MUSLIM COSMOLOGY : A REFLECTION ON THE CASE STUDY

OF THEOLOGIAN (MUTAKALLIMUN ) AND PERIPATETIC

(MASHSHA’IYYUN ) ON NATURE (COSMOS) AS A
FUNDAMENTAL OF ISLAMIC SCIENCE.
By:
Ahmad Daud Ishak El-Merbawiy*

Abstract :

The writting is trying to describe a study on some points of view about

Cosmos (nature) which has established by Muslim Theologians (al-
Mutakallimun) and Muslim Philosopher Scientists (al-Mashsha’iyyun).
Here I could point out their discussions occured from different angle in
doctrine, methodology, rationality and explanation. Amazingly both of
them seem to be agreed that cosmoslogy as the fundamental of the
emergence of Islamic Science from the very basic ontological and
epistemic inference.
_____________________________________________________

1. Introduction

In Muslim Cosmology, the cosmos (‘Aalam) is defined as

‘everything other than God’. This definition is generally accepted in
Islam and occurs repeatedly in al-Quran. It’s created by God
Almighty and al-Quran refers to everything in the heaven and the
earth. This creation order came into existence through Divine
Creative Command as (kun), so the as the world produces its to be
(fayakun...). From the command, it derives a name of the cosmos
refers as ‘al-kawn’, means the world was preceded from God. The
knowledge about world (al-kawn) so called ‘ilm al-kawn’ literally
meaning as the science of the cosmos.1

The uniqueness of Islamic Cosmology is inseparable from Quranic

conception of God. Hence, Islamic Cosmology offers God is the
central reality. Islam deals with all dimension nature or cosmos
physical or non-physical entities. Prof. S.H. Nasr asserted on
describing Ikhwan as-Soffa’s Cosmology as follows; 2

1
Osman Bakar, Cosmology,: The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World,
New York: Oxford Press, Vol. I,(1995), p.322

1
 “The cosmology is all the spiritual and
material beings who postulate the
immensity of the skies, who constitutes
the reign of multiplicity which extend to
the spheres, the stars, the elements,
their products and to man.”

This Islamic Cosmological range is contributed the nature

mathematical and physical studies on cosmos. From the legitimate
cosmological principles enable indeed the exstension of particular
sciences, such as the physics, biological sciences etc. The main
sources of Islamic cosmological studies are the indigenous
tradition, al-Quran, al-Hadith (prophetic tradition) and the
authentic exegeses of theologians and the inspired foreigner
traditions like Hermetic, Pythagorean and Aristotelian-Ptolemic
cosmologies that was synthesized into Muslim world. The main two
cosmological schools of thought in Islamic world are firstly, Muslim
Peripatetic Cosmology is based on the syntheses between
Aristotelian philosophy as interpreted mainly by Neo-Platonist and
cosmological teaching of Islam3 like al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Avicenna
etc. Secondly, the atomist’s Cosmology is based on the traditional
text and theological cosmology like al-Asha’arite, al-Maturidite, al-
Razi, al-Ghazali etc. Subsequent to al-Ghazali’s criticism over
Peripatetic school of philosophy, it was paved the emergence of
Illuminations School of philosophy of Suhrawardi and the mystical
philosophy of ibn ‘Arabi and they had developed their own
cosmological sciences.

2. Islam and Cosmology

In Islam, cosmological science has close related to revelation

because; First is the immutable reveled principle manifests itself
everywhere in the cosmos where the civilization breathes. Second is
it integrates the phenomenon of nature into conceptual scheme of
reveled principles and central of many applied contingential
domains. Third is the wedding occurs between ‘form’ and ‘matter’
2
Ibid., p.323; See also Nasr, S.H., An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrine,
Boulder (1978), p.53.
3
Ibid., p.326-27.

2
has came into Muslim mind, in which reveled by al-Quran and
precisely insisted in general principle towards researching nature in
particular truth therein. And finally is the study of nature closely
depends on the observers. So, they again depend on the revelation
for the qualitative essence of the civilization.4

In Muslim cosmology, the literature is well known as nature and it’s

conditions. It’s very rich vocabulary in term of Semitic approach.
Nature (cosmos) in al-Quran refers to the ‘sealed or veil’ which is
separated man from God 5 which called from the root word – Arb.,
tab‘u or tabee‘ah. The earlier used as the term of kiyaan or kawn
from the Syriac used as kjono is similarity to tabee‘ah. In order to
realize the meaning, Moslem authors always use identical phrase as
being created (khalq) and haqq mean that nature as a distinct
domain of reality, melt away in the absolute power of the creator.6

Al-Faruqi Summarized of five principles of nature reveled in al-

Quran. Those are profanity, created, orderliness, purposive and
subservience.7 As regard to profanity Islam won’t allowed
association between nature with god absolutely except it’s creation
of God. No sacredness with nature as Neo-Platonist did to nature
with the emanation means. Among the prohibitions are never
attributed sacredness to nature,8 adopting nature as a part of God,9
adoring any part of nature beside God,10 claimed relationship
geneacologically between God and gene (jinn),11 taking earth as
divine and unpardonable sin is Shirk or ascription of any
sacredness to the profane.12

4
Seyyed Hossien Nasr, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, Great
Britain : Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1978: p. 1-2
5
Al-Quran LV: 155; IX: 92; and for Fakhru al-Din al-Razi in Tafsir al-Kabir (The
Great Exegesis of al-Razi), is to mean the veil which hide God from men.
6
Opcit, p. 8-9; He emphasized that Sunni and Shi’ite both interpreted in such
way even certain Sufis including al-Hallaj interpreted as divine grace.
7
Ismail Rajaie al-Faruqi, Islam and the Theory of Nature, Islamic Quarterly Vol.
XXVI, No.1, First Quarterly (1982), London: The Islamic Culture Centre, p16-23.
8
Al-Quran, 3:18
9
Al-Quran, 43: 15
10
Al-Quran, 40: 66
11
Al-Quran, 37:158
12
Al-Quran, 21:21; 4: 48,116

3
Due the created, Islam urges that cosmos (nature) is a creature of
God whereby it’s created from pre-existence or ‘ex nihillo’ by
commandment of God.13It’s absolutely different form because of its
‘muhdath’ new creation and ‘takhattara’ numerical entity and non-
eternity. God is very capable on destroying and creating it again in
instant.14 Meanwhile nature is precept as exists orderliness in the
single of the great creator. We found similarity of craft ship of the
same cause event, consequences, same law pertinence to it and
orderly in cause efficacy in measurement, fixed completed time and
integral condition, perfect organized and out of well designed
system.15 This condition will refer to the statement asserted as;

“it is God who created...Look into his

creation for any discrepancy!, and look
again, do you find any gap in its system?.
Look again, your sight will return to you!,
humbled having found none.”16

Nature is created for purposes in which it must willing to fulfill and

towards which it moves. In fact Allah put certain measurement of
‘qadaran maqduura’.17There are two aspects of nature which are
causality and purposive of being existing or created. For Allah had
said;

”We have not created heaven and earth

and all that stand between them in spot,...
we have created them in righteousness”18

Man as a creation also a part from the finalist system of nature that
derived from the finalist chain of creation from God. He created it
purposses. He and nature are both exist in integrally coexistence.
Finally nature is created to subservience to man as vicegerent on
earth. It provides the place for doing goodness pertaining moral
value of Allah in the human soul, having necessary instrument and
under study in nature by reasoning and empirical efforts. This
significant should be performed in term of ‘taskheer’, ‘zeenat’,

13
Al-Quran, 2:118; 3: 47,59; 6: 73;16: 40 etc.
14
Al-Quran, 30:40; 10:34
15
Op cit, p. 20
16
Al-Quran, 67:3-4
17
Al-Quran, 30: 33-38
18
Al-Quran, 44 : 38; 21: 16

4
‘ta‘meer’, ‘tamkeen’ and ‘istikhlaaf’.19 Thus Islam has put in proper
way on how to manipulate nature with care and responsibility on
the cosmological sciences that ecologically has been confirmed.

3. The Concept of Ontology and Creation

Islam is the religion inline with and even strongly supported

knowledge and science. Al-Quran explains precisely smart about
the genesis of universe. Islam isn’t simply accepts originated
definition of ‘creatio ex nihillo’ per se, because it’s impossible so
called the creation out off substance. Al-Quran focused on subject of
in which the creation would being produced as khalq is derived
from root word khalaqa, means to create from something in many
times.20 The creator Allah so called al-Khaaliq or al-Faatir and had
put in one of the Quranic verses namely verse thirty-fifth of The
Creator. G.P. Pardington as a Christian, he understands this as
production without pre-existing materials21 in which we favor of.

In particular Allah almighty mentioned that the earth and heaven

has been created in six days; two days for earth and heaven and
other four for mountains and vegetation’s.22 The time given has
considered as metaphorical used which it might be one thousand or
fifty thousand years presupposes in both Bible and al-Quran,
meanwhile 300,000 years in normal human reckoning asserted
alone in al-Quran.23 In line with this creation, Allah almighty
mentioned the origin of the universe as previously adhesives
together (kaanataa ratqan), and later on be separated apart them
19
All kind of subservience to men such as taskheer means providence to
understand and manipulation for scientific or economic purposes. Zeenat as
instrument or cosmetic for seeking harmonious in beauty. Ta‘meer means using
nature product to build settlement of shelter or town using something with full
of responsibility. Tamkeen is enable human being stayed in power of
administrative on the earth pretty well in order to serve and protect the truth of
Allah (al-Amaanah). Istikhlaaf is to be actualized the vicegerent to human being.
20
Al-Quran mentioned in this way Khalaqa, means had create for 60 times, as
khalaqnaa means we created for 40 times and as khlaqnaahum means we did create
thou for 16 times. In term of religious believe no doubt of Allah’s Omnipotent
and Omniscience that He could create without existing substance.
21
G.P. Pardington, Outline Studies in Christian Doctrine, Christian Publication Inc.,
USA, 1926, p. 97. Ishaq mentioned in his Creation Theories and The Quran, IQ p.
192
22
Al-Quran, 4: 9-10; 12.
23
Al-Quran, 22: 47; 77: 4; and in Peter , III:8

5
apart into pieces (fa fataqnaa huma).24 Furthermore the theory of
creation also cited as originated way of resembles in form of
universe such as form of watery entity, smoky status quo and
informed into plurality world of planetary systems. Yet the very
basic principle of creation is enclosed the Almighty creator in term
of ‘Divine Command’ as be...(kun), hance it’s be... (fa yakuun) as
instant reacting creations to the command25 with His Omniscience
and utmost desirably Omnipotent, rather is not necessitate action.

Al-Quran corroborates the idea of the pre-creation watery entity in

line with Bible on the theory of ‘creatio d’aqua’.26 The theory of
separation of heaven and earth is common in many general
civilizations and the latest is the Big Bang hypothesis in modern
science affirming that heaven and earth previously as a single lump
(ratqan), but than Allah put the way how to separate (fa
fataqn¥huma) to human’s further research to be discovered. Both
Bible and al-Quran, mentioned that God had spent six days on
creation. One day in the world is consider as metaphorical used in
which might have been one thousand or fifty thousand years. While
the Big Bang Theory estimated that the world had been started
twelve or sixteen billion years ago.27

Fathalla Kholief differentiates Islamic creation from pagan Greeks’

in which involved God emanating into the universe as asserted by
Neo-platonism. He said:

“This idea of creatio ex nihilo, on which all the reveled faiths place
such emphasizes, contains a deep philosophical insight, and treats
God and its actions more reverently than the pagan Greek Ideas
which would associate God with the world from all eternity, making
it emanate from him in the same necessary..”28

Again he was taken from Shahrastani and al-Ghazali as saying:

24
Al-Quran, 21: 30.
25
The concept of Creation through Kun Fa Yakuun was mentioned in al-Quran in
eight times as follows 2: 117; 3: 3,59; 4: 73; 16: 40; 19: 35; 36: 82 and 40: 68.
26
Ishaq Akintola, p.198; See also al-Quran, 21:32 and Genesis, I:2
27
Ibid, p.198
28
Fathalla Kholief, Munaadzaraat Fakhruddin al-Raazi fi Bilaad Maa waraa’ al-Nahr,
Beyrut: Daar al-Mashruuq, 1966: 139-40.

6
“Shahrastani mentioned his objection and his contemporary Abu ‘l-
Barakat al-Baghdadi who attributed it to the temporalist (al-
hadthiyyeen), in which describing it as the strongest argument that
the world is being created.”29

“al-Gahazali’s attack didn’t proceed

merely from strong religious feeling. It
was the result of full realization of
compatibility of a philosophy which
believed in the eternity of the world
with the very spirit of religion. This
awareness had been manifested among
his fellow Asha’arites before him, and
shows steadily, reaching it’s peak in the
works of Shahrastani in ‘Nihaayat al-
Iqdaam’. ..”30

Instead of mentioning the creation of universe, al-Quran isn’t

exclude31 the genesis of human being in amazingly details at several
places. This statement yet is very intellectual, scientific and full of
knowledge and it’s never surpassed since the age of revelation in
progressed until now the ages of Modern Science.

In al-Quran, there are several words which describe God’s creative

activities like ibda’, khalq and tadbeer.32The word ibda’ is
describing how Allah bring the world into being from non-existence
stage. It’s means a thing came out from the concealment of non-
being without there being any matter.33The word khalq means Allah
brings into being of something from something else, as He created
Adam from clay, created the genes (jann) from the smokeless fire
etc.34Finally the tadbeer means the Divine management of the
world of engendered thing. This occurs within the complexity
system which has proved by Divine system. For instance He sent
29
Ibid, Munaadzaraat, p. 141; See also the original in Mu‘tabar, vol.3, p. 32;
30
Ibid, Munazaraat, p. 140-141
31
Al-Quran, 23: 12-14 so forth.
32
Shah Wali Allah al-Dahlawi, Hujjatul al-Balighah, Trans. By Marlia K.
Hermansen, The Condusive Proof from God, nd. p.27-28
33
See Mishkaat al-Masobih p.129; al-Bukhari al-Sahih, bab Tawhid, No.22; Ahmad,
in Musnad, fi bad’i al-Khalq. No.1 Where Prophet said : “There was God and there
was nothing before him”
34
Al-Quran, 55:15

7
down rain from the clouds and with them brought forth the plants
of the earth for the people and herds to eat, and this became a cause
for their living until the appointed time.35

After all, the potentialities are placed in created things that never
separated, collided and conflicted one another. With the wisdom of
God, requires the production of various developmental states of
natures (atwaara). Thus in Islam, all the planetary systems are well
organized by the wisdom and expertise of God Almighty.

4. The Muslim Doctrine of Cosmos (Nature - al-‘Aalam)

In Muslim world, cosmological science has been discussed by many

schools of thought; starting with theologians (al-Mutakallimuun),
peripatetic philosophers (al-Mashshaa’iyyeen), Hermertic-
Illuminationist (ishraqi), Gnostics (‘urafaa’) and the school of
(muta’aaliheen) so called the theosophist (the utmost highest
ranking of wisdom or the wisdom of God Almighty). Due to the
limited time, discussion and coverage, I would like to expose in very
closed sight on two schools of thought36 which are very close to
Sunnite School of thought. They are the theologian figures (al-
Mutakallimuun) and the peripatetic philosophers (Muslim
philosopher-scientist - al-Mashshaa’iyyeen).

4.1 The Theologian Cosmology ( of Mutakallimuun)

a) Asha’arite Doctrine of Cosmology (d.330/941)

Asha’arite stand point on nature is representing ‘atomic

conception’. The cosmos was perceived as the discontinuity of
reality and it was a domain of separated entities and rather very
concrete matter. They atomized matter, space and time and broke
the bond of interrelated causality into the will and the power of the
most Omnipotent and the most Omniscience37 of God Almighty.
The segmentation and division are paved the cohesion and
35
Op cit, p.29
36
If time available this assignment shall be extended into further details and be
covered all discussions upon all Moslem’s schools of thought pertaining
cosmological sciences.

8
connexion in the Divine will which creates all things at every
moment and it is the direct cause of things.

Mainly secondary cause (such as animal and human action or law

of nature) is depending on the prime cause (God Almighty).
Asha’rite atomic negated Asristotelian causality, but not causality
itself because his point of view unlike philosophers who admitted
the continuous chain of causality that caused the eternity of the
world. Asha’rite causality is apparently not necessary preceeds the
result, but it has possibile opperating permitted by the will
(iraadat) and the power (qudrat) of Allah almighty. The segmented
portion of world’s bodies require continually innihilated and
created the new existences in every moment (muhdath).38 This is
reality of temporality of the world existence that coherences to
Islam. Subequent to atomic concept of devoid, space for Asha’arite
is where the realms which accupied by atoms. Even the
transmission of the atomic paticles or bodies requires time that so
called time atom.

b) Abu Mansur al-Maturidite Doctrine of cosmology

(232-333/847-944 )

Abu Mansur didn’t present his definition of nature clearly. Though

it could be inferred his as an atomist and orthodox theologian who
accepted that the world has elaborated as “the totality of existence
of substances or atoms and accidents except the existence of God.
With an additional concept of body (jism) which is meant it couldn’t
express God by that name”.39 As a member of Muslim theologian, he
tries to deny the eternity of the world and confirm the creationism.

37
Seyyed Hosein Nasr, The Meaning of Nature in Various Intellectual Perspectives in
Islam, In Islamic Quaterly, Vol. IX. No. 1-2 (1384 -1385 / 1965), p.25-26.
38
Osman Bakar, Tawhid and Science, Kuala Lumpur : Nurin Enterprise, 1991, p.
89-90 ; 91-100; Also see the comprehensive explanation on the world habitual of
temporal existence from Syed Muhammad Naquib al-‘Attas, A Commentaray on
the Hujjaat al-Siddeeq of Nuur al-Deen al-Raaniriy Kuala Lumpur : The Ministry of
Culture, Youth and Sport, 1986, p.256.
39
Mustafa Ceric, Al-Maturidi’s Theological Ideas In Root of Synthetic Theology in
Islam, ISTAC: K.Lumpur, (1995), p.115; This statement is adopted from Kitaab al-
Tawhid by al-Maturidi himself.

9
He used three arguments on creation,40 perceptual argument41 to
negate the eternity of the world and rational argument42 to show
that the concept of creation of the world is the best argument to
carry out the massage of creation ‘ex nihilo ’. His special argument
is dealing with or response to the opponent’s argument and
indirectly falsified through the impossibility of eternity world.

Briefly, al-Maturidite proof on the temporality word is ‘al-kawn ’

meaning the world cannot be eternal because the only God is
eternal. He the only has will and power to create and He is the
prime cause and need no other causes to act. Also finitude of a part
of the world shows the whole world is finite and it originated and
innihillated. So, it’s impossible the world be eternal. Meanwhile he
argued also on creation ‘ex nihillo ’ stand point. Using the argument
of unpreceivable things to negate existence, the is no world without
starting point, the failure exploring potentiality came into reality.
Though many different existing things from the same substratum
and it dues to the composed substances by something prior to them
in time it come into existence is never external.43

c) Al-Razi Fakhr al-Din al-Razi’s Doctrine of Cosmology

(544-606/1149-1209)

Al-Razi is considered as the great theologian has his own stand

point towards nature as it has been created by creation ‘ex nihillo ’
theory,44 the world is composed of the contingent being, isn’t
positive quality and originated entities. For him all kind of things
other than God are contingents, and the contingent is discerned as
40
He offered generation of a‘yaan (substances or atoms) and his proof through
Quranic verses such as in 39:62 where God is the creator; in 2:117 where God is
the originator of the heaven and earth and in 3:189 ; 5:18,40,120 where God is
belonging all the domains.
41
Al-Maturidi’s arguments are on dependency of substances, its corruptibility, its
composition into a body, the finites part, it could be change and its annihilation
and proof on the possibility its beginning. See also Mustafa Ceric, p.111-113.
42
He used his argument of istidaal (reasoning) into the concept of creation of the
world, weaving the finitude part of the world encompanying with al-Kindi’s
advocacy of creation ‘ex nihillo’ argument against eternity of Aristotle’s notion,
Neo-plantonic concept of emanation and against whoever entertained the
eternity of the matter; See also Mustaffa Ceric, p.119-141.
43
Mustafa Ceric, al-Maturidi’s Ideas, p.137-138.
44
Yassin Ceylan, Theology and Tafseer in Major Work of Fakhr al-Deen al-Raazi,
ISTAC : K.Lumpur, (1996) p.51-61.

10
privation (‘adam).45 Some basic principle has drawn by al-Razi,
could be summarized as follows;

1. On Causality,46al-Razi argues that the world has caused by the

Necessary Being which took part after the passage of chosen
particular time. So this determine, must preceded the act of
creation. It is the nature of God’s will to choose a particular time for
creation.47He denied the effectiveness an effect of ‘mu’aththiriyya’
is identical with agent, because it merely attributes like accidents
are need a substratum for their existence’s.

2. On Contingency quality and contingent priory,48 al-Razi denied

the positive quality of contingency over contingent isn’t acceptable
as priories on it. In fact the contingent is originated for the
existence of God.

3. On temporal time49 al-Razi has an argument of rejection

Aristotelian definition of time because time and movement are
dependent to enable transference of substance occurs from the
location to another. And movement cannot be conceived except in
conjunction with time. This dependence of time and movement will
violate the rules50 of the impossibility of circular dependence.

4. On the creation of God is temporal,51 al-Razi refutes as all the

accidents and changes in the world are due to the benevolence of
God but they’re not eternal, yet God with His free will may choose
something without any attracting of perfection or advantage.52

5. Al-Razi argued on the temporal would using finitude of world

bodies and loci motion, later he supports with asserting the world
is (composed of) contingent being must be temporal or being
contingent in-itself (mumkin binafsihi), that is originated. We can
45
Ibid, p.58; Also see Original of Sharh al-Ishaarat, p.222; Kitab Arba‘een fi Usuul
al-Deen, p. 53; Mulakhkhas (Manuscript) at British Museum, Oriental Ms
no.54226/2, fol.137a.
46
To refute the Aristotle principle of causation or causality.
47
Op cit, p.51-52
48
To refute the contingent is prior and positive quality of contingency
49
To refute the Aristotelian eternal time.
50
Ibid, 56-58; See also al-Risaalah al-Kamaaliyya fee Haqaa’iq al-Ilaahiyyah, p.82
51
To answer the God’s creation, it’s his benevolence and it cannot be temporal
52
Op cit, p. 60-61

11
conceive body without a conception of eternity and it is acceptable
that eternity as an extraneous quality of body which enable
necessity infinite regress.53

6. On Mu’tazilite Concept of the reality of the non-existence,54 al-

Razi hold that existence is an extraneous quality which is common
to all existence entities, but unlike al-Mu’tazilah, he doesn’t believe
in the continuity of essence independent of existence. He rather
hold that even essence and existence are different things, and might
be independent essence. Yet it cannot survive without existence.
Avicenna and Asha’arite believe that existence is merely the
existence itself, nothing additional quality. Meanwhile al-
Mu’tazilite believe in additional. Furthermore the essence can
survive independent of existence.55

d) Al-Ghazali’s Doctrine of Cosmology

(450-505/1058-1111)

Al-Gahazali described the creation of world through ‘creatio ex

nihillo ’, where by it was coming out from non-existence to
existence. This procedure needs a measurement, later the existence
must be accordingly with the measure and the world must be
obtained a right in shape. Al-Ghazali signified the operative
function by three of God’s names such ‘al-Khaaliq ’ means measure
giver, ‘al-Baari ’ means brought out from nothingness into being
and ‘al-Musawwir ’ means the creator thing in accordance with
measurement.56 The final part is very much perfect possible
arrangement set up.

Further more al-Ghazali added up with his mystic cosmological

point of view. He expressed on double faced universe; that the
coporael world has no real existence (ghair wujuud haqiqiy )it’s in
related to the world of order (‘alam al-amr) like the shadow of
God’s compulsory will (idhaa araada shay’an an yaquula lahu kun
53
Ibid, p.65
54
To answer the Mu’tazilah concept of the reality of the non-existent (pre- eternal
of the potentiality of matter). Ar., Theory of latency (kumuun)
55
Op cit p.66-67
56
Masimo Campanini, al-Ghazali in Early Islamic Philosopher in The East; History
of Islamic Philosophy (HIP), vol. 1 Part.1, London : Rouledge (1996),p. 268; See also
original in Maqsad, p. 75-77; These are the words represented precisely well
organized to infer the process of world creation.

12
...fayakuun).57 So, all kind of being in the world are the effect of
God’s Omnipotence and Omniscience.

For al-Ghazali’s causality problem is settle due to the free will of

God and the possibility of bring into existence is His absolute field.
He rejected that Allah had necessity to the courses and the causality
itself isn’t necessity precede result within the chain of events
occurred. He then, denied the natural causality and the existence of
a necessary connection between the cause and things being caused
is occurred independently of the will of God, the creator. The causes
remain hyphotentically until they’ll consequence by God’s will into
reality.58Al-Ghazali like Asha’arite stand point of God’s interference
on the set of natural laws (Sunnat Allaah fi al-‘Aalam) in every
moment or instant that is called ‘occasionalism’ of al-Ghazali.

Al-Ghazali asserted that jawhar is occupying space using the word

saghala as ‘Asha‘arite used the same meaning with tahayyaza.
When the jawhar occupies space, there couldn’t be filled by other
then remained composite body of the jawaahir. This is evidence
that al-Ghazali’s basic of natural bodies is material or corporeal
which follows basic atoms of the ‘Asha‘arite school. Even he doesn’t
speak about matter and form in his own voice because for him
jawhar as used by al-Mutakallimun is the particular by the single
jawhar which occupies space (mutahayyiz) and indivisible. If it’s a
body or jism, then it could be divisible.59

He mentioned in al-Iqtisaad, that the created universe is made up

of bodies and jawaahir (pl.) and divided universe into spiritual
angelic or intellectual celestial and corporeal terrestrial entity. He
used in traditional terminology of Kalam that suggested that body is
divisible and jawhar isn’t.60

Al-Ghazali has built the safeguard upon the philosophical activities

from infidelity. In tahaafut falaasifah he warned people of three
things; the eternity of the world, denial of the resurrection of body
and the mortality of individual soul and the impossibility of God

57
Al-Ghazali, Arba‘een fi Usuul al-Deen, (1970), p.62
58
Massimo Campanini, al-Ghazali, p.262-263
59
Richard M. Frank, Al-Ghazaali and the ‘Asha‘arite School, Durham and London:
Duke University Press, 1994, p. 54
60
Ibid., p. 54; Also see original al-Iqtisaad fee al-I‘tiqaad, of al-Ghazali, p. 24,26, 8

13
knowing the particulars.61 He didn’t deny theology and philosophy
as whole spectrum of the disciplines.

4.2 Philosopher Scientist’s ( Mashshaa’iyyuun) Theory of

Cosmology.

Peripatetic philosophers like al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina

(Avicenna), Khawaja Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Ibn Rushd (Averroes),
Ibn Bajjah (Evampace) etc are depend on ratio-scientific and
philosophical approaches in their academic activities. They
emphasized on the continuity of things and the importance of the
chain of cause and effect in cosmos (nature). For them nature is
consider as the principle of change and physics as the science
dealing with the change things. They negated the atomic
composition bodies, yet believed they are made of form and matter.
Space and time are continuos and a point of space and moment are
the aspect of a continuos reality illustrated by mind, having no
separate objective existence.62

Nature is a contingent domain of possible being (mumkin) and

relies completely upon God the Necessary Being (waajib al-
wujuud) in order to gain existence . It has relatively stand on it’s
own and also can infer as separate from Divine will. It started
ontologically below the intelligible world from which it receives it’s
being and manifold form to display in it.63

a) Abu Yusuf ibn Yaaqub ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi’s theory of

Cosmology (185-252/801/866)

Abu Yusuf al-Kindi was influenced by Greek intellectualism in

classical era as well as Neo-platonic sources. He believed in one God
who created the world from ‘ex nihillo’ that was close to reveled
truth in Islam. His based view has written in treatises on definition
and description of things64 followed Greek Tradition.

61
Opcit, Massimo C. p.262.
62
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, The Meaning of Nature in Various Intellectual Perspectives
in Islam, in The Islamic Quarterly, Vol. IX, no. 1-2, (Ramadan 1384 - Safar 1385/
Jan-June 1985), p. 26
63
Ibid, p.26-27; See also S.H. Nasr, The Early Peripatetic Philosophers in A Young
Muslim’s Guide to Modern world, Petaling Jaya : Mekar Publishers, (1994) p.77-
81

14
God is referred as ‘the first cause’ or the one is ‘the cause of the
caused’ (in Plotinos is referred to the first agent). Al-Kindi’s
cosmology is divided into two parts; the upper world and the lower
world. The former is defined as the definition of intellect, nature
and soul which isn’t create spiritual being. The latter is the
definition of the lower world starting with body (jirim), creation
(ibda’), matter or hyle (hayuula), form (suurah), etc. This part is
accepted as created corporeal beings. These two parts are finally
returned to the one common and same source of every thing is final
cause, later it proceeds subsequently by hypostates. The
explanation of ‘creation’ through emanation from the upper most
cause, and develops from the reflection of the first intellect and
angles action, yet they actually refer all existence to the first
intellect and satisfied with the theory in progress towards the
Necessary One (the Deity).65

Al-Kindi conceived matter as continuos being and uninter mittrent

structure, but not of infinite extension. Thus, the world is finite
body, the finites of universe is separated from the immaterial upper
world of the spiritual beings. So the world for al-Kindi cannot be
eternal because it’s created in time frame (al-Muhdath). In
conclusion Felix inferred that al-Kindi has separated between
created world and the oneness of God philosophically and achieved
full harmony explanation in line with Islam especially about the
world has been created out of nothing.66 Factually or obviously al-
Kindi hesitated to use religious terminology during his explanation
on the creation of world. He prefers philosophy rather than the
religious doctrines of cosmology, even the meanings are very close
or similarity to Islamic approaches to cosmology.

b) Abu Nasr al-Farabi’s Theory of Cosmology

(257-339/870-950)

Al-Farabi is labeled with the emanation cosmological follower that

has wide claimed by revisionists or oriental studies. The Platonic
verse seem to be applied as the center of his metaphysics and
64
In Arabic saying that fee huduud al-Ashyaa’ wa rusuumihaa in Abu Ridah, (1950),
p.165-180. He mentioned that exist through Emanation System ; See also Felix
Klein Franke, Al-Kindi in History of Islamic Philosophy, co-edited by S.H. Nasr
and Oliver Leaman, Vol.1, part 1, (1996), London: Rouledge, p. 167.
65
Ibid, p. 167-168
66
Ibid, 169-172.

15
cosmological science to fill Aristotelian failure in comprising
between divine science and natural being.67 For al-Farabi this is the
way of Islamic philosophy dealing with nature and scope of
metaphysics in relation to natural philosophy. He admitted that
metaphysics is the universal science that study the common
properties of being qua being. Theology is a part of this science as
certain extend that God is a principle of absolute beings (al-wujuud
al-Mutlaq). The emanation system has focal point on Divine being
and their causality[?] of the sublunary world.68

The emanation framework provided universe as a series of

concentric spheres. The outer most sphere s called the first heaven;
the spheres of the fixed stars; and the spheres of Saturn, Jupiter,
Mars, the sun, Venus, mercury and finally the Moon. Mechanically,
emanation is a theory explaining the generation of the universe
from God draws upon variety of sources. Though these basic
premises and properties are Aristotelian, for al-Farabi God is one,
immaterial, eternal and act of necessity. However God
characterized as an intellect whose principle activity is
understanding (noesis noeseos). God’s intellectual activity which
underlies His roles as the creator of the universe. As a result of
God’s contemplation, this is the overflow or emanation (faydh)
from God of a second intellect, latter followed by generation of third
intellect and generates the celestial spheres that corresponds to it,
the first heaven. For each sphere generates69 by corresponding 10
intellects other than God. Finally it generates eleventh intellects70
in which provided the existence of the concrete universe and all
creatures including human being and the conceived nature (‘alam
al-shahaadat) as contingent beings. Neo-platonic metaphysics of
emanation provided the systematic framework to complete the gap
between the theological and ontological element. Furthermore it’s
paving up the concrete link between the theoretical science of

67
Deborah L. Black, al-Faraabi in Early Islamic Philosophers, Edited by S.H. Nasr
and Oliver Leaman in HIP, p. 187-188; See also Druart (1987), al-Faraabi and
Emanation which edited by John Wippel, entitle Studies in Medieval Philosophy,
Washington D.C., p.23-43
68
Ibid, p.188; His main works in the field are al-Madeenah al-Faadhilah and al-
Siyaasah al-Madaniyyah also known as Mabaadi’ al-Mawjuudaat ( The Principles of
Beings).
69
Ibid, 189
70
Aristotle used as agent intellect in his work of De Anima

16
metaphysics and physics that is not clearly articulated by Aristotle
himself.71

b) Abu Ali Hussain ibn Abdullah ibn Sina’ s theory of

Cosmology (370-428/980-1037)

Avicenna’s cosmological studies started from the philosophy of

Being and the relationship to the universe and its hierarchy. Being
and the knowledge of Being itself is the cause of all particular
existence that becomes the knowledge of mathematics and physical
world are being subordinated. Being is the cause of the world of
multiplicity casting its light upon the different and different
quantities (hayuula) of all things. So it is the reality of everything.72

Two major distinction which underlies Avicenna’s philosophy are

an ontological distinction between quidity or essence (maahiyah)
and existence (wujuud) and tripartite divisions are the necessary
(waajib), contingent (mumkin) and impossible (mumtani‘) beings.
Only the Necessary Being (waajib al-wujuud) or God are essence and
the existence inseparable united, while others unite and exist only
when accidents added to their essence or quidity. The Necessary
Being is pure truth and as pure goodness that is the source and
origin at all level of existence.73

Systematically, Avicenna designed his own ontological hierarchy

and basic distinction has been well done as follows;74

1. The substance whose Being is one, which posses contingency

(mumkin) and is completely separated (mujarrad) from all matter
and potentially is called intellect (‘aql).

2. The substance whose being is one but accepts the form of other
being is divided into two categories;

a) that which doesn’t accept divisibility and although separate

from matter, has needed of a body in its action is called soul
(nafs).
71
Ibid, p.189.
72
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, The Anatomy of Being in ISCD, p197-198
73
Ibid, 198-99
74
Ibid, p. 200; Adopted by S.H. Nasr from Ibn Sina’s Ilaahiyat - Prs. Danisnamah,
p. 36

17
 b) that which accepts divisibility and has the three divisions of
length, width and depth is called body (jism).

Like al-Farabian emanation, Avicenna also used the same

description on the ontological process and universal existence. He
explained on the existence of heavenly bodies and the world firstly
through the first intellect (‘aql al-awwal)75 is contingent in essence
and necessary by virtue of Necessary Being, the cause of causes (‘ilat
al-‘ilaal). Later the first intellect generates multiplicity and by the
intellection of Divine Essence, it generates second intellect that
proceeds two beings which are soul of the first heaven and its body.
Aftermath it generates third intellect, the soul of the second heaven
and its body. This process continues until the ninth heaven lunar
regions are generated. This will represent the correspondence
scheme of the planetary spheres.76

Here I enclose the scheme of corespondent generating intellect with

the heavenly bodies of Avicenna as asserted by Nasr;

No. of Heaven Name of Heaven No. of

generating intellect

9 Heaven of Heaven 1
8 Heaven of Sign of Zodiac 2
7 Saturn 3
6 Jupiter 4
5 Mars 5
4 Sun 6
3 Venus 7
2 Mercury 8
1 Moon 9

Brief explanation:

75
One might be inferred that the first intellect was three form of knowledge.
They are knowledge of the Essence of the Necessary Being (‘ilm ‘an waajib al-
wujuud) , knowledge of its own essence as a being necessary by virtue of another
being (waajib bi ‘l-ghair) and knowledge of its own essence as a contingent. (‘Ilm
‘an mumkin)
76
Passim, S.H.Nasr, The Anatomy of Being, ISCD p.203-204.

18
The first intellect has One power (qudrat) that of the knowledge
(‘ilmiyyah) which is received from command (al-amr) of Divine
power added with power of desireth and loveth (shawqiyyah) and
turns the universal nature (al-tabee’at al-kulliyyaat) and the
universal element (al-‘unsur al-kulleey) into being.77 From here
Avicenna designed four words or terminology on the creation of
universe like ihdath, ibda’, khalq and takween.78

In short, Avicenna has built a systematic construction of

creationism model of universe. How cute it was when he started his
explanation from gnosis entity, later he rationalized into
transcendental being using the chain of intellection and finally
departed from soul of heavenly bodies to expose the generation at
perceived order to merge between both doctrine of metaphysics and
physical cosmology of nature, due to achieve the conformity of
Islamic perspective and integrated part of cosmological world view.
5. Muslim Methodological Study in Cosmos

Unlike the approaches of western scientist on nature to derive

scientific knowledge through assumption, Muslim has exposed to
the existence of absolute truth in nature called either God the
creator or Being the first cause to universe etc. That is why the
concept of nature or cosmos must be precisely clear to consider it as
the subject of attaining knowledge after understanding the nature
of man himself as the knower or truth seeker and the Almighty God
as systematically law giver unto the nature and the utmost
Omniscience of truth provider to human comprehended scientist
among who believes in Him.

In relation to this above subject matter, scientific method should be

based on the prior knowledge, clear framework of ontology and
cosmology 79that provided absolute certainty (haqq al-yaqeen) or the
77
Ibid, ISCD, p.204
78
Ibid, ISCD, p.212-213; ihdaath means production of contingent being, weather
they be eternal or temporal; ibda’ means production without intermediary of
incorruptible and eternal beings, weather they be corporeal or not; khalq means
production with or without intermediaries of corporeal beings, weather they be
corruptible or incorruptible; takween means production with intermediaries of
corruptible beings.
79
M.Mumtaz Ali, Science and Scientific Method: Reflection on Redefinition and
reconceptualize Realization, in Islamic Quarterly Journal, p. 227; See also Caw
Peter, On Scientific Method, in Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.7-8, New York :

19
ultimate truth. From the concrete fact of observation and empirical
knowledge must be derived to find out genuine truth. To have an
authentic or reliable method, Muslims have to;80

1. Cease out of the fallacy that our intellect cannot penetrate into
noumena. It’s must be acceptable both phenomena and noumena to
recognized the reality of nature existence.

2. Give up all our false assumption and build our method on

absolute certainly basis.

3. Be reasonable and scientific and should avoid prejudice and bias

in our approach. Thus our method must be developed on the basis
of absolute certainty.

Here is the rationale of discussing the Muslim cosmological science

to proof that Islam has profound concept of creation which has
involved metaphysics of creator and His activities (noumena) and
cosmological ground of physical world (phenomena). But how our
previous philosophers scientist or theologians selected their
appropriate method to explain absolute and concrete nature in
Islam?;

5.1 Method of Mutakallimun on ‘a Priori ayaatiyyah ’

This method has been used by Muslim theologians and jurists to

require facts to be faith (imaan) and known (‘ilm). Al-Quran itself is
repository of truth because of God who transmits knowledge (‘ilm)
and wisdom (hikmah). The skills, are required to have ‘a priori
ayatiyyah be used such as Arabic syntax, grammar and exegesis
from tradition. Some jurist also used analogy (qiyaas) to reach
science of jurisprudence. Ibn Khaldun said: “This is the knowledge
through transmission (‘uluum al-Naqliyyah)”81 As the holy ayat is a
priori, even it so happens to the nature that ever considered also as
the God significant on the Horizon aayaatinaa fi al-aafaaq where by
people will attained the ultimate truth of God. Hence rational is
used when it’s in line to a priori and if dealing with metaphors they
Macmillan, 1967, p. 329.
80
Ibid, M.Mumtaz Ali, Science and Scientific Method, p.230.

81
Sari Nuseibeh, Epistemology, in HIP, Vol.1 Part II, p. 826-827

20
have to used allegorical (ta’weel) method to suite with the a priori
knowledge.

5.2 Method of Mutakallimun on Dialectical Skills.

As al-Quran has been a frame of reference, theologians exercise

their intellect within the transmitted science as major
characteristic. Dialectical skills require logical relation, for example
to express causality relation it should be put certain terminology of
universal cause like meaning (ma‘naa), disposition (haal), subject
matter (mawdhuu‘) etc. This logic or method of reasoning is used to
abstract and position from the specific doctrine which needs to be
defended. It is widely practiced by majority scientist of the
Mu’tazilite and Asha’arite kalam.82 This skill was used by al-Ghazali
to describe God interfered a burning ability within fire as
explanation of causality isn’t necessary proceeds burning act.
Philosopher al-Kindi and Avicenna also used this to explain a
bifurcation between essence and existence such as knowledge of
God, is it identical to human knowledge?.83 The main method has
used by theologians is reasoning and intellectual speculation (al-
ra’y wa al-nadzar) which related to their general positive
understanding the articles of faith.84 Al-Ghazali defended the
rationalization in kalam as scientific method because it isn’t seem to
be intuitive knowledge (kashf). He argued on for faith implies in
particular level of knowledge and certainty that rooted from
appodietic Demonstration (mantiq al-burhaaniy) and mystical
experiences (dhawq).85

5.3 Method of Philosophers on Knowledge by Intellection

Philosophers used reason that unbound by any frame of reference

to be claimed. But in practice, they strongly influenced by
philosophical or scientific frame work from Greek and Syriac.
Moslem philosopher scientist were worked hard to reconcile the
body of knowledge or their truth with that of traditionalist.86 What

82
Ibid, p. 827-828
83
Ibid, p.829.
84
Osman Bakar, Classification of Knowledge in Islam [CKI], Kuala Lumpur : The
Institute For Policy Research, (1992) p. 182-183
85
Ibid, p. 185
86
Passim, M. Mumtaz Ali, Science and Scientific Method, p. 230

21
amazing is at least, philosopher scientists knew precisely the
different type or hierarchy of truth beyond the human knowledge.

5.4 Method of Philosopher on Appodietic Demonstration.

According to al-Ghazali, philosophers claimed themselves an a man

of logic and appodietic demonstration (ahl al-mantiq wa ‘l-Burhaan)
were followed Aristotle and other Greek figures relies on reason
alone to know all kind of things. Consequently they have to identify
the rational truth (human wisdom) from reveled wisdom
(theosophy).87Philosophical method is so called Apppodietic
Demonstration was inconsistencies and invited errors has been
postulated. It’s far from reaching at certainty of metaphysical
truth.88 Unlike al-Farabi who asserted that the power of rational
faculty (reason) became sharpened through the soul purification
and directed will and desire towards the truth instead of the sensual
pleasure.89

Al-Farabi constructed two type of philosophies which are external

philosophy such as Kalam and esoteric philosophy such as method
of demonstration (al-Burhaan al-Yaqeeniy) which composite of
intellectual intuition and logical conclusion (istinbaat). The former
is superior kind of knowledge to religion (millat) and the latter is on
method of persuasion (al-Iqnaa’) and leading to certain.90Whenever
he is dealing with science (‘ilm),91 the main theme to be touched is
on the degree of profundity of proof. That is why sciences here
relatively excellence more than the other based on an employment
of more perfect method of arriving truth claims and proving. Al-
Farabi method of proof found in logical theory which deals
primarily with Syllogism. He used and described three types of
proofs; which are consisting of Syllogism (Qiyaas),92 Induction
(tasaffut aw Istiqraa’) and rhetoric (al-Khitaabiyah).
87
Op cit, CKI p. 186
88
Ibid, CKI p.187
89
Ibid, CKI p.188
90
Ibid, CKI p. 81
91
Al-Faraabian notion of science as ‘an organized body of knowledge as a
discipline having distinctive goals, basic premises and objects and method of
study.’ It is considered as the comprised of cognition (ma‘aarif) with encompass
both conception and assent (reality of truth).
92
Ibid, CKI p.83-84; Syllogism is divided into three sections; they are General
Syllogism, Dialectical Syllogism and Demonstrative Syllogism.

22
6. Cosmology As The Fundamental Sources of Islamic
Science.

Cosmological knowledge or natural sciences is close connected

chains of natural thought in Kalam or Muslim theology and
philosophy to the specific field of Islamic science. Yet as Prof. S.
H.Nasr asserted that it’s a theoretical background true of the
Islamic, which derived from the application and traditional Islamic
Cosmological expression through metaphysic principle unto cosmic
stages.93 Islamic Cosmology is rooted from the principle of
revelation and metaphysic basis within al-Quran and the teaching
of the prophet (pbuh). It is the original principle at universe in
respect to at once Being, consciousness and bliss (beatitude). The
cosmology it self means gaining knowledge out of this positive
aspect of cosmos which manifested from the Islamic principle94 of
creation and existence.

Again Prof. S.H. Nasr affirmed that Muslim cosmology as the

principle of scientific study as :

“The meaning of all the cosmological

schemes in Islam has remained the same,
namely the relating of multiplicity to unity
of existence of Being, of each creature on a
particular level of existence to the higher
levels and finally to the Divine names and
qualities in which are to be found the
principle and the ‘end’ of all cosmic
manifestation”.95

Through the Islamic tradition of cosmology, Muslim scientists

developed many series esoteric form and description of
cosmographies for instance the magnificent work of the wonder
creations (‘Ajaa’ib al-Makhluuqaat) of Abu Yahya Zakariyya al-
Qazwini and astronomical and mathematical work of Abu Rayhan
al-Biruni and Qutb al-Din Shirazi 96 of much more exposed on
93
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Science; An Illustrated Study, Istanbul : Insan
Yayinlari, 1989, p. 27
94
Ibid, p. 28
95
Ibid, p.31
96
Ibid, p.36; The exploring on cosmology was starting from angelic world and
ended with plants and minerals. This example of contribution works on

23
scientific natural being which close related to astronomy and
physics. As a fundamental of Islamic science, the diversified
cosmology has been derived from Islamic Cosmology and served as
the background, matrix and principle for various Muslim Natural
Sciences from geography to alchemy. The ability of the linkage in
particular science to the principle of Islamic revelation, internal
creation (metaphysics) and various cultivated sciences was shown
an amazement 97 in the history of Islamic science.

The way of Muslims study on nature harmoniously between man

and cosmic environment is the promising method for the future
scientific development. Moreover, Islam never separates intimate
link between man and nature or between science of nature and
religion because both of them mentioned clearly in al-Quran. That
is why al-Quran reveled both on recorded al-Quran (al-Quraan al-
Tadweeniy) and al-Quran of creations (al-Quraan al-Takweeniy)
which contains ideas or archetypes of all things. Consequently al-
Quran contains the principles knowledge of cosmos which is called
cosmology through the name of the Book of Signs (ayaatulLaah).98

If an argument on Islamic Cosmology will be put forward, it

depends on the interpretation of scared text (ta’weel), penetrating
from outward (dzaahir) and to the inward (baatin) meaning and
exegeses from the authentic intepret scholars. Man can study
nature as something to be manipulated and inward dimension of
nature as a symbol and transparent reality to understand them in
real sense. From this stage Islam reveled Metaphysical Doctrine
and the hierarchy of knowledge to develop various disciplines of
sciences. Natural studies manifest the purpose and the wisdom of
God that their existence are related to the creator of all creatures
and given knowledge as the essential relation to Him. True science
is relating cosmological phenomena with the inner aspect of reality,

mythology, scientific and hierarchy of universe. Later they transferred in

literature, miniatures and paintings as the symbols of the civilization.
97
Ibid, p.36
98
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Metaphysics Principle Pertaining to Nature in Man and
Nature; The Spiritual Crisis of Modern Man, Kuala Lumpur : Foundation for
Traditional Studies, 1976, p.94-95; For Prof. Nasr ayat means event occurring
within the soul of men and pheunomena in the world of nature based on the
translated al-Quran : “We show them our portents upon the horizons and within
themselves, until it be manifest unto them that it is the truth.” (61:53).

24
called noumena which is the central relation of pure Being.99 This is
universal relationship in respect to the epistemology qua
ontological existence.

Knowledge acquisition occurred through essential metaphysics and

intellectual intuition. Thus cosmology is in the fact an application of
metaphysical principle to the cosmic domain. Since the principles
has been established, both reason and observation serve as aids to
complete of the particular aspect of things. The legitimacy of reason
and instrument of methods, subsequently contributing to the
legitimate sciences which are found their meaning and reality under
the light of wisdom100 or sapientia ratio supported by guidance or
inspiration of God almighty.

The fact of cosmological sciences are remain meaningless until by

means of intelligence, it must be sent to find their meaning as
manifestation in showing dependence, existence and intellectual
requirement and amazing order upon the Divine Sources of all
existence. 101 For instance ibn Sina after had precise established
principle of medicine upon cosmic analogies and other based
cosmological doctrine in metaphysics, he ventured observations
and induction to find the fact of Symptoms and the way how to heal
them. From experiments also he could derive necessary meteria
medica and treatment methods of various ailments. Within the
same way, he ventured other fields of sciences like physics,
meteorology, geology, pharmaceutics etc.

Muslim studies in cosmology was started from symbolic and sacred

geographical images of the spiritual world with coordinates with
exact mathematical measurement in geographical coordination and
quantitative studies. For instance, Muslim has started with seven
circular region is reflection of seven fold in spiritual hierarchy in
Islam. Even the central of cosmic mountain Qaf 102in ancient
Persian is transformed from al-Quran. Since Abbasid period,
Muslim developed a descriptive and quantitative geography until
now it considers as the scientific geography. In 3rd/9th century
Muslim has written the world map entitled ‘Ma’munic Map’ (al-
99
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrine, 1978,
p.233-34.
100
Ibid., p.234.
101
Ibid., p. 235
102
S.H. Nasr, Islamic Science, p.36-37

25
ßuurat al-Ma’muuniyyah) which was attained by Abu Hassan al-
Mas‘udi as more accurate than that Ptolemy has. Also al-Mas‘udi
has combined cosmology, History and Geography in single
encyclopedia which entitled as Muruuj al-Dhahab - the Prairies of
Gold in 4th and 5th century. The geographer Abu Rayhan al-Biruni
who at once mastered of mathematical, descriptive and actual
geography authored the famous ‘Tahdeed Nihaayaat al-Amaakin’- the
Determination of the coordinates of cities. In Mathematical
Geography his book on India, the Chronology of Ancient Nation
and the al-Mas‘udi Cannon - Qaanuun al-Mas‘uudiy. 103

Until 6th/12th century Muslim Cosmological Encyclopedia has

been elaborated in the west during the beginning European
expansion like ‘Nawkhbaat al-Dakr’ (the selection of the age) of
Shams al-Din al-Dimashqi and ‘Ajaa’ib al-Buldaan’ (the wonders of
the land) of Zakariya al-Qazwini. In the same period, Western
Muslim geographer Abu ‘Abdillah al-Idrisi, the Moroccan who
served at the court of Roger II in Sicily authored the World Map
based upon the Hellenistic and earlier Islamic sources entitled
‘Kitaab al-Ruujariy- the book of Roger.104

In chemistry Muslim has the cosmological principle, such as ‘al-

Tadaakhul ’ - “every thing is penetrating everything”105which the
substance of thing can be transmuted, so that their nature can be
change. Islamic alchemy contains the basis of natural philosophy as
the doctrine of Hylomorphism or qualities and four elements. This
four combine in various formulation to rise the two basic
substances or so called ‘the principle of sulphur and Mercury’. From
this principle, which corresponds the feminine and masculine
principle of the cosmic plane. From the wedding of them, all
creatures come into being. Muslim chemist, Jabir ibn Hayyan said
that the key of the metal structure is that all substances are in
balance (al-meezaan). The balance is being used for physical

103
Ibid., p.40-42
104
Ibid., p. 42.
105
Ibid., p.194; See footnote no. 4 states that : “According to traditional
metaphysics, the first determination of the absolute (the level of Ahadiyyat
according to the follower of the school of ibn ‘Araabiy) is on in which all the
divine names and qualities are determined but yet indistinct in such way that
every quality is in every other quality. It might be said the chemical point of view
reflects this principal reality on the level of cosmic existence.”

26
meteorology instrument and psychological soul measurement.106
From this crucial principle, Jabir ventures the chemistry field and
supported by Muhammad Abu Zakariya al-Razi who was
responsible to change alchemy into Muslim chemistry by negation
the allegorical method ‘ta’weel ’ of the symbols but redirected it
towards rational scientific development.107

7. Conclusion and Remarks

Muslim cosmological studies in this context, exposes two

approaches towards nature as the subject or sources of Islamic
Natural Sciences. The first group is representing by Philosopher
Scientist called Peripatetic. They are inclinated to Greek antiquity
and showing their creativity on reshaping the Neo-platonic and
Aristotelian frame works for reconciliation with Islamic religion
pertaining rational and scientific requirement. Subsequently the
scientific activities flourished via empirical and observational
studies.

Meanwhile the theologians or Mutakallimuun, did very excellent

task at metaphysics and Ontological ground. They recorrect the
Greek influences. Apparently al-Ghazali appropriated the
demarcated heresy on ontological and metaphysical aspect in
Muslim Cosmology. This contributions pretended Muslim scientist
and philosopher from apologetically following the ancient antiquity.
Hence systematic studies has to be allocated for these ancient
transmission into Muslim properties. Synthesis has been applied
thoroughly avoiding Islamic science from the polluted antiquities
on the originality of Muslim cosmological world view. Then the
highest Islamic theological skills has been used for the systematic
treatments.

Finally, cosmological studies must be based on the light of truth

from the Islamic Epistemology like an allegorical and authentic
interpretation on empirical nature within al-Quran and al-Hadith.
It would lead scientists towards finding the true signs of God that
reveled the proper meaning of the hierarchy of being, Divine
regularity and ultimate truth in the world. Therefore, Islamic
Natural Science will reached it’s maturity by achieving what so
106
Ibid., p.195; In al-Ghazali discussion, he ever touched about the Chemistry of
Happiness (al-Kimyaa’ al-Sa’adat)
107
Ibid., p.200

27
called the arrival of the meaning of things into human soul
systematically.108 This process as whole, produces knowledge in
Muslim Scientific scheme. In Islam the unveiled process of
discoveries and investigations upon specific field, contributes to
science in particular sense under Islamic epistemological frame
work. This is what so called Islamic Science.

8. References

Caw Peter, On Scientific Method, in Encyclopedia of Philosophy,

Vol.7-8, New York : Macmillan, 1967

Deborah L. Black, al-Farabi in Early Islamic Philosophers, Edited

by S.H. Nasr and Oliver Leaman in HIP, Vol.1, part 1, (1996),
London: Rouledge
p. 187-188

Fathalla Kholief, Munazarat Fakhruddin al-Razi fi Bilad Ma wara’

al-Nahr, Beirut: Dar al-Mashruq, 1966

Felix Klein Franke, Al-Kindi in History of Islamic Philosophy, co-

edited by S.H.Nasr and Oliver Leaman, Vol.1, part 1, London:
Rouledge, 1996

Ismail Raja’ie al-Faruqi, Islam and the Theory of Nature, Islamic

Quarterly Vol.XXVI, No.1, First Quarterly, London: The Islamic
Culture Center, 1982.

Masimo Campanini, al-Ghazali in Early Islamic Philosopher in The

East; History of Islamic Philosophy (HIP), co-edited by S.H. Nasr
and Oliver Leaman, vol. 1 Part.1, London : Rouledge, 1996
108
An adaptation from S.M.N. Al-‘Attas on the discussion of the natural study
pertaining to knowledge acquisition in ‘The Positive Aspect of Tasawwuuf;
Preliminary Thought on Islamic Philosophy of Science’, K. Lumpur: Akademi Sains
Islam, (1981), p.3-9.

28
M. Mumtaz Ali, Science and Scientific Method: Reflection on
Redefinition and Reconcept Realization, in Islamic Quarterly
Journal, p. 227

Mustafa Ceric, Al-Maturidite Theological Ideas In Root of

Synthetic Theology in Islam, Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1995

Osman Bakar, Classification of Knowledge in Islam [CKI], Kuala

Lumpur : The Institute For Policy Research, 1992

___________, Cosmology,: The Oxford Encyclopedia of the

Modern Islamic World, New York: Oxford Press, Vol. I,(1995)

___________, Tawhid and Science, Kuala Lumpur : Nurin

Enterprise, 1991

Richard M. Frank, Al-Ghazali and the ‘Asha‘arite School, Durham

and London: Duke University Press, 1994

Shah Wali Allah al-Dahlawi, Hujjatul al-Balighah, Trans. By Marlia

K. Hermansen , The Condusive Proof from God, nd

S.M.N. Al-Attas, on the discussion of the natural study pertaining to

knowledge aquisition in ‘The Positive Aspect of Tasawwuf;
Priliminary Thought on Islamic Philosophy of Science’, K.Lumpur:
Akademi Sains Islam (ASASI), 1981

Seyyed Hossein Nasr, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological

Doctrine, Boulder, 1978

________________, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological

Doctrines, (IICD) Great Britain : Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1978

________________, The Meaning of Nature in Various

Intellectual Perspectives in Islam, in The Islamic Quarterly, Vol. IX,
no. 1-2, (Ramadan 1384 - Safar 1385/ Jan-june 1985)

________________, The Early Peripatetic Philosophers in A

Young Muslim’s Guide to Modern world, Petaling Jaya : Mekar
Publishers, 1994

29
________________, Islamic Science; An Illustrated Study,
Istanbul : Insan Yayinlari, 1989

________________, Man and Nature; The Spiritual Crisis of

Modern Man, Kuala Lumpur : Foundation for Traditional Studies,
1976

Yassin Ceylan, Theology and Tafsir in Major Work of Fakhr al-Din

al-Razi, Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1996

*Centre for Islamic Thought and Understanding (CITU)

MARA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, TERENGGANU Branch Campus,
MALAYSIA

30