CSG and Cementing Operations

DRILLING OPERATIONS MANUAL DRILLING PRACTICES CASING AND CEMENTING OPERATIONS
7.0 CASING AND CEMENTING 7.1 Casing Design 7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3 7.1.4 7.1.5 7.1.6 7.1.7 7.1.8 7.1.9 7.2 Casing Setting Depths Wellbore Geometry Collapse Resistance Burst Strength Axial Tension Buckling Stability Analysis Bi-Axial Stress Effects Casing Wear Allowance Corrosion Considerations
Cement Slurry Design 7.2.1 Primary Cementing 7.2.2 Squeeze Cementing 7.2.3 Kick-off and Abandonment Cement Plugs
7.3
Casing Installation and Cementing 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 7.3.5 Hole Conditioning Pre-Job Checks Casing Installation Casing Cementing Casing Pressure Testing
7.4
Casing and Cementing Checklist 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3 7.4.4 Pre-Job Checks Hole Conditioning Prior to Cementing Tripping Out To Run Casing Cementing Casing
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SECTION V, PART 7, PAGE i
Revision 1, January 1998

7.0 CASING AND CEMENTING This section is intended to serve as an operations guide for the Drilling Supervisor as well as a design tool for the Drilling Engineer. The material contained in this section provides general guidance for the planning and execution of casing and cementing operations conducted by Occidental. 7.1 Casing Design Casing design is to be performed on a well by well basis. There are no universal casing design procedures that will enable mechanical determination of an acceptable casing program for a particular well. However, a certain degree of standardization is usually possible in the case of single site, multi-well development drilling projects where many of the "unknowns" are well defined and casing programs can be developed more on the basis of completion geometry than on anticipated drilling problems. The need to treat each casing design as unique cannot be overstated. This is particularly true in exploration areas where the chosen casing program can have a significant impact on well control operations. The purpose of this section is to provide a drilling professional with sufficient practical information to form the basis of a well designed casing program. 7.1.1 Casing Setting Depths Casing setting depths are to be established following determination of the pore pressure and fracture pressure profiles for a particular well. For exploration wells, the well data is to be based upon the best available data. Once these two pressure profiles have been defined, selection of casing setting depths is usually a routine procedure. In addition, offset well data is to be closely scrutinized for problematic intervals that may be encountered in the planned well. Information of particular interest would be: zones of whole mud losses and the loss mechanism (e.g., permeability, natural or induced fractures, depleted pore pressure) tight hole sections, suggesting fluid sensitive shales or overpressure zones susceptible to differential sticking intervals of high formation gas that may impact successful primary cementing
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SECTION V, PART 7, PAGE 1

This information, together with the planned mud density schedule for the well, should enable selection of optimum casing setting depths. Once the casing setting depths have been determined, the following calculation is to be performed for each casing setting depth to determine if adequate kick tolerance will be available to drill to that particular casing point. K Where: = (Dc/Db) x (FG - SF - MW) - Tm K Dc Db FG SF MW Tm = = = = = = = kick tolerance at depth of interest, ppg EMW depth of previous casing shoe, TVD depth of interest, TVD fracture gradient at casing shoe, ppg EMW safety factor, ppg EMW mud density at depth of interest, ppg trip margin, ppg
In general, the safety factor and trip margin are to be determined in accordance with the guidelines established in Section VI, Well Planning - Mud Density, which are as follows: A. A minimum overbalance pressure of 0.5 ppg EMW is to be specified from the mudline to +/- 7500' TVD RKB. Below 7500' TVD RKB, a minimum overbalance pressure of 200 psi is recommended when formation strengths permit. A trip margin, in excess of overbalance pressure, is to be specified for all depths and should take account of wellbore geometry, annular clearances, drilling fluid density and rheological properties, and pipe tripping speeds. In general, a minimum trip margin equivalent to the anticipated swab pressure is to be used. However, this value is to be increased if dictated by well specific conditions.
B.
Using these guidelines, if the calculated kick tolerance at each new casing point is less than 0.5 ppg EMW, the casing setting depth is to be altered until the kick tolerance is equal to or greater than 0.5 ppg EMW. Use of the kick tolerance equation is illustrated as follows. Well Data (Vertical Well): 13-3/8" casing set at: Leak-off test at casing shoe: Next casing point: 6500' MD RKB 15.3 ppg EMW 10,500' MD RKB
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Mud density at next casing point: 12.7 ppg Estimated trip margin: 0.25 ppg EMW Safety factor at 9-5/8" casing point: 200 psi Calculate Kick Tolerance: Safety Factor in ppg EMW = 200/(0.052 x 10500) = 0.366 ppg K = (Dc/Db) x (FG - SF - MW) - Tm = (6500/10500) x (15.3 - 0.366 - 12.7) - 0.25 K = 1.13 ppg EMW, which is acceptable.
7.1.2 Wellbore Geometry Wellbore geometry can vary significantly between land and offshore operations. There can be many variations of the wellbore geometry between wells because of formation characteristics, formation pressures and depth of the well. The nomenclature for a casing string should be compatible with the Occidental reporting system and data base. The nomenclature will be derived based upon the number of casing strings that are planned or are included as a contingency. The following is a typical example of an offshore well. Structural Pipe Conductor Casing Surface Casing Intermediate Casing Production/Drilling Liner Production Liner : 30" diameter : 20" diameter : 13-3/8" diameter : 9-5/8" diameter : 7" diameter : 7" or 5" diameter, as required
The combinations of this casing program are illustrated in Figures 7.1 and 7.2. Final wellbore geometry must take into account total project economics. In addition, selection of wellbore geometry must take into account the following considerations, which will have a significant impact on realizing planned objectives.
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Figure 7.1: Example Exploration Casing Program
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Figure 7.2: Example Development Casing Program
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A. Structural and conductor casing must be of sufficient strength to provide adequate support for the following externally applied loads: 1. 2. Environmental loads due to wind, waves, current, and temperature. Axial loads due to the weight of casing strings, blowout preventer stacks, wireline equipment, coiled tubing units, and snubbing units. Bending moments due to the lateral movement of axial loads or through the application of external forces; for example, bending moments exerted on subsea wellheads due to rig offset.
3.
B.
Casing diameters must allow for adequate clearance between rotary drilling tools and the inside diameter of the casing. In addition, allowance must be made for the annular clearance necessary to use standard fishing tools. Having decided on an acceptable wellbore geometry, the expected annular pressure losses and surge and swab pressures for each hole section must be determined. These calculations should be performed using the planned drilling assemblies and drilling fluids program for each hole section. The final casing program must take into account the planned completion configuration, which will, in many cases, automatically define the casing program. If the well will not be held for production, then the primary concern will be to ensure that well testing objectives can be realized within the confines of the planned wellbore geometry. When planning exploration wells, sufficient allowance must be made for unanticipated drilling problems that would require the installation of a protective string of casing. This requirement will often result in the use of larger than necessary casing diameters, but may avoid the need to redrill a well due to the limited hole size available to reach the planned objective. As more experience is gained in a particular area, the need to allow for contingency protective pipe can be relaxed.
C.
D.
E.
7.1.3 Collapse Resistance The collapse resistance of tubular goods is ordinarily expressed in terms of the minimum external pressure that must be applied in order to initiate permanent deformation of the pipe body. The means of determining the collapse resistance of tubulars is dependent on a number of factors including API grade, outside diameter, wall thickness, and minimum yield strength. The API has developed a number of
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methods for calculating the collapse resistance of pipe using both practical and theoretical techniques. While no attempt is made in this section to delve into these techniques, the reader should be aware that the collapse failure mechanism will not be the same in all cases. While the difference between these failure mechanisms will not adversely impact the vast majority of casing designs, critical service applications should be closely scrutinized to ensure that the possibility of unexpected failure in collapse does not occur. Collapse loadings can be exerted on a section of pipe under the following conditions, which may or may not occur simultaneously. A. Applied Differential Pressure Applied differential pressure is generated through application of surface pressure to the annular void space of a string of pipe in excess of the pressure present on the inside of the pipe. This condition is most critical during BOP and wellhead pressure testing operations where failure of an annulus pack-off seal could result in applying sufficient pressure to cause the pipe to collapse. B. Differential Hydrostatic Pressure Differential hydrostatic pressure is produced due to a difference in average fluid density between the inside and outside of a string of casing. This condition is a critical concern for gas lifted wells where, under certain conditions, the equivalent fluid density inside the casing can be reduced to nothing more than a gas fluid gradient. Hydrostatic pressure below a packer in an electrical submersible pump should be assumed to be zero as this condition often occurs on pump start up. C. Wellbore Curvature Changes in hole angle that result in bending of the pipe body produce loading conditions that reduce the collapse resistance of tubulars. This condition is seriously aggravated through intervals of high angle change (i.e., high dogleg severity). D. Formation Matrix Flow This condition is characterized by plastic flow of the rock matrix against the outer surface of the pipe body resulting in severe stress loading of the tubular. Salt flows are widely known to produce this condition, although flows of claystone formations and active faults can produce similar results. Heating of Confined fluids
E.
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The heating of fluids confined in annular void spaces (for example, between a casing x casing cement top and wellhead pack-off) can generate pressure increases of sufficient magnitude to collapse casing. Ordinarily these pressure increases are not large enough to cause concern. However, the wide variance in temperature profiles generated under drilling and production conditions dictates that the magnitude of anticipated pressure increase be evaluated for every well. Additional mechanisms leading to collapse failure can occur due to a combination of dynamic loading conditions that are ordinarily addressed within the context of buckling failure analysis. These failure modes will not be discussed here, but rather are deferred to a subsequent part. Each of the collapse loading conditions discussed above must be addressed on a well by well basis. It is simply not adequate to accept a particular casing design for broad application within an operating area. Adopting such an approach increases the likelihood that catastrophic equipment failure will eventually occur, which could, in certain cases, result in unmanageable consequences. When designing for collapse resistance, the following guidelines are to be followed. 1. A minimum design safety factor of 1.125 should be used in all cases. This will result in the casing being subjected to a maximum of 88.88% of its rated collapse resistance under worst case conditions. This safety factor must be maintained when allowance has been made for all of the loading conditions mentioned above. In addition, allowance must be made for anticipated casing wear (Part 7.1.8) and the reduction in collapse resistance due to bi-axial stress affects (Part 7.1.7). The annulus fluid should be assumed to have a density equivalent to the highest anticipated fluid density while drilling the previous hole section. The fluid column for design calculations is to extend from the surface to the casing shoe. The physical properties of the annulus fluid are to be used in calculations to determine the impact of wellbore heating.
2.
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3. The fluid inside the casing is to be assumed to be gas with a fluid gradient equivalent to 0.150 psi/ft, unless overwhelming technical evidence can support the use of a higher or lower value. For wells that will be gas lifted, the production casing collapse design calculations are to be performed assuming a gas fluid gradient inside the casing of zero psi/ft. This will allow for the possibility that gas lift pressure could be completely bled off to zero. For wells that will be pumped with submersible pumps, the hydrostatic pressure inside the casing below the production packer should be assumed to be zero psi/ft. 4. The anticipated static collapse loading following primary cementation of each casing string should also be taken into account. This is particularly important for large diameter tubulars which have inherently low collapse resistance.
7.1.4 Burst Strength The burst strength of tubular goods is expressed in terms of the minimum internal pressure that must be applied in order to initiate permanent deformation of the pipe body. The expressions "burst strength" and "burst resistance" are really misnomers because the pipe generally will not fail at the API specified minimum internal yield pressure. As the definition states, the minimum internal yield pressure is the minimum pressure at which initial permanent deformation of the pipe wall begins to occur - it is not the point at which failure occurs. Burst loads are typically generated under the following circumstances: A. Applied Internal Pressure Applied internal pressures are commonly generated during pressure testing operations and well testing (e.g., for the operation of downhole tools). In general, the application of these pressures can be closely controlled to limit the potential of accidental pipe body failure. B. Differential Hydrostatic Pressure This condition is produced when the average fluid density inside the casing exceeds the average fluid density on the outside of the casing. Although this condition is usually not of critical concern, when taken in combination with applied internal pressure, the need for careful design review is clearly evident. Considerations should also be given to lost circulation reducing the hydrostatic pressure outside the casing. Unexpected Release of Formation Pressure
SECTION V, PART 7, PAGE 9 Revision 1, January 1998
C.
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This condition generally occurs during well testing operations when the primary test string fails, resulting in flowing wellhead pressure being exerted on the production casing. Generally this does not present a problem since the production casing is ordinarily designed to tolerate such a condition. D. Packer Setting Forces Packer setting forces can produce excessive burst loadings on tubulars, particularly when the slip load area is small relative to packer setting forces and casing strength. In addition to these burst loading conditions, the designer must thoroughly consider all possible modes of burst loading that may be produced during the useful life of a well. This is generally a straightforward procedure in the case of exploration wells; however, long term production wells generally experience multiple operating scenarios which must be addressed at the design stage. When designing for burst resistance, the following guidelines are to be followed: 1. In general, a minimum design safety factor of 1.1 should be used. This will result in the casing being subjected to a maximum of 90.9% of its minimum internal yield pressure rating under worst case operating conditions. This safety factor must be maintained when allowance has been made for all of the loading conditions mentioned above. In addition, allowance must be made for anticipated casing wear (Part 7.1.8). The annulus fluid should be assumed to have a density equivalent to connate water. For most offshore operations a static fluid gradient of 0.4446 psi/ft (8.55 ppg EMW) is to be used. For most land operations a static fluid gradient of 0.465 psi/ft. (8.94 ppg EMW) is to be used. The fluid inside the casing is to be assumed to be gas with a fluid gradient equivalent to 0.150 psi/ft, unless overwhelming technical evidence can support the use of a higher or lower figure. The maximum wellhead pressure during drilling operations is to be the lesser of the following calculated pressures:
2.
3.
4.
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a. The pressure produced by the maximum anticipated formation pore pressure for a particular hole section less a gas gradient to the wellhead. The pressure produced by the maximum anticipated leak-off pressure at the casing shoe, less a gas gradient to surface.
b. 5.
For exploration wells, the maximum burst loading is to be determined based on the assumption that the well is tested and a leak develops in the test string at the wellhead. The drill string safety valves fail to operate, and the pressure trapped at the wellhead is then transmitted throughout the entire annular fluid column to the test packer. This loading condition superimposes a static surface pressure on top of the differential pressure resulting from the difference in fluid densities between the inside and outside of the casing. As a result of this superposition of pressures, the burst loading above the packer may exceed the burst loading at the wellhead. For development wells, the burst design criteria discussed in (5) may be relaxed. The worst case burst loading is to be determined using the maximum wellhead pressure determined in (4) unless well specific conditions indicate more stringent requirements.
6.
7.1.5 Axial Tension Axial tensile loads are produced by forces acting along the longitudinal axis of the casing. Resistance of tubular goods to tensile failure is expressed in terms of pipe body yield strength and joint strength. In most cases, the joint strength for a particular tubular product meets or exceeds the pipe body yield strength, but this is not always the case. The designer must be certain to use the lesser of joint strength or pipe body yield strength when specifying tubulars acceptable for a particular application. Tensile loads are generated in tubulars under the following well condition, which may or may not occur simultaneously: A. Suspended String Weight This is the load generated along the axis of the pipe due to its own weight. Ordinarily, this loading does not impose any adverse design constraints. Applied Internal Pressure
B.
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Applied internal pressure tends to balloon the casing and generates incremental tensile loading throughout the full length of the pipe. A more severe condition is created during primary cementation when the top cementing plug lands and excessive casing pressure is applied. Under these conditions incremental tensile loading is superimposed onto the static weight of the casing, producing high axial loads. C. Applied Tensile Loads Applied tensile loads are generated in a number of ways including: 1. 2. 3. 4. D. Overpull to free stuck pipe Incremental surface tension to prevent buckling Packer slack-off weight (in uncemented pipe) Liner hang-off weight (in uncemented pipe)
Induced Tensile Loads Induced tensile loads are produced through a number of mechanisms which, in many cases, are not accounted for in the typical casing design. These loads can result in a net increase or decrease in the magnitude of casing tension. The following are examples of conditions which increase or decrease the magnitude of tensile loading : 1. An increase or decrease in the average wellbore temperature through intervals of uncemented pipe. An increase in mud density during subsequent drilling operations that is in excess of the mud density in the casing annulus. Bending of tubulars through intervals of hole angle change. Shock loads induced by rapid deceleration of pipe and setting of slips while running casing.
2.
3. 4.
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E. While the above loading conditions will cover the majority of tensile forces experienced in practice, well specific conditions may impose additional, unexpected forces. It is the responsibility of the casing designer to thoroughly understand the anticipated operational characteristics of a well, and the consequences these characteristics have for acceptable tensile design conditions. When designing for tensile strength, the following guidelines are to be followed. 1. The minimum acceptable design safety factor in tension is to be 1.6. This will result in the casing being subjected to a maximum of 62.5% of the joint strength or pipe body yield strength, whichever is lower. Calculation of the maximum anticipated tensile loading is to take account of the following forces acting simultaneously : Casing Weight: Total unbouyed weight of casing with allowance for hole angle. Maximum anticipated pick-up drag taking account of hole geometry. Maximum anticipated bending force for the planned hole geometry.
2.
Pick-up Drag:
Bending Force:
Overpull Allowance: The planned degree of available overpull to free the casing in the event of sticking. 3. Pipe running loads induced by wellbore deviation are to be taken into account. In particular, the effects of hole drag (both up an down) are to be taken into consideration. For floating rig operations, the degree of uncontrollable up-drag may significantly impact casing design. The degree of shock loading induced by the planned casing running speeds is to be determined. If these loads are sufficiently high, the planned casing running speeds are to be reduced until an acceptable loading condition is obtained. In certain cases, it will be prudent to substitute shock loading for pick-up drag in the maximum anticipated load calculation performed in (2) above.
4.
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5. For water injection wells, or wells programmed for injectivity testing, the degree of incremental casing tension induced by the cooling effect of injection water is to be determined. This force is to be added to the static wellhead tensile force without consideration for dynamic loading.
7.1.6 Buckling Stability Analysis Buckling stability analysis is critical to ensuring the success of any drilling operation. It is not enough to perform the design calculations required for burst, collapse, and tension only to ignore the possibility that the pipe will fail due to buckling instability. Buckling instability is generally a condition that presents itself long after the casing has been cemented, and frequently after the rig has moved off location. Tubular failures attributed to buckling instability occur without warning and with catastrophic results. Well conditions leading to buckling instability generally occur following primary cementation of a string of casing. The primary factors contributing to buckling instability are as follows: Changes in fluid densities inside and/or outside a string of pipe. Changes in surface pressure inside and/or outside a string of pipe. Changes in average well temperature. Uncemented casing through intervals of significant hole enlargement.
Other factors to be considered are: Compressibility rating of a connection with buoyancy effects and/or hanging up when running in the hole.
The time to assess the need for preventative measures to deal with buckling is during the planning stages for a particular well. Buckling instability can generally be resolved through application of any one, or a combination, of several simple techniques during the primary cementing operation. However, in the case of subsea operations, once the cement takes an initial set, the opportunity for corrective action has been lost. Common techniques for eliminating the possibility of buckling stability failure are: A. Raise the column of primary cement above the calculated neutral point. It should be noted that the neutral point in this context is not the point of zero
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axial stress. The neutral point in buckling stability analysis is the point at which the axial stress is equal to the average of the radial and tangential stresses. B. Maintain internal pressure on the casing while the primary cement takes an initial set. The magnitude of applied pressure must be calculated to suit the specific well conditions. For surface operations, where "throw in" slips will be used to suspend the casing, application of a suitable overpull prior to setting the slips will normally remedy a buckling stability problem. The degree of overpull must be calculated based on specific well conditions. Ensure that the casing is adequately constrained from lateral movement through the use of positive stand-off centralizers. This technique is the least desirable of the four techniques mentioned here and should be used only as a last resort.
C.
D.
Based on the above discussion, it is apparent that one of the most vulnerable points in a well, relative to buckling failure, is the rathole section below the previous casing shoe. In many cases, cement is not brought up inside the previous casing shoe in order to prevent the possibility of pressure build-up in the confined casing annulus during subsequent operations. Although the desired pressure relief valve is now available (i.e., formation leak-off pressure at the casing shoe), the ideal conditions for buckling failure have been created. The decision to not cement inside the previous casing shoe must be a considered one, following careful design analysis. 7.1.7 Bi-Axial Stress Effects Combined loads due to tension and pressure can produce in-service conditions where the performance properties of tubulars are exceeded, although design calculations suggested that this would not be the case. This is due to common casing design procedures which evaluate tubular loading conditions in one dimension; i.e., tensile, collapse and burst loads are all considered independently. This design procedure is encouraged by specifications for tubular performance properties, which are generally given in one dimension with no allowance for combined loading conditions. In certain well applications, tubular performance properties are so adversely effected by simultaneous loading conditions that allowance must be made for loss of strength. This is particularly true with respect to collapse resistance. If collapse resistance is critical to the success of a particular project, then the reduction in collapse resistance due to bi-axial stress must be determined.
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The API has developed a technique for determining the reduced collapse resistance of tubulars manufactured according to API specifications. The procedure is beyond the scope of this manual, but the reader is referred to API Bulletin 5C3, Bulletin on Formulas and Calculations for Casing, Tubing, Drill Pipe, and Line Pipe Properties, for guidance on application of the technique to a particular casing design. 7.1.8 Casing Wear Allowance Casing wear in drilling operations is due primarily to the rotation of drill pipe tool joints against the casing wall. In highly deviated wells the drill pipe body will begin to contact the casing wall, but pipe body induced wear is generally negligible compared to tool joint wear. The degree of drill string induced casing wear is critically dependent on the type of hardbanding (also called hardfacing) applied to the tool joints in use on a particular well. Care must be exercised in the selection of hardbanding materials and in the process of application to tool joints. In all cases, a smooth weld, flush with the outside diameter of the tool joint, should be selected. Flush hardbanding will result in a more uniform load distribution along the length of the tool joint, thereby reducing the severity of casing wear. When planning operations to limit the degree of drill string induced casing wear, the following practices are to followed: A. Plan directional wells to limit the degree of dogleg severity. In general, the dogleg severity for conventional directional wells should not be planned to exceed 3.0 degrees/100 feet. Use tool joints with smooth overlay hardfacing. If possible, "wear in" new pipe in the openhole section of the well. Minimize the volume of sand and coarse formation solids retained in the drilling fluid through active use of the solids removal equipment. These materials aggravate the degree of drill string induced casing wear and should not be tolerated. In particular, maintain the sand concentration at less than 0.5 percent. The effects of drill string induced casing wear should be accounted for by using heavier wall casing. Casing design programs are on the market that will calculate casing wear.
B.
C.
D.
7.1.9 Corrosion Considerations
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All casing designs should include a thorough assessment of the degree of corrosion protection required to ensure that minimum acceptable casing performance properties are maintained throughout the useful life of a well. Frequently, as in the case of major field developments, this will require considerable laboratory testing of casing materials under simulated well conditions. Corrosive agents that impact casing design include produced hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and connate water, as well as surface injected materials including hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid and oxygen. The concentration of these reactants, and the tubular metallurgy selected to cope with production conditions, will have a direct impact on total project economics and the long term mechanical integrity of the wellbore. Factors that effect the degree of corrosion include: concentration of the corrosive reactants, temperature and pressure, and the velocity and pH of fluids passing over the material surface. Since corrosion reactions are very complex processes, there are no universal guidelines for assessing the performance of steels when subjected to a particular set of well conditions. However, there is a growing body of information on designing for corrosion resistance, and this material has been summarized in this section. Hydrogen Sulfide Induced Corrosion The selection of tubular steels for use in hydrogen sulfide environments is critical to maintaining the performance properties of these materials. H2S induced casing failures are usually catastrophic, resulting in the expenditure of considerable time and money to reinstate a well to operational status. The mechanisms and conditions under which hydrogen sulfide leads to mechanical failure of oil-field tubulars are still not completely understood. Materials that have proven to be acceptable in one application, often fail under similar conditions in another area. Although general guidelines exist for the evaluation of H2S resistant materials, project specific laboratory testing of casing material coupons must be performed in critical service applications. These tests should closely model the anticipated well conditions with particular attention given to the partial pressure of gases, composition of the liquid phase, flow conditions, test coupon geometry, and material surface finish. Hydrogen sulfide induced failures normally fall under three broad classifications: sulfide stress cracking (SSC), stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and hydrogen embrittlement (HE). Sulfide stress cracking results in failure due to brittle fracturing of high strength steels. Stress corrosion cracking leads to failure of tubulars due to
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high levels of localized corrosion and stress. Hydrogen embrittlement is normally associated with failures that occur at stresses below the specified yield strength of a particular material due to a loss of ductility. The National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) has issued standards for the selection of materials resistant to hydrogen sulfide induced failure. The reader is referred to NACE Standard MR-0175-94, section II on Drilling and Well Service Equipment, for further guidance. When using NACE Standard MR-0175-94, the reader should not interpret qualification to this standard as granting universal acceptance of a particular material for all H2S environments. Rather, the standard sets very narrow limits of acceptability and only states that sulfide stress cracking should not occur within the specified operating limits. Do not read more into MR-0175-94 than is actually there. In general, when assessing the suitability of steels for H2S environments, the following guidelines (as per NACE MR-0175-94) are to be adhered to: A. For sour gas production, if the anticipated partial pressure of H2S exceeds 0.05 psi, tubular goods are to be selected for resistance to H2S. For sour oil and multi-phase systems, H2S resistant materials are to be selected under the following conditions: 1. 2. The maximum gas/liquid ratio is 5000 scf/bbl or higher. The gas phase contains a maximum H2S concentration of 15% by volume or greater. The partial pressure of H2S in the gas phase is 10 psi or greater. The surface pressure is 265 psi or greater.
B.
3. 4. C.
Specify materials with a maximum hardness on the Rockwell C scale of 22. However, it should be noted that certain steel metallurgies may be acceptable up to HRC = 26. Therefore, don't rule out a particular material on the basis of Rockwell hardness alone.
It is commonly accepted that the suitability of most grades of steels for H2S service improves with increasing temperature. The research supports this view with respect to hydrogen embrittlement (HE) induced failure, where higher in-service temperatures tend to diffuse absorbed atomic hydrogen out of the steel matrix. However, high
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temperatures enhance the susceptibility of steels to stress corrosion cracking (SCC). For this reason, the reader should have a complete understanding of the failure mechanism(s) at work under a given set of well conditions. Contact the Oxy Corrosion - Materials Specialist for the right material selection. Chloride Induced Corrosion The presence of chlorides in produced well fluids tends to accelerate or enhance the degree of all other corrosion reactions. As a stand alone corrosive agent, chlorides will promote a high degree of general corrosion, pitting, and crevice corrosion. These corrosion mechanisms are further accelerated in the presence of oxygen. For this reason, injected solutions high in chloride ion concentration should be adequately treated to remove entrained oxygen. This is critically important in water injection and well stimulation operations. As with most corrosion reactions, the rate of chloride induced corrosion increases with increasing temperature. In general, the degree of chloride induced corrosion can be alleviated through control of oxygen content and by alloying steels with chromium and nickel. Carbon Dioxide Induced Corrosion Carbon dioxide, which forms carbonic acid when mixed with water, is a highly corrosive material in the presence of oil-field tubulars, even at low concentrations. Carbon dioxide ordinarily produces general weight loss corrosion, although in the presence of chlorides, severe pitting corrosion and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) can occur. CO2 corrosion attack is primarily a function of the partial pressure of the gas in the produced flow stream. In addition, corrosion rate is particularly sensitive to temperature, being accelerated at elevated temperatures. Small increases in either CO2 partial pressure or temperature, can produce an order of magnitude increase in corrosion rate. CO2 corrosion attack is particularly severe in thread areas, across material sections where there has been an abrupt change in metallurgy (e.g. tubing and nipples of dissimilar metallurgy), and in areas where there is a significant change in the flow characteristics of the produced fluids (e.g., through couplings, downhole safety valves, and nipples). In general, CO2 corrosion attack of oilfield tubulars is treated with the selection of the right tubing. This could be full body normalized tubing or tubing with increased levels of Chromium which is known to resist CO2 flow induced corrosion. Effect of pH on Corrosion
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While pH, in and of itself, is not a direct cause of corrosion, the level of pH (whether acid or base) will have a direct impact on the rate of corrosion and the type of corrosion reaction(s) (i.e., pitting, general weight loss, stress corrosion cracking, local attack, etc.). Low pH leads to an increase in general corrosion rates and increases the susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking and sulfide stress cracking. While little can be done to alter the pH of produced fluids, treatments to reduce pH are generally accomplished through downhole chemical injection systems. However, the pH of drilling and completion fluids left behind pipe can be adjusted as the fluid is spotted in place. In general, the pH of fluids left behind pipe for prolonged periods should be elevated to a minimum value of 10.0. Sulfate Reducing Bacteria, (SRB's) All surface waters (i.e. drilling fluids and completion fluids) contain SRB bacteria which are known to enhance H2S production. To avoid contamination of SRB's and H2S in the wellbore or reservoir all drilling fluids left behind the casing and all completion fluids left inside the casing should be treated with a suitable biocide to eliminate SRB bacteria. Dissolved Oxygen Corrosion Oxygen in water increases general and pitting corrosion by a factor of x 8. Therefore all drilling fluids left behind the casing and all completion fluids left inside the casing should be treated with an oxygen scavenger to avoid pitting corrosion. For 1 p.p.m.v. of oxygen, 8 p.p.m. of oxygen scavenger should be used.
7.2
Cement Slurry Design Planning for cementing operations, and the design and specification of acceptable cement slurries, must be performed based on project specific well conditions. To adopt standardized cement slurry formulations is generally a recipe for disaster, since there will always be the one well that does not fit the standard mold. Furthermore, well by well planning should lead to technical optimization of cementing programs which will generally result in the most cost effective slurry formulations. This section is designed to offer general planning guidelines for realizing technical and economic objectives. 7.2.1 Primary Cementing
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Primary cementing operations offer the greatest opportunity for minimum cost zone isolation. This can only be accomplished through careful evaluation of all variables effecting the operation including zones of lost circulation, formation damage sensitivity, rheological properties of the cement slurry and spacer, hole conditioning, and wellbore geometry, to mention a few. This section offers specific guidelines for the design of cementing programs which will increase the probability of realizing planned objectives. A. Lead Slurry Design Lead slurries are generally thought of as scavenger slurries designed as a type of "pre-flush", and used to condition the formation and casing surfaces prior to placement of the tail slurry. This is true to a certain extent; however, the lead slurry performs several other critically important functions, including: 1. Providing mechanical support for the upper section of the casing string to prevent buckling failure during subsequent drilling and/or production operations. Isolating potential cross-flow between shallow zones that would otherwise produce adverse corrosion and potential long term casing failure. Reducing the degree of potential collapse loading that can be exerted on the casing during subsequent drilling and/or production operations by isolating the hydrostatic head of drilling mud above the cement top. Once the cement sets, hydrostatic pressure due to the drilling fluid can no longer be transmitted below the cement top.
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Tail Slurry Design Tail slurries are designed to provide maximum early and ultimate compressive strength. The mechanical integrity of the solidified tail cement is generally critical to successful execution of subsequent operations whether they be continued drilling or completion for production. The primary functions and characteristics of the tail cement are as follows: 1. To provide mechanical and hydraulic isolation between permeable intervals through formation of a solid, low permeability cement sheath between the wellbore and casing.
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2. To provide adequate mechanical support of the formation and casing to permit subsequent drill-out or production operations. This is particularly important with respect to mechanically weak producing formations that would otherwise slough into the wellbore. To retain adequate mechanical strength following perforating operations to maintain support of the casing and provide for continued zone isolation.
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Cement Slurry Design Guidelines Whether designing lead or tail slurries, several properties and design considerations must be reviewed to ensure job success. The following list provides general guidance for the design and planning of successful cementing operations. When reporting cement slurry test results, the reporting format given in Table 7.1 is to be followed. 1. Thickening time tests are to be performed at the maximum anticipated bottom-hole circulating temperature for the casing size under consideration. If field measurement of bottom-hole circulating temperature is not possible, then this figure is to be estimated using the API circulating temperature tables given in API Specification 10. It should be noted that these tables are only an approximation based on compilation of a considerable amount of field data. Therefore, it may be appropriate in critical situations to consult with offset operators or the cementing contractor to determine if more accurate downhole temperature data is available. For all thickening time tests, the elapsed time to 80 and 100 Bearden units of consistency (Bc) is to be measured in hours and minutes, with the 100 Bc figure taken as the measured thickening time. The difference between the 100 Bc and 80 Bc times is to be used as an indication of the time period during which the cement slurry changes from a pumpable to an unpumpable condition. Both the 80 Bc and 100 Bc measurements are to be reported on all thickening time tests. 2. Thickening time is to be specified to allow for mixing and placement of slurries, plus an allowance for possible equipment failure and downtime. In general, slurry mix rates of 6-8 bbl/min should be allowed for in design calculations. If the cement density is +/- 14 ppg or higher, then use 6 bbl/min. For lighter weight slurries in the +/-12.0 ppg range, use 8.0 bbl/min. These rates are based on maximum
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pumping rates that can be reasonably achieved in the field with a conventional re-circulating mixer, while still maintaining uniform slurry density. On this basis, thickening time requirements are to be calculated as the sum of the following: Thickening Time = (lead slurry) Total lead slurry mixing time + Total tail slurry mixing time + Time to launch top plug + Spacer pumping time + Displacement time + Equipment breakdown time
As a rule of thumb, 15-30 minutes should be allowed to launch the top cementing plug, and one hour should be allowed for equipment breakdowns. The other time elements will have to be calculated based on the fluid volumes to be pumped and the planned pumping rates. Tail slurry thickening time can be calculated using the equation above, but with the lead slurry mixing time set equal to zero. 3. Fill-up height is to be based on the size of casing to be cemented, casing stability requirements and collapse loading considerations. If cement is overlapped into the previous casing shoe, then it must be ensured that the collapse resistance of the casing being cemented is not exceeded as the mud in the annulus above the cement top is heated during subsequent drilling and/or production operations. For 30" and 20" casing as applicable on offshore wells, fill-up is to be specified to the mud-line. The fill-up height for all other casing strings is to be determined on the basis of well specific requirements. Displacement rates are to be specified based on the maximum pumping rate that can be obtained without exerting sufficient annulus pressure (due to circulating pressure losses) to break-down the formation and lose returns. Computer modeling of allowable pump rates is to be performed as part of the planning process to enable accurate specification of cement rheological properties to meet this requirement.
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5. Cement additive concentrations are to be determined to ensure adequate pumping time and optimum rheological properties. Rheological properties of the cement are to be specified to ensure that the cement is in turbulent flow during placement in the casing annulus at the rates established in (4) above. For slurries that will contact producing formations, slurry design must include the addition of fluid loss additive to limit the degree of filtrate invasion into productive intervals. For the applications described below, API fluid loss determined at 1000 psi differential pressure should be as follows: a. b. c. To prevent gas channeling, specify 20 ml/30 minutes, or less. For liners, specify 50 ml/30 minutes, or less. For primary cementing of casing through productive intervals, specify 250 ml/30 minutes, or less. For primary cementing of casing through non-productive intervals, specify 250-500 ml/30 minutes.
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Each fluid loss test should be performed at the anticipated bottomhole circulating temperature, with the exception of the slurry designed to prevent gas channeling, which should be tested at the anticipated bottom-hole static temperature.
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The API free water content of all slurry designs shall be 1% or less, except in the case of slurries designed to prevent gas channeling, in which case the allowable free water shall be zero percent. This applies to vertical as well as inclined free water tests. The cement slurry density should be specified to be as high as possible throughout the cemented interval without causing formation breakdown during placement. In general, the cement density should be a minimum of 1.0 ppg heavier than the drilling fluid density in the hole at the time of cementing. For tail cements, the slurry is to be designed to develop high early and ultimate compressive strength. If the casing shoe is to be drilled out
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and the well deepened, then cementing additives are to be adjusted to produce a minimum of 500 psi compressive strength prior to pressure testing or drill out operations. In addition, 2000 psi of compressive strength must be reached prior to perforating any well for production. Lead cements are to be designed to develop a minimum early compressive strength of 500 psi within 24 hours of placement, provided the lead slurry is not required to support casing loads. If tension is to be applied to the casing as part of a casing landing procedure (e.g., surface installations), then it must be ensured that the cement has developed a minimum compressive strength of 500 psi prior to tensioning the casing. For liner cementing, compressive strength development must be determined not only at bottom-hole conditions, but also at the thermal conditions present at the liner lap. It must be ensured that the cement in the liner lap develops at least 500 psi compressive strength prior to conducting any pressure testing to evaluate hydraulic integrity. With long liners, it may be necessary to adjust cementing additives to produce sufficient compressive strength at the liner lap. 10. Lead slurries are to be designed to allow for a minimum contact time of 10 minutes across zones of critical cement bonding performance. This will require determination of a minimum slurry volume requirement for the planned pump rate and wellbore geometry. For wells with anticipated bottom-hole static temperatures of 230 degrees F or above, the cement slurry is to be designed to prevent cement strength retrogression. This is to be accomplished through the addition of 35% by weight of silica sand or silica flour. Silica flour ground to 325 mesh is to be used for slurry densities up to 16.0 ppg. For higher density slurries, silica sand ground to 200 mesh is to be used. In all cases, compressive strength performance at static bottomhole conditions over a minimum period of 14 days is to be determined. At temperatures above 250 degrees F, do not specify the use of bentonites, diatomaceous earth or expanded perlite at concentrations in excess of 5% - 15% without adding +/- 20% silica flour. For cements to be used across massive salt sections, slurry formulations incorporating 20% - 31% salt, are to be used.
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D. Cement Spacer Design Planning for the success of any primary cementing operation is not complete without thoroughly addressing the design of the cementing spacer. These formulations serve several important functions, including: 1. Separation of incompatible fluids - in this case the drilling mud and cement. Displacement of the drilling fluid ahead of the lead cement slurry. As part of this process, built-up filter cake must be removed from the formation face. Water wetting of the formation and casing through the action of water wetting surfactants. This function is particularly important in the case of oil base drilling fluid displacement.
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Spacer formulations to achieve these requirements can be obtained from each of the major cementing contractors and also the mud companies. However, there are significant differences in the performance characteristics of spacers, and it is the responsibility of the cementing program designer to ensure that the most technically effective spacer is selected for a particular application. Frequently, it is more cost effective in terms of total well cost to purchase a more expensive cementing spacer from a firm other than the cementing contractor, rather than spend considerable time and money on remedial cementing operations to repair a poor primary cement job attributed to poor spacer selection. To ensure that the cement spacer will perform as required, the following guidelines are to be closely adhered to: 1. All spacers should be designed to be in turbulent flow at the planned displacement rate for a particular cement job. In this respect, spacers that achieve turbulent flow at low pump rates are preferred. The spacer should be weighted to a density at least 0.5 -1.0 ppg heavier than the mud density being displaced. However, the spacer density should not exceed the density of the cement slurry. If the cement and mud densities are very close, then the spacer density should be taken to be the average of the two. The spacer should be formulated to water wet the formation face and casing surface. This should not be a problem with water base drilling
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muds and spacers; however, spacers used in the presence of oil base muds will require the addition of sufficient water wetting surfactants to ensure a water wetting characteristic. 4. The spacer should be completely compatible with the drilling mud and lead and tail cement slurries. A compatibility test is to be performed at room temperature and also at the anticipated bottom-hole circulating temperature. The spacer should have good solids suspension characteristics. This will ensure the capacity to suspend weighting material. The solids carrying capacity of the spacer must also be tested. The spacer should be designed to produce a minimum of 10 minutes surface contact time through intervals of critical cement bonding. This requirement is critically important and must not be underdesigned. In addition to the requirement of (6) above, the spacer volume should be sufficient to yield a minimum fluid height of 500 feet in the casing annulus.
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All spacers should be batch mixed in the field using a dedicated mud pit. The pit selected for preparing the spacer must have adequate agitation to avoid inadvertent settlement of weighting material. Usually a pit with a combination of paddle and jet mixers will be acceptable. Other Design Parameters Effecting Primary Cementing Success
In addition to the subject areas discussed above, numerous other factors impact the success of the primary cementing operation. These design considerations are no less important to the success of the cement job than those discussed previously. 1. Through intervals of critical cementing performance (e.g., zone isolation, casing support, production intervals), the well should be drilled as straight as possible; i.e., the dog-leg severity should be as near to zero degrees/100 ft as possible. This will enable maximum casing stand-off and minimize the number of centralizers required through these intervals.
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2. Casing stand-off through critical sections should be a minimum of 70%. This is generally accomplished through the use of positive stand-off centralizers. If it is necessary to use spring bow type centralizers, then centralizer placement to achieve this stand-off can be determined using computer modeling or the techniques outlined in API Specification 10D, Specification for Casing Centralizers. Note: To enhance casing stand-off through production zones, positive stand-off centralizers are to be used. Refer to General Drilling Program for spacing requirements. 3. Based on the anticipated drilling fluid rheology while running casing, maximum casing running speeds are to be specified that will avoid formation break-down and/or loss of whole mud to weak zones. For large diameter casing strings, it will be necessary to determine if the force exerted on the bottom of the casing due to hydrostatic pressure and annular pressure losses will be sufficiently large to cause the casing to be pumped out of the hole during cementing operations. If it is possible for the casing to be pumped off bottom, then cement slurry density and/or displacement rates will have to be adjusted to ensure the casing remains on bottom. Casing float equipment is to be specified to ensure the success of primary cementing operations. In general, the following float equipment specifications are to be followed: a. For 30" and 20" diameter casing, use a positive acting, single valve float shoe assembly. The use of a float collar will not be required unless dictated by well specific conditions. Inner string cementing may be used on non-floating rigs as appropriate. b. For 13-3/8" casing, use a positive acting, single valve float shoe and a positive acting, single valve float collar spaced two pipe lengths apart. For 9-5/8" casing, use a single valve, positive acting float shoe and a single valve positive acting float collar positioned at least two pipe lengths apart.
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d. For 7" and 5" liners, use a double valve, positive acting float shoe and a conventional liner wiper plug landing collar complete with a profile to accept a latchdown wiper plug. Float shoe and landing collar are to be positioned at least two pipe lengths apart.
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Cement wiper plugs are to be used with casing sizes 13-3/8" and smaller according to the following schedule: a. 13-3/8" and 9-5/8" casing: If using subsea cementing system, only run a top plug. If cementing conventionally with full bore landing string to surface, use a top and bottom non-rotating plug system. b. 7" and 5" liners: Run a single liner wiper plug complete with latch down facility for landing/latching in landing collar. For casing sizes requiring the use of two cementing plugs, the bottom plug is to be launched following the spacer and/or pre-flush. The top plug is to be launched behind the tail slurry with allowance for +/- 2.0 bbls of cement on top of the plug. In certain critical well applications it may be necessary to use both a top and bottom cementing plug for the 13-3/8" casing. This will have to be decided on a well by well basis. In addition, under certain circumstances it may be advisable to use more than one bottom plug to ensure segregation of spacers and/or flushes. Again, this requirement is to be reviewed based on well specific requirements.
7.2.2 Squeeze Cementing Squeeze cementing operations are typically performed as part of a remedial operation (e.g., repair of a poor primary cement job, repair of a poor casing seat, or isolation of water channeling). As with primary cementing, the success of squeeze cementing operations (on the first attempt) requires considerable job planning. Detailed below are job planning considerations that must be adequately addressed before project implementation in the field. A. Squeeze cement slurries should be weighted to +/- 16.0 ppg and treated with appropriate additives to ensure adequate thickening time at the anticipated
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circulating bottom-hole temperature. Refer to the thickening time calculation guidelines in Part 7.2.1. B. The API fluid loss for squeeze slurries should be specified to be in the range of 50-200 ml/30 minutes at 1000 psi differential pressure. For slurries that will be used as part of a circulation squeeze technique, the API fluid loss should be reduced to +/- 50 ml/30 min., while conventional squeezes are to be performed with a fluid loss at the higher end of the range specified above. The free water content for all squeeze cementing slurries is to be zero percent. All squeeze cementing formulations should be prepared in a batch mixing tank to ensure uniform rheological properties prior to pumping downhole. Surface density should be checked using a pressurized mud balance. Once the cement has been completely blended, a sample of cement is to be tested to determine if the API fluid loss is within acceptable limits. Double the volume of filtrate obtained at 7.5 minutes duration and use this figure as an estimate of the filtrate volume that will be produced after 30 minutes. Pump the cement downhole based on the 7.5 minute test result. Maximum surface squeeze pressures should be carefully calculated taking into account the current formation fracture pressure, which may be less than original conditions in permeable zones if reservoir pressure has been drawn down. In addition, the applied squeeze pressure should take account of the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the cement slurry and drilling/completion fluid. Job success will generally be improved if the final squeeze pressure is limited to less than formation fracture pressure less an allowance for a safety factor of +/- 250 psi. Dehydration of the cement slurry on the formation face may require re-application of the final squeeze pressure before the pressure bleed-off rate is reduced to zero. In general, the final squeeze pressure should be stable for a period of 30 minutes before the squeeze is termed "successful" and squeeze pressure is released. The use of downhole squeeze tools is to be specified on a well by well basis. In certain instances it will be more technically and economically desirable to use a drillable cement retainer, whereas in other situations a retrievable packer would be indicated. The specification of these tools will be at the discretion of the job designer based on well conditions and desired results. As with primary cementing slurries, the cement is to be separated from the drilling/completion fluid by an acceptable spacer or wash fluid. In the
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case of squeeze cementing in oil base fluids, the spacer must produce water wetting of the formation and casing ahead of the squeeze slurry. I. Prior to drilling out cement to pressure test the squeezed interval, the cement is to have a minimum compressure strength of 500 psi.
7.2.3 Kick-off and Abandonment Cement Plugs As with all cementing operations, thorough planning and close adherence to good operating practices are necessary to ensure job success on the first attempt. The common belief that multiple cement plugs will probably have to be spotted before one "takes", simply is not true. In most cases, failure to obtain an acceptable cement plug on the first attempt can be traced to incorrect slurry formulation or poor placement practices. This section is intended to provide the program designer and field supervisor with sufficient technical guidance to obtain a successful plug on the first attempt. The guidelines outlined below should be closely reviewed prior to implementing these operations. A. Kick-Off Plug Design and Placement 1. In general, the density of kick-off plugs is to be +/- 17.0 ppg or higher if required to be more dense than the well fluid. Prior to setting open hole cement plugs, a 200' viscous pill (funnel viscosity of 100 + sec/qt) is to be spotted in the open hole below plug setting depth. If the cement plug is to be spotted inside casing as well as open hole (e.g., kicking off below 13-3/8" shoe after cutting and pulling 9-5/8" casing), a bridge plug is to be installed inside the 9-5/8" casing prior to cutting the casing for recovery. The cement plug is to then be spotted on top of the bridge plug. Prior to setting open hole cement plugs in old wells (i.e., previously cased off interval), the open hole section is to be underreamed through the interval that is to be cemented. Plug slurries are to be formulated to allow for adequate thickening time at the anticipated bottom-hole circulating temperature at the bottom of the plug. The thickening time must allow time to spot the plug and pull clear, with allowance for a safety factor of approximately one hour. The following formula can be used as a guide for determining an acceptable thickening time:
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Thickening time = time to mix cement slurry + time to launch wiper plug + time to pump spacer/wash behind + time to displace plug + time to break-off cementing head + time to pull pipe clear of plug + safety factor
In general, a safety factor of one hour should be more than adequate. Do not over-retard the slurry to extend thickening time. Over-retarded slurries will only increase the amount of time required to generate early and ultimate compressive strength, and may result in premature drill-out of a good plug. For all thickening time tests, the elapsed time to 80 and 100 Bearden units of consistency (Bc) is to be measured in hours and minutes, with the 100 Bc figure taken as the measured thickening time. The difference between the 100 Bc and 80 Bc times is to be used as an indication of the time period during which the cement slurry changes from a pumpable to an unpumpable condition. Both the 80 Bc and 100 Bc measurements are to be reported on all thickening time tests. Slurries must be formulated to develop high early and ultimate compressive strength. For applications below a static bottom-hole temperature of 230 degrees F, neat slurries (without sand, lost circulation materials, etc.) should be used. Above 230 degrees F, the slurry formulation must include 35% by weight of silica flour or silica sand. Silica flour ground to 325 mesh is to be used for slurry densities up to 16.0 ppg. For higher density slurries, silica sand ground to 200 mesh is to be used. API fluid loss should be controlled to be in the range of 200 - 250 ml/30 minutes at 1000 psi differential pressure. For slurries that must be set across highly permeable intervals, the fluid loss is to be reduced to less than 50 ml/30 minutes. This is to prevent dehydration of the cement, which could result in annular bridging and sticking of the work string. In all cases the free water (both vertical and inclined) is to be less than 1.0 percent. The cement slurry should be designed to be in turbulent flow at the planned displacement rate. In addition, the slurry should be viscous, and gel rapidly once pumping has stopped.
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8. Sufficient cement volume is to be pumped to produce a plug height of 300 - 500 feet once the work string is removed. For kick-off plugs set in hard formations, the plug length requirement will be greater than for plugs set in softer formations. This is due to the amount of cement plug that will have to be drilled to establish the kick-off. The plug is to be spotted in a section of gauge hole with minimum washouts. If necessary, a caliper log is to be run to ensure an acceptable plug setting interval. If plug spotting in a washed out section cannot be avoided, then allowance should be made for excess cement volume. The cement slurry is to be separated from the drilling fluid by a spacer that is compatible with the mud and cement. When using low density (9.5 - 10.5 ppg) drilling muds, a water base wash is recommended. For higher density muds, a conventional weighted spacer is to be used. Spacer density is to be specified to be a minimum of 0.5 - 1.0 ppg heavier than the drilling fluid density. If spotting the plug in oil base mud, the spacer must contain a water wetting surfactant to water wet the formation face ahead of the cement slurry. To ensure best results, particularly in oil base drilling fluids, the spacer should be sized to produce 500' - 800' of height in the annulus ahead of the cement slurry. When using wash spacers, it must be ensured that the annular height of the wash does not reduce the hydrostatic pressure in the well sufficiently to cause the well to flow. All plugs are to be spotted in a hydrostatically balanced condition. This means that the height of spacer and cement on the outside of the work string must be equivalent to the height of spacer and cement inside the work string. This will require accurate calculation of the spacer and slurry volumes as well as the volume of mud pumped to spot the plug in position. The drill string should be rotated at 20-30 rpm throughout the cementing operation. This should also be performed as the mud is circulated and conditioned prior to mixing and pumping the cement slurry. In addition, once +/- 5 bbls of cement has rounded the end of the work string, pick-up 2'-3' to avoid cement contamination from mud in the rathole.
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B. Abandonment Plugs Abandonment plugs are to be formulated and spotted largely in accordance with the guidelines given above for kick-off plugs. However, there are a few exceptions, and these are given below. 1. For cement plugs that are not to be drilled out, a minimum plug length of 250' should be used. This holds true for open hole as well as cased hole plugs. For cement plugs set inside casing, the need for fluid loss control can be eliminated. However, free water content must still be maintained at less than 1%.
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7.3
Casing Installation and Cementing The material contained in this section is intended to provide general operating guidelines and practices for casing installation and cementing. Under certain operating conditions it may be necessary to supplement these guidelines. In all cases, the casing and cementing section of the Drilling Program is to be consulted for well specific requirements. 7.3.1 Hole Conditioning Prior to running a particular string of casing, the following operations are to be performed: A. Once casing setting depth has been reached, the hole is to be circulated clean of formation cuttings. Any mud conditioning for cementing should be performed as the hole is being drilled to casing point. Prior to logging operations or installation of casing, the bit is to be short tripped to the previous casing shoe and then run back to bottom to be certain the well will remain open. If necessary for hole stability, the drilling fluid density is to be increased. Additional short trips are to be performed until the wellbore is confirmed to be stable. Following completion of open-hole logging, the drilling assembly is to be run back to bottom and the drilling fluid circulated and conditioned for cementing; although this requirement can be relaxed in the case of short logging runs (+/12 hours) provided hole condition during logging has been acceptable.
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7.3.2 Pre-Job Checks
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Planning for a safe and successful casing operation is just as important as actually performing the work. Thorough planning will usually lead to identification of some equipment or material deficiency which would have seriously impacted job performance. It is the responsibility of the drilling supervisor to ensure that all pre-job checks have been performed. Prior to installation of the casing, the following pre-job inspections and operations are to be preformed. A. B. Complete the Casing and Cementing Check List contained in Part 7.4 at the end of this section. The drill string (i.e., drill pipe and bottom-hole assembly) is to be strapped with a steel derrick tape on the last trip out of the hole prior to logging. If any discrepancies occur, then strap out again on the conditioning trip following logging. Pipe measurements are to be taken from the tool joint seal face at the top of each stand, to the seal face on the pin end at the bottom of each stand. The pipe is not to be measured using average stand lengths, previously measured BHA component lengths, finger board height plus pipe stick-up, or any other measurement technique. All tubulars are to be visually inspected for thread and/or body damage, drifted (Refer to General Topics for API drift specifications), and tallied prior to being installed in a well. ALL PIPE TALLIES SHOULD BE CHECKED BY AT LEAST TWO RESPONSIBLE PERSONS. Any discrepancies in the joint count, when compared to the cargo manifest, are to be reported. Thread protectors are to be removed, and the threads cleaned of thread compound and grease using varsol, or other suitable solvent. The threads are then to be cleaned with a high pressure jet washing system, followed by high pressure air to remove residual water. Once the threads are thoroughly clean, a suitable thread compound is to be applied to both the box and pin ends. If it is necessary to re-install any thread protectors prior to running the pipe, the thread protectors are to be thoroughly cleaned before use. Any pipe not passing wellsite inspection is to be set to one side and appropriately labeled. Refer to Section V, Part 2.7 for labeling requirements of damaged pipe. D. For casing strings requiring the use of mandrel type casing hangers and associated running tools, the casing hanger and running tool assembly is to be made-up and racked back in the derrick prior to running the casing. During this operation the hanger and running tool are to be inspected for damage and then function tested.
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E. The cementing head and cementing plugs are to be carefully inspected to ensure compatibility with the casing string to be run. Be certain the plugs are designed to pass through the heaviest weight of casing being run. The positioning of cementing aids, including float equipment and centralizers, is to be determined prior to running the casing. Centralizers to be held in position using stop collars, and positive stand-off centralizers, are to be installed on the pipe deck prior to running casing. The float shoe and float collar joints are to be visually inspected by the Drilling Supervisor or Drilling Engineer to ensure that the float shoe and float collar have been installed using thread locking compound. In addition, it must be ensured that all thread locked couplings have both end of the coupling thread locked even if it is necessary to remove the coupling with the casing joint set on slips in the rotary table. If a casing coupling is removed in the rotary, be certain to install a safety clamp on the casing before attempting to back-off the coupling. A schedule of anticipated hook load as a function of casing footage run should be prepared and posted on the drill floor. If drill pipe is to be used as a landing string, it must be ensured that the anticipated drill pipe loading does not exceed 80 percent of the drill pipe tensile rating. Anticipated drill pipe loading is to be calculated as follows: Drill pipe loading = (Maximum) Buoyed weight of casing @ setting depth + Pick-up drag force + 100,000 lbf over-pull allowance I. The casing handling tools are to be carefully inspected for signs of wear. Slip insert dies should be new and tightly retained within the slip wedges. For heavy duty spider assemblies, be certain the split bushing retaining pin can be easily removed to enable spider assembly installation when required. Remove any hardware that must be removed to install the spider around the casing. Check functioning and fit of single joint pick-up elevators on a joint of casing. Be certain the elevator latch is fitted with a safety pin. All lifting appliances required during casing installation are to be furnished with valid load certificates. Load certificates are to be inspected by the drilling supervisor to be certain they are current. Items which require a load certificate include: 1.
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All elevators, slips and spider assemblies


2. 3. 4. 5. K. Single joint pick-up elevators and handling slings All casing handling slings Wire rope slings used as snubbing lines Load cells used in conjunction with power tongs
The operational status of the cementing unit is to be checked well in advance of the job start time. This is to be done even if the unit was serviced following the previous cement job. Pressure test all lines and valves on the unit, as well as the cementing line to the drill floor, including any high pressure flexible cementing hoses. Consideration should be given to mixing a trial batch of cement to test the mixing system if capabilities are in doubt. Check to be certain the drill floor has been made ready for running the casing. The following equipment and materials should be available at the start of the job. 1. Mud fill-up line. This should be a permanent fixture, complete with a swiveled arm and down-spout to enable casing fill-up between joints. The line should be equipped with a valve positioned near the end of the swiveled arm to permit operation by the casing crew. Elevated work platform. The platform should be constructed to enable the casing crew to work at a comfortable elevation above the heavy duty spider assembly. Casing dope and brushes. Use only API modified casing dope and a new dope brush. Five gallon bucket of barite and a wire brush. To be used to clean and dry threads prior to applying thread locking compound. Length of 1" - 1" diameter rope (depending on pipe size) to restrain casing as it enters the V-door. Restraining line to hold power tong out of the way when not in use. Fully operational stabbing board equipped with safety harness and emergency braking system.
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7.3.3 Casing Installation Casing installation operations are to be closely supervised by the drilling supervisor, particularly during initial rig up, and while running casing equipped with cementing aids (float equipment, centralizers, etc.). The operating procedures and practices outline below are to be closely followed while installing casing. A. If the casing is being run on a floating rig, be certain the rotary table is positioned over the wellhead prior to running casing. In addition, once the casing hanger has been picked up and is in a position above the BOP stack, space out the landing string such that the casing hanger can be run through the BOP stack and landed in the wellhead in one motion. Do not allow the casing hanger to be suspended in the BOP stack under any circumstances. Rotary slips and side door collar type elevators may be used at the beginning of each casing job. 30" casing is usually run using pad-eyes. These tools may be used for string weights up to 60% of the load rating of the side door collar type elevators. Once this limit has been reached, use a slip type elevator and spider. A safety clamp is to be installed on the casing while making connections until sufficient casing weight is available to ensure the slips are biting and the casing will not fall. This should occur when +/- 20,000 lbf of casing weight has been run. Apply thread locking compound to bottom casing joints as specified in the Drilling Program. If the bottom joints of casing have not been furnished with one end of coupling already thread locked, remove casing couplings as required to apply thread locking compound. Be certain to install safety clamp to pipe body prior to removing coupling. The power tongs are to be installed in a position that will allow easy movement from make-up to set-back position. In addition, the snub line is to be secured such that the angle between the snub line and the tong arm is at 90 degrees and level when the tong is in the make-up position. This will ensure correct make-up torque readings for torque gauges equipped with load cells attached to the snub line.
B.
C.
D.
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F. Pipe running speeds are to be controlled to avoid breaking down the casing shoe or other weak formation. If a maximum safe running speed is not specified in the Drilling Program, limit pipe running speed to 20 seconds per joint. Monitor mud returns from the well to ensure that the correct volume of fluid is being returned for the volume of casing that has been run. The casing is to be filled with mud at regular intervals to avoid excessive collapse loading. If the mud fill-up line is positioned correctly, mud can be added between connections without loss of rig time. For casing strings equipped with auto-fill float equipment, the float valves are to be tripped at the casing shoe prior to running out into open-hole. Once the casing has been landed, circulate and condition mud, pumping the greater of either casing capacity or annular capacity. Pump at the maximum rate planned for during the cementing operation. Monitor well for whole mud losses.
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H.
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While running casing, any spacer fluids that will be required during the cementing operation are to be prepared in an isolated mud pit. If weighting material is required in the formulation, this material should be added close to the time when the spacer is required in order to avoid material settling in the mixing pit.
7.3.4 Casing Cementing Primary cementing operations can be performed in a routine manner if adequate planning and equipment checks have been performed. Since primary cementing offers the greatest opportunity for obtaining overall job success, the following guidelines are to be followed closely. A. Check that the liquid additive system is functioning properly and that the additive fluid levels indicated on the metering tanks are correct for the planned slurry formulation. Check the functioning of the bulk cement transfer system. Be certain all shipping lines are clear. To avoid bridging, "Fluff" the cement prior to initiating bulk cement transfer through the shipping lines. Be prepared to switch shipping lines in the event the primary shipping line plugs-off. Be certain to avoid over filling the bulk cement tanks in order to prevent subsequent difficulties that may be experienced "fluffing" the cement.
B.
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D. Have sufficient sample containers on hand to catch at least two dry cement samples and two blended cement samples from the lead and tail cement. While mixing and pumping cement, slurry density checks are to be performed at least once every five minutes. The slurry density should be measured with a pressurized mud balance using a sample recovered from the bottom of the mixing tub. Atmospheric mud balances are too inaccurate for cementing operations and should not be used. E. It is imperative that the drilling supervisor monitors the volume of cement slurry mixed and pumped. This is to be done by maintaining a record of mix water consumption at the cementing unit. In addition, a job record should be maintained including the following data: time, slurry density, pump rate, pump pressure, mud return rate and current operation.
F.
For most 30" and 20" casing and all liner cementing, displacement of the cement slurry is to be performed using the cementing unit. Accurate placement of these slurries requires that displacement volumes be measured using the cementing unit displacement tanks. For all other casing strings, the top cementing plug is to be displaced to the float collar using the rig's mud pumps. On conventional surface drop cement wiper plugs, if the plug dropping indicator showed the plug left the plug dropping head, continue pumping until the plug bumps. On liner and stage cementing plugs, do not pump more than the calculated displacement. On liner and stage cementing jobs, it is much easier to drill up a small volume of cement left inside the casing, than to repair a poorly cemented casing shoe due to over-displacement of cement. Calculation of the total mud pump strokes to displace the top plug to the float collar should be based on the contractor's record of pump displacement efficiencies measured during previous cement jobs. It must be remembered that displacement efficiency will be a function of liner size, pump rate, and pumping pressure. If the displacement efficiency is not known, assume an efficiency of 97% as a first approximation. If the plug does not bump at the calculated number of strokes, on liner and stage cementing jobs do not over-displace the cement. The actual displacement efficiency can be checked when the drill out assembly is run and tags the top plug.
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G. For cementing programs requiring the use of a two plug system, the bottom plug is to be released once the lead spacer has been pumped. The bottom plug is to be followed by the lead and tail cement slurries. Prior to displacement of the tail slurry from the cementing lines to the rig floor, the top plug is to be released. The volume of cement remaining inside the cementing lines is then to be displaced on top of the top cementing plug. The cement left above the top cementing plug may aid in drilling the top plugs.
If mud returns are being taken to surface while cementing, a constant record of mud return volume is to be maintained by the mud loggers and checked against the theoretical volume of mud returns. Remember, when the casing is on a vacuum, the volume of mud returned to the surface will exceed the theoretical volume of mud returns (based on the actual volume of cement and mud pumped at surface). When the cement U-tube balances, the mud return rate may go to zero as the displacement fluid catches up with the cement. This phenomenon may produce a complete loss of mud returns; however, it should not be confused with whole mud losses to the formation. 7.3.5 Casing Pressure Testing Casing pressure testing procedures and test pressures will be specified in the Drilling Program for a specific well. However, it is the responsibility of the Drilling Supervisor to check the figures at the wellsite to ensure that the casing is not burst or collapsed through negligence. Casing and liner pressure testing is to be performed as outlined below. Do not pressure test the casing when the top plug bumps during cementing operations. A. All casing strings are to be pressure tested in conjunction with pressure testing of the BOP stack blind/shear rams. This is to be performed as the last pressure test during the BOP test sequence (except as noted in (B) below). Casing test pressures are not to exceed 80% of the internal yield pressure of the casing or 80% of the casing connector pressure rating, whichever is lower. If the Drilling Program calls for use of a higher test pressure, consult with Drilling Superintendent, Engineer, or Manager to confirm test pressures. If it is required to run a cement evaluation log (CBL or CET), then pressure testing of the casing and blind/shear rams is to be performed following completion of the logging run. The casing pressure test is to be staged up in 500 psi increments, with each successive pressure increment held for a brief period to ensure no leaks. The
H.
B.
C.
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final holding period at test pressure is to be for a period not less than 15 minutes. D. Under no circumstances should the casing test pressure exceed the working pressure rating of the ram preventers or the pressure rating of the wellhead spool section exposed to the test pressure, whichever is less. With surface wellhead systems, the annulus outlet for the casing string being tested should be opened and monitored for fluid leaking past the casing hanger pack-off element. If this is not possible, install a pressure gauge on the casing annulus outlet and monitor for a pressure increase during the casing pressure test. All casing test pressures are to be applied and removed slowly to avoid adverse dynamic loading. All pressure tests must take account of the annulus fluid density relative to the fluid density inside the casing. The annulus fluid density should be assumed to be equivalent to drilling fluid down to the cement top, then sea water when offshore or formation water when on land from the cement top to the previous casing shoe. A chart recording pressure gauge must be used on all casing pressure tests. This gauge can be supplemented by a more accurate, conventional bourdon tube pressure gauge, if required for operational reasons. For all casing pressure tests, a record of applied pressure versus barrels of mud pumped is to be maintained. This information is particularly useful during subsequent formation pressure testing. Figure 7.3 can be used to determine the approximate volume of mud to be pumped to achieve a particular test pressure. Alternatively, the equations below can be used. For water base drilling fluids, use the following equation to estimate the volume of fluid that must be pumped to achieve test pressure.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
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Figure 7.3: Volume of Fluid Required To Pressure Up Casing and Open Hole
V m = P x V c x (2.8 x 10-6 Fw + 0.2 x 10-6 Fs) Where: Vm P Vc Fw = = = = volume of mud pumped, bbl applied pressure, psi volume of mud in casing, bbl volume fraction of water, dimensionless
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Fs = volume fraction of solids, dimensionless
Similarly, for oil base drilling fluids, the following equation can be used to estimate the volume of fluid that must be pumped to achieve test pressure. Vm Where: = P x Vc x (2.8 x 10-6 + 5.0 x 10-6 Fo + 0.2 x 10-6 Fs) Vm P Vc Fw Fo Fs = = = = = = volume of mud pumped, bbl applied pressure, psi volume of mud in casing, bbl volume fraction of water, dimensionless volume fraction of oil, dimensionless volume fraction of solids, dimensionless
7.4
Casing and Cementing Checklist The checklist given below is to be completed prior to and during all casing and cementing operations. 7.4.1 Pre-Job Checks A. B. C. Review Section V, Part 7.3 of Drilling Operations Manual. Review Casing and Cementing section of Drilling Program. Immediately after taking any casing at the rig site, count the number of joints and compare with the number that should have been shipped based on the cargo manifest. Any discrepancies are to be recorded and reported to supply base. Lay out casing on pipe rack in the correct order for running, taking account of different weights and grades and the required running order. When stacking pipe, be certain successive layers are supported by 2" x 4" wooden sills spaced + 10' apart. Be certain sills remain aligned on successive layers to avoid pipe bending. Position casing pup joints in casing string as specified in Drilling Program. The same holds true for any radioactive marker beads that may be required. For casing run with mixed threads, be certain at least two crossovers are available for each crossover point. Check dimensions of crossovers to ensure compatibility with casing dimensions.
D.
E. F.
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G. Check condition of single joint pick-up elevators. Latch elevators on a joint of casing and check fit. Be certain elevator latch is fitted with a safety pin. Check condition of lifting sling and shackles. Review casing make-up procedure with casing crew. Check Drilling Program for optimum make-up torque and acceptable minimum and maximum torques. Make up of Buttress Casing Proper make up of a buttress connection will give a gas tight seal. A triangle is stamped on the pin end of the buttress casing. Allowing for tolerances in the cutting of the threads in the pin and box, correct make up is when the end of the coupling is between the base and the apex (i.e., top) of the triangle. The procedure to make up buttress casing is as follows: 1. Make up the bottom joints requiring thread lock to 1/2 way between the base and the apex of the triangle stamp on the pin. After threadlock connections are made up and run, make up 4 or 5 connections with the required thread compound (i.e., pipe dope) to 1/2 way between the base and apex of the triangle. Count the turns and torque to make up these joints. Note: A click will be heard from the power tongs at the same point on each revolution. 3. Use the average of the turns and torque recorded in number 2 above to make up the rest of the string. Note: a. If the weight/foot of the casing varies in the string, repeat steps 2 and 3 for each casing weight/foot change. The common practice of making up buttress casing to the bottom of the triangle can lead to joints with insufficient make up. This would be true if pin thread crests on the low end of tolerance and box thread crests on the low end of the tolerance.
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Check with drilling contractor on anticipated mud pump displacement efficiency even if it is planned to displace the cement with the cementing unit.
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This will enable switching to an alternate pump in the event of an equipment break-down. J. Discuss casing installation and cementing procedures with drillers, toolpushers, mud engineer, cementer, casing crew, and any other personnel directly involved in the operation. Assign personnel to perform the following tasks: 1. 2. 3. Cement sample catching during cementing operation. Cement slurry density measurement while mixing cement. Mud volume gain/loss monitoring during cementing.
K.
7.4.2 Hole Conditioning Prior to Cementing A. At casing point, circulate hole clean of formation cuttings and gas and condition mud for cementing. The mud is to be free of cuttings and of uniform density. Short trip bit to previous casing shoe, reaming any tight spots as required. If hole remained open during short trip and is hydrostatically stable, strap out of hole with drill string. Compare pipe tally with drillers tally and correct drilled depth as required. Following logging run, compare drillers depth with loggers depth. If a significant discrepancy exists, strap out again following conditioning trip.
B. C.
7.4.3 Tripping Out To Run Casing A. B. Closely monitor hole fill-up volume on last trip out of hole prior to running casing. Hole must be completely stable and taking correct fill-up volume. Check work areas affected during casing installation to be sure they are clear of all non-essential equipment, debris, etc. Re-fuel diesel powered hydraulic power units.
C.
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D. Conduct final briefing with casing crew. Check that planned coupling makeup procedure is correct, including make-up torque schedule. PULL WEAR BUSHING
E.
7.4.4 Cementing Casing A. Witness the loading of all cementing plugs. Under no circumstances is the bottom wiper plug to be slit with a knife because of doubt that it will rupture when bumping the float collar. Pressure test all cementing lines and the cementing manifold with water prior to pumping any fluid into the casing. Test pressure is to be at least 1000 psi above maximum anticipated pumping pressure during cementing operations. While cementing, perform the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. Check cement slurry density at 5 minute intervals. Periodically check actual mud returns vs. anticipated mud returns. Continuously monitor surface pumping pressure. Catch samples of dry cement, mixed cement, and mix water, as required. Check position of tattletale on cementing head once top cementing plug has been released.
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For surface wellhead systems, monitor casing annulus for pressure build-up while cement sets.
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DRILLING OPERATIONS MANUAL DRILLING PRACTICES CASING AND CEMENTING OPERATIONS

SECTION V, PART 7, PAGE i

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DRILLING OPERATIONS MANUAL DRILLING PRACTICES CASING AND CEMENTING OPERATIONS

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Figure 7.1: Example Exploration Casing Program

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Figure 7.2: Example Development Casing Program

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7.1.9 Corrosion Considerations

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