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Introduction

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Introduction: Basic concepts. Passive elements. Contents

1 Basic concepts 1.1 Maxwell Equations and Lorentz Force . . . . . 1.1.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Ohms Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Joules Heating Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Circuit Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.1 Kirchhoffs Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.2 Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.3 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.4 Thevenins Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.5 Nortons Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.6 Maximum Power Transfer and Matching 2 Decibels 3 Passive components 3.1 Resistors . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Types of resistors . 3.2 Capacitors . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Energy stored . . . 3.3 Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 10 10 11 13 15 16 17 17 18 18 19 20 21 21 22 22

4 Transformers 4.1 The ideal transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Transformer as impedance matching element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Sinusoidal analysis 6 Series and Parallel combinations of basic components 7 RC circuits 7.1 RC Low-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 RC High-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 RL circuits 8.1 RL Low-pass lter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 RL High-pass lter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 n-pole lters

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10 RCL circuits; Resonance 10.1 Serial circuit. Band elimination circuit 10.1.1 Quality factor and bandwidth 10.2 Parallel circuit. Band pass lter . . . 10.2.1 Quality factor . . . . . . . . . 11 Bibliography

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Basic concepts

Electronics deals with voltage and current interaction in a network of resistances R, capacitances C , inductances L and active elements such as transistors. The main purpose of electronics circuits is to amplify signals or to produce signals of a desired waveform. We will start off with a very theoretical introduction of the laws of electrodynamics to provide a sound theoretical background. Nevertheless in most situations where physicists have to deal with electronics, the knowledge of Ohms law and circuit theory is sufcient.

1.1

Maxwell Equations and Lorentz Force

Maxwells equations are a set of four equations that describe the behaviour of electric and magnetic elds and their interactions with matter. The four equations are given below in differential form (no movement of charges): 1st law (Gauss law for electricity): The electric ux out of any closed surface is proportional to the total charge enclosed within the surface. D = with D=
0E

+P

where D is the electric displacement eld [C/m2 ], the free electric charge density [C/m3 ], E the electric eld strength [V/m], 0 the permittivity of free space [F/m] and P the electric polarisation [C/m2 ]. 2nd law (Gauss law for magnetism): The net magnetic ux out of any closed surface is zero. B =0 where B is the magnetic ux density [Vs/m2 ]. 3rd law (Faradays law of induction): The line integral of the electric eld around a closed loop is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic ux though the area enclosed by the loop. B E = t

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4th law (Amperes law): The line integral of the magnetic eld around a closed loop is proportional to the electric current owing through the loop. H =J + with H= D t

1 BM 0

where H is the magnetic eld strength [A/m], J the current density [A/m2 ] (J = I/A, the current I on a surface A), 0 the magnetic permeability of free space [Vs/(Am)] and M the magnetisation of the material [A/m]. The force F acting on a charged particle (charge q , velocity v ) moving in the presence of an electric and a magnetic eld is called Lorentz force: F = q E + qv B 1.1.1 Electrostatics

Electric elds are produced by stationary charges. The force in vacuum between two charges between q1 and q2 is given by Coulombs Law: F = 1 q1 q 2 r [N ] 4 0 r2

where 0 = 8.854 1012 F/m and r corresponds to the distance between the 2 charges. This expression was determined experimentally by Coulomb in 1785. The electric eld generated by a single charge is: E= 1 q r [V /m] 4 0 r2

In this denition the electric eld points from the positive towards the negative charge. 1.1.2 Magnetostatics

Magnetic elds are produced by moving charges. The strength of the magnetic eld from an innitesimal section of a wire is 0 Idl r dB = 2 4 r 7 with 0 = 4 10 [N/A]. This law was found experimentally in 1820 by Biot-Savart.

1.2 Voltage
In case there is no varying magnetic eld, the curl of the electric eld vanishes so that we can dene the electric eld as the gradient of a potential E =

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Given this denition, the potential from a point charge is = q [V ] 4 0 r

Since the electric eld is the gradient of the potential, the potential difference between two points can be found by integrating the electric eld along an arbitrary path between the points.
y

V (x, y ) = (y ) (x) =
x

E dl [V ]

We can also note the relation between voltage and work W : dW = F dl = QEdl. Therefore dV = dW/Q.

1.3 Current
Current I , measured in Amperes [A], is the time rate at which charges Q pass a given reference point. Thus dQ I= dt

1.4 Power
If we take the expression for power (rate of doing work) and multiply it by dQ/dQ we obtain: P = dW dW dQ dW dQ = = = V I [W ] dt dt dQ dQ dt

Hence power is voltage multiplied by current.

1.5

Ohms Law

To make a current ow it is needed to push on the charges. How fast they move depends on the nature of the material. For most substances, the current density J is proportional to the force per unit charge: J = F The proportionality constant ( ) is called conductivity, and its reciprocal is the resistivity = 1/ . Microscopically we can understand the resistivity. In some media, in the presence of an electrical eld, an electron is accelerated. It then moves freely until it collides with one of the atoms of the material that slows it down, after which the electron gets accelerated again by the electric eld. Resistivity () is a material property that relates to the average interval between collisions. Developing the previous expression for the electromagnetic force (see Lorentz force), we obtain J = (E + v B ) Normally, the velocity of the charges is sufciently small that the second term can be ignored, yielding J = E

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This last expression is known as Ohms Law. Beware, the physics is in the relationship between current density and the force. Ohms Law is just a special case. Lets imagine a wire with cross-sectional area A and length l made of a material of conductivity . What current ows? The current can be written as I = JA and taking into account Ohms Law and the relation E = V /l: I = JA = EA = A V l

This example shows us that the current that ows is proportional to the voltage difference. The proportionality constant depends on the conductivity of the material and also its geometry. We will call this constant resistance (R), allowing us to express Ohms law in the more common way: V = RI Resistance is measured in Ohm ().

1.6

Joules Heating Law

When current ows in a material, the repeated collisions of the electrons with the atoms transfer energy to the atoms with the result that the temperature of the material increases. A resistor can therefore be considered as an energy-transforming device: it converts electrical energy into heat. The amount of energy conversion by a resistor can be expressed by: P = V I = I 2R = V2 I

This expression is known as Joules Law where the power is expressed in W att. Integrating we obtain the thermal energy (W ) dissipated in a time interval t: W = I 2 Rt This is known as Joules heating law.

1.7
1.7.1

Circuit Theory
Kirchhoffs Laws

Many circuits are extremely complex and cannot be solved applying simply Ohms Law. Kirchhoffs Laws are a powerful set of laws which enable one to analyse arbitrary circuits e.g. with many power sources and branches. 1. 1st Kirchhoffs law: At a node (point at which two or more circuit elements have a connection) the algebraic sum of the currents entering is zero (charge conservation). In = 0 Choosing e.g. node C in g. 1, one can therefore note that the incoming currents equal the outgoing current: I 1 + I 2 = I 3.

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Figure 1: Circuit with 2 branches.

2. 2nd Kirchhoffs law: The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path in a circuit is zero (energy conservation). Vn = 0 Looking again at g. 1, we can write down the 2 equations for the 2 branches: V 1 = R1I 1 + R3I 3 V 2 = R2I 2 + R3I 3 From these laws we can state that circuit theory is a linear theory. 1.7.2 Equivalence

Two circuits are equivalent if they have the same I V characteristics at their terminal. 1.7.3 Superposition

This powerful theorem comes directly from linearity. In a network with multiple voltage sources, the current in any branch is the sum of the currents which would ow in that branch due to each voltage source acting alone with all other voltage sources replaced by their internal impedances (see later for the denition of the impedance). 1.7.4 Thevenins Theorem

Any circuit can be replaced by a series combination of an ideal source Vth and a resistance Rth , where Vth is the open-circuit voltage and Rth is the ratio of the open-circuit voltage with the short-circuit current. Fig. 2 shows an example for a circuit with 2 voltage sources, 4 resistances, the output terminal AB and a load resistance R2. The part to the left of A we can replace with a R1 and a Thevenin equivalent of the series combination of a voltage source Vth1 = VS 1 R1+ R4 R 1R 4 series resistance Rth1 = R1+R4 . The part to the right of B can be replaced by a Thevenin equivalent of the series combination

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Figure 2: Circuit with 2 voltage sources and a load resistor R2 on the left and its Thevenin equivalent on the right.

R5 R 3R 5 of a voltage source Vth2 = VS 2 R3+ and a series resistance Rth2 = R . R5 3+R5 Finally, these two parts can be combined into a series combination of a voltage source Vth = Vth1 + Vth2 with the series resistance Rth = Rth1 + Rth2 . Now the output voltage can R2 easily be written down as Vout = Rth . +R 2

1.7.5

Nortons Theorem

Its the dual of Thevenins theorem. Any circuit can be substituted by a parallel combination of a current source In and a resistance Rn . The resistance is the same as Rth and In is obtained short-circuiting. 1.7.6 Maximum Power Transfer and Matching

How much power can a source deliver to a load (RL ) that is connected to the source? Lets reduce the source by its Thevenins equivalent: P = I 2 RL = To get the maximum we need to differentiate: dP (R + RL )2 2RL (R + RL ) =V2 RL = R dRL (R + RL )4 This is an important result that has to be taken into account in the design of new circuits. Maximum power transfer is given when the load resistance matches the circuit resistance. V R + RL
2

RL

Decibels

The difference in power (e.g. input power to output power of a circuit) can be expressed in decibels (dB). P2 V22 V2 dB 10 log = 10 log 2 = 20 log P1 V1 V1 where we have used that P V 2 .

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3
3.1

Passive components
Resistors

Resistors are the most simple electronic devices. As we have already seen, each time a current ows in a material, there is a resistance, depending both on the intrinsic characteristics of the material as well as its geometry, that opposes the current ow. Resistors are components built to have a determined value of electrical resistance. The graphic symbol of the re- Figure 3: Schematic symbol of a resistors is in gure 3: sistor.

Current-Voltage relationship The realtionship between current and voltage for this type of component is given by the Ohms Law V = IR As R is a constant (it is assumed that R remains constant over a large range of voltages and temperatures), voltage and current in a resistor are in phase. This can be seen more easily if a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the resistor, as sketched in gure 4. Instantaneous power P = V I = I 2R = Average power Vp2 1 T V2 Pave = dt = T 0 R 2R Let us suppose now a resistor connected to a DC battery of voltage V . The power delivered to R would be constant with a value P = V I = V 2 /R. Hence if we eqate DC power to the average AC power, we conclude that: Vp V = = 0.707Vp 2 This is called the effective value of an AC voltage; a sinusoidal voltage of peak value Vp is as effective in delivering power to a resistor as a DC voltage of value Vp / 2. Supplied energy Vp2 t 2 Vp2 sin 2t sin t dt = t R 0 R 2 0 This means that the energy supplied continuously increases, wiggling around the average value Vp2 t/2R, that is equal to Joules heating law.
t

Vp2 V2 = sin2 t R R

R =

P dt =

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I-V relationship

Power
Current Voltage Current P ins P ave WR

5 4

2 3 0 2 1 0 -1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 time 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 time

-2

-4

Figure 4: (a) Circuit diagram of a resistor with a voltage V applied. (b) A sinusoidal voltage results in an in-phase sinusoidal current in R. (c) Instantaneous power P in a resistor (always positive). Energy continues to increase with time.

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Introduction

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- Wire-Wound: Wire or ribbon wound as a single layer helix over a ceramic or berglass core. Residual inductance. Low noise and quite stable with temperature (0.5-200 ppm/o C ) and R in [0.1,105 ] . - Metal Film: Printed circuits using a thin layer of resistance alloy on a at or tubular insulating substrate. Characteristics similar to wire-wound resistors. - Carbon Film: Similar in construction to axial lead metal lm resistors. The carbon lm is a granular material, therefore random noise may be developed because of variations in the voltage drop between granules. Can affect circuits with low signals. - Carbon Composition: Cylinder of carbon-based resistive material molded into a cylinder. These resistors can have noise problems as the carbon lms ones, but have been used for 50 years in electronics. - Adjustable resistors: Cylindrical wire-wound resistors with a movable arm that is in contact with a resistive element. They are also called potentiometers. If a tool is needed they are called trimmers. They can vary linearly or logarithmically. - Attenuators

3.2

Capacitors

A capacitor is a mechanical conguration that accumulates charge Q when a voltage V is applied and holds that charge when the voltage is removed. The proportionality constant between charge and voltage is the capacitance C , that is, Q = CV

Capacitance is measured in F arads (F ). Most common values are in the range of pF and F . In case of two conducting plates C = A/l. To obtain Figure 5: Schematic symbol of a capacitor. larger capacitances we can either increase the area (A), decrease the spacing (l) or increase the dielectric constant. The spacing imposes a limit on the voltage that can be applied, dictated by the dielectric breakdown strength of the insulating material used. Current-Voltage relationship Derivating wrt time the last equation: dQ dV dV =C I=C = Vp C cos t = Vp Csin(t + /2) dt dt dt This expression shows us that a constant voltage across a capacitor produces no current through the capacitor. Also we see that current and voltage are not in phase.

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University of Geneva Instantaneous and average power The instantaneous power is given by

Introduction

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CVp2 dV P = V I = CV = sin 2t dt 2 The positive and negative values of P imply that power ows back and forth at twice the frequency of the applied voltage; rst from source to capacitor (P > 0) and then from capacitor to source (P < 0) with an average power Pave = 0. Therefore a capacitor does not consume energy. It simply stores it for a quarter period, and during the next quarter period it gives the energy back. 3.2.1 Energy stored
t

C =
0

CVp2 CVp2 1 P dt = CV 2 = sin2 t = (1 cos 2t) 2 2 4

This means that the average stored energy is a constant: ave 1 = T

T 0

1 CVp2 C dt = T 4

T 0

CVp2 (1 cos 2t)dt = 4

Types of capacitors Capacitors can be classied as below: Mica capacitors Mica capacitors are built with a dielectric ( r 6) between two electrodes (usually silver). The metal and mica foils can be piled and each electrode connected to even and odd metal foils. Mica capacitors have capacitances between pF and some tens of nF with tolerances 1%, and maximal voltage differences between 100 V and few thousand Volts. The dependence on temperature is quite high (100 ppm). Their response to high frequencies is quite good, therefore they are used in radiofrequency applications. Film capacitors Capacitors where the dielectric is made of a plastic foil. Plastic is used because it can be manufactured with minimal imperfections in thin lms. These capacitors are built by winding four layers of metal-plastic-metal-plastic into a cylinder and connecting both metal layers to the electrodes. Another technique is to use two layers of metallised foils (only on one side) that allows a higher capacitance in less volume. Usual materials are polyester (mylar), polystyrene, polycarbonate, polypropylene, polyfenylsulphite or teon. Film capacitors have capacitances between few hundreds pF and few tens of F , with tolerances in the range of 1% and 20%, and maximal tensions between few tens and few hundreds of Volts, depending obviously on the plastic used. The dependence on temperature is satisfactory, in the range of -20 ppm and 100 ppm. An important advantage of these capacitors is the maximum temperature at which they can work, ranging from 85 o C for usual materials to much higher temperatures for the teon. Due to this characteristics, they are used in aerospace and other critical applications.

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I-V relationship

Power

Voltage Current

-2

-1
Current P ins

-4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 time

-2 0

WC W ave

6 time

Figure 6: (a) Circuit diagram of a capacitor with a voltage V applied. (b) The current always advances the voltage by 90 . (c) Instantaneous power P in a capacitor. Energy is stored in the capacitor when P is positive and restituted to the source for the negative case. P changes at the double of the frequency of V or I .

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Ceramic capacitors They contain ceramic dielectrics, which present high dielectric constants ( r 1200) and high breakdown voltages. Usually they are built in multilayer monolithic or radial lead shapes, which result in small size components. These are the most popular SMD components. There are two classes of ceramic capacitors: class-1, ( r 1 100), with capacitances between few tens of nF and hundreds pF , tolerances about 2% and breakdown voltages between 100 and 500 Volts. class-2, ( r 1000 10000), with capacitances between tens pF and some F , tolerances pretty bad, around 20% and up to 80% and breakdown voltages between 50 and 500 Volts. Electrolytic capacitors Electrolytic capacitors have a negative (cathode) electrode, a positive (anode) one and a liquid or gel between the conducting layers. The actual dielectric is a thin oxide lm on the cathode. The oxide is formed by a voltage (greater that the normal operating voltage) during manufacturing. If an electrolytic capacitor is not used for a long time, some of the oxide lm gets degraded. It is reformed when voltage is applied again. Applying an excessive voltage at the capacitor causes a severe increase in leakage current, which might destroy the capacitor. Electrolytic capacitors have voltages ranging from 6 to 450 Volts and capacitances from few tens F to several hundreds F at the maximum voltage, and several Farads at minimum voltage. Tolerance is quite poor and may range from 20% to 80 20 % with operating o temperatures from -25 to +85 C . The behaviour of these capacitors is quite poor at high frequencies. Two types of electrolytic capacitors are the most usual ones: Aluminum electrolytic capacitors: formed by pure aluminum foils as electrodes with an interlayer porous material (like paper) that contains the electrolyte. Tantalum electrolytic capacitors: the anode is a tantalum powder, the dielectric is formed by a tantalum oxide. They are the choice for small sizes.

3.3 Inductors
An inductor is a device that stores energy in the magnetic eld surrounding the inductor. Induction is the L property of a coil (the inductor) to oppose a changing current. When a current ows in a stationary circuit, a magnetic eld will be established with the ux density proportional to I . Therefore we can write for Figure 7: Schematic symbol of an the ux linkage inductance. = LI with the proportionality constant being the self inductance measured in Henry (H ). If the current in the circuit varies with time, and electromotive force (emf) e [V] will be induced: e= d dI d = L = N dt dt dt

This relation is called Faradays Law of Induction. It shows that if a conductor is placed in a time-varying magnetic eld, an electromotive force is induced in the conductor which

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results in a current ow. The emf is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic ux and tends to oppose the change in current. The magnetic ux (in W ebers W b) is related to the ux linkage via = N (N ... number of turns). The self inductance is geometry dependent. For a coil of length l, radius r and made of N loops, the magnetic eld generated by one loop is B = 0 nI z , where n = N/l. So computing the magnetic ux yields = B ds = 0 nIs

0 N r2 0 N r2 = l d for N loops (l = N d with d = wire diameter). L = 0 ns = Some examples: r 1 1 1000 N 150 25 10 l 15 cm 5 cm 1 cm r 25 mm 3 mm 1 mm L 0.37 mH 0.4 H 39 H

As it is shown, the inductance is proportional to the magnetic permeability. A good method to increase the inductance is to introduce a ferromagnetic material with r hundreds or even thousand times greater than 0 . Current-Voltage relationship We have already seen that from Faradays law we obtain: V = L dI V = LIp cos t = LIp sin(t + /2) dt

so again voltage and current are not in phase. Instantaneous and average power Instantaneous power:
2 LIp dI P = V I = LI = sin 2t dt 2 where again positive and negative values of the power imply that the power ows back and forth between the source and the inductor. The average power is again zero.

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I-V relationship

Power

Voltage Current

-2

-2
Current P ins

-4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 time

-4 0

WL W ave

6 time

Figure 8: (a) An inductor with a voltage V applied. (b) The current is always 90 behind the voltage. (c) Instantaneous power P in an inductor. Energy is stored in the capacitor when P is positive and restituted to the source for the negative case. P changes at the double of the frequency of V or I .

Energy stored As the current increases, a magnetic eld builds up and energy is stored in the magnetic eld of the inductor. When the current decreases, the stored energy of the magnetic eld is released thereby adding to the current. Unlike current owing through a resistor, energy is not dissipated in an inductor (ideally), therefore current ow through an inductor is a reversible process. The stored energy in an inductor is given by
t

L =
0

2 LIp 1 P dt = LI 2 = sin2 t 2 2

Therefore the average energy yields ave = 1 T

T

L dt =
0

2 1 LIp T 2

sin2 t dt =
0

2 LIp 4

Transformers

A transformer is a device that operates by transferring electrical energy from its input winding via a magnetic eld to its output winding. The simplest transformer is made of two coils

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i1 V1 L1 N1 1 : N2 : n

i2 L2 V2

Figure 9: Schematic symbol of a transformer.

N1 1 i1 V1

: :

N2 n i2 V2

Core Area = A Flux Path = P

Core Flux =

Figure 10: Ideal transformer.

close to each-other. There is no mechanical connection between the coils; they are only magnetically coupled. The windings are usually realised around a ferromagnetic material like iron or ferrite. In gure 9 the schematic symbol of such device is shown. Transformers are used for transmitting AC power, for changing AC voltages and currents to higher or lower values, and for insulating equipment from power lines.

4.1

The ideal transformer

An ideal transformer is a transformer that has no losses. Figure 10 shows a simplied transformer with primary and secondary windings of turns ratio 1:n. The primary applied voltage V1 (varying in time) causes a current I1 to ow in the primary winding, The current gives rise to a core ux which we will assume is entirely contained in the core and passes completely through the secondary windings. Thus the core ux induces a voltage V2 across the secondary winding and a current I2 . Using Faradays law: d dt d V2 = N2 dt V1 N1 1 = = V2 N2 n V1 = N1 E. Cortina; modied by B. Mikulec Page 16

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Only for the ideal case ( ) we can write I1 N1 = =n I2 N2

4.2 Transformer as impedance matching element

Transformers can be used for impedance matching (see next section for the denition of the impedance). In case of an ideal transformer we can write V1 /I1 V1 I2 Z1 = = = Z2 V2 /I2 V2 I1 N1 N2
2

1 n2

Therefore we can easily adapt impedances between source and load of a transformer using ZLOAD n= ZSOU RCE

Sinusoidal analysis

Any circuit containing resistors, capacitors and inductors is linear, so if the circuit is stimulated with a sinusoidal source, all voltages and currents will also be sinusoidal. The Fourier theorem states that any periodic function may be represented by summing sine waves of different frequencies and amplitudes. Having a periodic function f (t) in a time period T dened in the interval [0, T ], its Fourier series is: a0 f (t) = + [an cos(nt) + bn sin(nt)] 2 n=1 an = bn = 2 T 2 T
T

f (t) cos(nt)dt
0 T

f (t) sin(nt)dt
0

where = 2 and n is a postive integer number. It is important to point out that the integrals T in the previous equation can be evaluated over any complete period (i.e. [T /2, T /2]).

Lets suppose that we have a RLC circuit connected to a time varying voltage source v (t) and we want to know what the current i(t) is. Applying directly Kirchoffs voltage law yields: v (t) = Ri(t) + L di(t) 1 + dt C i(t)dt

If the voltage applied is sinusoidal v (t) = Vp cos t, we can substitute v (t) with Vp ejt and i(t) with Iejt . We obtain (after canceling ejt ): Vp = RI + jLI + I jC Page 17

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Introduction Vp = R + j L 1 C I = ZI

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This last expression is called generalized Ohms Law, and the quantity Z is the impedance, a complex number whose real part is the resistance R and its imaginary part is called the reactance. Simply comparing we can assign the impedance of the resistors, capacitors and inductors as: resistor inductor Z=R Z=
j C

capacitor

Z = jL

This is a powerful statement and means that all circuit laws derived before (Kirchoffs laws, Thevenin and Norton theorems, etc.) can be applied just substituing v (t) and i(t) by its complex representations and the resistance by the impedance. The impedance takes into account the resistive and the reactive part of a circuit. Impedances are treated like vectors. The length of a vector corresponds to the magnitude of the impedance and the angle between two impedances represents the phase angle between the applied voltage and the current in the circuit. The amplitude of the total impedance in a circuit can 2 2 2 + ZC + ZL . therefore be calculated using trigonometry (Phythagoras Theorem): Ztot = ZR

Series and Parallel combinations of basic components

Taking into account Kirchoffs laws and applying them to the series and parallel combinations of impedances we get the following: Series Impedance Resistors Capacitors Inductors Zeq = Req =
1 Ceq i i

Parallel Zi Ri
1 Zeq 1 Req

= =

1 i Zi 1 i Ri i

1 i Ci i

Ceq =
1 Leq

Ci

Leq =

Li

1 i Li

RC circuits

Lets analyse rst the circuits in gure 11 assuming that a DC (direct current) battery of voltage V0 is connected or disconnected at time 0 applying directly Kirchoffs laws. We consider rst the case where we charge the capacitor (initially discharged) by switching on the DC. q 1 t V = VR + VC = Ri + = Ri + i(t)dt C C 0 Differentiating we obtain: di i + = 0 i = Aet/RC dt RC E. Cortina; modied by B. Mikulec Page 18

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R

Introduction
C

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Vin(t)

Vout(t)

Vin(t)

Vout(t)

Figure 11: Low-Pass or integration circuit on the left and High-Pass or differentiation circuit on the right.

To determine A we can use the initial condition that the capacitor was discharged (VC = 0) at t = 0, so the current at this moment is V0 /R: i(t = 0) = Ae0 = At any time later, we will have that VC = q 1 = C C
t

V0 V0 i(t) = et/RC R R

i(t)dt =

1 C

t 0

V0 t/RC e = V0 1 et/RC R

In case of discharge we consider that the DC battery is switched off and the capacitor is charged, so at t = 0 VC = V0 . In this case we will have: 0 = VR + VC = Ri + V0 i = i(t = 0) = Ae0 = V0 R

V0 V0 i(t) = et/RC R R The voltage discharge at the capacitor thus follows the following function: VC = 1 C
0

i(t)dt = V0

1 C

t 0

V0 t/RC e = V0 et/RC R

7.1 RC Low-Pass Filter

Lets evaluate the output voltage characteristics with respect to the input voltage for the left circuit of g. 11: Vout Vin 1/jwC 1 = Vout = Vin = Vin ZC ZC + ZR R + 1/jwC 1 + jwRC The relationship between input and output voltage calculated taking into account the impedances is known as transfer function. This transfer function is always a function of frequency and is denoted as H ( )). For the low pass lter H ( )) is H (w) = 1 1 + jwRC

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Introduction jwRC << 1 jwRC >> 1 Vout = Vin Vout = (1/jwRC )Vin

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As can be seen, a low-pass lter passes relatively low frequency components in the signal, but stops the high frequency components. The so-called cut-off frequency c divides the pass band and the stop band. At this frequency, the output voltage is at 70.7% = 1/ 2 of the maximum value. This point is also called the 3 dB point. c = Lets consider the voltage across R: dV Vin V = dt R If V << Vin (by keeping the product RC large) then: I=C dV Vin dt R 1 V (t) = Vin dt RC This is the reason why a low-pass lter is also called an integration circuit. C 1 RC

7.2 RC High-Pass Filter

We now consider the right circuit of g. 11: Vout Vin R jwRC = Vout = Vin = Vin ZR ZC + ZR R + 1/jwC 1 + jwRC H (w) = 0 jwRC 1 + jwRC Vout = (jwRC )Vin Vout = Vin

jwRC << 1

jwRC >> 1

In the case of a high-pass lter, the circuit passes the high frequency components of the signal, but cuts off the low frequency components. The cut-off frequency is again c = 1/RC . Looking at the voltage across C : d V (Vin V ) = dt R If dV /dt << dVin /dt (keeping R and C small enough) then: I=C dVin V dt R dVin V (t) = RC dt This is the reason why a high-pass lter is also called a differentiation circuit. C

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RL circuits
R L

Vin(t)

Vout(t)

Vin(t)

Vout(t)

Figure 12: Low-Pass RL circuit on the left and High-Pass RL circuit on the right.

Lets analyse rst the circuits in gure 12 assuming a DC battery of voltage V0 that it is connected or disconnected at time 0 applying directly Kirchoffs laws. We consider rst when the battery is connected at t = 0 V0 = vL + vr = L At t = 0 the current is 0, so: i(t = 0) = 0 = A + Therefore vL is: V0 V0 i(t) = 1 et/(L/R) R R di V0 + Ri i(t) = Aet/(L/R) + dt R

di = V0 et/(L/R) dt If we switch off the battery, Kirchoffs law to solve is: vL = L Ri + L At t = 0 the current is V0 /R so i(t = 0) = so the voltage across L is: vL = L di = V0 et/(L/R) dt V0 V0 = A i(t) = et/(L/R) R R di = 0 i(t) = Aet/(L/R) dt

8.1 RL Low-pass lter

Vout = ZR R 1 Vin = Vin = Vin ZL + ZR R + jwL 1 + jwL/R 1 H (w) = 1 + jwL/R jwL/R << 1 Vout = Vin Vout = 1/jw(L/R)Vin

jwL/R >> 1 c = R/L

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8.2

RL High-pass lter
Vout = ZL jwL jwL/R Vin = Vin = Vin ZL + ZR R + jwL 1 + jwL/R H (w) = 0 jwL/R 1 + jwL/R Vout = jw(L/R)Vin Vout = Vin

jwL/R << 1

jwL/R >> 1 c = R/L

n-pole lters

One can make circuits with several RC sections. E.g. for a simple RC lter the output amplitude will drop to half or 6 dB in the falloff region of the signal when the frequency doubles (after one octave). Adding another RC chain will yield 12 dB per octave, another one 16 dB/octave. Such lters are called n-pole lters with n being the number of RC lters (or lters that behave like them).

10

RCL circuits; Resonance

When capacitors are combined with inductors or are used in special circuits called active lters, it is possible to make circuits that have very sharp frequency characteristics (e.g. a large peak in the response at a particular frequency). These circuits nd applications in various audiofrequency and radiofrequency devices.

10.1

Serial circuit. Band elimination circuit

Fig. 13 (left) shows a basic band-elimination resonant circuit. The output voltage for this type of lter is taken at the LC serial combination. As we will see, such a circuit will cut out a certain frequency from the signal. Frequencies below the low frequency cut and frequencies above the high frequency cut + are transferred (with an attenuation 3 dB of the maximum output signal). At the resonance frequency 0 , ideally the output signal goes to zero. Vin = Vp cos wt I = Ip ej Ip = Vp R2 + (wL 1/wC )2

wL 1/wC R Z = R + j (wL 1/wC ) = tan1 Vout = ZC + ZL j (wL 1/wC ) Vin = Vin ZR + ZC + ZL R + j (wL 1/wC ) Page 22

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Introduction
RCL-nocht Vout/Vin 1

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R Vin L C Vout

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 w

Figure 13: A band elimination or notch lter and the voltage gain response as a function of frequency.

Vout = Vin

(wL 1/wC ) R2 + (wL 1/wC )2

Resonance is dened as the condition when current and voltage are in phase. In the case we are studying, resonance is at 0 = 1/ LC (where L = 1/C ). At this frequency we will have the following situation: - The current has a maximum Ip = Vp /R. - The impedance has a minimum Z = R. The impedance of LC goes to zero; signals are trapped near at or near the resonance frequency, shorting them to ground. - The output voltage has a minimum Vout = 0. 10.1.1 Quality factor and bandwidth

The quality factor Q is a measure of the sharpness of the resonance peak. It equals the resonant frequency divided by the width at the -3 dB points. The larger Q, the sharper the peak. Q is dened as the ratio between the reactive power divided by the real power: I 2Z I 2R In a serial resonance circuit at the resonance frequency (where ZL = ZC ), Q is therefore given by ZL L Q= = R R Geometrically, the quality factor can be determined by measuring and + at 1/ 2 of the maximum output signal height. Q is then given by 0 0 Q= = + Q= The frequency band between and + is called bandwidth.

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10.2

Parallel circuit. Band pass lter

RCL-band V out/V in 1

R Vin C L Vout

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0.5 0.6

0.7 0.8 0.9

1.1

1.2 1.3

1.4 1.5 w

Figure 14: Parallel RCL

1 1 1 Z = ZR + ZLC = ZR + (ZL + ZC ) =R+

j 1/wL wC

Ip =

Vp R2 + 1/(1/wL wC )2 1/wL wC R

= tan1 Vout =

ZLC 1 Vin = Vin ZR + ZLC 1 jR(1/wL wC ) Vout == Vin 1

1 + R2 (wC 1/wL)2 Again the resonance frequency is at 0 = 1/ LC . In this case a narrow band of frequencies is passed through the circuit, cutting of the low and high frequency parts. At the resonance frequency we have: - Minimum Ip = Vp /R. - Maximum impedance of the parallel LC (goes to innity due to the opposite behaviours of inductors and capacitors). - Maximum Vout = Vin . 10.2.1 Quality factor

For a parallel RLC circuit, Q = 0 RC = 0 / .

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Introduction

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11

Bibliography

1 The Physics of Information Technology, Neil Gershenfeld, Cambridge University Press (2000) 2 Electronics and Communications for Scientists and Engineers, Martin Plonus, Harcourt Academic Press (2001) 3 Introduction to Electrodynamics, 3rd edition, David J. Grifths, Prentice Hall (1999) 4 The Art of Electronics, P. Horowitz, W. Hill, Cambridge University Press (1989) 5 Engineer Mathematics, A. Croft, R.Davison, M.Hargreaves, Prentice Hall (2001)

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