of the boat is increased with topside planking. This is done by adding ribs to which the planks are nailed. Alternate ribs are reinforced with crossbars. These dugouts are either powered or propelled by paddle or
sail,
engines and the larger boats by one or two diesel engines of 225 h.p. Generators are installed for electric lighting.
and one or two men can operate the boat.
Of
Motor launches the more than 900 motor launches of over 3 gross tons, 60 per cent, are U.S. war surplus P-T (Patrol torpedo) boats,
Baby trawler dugouts

These are from one-half to one gross ton, generally without a keel, rib frames or side plankings. The depth is increased by the additional wooden planking shown in fig. 741. They have bamboo outriggers on each side of the boat. Although usually deckless, some have a removable deck of wood or bamboo slats. Single-cylinder engines of from 6 to 9 h.p. are fitted, the engine being located about 3 ft. 3 in. (1 m.) abaft the midship section and protected with a wooden cover. Both engine and rudder controls are such that one man can manage the boat.
Basnigan
stick-held dipnet or bagnet, locally called basnig, is one of the most important commercial pelagic fishing devices in the Philippines. The nets are operated not only by dugout
submarine chasers and tugs which were repaired, modified or converted, usually for trawl and bagnet fishing. Locally constructed trawlers, patterned on the West Coast trawlers of the U.S.A., comprise 20 per cent, of the fishing fleet. The remaining 20 per cent, are boats similar in design to the widely used Japanese small carrier, the sampan, which was introduced at the beginning of the 19th century.
Trawler type boat
A typical example of a locally built trawler is the Southern Lady, built in 1955, as shown in fig. 743. Its particulars are
as follows: Overall length
80
18 8
ft.
ft.
The
Length between perpendiculars Breadth moulded
ft. (24.38 m.) 70ft. (21.34m.)
6
8
in. (5.64
in.
.
m.)
Depth moulded
Gross tonnage
(2.64 m.)
basnigans ranging from 2 to 20 gross tons but also by launches of 30 to 150 gross tons. The basnigan shown in fig. 742 is cut from one log, with the bow more pointed and higher than the stern section. The size and draught are increased with planking, and a bamboo or wooden outrigger is fitted on each side of the boat. There is a bamboo platform on its
section, for stowing and shooting the net. Lamp holders or lighting frames are installed on bow, stern and on the side for kerosene lamps or electric bulbs of 1,000 watts each. Small basnigans are usually driven by 2 to 25 h.p. gasoline
main
70 tons Fish hold capacity 2,744 cu. ft. (77.7 cu. m.) Fuel oil capacity 3,798 gal. (3,163 Imp. gal., 14,377 1.) Main engine 310 h.p., 8-cyl. The hull is made of best quality timber, 2 in. (51 mm.) thick and 8 in. (203 mm.) wide. The lines were drawn by a local naval architect and were based on the U.S. West
.
Coast trawler. The deckhouse
and
is
is located slightly forward from midship divided into several compartments, namely the wheel-
ty
Jw4|w>>- <% 'Kfy-tS^
'
Sffiu^
*v
}
,,/ Jiiixt
;h ?5
ftr'feii
Fig. 742.
Dugout for operating the
stick-held dipnet or bagnet called basnig
[677]
BOAT TYPES
Fig. 743. Filipino trawler based
on the U.S. West Coast type
house,
kitchen.
and The foredeck provides a place for the trawl warps when fishing. About 5 ft. (1.5 m.) from the stem are a pair of rollers, one on the port and one on the starboard side, supported by a very thick wooden block fastened and joined to the mooring bitt at the centre and bolted on both ends of the bulwark. About midway from midship to aft is the mainmast fitted with a hauling boom, just above the roof of the deckhouse, which can be swung from port to starboard. Behind the mainmast on both sides of the deckhouse are a pair of drum winches with a common shaft driven by a belt from the main engine. A pair of towing bttts are on the port and starboard. About 6.5 ft. (2 m.) from the stern are stanchions or inserted L-posts, one on the port and another on the starboard side,
which are closely
built to the gunwale. 2 ft. (0.61 m.) below the stanchions are the cleats, on both sides, to keep the trawl warps free from the propeller shaft.
berths, crew's quarters, galley, sink and aft is left clear for fishing operations, sorting cleaning the catch before it is stowed in the fish hold.
officers'
The V-shaped
hull
and high freeboard make the boat
The
suitable for Philippine climatic conditions. Local operators who have tried and tested this type of fishing boat have
appreciated its performance, stability and seaworthiness, so new ones are being built locally on similar lines but with a slightly modified deck arrangement. An added feature is the bridge deck. It has been noted that the building cost of this
is about 10 to 20 per cent, lower than the round-bottom boat of the same size and materials. The hull is made from 2 in. (51 mm.) thick planking and and 3 in. (76 mm.) thick frames of first-class timber throughout. The lines and general plans were drawn by a Filipino naval
type
architect.
aft
P-T type boat A typical P-T type
fishing craft, shown in fig. 744 is the Basnig which is now under construction with the following principal dimensions and characteristics: Overall length 99ft. (30.18m.)
90 ft. (27.43 m.) 20 ft. (6.10m.)

.
Depth moulded
Average draught Gross tonnage Fish hold capacity
Fuel
oil
ft.
,
10
in. (3.00 m,) 6ft. (1.83m.)

.
The deckhouse shown in fig. 744 is built low and slightly of the main deck. The coaming is extended almost threequarters of the ship's length forward but leaves enough working space, and the afterdeck is left clear for fishing operations. The deckhouse is composed of: locker, officers' room, bunks, crew space and living quarters, hatch and galley. Midway between amidship and stern are a pair of drum winches, one on each side of the cabin and driven by an engine, through a shaft, mounted on the deckhouse. The mainmast is on the afterdeck and there is another mast on the foredeck. Two rollers on the bow are used to operate the anchors. Below the mooring bitt there are three hatches giving access to the fish hold. Two towing bins, to port and starboard, are fitted close to the gunwale on the afterdeck. The net platform is at the stern. The wheelhouse, chart and radio room and four bunks are on the bridge deck. This
type of fishing craft can be operated as an otter trawler as
well as
100 torn
3,950 cu.
ft.
(ltl.85cu. m,)
a bwnigan.
tank
.
capacity
Main engine
Auxiliary engine
.
5,050 gal. (4,205 Imp, gal., 19,116 1) twin dieaeb of 225 h.p. each
.
driving
an electric generator,
1*0 V.
DC, 50k W
A typical example of a trawkr-bainigan is Marcel VII as shown in fig. 745. This is a converted submarine chatcr and has the following principal dimensions:
[678]

m.) m.) 21 ft. m.) 12 ft. m.) Depth moulded 100 tons Gross tonnage 225 h.p. marine twin diescl . . Main engine The peculiar features of the boat in fig. 745 are a comparatively low deckhouse which almost fully occupies the main deck from anudship to the bow, a clear foredcck and a clear space aft. The wheelhouse is on the bridge deck, and below it are the living quarters, followed by a galley located to starboard, and a winch engine room at the port side. Immediately behind the base of the mainmast is a winch or net hauler, and the space aft is the fish sorting stall. This stall has a strong roof which serves as a net storage platform. The boat when used as a trawler has stern towing bitts on the starboard and port quarters. A pair of T-framc davits
Overall length
.
DISCUSSION

.
.
99 87
ft.
ft.
2 6
(30.23 (26.67 2 in. (6.45 8 in. (3.86

in.
.
in.
framework of masts and booms for lowering and hoisting

the bagnet. This is made of poles, arranged along the watt of the deckhouse, and with suitable tackle for handling the
bagnet
The Galadgad II is a typical sampan type of fishing boat as shown in fig. 746 with a low freeboard and round bottom hull. It has the following principal dimensions and characteristics:
Overall length
Depth moulded
Average draught
75 ft. (22.86 m.) 63ft. 4 in. (19.30m.) 15 ft. 6 in. (4.72 m.) 7 ft. 7 in. (2.31 m.)
.
6ft. (1.83m.)
2-cyl.
Main engine
Auxiliary engine Electric generator Fuel oil capacity Fish hold volume.
.
80h.p. 7h.p.
on the
stern and a collapsible rectangular trailing frame, installed well abaft the afterdeck, are used for securing the
3kW
trawl boards, hauling the main towing warps and for brailing the catch. When used as a basnigan, the boat is rigged with a special
1,540 gal. (1,282 Imp. gal., 5,829 1.) l,458cu. ft. (41.28 cu.m.)
Constructed from first-class Philippine wood, sampans vary in length from 60 to 85 ft. (18.29 to 25.91 m.). The
Ft*. 744.
Filipino fishing boat for operation
of the tavifr, a
sttck-heid dip***,
and trawl*. The Ml Is based on wartime patrol torptdo-type AMI//*
1679]
BOAT TYPES
Fig. 745.
Filipino converted
submarine chasers for basnig and trawl fishing
deckhouse is on the afterdcck which takes the pilot's room, crew's quarters, and the pantry. Below the deckhouse is the main engine. The auxiliary engines used are of the 2 to 3-cyl.
hot bulb types. The boat is so rigged and arranged that it can easily be converted to hngnijpn trawler, and other fishing methods, depending upon which fishing is most profitable at the time. There are one or two insulated fish holds and a pair of collapsible masts, one aft and the other on the forward deck. Two drum winches behind the wheelhouse, driven from the main engine with a belt and gears, are used for hauling the
trawl, towing warps and the anchor. aft hold the otter boards.
engines are sometimes fitted in inadequate hulls in the desire to get to and from the fishing grounds speedily, but this adds
considerably to maintenance costs. To improve deep-sea fishing in the Philippines, the services of qualified naval architects are urgently needed to assist the
country's fishing boatbuilders.
Canoes in Papua and New Guinea DR. A. M. RAPSON* (Australia):

used in
New Guinea.
variety of vessels is Information on the purpose, method of

is
construction etc. of the larger types

Single-halted vessels
as follows:
Wooden
stanchions
best (1) Simple log dugout This is used for river work developed in the Sepik and is a quite seaworthy craft. variety of designs is used although some are simply hollowed logs. Others have a sound basic structure in both stem and stern, and hull design. Some are large and are not used unless a minimum crew of over 30 is available as paddlers. (2) Staple ovtrigfer wfflieoe or more planks built above the hoOowed log. This is probably the most common type of
The lack of qualified naval architects, technically trained boatbuilders,
and marine engineers may be one of the
factors
which retard die development of deep-sea fishing in the Philippines. Boatbuilding and repairing are mostly done by boat carpenters who have limited training in naval architecture and marine engineering, hence their products are not always seaworthy and are below the standards of other fishing nations. These boats can only be operated successfully in coastal waters and between islands not far from the shore. In the open sea, especially where it i rough, they do not potsets the requii^ stability and setworthiness Too powerful
vessel used.
Such
vessels are used for transport in villages
D
New
jointly by officers of the Division of Fisheries of the t of A^ricuttuiTe. Stock and Fteheries of the Papui and Guinea Admmiitimtion, Port Moresby, Papua, Australia, ,
under the direction of Dr. Rapwm.
[QJ

built over the water, as fishing canoes and for transport over considerable distances along the coast. The smallest canoes may be 6 to 10 ft. (1 .8 to 3 m.) long for children and one-man canoes, up to the largest of over 60ft (18.3 m.) long. These vessels are often decked so that they are seaworthy to a high degree and there is a platform, sometimes more than 2 ft. (0.6 m.) above the water level, permitting people to sit
DISCUSSION
is
achieved and the vessel
completely decked over, which
comfortably and to carry articles which would become wet if put into the hull of the vessel. Some canoes are dry sailers
makes it extremely seaworthy. The Lakatoi is simply a treble-hutted canoe. The name implies transport by three hulls. It is built up from the basic log with sometimes several planks and the decking is sometimes a considerable height above the water. For river work, however, Lakatois are built low and the platform gives Four hulls are extensive long and wide living space.
also used in Lakatois.
and
in this respect
many
are superior to
some European
comparable size. (3) Bunt-op tog. A great part of the construction of the hull is built up from a keel-type structure which is basically a hollowed log. These are deep-sea canoes and are found at Manus, D'Entrecasteaux, AJi Islands and Ninigoes. They can make extensive trading journeys comparable to those made by European-type vessels built for trading. (4) The Mona. This is a built vessel used at Buka Island, Bougainville. It is very light and will hold 25 men, although it can be carried by four men. The vessel is never sailed but is always paddled. It is essential for fishing in calm seas and
is
vessels of
48 ft. (14.7 m.) double-hulled canoe has been known to carry, in recent times, 13 tons of cargo. Motor trucks and comparable cargoes are carried by these vessels for considerable distances along the coast.
General use of vessels

big Septk single-hulled canoes without outriggers have been known to carry 50 men and the biggest seen recently are about 62 ft. (18.9 m.) long, requiring 35 men as a crew. In recent times, the biggest canoe of which there is a record, travelled from Rabaul to Madang with 138 men. This was an outrigger canoe about 60 ft. (18.3 m.) long. The vessel was over 6 ft. (1.8 m.) high from the floor of the hull to the gunwale. It is recognised that this was a considerable feat and the information about the vessel was carefully recorded. The hull was so big that a man standing in the bottom could not see over the canoe. On a voyage from Rabaul to Madang
The
used particularly
in pole fishing for tuna.
Multi-halted vessels
The
structure
is
basically similar to (2) except that the second
or third hull replaces the outrigger.
Greater
stability
is
Fit. 746.
Sampan
t^fiMnf boat for basn^,

[681]
trawl
a^
BOAT TYPES
jpn
Fig.
77. Lines of a
typical small Argentine fishing
smack
Maims, the canoe was attacked by a number of smaller The attackers were repulsed with bows and arrows and several of the attacking canoes were actually run down. There was difficulty in navigating because the crew were not experienced and in bad wather were not able to handle the
via
canoes.
are often easily bailed by a sudden movement of the ship forward, which permits water to flow through the low stern.
Materials used
vessel satisfactorily.
Timber commonly used for canoes is a softwood, Ulimo, of Papua, which is called Erima in New Guinea. Preparation of
material for cordage is often complicated; special vines are used and these are treated with preservatives which keep the cordage in good order for many months. This is necessary when voyages are of long duration. There is a traditional trade in logs for other produce in Bogeia Island, Manu Manu and many other places; and Moresby to the Gulf of Papua was once a recognised trading route, trading earthenware for
Motive power
(1)
By
(2)
poling efficient in shallow water. Paddtes for light canoes, satisfactory
for
short
distances*
(3) Sails
crab-claw type of
fibres
sail
of coconut
(4)
the fronds, Sawn leaves inefficient and difficult to change course the sail was "nursed" along and not the boatrarely used.
made from the sheath at the sown together now rarely seen.
of Pandanus matting, or base of
sago and
logs.
Such trading routes are common throughout

Guinea.
is
Papua and
New
Of
all
the canoes constructed, the most complex
the
(5)
(6)
Canvas as used today efficient, and changing course is quite a pretty operation. Vessels sail well into the wind and are able to sail before the wind up to 21 kpots. The outboards still in their infancy and not wholly recommended. Satisfactory for some river fishing in simple dugout types of vessels difficult to install in
multi-hulled vessels. Not suitable on south coast of Papua, except for short periods in doldrums.
probably more complicated than an ordinary European planked ship. Pieces of the keel and frames are made of special timbers and even special parts of certain trees. Frame materials are from the buttress parts of the tree trunks and are cut to make a fretwork frame extremely light and very strong. Each piece is known by a name for each particular size of canoe.
It is
Mona.
Wett-boots
far
MR. H. I. CHAPBLLE (U.S.A.): Small fishing boat design is of more importance in the fisheries than is generally realised.
Natural mint are often used, and sometimes quite complicated manufacturing processes are employed. Seeds which produce a fibrous putty-like substance with oiliness and
setting quality of putty are used. In the Gulf it i* interesting that canoes ait built in such a way that the buttocks of a
man fit the shape of the stern and

vessel
this acts as the stern
of the
when packed with a
special type of
mud.
This t* particularly the case with regard to the Fisheries Division ofFAO. engaged in giving technical ad vice on Ashing craft in many areas, and small craft represent the most common problems. In the various steps necessary in developing * fishery, the use of certain features, too often overlooked, in boat design may be indicated. One h the well-boat or smack, to be used for bait or for handling live
FAO
[682]

of icing. This type is still in use in some parts of the West Indies and, with proper design, is reasonably effective in producing usable cargoes. Some 70 years ago, rather extensive study of wells was made in the U.S.A. by Captain Collins of the then U.S. Fish Commission, or Bureau of Fisheries. The reason was that the then rapid expansion of the U.S. fisheries was occurring in areas where icing facilities did not exist, though climatic conditions were unfavourable to the then usual preservation of fish cargoes wet salting. Wells consisted of two classes, die truncate-pyramid form, with sloping walls, small at the deck and large at the bottom. Sometimes the walls were brought up to just below the waterline and then suddenly contracted by a step inward, to produce a small trunk upward to the deck hatch. This latter form was used, Mr. Chapelk believed, during the 18th and 19th centuries in Europe. The usual well in North America was of the first description, the rake of the sides being designed to reduce the movement of water in the well and the resulting damage to fish in the well. Circulation in the well was
fish in lieu
DISCUSSION
by boring closely spaced holes in the bottom planking between the frames; there was no ceiling plank in the well area. It was considered important that the bottom of the well cover as large an area of the hull bottom as the hull-form permitted. The favoured hull-form was one having
obtained
strong deadrisc and rather deep draught.
The holes
in the
bottom were 1 to in. (25 to 38 mm.) in diameter in boats under 50 ft. (15 m.) length, to 2 in. (38 to 51 mm.) in larfe schooners. The well was protected from sea-borers by zinc paintcopper paint was found harmful to the fish of course. This problem would now be leas troublesome for there are now many coatings that would be preferable to zinc paint which gave protection for a very limited time. Mr. ChapeUe offered to aid anyone interested in collecting data on the smack type of hull. In small boat design the V-bottom has become increasingly popular. Though the V-bottom has been long in use as have the various simplified hull forms (the earliest "modern" simplified hull form of which he had seen a plan in Europe is a British Navy design of 1745-49), records of performance are far from complete. The exploratory experiments of Gillmcr are therefore very useful. There are, however, many inefficient V-bottom designs in use as is illustrated by the large V-bottom gillnct boats shown in Colvin's paper and in the illustrations of Philippine craft. The use of the high chine forward, with full entrance, and with the chine crossing the waterline near amidships must produce an angular shoulder there, which with the full entrance will certainly result in unfavourable resistance characteristics and waste of power. He had found that such designs produce a heavy wave at the angular shoulder, and in rough water, much
Fig. 748.
Construction drawing of typical Argentine faking
muck
[683]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WOR1D:
BOAT TYPES
Fig. 749.
Small Argentine fishing boats for lampara fishing
in
Mar
del Plata
flying spray at the speed lengths
common
in fishing craft.
Argentine craft
In freezing weather the spray produces icing it occurs in most small V-bottoms at the position of the steering shelter or pilot house and the result is icing of the pilot house windows and the complete loss of utility in the designed steering
chine models is indicated. enough attention had been given to small fishing boats. However, this is due to the insufficient number of papers in this field that have been submitted. He hoped there should be a more active participation by small craft designers in the next Congress and he promised to bring this
position.
More study of the
He
felt
that not
MR. MARIO SANTARELLI (Argentina) Argentina's long coast has a continental shelf of almost 386,000 sq. miles (1,000,000 sq. km.), equivalent to approximately 35 per cent, of the land area. The shelf has excellent fisheries resources, but they have not been properly exploited. The average catch of fish per capita was only 8.8 Ib. (4 kg.) in 1957. Approximately 90 per cent, of the catch comes from the maritime fisheries, the rest from rivers, lakes and ponds. Maritime fishing is carried out mainly by trawlers Ashing from Mar del Plata and Buenos Aires and coastal fishing boats based in the ports on
:
to the attention of naval architects in the U.S.A. In closing, he wished to comment on the preference of
V-bottom over round-bottom economically. He did not think this was wholly a logical conclusion. Experience has shown, for example, that it is cheaper to build a roundbottom fishing launch in New England or Eastern Canada than a V-bottom, white the exact reverse is true in Maryland and to the southward. This explains some of the remarks on the cost of simplified hull forms that have been made, for it is a matter of experience prejudice if one likesrather than a matter of careful estimate. This was thoroughly examined in the las* Fishing Boat Congress and needs no
further discussion
Mar del Plata and 60 to 70 per cent, and 20 On Patagonian coast, excluding Rawson, there are no large consumption centres and practically no fishing, and even near such centres as Comodoro Rivadavia fishing is only on a small scale, enough to satisfy local market demand. Two types of boat are used for maritime fishing coastal fishing boats and deep-sea fishing boats.
Atlantic coast mainly in
del Plata.
Mar
receive, respectively, the per cent, of total landings.
Buenos Aires
now.
The coastal fishing boats are based at Mar del Plata, Necochea, Bahia Blanca and, temporarily, at Rawson. They number about 350, of which about 220 are based at Mar del Plata. The nets used are trawls, surface seines with lights
(lampara), gillnets, longlines, pole and line, and traps. Overall length ranges from 30 to 60 ft. (9 to 18 m.), the majority of the boats being between 39 and 43 ft. (12 and 13 m.). These boats have wooden hulls, of 6 to 40 GT, and are powered by diesel or semi-diesel engines of 30 to 150 h.p.
TABLE 169
Main
specifications of Argentioe fettng
smack
Length overall, LOA . Length in waterline, L Breadth Breadth at waterline, B . Depth, Mean draught loaded, Tj
.
The high powered
ships have high-speed diesel engines of 1,500 to 2,000 r.p.m. with a reduction gear of 2:1 to 3:1. The boats are built at Mar del Plata, Bahia Blanca, and at
Displacement, volumetric, Displacement, A
Block coefficient,
Prismatic coeficwtnt*
<p
ratio,
entrance,
1
fa
Londtudinal centre of buoyancy, Hoidctpecit

pacity
Engine power Estimated ipe

Argentine fishing jmack

Tigre and Avetlanada near Buenos Aires, in primitive shipyards and almost always without a plan, although there are some builders who design their boats on the basis of small wooden models which they make themselves. There is no
DISCUSSION
TABLE 170
Mate podacatkM of mnmU
governing design. These boats have been developed from the sail boats used for anchovy fishing at Mar del Plata early in the century by
legislation
fishermen from Sicily and Naples. They fished within sight of shore, but as they began to catch other species further offshore, it became necessary to motorize the boats and make them more comfortable and safer. Coastal fishing boats can be divided into two types fishing smacks, which comprise about 80 per cent, of the total, and small craft,
The
Fishing smacks are from 30 to 50 ft. (9 to 15 m.) LOA. profiles and details of construction of a typical smack are shown in fig. 747 and 748, and the general specifications are given in table 169. Photographs are given in fig. 749
and
750.
The weight of the hull may be estimated at 0.23 ton/ft. (0.75 ton/m.). The hold capacity is between 40 and 150
or 90 to 350 cu. ft. (3 to 10 cu. m.). A box is 1.47x0.76 ft, (0.65x0.45x0.23 m.) in size, is usually made of pine (pino parand), and has a capacity of 100 Ib. (45 kg.) of fish. In some ships, the fish is transported in bulk without boxes, in which case the hold capacity is greater. The volume of the hold is estimated at 45 per cent, of the ship's volume. The holds are not insulated and no refrigeration facilities are installed. The fish is thrown into the hold while the fishing gear is hauled by hand. During the home voyage, the fish is usually packed in boxes which are placed
fish boxes,
2.12
features
do not
Fig. 751
differ
greatly
smacks.
and 752, and
from those of the original table 170, show one of the
latest types
of these boats.
overall length ranges between 46 and 59 ft. (14 and 18 m.). The weight of the hull can be estimated at 0.33 ton/ft.
The
ton/m.). These boats differ mainly from the smacks because they have: a watertight deck of cedar (lapacho);
(1.1
on deck, ready for unloading at the wharf. The power is 30 to 120 h.p., the trend being towards highpowered engines, which
results in smaller hold capacity. Small craft are now being designed to extend activities into deeper waters where operation is more profitable and
some cases, a watertight bulkhead; accommodation for a crew of four in the bow section; a closed pilot house with a small galley and mess; radio-telephone; and a winch driven by the main engine by means of a belt or chain and two small booms for mechanical hauling of the
in net.
trips
take from two to three days.
The design and
structural
Fig. 751
[685]

TABU
171
BOAT TYPES
DISCUSSION
Fig. 752.
Construction of a modernized 52.4ft. (16 m.) Argentine fishing boat
The capacity ranges between 150 and 400 boxes, the volume of the hold being from 350 to 890 cu. ft. (10 to 25 cu. m.). The engines are generally high-speed diesels of 100 to 150 h.p. and are operated from the pilot house. In spite of these improvements, the new boats have some drawbacks from the design standpoint, i.e. excess power as compared with the general features of the boat, poor construction, small hold capacity, little safety, and lack of facilities for proper preservation of die catch.
and
boats were originally built abroad for other purposes converted for fishing. Most of the boats now in use are very old, with the exception of the Taiyo Maru and
later
Some
Taiyo
Maru
22, built in Japan.
Consequently, earnings are,
generally speaking, very low, because of the frequent repairs necessary, especially to the main and auxiliary engines, and the poor refrigeration facilities, which limit the cruising
range.
of timber grown in Argentina or imported countries. The time required for building a boat may be four to eight months. The price of a hull of the smack and of the net type of boat (1959) may be estimated 260 (U.S. $720) and 360 (U.S. $1,000), respectively, at per metre of the length. The price of the completed boat is approximately 460 (U.S. $1,300) and 670 (U.S. $1,8*0) per metre of the length. Shipbuilding is usually financed by private persons or by private loans. The Government can provide a credit up to 50 per cent, of the total cost of building or converting boats, but few fishermen take advantage of this
They are
built
from neighbouring
Future maritime fishing must meet both the demand of the canning industries and of the fresh fish markets, in quantity as well as quality. Great improvements are therefore necessary in the present fleet. The new ship designs must be tested in the light of technological progress, as regards cheap running cost, safety of crew, good manoeuvrability, and proper preservation of fish, and adapted to the special needs of local fisheries. Two types of boat must be developed, one
system.
Deep-tea tithing
is
Mar
del Plata
canied out by itcel or wooden trawlers and Buenos Aires, There are at
nu),
and the other for deep-sea fishing. must be multi-purpose boats for either inshore or deep-tea fishing, depending on the season and the various types of gear. A small trawler would be the most suitable, in view of the habits of the fishermen, and die main specifications are given in ubte 172. The stability under
for coastal
The
coastal fishing boats
to 55 from 67 to 1*0 It ( pedfications of these boats,
TM& 171
gives the
main
various toads should be particularly studied. The first estimates indicate that the height of the metacentre should be
I687J
FISHING
approximately 1.77
ft.
*XATS
OF THE WORLD:
BOAT TYPES
TABLE 173
(0.54 m.)
at full
draught. They should
have a strong sheer, especially at bow. Wooden construction would be preferable to lower initial cost. The boats should have five sections or compartments, divided by four watertight bulkheads, i.e. fore storeroom for the anchors and chains, crew space, fish hold, engine room and cabin. The deckhouse, located at the stern, should have a wheelhouse, galley, mess room, small washroom, and an entrance to the engine room. The deckhouse could be made of steel and constructed separately from the hull and then installed on board in one piece. The fish hold should be properly insulated and, if possible, have refrigeration equipment. In order to
prevent spoilage of fish when transported in bulk, the fish hold should be divided horizontally with three or four
Main
ffeclficatioM of tte
fete*
Ai^^
fehbgboat
removable
shelves.
catch.
ship should have a winch and booms to haul in the radio-telephone, and possibly an echo sounder, should also be installed. The price of such a ship is estimated
The
(1959) at approximately
nets, refrigeration
18,500 (U.S. $52,000), excluding
equipment and echo sounder. This price might be lowered if a series of boats were built to the same design. As the present coastal fishing boats have fairly new propulsion engines, these engines could be transferred to the
fishing boats should have adequate hold capacity, so that their operation will be economical when they follow migratory shoals of fish and make long trips.
new hulls. The deep-sea
wood and almost the strength of steel. Recently aluminium has been used extensively on large sea-going vessels for superstructures, primarily to save top weight. Furthermore, maintenance costs are considerably reduced, since no paint vessel built of aluminium is required on aluminium surfaces. weighs about one-half as much as one of steel, and the aluminium trawlers can carry much greater cargos at the same draught as that required by a steel vessel. Since an extensive survey of existing trawlers indicated that the vast majority are about 65 ft. (19.8 m.) long, this size was selected as standard. Such a trawler, because of its rugged construction, can be used in inshore waters as well as 65 ft. (19.8 m.) trawler has approximately the offshore.
A
.
.
following characteristics:
A trawler is preferable, the specifications of which would be similar to those used in other parts of the world. The proposed main dimensions are shown in table 173. Other features would be: steel hull, refrigeration facilities for 40,000 to 50,000 kcal./hr., accommodation for a crew of The stability and 20, radio-telephone, and echo sounder.
longitudinal weight distribution should be particularly studied in order to avoid considerable shifting of weight during trips.
Length
65
18i 9
ft.
ft.
(19.8m.)
(5.65 m.)
Beam
Depth
ft. ft. ft.
Draught,
aft,
loaded
.
6i
5
Draught,aft, light
(2.75m.) (1.98m.) (1.52m.)
Crew accommodation
Steel
men
Aluminium
28 tons
35 tons
The
cost of the boat (1959) is estimated at 141,000 (U.S. $400,000), excluding nets and radio direction finder.
Hull weight Capacity

Fig. 753
50 tons 20 tons

MR. JOE D. SMITH (U.S.A.): A standard design of an allaluminium trawler has been developed by his firm of consulting engineers. It features, in addition to the aluminium hull, a hold of flush-welded aluminium. The smooth ceiling, deck and bulkheads facilitates cleaning, thus making it easy to maintain a sanitary condition. Aluminium appears to be an excellent boat building
material for trawlers because
it
shows the profile. The engine is located forward. full headroom, assuring comfortable working conditions as well as maximum storage space. This drawing illustrates a stepped arrangement of the wheelhouse, cabin, and galley: whereby adequate headroom is obtained in the engine room, and greater visibility of prime importance to the pilot is afforded the wheelhouse. The mast and booms are of aluminium, while the blocks and rigging are steel.
The hold has
To
The
further minimise maintenance, stainless steel wire rope
and blocks could be used.

Fig. 754 gives the layout and arrangement of the main deck. entire aft deck is clear, facilitating the handling and
has both the resilience of
TABLE 172
boat for
Argentina
storage of nets. The cargo hatch coaming is 24 in. (0.6 m.) high in the interest of safety. Also shown is the three-drum trawling winch. Forward are found the galley, mess, quarter, and raised pilot bouse. This serves as access to the quarters and engine room in the hold below, as well as giving better
ventilation during fair weather. Fig. 755, in addition to showing the lower quarters, engine
steering ear, gives the layout and arrangement of thecargohold. This hold is divided by partitions composed of portable aluminium battens. The battens are of box construction, thus facilitating the maintenance of the cargo hold in a
room and
sanitary condition.
Fig. 756 shows sections through the boat, and gives the scantlings for the construction. While these sections show a single dune, the design could be mfrdtftod for a double chine
[688]
DISCUSSION
Fig. 753. Profile
of proposed 65ft. (19.8 m.) shrimp trawler
built
of aluminium
Fig. 754.
Layout and main deck of shrimp trawler
built
of aluminium
[689]
BOAT TYPES
Fig. 755.
Below deck arrangement of 65 ft. (19.8 m.) trawler
built
of aluminium
or moulded construction. The deck is sloped to a channel at the centre-line and then to a sump for adequate drainage.
is insulated with a removable insulated plug in order to maintain integrity of the insulation envelope. Special attention is invited to the fact that the cargo hold is lined with aluminium, thus giving a smooth, easily cleaned compartment. Fish holds are insulated with 6 in. (152 mm.) of styrofoam or spun glass on the transverse bulkheads,
The sump
Ringhaver's wooden hulls to the many steel hulls which are being built down in Texas, but never came up into a big production. In small sizes these steel hulls will turn out considerably heavier than a light wooden hull like Ringhaver's. The transom stern of Ringhaver's boat should give good
that is probably why the head sea performance be excellent. Recent Coast Guard tests in the U.S.A. have just shown that a transom stern provides less bow accelerations. This may sound peculiar, but if one considers a boat as a kind of a scale it might be understandable.
is
damping and
said to
shell,
deckheads, and floors.
The prismatic
coefficient
of Ringhaver's boat
is
very low,
Reason for success MR. J-O. TRAUNO (FAO): He had

good accounting and
* This is the
first
which must be another reason for the good head sea performance.
tried to find out why Ringhaver had been such a successful builder, because he did not think that the success was only due to good management,
financing, etc.
time the lines of one of Ringhaver's trawlers have been published and this made it possible to study the design as such. The boat is extremely light, thus has a big length-displacement ratio. According to Lewis (1955) and Vossers, p. 393, the lighter boat on a given waterline length has a better sea behaviour and less stresses in a aeaway. That might be the reason why fishermen seem to prefer
As far as rolling is concerned, Ringhaver said that due to the round bilges, the boat has a tendency to roll quickly. Traung suggested that Ringhaver should look into this matter and obtain the period of roll, to compare it with Mockel's
fig. 429. If his boat is far off from the line in this diagram it might be rather simple to correct it by changing the beam. A few inches might do the trick. Otherwise, he thought that the boat was a good piece of
diagram,
nice
wooden ship construction; the scantlings are very light, thus producing a light ship, and because of this fact the stresses appearing will be small. This is why the scantlings are sufficient. One could criticize, for instance, the fact that the deck is spiked with normal spikes instead of deck spikes, but that is just a small matter.
MR.
L. C.
RINGHAVER (U.S.A.) Regarding Timing's proposal

:
that a change in beam might be investigated to get an easier motion, his firm has had proposals to increase the beam to
20 ft. (6.05 m.) rather than decrease it. They always attempt to please the customer first. He considered it necessary to have training facilities for fishermen.
Icelandic types
vessels are used for
Mm. H. R. BARDARSON (Iceland) said that Icelandic fishing many different methods of fishing and for
a wide variety of that used during the winter for cod fishing, with kmgline or nets, mostly off the South and South* West coast of Iceland, to supply the freezing plants, and in summer for herring off the North and North-East
different fishing grounds, this resulting in
types.
A common
type
is
fig. 756, Sections
of 65 ft. (19.8 m.) shrimp trawler of aluminium
coast. In order to produce best quality frozen fillets, the freezing plants need a regular supply of freshly caught fish.
DISCUSSION
Fig. 757,
S3 ft, (25
IB.)
LOA madtr* IctkmeOc muMfmpoit faking boot
[691]
FISHING SOATS OF THE WORLD:

Those vessels are therefore rather fast running, have high engine power, and must altogether be very seaworthy. Trips uxuaDy last for no more than 24 hours, and the fish is processed
immediately on landing. Mr. Bardarson then described a sted vessel which he had designed and was now under construction (fig. 757). Fishing vessels of the same design have been running for some years, and this design is therefore planned on the basis of numerous tests carried out during actual operation and also under very bad weather conditions. The main dimensions of the new vessel design are:
BOAT TYPES
LOA
LBP
82.02
.
ft. (25.00 m.) 70.86ft. (21.60m.) 19.68 ft. ( 6.00 m.)
T to CWL
Tonnage (approx.) Main engine
9.85 ft 8.15ft.
3.00 m.) 2.50m.)
90 GT 400 BMP
Below the main deck there is a steering gear compartment for hydraulic steering gear, accommodation for four to five men aft, engine room, a fish hold, accommodation for six men forward, entrance to accommodation and fore-peak tank. In the deckhouse there is the captain's accommodation, entrances to accommodation aft and to the engine room and
wheelhouse.
ship is fitted with a 4-ton hydraulic trawl-winch and 1.2-ton hydraulic line hauler, both driven by a hydraulic auxiliary pump connected to the main engine. It has a 25
The
BHP
Thirdly, it was claimed that these trawlers were as efficient as the best normal trawler, considering the fish catch. Com* parison with two trawlers of this type and ten normal trawlers in 1958 has shown that the normal trawlers on the average caught 12 per cent, more fish. Hie normal trawler has been considered difficult and expensive to construct because of fine entrance angles. But the waterlines are never so fine that access to any parts of the ship is difficult. The scantlings being robust is hardly borne out because the weight of the steel is only 156 tons. The fitting of a double-bottom tank under the fish hold is not new, as this had been normal practice during the inter- war period. The information in table 159 was not correct in his opinion. One of his firm's five-year-old motor trawlers gives equal performance to the one mentioned in this paper. The predicted trawling pull of one of his trawlers was 8 tons at 610h.p. In another trawler the pull was 9.25 tons at 660 h.p. Towing power is equally important as free running speed. The unorthodox trawler required 48 tons of bailast to give a metacentric height of 2.40 ft. (0.73 m.), considered necessary for sufficient stability. This ballast seems excessive. The freeboard is not sufficient to give good working facilities. In 1958 it was found that a straight frame trawler landed an average annual catch of fish of 770 tons, as opposed to the average of 860 tons on ten orthodox trawlers. The best orthodox trawler landed 38 per cent, more fish of 20 per cent, higher value than the best hard chine trawler. Hard chine trawlers have been built for 40 years and the method found useful when there is a lack of skilled labour.
engine with an
tion,
electrical generator
and an
electrical generator
on the main engine, an electrical stove in forward accommodarunning hot and cold water, radar, two echo sounders,
wireless station
MR. A. HUNTER
fishing boats,
reiterated a sentiment
(U.K.): Corlett and Venus in their paper that naval architects had neglected
and
A rubber liferaft for 12 men is fitted on top of the wheelhouse.

Fuel oil tanks in side bunkers in the engine room are for approximately 11.5 tons of oil, and fresh water tanks below accommodation forward are for about 5.5 tons. Displacement is about 148 tons at the designed draught of
8.15
ft.
direction finder, clear-view screen, etc.
to the
where they suggested that a fresh mind coming problem could substitute revolution for evolution and
(2.5 m.).
The
GM
is
from
1.65 to 2.3
ft.
(0.50 to
0.70 m.), depending on the loading condition. The lowest GZ curve is for the condition 50 per cent, fish in the hold (approx. 26 tons), deck full of fish (approx. 44 tons), about 5 tons over-icing and 50 per cent, fuel, etc. In this condition the is about 1.65 ft. (0.5 m.), the maximum of the GZ curve is about 3.14 in. (8 cm.) at about 22 list, and GZ is zero at 40 list. with Many Icelandic fishing vessels have a lower of about 1.31 ft. wrrespondingiy lower curve. (40 cm.) for this type and size of vessel is considered to be reasonable and sufficient for full efficiency.
GM
A GM
GM
point the only true way ahead. The high standard of papers presented at this Congress surely belied any criticism of neglect on the part of the naval architect in this class of ship. None is so small-minded as to acknowledge and adapt designs which offer advantages but in fact, had their claims been proven? To begin with, chine forms were not new and it was not thought there was particular virtue in the patent. Estimates based on extensive model tests of orthodox trawlers showed that at a speed of 12 knots the Corlett and Venus figures were 30 per cent, more than that for a good normal form. In fairness however, the authors should look at their figures again because they do not appear to reconcile with those of the trial performances. This form, like all forms with a bias on buttock flow was more suitable for small ships with extreme dimensional characteristics. In the larger distant water trawlers it was not felt that there could be any advantage.
MR. G.
S.
MILNE (U.K.): He commented upon
Corlett
and
Vemis's paper. Too little information was given about the maintenance cost of this type of ship. First it was claimed that a straight frame, hard chine form of construction was ^cheaper due to the tower hull cost. On similar specifications, standards of workmanship and similar rates of wages, etc., flie reduction was said to be due to the reduction in frame
setting
Such a form would be more acceptable for harbour craft, but in ships which had to go to sea he could not possibly recommend it to any owner. The motion of a ship in a seaway is a most important consideration and an abrupt change in
form can
From
that so
affect this considerably. the layman's point of view
it
was pertinent
to say
and
shell plate rolling cost.
The saving
is
no more
than 500 ($1,400), including overhead charges which are fete than i per cent, of the cost of the ship. This agreed with Zwoteman's calculation given on p. 418. Secondly, it was -claimed that this form of trawler was good because of Jfae lower power required. This data* is not substantiated.
people could not have been wrong for such a long time in adhering to normal form ship and in the light of their experience be prepared to go on building ships of normal form. Reference bad been made to the bulbous bow form, but this would not be recommended for a ship of the size under
many
discussion.
On
is
no more than about 8 per
the question of cost, the steelwork for a normal form cent, of the contract price, and
{692}
DISCUSSION
Fig .758. In the
U.S.A^ V-bottom and double-chine construction of steel fishing boats has been very popular for a long (30.5 m.) trawler of recent design, of which 10 will be built
time.
This shows
a 100ft.
this amount involved in shell plating and 2 per cent, of the contract price. At the very best, it could not be seen how the simplified unorthodox form could affect more than i per cent, saving on the contract Most practical shipbuilders would agree on the price. difficulty of presenting a large plane area in immaculate fair form and this would be more difficult for a small yard starting up with poor facilities. Owners therefore should not assume that an unorthodox trawler construction as proposed
about a quarter of
framing,
i.e.
These ships have as good sea-keeping qualities as cruiser What then is to be gained by the adoption of a double chine straight line form with its inherent greater rolling problems, indicated by the need for fitting large bilge keels? Corlett and Venus claim that their form is subject to patent rights, but what is patent about a pure geometrical body, an oblique cone, first accomplished by the
stern ones.
was
just as simple as
it
appeared on paper.
MR. D. A. PAUL (U.K.): Transom stern vessels of normal form can be constructed, having better icsistancc properties
than the unorthodox trawler. This has been proved by
Greek geometricians? In ship B, the LCB positions is 1 .46 per cent, of the length abaft the position in ship A, Us draft 3 in. (75 mm.) deeper, giving added length to the load line, and reducing the breadthdraught ratio. Likewise, had the same propeller been fitted in each case, the predicted trawling pull at 4 knots and 500 SHP would have been the same. This can be checked by the
early
model
tests.
Troost charts*
Fig. 759.
The
lines
of U.S.
double-chine trawlers can be developed completely, and art type designed by Corlett ami Venus
mow similar
in
shape to round-bottom boats than
Ift*
[693]

la a paper road to the Institution of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers in Scotland in 1946, it was proved that
fifth
BOAT TYPES
was a flight increase in resistance for a straight line double chine form as compared with the normal form. Could the authors state bow much the speed was decreased by the adoption of larger bilge keels, and would this reduction in speed not nullify the slight increase in speed claimed by bulb rudders? Information about maintenance costs as compared with a normal form trawler would be welcome.
there
brought in as a sound base for appraisal of efficiency. So much depended on the skipperand luck. Two vessels trawling only a mite apart ace "using the same grounds" but may find very different bags of fish. In the thirties, he had nine vessels, all of the same design, all fishing the same grounds. Over a period of years the annual catches varied as much as 20 per cent. As an immaterial, but interesting
correlation, the skippers with the greatest catch usually tore
up or
lost the
most
gear.
UJSLA* experience on costs
In connection with the question of simplified hulls, it would be worth while to look at Hanson's remarks concerning the V-bottom vessels p. 332, a still simpler and cheaper
design.
SIMPSON (U.S.A.): Multi-chine vessels have been U.S.A. for 35 years, during which time much experience as to cost has been gained. In recognizing the claim for lesser cost, exactly the same answers are obtained from the old time builders of the orthodox vessels in U.K. as in the U.S.A. They have the equipment and are accustomed to building the normal moulded form. In 1944 the double chine form was tried as a substitute for the normal form, thinking that there would be a financial saving. The estimated savings from shipyards of 2 per cent, roughly agreed with those mentioned during this discussion. On the other side of the picture it has not been recognized that this type of boat may be built in small yards with little equipment where overhead costs may be as low as 45 to 50 per cent, instead of in the normal well equipped yards, where the overheads in some cases in the U.S.A. run to 105 per cent. This saving in the hull cost by building in a small yard is carried through in all the work which is done. It amounts to a differential of 10 to 15 per cent, in cost between building the double chine form in a small yard and building the normal form in a yard which is accustomed to building it. He was thoroughly in agreement with Corlett and Venus in their statement that these forms could be at least the equal in every way of the moulded hull. In Boston, one of the best tugs is the 95 x 21.58 x 1 1.08 ft. (28.96 x 6.55 x 3.38 m.) Athena, a war-built double chine. Mr. Simpson's first double chine was a 110x32x9.75 ft. (33.5x9.75x2.98 m.) auto and passenger vessel, built in 1939. She has given excellent service on the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Seaboard and is still very active. He could not agree with the idea of trying to push the water under the hull. Carried to absurdity there would be a scownotoriously hard to drive; unless, of course, it is
S.
MR. D.
built in the
MR. H. LACKBNBY (U.K.): He wanted to comment on one aspect of Gorton's and Venus's paper, namely, the comparison of the resistance and propulsive performance between ship A, which is referred to as a "normal" trawler, and ship B, the
unorthodox
type.
struck by what appeared to him to be the rather poor performance of the normal form and he has compared it with the methodical series data given in his own paper, p. 364. As it happened the normal form was very close to one of the BSRA methodical series forms as far as proportions,
He was
and LCB were concerned. He was referring here to of which is given in fig. 346 at a the stumpiest form, the 1 '* of 4.35. length-displacement ratio L/y In the first place, he referred to the resistance comparison in terms of in way of the service speed at about 1 1 knots. For the BSRA form at the corresponding speed, the value would be about 1.50 whereas the "normal" form given
fullness
value of There appears to be a difference here of the order of 20 per cent, the BSRA form being the better. On the propulsive side, a QPC for the "normal" form is quoted as low as 0.56 and for the unorthodox form 0.62 again at a service speed of about 11 knots. The figure of 0.56 seemed rather low to him, and Mr. Lackenby had compared it with propulsion results which had recently become available for the BSRA methodical series forms given in his paper. BSRA carried out comprehensive tests here with two propeller diameters and the results were roughly as
in Corlett's
and Venus's paper appears to have a
about
1.85.
follows:
tight
enough to plane.
His office is presently completing the design of a double chine trawler from which it is expected to build ten vessels. The characteristics of this hull differ considerably from those given by Coriett and Venus, being more like those of the normal form, fig. 758 and 759. This hull is completely
developable.
with the smaller propeller, 8 ft. 3 in. (2.5 m.) diameter designed for 220 r.p.m., the QPC was about 0.66;
m with
The
the larger propeller, 10 ft. 6 in. (3.2 m.) diameter designed for 127 r.p.m., the QPC was about 0.70.
lesser
of these figures is a little better than those quoted and Venus's paper for the unorthodox form and considerably better than the normal form which has a QPC value of 0.56. Of course, one must bear in mind that in the paper the rjun. are quoted as being 250 which are somewhat higher than the 220 r.p.m. for the BSRA forms. Neverthdest, Mr. Lacfcenby should not think that the difference in r.p.m, between 220 and 250 would make all that much difference. The propeller diameters quoted above refer to a ship length of ISO ft (45.7 m.), There appears to be every indication, therefore, that the "normal" form is not a good one and Mr, Lackenby was incited to have doubts about the statement on page 628 of the paper, namely* that the unorthodox form is mom economical to operate due to the lower power required for
in Corlett's
equivalent service.

and Venus * paper gave an interesting comparison of retistanoe and propulsion data for two 1 15 ft. (35 m.) LAP trawler forms, one being of conventional type and the other a new proposed design. By comparing the form parameters given in table 159, it will be seen that the major differences occur in the values of LCB and ,. A model of ship B was tested at the Ship Division of the NPL, although not at the same displacement and draught as that at which this comparison has been made, and it is understood that a model of ship A was tested at another tank. One must, therefore, keep in mind the possibility that differences due to experiment technique, different sizes of the models tested and tank boundary interference are included in this comparison. However, using the statistical analysis method described in Mr. Doust's own paper, p. 370, it is possible to demonstrate that most of the difference in resistance between forms A and B is due to the different values of LCB and |, so that if these values were restricted in any
J.
DISCUSSION
NPL
M*. D.
Dousr (U.K.):
Coriett's
which have been obtained at the la recent yean, compared with more conventional forms having bigger angles of entrance. Coming now to die question of sustained sea speed for trawlers, there is little doubt that increased fullness and high angles of entrance are deleterious to the maintenance of high
typical of those
ship speed in waves. Mr. Doust'i own paper, in addition to other unpublished work conducted at the NPL indicates that fine angles of entrance are required for good service per-
formance. It has been suggested that the fine angles of entrance adopted in recent new designs necessitate additional beam to provide the equivalent inertia of the load waterptene and
that the increased
beam
incurs
some penalty
in resistance.
The
results
of a
statistical
analysis of all trawler
forms
tested at the Ship Division,
NFL, over a
period of
some 30
TABLE 174
years indicate, however, that an increase in beam is often beneficial from the resistance standpoint. It may well be that undue emphasis on stability may lead in some cases to excessive righting moment, particularly for the smaller trawler, and result in too violent a motion in roll, to the detriment of the design as regards its fishing capacities. In these circumstances an additional benefit in ship motion would be expected for the smaller trawlers having fine angles of entrance, due to the desirable decrease in inertia of the load waterplane.
Testimony of practical skippers DR. C. B. CORLETT and MR. J. VENUS (U.K.): It was most interesting to note the divergence of opinion shown on certain points in their paper between those who have experience of the type of construction described and those who have not. The extensive and successful experience with the
.
so-called Enterprise class trawlers is the best comment on the ships themselves. In its particular category this class of ship has sold well, particularly in Aberdeen, and the ultimate
proof of quality
way by other design considerations it would account for the apparent penalty in resistance of form A relative to form B. Furthermore, it can be seen that if ship A, of conventional design, was modified to have the same LCB position as ship B, little 01 no difference in resistance would be obtained between
the two forms.
establish the least resistful type of fore-body to be used conjunction with a buttock flow type of stern, three forms were designed at the NPL having fine angles of entrance, the LCB being varied systematically from 4.10 per cent, to 5.09 per cent, aft of amidships. The overall dimensions and displacement are the same as those for ship B and the comparison of <D values is given in table 174. It will be seen
in
in any ship is in its acceptance by shipowners. Later are given the comments of a senior captain experienced in fishing with both conventional and Enterprise trawlers of
the
15
ft.
Incidentally, the
(35 m.) type. These speak for themselves. form of ship B was referred to by several
To
that each of these three forms having relatively fine angles of entrance for near-water trawlers has better resistance qualities compared with the form of Ship B. The least improvement of is 5 per cent, and the greatest improvement is 20 per cent, over the speed range 9 to 12 knots for the ship. These results are in general agreement with results for other ship types which indicate that a conventional ship-shape form is less resistful than the equivalent double chine form having the same overall dimensions and displacement It is pleasing to note that TothUTs paper which gave result! obtained with bulbous bow forms having fine angles of entrance combined with buttock flow stem*, adds further evidence in support of this thesis. The largo reductions in resistance which have been reported in Tothill's paper are
speakers as straightline but this is quite incorrect. The form embodies a normal amount of curvature in the body sections where this is desirable and in this feature is quite distinct from other simplified forms. Hunter and Milne misled when they spoke of the merits and demerits of certain simplified forms. Their comments on resistance and propulsion refer to their own and others* efforts in this field but not to the ship type forming the subject of the paper, which is distinct and has no connection with such efforts. The model test data and service experience with these vessels show them in a favourable light compared with the majority of normal ships of this size and type
operating in competition; the data given
is
factual
must be in the das* itself, with fixed length, breadth, draught, Mock and propulsion characteristics. In addition it must be remembered that considerations such as the size of fish hold needed and
Any comparison must be
strict, i.e.
keeping requirements
meters.
may
effect the values
of certain para-
pointless to compare ships with differing propeller sizes and revolutions. Nearly all the ships of this
it is
Abo
type use machinery with about 250 r.p.m. and, contrary U> Lackenby's opinion, the difference an propulsive codficiem between 220 and 250 r.p.m. for optimum screws is considerable and invalidates direct comparison. The actual
FISHING BOATS OF
propulsive coefficients obtained
TltC.
trials
WORLD:
BOAT TYPES
on
carefally
conducted
were higher than predicted by the
suggestion that towing results would be the same with identical propellers is, of course, impractical due to the differences between the two hulls, The optimum screws for*the two ships are quite different. The doubt cast by Lackenby upon the quality of the normal form is contradicted by the opinion of the testing tank and by the fact that the actual ships in service are regarded as
model tests. Paul's for the two ships quoted
NPL
of entrance are interesting but not very relevant to a comparison as it is questionable whether a fish room of over 7,000 cu. ft, (200 cu. m.) and the required stability could be obtained with 18 half angle of entrance. Doust's statement at the end of his third paragraph is not correct on the evidence of a number of vessels of varying types
finer angles
produced by Dr. Coriett's and Mr. Venus* firm and tested by the NPL. The results obtained have been generally equal
or superior to, good conventional practice. For example, a coaster form was produced in a certain case, based upon the NPL standard series which gave resistto,
being above normal in performance.

It would be interesting to know why Milne should regard the information in table 159 as inaccurate. There is no basis whatsoever for this statement which is contradicted flatly. The trial figures quoted were for a Grimsby trawler of the class, fitted with the final type of bilge keels and run, with a torsion-meter fitted on the Newbiggin mite, under standardised conditions. Dr. Corlett and Mr. Venus were not aware of the live year old trawler mentioned by Milne as built by his firm and
ance values 7 per cent, better than the optimum relevant
form
in the series.
TABLE 175
Comparative catch of comparable trawlers
Further examples could be quoted, covering Canadian canallers, coasters, tugs, and other types, ail of which showed equally satisfactory results and indeed after the tests carried out at the NPL no suggestion was made by the tank that the form should or could be improved. Therefore the statement in question must be refuted with a considerable amount of evidence, much of which could be made available to Doust. It is surprising that Milne should consider the freeboard and B of ship B insufficient. It is the same for both ships and both are exactly as specified by the owner and derived from standard Aberdeen practice. More freeboard could be provided but the owner, who was not lacking in experience, required precisely what he was given. It is relevant to quote from the report by the captain mentioned. "In comparison to the ordinary type of trawler the ... type has a decided advantage. First they are better sea
they seem to have one knot more speed, steering is 100 per cent, and the manoeuvring ability is comparable to any other diesel craft. The working performance can be judged in that we have never been stopped from fishing (that is through twelve months of the year at the Faroe Islands), at times fishing in gale force ten winds, while the
craft,
would be most instructive if he would make available for model test figures for one of his latest 115 ft. (35 m.) vessels. The towing figures quoted by Milne mean nothing unless related to the size of vessel. The larger screw allowed by a larger hull and slower running machinery will,
it
this discussion
of course, produce larger pulls per horsepower. As in this case the size of hull is standard and the machinery type common, the comparison in the paper is the only valid one. Doust's contribution was of considerable length. He is not
correct in supposing that this
is
a "proposed new design
11
.
carrying capacity is such that we have had 1,500 cwt. (75 tons) on board from an Iceland trip and the ship has behaved splendidly on the passage. ... the advantage given by the seaworthiness means that a ship can make a passage in any weather and be able to fish when normal ships are stopped/* This verbatim extract speaks for itself and is similar to the expressed views of owners of these ships. Doust's remarks upon seaworthiness may be true in some contexts but not in this particular one as is clear from much available information.
The
Enterprise type was evolved some four years ago and
seven ships have been built to date. It is difficult to follow Doust's arguments in the first part of his contribution, as he states that ship would be improved by moving the LCB further aft in order to fine the angle of entrance. In fact ship B has both the fuller entrance an$i the Anther aft position of LCB, and the suggestion does not appear, therefore, to have much relevance. Doust's description of the model tests on three different forms at the NPL, subsequent to the tests on ship B, is interesting. In point of fact, the interest of the NPL in the buttock How type of stern for trawlers arose directly out of the test carried out on ship B. Doust stated this at the time and that up to then no buttock flow trawler form had been tetted. Clearly, using ship B as a basis it is possible for anyone, including the NPL, to derive improved forms. Dr. Coriett aad Mr. Venus had done this abo, but at the time Hie torn of ship B was superior to others tested in the
He is welcome to examine the facts covering this type. Much depends, as Simpson said, upon the captain,
but
owners of these vessels consider that the fishing ability is fully comparable with the best normal vessels while the capital and running costs are appreciably lower. Milne quoted statistics that are difficult to understand. It is possible that he is confusing differing types and sizes of trawler but the factual comparison for a years* fishing from the Port of Aberdeen is given in table 175. These returns are restricted to ships of the 115 ft (35 m.) type and it is understood that the skippers are ail of comparable ability. Ships 1, 2 and 3 are the first three of the unorthodox type described in the paper, while ship 4 was constructed by Milne's firm, and ships 5 and 6 were constructed by another Aberdeen builder.
As all these ships are the same size, power and age, further comment is unnecessary, although the returns for the best
Enterprise class ship in the port are not quoted. The icaotiings are robust and the steelwcight to considerable in spite of the comments of Milne who seemed to forget
particular category , Toe lusts on thfoe forms derived
from ship
but with
1696]

Lloydi* Requirements and normal owners* extras on lop of Milne was possibly confusing riveted with welded construction. Dr. Coriett and Mr. Venus are not aware of any other trawlers of this size with double-bottoms but stand open to correction. True, larger ships have been constructed with double-bottoms for a long time but current 115 ft. (35 m.) ships, at any rate as built in and for Aberdeen, do
DISCUSSION
is
form design
design.
considerably
more resistfui than a normal form
them.
made with some
not embody
this feature.
The trimming
flexibility
of this
Enterprise class is unusual and worthwhile. The ballast is so disposed to permit the postion of LCB, and due to its height much of it does not contribute to the stability, nor was it intended that it should. While maintenance costs on these ships are not yet available, such costs as have arisen being intitial development costs arising out of a new type of design, there is ample evidence
if the comparison had been up-to-date trawler the advantages* if any, in the unorthodox form would disappear. Aberdeen as a fishing port has lagged to a certain extent behind other British fishing ports in modernizing its fleet The Enterprise class trawlers of unorthodox design may well therefore have represented something very much better than some of the obsolete steam vessels and have merited die Captain's report quoted. The unorthodox form may also have sold well in Aberdeen, but a decision for this type of vessel can depend upon delivery. It is true to say that several normal form trawlers have been subsequently delivered or are in course of construction for services in Aberdeen.
He would
support Milne that
from dozens of vessels using this construction over a number of years. Comparison with conventional construction has been good and in not a few cases has shown improvement. Regarding the gear, it is the same for both types of ship.
vessel described, is here to stay although this not be popular with competitive builders. Whether the middle water trawler as a concept will last is another matter and present developments leave this open to doubt.
fact
The type of
may
The correlation between model testing and trial results even where torsion-meters are used and with calibrated shafting is not a simple process. The accuracy of the torsionmeter with comparatively low powers and stiff shafting is liable to considerable error and analysis from such trials has to be carefully made before full reliability can be placed on
the results. Considerations of buttock flow forms have always had to be given in the case of vessels of extremely disproportionate dimensional characteristics. In this the trawler is no different
MR. G. S. MILNE (U.K.): Regarding the statement that the information given in table 159 is inaccurate, what was said
was
to the effect that the figures quoted as referring to a
from other classes of vessels, although the introduction of transom or cut off cruiser sterns may seem to have indicated
the contrary. Table 175 appears to be rather slender evidence over one year, as to justify a claim for all-out superiority. The average
for the unorthodox form vessels is only one cwt. (50 kg.) per day above that of the normal form ships. Probably the newer ships had the better skippers, and Mr. Hunter knew no method yet of differentiating between the skill of the skipper and the intrinsic quality of the ship. Traditional trawler builders have always had to face
trawler of normal type and form of good average quality cannot be accepted as being representative of normal type
trawlers of
good average form. The

in
figures given for Ship
fi
were not commented upon. The towing figures given

trawlers of 115
ft.
his discussion did refer to
(35 m.)
LBP,
the free running speeds of
the propellers being 250 r.p.m. in both cases. freeboard of 1.85 ft. (0.565 m.) is not considered to be
sufficient to give
good working conditions on deck.
figures given in his discussion as regards weight of fish landed are for the calendar year 1958. The ten orthodox
The
trawlers referred to range in length from 108.5 to 120 ft. having an average length of 1 1 7 ft. (35.7 m.) of 684. This compares and an average continuous rated
(33.1 to 36.6 m.),
BMP
with a length of 115
ft.
(35 m.)
LBP and BMP

is
unorthodox
fair one.
trawlers.
The comparison
of 760 for the considered to be a
competition and have recognized that this begets progress. Where everything else is equal the deciding factor in the owner's mind will be initial cost. Coriett and Venus in their contribution do not appear to comment very much on the statements from Netherlands as well as from Britain that in the same basis of costing, the overall saving for the unorthodox form design must be very small indeed.
MR. H. LACKENBY (U.K.) referred made by Coriett and Venus in reply

that
it
to the following points to his contribution, viz:
No
antagonistic attitude
like to dispel
any impression of a "dog in the manger** attitude to the unorthodox form design. He has always been ready to adopt developments which may make for improvement. He is aware of the general principles of the form for which Coriett and Venus have sought patent protection and the fact that there is a certain
fore
MR. A. HUNTER (U.K.) would
pointless to compare ships (propulsive with differing propeller sizes and revolutions; the difference in propulsive coefficient between 220 and 250 r.p.m. for optimum screws is considerable and
coefficients)
was
invalidates
direct comparison.
In response, Mr. Lackenby stated that he would agree with the first point if it were made without qualification, but he
and aft curvature in the bilge plane. The authors would concede that although Mr. Hunter's
had not,
in fact,
done
this.
What he had
said
was that he
did not think the difference in r.p.m. between the "normal"
firm have not built 115 ft. (35 m.) trawlers for several years they have nevertheless pursued a very vigorous policy of research and development Also that with the results before them of a considerable number of model tests of trawler forms ranging from 70 to 190 ft. (21.3 to 58 m.) in length they should be well qualified to evaluate the resistance and propulsive capabilities of a ship of the discussed dimensions
BSRA form would make all that much between a QPC of 0.56 and 0.66 respectively. In other words, in spite of the r.p.m. difference, the QPC for the normal form A did not appear to be nearly as food as
form
and
the,
is,
difference, that
form. that for the corresponding In view of the second statement, Mr. Lackenby said that he had now looted into the matter more closely. In this
BSRA
and power.
the basis of the figures given by Coriett and Venus in their paper there is no question but that the unorthodox
On
connection he pointed out that the BSRA figures referred to a somewhat larger ship than the author's, naraaly, 134.$ ft. (41 m.) LBP as against HI ft (33.9 m.) LBP* To mate ft

figures should be rigoroitt comparison^ therefore, the acatod down to the same ship size as the author's, namely,
BOAT TYFES
del
BSRA
111 ft. (33.9 in.) LBP, When one did this, the original 220 r.pjn. at 134.5 ft. (41 m.) became 237 for the 1 11 ft. (33.9 in.) ship according to the law of comparison. This meant that the
difference between the r.p.m. of the
vesacU of ships are compared throughout with modem the same size, power and type* of the time aje, in one case built by Milne's firm and have had no advantage regarding
skippers.
BSRA form
and that of
the normal form
A was toss
than they probably anticipated.
TheQPCat
and 23 7 r. p.m. was 0.66 and the corresponding propeller diameter and pitch 7.57 ft (2.31 m.) and 5.78 ft.
111
ft.
(1.76 m.) respectively. The corresponding particulars of the propeller for the normal form were 6.75 ft. (2.05 m.) diameter
5.7 ft. (1.74 m.) pitch, and if the BSRA propeller was adjusted to these dimensions and the r.p.m. increased to 250, it was estimated that the QPC would not be expected to fall below 0,64. This compares directly with the figures quoted by Coriett and Venus of 0.56 and 0.62 for the normal and
and
respectively. Mr. Lackcnby contended, therefore, that his original expression of opinion was sub* stantially correct, namely, that the difference in r.p.m. between
unorthodox forms
die normal form
for the difference in
A and the BSRA model would not QPC between 0.56 and 0.66.
EHP comparison,
on the
Coriett and
account
As regards
the
that the doubt cast
contradicted by fact that the actual ships in service were regarded as being above normal in performance. Responding to this, Mr. Lackenby said that he could only speak on the tank EHP comparison and reiterated that at 1 1 knots the BSRA form
quality of the normal the opinion of the testing tank
Venus stated form A was and by the
was about 20 per cent, better than ship A, which was to as the normal form.
.
referred
C. B, CORLETT* and MR. J. VENUS (U.K.): They DR. commented on the new replies, which they felt generally did
not take the argument much further, as follows under subject rather than author headings:
Man-hour saving. Whatever may be said by those who do not have experience of building this type of construction, those who do reiterate the facts. Exact figurea are available, not only for trawlers, but for a number of different types of ship, so that systematic quantitative data is available. If competitive builders disregard these facts, it can only be to the advantage of those who do not. Hull form. The contributors appeared to be confused here by the type of trawler. Hunter reiterated the quite unsupported statement that he did not consider the model test results for the unorthodox form to be good. At the same time, he stated that his firm has not built any of this size of trawler for some years. By reason of its configuration and high power for the size, the 115 ft. (35.1 m.) trawler has per force a high block coefficient and a correspondingly high prismatic coefficient. Non-dimensional plots show that, in fact, the resistance of the "unorthodox" form with a prismatic coefficient of 0.70 compared with the best available comparative normal form with a prismatic coefficient of 0.65 which was a very good result and contradicted Hunter. Incidentally these forms had both longitudinal and transverse curvature contrary to Hunter's statement. Lackenby supplied details of the ship mentioned in his first contribution but changed the length from 150 to 134 ft. (45.7 to 40.8 m.) which somewhat confused the issue. However, accepting the latter length, Dr. Coriett and Mr. Venus had analysed the figures and found it difficult to correlate them. Lackenby did not give the pitch of the propeller on the 134-ft. trawler, neither did he give any EHP figures to enable proper analysis, but such analysis as was possible
indicated that his
QPC
for the 134-ft. ship

ft.
The freeboard of this size of trawler is standard as required by the owners and is the same whether built by the builders of ship A, ship B, or if built by Milne. They did not understand Milne's comment and in view of the notable
Freeboard.
Scaling, however, to 111
was possible. (33.8 m.) with a 7.57-ft. (2.31 m.)
dryness of the vessels, did not agree with it. Fishing results. They felt that in the last resort, fishing results mattered more than any others. The results given in the first reply to the discussion showed clearly that, contrary to the statement by Milne, of six modern diesel trawlers, all built within a few months of each other and of the same size and power, operating out of Aberdeen, the unorthodox vessels, as described in the paper, caught slightly more than the orthodox. It is a red herring to introduce other sizes of
trawler.
it
diameter screw, they did not obtain any correlation, the maximum efficiency possible on this screw on the revolutions quoted being about 0.635 and it is unlikely that the hull efficiency of the vessel would be in excess of 1.0 and anyway did not agree with that of the 134-ft. ship. The further alterations to the 111 -ft. ship giving a 6.75 ft. (2.05 m.) diameter screw produced a screw efficiency which would appear to allow the propulsive coefficient, all other things being equal. However, Lackenby clearly overlooked the most
However, they felt that if Milne insisted on doing so, must be pointed out that the Aberdeen Fisher, an orthodox trawler of the type described, has, on a number of occasions, been top vessel for landings both in quantity and value,
.
important point in this comparison and correlation, namely, it is impossible simply to scale a 134-ft. trawler to 11 1 ft. The normal block coefficient for 1 1 1-ft. LBP trawlers was of the order of 20 per cent, greater than that of the size he considered and the thrust loadings on the screws for these vessels were correspondingly higher. Starting from the 134-ft ship
that
coefficient and altering the wake fraction, thrust deduction, etc. to suit, produced a much tower propulsive coefficient. It was reiterated that the paper dealt
and increasing the Mock
irrespective of the size of trawler considered As stated by Captain Elder in the British Press, his ship, indeed, averaged for the first half of 1959 an average rate of
with a class of trawler that has specialized features and that

superficial comparisons with ships that are both larger and of finer form were invalid unless due allowances are made for the differences. To conclude. Dr. Coriett and Mr. Venus felt that they might further quote the skipper of the Aberdeen Fisher as follows:
3.02 torn of fish caught per day at sea, the catch for the six months period earning 33,861, i.e. an average of 3,078 per trip for 11 trips. Further comment on either the earning
ability
of these trawlers or upon Milne's comments was
felt
to
be quite unnecessary.
The further point was made, however*

In view of the interest in the
Coriett
>
that the unorthodox
"The tot point
is
that the ... hull ... does
make an
and Mr. Venus was of whom made farther
the first to the original"
extraordinarily food fishing platform . . . and all skippers give the highest praise to this most important point. The second point is that the ... huH not only provide* a good
high speed, but enables progress to be maintained
much
(698]
NET STOMC OIL FUCL AT ftCCS WATCH SALLAiT

I OWE*
CMNC
TUNNEL IDT
rtSH
ROOM
BffCAKWATCIf
WHEELHOUSE FLOOR
WHEELHOUSE TOP
HVMMMLIC HAM tTCNN DOOR
DECKHCX>SE
TOP
SCLr-INTLATCABLC LirrtATT PIS
FORECASTLE DECK
FUCL Ot. TRANS

tfX6* SOLID
MM^ OmNKINOWE
\ LME
Ol.
RU8BCT BCLTlNG
iOW
C&ifH&y The Motor *tMf and fa trawl and far arranfemtnt drawtof of the Universal Star, jAowintr tk* gantry fi for hauling trawl wires, oner boards lifting the g**r i**lde the vessel
[699]
BOAT TYPES
to incorporate a hydraulically-operated gantry for hoisting aboard the trawl doors and the nets. To give maximum safe* guard against possible fouling of the propeller by the trawl
it was desirable to have the greatest possible distance between the propeller and the stern, and this was one of the reasons for incorporating a twin-screw design which enabled the propellers to be tucked well forward. Also it was felt that owing to the weight of the fishing gear at the stern when trawling, it would be necessary to have exceptional steering
power, which
is provided by the twin-rudder arrangement. Although at first it was intended that the trawl winch generator should be driven from the forward end of the starboard
engine, preliminary trials made it apparent that full power was required on the starboard propeller when hauling the gear
and accordingly an independent trawl winch generator was subsequently fitted. large-scale mock-up of the after deck was made, complete with gantry, on a scale of one-quarter full size. The Torry
761.
The Universal Star on a shakedown cruise
Research Station, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, kindly sent one of their experts and provided also
above average in all weathers, whereas the average normal trip from Aberdeen to Iceland waters takes about 68 hours, these ships have no difficulty in doing the same passage in 62 hours." Stern fishing trawler. Since the paper was written and the discussion took place, the stern trawler Universal Star has been completed, and the first fishing trials have been held. Dr. Cortett and Mr. Venus felt that it might be of interest for the readers of the proceedings to have at hand fig. 760,
showing the general arrangement plans of the new stern trawler Universal Star. First of all, it Was considered that the stern ramp arrangesuccessful in the larger trawlers might incorporate in a smaller vessel owing to the fact that the freeboard to the working deck was so small. Therefore it was considered that there would have to be an after bulwark,
ment which had been so

be
difficult to
but that this would have to hinge down flat to facilitate "shooting the gear". But since the stern could remain open only for the minimum of time, the hauling of the gear would have to be over this bulwark and accordingly it was decided
763.
When
the otter boards are hauled up in the blocks, the gantry moved forward for stowing the otter boards
is
miniature trawling gear to the same scale, and it soon became apparent that with a few slight amendments, the gantry arrangement held good possibilities. Extensive tests were made on the model to simulate the worst conditions in actual fishing, i.e., recovering the gear with a broken warp, recovering the gear with crossed trawl doors, etc. The results of these tests were satisfactory in so far as the model was concerned and were considered of sufficient promise to warrant proceeding with the construction of an actual
prototype.
Fig. 760 and 761 show that the layout is very different from that of the orthodox trawler, the crew are housed in a long forecastle, the machinery is forward and the shafting passes
Flf.762. The trawl tsbtlnihattbd in a*d the trawl wires can be 9een ft the Mmfcr Mrti&fe the gantry which is in UM item position
through a tunnel under the fishroom the centre of gravity of which is aft of amidships. A good feature is that the fish hold is almost rectangular with consequent good stowage. The whodhouse position gives the skipper a good view forward, also aft under the working deck. The winchmen are well protected under the overhanging forecastle.
{WO]
LONG DISTANCE FISHING

The main
follows:
characteristics of the
DISCUSSION
Universal Star arc as

in. (31. 8m,)
in.
LOA
LBP
....
.
.
Registered length Moulded breadth
Moulded depth
104 ft 87 ft. 9 92 ft. 6 25 ft. 3 13 ft. 9

1 1
(26.8 m.)
in.
(28.2 m.)
in. (7.7
in.
m.)
m.)
(4.2 m.)
Mean
draft
ft.
in. (3.4
Service speed
Hi
knots
ft.
Fishroom capacity
Number of personnel
diesel
5,445 cu. 14
(154 cu.m.)
is a six-cylinder 460 SHP running at 750 r.p.m. while the starboard engine has only four cylinders and an output of 308 SHP. These transmit through reverse-reduction gearboxes and are remotely
The main propulsion engine
controlled from the bridge.
three-cylinder 190 h.p. engine
is
installed to drive the
winch generator, the trawl winch having Ward-Leonard

electric drive.
Fig, 765.
The gantry is again In its stern position and the ground rope of the trawl is being hauled
(fig. 767). This stern was incorporated in the design of a projected Portuguese Research stern trawler (Cardosa and Saraiva, 1959). It would be interesting to have comments on the need for such a stern construction.
sea
MR. A. HUNTER, (U.K.): Heinsohn stated that experience shows the stability of a trawler should not be too high
Fig, 764.
With the gantry in forward position the otter boards are being lowered into specific places inside the rail
It is intended that the Universal Star shall fish for a trial period of about six months and the results compared with the 115 ft. (35.1 m.) size of trawler fishing on the same grounds, probably the Faroes, and that data will be carefully collected over this period so that an exact comparison can be made. In two days fishing out of North Shields on trials from the shipyard, a catch of approximately 120 boxes was obtained
and time for hauling and shooting the gear, an 80 ft. (24.4 m.) Granton trawl, has proved to be approximately half that with normal side trawling. Fig. 762 to 766 show the fishing operation
.

COMMANDER M.
stern trawlers
it
B. F.
RANKBN
(U.K.): In the discussion of
was surprising that no one had mentioned the special stem which had been developed and model-tested by Lochridge and Messrs. Alexander Stephen & Sons to dear water from the ramp which might otherwise be carried inboard particularly when hauling nets in a following rough
Fig. 766.
With the gantry
In
eventually brought aboard
an wight potion the cod end
is
[701]
BOAT TYFES
Fig. 767.
2. 3.
MiHOrch rternfbhint
Mafci laboratory Main laboratory tot* Factory laboratory
trawler
7, t.
Ddt laboratory
Darkroom
4.
5. 6.
T<
9,
Longf'
[702]

it will be stiff. While this is accepted, the charachave to be such that good safety is provided over the whok range of the trawler's voyage, and depending upon die disposition of fuel and water tanks the stability can in the arrival condition, particularly when discharged, be considerably less than in the loaded departure condition. Further, where icing conditions are met the larger amount of exposed hull above the wateritne in a stem trawler with 'tween decks could offer a greater target for the build-up of ice. With too small a metacentric height a list could develop, in which condition helm action would be less effective and the safety of the ship jeopardized. The main deck had of necessity to be reasonably near the
DISCUSSION
otherwise
teristics
danger due to the absence of bulwarks, guard rails for quick drainage only being provided. Mr. Heinsohn, however, felt somewhat doubtful about this and believed that more experience was needed.
In respect of drainage of the 'tween deck by pumps, reports showed that the necessity for this only very occasionally arose. Nevertheless all pumps in question (bilge pumps,
fire
pump and
fish
washing pump) could suck from the drain
tank or tanks.
On one ship a special pump of 40 ton capacity
designed wateritne. Special consideration would therefore be required for the means of getting rid of any water which came on the lower deck. He would like to ask if the drainage pumps were specially enlarged to deal with this contingency.
per hour was additionally fitted in the 'tween deck for this purpose. To the question regarding the arrangement of crew quarters in the fore body, Mr. Heinsohn then said that the German trawlers over five years old, which were in the majority, had crew quarters forward, and there had been few complaints,
the sailors being accustomed to this arrangement. Only crew members, which, like the cook and the greasers, has usually stayed aft, were in heavy weather not too happy. On the other hand, the engineers on the Sagitta, who were berthed in the pan of the vessel with the least motion more aft, complained about the noise of the bobbins over their head during the net manoeuvre.
Stem trawlers are the future MR. H. HEINSOHN (Germany) agreed with Hunter
stability
that the
of the empty ship after discharging the cargo was considerably less than over the whole voyage. This was a feature of medium sized stern trawlers which could not be avoided, because the distance between the centres of gravity of the empty ship and that of the load (fish cargo, bunkers, fuel, etc.) was greater than on single deck trawlers, with consequently more change in stability. This is clearly shown by the stability data of the Carl Kampf, fig. 706. The conclusion to be drawn in respect of handling the vessel is also
shown by comparing cases Oa (empty), and Ob (empty freshwater) and Oc (empty 4- freshwater +10 ton deck cargo). It is a usual and simple procedure to fill the fresh-water tanks
as soon as the vessel
is
With regard to costs, careful calculations had shown that the difference in costs of stern trawlers compared with side trawlers of the same hold capacity and performance varied with the size of the vessels. For small trawlers (i.e. about 150 ft. or 46 m.) the difference was mainly due to the higher hull and the upper deck. With increasing size of the vessels it disappeared and was for vessels of about 190 ft. (58 m.)
between 4 to 6 per cent, depending how much money was spent for mechanization of transport, fish washing, etc. When comparing costs it should always be kept in mind that the stern trawler offers more in every respect than a side trawler of the same performance. As amplification of his statement on page 123, Mr. Heinsohn presented table 176, which gives detail data of every trawl haul during a Labrador trip in November 1959 with Carl Kampf. The exact time when each operation took place was
noted, and the actual time spent
table.
is set
moored.
If possible, oil fuel is also
taken, although this is done more to ease landing by reducing the height of the upper deck over the jetty. However, cases
Oa
(empty) and 4a (arrival with half cargo without bunkers or water) showed that the vessel was still safe and had a much better range of stability than a side trawler. As regards icing up, as a naval architect, Mr. Heinsohn agreed with Hunter that, due to the higher and more exposed hull, the stern trawler should be worse off than the side trawler. However, the reports of the three trawlers showed that under icing conditions they actually performed better and their skippers now have great confidence in them. Mr.
out in detail in the
Heinsohn then offered two possibilities regarding icing up which he felt were, however, open to question: % Where the air is very cold and wind is blowing up to force 8 or 9. Mainly spray originating from the ship's motions and occasional seas are shipped. In this case
the stern trawler
is
much
better off than the side trawler
due to the higher freeboard. This advantage has probably

resulted in the favourable reports regarding the three
stern trawlers.
is all over in or where there are lower forces of wind and at same time snow in the air which sticks very fast and is very difficult to remove. According to crews* reports this is due to the soft nature of the snow, compared with ice which is brittle and can be removed by axes. In this case the stern trawler is worse off than the side trawler because of the higher structure. Apparently this situation has not yet been met by the three trawlers. However, one skipper reported that he could free his foredcck from ice by taking high seas over it without
The catch, according to the table, was about 3,474 boxes, or about 180 ton. The real weight landed is somewhat more, because the minimum weight of a box is 132.5 Ib. (60 kg.) and the maximum weight 138 Ib. (62.5 kg.). However, the boxes are always counted as weighing 132} Ib. Furthermore it is estimated that the fish lost about 5 to 10 per cent, of weight during the trip. The actual weight of the fish caught is therefore estimated to be about 200 ton. From table 176 it can be seen that the average time from the start of hauling until the trawl was back on the bottom again was 34.4 min. The average length of the trawl warps was 526 fm. (%5 m.). The average time spent in hauling the warps was about 9.9 min. Thus the average hauling speed of the
winch would be 319
ft./min. (97.36 m./min.
Where gate force 10 to 12 prevails and spray

air,
or 1.62 m./sec.).
the the
The average time spent actually fishing with the trawl on the bottom was 1 hr. 49 nun. The average time spent in shooting the trawl with bobbins, lowering the bridles and shakling on the main trawl boards was 2.2 min. and the average time spent
from the time the trawl boards were in the gallows until the codend was on deck was 4.3 min. The fourth stem trawler mentioned in the paper had now been delivered. Fig. 768 shows the general arrangement drawing of Carl Wiederkehr which has the following main
particulars:
ww
[703]
- OAT
TYPES
TABLE 176
Data from trawling
to Labrador with Cmrl ffoWftn trip (engine r.p.m. while trawling"* 250)
November 19S9
1st
Fishing ground
SaUfd distance 175
nautical mites. Pmition- Lat, North. 45
10\ Long. W. 4S 40'
[704]
DISCUSSION
TABLE 176 (continuvt)
Depth
Hatti
TrawtiMg
Time spent for

Shooting trawl
C***
Weathtr
State
Speed
warps
Direction
No.
oftta
Shooting warpt
Actual wf URN*
Hauling
In trawl
ready fir next
batktts
fm,
knots
shootmg
SaUed distance 175

48 49
30
14/11
nautical miles. Position: Lot. North.
45 3
10',
Long. W. 4*> 4O*

13 14 13
N.I
NE.l
1
1.080 1,050 1,030
330 320 315
550 525
4.6 4.6 4.5
2
1
NE
15 16
10 10
Steaming
57
20 40 30
5th fishing ground
NOTES for
Haul No.
trawl).
2.
At 21.10: 4 min. repair work (of
Haul No.
Haul No. 3. Between 00. 10 and 00.60 two hauls were made, total catch 100 baskets. Steaming between 09.15 and 09.36. Repair of trawl between 14.52 and 15.03. Skipper decided to shift to a fishing ground further south
about 150 nautical miles to the south of Hamilton Bank.
34. At 10.00 hours on the fishing ground, sailed distance 175 nautical miles. Steaming between 14.55 and 15.11 hours. At 20.07 hours course set for a fishing ground further south.
Haul
No
38. Steaming.
39. Steaming.
Haul No.
Haul No.
Haul
Haul No. 11. Repair of trawl between 11.24 and 11.35.
40. Chiefly scrap fish.
No 41.
Haul No. 13. Repair of trawl between 18.20 and 18.30 Haul No.
19.
Steaming between
18. 15
and 18.23
hours.
Between
10.
spent in exchanging footrope.
bridles
S and 10.35 time was and parts of
Haul No.
50. At 00.30 hours the trawl was taken in and course set for Flemish Cap. At 15.18 hours off Flemish Cap 7-8 Russian
factory trawlers were fishing here.
Haul No. 27. Trawling bottom particularly even, no fungi and slightly stony.
Haul No.
Haul No. Haul No.
29. Repair of trawl, 15 min.
SI. Between 21.42 and 22.39 hours boards were exchanged as well as part of warps and warps spliced. The entire operation took lets than one hour. 56.
30. Trawl taken in and course set for fishing grounds further south.
Haul No.
Repair work, 7 min.
[70S]
FISHING BOATS OF Tfi'"W*U>:
*2
OAf TYPES
ID
General arranfemenl ofCxrl Wiederkehr, Jbjirt/r German medium-sized stern trawler. IDA 220ft. (67.25 m.); LHP 31 3 ft. (9M m.); to Mpper deck** 23 .5 ft. (7.15 m.); to '/we* deck" 16.1 ft. (4.90 m.)
B-
7*9 /if. (57.60 m);
[706]
DISCUSSION
Fig. 769.
Carl Wiedcrkchr during
trials
LOA
LBP B
.
220
ft. (67.25 m.) 189 ft (57.60 m.)
.3 1.5
.
ft.
ft.
ft.
(9.60m.)
(7.15 m.)
D to upper deck D to 'tween deck

Fresh
fish
23.5
16.1
ft.
(4.90m.)
hold
About 16,500
.
cu.
(468 cu. m.)
Refrigerated fish hold
Fuel oil Fresh water

.
2,260 cu. ft. (64 cu. m.) 171 ton (204 cu. m.) 82 ton (82 cu. m.)
. 30 ton (33 cu. m.) Liver and fish oil Fish meal storage 3,140 cu. ft. (89 cu. m.) Carl Wiederkehr has proved to be highly successful Fig. 769 shows a photo. The bulk of German orders placed early in 1960 was for stern trawlers, and it is also being discussed to change some of the contracts for side trawlers to stem trawlers. Enquiries to-day are nearly all for stern trawlers. Mr. Heinsohn's shipyard was to deliver 5 stem trawlers during 1960. Side trawlers are now out of the question for German owners and considered only for special cases.
.
.
Chan room
IT,
4.623 Imp.
gal (2
sat. (21.0 cu. m.)
,2x7,4501^.
x 33.8
cu. m.)
21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.
32. 33.
OUUM
Drying room Air hntins
Potato itora
SUpdoek
41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 47] 48.
Two men
Three men
W.C,
Waahroom
Crew'fmeei
Rubber raft Net room

Spaot for
Oaltoy
flth
chute
Wain feravw
Imp fai
Imp.
Imp.
a*l.
Uverboflw
Provitlont
Wah room for offiom

taoftd Bttteafr and par* Stooad OflJper and spare boye
50. Liver oil. 1,150 51. 595 ., 53. Liver od, 1^650
(5.2 cu. m.)
gal. (2,7 cu,
m.)
m.)
ChWBnglnMr
(7*5 ou.
551
36. 37. 38. 39. 40.
Ogrflow
fuel ofl
sal. (17.7 cu,
Two
fr F5ffoT??00 Imp.
.
m.)
Man
Cook and
ipare
Qafcr Û30Imp.iil.
(84
ou. m.)
[707J
CHOICE OF BOAT TYPE AND SIZE FOR POLISH

DEEP-SEA FISHERIES
by
JERZY SWIECICKI
The investigations were made in three stages: Trends of development in the world tea fisheries were analysed, the principal guiding lines were formulated, and the criteria of choice of the optimum type of fishing vessel for specific production conditions, were formulated. Preliminary approximations and statistical methods were adopted in choosing the main parameters for fishing vessels: capacity of hold, processing and freezing capacity, type and power of main engine, number of crew. Comparisons of the expected financial results of the various types of vessels were made. Simplified methods of choosing the main parameters for the optimum ship were investigated. Graphical analysis was used to find the correlations between some of the vessel's parameters, distance to fishing grounds, amount of daily catches, range of processing operations
on board*
etc.
LE CH01X
DU TYPE ET DES DIMENSIONS DE NAVIRES POUR

HAUTURIERES POLONAISES
LES PECHES
Les recherchcs ont et faites en trois tapes: Les tendances du deveioppement des pftcheft maritimes mondiales ont 6te analysees, tes grandes lignes ont ete formuttes ainsi que tes critcres du choix du type optimum de navire de pftche pour des conditions de production specifiques. Des approximations preloninaires et des m&hodes statistiques ont adoptees pour choisir les parametrcs principaux pour les na vires de ptene: capacit^ de la cate, capacity de traitetnent et de congelation, type et puissance du moteur principal, nombre d'hommes d'4quipa0e. On a fait des comparaisons entre les resultats financiers prtvus des divers types de na vires. Des mcthodes simplifies pour choisir les paramttres principaux pour le navire optimum ont fait I'objet de recherches. On a utilise ('analyse graphique pour trouver les correlations entre quelques-uns des parametres du navire, la distance des lieux de p6che, les quantites ptchees journelternent, l'6tendiie des operations de traitement a bord, etc.
SELECCION DE FORMA Y
TAMANO DE LOS BARCOS PARA LA PESCA DE ALTURA EN POLONIA

tres partes:
Las investtgactones se hicieron en
Se analizarpn las tendencias de las innovationes en las pesquerias marinas del mundo, se formularon las principalcs lincas de oricntaci6n y Jos criterios de selection del tipo 6ptimo de barco de pesca para condiciones especificas de producci6n. En la sekccton de los principales parfmetros para barcos de pesca se adoptaron aproximaciones preliminares y mtodos estadisticos: capacidad de la bodega, capacidad de elaboraddn y congelacibn, clase y potencia del motor principal, numero de tripulantes. Se hickron comparaciones de los resuhados financieros esperados de las divcrsas clases de barcos. Se invcitigaron metodos simplificados de selection de los parametros principles para el barco 6ptimo. Se empled el analisis grafico para encontrar las relacions entre algunos de los parametros del barco, la distancia a los caladeros, la cuantla de las capturas diarias, la amplitud de la elaboration a bordo, etc.
II, Poland regained access {o the which made possible the development of a J[ JL maritime economy. A deficit in animal protein, taken together with the slow and comparatively expensive development of meat production, enhanced the economic importance of the sea fisheries. As the resources of the nearby Baltic fishing grounds were limited, it was necessary to develop
ZA
A FTER World War

sea,
the long-distance fisheries. Since 1952, owing to the rapid development of the shipbuilding industry, many deepsea fishing vessels have been built. Table 177 and f. 770 show the catch of the Polish sea fisheries from 1946 to 1957. In 1958 the catch per head of population amounted to
This corresponds to a real (4.4 kg.). of 6.6 Ib. some (3 kg.). consumption The deficit in animal protein cannot be covered by meat consumption, which is only 68.4 Ib. (31 kg.) per head yearly, and the joint yearly consumption of fish and meat 75 Ib. (34 kg.) per head, is much below the level in other European countries. The supply of adequate amounts of animal protein up to recognized biological standards sets a very serious task for Polish agriculture and fisheries. The part to be played by fisheries is particularly important, as protein could be supplied by the fishing industry in a shorter time and at a lower cost (Laszczynski, 1958). According to the Sea Fisheries Institute in Gdynia, the
about 10
Ib.
[708]
SIZE
AND TYPE
POLISH DEEP-SEA FISHERIES

FABLE. 177
must reach 500,000 ton by 1975 (table 178) to meet the demands of Poland's growing population, which, by then, might reach 37.7 million. Factors which have had a bearing on Poland's sea fisheries and which have produced special working
total yearly catch of the Polish sea fisheries
conditions, are:
Deep-sea fishing vessels are operated by State-owned
The
enterprises State allots non-repayable investment funds to individual enterprises, and exercises a decisive
influence
on the character and
technical features of
the investments
SUBJECT OF STUDY
The Polish fishing fleet is comprised of The Baltic cod and herring fleet
:
Off-shore fishing boats Short-distance cutters
Long-distance cutters Deep-sea fleet: Herring fleet

White-fish
fleet
Auxiliary fleet: Base ships
Research ships, hospital and workshop vessels Other auxiliary vessels
Primary attention was given to deep-sea vessels, as the increase in catches by 1975 was expected mainly from the distant North Sea and Atlantic fishing grounds.
Economic analyses were made of the following

*r *e
vessel
to
toor
types: Drifters
Drifter-trawlers
Fig. 77G. Polish sea fisheries results
Base ships
Freezing trawlers Catchers and motherships
The
limited opportunities for fishing in the Baltic made it necessary to extend activities to remote regions of the North Sea, a distance of 750 to 1,000
RANGE OF STUDY
Making new investments in Poland is
and requirements.
rather complicated,
as such investments are subject to special regulations
sea miles, and to the 3,400 sea miles
North
Atlantic,
i.e.
1,200 to
AIM OF STUDY
As Poland had little experience in building and operating deep-sea fishing vessels, the Ministry of Shipping and Internal Waterways commenced studies in 1954 on the development of Poland's fishing fleet, including an investment policy. The Ministry requested information as to: Types and numbers of fishing vessels needed to fulfil the tasks planned Approximate extent of the investment I%e economic results to be expected
The aim of the study was, therefore, primarily to establish optimum vessels for Poland's sea fisheries, both from the technical and economic point of view.
study
is first
made, which enables
the shipowner to give the designer data on basic requirements and to conclude the building contract with the
shipyard.
TABLE 178
ras and speck* f fl*

Species
to
1975
Area
Total
Baltic
.
Total
White-fish
. .
Herring Other
500 275 200 25
90 60 20
10
North Sea 120

15
Atlantic
100 5
(1,000 ton)
290 200 80
10
1709]

Studies of this character are carried out only for
large-scale investments or with regard to a new type of The range of these studies therefore depends ship.
~ PRODUCTIVITY
in national
tammy.
A broad
greatly
on the shipowner's needs* The range and pattern of such studies in fisheries have been established as
follows:
approach to the subject, taking into account its place in the national economy, was the fundamental principle in the investigations. The future development in a field
of production can be determined only by previous detailed investigations of this production and against the developmental background of the whole national economy. Trends of Poland's deep-sea fishing fleet should thus be found in the general programme of the fleet being one of its elements fisheries development which in turn can be established from the leading trends in the development of national economy. By applying this principle and by 9 carrying out an analysis of market demand, consumers preferences and increase in population, it was possible to determine the quantities and kinds of main fish products for the target
year 1975. The choice of fishing grounds, fishing gear and fishing methods must be made from both the technical and economic viewpoint. Thus, the broad approach entails the services of many experts from various fields of science.
Character of service performed Area and time of fishing activities
Weather conditions Fishing methods and gear Processing operations on board Programme of production, suggested time-table of
trips
Capacity of hold Range of operation
Number and composition of crew

and gear: General remarks
Engine room characteristics Speed and hauling power Processing plant and equipment Freezing plant and equipment Inner transport equipment Choice of propulsion and power required
Sizeof rettd:
World trend of sea fisheries development. study of trends in world sea fisheries was undertaken as an auxiliary means of determining the various types of vessels and fishing methods to be employed. Particular
Approximate size of the vessel

Capacities of hold and store rooms Capacity of processing space
Quantity of provisions and storage capacity
was given to modern developments in fishing gear and methods, fish preservation, types of vessels, etc. The trends revealed were then investigated from the viewpoint of the future needs of the Polish sea fisheries. The conclusions reached supplied supplementary material to the main project.
attention
Crew accommodation
Approximate loads and the ship's stability Comparison of sizes of similar vessels Conclusion and scheme of functional arrangement
Surrey of ?*<**
fishing vessels.
Survey work was

vessels, fishing
carried out simultaneously
on types of
methods, fishing gear, etc., in operation in the Polish sea fisheries. This enabled the investigating staff to become better acquainted with problems of a professional
Aim, subject and method of analysis Comparative calculation of costs and

results
and
financial
social character.
Comparison of various ships
METHOD OF CHOOSING THE OPTIMUM FISHING BOAT

1954, the Ministry considered making the studies, neither the Sea Fisheries Institute at Gdynia nor the Maritime Institute at Gdansk had an appropriate
CoDctakm. The conclusions have been verified by comparing the opinions of the research teams and of the operators, including skippers. The opposite opinions of the two parties often induced valuable discussion and were an instrument of control.
Guiding principles
When,
in
The guiding
mum
1.
theses thus obtained served as a framework for further investigation. The conception of "the optifleet" was explained in the guiding theses. Three
criteria
investigation to offer, nor were any suitable foreign examples available. It was necessary, therefore, to device a method.
method of
were taken as a basis: Quality of product as a basis for the development
Studies on the optimum fishing vessels were carried out in three stages: 1* Determination of the guiding theses concerning the type of vessel 2. Preliminary assumptions concerning the type of vessel, based on the guiding theses 3, Precise determination of basic parameters
of fish consumption as a basis for providing the necessary investment funds 3. Welfare and safety of crews The principles involved have been developed into the
2. Profit
following seven points :
The
ganeral programme of operation of the new deep-sea fishing fleet should be a4justed in the best
{710J
SIZE
AND TYPE
and
in

Capacity of hold:
possible way to geophysical, geographical, biological, meteorological and other conditions prevailing on
the selected fishing grounds,
Poland
The deep-sea fishing fleet has been operated in collaboration with base ships. Vessels of the new fleet should be so designed as to be operated without base ships, directly from home ports
The optimum capacity of the hold was determined from the "Time-table of Trips'*. An example for a factory trawler is given in table 179. The number of trips was set down in conformity with the yearly number of days at sea, as achieved by similar vessels, based on data drawn from Polish and foreign sea
Also taken into account were the operative number of trips per year, the daily output remaining unchanged, according
fisheries.
The
technical equipment of the vessels and the methods of operation should assure fish supplies of
gains derived from a decreased
the best quality, satisfying consumers' preferences as well as the needs of the processing industry
to statistics, for the last five years. "propitious" factor, were others
Opposed to
of a
this
restrictive
The minimum operation cost for a given type of vessel should at the same time ensure the maximum
rate of capital gain
character, as, for instance, the limited size of the vessels fishing with drift-nets, the time spent by the
crew at
sea, the resistance of fish products to deterioration, etc. From a consideration of the opposing factors
the
Realization of these requirements can be assured by application of the principles of large-scale
industrial production and organization of work. This usually results in specialization of the ultimate product, in mechanization of processes and of inner
mentioned above, and of approximations, data for the "Time-table of Trips" were prepared. The catch of a single trip and knowledge of the stowing coefficient for various kinds of fish products, provided a base for computing the required capacities of holds.
Processing capacity : for processing was determined by ascertaining the processing capacity of the plant, type
transport, and, finally, in making the best use of technical equipment, facilities and labour
Welfare and safety conditions for crews require radical changes so as to achieve standards usually met with in the merchant marine
The area needed
The development of the

gradually,
fishing fleet should proceed
following growing need of consumers and the demand by the processing industry
the
of mechanization and transport, and, finally, by considering a given set of processing machinery and facilities. The processing capacity of the plant was determined by analysing daily output at specific fishing grounds and in individual months. As a rule, the processing capacity of the plant was determined on the
average catches, and certain buffer storage space was provided to keep surpluses of fish.
Preliminary awampdoa based on the gutting tfceaes The basic parameters of the optimum fishing vessel of a specific type were determined by several methods. rough estimate was first made and then checked by
statistical analysis.
Main engine horsepower: The choice of the main engine was made
after
a special
Rough approximation* The method of approximation was primarily to study several common designs, each of which was subject to a thorough technical and economic This enabled the optimum design to be analysis.
determined.
to rapid technical progress in the boat-building and to changing operational conditions, etc., it is necessary to analyse these basic designs from time to time. New designs can then be worked out, in line with
study of engines and propellers for various types of vessels. It was necessary first to fix the service speed of a vessel to determine the engine horsepower. The choice of an economic service speed was made by the aid of a comparative table (table 180). Cost and value of
Owing
industry,
production columns were compiled from statistical and book-keeping data of fishing enterprises, or by
approximate calculations.
modified conditions.
A general concept of the optimum

and
in line with
fishing vessel will be kept up-to-date current operative conditions.
The greater the number of variants compared, the more realistic will be the general concept of the optimum
fishing vessel Investigations are continued after construction of the prototype vessel, and actual operational
Number of crew: The number of crew was determined by taking into account the work needed, the condition of mechanization of the processing operations and transport, and, finally, the organization of work and the efficiency of
labour, the latter being determined for individual processing operations on board by statistical data. If the
and financial results are later compared with those assumed in the general concept.
Statistical
analysis
of
anwwd
item*.
Statistical
auxiliary instrument in determining basic parameters of the optimum vessel and in the economic analysis of individual variants, mainly in
methods have been used as an
appropriate data were not available, figures for land processing plants were used, allowing for a decrease of 30 to 50 per cent. The number of crew was fixed for deck, engine room, fishing and processing.
determining the size of the vessel, namely:
The
Economic appreciation: financial results were analysed. The comparative
[711]

TABLE 179
of trip for
PRODUCTIVITY
Jfectory trawler
Hold's capacity for:
Fillets
cu.
fish
ft.
(cu.
m.)
Frozen deheaded
Total Fish meal
Oil
28,957 18,363
(820) (520)
47,320(1,340) 9,172 (260)

1,766
(50)
and
liver oil
tanks
tables contain
presumed
financial results based
on general
concepts of the vessels in question (table 181). The main value of these tables consists in providing a means
Precise determination of bask parameters Analysis to establish an exact method for determining the basic parameters of the optimum fishing vessel is based
of comparing costs and

vessels.
financial
results
for several
on the following correlations
The comparability of the data can only be achieved if the same method is used in computing successive items. The calculations are based on the statistics and accounts of fisheries enterprises, in conformity with the principles of calculation which are obligatory in Poland (Noetzel, 1958). These calculations are of relative value only as regards the various vessels discussed although, in a certain sense, they contain a synthesis of the consequences of the assumed general concept of operation and of the technical solution.
Correlation between yearly catches and distance to fishing ground, for various daily outputs and hold capacities* Fig. 771 gives information on the operation of four suggested drifter-trawlers, carrying salted herring
from the North Sea grounds. The diagrams also show

the yearly production of round-fish against the distance
By comparing the rate of capital gain, conclusions may be reached as to the most suitable choice of vessel.
TABLE 180
of "table for detenMiaiBg tiw opttanm
far
nautical mfles distance
Mr vice
in
speed 01
from f
knots
13.5 14.5
No.
1
Elements of comparison
Speeds
Measures
h.p.
11.5
12.6
2
3
5 6
7
Engine power Fiahinftime Yeariycatches Fuel consumption Value of products

-Cost of production
Profit
days ton ton

million
riotys
million
ztoty* million
or tots
~
.
zbfty*
tfai^Xk^&J&teJ!**^ 9 and Mid (IY),

ton),
ft-
fjl
Correlations between yearly catches
Y and
distance to
12,4QOQ)cu
8JBOO (III), 10iUU {Il) 9 capacity 7,100 t ft. (200, 250, 300, 350 cu.m.)
[712]
SIZE
from
fishing
AND TYPE

ooo
1100
grounds (200, 400, 600 and 800 nautical
mites), the average daily catches (3, 5, 7 and 9 ton) for the different hold capacities (7,100, 8,800, 10,600 and uniform 12,400 cu. ft. 200, 250, 300 and 350 cu. m.)
service speed of 10 knots was assumed and 270 as the yearly number of days at sea. Stormy weather was
assumed
ground.
for 20 per cent, of the time spent
on the
fishing
An analysis of the diagrams proves the well-known principle of increased gains derived from a bigger hold capacity assuming the fish to have good resistance to
deterioration.
success.
It
also indicates the critical distance at

500
400
which a vessel can operate from a base ship with economic

Correlation between the range of processing on board and of hold capacity. The correlation between the range of processing operations on board and hold capacity is shown in fig. 772. It was assumed that the processing of the catch into frozen fillets varied from to 80 per cent.,
Fig. 773. Correlation between trips' duration and the daily catches for a drifter trawler with 12,400 cu. ft. (350 cu.m.) hold capacity
the rest being frozen, gutted and deheaded, and the offal
made
and
into fish meal.
The
capacities of the hold for fish
meal are given jointly in the diagram. An analysis of the diagram shows that the biggest gains are from fish processed into fillets, which suggests the possibility of extending the time spent on the fishing
fish
grounds, thus achieving additional operative gains. Correlation between the trip duration and the daily catches (for a drifter-trawler with 12,400 en. ft. (350 en. m.) hold capacity). An example of variations in the time taken to fill the hold in relation to actual daily catches is given in fig. 773. The suggested vessel is a drifter-trawler fishing herring in the North Sea. She has a hold capacity of 12,400 cu. ft. (350 cu. m.). In drift-net fishing, 50 to 70 per cent, of the time spent on the ground is assumed to be actual time. In trawl
fishing, the
Correlation between the range of processing operations on board and hold capacity for a factory trawler of Fairtry-Pushkin type
Fig. 772.
corresponding figures are 70 to 90 per cent.
The diagram serves as an auxiliary means for determining the most suitable range of operation for a given vessel.
TABLE
Arrangement oC table for calculation of costs and
181
financial results for three variants of factory trawler In
ro
Variant ///
No.
1
Elements of cost
Capital depreciation Insurance
Method of
Variant I 1,000
ziotys
Variant
U
IflOO
ziotys
Method of
computation
Method of
computation
LOOO
ilotys
computation
2
3
Fishing and auxiliary equipment including

repairs
4
5
Packing
Repairs, maintenance and spare parts
6
7
8
Fuel and water Wages, contributions, foreign currency supplement, food and other provisions General expenditure of company Other costs
Total
....
A
B
C
P
Value of products
Profit
Rate of capital gam

Production value in dollars ($1,000)
Cost of gaining ($1)
[713]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD: 2 BOAT TYPES GENERAL RESULTS biological, political, economical,
Studies of the problem of providing a new deep-sea fishing fleet for Poland have resulted in finding a working method to determine the three most suitable types of vessels for specific conditions, and their basic parameters. The working methods thus far developed, though in many
ctc.-as
wcU
as rapid
technical progress, require continued studies checktagon the general concepts assumed,
and regular
ways
satisfactory,
still
require to be perfected
in
and sim-
plified.
The studies have pointed out the need to start investigations along new lines, covering various fields of science, as, for instance, biology and fisheries technique, economics, etc. They have also proved that it is essential to prepare a training programme and to build up crews who are
thoroughly trained in each specialized job on board ship.
Frequent
changes
general
fishing
conditions
[714]
PROPULSION AND PROCESSING MACHINERY FOR DEEP-SEA TRAWLERS

by
G. C.
the catch.
EDDIE
The paper discusses modem developments in propulsion machinery for British distant-water trawlers and new methods of preserving The difficulty of determining the economic optimum power is discussed briefly. The paper then attempt to show that the improved methods of preservation now available will alter the choice of machinery for optimum economic performance.
LA MACHINERIE DE PROPULSION ET DE TRATTEMENT POUR LES CHALUTffiRS DE HAUTE MER

La communication examine les modernes de la machincrie de propulsion des chalutiers britanniques ptehant dans des caux 61oignj6es et les nouvelles methodes de preservation des poissons pechcs. La difficult* de determiner la puissance optimum economique est examinee brievement. Ensuite 1'auteur essaie de montrer que les methodes perfcctionnees de preservation disponiWes actueUement modifieront le choix de la machinerie pour un rendement cconomique optimum.
MAQUINARIA PROPULSORA Y DE TRATAMIENTO DEL PESCADO EN LOS ARRASTREROS DE ALTURA

Commenta el autor los ultimos adelantos en cuesti6n de maquinaria propulsora para los arrastreros britanicos de altura y los nuevos m&odos para conservar la capture. Dispute brevemente la dificultad de determinar la potencia optima cconomica. El autor demucstra a continuaci6n que los mitodos de conscrvaci6n de que se dispone actualmente influiran en la selecci6n de maquinaria para obtener el rendimiento econdmico 6ptimo.
ALL the fish landed in the U.K. almost half is caught by the large trawlers fishing the distant waters; in other words, these vessels produce nearly two-thirds of all the fish caught by trawl. There are about 250 distant-water trawlers ranging in length from 160 to 190 ft, (49 to 58 m.) LBP and having 900 to
OF
up to Beaufort Force 7, or just short of a full gale; goes on sometimes in a strong tide or a few miles from a lee shore. Motion is considerable, accelerations of about 1 .0 g have been experienced at the forward end of a 180 ft (54.9 m.) trawler. Heavy slamming causing severe vibration sometimes occurs in head seas.
least
this
1,800
ment
ago the propulsive equipinvariably consisted of a single Scotch boiler and

six years
SHP. Until
triple-expansion reciprocating steam engine supplemented, in a few cases, by an exhaust turbine on the
prime mover supplying power to the winch might lead to loss of the gear, and a failure in propulsion might have a more serious outcome. Therefore the
failure in the
Bauer- Wach system. Such machinery has a high degree of freedom from total breakdown and has the manoeuvrability desirable for trawling, while the characteristics of a steam winch are almost ideal for the duty of hauling the gear. Until 1946 the furnaces were all coal fired but the majority of the fleet now burns oil. Trawlers are called upon to face the worst weather of the North Atlantic. In the distant waters it is rarely possible to run for shelter and the storm may be ridden out, steerage way and position being maintained by the use of the engines. Air temperatures of 0F(~18C) and seawater temperatures of 28F ( 2C) are experienced. Seawater apray can freeze on die superstructure and rigging until over 100 ton of ice have accumulated. Bottom trawling at 3 to 5 knots continues in winds at
tendency of the distant-water trawler owners to use steam machinery arose from understandable caution, to get complete freedom from total breakdown. The diesel engine offers economies in space, weight and fuel consumption, an improvement in endurance and a reduction in standby losses; it also eases some of the problems of the naval architect. For these reasons most of the trawlers built since 1951 under the White Fish Authority's Grants and Loans Scheme, as part of a plan to modernize the fleet of 500 trawlers fishing the near and middle waters, as far as the Faeroes, have been
motor ships.
or more have seen the adoption of combustion engine also in the British distant-water trawler fleet for both propulsion and winch duties, at first in only one or two ships, but for the
last six years
The
the
internal
[715]

two years on such a scale that very few, if any, steam trawlers are now being ordered. It may be interesting to examine the various ways of adapting the diesel engine to
last
PRODUCTIVITY
die requirements of Arctic trawling as carried out by the British and to compare different designers' approaches to
broadly similar schemes.
TYPES OF MACHINERY
Direct-tore The standard layout for the small, near and middlewater trawler at present is a single direct-coupled or geared propulsion engine and a separate winch engine (Hunter and Eddie, 1959). With this layout, it is argued, the failure of a pump or a valve spring might hazard the ship. However, one or two owners with considerable experience of the near-water vessel began building distant-water trawlers of similar design about 1953 and experience seems to show that the machinery chosen is sufficiently reliable. It may be remarked that the engines of British motor trawlers are always heavily derated except when one of the well-known slow-speed marine
types
is
electrical losses. This is not true for two the propeller r.p.m. of the electrical ships is 175, whereas a direct-drive diesel acceptable on the score of space and cost will be running at 215 to 250 np.m. The electrical efficiency of the latest ships is so high that the difference in propulsive efficiency almost counterbalances the electrical losses. Second, recent research (Eddie, 1957; Dickson, 1959) has shown that the power
owing to the
reasons
:
first,
required for trawling
is
only 450 to 600 h.p., depending
upon weather and depth of water, so the multiple engined ship can shut down some engines when fishing and run the remainder at high efficiency, thus saving fuel and
costs. In ships with single large engines a temptation to trawl at much higher powers and the increased fuel consumption can be shown to have very little effect in the case of Arctic cod fishing with the
maintenance
there
is
Granton trawl (Eddie, 1957). The direct-drive scheme has fewer
units to service but
the individual parts are much larger. Because the separate prime mover for the winch is eliminated, diesel-electric schemes can result in shorter
used.
Other distant-water trawler owners, with no experience of diesels, have preferred to ensure reliability by the use of multiple engines. All multiple engined trawlers so far built for British owners have electrical transmissions. Proposals have been made for other types of drive: for example, two reversible engines geared to a
single shaft through hydraulic clutches. It would also be possible to devise a constant-torque scheme where the
engine rooms. So long as crushed ice is used to preserve the catch, there is more space than can be used on a 185 ft. (56.4 m.) trawler, but if better means of preservation were used, a shorter engine room would have an
economic advantage.
"Father and son" system
It is possible to eliminate the separate winch prime mover even when the propulsion unit is a single large engine. One solution, which goes part of the way towards this, is the "father and son" scheme favoured by the Germans, where the power of the winch engine can be used to augment the power of the main engine when on passage. Since this requires electrical transmission, the cost of the machinery can approach that of a full diesel-electric scheme with higher-speed engines. The main engine of a trawler has sufficient power to drive both propeller and
speed and the number of engines in use were varied by a transmission consisting of inverted differential gears on
the lines employed in the experimental locomotive.
Diesel-electric drive
Fell
railway
Reliability is not the only attractive feature of multipleengined electric propulsion. The trawl winch in British deep-sea vessels is almost always electrically driven since hydraulic machinery of sufficient power is not available. The winch in a distant-water trawler may absorb 300 h.p. and in a trawler where the main propulsion unit is a single large diesel the winch motor will be supplied by a separate 400 h.p. generating set. This set will be in use for less than ten percent, of the life of the ship; it occupies a great deal of space, adds several tons to the displacement, and requires maintenance. Since maximum power should never be required simultaneously on propeller and winch, there is no need for a separate winch generator in a diesel-electric trawler, the winch deriving its power from the propulsion generators. Even so, the first cost of diesel-electric is higher than direct-drive because owners restrict the diesel generators to 750 r.p.m. in spite of the fact that V-type diesels designed to run continuously at 1,500 r.p.m. and delivering over 1,000 h.p. are now available in the United
winch, as already explained, and the problem really is to provide independent speed control of ship and winch.
Controllable-pitch propeller number of trawlers built
some years ago for Icelandic owners incorporated scoop-controlled hydraulic couplings between main engine and propeller, and the winch generator was coupled to the forward end of the main engine. This gave a very short engine room. When the winch was in use the main engine was governed to run at constant speed and the propeller controlled by the
hydraulic coupling.
scheme with some advantages is to have a controllable-pitch propeller instead of a variable-speed coupling. In the opinion of some people, a clutch would be necessary to ensure that both propeller and ship were
similar
stationary when the trawl is alongside.
One British distant-
Kingdom.
It
diesel-electric
might be expected also that the running costs of would be higher than for direct-drive,
water trawler, the Kingston Beryl, is fitted with a controllable-pitch propeller but has a separate winch engine. It is worth noting that in the near and middle-water trawlers, with shaft horsepower of up to 900 plus, the
[716]
SIZE
AND TYPE
PROPULSION AND PROCESSING

equipped for research in
fish preservation,
heaviest engine loading occurs when fishing. These vessels tow much the same type of gear as the distantwater ships and when trawling are therefore called upon
has four main
to develop about the same power, that is, up to 600 h.p., while the speed is only 3 to 4 knots. This they can do only at maximum torque, that is, maximum mean effective pressure, and exhaust temperatures are usually high. There seems to be a good case for the use of the controllable-pitch propeller in this class of vessel in order to allow them to trawl at higher revolutions and lower exhaust temperatures and indeed to allow the The distant-water motor fitting of smaller engines. ships on the other hand have maximum shaft horsepowers of 1 ,400 to 1 ,800 and the problem is rather that an engine of this size may run too cool at 450 h.p. This seems to
propulsion generators and two separate auxiliary sets These are all driven by identical high-speed engines. exhaust-turbo-charged four-stroke six-cylinder engines each delivering 200 h.p. at 1,400 r.p.m. The machinery weighs the same as that of a direct-drive trawler of the same shaft power and propeller r.p.m. and with much less seventh engine is kept ashore to auxiliary power. allow of servicing by replacement; an engine could be replaced in less than 24 hours. After some teething troubles with a new design of engine the machinery has settled down well. The engine room is noisier than the other diesel-electric ships, which are remarkably quiet, but no noisier than many trawler engine rooms when
harbour duty diesels are running.
Controllable-pitch propellers would, however, improve the performance of some of the older distant-water steam
indicate multiple engines for the bigger vessels.
vessels with shaft
The
generally
Falstaff of 1,800 h.p. (World Fishing, 1959), similar to Portia, and the Saint Dominic
(Shipbuilder
and Engine
Builder, 1958), a three-engined
horsepowers of well under 1,000
As just indicated, the controllable-pitch propeller allows constant horsepower to be developed regardless of speed of advance, that is, the best possible use can be made of the power whether trawling, running free in bad weather or running free in a calm. This characteristic is
shared by certain types of electric propulsion and the economic value of this feature is discussed later.
vessel of 1,600 h.p., both recently delivered, bring the number of British diesel-electric trawlers to five.
The
difficulty in
is
peller to trawlers
applying the controllable-pitch prothat of ensuring that it will be operated
Notable features Features common to all these ships are very fine bridge control of speed down to about 10 r.p.m., and fast response. The propellers of Sir William Hardy and Cape Trafalgar can be reversed when the ships are going full ahead at top speed in three seconds, and while there is little
practical point in that spectacular manoeuvre, it shows that diesel-electric propulsion incorporating feed-back
properly,
times.
is a propeller with two one for fishing and one for running; the most elegant is an automatic control of pitch according to. r.p.m. and fuel rack position, the man on the bridge being given control of power level. Both controllablepitch propellers and electrical transmissions lend them-
near the point of The cheapest solution

i.e.
maximum
efficiency at all
positions,
amplifier exciters has the fast response wanted by trawl skippers. All ships have comprehensive alarm systems, coupled in some cases with automatic shut-down, for
selves
drive
more readily to bridge control than does direct and the advantages of this for a trawler hardly
such parameters as lubricating oil temperature and pressure, engine underspeeding, overspeeding, cooling water failure, earth faults and so on. All ships also incorporate heaters in the main electrical machines to
prevent condensation. The Sir William Hardy has a separate coal-fired boiler in the forecastle for liver oil extraction and de-icing and,
as in Saint Dominic, the accommodation is electrically heated; she can therefore be ready for sea in half an
need
stressing.
DESIGN OF DIESEL-ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT

In the trawlers with straight diesel propulsion the engine rooms are much as would be expected in a modern ship
The designers of the diesela number of extra problems to had equipment solve and a few of these will now be touched upon. The first British diesel-electric trawler for commercial fishing was Portia (Blackburn, 1957), which came into service late in 19S6. There are three main generating
built for Arctic service.
electric
hour after complete shut-down. The other vessels have steam heated accommodation. The Portia generates some of her steam by an exhaust gas boiler but, owing to
the fluctuation in
power requirements when
fishing,
only
arranged for 3-point mounting, running at 750 r.p.m. auxiliary generators for ship's supply and excitation are also driven from the main engines, a chain drive being adopted to save length. The Cape Trafalgar (Eddie, 1957) has four main engines running at 600 r.p.m. with tandemmounted auxiliaries. The Cape Trafalgar and some other vessels have a double armature propulsion motor which, incidentally, because of its smaller diameter, allows installation further aft than would otherwise be possible. The diesel-electric Sir William Hardy (Eddie, 1957),
sets
The
one engine is so equipped. One of the problems in the design of these ships was to arrange for the cooling of the electrical machines. In a 1 ,500 h.p. trawler well over 200 kW has to be dissipated The air inlets and outlets are not far above water level and must be so arranged as to avoid intake of water and spray as well as avoiding re-circulation of warm air or
diesel exhaust.
The Sir William Hardy's system had to be modified to increase the air flow but has since proved adequate in 100 miles per hour (50 m./sec.) gales. In this ship and in
air is delivered iâr but not into the In Portia die air was delivered into the machines, a system which experience has shown needs
Cape Trafalgar the
machines.
[717]

very adequate water traps. The popular place for the main intake is at the base of the ftmnel on the aft side,
2 -*
PRODUCTIVITY
which
is
alternative is the wheelhouse
probably a region of low pressure. possible overhang with an outlet
through the derrick post. The atmosphere in an engine room always contains some oil, salt and carbon dust and this can cause trouble if it accumulates behind the commutator risers of the
electrical machines. This is one reason why fresh air was ducted straight to the machines in Portia. In Sir William Hardy the commutator risers were embedded in plastic to avoid trouble, the penalty being larger machines owing to the reduced cooling of the armatures. The broad
governor again supplies more ftiel and overheating can result This is especially difficult to detect in the small high-speed engines of Sir William Hardy where there is only one exhaust thermometer to every thfce cylinders. In Portia there is an arrangement for reducing the generator field, and hence the torque required, when such a situation arises. The electrical systems do, of course, prevent deliberate overloading of engines and electrical machines. Some have features which provide for the propeller coming out of the water and in some cases the winch motor can remain stalled on overload for thirty
minutes.
There remains the question of the

employed.
electrical
system
alternative to direct air cooling is closed-circuit cooling with sea-water-to-air heat exchangers. This avoids the
but at the expense of weight, space and possibly corrosion troubles. In the Arctic, the air entering the engine room may be at too low a temperature for easy starting and operation of the engines. Also, the seawater may be at a low enough temperature to freeze the freshwater in a heat exchanger when an engine is idle. It is necessary to take precautions against these things happening while at the same time keeping the idle engines warm, both for quick starts in emergencies, and to improve general conditions of running. In Portia these objects are achieved by having a freshwater cooling system common to all engines, cooling water being continually circulated under thermostatic control The seawater is maintained at not less
difficulties
All are variable-voltage systems, the and Ward-Leonard; Portia, Cape Trafalgar Falstajff being the Sir William Hardy and Saint Dominic, constantcurrent. The latter is said by various authorities to be from one or two to five or seven per cent, dearer than
DC
Ward-Leonard but it seems to have some advantages. In the Ward-Leonard system each motor must be coupled to a separate generator or group of generators, so that to have stand-by on both propulsion and winch, four engines are necessary, or three if one stand-by is shared between winch and propulsion. In the constantcurrent system one generator can serve several motors so there is complete stand-by with only two engines.
The Ward-Leonard system
gives a characteristic of
rising torque with falling r.p.m., but not to the extent achieved in Sir William Hardy and Saint Dominic where
thermostatically to the oil coolers, then to the after coolers fitted beyond the superchargers and then
controlled.
It
than
65F (18C)
by
re-circulation,
truly constant
power
is
available over a wide range of
passes
first
to the freshwater heat exchangers. The system in Sir William Hardy is a complete contrast, each engine having its own mechanically-driven seawater and freshwater pumps, with freshwater thermostats. Again seawater
propeller r.p.m. As pointed out earlier in connection with controllable-pitch propellers, a constant-power characteristic is ideal for a trawler.
ECONOMICS OF SPEED
Difficulty in determining
32F (0C) cannot circulate when an engine is stopped. In this vessel and in Cape Trafalgar the engines are kept warm by immersion heaters in the sumps; no special effort is made to preheat combustion air but this, as already noted, is delivered near and not into the
at below
In
all
distant-water
mean annual service speed motor trawlers so far built for British
engine intakes. Experience has shown that in Portia all temperatures stay constant within a few degrees regardless of fluctuations in load. The engines are not entirely independent because of the common cooling system and success does depend upon a fairly expensive saltwater thermostatic valve. In Sir William Hardy, on the other hand, with independent engines, there are more small units to go
wrong.
Towle (1958) has pointed out that the torque necessary to drive the generators in diesel-electric installations of the type under discussion does not decrease as speed decreases and in that sense the application is a severe one for the diesel engine. The engine is so arranged that if load temporarily increases the governor supplies more tod to the working cylinders ; if an injector or pump unit is defective or if the supercharger is fouled, or if the intake air temperature is too high, to that output is reduced, the
owners, advantage has been taken of the reduced weight of machinery and fuel bunkers to increase speed. Material published on the design of Portia (Blackburn, 1957) suggests that if capital cost is taken into account there will be little or no direct saving as compared with a 1,250 IHP steam trawler (without exhaust turbine), but the advantage in mean annual service speed will be between one and two knots. Compared with a BauerWach ship of the same total costs the advantage in service speed would be about halved. An attempt has been made to determine more closely the relationship between mean annual service speed and nominal maximum power in British distant-water trawlers. For this purpose the engineers* logs of the ships in a large company were examined for a two-year
period. One great difficulty was to fix the geographical points where fishing began and ended* This could be partly overcome by confining the study to Bear Island trips on the assumption that the distance run would, on average, be that to the island itself Variations in coursesetting and in course-keeping could not be allowed for,
[7181
SIZE
AND TYPE

but also to varying degrees of superheat and to the habit of some skippers of fishing at far higher powers than others, thus defeating any attempt to make a straightforward allowance for fuel consumed when
fishing.
nor could the effect of variations in displacement arising as a result of the varying total catches of different ships over the period* Again, there were probably differences in the condition of the machinery and in the manner and skill of its operation so that the actual maximum power developed may have differed from the nominal maximum
power. Furthermore, it is possible that some ships encountered a higher number of bad-weather trips than
Some typical total fuel consumptions averaged over the

trip
have been given (Hunter and Eddie, 19S9).
and an attempt was made to eliminate this by studying trips made during certain months only, as well as over the whole two years. If the effects of all these factors could be eliminated, there would remain those due to the design and condition of the hull as regards speed, seakeeping, steering and state of fouling. A wide scatter in the points was inevitable. Accurate information could come through better knowledge of the operation of the ships, say by automatic recording of powers and courses. Alternatively, an approach through statistical analysis would be possible, but would probably require collection of data on a basis of the entire
others;
fleet.
trawlers built in the last two years achieve speeds which art hardly practicable in steam trawlers so long as LBP is restricted by docks* facilities to about 190 ft. (S7.9 m.); this is because the steam vessel mutt displace, in the departure condition, some 300 tons more than the motor ship. It is this fact which has forced acceptance of the motor trawler for distant-water fishing, since the demand for speed could no longer be satisfied by a reasonable design of steam vessel. Likewise, improvements in hull form, such as the bulbous bow, are used to give two per cent, extra speed at the same power rather than, say, ten per cent, reduction in fuel consumptions at the same speed.
The motor
Without knowledge of mean annual
service speeds
and fuel consumptions, the determination of the optimum economic speed, and decisions as to the way of applying such improvements as bulbous bows to give optimum economy of operation, cannot be on a very sound basis.
Relation between service speed
i
Advantage of Ugh speed There are several reasons for high speed. Much could be said on the subject of prestige. It is also said that the fastest ships get the best places on the market. Analysis of the records of a large company shows that over a two years, say every sufficiently long period of time
Although no exact relationship between service speed and maximum installed power can be stated, nor even upper and lower limiting lines, the band of points did indicate a trend or shape of curve. Mean service speed seemed to
increase with
line
from the fastest to the slowest is berthed on average way up the market; it is hardly reasonable to expect otherwise since the ships come from fishing grounds thousands of miles apart, and the skippers
ship half
maximum power
according to a straight-
law from the region of about 10 knots at 900 IHP on the average to about 13} knots at 1,400 IHP. A similar result has been obtained in the past in studies of the service performance of a cargo fleet. The explanation of the departure from the shape of a power-speed curve taken during trials is two-fold; first, the higher-powered ships are newer and therefore have better hull forms and
better sea-keeping qualities; second, the higher-powered ships enjoy the advantage, when running into the wind,
of higher torques than the older ships at the same

propeller r.p.m.
The straight-line type of relationship may possibly 9 have had some influence upon owners ideas about the ease of obtaining higher speeds. However, all the data obtainable about ships of over 1,400 IHP or equivalent suggest that above that power the line is no longer straight but follows closely the typical calm-water speedhorsepower graph. The 1,400 IHP vessel has a mean service speed only about half a knot below its maximum trial speed and maintains a mean power level very near maximum power, whereas a ship of 12 knots trial speed might have a service speed of only 10 knots. In older vessels the mean power level is well below the maximum, for the reasons given earlier. An attempt to determine the jratio of mean power to maximum power, by a study of fuel consumption, failed. The scatter in consumptions was due not only to skill and to the condition of machinery
cannot predict the weather. There is also a good deal of doubt as to which is the best place on the market. Sometimes, perhaps once a year, a ship of moderate speed just misses a market, but such an event can be regarded as a 9 loss of several hours fishing time rather than as a reason for higher speed. Sometimes it is said that faster ships mean fresher fish. This is not necessarily true. The faster ship gets to the fishing grounds sooner as well as leaving later and so faster ships can mean staler fish. This can be avoided if the voyage is shortened by at least half of the time saved. The latest ships can save well over a day on the average trip, as compared with the average vessel, and so can make an extra trip in the year, but of each day saved in this way only some ten hours will eventually be spent on the fishing grounds. If the freshness of the catch could be disregarded, each day saved would represent 24 hours
extra fishing and no extra costs in running to and from the grounds for an additional trip in each year. The latest trawlers operate on a very steep part of the
speed-horsepower curve. In a motor trawler of 1,500 h.p.,
power level from three-quarters to full power an increase in speed of four per cent. If allowance is made for the extra displacement represented by the larger engine and extra fuel, the real advantage is not more than three per cent. On the average British distantwater trip in 19S6 this would have saved five hours. If all this time saved had been devoted to fishing, the average
raising the
gives
XX
[719J

skipper would have caught an extra 135 (9380) worth of fish. The cost of the extra fuel burnt would in itself have been 135 ($380), to which must be added the extra
capital,
PRODUCTIVITY
maintenance and fishing
costs,
directed at improving the effectiveness of the trawi is going on, but with the closing of some grounds and the increasing number of European trawlers on the others, the chances of the rate of catch being increased more than
Torque for trawling
The foregoing applies to calm water conditions. The modern high-powered ships do have one real advantage over the ships built earlier and that is their ability to tow the trawl in worse weather and in deeper water, and to maintain speed when running free in bad weather. The abilities, however, are not, strictly speaking, due to high power but to high torque. In the conditions just mentioned the ships are never operating near maximum r.p.m. Even when shooting the gear the power absorbed rarely exceeds 1,000 h.p. There is therefore a strong case for machinery which will give high torque when required but which will not allow fuel to be wasted at high r.p.m. in fine weather that is, there is a strong case for machinery with a characteristic approaching constantpower rather than constant-torque. Machinery with a constant-power characteristic, either diesel-electric or
diesel
temporarily are not high. There remains the solution of extending the trawler's stay on the fishing grounds in another way, namely, by improved means of preservation. This has a double advantage: it increases the number of days per annum on the fishing grounds and it reduces the necessity for high speeds and high fuel consumptions. When a trawler makes voyages of three months* duration, as do the Grand Bankers salting their catch and the freezing factory trawlers, each day saved on passage is of very much less economic importance than when the vessel makes a voyage every three weeks.
Use of antibiotics
the keeping quality of fish in ice to use antibiotics. Unfortunately, the fresher fish is not improved, so the average quality of the catch would tend
is
One way of improving
money
propeller, would save in spite of its extra complexity, since the maximum
with controllable-pitch
power installed could be less. There would be no difference in fishing power and the small difference in mean service speed averaged over the year would have little or no adverse effect on the economics of operation.
same (Food Investigation Board, 1956). Also this method would tend to aggravate the problem of seasonal surpluses. At present, in some months, the proportion of edible fish surplus to market requirements is as high as 15 per cent, of the landings. It is not desirable to save the surpluses by freezing and cold storage on land, because in order to produce an
to remain the
article
equal to good fresh iced fish
it
is
necessary to
ECONOMICS OF PRESERVATION
The demand
Advantages of preservation for speed arises partly from the limitations of crushed ice as a preservative for fish. The trawlers almost always have to turn for home before the holds are full because of the fear that the earlier-caught fish will be condemned. So long as this is the case, the economics of distant-water trawling can be improved in only two ways: by increasing the speed of passage or by increasing the rate of catch. As indicated above, speeds already seem to have passed the economic limit, at least in^ relation to the abilities of the average skipper. Research*
freeze within three days of catching. The two problems of staying longer on the fishing grounds and saving the seasonal surpluses can both be solved by freezing at sea.
thereby be
Moreover, the average quality of the landings would much improved.
Factory trawling operation Two solutions of the problems involved have been
developed in U.K. The first is the factory trawler fishing over the stern and processing the entire catch in the form of catering packs of frozen fillets (Lochridge, 1956). The Fairtry, the first commercial factory trawler in the
world,
is
now
joined by the diesel-electric Fairtry II
1500 SHf
omfci couneo
t
WfT
774. 15 knot
FISH
Mug trawler (catch

[720]
110-150 ton average)
SIZE
AND TYPE

FROZE
FISH
FRIG.
MACHINERY
IOOO SHP INFINITELY VARIABLE

GEARBOX
Fig. 775.
WET
13 knot semi-freezer trawler (catch 180-220 ton average)
FISH
and Fainry ///. In these ships the generating machinery and the propulsion motors are in separate compartments
optimum weight distribution as well as operatfor the factory. The Russians have a convenience ing large number of vessels similar to Fairtry. The production of one of these ships in a year is equivalent to that of
to achieve
cost, the size
two ordinary trawlers. The main problems are the first and the long voyages necessary for economic
operation.
All these factors put extra strain on the The handling and processing of the fish are what is done in shore-based factories. These processes are not entirely suitable for ships of the size and
skippers. similar to
The latest motor vessels have holds of 18,000 cu. ft. (510 cu. m.) and a study of their general arrangements indicates that holds of over 20,000 cu. ft. (570 cu. m.) would be possible in the existing size of ship, if desired. The average British distant-water catch in 1956 occupied only 10,500 cu. ft. (300 cu. m.) and 14,000 cu. ft. (400 cu. m.) was exceeded on less than eight per cent, of all occasions. In the opinion of many, a fish hold of 13,000 to 14,000 cu. ft. (370 to 400 cu. m.)
(368 to 453 cu. m.).
is
adequate for a catch consisting predominantly of

if preserved by ice alone. In the motor trawlers, therefore, there
is
Arctic cod
room
to
fit
type of orthodox trawlers.
Freezing of headless fish The second solution aims at freezing part of the catch of an orthodox trawler. Whole headless fish are frozen in
plate freezers (Eddie and Yule, 19S3). The advantages are the ease of operation in a small ship in a seaway, the low demand on labour and the very imporvertical
when thawed can be used for all smoke curing. No sudden changes in purposes including the structure of the industry are necessary. The suitability of this type of plant for trawlers was proved in the Northern Wave experiment of 1956 (White Fish Authority, 1957) and the acceptability of the products to the consumer was also demonstrated.
tant
one that the
fish
a freezing plant. Economic analysis seems to indicate that this would have been worthwhile even in the existing high-powered vessels. However, much larger quantities of frozen fish and much greater extensions of voyage would be possible in vessels especially designed so that the space available for the stowage of fish is increased at the expense of machinery and fuel bunkers. As indicated earlier, the size of machinery and bunkers can be reduced without affecting fishing performance and without affecting service speed by more than a fraction of a knot if machinery with constant-power characteristics is
adopted.
Proposed freezer-trawler
In order to get as much fish as possible into a ship of a given length, the engine room must be kept as short as
possible. Thus, when freezing is considered, certain types of machinery have an economic advantage. These include diesel-electric with high speed engines of V-construction and a, single large diescl driving both winch and a controllable-pitch propeller. Fig. 774 and 775 show two motor trawlers each of 185 ft. LBP (56.4 m.). Fig. 774 represents the very fast
Obviously,
if
the economics of distant-water fishing
are to be improved, the costs of freezing, cold storage and thawing must be more than offset by the saving of fish temporarily surplus to market requirements and by the
The Northern Wave about costs but was not information experiment provided Since the demonstrate to then, however, savings. designed design studies and comparisons of costs have indicated what size and type of vessel would be necessary to show an improvement in economics of operation as compared with the vessel using crushed ice alone. The capacities of the fish holds of post-war distantwater steam trawlers range from 13,000 to 16,000 cu. ft.
extension of fishing time per voyage.
in the U.K. at present. The Birtish distant-water fleet spends the of vessel average about 140 days on the fishing grounds in a year and on
motor trawler popular
this basis the fast vessel will spend about 160 days on the grounds in a year, none of its fish being staler when
[721]

landed Fig. 775 is a part-freezing trawler with constantpower machinery and of the same overall dimensions and about the same capital cost. It would spend 180 days in a year on the fishing grounds and in running to and from the grounds would burn little more than half as much fuel in a year as the faster ship. In the hands of an average skipper it would produce in a year an amount of edible fish not far short of the most successful vessels at present, and of higher average quality. Preliminary
calculations indicate that for the reasons just given this type of vessel will compare favourably in economics of
PRODUCTIVITY
already indicate that the speed of the design has been underestimated; it may be possible to achieve 13} knots. There is no reason why this type of vessel should not develop gradually in size, in which case a higher proportion of the catch would be frozen. This line of development could in time merge with the large factory trawler.
The
recent developments in propulsion machinery
and
in refrigerating equipment offers a means of escape from the limitations hitherto imposed by steam machinery and by the use of crushed ice as a means of preservation.
This paper was prepared as part of the programme of the Depart* ment of Scientific and Industrial Research.
operation with the average orthodox trawler. Proper design studies and estimates are being undertaken. These
1722]
MODERN FACTORY
by
SHIPS IN JAPAN
SHIGERU SATO
Salmon and trout fishing in the Northern Pacific Ocean and whale catching in the Antarctic Ocean are especially important to Japan, not only as sources of animal protein but also as a means of securing foreign currencies. The refrigerated factory ship plays a central role in these types of fishing. Many modern factory ships, fitted with the latest equipment and machinery, have been built in Japan since World War II. For a short while after the war, because of scarcity of materials and lack of capital, the factory ships used were converted wartime vessels. Since then, however, one or two newly-built refrigerated factory ships have been delivered every year, starting with the Mlyatima Maru in 1953. The main particulars are given of fourteen of these new ships. Three recent types are the midship engine type, the centre bridge type with engine aft, and the fore bridge type with engine aft; their operating performances are compared. The preliminary design of a factory ship is described. The following installations and characteristics are explained: Conveyors; Refrigerating machinery; Freezing equipment; Cooling equipment for refrigeration of cargo holds; Canning systems, and Insulation.
LES NAVIRES-USINES
MODERNES AU JAPON
Pour Ic Japon, la pechc de la truite et du saumon dans le Pacifique nord et la chasse a la baleine dans 1'Antarctique sont particuHircment importantes, non seulement en tant que sources de prot&nes animates mais aussi comme moyens de se procurer des devises
ctrangircs.
Les navires-usines frigorifiques jouent un rdlc important dans ces types de peche. Depuis la seconde guerre mondiale, on a construit au Japon plusieurs navires-usines frigorifiques munis de 6quipement et de la machinerie les plus modernes. Apres la guerre, par suite de la rarete des mat^riaux et du manque de capitaux, les navires-usines utilises pendant une courte pcriode etaicnt des bateaux standard du temps de guerre transformed. Cependant, depuis lors un ou deux navires-usines frigorifiques neufs ont livrts chaque annee, en commengant par le Miyazima Maru en 1953. L'auteur donne les particularity principales de quatorze de ces nouveaux na vires. Trois types recents comprennent: le type a machine au milieu du navire, le type a passerelle centrale et machine ft Farriere, et le type a passerelle a I'avant avec machine a 1'arriere; leurs rendements sont compares, L'auteur decrit en detail le projet prtliminaire d'un
1
navire-usine, c'est-a-dire les dimensions principales, la stabtlite, la vitesse, 1'autonomie, etc. Des explications sont donnecs sur les installations et caracteiistiques suivantes: Con voyeurs;
Machines
frigorifiques;
Equipement
pour
la
congelation rapidc; Equipsment pour la refrigeration des cales; Systems de mise en conserves hermeiiques; Isolation.
LOS BUQUES FABRICA MODERNOS DEL JAPON

Jap6n la pesca del salmbn y de la trucha en el norte del Oceano Paclfico y la capture de la ballena en el Antartico revisten no solo como fuentes de proteinas animates sino tambien como medios de obtener divisas extranjeras. Los barcos fabrica frigorificos descmpcnan un panel central en estas clases de pesca. Despues de la segunda guerra mundial se han construido en Japon muchos barcos fabrica frigorificos dotados del equipo y maquinaria mas modernos. Despues de la guerra. debido a la escasez de materiales y falta de capital, los barcos fabrica empleados durante un corto periodo cran los barcos corrientes de la guerra transformados. Desde entonces, uno o dos barcos fabrica frigorificos se han entregado cad* aflo comenzando con el Miyazima Maru en 1953. Se dan las caracteristicas principales de 14 de estos nuevos barcos. 3 modelos recientes comprenden: el tipo con la maquinaria en la medianfa, el tipo con el puente en la medianla y la maquina a popa, y el tipo con el puente a proa y la maquina a popa. Se comparan sus rendimientos. El autor describe el proyecto preliminar del buque fAbrica, es decir, dimensiones,
Para
el
especial importancia,
principales, establidad, velocidad, autonomia, etc. Se explican las instalaciones y caracteristicas siguientes: transportadores; maquinas frigorificas; rapida: equipo para la refrigeraci6n de las bodegas; sistemas de preparar conservas en latas; aislamiento.
equipo para
la
congelacidn
are especially important to Japan, not only as sources of animal protein but also as a means of securing
foreign currencies. Refrigerated factory ships, for salmon and trout fishing, play a central role in the fishing fleets and, co-operate extensively with the whale factory ships, which may be said to be the hub of the whale catching
activities.
SALMON
and trout fishing Ocean and whale catching
in the
Northern Pacific
in the Antarctic
Ocean
the refrigerated factory ships of Japan are in engaged whaling in the Antarctic Ocean in winter, and from spring to summer for salmon and trout fishing in the Northern Pacific Ocean. In the off seasons they
Most of
turbot or tuna, and sometimes art used solely asrefrigerated cargo carriers. In pre-war days, in the whaling industry, the main effort was directed to whale oil production, and little
fish for
The performance of these ships may,
therefore,
decide the success or failure of the fishing.
attention was given to whale meat. After the war, however, the whale came to be considered as a source of animal protein supply for the Japanese nation.
[723]

TABLE 182
PRODUCTIVITY
ft* factory lUffi
When the whale catching industry was resumed in the Antarctic Ocean in 1946, salted whale meat was of
primary importance, the frozen meat being secondary. An improvement in living standards led to a demand for frozen rather than salted whale meat. Before World War II, the main salmon and trout fishing grounds were in the Kamchatka Peninsula, where
the fish gathered to spawn. The catch was sent to the factories on the mainland or to the motherships (small in number) in which the catch was canned. The same practice was resumed in 1952, but the fishing moved to grounds around the Aleutian Islands
Part of the catch is canned, but most of it is refrigerated, a practice not seen in pre-war days. It was in these circumstances that the refrigerated factory ships were developed in Japan, and it can be reasonably claimed that their method of operation is
main refrigerated factory ships built after the war. Fig. 776 shows the general arrangement of the Miyazima Mam, as typical of these vessels. For a short while after the war, because of the
scarcity
peculiar to Japan. In table 182 are listed the
of materials and lack of
capital,
most of the
and was governed by an international fishing agreement. Conditions at this new location were very different from diose at the Kamchatka Peninsula, and, accordingly, a
striking
factory ships were converted war-time standard ships, but, starting in 1953 with the Miyazima Mam, one or
change has taken place in the operating system.
two new refrigerated factory ships have been delivered every year. This developement has taken place rapidly, not only
[724}
SIZE
AND TYPE
FACTORY SHIPS IN JAPAN

As shown in table 182, more than ten factory ships have already been built since 1953 and, although they may appear similar, each has its own features which reflect the difference of operation or the management system of the owners. Indeed, the requirements Of various
ships built for the same company may differ, depending on the circumstances existing at the time of construction.
because the Japanese are quick to adapt themselves to changes in the fishing industry* which isof primary importance to them, but also because the refrigerated factory ship can be used for various types of fishing operations. The abundant supply of labour and low wages in Japan are further factors conducive to this rapid development.
In designing cargo ships, oil tankers and passenger ships, the transporting capacity of the ship is the basic requirement. In the case of the refrigerated factory ship, however, the processing capacity is regarded as the basis
for design; therefore, refrigeration, canning and salting should be given first consideration. The accommodation
The fishery companies take into consideration the market demand and are constantly investigating operations in an endeavour to improve the quality of their
products.
greatest
In building
new
ships, therefore, the fishery
companies plan to be able to handle the products in
of the process workers as well as the crew, must be taken into consideration, and also such basic performance characteristics as the ship's speed, radius of action, stability, the amount of fuel, fresh water, etc. By stability, in this instance, is meant the righting moment, which
involves
ferent
demand with the highest efficiency. designers should always investigate past data and examine and align the various planning requirements. These are complicated and often not integrated, being
The
different
many difficulties and makes the designing from that of a single-purpose vessel.
dif-
shipowners. The designers must, analyse such data and information before starting the design and construction of the most efficient factory ships.
made by
therefore,
~
r.. ...~
e
r*..
~'
^M^ggggL^ spfc*rr
Jaiin^jsjujj*1
Tf *
* >T
,1**--*-
-- T
** *
tJlLI
Fig. 776.
Miyazima Maru.
LBP xBxD:
459.2 x 62
J x 44
ft.
(140 x 19 x 13 J m.)
[725]
PRODUCTIVITY
Fig. 777.
Miyazima Mani. LBPxBxD: 439.2x62.3x44.3 (140 x 19 x /3.5m.)
ft.
Two refrigerated factory ships are usually assigned to one

whale mother ship working in the Antarctic Ocean. The whales are loaded on the whale mother ships, where they are dissected, the bones and skins are processed into the whale oil; the meat is cut into pieces about 1 sq. ft.
(0.09 sq. m.) and 3 ft. (0.9 m.) long and is passed through the meat discharge openings by a chute into the K-boats, which lay alongside the ship directly below the openings.
of the particulars of the three ships is made in taWe 183. Rough classification of the types are: Shelter deck or three island Fig. 777. Midship engine or aft engine Fig. 778. 779. Forepart or midship used as the bridge Fig. house Among the converted factory ships there are three island types, but most of those built recently are the shelter deck types. A serious shortcoming of the former is that the working decks are separated by the midships bridge. In the latter type, the flush shelter deck is used as the working deck. The upper deck is used as the freeboard deck, on which the freezing room, the cannery workers* accommodation, and the net or salt store, etc. are arranged. Many openings are required for the installation of the conveyors and for the movement of the workers; there can be many such openings on the shelter deck type. Another advantage of this type is the protection given
to
K-boats are meat-carrying motor boats of 10 to 15 ton displacement: four boats are used by a refrigerated factory ship. When a K-boat is fully loaded (about 5 ton) it goes to the refrigerated factory ship where derricks lift the meat aboard. The meat is then cut into pieces about
S in. (12.7 cm.) in thickness, and classified, according to quality, for refrigerating or salting. Deck hoses are used in cleaning the meat on deck and to cool it to about
decreasing the load
the refrigerating hold, thus effectively on the refrigerating machinery.
60 F (15 C) before despatch to the refrigerating factory or the salting section. After processing, it is stored in the holds. Conveyors and chutes are used for handling the meat on board. In the northern Pacific Ocean salmon and trout fishing, about thirty catcher boats (50 to 80 GT) are used by a refrigerated factory ship. The loaded catcher boats
usually approach the factory ship on the starboard side, two at a time. As the factory ship is always drifting, the leesidc is used for convenient positioning of the catcher
boats. Immediately after getting alongside the
Fig. 779.
Chiyo Maru.
LBP x B x D: 429.8 (131.05 x 18.9 x 12.1 m.)
x 62.0 x 39.7
ft.
Advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of having the engine midships are: The long bridge deck amidships accommodates the four K-boats, and the equipment for raising and lowering them in rough seas, especially in whaling Shorter wiring and piping from the engine room to
the
refrigerating
room, the freezing room, the
"mokkoes"
cannery, etc.
(woven straw trays) loaded with pre-sorted fish are taken aboard at the tally place. After being counted the fish are pushed out to predetermined fish ponds from where, by means of conveyors and chutes, they are passed to the
cannery, the refrigerating factory or the salting section. The factory ship is responsible for supplying fuel, provisions and gear required by the fishing vessels.
Selection of types
The
refrigerated cargo holds and deep tanks can be easily arranged to obtain good trim
The disadvantages are: As the sharper sections of
the fore and aft parts of the ship are used for mooring catcher boats or transport ships, loading meat is often hampered by waves, wind, and the shape of the vessel
Throe representative types of recent refrigerated factory comparison ships ait shown in fig. 777, 778, and 779.
The capacity of the refrigerated cargo hold is decreased because of the shaft tunnel % Having the engine casing in the freezing room is undesirable from the insulation point of view Because of the engine casing, only the sides can be used as a passage between the work decks Some aptdal fcatares. The special features of the aft
engine type are: Loading, unloading and mooring can be done easily because the parallel midships section can be used for the catchers or transport ships Ample hold capacity, as there is no shaft tunnel The layout of the refrigerating machine room and the
freezing
Ftg.77S.
Nodma
Mara.
LBPxBxD:
446J X 64.9* 41.0
ft.
V36xJ9.8xJ2.3m.)
room
is
very efficient
[726]
SIZE
AND TYPE
FACTORY SHIPS IN JAPAN

and if fish to be refrigerated is loaded on the aft deck, it must be transferred to the fore deck. The capacity of the fore and aft conveyor should be large enough to deal with peak loads. The catcher boats and K-boats can be tied along the fore or aft part of the bridge, which is most convenient for the transmission of orders from the bridge. The tunnel under the bridge is used effectively as a communication passage between the fore-and-aft work decks and also as a night working place. As both fore and midship bridges have their strong and weak points it is difficult to decide which is the
better position.
There are, however, the following weak points: The K-boats must be accommodated separately both at the bridge and at the poop, and it is not convenient to lift or lower them in rough seas
The engine room, the refrigerating machinery room, and the freezing room are separated; therefore, the
wiring and piping are longer The operation of the ship in rough seas
difficult
is
rather
Deck design. Placing the bridge in the fore pan of the ship allows for a wide area midships which can be used both for fish storing and sorting. From here the fish is
transferred to the aft freezing
room
or to the cannery
forward.
If the bridge is placed amidships, the work deck is divided into fore and aft sections. Fish loaded at the fore work deck, if it is for the cannery, must be transferred to the aft deck by means of the fore-and-aft conveyor;
Size
erf
ships
Deadweight and speed are the basic elements considered in designing ordinary cargo vessels and oil tankers, but
in refrigerated factory ships the size is
determined by the
TABLE 183
Comparison of particulars of three types of refrigerated factory ships
Miyazima Marit
LBPxBxD
Nozima Mant
LBPxBxD
Chiyo Mart*
LBPxBxD
ft.
459.2x62.3x44.3
m.
Cubic number (LBP x
140x19x13.5
1,268,000 35,900
5,525
446.1x64.9x41.0 136x19.8x12.5
1,190,000 33,700
429.8x62,0x39.7 131.05x18.9x12.1
1,060,000 30,000
B x D)
cu. ft. cu. m.

.
Main engine
Hold capacity
Refrigerated
Salt
h.p.
6,250
5,600
Total
Ratio of hold capacity to cubic number Refrigerated hold Total
.... .... ....
cu. cu. cu. cu. cu. cu.
ft.
267,400
7,575 30,780
m.
ft.
296,520 8,400
274,810 7,785 16,520
m.
ft.
872
298,180
8,447
468
296,520 8,400
291,330 8,253
m.
0.211 0.235
0.249 0.249
0.259 0.275
Tank capacity
Fuel
oil
Imp.
gal.
485,000
2,201
cu.
m. m.
m.
Fresh water
Total
Imp.
gal. gal.
cu.
Imp.
cu.
557,000 2,539 1,042,000 4,740

0.133
615,000 2,800 432,000

1,965 1,047,000 4,765
0.141
455,000 2,076 234,000

1,065
689,000
3,141
Ratio of tank capacity to cubic number
0.104
6,908
Am of quick
Cannery Length
freezing
room
sq. sq.
ft.
6,424
8,339
m.
597
775
642
Number cf freezers
40
40
40
Number of lines
Fort
Aft Total
....
ft.
m.
106.6 32.5
115.5 35.2
111.5 34.0
Total length of working deck
Mm.)
83.3 108.2 191.6
(25.4) (33.0)
(58.4)
90,2 93.5 183.7
(27.5) (28.5) (56.0)
162.4
(49.5)
[727]

TABLE 184
Trim and GMotMiytzim*
Departure
Beginning
PRODUCTIVITY
Man in wtuUtag
White
fishing
End of
fishing
Returning
to pttrt
from part
Light weight Fresh water Fuel oil
Safe
offishing
6,867 2,095 1,774 1,526
ton
6,867 2,538
6,867
6,867
6.867
276
925 797
112
364 537
Whale meat on deck Salted meat Froaen meat

.
295
571 2,608
787
4,953 291
787 4,953
1.041
Ballast water
Miscellaneous Displacement
7%
ft.
761
438
12,613 22.84
298
14,097 23.49
273
13,921 23.85 7.27 2,07 0.63 2.85 0.87 24.57 7.49
KC5
CM
Trim
m.
ft.
m.
ft.
10,477 23.20 7.07 3.18 0.97 6.14

1.87
13,023 21.13 6.44 4.79 1.46 5.74

1.75
6.%
3.08
716
2.43 0.74 0.13 0.04 24.87 7.58
0.94
1.41
m.
Mean draught
ft.
m.
19.19 5.85
23.16 7.06
0.43 22.57 6.88
requirements arising from the work or operation, and the capacity of the refrigerated cargo holds. In general, as full loading is never made up to the minimum freeboard the designed draught is often less than the maxi-
draught permissible. In short, the effective area or the volume of the ship is said to be the primary concern in designing ships. Length. In salmon and trout fishing two catcher boats
lay alongside the ship on its lee (ordinarily the starboard) side and drift in a seaway, pushed by the factory ship.
mum
strong winds and heavy swells their stability is very important. is small and the heel is too big: When the Lifting and lowering the K-boats is dangerous The working efficiency is decreased, as the hatches of the factory ships are designed to be small in order to widen the working space; and heavy rolling makes it difficult for the workers to maintain their positions
GM
Considerable additional free water

the
is
produced on
work deck which
decreases
the
GM;
thus
is
These boats are believed to have difficulty in getting away from the factory ship unless there is sufficient clearance between the two catcher boats, namely l.S times the
length of the catcher boat. In addition, it is desirable to the catcher boats at the parallel midship section which should, ideally, be about 3.5 times as long as that of the catcher boats. However, in practice it is very
hazardous situation is created The flow of the brine in pipes and

uniform;
decreased
thus
their
flat
tanks
refrigerating
capacity
will
not be
moor
When
the GM is too big and the rolling is violent The loading and unloading efficiency, such as from
:
the parallel midship section so long e.g. if the length of a catcher is 82 ft. (25 m.), the required distance becomes 287 ft. (87.5 m.), so, if the length of the parallel midship section is 60 per cent, of the ship
difficult to
make
length, the required ship length
would be 480
ft.
(146 m.)
The
Mam,
longest refrigerated factory ship, the Miyaeima is 460 ft. (140 m.)* Judging from the loading and
in
from the catcher boats, is decreased brought on deck are spoiled efficiency of the workers is decreased Two typical examples of the trim and are shown in tables 184 and 185. value of 2.6 to 3.3 ft. According to experience, a (0.8 to 1.0 m.), without taking the free water into consideration, can be considered adequate.
the K-boats or
The The
fish
GM
GM
mooring of the transport ships and the work of taking
the K-boats, the size of the present vessel appears satisfactory, but the catchers are tending to become bigger so that longer refrigerated factory ships are likely to appear in the future. Brarift ataMIity. The stability of factory ships is a of As speed is not so important, the beam heel. problem does not have to be restricted too much. The beam should be decided in relation to work space and the heeling of the ship.
Speed. Refrigerated factory ships receive the meat carried by the K-boats from the whale motherships and take the K-boats aboard and follow the motherships
mi
which often sail two or three miles apart. It is desirable that the factory ships catch up with the motherships before they reach the next operating site, usually more
than 20 miles away, so that
all
ships can start
work
As
refrigerated
factory ships continue working in
immediately. In view of this, the speed of the factory ships should be one or two knots faster than that of the whale motherships. The speed of recent factory ships is 13 to 14 knots,
[728]
SIZE
which
ships,
AND TYPE
FACTORY SHIPS
From
IN
JAPAN
is about the same as that of the whale motherand should be increased in the future. In salmon and trout fishing, the speed of the catcher boats is around 7 to 8 knots and there seems to be no speed problem as there is no additional mothership as in
this aspect, the types in fig. 777 and 778 are good, but that in fig. 779 has disadvantages.
refrigerating
the point of view of saving wire for the machinery room, fig. 777 and fig. 778 are
preferable.
I
whale
fishing.
n fig. 777, in arrangingiag the refrigerating machinery
Feel and freshwater In southern whaling,
the
fuel
Miyazima Maru
tion
is
for 60 days* sailing
consumption of the and 60 days* opera-
the freezing room as indicated, the dead space for loading and unloading can be utilized. However, the engine casing penetrates through the
room and
22.S ton per day and 16.5 ton per day, respectively, totalling 2,340 ton for 120 days, which is equivalent to the total fuel capacity of this ship. In salmon and trout
fishing,
the
fuel
consumption of ships for 10 days'

9
sailing and 100 days operation is 22.5 ton per day and 17.5 ton per day, respectively, totalling 1,975 ton for 1 10 days, which leaves approximately 200 ton for supply
middle of the freezing room and requires better insulawhile the piping and wiring systems are too complex and may prove to be a source of trouble For material flow, fig. 777 and 778 are preferable, and fig. 779 is inferior. In fig. 777 and fig. 778, the raw materials flow in from the fore and aft pan of the ship, and the products flow out from two discharge
tion,
to the catcher boats.
As large quantities of freshwater are required in both the whaling and the salmon and trout fishery, many ships are fully equipped with evaporating plants.
and into the hold. The transport efficiency product and the raw material being co-ordinated. However, at the
aft,
is
openings fore and
excellent, the flow of the
peak period,
be easily
fig. is
779 has the advantage because the
As more
distant fishing grounds have been
worked
in
inflow passage
recent years, more fuel is required: factory ships are, therefore, tending to become larger.
one way only and the peak load can managed.
Conveyors
Arrangement of factories The arrangement of the factories can be roughly classified into the three types shown in fig. 777, 778 and 779. The merits and disadvantages of each are As a considerable amount of electric wiring, steam and air pipes to the cannery must run from the engine
:
Work
is
still
in a refrigerated factory ship is a flow process but far from being completely automatic, and a
amount of hand work is involved. This fact, combined with the peculiarities of each section necessitates a different type of conveyor from those used in
certain
other industries.
desirable to install the cannery as near as possible to the engine room, not only from the point of saving material, but also for power efficiency. From
room,
it is
These peculiar circumstances are:
Depending on the nature of the fishing, the amount and speed of material supply varies considerably.
TABLE 185
Trim and
CM of Kasima Mar* in salmon and trout fishing

On
40th day
After shift ing of products
5,041 1,110
Departure from port

Light weight Fuel oil Fresh water Empty cans
Salt
Beginning
of fishing
5,041 1,669
after fishing starts
End
of
fishing
ton
5,041 1,791
5,041 1,110
5,041
508 481 344
409
481
316
170 241 177
344
177
316 367 276

177
386 316
Fish on deck Fish below deck Products:

Salted
177
44
89 295
44
Frozen Canning Ballast water
497 959
1,807
650
788
ft.
Miscellaneous Displacement
779
8,900 20.83 6.35 3.38
1.03 7.81
KG
GM
Trim
m.
ft.
8,953 20.51 6.25

3.61 1.10
601 8,734 20.80 6.34 3.45

1,05 1.90
613
7,944 21.69
6.61
509 306
10,042 20.37
6.21
m,
ft.
3.08 0.94
3.48
1.06
m.
9.02 2.75
4.46
1.36
Mean draught
ft.
18.%
5.78
m.
2.38 18.90 5.76
0.58
18,47 5.63
17.00 5.18
0.20 0,06 20.93

6.38
1729]
PRODUCTIVITY
Fig. 780.
Miyazima
Mam
working deck arrangement
in
salmon and trout fishery
The
and
example
quality of the material is not consistent. For in whale fishing, there are meats for salting
transfer
Detachable conveyors should be used as it is easy to them to meet multi-purpose work require-
for freezing and in salmon and trout fishing there are meats for salting, for freezing and for canning, which have to be sorted by hand and put on the same
ments.
conveyors.
As
all
vessels, the
the factory ships themselves are multi-purpose conveyor system must be designed to meet
Independent motors for each machine have been found superior to line shafting. There were many troubles with shafts and bearings in earlier vessels. Machinery must be robust and simple in design. Adequate measures should be taken to deal with low
temperatures. Parts which
steel.
requirements.
Operating conditions are very hazardous and difficult, considerably influenced by rolling, pitching, vibration, low temperature, moisture, and seawater. The place of installation is narrow and is restricted by the existence of other machinery or structures. Repair and maintenance are very difficult, due not only to the hazardous operating conditions, but also, to a certain extent, to irrational operational requirements. Important prints. Consideration should be given to
the following points:
come
into contact with the products
should be galvanized or be
made of rubber
or stainless
Transport capacity should be determined so that the conveyor is able to meet the peak load. 9 As the hand work is the determining factor, the transport speed should be determined on this basis. The standard has been found to be about 1 ft. (0.3 m.) per sec., but it is necessary to make the speed variable, taking into consideration the peak load. For the purpose of adjusting the carrying amount and the handwork, the timing space must be adequately
arranged.
Fig. 782.
Typical
Mm piping for shelffreezer
(side view)
CoBreyor machinery. Data on the conveyor of the Miyazima Maru are as follows: Fore and aft conveyor: 262 ft. (80 m.), 15 h.p. I set
Round
138 120
conveyors:
ft.
ft.
x 17.7 x 17.7
in.
(42
in, (36.5
m.x450 mm.) 1 set m. x450 mm.)~l set

m. x 350 mm.)
2 sets
Apron conveyors:
For raw meat:
Fig. 781.
Typical arrangement of shetf-freeier (plan view)
13
ft.
x 13.2
in. (34.5
[730]
SIZE
For products: 92 ft. x 13.2
59 ft x 13,2 84 ft, X 13.2
in.
AND TYPE
FACTORY SHIPS
brine
is
IN JAPAN
One batch of salmon and
hr.,
transmitted.
trout
in.
in.
m. x 350 mm.) 2 sets (18 m. x 350 mm.) 2 sets (25.5 m, x 350 mm.) 2 sets
(28
5 sets
can be frozen in 4 to 5 meat in 5 to 6 hr.
and one batch of whale
No fan is required.
Even if the thickness of the whale meat changes as it pressed and cooled from the upper and under sides, the freezing efficiency is constant. Discharge is comis
Tray conveyors for each hold: 36 ft. x 13.2 in. (1 1 m. x 350 mm.)
Fig. 780 shows the conveyor arrangement on the working deck of the Miyazima Maru. The conveyor arrangement for freezing can be seen in fig. 784.
Refrigerating machinery
paratively easy. In an air-blast freezer, efficiency can be increased only if the temperature of the air is lowered, but with a shelf-freezer lowering the temperature of the brine
Ammonia
refrigeration is used in all the refrigerating machines and indirect brine for the cooling system.
Details of the refrigerating machinery in the Miyazima Maru are given in table 186. The capacities are shown in tables 187 and 188.
alone increases efficiency. The temperatures of opera* tion are Brine temperature 1 ( -23C)
:
- 3F
Meat temperature
The system
is
(in centre) 17.6 to
14F -10C)
(8
to
simple for cleaning, and repairs can be
carried out with ease.
Freezing equipment There are many methods for freezing, and almost all the Japanese refrigerated factory ships use the shelf-freezer system, in which brine is circulated. The material to be frozen is pressed between the "shelves" shown in fig. 781
and 782, | in. (9.5 mm.) thick, and measuring 6.1 x 2.1 ft. (2,000x700 mm.). This seemingly primitive apparatus
has proved reliable in service. Its special features are: The framework of the "shelves'* is made of steel
plate, ib in. (1.6
When the shelves are lifted, the brine in the tank is run off and is received by a surge tank of large capacity. In the early vessels, a manual gear system was used for lifting and lowering the shelves. Later this was motordriven, in which case a line shaft drove the countershafts through switching clutches, but many drawbacks were
In the latest system, the lifting and lowerdone by oil pressure pumps and the performance is excellent. About 1 min. is required for lifting and about 1 5 sec. for lowering. An outline diagram is shown
encountered.
ing
is
mm.)
thick,
through which the cool
TABLE 186
Particulars of refrigerating machinery plant of
Miyatfma M*rm
For refrigerated cargo use
For freezer use
Compressors Name and number of

sets
...
.
Sabroe
NH,
type
11x35-18(2
sets)
Sabroe
Type
r.p.m.
Vertical 3 cyl. single acting
NH, type II x S -20 (2 sets) Vertical 2 cyl. single acting
Sabroe
20 (2 sets) NH, type Vertical 2 cyl. single acting
Sx
Capacity per set
DC
1,016,000
motor
.
368 420 420 BTU/hr. (256,000 kcal./hr.) 1,008,000 BTU/hr. (254,000 kcal./hr.) 504,000 BTU/hr. (127,000 kcal./hr.) 1 50 h.p. x 1 ,200 r.p.m. (2 sets) 75 h.p. x 1 ,800 r.p.m. (2 sets) 1 50 h.p. x 1 ,200 r.p.m. (2 sets)
Total capacities
750 h.p. standard capacity

Horizontal shell and tube type
5,054,000 BTU/hr.
(1
,274,000 kcal./hr.)
Condensers
IN/O.
of
sets
Ammonia
receivers
Number of sets
Brine coolers
Horizontal 2
Horizontal 2
Horizontal

*
Number of sets
Brine
pumps
.
Type, number of sets
rxTmotor
Cooling
of sets
.
Horizontal centrifugal (3 sets) 200 ton/hr. x 82 ft. (25 m.) 40 h.p, x 1,750 r.p.m. (3 sets)
Horizontal centrifugal (3
sets)
200 ton/hr. x 82 ft. (25m.) 40 h.p. x 1,750 r.p.m. (3 sets)
Horizontal centrifugal (1 set) 100 ton/hr. x 82 ft. (25 m.) 25 h.p. x 1,750 r.p.m. fl t)
Horizontal centrifugal (2 sets) 130 ton/hr. x 52.5 ft (16 m.) 20 h.p. x 1 ,800 r. p.m. (2 seta)
Horizontal centrifugal (2 sets) 130 ton/hr. x 52.5TT(16 m.) 20 h.p. x 1,800 r.p.m. (2 sett)
Horizontal centrifugal (1 set)
60 ton/hr. x 52.5 ft, (16m.) 10h.p.xl,750r.p.m.(lset)
[731]
- PRODUCTIVITY
Cooteg equipment for refrigeration of cargo holds The hold interior is kept at to -4F (-18 to -20C) by means of a brine circulating system. Steel cooling tubes of li in. (38 mm.) diam. are used, the outside only
are being galvanized. From five to ten tubes per space the hold. Each of the to capacity according arranged, tube should be separated to ensure that the inside of the hold is cooled evenly, although some of them may be out of action due to maintenance problems. The cooling water should be circulated as uniformly as possible in each tube. An example of the ratio of the cooling area inside the hold is shown in table 189. Compared with that in the Miyazima Mam, the cooling area of the other two ships is considerably smaller. 1 his is the resuk of experiments, and it is believed that further decreases of area may be possible. It is also believed that a coefficient of heat transmission
Fig. 783. Lifting arrangement, shelf-freezer
in fig.
783.
Fig.
784 shows the arrangement of the
freezing room.
freezers
glazed.
is
The meat discharged from the shelfis carried by conveyor to a tank where it is The water-bath type of glazing tank has several
advantages: the surface of the meat is cleaned, the glaze not easily peeled off and the amount of water required
is
negligible.
TABLE 187
Refrigeration load of the freezer of
Fig. 784.
Typical plan of freezing
room
Miyazim*
Mam
S-20
K' of about 3.0 BTU/sq.ft./hr./F (1 5 kcal./sq. m./nr./C) may be satisfactory for the cooling pipes.
Insolation
Antarctic Area
North Ocean Area
Compressors
used
to be
.
3S-
18
S-20
3S-18
53.6
Temperature Atmosphere Seawiter Expansion
32
-22 F(-3e
642,700 162,000
(0*C) 35.6F (2*C) a

a
30F (10C)
~22F(-30'C)
547,400 138,000 537,500 135,500
The temperature of
Cooling capacity
kcal./hr.'
633,100 159,600
(8
the refrigerated hold has been in recent reduced years. The temperature of gradually the meat in its centre is first reduced to 17.6 to 14F to ~10C) by freezing and then further cooled in the hold. It is advisable that the temperature should be
Cooling
ability for
.
meat
Whales
150 tons/day
Salmons and trouts

120 tons/day
lower than 1.4F (-17C). For perfect heat insulation

select the best materials
Refrigeration load
BTU/hr.
kcal./hr.
2,400,000 605,000
1,920,060
484,000
it is most important to and apply the best workmanship to ensure watertightness. For insulating, material of low heat conductivity (having abundant fine pores), low heat should be chosen, specific gravity and specific
Number of machine sets to be med

Cooling capacity BTU/hr.
kcal/hr.
1,285,400
otherwise considerable refrigeration capacity may be lost in cooling the heat insulating materials themselves. Formerly cork was used, but this has gradually been
U66,200
319,200
1,094,800 1,075,000
324,000
276,000
271,000
Total cooling capacity
BTU/hr.
kcal./hr.
2,551,600 643,206
2,169,800 547,000
Mxrgin
of ceding
capacity
6.3%
13%
weight displaced by glass wool which is lighter have come into cheaper. Of late, synthetic resin products use, but these synthetic materials have a disadvantage in that their pores are bigger than those of glass wool, so conductivity is increased at high temperatures, Nevertheless these water and moisture-repelling properties are better, and this eventually results in a lower conductivity and longer wsefttl life, so they are considered at present
in
and
[732]
SIZE
AND TYPE
kw4
FACTORY SHIPS
TABLE 188
IN
JAPAN
Refrigeration
of refrigerated cargo
boU of Mlyaiim*
Alter*
to be the best in performance. Glass wool, or synthetics have never been used for floors, but their application
for this purpose seems promising. Comparisons are made of these
The second deck is wooden and of the tie-plate type, and the heat insulation is usually applied about 2 ft. 8 in. (800 mm.) from the shell side.
heat
insulating
An air space is often provided in heat insulation, but in

spite
materials in table 190.
of the theoretical effectiveness of
this
method,
it is
The
thicknesses of the heat insulating materials are: Refrigerated cargo holds:
Outside shell and bulkheads 10

Ceiling, 8 in. (202 mm.) Ceiling at bottom of freezing
in.
(254
mm.)
TABLE 189
room, 4
in. (101
mm.)
in.
Ratioof area of cooling pipe*

Surface art* of
Capacity of hold
cu.
ft.
Floor
with 2J in. (63 mm.) concrete, 6 to 8 (152 to 202 mm.)
/Hold
/
capacity
Tempera"
ture
coating
Outside shell and bulkheads, 9 in. (228 mm.) Ceiling, 9 in. (228 mm.) Floor with 1 in. (25 mm.) cement or asphalt,
2
in. (51
cu.
m.
MiyaiimaMaru 312,229 Itukttslma Mont 228,038 Kasima Maru 257,478
8,845 6,460 7,294
0-18
/ F C sq.ft./cu.ft. sq.m./cu.m. 0.545 0-18 0.166

pipes
O.I3I 0.128
-4 -20
0,430 0,420
mm.).
[7B]

TABLE 190
PRODUCTIVITY
Cork board
Coefficient of heat conductivity, X
Class wool
Rock wool
Mineral wool
Isofltx
Alflex
not acceptable, the reason being that, with falling temperatures moisture in the air condenses and penetrates the
insulating material resulting in higher heat conductivity. The waterproof paper used in insulating should, therefore,
be thick enough to prevent moisture penetration. sweat should drain into the bilge well.
The
Fig. 786.
Typical canning arrangement on working deck
Fig. 785.
Typical canning arrangement on upper deck
Canning systems Thecanning systems in the ships are almost identical. Generally the "iron chink", "head cutter*', "washing pool", etc., must be arranged on the working deck as the waste from these must be easily disposed of, while the meat is carried to the canning machines on the lower deck. The minimum length of a canning plant is 100 ft. (30 m.) and the minimum deck height is 8ft. 3 in. (2.5m.). The canning plant of the Itukusima Maru is shown in fig. 785 and 786.
1734]
PRODUCTIVITY
CHOICE OF SIZE AND TYPE
Ship owners' view points MR. L. SOUBLIN (France): It might be asked what a shipowner could have to say to naval architects. But, although he usually has to listen to their advice, he can also suggest objectives. And here, quite simply, are some of them. The fisheries industry throughout the world is one of the best examples of the partnership of labour and capital, even in countries where the government contributes this capital Its efficiency, therefore, depends on the requirements of these
DISCUSSION
The very serious consequences of poor quality landings cannot be stressed too strongly. There can be no poor quality
insofar as fish
quality fish or,
is if
concerned.
The consumer
it
it
he is obliged to eat age, inevitably he will never touch

living improves.
rejects poor in times of food short-
when
his standard
of
two factors being met. To Improve safety

Increase comfort
satisfy labour,
it is
necessary to
Lessen
human exertion
Pay better wages To meet capital requirements, it is necessary to: Improve its profit-earning capacity The first three conditions have long been, and will continue to be, studied. It is on the last two conditions that his observations are submitted here, because they are not necessarily met by increasing the possible catch of fishing boats. The
A higher standard of living is an ideal, not only from the moral but also from the economic aspect. It has been found (especially in France) that this phenomenon was accompanied by a disinclination for food commodities that, although wholesome, are not relished, such as salted, dried and smoked fish. Taste becomes more fastidious when a wider choice is possible. How much greater will be the disinclination of the consumer in the future to buy fish of doubtful freshness ? To remedy these drawbacks, the naval architect must
orient his research towards:
fish preservation facilities on board ship Increasing the ship's speed in order to reduce cruising time
Improving the
improvement of profit-earning capacity depends, first, on the economic situation of the home market, and, secondly on the
more or less proper balance achieved between return on capital and remuneration of labour. When the home market for fish is not saturated, the aim
should be to increase production as much as possible. Everyone will benefit thereby, and the naval architect can deliberately orient his studies to achieve
It must be admitted, however, that studies of this kind will not bring about any progress unless, at the same time, the shipowners of all countries take the necessary steps to organize their markets. It must not be forgotten that it is infinitely more difficult to set economic progress going than to introduce technical improvements. While the large trawlers aim solely at maximum production, the factory trawlers seek and obtain optimum quality landings as well as maximum production. Mr. Soublin had an
maximum
production.
When, besides such an economic situation, there is a state system of planning, the naval architect can further extend his
research in the direction of optimum-maximum production. When, on the contrary, the home market is more or less saturated, price fluctuations are such that the primordial factors are no longer quantity, but
:
opportunity to spend two days on the Soviet trawler, Kabarovsk. The fish which is frozen, either whole or filleted, immediately after it is caught is obviously of top quality. The technique is faultless. His comments concern other aspects. For fishing operations of this kind to pay, two conditions seem to be necessary:
% A home
Quality Search for unusual species (relatively or momentarily) Savings in operating costs In this case, the naval architect will aim at optimum production. These three essentially different objectives and subsequent problems correspond in turn roughly to
:
market that provides for the large consumption of frozen products, and fully equipped with a chain of refrigeration plants this condition is met in some countries but not in others
The
large, standard trawlers of British or (fish hold capacity of 200 to 250 tons)
German
type
The factory trawlers Hie recent types of medium-sized trawlers It takes, on an average, a three weeks* cruise to fill the hold of a large standard trawler with 200 to 250 tons of fish*
the maximum period allowable for fish to be kept on ice so that it will not spoil Experience, however, shows that this limit is often exceeded. After this length of time, the bacteria develop very rapidly until, finally, the average quality is too poor to be acceptable.
abundant catches to supply the factory and maintain the personnel both equipment and workers cost much more on board ship than on land The resources of the sea, however abundant they may be, are not inexhaustible. It is to be feared that the increasing number of factory trawlers will contribute towards the depletion of these resources and so cause their own ruin. This brings up the question in industrial fisheries which is the maritime catastrophe of modern times. The idea of
utilizing the scrap left after gutting, heading and filleting fish is excellent and, in this respect, the technical processing
% Regular,
Throe weeks
is
methods used to obtain meal, proteins and fertilisers are highly satisfactory. What is less commendable is the systematic catch for these purposes of fish too small for human consumption. Small fish will naturally grow bigger or elw
YY
[735]

become the feed of larger fish. In either case,
is
PRODUCTIVITY
:
their destruction
multiple small savings.

fields are the
a sort of genocide. There is the classic example of the North Sea herring: its destruction is being accelerated because every year the Danes, fishing off their shores, catch nearly 200,000 tons of one- and two-year-old herring which pass their growing period in these
waters.
As a point of reference, the following most likely to be explored with successful results Navigational and sounding instrument* Greater precision
required in all research apparatus, i.e. detection of exact location of shipwrecks, correct estimation of the quantity of fish caught in the trawl, etc. Fishing equipment and gear. Better synthetic fibres, greater
resistance of cables to wear, pelagic trawls, special trawls, etc. Fuel Over the last ten years, little improvement has been
Obviously, the factory trawlers at present have nothing like same responsibility in this destruction, but it is to be feared that they will inevitably be impelled to fish more and more intensively. This will endanger the future fish supply for men. One cannot speak of factory trawlers without thinking of trawling over the stern which, in the present status of technological progress, calls to mind a very large trawler and so inevitably a factory trawler. The hoisting of the trawl over a parabolic slipway requires a wide space between the winch and the stern because the tendency is to use ever longer lengthening pieces and codends. Hoisting also requires a space at least 30 to 33 ft. (9 to 10 m.) wide in order to keep a working deck dear and the landings usable. Add to this the long superstructure and the result is a very large trawler. The naval architects will decide whether these two conceptions will inevitably remain interdependent in the future, or if perhaps stern trawling does not necessarily depend on the ramp or on the dimensions of a large ship. The advantages of trawling over the stern would make for wider use of this method if it could be adapted to medium-sized trawlers. This would be a good subject for study by naval architects. There is no world-wide ideal type of craft. First of all, a
the
consumption per h.p. of diesel engines. have been obtained with petrol engines, but in this case it has been a question of better fuel which has made it possible to increase the compression ratio. For fishing craft, research should perhaps be directed towards the use. where possible, of heavier and consequently cheaper fuels. Manpower. Automation with regard to fishery is only just
in the fuel
made
Much
better results
if, in fact, it has started at all. The field of investigaimmense. The first objective should be reduction in the number of mechanics because it is unthinkable that a modern craft requires the constant attendance of a machinist merely to carry out an order from the wheel-house. The trawler must, or should, be run directly by its captain as tramcars are driven by conductors. Maintenance. More often than not, the improvements made in the last few years have been achieved at the cost of a complex technical setup which entails higher expenditure on maintenance. The opposite trend should be the case. Naturally, all this is very contradictory, and it will be difficult to find a solution. But, if the solutions were easy, there would be no need for naval architects.
beginning
is
tion
trawler is always a compromise, and, above all, it must be adapted to meet the needs of the home market. And in this respect, it may said that the purpose of the latest French trawlers landing fresh fish is no longer merely maximum but also optimum production. In fact, the fish market in France could be considered "saturated". The trade is endeavouring to increase fish consumption but France is a highly agricultural country where home production feeds nearly 40 per cent, of the population. Under these circumstances the two essential requirements of the shipowner are: obtaining quality
MR. H.
to be
Planning the craft for the developing countries I. CHAPELLE (U.S.A.): In an area where expansion of
is still
the fisheries
possible,
more or
less primitive,
it is normal to find and often inefficient,
fishing craft
in type. It is
consumers, and finding more highly prized species. technicians must conform to these demands and must therefore provide for:
fish for the
Hie
Speedier craft Greater tractive power Boxing of fish on board ship Cruises not to last more than 12 or 1 5 days Medium-sized holds (catches of over 150 tons being rare)
It goes without saying, that putting the problem in this way, the solutions appear difficult. And it is here that the technicians"
almost too easy to formulate a programme of rapid improvement and complete mechanization, based upon the concept that all that is needed is highly mechanized boats having every modern improvement. This can create economic disaster and delay the sound, commercial fisheries' growth. Improvement of fishing boats, particularly extensive mechanization, is very expensive, compared to the cost of primitive craft in any area. It follows, then, that the development of improved fishing boats should have a close relationship to the economic developments in a fishing area. The utmost caution should be exercised so that the fishing boat owner is not over-capitalized in an effort to get the most developed boat. Thus, to some extent at least, the development of the fishing boat of a given area must be slightly behind that of the improvement in other factors- the retail and wholesale market, distribution,
fish
scope becomes unlimited, because technology is still far-from meeting the shipowners' demands. Here also, there is a risk of the demands of "labour" (maximum remuneration) clashing with those of "capital" (more profits) because the shipowner alone bears expenses, white the wage earners (in France) take, on an average, nearly a third of the proceeds. To which is both necessary and possible it is satisfy both sides
essential to:
handling and storage,
fish
exploitation.
An
integrated fisheries
supply and possibilities for improvement plan is an
absolute necessity.
There
is
no proper
justification for developing
a relatively
costly boat for a fishery, when there is not a market that will be profitable enough to permit the owner to pay for his boat and
Improve the performance of the craft and the trawl Find means of effecting savings
It is this latter point which is the most difficult. In what way can savings be made? For want of a considerable saving, which can be expected only in consequence of a really revolutionary discovery, efforts must be directed at obtaining
show a profit. This is also the case if the fishing grounds are not capable of receiving exploitation. These matters can and must be explored and judgments reached before any
also
extensive development can take place in the production of improved boats, particularly where mechanization is concerned.
Different countries have varying fishery conditions, in which there is a variety in the range of fishing grounds, in market possibilities, in handling of the catch and, in short, in
1736}
SIZE
the
fisheries
AND TYPE
DISCUSSION
proper in this stage to the preliminary study to remark an individual fishery is so controlled economically that it must be decided whether to proceed gradually by first improving and motorizing existing craft, and then gradually introducing larger, more powerful improved designs, or whether to introduce a new type of high development and mechanization at once. This is not a matter that should be decided by local pride or desire, but by the hard economic
It is
immediate possibilities of creating highly developed and fishing boat types. It seems apparent, therefore, that each country requires special consideration of its problems and individual proposals for boat improvement. It is not enough to consider the fisheries alone as a criterion for the improvement of fishing craft and extensive mechanization. The construction of the boats is a test of the skill of local boatbuilders. The repairs of mechanized equipment is likewise a test of local mechanics and of the sufficiency of their tools. It is not practical to employ boats of such designs and of such degree of mechanization that repairs and maintenance cannot be done locally during the initial stages of the employment of such boats. A boat laid up for repair or maintenance is a loss, not a gain, to the fishery, no matter how well
developed she may be. These problems should be discussed, country by country, and the pertinent information assembled. In many instances it will have to be recognized that all necessary requirements for beginning the development of improved boats and gear are not met. This will infer that the missing requirements must be planned and a definite commitment made to create these requirements before the improved boat and gear are
in being.
that the choice in
facts.
In rowing boats, canoes and small sailing

the outboard
craft,
the use of
step in semi-motorization. These motors have proved useful in many small boat fisheries throughout the world. Since only gasoline motors are
motor may be a practical
now
available, fuel
becomes an important
factor.
Without
discussing the technical details at length, it is proper to say that the economic employment of the outboard motor in
commercial operations requires rather low power and welloriginated maintenance and repair facilities complete with skilled mechanics. The outboard motor is not very economical in fuel and, therefore, is not inherently suitable where long
runs to and from the fishing grounds are necessary. Usually
existing boats can be readily fitted with outboard motors up to about 7 h.p., depending upon the size and form of boat.
The proper type of boat, engine and fittings cannot be decided offhand for any country. The boat type most suited for a given fishery is not merely a technical and theoretical problem it is an economic and practical matter of the highest importance in the successful prosecution of a commercial
;
fishery.
desirable to begin consideration of the improved and of greater mechanization free of preconceived prejudices and opinions, there are certain practical matters involved that must not be forgotten. For example, there are many areas in the Caribbean in which the trade winds blow, and the direction, duration and force of these can be foretold with great accuracy. Therefore, in such an area the use of sail
it is
While
fishing boat
up to 10 h.p. may be practical. The outboard motor is an extremely important tool in mechanization of small fishing boat types, particularly of the primitive canoe class. Inboard gasoline motors may be divided into two basic types, marine and automobile. In North America the converted automobile motor is employed in the majority of fishing launches, in hulls up to about 45 ft. (13.7 m.) overall length.
In a few instances motors
Such engines are readily available, and are relatively inexpensive at first cost. They have high rated horsepower at a high
revolution-per-mimite rate and, for their rated power, are light and compact. They can be readily repaired and maintained by local mechanics. On the other hand, they are subject to corrosion and are short-lived if any attempt is made to approach the maximum power output. They are not capable of making long runs in a boat requiring long "continuous" operation. Such engines may be worthy of consideration in some areas. These motors are, however, wasteful of fuel and when installed in a heavy fishing boat, are relatively inefficient
in propulsion.
should not be automatically discarded in the process of improving a fishing boat type. As a matter of economical
operation and maintenance sail may still play an important part in boat design, for fuel costs are relatively great in the Caribbean area. In addition in such an area where the mechanical skill of the fishermen is limited, sails may well be a matter of safety. Another matter which should be considered is the live-fish well. This mode of preserving the catch aboard the boat may be worth examination where ice and refrigeration are not likely to be available in time, or where economics do not permit these to be considered in the foreseeable future. This matter is also controlled by the size of the boat used and by the type of fishing gear employed. It is necessary to dismiss
sole
Marine gasoline engines available for

include
fishing launches
some that are relatively slow-turning, heavy or medium
duty motors. These are capable of long "continuous" operation, and require less maintenance and repair than the converted automobile engine. On the other hand, they are
heavier and
at least.
more expensive at first cost in North America They vary in rate of fuel consumption, but require
the idea that, under ail circumstances, mechanization is the mode of improvement for the production of an economic
effective fishery,
and
and the only evidence of progress and
betterment.
When it appears practical to motorize local fishing boats, the choice of engine and horsepower required must be decided only after careful study of the individual fishery and of
local conditions. The use of engines and of improved boats, in preference to existing craft, will produce a heavier capital investment for the individual fisherman and, in the initial stages at toast, will increase the cost of the catch to the fisherman. It is obvious that immediate supply and demand must be carefully examined, in a given fishery, as well as the probabilities of market expansion, in determining what is to be done to avoid a market glut and economic disaster in the fishery.
far less fuel per operating hour at, say, 60 per cent, of total horsepower output than the automobile engine in a boat. Some of these launch engines are capable of using kerosene as a fuel, though in general this fuel necessitates more maintenance of a motor than when gasoline alone is used. The marine gasoline epgine is from one-half to two-thirds the first cost of a diesel of the same horsepower in launch size and power in North America. In recent years there has been much interest in the use of diesel engines in fishing boats. There is no question of its superiority over heavy and medium duty gasoline engines in fishing boats over 35 to 40 it (11 to 12 m.) length, requiring more or toss "continuous" operation. Its relatively high first cost and the short runs required in most North American fishing launches have prevented it from becoming popular
[737]
PRODUCTIVITY
Boot dock
Ooubto bottom
787.
General arrangement offactory trawler, B.I5
[738]
SIZE
AND TYPE
DISCUSSION
(c)
in North American fishing launches under 45 ft. (13.7 m.) length, but it is otherwise in Europe. Nevertheless, the need or the preference for dicscl engines in small fishing craft should be carefully examined. These small diesels are relatively
Are boats built locally?
(d)
What repair facilities are available?

Hauling ways, accommodation for heaving down; mechanical maintenance, sail making, marine hardware
heavy for their power as a general rule and require skilled maintenance mechanics. Someone skilled in gasoline engine repair and maintenance requires training to repair and maintain diesels. In small fishing craft the air-cooled dicscl appears to have advantages over the liquid-cooled type. Small air-cooled industrial gasoline engines are employed in some small fishing launches. These are similar in requirements to the outboard motor in repair and maintenance. As a marine engine it is good for limited operation at less than full output in a small fishing boat. If special deck machinery is required in any fishing boat type under improvement, this must be considered in the design, if limited mechanization is the objective, but with the possibility of the use of such machinery as a later development, then the initial boat design must be suitable for the deck machinery and gear which affect size and displacement of the boat at least, and perhaps engine power.
In order to assist naval architects with experience in the design of fishing boats to make sound recommendations for
fisheries officers collect
(e) Is there
and supplies. any formal effort to teach boatbuilding?
(f)
(g)
(h)
What Aids are available? What lumber is used in local boatbuilding and where and how obtained? What are wind conditions in the fishing area and what
are the usual sea conditions in general? Is sail useful in the local fisheries and can sailing boats be profitablyemployed for the present ?
(a) Is the present
(b)
demand for fish greater than supply ? Can demand be readily increased? Is market space
fish
available?
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f )
be exported profitably? Is it being done now? facilities and canneries in existence? Is ice available for icing catch at sea? Is the existing fishery profitable with present gear and boats?
Can
Are cold storage
new countries, it is suggested that data on the existing types of fishing boats and on requirements for boats, including those for new types, in the form of a questionnaire something on the following lines:
size
and type of boats
for
(g)
Are improved
pier
and quay accommodation planned
or under consideration ?
Miscellaneous factors Are improved boats or experimental boats under trial? What are the dimensions and power? If so, what design, and are plans or half-model in existence? (b) Can local builders work from plans or half-model? (c) What engines are now in use in fishing boats, and what is price of fuel in litres or gallons ? (d) Are fishermen now skilled in operation of boat or automobile motors? (e) How would improved boats be paid for? ( 1 ) Government subsidies or loans ?
(2) Private
(a)
Fishing conditions
(a)
(b)
(c)
Are grounds prolific enough to warrant possible expansion in catch? What mode of catching is considered most suitable?
How
distant are the fishing grounds
from the
fishing
ports?
Operational requirements What types of boats and propulsion are now in use? Photographs and models would be useful references, also sample dimensions. (b) Are there piers, quays, harbours or coves giving complete shelter, or are beach hauling operations required?
(a)
banks? Dependent on own savings und
capital?
(3)
(4)
Co-operative ownership ? Rental or charter?
(5) Private
ownership?
Refrigerating muchinen. 3. Hold no. 1 4. Hold no. 2 3. Hold no. 3 6. Fish meal hold 7. FUh meal factory 46 persons 8. Lifeboat 9. Motorllfeboat. 42 ft. (12.82 m.)
10.
Engine room
33.
Two
factory masters
34. 33.
Doctor Crew's mess
36. Refrigeration technician 37. Mechanic, electrician 38. 4th engineer 39. 3rd engineer
Wheelhouse
Infirmary Hospital
u. Separate room
12. 13. 14. IS. 16. 17. 18. 19,
Accumulator Engine eating
Convenor*
Pre heaters
Radio
40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 43. 46. 47. 48. 49.
2nd engineer
3rd officer
Chief engineer's bedroom Chief engineer's dayroom
2nd
officer
1st officer
64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76.
77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87.
Engine casing Provision store Provisions Provisions, refrigerating

Fruits
95. 96. 97.
chamber
Two Two Two
loaders
factory factory
men men
98. Store 99. 100.

101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 125. 126.
Linen
Workshop
Switchboard
Boatswain's store
Emergency
Linen Potatoes
Preheaters
set
Net store
Steering gear compartment Tank no. 9. sanitary water Tank no. 16 and 8. fresh water Tank no. 15. cod liver oil Tank no. 14, cod liver oil Tank no. 1 3, cod liver oil Tank no. 13, cod liver oil Tank no. 7, feed fresh water Tank no. 7, sanitary fresh water Tank no. 6. diesel oil Tank no. 6, diesel oil Tank no. 11, diesel oil Tank no. 10, diesel oil Diesel oil settling tank Tank no. 5. separated diesel ott Tank no. 4 iced fresh water
Laundry
Contactors Boatswain's store
Galley Crew's pantry

Officers pantry Officers' mess
Four
fillet
fillet
Two Two
Four
men men men men
head-cutting
eviscerating
officer
Wireless
room
20. 21. 22, 23, 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.
Chart room
Radar
Pilot
Captain's day r Carbondioxide,
Trawl winch motor
CO,
Lamp room
30. Work-boat 51. Paint room 32. Ammonia, 9 33. Contactors 54. Workshop 33. Steering wheel 56, Workshop 37. Cod liver oil room 38. Temporary store
NH
Two workers Cod liver oil man Four factory men Two fishermen
Two refrigeration Two motor men Two electricians Two motor men Two stewards
Cook
Four factory men

engineers
39.
Net store
Fish treating compartment Refrigerating tunnel
89. Three loaders 90. Sailor
Lubricating oil tank
Tank
no. 3, diesei oil
Two
niner
Boatswain
WO flSneffmon Cook
60, 61, 62. 63.
Packing room Engine store
91. 92. 93. 94.
Lubricating oil circulating tank Diesel oil overflow tank Tank no. 2, ballast water no. i nw. % UHVC Tank t* LdtoteToil
Two
weighing
men
Foreptak, fresh
1739]
PRODUCTIVITY
DoMMtbPllem
Central arr<ms*i***i offreezer trawler. BJ8, 1,030
[740J
SIZE
(f )
AND TYPE
DISCUSSION
ports.
How would improved boats be obtained ?

(1) Built locally?
(2)
is now in progress, is it the intention to use standard boats in each fishery? (h) Who would design improved boats, or how would such designs be obtained ? (i) Are there local taxes based on value of boat or catch?
(g) If
Imported? improvement
Are there now sufficient fishing crews available to man boats larger than now employed? Can labour cooperation be expected ? (k) Are there special safety requirements in view? If sail is carried, give dimensions with those of hull. (I)
(j)
Only a small proportion of fish can be brought to the market in iced or fresh condition. Polish market research showed that frozen fillets are preferred to whole fresh fish by the consumers, and salted herring is always looked for by buyers. Various kinds of canned fish also find a good market in Poland. The three types of ships were designed on the basis of these consumer preferences. Besides the three types, a normal motor side-trawler (type B.20 according to fig. 790) is in the design stage, which will
land the first catches in frozen condition (contact freezers are provided) and the later catches in iced condition. He pointed out that they had no practical experience with stern trawling but in their opinion stern trawling was the answer for big fishing vessels like the B.I 5 and B.18 types.
(m)
What fishing gear is used, and what consideration in the boat?
new gear
is
under
It would be desirable if line drawings, models, photographs and measurements of existing boats could be submitted for study. Hans would be most desirable, but are probably now unavailable except in cases of experimental
For the medium-size trawler operating in rough North Sea and North Atlantic conditions, they found side trawling to be
more convenient.
Details of the processing and freezer trawlers are given in
table
191.
craft
now being tested.
Information thus collected could be improved with photographs, line drawings, sketches, etc., for individual boat types. The questionnaire could be a permanent method of securing information for publication or circulation on the individual problems of types of boats, and would also be an historical record on which to base improvements. Particular attention should be given to the problems of motor selection, introduction of new types of boats, the relation of boats and engines to new types of fishing gear and fishing methods; the possibility of standardization of boat engines and gear design; the economic and technical considerations involved in the construction of boats; the fitting of engines, and the suitability of boats in the area of use and the practical aspects of the control of boat construction. The need for more extensive design-study of boats suitable for outboard motors was apparent.
Polish experience
B.I 5 and B.18 types are fitted with controllable-pitch propellers, the B.I 9 type with diesel-electric drive and a bow
The
rudder of the water-jet reaction type, the B.20 trawler with fixed-blade propeller. All types of ships, except the B.20 type, are to be built as prototypes and are to be put into experimental service for one to two years. After this period it will be decided what changes are to be made in the design, and series production will start. The first of the processing-freezing trawlers B.I 5 under construction will be commissioned in
early 1960.
MR. W, ORSZULOK (Poland): He gave a brief description of the types of ships designed on the basis of the investigations discussed in Swiecicki's paper. Three main types of fishing
vessels
COMMANDER M. B. F. RANKEN (U.K.): Swiecicki's paper was a very modest account of the vast amount of work carried out at the Marine Institute in Gdansk. One of their economic surveys "A Revised Study of Fish Processing Trawler based upon the experience gained in operation the Poushkin class trawlers", written 1957, had been translated privately into English and it was a most valuable report. It would be interesting to know why the Poles had decided that base ships were unsatisfactory, especially in view of the
long distance from Polish ports to the fishing grounds.
Propulsion methods MR. P. F. DILNOT (U.K.): He had read Eddie's paper with great interest. When dealing with controllable-pitch propellers, Eddie said some people consider it necessary to fit a
were developed
The processing-freezer trawler, type B.I 5 (fig. 787) The freezer trawler, type B.I 8 (fig. 788) The freezer drifter-trawler, type B.I 9 (fig. 789) Poland's main fishing grounds are far distant from home
1.
Engine room
2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
Hold no. 1 Hold no. 2 Hold no. 3 Hold no. 4

Aft tank
28. Doctor 29. Boatswain

30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.
3rd officer
2nd
officer
1st officer
Crew's mess
Electricians'
7. Lifeboat 45 persons 8. Lifeboat 34 persons 9. Hospital 10. 11. Engine casing 12. Accumulator 13. Preheateri 14. Pilot 15. Radio officer
workshop
Engine casing
Galley Pantry
Officers; Officers'
Washroom
mess
pantry 40. Carbondioxide,

41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48.
CO.
Paint
room
16. Wireless room 17. Wbeelhouse 18. Convtttors 19. Chart room
Drying room Locksmith

Chief steward
55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70.
Net store Cargo winch contactor

Store Fish treatment compartment
Two factory masters Two sorters Two factory men Two controllers Two factory men Two factory men * Two loaders Two factory men Two factory men
Store
Packing room
Engine casing
workshop
73. ~ Fruit 74. 75. 76. Emergency set 77. Gyrocompass 78. Potato store 79. Cargo winct 80. Uaen 81. Drying room
Two refrigeration engineer Two electricians

Refrigeration engineer
Electrician
20. Captaia*! saloon 21. Captain's bedroom
24. Lamp room 25. Fi* extinguishing equipment
50 Chief engineer's bedroom e f engineer 51 Cuief

52. 3rd engineer 53. 2nd engineer 54. Ammonia,
NH,
62. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108.
Boatswain's store Soiled linen Ironing room
Cook 2nd Cook
Laundry
Two seamen Two stewards Two fishermen Two motortnen

Refrigerating Steering gear
i
ichioery
Tank no. Tank no. Tank no. Tank no. Tank no. Tank ox. Tank no.
9, 8.
7.
drinking water drinking water bettaet water
6, fti oil 5, Ibel oil 3, fuel oil 5a, fel ofl Separated dtoe* oil tanks Tank no. 4, ft*! oil
Lubricating
oil.
TanknoTT
u
spare tank
Oil overflow tank Tank n*. 2, battart Tank no. i t battaet
1741]
PRODUCTIVITY
to
ta
to
ia
do
is
40
10
70
79
00
ts
5
>
K>
'
i
0124 68
'
<
"
20
J
i
30
' i
ft
tOm.
Boat deck
OouWebonom
Fig. 789.
General irrwfefnent of ocean
drifter-traw^r,
BJ9
[742J
SIZE
AND TYPE
TABLE
191
DISCUSSION
Particulars of Polish proctsttaf and freezer trawlers
Freezer trawler
Fig.
B.20 790
Length overall Length between perpendiculars Breadth

. .
ft.
(m.)
201.9
Depth
Draught Freeboard Block coefficient
.
(61.55V 180.8 (55.1) 32.15 ( 9.8) 17.06 (5.20> 14.47 (4.4 1 >
Main engine power

Trial speed
knots
ton (cu. m.)
.
1,080 h.p. 12.0
Cre*
Trawl pull at 5 knots Capacity of hold I Capacity of hold II Capacity of ice Capacity of temporary
.
33
cu.
ft.
10,230(290} 6,460(240)
1,410
fish store
705
(40) (20)
clutch between the engine and propeller to ensure that the propeller and ship are stationary when the trawl is alongside. He
had had the good fortune to do two trips in the Kingston Beryl: when hauling and shooting the trawl, no difficulty is experiin keeping the ship stationary nor does the revolving proprove an embarrassment; on the contrary, the ease and precision with which the ship can be manoeuvred is a great advantage especially when getting a "double bag" on board. With diesel trawlers of 1,400 to 1,800 h.p., Eddie made the point that they may run too cool when fishing. By fitting a controllable-pitch propeller, this problem can be surmounted by operating the engine at a slower speed and obtaining the horsepower at an increased torque by increasing the pitch. The outstanding performance of diesel -electric ships, together with the fast response required by skippers, can also be obtained with a controllable-pitch propeller at a smaller
enced
peller
having advantage of both systems, is The coupling gears can incorporate a reduction chain and isolating clutches. This allows high-speed diesel engines to be used, and for one engine to be de-clutched to drive the winch on arrival at the ground. By fitting engines of, say, 1,000 and 500 h.p., the 500 h.p. coupled to the winch generator at its forward end, the 1,000 h.p. engine will be of ample capacity to deal with the power requirements when fishing so long as a controllable* pitch propeller is fitted. This arrangement obviates the need for a diesel engine, only of use to drive the winch and idle for at least 80 per cent, of its life, as well as giving the increased reliability of two propulsion engines.
the geared "father
A further alternative,
and
son** layout.
capital outlay.
Eddie's paper very fairly put the case for the various types of propulsion machinery. It would seem the best compromise to achieve the most edible fish at the cheapest cost, is a freezer trawler with constant torque machinery provided by either a diesel-electric installation or a large diesel driving a con9 trollabk-pitch propeller and the winch, as well as the ships
Safety factors in diesel-electric equipment MR. E. L. N. TOWLE (U.K.): It is suggested that the main purpose of using a double armature propulsion motor is to reduce the diameter, thus enabling the motor to be installed
further aft than would be the case if a single armature motor were used. Actually, this is not the primary reason for the choice of a double unit motor, although it is one of the advantages incidental to this type of unit. The principal reason is that a trawler, of all ships in service, cannot afford to take the slightest chance of total failure of propulsion, as on a
lee
and the refrigeration machinery* The former has the advantage of increased reliability because the failure of one propulsion engine does not bring the ship to a standstill, while the latter is cheaper and takes up less engine room space as well as reducing the number of moving parts requiring maintenance. With modern diesel engines, a main engine failure is a rare occurrence.
lighting generator,
shore this might mean the loss of the ship. Electrical failures are almost non-existent, but very occa-
sionally a failure does occur which it is almost impossible to guard against, and the provision of a double armature motor with a suitable switching cubicle, enables either half of the motor to be isolated in less than 30 sec., should there be a
2.
3.
4. 5. 6.
7. 8.
Engine room Spare hold Main hold Deep tank Side tank A Her peak
14. 15. 16. 17. 19.
Convenors
Wiretoas
room
Chart room
Whedhouse
day room Chief engineer
18. Captain's
Tank Tank
no. 3 no. 2
20. 1st officer 21. Officers'

22.
9. Tank no. 1 10. Chain locker 11. Forepcak 12. Lit t boat 13. Accumulator
mess Crew's mess
26. 1st officer 27. Provision store 28. Refrigerating chamber 29. Galley 30. Washroom 31. Engine casing 32. Trawl winch motor 33. Compartment for removing fish
38. 39.
.
Two-person cabin Two-person cabin
40. Two-person cabin 41 Net room 42. Rope store 43. Boatswain's store 44. Side tank
45. Deep tank 46. Deep tank 47. Tank no. 3 48. Tank no. 2 49. Stream rudder
throats
34. Steering gear 35. Two-person cabin 36. Two-person cabin 37. Two-person cabin
U parsons
23. Pantry 24. 2nd officer
25.
2nd
officer
1743]
Doubte bottom
Fig. 790.
1.
General arrangement offreezer trawler, B.20

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.
53. Two*penon cabin 54. Refrigerating machinery 55. Freezing room
Fuel
oil
tank
19.
tfi
Two-person cabin
20. Accumulator 21. Convertort 22. Chart room
25
__,__
li; w:c.~
44. Lamp room 45. room 46. Cuttom'i ftore 47. Boat*wata' tux 48. Steering fear compartment 49. Four-pmon <
13.*
26. Chief engineer 17. Two*pafonabjn 21. Two-pewon cabin 29. Two-pence cabin 30. Two-penon cabin
32. Two-perwn cabin 33. Two-penon cabia 34. 840M 35. Tfttfrt winch motor
43 Net workahop
Mm
14.
Jh
Two-petaon cabjn
"
90.
52*.
Twc~peron<
56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67.
Rafrtoratiat chamber
Temporary bettor*
fiati
Wore
Fish hold no. 2 Fish hold no. 1
Net room Chain locker

Side tank Side tank
Tank
Machinery oil tank Cylinder o0 tank no. 2
Two ipereon i
8:
744.]
SIZE
AND TYPE
DISCUSSION
was little to choose, as to give equal amount of standby it was necessary to use a four-engine Ward Leonard system, compared with a three-engine constant
generally speaking there
breakdown and in spite of a somewhat greater first cost, he had always considered it essential to use a double armature motor for single-screw sea-going vessels. A minor advantage of the double armature motor is that it enables a higher overall voltage to be used in the system, and
consequent reduction in the circulating current, with resultant saving of cables, and generally speaking a slight overall
current system.
room ventilation and dissipation of guard against the entry of water under the very worst conditions, but if the ventilation system is considered with the design of the ship, adequate protection can be afforded, and the direct ventilation system forms a simpler system than the use of a closed circuit air system with water cooler, and the attendant risk of leakage from the cooler tubes, allowing water to get into the motor. Eddie's paper said that for Arctic conditions, precautions had to be taken regarding the cooling water, and that it was possible to do this by means of a thermostatic device. He was of the opinion that the number of automatic thermostatic devices should be reduced to an absolute minimum, as these features, when installed, are liable to be taken for granted, and failure may result in engines being run at an excessively low temperature. It is essential to provide alarms to indicate excessive temperature or failure of lubricating oil pressure, but apart from these features, the only essential automatic device is an underspeed switch to disconnect the generator field in the event of failure of the diesel engine, which otherwise would be motored backwards, and an independent overspeed governor to guard against run-away in the event of failure of the main
losses,
it is
increase in efficiency. Regarding the engine

essential to
For approximately one day during each passage, power is required on deck for the preparation and stowing of the gear. The amount of power required is not great, but is required at frequent intervals during the day. With a constant current system the winch can be left in the loop all day, and used as required, with negligible effect on the propulsion, even on full
power. If power is left on the winch all day on a Ward Leonard scheme, the engine will be idling for the whole time, with an adverse effect on lubricating oil consumption, and consequent fire risk. The alternative is for a large number of switching operations to be made by the engine room staff. When using the winch in this manner only three-quarters or two-thirds maximum power of the ship is available. A course sometimes adopted when a market is at stake is to use the windlass to assist in stowing the gear, but this is not popular with the crew, as the barrels of a trawler windlass are not designed with this operation in view. A further advantage of the constant current trawl winch is that power can be left instantly available when fishing, without having an idling engine for most of the time. This is particularly advantageous when fishing in rocky grounds, with many potential fastenings, which are likely to pull out the
warps occasionally.
Heavy
vessel preferred
S.
MR. DWIGHT
would be best
SIMPSON AND MR. JOSEPH W. SLAVIN
speed governor.
(U.S.A.): Eddie has
made
the very important point that
it
According to Eddie one of the advantages of electric accommodation heating is that the vessel can be ready for sea half an hour after complete shut-down. The second advantage is that economy results, since, on a diescl-electric ship, the boiler normally burns diesel-oil, which is relatively expensive, and in the case of the S/. Dominic, it has been found that during the voyage to and from the fishing grounds the boiler is not normally used. It is only lit up when required for liver boiling and deck use. This results in some economy, since the boiler can burn up to one ton of oil per day. Eddie said that the cost of the constant current system was slightly greater than that of the Ward Leonard system, but
to design and construct a new vessel for freezing fish at sea, rather than to convert existing trawlers. There is no question that successful freezing of fish at sea can best be made by a new, rather than an old vessel. The U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, therefore, contracted the consulting firm of naval architects of Mr. Simpson, to pre-
pare a preliminary design of a

fish at sea.
new
trawler for brine-freezing
and 792 show a vessel 170 ft. (52 m.) in length by (10 m.) beam, with a gross tonnage of about 500. Two brine-freezers, each having a holding capacity of 13,500 Ib. (6,124 kg.) of fish, are provided to assure freezing of the fish
Fig. 791
ft.
32
797.
Fish
and WMlift
&n**
[745J
PRODUCTIVITY
Fig. 792.
Arrangement of proposed 170
ft.
(52 m.) freezer trawler showing off-centre one-drum trawl winches and brine-freezing arrangement
as soon as they are landed on the vessel. Each freezer will continuously freeze both large and small groundfish at a rate of about 3,000 Ib. ( 1 ,360 kg.) per hour.
The refrigeration equipment consists of: Four freon 12 compressors having a combined capacity c of 80 RT (242,000 kcai.) at O F ( - 18 C) suction temfor and perature freezing,
C
designs is understandable with present methods of preserving the catch, but with the proposal to freeze part of the catch there is the attractive alternative of utilizing these benefits, by installing smaller engines and running these vessels at reduced speed. At these lower speeds, allowed by the improved preser-
vation processing of part of the catch, there are interesting and new possibilities for the naval architect to produce trawler
Two
each of 5
similar type freon 12 compressors with a capacity F ( 18 C) suction (15,000 kcal.) at
RT
temperature for maintaining the holds at O
18C)
electric Ail compressors are driven by 220 volt 3 phase motors supplied by diesei-driven generators. Three such for all of the vessel's electrical generators supply some 600
AC
kW
services.
forms which give better economic returns. These new designs will, of course, have to maintain a free-running speed as high as possible with the reduced powers contemplated, and must still fish as efficiently as their higher-powered counterparts. In this connection it would appear to be axiomatic that they must be fitted with a propulsion system having constant power and not constant torque characteristics. The ability of the
constant power propulsion system to deliver its maximum rated power in adverse weather should help materially in minimising the speed losses which inevitably occur relative to calm water performance and thus reduce the risk that the quality of the normally-stored catch be impaired on arrival
at the
The vessel has a storage capacity for 250 tons (254 ton) of F ( 18^ C) refrigerated holds. round frozen fish in the two Large hatch openings will permit rapid handling of the fish. The propulsion plant consists of two 750 h.p. diesel engines driving a single propeller through reduction gears. The vessel has an estimated speed of 13.5 knots and a cruising radius of about 6,000 miles. Other features of this design are a hydraulically-drivcn winch, elimination of danger from trawl, wires crossing the deck, one-side fishing and excellent accommodation for the crew.
home
ports.
In undertaking any new design study of this nature it is, of course, essential to conduct both resistance and propulsion experiments in smooth water and in waves. In the case of the
bulbous
bow
trawler, the evidence so far obtained at
NPL
suggests that such a form has optimum performance in both smooth and rough water conditions and it is therefore ideally
MR. D.
of the
practical information
Dousr (U.K.): Eddie's paper gave a wealth of on the general economic requirements Ashing industry, and also a clear picture of the com*
J.
suited to the requirements desirable in a semi-freezer trawler. One of the main difficulties at the present time is that there
is little
or no reliable information on the sea conditions most
position of the British trawler fleets at the present time. As far as recent designs of deep-sea trawlers are concerned,
Eddie rightly drew attention to the fact that many of the advantages in reduced resistance and increased propulsive efficiency achieved in these new designs have resulted mainly in increased ship speed to and from the fishing grounds. This use of the hydrodynamic research which has gone into these
frequently encountered on the deep-sea trawler runs. Once information of this sort is readily available, coupled with service data of power, revolutions of the propeller, fuel consumption, ship speed and catching rate, the way is open to
the
approach mentioned by Eddie. It is to be hoped met and the economics of trawling operations placed on a sound basis.
statistical
that this urgent need will soon be
[746}
SIZE
AND TYPE
DISCUSSION
Fig. 793.
Proposed catcher trawler which
will only
tow the trawl and leave the catch
to
be taken
can of by mothersUps
[747]

(Italy): He referred to Eddie's paper which very clearly illustrated and compared various systems of propulsion machinery for long distance trawlers and factory
PRODUCTIVITY
CAPTAIN W. COSTA
discussion on this subject The boat is much smaller and cheaper than the conventional trawlerin this case the new small type is of about 120 ft. (36.6 m.) length, speed is of
ships.
It
seems that the
diesel-electric constant
system appears to be the ideal for

liked
power propulsion a trawler and is very much
by skippers.
the owner's point of view, this enthusiasm fades because of cost considerations: The first cost of a diesel-electric propulsion system is higher than that of the traditional installations The maintenance of diesel-electric equipment runs
From
minor importance and the necessary traction power for trawling can be obtained with comparatively small engine power when using a propeller nozzle. The 1 20 ft. trawler is the smallest to be provided with a ramp for Atlantic conditions, as far as is known. It must be conceded, however, that the limit for fishing will
be reached at about Beaufort 8 or 9, but the average catch decreases of the individual boat will be more than counterbalanced by the possibility of using a greater number of catcher trawlers. The capital cost and running expenses for them are small compared with the value of the total catch, while the pure factory vessel offers wide possibilities for a most economical way to process the accumulated catches at sea. The main problem is how to finance such combined fleet operation and to establish the necessary sales organization. The technical problems now can be considered as comIt seems the matter is now ripe for serious consideration by an enterprising personality or firm. If we wish to secure the further economical employment of our present vessels it appears certain that in 1965 this question will not arise and that a part of our fishing fleet will be working as a combined operation.
DC
very high
Highly specialized engineers are needed in the engine
room
He
felt
that
DC
was responsible for the
situation.
The
machinery on board modem merchant vessels and tuna-clippers, prove the value of AC installations. He believed it should be possible to use
increasing use
auxiliary
made of
AC
AC for dicsei-ekctric
The
flexibility
trawlers or diesel-electric factory ships. of the system would not change. The manoeucould be assured by coupling the high-speed vrability electric motor to a controllable-pitch propeller. First cost of installation would be substantially lower if high voltage
pletely solved.
and frequency were adopted. He realized that the adoption of a controllable-pitch propeller the cost of which would be about double that of a fixed-blade onewould consume a good deal of the savings, but he thought the combined AC installation should be about 15 per cent, cheaper. Maintenance cost would be reduced to a minimum. Equipment could be simplified so that ordinary engine-room personnel could run it safely. Centralization of ships' controls could be realized.
Experience with Fairtry
MR.
L.
M. HARPER Gow (U.K.)
Swiecicki's paper touched
on
the question of freezing fillets. His firm had earlier filleted about 30 per cent, of the catch, whilst now between 75 and
economy of
The
IMS
feting boat
95 per cent. This had contributed to an improvement in the the trips. He felt that considerable thought should be given to filleting the whole catch of all round-fish in the northern waters, as machinery is available to do this.
in the early
tain,
MR. C. BIRKHOFF (Germany): His contribution was something

between the up-to-date matters already discussed, and the last subject the 1975 fishing boat, and his comments could be
called
"The 1965 Fishing
Boat**.
of the aspects of fisheries that are debated ultimately lead to the processing of the catch, and whenever there is a discussion about fishing vessels with complete processing
the factory trawler is mentioned as the possible optimum. One of the arguments advanced is that this type has best withstood the severe conditions in northern Atlantic waters.
plants,
Many
days it was costly and difficult to mainbeen a remarkable improvement in that direction. On the three vessels which they should have in operation by the end of 1959, they would have four or five filleting machines on each vessel, aiming to fillet all the main varieties of round-fish caught in the northern waters including
Although
there
has
the red-fish.
Experience has proved that these vessels can continue

fishing operations in a wind at Beaufort 10, although with not infrequent loss of their trawling gear. Nevertheless, the
Hatches and winches MR. H. KUMMERMAN (France): Whereas almost revolutionary methods are being introduced together with improved instruments for detecting and determining the density of the shoals
offish, etc. operational methods, especially for handling nets, have changed very little. He felt that fisheries could benefit from the very great experience which was acquired in the field of hatches, hoisting gear, etc., in the large ships, and from the manufacture of satisfactory winches. He referred to the trawler model, fig. 1 14, incorporating ideas from England and France. He invited everyone naval
;
question arises whether the big investment and the need to
employ a crew of 100 or more
is still
economical in relation to
the increased value of the landed products. If it was possible to use much bigger nets the expenses for such factory trawlers might be justified. On an average, however, the individual hauls between Iceland and Greenland are not more than 40 to 60 cwt. (baskets), or 30 to 40 kits or 2 to 2i ton. The larger hauls in Newfoundland waters cannot as yet be considered normal. Therefore, as long as bigger trawl nets cannot be used in Older to get bigger catches, it appears more reasonable to increase the catching capacity by using a number of pure catchers in co-operation with a "Pure Factory Vessel". The it dial it is impossible to transfer the catch from the catcher trawler to die factory ship in severe weather oond ttions
is
to give suggesarchitects, shipbuilding and outfitting yards tions for further improvement because he did not claim this to be a rigid or sole solution, but rather an adaptation of
known and understood methods to future requirements. It was said that it is difficult to find experienced crews. At
least a partial solution can be found to this problem. All the essential elements of a fishing boat should be concentrated in a
small space, not merely with a view to increasing the efficiency of die boat and reducing the final cost, but above all to reduce the hardships of the men operating. Because, where 20 men
are now working under difficult conditions these men, except for 4 or 5 of them, will be abk to work inside on entirely
today no more valid. Fig. 793 shows a pure catcher trawler, given to stimulate
[748]
SIZE
deck.
AND TYPE
DISCUSSION
Before removing the connection rope, the rear part containing the catch is bound tight, and attached to a berrel or ball-shaped rubber balloon fitted with air with a displacement of 18 cu. ft. (0.5 cu. m.) and carrying a radaweflector.
Experience has shown that this displacement is sufficient to keep the codend with the catch afloat also in most unfavourable cases. This balloon is then connected to another of the same size, carrying a small radio transmitter and a storm lamp, by a strong rope about 66 ft. (20 m.) long, and the whole combination is dropped into the sea. The drift of the wind keeps the two balloons apart so that, even in rough weather, it is not difficult to fetch the connecting line from the
transport vessel.
paint.
mechanical operations, directed by remote control from the
As for price, there is absolutely no reason for it to be higher than that of the conventional arrangement of stem fishing trawlers used; it was also learnt from the discussion, that this price was not more important than the cost of the arrangement of side trawlers. The fishing boat of 1975
will
know whether
at that date, all that has
be discussed. He did not been seen here will
not have been overtaken, but if we want to rationalize, we must start from now replacing some old or recent traditions, some of them often being obstacles to possible progress. Without being more definitive than Harper-Gow, owner of the Fairtry "family", he hoped before 1965 to be in a position to show a group of ships using whole or part of the ideas included in the model presented.
Both balloons are coated with
fluorescent
On
board they are easy to handle and when deflated
COMMANDER M. B. F. RANKEN (U.K.): Sato implied in his paper that the Japanese froze whale meat in the same way as fish, in plate freezers. In British whale factory ships, the meat was frozen in moulds in brine tanks producing blocks about 4 in. (102 mm.) thick. This was a good method as whale meat forms into moulds very easily due to its jelly-like consistency. Similar results had been achieved in the U.K. and in Norway with fish both in tanks and in vertical plate freezers, and the
latter
on board the transport or factory vessel they are bundled up and, together with the balloons, thrown back into the sea for return to the catcher
boats at a pre-arranged position.
require only little storage space. After the codends are emptied
would appear
to offer
an
attractive alternative to the
Confer rUbbsr float (as ton buoyancy).
horizontal units described in the paper. The arrangement of rams on either side of the plate freezers instead of on top was a neat way of saving valuable head room in
the hydraulic the ship.
at present in Japan for salmon and too high; they seemed even too high for whale meat. In British experience, temperatures as low as -20T (-29C) were essential to obtain results comparable with fresh fish, and temperatures below -~5F (~21C) were currently used for whale meat. Birkhoff had remarked that the transferring of the catch from catchers to carriers in heavy weather was largely solved. Perhaps he would care to elaborate on the method he would recommend as transferring anything by conventional means
The temperatures used
trout appeared
much
Codsnd
Fig.
794.
Arrangement for loose codends

trawlers
to
be used by catcher
was by no mean an easy matter. In answer to Slavin, a single-stage refrigerant 12 plant was fitted in Fairtry I and a two-stage refrigerant 12 plant in Fairtry II. Brine-cooling was used in both cases, both for the holds and for the freezing tunnels and plate freezers. Brine was also used in the majority of British refrigerated ships and provided a very flexible system. No difficulty was experienced with corrosion provided the brine was kept reasonably clean and slightly alkaline. He agreed with Slavin that freezing at sea was seldom an economic proposition in a ship which had
not been specifically designed for
it.
This method has been tried out with satisfactory results on
German fisheries research vessel Anton Dohrn and in commercial practice near Newfoundland by trawlers of
the
the "Gemeinwirtschaftliche Hochseefischerei Gesellschaft",
Bremerhaven. The catch after drifting for six hours was still in a good condition for processing, though in appearance somewhat below normal standard of wet fish for market. Whenever the method is used for complementing the hold capacity of another homebound trawler which was also tried much less time is required for the transfer of the catch,
which means no quality

Transferring the catch MR. C. BIRKHOFF (Germany), in answer to Ranken, gave some supplementary remarks regarding the method of transferring the catch from catcher-trawlers to carriers or
factory vessels in heavy weather. The trawl has an exchangeable rear part (codend plus lengthened, fig. 794. The opposite circumferential meshes, where the main net and the codend meet, carry strong rings through which alternately a rope is reeled. No more than three
deterioration.
"pelagian" principle, the transfer method has the advantages of saving much time between the hauls and of being applicable Jn all weather conditions which are still
Due to its
suitable for fishing operations.
MR. J. W. SLAVIN (U.S.A.): He wondered in connection with Sato's paper whether frcon 12 or freon 22 had been con* sidered instead of ammonia, in order to eliminate some of the possible safety hazards that are associated with the use of
circulation decrease the life of the pipe coils ? He mentioned that they have found an ethanol solution quite satisfactory for this purpose.
minutes are required for getting a reliable connection, and only a few seconds are needed to detach the codend after the forward main part of the net has been hauled.
ammonia. Does not brine
[749]

MR. W. A. MACCAU.UM (Canada): He raised two
relating to Sato's paper:
PRODUCTIVITY
questions
How were the thermal conductivity values in table 190 determined? What method was used to lower and raise the boats; from what height did they have to be lowered and raised, and in what weather conditions could they be operated?
MR. G. S. MILNE (U.K.): The refrigerant used on Fairtry was freon 12, and brine-cooling was employed throughout. He felt that factory ships in the North Atlantic fisheries will increase in numbers but that there will be plenty of room for iced-ftsh trawlers. The main advantage of the factory ship seemed to be her ability to fish far distant grounds for a longer
period than the conventional trawler.
The abnormality is due to the fact that mechanized boats usually are introduced in such areas before the technical facilities for their proper operation are fully developed. The troubles are many, from lade of landing facilities to
tropical lethargy, unsuitable fuel oils, Custom's regulations that hamper departure, no reserve capacity of workshops
during peak seasons, or laying up for several months as in the monsoon areas. But every technician who has worked in these developing countries knows that badly organized supply facilities and the lack of trained personnel are the most obstinate bottle-necks to sustained performance of otherwise
good and
suitable fishing boats.
Against these overwhelming difficulties the boat designer has
PROF. A. TAKAOI (Japan): Japanese salmon and trout factory ships are from 5,000 to 7,000 GT and they operate in the Pacific. There might be some differences between the Japanese
nochancc to influence the productivity to any discernible degree. There .are, however, encouraging perspectives. Fisheries leaders are becoming increasingly aware that boat designs for developing countries must compromise with special
factors characteristic for such areas.
If fishing
and European factory ships. The Japanese salmon and trout factory ships fulfil two main functions: canning and freezing. Salmon is a fairly flat fish and as such is suitable for plate freezing, by which the fish This system lends itself to mass is pressed on both sides. production of frozen salmon. The Japanese canning methods are just the same as those used in European countries.
approach and take up, hand
boat naval architects would part from traditional in hand with the fisheries leaders,
the task of considering the operational facilities and promote technical training, an important rise in the productivity of fishing boats in such areas would result.
MR.
70
S.
OMEALLAIN
(Ireland):
In his opinion vessels up to
(21.3 m.) long have a bigger future than is generally realized. Returns on capital invested are more advantageous
ft.
TAKAHASHI (Japan): The plate freezer was cooled with circulating brine. The fish were pressed between the plates, and
S.
MR.
than with large
craft.
after freezing the plates
were separated by an
oil
pressure
mechanism without any
difficulty.
MR. W. ORSZULOK
(Poland):
B.I 5 type could produce a day. The processing unit

first line
maximum of 50 tons of fillets was made up of three lines:
processing trawler of the per the
Russian stern trawlers MR. A. F. JOUDINSTEV (U.S.S.R.): The fishing fleet of the U.S.S.R. consists of many types of ships designed for different methods of fishing. Russian fishing boats are normally built
to one design, which makes personnel training and building and reparing cheaper and faster. There
many
easier,
are, as
to take fish of a length of 1 9.7 to 67 in. (50 to 1 70 cm.), the second line to take fish from 12 to 22 in. (30 to 55 cm.) in
well as trawlers,
many
other types such as herring factories,
refrigerating ships, seiners, crab-canning factory ships whale catchers.
and
length this unit having a filleting and skinning machine and the third line was for white fish of from 12 to 24 in.
(30 to 60 cm.) in length. A canning factory, producing 1,500 cans in 8 hr., was also included. Further, the trawler could produce 127 Imp. gal. (580 1.) of liver oil from each of two boilers and 25 tons of fish meal per day. Ammonia was used for freezing.
Besides the old type of trawlers, there are two groups of stem chute factory trawlers the Poushkin and the Mayakowsky types, which give very good results. When designing this type, the intention was to create a new, profitable and
up-to-date fishing ship. In addition to other researches,
many
investigations in still water and in waves were conducted by the Kryioff Shipbuilding Research Institute.
model
MR. G. C. EDDIE (U.K.): Freon was used for freezing in their ships. It was found better to use brine than a calcium chloride solution for freezing. He agreed with Slavin on cost. There should be no difficulty with refreezing the fish. The capacity of the plant should be large enough to buffer-store the fish
for three days before freezing it, in order to be able to cope with a daily rate of four or five times the average.
The stern chute factory ships have been in service since 1955 and the experience obtained during this period has shown that, in comparison with the old type, they have these
advantages: They can operate in rather rough weather, that is in winds of Beaufort 6 to 8, and big catches can be lifted through the chute Stern trawling improves the catching efficiency of the trawl owing to the better towing conditions Production linesboth catching and processing can be arranged in them with maximum mechanization All operations, such as gutting, producing fish-meal and frozen fillets, extracting liver oil, can be done on the ship
itself
wy
MR. P. B. ZIENER (Norway): In any discussion of performance of fishing boats of the world, it should be kept in mind
that the factors influencing productivity are usually not of the same nature in well-developed and under-developed fisheries. In Hie vast areas where primitive craft are now being replaced by mechanized boats, special factors governing the development rise to dominant power. They may over*
Hie main manual work
is
the crew are under shelter
eased to a great extent because and do not have to work on the
throw whatever good engineering the naval architect can contribute and make an excellently designed boat a poor performer, even a failure, judged by catch figures.
open deck They are provided with the most modern navigation and
searching,
radio equipment, as well as special devices for fish and the crew* s comfort has received attention
[750]
SIZE
AND TYPE
DISCUSSION
Avtlsor birapty
These shipt have given much better results in comparison with side trawlers, in particular in the following respects :
The productivity per operating day is 63 per cent, higher The catching per crew unit is 16.5 per cent, higher
Production costs are 18 per cent, lower
MR. G. C. EDDIE (U.K.): He thanked the contributors to the discussion of his paper; their comments give valuable additional information and together with the remarks by Aicoulis, p. 249, they reinforce his views on the economics of preservation
and speed. Doust's support of the plea for more work on
be remembered that the side trawling method has been steadily improving for many decades and today is well developed; whereas stern trawling is rather new and there is no doubt that it will be continuously improved. For example, the system Of trawling now adopted on the Mayakowsky type is more convenient than on the Poushkin type. Again, the German trawler Sagitta uses a rather different system. A new type of factory stern trawler has recently been designed in U.S.S.R. for construction within the country.
It will
rough water performance is timely. From the context Dilnot presumably means that a constant-power characteristic is
desirable rather than constant-torque. Answering Costa, he said that British experience of maintenance of propulsion equipment for ships is generally held to have been good. Completely satisfactory trawler propulsion
DC
systems based on
AC generators await the commercial develop-
The
profile is
shown
in
fig.
795.
Special stress has been placed
means of ice cooling and/or
freezing.
on preserving catches by The taste and nutritive
qualities of iced fish are much higher than that of frozen fish, yet the transport of iced fish to markets is limited by the safe
storage time which unfortunately is not very long. Therefore, delivery of the iced fish from distant fishing grounds to the port and then its transport to the consumers, in the present state of preservation technology, are practically impossible. The only suitable method for long storage in such cases is by to (-18 to -25C). freezing at temperatures of It is hoped that future scientific work on the prolongation of the preservation time of iced fresh fish may considerably improve transport possibilities and the quality of the delivered
ment of rectifiers which can operate at high temperatures and high efficiencies. Engineers with a knowledge of electrical machinery are not required. In fact they can do a lot of harm. The British trawlers, like British diesel-electhc ferries and dredgers, are manned by the type of engineer normal to that service. In the case of trawlers this means that the engineers have had no formal training whatsoever. The owner of Saint Dominic has paid a considerable tribute to these men and to the diesel-electric machinery in World Fishing for
February 1959. Simpson's and Slavin's design by its use of high-speed engines demonstrates the idea put forward in his paper that when the method of preservation is powerful enough, engines of the smallest possible physical size have an economic advantage. The use of geared engines is interesting; for Arctic fishing it would be necessary to have a change-speed
~13F
fish.
The exchange of opinions and
the fruitful discussion of the
very interesting papers presented will be useful for the further development of fishing boats. He expressed gratitude to Soublin, for the friendly remarks he had made on the fishing industry in the U.S.S.R.
box as described by Chardome if it was desired to trawl on one engine in ail weathers. He agreed that only in a new vessel can the optimum balance between speed and preservation be achieved and would repeat a remark he made at the Paris Congress there is no one solution to the problems of freezing at sea they will have to be solved afresh for every fishery.
:
Fig. 795. Profile of the new factory ship type designed for construction in U.S.S.R. The hauling of the gear will be different from the Pushkin factory ships so that up to 10-ton catches can be hauled without damage to the fish. The main dimensions are: LOA, 279ft. (85 m.); LBP, 246ft. to shelterdeck, 33ft. (10 m.); 7*, 79.6 ft. (5.98 m.): A, 3,712 ton; V, 12 knots (75 m.); 46ft. (14 m.);
Courtcty SchhYbautechnik
1
.
ROM tlort
Fofedeck
hold No.
I
2.
4! Refrigerated
6!
i.
Emergency ^^ generator 5*J__-TI^~
11. Galley 12. Pantry 13. Provision store 14. Refrigerated provision store 15. Entrance room 16. Freon refrigeration engine room 17. Fish meal hold 18. Refrigerated hold No. 2 19. DieeeToil
10. Solitary
20. Fresh water
21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
Speed log
Coffer
dam
oil
Settling tank
Used lubricating Heavy fuel ofl

Collecting tank
Gyro room Engine room

Engine eating
ftoepital
31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.
Trawl winch engine

Fish processing room Refrigerated hold Hold for cans Fish meal storage Processing of waste Shaft tunnel (over 25 and 26) Rudder engine room Aft bridge
40. Office
ZZ
1751]
PRODUCTIVITY
1975
THE FISHING BOAT OF

this
Several contributors brought a forward look to bear on
important subject in the closing stages of the Congress

argument as he
is convinced that whatever we may think of frozen fish today as a result of recent past experience, it is the only way in which most countries' demands can be met for an edible cheap food such as the fresh fish of all kinds which used to be landed in England up to 1 9 1 4, when nearly the whole of her catch was landed within a few hours of catching.
MR. M. JUL (Denmark): He had followed quite closely the discussion on white-fish factory ships. It had not always been easy for him as a food technologist to understand the full implications of the problem discussed by fishermen and naval architects because he lacked sufficient experience in these
fields.
On the other hand, he had come to the conclusion that
more
and
attention might well be paid to the nature, appearance, quality of the product as it reaches the ultimate con*
Much has .been said for and against factory ships and mother
ships, freezer trawlers, part-freezer trawlers, and the like but, whether we like it or not, by 1975 Russia is expected to have well over one hundred fish factory ships, in some cases as
sumer. Here, the experience of the food technologists may be of some interest. After all, they continuously run large scale consumer acceptance tests and try to predict what will be the
market situation 15 years from today. He thought that, especially in some of the discussions on the combined frozen and iced-fish ships, more attention should be paid to this aspect. Large sectors of populations have long put up with white-fish which has been on ice for two weeks or processed after 10 days on ice. In all advance planning he would start with the assumption that such products will not be
acceptable
large as 4,000 tons, as well as mother ships, many smaller freezing vessels and conventional iced-fish trawlers. Their catch by then is expected to total some 4,500,000 tons against
much
longer.
In
first class
restaurants in central
Europe and in the U.K. fish is served which would have been condemned if put on sale in Denmark. Many people are used to such products and think nothing of it. Yet, once they get used to real fresh fish, they will no longer eat the other product Fresh white-fish can be made available today in any corner of the world through the aid of freezing. The change has already taken place in the U.S.A. where iced fish is disappearing rapidly. In addition, but also very important, the frozen
fillet
in
consumer
size
packages
suits
modern methods of
marketing. Some say that fish should pass through rigor mortis before freezing. This is incorrect and extensive experience points rather to the opposite. It is a matter of little importance, however. What matters is that fish should have been no more than three days on ice when it reaches the ultimate customer. This means that in all fishing where the trip from the grounds to the base takes more than two days, all fish must be transformed into some non-perishable form at sea. lot of calculations can be made showing, for instance, that it is cheaper to ice the last pan of the catch, etc. However, what the calculations do not show is that the result might be an obsolete product. It may be profitable, but only as long as people will buy this products, and that might not be for very much longer. In all calculations of sea-kindliness, optimum processing capacity, etc., one should remember that there is a certain little lady with whom the final decision rests. She is the ordinary housewife. She is unfaithful (as to the products she buys); she is whimsical (as to her changes in food habits), but she is used to having the final word. She will have it in this case tool
2,500,000 tons in 1957 and most of this will presumably be landed through Murmansk. Poland is currently expanding her fleet and will probably have at least 45 factory trawlers by 1975 as well as freezer and part-freezer trawlers of more modest size, conventional distant water trawlers, salting, vessels and so on; she aims to quadruple her production to 500,000 tons by 1975. Similar expansion of production is not so apparent in West European countries but in order to maintain even current production it is becoming essential for them to go further and further for their fish. Thus the U.K. catch in 1956 was 10 per cent, below 1938 but in the same period the distant water catch increased by more than 12 per cent, to some 442,000 tons just over 47 per cent, of the total 1956 catch. The proportion of distant water fish also increased by 9.4 per cent, in the same period. distant water trawler in 1956 averaged 2,400 miles for her round trip and spent 20 days at sea of which only an average of nine were spent fishing. This distance meant that most fish was caught no further away than Bear Island and a large part came from Iceland, the Lofoten Islands and other nearer grounds. To return from the Grand Banks or West Greenland at 14 knots takes almost
days which means that fishing must be restricted to about three days if the fish is not to be stale when landed. All countries want more fish and it seems inevitable that the
present so-called distant water grounds will by the 1970's become almost as over-fished as the North Sea is today. If supplies are to be maintained and unless similar extinction of the fish is to occur on these grounds, it is inevitable that fishing vessels will be forced to go much farther for the fish.
Iced wet fish will therefore become less and less predominant This has fish the only palatable alternative. already occurred to a large extent in the Greek market, as all their ships being forced to bring the fish home as far as 2,500 miles from the nearest North African grounds and much further from any of the more distant sub-tropical or Arctic
and frozen
(U.K.): So far the emphasis has been on the detailed improvement of current designs with only a hurried and fleeting glance at the more distant future. The object is to try and focus attention on the year 1975 and later, and to provoke discussion on what we must do to meet the world's needs in the latter quarter of the century. He placed freezing at sea firmly in the forefront of his
B. F.
COMMANDER M.
RANKEN
grounds. Similar trends are apparent in Italy, Portugal and other countries. Many new varieties offish will have to be introduced to the housewife and new machines will be needed to process them. These varieties will be caught on grounds which many of us have never considered before and it is not looking too far ahead to suggest that we may even have to go to grounds in the Southern Hemisphere and Antarctic where there is still
[752]
THE FISHING BOAT OF

an abundance to be caught; Russia and Japan are already operating off South Africa and at least one European country is considering bringing home frozen fish from the South Atlantic. Many other new grounds will be found but few of them will be accessible unless freezing or some other preserving process can be carried out at sea so that the fish can be kept long enough to bring it home in a palatable condition. A parallel may be drawn with the British meat industry; for more than 50 years this has had to rely on refrigeration for the majority of its supplies which come from Australia, New Zealand and South America. Another parallel may be drawn with the whaling industry where freezing is recognized as the only method of preservation which offers any possibility of operating economically. One hopes however that it will be many years yet before the catching power of fishing vessels necessitates the adoption of
similar measures of international conservation to avoid the extinction of supplies. It is interesting to mention that the first full-scale fish
is
1975
problem so far as the processing machinery concerned particularly on account of the sea temperatures and high ambient humidities involved, but Gianesi and others emphasized that they have already been largely solved, though obviously great improvements can still be made. Whether future vessels should be stern or side trawlers is open to argument but it should be pointed out that the stem trawler coupled with dicscl-clcctric or some other propulsion system which leaves the greater part of the midship's section clear of machinery, enables a very orderly layout of processing and freezing machinery and frozen fish holds to be achieved*
difficult technical
Diesel-electric propulsion offers other advantages as these
ships have an
enormous power demand,
particularly
when
factory trawler, the Fairtry I was built by Messrs. Chr. Salvescn and Company, one of the great British whaling companies, and it is perhaps symbolic that the second fish factory trawler Fairtry II which sailed on her maiden voyage on 2nd April, 1959 is also owned by Salvesens. Mr. Ranken had the good fortune to visit this ship and would like to say that her design seemed to him to be well ahead of the Fairtry I or any other factory or stern trawler either in service or building of which he has seen the details. Fishing vessels of 1975 and after. The trend therefore seems clear and the following types of vessel appear likely to be in service after 1975 as far as one can see ahead at present, and assuming that there is no major break-through in the applications of irradiation, antibiotics or other similar methods of
operating in the tropics (e.g. over 550 installed BHP in one recent projected design), and very flexible operation is made possible. Also the engines can be kept very compact if multiple high-speed units are adopted; the reliability of these will be of great importance but it should be remembered that a breakdown of one unit does not affect the ship's operation as would that of a single direct-drive unit. A greater degree of automatic control and handling will undoubtedly be adopted in the future, both on deck and in the factory and holds, and this will allow a reduction in the crew
perhaps below one half that needed at present. Whether fish-meal plants at sea are worthwhile or not is a debatable point. The big factory ships today have extensive
preservation (a) Fish factory ships probably mostly of some 2,500 to 3,000 gross tons, but possibly larger if crews can be found to stay at sea longer than the three to four months they do
:
at present.
(b) Mother ships with catchers and carriers. These will probably be similar to whale factory ships with equivalent facilities for processing the fish and replenishing and mainft. (67 m.) LBP or less to work on the nearer grounds where the distances do not make the
some smaller ships. point in fitting these plants in small freezer ships where every available space can be utilized for frozen fish. Certainly the proportions of frozen fish and fish-meal should always be in favour of the former. Another feature which is susceptible to improvement is the trawl winch, by far the largest auxiliary in a modem trawler. The possibility of installing in stern trawlers a winch similar to that currently being fitted in some of the large ice breakers under construction in Finland bears investigation. This plays the tow like a skilful angler plays a salmon. With some modification it seems to offer possibilities for recovering the gear and the codend in stern trawlers more
installations,
and plants are
also fined in
However
there
may
be
little
economically and more efficiently.
taining the associated catchers. (c) Freezer trawlers up to 220
Tremendous possibilities exist for improving fishing methods and gear and it is encouraging that more scientific
effort is
now being applied to them.
operation of such smaller vessels uneconomic. (d) Part-freezer trawlers up to 205 ft. (62.5 m.) LBP or less for operation on still nearer grounds, the proportion of the catch frozen being larger the greater the length of the vessel. These trawlers may be a type peculiar to the British industry where the present docking facilities at the main fishing ports cannot handle vessels longer than 190 ft. (58 m.) LBP. If these facilities are improved or superseded by other ports, as seems
essential
Whatever the preference for fresh fish, it seems inevitable that we shall come to rely more and more on frozen fish, and even today in England a great deal of the so-called "fresh" fish offered in fishmongers shops far from the fishing ports is not as good as frozen fish whatever the fish merchant may
9
and inevitable, the part-freezer trawler will presumably become obsolete. In the meantime it could form a stop-gap to give the necessary breathing space during which these long overdue improvements in shore facilities can be made. It would also give the necessary impetus to the development of suitable marketing facilities for sea-frozen fish. (e) Near- and middle-water trawlers and other vessels of conventional design but in reduced numbers. Iced fish will still have its place in the future but it will have to be better
than frozen
fish to
think at the auction. Fish today in the U.K. and probably other countries as well, is too expensive for many people; much of the fresh fish is not palatable and is often in a form which the modern housewife simply cannot be bothered to prepare and cook. Frozen fish may be more expensive than fresh today in many countries, but it is potentially cheaper if the effects of eveningout supplies, no, wastage and consistently high quality are
allowed to
make their mark. As Eddie has said, it is the duty of naval
architects
and
maintain
it.
This implies that great improve-
engineers as well as of owners, fish merchants and distributors, to keep firmly in mind the aim of all their work which is to produce edible fish which reaches the consumer in a condition as near as possible to that of freshly caught fish. This
implies hygiene, careful handling and above all efficient preservation at all stages from catching to the housewife's kitchen.
ments must be made in its handling both ashore and afloat. (a) and (b) above must be designed for operation in tropical as well as in Arctic waters. The former is a much more
(753]
PRODUCTIVITY
AnHCfti
BmWMtt.
Fig. 796.
Oceanographic research vessel with atomic propulsion
Value of new power sources The introduction of equipPROF. A. TAKAOI (Japan): ment by means of which efficient power can be obtained from fuel with high thermal energy sometimes brings about a revolutionary development. This tendency can be noticed in the history of fishing boats. When steam trawlers adopted
reciprocating engines, using coal as fuel, distant deep-sea fishing became possible, which extended the fishing area, and made fishing safer. Again, due to developments in the diesel
pressurized water reactor (PWR) type will be used, since it has already given satisfactory results in vessels, and the engine output will be 35 mW, 8,000 SHP. Twin screws will be fitted, as these give better manoeuvra-
The U.S.
bility
The preliminary plan

specifications are:
is
shown
in
fig.
796 and the main
engine, small fishing boats have been powered, extending their

operations.
ft. (m.) Length overall, LOA Length waterline, L Length between perpendiculars
.
310.00(94.50) 295.00 (90.00)
Japan has been no exception to this rule. The number of powered fishing boats now exceeds 157,000. However, the size of the boats and the relationships between fish holds and oil tanks in the distant deep-sea fishing boats seem to have reached their limit, and this consideration necessitates a new
LBP
Breadth moulded, B Depth moulded, Draught, full load TI Full load displacement
.
285.36 (87.00) 46.57 (14.20) 26.89 ( 8.20) 16.66 ( 5.08)

.
ton
new proportions. fuel, Through experience of the first atomic bombs just before the end of World War II, and the experience of the Fukuryu Maru No. 5 (transl. Lucky Dragon), a tuna longliner
with
Atomic
ton Weight Output Main engine: Type and output SHP

reactor:
.
mW
3,460 1,100 35 2 turbine
sets,
8,000
which got the atomic ashes in the Pacific in 1954, Japan has become one of the nations most interested in the effects of
atomic energy. The present trend in the application of atomic energy for marine purposes is to try out the atomic reactors in special ships, particularly in those of a bigger type, since the generating equipment needs space and the shielding is heavy, both being very costly items. However, Professor Takagi felt that one should not be confined to the utilization of atomic energy for these special purposes. Some nations may profit in developing bigger reactors, others in smaller atomic equip* meat. That is what is intended in Japan. The First Atomic Power Industrial Group (FAPIO) has, together with the Kawasaki Heavy Industry Co. Ltd., conducted research on a trial design of the smallest possible reactor for use in small
vessels.
Speed Duration
Total
Revolutions per min. knots

.
.
200
19
months
4
100
number on board, including

and crew
scientists, officers
reactor and other equipment of radio activity are sealed in a container. The reactor core is designed for 29 per cent, dioxidized uranium. The weight will be 2,890 Ib.
The atomic
(1,320 kg.), of which 75.25 Ib. (33:61 kg.) is U-235. The total weight of the primary system, including the reactor and other equipment which might produce radio
activity, is
1
,100 tons, including 795 tons of radiation shielding.

use, a propulsive
For emergency
be
installed, giving sufficient
motor of 120 h.p. will power to reach port if trouble
% This
plan has two aims; firstly to study and test the atomic-propelled ship and, secondly, to conduct oceanographic research
occurs in the atomic plant. There will be a crew of 50 sailors and SO research workers. When the boat is used both for study of the reactor and for observations, there will be 30 researchers for the reactor study and 20 for oceanographic
observations.
+ The
displacement will be between 3*000 and 4,000 tons, this being considered the minimum size for observations in extremely bad weather* although it is planned to keep the size as small as possible
vessel's
There is another project planned by the Uraga Dockyard Co. Ltd., also as a preliminary design, fig. 797:
The aim of this design

experiments
is
the training of people for atomic
[734]
THE FISHING BOAT OF
1975
Fig. 797.
Fisheries training
and research
vessel
The main
specifications are:
Length between perpendiculars,
LBP
....
B
.
ft.
,
(m.)
Breadth, moulded,
Depth, moulded, Draught, full loaded, Ti Gross tonnage, GT

. .
394.60(120.00) 55.76 (17.00) 29.52 (9.00)

19.74
(6.02)
Mr. Minot would like to observe that they too, in the U.S. A., appreciate the crying need for providing training facilities at sea for oceanography. Nothing will do more, perhaps, to
encourage young scientists to specialize in some of the aspects of oceanography. In turn, oceanography needs
many many
tons
Atomic reactor output Main engine: Type and output

.
mW
SHP
.
5,000
more skilled and dedicated oceanographers, and welcomes every effort to provide them with opportunity, facilities and
practical training at sea.
It is
40
Turbine, 10,000 1 30
Speed
....
and crew
.
appropriate here to emphasize the vital importance of
Revolutions per minute knots

. .
20
basic science to the future development of marine resources. If we are to exploit the fisheries to the optimum degree, if we
Total number on board, including scientists, officers
262
are to create swifter, safer and more efficient transportation on the sea's surface and beneath it, if we are to utilize the mineral
if we are to take advantage of the weather rather than talk about it, we must come to know a great deal more about the physical, chemical, biological and geological aspects of the sea than we do today. Oceanography is a relatively newly recognized branch of the earth sciences, yet it is the one which will unlock the secrets of the ocean in which all of us here are interested. We must give our
The above are preliminary design data, planned to be as economical as possible. However, decision of this acceptance
lies
and chemical contents of sea water,
projects, in spite of the
with the Japanese Government as these are very expensive modest small scale. It was Professor Takagi's hope that a large high-speed ship driven by a reactor will be put into general use around 1965 to 1970. Atomic energy might by then not have to be used merely for producing steam but might be directly utilized as power. This transition can be compared with the change which
took place when steam engines were replaced by diesel engines.

It is
quite possible that 1975 will
mark
the revolution.
it
If the
new
plant
is
compact and
light,
may be
used in
One may imagine even sub-surface fishing fishing boats. vessels with enormous power. The boat may also be able to
rough for surface work, and seems that one must anticipate such revolutionary changes and prepare for them step by step.
in
is
work
midwater when the sea

the layers of the sea.
strongest support to oceanographic efforts whenever and wherever it is possible to do so, and whether such efforts be of an international, national or private nature. Returning to Takagi's concept, he was sure Takagi is aware that it is much more difficult to programme a large multipurpose oceanographic expedition than it is to organize and manage a number of single-purpose cruises. A research ship such as Takagi visualizes will require expert scientific and
trawl
all
It
operational management.
He hoped that Takagi will be able to tell the 3rd World Fishing Boat Congress that his nuclear powered research ship is afloat and busily employed on some of the basic problems of
oceanography which only a large and
successfully undertake.
versatile vessel
Need
for research
as* training
can
very closely associated with the development and design of research ships over the past 30 years and he is in charge of such work at the Woods Hote Occanographic Institution (WHOI). Obviously, therefore, he was much interested in Takagi's description of
F,
his concept of a combined survey, training and oceanographic research ship which he hoped that the Japanese government will build in the not too distant future.
MR.
MINOT (U.S.A.): He had been
This is indeed an imaginative and forward looking concept of an all-purpose, long range research facility, whether it be powered by a nuclear reactor or by conventional engines. He should like to congratulate Takagi most sincerely for
sharing his imaginative thinking.
MR. J-O. TRAUNG (FAO) Two FAO Boat Congresses and one Gear Congress have aroused much greater interest in the industry than fisheries meetings usually do* The papers and discussions published in the two Boat books and the Gear book have painted a many-contoured picture of the world's fishing industry, but this picture is rough and still unbalanced. The reasons for this are many. One is that people are both progressive and indifferent. The progressive people have par:
ticipated in these Congresses, therefore the resulting picture
may be
too bright and optimistic. Details of small fishing boats of under 70-ft. in length are
[755]
PRODUCTIVITY
Fig. 798. Electronics have played a great part in speeding up fishing operations during the past fifteen years. Radar has made navigation in fog possible. However the frequency of collisions* possibly due to carelessness, seems to have increased. Ships in 1975 might perhaps be equipped with electronic instruments which will also prevent
collisions
and make navigation
really safe
Such boats are mostly owned by remote fishing populations in many of the developed countries. They are still built by the rule of thumb method by almost illiterate builders who have seldom studied a boat from another area and who can scarcely read blueprints, and they are owned by fishermen who are not likely to be interested in comparing their own boats with those from other areas.
scanty.
of the past, present and estimated future world population and the total fish catch for selected years.
TABLE 192
Past, present and estimated world population and
flfh
catch
These small boats have one feature in common: they are all regarded by their builders and owners as "the best in the -world". This complacency is one very strong reason why the design and construction of such boats have stagnated. In agriculture, farmers are informed of technical developments by their organizations and the extension services of the Government, but there is no such advice and hdp for the fisherman. One cause for this state of affairs is the low economic level of a large part of the industry. There is no money available for establishing an "extension service" to remote fishermen. The rault of such lade of communication is reflected in many ivays. For instance, it has been impossible to attract owners and builders from the remote areas to international gatherings
The 1957 catch may be regarded
for today although, of course, there
*Kh*s these Congresses.

If,
good fisherman with modem 100 tons a year and the fisherman in one of the under-developed
countries
as a representative figure a wide gap between the equipment who catches up to

is
therefore, the
FAO Congresses have painted a somewhat
optimistic picture of the technical level and of the industry in further development, at least they tan* produced a picture and have made it possible to see the pffOfMMlve aspects of the industry. That being so, perhaps m* ittffht peerinto the ftitore to see if we can get a glimpse of thefcWng boat of 1975.
too bright and

interest
Vr^
<* to
the in4u*ry about fifteen yeart ago-say in 1945, just after; 1 93*, before, the war, TaMe 192 gives ion* figures
who catches half a ton a year. In 1945 few in the fishing industry knew anything of, And still fewer used, echo-sounders, asdic, deoca, mechanized purse seining, synthetic net fibres, welding, diesels, freezing equipment or technical journals. The largest trawlers In the U.K. were about 160-ft. long; today they an about 200-ft. Factory ships were not used. Few fishmg boat* in sub-tropical or tropical areas had an engine; today there are about 10/XX) engines in tot, and it is known that there are hundreds of thousands of small boats fa need of mechanization, sounders are now in use in the boats Of developed
THE FISHING BOAT OF

asdic is coming, but few boat* in sub-tropical or tropical areas possess fish-finding equipment. It has been estimated that the sea could yield some 60,000,000 tons of fish per annum, and if this total is to be reached by 1975 the catch per capita must be increased by some
1975
and
from catching vessels to the mother ships. They might also be used for echo-location of fish. Then there is the possibility of using hydroplanes to cany light surrounding nets, so that when a fish school is discovered it can be immediately imprisoned and kept there until boats arrive to take care of the
catch.
50 per
so
cent.,
much
or to about 35 Ib. (16 kg.) per capita. Despite technical development, partly war-inspired, during
the past fifteen years, the catch per capita has risen only from 20 to 24 Ib., or by 20 per cent. It is evident therefore
that technical progress will have to be outstanding if the catch is to be increased by another 50 per cent, in the next fifteen
years.
Submarines have passed under the Polar ice cap and if there so much fish in these cold water regions as is normally believed, there is a case for submarine fishing. The U.S.S.R. has already put a submarine oceanographic research vessel
is
into use,
and other countries are planning
similar vessels.
There are many technical developments which have been

successfully applied on a laboratory or pilot scale, but which are not in common use by the industry. Here are a few:
Echo-ranging (asdic)
Fish attraction (light, electricity, vibration) Fish collection (pumps) Net design (using synthetic fibres and engineering principles)
Underwater television (for record of gear behaviour and of

fish
entering the gear)
Mechanized handling of trawl gear (by stem trawling or winding the gear directly on the winch)
Extension of storage time (chilled seawater, anti-biotics
and
radiation)
Transfer of crews and cargoes by airplane Fishing under ice (submarine) Artificial upwellings (by nuclear heating) New materials (plastic, aluminium, rubber)
New power
principle)
plants
(gas
turbines,
nuclear,
Wankel
Fig. 799.
fishing boat designer must keep such possibilities in mind, and he must also follow the development of his own profession, and in this he cannot avoid seeing how new boat types are being developed and how knowledge of theoretical naval architecture is being acquired at an accelerated pace. The hydrofoil principle, for example, is no longer a doubtful
The
Many people talk about (he importance of making ships, and
particularly fishing vessels, seakindlier, safer and more comfortable, so as to improve the conditions for fishing and living. Only during the last fifteen years has some real research been done to understand what is required to make a ship seakindly. There will certainly be much more development in this field during the next fifteen years, and very likely the 1975 fishing boat will be able to operate more comfortably in heavier weather than this drifter-trawler
proposition.
It
has been used in sea-going craft which
now
in studying the behaviour of say in tropical waters. They could also be used in detecting fish under the ice caps, and for experimenting to find out whether there is a future for submarine fishing. The success of the U.S. nuclear powered submarines has initiated research into the possibilities of using submarines
regularly transport a considerable number of passengers, and some of the designs now in use are definitely more seakindly
Submarines could be very useful

pelagic fish,
than conventional designs. Such craft will perhaps be used in 1975 for carrying men to a fishing unit or in transporting expensive fish products. The Hovercraft, which has already crossed the English Channel both ways, has revealed possibilities, and such craft might one day be used as beach landing fishing boats, or, perhaps, to transfer catches from a commercial boat off the breakers straight to the coastal fish market. Two-hulled craft, also called catamarans, have lately gained popularity in yachting circles because of their high speed and comparatively large deck area in relation to construction and maintenance cost. They have also been adapted commercially as oil drill platforms and fire floats, and work is now in progress to investigate whether this type of design could be used for a fisheries research vessel, which naturally needs a large deck space. As commercial fishing vessels also need a large deck space for handling fishing gear and accommodating fish processing machinery , there may be possible uses for this type of design in commercial fishing. Aircraft have long been used in the fishing industry for spotting, although their importance has decreased with the development of echo-sounding and echo-ranging. But they
misfrt offer other possibilities in the future.
for the transport of cargoes.
It is felt
that such cargo ships

efficient
could be made
surface craft.
much more hydrodynamically

They would
also be
than
more independent of
weather and could, perhaps, be built of lighter scantlings. While it might take years before commercial cargo submarines are in operation, their development should be watched because they might be helpful in evolving the design of a submarine
fishing vessel.
Other developments in general shipbuilding may influence the design of thq fishing boat of 1975. Container traffic, for
example,
being developed more and more, and one could might have their holds arranged for containers, so that the fish could be loaded directly into them for immediate transport to individual retailers, thus avoiding unnecessary handling and exposure to air in the fishing harbours. Since ships have been built they have had to fight against the elements, but it is only recently that the study of their seakeeping qualities has begun* This is now gaining conis
easily visualize that large fishing boats
helicopters might be used to tranter crews
For example, and catches at sea
1757]

siderable attention, and this Congress has shown how seakeeping research is now being devoted to fishing vessels, In the next fifteen years there will undoubtedly be confirmation of
qualities.
PRODUCTIVITY
ftsh, either
the time for handling the catch. Chilling
by ice or
chilled seawater, in the tropics is more efficient than in cold climates because most of the fish spoiling bacteria in tropical
some of
today's hypotheses
on good seakeeping
There will also be much more information available on the subject of damping ship movements, such as rolling and pitching, and practical rules have recently been developed which wiU be used in the design of anti-rolling 'tanks for oceanographic research vessels. Such tanks might also have
importance for fishing vessels. discussion about the prismatic coefficient reveals how little we know about the practical design of seakindry ships, but it seems likely that such a discussion would be unthinktheir
and warm waters are of the mesopkiHc type which are inactivated by temperatures below about 50F (-MOC). In warm waters, normal chilling temperatures of 31 to 39*F
(0.5
to -h4O are sufficiently below the critical temperature to hamper bacterial activity. In cold waters, psychrophilic bacteria play the main part. They can be active in tempera-
The
able in 1975.
Much is expected from the use of nuclear power for the propulsion of small ships. If small nuclear power plants are developed for aircraft, they could probably also be used in
large fishing vessels. But it seems that the heavy shielding at present necessary for reactors and the increasing difficulty in
only retard the growth of the bacteria for a limited number of days. Sea water chilling of fish has the advantage that it also decreases the need for labour in packing and unloading. However,, it must be admitted that engineering experience of chilled seawater tanks is limited and, perhaps, far more extensive and effective use of sea water chilling will be made in some of the fishing boats of 1975.
will
tow as about 28 to normal dulling temperatures

tures as
19F (-2
to
7C), and the
disposing of waste might power to fishing boats too

fifteen years.
the application of nuclear difficult to accomplish in the next
make
The present tendency to fish further and further afield will no doubt continue. The reaction of fish to various bacteria in cold and warm waters might play an important role in the
design of the 1975 fishing boats, those operating in warm areas might be using chilled sea water while those in cold areas will have to freeze the catch. chilled sea water type of boat
a tendency today to reduce the size of components without eliminating any of their potentialities. The use of transistors in place of tubes is a typical example, which has made possible modern electronic computers and very small radios. Perhaps the power developed by nuclear reactors could be harnessed and accumulated without taking up too much space, or weighing too much, and that such new type accumulators could be used for fishing craft, If radios can be made so much smaller through the use of transistors, why should we have to put up with heavy batteries ? The interest of European fishery technicians seems to be centred around trawling, as though they are fascinated by this fishing method. But when considering the many different methods of fishing described at the Congress one feels that, white trawling is a very active method, the boat towing the trawl along the bottom is very passive during fishing. If it should be possible to reduce the time for handling the catch on board, the large crew of a trawler would have very little to do between hauling and shooting the trawl, and thus one begins to wonder whether it would not be possible to use several trawl nets from the same ship at the one time. Ringhavcr (p. 61 5) has described the use of two trawls from shrimp trawlers. Birkhoff (p. 748) predicted special catcher trawlers by 1963. He has thus visualized the disadvantage of
is
There
would resemble a tanker and the unloading might be facilitated if some brine were pumped into the fish tanks after arrival at port. Because of the density of the brine, the fish would float up and could easily be sucked ashore by pumps. Work is
in progress for the development of this type of unloading technique which requires very little labour. The cost of using brine would be moderate if it were used over and over again. It is not only through introducing new ideas and new techniques that the fishing boats of 1975 might be considerably different from those in use today, but through a general improvement in technical practices. Controllablepitch propellers, for instance, were almost unknown outside Scandinavia fifteen years ago. They are beginning to be used elsewhere today. So, perhaps, in fifteen years from now the majority of fishing boats will use controllable-pitch propellers. They are no more expensive than the present arrangements with reverse gears, but they improve the handling and manoeuvrability of a boat and lead to more economic
operation.
a very large and expensive trawler with inactive processing mod fish storing facilities while the trawl is being dragged along
the bottom.
self-propelled trawl doors towing several trawls in various directions, automatically controlled, so that they would return with their catch at suitable time intervals ? Such self-propelled trawl doors might sound rather
Some fishing fleets are built with hulls near optimum with regard to resistance, propulsion and seakindliness. If that knowledge could be transferred to the many boats built in other parts of the world, it could lead to a vast improvement in efficiency and economy of operation. This Congress showed
Could one not imagine
how wooden ships could be made cheaper by using lighter scantlings which would also enable the boats to have easier motions in a seaway, be more seakmdly and cost less to operate.
but if it is possible to direct satellites in the universe their radio apparatus on and off, it should not be too difficult to develop torpedo-type bodies to tow the tow* and bring ft with Its catch to the vessel of irother sh Jps is K vetseis that can be stored on board. But what About hiff boats whkA could easily be stored and inflated when needed? Rubber rafts and small rubber ng boats up to 30-ft. (9 m.) are already produced comy, so there should not be much difficulty in manuboats of 50 to 60 ft. in length, i (p. 133) has stressed the necessity of reducing
fantastic,
and to switch
The has proved its superiority over other djesel engine engines in the fishing fleets; even in the under-developed countries fishermen are qukk to team how to operate small diesd engines. However, there arc millions of boats which cannot be mochanired with an inboard diesel but they could be fitted with an outboard engine. For several reasons, excellent gasoHoe-driven outboards are not always practical for this purpose, but if a diesel outboard were developed it wcrtiM meet a special need felt many countries, It would increase the efficiency of existing boat* and tad to a conskferabfe increase in fish production. Such an innovation
let in motion a chain of events, resulting in a higher tajicUurfofUvingforthefisiienn^ tfcm of even more efficient boats.
would
1758J
THE FISHING BOAT

The world population is increasing at a very fait ratealmost explosively, as shown by table 192 but there are gloomy people who think, despite the population increase, that there will be difficulty in marketing any increased catch offish. But is marketing really such a problem? Scandinavian firm has shown how they can freeze quality fish in Northern Scandinavia and sell it in Central Europe cheaper than locally-landed fish. The big difficulty this firm faces is to
1975
produce enough
fish to
Then there is the case of has made tuna so popular
meet the demand. the U.S.A. where good marketing that almost all tuna fishermen in
the world today catch for that market. The same is true, in a way, of shrimp, which is even being caught and frozen in Asia and many other places in the world for export to the U.S.A. If meat can be sent from Australia and the Argentine to the U.K. why could not fish be transported long distances, and why should the fish be processed to resemble the fresh state
anyway?
Techniques have been developed for making fish flour for small percentage mixed in normal flour would meet the protein requirement for many people who have an insufficient protein intake. lants making fish meal for livestock and poultry feeding cctild easily be switched to such production and so make more fish available for human
human consumption. A
consumption.
going to be an important source of it will no doubt have a great influence on the design of individual fishing boats and on the composition of large fishing fleets by 1975. The real problem in developing the world's fisheries is to break down ignorance and spread understanding. Fisheries journals should and could play a major role in this respect. In fact, one could reasonably claim that a good technical press
If fish flour is thus
animal protein
in the future,
Fig. 800. Gasoline outboards have played a great part in the development offisheries in those nations where the Government has exempted the fishermen from paying the normal road taxes on gasoline such as in Jamaicaand where they have organized courses on how to operate and maintain outboards. Arrangements to help the fishermen acquire such outboard motors on easy terms have been very successful, and
Gasoline outboards, the financial losses have been negligible. however, are still sensitive, and there is a demand for a heavy-duty diesel outboard. Many small coastal fishing boats might perhaps be fitted with such diesel outboards in 1975
and a good fisheries literature, thoroughly 'read, is essential the development of fisheries over the next fifteen years is to meet the demands envisaged. Another essential is money for plain development and
if
no
the
better than repeat the closing statement
made by
Jul in
extension work. Whatever the shape of things to come, one thing is certain there never will be a time when there is one fishing boat type in the world. On the contrary, in the future there will probably
:
be more and more specialized types and perhaps one could do
Congress: "Some have said that the factory ship is the fishing boat of the future. People have also said that the aeroplane is the means of transport of the future. Both may be true, but only in this sense: for a long time to come the world will probably have cargo liners, river barges, bicycles and mules, as well as aeroplanes. In the same way, it will have factory ships along with trawlers, purse seiners, longliners, catamarans and other fishing craft."
book of
the
first
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ST. DENIS, M. On the motions of a Ship a Seaway. Trans. SNAME, New York, vol. 58, pp. 184-248. (554, 565)
in
TUCKER, M. J. A Shipborne Wave Recorder. Trans. INA, 1956 London, vol. 98, pp. 236-250, (395)
WEINBLUM, G. and
1950
VAN LAMMEREN, W. P. A.
1948
Resistance, Propulsion
and Steering
of Ships.
(445)
H. Stam, Haarlem, Netherlands, 366 pp.
VAN LAMMEREN, W.
1955
P. A. and VOSSERS, G. Development of a Seakeeping Laboratory for the Netherlands Ship Model Basin. International Shipbuilding Progress, Rotterdam, Netherlands, vol. 2, no. 15. (436)
WEISS, G. Erfahrungcn mit der Stabili&tsprUfung durch 1953 Rollversuche (Experience from Stability Experiments in Rolling Tests). Hansa, Hamburg, Germany, vol. 90, pp. 1271-1273. In German. (504)
WENDEL, K.
1954
Stabilitittseinbussen
im Seegang und durch
VAN MANEN, J. D. Recent Research on Propellers in Nozzles. 1956 New York Metropolitan Section, SNAME, New
York. (422)
1957
Koksdeckslast (Stability Reductions due to Seaway and Coke on Deck). Hansa, Hamburg, Germany, vol. 90, pp. 2009-2022. In German. (493, 498, 500)
Sicherheit gegen Kentern (Safety against Capsizing). VDI-Zeitschrift, Dttsseldorf, Germany, vol. 100, pp. 1523-1533. In German. (493, 498, 500)
Recent Research on Propellers in Nozzles. International Shipbuilding Progress, Rotterdam, Netherlands, no. 36. (355, 360, 523, 560)
1954
VAN MANEN,
1959
Der Entwurf von Dtisenschrauben (The Design of Propellers for Use in Nozzles). Schiff und Hafen, Hamburg, Germany, Feb. In German. (422, 423, 560)
J.
D. and SUPERINA, A.
1956
Handbuch der Werften (Shipyard Handbook). C. Schroedter Co., Hamburg, Germany. 461 pp. In German. (102)
&
VOLKER, H. Basic Factors for Designing the Most Advan1959 tageous Merchant Ships. International Shipbuilding
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p. 355. (338)
WENDEL, K. and PLATZOEDER, W. Der Untergang des 1958 Scgclschulschiffcs Pamir (The Foundering of the Training Sailing Ship Pamir). Hansa, Hamburg, Germany, vol. 95, pp. 367-374. In German. (500)
WHITE FISH AUTHORITY. Report of an Experiment

1
into the
957
VON BRANDT,
1957
in
A. Fanggerftte der Flussfisherei (Fishing Gear River Fisheries). In Meyer-Waardcn and von Brandt: Die Fischwirtschaft in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (The Fishing Industry of the Federal Republic of Germany. Berliner Vcrlagsgesellschaft
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Hcinemann KG, Bcrlin-Wilmcrsdorf,
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(106)
WIEDEMANN, K. Ein Beitrag zur Technologic der Polystyrol1957 Schaumstaffe (A Contribution to the Technology of Polystyrol foam Materials). Die KAlte, Hamburg, Germany, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 11-14. In German.
(208)
Vomts, G. Fundamentals
19591960
of the Behaviour of Ships in
Waves.
International Shipbuilding Progress, no. 6, 1959; no. 7, I960. (395. 401)

cf al.
WIGLEY, W. C.
1935
S.
The Theory of
Practical Application.
the Bulbous Bow and its Trans. NEC, Newcastte-on-
WATANABE, K.
1956
Standard of Stability for Passenger Ships: (Part 3 Ocean-Going and Coasting Ships). Journal of the Society of Naval Architects, Tokyo, Japan, vol. 99, pp. 29-46. (475)
:
A proposed
Tyne, U.K. (445)
WOOD HANDBOOK.
1955
Stales
Forest Products Laboratory, United Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
(152)
REFERENCES
WORLD
1958
FISHING, No.
(102)
8,
Trundell Publications, London.
YAMAGATA, M. Standard of Stability adopted in Japan. 1959 Trans. INA, London, vol. 101, pp. 417*443. (57 1>
YANG, C.
S.
Model Experiments of Trawlers with

Institute
Straight-
Feb.
1959, Trundell Publications,
London,
p.
66.
1957
Line Forms.
1959
(717)
of Shipbuilding Research, People's Republic of China, Report no. 1. (445)
WRIGHT, E. A. Some International Aspects of Ship Model 1958 Research, David Taylor Model Basin, Washington,
YOKOYAMA, N. and KOBAYASHI, T. Model Test of European

1958
Wooden
D.C, Report
1220.
(453)
Trawler. Technical Report of Fishing Boat No. 12. Fishing Boat Laboratory, Fisheries Agency Tokyo, pp. 1-25. In Japanese with English Summary.
(432*
YAGI, K. Japanese Long Lining, 1955
FBW,
pp. 503-504.
(76)
ZIMMER, H. K.
1955
European Beach Landing
Craft.
FBW
pp. 51-72. (587)
[769]
INDEX
THIS
is
after the First Fishing
a combined index* covering the contents of the first volume Fishing Boats of the W0rtf (published Boat Congress) and this volume.
in
1955
Figures in italics relate to the FIRST volume; those in ordinary
roman
refer to the contents
of THIS volume.
The purpose of combining

two volumes.
the
two
is
indices
is
to give the reader easy access to the information available in the
A
Acceleration
special country boats-index
given
on page
780,
and
fish
name-boats-index on page 781.

Beach resistance, 593 Beach seiners, Cuba, 99 Beam-draught ratio, 369-37
of
roll
and
pitch, 334, 369, 371, 375;
427 ,
480
of winches, 4S8 Accelerometer, 454 Accidents, 4, 364-7, 380; 505, 544
fire,
fish, 85, 89 Antibiotics, 239, 720 Anti-fouling, 227, 260 Anti-freeze, 70; 580
Angling of
Beam
of factory ships, 559 influence of on speed, 148, 319, 330, 353* 375; 348, 364, 370, 428, 460, 536, 539, 551, 562, 575 influence on vibrations, 433 Beam trawl, set Trawls Beam trawler, see Trawlers Beaufort scale, 123, 408-14, 512 Bedi boats, 28, 30, 32, 38-9, 42-8, 372; 352 Belgian nail, 186 Belgian Skipper, 290-1 Bent frames, 2, 4, 109, 187; 137, 155, 167, 169, 179, 186 Berths, dimensions, 349 Bilge keels, 627 trawlers, 628 whale catchers, 633 Bins, 579, 540, 545, 565; 58, 63 Black frost, 110 Block coefficient, influence of, 319; 348, 543, 550,566
life, see also Life boat, 727, 799, 550-7, 378-80; 83, 198 Boatyard, accounting, 238, 266; 328-33 Bobbins, 127 Boiler, exhaust gas, 248 Bollard pull tests, 308, 389, 527 Bolting, 18, 93, 191, 197, 243, 338; 164-5, 167-87 Bom (Bomschuit), Dutch beach landing
Apparent angle of roll, 405 wave height, 395

Apprenticeship schemes, 23; 505, 581 Arrangement, fore or aft, 205, 242, 251 Artificial rain, see Sprinkler, 99 Asdic, 255, 259 Assembly line shrimp trawlers, 620-1
510
Accommodation
for crew, 123, 324, 349, 352; 723 ships, 5/5. 539 Accounting, 238, 266; 328-33 Active rudder, 277, 255; 61, 96 Adjustable-pitch propellers, see Control-
on factory
Atomic
research vessel, 754 training research vessel, 755 Automation, 132 Auto steering system, also automatic navigator, 115-16, 132,581 Auxiliaries, 149; 284, 290, 324
lable-pitch
Admiralty constant, 281, 327, 376; 80, 351, 366, 368, 409, 518, 528-9 Afficana, 94
Aid, set Government aid
Air blast freezing, 234, 237, 252, 253 Aircraft spotting, 41-2, 114, 132-3, 757 Air conditioning, 777, 526 Air-cooled engines, 6, 70, 421; 71, 588 Air
pressure controls, 457, 480
resistance, 327-4; 599 Akatsitki, 146, 148-9, 348, 350, 352 Alaska limit seiner, 797; 45-6, 141,
Bahrenfeld, 270
Bait,
84
85
artificial,
cans, 799
chopper, 90
332,
fishing boats, 494, 496, 511 tank, 81, 113, 116, 118, 187, 193, 196-7, 494, 511; 87, 89
Boats,
335-6 Alignment, propeller line, 6, 94, 206; 281, 295 Alternating or direct current, 507, 525; 82, 748, 752 Aluminium, 72, 153, 223, 230, 239, 243, 260; 259
boats, 65-6, 71, 128, 688-90
boxes, 229 fish holds, 217-19, 256 giilnetters, 65-6. 71 purse seiners, 41, 43 trawlers, U.S.A., 688-90
fish
tank pump, 87 Balancing plank, 25, 29 Ballast, 132, 148, 367, 373-5; 574-6 Barbed hook, 87 Bare, U.S. army vessel. 254 Barcos, beach landing craft, Portugal, 65 Barrels, 59-61 Basnigan, Philippines, 677-9 Bauer-Wach system, 715 Bay Ella, 211 Beach landing, 2, 4, 6, 7, 57-72, 76, 250, 255-5; 295, 585-96, 606-7, 668-73, 756
Africa,
craft, 63 Bonito pole and line boat Cuba, 98 Bonjean curve, 492 Book-keeping, 328-30, 336
Borers, 227
Amphibians, 69, 254; 756 Amplitudes of pitch, see Angle of pitch of roll, set Angle of roll Amsier dynamometer, 280
255
Boston trawler, 229-30
by
bulls,
66
Anchor
152 hawse, 766
gear,
Chile, 670-1 Denmark. 57, 250 India, 585, 670 by lifeboat institutions,
Bottom breaker, see Bottom

68
also Waves, 668
chine, 5, 259, J72, 356, 360-1; 91, 344, 346, 349, 516, 692 double-chine, 259, 556, 360; 354, 628,
flat, 5,
windlass, 772, 727, 491
by the Navy, 69 Netherlands, 63
Anemometer, 405 Angle

of entrance,
103, 319, 353-5, 346, 464, 539, 548, 555, 625
Norway. 668-70
Peru, 668
359-60;
plastic,
595 plywood, 606-7
of encounter, 397,411 of pitch, 331, 371; 405, 414, 416. 442-3 of roll, 322, 331. 371, 375; 405, 414-17,
693-4 6; 419 round, 258, 312; 96, 141, 332. 465 round vs, V, 8, 259, 572, JM; 332, 624, 692 tunnel, 6, 7,6*. 70 V, 7. 8, 71, 81, 83, 197, 2439 259, 312, 55tf,
by
rollers,
57; 593
J&-7;
70-i, $6, 137, 139. 141, 143,
Spain, 66
332-5,465,515-16,683,693
459
of
ratt,
apparent, 405
by tractors, 59 by winches, 57, U.K.. 57
Bow
59, 61, 66, 253
bulbous, 445-52, 530*1, 535-8, 541, 555-*,

559, 561, 568, 719 424, 427
,
^Compiled by N, Fujinaroi
U.S.A. (Oregon), 606-7
1771}

flared, 357.
2
Costs beach landing, 54; 670-2
374-5; 356, 453, 466, 532, 547,
Centre, well, 219 Centrifugal pump, 87
560,566
profile, 463, roller, 68
466
Chapel, 117, 121 Chata, Portuguese beach landing
craft,
63
Chesapeake Bay launches, 358

Chilled sea-water cooling, 132
boats, 10, 28, 30, 61, 63, 117, 157, 177, 184, 190, 243, 245. 248, 260, 364, 381, 383; 320-38, 627, &7, &2-701
rudder, 60, 96
submergence, 424, 427 Brailing system, 36, 40, 54 Breadth, see Beam Breakdown of engines, 267, 339, 395, 457 Bridge control, 114-3, 132-3 Brine, 77J. 77*, 7P7, 199, 533, 556; 235, 237, 745~6, 749-50 tank, 776, 77*, 198, 527, 535, 556, 561 Broaching, 576 Brown Bear, 169
purse seiner, 40 small stern trawler, 127 Chine, 5, 259, 312, 356, 360, 362; 91, 344,
346, 359, 516, 692
double, 259, 356, 360; 354, 628, 693-4
Choice of boat types, 708-14

of engines, 68, 218, 456; 261, 274, 303, 640
Argentine, 687 multi-chine, U.S.A., 332, 624, 692-70 Netherlands, 337 of plastic, 194, 197 surf boats, 670-2 trawlers, 627, 692 U.S.A., 320, 327, 332 control, 266; 320-31, 336 engines. 455; 326
auxiliaries,
Chromium, 227; 280 Chummer, 113; 85

nail, 186 Clinch bolts, 185 Clutches, 590 COt fireftghting equipment, 114, 339, 380-1 Coal or oil burning boiler for steam engines, 169, 247; 275-6 Coastal fishing boats, Netherlands, 418 Coble, Yorkshire, 57, 68, 72
326
controllable-pitch propellers, 748
Bulb
post rudder, 626 propulsion, 557, 361 rudder, 556
Clench
748 maintenance, 245, 394, 414, 466, 470

diesei-electric,
Bulbous bow, 445-52, 530-1, 535-8, 541, 555-6,

559, 561, 568, 719
stern,
repairs, 245, 457, 470 estimation form, 328-31, 333 fish caught, 233, 698
fishing gear, 325 fuel oil, outboards,
673
568
Bulls for beaching, 66 Bull trawlers, 142, 171; 104, 110-12 Bunker requirements of factory ships, 576 Buoyancy, location, set Longitudinal centre
Coefficients, see Dimensions Cod liver oil extraction, 184 Coils for refrigeration, 265; 236-8,
funnels, 22J harbour construction, 55, 64
244
of buoyancy
By-products, 513, 522, 542, 555, 558, 566; 639, 645
Collision mats, 340 Collisions, 382; 476, 505
man-hour, 325-6, 335-6, 338 outfitting, 325, 327 overhead expenses, 241, 266; 326. 694
plastic construction, 197
Combination boats
discussion, 242, 266; 96, 101, 127
drifter-longliners, 43 drifter-seiners, 43, 95 drifter-trawlers, 63, 95, 121
productivity, 238 trawling, shrimp, 622 side vs. stern, 703
Crash mats, 382

Credit, 23, 73, 123, 236, 245, 267, 360, 457
Can
making, 520 washer, 516 Candjl, Portuguese beach landing
ships, 516, 519; 734 vessels, 513-26, 561-2; 734 Canoes, 18. 25; 680
craft,
64
Canning on factory
Iceland, 211; 690-2 Ireland, 203; 242 longliner pole and line fishing 73, 75-7 longliner purse seiners, 94 longliner trapnet boats, 94 trawler-drifters, 63, 95, 121
trawler-longliners, 374; 39, 44 trawler-seiners, 48-9, 51-2, 99 trawler-tuna clippers, 98 U.S.A. Pacific coast, 187, 362 Construction, see Scantlings
Creosote, 227
Crew
boats,
accommodation, 639, 703

comfort, 556, 620
number, 71
training, 284, 578, 581-2, 672. 690 Criteria on stability, 320, 368, 369; 469-70,
Guinea, 680 567 Capacity fish holds, 323; 208, 227, 234, 687, 711,713 Cape Fourchu, 225 Cape Island boats, 3, 243, 247, 372; 467 Cape Scatari, 225 Capsizing, 4, 320, 334-5, 365-7, 382, 384; 475, 4S, 496, 505, 511, 569, 578 Care of catch, 201, 208, 227, 234, 239, 715, 749, 752, 756
sterns,
New
478, 488, 502

Critical angle
of heel, 345; 470, 478, 489, 491
loading, 471
Crow's
nest,
113
Cargo
capacity, 656 handling, 323, 349, 476, 488-93, 507-11;
materials, shrimp trawlers, 619 method, trawlers, 628 rules, 18, 92, 123, 243, 249, 343, 361, 385-9; 171-2, 177-82, 184-6, 188 welded steel constructions, 142-3 wooden boat constructions, 138, 140 Contact freezing, 234, 237
Cruiser stern, 109, 194, 354, 360, 369, 373; 462, 518, 567 Crushed ice storage, 75
Curves
of form, 194; 335 of stability, ^62-7; 335, 470-1, 492-5, 497, 502-3 Cutter, 43 Baltic Sea, 357 Denmark, North Sea, 249 Cycle, two or four, 400, 435, 437, 463-4; 262-4, 273, 303, 315 Cylinder liner, 262-3, 280, 303
Contra
rudder, 415
stern frame, 356
749
handling, factory ships, 524, 553; 723 rooms, see Fish holds Carl Witderktkr. 706-7 Carry-away vessel, purse seining, 33, 35-6, 43, 49, 53-4 Castle type steam trawler, 275-6
Control
by
air pressure, 457,
480
of fishing gear, 474-5, 505

noise, 2/7, 227, 257 Controllable-pitch propellers, 56, 66, 70, 131, 152, 218, 249, 255, 392, 405-7, 415, 438-43, 454-6, 465, 471-3; 58, 61, 82, 95-6, 117, 123, 262, 264, 268 285, 287, 291-4, 303-4, 306-9, 314, 316-9, 408 Conversion of engines, 11; 343
Daily catch
Polish drifter trawler, 713 stern trawlers, 703
Catamarans, 585, 672 Catcher boats purse seiner, 33, 53 trawler, 747-9 tuna longltner, 76-7
Damage stability, 369 Damping fins, 543

of
roll,
335; 397
Danish
seining, 204, 242, 249;
96
Conveyors
for fish, 243
^9^84,318,424:94
Catches, 21, 68, 74, 117, 143, 568; 28 bottom trawl, by country, 103-4 rvation, 115, 118, 122, 230-3, 263-5, 720 479; Catraia, Portuguese beach landing craft, 64 Caulking, 168, 62L 682 Cavitatkm, propellers, 205, 218, 272, 277;
machinery, 730-1
Japan, 142 Davit gallows, 108

lifeboats, 246, 350, 378-80 purse seine, 193; 41-2
2H
whale catchers, 729-30 Cooling of engines, 6, 70, 421; 280, 717-18 equipment, 234-8, 726, 732
fresh water, //, 70, 118, 198, 391, 398, 410, 413, 462-3 hopper, 56, 66 Copper sheeting, 227
DDT,
Dead
Deck
Death
229
rise,
167, 348, 465, struggle, 110,124
567
112-14
Cedar, yellow or Alaska, 93 Centre of gravity, 7M04, 475, 489, 496, 727 OntraKzedcontrol, 114, 133 Centre board, 253
0&T230; 211,217
Corrosion. 17, 72, 114, 117, 223, 229, 260-1,
gear, 15, 474, 512; 31-133 nouses, 10 ponds, 519, 540, 545, 565
quarter, 757
shelter, 255,
395,463; 310, 313, 316 Costa bulb, 357,361; 556
553; 659
wooden, 352
1772]
INDEX
continued working, of research vessels, 279 Deep-tea trawlers, 715-22 France, 654-60 Germany, 638, 703-7 Poland, 708-9 Portugal, 244 U.K., 255 Deflection of hull, 149, 151 Dehydration of fish rooms, 233 Delaware, 228, 229-32, 244, 247, 249, 256-7, 260 Denny fishing boat tests, 55, 104 Density of fish load, 143, 153, 264, 524, 537, 563; 208, 227, 234 Derating engines, 390, 456, 459, 462 Derrick, 502, 505; 38 Deterioration of fish catch, 201 Development, see History
Deck
Dynamometers, 243, 280, 506; 405
Echo sounder, 132

purse seining, 43. 48. 53-4, 82 trawling, 113, 117-19 whale catcher, 663 Economical speed, 149; 712, 718 Economy, 7, 143, 223-4, 261, 265, 355, 360, 400, 415; 320-8, 557, 562, 711-12. 720, 735 of factory ships, 574, 554; 126, 708, 715, 723, 735, 741, 748-9, 752 scantlings, 183 shrimp trawling, 623 trawling, 362, 519 Education, 23, 236. 339, 381-4, 390, 460 Effective horsepower, 344-5, 357-8, 436-9.
442, 446-7
Efficiency, propeller
multi-feduotkm tear, 445-9,465,471, 472; 285-93, 304-5T307, 317 non-reversing, 304 opposed pistons, 66; 641 oittboards, 72, 69, 247, 393-5; 597-608, 671, 673 position in factory ships, 726-7 reduction gear, 131, 218, 414, 465, 471; 267-8, 285-93, 304-5, 307, 315, 319, 363 reversing gear, 61, 262 safety, 717-18 scavenging pump, 262 semi-diesels, 56, 70, 212, 393, 402-8, 416-18, 467-71; 95, 267 shafting, 281, 309
starting, 56,
570
Dhatta hora, 25, 27-4 Diagonal planking, 169

Diesels, see also Engines, 390-401, 409-27,
open water, 434

propulsion, 349, 447, 551 rest, 551 screw, 533
trawling, 362, 407, 441, 543
tugs, 525-7 Ekdar, 25, 29, 30
444-8, 456-72; 261-319, 324 France, 398-401; 654 or gas turbines, 428- 32, 462; 641 or gasoline (petrol), 11, 95, 393 Japan, 424-7 or semi-diesels, 70, 393, 407, 416-18,
steam, 722, 727, 222, 255, 456; 274, 303-4 steam, oilburner or coalburners, 769, 247 stroke-bore ratio, 263, 267 supercharging, 7J7, 198, 391, 398-9, 421, 425, 456, 461; 262-3, 268, 290, 308 three-speed reduction gear, 449; 285, 289 torque, 306, 543 two or four cycle (stroke), 400, 435, 437, 463-4; 262-4, 273, 303, 315 two-speed gear box, 306-8, 363
V-built,
467-71; 267
or steam, 84, 122, 128, 151, 169, 171, 218, 245, 390, 456, 472; 274, 304 Diesel-electric, 170, 218, 246, 445, 471; 95-6, 251, 254, 256, 272, 304-5, 640, 645, 658, 716-17, 743 winch, 283, 316, 643
Electric fishing, 380, 474, 505; 42 Electric winches, 149, 184, 444, 481, 505-6, 508, 283, 316, 643 Electricity D.C. or A.C., 258, 507, 525; 82, 748, 752 effect of climate, 505-7, 52$ Electrolysis, 77, 72, 114, 117, 223, 229, 260-1,
20 Vulcan couplings, 270 wear, 279, 304
Dimensions
of ships, see Particulars of material, see Scantlings Direct or alternating current, 507, 525; 82, 748, 752
Direction finder, 54, 116 Directional stability, 277, 186 Discoloration of fish, 205 Distances to grounds, 113 122, 143, 151, 218, 320; 712 Distant water trawlers, 715-22 France, 654-60
395, 463; 309 Electronics, 57 Encircling nets, 31, 103 Energy spectrum, 394, 541, 553, 561, 569
Entrance, angle of, 103, 319, 353-5, 359-60; 346, 464, 539, 548, 555, 625 Esbjerg cutters, 225 Evangelistria, 250-1 Evangelistria 1, 250-1 Evangelistria 77, 251 Evangelistria III, 251
Engine
air-cooled, 6,
70, 421; 71, 588
Evaporators, 279, 248, 518 Evridiki, 249-50, 252

Evridiki
I,
beds, 267, 339, 395, 434, 460 breakdowns, 267, 339, 395, 457 castellations, 278 centrifugal blower, 263
250
Exhaust
gas boiler, 248 gas turbines, 769,
pipe, length,
26, 255
403
Germany,
638, 703-7
Poland, 708-9 Portugal, 244 U.K., 255 Docking, 343 Dory, 72; 94 Double-chine construction, 25P, 356, 360;
354, 628, 693-4
Drag of
keel,
373
Dragger, see Trawler Drawings, 267-8, 343; 557, 566

Drifters, 13, 17, 142, 154, 204, 211, 390; 56, 62, 96-7, 717
Japan, 96 Netherlands. 56, 62, 95 U.S.S.R., 96-7 Drifter-trawlers, Poland, 713 Drift-netting, 56-63, 96 deep water net, 57-8 hauling net, 59 setting net, 58 shallow water net, 57-8
choice of, 68, 218, 456; 261 choice of r.p.m., 143, 218, 412, 435, 456, 464-7. 261, 285 conversions, 77 cooling water, 280 costs, see also Costs, 455 crankshaft, 287 cylinder Hner? 262-3, 280, 303 cylinder spacing, 263 diesels, 390-401, 409-27, 444-8, 456-72; 261-319, 324 dicsel-electric, 770, 218, 2*6, 445, 471; 95-6, 251, 254, 256, 272, 288, 304-5, 640, 645, 658, 716-17, 743 diesel or steam, 84, 122, 128, 151, 169, 171, 218, 245, 390, 456, 472; 274, 304
direct-drive, 716 exhaust valves, 280
Expenses in boatyard, 238, 266; 320-38 Experimental boats Australia, 94 Turkey, 94 Exploratory fishing vessels, 213, 227, 255259; 754-5
Explorer, 387, 391 Explosions, 11 killing toredo, 228 Explosives magazine, 227
Factory ships, 770, 257, 498, 513-68; 118,

123-7, 228, 708, 715, 728, 735, 741,
748-53
Drum
Dry
Drinking water, 349

seiners, 96, 99, 105,
Father and Son, 770, 246, 420, 444-50, 452, 472; 270, 291, 303, 640, 643, 716 forward or aft, 103, 205 gas turbine or diesel, 257, 428-32, 462; 641 gasoline (petrol) or diesel, 77, 95, 393, 468; 65
guarantee, 267, 458 high or low speed, 143, 218, 412, 435, 437.
Germany, 228 Greece, 565 Japan, 723-35 Poland, 708, 741, 750 U.K., 538-42, 549-50, 564-5; 228 U.S.A., 57^-^; 228 U.S.S.R., 520, 55.*; 228, 751 Fairtry, 123-4, 748
*
476; 35
British
Columbia, 35
rot, 262; 178 Dugouts, 18, 25-6; 672, 674-6 New Guinea, 680 Pakistan, 672, 674-6 DUKW, 254 Duration of fishing trip, Canadian Atlantic coast vessel, 243 Dynamic pressures, 573 stability, see also Stability, 344-5, 362, 368
456,464-7; 261,285
hydraulic clutch, 268
injector, 280 installation, 269-70, 281
light
weight and high speed, 729, 218, 412,

oil,
456
lubricating
Fairtry //. 126, 256 FAO, 13$, 238, 243, 367, 371, 381, 383, 468, 558; 98-9. 121, 126, 178, 180, 184-5, 137, 196, 330, 332, 431, 434, 441. 488, 534, 546, 587-9, 591-2, 595, 597, 682 Fishing Boat Congress 1953, 97, 137. 153, 196^309, 354, 393, 467 Fastenings, J8, 93. 191, 197, 243, 339; 139, 164-5, 167-87 metal, 160
FAO
279
maintenance, 27, 394, 415, 460; mean effective pressure, 263
scarphs and fishplates, 159 tree nails, 159 wooden trawler, 154
1773]

Father and Son, engines, J*r aho Engine*, 170, 246, 420, 444-50^452, 472; 270, 291, 303; 640, 645, 716 Fibre glass, see also Plastics, 254; 65, 191, 198.J35 Filtering, 124, 514, 541, 563; 232, 248, 249,
Film, 383 Financial aid, 23, 73, 123, 236, 245, 267, 360,
2
Gantry, 698-703 Garvey, 6-7; 603, 699-701
457 Finkenwerder cutter, (German) 357

Fire-fighting equipment, 114, 339, 380, 381
Fish
container!, 93, 260 flume, 241 luring lamps, 89, 93 meal, 542, 558, 566; 639, 645 ships, 51 3, 522, 555, 559 ponds, 519, 540, 545, 565; 38, 63 pounds, 152, 224, 230, 264; 208
processing vessels, 513-68
pump,
room,
44, 243 s*e Fish holds
storage temperatures, 527, 549; 200, 208, 227T234, 239-60, 715, 723, 749-53 transport on board, 639 washing device, 264. 540; 206, 239 Fish holds, 7/5, 123, 153, 167, 224. 230, 233, 246, 263, 323, 368, 479; 75, 80, 88, 208,
ngs for engines, 434 r~ 475; 112 Floating trawl, 475; Fkxxtabfe length, 150, 368, 516 Flooding, 335, 362 Floor, adjustable, in testing tank, 270 Floor timbers, see also Timber, 94 Flow, laminar, 269, 311, 357, 361; 434, 564 Fluorine, 227 Flush-deck, 75-8 Foam plastic, 378; 256, 259 Following sea, 334; 393, 404, 422, 434, 500, 556, 571 Forefoot design, 312, 373, 374 Form of hull, see also Hull, 32, 68, 72, 95, 143, 194, 319, 333, 353-62, 369-78, 474 Fouling, 227, 260 Foundations for engines, see also Engines, 261, 339, 395, 434 Frames, 10, 197; 137, 152 laminated, 94, 239, 243, 262; 157 sawn, 93, 118, 190, 243; 137, 152 steam bent, 2, 4, 109, 187; 155, 167 steam bent or sawn, 93, 242; 167 Freeboard, 4, 104, 113, 151, 171, 243, 321, 345, 351, 362, 367, 369; 466, 468, 469, 474. 478, 543, 571-3, 576
Flexible
Gas
generator, 257, 428-32, 462; 641 turbine, 251, 428-32, 456.458, 461-2; 641 turbine, or diesel, 428, 432, 462
Gasoline or diesel, 77, 95, 393, 468

explosions, 77
Gaspeboat,
Genepesca IV, 252-4

Gerpir, Iceland, 272, 303
Gharat hora, 28 Gil Eanes, 94

Gill propulsion, 70 Giilnetters, 13, 94; 64-5, 68-9, 94-5, 101.
597-9 Canada,
64, 94 Florida, 597, 599
Great Lakes, 65
longliners, Scandinavia, 94, 101
river. 598 Glass fibre, 65, 191, 198, 214, 254, 259, 335 Glazing, 523; 252, 732
Glue
joints, 165 Glued-strip construction, 172
beam
ratio,
490
Government
advice, 77, 73; 478, 574 aid, 2, 23, 73, 123, 204, 245, 267, 360, 385,
marks, 573
stern trawlers, 110, 639, 641, 701, 703 trawler, 698 Free piston generator with gas turbine, 257, 428-32, 462; 363, 641 Free surface effect, 362, 365
227,234,639,687,711,713
coating and lining, 216, 218, 244, 259
457
control of
222 density of load, 143, 153, 264, 524, 537, 563; 208, 227, 234 drainage, 215 fish pen, 215-18 jacketed, 230, 263 ladders, 214 lighting, 214 Jongliners, 221,222, 223 materials, 217 metal screens, 218, 248, 259 non-skid surfaces, 215 pen boards, 218 polyester resins, 218 shape, 208-26 shelving, 216 small trawlers, 222 stanchions, 211, 221-3 transverse partitions, 215 unit pens, 215-18 wood or aluminium, 122, 153, 225, 230, 263, 54 1 Fish hold insulation, 149, 167, 225, 230, 233, 264, 534, 541; 84, 99, 198, 209-13, 225, 237, 239, 256, 259, 732-3 air circulation, 214, 225 aluminium foil, 256 Gregson system, 211, 259 heat leakage factor, 256 material, 198, 213, 214, 732-4 Minikay system, 233, 264; 213, 256 water-vapour proof membranes, 213 zinc sheathing, 259 Fishery research vessels, 213, 221, 255-9; 701-3, 754-5
cutters,
Government
Freezer chamber, 76-7, 236 Freezer ships, 513-68; 227, 234, 239-60, 715, 723, 741, 749-53 Freezer trawlers, 228, 721 Greece, 249, 250 Poland, 741 U.K., 260, 721 U.S.A., 228, 230 Freezers blast, 523, 527, 532, 541, 557; 234, 237 brine immersion, 527; 235-7, 242 contact, 527, 535, 557, 562; 235, 237, 249,
264, 518 regulations, 18, 24, 66, 92, 156, 243, 249, 343, 367, 378, 385-9, 516, 518, 528; 35, 36, 77, 97, 131, 133, 167, 175, 178, 179, 209, 471, 481 accommodation (U.K. and U.S.A.), 131
fish, 726,
automation (Germany), 133 fish holds (Norway), 209 health and safety (Japan), 97 scantlings (Denmark), 1 78
{Iceland), 179
(Japan), 175 (Norway), 178 (Sweden), 178

(U.S.A.), 167 of boat, 35-6, 77 stability (Japan), 481 (U.S.S.R.), 471
size
256
shelf freezers, 532; 237, 249 Freezing equipment, 731 fish, 522, 556; 228, 234, 248, 721
installations,
247
methods, 249
rates, 527,
Government training programme, 23 Grand Bankers, 27, 94 Gregson system of insulation, 211, 259
Guarantee engines, 267, 458 Gurdies for trolling, 107, 110 Gutting and heading, 540, 205 Gypsy wheels, 666 Gyro compass, 115, 132, 454
529-33, 537, 550, 553, 561, 563; 227, 234, 239, 260, 715, 723
salmon, 750 tanks, 228, 234 times, 731-2 Fresh water, 349, 516, 553
cooling, 77. 70, 118, 198, 391, 398, 410,
413; 462-3 whale factory, 729

Friction resistance, 281; 445
Handling
catches, 349, 476, 488-93, 507-11; 85, 91, 200-260, 639, 721, 729-34, 748 factory ships, 524, 553 fish, 775. 118, 122, 230-3, 263-5, 479; 204, 208, 227. 234, 239-60, 715, 793 Handlining, see also Tuna bait fishing, 8493,
Fishing par control, 474-5, 505;
14
Canada* East Coast, 7; 221 U.S.A., 118,358, 341, 515-17

,
influence
on
design, 242,
Fishing platforms, 57, 773, 775; S4-5, 87,

91.
f3
Grand Banks, 311 Fixed nade propellers, see also Propellers,

Fishinf schooners,
**JQ> I?*
*lw
Froude, 567-8 Froude's inedel law, 272, 311; 422 number, 80 skin friction coefficient, 367, 380 Fuel, 280. 736 consumption, 153 228, 351, 355, 403, 414, 416-18, 426, 448, 460, 462, 465-6, 469; 275, 278, 281, 306, 421, 667, 719 cost, 673 injectors, 316 quality 397, 396, 414; 736 whale factory, 729 Full scale test, 349, 404, 418, 543, 561 Funnels, 223
97-F
cost, 55,
Harbour construction Harpoon
64
290,
2H303,
Gaff hook, 85 Gallows, 474, 506; 59, 105, 109, 698 Galvanic action, 77. 72, 114, 117, 223, 229, 260-1, 395, 463; 309, 313-14
boats, Sicily, 61 1-14 gun, 665 Hastings lugger, 61, 70 Hatches, 246,343, 347, 498, 512, 541; 214 Hatterai boats, 352 Hauling, 125, 391, 638, 647, 649 times, stern trawlers, 703 Heading and gutting, 540; 205
ifea*wmJ#
Heat
Flared bow, 157, 374, Flat bottom, 5,tf; 419 Flat plate keeth, 663
JJT5.'
566-7
leakage factor, 256 transmittance, 213
[774]
INDEX
Heating, 423, 526; 718 He*ve, 430. 442, 444, 450, 551-2, 565
acceleration,
442
Heaving, 331; 94, 454-5, 554 period, 331 Heeling angles, ste Rolling angle lever, 49* movements, 503, 578 Hetorkh Metm, 122, 638-53 Helper boats, 43 High or low speed engines, 143, 218, 412, 435, 437, 456, 464-7; 261, 285 History diesels, Japan, 424 high speed, 412 fishing boats, Ireland, 203 gillnetters, Pacific, 13 mackerel pole and line fishing boats, Japan, 89 mechanization, Chile, 393 semi-diesels, 402 skipjack pole and line fishing boats, Japan, 84; 84 squid pole and line fishing boats, Japan,
91; 91
trawlers, 28-30, 102-113
Injection pressure, 404, 413 water, in engines, 403 Installation, engines, see Engines Instruments, navigation, 121-2, 199, 340; 82, 115-16 Insulation of fish rooms, see Fish hold insulation
Location of buoyancy, see Longitudinal centre of buoyancy Log, 280; 116
Long
Island Sharpie, 352
Insurance, 115, 268, 337, 367, 384, 385; 476 Integrator, 364 International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea, 1948, 469, 503 Investment, 234, 265; 709 Iron chink, 579 Irregular waves, see Waves
Longitudinal centie of buoyancy, 311, 319, 354, 355;
Longlinc fishing, 73-83 LongUners, 81, 97, 204; 73, 97, 221 Canada, 221 Cape Island, 3; 197, 221 Japan, 73-77, 83, 97, 503
Jonesport, 3 Portugal, 74
Jacketed
fish holds, 230,
263
Jellying, fish, 201
Jet propulsion, 68, 70
Jighook, 85 Joncsport boat, 3, 243, 247 Junk, China, 187
U.S.A. Pacific coast, 97, 187 Longliner-puroe seiners, Canada, 94 Longlining arrangement, 83. 193, 503; 14 Louis Girard, 272, 304 Luggers, see Drifters
Kaplan type blades
propeller,
422
Maierform, 132, 357, 361, 373, 375-7, 419; 354, 454, 457, 533-4 Maintenance of engines, 21, 394, 415, 460; 276 of ships, 338, 341 Magnetic compass, 115-16 Maihak torsion meter, 405 Manoeuvrability, 217; 110, 305, 522-30, 559
Germany, 246, 419; 107

Netherlands, 154 England, 727 U.K., 29 tuna clippers, 113, US tuna longliners, Japan, 173 Hogging, 196, 251, 377, 384, 433 Hoist. 243
New
280; 405 Kerosene or diescl, 468 Kirkholmen. 271, 273, 303, 313 Kitchen rudder, 70 Kort nozzles, see also Nozzles, 70, 156, 415; 288, 353-63, 415, 422-7, 522-30, 533, 556, 559-61, 641 Knuckle, 543, 566-7
Kempf log,
Laboratories, research vessels, 219, 257 349; 701, 754-5
Mara, 389, 391
Mass production,
239, 248; 595, 620
Holding power of fastenings, 162, 165 Holds for fish, see Fish holds Hollow skeg, 191
Labour
567; 325-6, 335-8 saving equipment, 21, 96, 99, 105, 110, 505; 122, 132, 620 union, influence, 131, 337, 555 Lackenby method for lines modification, 431
costs, 238, 514, 561,
Masts, 498, 502, 512 Materials, 137-87
Hook
scarphs, 185 Hora, 28, 31-4, 36-7; 352
Hospital ship, 94
Hot-bulb engines, 56, 212, 393, 402-8, 416-18, 467-71; 95, 261 Hotchkiss propulsion, 70, 253
Hull
efficiency,
Lake boats, Austria, 247 Laminar flow, 269, 311, 357, 361; 434, 564 Laminated construction frames, 94, 239;
157, 243, 262 Lamination, 71, 94, 239, 243, 249, 262; 157, 169, 186 Lamp buoy, 74 Lampara seiners, 33, 53-4 Launches, /, 8, 247, 358; 221, 341, 515-71
408
form, see Hull shape form parameters, 348, 370-87 frequency, 434; 298 shape, 32, 68, 72, 95, 143, 194, 319t 333, 353-62, 369-78, 474; 37, 61, 341-578, 585, 615, 627, 638, 692-701 vibrations, 433-5; 298-302 Hydraulic clutch, 208; 268 drive, IS, HO, 125, 243, 483-93. 505-11; 39, 41, 53, 121, 643 pump, 315
reel,
aluminium, see Aluminium boat building, New Guinea, 682 dimensions of, see Scantlings fibre glass, 254; 188, 1% fish hold, 217 nylon, 30, 226 plastic, 72, 226, 239, 243, 378; 188, 196 propeller, 281, 287 propeller shaft, 310-12 rubber, 226 wood, 92, 195, 137-87
wood or steel,
Measurement of
Mechanization,
1,
68, 72, 112, 114, 135, 154,
187, 242, 247,
338
41
Launching
378-80 technique, beach boats, 671-2 Leakage, hull, 261, 506 Lengthening, 347, 359-60
lifeboats, 246, 350,
hulls,
34, 73, 76, 127, 235, 243, 347, 393, 467; 42-4, 49, 53, 261319, 585, 597, 668-73 Mechanized beach landing, see Beach
1, 12, 14, 17,
Lester Jones, 169

Life rafts, 378-80; 692, 578-9 Lifeboats, 121, 199, 350-1, 378-80; 83, 198 davit, 246, 350, 378-30
institutions, 68; 579 launching, 246, 350, 378-80 polyester, 83, 198
Medium
42
510
landing distance stern chute trawlers, 127, 131 fishing, 31, 56, 84, 94, 102, 615, 627, 631,
reversing gear, 61, 262

starters,
688-701 Metacentric height, 80, 83, 148; 80, 413,
winches, 483-8, 491, 505-11; 39-42, 53, 273, 651 Hysteresis damping, 436
sterns,
462
consumption, 131 , 230, 264; 204. 227, 240, 246, 260 Icelandic types, 690-692
Ice
Lifesavina appliances, 639 Lighting boats, purse seining, 54 Lignum vitae, 281 Line hauler, 74, 76, 94 Live bait, 85, 97-8
boats, Hawaii, 494 Live well, 98, 737 Liver processing, 522, 542, 545-8 Load Line Convention, 1930, 469 Loading, 323, 349, 476, 488-93, 507-11
479,504,512,701-3,728-9 Methods, fishing, influence on design, 242, 474; 31-133, 723 Midship section, 9, 45, 97, 102, 107, 131,
136, 187, 332, 371, 377, 378; 365, 370-80,
421,433,446,449,462 Midwater trawlers, 1 12

two-boat type, 112-13 one-boat type, 11Z-13 Minikay system, 233, 264; 213, 256
Icemaking, 534
Icing over, of ship. 362, 373-4, 512; 101, 110,498, 511, 580, 701-3 Inclining experiment, 343, 363-7; 413, 478, 504, 507, 512, 544, 569 Inflatable rubber boats, 378-80; 578, 758 Influence
Mizzen
Model
factory ships, 524, 553
of beam, on factory ships, 539; 728 of beam, on speed, 148, 319, 330, 353, 375; 148, 364, 370,428, 536, 519, 551, 562, 575 of beam, on vibrations, 433; 301 of labour, Costs, man-hour
Loans, 23, 73, 123, 245, 267, 457; 709 Local boats British Columbia, 92-106 Cape Island, 3, 243, 247, 372; 197, 221, 467 India, Bombay, 17-24 Japan, 146, 295, 296
61 35, 104, 143, 171, 178, 194. 194, 260, 269-319, 353-42, 369-78, 457; 184, 282, 341-403. 422-59, 489-95, 307, 515-69, 574, 595, 626-8, 641, 645, &2-* Allan's drifter, 430
sail, 58,
tests, 1,
Canada, 353-63
FAO.430
Graff and Heckscher trawler, 430 Italy, 35
[775J

Model
tests
2
Fens, see Pounds Period of pitch, 526, 550; 397, 414, 422, 428, 445, 453, 550, 552, 566 of roll, 275, 527, 326, 328, 362, 372; 402, 413, 480, 544-5, 569-72, 575-7 Permits, 24, 66, 92, 156, 343, 367, 378, 518 Petrol or diesel, see also Engines, 77, 95,
595, 468 Phenol compounds, 227; 244 Pierre, 290-2, 318 Pioneer, 269r 70
Japan
coastal craft, 348, 352
-traalomlincrs, 453 Norway, JLS, 57$, 555, 560, 577 NPL motor drifter, 429
507 Sweden, 55, 705, 555; 530, 574-5 Todd's steam drifters, 428-9 U.K., 318; 370, 445 U.S.A., fishing launches, 341-7 Moisture content of wood, 262; 168-9 Moorings of catcher boats, 524, 555 Mothcrships, 5/5, 569; 74, 119, 726 Motion pictures, 383 Motor cutters, Netherlands. 633, 634
stability,
Otter trawlers, see Trawlers Ottesen brine freezing, 235, 236 Over capitalization, 265; 362, 519 Overhaul of engines, 21,394, 419,460; 276-7 Overhead expenses, 241, 266; 326, 694 Over-icing of ships, 101, 110, 362, 373-4,
498,511-12,580,701-3
Overloading, 347, 362, 367
6, 11, 73, 99, 358-9, 467; 345, 362, 389, 518, 562, 671 Over-rating engines, 390, 456, 459, 462 Outboards, see also Engines, 12, 69, 247, 595-5; 597-608, 671, 673 Outrigger, 680-1 canoes, 25, 27, 28, 35; 618, 677, 679-80 Ownership, 777, 722, 254, 266, 5*5 Oxidation, fish catch, 201
Overpowering,
Mould
for plastic. 189
Piping (cooling coil), refrigeration, 236-8 Piston speed, 475, 465, 477; 264-7 Pitching, 557, 577; 94, 414, 430, 432, 450, 454-5, 533, 535, 549-52, 554, 565 period, 526, 550; 397, 414, 422, 428, 445,
453, 550, 552, 566
Plastics, 72, 226, 259, 245,
Movies, 383 Mud flora, 205

Multi-chine vessels, set also Chine
U.K., 624 U.S.A., 694

Multi-engine units, 415, 420, 449
diesel-dectric, 170, 218, 246, 445, 471;
Packers, 23,99-100, 33,35-6,43,49, 53-4, 243 Paint, 227; 216, 244-5 abrasion test, 245
antifouling, 227 Pair trawlers, 742, 777; 104, 110-12 Parallel midbody, 579; 723
57$; 109, 196
Plastic
boat, weight, 191 colour, 194

cost, 197
hull, 192-3, 198, 335 maintenance, 194 repair, 194 strength, 197
304,715 Father and Son, 170, 218, 246, 445, 471; 270, 291, 303, 640, 643, 716 Multi-hull vessels, New Guinea, 680-1
Multi-purpose fishing boats, see Combination boats Multi-reduction gear, see also Engines, 445449, 465, 471-2; 285-6, 289-93, 304-7, 317-18
Paranzella trawlers,
1 1 1
Paravanes for
stabilizing, 97, 112,
577-2
Pareja trawlers, 742, 777; 104, 110-12 Particulars of boats, Ireland, 204, 209 coastal craft, Japan, 150, 352 combination boats, U.S.A., 797, 795; 137
cutters,
German, 557
Navigation
lights,
552
permits, 24, 66, 92, 156, 343, 367, 378, 518
deep-sea fishing, Argentine, 686 double-chine boats, U.S.A., 694 drifters, salmon, Japan, 477-8, 484, 486 engines, see also Engines, 264 factory ships, 727
Plate-freezing (freezer), 229, 248-9, 256-7 Plywood, 77, 95, 198; 88, 158, 190, 196, 595, 597, 608 Pole and line fishing boats, 80 bonito, Spain, 99 Polyester, 189, 191, 197-8
lifeboats, 198
Navigational
errors, 381, 383; 475, 505 instruments, 121, 122, 199, 340; 114
risks, 567,
Japan (post-war), 724

fishing boats, Turkey, 521
gillnetters, 75;
Polyurethane foams insulation, 256, 259 Ponds on deck, 579, 540, 545, 565; 58, 63 Pounds in fish holds, 752, 224, 250, 264; 215 Power(ed) blocks, 32-55, 94, 101 Power drums, 129
381; 475
69 Great Lake, 69
Power and speed, see Speed and power Power for trawling, 143, 440, 442, 444, 449,
451; 102, 261-319, 353, 388, 404, 422, 440, 522-30, 540, 543-5, 559-61, 627, 654,
Neptune, 269, 270
Net
rollers,
15; 58-9, 66
table, 101
Net hauler
drift-netting, 97 96 gillnettingj 66,
local boats, Pakistan, 25 longliners, 77-8 medium-sized fishing boats, 272 pole and line fishing boats, Japan, 88, 90, 92, 477, 479, 483, 485, 487 propellers, see also Propellers, 359-60,
716
Pre-cooling, 235-6, 239 Preservation of catch, 775, 118, 722, 250- 3, 263-5, 479;
purse seining (powered block), 32-55, 94, 101, 127 Net-hauling door, 67 New England trawlers, U.S.A., 127, 186, 311, 323; 373 New Jersey Garvey, 352 Night fishing, purse seining, 37 Noise control, 217, 221, 257; 460, 661 North Sea cutters, 250; 563, 570, 574-5, 631, 708, 741 Northern Wave, 228-33, 239, 247, 249,
390, 426, 437, 447 purse seiners Japan, 477, 487 U.S.A., 322-3
semi-diesel engines, 270
200-60, 715-34, 749-53 of wood, 560; 185 Price, tuna, 97 Prince Charles, 270-1
Prismatic coefficient, 95, 702, 757, 756, 319, 353-5, 357, 361; 347, 370-87, 428-46, 461, 535-6, 543, 546-55, 563-6, 568 Processing capacity, 711, 713
small craft, Argentine, 685 stick-held dipnet saury, Japan, 477 surf boats, BB-59, 596 swordfish boats, Italy, 612
trawlers.
diesef,
256-7.260
Nova
Northwestern, 169 Scotia schooners, Canada, East, 128, 311

trawlers, 187-8
627 Japan, 477-8, 482 France, 744 Netherlands, 754 New England, Canada, 752
pair, small. Japan. 477-8, 484,
machinery, 715, 720
486
75; 288, 353-3, 415, Nozzles, 70. 755, 422-7, 522-30, 533, 556, 559-61, 641 rudder, 353. 533, 535, 559-61, 641
shrimp, 620 Spain, 772 steam, 477

stern, 127, 650,
704-5
distance, 130
stern chute,
trailers, 96,
medium
Nylon, 94
codead, 122 purse seine, 46, 48, 55
U.S.A., 321-2
107
Observation of fcsfa stocks, 275

vWNttlQjpfupniC research vessels, 275, 276,
tuna tuna tuna tuna
catchers, 76 clippers, U.S.A., 321, 323 longliners, Japan, 477-8, 483, 485 trap boats, 611 whale catchers, 663, 665
Factory ships Productivity, 735-55 Propellers adjustable-pitch, see Controllable-pitch captation, 205, 27$, 272, 277; 312-14 controllable-pitch, 56, 66, 70, 131, 752, 27$, 249, 255, 592, 405-7, 475, 45$~45, 454-6, 465, 477-5; 58, 61 , 82, 95-6, 1 1 7, 123, 262, 264, 268, 285, 287, 291-4, 303-4, 307-9, 314, 316-19, 408, 641-2, 664, 716, 741, 743 design, 18, 749, /52, 272, 5*5; 274, 285, 289, 305, 353, 433, 445 efficiency, 394, 596, 40$; 282, 303, 316,
plant, 647 vessels, see
448-9
fixed-blade, 66, 70, 592, 45$, 449; 265, 290, 294, 303, 306-7, 318-19, 641-2
OH or ooW burning boilers, tee also Engines,

Open
Otter
water
roofer
tests,
274;
W,
Japan, 477-8, 482 whale factory ships, 727-8 Partition boards in fish holds, 75
Patron,
291,
\&
France, 422-43 hooding, 463 open water tests, 274; 282, 291, 434, 437,
nozzle, 70, 756, 4/5; 288, 353-63, 422-7, 522-30, 533, 556, 559-61, 641
Magic fishing
PeHftttn, 169
tfftwl,
boats, Japan,
80
474,^5^*162, 638
Pemche
boats, Portugal, 65, 73
[776]
INDEX
Propellers continued petition, 462 raiting and lowering device, 295-6, 671 rudder, 21 7, 255; 61, 96 tunnels, 6, 7, 68, 70 two-bladed, 353, 533, 561 weedtess, 6 Propeller shafts, 6, //, 70, 94. 206, 242, 343, 395, 409, 436; 295, 309-12, 389, 405, 595, 671 alignment, 6, 94, 206; 295, 671 fatigue, 311
inspection, 343 material, 310-12 retractable, 7, 70; 595, 671 torsion meter, 389, 405 torsional stresses, 242, 395, 409, 436 Proportions, see Particulars
Radio, 340; 54, 74, 82-3 buoy, 74, 749
Rollers for beach landing, see also Beach landing,

for net, 75; 58-9, 66 Rolling, 89, 97, 143, 145, 276, 371; 402, 405, 412-17, 45S, 504, 575-7 angle, 322, 331, 371, 375; 405, 414-7,
Radius of action, 78,81
77.?,
122, 143, 151, 218, 320;
Rahola
of gyration, 321, 328, 362; 398-9, 441 stability criteria, 345, 367, 368; 445, 469-70, 481, 497, 499, 576 Raked stem, 61,446, 567 Rationalizing boat yards, 238, 266; 320, 615 Reduction
fisheries,
459
apparent, 405 period, 276, 321, 326, 328. 362, 372; 402, 413, 480, 544-5, 569-71 575-7 tests, 276, 328; 458, 570-2 Roosevelt, 168 Rot, 167
31,54
218, 414, 465, 471; 267-8, 285-93, 304-5, 307, 315 49-55, 465, 471, 472; gear, multiple,
gear,
7J7,
ships,
285-93,304-5,307,317 57 3, 555, 559
Propulsion, 536-40, 543, 682, 694-5, 715 bulb, 357, 361; 556, 626
efficiency, 349, 447 engine, see Engines jet, 68, 70 tests, 149, 273, 357, 375 Propulsive coefficient, 436, 441 Pull, trawling, 143, 440, 442, 444, 449, 451; 102, 261-319, 353, 388, 404, 422, 440, 522-30, 540, 543-5, 559-61, 627, 654, 716 Pumping system, stern trawlers, 703 Pumps for unloading, 476, 505; 37 Purse seiners, 75, 96, 99, 104-6, 187, 191, 270, 242, 476; 3 1-55, 98, 101
Refrigeration, see also Fish holds and Freezing, 84, 204, 226-33, 234, 239, 579, 647, 731-2 absorption system, 530, 537, 563
air blast,
Rotary pump, 88 Rough water resistance, see Waves Roughness of ship's hull, 27; 357 Round bottom, 359, 312, 96, 141, 332, 465 or V-bottom, 8, 259, 312, 360; 332, 627, 692
Round vs. square fastenings,

Round spike, 186 Rowing scull, 148 Rubber boats, 378, 380; 757
liferafts, 378-80; 578 Rudder, 133, 205, 353 active, 277, 255
162, 167,
78-9.
97
ammonia or freon,
528,
776, 137, 184, 199, 264, 541, 562; 97-8, 228, 235, 250,
252-3, 255 by brine, 113, 118, 197, 199, 533, 556; 237
capacity, brine freezing, 237
contact freezing, 237 fish hold, 237
angle indicator, 1 16 kitchen system, 70
p re-cool ing tank, 236

semi
air-blast freezing,
Agri system. 54 Alaska limit, 797; aluminium, 41
237
32, 36-7, 44-6, 101 33, 54
American system,
Angola, 32, 54 Bering Sea, 46 British Columbia, 35

California, 37, 46-7, 98 Canada, 99; 32, 37, 44, carry away vessels, 33 catchers, 33, 53 Chile, 36, 48
46
combination, 36
Denmark,
204, 242, 249
257 compressors, 777, 77$, 137, 528 factory ships, 526-37, 541, 543, 549, 550, 556, 557; 724-5 freezer trawlers, 721, 722 in ice, 264; 203-4, 206, 227-34 jacketed holds, 230, 233, 263 p re-coo ling, 235 seawater, 265 Regular waves, see Waves Regulations for construction, 18, 92, 123, 243, 249, 343, 361, 385-9; 171-2, 177-82, 184-6, 188
circuit, 254,
Kort nozzle, see Nozzles streamlining, 525 Rules for construction, 18, 92, 123, 243, 249, 343,361,385-9; 171-2, 177-82, 184-6,
188 Rust, 227
Safety at Sea, 10, 11, 337-52, 362-89; 496, 556, 572, 575-82 Netherlands, 343, 362, 378 Safety accidents, 505-10 engines, 743, 745 firefighting, 114, 339, 380, 381 flooding, 508 index number, 481 lifeboats, 727, 799, 350, 351, 378-80; 83,
198, 463
Equator 48
France, 33, 49, 53 Iceland, 210; 32-5, 51-2, 94 Japan, 32, 54 Korea, 32, 55 New England, 94 North- West Africa, 32-3, 53 Norway, 31-3, 36-8, 43, 94 one-boat system, 33-4, 54 Peru, 36, 48 Portugal, 75; 32-3, 38, 53
skiff. 33,
Relative rotative efficiency, 291, 434, 440, 456, 458 Repairs, of engines, cost, 245, 457, 470 Rescue apparatus, 340, 351; 510, 579, 582
vessels, 21 3, 216, 255-9 atomic, 754, 755 France, 259 stern trawler, 701, 703 submarine, 757 Resistance, see Model tests and Speed and Power, 563, 568-9 air, 327, 328; 599 of fastenings, 163
system, 717-18 Sagging, 196, 257, 377, 384, 433

Soffit ta, 122,
Research
272
406, 473; 542 Sailing trawlers, 105

Sails, 7, 72, 23, 25,
Salmon canning vessels, 513-26, 561, 562 Salmon skiffs, Alaska, 601, 604-5 Salmon trollers, Oregon, 606-7 Salt cod trawlers, France, 654-60
Salting, 556 Sampan, Philippine, 679 Sandwich construction, 190
46 South Africa, 36, 38, 53 South America, 32-3, 37, 48-50
Spain, 32-3, 53 steamer, 32 two-boat system, 32, 40, 54 U.S.A., 476 U.S.A. East Coast and Gulf, 32, 36-8, 40,
fishing gear,
friction,
540
257; 445 residuary, 344-6, 351, 549
rough water, 327

370 still water, 281-319, 353-62 tests, 272; 43 1,441, 535, 540 trawling, J27; 362, 364, 388, 407, 441, 543 wave making, 445-6 wooden keel, stem and stem, 184, 186 Retorts, 576 Retractable propeller shaft, Japan, 7, 70; 295 Reversible-pitch propellers, see Controllable-pitch propellers
specific, 344 statistical analysis,
Sanitation, 518 Saveiro, Portuguese beach landing craft, 63 Sawn frames, 93, 118, 190, 243; 137, 152
Scallop dredger 598

Scantlings, 16, 18, 30, 35, 55, 57, 61, 67, 71, 74, 95, 156, 173, 174, 177, 179, 183, 191, 197, 210, 243, 249, 338; 70, 137-*7, 585, 597, 609, 615 Australian practice, 169 bent frames, 155, 167
U S.S R 55 with drum, 96, 99, 105, 476 with turntable, 704, 106, 187
Quad*
(engines), 415,
94 U.S. A. West Coast, 99, 187; 32-9, 44, 101
465-6
bulk head, 156 cubic contents of wood, 170-1 deck beam, 156-7
Quarters on factory ships, 5/5, 539 Quasi-propulsive coefficient, 648 Quick freezing, set Freezing
frame spacing, 174 gillneiters, 70

keel, 157, 175
Racks for tuna fishing, 77J; 4-5,

702 Radar. 340, 332; 116, 132, 581 Radial measurement method, 41
87, 91, 93,
Rigging screw, 246 Righting moment, 481, 494, 500*1, 508,
method of determination, 158, 159 New England and Nova Scotia boats, 160
plankings, 155, 161, 173, 174
steel
Rigor mortis, 550; 201, 229, 257, 260 Ringnetters, Scotland, U.K. 15
welded cvtteis, 194
1777]

Scantlings
stifianers,
2
Stability
<*rtm*</
158 screws, 163
boats, U.S.A. Pacific
Pacific
Shrimp trawlers
Nediertoiids, 32-3 U.S.A., 248, 312 Side trawlers, 106, 624, 631, 715 Skills, 99, 121, 477 Skiffs, purse seining, 33, 54 Slamming, 82, 393, 401, 541 SUphook, 166, 475; 390
-continued
wooden wooden bent-fume
C0MU39
wooden sawn-frame boats, U.S.A.
Coast, 141
trim, 479, 491 whale catchers, 663, 728 wind pressure, 499 Stabilizers, 97, 112, 371, 372; 327, 333 Standardization, 143, 204, 243, 251, 266,
wooden V-bottom Coast 144
boats, U.S.A. Pacific
Small boats
steel-welded boats, U.S,A. Pacific Coast,
Denmark, 250
145 Scantling regulations Denmark, 171-2, 178, 1S6 France, Bureau Veritas, 171-2, 186 Iceland, 179 Italy, 182 Japan, 174-7 Newfoundland, 171-2, 186 Norway, Norske Veritas, 178 Scotland, U.K., 180-1 Sweden, 171-2, 178, 188 U.K., 180-1 Lloyds, 184-5 Scavenging, 404, 416, 421 Schoeflherr formula, 311; 357, 431 Schooners, 43 Canada, 37 7 GrandBank, U.S.A., 128, 311
Smoking of fish, 232 Snap purse rings, 40

Societies
Starting of enginet, 56 hydraulic, 570 Steam bent frames, 2t 4, 109, 187; 155, 167 Steam engines, 122, 127, 222, 255, 456; 274 coal or oil burning boilers, 769, 247
or
of Classification, 18, 92, 123, 243, 249, 343, 361, 385-9; 137, 143, 170-2,
174-7, 178, 180-6, 190, 198, 277, 281, 470,
diesel, 84, 122, 128, 757, 769, 777, 218, 245, 390, 456, 472; 274, 304
trawlers,
Steel
Steamers, purse seining, 32, 35, 43
Norway, 303
496
Sonar, see Asdic
transmitter, 379; 579 sail, 91 Specific gravity, wood, 161
SOS
Spanker
or wood, 7, 68, 72, 112, 114, 135, 154, 187, 242, 247, 338 Steering devices, 83 Steering tests, 274, 353
Stern bulb, 568
cruiser, 709, 194, 354, 360, 369,
Specific resistance, 344, 346-7 Specific weight, fish and ice, 209, 210 Spectral density, 394, 395 Speed, 12. 66, 95, 96, 103, 105, 118, 122, 128, 143, 151, 154, 172, 205, 354; 69, 344-5, 350-2, 354, 357, 361, 389-91, 410-11, 418, 420, 520. 535, 628, 666, 719,
373; 462,
518, 567 fantail, 194, 360,
369
Newfoundland, 128, 311

Scotia, 128, 311 Scotch boilers, 169, 172 Scotch ringnetter test, 35, 361
Nova
728-9, 746, 752 economical, 149; 715 loss of, 327, 376; 409-10
super-critical, 436, 547, 549,
550
Scow, U.S.A.; 6t 7
Scuppers, 66, 335, 367 Sea anchor, 93
trawling, 729, 144, 149, 152, 177, 444,
474; 389-91, 410-1 1,424-5 Speed and power, 69, 183, 350-4, 357, 361,
366-8, 389-91, 407, 424-5, 441, 446, 449, 520, 535, 565, 666, 719 fishing boats, Canada, 354, 357, 361 Sweden, 565 fishing launches, U.S.A., 344-5 local craft, Japan, 350-2
sailing, 426 steel vs. wood, 183
Japanese-type, 95 sea, 334; 393, 404, 422, 434, 500, 556, 577 transom, 14, 40, 94, 319, 354, 356, 372, 373; 44, 101, 108, 124, 464, 467, 517, 535, 543, 556, 567, 625, 693 trawlers, 105, 108, 109, 121, 123-4, 502, 638-53, 654-53, 699, 700, 701 freeboard, 110, 639, 641, 701, 703 Germany, 105, 108, 109, 121-3, 303,
Sea behaviour 121, 393, 582

Seabright
skirls,
704-7 Japan, 126

Portugal, 123, 701 Prince Edward Island, 123 small size, 128, 129-30 U.K., 123
tube, 6 water resistance, see Resistance Storage, density of fish, 143, 153, 264, 524, 537, 563; 208, 227, 234 Stowage factor, 143, 153, 264, 524, 537, 563; 208, 227, 234
Still
Seakindliness, 72, 95, 144, 156, 216, 326, 369; 121, 418, 461, 466, 536-40, 542-3, 556 Seal hunting vessels, U.S.S.R., 249 Seamanship, 337, 370, 382; 284, 578, 581-2,
672,690
Sea-scanner, see Asdic Seasickness, 369; 401, 412, 541, 561 Sea, stern, see Waves Seating* for engines, 261, 339, 395, 434, 460; 281 Seaworthiness, 103, 216, 326; 393, 454, 466, 517, 567 Section building, 628 Section modulous frame, 154-5 deck beam 156 Sectional area, 419, 421, 433, 446
gillnetters,
towing, 389-91, 424-5 trawlers, U.K., 366-8 Japan, 544 Netherlands, 420
unorthodox, 628 whale catchers, Japan, 666 Speed-length ratio, 344, 370-87
Spoilage
69
Seiners, Danish system, 142, 204, 249
Self-propulsion tests, 149, 273, 357, 375; 360-1, 425, 430-1, 433, 441, 454, 456 Semi-dicsels, 56, 70, 212, 393, 402-8, 416-18, 467-71; 95, 148, 207 Semi-diesels or diesels, 70, 393, 407, 416-18,
467-71
Shaft alignment, 6, 94, 206; 281, 295 Shafting engine, 2*1, 309 vibrations, 435-7, 281
201,205, 242, 258 by bacteria, 201. 204-6 Spray angle of fuel injection, 404 Spray for tuna catching, 797; 85, 87 Spring mountings for engines 434 Sprinklers, 797; 85, 87 Shrimp trawlers, 248, 312 Campeche Bank, 618 Caribbean Sea, 619 Gulf of Mexico, 248, 312; 615, 619 Square drift or bolt, 186
fish catch,
Stranding, 367, 381, 383 Stroke, two or four, 400, 435, 437, 463, 646; 262-4, 273, 303, 315 Sub-division, 150, 368, 516 Subsidies, 23, 73, 123, 245, 267, 360, 457 Sun King, U.S.A. West Coast purse seiners,
Supercharged engines 131, 198, 391, 398, 399, 409, 421, 425,456, 461; 82, 262-3, 268, 290, 308 Supercritical speeds, 436, 547, 549, 550 Super trawlers, 249, 446 Surf boats, see Beach landing Surf patterns, see also Waves, 668-9, 672 Synchronism, 334
Stability, 80, 83, 89, 99, 114, 137, 142, 151,
175, 181, 194, 217, 223, 320-36, 343-7, 355, $62-78; 411-13, 468, 475, 489-90, 542-6, 562, 569-78, 580, 692
Tank tests, see model tests Taylor's standard series, 355, 358 Teguri trawler, Japan, 111-13
Tetter's resistance coefficient,
372
Shallow water tests, 270 Shape of hull, 32, 68, 72, 95, 143, 194, 319, 333, 353-62, J69-78, 474; 37, 61, 341548, 585, 615, 629, 638, 692-701 Sharpie launches, U.S.A., 5; 465 Shecrline, 144f 148. 187, 321, 347, 371; 463 Sheers and bcul method, 557-4, 566 Sheeting by copper or galvanized, 227 Shifting of cargo, 367; 498, 726 Ship Model Basin, ** Model teats also Sem behaviour, 396, Ship motions,
469-70, 478. 488, 502 curves, 362-7; 470-1, 492-7, 502-3 deep-sea trawlers, 657 directional, 217; 672 draught, 479
criteria,
dynamical method, 572

factory ships. 516, 539 freeboard, 473, 474
Tenders, 797; 601, 604 Tensile strength cotton, 189 glass fibre, 189 nylon, 189 silk, 189 wood, 171 Test, *f* Model tests
Thawing
purse seiners, 37 ,66; 471, 411 Index number, 418 fngof cargo, 498
stein trawlers, 641-4 trawlers, 571-2, 626
eteofcric
1 2tfO water. 232, 248
Thermal
conductivity, 212, 226 transmission factor, 211,
Short distance fishing, 673-38
Shrimp trftwien, 24&,312; 506, 615-23 Florida, 121, 615
226
Thermometers, $3
[778J
INDEX
Thru*
coefficient, 436, 440 deduction ffaction, 449
increase coefficient, 455, 457-4
Timber
connector,, 165 griding, 157, 158 quality, 195: 158, 169 Tony. 25, 26
Trawlers -continued tests, 542 Tuckzeesen, 112 U.K., 722-5, 390, 392. 409 U.S.A., East, 725, 373 U.S.A., New England, 727, 577, 323, 373 U.S.A., West, 7<&7 7*7, 797 Trawling, 242, 370, 474; 103-13. 125, 638,
V-bottom,
7, 77, 81, *5. 7*7, 25, 259, 312. 356, 360. 361; fa-2, 96, 137. 139, 141, 143, 332-5, 457, 465, 51 4- 16, 554,
565^7 625 683 693 round bottom, *, 259. 572, 360; 332, 624 692 V-built engines, 20
vs.
647,649
conditions, 448 efficiency, 362 gear, 474. 538 pareja, 777 power, 143, 440, 442, 444, 449, 451; 102, 261-319, 353, 388, 404, 422, 440, 522530, 540, 543-5, 559-61, 716 resistance, 527
Vaporizer, 02 Variable-pitch propeller*, s*t Controllablepitch, Ventilation, 349, 526; 76 Vibrations, 55-7; 298-300, 661 Voith-Schnetder propeller, 70; 641, Vulcan couplings, 270
Toredo*,227
Torque, 426, 545, 720 converter, 510 Torsion metres, 280; 389, 405
Torsiontl stresses, 242, 395, 409, 436; 281
650
Towing
block, 166, 475; 390 power, 143, 440, 442, 444, 449, 451; 102, 261-319, 353, 388, 404, 422, 440, 522530, 540, 543-5, 559-61, 622-701, 716 Tractors for beach landing, 59 Training programme, 23, 236, 337, 339, 370, 381-4, 390, 460; 2&, 578, 581-2, 672, 690
Wake tests, 276; 436, 440, 449, 456-8, 523-4,

Ward-Leonard couplings, 149, 184, 444,
506; 251. 272, 290, 640, 718, 745 ratio, 389-91 Warp pull, 389-90, 407, 41 1 Washing device for fish, 264, 540; 206, 239
speed,
Trial
729,
144,
149,
152,
444,
474;
389-90, 409-10, 440

prediction, 280 results, 81, 83, 105, 137, 142, 280, 375; 76-8, 88, 90, 92, 282, 285, 290, 404, 418, 525, 543, 563, 626, 650, 663. 692, 719, 723 Trim, 99, 104, 114, 151, 175, 181, 191, 311, 321, 327, 355, 365, 373; 491,
Warp-depth
Transferring
catches,
349,
476,
488-93,
507-11; 748
factory ships, 524, 553; 723, 749 Transmitter, SOS, 579; 579 Transom sterns, 14, 40, 94. 319, 354, 356, 372, 373; 44, 101, 108, 124, 464, 467, 517, 535, 543, 556-7, 625, 693 Transport boats, see also Carry-away vessels, 23, 99, 100, 514; 243
326, 388, 661, 205, 530,
Water injection Water jet

principle, 95
in engines,
05
bow rudder, 96 Water requirements on factory

55 Water type
boiler,
ships. 576,
728-9 Trip duration, drifter-trawlers, Poland, 713 Tripod masts, 572; 512 TroUers, U.S.A. Pacific Coast, 96, 107, 187
Trolling, 242; 84, 101 gurdies, 707, 770 poles, 110
769
Transverse strength, 146
Trapnet boats Newfoundland, 94 Sicily, 609-14 Trawl winches, 722, 124, 128, 141, 171, 193,
390-2, 474, 481-4, 491, 505, 539; 95, 283, 643 Trawls, 104 British Columbia one-boat, 112 Canadian one-boat, 113 Danish two-boat, 112 English bottom, 104 floating, 475; 112 German round-fish, 105 history, 106 for round-fish, 105 Swedish one-boat, 113 Trawlers, Bay of Fundy , 520, 523 Boston, 229, 230
Tumble-home, 557
Wateriinc, form of, 702, 706 Waterlogging, 569 Waterways, 66, 555, 567 Waves, 72, 527; 393, 404, 428, 445, 453, 489, 500, 540-55, 561-69, 573-4, 577, 668-9, 672
direction, 398,
Tuna
boats, Peru, 669
424
canning vessels, 575-26, 567, 562 clippers, 81, 113, 118, 197, 320, 337, 378,
425, 494, 561 California, 506
energy spectrum, 394-5, 401-2 frequency, 394-5 height, 394-5. 424, 586-9 apparent, 395 significant, 395
irregular, 393, 395, 402,
Cuba, 494 France, 572

Hawaii, 727 Japan, 81, 425 U.S.A., 775, 775, 520, 557, 562-7, 378,
569
length, 394, 424, 553
measurements, 541
pattern, 394-5, 541 period, 394-5, 586-9
494 U.S.A.
Pacific Coast, 775, 77*,
7*7
West
Africa, 98
plunging. 586-9 regular, 394, 429, 435, 454 special density, 394-5, 401-2
spilling, stern,
fishing, spray agitation, 797; 85, live bait fishing, 81, 113, 118
87
586-9
393, 404, 422, 434, 500. 556,
55;
Canada, East, 323, 373 Canada, Nova Scotia, 522 Canada, West, 702 comparison, 521-2
control, 114
drifters,
Spain, 99, 100 longTiners, 81, 83; 73, 77
577
surging, 586-9 tests, 434, 541-2, 544, 550
Tuning
of engine,
57
552
upwelling, 586-9
Netherlands, 634, 635
factor, 451, 454-6, 549, Tunnel, 6, 7, 68, 70
Weight,
auxiliary, 324 calculations, 775, 7*7; 79, 80, 321-2, 324,
England, 1-5 France, 143

freezer, 721
Turbine pump, 86
Turbo-charging, 757, 198, 391, 398. 399, 56, 461; 261, 274, 280, 303, 409, 421, 315 Turbulence stimulation, 209, 577, 557, 567;
626
crushed
ice,
235
Germany, 166, 326; 404 Germany, near water, 250
distribution, 527, 567-*; 398-9, 441, 547,
566
estimation, 755; 328-31
r,
Grand talks, 149, 177, 351, Gutfof Alaska, 127, 129

history. 28-9, 107 Icoland, 105, 123 Ireland, 30
Italy, 502,
502, 545-8
356, 367, 431, 447 Turntable for purse seining, 104, 706, 7*7,
323
Gulf of Mexico, 248, 312; 132 Gulf of St. Lawrence, 522, 524
797-5; 44
fixed
Wlast. 323
324-5
323
Two-boat
545-8
trawlers, 72, 777; 104, 110-12 midwater, 112 operation, 110 Two or four cycle (stroke), 00, 5J, 57, 65, 464, 467; 262-4, 273, 303, 315
light ship,
outfitting*,
main engine, 324

plastic boat, 191 steel hull, 143 structural hull, 322
Japan, 137. 425; 106 Lofoten, 405 Mediterranean, 132 Netherlands, 154; 636-7 pareia, 142, 171
U-form, 554
Underwriters, 775. 268, 337, 567, 5*, 5*5 Universal Star, 699 Unloading, 525, 59, 476, 488-93. 507-11;
Sitippies. 677
purte seiners, Ireland, 99 shrimp, set Shrimp trawler Spain, 777, 351
super, 249, 446 Teguri,Japan,lll-13
205,230-1
Unorthodox trawler
design, 624, 630, 694,
U.S.A. boat, 320-4 Welding, 72, 89, 156, 777, 223, 243 Well boats, New Guinea, 683 Well on research vessels, 219 Whak catchers, Japan, *. 2; 661-7 Whaling winches, 97; 661
697 Unsymmetrical flooding, 364

Vtllam, South Madras State, India, 586
Winches beach landing. 57, 59, 61, 253 belt driven, 5* combined trawl and purse seine, 795
[779)

ekctric, 4S1, 505, 50$; 121, 293
Wood
France,
continued
57-7
hydraulic, 75, 110, 125, 243, 483-7. 491, 505-77; 39-41, 53, 121. 643 longttning, 192, 491 1 503 purse seining, 142, 491 research vessels. 220, 256, 259, 491 trawl, see Trawl winch
pressure, 362, 368; 497 wind and roll curve, 414 wind and speed curve, 408-10
Wind-heel criterion, 368-9; 497 Windlass, 772, 121, 491 Wireless equipment, SOS, 379; 579 telegraph, 340; 54, 82-3
or aluminium, 260 moisture content, 262; 168-9 preservation, 260; 158
screws, 164, 186 or steel, /, 68, 72, 112, 114, 135, 154, 187, 242, 247, 338 Working platform, 46, 94
Xavega, Portuguese beach landing
craft,
64
tuna pursing, 37, 39

whaling, 497; 661
Yamato type boats, Japan, 146-9 Yorkshire coble, U.K., 57, 68, 72
Zinc sheathing for insulation, 259
Wind, 513
force, 406,
409
Country
Aden
plastic boats. 198
Boat-Index
Japa n
continued pole and line fishing boats, 80-1; 77, 84-6,
Africa,
South
purse seiners, 36, 38, 53

research vessels, 94 Africa, West beach landing boats, 255 purse seiners, 32-3, 53
Finland seal hunting vessels, construction of, 248 France purse seiners, 33, 49, 53
research vessels, 259
trawlers, 143
89,91,93
purse seiners, 32, 54 trawlers, otter, 737, 425; 106
pareja, 142,
stern,
425
deep-sea, 654-60 salt cod, 654-60
tuna clippers, 98
tuna clippers, 512
Angola
purse seiners, 32, 54 Argentine fishing boats, 684-7
Australia
Germany
cutters, Baltic Sea,
357
126 Tcguri, 111-13 tuna clippers, 81, 425 whale catchers, 84, 424; 661-2 Yamato type boats, 147-9
Finkenwerder, 357
factory ships, 228 trawlers, 755, 326; 404 near water, 250 stern, 105, 108-9, 121-3, 303,
Korea
purse seiners, 32, 55
experimental boats, 94 Austria lake boats, 247
Canada, East
launches, /
iongliners,
704-7 Greece
factory ships, 555
freezer trawlers,
Mediterranean type, 242 trawlers, 132

Netherlands beach landing
craft,
63
Cape
Island, 3, 243, 247, 372;
249-50
221, 467 longliner-purse seiners, Newfoundland, 94 schooners, Newfoundland, 128, 311 trapnet boat-longliners, Newfoundland,
Iceland
combination boats, 277

long distance trawlers, 132 multi-purpose fishing boats, 690-2 purse seiners, 210; 32-3, 35, 49, 51-2, 94,
101 trawlers, 123
otter,
94
trawlers, 323,
373
coastal fishing boats, 418 drift-netters, 56, 62, 95 motor-cutters, 633-4 post-war fishing fleet, 631-7 shrimp trawlers, 632-3 trawlers, 154; 636-7 trawler drifters, 634-5
Bay of Fundy, 520, 523 Gulf of St. Lawrence, 522, 524
New
Guinea
Nova
stern. Prince
Scotia, 225, 522 Edward Island, 123
105
India
Canada, South, gillnetters, Great Lakes, 94; 64 Canada, West, British Columbia
drum
seiners, 35
fishing boats, loogtinero, 97
92-106
beaching boats, 670 catamarans, 672 surfboats, 585-596 India, East Vallam, 586
India,
canoes, 680 dug-outs. 680 multi-hull fishing boats, 680-1 well boats, 683
Norway
beach landing boats, 670 purse seiners, 31-3, 36-8, 43, 94
surfboats, 668-9 trawlers
West
purse seiners, 99; 32, 37, 44, 46 transport boats, 100 trawlers, 102
trotters, 96 Caribbean Sea, shrimp trawlers, 618-19
Bombay boats, 77-24 Calicut dug-outs, 18, 25-5 Ireland combination boats, 203, 242 lobster >oats, 672
trawlers,
Italy
Lofoten Islands, 405 steam, 303

Pakistan, East dug-outs, 674-5 Pakistan, West Bedi, 28, 30, 32, 38, 42-8, 372 boats, general, 354, 355, 358, 360, 372 Dhatti hora, 25, 27, 28 dug-outs, 25, 26
Chile
204
beach landing boats, 670-1 purse seiners, 36, 48
trawler-purse seiners, 99
China
junk, 187 research vessels, 94
harpoon boats, 611-14

swordfish catcher boats, 612-13 searcher boats, 612-13 trapnet boats, 609-14 trawlers, cod, 502, 545-3
Ekdar, 25, 29, 30
Cuba
bail and beach seining boats, 494; 98-9 lobster boats, 98
Gharathora 28
Hora, 28, 31, 34, 36, 37 Tony, 25, 26 Peru purse seiners, 36, 48 surf boats, 668 tuna boats, 669
Philippines
Pen mark
bench fending boats, 51, 250 Ctstters, North Sea, 249 small boats, 250
Japan Danish
seiners,
142
Bquador
purse
seiner*, 4
drift-netten, 96 factory ships, 723-35 local fcraft, 146, 295. 296 ionglinen, 85, 503; 73-5, 94, 97 pelagic fishing boats, 80
Basnigan, 677-9
Sampan, 679
trawlers,
677
[780]
INDEX
Poland
deep-sea fishing boats, 708-9 drifter-trawlers, 713 freezer trawlers, 741 Portugal beach landing boats, 63, 64, 65 longliners, 74 Pentche boats, 65, 73 purse seiners, 75; 32-3, 38, 53 research vessels, 94 small boats, 73
trawlers distant water, 244
stern, 123
United Kingd
factory
d
538-42, 549-50, 564, 565;
228,720
freezer trawlers, 260, 721 Hastings luggers, 61, 70 research vessels 702
U.S.A. East and South Scow, 6 Sharpie launches, 5 U.S.A. North gillnetters, Great Lakes, 64*5
U.S.A. South
Scotch ringnetters, 35 trawlers, 122-6, 390, 392, distant water, 255

others, 105 super, 446
409-11
skiffs, Florida, 597, 599 purse seiners, 32, 36-8, 49, 94
gUlnet
shrimp trawlers, Mexican Gulf, 248, 312; 121, 132, 615, 618-19
U.S.A., West bait boats, 494 beach landing troilcrs, Oregon, 606-7
Yorkshire cobles, 57, 68, 72 U.S.A., Alaska limit seiners, 181, 191; 32, 36-7, 44-6,
101
Scandinavia
gillnetters
and
longliners, 94, 101
purse seiners, Bering Sea, 46
South America, West,

purse seiners, 32-3, 37, 48, 49-50 Spain beach landing boats, 66 pole and line fishing boats, 99 purse seiners, 32-3, 53
research vessel, 94 trawlers, 777, 351
salmon net tender, 601, 604-5

trawlers, 127, 129 U.S.A.. East crabbing launches, Chesapeake Bay, 343 freezer trawlers, Boston, 228, 230 Garvey, Chesapeake Bay, 6; 599, 601, 603 launches, 1, 358; 341, 515-7 launches, Hopper Island, 8 lobster boats, 342, 515-16, 605, 607 New England, 515-16, 605, 607 purse seiners, 476; 32, 36-38, 40, 94
combination boats, 187, 362 factory ships, 513-68

gillnetters, 7 3,
91
187
longlincrs, 97,
purse seiners, 99, 187; 32-3, 35-9, 44, 46-7, 98, 101
research vessels, 94 trawlers, 702, 187, 197
trailers, 96,
107,187
tuna
live bait fishing boats,
99-100
Thailand
rastrelliger fishing boats
94
New
England, 94
tuna clippers, California, 113, 118, 187, 320, 337, 362-7, 378, 494; 506 tuna clippers, Hawaii, 727
U.S.S.R.
drift-netters,
Turkey
experimental boats, 94
schooners, Grand Bank, 128, 311 Seabright skiff, 4

trawlers, 128,
96-7
United Kingdom beach landing boats, 57
373 Grand Bank, 149, 177, 351, 502, 545-8 New England, 727, 311, 323, 373
factory ships, 520, 553; 228 purse seiners, 55

seal
hunting
vessels,
248
Fish-Name Boat-Index
Albacore
clippers, France, 98 longline fishing vessels, Japan, 73-4, 85
King crab
processing, U.S.A., 520
Saury
stick-held dipnetters, Japan,
477
Seal
Anchovy
purse seiners, South America, 32, 36, 44,
Lamprey-eel
fishing craft,
hunting
vessels, U.S.S.R.,
248
48,50
Great Lakes, U.S.A., 71
Shrimp
trawlers, 248, 312; 121, 615, 618-9, 632-3 Skipjack pole and line fishing boats, Japan, 81;
Lobsters
boats, 74; 98, 342, 515-16, 598, 605, 607,
Bon
to
purse seiners, South America, 48, 50 pole and line boats, Cuba, 98
672
84-5,98
purse seiners, West U.S.A., 48, 54 Smelt gUlnetters, Great Lakes, U.S.A., 64, 71
Mackerel
Carp
gillnettters,
pole and line fishing boats, 80, 84; 89 purse seiners, 32, 35, 42, 44, 54
Squid
pole and line fishing vessels. 91-3 Suckers gillnetters, Great Lakes U.S.A., 66, 71 Swordfish catcher boats, Sicily, 612-13
longliners,
Great Lakes, U.S.A., 71
Menhaden
purse seiners, 32, 35-6, 38, 40, 42, 94 Mullet gillnetters, Florida, U.S.A., 597
Chub
gillnetters,
Great Lakes, U.S.A., 64, 71
Cod
purse seiners, Norway, 43-4
trawlers, 149, 177, 351, 502, 545-8; 102, 114, 624, 636, 638. 654, 708, 715
Crab
canning ships, U.S.A., 514 launches, Chesapeake, U.S.A., 343
Oyster Garvey, 603
Canada, 94
New
Jersey, U.S.A., 599, 601,
searcher boats, Sicily, 612-12
Trout
drift-netters,
Japan, 96
Perch
gillnetters,
gillnetters, 64, 71,
724
Great Lakes, U.S.A., 64, 71
Haddock
trawler, 102, 228, 230, 233
Hake
trawler-purse
seiners,
South
America,
Pilchard purse seiners, 32, 36, 38, 54 Saithe purse seiners, 43-4
Tuna
canning vessels, U.S.A., 513-26, 561, 562 clippers, 81, S3, 113, 118, 197, 320, 337, 338, 378, 425, 494, 561; 73, 81, 83,
97-100, 506, 669 purse seiners, 32, 36, 44, 47, 48, 54
48-9 Herring
drift-netters, 56, 96, 631, 634 gillnetters, 64, 71 purse seiners, 32, 35-6, 38, 43-4, 48-9,
Salmon
, Japan, 96 gUlnetters, Great Lakes, U.S.A., 64 724 Japan, purse seiners, 32, 35, 44, 46 Sardine purse seiners, 32, 36, 38, 44, 46-7, 54, 85
drift-netters,
Whale
catcher boats. Japan, 661-667, 724 Whitcfish gillnetters, Great Lakes, U.S.A., 64, 71
reduction ships, 513, 555, 559
Kindly note that italic agora refer to Fishing Boats of the World (1955). Roman figures to this relume
[781]
ADVERTISEMENT SECBOlf
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object of the
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nuôr
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Aptfl
195) wit
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Fishing
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met
INDEX TO ADVERTISERS
AMfca A
<fc t
Manche
'
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Lews* Sam LUL

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xtvfl
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BtocMufeeContn* Ltd.
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wtxvi
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xxiv
mcvii
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JmrtN.Mfller& Sons Ltd. Minlees, Bictoton A Day Ltd.
xli
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Modem FnhingGw of the World

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iv
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xxxtti
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Marine International S.A.
xix
The Panom Enfioeering Co.

A. B. Beota
moca Navigator Co.
Ltd.
.'
xv
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XV
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Pcrkim Engine* Ltd
xlii
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toman Engineering Ltd. Wu-Gas Co. Ltd.

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xx
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United
xlviii
A Hornsby Ltd.
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Schiffbau-Geaelbchaft Unterweaer Aktirnyfrliichan xxxviii
XXXV
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ii
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Stoooten Radio A/S
xxxiii
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xxviii
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For
RELIABILITY
weathers and
rf
PERFORMAHCE
in all
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you can always depend on ...

MIRRLEES
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This range is built in 6 to 16 cylinders in in-line 2nd vee formation, naturally aspirated, turbo-charged, and turbocharged with intercoolers, with a power range from 384 to 3840 S.H.P. at speeds from 200 to 4pO R.P.M. In service with many trawler fleets *K* engines have an
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MIRRLEES 'MONARCH PROPULSION ENGINES

9
The new Mirrlecs

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Four
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MIRRLEES B1CKERTON A DAY LIMITED HAZEL GROVE STOCKPORT CHESHIRE

<
Telephone : STEpptngHill 1 000(15 faw) Telegram: Minfces fetex, AUncheww
From
the
very
start
our
own
research staff
and
engineer* have
oo-operated with the ftsbcry scientists
We
co-operate
with
both
is
home tod
abroad.
This
one of the reatons why

locating
SIMRAD
known
fish
all
devices
are
the fishery scientists and the fishermen
over the world.
In fact this
co-operation has been so successful

that
14
countries
fish
have
selected
SIMRAD
hi their
finding
equipment
own
research vessels.
We
A SIMRAD
should like to
co-operate
and assist you to select the most efficient type of fish locating gear. Our object is not to ctiach * sateirt an costs, but to help you to find the particular equipment
that will satisfy your requirements. Our own specialists are engaged in getting firsthand experience of conditions in the North Atlantic, the Mediterranean, the Middle East and elsewhere, and are keenly aware of the needs of the fishermen. repteiaiUtive, thanks to this firsthand knowledge, may well
with
YOU
adviae youqroto/bttymg the particular echo-sounder you had thought of getting, if he considers that a less expensive (type of equipment would do the job adequately.
Big or wall, all SIMRAD Sounders

vary from country to country there your local requirements.
is
offer
top quality, and although conditions always a SIMRAD model that will meet
Don't forget:
if
you are
interested in horizontal recording information, all
SIMRAD Echo Sounders, either at the time of purchase or subsequently, can be combined with SIMRAD Asdic Supplementary Gear for horizontal recording. The SIMRAD World-Wide Service comprises service stations hi 170 ports
aft
over the world.
The
this
SIMRAD
"fish finding family
echo sounders and 4 types of asdic gear.

family?
to-day consists of 10 different types of May we introduce two members of
The
SIMRAD Master Sounder is the smallest SIMRAD sounder;, but
The SIMRAD While Urn Recorder

a larger echo sounder* specially designed for trawlers and long-liners. The contours ofthe sea-bed it shown as a thin dark Urn with a white line underneath. Everything wcorded above the thin dark One or any fttn. thickening of thii line lU<*t BcWtfie wait* toe tip dark shading indicates the m-bed consisUncc which can be analysed in the usual way. The SIMRAD White UttNtocorder can be linked up to a SIMRAD Asdic Supplementary Unit for horizontal recording.
is
does the work of a far larger unit.

Water-tight and easily fitted to all types of fishing vessel, open and The decked, large and small.
SIMRAD
Master Sounder
is avail-
able with several ranges and has For a practical, handy shape. horizontal recording the Master Sounder can be fitted with a Basdic.
SIMRAD
SIMRAD
Note loo thatmU
81MRA6 ffefco
I ,,<,"
MO N S E N
. <
OSLO
.**.
irfuta
*.
w NOftWAY
fctd"fcOm>t a
RADIO
V WM
/& s
imott
ADVERTISEMENT
Another
NATIONAL]
SOVEREIGN
installation
Of
the first ten 'Sovereign* engines ordered for the Aberdeen and Lowestoft
fishing fleets, five are
now
in service in
the "Balnagask", "Hazelhead", " " CountessweUs "Highland Lady/' and "Woodside."
Sovereign' diesel engines are available a power range from 342 to 1 372 B.H.P.
in
V
ff
Primarily developed to meet the
requirements water trawlers.

specific
of
near-
Direct reversing with forward
end
as
drive for trawl winch, generator,
pumps and compressors

required.
etc.,
Proved
design
characteristics,
rugged construction, four stroke cycle, oil-cooled pistons, four

valve cylinder heads, adjustable
timing for optimum performance.
High
specific
outputs at low and
medium
speeds*
V
<tT
Entire fuel system isolated from

lubricating oil system.
Complete
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reliability, accessibility,
facilities
service
at
major
Ashing ports.
wrtie far further
Aftt til f HtfK 99. LTI AMTM-IMEI4.VHC AO*JOfMn cHAWWIIÎOOnJTlUiH1NINATW*W.tTO NATWKA^
V^
LAW
WOUND
NATW
FISHINO BOATS OF THE WORLD:
tYPE DV8-400 CV
MOTORS
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MARSEILLE
OVER SIXTY YEARS OF

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TUGS COASTERS TRAWLERS

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OUSE SHIPBUILDING YARD SEL1Y - ENGLAND
There
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The range of engines ideally caters for territories where problems exist in the implementation of Government polictes^covenng the
in-shore fishing craft.
mechanisation of fishing
fleets;
THE PARSONS ENGINEERING GO. LTD. TOWN QUAY WORKS SOUTHAMPTON
MARINE DIESEL ENGINE,

the engine e*prws/x designed for:
HSHING
is
VESSELS
TRAWLERS
TUGS
COASTERS,
bated on the wide experience gained through more than fifty years. It 1* of the robust, two-stroke, loop scavenged type, and Is built with and without turbocharger.
All the
WICHHANN
marine engines are equipped with an
oil
operated
dutch and
Controllable pitch propeller.

77)/i
g/res the following advantages:
You can utilize full power under all conditions of service from running free to heavy towing. You can use a smaller engine for the same work.
You can achieve A quick and exact AT êuvrlng. You can adjust the speed of the strip to any value right down to xero. You can carry out aH the manoeuvres from the bridge. You can tarry out any number of manoeuvres in rapid succession because no starting air Is required.
MARINE DIESEL ENGINE
MO Wtf.
ONLY SOME OF OUR BOOKS

36 page Book
List free on request
FISHING NEWS
STREET,
LTD,
vrr
What advantages do tiny offer?

Saving in space up to 3 ft. shorter and half the height of medium dtesels of equivalent horsepower, thus extra space allows speed the fish hold cubic to be. increased.
in the confined spaces of fishing vessel engine
Lightweight and compactness means ease of overhaul and maintenance rooms.
Low fuel consumption brought about by up-to-date design of combustion chamber. ReliabilityRolls Roycc have been making reciprocating engines for 50 years.
Competitive Push button
initial
start, ease
cost and low maintenance and running costs. of remote control, power take-off
for winches, auxiliary generators,
pumps, compressors,
etc.
iff
what powers are they supplied?

They cover
nearly the complete range of fishing vessel requirements from 99 to 310 flywheel h.p. at 1600 r.p.m. in 13 power ranges and in multiples of two's and four's, thus giving a maximum possible output of 1,200 engine horse power with propeller
revolutions to suit propeller characteristics, and reverse on propeller or on gear box.
What
fuel do they
as that
oil
hum?
haw
they
The same
marine
used by the majority of slow running engines of equivalent power.
To what fishing-boat types been fitted?
Trawlers, Draggers. Seiners, Tuna fishers, Sword Fishers in fact the range of application is greater than that of many other fishing vessel diesels.
Are spares and servicing

readily available?
facilities
Yes, through a comprehensive spares and service organisation.
ftOLLS-AOYCE LIMITED / OIL EMGtNI DfVtSION SHMWSSURY ENGLAND / MONTREAL CANADA

:
SYDNEY
AUSTRALIA
>
ftf ttttfti iOAtS-
M* THE WOtlD:
Modern
Fisbino
'"^^*"^^1
Seebec
AC'WSSflf
"
''
.*-!
N TRAWLINC
new practical solutions
for obtaining
EFFICIENCY
in
trawlers
MacGREGOR
International
mechanical
labour saving devices FOR ALL SIZES
of
ships
INTERNATIO N A L
McGReGOR-COMARAIN
S.
ft
NOW H
-
l>
A.
96 "
do Rundwgh, PAWS-16*
FRANC!
in every port
where the new
Model
it it
if
in service
providing the power
in
the top boat
Above: A lam catch being unloaded from the Ocean Belle.
Windhoek entering port with 117 tons offish aboard.

Walvis Bty, Windhoek was top boat of the Fleet. She is powered by a model T6 Kelvin Diesel of 180 b.h.p.
Working
for
Namib
Fisheries at
The KELVIN
rttige
tow
Ity
'
now operating w hv proved th pcrfortnwct of *hT wttHm. hstewfud eowomptton; Itumtll tint, allowing
;
covers every requirement of the world's Inshore fishing fleets.
* *W *<&
'
^
1
"
(I
"
'<'
1
o|4M; fw ttowm|
*
"
to
'
'itogfi-*x&Mk
"ukifcj^
JwvMw two ftMratori on thenln without bek drhrw; Itnlmpllof nnhiMiwnct, nd to ktp poww, ww * Wf wrntof ~ ctpîtx: ' frattir poww to
let
'
mt inmHattofl,
DIESfLS
to
ne
PCTHOL/PARAFFIN
ENGINES
ae
v'tfSE
Into port and
Is
permitting
tI ati>. to
TIM
JUL,fl-J
ft
i.
B.I ItfJ. 171
aiJJ.
ft.fi
H.fl
I JJ, JULJ
]i
I I
LJL
ii
ii
ii
,i
i,.i..L.i,.i.t
ii
,.,IH.,JL
ECHO FISHING?
of course /
Kelvin Hughes are making a
vital
contribution to
more efficient fish

water
fleets.
finding for both distant and near You'll find there is a Kelvin Hughes
that will meet your needs exactly.
Echo Sounder
NEW FISHMASTER
Robust, highly sensitive fish detector with range of 0-480 fathoms. Recorder uses moist or dry paper. Two models available the MS28 Standard Fishing, and the MS29 Deep Sea Fishing which is suitable for use with C.R.T. viewing unit. Both models now feature the exclusive 'White Line'
recording*
Line
wording on MS28
it
MS2f Models
This latest addition to echo-fishing technique clearly shows fishermen the echoes from low-lying shoals of fish Which sometimes merge with the sea-bed echo in conventional echo sounders. The 'White Line* area of the chart follows the black
sea-bed contour, providing a sharp contrast and allowing fish right on the bottom to be dearly indicated.
oxiixrrinnnnnnnaDDnDDDnDDnci;
:nrrrn
New Kingfisher This dual display echo sounder for fish detection
comprises MS29 moist or dry paper recorder with 5 in CRT. viewing unit Presents simultaneous recorded and visual traces of fish shoats at
.
Junior Kingfisher
miniature, simplified version of the New Kingfisher,
Fbhenww's Asdic
new, combined echo-
specially suited to small

vessels.
Comprises MS29
re-
ranging, echo-sounding device for detecting mid-water fish shoals at ranges up to
A compact, watertight detecting echo sounder

specially designed for fitting in dories and small fishing
corder in association with a compact,! ight-weight view ing

unit presenting
2,000 yards. Permits search
craft.
Consists solely of
of 2 mile wide sea
lane.
a 2|* display.
all
normal fishing depths.
and streamlined *limpet'-type Hull (Actual siae of hull unit: If long, 34* wide
recorder
Weight 6
Ibs.)
3000X0301
KELVIN HUGHES
THE two
NAMES
?s
sgEQarenxaxmnx^
FISHING
OATS OF TUB WORLD:
l*Mitapriwfeli*OH*
Tvrfci* fehinf bott tqiBM4

vMtttAfm^^^ JkAMfN^Jk.
i
UrcooUd SAHOfA tuxlUyy tugto^
..
f. 0.
Mt -M.
ADVERTISEMENT
CTION
FISHING (OAT* OF THE WOULD:
boost
profits, cut operating costs!
Brand
100% Nylon NETS,

Her*'
"e>
ROPES
give)
and
TWINES
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and Troubla
ft
Fiehing N*t
you Bigger Catch**, Faster

laat
Lofi*eir
Service.
Can Ac atored wet, ore proof against rot, ttlttew and insects. No apwre* needed.
moM,
* They
Since they weigh only 1/3 aa much aa other jnatarala when wet, they're eaay to * pull in
'
longer, need lew impair because twice aa strong aa cotton with tea they're tinit Ae &***** teaiataace,
They're leaa vbiWc, more elastic in the water.
Ropo
;
,
, , ^
youu
IUvfhA Twiaa
fiaiav 4Ma4l
TOI(*
'
Known
throughout
. . .
the world
as the ideal units for the smaller class of fishing vessel. Combining hard continuous work with utmost reliability, economy, long engine life and ease of maintenance.
PERKINS MARINE DIESELS

SHAFT HORSE POWERS PROM 12-12O
DETAILS
Cylinder*
PottrfV(H) PI/J44(H)
Six
2MO<H)
4
14*
r
142
ft
12/41
r
1.14
r
lfft.4
*
MM
fir
Ctt.hu.
140
21/M
IT/41
ltT.lt
MI/
I.IMt
MM MM.
my W Mip^M
fcy
>
LloyJi dMtHlatlo. n< f
SwiM wiltmaf. ***rav^tarctiii
A'
Htrtotn
M.O.T.
SKI
MH
[xvii]
THE "SAL"
IS
THE IDEAL
FISHING LOG
Ottv*r items In our marta* prof ramm
Constant check on towing speed especially when the ship ii coming tround. Gives an indication when trawl is square and fishing again.
,
On
heavy fishing, for instance, 300 baskets of fish caught by the most powerful type of vessel, the speed will drop by half a knot. (" Saving the gear.")
wire
alkaline bacteria*
It provides a useful check on the distance the vessel has " " drifted (away) after operations. (" Determining dodging the length of tow/*)
Immediate indication when trawl is caught on seabed obExample: On certain hake grounds heavy mud is encountered with a resultant slowing down of the trawl, and in many cases with loss of gear.
struction.
Accurate tide speed Indication,
vital in fishing
operations.
SVENSKA ACKUMULATO
STOCKHOLM
13 4
(IS
AKTIEtOLAGET JUNGNER
SWEDEN
tabte: Nfff.
HM$
tftm: t9f2
Nfffi
I*vitt]
Df*EI\/DABLG ROWER PRODUCTS THAT MAKE YOUR JOB EAS/SR., MAKE YOUR RROfTTB GROW. Throughout the world. Outboard Marine changing the way men
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Perhaps
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He
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&VimQAiiiw^^
urarrr
J85^8$^W
INTERNATIONAL INFORMATION WRITE TO: OUTBOARD MARINE *""* .*Ai * CAWN-iOY fOWR tWWftS
-*i~
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FISHING BOATS OF THE "*6*U>t
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Th
trtwlv
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it
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IMTS h.ve been
tntteitod In ftohijif during the p**t 15

Write far
literature.
--
f p*<l
|arbox
living
ritloiofB: lindSl:!, taking th drive from a
Kromhout 4-F.240 engine of 250 h.p. running

at
750 r.p.m. Gearbox cover has been removed to show sturdy construction.
Sok Agents for
U.K. and British Commonwealth

51
PERMAN ENGINEERING
LTD.
WOOI.WICH CMUIICM fTHiiT LONDON, S.I.tS

Telephone: Woolwich
WORLD
WIDE
SERVICE
KUROSMO MAXU
NICHIKO ClYO CtYO
No. 35 ILK.
SHIMIZU,
BRANCH:
SHlZuKA
frR$^,
IAAK
JAfAN
OOM No
TtiS,
IXMCYO TATEMOI4O BLDO,, CH06-KU,
TOKV,
*****
Aft*
1YWA*
ffWAfi
BYDAM IYOAM 4YOAM
TO
the most coniprehensive range
of
YOAM YDAXM
IYOW arow 4VOM
YOU*
04-114
1i
4YEM
6YIM
80-75
044
YIXM
07-179
KPHM
fYHXM
ttYHXM
marine
diesei engines ever
UYHXM
YHCM
1IYHCM ItYHCM
100^-1880
offered for world fish in:
YAM
11
870*419
47-410
ItYSAM
Y6AXM
1IYUXM
WYJXM
11YJCM 19YJCM 8YLM 1IYLM
1140-tOOO
4B1-870 77-464
40-1141
MOOO
YLXM
1IYUCM IfYLXM
11W-1BM
1105-1400
0YLCM
ItYLCM
IffYLCM
1M&-1074
100-170
4VCBM 5VCBM eVCBM 5VCBXM 6VCBXM

9VCBM 6VEBM 7VCBM SVEBM
BVBXM
6VEBXM 7VEBXM 0VEBXM 5VEBCM eVEBCM TVtBCM
415-000
VEBCM SATXM
ATXM
7ATXM 8ATXM ATXM 6ATCM
ATCM
7ATCM IATCM
ATCM
5VOXM 0VOXM 7VOXM 1VOXM fVOXM BVOCM
1170 1040 1000

1800 1800 1700
3.OOO
VOCM 7VOCM tVOCM fVOCM
^COLCHESTER,
FISHTNC dOATS OF THE WORLD.
Rrtt Hfhif^ bott
iii
Denmark.
First fishing boat; in
Iceland
Two of the various kinds of fishing boats

supplied throughout the world by:
HOLLAND LAUNCH
Zulddljk 218
.
N.V.
Cables-
Zaandam
Holland Phone: 66149
HOLLANDLAUNCH
In 1959, S. G. Brown
&
Bloctube Controls Limited
installed the first British Centralised Control
in the 110 foot near water

built
System motor trawler "Hazlehead",

to the
It
by Cook, Welton
&
Genundl Limited
order of the Aberdeen Near Water Trawlers Limited

first
was die
system of this type ever to be installed in a British built ship. The console illustrated is designed for vessels whose service does
not require the inclusion of a gyro compass and automatic
steering.
It incorporates
the S. G.
Brown
duplicated
hand
Centralised Control
is
discussed in
the
paper
entitled
"Centralised
Control in Trawlers
"
forming part
of an electro-hydraulic steering engine with rudder angle indicator, built into a Bloctube Control console incorporating an engine room telegraph with repeaters, main
electric steering control
of the proceedings of the 2nd
World
Fishing Boat Congress.
engine controls, V.P. propeller control with pitch indicator and tachometers. Provision is made for engaging and disengaging the
dutch, enabling the main engine to be used for winching

purposes
when
required.
A BROWN/BLOCTUBE
centralised control system can be provided for all types of ship
Bloctube
CENTRALISED CONTROL SYSTEM
S.
.
M0W
UO.
MMOmMK
IWHT,
WMNW, MMS.
'
CON1MU UB.
^__
^^
DAVID
announce
BIG PRICE
REDUCTIONS
for heavy duty
MARINE DIESEL ENGINES

HMM
Hyv^MiHc
Lhit Haulers
MfUCHEAO
UNIT
with great succtfion
many ntwfbhinf vefMU and art especially

boats.
TELENOTOR CONTROL
COMPARE THESE NEW PRICES:

9-12 h.p. 25-30 kp.
from
..
40-50 h.p.
283 400 475
limited
number of
open
to
Overseas
territories still
Distributors
and Dealers.
Full details
on request from
Distributors
ELEOIHCMIY MIVBf
MYORAUtIC PUMPING SET
World Wide
WEST QUAY *OAO,
POOL, DORSET.
TtephoiM; Poole
1730
MACTAGGART SCOTT &

LOANHEAD
L
HIDLC7THIAN
CO., LTD. SCOTLAND
Poole
A0VERTISEMBNT
OliSEL MIDDLE
WATER
TRAWLER
owners
trawlers
m.t FAIRTRY
nM4
fully
Volvo-Penta TIMD96 has become popular for use in heavy working boats opeunder strenuous conditions, the rating Volvo-Penta Diesels function not only as propeller power units but can drive winches and other auxiliary equipment by means of the power take-offs on the fore end of the engine. Volvo-Penta TIMD96 engine drives the fishing boat speedily to the fishing grounds and back again as weli as facilitate the fishing operations themselves. The low weight and compact external dimensions of this engine ailow a larger cargo capacity and this has made the engine very popular in motor-barges and small
i
coasters,
With 40 craw*avt
order undor
tfca
built
or on
fish
Whtoa
Authority Stihoma mor and more ownara ara comwtf to John Uwii * Sont limitad of
Abardaajn. Thaaa ownara know
that with 4$
in
yaan axparianca tha Construction and Raoair of Swam and Diaaal Trawlars of
II
tfeaa, includinf th
hwgoit
thoy art awurtd of
Dotlfn
tort
Maximum
Tradi-
output .... 205 b.h.p. at 1800 r.p.m.
wik by
Uwk art
tton i^fidt aH onownawii ownan. l*4Miriaa ara otfolallr invictd.
Marine output ...... 185 b.h.p. at 1800 r.p.m. Marine output ...... 155 b.h.p. at 1500 r.p.m. Marine torque ...... 74 kgm (635 Ib. a) at
1500 r.p.m.
9.6 litres (535 cu. Total displacement . Numbers of cylinders Cylinder born ...... 121 (4.750") 140 (5.5V)
.
in.)
mm mm
Vafves
Overhead
ratio
Compression
IEWJS *
SOS
IT8.
ADVERTISEMENT fECTIOM'
Bigger catches at lower cost
with Nets of British Nylon

6IH note of British nylon have proved to bo tht most efficient fid reliable in tho world, Thoy are in dally uo from Scandinavia to Canada, from tha takes of Cantraf Africa to the shorn of India.
nett ara tranalucant in water afmoat kwfaibla to ftah. Thoy are finer and causa lest disturbance, Catches are therefore much greater.
r or At cast ofdtffkufty Jo:
'
TOUOH Britten nylon nt* withstand

therefore reduced.
heavy abrasion *nd aro not
weakened by repeated wetting and drying. Operating cott* ara
BrWeh nylon
MANAOVASi.8 British nylon nets remain Ugrrt and eaey to handle

whan
wet.
They can be stored away wet without
risjt
of rotting*
BRITISH
ft*
NYLON SPINNERS LIMITED KNIGHTSBRIDGE, LONDON S.W.I.

[xxvii]
INDUSTRIAL SALES DEPARTMENT

icmWieid engine* ranging from 12-360 *i* idwUJy suited for art typceof fishing vesiofc, tegs and coasters, Thtee engines we heavily built, slow running, giving the owner abeoiute reliability and economic* In running and maintenance and are easily operated. AUcngioe8aktlwithoiiriiinplcand robust propeller unit,
,
W^.
giving Hie
owner iwudnwrn
efflcteacy
under
alt conditions.
The above
illustration
shows a complete
fatty reversibk propeller unit.
We also manufacture several types of controllable pitch propellers, to vary

the pitch in the ahead position, either by remote control or on the propeller
shaft
when
it is
stopped.
in addition
we manufacture a wide
aft position,
yachts. These propellers in addition to feathering,

in
range of feathering propellers for i.e. when the blades are
a fore and
full astern.
can be adjusted to any position from full ahead
to
WE
sreoAuse in sumytnc
moram
WWTS FOU
ML
DUTIES AMD TO AMY
TYK
OF
HMME
ENGINE
Manufacturers of our propeller units for the European market, other than United Kingdom, are Messrs. Lips Propeller Works, Drunen, Holland.
Sole U.K, agents are Messn. Small ft Co, (Lowcstoft) Ltd., Lowestoft, England.
A/S
HUNDESTED MOTOR & PROPELLER

HUNDESTED
-
FABRffi
Telephone: 117
CaWes: Propdmotor
DENMARK
Telex: 5594
[xxviii]
The
shortest distance
between two points
... by the
FISHING ftOATS OF THE WORLD:
Tested to
BIGGER HAULS!
KBBOTA
MARINE DIESELS
To
lor
hip
oil
go
Into *tw*r
cOfrucHon
MODELS
HOW AVAILABL1
4 oyd
wtton tTP
,
lubrication lod *rt& w*"8
MACHtttERt
WGWS, LTD
or
"UONKUOTA- OSAKA
Marinovich Trawls
An FAMOUS WORLD-WIDE
ADVERTISE M ENT SECTION
SCOTTISH - BUILT
FISHING BOATS
DESIGNED
AND
BUILT TO
SUIT LOCAL CONDITIONS IN ALL PARTS OF THE
WORLD
MEMBERS
Dickie of Tarbert Ltd., Tarbert.
Fairlie
J. 9t
Yacht
Slip Ltd., Fairlie.
G. Forbes
&
Co., Sandhaven.
Ltd., Buckle. Ltd., Peterhead.
Herd & Mackenzie

Richard Irvin
& Sons
ft
Jones Buckit Slip
Shipyard Ltd., Buckle.
Macduff Engineering Co., Macduff.
James N. Miller
It
Sons
Ltd., St.
Monance.
Hugh McLean 6 Sons

Alex. Noble
Ltd.,
Renfrew.
& Sons
Ltd., Girvan.
James Noble (Fraserburgh)

Smith
Ltd.,
Fraserburgh
& Mutton
ft
(fcoatbuildert) Ltd.,
Anstruther.
Geo. Thomson
John Watt
ft
Son, Buckie.
Sons, Gardenstown*
ft
William Weatherhead
Sons (1954)
Ltd.,
Cockenzie.
Weatherhead Sons
Co., iyemouth.
An
frustrated coto/ogi* giving detailed specifications to which many different of vessels ore built will be gladly sent free on request. Variations or special rfestyis needed for overseas conditions careful^ attended to. Best of workmanship guaranteed from all members.
FISHING BOAT BUILDERS' ASSOCIATION

14
BON -ACCORD SQUARE

{wall
ABERDEEN
FISHING BOATS OF TOT WORLD:

I
6 SONS LTD. JOHN TYRRELL IRELAND AftKLOW, VESSELS BUILDERS OF WOOD FISHINGLOWS FT.
'
ofAUL
WES Ur TO MO
OVWMM
am
Our St*n44 Ovifm
vHW
for
56
FOOT RING-SEINE-TRAWL VESSEL

II4H.P. 9
Knots
34
FOOT LOBSTER & INSHORE TRAWLER

30 H.P.
8 Knots
and Boat Equipment Fishing Nets

THE NIPPON GTOJP SE
H*04 OffteM Marunouchl, Tokyo
Todai
las rwto*
vso,
lc.
MGO
MARINE DIESEL ENGINES
from 300 to
1,500
hp
"
Lcicettoft Ltulv
"
TOP SHIP OF THE PORT OF LOWESTOFT FOR 1958

the " LOWESTOFT LADY"
la
powered by a Crossley
Dieael Engine. She achieved her title with record

earnings, even surpassing the record set up by the lop SHIP FOR 1967, " BOSTON SPITFIRE" another
" BOSTON SPITFIRE" with Crossley-engined vessel.
328 days at sea in 1957
and "LOWESTOFT LADY" 342
Fishing-boat equipped with a 750 h.p.
MGO
Diesel Engine
days at sea in 1958, testify to the outstanding

reliability of the
Crossley two-cycle Scavenge
Pump
Diesel engines by which they are powered.
Both ships are owned by Boston Deep Sea Fisheries

Limited and each has for her propulsion machinery
a six cylinder " HRN
' '
More than 2,000 engines

1,500,000
clients
all
totalling
over
hp have been supplied to over the world.
type engine rated at 440 b.h.p.
at300 revolutions perminute. With the introduction

of exhaust gas turbo-charging the range of Crossley
Engines for tugs, trawlers, dredgers,

etc.
In
engines in powers
'*
Boston Spitfire
"
up to 3200 b.h.p. per

unit covers the
auxiliary
sets
for
destroyers,
cruisers, aircraft-carriers, tankers, etc.
needs of vessels
both large
and small.
manufactured by
SOCIETE ALSACIENNE
I
CROSSLEY < ENGINES

<
DIESEL
OE
CONSTRUCTIONS MECANIQUES
MULHOUSE
Franc*
c*o*L*YBiumasLiMnTO OPBKSHAW
" u
'
'
nssn
%
L .
,
f-
,;,
','
[xxxiii]
NYLON
FISHING
all
GEAR
Nl BRI LON offers you
kinds of fishing nets, purse
seines and trawls in cotton or artificial fibres.
NIBRILON
cialised
for producing nyfon
runs the only factory In Norway spenetting with double knots.

high
tensile
No
sliding
meshes,
that's
strength
for.
and abrasion
resistance
what NIBRILON stands
NIBRILON
raw
materials,
fishing
equipment
is
a result of high class
modern machinery and
skilled
workers.
NIBRILON
A'S
P.O.
BOX
160,
NESTTUN,
NORWAY
Telephone: 71790
Telegrams: "Nibrilon"
REFRIGERATION keeps
the catch sea-fresh
in.
The Hallmark Machine Unit (Model aC with wner pump) instilled in m.t. Rangor.
Triple Cylinder: 2 in. borcx ij or air-cooled condenser.
r
stroke;
Descriptive lecnet
on
request* m.t. Rangor
The middle-water trawler,

fined with ecjuipment*
is
J.
& 6,
Hall refrigerating
the world's refrigerated cargo space Is cooled by plant manufactured by
69% of
keeps the catch sea-fresh it is hauled in to the time it Is unloaded in the dock no loss of condition caused by ice wastage. The up-to-date range of J. & E. Hall refrigerating equipment has been designed to meet the needs of:
Refrigeration
from the time
REFRIGERATION, LIFT
* ESCALATOR ENGINEERS
E HALL
DARTFORD
T*l4pho*9:
*
(a) in-shore, (b) middle-water, and (c) deep-sea trawlers.
KENT
2I4S4
Oartford
A MEMBER OF THE HALL-THERMOTANK GROUP
AP
From low powered
installations in
traditional craft to high powered machinery for the modern trawler.
Specify
LISTER
BLACKSTONE
World wide
service and spare parts distribution*
Supplied to F.A.O.,
Norwegian India Foundation, U.N.RJtA. and private users throughout the World.
Plan,
Colombo
the engines with stamina

3 - 1 310 tup* propulsion and auxiliary
LISTER BLACKSTONE MARINE LIMITED

Durstey, Gloucestershire.
Hione
1377.
Telex 43-230*
NEW
FISHING BOATS OF THC WORLD:
BUILDING
AND
REPAIRING UP TO
2,000
TON
D.W.
Shipbuilders
since
1851
D. en Jon. Boot N.V,

ALPHEN
a/d
RUN HOLLAND
Telephone KI720. 1197 and 3361
[XMvf]
TRAWLER BUILDERS TO THE WORLD

UNITED KINGDOM
EIRE
FRANCE
BELGIUM
PORTUGAL
SOUTH AFRICA
SIERRA LEONE
ICELAND
SOUTH AMERICA
NORWAY
Motor Tniwl*r
(whale catchers)
builders of all dosses of steam, motor and dlesel A/so whale catchers electric trawlers.
and
fishery research vessels
LTD. RUSSELL & CO. HALL, TitHOHI M44 M tOX ALEXANDER HALL & GO. LTD.
P,0.
No.
ABERDEEN
'
MCMMIW O* TM
OIM<TII.A* QUOUP
{nucvii]

SINGLE
2
-
OR COMWNATED WINCHES,
..
NET ROLLERS, TRAWL BLOCKS,

COILING MACHINES, etc
DECK MACHINERY
FISHING VESSELS.
for
C M. N0RSKOV LAURSEN ENGINEERING COMPANY

ESTABLISHED 1914
TELEPHONE: 6000
TELEGRAMS: NOERLAU, ESBJERG, DENMARK
Motor
trawler "Thunfisch", 82S Cross
Tonnage, Fish factory vessel with deep

refrigerating plant
SCHIFFBAU-GESELLSCHAFT UNTERWESER
AKTIENGESELLSCHAFT
Sfedri
BREMERHAVEN
SUP-PLANTS
TELEX: tt
NEW WILDINGS ymt tur MMh
REPAIRS
f Ft*tog
Vedi of afl fctofc and trtl&tun ap to 8000 Mw
PHONE: MM/31
CABLE: UNTEKWESBRWEItFT
MM
A.
OE JONG Ltd. VLAARDINGEN,
HOLLAND
of all tjrpM of
AB JARNFORADLING
HALLEFORSNAS
-
fWBNN
S.I.G.G.NA.
CHANTIERS NAVALS-SAINT-MALO
TRAWLER BUILDERS
MOTOR'TRAWlfiR
4*
:
GWEN"
*D
Arm*it*nt LE MOlGHfi
TYPE US ft. LOWCNT
II In.
Registered Length
[xxxix]
It to
CkaraeteiHtai f K842MJA made according to Boron-tube *y*teai

for receiving
fcc/
All-Direction
Automatic Visual Type. Easy to equip and preserve.

Freq. rane PATENTS:
- 4000kc/t
bands
BRITISH
73J804
GERMANY MS11S
U. S. A. 281SW6
fteorino todkotpr
For a sturdy job

This
is
a sturdy engine
$&&* t^
8MHO 901 wo *kMf
Showing Cofôcte toy Tube Pottern
&.
craft are
one of the reasons why so many fishing equipped with Werkspoor diesei engines.
reversible pitch propeller
CoWe
"KOBJC TOKYO"
With a WERKSPOOR
both greater speed and greater propulsive power under all conditions.
Werkspoor
4-stroke,
TM diesei engines,
400-2300 hp,
375-275 r.p.m.
CONSORTIUM FRANCAIS
de
la Petite et
Moyenne
Werkspoor
CONSTRUCTION NAVALE S.A.R.L

All
TE diesei engines,
2-strokc,
600-3,200 hp,
450-250 r.p.m.
modern steel fishing boats

tip
to 100
ft.
Werkspoor
engines ace
reliable
*
Fishinf
Gear
Propellers
straightforward
VCSINET
A>TCBAM
Cto,
WOIIIU
FRANCE
Bir St Idoo E.C.J
Corrosion problems P Get in touch with Plus Gas,

the antl- corrosion specialists. Their technical advisory service covers the
Plum O*s Formul* *A* Dismantling Fluid, (Rust Remover) Frees all types of components seized by corrosion.
Plum
&* Formal* '8* Protective Fluid. Forms a transparent, tough, sealed coating which
all
adheres firmly to
ferrous.
Plum
metals, ferrous and non-
United Kingdom. Agents in many overseas

territories.
QM Formula, '* External Metal Treatment.
The tannating pre-treatment

Particulars from
for the preparation of rusted surfaces prior to painting.

.
.
Park 9606/9 1/1 1, Hay Hill, London, W.I, England. Tel: Telegrams: ABFLXJIDS. MOOT, LDN. GABLES: ABFLOTDS, LONDOK.
LTD RLU8 OAS COMPANY HYDe
"CRIMOND" S3ft.TrawU*e a*d Sri**
GALVANISED FISHING ROPES TRUSTED BY FISHERMEN THE WORLD OVER
of ST.
Makers ofFIFER
MONANCE
200
years.
Builders of Fishing Crqftfar over

'Alt types for ail places.
Fiskittg
Boat Winches and
D
&
MORGAN REES
S
Equipment.
O fv S
Tt
D
JriiJ
JAS. N.
MILLER & SONS LIMITED

MONANCE, SCOTLAND
ST.
Dieseiengines
Alphen m/d
Rijn
Holland
75-1*00 300-750
bhp
rpm
HI NDM ARCH/ BERG
HYORAULICALLY OPERATED VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLERS

A
Direct control from
bridge.
Safe
Run
Rich Fishing Grounds

,
Full
power both ahead

all
with the help of
ELAC Echo Sounders

KHOMETER
in
ami astern under

conditions.
Years of research have resulted in the development of suitable echo sounders for every kind of ship and for every purpose-
EC HOG RAPH
ECHOMAT
Greater manoeuvring speed and reliability.
FISCHLUPE
the first fish detection instrument equipped with a display screen
the world
MINfSKOP
the miniature sounder specially designed for
Reduced
Long
to
life
liner wear.
smaK Mtint vessels
LODAR
easy and cheap
a combined horizontal and vertical sounder.
You
copies of whtefa
will find detailed information in our leaflets and brochures, we f h gUdly send upon request.
T. HINDMARCH & CO* LTD.

Aot)tirf wfefe
C 1 1 CT H O A C U S T I C C M
'
HODgtN
WHfitl DIUVE ITD.

r
.
Telephone: Chesham
<
'
T3E,""^r"
**ham Bocfei. ""^n^zr'^'lî** Te^rwnt: Oftoprated, Cheshmm.
Works: Stouf h, Bucks,
Q^
'
'
lid
Servke Stttlom
to
csetintrlet
BRATTVAAG NEAR AALESUND - NORWAY
PHONE CABLE
29
BRATTVAAG (4 LINES) HYDRAULIK, BRATTVAAG
trawtwinohet, lone line hauler, 2 hydrographic winches and windlmtt.
HYDRAUUK windlass on
Norwovian
fitted
with
HYDRAULIK
pane minor and long
liner
Oft
canowinch, capstan,
Salbjorg. line hauler
HYDRAULIK pump unit.
Dutch
trawler
/art
Maria
fitted
with
HYDRAUUK
and windlatt.
Since
our
company
introduced
HYDRAULIK
this
deck
machinery in fishing vessels 20 years ago
type of
machinery has been
installed in
more than 90 per cent of

to a great
vessels
the Scandinavian fishing
fleet
and besides that
number of trawlers,
of 22 nations in
all
seiners, long liners
and research
parts of the world.
research
^ HYDRAULIK VMM! J<+an HJ<*t.
Countries Representatives *nd Licensees in 16
The most important

French production!
FURUNO MIDGET ECHO-SOUNDER

MOML
vry
popular prices
:
f-701
fficiancy offered at
Nw Echo-Sounders of highlit
F-701A a 0-200m. b. 0.5aiOai50-200m. F-701B a. CMOOm. b. 0-100-2OO-300-4OOm, F-701C a. 0-200Fm. b. 0-30- 100- ISO- 200Fm.
Frequency 50 Kcs. or 200 Power Souee DC 6. 8, 12

:
Kcs.
or 24
Recording Paper
Dry
WRITE IMMEDIATELY TO
FURUNO
No.
CHALUTIERS
En tcter
TRAWLERS
SCM! mad
length from SO to ISO
ft.
ILiCTRIC CO., LTD.

8Mnaawa-kv, TOKYO, JAPAN
4M,
1-chom*, Gotondo,
de
15 a
50 metres
(^P[ A ]VTI
E RS
^V
AVALS
Long-liners, Thuna<!ippcrs and
all
types of fbhJng boats
DE LA PALLICE
TRAWLER
BUILDERS
REPAIRS AND CONVERSIONS
HEAD OFFICE: 29. rue OaliMe-PAR-l^Tl. KtE : 81-90 9HIPYARO: LA *OCHELtE-PALLICE-m 2-26
ATELIERS & CHANTIERS DE
MANCHE
DIEPFE
i.P. if 4-DUppi-Polltt
FftAMC
PISHING &OATS OF THE WORLD:
...
GEARINGS
of
all
kinds
and
capacities
eliable Operation
conomical Performance
aval Adaption now How in Construction
Your gearing problems

pulslon will
in
modern
ships pro*
be solved by our expert engineers.
HP*
Send
inquiries- to:
UJL
mnd
* C A. W. LEYENDECKEfl TLi
PARTNERS,
H*th
IT72
la
Headcorn Road, Thornton Heath, Surrey
Thornton
ZAHNRADERFABR1K RENK AKTJENGESELLSCH AFT

THIS
AUGSBURG
the finest
German y
BOOK is
and most
authorita-
tive ever issued on all types offishing gear. It is the carefully edited official record of the Gear Congress held at Hamburg by the Fisheries
Division F.A.O.
CONTAINS
450,000 words, 650 pages, 900 dtagnum, COSTS 5 8** *L ported
etc.,
^*VN/VV"*VVN/V%^^^/VS^^
J.
M. Aktenlice, Director, The Colonial Cordage Co. St John's, Newfoundland, wrote, " Recently we " Modern Fishing Gear of the purchased the book World" We wish to congratulate you on your wonderLtd.,
ful
achievement.
It is
kind ever printed and
the most outstanding book of its source of information
its
is
invaluable to the fishing industries of the world/*
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FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD:

Organization of the United Nations,

FISHING NEWS (BOOKS) LTD.

FLEET STREET, LONDON,

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION

First Published 1960

The views expressed

FROTBD IN GREAT WTTA UNWIN BROTHEM LMTtD WQK1NQ AMD LONDON

OF CONTRIBUTORS NOMENCLATURE AND SYMBOLS PREFACE INTRODUCTION CHAIRMAN'S NOTE

Deck arrangement Main specifications

.... .... ....

Problems affecting the fishing industry Future developments

appearance Common' types of boat

deck design and

METHODS AND DECK ARRANGEMENT

Parse seining: deck design and equipment P. G. Schmidt,

Method of carrying fish Size of boat

General arrangement Mackerel

Basic design considerations

US. West Coast,

Alaska and Canada West Coast of South America

Boat types Non-trawling fishing Drift-net and gillnec fishing

Pole and line fishing

Angola Japan Korea U.S.S.R

Sidctrmwtef Stern trawier without a ramp Stem trawkr with a ramp

Bottom trawl with two boats

FISH HOLDS The care of the catch

C. Hardy and H. E. H. Pain

114 115 118

Why and how fish go bad

Review of related papers

room: engineering and architecture W. A. MacCallum

123 126 127 132 132

Large fishing boats

Partitions, shelving, etc

Coatings and linings

208 209 209 214 215 216 217

Small fishing craft

Larger longliner, small trawlers and cutters

SCANTLINGS Steel and wood scantling

(West Coast H. C. Hanson

Storage on the vessel

Unloading and handling ashore

227 228 229 230

Structural testing of small craft Y. Otsu, N. Yokoyama General description

232 233 233 234 234 235 236

146 146 148

Methods of preserving the catch Refrigerating capacity and piping

Suggested standard scantlings

152 154 158 159 166

problems Design of fish holds Comparison of freezing installations Authors* replies

239 244 247 258

184 185 185

189 190 190

262 262 263 267 267 268 268 270 272