EN1999 5 Hoglund

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Background and Applications
Eurocode 9 - Design of aluminium structures

1
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop
Strength and stability of aluminium members according to EN 1999-1-1 Eurocode 9

Torsten Hglund Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm
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Design values of loads and resistances

2
Design values of loads are given in Eurocode 0 and 1. Eurodode 9 gives the design values of resistance at the ultimate limit state, e.g.
M Rd =
M Rd M Rk
M Rk
Wel f o
M1
(class 3 cross section)
design value of bending moment resistance characteristic value of bending moment resistance characteristic value of 0,2 % proof strength partial factor for general yielding section modulus
f o = Rp0.2 M1 = 1,1
Wel
For class 4 cross sections (slender sections, sections with large width/thickness ratio) Wel is replaced by Weff for the effective cross section. However, if the deflection at the serviceability limit state is decisive then a simplified method may be used; see page 17.
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Design values of loads and resistances

3
In a section with reduced strength due to welding (heat affected zone, HAZ)
M Rd =
Wel u,haz f u
M2
(in a section with HAZ across the section)
M Rd fu
design value of bending moment resistance characteristic value of ultimate strength
M2 = 1,25 partial factor for failure

u, haz
reduction factor for the ultimate strength in HAZ
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Material properties
4
Part of Table 3.2 b.
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Design of aluminium profiles

5
Local buckling behaviour / cross section class 4

Except for massive sections and very stocky sections local buckling will occure in compressed parts at failure. However, the behaviour is different depending on the slenderness = b/t where b is the width and t is the thickness of the cross section part. If > 3 where 3 is roughly 6 for an outstand part and 22 for an internal part, then local buckling will occure before the compressive stress reach the 0,2 % proof stress fo. Such a section part is called slender and the cross section is referred to as Class 4 cross section.
f0,2
tf,eff
For very slender sections there is a post-buckling strength allowed for by using an effective cross section.
Collapse load Buckling load
tw,eff
(4)
>
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Cross section class 3, 2 and 1

6
If for the most slender part of the cross section is < 3 and > 2 where 2 is roughly 4,5 (16), then the cross section belong to class 3, non slender section. Then buckling will occur for a stress equal to or somewhat larger than fo and some part of the cross section closer to the neutral axis (webs) may be larger than according to the theory of elasticity (linear stress distribution). If for the most slender part is less than 2 then also parts of the cross section close to the neutral axis will reach fo (class 2).
f0,2
(3)
<
<
If max < 1 = 3 (11) then rotation capacity is large enough for redistribution of bending moment using plastic global analysis (class 1).
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Local buckling - slenderness limits

7
The above given limits 3 , 2 and 1 are valid for material buckling class A and fo = 250 N/mm2. For buckling class B and welded sections the limits are smaller. Buckling class
(Buckling class is defined later)
= 250 /f o
Internal part 1/ 2/ 11 9 13 10 16 13 16,5 13,5
3/
22 18 18 15
Outstand part 1/ 2/ 3 2,5 3,5 3 4,5 4 4,5 3,5
3/
6 5 5 4
A, without weld A, with weld B, without weld B, with weld
For the web of a symmetric beam in bending = 0,4bw/tw bf outstand

Example 1: Give cross section class
internal tw
mm bf = 70 Loading tf = 14 bw = 90 Axial compression tw = 4 fo = 250 Bending
Cross section class 1 2 3 4
web
flange flange
web
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Internal / outstand cross section part

8
For outstand cross section parts, b is the width of the flat part outside the fillet. For internal parts b is the flat part between the fillets, except for cold-formed sections and rounded outside corners.
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Stress gradient
9
For cross section parts with stress gradient ( = 2/1) then = bw/tw where = 0,70 + 0,30 if 1 > > -1 = 0,80/(1- ) if < -1 If the part is less highly stressed than the most severely stressed fibres in the section, a modified expression may be used for
z2
= (250 /f o ) ( z1 / z 2 )
bf
Example 2: Give cross section class
internal tw
mm bf = 140 tf = 10 bw = 180 tw = 6 fo = 250
Loading Axial compression Bending
Cross section class 1 2 3 4
x x
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Axial force cross section resistance
10
10
For axial compression the cross section resistance (no flexural buckling) is the same for cross section class 1, 2 and 3
N Rd = Af o / M1
where M1 = 1,1 = partial factor for material
For class 4 cross section the cross section resistance is
N Rd = Aeff f o / M1 where Aeff = area of effective cross section

This effective cross section is build up of section with effective thickness teff for the cross section parts that belong to class 4.
teff = c t
Buckling class
C1 C2 where c = reduction factor for local buckling c = ( / ) ( / ) 2

Internal part C2 C1 32 29 29 25 220 198 198 150 Outstand part C1 C2 10 9 9 8 24 20 20 16
A, without weld A, with weld B, without weld B, with weld
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Bending moment resistance

11
For bending moment the formulae for the resistance is depending on cross section class. For class 2 cross section the resistance is given by
M Rd,2 = M pl = Wpl f o / M1
where Wpl = plastic section modulus Wpl = A z
For class 1 cross section the resistance may be somewhat larger but Mpl is a good approximation. For class 3 cross section the resistance is somewhere between Mpl and Mel where
M el = Wel f o / M1 with Wel = elastic section modulus

The actual resistance if found by interpolation
Wel = I / e
M Rd,3 = M el + ( M pl M el )
3 3 2
However, in most cases Mel could be used as a conservative approximation For class 4 cross section the resistance is
M Rd,4 = Weff f o / M1
where Weff = section modulus for effective cross section
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Effective cross section

12
The effective cross section is different for axial force and bending moment. No effective cross section is needed for the combined loading axial force and bending moment. The combination is solved using interaction formulae.
bf tf tw bw t e,w t e,f bc
y
t e,f te,w
y
te,f tw t e,f tf
tw
Effective section for axial compression
Effective section for y- axis bending
Effective section for z- axis bending
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Effective cross section for axial force

13
The effective cross section is based on the effective thickness of the cross section parts.
tf,eff
If the cross section is asymmetric, then there might be a shift in the neutral axis. For axially compressed extruded profiles this shift is ignored i.e. the axial force is taken as acting in the centre of the effective cross section. For cold-formed sections the shift should be allowed for by adding a bending moment MEd = NEdeN where eN is the shift in neutral axis for gross and effective cross section.
tf,eff
If the cross section is symmetric, then the effective cross section is also symmetric.
In principle only the flat parts between fillets need to be reduced, however, for simplicity, the whole flange or web may be reduced.
bw
hw
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Effective cross section for bending moment

14
To find the effective cross section for bending moment is sometimes a tricky task and is not presented here in detail. Just a few comments: Local buckling may only occur on the compression side. For a member in bending, even if the cross section is symmetric, the effective section is asymmetric The neutral axis of the effective cross section is shifted closer to the tension side and the compressed part of the cross section is increased In principle an iteration procedure should be used, however, only two steps are necessary E.g. for an I-section the first step is to calculate the effective thickness of the compression flange and calculate the neutral axis for that section. The second step is to calculate the effective thickness of the web based on this neutral axis. This is then the effective cross section.
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Effective cross section for bending moment

15
bf
From above we know the cross section class mm bf = 70 tf = 14 bw = 90 tw = 4

Loading Axial compression Bending web Cross section class 1 2 3 flange flange 4 web
tf
tw
bw
Compression, web c =
C1 C2 ( / ) ( / ) 2
C1 = 32,
c =
32 220 = 0,988 2 22,5 22,5
C 2 = 220 = 90 / 4 = 22,5 = 1, 3 = 22
c is very close to one.

Use gross cross section
Compression and = 70 / 14 = 5 bending, flange Which formula to be used?
3 = 6, 2 = 4,5
M Rd,2 = Wpl f o / M1 M Rd,3 = M el + ( M pl M el ) M Rd,4 = Weff f o / M1
3 3 2
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Summary for members in bending

16
Web slenderness
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If serviceability limit state is decisive
17
17
The relatively low elastic modulus of aluminium (compared to steel) means that the deflection at the serviceability limit state is often decisive. Then conservative design at the ultimate limit state can often be accepted. For class 1, 2 and 3 cross section the resistance according to the theory of elasticity could be used e.g.
M Rd =
Wel f o
M1
corresponding to the horisontal line marked steel on the previous slide. For class 4 cross section the resistance could be given by
W f M Rd = c el o
M1
where c is the reduction factor for local buckling for the cross section part with the largest value of / 3. This might be rather conservative but no effective cross section need to be determined.
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Buckling class
18
Small residual stresses in extruded profiles mean that the buckling curves are not depending on the shape of the cross section (as for steel) Buckling curve depends on material and longitudinal welding Material buckling class A or B depends on the - diagram for small strains (proportional limit - 0,2-proof stress ratio, fp/fo) Buckling class is given in Table 3.2 a and b
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Effective width - effective thickness

19
fo
fo
t b beff
beff
teff
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Why effective thickness?

20
Simple calculations Easier to allow for combination of local buckling and HAZ Easy to combine with shear lag where effective width is used
beff beff
CL
You only need to reduce the thickness, not to define start and stop of effective widths especially important for aluminium profiles. Within the HAZs the lesser of the reduction for local buckling and HAZ softening is used. The effects of plate buckling on shear lag may be taken into account by first reducing the flange width to an effective width, then reducing the thickness to an effective thickness for local buckling basing the slenderness on the effective width for shear lag. (National choice)
3 4
b0 1
b0 2
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Heat Affected Zone, HAZ

21
Two reduction factors
o,haz for 0,2 % proof strength and u,haz for ultimate strength
Example: Extruded profile, t < 5
Alloy Temper T4 6082 T5 T6 7020 T6
0,2 % p. strength Ultimate strength
Sheet, strip and plate, t < 5

Alloy Temper H14 H16 H14 T6
0,2 % p. strength Ultimate strength
o,haz
u,haz
o,haz
u,haz
0,91 0,54 0,50 0,71
0,78 0,69 0,64 0,80
3005 5754 6082
0,37 0,30 0,53 0,48
0,64 0,56 0,63 0,60
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Width of heat affected zone

22
bhaz mm 40 30 20 TIG, t<6
T1 < 60oC
bhaz
MIG
10 0 0 5 10 15 t mm When 60 oC < T1 < 120oC multiply with 1 + (T1 - 60) / 120 1 + (T1 - 60) / 80 6xxx alloy 7xxx alloy 20 25
T1 = interpass cooling temperature when multipass welds are laid
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Longitudinally welded section

23
For a longitudinally welded section the loss of strength in the heat affected zone HAZ should be allowed for. The cross section classification is made as for extruded sections, except that the limits 1, 2 and 3 are somewhat smaller. For the resistance a reduced thickness is used within the widths bhaz of the HAZs
2z + t w
b b haz
tf
o,haztf
z
b haz
teff = c tf bc min(o,haztf; ctf)
t haz = o,haz t where o,haz is the reduction factor for the 0,2 %
min(o,haztw; ctw)
c tw
tw
proof stress. If the cross section belong to class 4 the effective thickness is the lesser of c t and o,haz t within bhaz and c t besides HAZ. Question 1: If a welded section is symmetric and belong to class 3 is then the reduced cross section due to HAZ asymmetric? Question 2: If a welded section is symmetric and belong to class 4 is then the reduced cross section usually asymmetric?
Bending moment
Qu. 1 2 yes no
x x
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Member with transverse welds or welded attachments

24
For a member with a transverse cross weld the tension force resistance is the lesser of a) The strength in the sections beside the weld and the HAZ b) The strength in the HAZ c) The strength of the weld The strength of the sections besides the welds and the HAZs is based on the 0,2 % proof strength fo whereas the strength in the HAZs is the ultimate strength u,hazfu and in the weld fw, but with larger partial factors M2 = Mw = 1,25. So ,for a member in tension the resistance is the lesser of a)
a)
b)
c)
N o,Rd = f o A / M1 b) N u,Rd = u,haz f u A / M2 c) N w,Rd = f w Aw / Mw
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Member with transverse welds or welded attachments

25
Question 1: Which is the lesser of the strength in HAZ and the weld for a tension member in EN-AW 6082-T6 with a but weld with Aw = A made of filler metal 5356 (M2 = Mw) Table 8.8 Table 3.2b
a)
b)
c)
f w = 210 N / mm 2
u,haz f u = f u,haz = 185 N / mm 2

N N
Question 2: What is the difference for a member with an attachment? a) N o,Rd = f o A / M1 b) N u,Rd = u,haz f u A / M2 c) N w,Rd = f w Aw / Mw
a) b)
Formula c) is not applicable
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Member with holes

26
For a member with (bolt) holes the resistance is the lesser of a) The strength in the sections beside the holes b) The strength in the section with the holes
1 2
3 p d b1 b Anet = min: line 1 t (b - 2d) 2 line 2 t (b - 4d + 2s /(4p)) 2 t (b1 + 20,65s1 4d + 2s /(4p)) line 3
s 1 2
s1
For a member in tension the resistance is the lesser of a) N o,Rd = f o A / M1 b)
N u,Rd = 0,9 f u Anet / M2
Note 0,9
The net area Anet shall be taken as the gross area less appropriate deductions for holes, see figure.
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Flexural, torsion-flexural and lateral-torsional buckling

27
(Flexural) buckling Torsional buckling

S G N
Axial force
Torsional-flexural buckling
Bending moment
N
My
Lateral-torsional buckling Flexural buckling
My
Axial force and bending moment
Mz My N
Mz
My
Lateral-torsional buckling
S G
N My
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Flexural buckling
28
1. Critical load according to classic theory 2. Yield load 3. Slenderness parameter 4. Buckling class and reduction factor from formulae or diagram 5. Factor to allow for longitudinally or transverse welds 6. Resistance
1
N cr =
EI
2 lcr
N y = Aeff f o Ny = N cr
= 1 for members without welds
N b,Rd = N y / M1
0,9
0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0
0 0,5 1,0
1 Class 2
A Class B
1,5
2,0
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Flexural buckling, members with longitudinal welds

29
For members with longitudinal welds Buckling class A
= 1 1 A1 10 0,05 + 0,1 A1 1,3(1 ) A A

where
A1 = A Ahaz (1 o,haz )
Ahaz = area of HAZ

Buckling class B
=1
= 1 + 0,04(4 ) (0,5 ) 0,22 1,4(1 )
if if
0,2 > 0,2
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Members with transverse welds at the ends
30
30
For members with cross welds the factor is depending on where the weld is placed along the member. If the welds are at the ends then = 1 in the formula for flexural buckling (1). However, then a check is also needed of the section resistance at the ends where = o.(2)
N b,Rd is the lesser of 1 and 2

(1) N b,Rd = N y / M1 and (2) N Rd = o N y / M1 where
u,haz f u / M2 o = f o / M1
Utilization grade
NEd Ny/ M1
NEd oNy/ M1
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Transverse welds at any section

31
If the weld is at a distance xs from one end then the resistance at that section is found for = x (3). Furthermore the resistance for the member without weld should also be checked. (1) If the weld is at the centre of the member then x = o.
N b,Rd is the lesser of 1 and 3

(1) N b,Rd = N y / M1 and (3) N b,Rd = x N y / M1
x =
+ (1 ) sin(xs / lcr )
Utilization grade
Note that at the weld haz is based on
haz = o
(6.68a)
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Torsional and torsional-flexural buckling

32
(1) For sections containing reinforced outstands such that mode 1 would be critical in terms of local buckling, the member should be regarded as "general" and Aeff determined allowing for either or both local buckling and HAZ material. 2) For sections such as angles, tees and cruciforms, composed entirely of radiating outstands, local and torsional buckling are closely related. When determining Aeff allowance should be made, where appropriate, for the presence of HAZ material but no reduction should be made for local buckling i.e. c = 1. 1 Formulae for critical load Ncr are given in Annex I of Eurocode 9 part 1-1.
0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3
1 2
Aeff f o N cr
0,2 0,1 0
0
T 1 Cross section composed of radiating outstands, 2 General cross section
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
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Buckling length factor k

33
The buckling length should be taken as lcr = kL. The figure gives guidance for k.
L lcr
lcr
lcr /2
lcr /2
lcr
End conditions 1. Held in position and restrained in rotation at both ends 2. Held in position at both ends and restrained in rotation at one end 3. Held in position at both ends, but not restrained in rotation 4. Held in position at one end, and restrained in rotation at both ends 5. Held in position and restrained in rotation at one end, and partially restrained in rotation but not held in position at the other end 6. Held in position and restrained in rotation at one end, but not held in position or restrained at the other end
lcr
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Lateral-torsional buckling of beams

34
Critical moment
2 EK w M cr = EI y GK v + 2 L L
My
Fz
My
Slenderness parameter
LT =
Wel,y f o
M cr
LT
1 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0

0 0,5 1,0 1,5
1 2
Reduction factor LT Resistance
M b,LT = LTWel,y f o / M 1
LT
2,0
1 Class 1 and 2 cross sections 2 Class 3 and 4 cross sections
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Lateral-torsional buckling need not be checked

35
Lateral-torsional buckling need not be checked in any of the following circumstances a) Bending takes place about the minor principal axis (symmetric profiles) b) Hollow sections with h/b < 2 c) Rotation is prevented d) The compression flange is fully restrained against lateral movement throughout its length e) The slenderness parameter LT between points of effective lateral restraint is less than 0,4.
b h h/b<2 b)
LT < 0,4
c) d) e)
a)
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Bending and axial compression

36
1 Classification of cross-sections for members with combined bending and axial forces is made for the loading components separately. No classification is made for the combined state of stress.
major axis (y-axis) bending:

N Ed x N Rd y
yc
minor axis (z-axis) bending:

N Ed N z x Rd c M z,Ed + 0 M z,Rd
M y,Ed
0 M y,Rd
1,00
zc
1,00
2 A cross-section can belong to different classes for axial force, major axis bending and minor axis bending. The combined state of stress is accounted for in the interaction expressions. These interaction expressions can be used for all classes of cross-section. The influence of local buckling and yielding on the resistance for combined loading is accounted for by the resistances in the denominators and the exponents, which are functions of the slenderness of the cross-section. 3 Section check is included in the check of flexural and lateral-torsional buckling All exponents may conservatively be given the value 0,8. Alternative expressions depend on shape factors y or z and reduction factors y or z.
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Comparison with Eurocode 3 for steel

37
1,0
1,0
N Ed N Rd
y = 0
Ec 3 Ec 9 y =1,0 Klass 3
NEd NRd
y = 0
0,5
y = 0,62 y = 1,23
y = 0,62
0,5
Ec 3 Ec 9 y =1,0 Klass 2
y = 1,23
0,5
M y,Ed M y,Rd
1,0
0 0 0,5
M y,Ed M y,Rd
1,0
Cross section class 3
Cross section class 2
Major axis bending, constant bending moment
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Design section
38
N M1
emax
e1
M1 N
e +v
e1
e +v vmax
vmax
N.v = second order bending moment M2 N Basic case M2 < M1 e2 M2 N Max(e + v) occur in the span if N is large and/or the slenderness of the member is large e2 Max(e + v) occur at the end if M1 is large and/or the slenderness of the member is small
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Different end moments or transverse loads

yc
39
N Ed x N Rd y
M y,Ed
0 M y,Rd
1,00
M1,Ed My,Rd x NEd NRd
1 K + B 0 = 1 1 x = x + (1 ) sin lcr 1 varies according to a sine curve x and so also the first term K in the
interaction formula In principal all sections along the member need to be checked. However
NEd MEd max + xNRd My,Rd
NEd NRd NEd NRd
M2,Ed My,Rd
N Ed max y x N Rd
is found for
yc
x cos lc
M y ,Ed + 0 M y,Rd
( M Ed,1 M Ed,2 ) N Rd 1 = M Rd N Ed (1/ 1)
but x 0
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Equivalent moment
40
40
In Eurocode 3 (steel) the method with equivalent constant bending moment is used. Then for different bending moment distribution different coefficient are needed. One example is given below.
M y, Ed N Ed + k yy 1 y N Rk / M1 M y,Rk / M1
Cmy k yy = N 1 y Ed N cr, y
Cross section class 3 and 4 For example for M1
M1
k yy =
C my 1 y N Ed C yy N cr, y
Cross section class 1 and 2
N Ed Cmy = 0, 79 + 0, 21 + 0, 36( 0, 33) N cr,y
1,6 2 C yy = 1 + wy 1 2 Cmy y 1 + y wy
wy =
Wpl, y Wel, y
1,5
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Arbitrary moment distribution

41
N Ed x N Rd y
yc
M y,Ed
0 M y,Rd
B
1,00
x NEd MEd + xNRd My,Rd
NEd NRd
max
0 = 1 1 x = x + (1 ) sin
lcr
NEd NRd NEd NRd
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Member with transverse weld

42
For members with transverse (local) weld two checks should be made 1. As if there were no weld 2. Check in the section with the weld
Ny N cr
yc M y,Ed 1,00 + 0 M y,Rd
haz = o
x.haz = o
haz
for
N Ed N x Rd
+ (1 ) sin(xs / lcr )
= haz
0 = 1
x =
1
o =
x lcr
x
u,haz f u / M2 f o / M1
xs
+ (1 ) sin
K
x
NEd Ny /
M1
NEd x,haz haz Ny/
M1
B
MEd (x) My / M1 M Ed (xs) 0 M y / M1
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43
Check for flexural buckling and
N Ed N z x Rd
c zc M y,Ed + M z,Ed + 1,00 LT xLT M y,Rd 0 M z,Rd
As for flexural buckling all exponents may conservatively be given the value 0,8. Alternative expressions depend on shape factors y or z and reduction factors y or z. The shape factors are: For class (1 and) 2 cross sections For class 3 cross sections For class 4 cross sections
= Wpl/Wel = between Wpl/Wel and 1 = Weff/Wel
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44
If there are no lateral bending moment Mz,Ed = 0 then
N My
N Ed N z x Rd
M y , Ed + LT x, LT M y,Rd
c = 0,8 or 0 z where c = 0 where
2 2 0 = 1 or z y but 1 0 2
2 0 = 1 or z but 1 0 1,56
x and x,LT are coefficients which allow for HAZ across the
member and/or of the moment distribution along the member. If there are no cross welds and constant moment then both are = 1 else
N My
x =
o z + (1 z ) sin
x lcr
x,LT =
o LT + (1 LT ) sin
x lcr
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Design of frames
45
Three methods are possible:

L
a) Equivalent buckling length method

I h
qEd HEd I0 x
lcr
MI
+
(b) (c)
(a)
b) Equivalent sway imperfection method
MII
MII Lcr
L cr
+
(e) (f)
(d)
A-A (g)
c) Alternative method
=
N Rk N Rk
N Rk N cr
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The equivalent column method

46
L qEd HEd I0 I h x lcr MI
+
(b) (c)
(a)
(a) System and load (b) Equivalent column length (c) First order bending moment
The second order bending moment is allowed for by the critical buckling length.
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The equivalent sway method

47
A MII MII Lcr (f) A-A (g)
Lcr
+
(e)
(d)
(d) System, load and initial sway imperfection (e) Initial local bow imperfection and buckling length for flexural buckling (f) Second order moment including moment from sway imperfection (g) Initial local bow and buckling length for lateral-torsional buckling
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Equivalent horizontal forces

48
The effect of initial sway imperfection and bow imperfection may be replaced by systems of equivalent horizontal forces introduced for each columns.
NEd NEd NEd NEd
NEd
4NEde0d L
e0,d
8NEde0d L2
NEd
NEd NEd NEd NEd 4NEde0d L
Initial sway imperfection
Initial bow imperfection
qeqv L2 8
= N Ed e0,d gives qeqv =
8 N Ed e0, d L2
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Initial sway imperfection

49
Initial sway
= 0 h m
h =
2 h but 2 h 1,0 3
0 =
1 200
m = 0,51 +
1 m
h = height in m meters m = number of column in a row including only those columns which carry a vertical load NEd > 50 % of the average value for the columns
F1
F2 F3 F4 F5
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
Equivalent horizontal forces
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Alternative method
50
L qEd HEd I0 I
N Rk
In principle
N cr
N Rk N cr
e0,d
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Elastic or plastic global analysis
51
51
Elastic global analysis may be used in all cases. Plastic global analysis 1. Plastic global analysis may be used only where the structure has sufficient rotation capacity at the actual location of the plastic hinge, whether this is in the members or in the joints. Where a plastic hinge occurs in a member, the member cross sections should be double symmetric or single symmetric with a plane of symmetry in the same plane as the rotation of the plastic hinge and it should satisfy the requirements for cross section class 1. 2. Where a plastic hinge occurs in a joint the joint should either have sufficient strength to ensure the hinge remains in the member or should be able to sustain the plastic resistance for a sufficient rotation. 3. Only certain alloys have the required ductility to allow sufficient rotation capacity. 4. Plastic global analysis should not be used for beams with transverse welds on the tension side of the member at the plastic hinge locations. 5. For plastic global analysis of beams recommendations are given in Annex H. 6. Plastic global analysis should only be used where the stability of members can be assured.
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Torsion
52
Aluminium profiles are often asymmetric resulting in torsion. Example: Shear centre
The beam is twisted around the shear centre The deflection due to twisting may be larger than the deflection due to bending
1. Divide the load in the direction of F the principal axes 2. Calculate the deflection in those directions 3. Calculate the vertical deflection vz v
vy v
Fz
The load also deflects laterally, in this case to the left because the lateral deflection due to twist is larger than due to bending.
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How to avoid torsion?

53
S.C .
Cv
Cv
a. Add stiffeners b. Change cross section so that the load acts through the shear centre c. Use hollow sections Cv = torsion stiffness (relative)
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St Venants torsion resistance

54
For members subjected to torsion for which distortional deformations and warping torsion may be disregarded (St Venants torsion) the design value of the torsional moment at each cross-section shall satisfy
TEd TRd where TRd = WT,pl f o /( 3 M1 )
t1 b1
V
t2
D
St Venants torsion
b2
t2
Fillets increase torsion stiffness and strength considerably; see Annex J
Warping torsion
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Warping torsion resistance

55
For members subjected to torsion for which distortional deformations may be disregarded but not warping torsion (Vlasov torsion) the total torsional moment at any cross-section should be considered as the sum of two internal effects: The following stresses due to torsion should be taken into account: - the shear stresses t,Ed due to St. Venant torsion moment Tt,Ed - the direct stresses w,Ed due to the bimoment BEd and shear stresses w,Ed due to warping torsion moment Tw,Ed. Check the von Mises yield criterion
x,Ed z,Ed x,Ed z,Ed Ed + + 3 C f / f / f / f / f / o M1 o M1 o M1 o M1 o M1 where C = 1,2

If the resultant force is acting through the shear centre there is no torsional moment due to that loading. Formulae for the shear centre for some frequent cross-sections. see Annex J
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Other structures covered in part 1-1

56
N V x
NEd
h0
h0
L/2
e0 L/2
yst
2a
z Ach NEd y z Ach y Ach y
z Ach y
b y
b c d e
Built-up columns with lacings and battening [Eurocode 3]
Un-stiffened and stiffened plates under in-plane loadings [2]
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Plate girders
57
tf,ef
bf
tf
bc = bw /2
bc
tw,ef
tw,ef G1 G2 tw
References BS 8118 [4] Hglund [2, 8]
hw
bw
tw
hf
Bending
t w,ef = (a) (b)
cw tw
tf,ef =
cf tf
a
E
(c)
bf t f
c
H
Shear
Vw
(a)
MSd Ed
+
Vf
(b)
Hglund [5]
tw
Others [6]
Vw
Vf
(c)
Rotated stress field + additional tension field
Patch loading
Lagerkvist [6j] Tryland [6l]

2a a0 a1 x
Corrugated web
a3
tw a2
Hglund [5] Benson [6a] Ullman [12]
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Worked examples and TALAT lectures

58
About 30 worked examples based on the ENV version of Eurocode 9 are available on the TALAT CD-ROM, also available at:
http://www.eaa.net/eaa/education/TALAT/2000/2300.htm
where also TALAT Lecture 2301 Design of Members and 2302 Design of Joints can be found
About 50 examples based on EN 1999 and updated lectures will be available on the EAA homepage.
A list of the examples are given at the end of this presentation
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Main references
59
[1] Eurocode 9, EN 1999-1-1. Eurocode 9: Design of Aluminium Structures Part 1-1: General rules. CEN (European Committee for Standardization) 2007. [2] Hglund, T., Design of members. TALAT CD-ROM lecture 2301, (Training in Aluminium Application Technologies), European Aluminium Association. http://www.eaa.net/eaa/education/TALAT/2000/2300.htm [3] Mazzolani (ed), Valtinat, Hglund, Soetens, Atzori, Langseth, Aluminium Structural Design. CISM Courses and Lectures No. 443, SpringerWienNewYork 2003 [4] BS 8118 Structural use of aluminium, Part 1. Code of practice for design Part 2. Specification for material, workmanship and protection 1991 [5] Hglund, T., Shear Buckling resistance of Steel and Aluminium Plate Girders. Thin-Walled Structures Vol. 29, Nos. 1-4, pp. 13-30, 1997
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[6] References on Shear Buckling and Patch Loading

60
[a] Benson, P.G.(1992). Shear buckling and overall web buckling of welded aluminium girders. Royal Institute of Technology, Division of Steel Structures, Stockholm, PhD thesis [b] Brown, K.E.P.(1990). The post-buckling and collapse behaviour of aluminium girders. University of Wales College of Cardiff, PhD thesis. [c] Burt, C.A.(1987). The ultimate strength of aluminium plate girders. University of Wales College of Cardiff, PhD. [d] Edlund, S., Jansson, R. and Hglund, T.(2001). Shear buckling of Welded Aluminium Girders. 9th Nordic Steel Construction Conference, Helsinki. [e] Evans, H.R. and Lee, A.Y.N.(1984). An appraisal, by comparison with experimental data, of new design procedures for aluminium plate girders. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Structures & Buildings, Feb. 1984. [f] Evans, H.R. and Hamoodi, M.J. (1987). The collapse of welded aluminium plate girders - an experimental study. Thin-Walled Structures 5. [g] Evans, H.R. and Burt, C.(1990). Ultimate load determination for welded aluminium plate girders. Aluminium Structures: advances, design and construction. Elsevier Applied Science, London and New York. [h] Hglund, T.(1972). Design of thin plate I girders in shear and bending with special reference to web buckling. Royal Inst of Technology, Dept. of Building Statics and Structural Engineering, Stockholm. [i] Hglund, T.(1995). Shear buckling of Steel and Aluminium Plate Girders. Royal Inst of Technology, Dept. of Structural Engineering, Technical Report 1995:4, Stockholm [j] Lagerqvist, O. (1994). Patch loading. Resistance of Steel Girders Subjected to Concentrated Forces. Ph.D. thesis, Lule University of Technology, Division of Steel Structures, Lule, Sweden. [k] Rockey, K.C. and Evans, H.R.(1970). An experimental study of the ultimate load capacity of welded aluminium plate girders loaded in shear. Research Report, University of Wales College of Cardiff. [l] Tryland, T. (1999). Aluminium and Steel Beams under Concentrated Loading. Dr.Ing. Thesis. Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
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References on beam columns

61
See first of all [2] [7] Hglund, T., Approximativ metod fr dimensionering av bjd och tryckt stng. Royal Inst. of Technology, Division of Building Statics and Structural Engineering, Bulletin 77, Stockholm 1968 [8] Hglund, T., Dimensionering av stlkonstruktioner. Extract from the handbook Bygg, Chapter K18. The Swedish Institute of Steel Construction, Stockholm 1994 English Translation in: Hglund, T., Steel structures, Design according to the Swedish Regulations for Steel Structures, BSK. Dept. of Steel Structures, Royal Inst. of Technology, Stockholm 1988 [9] Edlund, S., Buckling of T-section Beam-Columns in Aluminium with or without Transverse Welds. Royal Inst. of Technology, Department of Structural Engineering, Stockholm 2000
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References on local and overall buckling

62
[10] Langseth, M. and Hopperstad, O.S., Local buckling of square thin-walled aluminium extrusions. Thin-walled Structures, 27, pp. 117-126, 1996 [11] Hopperstad, O.S., Langseth, M. and Tryland, T., Ultimate strength of aluminium alloy outstands in compression: experiments and simplified analysis. Thin-walled Structures, 34, pp. 279-294, 1999 [12] Ullman, R., Shear Buckling of Aluminium Girders with Corrugated webs. Royal Inst. of Technology, Department of Structural Engineering, ISRN KTH/BKN/B-67-SE, Stockholm 2002
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Eurocode 9, strength and stability
63
63
Thank you for your attention !
Eurocode 9, worked examples

Torsten Hglund 1. Mathcad formulations 2. Serviceability limit state 3. Axial tension 4. Bending moment 5. Axial force 6. Shear force 7. Concentrated force 8. Torsion 9. Axial force and bending moment 10.Nonlinear stress distribution 11.Trapezoidal sheeting 12.Shells
Mathcad formulations
The calculations in the following examples are set out in detail. In most cases, the designer can make simplifications when he/she has learned by experience which checks are not usually critical. The examples are worked out in the mathematics program Mathcad, version 8. Some of the operators and notations used in the examples are explained below. x := 50.6 mm y 2.5 mm x + y = 53.1mm a 0.5 c := ( 1 3 2 ) ( c d ) b Definition of value Global definition Calculation result Boolean equality Decimal point must be used Row vector Vectorise operator, i.e. perform arithmetical operation on each element of a vector or matrix Example: a := ( c d ) d := ( 2 4 3 ) gives a = ( 2 12 6 ) Matrix Aef A Transpose, i.e. rows and columns are interchanged
i
submatrix ( a , 0 , 1 , 1 , 2)
Part of matrix ( a=matrix, 0 och 1 define rows, 1 and 2 define columns) Normally, in a matrix, the first row is numbered 0 and the first column is numbered 0 Example:
1 8 2 g = 3 4 7 5 6 9
submatrix ( g , 0 , 1 , 1 , 2) =
8 2 4 7
augment ( f , g )
Augmentation of matrices Example:

T augment ( c , g ) = 3
Column Example: g 1
1 1 8 2 3 4 7 2 5 6 9
g := 3 4 7
1 8 2 5 6 9
8 = 4 6
Notation ( ef is not a subscript but part of variable notation) Subscript i Example: g

1, 2
=7
Example:
1 c = 3 2
T
1 3 5 g = 8 4 6 2 7 9
T
Serviceability limit state

No. Cross section etc. Description Deflection of class 4 cross section girder made of two extrusions and one plate. Distributed load. Simple method to check resistance and deflection of class 4 cross section girder. Distributed load.
2.1
2.2
2.3
Deflection of asymmetric extruded profile due to bending and torsion of concentrated load. Check of stresses included.
Axial tension
No. Cross section etc. Description 3.1 fo, fu, fo,haz, fu,haz etc Characteristic values of material properties a) Axial tension force resistance of a plane plate b) Axial tension force resistance of a plate with MIG butt weld across the plate c) Axial tension force resistance of a plate with longitudinal butt weld d) Axial tension force resistance of a plate with welded attachment across the plate e) Axial tension force resistance of a plate with bolt holes
3.2
Bending moment
No. Cross section etc. Description
4.1
Bending moment resistance of cross section with closed cross section parts and outstands Bending moment resistance of extruded hollow cross section Bending moment resistance of welded hollow cross section with outstands. Class 2 cross section Bending moment resistance of welded hollow cross section with outstands. Class 4 cross section
4.2
4.3
4.4
Axial compression 1
No. Cross section etc. Description Axial compression force resistance of square hollow cross section (local and flexural buckling) Axial compression force resistance of symmetric hollow extrusion (local and flexural buckling) Axial compression force resistance of cross section with radiating outstands (torsional buckling)
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
Axial compression force resistance of channel cross section (distortional buckling)
Axial compression 2
No. 5.5 Cross section etc. Description Axial force resistance of laced column
5.6
a)
Axial force resistance of orthotropic plate with a) open stiffeners b) trapezoidal stiffeners c) closed stiffeners c) Axial force resistance of orthotropic doubleskin plate a) profiles joined with grooves and tongues b) truss cross section c) frame cross section
b)
5.7 a) b) c)
Shear force 1
No. 6.1 Cross section etc. Description Shear force resistance of a plate girder with no intermediate stiffeners incl. contribution from the flanges Shear force resistance of a web with a) flexible intermediate stiffeners b) rigid intermediate stiffeners Shear force resistance of a web with transverse and longitudinal stiffeners
6.2
6.3
6.4
Shear force resistance of a plate girder with corrugated web
Shear force 2
No. Cross section etc. Description Shear force resistance of orthotropic plate with a) open stiffeners b) trapezoidal stiffeners c) closed stiffeners c) Shear force resistance of orthotropic double-skin plate a) profiles joined with grooves and tongues b) truss cross section c) frame cross section
6.5
a)
b)
6.6 a) b) c)
Concentrated force and interaction M+V

7.1
Concentrated force resistance of beam and plate girder (patch loading).
7.2
Interaction between shear force and bending moment for a plate girder at the support region. Plate girder in shear, bending from concentrated forces. Rigid end post, no intermediate stiffeners.
7.3
Torsion
No. Cross section etc. Description 8.1 Cross section shape to avoid torsion
8.2
Torsion constant for a hollow cross section
8.3
Torsion constant for a deck profile
8.4
Torsion and bending of thin-walled section
Axial force and bending moment

No. 9.1 Cross section etc. Description Tensile force and bending moment
9.2
Beam-column with rectangular hollow section
9.3
Beam-column with eccentric load
9.4
Eccentrically loaded beam-column with cross weld Axial force resistance of cantilever column fixed to ground with bolted foot plate or fixed into a concrete block
9.5
Nonlinear stress distribution

10.1
Transverse bending of asymmetric flanges
Warping and bending of thin-walled member in torsion and bending. See 8.4 and also 2.2
Trapezoidal sheeting
No. Cross section etc. Description 11.1 Trapezoidal sheeting without stiffeners
11.2
Trapezoidal sheeting with one stiffener in the webs
11.3
Trapezoidal sheeting with one stiffener in the top flanges and one stiffener in the webs
11.4
Trapezoidal sheeting with two stiffeners in the flanges and two stiffeners in the webs
Cylindrical shells
No. Cross section etc. Description Cylindrical shell in a) Meridional (axial) compression and bending b) Meridional (axial) compression with coexistent internal pressure Cylindrical shell in circumferential compression
12.1
12.2
12.3
Cylindrical shell in shear
12.4
Cylindrical shell with stepwise wall thickness in circumferential compression
Stiffened shells and shells with torus parts

12.5
Horizontally corrugated wall treated as an orthotropic shell. Axial compression and external pressure
12.6
Welded torispherical shell under external pressure
12.7
Welded toriconical shell under external pressure

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Background and Applications

Eurocode 9 - Design of aluminium structures

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

Strength and stability of aluminium members according to EN 1999-1-1 Eurocode 9

Design values of loads and resistances

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

(class 3 cross section)

Design values of loads and resistances

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

(in a section with HAZ across the section)

design value of bending moment resistance characteristic value of ultimate strength

M2 = 1,25 partial factor for failure

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

Part of Table 3.2 b.

Design of aluminium profiles

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

Local buckling behaviour / cross section class 4

Collapse load Buckling load

Cross section class 3, 2 and 1

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

Local buckling - slenderness limits

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

(Buckling class is defined later)

Internal part 1/ 2/ 11 9 13 10 16 13 16,5 13,5

Outstand part 1/ 2/ 3 2,5 3,5 3 4,5 4 4,5 3,5

A, without weld A, with weld B, without weld B, with weld

For the web of a symmetric beam in bending = 0,4bw/tw bf outstand

mm bf = 70 Loading tf = 14 bw = 90 Axial compression tw = 4 fo = 250 Bending

Cross section class 1 2 3 4

Internal / outstand cross section part

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

Example 2: Give cross section class

mm bf = 140 tf = 10 bw = 180 tw = 6 fo = 250

Loading Axial compression Bending

Cross section class 1 2 3 4

Axial force cross section resistance

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

where M1 = 1,1 = partial factor for material

For class 4 cross section the cross section resistance is

N Rd = Aeff f o / M1 where Aeff = area of effective cross section

C1 C2 where c = reduction factor for local buckling c = ( / ) ( / ) 2

A, without weld A, with weld B, without weld B, with weld

Bending moment resistance

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

where Wpl = plastic section modulus Wpl = A z

M el = Wel f o / M1 with Wel = elastic section modulus

where Weff = section modulus for effective cross section

Effective cross section

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

Effective section for axial compression

Effective section for y- axis bending

Effective section for z- axis bending

Effective cross section for axial force

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

Effective cross section for bending moment

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop

Effective cross section for bending moment

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 Dissemination of information workshop