Chapter 10: Mass-Storage Systems: Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013 Operating System Concepts - 9 Edition

Chapter 10: Mass-Storage Systems
Operating System Concepts 9th Edition
Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013
Chapter 10: Mass-Storage Systems

Overview of Mass Storage Structure Disk Structure Disk Attachment Disk Scheduling Disk Management Swap-Space Management RAID Structure Stable-Storage Implementation
10.2
Objectives

To describe the physical structure of secondary storage devices and its effects on the uses of the devices To explain the performance characteristics of mass-storage devices To evaluate disk scheduling algorithms To discuss operating-system services provided for mass storage, including RAID
10.3
Overview of Mass Storage Structure
Magnetic disks provide bulk of secondary storage of modern computers

Drives rotate at 60 to 250 times per second Transfer rate is rate at which data flow between drive and computer Positioning time (random-access time) is time to move disk arm to desired cylinder (seek time) and time for desired sector to rotate under the disk head (rotational latency) Head crash results from disk head making contact with the disk surface
Thats bad
Disks can be removable
Drive attached to computer via I/O bus

Busses vary, including EIDE, ATA, SATA, USB, Fibre Channel, SCSI, SAS, Firewire Host controller in computer uses bus to talk to disk controller built into drive or storage array
10.4
Moving-head Disk Mechanism
10.5
Magnetic Disks

Platters range from .85 to 14 (historically)
Commonly 3.5, 2.5, and 1.8
Range from 30GB to 3TB per drive Performance

Transfer Rate theoretical 6 Gb/sec Effective Transfer Rate real 1Gb/sec Seek time from 3ms to 12ms 9ms common for desktop drives
Average seek time measured or calculated based on 1/3 of tracks

Latency based on spindle speed
1/(RPM * 60)
Average latency = latency
(From Wikipedia)
10.6
Magnetic Disk Performance
Access Latency = Average access time = average seek time + average latency

For fastest disk 3ms + 2ms = 5ms For slow disk 9ms + 5.56ms = 14.56ms
Average I/O time = average access time + (amount to transfer / transfer rate) + controller overhead For example to transfer a 4KB block on a 7200 RPM disk with a 5ms average seek time, 1Gb/sec transfer rate with a .1ms controller overhead =
5ms + 4.17ms + 4KB / 1Gb/sec + 0.1ms =

9.27ms + 4 / 131072 sec = 9.27ms + .12ms = 9.39ms
10.7
The First Commercial Disk Drive

1956 IBM RAMDAC computer included the IBM Model 350 disk storage system 5M (7 bit) characters 50 x 24 platters Access time = < 1 second
10.8
Solid-State Disks

Nonvolatile memory used like a hard drive
Many technology variations
Can be more reliable than HDDs More expensive per MB Maybe have shorter life span Less capacity But much faster Busses can be too slow -> connect directly to PCI for example No moving parts, so no seek time or rotational latency
10.9
Magnetic Tape

Was early secondary-storage medium
Evolved from open spools to cartridges
Relatively permanent and holds large quantities of data Access time slow Random access ~1000 times slower than disk Mainly used for backup, storage of infrequently-used data, transfer medium between systems Kept in spool and wound or rewound past read-write head Once data under head, transfer rates comparable to disk
140MB/sec and greater
200GB to 1.5TB typical storage Common technologies are LTO-{3,4,5} and T10000
10.10
Disk Structure
Disk drives are addressed as large 1-dimensional arrays of logical blocks, where the logical block is the smallest unit of transfer
Low-level formatting creates logical blocks on physical media

Sector 0 is the first sector of the first track on the outermost cylinder Mapping proceeds in order through that track, then the rest of the tracks in that cylinder, and then through the rest of the cylinders from outermost to innermost Logical to physical address should be easy

The 1-dimensional array of logical blocks is mapped into the sectors of the disk sequentially

Except for bad sectors Non-constant # of sectors per track via constant angular velocity
10.11
Disk Attachment

Host-attached storage accessed through I/O ports talking to I/O busses SCSI itself is a bus, up to 16 devices on one cable, SCSI initiator requests operation and SCSI targets perform tasks
Each target can have up to 8 logical units (disks attached to device controller)
FC is high-speed serial architecture
Can be switched fabric with 24-bit address space the basis of storage area networks (SANs) in which many hosts attach to many storage units
I/O directed to bus ID, device ID, logical unit (LUN)
10.12
Storage Array

Can just attach disks, or arrays of disks Storage Array has controller(s), provides features to attached host(s)

Ports to connect hosts to array Memory, controlling software (sometimes NVRAM, etc) A few to thousands of disks RAID, hot spares, hot swap (discussed later) Shared storage -> more efficiency Features found in some file systems
Snaphots, clones, thin provisioning, replication, deduplication, etc
10.13
Storage Area Network

Common in large storage environments Multiple hosts attached to multiple storage arrays - flexible
10.14
Storage Area Network (Cont.)
SAN is one or more storage arrays
Connected to one or more Fibre Channel switches
Hosts also attach to the switches Storage made available via LUN Masking from specific arrays to specific servers Easy to add or remove storage, add new host and allocate it storage
Over low-latency Fibre Channel fabric
Why have separate storage networks and communications networks?
Consider iSCSI, FCOE
10.15
Network-Attached Storage
Network-attached storage (NAS) is storage made available over a network rather than over a local connection (such as a bus)
Remotely attaching to file systems
NFS and CIFS are common protocols

Implemented via remote procedure calls (RPCs) between host and storage over typically TCP or UDP on IP network iSCSI protocol uses IP network to carry the SCSI protocol
Remotely attaching to devices (blocks)
10.16
Disk Scheduling
The operating system is responsible for using hardware efficiently for the disk drives, this means having a fast access time and disk bandwidth Minimize seek time Seek time seek distance Disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred, divided by the total time between the first request for service and the completion of the last transfer
10.17
Disk Scheduling (Cont.)
There are many sources of disk I/O request

OS System processes Users processes
I/O request includes input or output mode, disk address, memory address, number of sectors to transfer OS maintains queue of requests, per disk or device Idle disk can immediately work on I/O request, busy disk means work must queue
Optimization algorithms only make sense when a queue exists
Note that drive controllers have small buffers and can manage a queue of I/O requests (of varying depth)
Several algorithms exist to schedule the servicing of disk I/O requests The analysis is true for one or many platters
We illustrate scheduling algorithms with a request queue (0-199)

98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67 Head pointer 53
10.18
FCFS
Illustration shows total head movement of 640 cylinders
10.19
SSTF

Shortest Seek Time First selects the request with the minimum seek time from the current head position SSTF scheduling is a form of SJF scheduling; may cause starvation of some requests Illustration shows total head movement of 236 cylinders
10.20
SSTF (Cont.)
10.21
SCAN
The disk arm starts at one end of the disk, and moves toward the other end, servicing requests until it gets to the other end of the disk, where the head movement is reversed and servicing continues.
SCAN algorithm Sometimes called the elevator algorithm

Illustration shows total head movement of 208 cylinders But note that if requests are uniformly dense, largest density at other end of disk and those wait the longest
10.22
SCAN (Cont.)
10.23
C-SCAN

Provides a more uniform wait time than SCAN The head moves from one end of the disk to the other, servicing requests as it goes
When it reaches the other end, however, it immediately returns to the beginning of the disk, without servicing any requests on the return trip
Treats the cylinders as a circular list that wraps around from the last cylinder to the first one
Total number of cylinders?
10.24
C-SCAN (Cont.)
10.25
C-LOOK

LOOK a version of SCAN, C-LOOK a version of C-SCAN Arm only goes as far as the last request in each direction, then reverses direction immediately, without first going all the way to the end of the disk Total number of cylinders?
10.26
C-LOOK (Cont.)
10.27
Selecting a Disk-Scheduling Algorithm

SSTF is common and has a natural appeal SCAN and C-SCAN perform better for systems that place a heavy load on the disk
Less starvation
Performance depends on the number and types of requests Requests for disk service can be influenced by the file-allocation method
And metadata layout
The disk-scheduling algorithm should be written as a separate module of the operating system, allowing it to be replaced with a different algorithm if necessary Either SSTF or LOOK is a reasonable choice for the default algorithm What about rotational latency?
Difficult for OS to calculate
How does disk-based queuing effect OS queue ordering efforts?
10.28
Disk Management
Low-level formatting, or physical formatting Dividing a disk into sectors that the disk controller can read and write
Each sector can hold header information, plus data, plus error correction code (ECC)
Usually 512 bytes of data but can be selectable

Partition the disk into one or more groups of cylinders, each treated as a logical disk Logical formatting or making a file system To increase efficiency most file systems group blocks into clusters
To use a disk to hold files, the operating system still needs to record its own data structures on the disk

Disk I/O done in blocks

File I/O done in clusters
Raw disk access for apps that want to do their own block management, keep OS out of the way (databases for example) Boot block initializes system

The bootstrap is stored in ROM Bootstrap loader program stored in boot blocks of boot partition
Methods such as sector sparing used to handle bad blocks
10.29
Booting from a Disk in Windows
10.30
Swap-Space Management
Swap-space Virtual memory uses disk space as an extension of main memory
Less common now due to memory capacity increases
Swap-space can be carved out of the normal file system, or, more commonly, it can be in a separate disk partition (raw) Swap-space management

4.3BSD allocates swap space when process starts; holds text segment (the program) and data segment Kernel uses swap maps to track swap-space use Solaris 2 allocates swap space only when a dirty page is forced out of physical memory, not when the virtual memory page is first created

File data written to swap space until write to file system requested Other dirty pages go to swap space due to no other home
Text segment pages thrown out and reread from the file system as needed
What if a system runs out of swap space? Some systems allow multiple swap spaces
10.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013
Data Structures for Swapping on Linux Systems
10.32
RAID Structure
RAID redundant array of inexpensive disks
multiple disk drives provides reliability via redundancy
Increases the mean time to failure

Mean time to repair exposure time when another failure could cause data loss Mean time to data loss based on above factors If mirrored disks fail independently, consider disk with 1300,000 mean time to failure and 10 hour mean time to repair
Mean time to data loss is 100, 0002 / (2 10) = 500 106 hours, or 57,000 years!
Frequently combined with NVRAM to improve write performance RAID is arranged into six different levels
10.33
RAID (Cont.)

Several improvements in disk-use techniques involve the use of multiple disks working cooperatively Disk striping uses a group of disks as one storage unit RAID schemes improve performance and improve the reliability of the storage system by storing redundant data

Mirroring or shadowing (RAID 1) keeps duplicate of each disk Striped mirrors (RAID 1+0) or mirrored stripes (RAID 0+1) provides high performance and high reliability Block interleaved parity (RAID 4, 5, 6) uses much less redundancy
RAID within a storage array can still fail if the array fails, so automatic replication of the data between arrays is common Frequently, a small number of hot-spare disks are left unallocated, automatically replacing a failed disk and having data rebuilt onto them
10.34
RAID Levels
10.35
RAID (0 + 1) and (1 + 0)
10.36
Other Features

Regardless of where RAID implemented, other useful features can be added Snapshot is a view of file system before a set of changes take place (i.e. at a point in time)
More in Ch 12
Replication is automatic duplication of writes between separate sites

For redundancy and disaster recovery Can be synchronous or asynchronous
Hot spare disk is unused, automatically used by RAID production if a disk fails to replace the failed disk and rebuild the RAID set if possible
Decreases mean time to repair
10.37
Extensions

RAID alone does not prevent or detect data corruption or other errors, just disk failures Solaris ZFS adds checksums of all data and metadata Checksums kept with pointer to object, to detect if object is the right one and whether it changed Can detect and correct data and metadata corruption ZFS also removes volumes, partitions

Disks allocated in pools Filesystems with a pool share that pool, use and release space like malloc() and free() memory allocate / release calls
10.38
ZFS Checksums All Metadata and Data
10.39
Traditional and Pooled Storage
10.40
Stable-Storage Implementation

Write-ahead log scheme requires stable storage Stable storage means data is never lost (due to failure, etc) To implement stable storage:

Replicate information on more than one nonvolatile storage media with independent failure modes Update information in a controlled manner to ensure that we can recover the stable data after any failure during data transfer or recovery
1.
Disk write has 1 of 3 outcomes Successful completion - The data were written correctly on disk
2.
3.
Partial failure - A failure occurred in the midst of transfer, so only some of the sectors were written with the new data, and the sector being written during the failure may have been corrupted
Total failure - The failure occurred before the disk write started, so the previous data values on the disk remain intact If failure occurs during block write, recovery procedure restores block to consistent state
System maintains 2 physical blocks per logical block and does the following:
1.
2. 3.
Write to 1st physical

When successful, write to 2nd physical Declare complete only after second write completes successfully Systems frequently use NVRAM as one physical to accelerate
10.41
End of Chapter 10

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Chapter 10: Mass-Storage Systems

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013