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DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART AND ENGINEERING
UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY
WEST POINT, NEW YORK
HM 381
REVOLUTIONARY WARFARE
VOLUME V
FRENCH COUNTERREVOLUTIONARY
STRUGGLES: INDOCHINA AND ALGERIA
edited by
Major J. W. Woodmansee, Jr.
IZG-V
SU8J.
This is an interim text used solely for instruction of Cadets. It will not
be reproduced nor cited in any manner without permission of the Professor
of the Department of Military Art and Engineering.
CONTENTS
Chapter One
INDOCHINA (1946-54)
by Bernard B. Fall ........... 1
Chapter Two
OPERATIONS IN NORTH VIETNAM, 1950-1952
by Bernard B. Fall ............... 35
Chapter Three
VO NGUYEN GIAP: VICTORY FOR THE PEOPLE'S ARMY
edited by MAJ J.W. Woodmansee, Jr 65
Chapter Four
ALGERIA (1956-62)
by MAJ J. W. Woodmansee, Jr 97
LIST OF MAPS
The Battle of Vinh-Yen 41
The Defense of Mao-Khe.. , , 45
The Battle of the Day River. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48
The "Hell of Hoa-Binh" 53
Death at Tu-Vu , '" , " 54
Failure at Xom-Pheo 58
FLN Organization (Algeria) " , lG4
General Map of South East Asia (Map #1) .... , Inside back cover
Indochina - Tonkin, 1951 (Map #2) " . .. . .. . .. " " "
Winter' 5 3 - Spring' 54 Campaign (Map #3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . " " "
Dien Bien Phu (Map #4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " " "
General Map of Northern Algeria (Map #5). .... . . .. . . . . . " " "
Chapter One
INDOCHINA (1946-1954)
by Bernard B. Fall
This chapter is a condensation of the late Dr. Fall's study written
as a part of the three volume series, Challenge and Response in Internal
Conflict. The series was compiled for the Department of the Army by
The Center for Research in Social Systems (CRESS) of the American
University.
INDOCHINA (1946-1954)
by Bernard B. Fall
The French in Indochina--their control weakened by
wartime concessions that strengthened Vietnamese
nationalism- -were unable either to meet the post
war political threat of a capable, determined
Communist leadership that perfectly exploited the
indigenous desire for independence, or to defeat the
revolutionary forces in the field.
BACKGROUND
(See Map #1) The French colonial territory of Indochina, consisting of the present countries
of Cambodia, Laos, and the two Viet-Nams, comprised 284,800 square miles and was
slightly larger than the State of Texas. Its location in the monsoon zone of southeast Asia
determined to a great extent the technicpe of the insurgency that broke out there and the
eventual military outcome.
The climate of the area accounts for its tropical vegitatioll, which extends from the
southernmost tip to slightly north of Hanoi, with normal variations for altitude and latitude.
In the north, rubber trees do not flourish; in the south, European-type vegetables may be
grown, but only where high altitudes permit. Almost 50 percent of the vegetal cover of the
area is high-stand jungle, and another 35 percent is bush or 6-foot-high elephant grass.
3
The remainder of the area is lowland rice paddy, swampy for six or more months of the
year.
Geographically, the Indochinese area consists of the coastal deltas of the Red River, the
Mekong, and central Vietnamese rivers; the valleys of the Red River and the Mekong, and
their tributaries; the Annamite mountain range and its various plateau outcroppings, which
form much of the boundary between Laos, Viet-Nam, and Cambodia; and the Thai highlands,
which cover most of northern Indochina. There are no natural east-west communication
routes: Viet-Nam is oriented toward the coast; Laos and Cambodia toward the Mekong
valley.
Of the 36 million people living in Indochina in 1954, probably fewer than 4 million lived
in the vast highlands which make up more than 75 percent of the country's territory. These
uplanders, mainly rnontagnards, were first of all hunters and only secondarily growers of
crops. Many were seminomadic. About 90 percent of all Cambodians, Laotians, and
Vietnamese lived at altitudes under 1, 000 feet, where the principal occupation was the growing
of irrigat ed ric e.
The economic structure of French Indochina was typically colonial. geared to provide raw
materials for the home country and a market for France's manufactured goods. Indochina was
amply qualified for the former role, but it failed in the latter. Throughout most of the
colonial period, Indochina exported far more to France than it bought, and France was never
its exclusive source of finished products. France's attempt to maintain Indochina almost
exclusively as a source of raw materials led to a distortion of the economic process and had
an obvious influence on the country's socioeconomic structure. I
The failure to create local industries until very late in the colonial period. including the
failure to realize that greater colonial purchasing power would in itself increase imports.
left Indochina at the mercy of commercial monopolies which supplied the Indochinese economy
with imported goods at prices far above the world market. The colony was deprived of
many essential goods when normal trade currents were interrupted during World War II.
4
The key factor leading to the 1946 insurgency in Indochina was political in nature and
derived from the imposition of an alien colonial regime upon a highly nationalistic and
resistant population. The colonial federation of French Indochina comprised the protectorates
of Cambodia and Laos, which France had governed since 1863 and 1893 respectively, and the
three Vietnamese territories of Cochin-China. annexed by France in 1862. and Aouam and
Tonkin, which the French had ruled as protectorates since the 1880's. Cochin-China.
comprising the Mekong Delta and Saigon region of the present South Viet-Nam, was the area
of greatest French penetration and influence. Most of the 40,000 French settlers in Indochina
at the beginning of World War II were concentrated in Cochin-China.
French political control was absolute, and there was little, if any. attempt to include
local elites in shaping the destiny of Indochina. The titular sovereigns of Cambodia, Luang-
Prabang (Laos). and Aouam retained some importance in the cultural ceremonial of their
countries, but they were summarily removed when they sought to gain actual control of any
part of the administrative machinery. There existed, for all to see, the glaring difference
between the political roles of the French minority and the vast Asian majority.
Inside Indochina. indigenous parties. both Communist and non-Communist. operated--
sometimes openly, but clandestinely when necessary. The non-Communist nationalist
* parties were made up chiefly of Confucian mandarins or other upperclass groups, and so
were hard put to develop a mass base. In many cases, they did not even look for one, but
rather preferred to use the conspiratorial approach familiar to them from Chinese-type
secret societies.
The only indigenous political group in Indochina which made a deliberate and concentrated
effort at gaining a mass base was the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), created in 1930.
It had both the outside organizational support (from the U. S. S. R., France, and China) and
the ability in terms of trained cadres to create a nationwide movement. The ICP was always
predominantly Vietnamese in composition and leadership. although Cambodians and Laotians
2
were included in the membership.
*Vietnamese mandarins were civil servants schooled in the Chinese classics and
Vietnamese traditionalism. who served in the imperial bureaucracy or local administration.
5
The ICP at first made grievous mistakes. Its leaders were repeatedly depleted by the
French Surete in Indochina- -probably one of the most efficient political police forces of its
time. But the party also learned from its errors, and patiently rebuilt its organizational
trained its personnel, and went on with its work. The core of the present-day
3
leadership of Vietnamese communism still dates from that difficult period in the 1930's.
World War II And The Evolution of the Viet-Minh
World War II (1939-45) shattered the image of French authority in Indochina and destroyed
the substance of European colonial rule over the country. The German defeat of France in
June 1940 and the ensuing armistice between Germany and the pro-Axis Vichy French regime
opened Indochina to Japanese penetration and exploitation. On September 22, 1940, Japanese
forces, after crushing local French forces at the Chinese-Tonkin border, landed at Haiphong
and proceeded to occupy strategic points throughout the country.
Indochina was thus firmly in the Japanese sphere long before the Pacific war began, al
though France remained the nominal sovereign of the territory and French colonial admin
istrators remained at their posts. The Japanese were chiefly interested in the economic
resources of Indochina and did not want to undertake direct administration at this time.
Admiral Jean Decoux, the Vichy Governor-General of Indochina, cooperated with the Jap-
anese since the international situation seemed to offer him no other in the hope
that French authority could eventually be fully restored.
This ambiguous period of Franco-Japanese I1cooperation" lasted until March 9. 1945,
when the Japanese arrested all French officials and civilians in the country and destroyed all
the French military forces except those able to fight their way north to Allied lines in China
or to hold out in the wilds of Laos. 4
The Japanese now moved to replace the French. In a gesture toward Vietnamese
nationalism, they installed the Emperor Bao Dai. traditional ruler at Hue in Annam (central
Viet-Nam). as head of an "independent" Vietnamese state comprising Annam and Tonkin in
6
the north. The however, continued French policy with regard to Cochin-China,
the third integral and most prosperous part of Viet-Nam, administering it directly as a
colony. In the last days of the war, the Japanese acceded to Vietnamese demands and allowed
Cochin-China to join Bao Dai's kingdom. Thus in August 1945, Viet-Nam regained its
5
precolonial, 1858 boundaries.
Most of the leaders of the ICP had fled to China when the 1940 uprisings were crushed, and
in May 1941 they had organized, under Chinese auspices, a Communist front called the Viet-
Nam Doc-Lap Dong-Minh Hoi (Vietnamese Revolutionary Independence League), or Viet
Minh. With more than a decade of experience in underground organization and quasi-legal
political activity, the ICP stood ready to take full advantage of the World War II situation.
By late 1943, Viet Minh guerrillas and underground agents were operating in Tonkin, and on
Decemher 22, 1944, the Vietnamese Communist and nationalist leader Vo Nguyen Giap
created the first unit of the Viet-Nam People's Army (VPA). When the Japanese dissolution
of French colonial forces early in 1945 deprived the Allies of an intelligence apparatus
inside Indochina, American Office of Strategic Services (OSS) teams were parachuted in to
work with the Viet Minh, and British Force 136 began operations in support of resistance
groups in the south. Viet Minh guerrillas consistently avoided any massive contact with
Japanese forces, preferring not to grapple with an enemy who was bound to be
soon leaving as the fortunes of war turned against it, and devoted this time to perfecting
6
the Communist political control network throughout the countryside.
Viet-Minh Fill Post-War Political Vacuum in the North
,
On August 14, 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allied Forces. According to Allied agree-
ments, the surrender of Japanese troops in Indochina was to be effected by British and
Chinese occupation forces, with the 16th parallel serving as the dividing line between the two
occupation zones. Before the Allies could however, the Viet Minh proclaimed Viet-
namese independence from France and set up a Democratic Republic of Viet-Nam (DRVN) in
7
Hanoi. In Tonkin and northern Annam the DRVN actually functioned as a de facto govern
ment for more than a year after the war ended.
In the SQuth. where the Viet Minh was weaker and where British occupation forces had
promptly released imprisoned French forces, the DRVN was unable to gain a solid foothold.
Quickly driven out of Saigon and other administrative centers south of the 16th parallel by the
French, the Viet Minh could operate only a II shadow government" in the SQuth.
French Return to Indochina
The French, firmly established in the south, found it expedient to negotiate with the
DRVN regime in the north. since they considered it less dangerous to long-term French
interests than the Chinese Nationalists, whom they suspected of attempting to install a puppet
regime of pro-Chinese Vietnamese nationalists. The agreement of March 6, 1946, whereby
the French returned to the north, recognized the DRVN as a "Free State" within the Indo
chinese Federation and the French Union, with its own national assembly. its own armed
forces, and its own finances. Cochin-China was to decide by plebiscite whether or not to
join the Hanoi-based DRVN. This agreement further added to the prestige of the Hanoi
regime, and as the Chinese withdrew from Indochina on March 6, the Viet Minh was solidly
entrenched and a form of dual government then prevailed in Vietnamese territory. Thus.
the Communists had won their first major victory in Indochina almost without firing a shot.
Differences between French and Viet Minh forces soon developed, however. The French
proceeded to set up a separate administration for the central Vietnamese highlands. Their
authorities in saigon encouraged the establishment of an "Autonomous Republic" in Cochin
China, despite their earlier commitment to a plebiscite. Lack of coordination and control
by French authorities in Paris over their forces in Indochina was a major factor in the
deterioration of Franco-Vietnamese relations.
Negotiations dragged on throughout the summer of 1946. Ho Chi Minh, President of the
DRVN and the leading exponent of Vietnamese independence, as well as the founding father
8
of the Indochinese Communist movement, headed the Vietnamese delegation sent to France
to negotiate for recognition of a unified and independent Viet-Nam under DRVN control. By
September, the Fontainebleau Conference had ended inconclusively and the Vietnamese
leaders returned to Hanoi to prepare for action of a different sort. Relations between
French and DRVN officials went from bad to worse. In November, shooting broke out in
Haiphong, and the French responded by bombarding the city, killing several thousand Viet
namese. The DRVN reacted to the Haiphong incident by attacking French garrisons on
December 19, 1946, and the military phase of the revolution had begun. 7
INSURGENCY
Although the military phase of the insrugency did not begin until the end of 1946, its
political phase had begun well before the end of World War II. Through propaganda and
indoctrination efforts begun in 1943, the Viet Minh had gained political control of many
villages in Tonkin, particularly along the Chinese border. In August 1945, the Viet Minh
had another political success. Emperor Bao Dai, whom the Japanese had installed a few
months earlier as head of an "independent" Vietnamese state. decided to abdicate in favor
of the Viet Minh, which this weak but pronationalist monarch believed to be a genuine
nationalist movement. On August 25. Baa Dai had handed over the imperial seal and other
symbols of authority to Ho Chi Minh, thus conferring a semblance of legitimacy, partic
ularly in terms of Vietnamese tradition, on the DRVN regime, formally proclaimed by the
Viet Minh on September 2, 1945. On that day, Ho Chi Minh began his address to the crowds
in words well-known to another people: "We hold these truths to be self-evident. that all men
are created equal. ... " It was from the Japanese, Ho stated, that independence had been
won, because Ilsince the autumn of 1940. our country ceased to be a French colony .... ,.8
Viet-Minh Military Organization
On the military side, the Viet-Nam People's Army (VPA) at first copied the French
9
quaternary organization: 2, 500-man regiments of four battalions, including a heavy weapons
or artillery unit. By 1949, 5, OOO-man brigades appeared, and by late 1950, 1O,OOO-man
ternary divisions. Later a Russian-model "heavy division!! appeared, with two field artil
lery regiments, one combat engineer regiment, an antiaircraft battalion, and the usual
service units.
In terms of mission. three echelons made their appearance in the VPA by 1947; the first
line regulars, or main force (chu-luc); the regional units (dia-phuong quan); and the local
militia (du-kich). Of these, only the chu-luc "NaS fully mobile, being likely to show up in
combat anywhere from the Chinese border to northern Cambodia. With almost no excep
tions. the men covered these vast distances on foot. carrying full battle kit. The Viet Minh
forces consistently outpaced French estimates of their mobility; jungle dashes of 25 miles
a day for several consecutive days were not unknown. Viet Minh regulars were sparingly
used and were reserved for battles of strategic importance; but when the target was worth
while--as, for example. the liquidation of French forces on the Chinese border in 1950, or
the attempted capture of Hanoi in 1951, or the battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954- -they were
fully committed regardless of casualties. Although two regiments of regulars were infil
trated inside the Red River Delta and its 1!Marshal de Lattre" fortified line of 2. 200 bunkers,
most small attacks were carried out by the regionals. The local militia was used chiefly in
reconnaissance for larger units unfamiliar with the terrain, or in covering the withdrawal
of such units; it also played an important role in gathering local intelligence and in preparing
ambushes and in sabotage.
The DRVN saw to it that its units were ethnically homogeneous, at least at regimental
level. Thus the 308th Division was known as the "capital division" because of its Hanoi
recruitment, while the 316th was largely of Tho tribal origin and the 335th of Thai tribal
origin. Regiment 120 was Hre, and 803 Jarai. In this way, a unit could be fairly sure of
being well received and perfectly at home in at least one area.
10
The insurgents' military effort was ably assisted by a psychological warfare and
intelligence operation of major proportions. Special Viet Minh teams and units known as
dieh-van (translated as "moral intervention, 1/ or more realistically "armed propaganda")
were used to penetrate villages and French posts in order to gather intelligence and
prepare the way for insurgent attack. There were also dieh-van teams in charge of
assassinating officials who refused to collaborate with the Viet Minh. The most notable such
coup was the simultaneous murder in August 1951 of French General Chanson and South
Vietnamese Regional Governor Thai Lap Thanh by a "suicide volunteer
l1
boobytrapped with
hand grenade s.
Communist forces started with a strength of about 60, 000 men in 1946 and ended the
insurgency with close to 380, 000 men, of whom fewer than 120, 000 were regulars. Their
total casualties will no doubt be forever unknown, since it is impossible to tell a dead
peasant from a dead guerrilla and since the Viet Minh made a habit of carrying off casualties.
precisely to prevent their being correctly estimated. But such battles as that of Vinh- Yen
in 1951 cost the Viet Minh 6, 000 casualties and that of Dien Bien Phu 22, 000; total casualties
were beyond a doubt not far from 500, 000, or about three times those of the French Union
Forces.
9
Although guided by leaders who had learned their job in French, Chinese Nationalist, and
Chinese Communist schools, the VPA sometimes made grievous mistakes, such as the
three abortive offensives in 1951 against the French-held Red River Delta, but they always
corrected these with alacrity. The Communist method of "self-criticism" and "comradely
criticism" of others may have contributed to the VPA's efficiency. The VPA proved to be
a great deal more flexible tactically and strategically than has been generally believed. The
decision to revert to low-level attacks when big-unit operations failed may have been the
critical decision of the Viet Minh campaign.
The commander in chief of the VPA was Vo Nguyen Giap. Son of a poor scholar, Giap
was educated at the Lycee National in Hue, the traditional capital. Involved in various
11
nationalist movements in the 1920's and early 1930's, he joined the rcp about 1937. Until
1940, he was a history professor in Hanoi. He is said to have never forgiven the French
for the death of his wife in a French prison in 1943. Ho Chi Minh put him in charge of
training a guerrilla force during World War II, and by the end of the war, Giap was second
only to Ho Chi Minh in the Communist movement in Indochina. A great admirer of Mao Tse-
tung, he took over Mao's concepts of revolutionary warfare tactics, adapting them wherever
10
necessary.
Five Phases of Viet-Minh Operations
The Viet Minh's combat operations against the French fell into five major phases. The
first of these was "beachhead elimination, 1/ the ill-fated attempt at throwing the French into
the sea before they could get a solid foothold in Viet-Nam (December 1946-March 1947).
Next came a period of trcontainment and consolidation, " after the collapse of talks with the
French in March 1947, when the Viet Minh finally realized it must expect a protracted
conflict and must, accordingly, create some relatively secure bases and. if possible,
establish permanent contact with a sanctuary. In several limited offensives, the Viet Minh
cleared a redoubt in northwestern Tonkin, crushed the French border positions. and thus
established permanent contact with Red China. It could train and equip its regulars there
by the time this phase ended in October 1950.
The third phase, later termed the "erroneous general counter-offensive. " followed next,
with multidivision attacks against French lowland positions in the spring of 1951. It failed
when French air-transported reinforcement sand U. S. equipment were used to break up
massed Viet Minh attacks in the Red River Delta zone. [this phase will be covered in more
detail in the next chapter. ] An insufficiently-prepared attack against the Thai highlands,
after initial success, also failed, when attempts at storming the French airborne stronghold
at Na San met defeat. with heavy Viet Minh On the other hand, two deep stabs
by the French at Hoa-Binh and Phu-Doan enabled the Viet Minh to study in detail the weak-
12
nesses of French motorized forces in the face of guerrilla-type, hit-and-run attacks.
The Viet Minh next began a fourth or II strategic defensive" phase with small but
effective stabs deep into French-held areas. This included offensives into northern Laos
in the winter of 1953 and into southern Laos and the southern plateau in the spring of 1954.
These operations were meant to deplete French reserves and strain their logistical system,
while building up the insurgents' regular forces for their fifth and final phase of "general
counteroffensive, " a series of brief but brutal large-scale attacks made for the purpose of
destroying a maximum of French troops. Dien Bien Phu and the battle for the Red River
Delta were highlights of this period, which ended when French and Vietnamese forces signed
a cease-fire agreement at Geneva, on July 20, 1954. [These last two phases will be covered
in detail in Chapter Three of this text. J
External Support Vital To Communist Victory
There can be no doubt that external aid was crucial to the insurgents' eventual success.
The aid given in 1945-46 to DRVN forces by Chinese Nationalists, Japanese deserters, and
even American ass teams and the Combat Section, South China Command, under Brig. Gen.
Philip E. Gallagher, was crucial in the early days. In addition, until late 1947, there was
a steady flow of U. S. equipment smuggled in by private aircraft and vessels from the
Philippines, in exchange for gold and opium. These craft were finally attacked without
warning by the French and destroyed, thus ending this SOurce of Viet Minh supply. 11 There
is no way of estimating the size or kind of equipment which reached the Viet Minh from sum
miscellaneous sources.
Foreign aid to the Viet Minh began 'to playa really effective role only after 1950, when
Red Chinese deliveries permitted the equipment of a first wave of 26 battalions. The bulk
of these forces was trained in Red China at Chiang-Hsi (Kwangsi Province). Red Chinese
aid, coming by known routes, could be fairly closely estimated. French intelligence
sourCes stated that about 75 percent of Chinese aid consisted of fuel and a m m u n i t i o n ~ 25
13
percent of weapons and other equipment. Deliveries went from 10-20 tons a month in 1951
to 250 tons a month by the end of 1952, to 400-600 tons a month in 1953, and to a peak of
1,500-4,000 tons a month between January and June 1954.
12
Soviet bloc and French Communist aid to the Viet Minh was important in both the
economic and political fields. In 1950, almost 40 percent of the vehicles sent to French
forces in Indochina from France were sabotaged, and even equipment delivered from Amer
ican west coast ports was not exempt from Communist tampering. Funds for the Viet Minh
were collected in most Soviet satellites and by French Communists. For propaganda pur
poses, the U. S. S. R. repatriated captured German members of the French Foreign Legion
to East Berlin; Czechosolvakia mailed letters and propaganda newspapers from French
prisoners of war to their families in France. The insurgents were also aided by neutral
India's policy of forbidding the overflight of her territory by French transport aircraft. All
of these activities helped the insurgents, particularly the last, which affected indirectly the
cause of the battle of Dien Bien Phu.
COUNTERINSURGENCY
Even before the general outbreak of armed insurgency in late 1946 there was already a
deep split between France's military and civilian leadership in Indochina concerning the
Vietnamese situation. For the most part, the French underestimated the seriousness of
the Viet Minh challenge and failed to understand the depth and intensity of Vietnamese
nationalist sentiment. Gen. Philippe Leclerc. the commander of French forces in Indo
china from October 1945 to July 1946, realized that the returning French were up against a
popular movement which would be difficult to defeat militarily, and he was also keenly
aware of the numerical weakness of French forces in the country. On the other hand,
Admiral d'Argenlieu, France's civilian High Commissioner to Indochina stationed in Saigon
and a firm believer in tough colonial policies, discounted the seriousness of the situation.
14
Backed by the old-line "Indochina hands" of the colonial civil service in Saigon, d'Argenlieu's
views prevailed over those of Leclerc.
* The mission of Leclerc's French Expeditionary Corps (FEC) was thus regarded simply
as one of I'pacification, II to be conducted along the classic lines of France1s earlier
colonial wars. What actually occurred was a series of flag marches through Viet Minh
territory, with columns of tanks and personnel carriers moving rapidly from town to town
but never meeting the enemy head-on and with no plans--or military capability--for occupa-
tion in depth. Within a few months, much of what the French still regarded as Cochin-China
was once more under French control--to the extent of about 100 yards on either side of all
major roads. Tte lack of Vietnamese resistance in the face of French armored columns was
interpreted as a sign of submission, and the Viet Minh's continued killing of local officials
13
was believed to be merely a sign of temporary lawlessness in the countryside.
However, when negotiations at Fontainebleau broke down and tension between French
and DRVN forces in the north began mounting in the fall of 1946, incidents increased and the
true dimensions of the Viet Minh problem in the countryside became apparent.
Initial French Actions
The FEC then had at its disposal one infantry division at full strength and an armored
combat command, two parachute battalions, and about three Spitfire fighter squadrons.
Miscellaneous French units reconstituted from prisoners of war liberated from Japanese
concentration camps accounted for about three regiments, some of which contained
indigenous troops. The total number of troops available in Indochina at the beginning of
1947 was about 40, 000; by the end of that year there were some 70, 000. Only the para-
troops, two companies of which had liberated all of Laos in a series of lightning raids,
could be considered suitable for counterinsurgency operations in the jungle. The remainder
*Corps Expeditionnaire Francais Extreme -Orient (CEFEO).
15
were useful only for conventional warfare.
What gave the appearance of at least limited French success in the first sequence of
events was the fact that the Viet Minh had tried to defend fixed objectives, most of which
the French took without great difficulty. The French appeared to be stymied chiefly by their
lack of troops and supplies. 14 In 1947, the FEC began large pincer operations, some of
which, such as Operation LEA, involved 20,000 troops of all services. These were
designed to capture or destroy the bulk of the Viet Minh's regular troops and the DRVN
governmental apparatus then in hiding around Tuyen-Quang. While the statistics on Viet
Minh casualties lent each French operation the appearance of none ever achieved
the basic objective of destroying the enemy's means of maintaining political and military
resistance.
For the the Indochina War became an unending search for the "set - piece
battle." Slowly, French tactical organization went through a series of modifications to adapt
itself to the terrain and the enemy it would have to fight. From divisions of the European
type, the FEC in 1949 went to the equally unwieldy other extreme, with battalions that were
not strong enough to withstand attack by the enemy's basic large unit, the brigade.
de LaUre Reorganized the Forces
In 1950, Gen. Jean de Lattre de Tassigny took over as commander in chief of the French
Union Forces (FUF) [and as High Commissioner]. Imperious and commanding- -known as
"Ie roi Jean
ll
--de Lattre set the "tone" of the theater until he left in late 1951 to die of
He was posthumously awarded the rank of Field Marshal. Given to demanding all
the honors of ceremony and known to have fired the area commander of Hanoi for defic
iencies in his honor guard, de Lattre was also highly practical. He drafted French
civilians in Indochina for guard duties and commandeered civilian aircraft in Saigon for
troop transport. During battle, he once flew into a small endangered outpost and answered
a subordinate commander's radioed reminder of his danger "Well, break through
16
15
and get me out. " In 1951, General de Lattre developed the standard unit for the Indochina
war, the Groupe Mobile, a ternary regimental combat team organized to operate independently.
,
It existed both as a mobile infantry unit (GM) and as an armored unit (GB); and late in 1952
it even appeared in an airborne (GAP) version, of which there were finally one Vietnamese
and two French units, with a total of nine battalions. However. the appearance of two or
three jointly-operating Viet Minh divisions compelled the French to operate in larger GM
formations in 1953-54, and light divisions were in the process of being reintroduced when the
war ended. There also existed four provisional Divisions de Marche in Tonkin. formed
from the available GM' s.
When, after 1949, in political developments to be discussed later, France gave the three
Indochinese countries technical independence, it also created national armies for Cambodia,
Laos, and Viet-Nam. Some, but not all, of the indigenous troops serving with the FEC were
transferred into these national armies and military schools were set up in each country to
provide native officer cadres--though in insufficient numbers for these national forces. The
high command of the French Union Forces controlled both the French and African regulars
of the FEe and the three national Indochinese armies. This organizational structure remain-
ed in effect until after the 1954 cease-fire, except in the case of Cambodia, where the
Cambodian Army High Command took full administrative control over the Royal Khmer
Forces as early as October 1953. By 1954, FEC forces totaled 278, 000 and national compon-
ents about 200, 000.
The French also used montagnard forces in the northern highlands of Laos and Viet-
Nam and on the Southern Plateau of Viet-Nam. There was a regimental combat team (Groupe
Mobile No. 42) made up of Bahnar and Rhade tribesmen; a 4th Vietnamese Mountain Divi-
sion, created in 1951; and the famous 5th Division, made up of northern Nungs. The
montagnards also provided excellent officer material, and they fought loyally on the French
side to the end.
Irregular forces used by the counterinsurgents included the private armies of the
17
various politico-religious sects. In the the Roa-Rac and Cao-Dai whose
religious practices are modified forms of Buddhism, had a total strength of about 4 million
believers and controlled large segments of the population in the Mekong Delta and Tay-
Ninh Province. Some 15, 000 to 20, 000 Cao-Dai troops and about 8, 000 to la, 000 Hoa-Hao
16
troops fought on the Government side. Catholic armed units, called Unites Mobiles de
Defense des Chretientes (Christian Communities Mobile Defense Units), controlled large
parts of the eastern Mekong Delta area; in the north, similar Catholic self-defense units
existed in the bishoprics of Phat-Diem and Bui-Chu in the southern part of the Red River
Delta. Small French liaison teams were assigned to these Buddhist and Christian
referred to by the French as suppletifs, but they had their own cadres and officers, many of
whom were given training by the French in a special paramilitary school at Thu-Duc near
Saigon. These paramilitary units were loosely coordinated by the Inspectorate for
Supplementary Forces under the French Union Forces General Staff.
Examination of French combat operations in Indochina will clearly demonstrate several
phases.
17
Until September a "constant offensive" was using pincer opera-
tions designed to destroy both the guerrilla forces in the field and the insurgent administra-
tive apparatus. After the destruction and loss of French positions along the Chinese border
in 1950, the French decided to withdraw to the lowland Red River Delta and to consolidate
their positions there until they were ready for further offensive operations. This phase of
"retrenchment and consolidation" led to the construction of a bunker line in the Red River
Delta [the "de Lattre Line"J The fall of 1951 saw the beginning of a period of offensive stabs,
such as the one around Hoa-Binh, Operation LORRAINE, and constant mopping-up opera-
tions in the Mekong and Red River Deltas. Momentum was lost when the growing
aggressiveness of Viet Minh forces in the spring of 1953 led to a policy of "hedgehogs. II In
order to break the momentum of guerrilla attacks until sufficient Indochinese national
forces became available for static defensive missions and freed the FEe for constant offen-
sives, air-supplied hedgehog positions were created in 1953-54 at Na San, the Plain of Jars,
18
Muong-Sai, Seno, and Dien Bien Phu. These were designed to deflect Viet Minh attacks
against vital centers.
Navarre Assumes Command in 1953
When Gen. Henri-Eugene Navarre took over as commander in chief of the FUF in
July 1953, his instructions were to defend Laos if possible but to safeguard the French
Expeditionary Corps at all costs. His plan for action called for continuation and inten
sification of de Lattre's tactics; the buildup of local national forces; and the infusion of
new spirit, mobility, and aggressiveness in French forces. The Navarre Plan, which
was to have been fully implemented by 1955 but was never put into effect in view of the
French defeat, provided for freeing the FEC entirely from static defense missions.
Stationed at 21"1and-air bases
fl
set up within Viet Minh territory, troops were to carry
out offensive operations that would compel the enemy to use his troops for the defense
of his own rear areas.
French Attempt Special Warfare
One of the most interesting aspects of French counterinsurgency operations was the
increasingly intensive use of long-range penetration and commando operations behind
enemy lines, or rather inside enemy territory. Created by General de Lattre in 1951,
the Groupements de Commandos Mixtes Aeroportes (GCMA), or Composite Airborne
Commando Groups, under the command of Lt. Col. Roger Trinquier, began to fight the
Viet Minh with its own tactics. The purpose of the GCMA was emphatically not to hit
and run in raider fashion but to establish local contacts with the population and arouse
them to resistance against the Viet Minh. When a willingness to do so had been
demonstrated, the French would then parachute in additional cadres of local origin to
transform a French-created activity into a purely indigenous movement. 18 Such work
required a great deal of patience and risk-taking on the part of the initial contact teams
19
of perhaps four or five men, which necessarily included one or two natives from the
contact area.
Trinquier asserts to this day that, had his operation been given wider latitude and
more logistical support, the GCMA could have transformed the whole character of the
19
struggle. By July 1954, there even existed in the mountain areas of Tonkin the begin-
nings of a "Mountain People's Committee" calling for self-government of the northern
mountain areas "liberated" by the GCMA. Over 20,000 French-sponsored guerrillas
were actually operating inside Viet Minh territory by mid-1954, and plans called for
50,000 by 1955. There is no doubt that such a force would have created serious
difficulties for the Viet Minh forces. As it was, the GCMA could point to the fact that
their operations in the highlands kept 14 Viet Minh battalions on the lookout during the
battle of Dien Bien Phu, while the 15,000 FEC troops at Dien Bien Phu tied down only 29
Viet Minh battalions. The GCMA also liberated singlehandedly all of Phong Saly Province
in Laos--a feat regular forces had been unable to accomplish
9
On the other hand, the GCMA failed in what should have been its primary mission:
the destruction of Viet Minh supply routes to Dien Bien Phu. GCMA proponents claim,
however, that the cautious approach the commandos had to use to be successfully
accepted by the local population made it impossible to create an effective force in the
Dien Bien Phu area in time to intervene successfully. Trinquier asserts that, after the
cease-fire, he attempted to get American military authorities in Saigon to continue
support of the anti -Communist guerrillas inside what was to become Communist North
Viet-Nam but met with no encouragement. The anti-Communist guerrillas were
destroyed by the Viet Minh after 1954.
20
The Role of Air and Sea Power
Airpower, which was also used for reconnaissance and tactical bombing and strafing
missions, provided the French with essential logistical support, often in places where
20
airborne reinforcements were the only kind which could get through. The French Air
Force (FAF) at first used Spitfires and P-63's in ground support operations and C-47's
for bombing and transport missions. In the 1950-54 period, when American B-26's and
F4F's became the tactical mainstay, there was a total of 475 aircraft operating in Indo-
china. The primary mission of the FAF was to provide close tactical support to FUF
ground forces and to transport army personnel and supplies. Airborne operations were
conducted extensively during the last years of the war, although helicopters were never
in active use. Some FAF officers complained of having to function in a supporting role
under the command of FUF ground units, instead of being allowed to concentrate on air
strikes against Viet Minh supply lines. It is not likely, however, that air attacks would
have met with any great success, as the Vietnamese insurgents were particularly adept
at camouflage and decentralization of logistical targets. Also, in the later state of the
war, the insurgents had antiaircraft capabilities.
If airpower proved generally disappointing except in the very important area of
logistics, the French Navy's amphibious operations in Indochina made a significant
contribution to the art of warfare. Since Vietnamese rivers are navigable for LCM-and
LCT-type craft* fairly far inland, the French Navy developed tactical units known as
Dinassauts (naval assault divisions) equipped with some 12 to 18 craft ranging from
LCVP's to LSSL's. Each Dinassaut was made up of an Opening Group (Groupement
d'ouverture) of small reconnaissance craft; a Shock Group of ships carrying marine
commandos and sometimes armored vehicles; a Base-af-Fire Group, composed of ship-
borne heavy mortars or tank-turreted ~ C M ' S ; and a Command and Support Group, which
usually included the command LSSL, supply LCM's, and often the small amphibian air-
craft which were part of the Dinassaut.
In addition to these purely naval units, which possessed considerable fire and shock
*Locally modified U. S. landing craft: LCM (Landing Craft, Materiel), LCT
(Landing Craft, Tank), LCVP (Landing Craft, Vehicle, Personnel), LSSL (Landing Ship
Support, Large), LST (Landing Ship, Tank).
21
power and participated in several major operations. there were other specialized
amphibious units built around Crab-and Alligator-type U. S. naval craft. Each such group
was composed of 33 vehicles, including artillery and mortars. Finally, the French
Quartermaster Service operated several supply companies equipped with 32 LCM's each.
Since each LCM had the carrying capacity of fifty 2.5 -ton trucks, any operation within
reach of a navigable river was normally assured of rapid and fairly safe logistical
support, although there were many ambushes of such convoys by the Viet Minh. French
units faced river mines and attacks by well-camouflaged snipers with recoilless rifles
along the riverbanks; there were even cases of dams being built at night across a river
to cut off the withdrawal of French river craft. 21
French Lose The Political Battle
In the all-important area of political reform, the colonial power was handicapped by
the total lack of consensus in France and Indochina alike as to the future of the territory
and by the absence of effective indigenous leadership once a policy of decolonialization
was finally embarked upon. When Bao Dai returned to lead the reunified and theoret
ically independent non-Communist state of Viet-Nam, there was little to excite the
imagination of the Vietnamese people, and endless haggling over details among French
and Indochinese officials frittered away the psychological impact of the event. The "Bao
Dai solution.. " with its series of ineffective premiers under the inept leadership of an
unpopular monarch and the continued dominance of the French High Commissioner in
Saigon, failed almost from the start. The Bao Dai regime set up in 1949 was never able
to offer any real challenge to the Ho Chi Minh regime. 22
In the face of basic military and political failures, the various techniques of
population management tried by the French had little practical effect. The country was
far too vast and rebel-held areas too interwoven with loyal areas even to apply effective
food-denial measures. Too much of the population was directly under Viet Minh control
22
to implement a thoroughgoing program of resettlement, although a limited program in
Cambodia met with much success. 23 Police action against Viet Minh terrorists in the
Saigon area was successful after 1951, however, when a brutally efficient security
system was established.
Viet-Minh Operations Disperse French Military Strength
(see Map #3) During the last six months of the Indochina conflict, French Union Forces
suffered serious reverses, beginning with the Viet-Minh offensive into Laos in December
1953. In a rapid dash across northern Laos, the VPA's 308th Division reached Muong-
Sai, north of Luang- Prabang, while another stab across central Laos by strong elements
of the 304th and 325th VPA Divisions reached the Mekong at Thakhek by late December,
cutting Laos in half and rolling back French positions all along the Mekong Valley to the
Thai border.
In the meantime, the Viet Minh had also gone on the offensive in the Southern
Plateau. There, VPA Regiments 108 and 803 swarmed across Roads 14 and 19,
encircled Ankh", took Kontum, and proceeded to destroy GM's 100 and 42 in a grueling
campaign that was to last until the July cease-fire. This drive eventually brought VPA
regulars to the southern edge of the Southern Plateau.
FUF activities during this critical period were aimed at preventing a rapid buildup
of Viet - Minh forces around the vital Red River Delta in the north and at diverting VPA
troops in central Viet-Nam from attacks against the Mekong Valley and the northern
POSitions.
24
Operation ATLANTE, a :french seaborne landing made at Tuy-Hoa in south
central therefore undertaken in the insurgents' Interzone V. 25 Its goal--
to divert VPA troops--was, however, unsuccessful both in concept and execution. Tuy-
Hoa was too far away to tempt Viet-Minh forces in the north, and in fact the Viet-Minh
were not drawn away from their centers of strength. Thus the French frittered away
valuable resources. In a second effort to attract northern Viet-Minh forces away from
23
the Red River Delta and to block their entry into northern Laos, French forces were
airdropped into Dien Bien Phu, located only 230 miles northwest of the Red River Delta,
on November 3D, 1953; this was the start of Operation CASTOR.
Dien Bien Phu-Operation CASTOR
Garrisoned in a valley somewhat less than 10 miles long and 6 miles wide, with
outlying defense positions on some but not all of the surrounding hills, eight battalions
of FUF troops waited for almost four months before the Viet-Minh attacked in force.
The two-month siege of Dien Bien Phu began in March 1954, when the VPA took up
positions in the hills overlooking the French outposts and began a barrage of artillery
fire which could not be countered. The 15,000 defenders soon found that they had
drastically underestimated the VPA 's artillery and attack capabilities. Meanwhile, the
onset of the monsoon season curtailed French air operations vital in the lift of the 200
tons of supply a day required for the troops at Dien Bien Phu. Under incessant shelling
and wave after wave of attacking VPA infantry. French defense perimeters were
steadily reduced until finally even the air strips inside Dien Bien Phu were lost. Left
without adequate air support and cut off from relief by ground forces unable to break
26
through the iron ring of the VPA siege force, the garrison surrendered on May 8, 1954.
The consequences of Dien Bien Phu's fall were far-reaching. Although five Viet-
Minh divisions had remained concentrated in that area for almost four months, partially
achieving the initial goal of deflecting VPA pressure elsewhere, the fall of the garrison
was devastating in terms of loss of French combat morale and world opinion. The
respite thus bought for the Red River Delta by the sacrifice of Dien Bien Phu was too
short to do any good. Three VPA divisions appeared on the edge of the delta within a
month after Dien Bien Phu, and by July the French perimeter around the Hanoi-Haiphong
road and rail axis had shrunk to a narrow corridor. Except in southern Viet-Nam. the
situation changed for the worse.
24
To cope with the vastly deteriorated military situation, the French needed re
inforcements of supplies and personnel in .large numbers. French l a w s ~ however. still
forbade the use of French draftees outside of Europe. In the United States there was
little opposition to supplying economic and material aid to the French, but the possibility
of involving American troops in combat operations in Indochina created an immediate
outcry in the U. S. Congress. France's failure to give real substance to the independence
granted the Indochinese states in 1949 gave the conflict the character of a colonial war
in American e y e s ~ and besides, the memory of Korea was all too fresh. Anxious to
avoid involvement in another Asian war, the United States refused even to send
American planes to rescue the beleaguered French at Dien Bien Phu. 27
In France, the war in Indochina became increasingly unpopular because of its
financial cost, its drain on the French Regular Army, and its exploitation by the Ieft
wing parties as a domestic political issue. Faced with mounting domestic opposition to
a continuance of the war, and without any hope of active Anglo-American participation in
their counterinsurgent efforts, the French Government of Prime Minister Pierre
Mendes - France resolved to end the conflict by negotiations at an international conference
of world powers.
OUTCOME AND CONCLUSIONS
Hostilities were officially ended on July 20, 1954, when a ceasefire agreement was
signed at Geneva, Switzerland, by the military representatives of the FUF High Command
on behalf of the FEC and the Vietnamese and Laotian Armies and by representatives of
the Vietnamese People's Army High Command. The Cambodian Army High Command.
operating alone since October 1953, signed on its own. Communist China, the U. S. S. R.
Great Britain, and the United States were also represented. It was agreed at this
conference that all Viet-Minh forces would be "regrouped" north of the 17th parallel
(the present territory of North Viet-Nam) and all Laotian Communist forces in Laos were
25
to be withdrawn to southern Indochina. Pending eventual elections to reunify Viet-Nam,
that country was to be administered by Communist forces in the north and by non
Communist forces in the south. Neither the Government of Viet-Nam (GVN) in the
south--later to become the Republic of Viet-Nam--nor the United States signed the
Geneva agreements, but in a separate declaration the United States promised to "refrain
from the threat or use of force to disturb" these agreements and the U. S. Government
stated that "it would view any renewal of the aggression.... with grave concern. ,,28
The Geneva agreements of 1954, by providing the Viet-Minh with a homogeneous and
openly-held territory and a Communist buffer zone in Laos, gave the DRVN an inter
national standing which it had not previously enjoyed. Also, the transfer to Communist
hands of North Vietnamese industrial centers and the prestige-laden city of Hanoi, with
its modern installations and Indochina's only full-fledged university, gave the DRVN the
basic infrastructure for national viability. The fact that 860,000 North Vietnamese fled
to the south during the 300-day grace period for withdrawals provided in the agreements
also temporarily lightened the DRVN's supply burden. North Viet-Nam, it should be
remembered, is a food-deficit area. On the other hand, the Viet-Minh received less
territory under the Geneva settlement--which divided Viet-Nam at the 17th parallel-
than their military forces actually held at the time of the diplomatic conference. This
has been explained by the conciliatory role played at Geneva by the U. S. S. R., which in
1954 was trying to induce France not to join the European Defense Community.
The effect of the cease-fire on South Viet-Nam was in some ways beneficial. It
brought a temporary halt to open Communist activity, cleared the way for the total
withdrawal of the colonial presence of France, made possible large-scale aid by the
United States, and provided the breathing space necessary for the creation of a more
stable system of civilian government in the form of the Republic of Viet-Nam, pro
claimed on October 26, 1955. Until late in 1959, Communist insurgency was limited to
the fringe areas of Laos and to small-scale activities in South Viet - Nam, where its
26
apparently non-military nature (e. g., the assassination of village officials) was
mistakenly interpreted as the "dying gasps" of the earlier Indochina war rather than the
resumption of new hostilities. 28
For France, the Geneva accord provided an exit--albeit a humiliating one--from
a military and political cul-de-sac whose expense in both treasure and manpower was
beyond endurance. Despite increasing American aid, which by 1954 was expected to
reach 70 percent of the current war costs, the Indochina war was damaging the French
economy, its total cost estimated to have been over $11 billion. The conflict also
distorted the structure of the French military establishment, whose best troops were
involved 8,000 miles from home. 29
Total casualties in the French Expeditionary Corps during the eight years of fighting
amounted to 140,000, and there were some 31,000 casualties in the Indochinese national
armies. Although there was no deliberate policy to kill wounded prisoners of war, no
special facilities were provided for their care by the Communists before 1954. No
30
prisoners with abdominal, chest" or skull wounds are known to have survived.
From a military viewpoint, the French Army gained from its Indochinese experience
a valuable store of first-hand knowledge about counterinsurgency warfare operations
which was later to prove useful in Algeria.
Lessons Learned
What were the lessons of the Indochina conflict? French forces in Indochina were
highly organized and well-equipped for conventional combat operations, at least after
1946. The very sophistication and complexity of the French military establishment, how-
ever, deprived it of one essential characteristic of successful counterinsurgency--speed
in reacting to new situations. What is meant here is not speed of movement across
terrain, so much as lI administrative speed, " or the time required to relay valuable
information and to get back the proper orders in response. In that sense, the French
27
never gained the initiative. Although it has been widely accepted that French counter
insurgency operations in Indochina were entirely of the Maginot Line variety, the facts fail
to bear out that view. Until 1949, the very size of the FEC precluded its resort to any such
attempt at holding a battleline; instead the FEC practiced another well-known French
concept of war which proved to be almost as costly as Maginot Line tactics might have
been - - the constant offens e tactic.
A major lesson of the Indochinese conflict is that the indigenous peoples of Southeast
Asia fight well when properly motivated and led. Among the animistic mountain tribes
of Viet- Nam, military prowess has as high a value as among American plains Indians.
The lowland Indochinese have made good highland jungle fighters, disproving the myth
that lowlanders fight well only in a rice- paddy environment.
Above all, what accounted for the eventual French defeat was simply the fact that the
French were fighting at almost a 1-to-1 ratio, a type of war in which a 10-to-1 superiority
on the part of the counterinsurgent force is generally considered minimal for success. 31
The real surprise of the French counterinsurgency effort in Indochina is not that the
French were defeated, but that it took eight years for this to happen.
The chief political mistake of the French colonial regime in Indochina was its failure
to encourage moderate elements to form local mass-based political parties. Thus" non-
Communist nationalists were forced to choose either abject submission as French pnppets
or active participation in the Communist- dominated Viet- Minh.
One remarkable thing about the Communist organization in Indochina was that the
ICP dominated the national movement - - the only Communist party in southeast Asia to do
so. Even in Indonesia, where Dutch colonial policies certainly did not favor the moderates,
the Communists had been unable to control the nationalist movement. Communist success
in Indochina was as much due to the sophistication of Vietnamese Communist leadership as
to the nature of French colonial policies, although these two factors complemented each
other. What sets off the ICP from other Communist organizations almost the world over
is that" long before Tito and others in eastern Europe discovered" national communism, 11
28
the Indochinese Communists had achieved a complete symbiosis of their doctrinal and
national objectives. In fact, it can be shown that their nationalist anti - French resistance
was not at first greeted with enthusiasm on the part of either the French or Soviet
C
. . 32 B t
ommunlst Parties. ut 1 completely fooled those non-Communist observers who saw
only the leprs primarily "nationalist" behavior and not its ultimate lICornmunist" objec-
tivea.
When hostilities began in Viet-Nam in late 1946, the French had only two real
choices. They could turn Viet-Nam over without a fight to the DRVN regime, in which
the Communists were already the dominant political group and the controlling force, or
they could fight. Twice during the Indochina war a negotiated peace might have been
obtained. The first time was in March 1947, when Professor Paul Mus, the French
negotiator, had almost come to full agreement with Ho Chi Minh; but the French high
command insisted upon the return to French authority of all "war criminals and deser-
ters, " such as foreign instructors, mainly Japanese and_ German, who were serving with
the Viet-Minh. The second chance came after Giapls "erroneous offensives
ll
of the 1951-
52 period had brough the Viet-Minh to grief. A French delegation was about to meet
with DRVN representatives in Rangoon when it received orders to return to France,
allegedly as a result of American pressure, 33 since an end of the war in Indochina at that
time would have thrown the entire weight of Communist aggression in Asia upon the
Korean front. On the whole, however, the French maintained an unrealistic policy of
unconditional surrender almost until the end of the insurgency. It was only when military
victory appeared completely impossibl,e that the French accepted an alternative solution
giving the Communists something less than full control of Viet-Nam, key to the entire
Indochinese territory.
Admitting that the Indochina struggle was first and foremost a colonial war and that
France's motives for fighting it were not strictly altruistic, it should nevertheless be
noted that the outcome of the conflict bought at least five years of freedom from
29
Communist takeover for some 23 out of about 38 million people. Considering the
alternative possibility, the results of the French counterinsurgency in Indochina do not
appear to have been wholly negative.
30
NOTES
I
Bernard B. Fall, The Two Viet-Nams (rev. ed.; New York: Praeger, 1964), pp.
29-31.
2
For a good appraisal of ICP operations in the 1930's, see 1. Milton Sacks, "Marxism
in Viet-Nam, " Marxism in Southeast Asia, ed. Frank Trager (Stanford: Stanford Univer
sity Press, 1960).
3 .
Cf. Truong Chmh, Primer for Revolt (New York: Praeger, 1963).
4Fall, Two Viet-Nams, pp. 40-59.
5Ibid., p. 60; Hammer, Struggle, pp. 45-53.
6Fall, Two Viet-Nams, pp. 61-63.
7
Ibid., pp. 71-78.
8Quoted in Hammer, Struggle, p. 105.
9
Ibid., pp. 116, 129.
lOVo Nguyen Giap, People's War, People's Army (New York: Praeger, 1962), pp.
xxix - xxxix.
II
Gen. Boyer de la Tour, Le Martyre de l'Armee Francaise (Paris: Les Presses du
Mail, 1963), p. 47.
12George K. Tanham, Communist Revolutionary Warfare: the Viet-Minh in Indochina
(New York: Praeger, 1961), pp. 68-69.
13Fall, Two Viet-Nams, pp. 106-107.
14Fall in Street Without Joy has pointed out that at least one major FUF offensive in
North Viet-Nam, designed to crush the whole headquarters of the rebellion, fell short
of its objective due to the last-minute diversion of French troops to crush an uprising
in Madagascar. Today it is an interesting speculation as to whether the Malagasy affair
did not in fact save the Viet Minh.
15Fall, Two Viet-Nams, p. ll5.
16Hammer, Struggle, p. 285.
17
Cf. Gen. Jean Marchand, L'Indochine en Guerre (Paris: Pouzet, 1954).
18
Ibid.
19
Roger Trinquier, Modern Warfare: A French View of Counter-Insurgency Warfare
(New York: Praeger, 1964).
31
21
Good
sources on the subject can be found in Jacques Mordal. Marine Indochine
(Paris: Amiot-Dumont. 1953); Jean Mauclere. Marins dans les Arroyos (Paris:
Peyronnet. 1949); Cdr. Brossard. Dinassaut (Paris: France-Empire. 1952).
22
Fall
Two Viet-Nams. pp. 212-216.
23
Jean
Laprollx, "30, 000 Cambodgiens echappent al'emprise des rebelles, II
Indochine-Sudest Asiatique (Saigon).( January 1953), 23-28.
24
Navarre. quoted in Fall. Two Viet-Nams. p. 127.
25Fall Street. pp. 186ff.
26Ibid. pp. 312-329; The Washington Post (November 5. 1964), p. A 26.
27 See Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway and H.H. Martin. Soldier: Memoirs of Matthew B.
Ridgway (New York: Harper & Brothers. 1956) and Dwight D. Eisenhower. Mandate for
Change. 1953-1956 (New York: Doubleday & Company. 1963).
28
Fall. Two Viet-Nams. pp. 337-384.
29For a French appraisal. see Gen. Paul Ely. L'Indochine dans la Tourmente. (Paris:
PIon. 1964).
30
Fall. Street. p. 296.
31
W. W. Rostow, "Guerrilla Warfare in Underdeveloped Areas," Marine Corps
Gazette (January 1962), p. 49: " ...As you know. it takes somewhere between 10 and
20 soldiers to control 1 guerrilla in an organized operation.... "
32
Bernard Fall. "Trials and Tribulations of a Party Line: The French Communist
Party and the Indochina War." Foreign Affairs (April 1955).
33See Bidault-Daladier exchange of March 9. 1954. in Journal officiel Debates
Parliamentaires (March 10. 1954), p. 768.
32
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Buttinger, Joseph. The Smaller Dragon. New York: Praeger, 1958.
Devillers, Philippe. Histoire du Viet-Nam de 1940 a1952. Paris: Editions due Seuil, 1952.
Fall, Bernard B. "Master of the Red Jab," Saturday Evening Post, CCXXV (November 24,
1962), 18-21.
Street Without Joy. 4th ed. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole, 1964.
The Two Viet-Nams. Rev. ed. New York: Praeger, 1964.
The Viet Minh Regime. New York: Institute of Pacific Relations, 1956.
Giap, Vo Nguyen. People's War, People's Army. New York: Praeger, 1962.
Hammer, Ellen J. The Struggle for Indochina. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1954.
Jones, F.C. Japan's New Order in East Asia, 1937-1945. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1954.
Lancaster, Donald. The Emancipation of French Indo-China. London: Oxford University
Press, 1945.
Tanharn, George K.. Communist Revolutionary Warfare: The Viet Minh in Indochina. New
York: Praeger, 1961.
33
-
Chapter Two
OPERATIONS IN NORTH VIET-NAM, 1950-1952
by Bernard B. Fall
-
This chapter is extracted from Street Without Joy, by Bernard B. Fall,
and is reproduced with the permission of The Stackpole Company solely for
- the instruction of cadets.
':'OPERATIONS IN ;\10RTR VIET-NAM, 1950-1952
by Bernard B. Fall
After receiving assistance from the Chinese
Communists, the Viet- Minh forces began a
counteroffensive in October 1950 which led
to successive defeats of the Communists by
the French under the inspired leadership of
General de Lattre de Tassigny. Despite the
futile attempt at Roa Binh, the search for a
similar TI set-piece" battle with the Viet
Minh was to become the hallmark of French
strategy throughout the remainder of the
war.
From the Red River Delta to the Roa-Binh Salient
The arrival of the Chinese Communists on the borders of North Viet- Nam in
November 1949 closed the first chapter of the Indochina war and doomed all French
chances of full victory. From then on, the Viet-Minh possessed, like the Reds in Korea,
a !I sanctuary" \vhere they could refit and retrain their troops with full impunity in Chinese
'-' Communist training camps at Nanning and the artillery firing ranges of Ching- Rsi. Soon,
Viet-Minh battalions began to appear in full field formations, equipped with heavy mortars
and pack howitzers, followed shortly thereafter by complete artillery battalions using
American-made recoilless riiles and l05mm howitzers. After nearly a year of relentless
training, Vo Nguyen Giap, the Communist commander, felt that his newly forged tool was
ready for the first direct showdown with the French.
Viet- Minh Clear Route Coloniale #4
Beginning on October 1, 1950, Giap.attacked one by one the string of French forts
along the Chinese border with fourteen battalions of regular infantry and three artillery
battalions. Separated from the French main line of resistance by 300 miles of
Fall's title of this chapter in his book, Street V!ithout is II Set-Piece
Battle--I. 11 The title of II Operations in North 1950-1952" and the brief
summary under the by-line are additions made by Major J. V!. Jr. to
make the format of this volume of the cadet text- consistent with the other volumes of
Revolutionary Warfare.
37
Communist-held jungle, the dispersed French posts, though numbering close to 10,000
troops, never had a chance. By October 17, all the garrisons along the border, including
three paratroop battalions dropped in during the battle in the forlorn hope of reopening the
main road to the key fort of Lang-Son, had been completely destroyed. Lang-Son itself,
which could perhaps have been defended for a certain time, was abandoned in an almost
panic with 1,300 tons of ammunition, food; equipment and artillery still intact.
When the smoke cleared, the French had suffered their greatest colonial defeat since
Montcalm had died at Quebec. They had lost 6,000 troops, 13 artillery pieces and 125
mortars, 450 trucks and three armored platoons, 940 machine guns, 1200 sub-machine
guns and more than 8,000 rifles. Their abandoned stocks alone sufficed for the equipment
of a whole additional Viet- Minh division.!
By January 1, 1951, the French had lost control of all of North Viet-Nam to the
north of the Red River and were now desperately digging in to hold on to the key pawn of
the whole Indochina war--the Red River delta. On the Communist side, General Giap
pressed on. The guerrilla groups of 1946-1949 had transformed themselves into battalions,
then into regiments, and now began to take their final shape as 10,000-man divisions. The
first series of five divisions--the Divisions 304, 308, 312, 316, and 320--was created in
1950, soon to be followed by a so-called" 35lst Heavy Division" of the Soviet artillery
division t:Ype and composed of two artillery regiments and one combat engineer regiment.
The Viet-Minh felt ready to throw the French into the sea.
It was late in 1950 that Giap elaborated his final plan to defeat the French armies in
Indochina. In a remarkable staff study presented by him before ihe political commissars
of the 316th Infantry Division, Giap outlined the Indochina war as consisting of three
stages. First was that of the initial retreat of the Viet- Minh forces until they had time to
re-train and consolidate. The second phase would begin when the French, failing to
destroy the Viet-Minh guerrilla forces, would allow them to re- equip themselves and
with the help of the Chinese Communists, to eliminate slowly but surely most of the small
French posts in the Viet-Minh base area. The third stage was to be the total destruction
38
-
of the French troops. In Giap's own words:
The enemy will pass slowly from the offensive to the defensive. The
blitzkrieg will transform itself into a war of long duration. Thus, the
enemy will be caught in a dilemma: he has to drag out the war in order
to win it and does not possess, on the other hand, the psychological
and political means to fight a long drawn-out war.
Giap was no fool. A French-trained history professor and a member of the Indochinese
Communist Party since 1930, he probably was in a better position to evaluate his enemy's
potential than anyone else. Being perfectly informed as to the situation of French morale
at home and fully aware of American hesitation to commit United States troops in a
11 colonial
l1
war, Giap felt it important to liquidate the French as a military threat before
the arrival of massive American material aid. Giap stated further:
Our strategy early in the course of the third stage is that of a general
counter-offensive. We shall attack without cease until final victory,
until we have swept the enemy forces from Indochina. During the first
and second stage, we have gnawed away at the enemy forces; now we
must destroy them. All military activities of the third stage must tend
to the same simple aim--the total destruction of French forces.
We shall go on to the general counter-offensive when the following
conditions have been fulfilled: (1) superiority of our forces over
-
those of the enemy; (2) the international situation is in our favor;
(3) the military situation is in our favor. We will have to receive aid
from abroad in order to be able to carry out the counter-offensive, but
to count solely upon it without taking into account our own capabilities
is to show proof of subjectivism and of lack of political conscience.
But on the other hard we cannot deny the importance of such aid.
When we shall have reached the third stage, the following tactical
principles will be applied: mobile warfare will become the principal
activity, positional warfare and guerrilla warfare will become
secondary.
By the 10th of January, 1951, the bulk of Giap's troops--81 battalions including 12
heavy 1,veapons battalions and 8 engineer .battalions- -were ready for the general counter
offensive, the big push on to Hanoi itself. In fact, 1,vithin Hanoi and the whole delta area.
Communist propagandists had begun to post leaflets with the inscription liRa Chi Minh in
Hanoi for the Tet.
11
(Tet is the Chinese lunar new year which usually falls in the middle
of February.) French intelligence had identified the approximate whereabouts of the
enemy's concentration and the enemy had given its target date and main target.
-
39
For the first time since the beginning of the Indochina war, the French were going to
have the opportnnity of fighting a set-piece battle.
Assault Against the de Lattre Line (Map #2)
On the French side, the arrival of Marshal de Lattre de Tassigny as the new
Commander-in-Chief had given the sagging French morale a badly needed shot in the arm.
De Lattre had assumed command of the Indochina theater on December 17, 1950 and had
undertaken several measures which none of his predecessors had dared to undertake; he
mobilized the French civilians living in Indochina for additional guard duties
l
thus liber
ating garrison troops for active combat; and sent back to France the ships which had
arrived to evacuate the French women and children living in Indochina. As de Lattre
said, "As long as the women and children are here, the men wanlt dare to let go. 11
From what was known of the enemy's intentions, the major thrust would come from
the Tam-Dao Massif in direction of Vinh- Yen. On the French side, two mobile groups, 2
the North African Mobile Group under Colonel Edon and Mobile Group No. 3 under Colonel
Vanuxern defended the approaches to Vinh- Yen, anchoring the resistance around a series
of low hills emerging above the alluvial plains.
On January 13, the Communist attack began. As usual, the first movement of Giap
consisted in attempting to divide the French forces by a diversionary attack which almost
succeeded. A major portion of Communist Division 308 attacked a small post
held by about 50 Senegalese and Vietnamese who fought to the last man and succumbed
after executing bayonet counterattacks in the attempt to clear the defenses from their
assailants. Colonel Varmxem's whole mobile group barreled north to come to the help of
the post and fell into an extensive ambush near losing in the process nearly a
whole Senegalese battalion and a large part of the 8th Algerian Spahis. It was only through
the providential help of Vinh- Yen's artillery and the presence of French fighter-bombers
that the remainder of Vanuxem's mobile group fought its way back to Vinh-Yen. By Janu
ary 14. the Viet-Minh had achieved its first objective. The French \vere now blocked with
40
.p.lnsl. "'.....hy lake formed by. d..d bnllch of the Red River. I_vi". tho
u'" ....t of with. gap of thr"" mil....hlch w.. practle>Jly undetended.
It \<>oIled u If Giap ...""ld to milk. llO"d his pNmi.e. 1010 1. wa. low In lIa""I,
and n.....I"'''''... I" "'rl., .I.. ...llllnil to play vp "vI ...n " of the lo<locl>i"'"
war, ""rrled bli h""dlj"u .nn,""'lnll lbe ."""-lo-be-- expeoted fall or Ibnoi.
It .... lI,." lila, d. LaUre do<:lded '" lake per"""",1 """rl. ol tho bo.lUe. 0<1 tho Uth
ol Jan.l.ry III afternoon h. pertlonallJo n.... Into VimY.lI with himalllW.on plane,
.nd from Vin!> Yon h. ol"dored tho b<tJlnnllll of. th"" ndk11omot.r airlift of reocrve
ballallo,," lrom South Indochina low the North. At tho .. Umo h. ordered Mobil.
GNlUp No. i, <ompolled '" throo battaUo"" of c....k North Alrlnan troop', lo break th.""",
Immed!>otolJo In tho di._on or VI"" Ven with '''<TV' ammunitlo" 10<" bo.'l.... od MobUo
Gr""p No.3, By tho .ft..noon or tho of Mobil" Gr""p No, 1 took Hill
whlcb ov...loob th" r.,.d '0 VinhV"". thu. "".ryl"1I out th"llrol pari of ila mlulon,
Both mobile 11"""'1'1 i""tNcted l<> ro<><:""l')' tho hill Un. '0 tho ""rth of V!nlI-Von on
th" foUowlllll oIo.y.
Th. &om. (l( VInhYo"
o"c. mo.o. th.bulk of tho lo.coa ...med '0 havo """poraled illto thin "ir, at
'500 on J:uol"ry 1&, lUllo 101 and 210 '0'.'.,.,.<upled by tho "."""h "l1"ina' lllhi enemy
_.UIOo. Bu' lOll of a ...ddeo. ,,' 1700, ..ith th" ... n "lr <\y .ottlng be/rlnd tho m"""laina.
tho ",,'0' .mall J"""I'I of m.n emging frOm tho lo tcov..ed hilla or tho Tam
"
Dao--the whole 308th Division had gone over to the attack and the battle for Hanoi had
begnn. Dragging with them their heavy mortars and heavy machine gnns as a mobile base
of fire, the Communists first attacked Hill 47, then Hill 101 and later again 47 and Hill
210.. For the first time in the Indochina war
l
the French faced the unsettling experience
of "human sea" attacks: waves upon waves of Viet- Minh infantry threw themselves against
the hastily dug defenses of the hill line. De Lattre, who had returned for a second time to
Vinh- Yen, recognized the gravity of the situation. All available fighter- bombers in
Indochina and transport planes capable to dumping bomb canisters were marshaled into
what became the most massive aerial bombardment of the Indochina war.
Waves of fighter-bombers threw up a curtain of roaring napalm between the attacking
Communists and the exhausted French literally roasting thousands of the enemy,
but to little avail. At 1400 on the 17th of January, after merciless hand-to-hand combat
with hand grenades and tommyguns, the last survivors of Hill 101, having spent their
ammunition, fell back into the plain. With 101 in Communist hands, Hill 47 became
untenable and at 0400 Colonel Edon ordered its evacuation. Of the whole hill line to the
north of Vinh-Yen, only its two anchors, Hill 210 in the north and 157 in the south, were
still in French hands.
Now, de Lattre threw in his last reserves., the newly-constituted Mobile Group No.2
composed of nvo Moroccan battalions and one paratroop battalion. On the morning of the
17th, Mobile Group No. 2 was inserted in the front to the southwest of Vinh- Yen and in the
early dawn of January 17th, Colonel Vanuxem's Mobile Group No. 3 attempted one last
desperate counter-attack in order to re- establish contact with Hill 210. One of its
battalions again got badly mauled by a suicide attack of Division but once the
napalm of the fighter-bombers did its deadly job and by noon of January 17, Giap's troops
began to disappear in the woods of the Tam Dao. The French looked around thems elves
with disbelief: the enemy had been defeated and the French remained masters of the
battlefield. The battle of Binh-Yen had cost the Communists 6,000 dead and 500 prisoners.
42
To fue Viet-Minh, fueir defeat in fue open field must have been cruelly frustrating. It
was obvious that Giap's troops "vere not yet ready for the general CQunter- offensive.
Disappointment found itself clearly expressed in the diary of a Viet-Minh officer, which
contained the following revealing pas sage:
Our division has been on the attack ever since this morning. We are
forming a group of about 10 elite battalions who should be able to take
Viet-Tri
3
before tomorrow.
The French troops react in terrible fashion. We're waiting here all
morning. Here and there one can see the battle develop, but my company,
unfortunately, has nothing to do. Yes, we would certainly like to
participate in fue battle which will decide fue fate of Hanoi. It is
already January 13th and Tet will be here in a few weeks, in a month
and a half. We want to be in Hanoi for the Tetl To the south we can hear
the guns rumble like drums. French shells are getting closer and closer
and we already have seen some of our wounded leaving the line and coming
back to where we are.
The platoon commanders come over to me bringing resolutions and
petitions from their men. It is always a great comfort to before
every assault or particularly dangerous action, to feel the unity of
the men and the and with that of the whole People's
I accept all the petitions. Each platoon requests fue honor of being
assigned the most difficult or the most dangerous mission.
All of a sudden a sound can be heard in the sky and strange birds
getting larger and larger. Airplanes. larder my men to take cover
from fue bombs and machine gun bullets. But fue planes dived upon us
without firing their guns. all of a hell opens in front
of my eyes. Hell comes in fue form of large, egg-shaped containers,
dropping from fue first plane, followed by ofuer eggs from the second
and third plane. Immense sheets of extending over hundreds
of meters, it seems, strike terror in the ranks of my soldiers. This
is napalm, the fire \vhich falls from the skies.
Another plane swoops down behind us and again drops a napalm bomb.
The bomb falls closely behind us and I feel its fiery breafu touching my
whole body. The men are now fleeing in all directions and I cannot hold
them back. There is no way of holding out under this torrent of fire
which flows in all directions and burns everything on its passage. On
all sides, flames surround us now. In addition, French artillery and
mortars now have our range and transform into a fiery tomb what had
been, ten minutes a quiet part of the forest. We flee through the
bamboo hedges towards the west and I cry, "Assemble in the woods
behind the hill!!T But who listens to me and who can hear me?
Behind us, French infantry now attacks; we can hear their screams.
We are now passing through the platoon which had remained in reserve.
I stop at the platoon commander.
43
"Try to delay the French as much as possible. I'll try to regroup
my men behind the hill!!!
His eyes were wide with terror. !1What is this? The atomic bomb?1t
!lNo, it is napalm.1!
The men continue to flee in all directions and I see a political
commissar, pistol in hand, trying desperately to regroup them.
We can now hear clearly the yells of the enemy who is pursuing
us ... 4
There was no doubt that Giap had suffered a severe defeat in the battle of Vinh- Yen
and in a remarkable post-mortem of January 23, 1951, he openly admitted some of his
errors. Of cours e he sought to spread the blame around, accusing some of his troops for
their lack of aggressiveness, and even of 11 cQwardicert--,vhich was certainly not justified-
for having lacked determination in pushing direct infantry attacks against the well-
entrenched French artillery positions and armored combat teams. However, he paid a
significant homage to the civilian porters
l
who had worked hvo million man- days and
brought to the battle area 5
1
000 tons of rice
l
ammunition and weaponsa
The hard fact remained
l
however
l
that the Communist troops were not yet ready for
the general counter-offensive which was to sweep the French into the sea. On the other
hand
l
the French lacked the necessary cross-country mobility and
l
for that matter,
necessary manpower or airpower to exploit such an unexpected victory as that of Vinh- Yen.
Even under the leadership of such an inspired commander as Marshal de Lattre
l
the
French could do little else at the end of the battle of Vinh- Yen but to consolidate their
position on the hill line and settle down to await the next Communist attacka
Undeterred by his unsuccessful attack against Vinh- Yen, Giap now shifted his battle
force farther towards the hill range of the Dong Trieu. This was a particularly sensitive
area to the French defense of the Red R i v ~ r delta
l
because it controlled not only the
approaches to the important coal mines of North Viet- Nam
l
but also because a determined
thrust of less than 20 kilometers could endanger the vital port of Haiphong, thns destroying
all French hopes of holding out in North Viet-Nam. Leaving the 304th and 320th Infantry .III
44
_lie,llrt!on. O\.o.p ob!f<od Ih<I "nlll. )IU".nd)1"" 1ntaIIlry Ol __ In th.
d1reelloa of lobo 10>... ThNoel< t>eean In "'. Illcb' '" MardI 2) 10 U. 0,. Mardi ze:u..
tilbole n ..., u_ of had fIlll.., 1M<> ............, _. bot the ,,__7 ot .... Do
110" Illy... poormltud _ lDl.err__<If thr.. Fr_ ..........,...... _ !P",'ol ohtpo.
_ .-e._ted tire _. "p til. -..-" .U_po at _ IOwt 1\.0..11.
I.. ott. I. __, malI. I ..eu .""ped<dl;r I ... of. -.' KII-.
1ld.o ... __ at KIM. on.....U;y til. _, ... __e-oIlO "'.
onI... arnd .,.,..,_ of _ .. _1_' ..u pr,",- the "' l\.o.eJ
__.... <If rIlla. <If the n.o trIM fr-. loa ...... t!or .. J"r _
",iNi_ otn ..-.. the ...-"' <If. VI_"' U .." NcbI ....XII.... Toan,
An .rmo.red car pla_ <If lI> C_I R.p (RIC"'"",_ lI>.
ylll&l. of Mao 10>I.....ed rl". Ro.d 11_. 1,000 "'den"' _til at lb.....0 KIl.
min., ....1I..... Call>oll< """,."" at Mao "" 1""".1<1 .bollt 100 "' "' ......, of th
..lIland .""t11 of Roa" 18, ... d<f.ndod by" ",.k eompo.'lJ' or 30th Com_II.
IlItt.lIon or S.""pl... inhnt<y .nd Pto parU.."", It w" Ihoo< 400 m"" ",1>0 "' .... 10
ItIpport Ill. Inlll"lahocl< of. Commuttla'''.''.k lly ....C. dlvl.lcno. At 0400 ot Maroh n.
10Iac "". mIn. "' hit by. boorra,. of '5mm .nd Umm .1>.1111. Within .... fir.. r....
r

minutes of combat, the lieutenant commanding the post was wounded and two of the French
NCO's were killed, but the first two mass attacks broke under the fire of the defenders.
At 0515, a tremendous explosion shook the whole complex: Viet- Minh TTVolunteers of Death' I
(the Communist version of the Japanese Kamikaze) had infiltrated the position and blown a
breach into the outer wall through which now poured Viet- Minh infantry. In the early
dawn, under the command of the last French NCO, himself seriously wounded, the Tho
partisans repelled the Viet-Minh assault in hand-to-hand combat and again consolidated
their position. When daylight broke the Communist pressure relented somewhat since
French B-26's and Hellcats began to bomb the open plain around the post with napalm and
fragmentation bombs.
At 1400, the 6th Colonial Parachute Battalion attempted to break through to Mao Khe
mine from Road 18 but \Vas bogged down by the concentrated enemy artillery and machine-
gun fire, in spite of French artillery and air support. One Hellcat dive- bomber, caught
in Communist antiaircraft fire, smashed into no-man
l
S land. But even the painfully slow
progress of the paratroopers gave the battered defenders of Mao Khe the last desperate
chance to make a get-away. At 1900, Toan started the evacuation of the Mao Khe mine.
Detouring the Communist position between Mao Khe mine and Mao Khe, the survivors of
the previous night's battle made their way to Mao Khe village, taking with them all their
wounded and a long column of the wives and children of the Tho partisans who had lived
with their husbands in the post. Their break- out took the Communists completely by
surprise and they reached Mao Khe village without being attacked.
This was but a meager respite, because the village, in turn, became the major target
of the Communist attack. At 0200 of IVlarch 28, a Communist barrage was laid down on
IVlao Khe village and Mao Khe church. Screaming waves of Viet-Minh infantry slashed
both into the village defenses and into the defenses of the church. Two of the bunkers of
IVlao Khe church, destroyed by shaped charges, fell into enemy hands, and in the village,
two of the watch towers, severely hit by bazookas, crumbled, burying all their defenders
and the machine guns. The three armored cars of the RICIVl were soon buried under the
46
collapsing houses of 1V1ao Khe and their crews formed an infantry platoon in support of the
6th Paratrooper Battalion now fighting for every house in the fiercely burning village. As
French artillery from Dong-Trieu began laying down pre-arranged fires almost on top of
the position, and the Communists began firing into every house with bazooka shells or
incendiary grenades, the whole village soon became one blazing inferno. But when the
morning dawned
l
the paratroopers Tho partisans, Senegalese, and Moroccan armored I
cavalry had held on to their position and 400 dead Communists were lying in and about the
ruins of the village. On their side the French had lost more than 40 dead and 150 wounded.
Once more Giap had failed to breach the French defensive front around the delta.
Giap was to try yet for a third time to smash the French delta position. this time
from the south, in a classical maneuver which combined the frontal attack by his regular
divisions with an attack from inside the delta directed against the front by two regular
Viet-IVIinh infantry regiments which had been previously infiltrated into the delta. 5
The 64th Infantry Regiment of the 320th Division-was infiltrated 30 kilometers deep
behind the French line near Thai Binh where it joined forces with Independent Infantry
Regiment No. 42, a crack Viet-_Minh outfit which was permanently stationed behind French
lines and which survived all French efforts at annihilating it until the end of the war.
The terrain lent itself ideally to a surprise attack. The western bank of the Day
River rose steeply over the French-held eastern bank, and the alluvial dish-pan flat plain
of the Red River delta was studded in this area by steep limestone cliffs covered with
dense vegetation and pierced by innumerable caves and holes which offered perfect bomb
proof concealment to enemy forces. The only advantage which played in favor of the
French was that the river itself was navigable enough to permit the support of the French
garrisons by one 0 f the f amous
"D"
lnassaut.
,,6
t he Naval Assault Divisions, whose cre
ation may well have been one of the few worthwhile contributions of the Indochina war to
military knOWledge. This concentration of mobile riverborne firepower permitted fairly
effective attacks on the enemy's supply lines which, of necessity. had to cross the Day
River.
47
The Battle on 'he Day River
The enemy'. plan ..... q<llte .1",pl.. While .o""""tr.'od .'''cu of D1vl.lotl :I04.plno'
1'1>0 Ly and OIvlal"" 3\18 .pl..... Nlnh-ltlnh, the .nello... cl tile I'r..,ch po.mon, ...ere to
pin d<>wn Fr..,ch r ..e", the 320th Dlvlolon. by rapid lh,."... '0 the "a' and .""....
...""Id ...lpo "'" the line o{ caI< Fr..."" poo'. h......"" Nlnh__ .nd the e" .nd ""ld
raoccupy tho Cathollo blahoprlo 0{ PlIo'_Dl<rn, tb.o. ""rU.lly d1.",antllng tho FT eb
po.ltiona In tho .""thern PArt cl the Rod ttlnr del........ell dealing .......re Jl'Iychologi
001 blo'a' to the .ntl-Commu..... Vletna"' ... o Catholic.. At the "'0 ti"'e, R'Ctmo..ta 41
.nd U .".u"" >"rench <on<entr."OQR and auppiy lln... In tho rear ......, I.olatlng
thl'<"J&O thdr Uona the ..hole battl<'fiold.od pr ""Unl Frencl> rolntoree"' ......nd
auppU.. fro", reachlnl the ""rd-pre..ed <Ior...do of tho Dooy River Une
..
The initial Viet- Minh attack, which began on May 29, benefited, as was almost always
the case, from the effect of total surprise. As dawn broke, the bnlk of the 308th Infantry
Division overran the French positions in and around Ninh- Binh
l
penetrating into the town
and pinning down the remaining French survivors in the church. During that chaotic first
night of the battle, a battalion of hastily- gathered Vietnamese reinforcements from nearby
Nam-Dinh was thrown into the battle. One of its companies, headed by the French
commander-in-chief's only child, Lieutenant Bernard de Lattre, was ordered to hold at
all costs a French hrt situated on a crag overlooking Ninh-Binh. In spite of intense
mortar shelling, de Lattre's company held on, but when dawn came, young de Lattre and
two of his senior NCO's lay dead on the crag. (Before the Indochina war was over, twenty
mOre sons of French marshals and generals were to die in it as officers; another tvventy
two died in Algeria later.) At the same time an ambush mounted with bazookas and
recoilless cannon on both sides of the Day River severely disabled several of the
unarmored craft of the Dinassaut which had steamed up the river to come to the help of
Ninh-Binh; while a dIversionary attack of the 308th to the south of Ninh-Binh succeeded in
crossing the Day River and annihilating a string of small French posts. The French High
Command reacted swiftly at the news. Within 48 hours three mobile groups, four artillery
groups, one armored group and the 7th Colonial Paratroop Battalion were thrown into the
battle. The climax of the battle was reached during the night of June 4-5 with the key post
of Yen eu Ha changing hands several times. But the bulk of the enemy troops, now
hampered by the ravages of the French river craft and aircraft among the hundreds of
small junks and sampans which constituted the enemyls supply line across the Day River,
began to fall back to the limestone hills. On June 18, 1951, the third battle for the delta
had ended.
All the battles had been less than conclusive victories for the French, but had given
the Viet- Minh an ample opportunity to measure their own limitations and to find out the
major weaknesses of the French. Vo Nguyen Giap was never again to forget the lessons
"'"
for which his troops had paid so dearly.
49
While the last battles were raging around the Red River delta, the 312th Infantry
Division of the Viet- Minh already had begun to wade across the upper Red River into the
T'ai area. The first thrust, begun on April 2, ended around April 25 and was meant to be
nothing else but a strong reconnaissance for further large-scale operations. The inter
vening rainy season which begins in northern Indochina around that date interrupted the
Communist campaign which was resumed at the end of the rainy season on September 22,
1951. This time the whole 312th Division crossed the Red River valley at Yen-Bay in
order to crack open the first French center in the T'ai territory, Nghia-Lo. The battle
for the Indochinese highlands had begun in earnest.
Once more luck and great mobility played in the favor of the French. De Lattre
committed three of his precious reserve of nine paratroop battalions in and around Nghia
La in a desperate effort to hold on to the northern mountain areas he felt were decisive if
he wanted to cover northern Laos or keep the enemy from concentrating all his strength
on the heavily-infiltrated Red River delta. On October 5, after repeated assaults against
Nghia-Lo and other posts, the enemy 'was stopped once more--and for the last time--from
penetrating into the T'ai country.
But de Lattre realized that this temporary retreat was nothing but a brief respite given
him by Giap and his Chinese advisors before new tactics could be devised to cope with the
new offensive spirit instilled into the French forces by de Lattre after the disastrous
border campaign of 1950, and by the ever-mounting influx of American equipment. In
order to take advantage of this temporary stalemate at this time, de Lattre decided to
strike first in an unexpected direction: instead of aiming at the enemy1 s main centers of
resistance in the northeast, he struck out across the bend of the Black River and captured
the city of Hoa Binh.
What was to become the 1\meat-grinder
11
battle of Roa Binh,7 lasting from November
14, 1951 to February 24, 1952, had at its outset several practical and political considera
tions: on the tactical side Hoa-Binh constituted the major road link bet\veen the north
eastern Communist strongholds which received Communist aid and equipment, and the
50
central Vietnamese stronghold around Thanh-Roa, where the 320th Communist Division
had operated until now in almost total isolation. The road leading from the northeast to
Thanh-Roa via Hoa-Binh constituted a vital communications artery; to sever it certainly
would not completely destroy the flow of Communist supplies to the rebel forces in
central and southern Viet- Nam (since they were mostly not subject to road transport any
way) but it certainly might prevent or at least hamper for a certain length of time the
influx of such enemy equipment as artillery, trucks, and machines us ed for the production
of ammunition. Another important consideration was that of maintaining the allegiance of
the Muong mountaineers whose members had so far remained fiercely loyal to the French.

Two Muong battalions were fighting on the French side and thousands of Muong tribesmen
had taken refuge in the delta. Hoa- Binh was the capitol of the Muong tribe and thus
constituted a psychological point of attraction of no mean importance.
Furthermore, the French National Assembly was about to debate the Indochina budget
for 1952- 53 and the French government was badly in need of a victory in order to pass
that difficult internal hurdle. And finally, the French were in the process of asking a
greatly increased American participation in sharing the cost of the Indochina war. Thus,
a French victory in Indochina- - contrasting with the completely stalemated situation in
Korea- -would make such an increased outlay of funds attractive to American Congressmen.
At dawn on November 14, 1951, three French paratroop battalions
8
descended slowly
upon Roa Binh, occupying the city against almost no resistance. At the same time, a total
of fifteen infantry battalions, seven artillery battalions, two armored groups, reinforced
by two Dinassauts and adequate engineering forces to repair the sabotaged road and
bridges; began to churn their way into the narrow Black River valley. The next afternoon,
all major objectives were in French hands with a minimum of losses and almost no
enemy resistance. Faithful to his own methods, Giap had refused combat as soon as he
sav.,' that his troops had neither the required numerical superiority nor an adequate route
of withdrawal to justify such a stand. The French had stabbed with all their might- -and
had encountered empty space.
51
For General Giap, this French invasion of the wooded hill areas appeared as an
excellent opportunity to repeat the successes obtained on Road No. 4 in 1950. With
amazing rapidity (and this time without offering suitable targets to the French Air Force)
Giap ordered nearly all his regulars to the battle for Binh Hoa: the 304th, 308th and
312th Infantry Divisions with artillery, anti-aircraft and engineering troops; and the
Regional Troops (semi-regular forces) stationed to the west of the Red River delta.
Finally, the 316th and 320th Infantry Divisions, the former being stationed on the northern
flank of the delta and the latter being partially infiltrated along the Day River front, were
given the order to penetrate deeply into the French lowland positions and to disorganize
French supply lines feeding the Hoa- Binh pocket.
Two major avenues of approach were open to the French to maintain their "hedgehog!!
around Hoa-Binh. One was Road No.6 leading via Xuan-Mai to Xom-Pheo to Hoa-Binh.
Road No. 6 had been fully sabotaged by the Communists in 1946 and equally thoroughly
plowed under by the French Air Force since, and not maintained in any state of repair
since 1940. In other words, it was barely more than an unimproved path which French
engineering troops and bulldozers were now preparing frantically to provide Hoa-Binh with
an overland approach. However, French combat engineers. until almost the end of the
war, never had the time to clear away the underbrush on both sides of the road which
offered ideal hideouts to Viet-Minh commandos. Along most of its length, the road was
further controlled by cliffs, hills. and mountains which the French could neither occupy
nor control at all times. As it turned out, the battle for Hoa- Binh was to become first
and foremost a battle for the communications leading to i t ~
Communications with Hoa- Binh via the Black River were almost three times as long
as via Road No.6, but the river offered the advantage of allowing heavy bulk transporta
tion by landing craft and at most places provided wider fields of fire than the road. But
here also, the fact remained that landing craft, with their thin. unarmored flat sides
riding high in the water. offered excellent targets to Communist recoilless cannon and
52
whnl.

..
-....-..,.., ..,
o .. " .. ..
" ...0<0'.....
.!to tile problem of !>ow to ex'rl""'e It. 'r<>o"" trnm th" whnle operation w!thou'
"
H".- BIni> \ ...11". To re"ln oon.rol of T\I Vu. No.... Darne Roek or Ap Da Choor- _..ch of
11",,_Blnh wo." on, th" problem of ... 'h"l"ll of p""" coverlnr Ibe .ppr""chee
he.d y.'om of for...ltd .'<'One po!n...''''''ne out on both .ldee of !lie oommum-
c.llono _r''''7 ..hloh ..... ,,,tV both In m.npo... and .....1""' ...'. And til" battle
Th. "lieU of Hoa 8!nh"
t>.><>I<u. '""" In th.".... of th. .......... won .. _, of R<l*d No.6, !lI. Fr""oh
which beaome the oubJ"'" of _ c",,'ly I;>o.ttl. In th....".mp' to m.un"ln oj><n tbo
which H",,-Blnh hd become Impo....n.ln tocherne of thlnp .... the Froncb IIII!' Command
"'"'la, _ -. of "'_. __"" fac".... all ",,, poUUea1 _ .. I' _,"'" 10 r.p
trom aI__ I. _ lin"". '" ~ \IV _ YeI. P '.1
....U""' _. Ii.- .. " ~ I ptoOl>l """" 10 "' _,. 1lIo'_
.... __ ill I ' ". __... fac.........!Uo 0.001 .,.nrt..ed <til .1><>u'1.. II ...
boI'.... r __",,<I ....' ...... lien !If R0&4 So>. r or " Io"U !If .- _.
a, o.c--.. t, 1151, _ TOpm.oatoI 01"'. VldMlnh nzth 01__oa<l _ ...
men' oC lil":10_ w.... '" _HI"" to .,.. '1'11-\1\1_r"''''" Il1ack RI..er U...,. Tb.
Yrer>cllenol.,. _, ..d1 om openUon W>d.... ,,""_roll..... _.:111 10 h..d otf tho
.'..ek by on. of th"lr own. At ....wn (p.,) Ih. lOth. thr.. I"r..,ch 1"'.nll'J' 1>o ...UO<l/l
lIIl"""r'ed by .MlU"l'J'. """" Ind Ih. "",,,net> Air I"ore.....d 1"" by Ih" 10' ColOll.1 ro
U'O<>P 1Ia'''Uon, "",d. """..." wltll .bw. II... _,." 1>0'..11.,.... bu. """ld...,. pr......, .
....jor ......, """'."""llpW' 'I'IoV" wldch III.dled ... <>12100 "" "'" "m. dIy.
n ......,k .... ""v _ com. 1A1", 1.1,_,,,,,, .....IaUQ'. porI_ oll:l>ln,p
Od".....ocl by IWO _ rUle """" I _ p1a_ &ad CIt....... IaIO ....
........" ' . ~ "coaW be _,l1li r.II' _ r- .... __!If e- <Q.
,..-.-.. II llo u , .,0 by ~ ll.o>I wlt.l"" __I _rpi..
~ __ 1..-- 1110__
Iu..... 'n>I _'''- __ ....
__will> two r.l&l w_ ,lJ_
"". II:> "0 In Ih. mtd<ll" by Ito" N.,l La...
1"..11 trIbutal'}' '" th. Blick Rlv.........ldI
allowed commllOlcaU..... betwel1l Ih" toro
.It'O<llflOld," ""l1 vii a ruml, foo'bMd.";
llId thl _lU... II I wlK>l. _U..tocl.
_dlb d .... <ba t _ of Ill" BII<ok
"'v.. wIddI m.'" _, _ Ilelp ld ..... at
_.ev_.._.-iII loa....... ~ a
.......-U"'. rlT... ",,-I.. _
enemy fire--a hazardous enterprise at best.
The attack came after an intensive preparation fired by the enemy's heavy mortars.
Since the mortars were firing from a defiladed position, they were, of course, impervious
to the counter-battery fire of the French artillery and out of range of the French mortars
on the other side of the river. After a preparation of about 40 mirrutes, enemy fire
concentrated on the southern strongpoint and at about 2210, shrill screams of I1Tien-len!"
('TForward !1') were heard as enemy infantry threw itself across the barbed wire and the
minefields without regard to losses, which, under the concentrated fire of the French
automatic weapons, were murderous. One 1Thuman-wave11 attack after another was
smashed by French defensive fires, supplemented by the artillery batteries from the east
bank of the river now firing directly into the barbed wire of the French positions. By
2340, it was obvious that the southern strongpoint could no longer be held; the barbed
wire entanglements, no\v covered with a carpet of enemy bodies, had become totally use
less as a hindrance; most of the emplacements for automatic weapons had been blasted to
bits by enemy mortars and the surviving Moroccans were rapidly running out of
ammunition.. At 0115, the commander of Tu- Vu ordered the last survivors of the
southern strongpoint to cross the bridge to the northern position.
But the northern strongpoint was to be given no respite. At 0300, five battalions
threw themselves against the 200-odd men of Tu- Vu. The tanks of the armored platoon,
guns depressed to minimum elevation, fired into the screaming human clusters crawling
over the parapets into the p o s i t i o n ~ their heavy treads crushing heads, limbs and chests
by the dozens as they slowly moved like chained elephants in the little open space left in
the post. But soon they, too, \vere submerged by the seemingly never- ending human
wave, with scores of hands claWing at their turret hatches trying to pry them open;
stuffing incendiar,y hand grenades into their cannon, firing tommygun bursts into their
driving slits; finally destroying them with pointblank bazooka lmrsts which lit up their
hulls with the sizzling of vAlite-hot metaL The sweetish smell of searing flesh rose in
the air. All the five tank crews died to the last man, roasted alive in their vehicles.
55
But time had also run out for the rest of the garrison of Tu- Vu. With their backs to
the Black River, many of the survivors rolled down the steep embankment into the water
and then waded or swam towards a small island in the river for a last stand. But the
Communists appeared satisfied with their victory. As the morning camel heavy silence
reigned over Tu- Vu, and Moroccan patrols slipped off the island back into the post. They
found it deserted of enemy fighters and stripped of all weapons. But the enemy also had
left behind more than 400 bodies.
The see-saw battle for the control of the Black River line was to continue throughout
the rest of the month of December, with varying degrees of success. The French now
threw into the battle Mobile Groups No.1, 4, and 7 and the 1st Airborne Group, reinforced
by armor; but once more the enemy was to refuse combat on any terms but his own. He
vanished in caves of the limestone hills only to appear again at the beginning of January
around the pocket of Hoa-Binh. This time, the main action of his effort was the overland
route to the pocket. Along the Black River line, Giap's forces now reverted to the dreaded
pattern of pourrissement, of the slow but careful erosion of the French posts covering the
approaches to the river. To be sure, as at Th- Vu, the French \vere always capable of
re-occupying the post that had just been submerged but there was a point of rapidly
diminishing returns in this sort of exercise, past which the French High Command had to
accept the total evacuation of the sector as preferable to the ever-rising blood-letting its
permanent occupation demanded; the occupation of Hoa-Binh was in fact rapidly becoming
an 11 Operation Meat Grinder
ll
in reverse.
This situation led, between the 6th and 10th of January 1952, to the progressive
evacuation of the mountain rnassif around Mount Ba- Vi and the withdrawal of all posts on
the west bank of the Black River with the exception of one important bridgehead seated at
its point of confluence with the Red River. This gave the Viet-Minh one whole river bank
from which to prepare ambusheE on the river convoys which now had to be escorted by
heavily armed improvised river warshipsa Made up of American landing craft of various
types equipped with tank turrets, nvin-mounted or quadruple-mounted heavy machine guns
56
and floating mortar batteries, often carrying their own complement of shipborne Marine
commandos and even a fev,.' light tanks or armored cars. the Dinassauts were to render
invaluable services to the hard-pressed defenders of the Boa-Binh pocket. Probably the
bloodiest river battles since the American Civil War were fought out between the French
and the Viet-Minh in the restricted confines of the Black River around Notre Dame Rock
and later on the various tributaries of the Red River in the delta area, with ships being
attacked and sunk by gunfire. mines. and even frogmen. The French Admiral in Far
Eastern Waters was responsible for the tactical direction and administration of naval units
from aircraft carriers and heavy cruisers to small self-contained "fleets'1 fighting on their
own 250 miles inland on streams and rivers for which there did not even exist naval charts
and for which their craft had never been designed. And neither, for the past 150 years,
had the French Naval Academy taught any kind of tactics even remotely applicable to that
sihlation.
Throughout the month of December, the little naval craft had maintained the Black
River open as a communication line with Hoa-Binh, at the price of ever-increased
shellings and losses. Then, on January 12th, the Viet- Minh ambushed one whole river
convoy south of Notre Dame Rock. Undeterred by the murderously accurate fire, the
little patrol boats did their best to cover the lumbering landing craft hauling the supplies.
Heading straight for the enemy river bank, they sprayed the enemy gun positions with
mortar and automatic gun fire. but to l ~ t t l e avail. Most of the ships of the convoy were
severely damaged and forced to turn back; and of the escorts. four patrol boats and one
heavily armed LSSL were sunk in the river. The first jaw of the pincers around Hoa-Binh
had closed. The French no longer attempted to push through river convoys to Hoa- Binh.
The stage was now set for the battle of Road No.6.
In fact, the battle for the road already had begun while the agony of the Black River
line was still going on. The enemy had now occupied the commanding heights around Hoa
Binh itself and possessed an intermittent view of Hoa-Binh airfield which was now and
then under enemy fire. Increasingly accurate Communist antiaircraft artillery, along
57
with the .h..mn. of the .lrfJeld, alr""dy had co.t the Fr..nch .. halt <10..", .lnun e!th""
d...,.-oy<ld On the .trlp lto..1t 01' on th.. p........ et ruthl .-th ._chlnt th.. e!rfield. ll",,_
81m Ito..It .... d..rended by five Weo'ry batlAll""" and One artillery ba"aUon while R""d
No. & .... held by t..n e'rongpoin" ..llh total of ono lnfenlry ba'tallon, one artlll..")'
battaUon, two armorod ba'tallo....... on englnoer lP""'p. Ap.I..' thl. m ........ rore.., th..
ComrrNniota threw th.. whol.. 304th Dlviolon and R..glm..n' n of th.. 30Bth Dlviolon. an ""w
fIlllJr r"-<qUlppeclwith brllJ>d-n_ Red ChIn..... equlpm..n' ond equally n"", Am..rl..an
"'l"lprnent eap"'red by the Chi""... R_ In Kor. o.nd \ra""r..",ed by them to Ih.
lndochln..... th... ter.
B
Th.. taellee noed by Gtop ....1..' tho forta aloni Roo.d No. B "Ore mO""to.-.ly
Id""U",,1 to tho.... u.ood by 111". In 1900 aplno' the Fr ..nch border _lUono, and to D",,
ember '951 oplno' the Black River !loe. On Janu.ry 8th, 1952. the whole 88th Vle'
/Illnnlnfatllry R"glm..n' a'tacked th.. vital bill _IUon of Xom_Ph"", der""decl by the 2d
Ba'tallon of the Foreign L.es!on'. crack 13th 1I.If-Bripde.
F.ll"re a' X o m _ P h ~ o
Th.. hill .... h.ld by "'0 of the 2d'. r<alr eornpanl .... with the r."",lnln....., c<>mp"r>\'"
holdln. "".Itlo.. dlrec'ly ..Irlde Road No. 8, With th.. careltlln... OM d..lIberal""...
..hlch Ie the Irad."",rk or tho Foreign l..<!glonnalro, the wholo hill ....d he.... tor'!fied with
"
deep earth bunkers, and well-prepared barbed wire and Atop the
hill, the men had dug four-man bunkers, with one squad in each platoon constantly manning
the parapets.
Active day-and-night patrolling had been routine procedure and early on January 8,
an ice-cold night particularly well lit by the moon, two patrols of 5th Company had
remained in ambush in the no-man
l
s land more than one kilometer away from Xom- Pheo
until 0100. At 0110, the first patrol carefully wound its way through the corridor in the
minefield and the barbed ,"vire entanglements back to home base, followed at a five-minute
interval by the second patrol. In the course of their patrol, neither of the two squads had
encountered any contact with the enemy. Now, with the second patrol hardly inside the
forward trench, a series of shadows rose behind them. "VVithout the slightest hesitation,
Corporal Felipez, of 1st Platoon, raised his tommygun and began to "fire. Almost
simultaneously, the first salvo of enemy mortar shells slammed into 5th Company's
position: the Viet- Minh had simply followed the patrols back to Xom-Pheo using them as
guides through the mine field I
Within seconds, the carefully prepared positions of 1st and 2d Platoons were over
run, with the 1st Platoon being practically submerged in its own bunkers before it had a
chance to react. At the same time well-prepared mortar fire pinned down 7th Company
in its position, preventing it from using the communications trenches to 5th Company. A
few seconds later, 4th Platoon was also attacked, thus leaving only 3d Platoon in position
to act as a reserve. With incredible speed, indicating that the whole operation had been
carefully rehearsed not only on the map and at the sand" table but also through individual
visual reconnaissance, Viet-lVlinh assault troops began to mop up the bunkers one by one
"vith concentrated charges of TNT and bangalore torpedoes. By 0145, the positions of lOst
and 2d Platoons had become untenable and the survivors had fallen back on 3d Platoon.
Fourth Platoon \vas still holding out. By 0230, the Foreign Legionnaires of 5th Company
began to hear extremely close blasts of recoilless rifles and mortars which could only
have come from \veapons "\vhich the Communist troops had dragged "\vith them in the hope
59
of being able to use them immediately against 6th Company and 8th Company down on the
road, a procedure that was as unorthodox as it was efficient.
But 5th Company, though badly mauled, refused to cave in. At 0400, with most of
their officers and senior NCO's dead or wounded and half the position overrun, the Foreign
Legionnaires counterattacked with fixed bayonets and hand grenades. In the savage hand-
to-hand combat which ensued, nO quarter was given and as dawn rose, the Viet- Minh who
had penetrated into the position were being slowly hacked to pieces. They, too, were
crack troops, and not a single Viet-Minh withdrew from the position. As one of the
survivors of 3d Platoon was to say later on:
II Finally one last surviving Viet-Minh broke and ran. He jumped the
barbed wire in one single leap, began to zig- zag down the ravine,
hoping to get away. We literally cut him to shreds. It probably isn't
a nice thing to say, but I think I must have emptied a whole clip into
him. He had fallen down but he was still rolling down the ravine.
Then Sgt. Thomas, one of the few survivors of the 1st Platoon,
touched my shoulder and, motioning for me to cease firing, raised
his carbine; a single shot rang out and the body now remained motion
less. It was 1st Platoon's revenge. II
Viet-Minh losses had been extremely heavy. On the following morning, 5th Company
counted more than 700 dead around Xom-Pheo. Its own losses had also been severe; 1st
Platoon had been nearly wiped out and 2d Platoon was in hardly better shape. To be sure,
the enemy stab at Xom-Pheo had failed, but it in no way loosened the grip of the 304th
Division on Road No.6. In fact, on the following day, January 9, it occupied the hills
overlooking Kern Pass and nearly destroyed the whole mobile battalion of the road's
covering force which passed through, unaware that part of the road was under enemy
control. The second jaw of the Communist pincers around Hoa-Binh had closed.
A weak attempt at breaking thrill gh to Hoa-Binh made later by three infantry battal
ions and one artillery battalion, bogged down on the Viet- Minh blocking position at Kern
Pass. The French, now re- examining the whole situation, resorted to a procedure which,
though painfully slow, should perhaps have been employed at the outset. They began to
use hundreds of men and locally-recruited laborers to clear away the underbrush from
both sides of Road No. 6 in order to create clear fields of fire for the weapons of their
60
convoys and to eliminate further occurrences of TT zero-distance" ambushes which already
had cost them close to one hundred vehicles along ihe twenty-five miles of road between
ihe Red River delta and Hoa- Binh.
Even so, and in spite of considerable reinforcements, the airborne task force under
Colonel (later General) Gilles made only painfully slow headway against ever-increasing
enemy resistance along Road N o ~ 6. In fact, the whole twenty-five mile stretch had now
become one vast Calvary, finally absorbing twelve battalions of infantry and three artillery
groups (not to speak of hundreds of fighter-bomber and aerial supply missions) to resupply
five infantry battalions locked up in a pocket wiihout the slightest offensive value.
It took the Gilles task force from January 18 to January 29--eleven full days! --to
cover the twenty-five miles between the Day River and Hoa- Binh, and each mile had been
dearly paid for in French lives. It had now become apparent ihat far from drawing the
enemy into a II meat grinder" operation, the French had been compelled to draw nearly
one-third of all their mobile forces available in the Red River delta into an area where
those forces became unable to contribute to the mopping up of enemy guerrillas now
-
infiltrating the vital Red River plain on an increasingly massive scale. While Marshal de
Lattre was dying in Paris from cancer in January 1952, the decision was made in Indochina
by his successor
J
General Salan, to evacuate the whole Hoa-Binh salient, thus making
available vitally needed troops for ihe forihcoming battle in the delta and ih e T' ai highlands.
But to execute now the withdrawal from Hoa-Binh in the face of direct pressure by
three Communist divisions proved to be a great deal more complicated than the initial
occupation of Hoa-Binh by surprise. As one senior French officer remarked wryly; 111
guess Marshal de Lattre died just in time in order not to be saddled with a retreat. T\
The evacuation of Hoa-Binh was given the code name of 11 Operation Amaranth
11
and
involved a three-leap withdrawal along Road No.6 as well as a temporary re-opening of
the Black River all the way to Roa Binh itself. The actual operation began on February
22, 1952 at 1900, wiih landing craft of all sorts ferrying across ihe Black River more
than 200 trucks loaded with ammunition, equipment and food; more than 600 porters
61
carrying supply loads for the combat troops; and close to a thousand Muong civilians. At
0600 on the following morning, the combat troops themselves began to cross the river and
fall back to Xom-Pheo under a constant umbrella of artillery and fighter bombers. More
than 30,000 shells were fired in support of the salient between February 22 and 24.
Apparently, the enemy had been taken by surprise. for its first reaction occurred only
at 0800. From then on the whole retreat became one continuous battle as French units
held on to each post to the last minute to allow troops behind them to funnel through to
the next post.
At the Black River, the battle had begun once more for the small ships fighting their
way north and east out of the trap. Vietnamese. French. Moroccans, and Foreign
Legionnaires fought with the strength of despair to break out of the encirclement. Finally,
on February 24, 1952, the last elements of the 13th Foreign Legion Half- Brigade- -which
was to be totally destroyed two years later at Dien Bien Phu--crossed the fortified delta
line at Xuan- MaL
On a piecemeal basis--one company annihilated here. one battalion mauled there. a
-
truck convoy lost in an ambush elsewhere--the battle of Hoa-Binh had been in fact almost
as expensive for the French as the loss of the border forts in 1950 or the later siege of
Dien Bien Phu.. The enemy's losses certainly had been heavy. The repeated use of
!Thuman-wave" attacks no doubt had cost him an important measure of his immediate
combat potentiaL Seen from a long-range viewpoint, however, the French once more had
been the heavier losers, for while the Viet-Minh used the battle for the Black River
salient as a sort of dress rehearsal for a future show-down battle, the French apparently
failed to consider the operation as either a dress rehearsal or as a portent of things to
come.
Ironically enough
l
the name 11 Hoa- Binh, II in Vietnamese
l
means l! Peace. !l
62
NOTES
lIt should be remembered here that at the same time, exactly On October 24, 1950,
the Chinese 11 People' s Volunteers!! made their appearance in North Korea and inflicted
upon the American forces near the Yalu losses in men and equipment which made the sub
sequent retreat from North Korea the most expensive American defeat since Corregidor.
2Mobile Groups (abbreviated G. M. in French) were composite units resembling the
United States regimental combat team.
310 miles to the west of Vinh-Yen.
4Cited by Captain Despuech, in his translation of Ngo Van Chieu, Journal d'un
combattant Viet-Minh, Paris 1954: Editions du Seuil.
The author was able to visit the Vinh- Yen battlefield in what is now Communist
North Viet-Nam in July 1962. The scars of war can still be seen on Hill 157, and small
French and Viet-Minh war cemeteries dot the countryside. The French cemeteries,
though showing lack of care, are undefaced. Viet-Tri, then a mound of ruins, is n-cw a
bustling industrial town.
5The device of supporting a frontal attack by troops infiltrated behind the enemy's
main line is one which the Russians used regularly against the Germans in World War IL
A known instance \vhere such a maneuver was used with great success by the United States
Army in World War II is that of the infiltration of the 142d and 143d U. S. Infantry Regi
ments of the 36th Division behind German lines in Italy, south of Rome.
6... the Dinassaut were rivercraft units constituted by the French Navy for the
~ specific purpos e of supporting landborne units along the many Indochines e rivers. They
were composed of locally-modified American landing craft of various types which had
been provided with armor plates and with tank gun turrets as artillery. The average
Dinassaut had about twelve ships, including an armored LSSL (Landing Ship Support,
Large) as flagship, two LCM (Landing Craft, Material) or the armored" Monitor" version
as fire base, and about six other LCM carrying 81mm mortar batteries, cargo and one or
nvo company- size Marine commandos. Some Dinassauts (French abbreviation: DNA)
such as DNA No. 3 in the Red River delta, would grow as large as twenty and mOre craft
and would include their own reconnaissance aircraft and LCT (Landing Craft, Tank)-borne
armored vehicles.
As I was to find out through subsequent research, Dinassaut No. 1 played an
important role in the defense of Mao-Khe both through artillery support and through the
successful beaching of the 6th Paratroop Battalion prior to the big Communist attack of
March 28, 1951. DNA No. 3 played a decisive role in holding the Day River line. Its
Marine Commando, 80 strong, held on throughout the night of May 28- 29, 1951, inside
Ninh Binh church, losing all but 19 men. On June 6, a second Dinassaut. hastily formed
with some landing craft found in Haiphong and named Dinassaut !lAIl, was thrown into the
battle. It was the concentrated gunfire of its flagship, LSSL No.6, which finally saved
the key position of Yen Cu Ha.
7Us French code name was I1 Lotus. 'I
8This was the last operation in which the French used tri-motor Junkers-52's for
their parachute and resupply operations. After Hoa- Binh, massive arrivals of American
C-47's permitted the elimination of those planes, whose prototypes were then about 25
years old. The C-47 prototype has, of course, now reached about the same age limit.
'-'" Only in 1953 did the French receive some of the new S. O. 11 Bretagne11 transports, twin
63
engine planes with auxiliary wing-tip jet engines for short-terrain takeoffs; and American-
made C-1l9 "Flying Boxcars." ."
9This was to be the case throughout almost the whole latter part of the Indochina
The Communists had standardized their equipment in Korea along Russian
while it was always easy for the Viet- Minh in Indochina to captur e American ammunition
Or spare parts from the French to fit their own American-made equipment.
In fact, it happened quite often that the French would capture from the Communists
American equipment produced in 1950 or 1951, while French equipment of similar
American manufacture dated from the earlier parts of World War II. In 1952, for
example. the Communists in Indochina had a decided superiority in heavy 75mm recoilless
rifles captured from the Americans in Korea, while the French Army still had to make do
with the underpowered 57's.
64
Chapter Three
VO NGUYEN GIAP: VICTORY FOR THE PEOPLE'S ARMY
edited by Major J. W. Woodmansee, Jr.
This chapter was compiled from a collection of General Giap's writings
published under the title of People's War, People's Army (D. S. Government
Printing Office, 1962) and an unpublished D. S. Air Force Academy pamphlet
on Dien Bien Phu.
'-' VO NGUYEN GIAP: VICTORY FOR THE PEOPLE'S ARMY
edited by Major J. W. Woodmansee, Jr.
Giap tells of the inherent weaknesses of
the "Navarre Plan" and of the success of
his peripheral strategy. He discusses the
decision to attack Dien Bien Phu and gives
ultimate credit for the victory to the
!l People' s Army and to the peoplea"
THE MIUTARY SITUATION IN 1953
On Our Side
Through eight years of fighting and training. our people's armed forces. the core
of the Resistance, had grown up from their infancy to full maturity. The People's Army
then comprised many regular divisions and regiments besides a great number of local
regiments and battalions. Militia and guerrilla forces also developed quickly.
The coming into being and speedy growth of these three forces was the result of
our Party' s correct policy of mobilizing and arming the whole people and waging a people's
war.
It was also the result of the correct tactics for a protracted revolutionary war: To
wage guerrilla warfare. to advance from guerrilla warfare to regular warfare. to closely
combine these two forms of war. and to develop from guerrilla to mobile and siege warfare.
As mentioned above. the situation from 1950 to 1953 was characterized by the fact
that together with local offensives
l
mobile warfare had become the main form of war on
the main battlefield--North Viet-Nam--where guerrilla warfare still played a very
important role. Meanwhile
l
on other fronts
l
the main role was still played by guerrilla
warfare.
Militia and guerrilla forces had by then reached their maturity. Their fighting
spirit had been heightened through the struggle in defence of the countryside. They had
accumulated a wealth of experiences and had equipped themselves with a lot of weapons
and equipment captured from the enemYI thus constituting a big reserve for our regular
army_
67
Local forces which came into being in 1948 by merging independent companies with
part of the militia and guerrilla were now able to shoulder the combat missions in
their own localities, wipe out enemy troops, oppose enemy raids, defend their localities
and fight in good co-ordination with our regular forces, militia and guerrillas.
The most outstanding feature was the tremendous growth and high degree of mobility
of our regular troops. All our regular divisions and regiments had been organizationally
strengthened and re- equipped with new weapons partly taken from the enemy and partly
manufactured by ourselves in spite of great difficulties and the scarcity of necessary
means. [* After Korea, July 1953, the ChiComs provided massive support. ] The technical
and tactical level and fighting capacity of our men had visibly risen through successive
drives of training and through major campaigns-. They were now quite familiar with mobile
and siege warfare and concentrated operations involving sizeable forces and a vast scope
of action. particularly in mountain regions, and could carry out annihilating attacks. make
deep thrusts, withdraw quickly and fight with initiative, mobility and flexibility.
Our people's armed especially our regular forces, owed their visible and
rapid progress to the fact that our Party had paid due attention to strengthening its leader
ship as regards the army. promoting political education and ideological guidance, and had
continuously heightened the revolutionary and class character of our army men. As a
result of political remoulding classes, our army men had a clearer view of the goal of
their fight, their hatred for the enemy, and their fighting spirit had heightened. The ideo
logical remoulding campaign in summer 1953 especially reserved for the army was carried
on while our Party was implementing the policy of Thorough Reduction of Land Rent and
Agrarian Reform. The class consciousness and revolutionary strength of our army men
was thus further enhanced. Internal unity bet\.veen the army and people. international
unity to disintegrate the enemy, internal democracy combined with strict discipline, deter
mination and courage in fighting. and dynamism and diligence in duty and production, had
become good habits and good tradition in our army's life.
Our people were unswervingly united as one man around the Party, Government and
* EditorTs note. 68
President Ho Chi Minh. They were resolved to carry through the Resistance, and had an
iron conviction in final victory.
The Party's Second Congress in 1950 tabled the line of National Democratic Revolu
tiOD
3
re-affirmed the correctness of the policy of Protracted Resistance, and laid down the
immediate tasks for the winning of final victory. The highly inspiring resolutions adopted
by the Congress highlighted the way to be followed by the whole Party, Nation and army to
win new successes.
In 1952-1953, our Party pnt into practice the policy of systematic Reduction of Land
Rent and Agrarian Reform and the slogan 11 Land to the Tillers, " thereby succeeded in
bringing into full play the anti-colonialist and anti-feudal spirit, and in fostering the might
of tens of millions of peasants who constimted the main forces of the revolution.
Thanks to the correct policies of our Party, the worker-peasant alliance was cease
lessly consolidated, the National United Front was broadened and became more solid with
every passing day. the people! s democratic power was improved and strengthened. the
consolidation of the bases in the countryside gained new successes, and the Resistance
made headway in other aspects.
Internationally, the just and heroic Resistance of our people against the French
colonialists and U. S. interventionists enjoyed ever-increasing sympathy and support from
the peoples of the socialist countries and the French colonies, and from the peace-loving
people of the whole world.
The great triumph of the Chinese revolution had a tremendous effect on the inter
national situation4 It tipped the balance of forces on the international arena in favour of
the socialist camp and of the forces of democracy, national independence and peace. Con
cerning our people's War of Resistance, it had a still greater significance4 After the
birth of the People's Republic of China, we were no longer in an extremely difficult
situation, namely, fighting within the enemy encirclement. We then had a common border
with the great socialist brother countries, and our resistance bases were linked to the
socialist camp.
69
In 1950, the socialist countries recognized the D. R. V. * This event further enhanced
our international prestige and position, and strengthened Our people's conviction in final
victory.
On the Enemy's Side
While in summer 1953 our people's Resistance was full of bright prospects, the
aggressors were facing great difficulties.
The enemy then had about 450,000 men for the whole of Indo-China, comprising
120,000 Europeans, Africans and legionaries, the rest were puppet troops. ;"* Although
those effectives showed a big increase in comparison with the enemy forces at the beginning
of the war the balance of forces between the two sides already tipped visibly in our favour.
Right from the first days of the war of aggression in Vietnam the lack in manpower
was constantly a grave danger for the enemy. That was because French imperialism had
been weakened after World War II. its manpower and material resources were limited.
and the colonial war was opposed by the French people at home. Hence the impossibility
of mobilizing a colossal material strength against us. But the main cause lay in the very
nature of the unjust and aggressive war. The ultimate goal of the French colonialists was
to grab our land. Faced with our opposition. they had to scatter their forces and set up
thousands of military posts, big and small, to protect what they had seized.
Thus, the war of aggression undertaken by the French Expeditionary Corps was a
process of constant scattering of that army. And the more it was scattered the better
conditions we had to destroy it part by part.
As was said above
l
the enemy's 11 lightning war
ll
strategy met with complete failure.
When compelled to carry out a protracted war
l
the French tried by all means to make full
use of the puppet army and administration, pursuing their policy of trusing war to feed war
l
':'Democratic Republic of [North 1 Vietnam.
"*Most French accounts show the FEC Forces to be 220,000, plus some 230,000
indigenous troops.
70
Vietnamese to fight Vietnamese!' which they regarded as important in helping them over
come the shortage of manpower. However, their efforts to expand the puppet army did
not bring about the expected results because of our ever-growing strength; and the bigger
the proportion of puppet troops, the lower the morale of the enemy.
1950 was the year the enemy extended to the maximum the areas under their occupa
tion. Yet it was also the time when the enemy forces were most dangerously scattered.
They had gradually moved into a passive defence, and could not muster a strategic mobile
force strong enough to counter our attacks.
This weakness of the enemy was clearly revealed as soon as we had started local
offensive campaigns. Not only were the enemy main forces wiped out part by part, but
they had also to withdraw from part of the land they had previously occupied. The enemy,
who took the initiative in every attack during the first period of the w'ar, was nOW obviously
in a defensive position in North Vietnam.
The enemy left no stone unturned to seek a way' out from such an unfavorable situation
and to pump more life into the puppet army, hoping to be able to have a massive concentra
tion of mobile units. Unfortunately enough, the inherent contradictions of the war of
aggression only led them deeper into the mire of defeat.
Politically, the unjust nature of the war of aggression aroused mounting opposition
from the French people as well as from progressive opinion of the world's people. French
and African mercenaries became more ,and more fed up with war. As a result of the
successive defeats beginning with the Frontier campaign, the morale of the French army
sank lower. The split among the French colonialists themselves became ever wider.
In order to save the worsening situation, the French colonialists depended more and
more on U. S. aid and thus were bound more tightly to the U. S. U. S. aid accounted for 12
per cent of France's Indo-China war budget in 1951, and for 11 per cent in 1953. The more
the U. S. increased their efforts in pouring aid to the French colonialists and in plotting to
supplant the latter, the more acute the contradictions between them.
At this very stage, when the French colonialists were being bogged down in Indo
71
China and when the Korean Armistice was realized, U. S. imperialism availed itself of the
opportunity to speed up intervention in Indo-China. planning to establish direct contacts
with the puppet administration and to pull the rug from under France. Navarre's plan was
a new plot jointly elaborated by the French and U. S. imperialists. whose objective was to
carryon and extend the war of aggression in our country.
The Enemy's New Scheme: The "Navarre Plan"
In mid-1953, with the consent of Washington, the French Government appointed
General Navarre Commander-in-Chief of the French Expeditionary Corps in Indo-China.
Navarre and the French and American generals estimated that the more and more
critical situation of the French Expeditionary Corps was due to the extreme dispersal of
French forces in thousands of posts and garrisons scattered on all fronts to cope with our
guerrilla warfare; as a result. they lacked a strong mobile force to face the attacks of our
main force. During that time. our forces were constantly growing, Our mobile forces
increased day by day. the scale of our campaigns became larger and larger.
Basing themselves upon this estimation, Navarre and the French and American
generals mapped out a plan to save the day. hoping to reverse the situation and to win. in
a short period of time. a decisive strategic success.
The f'Navarre plan" envisaged the organisation of a very strong strategic mobile
force. capable of breaking all our offensives and annihilating the main part of our forces
later on. For this purpose. Navarre ordered the regroupment of his picked European and
African units. which were to be withdrawn from a number of posts. At the same time.
new units from France. West Germany. North Africa and Korea were rushed to the Indo
China front.
In the carrying out of this plan, the enemy met a great contradiction. a serious
difficulty: if they kept their forces scattered in order to occupy territory. it would be
impossible for them to organize a strong mobile force; but if they reduced their occupation
forces to regroup them, our guerrillas would take advantage of the new weakness of their
72
position to increase their activity, their posts and garrisons would be threatened or
annihilated, the local puppet authorities overthrown. and the occupied zones reduced.
Navarre sought to get round the difficulty by developing the puppet forces on a large scale
to replace European and African troops transferred towards the re-grouping points. In
fact, this treacherous idea was nothing new, and had already been applied by Tassigny.
Faced with the new dangerous situation Navarre and the French and American generals
decided to organise 54 new battalions of puppet troops immediately and to double this
number in the following year. Later on, the enemy had to acknowledge that this expedient
did not help, because the increase in the puppet forces really only represented a quantitative
increase at the expense of the quality of the units.
With their great mobile forces, the Franco-American imperialists conceived a rather
audacious plan, aimed at annihilating our main force and ending the war within 18 months.
On the one hand, they decided to concentrate their forces in the Red River delta in
autumn and winter 1953 to open barbarous mopping-up operations to destroy our guerrilla
bases; on the other hand, they planned to launch attacks on our free zone in order to
attract and exhaust our main forces. Simultaneously, they intended to create new battalions
of puppet soldiers and re-group new units.
After winter. that is after the season of big operations in north Vietnam, at the
beginning of 1954, availing themselves of the fact that our army could at this time be
resting, they would transfer to the south the greater part of their mobile forces. At this
period, the climatic conditions in the south were favourable to their activity. Their
intention was to open big operations to occupy all our free zones. particularly the Fifth
and Ninth zones. To occupy all these regions would be for them tantamount to removing the
gravest threats faced by them. Due to the impetus provided by these victories. they would
recruit new puppet units, while continuing the regrouping of their mobile forces to
prepare a decisive offensive on the front in the north.
73
If the plan were working well, in autumn and winter 1954, they would bring back to
north Vietnam their greatly increased still under the influence of the enthusiasm
created by their recent victories. In launching a major offensive against our bases, they
would have occupied new territories, annihilated the bulk of our main forces to end the
aggressive war and permanently transform the whole of Vietnam into a colony and a Franco
A merican military base.
According to his plan, in summer 1953, the enemy concentrated their forces. At
the beginning of autumn, enemy mobile forces reached a total of 84 battalions in the whole
of Indo - China.
To carry out the first phase of the lrNavarre Plan!! the enemy concentrated in the
Red River delta more than 50 percent of their mobile forces, and declared that they were
passing over to the offensive in order to regain the initiative in the operations. Scores of
battalions launched savage mopping-up operations in the delta in order to consolidate the
rear. Units of paratroops attacked Lang Son and it was announced that we had suffered
heavy' losses, although in fact our losses were insignificant. They launched a great attack .."
on Nho Quan and on the region bordering Ninh Binh and Thanh Boa provinces, and declared
that the occupation of these provinces was imminent. But their troops had to withdraw
with heavy losses.
In the the enemy withdrew from Na San to the delta. Formerly, Na San
had been considered by them as "the second Verdun, II lrblocking the road to the Southward
advance of communism. T! but when they had to evacuate it in order to escape destruction,
they declared that Na San had lost all military interest. Before the evacuation, they saw
that their myrmidons organised gangs of bandits in rather extensive areas to the north of
this locality.
On November 20. 1953. the enemy dropped considerable paratroop forces into the
valley of Dien Bien Phu. Their plan was to reinforce Dien Bien Phu, then go to Tuan Giao
and Son La, re-occupy Na San and join it to Lai Chau. Thus Dien Bien Phu would become
a strongpost threatening the flank of our North-\Vest base. This new entrenched position
74
would force us to scatter our troops between the delta and the mountains, and would protect
Upper Laos. It weuld constitute a spring-board for their next big offensive, one column
pushing from the plain, the other from Dien Bien Phu to the delta. Thus, Dien Bien Phu
became little by little a key position in the Navarre plan.
Viet Minh Strategy
As early as 1953, our Party Central Committee had analysed profoundly and
scientifically the military situation on various fronts in Vietnam in particular, and
throughout Indo-China in general.
The Central Committee assessed that due to the uneven development of our forces
on various fronts in Bac Bo, Trung Bo and Nam Bo*, the bulk of the enemy main forces
was gradually concentrated in Bac Bo, while on other fronts he was exposed on many
sectors. In Bac Bo. his forces were regrouped in the delta whereas on mountain fronts.
he was relatively weaker. and the topographic conditions there were favourable to us and
unfavourable to the enemy.
Seasoned in great campaigns. our regular forces whose combativeness had been
raised, acquired new abilities in mobile warfare as well as in siege warfare. However,
as has been proved by the experiences drawn in the Midlands campaign, Road No. 18
campaign and Ha-Nam-Ninh campaign in 1951. on the delta front. with our armed forces
mustered to a certain degree. we could gain the absolute superiority only in a short period
of time. As soon as the enemy, taking advantage of his possibilities in rapid reinforcement,
brought in more mobile forces. we then met with many difficulties in continuing the develop
ment of our offensive. On mountain fronts, it was clear that our troops had more favour
able conditions to destroy the enemy. who was relatively scattered, and waS handicapped
in the use and development of the effectiveness of his artillery and air force, etc. His
supply and reinforcement. only carried by air, were greatly limited. Our troops had
*North Vietnam. Central Vietnam and South Vietnam, respectively. Editor's Note.
75
many possibilities to secure and maintain a military superiority throughout the offensive
campaign or in given directions during the campaign, hence we could score great
successes.
Once more the Party Central Committee re-affirmed the strategic direction of the
resistance war in general and the direction of operations of our army in particular as
follows. liThe general guiding principle of our liberation war is to conduct a long resist
ance war by our own means, therefore we must not be subjective, underestimate the enemy,
take hasty steps and indulge ourselves in recklessness. To strike surely and advance
cautiously, strike to win, strike only when success is certain: If it is not, then don't
strike. II Only fighting with victory was allowed: Fighting without victory was not allowed.
Proceeding from the foregoing analysis and considering the destruction of enemy
effectives as the main task, our Party Central Committee put forth a most correct strategic
direction which consisted in concentrating our forces to launch offensives in strategically
important directions where the enemy was relatively weak in order to wipe out part of his
effectives, liberate territory, at the same time compelling him to scatter his forces to
cope with us on the vital points which they could not abandon; moreover the scattering of
his forces created new favourable conditions for us to put out of action more of his
effectives. To speak more concretely, on the front of the Bac Bo delta, besides the main
and immediate task which was to continue speeding up guerrilla warfare in the enemy
rear, we could also use part of our regular forces in minor battles. As for major
campaigns, they should be launched in other directions. By so doing we would gradually
create conditions to proceed to the liberation of the delta.
Operational Plan for the North (Map #3)
The operational plan was in its broad lines:
a) To use part of our regular forces to launch an offensive in the north-western
direction, destroy the enemy who was still occupying Lai Chau, thus liberating the whole
North-West.
76
b) To propose the Pathet Lao Liberation troops to co-ordinate with the Vietnamese
volunteers units in order to launch an offensive in the direction of l\IIiddle Laos, destroy
the enemy effectives, and enlarge the liberated zone.
c) As the enemy's action was not yet clearly seen our immediate tactic was to
post an important part of our regular forces at a certain point, completely conceal them,
and keep ourselves ready for action. In face of our troops' offensive in the north-western
direction, it was possible that the enemy would send his reinforcements there; in this
circumstance, we would dispatch more regular troops in that direction to wipe out his
effectives. The enemy might also attack deep in some direction of the Viet Bac base to
cut our lines of communication and supply, destroy the lines of reinforcements of our
forefronts, and cause losses to our free zones, at the same time compel our regular
forces to withdraw from the North-l est. In this case, we would seek ways and means to
attract the enemy deep into our rear and then use part of our regular forces to put him out
of action. [This, of course, is what eventually happened at Dien Bien Phu. Editor]
d) In the delta, we would speed up guerrilla warfare in the enemy's rear,
consolidate and develop our guerrilla bases and guerrilla zones, undertake effective co
ordinated operations with the aforesaid offensives. If the enemy attacked our free zones,
we would wear him out and try to destroy part of his effectives.
Above was the operational plan worked out for our army on the main battlefield--the
Northern battlefield.
The Party Central Committee again based itself on the enemy situation and ours,
and on the aforesaid strategic direction, to define the \Vinter-Spring operational plan for
the Southern battlefield whose broad lines were as follows:
Operational Plan for the South
In the South, we had a large free area which was the Fifth Zone where our armed
forces were relatively strong. At that time, we had received reliable information about
the enemy preparations for an attack to occupy our free zones. In the Fifth Zone, we
77
faced a problem which was also as difficult to be solved as that in the North: the enemy
was preparing to launch an offensive upon our free zones; should we use the bulk of our
regular forces to cope with the enemy's scheme and defend our free zones or rush them
to another direction in which we had many more favourable conditions to destroy the
enemy effectives.
We reached a bold and precise resolution which was to concentrate the bulk of our
regular forces in the Fifth Zone to launch an offensive upon the front of the Western High
Plateaux in order to destroy part of the enemy effectives and liberate part of the territory.
The people, the local armed forces. the people's militiamen and guerrillas, together with
a small part of our regular forces. had the task of making active preparations to cope
with the enemy's scheme of encroaching upon our free zones. Vile assessed that the enemy
might attack and temporarily occupy part of our free zones. but if our offensive developed
favourably on the Western High Plateaux front. he would finally be compelled to withdraw
his troops from the area he had just occupied and perhaps even from many other localities.
VV ith regard to the Nam Bo*"front and that of the southernmost part of Trung Bo;:c:Our
task Was to speed up guerrilla warfare, take advantage of the new favourable conditions
created by the transfer of the bulk of the enemy's forces to other directions. to multiply
small attacks in which we were certain of victory. wear out and destroy the enemy
effectives part by part, intensify the political work among the puppet soldiers. and enlarge
our guerrilla bases and zones. Our people and army in the free Ninth Zone also made
active preparations to cope with an eventual enemy offensive.
Fundamental Principles of the Strategy
The aforesaid operational plan proceeded from the following fundamental principles
on the strategic directions and direction of operations:
First, in the liberation war waged by our people, the most fundamental strategic
principle was to destroy the enemy effectives and increase our forces. only by destroying
the enemy effectives could we change the balance of forces between the enemy and us and
* Southern ** Central Viet Nam
78
liberate territory.
Second. we had to strike to win. strike only when success is certain, strike to wipe
out the enemy. \Ve had to do it in such a way that after a combat. after a campaign. our
troops grew stronger} and the enemy troops weaker.
Third. because we wanted to destroy the enemy effectives and to strike only to win
and not to be defeated. because we had to realize these goals in conditions of the enemy
. ~
being strong. and we militarily weak, our strategic direction could not allow us to choose
other directions than those where the enemy was exposed. and relatively weak and where
we had many favourable conditions in all aspects in order to concentrate our absolute
superiority in matters of troops and firepower, for combats of wholesale destruction.
Drawing experiences from the successes and failures in the first years of the
resistance war. we realized all the clearer this important principle: to attack the sectors
where the enemy was exposed or relatively weak.
Fourth. because our aim was to destroy the enemy effectives. attack the enemy where
~ he was relatively weak. and create favourable conditions to destroy him. in the practical
military conditions obtaining at that time. whose major feature was the concentration by
the enemy of a fairly powerful mobile force in the Bac Bo delta. we should not launch large-
scale offensives upon that powerful mobile mass but seek ways and means to compel him
to scatter his forces. first of all in many directions. in this way he would be weaker in
every direction. and we would have many more conditions to wipe him out; the best thing
was to scatter him in the directions unfavourable to him in topographical conditions. in the
use of weapons and techniques, in transport and supply. etc . and thus we would have
many more conditions to destroy a greater part of his effectives.
After a careful study of the situation. the Party's Central Committee issued the
following slogan to break the l1Navarre Plan": ['dynamism, initiative. mobility. and
rapidity of decision in face of new situations." Keeping the initiative. we should concen
trate our forces to attack strategic points which were relatively vulner'ible. If we succeeded
'--" in keeping the initiative, we could achieve successes and compel the enemy to scatter thei r
79
forces, and finally, their plan to threaten our free zone could not be realised. On the
other hand, if we were driven on to the defensive. not only could we not annihilate many
enemy forces, but our own force could easily suffer losses. and, finally. it would be
difficult for us to break the enemy threat.
Preparations for the Campaign
To carry out these directions and plan, in the regions threatened by the enemy, we
had scattered our stores. transferred our offices and schools deeper in our territory,
made preparations to cope with every enemy offensive by Our own means. In the enemy's
rear, the people together with the armed forces and para-milit8.ry troops were feverishly
preparing to parry the enemy raids.
In October hundreds of thousands of dan cong* had been mobilized to prepare for
various fronts; the communications lines which had been widened were repaired.
At this very period of time, the military situation underwent a new change.
The enemy detected the transfer of part of our regular forces in the North-Vi/estern
direction. On November 20, 1953, part of his mobile forces was parachuted on Dien Bien
Phu to occupy it. A new situation was thus created.
We timely assessed this new situation as follows:
About the enemy's landing of his troops on Dien Bien Phu, though we could not fore
see its exact time and place. it happened within the limits of our prevision that if the North
West was threatened the enemy would send reinforcements in that direction. Thus, in face
of the threat of our attack, the enemy losing his initiative, had to despatch part of his
mobile forces to Dien Bien Phu in order to protect the North-\\'est, cover Upper Laos,
and smash our offensive plan.
However changeable the enemy situation might be the landing by the enemy of his air
borne troops on Dien Bien Phu was advantageous to us. It laid bare the contradiction of
*Civilian porters and laborers.
80
the enemy between occupation of territory and concentration of forces, between the occupa-
tion of the mountain positions and that of the delta positions.
In consideration of the aforesaid assessment, the units of our regular forces which
were marching to the North-West, were ordered immediately to attack and destroy the
enemy at Lai Chau; at the same time, a wing of our forces advanced rapidly towards the
north of Dien Bien Phu, cut the retreat of the enemy from Lai Chau to Dien Bien Phu,
prevented him from marching from Dien Bien Phu to meet his forces coming from Lai
Chau, at the same time we closed on the enemy at Dien Bien Phu, encircled him and
prepared for the battle to come.
THE WINTER-SPRING CAMPAIGN BEGINS
Liberation of Lai Chau
On December 10, 1953, we opened fire on the Lai Chau front. Formerly, we had
annihilated or forced to surrender thousands of bandits in the regions of l\1uong La and
Chau Tuan. On that very night, we wiped out the outpost of Paham, about 30 kilometers
from Lai Chau. Aware of the presence of our main forces, the enemy was very afraid
and ordered the garrison to withdraw from Lai Chau and to rally to Dien Bien Phu by the
mountain tracks.
Our troops were ordered to march on to liberate Lai Chau, while one column
attacked westward, cutting off the enemy's retreat to encircle and annihilate him.
On December 12, Lai Chau was liberated.
On December 13, we annihilated the enemy in treteat at I\!Iuong Pon. After ten days
and ten nights of fighting, pursuit and encirclement in a mountainous region, we liberated
the remaining part of the zone occupied by the enemy in Lai Chau province. The enemy
lost 24 companies.
It was the first great success of our 'Winter-Spring campaign. It strengthened the
faith of our army and people. l\'loreover, it obliged the enemy to send reinforcements to
Dien Bien Phu. It was the first miscarriage of Navarre's regrouping plan. Our troops
81
began to encircle the fortified entrenched camp of Dien Bien Phu.
Liberation of Thakhek and Several Regions in Middle Laos
Parallel with the preparations to attack Lai Chau orders Vo(ere given to the Viet Nam
People's volunteers to cooperate with the Pathet Lao troops to launch an offensive on the
Middle Laos front. where the enemy was relatively vulnerable. At the beginning of
December. the enemy became aware of our activity. and quickly rushed reinforcements to
this sector. On December 22. the Vietnamese and Laotian units carried by storm the out
post of Banaphao. a strong entrenched position which controlled the frontier. Other units
struck deep into the enemy's rear. After a series of victories. the Vietnamese and Laotian
units made very quick progress towards Thakhek. at the same time pursuing the enemy in
his flight along Road No.9.
Bewildered. the enemy withdrew from Thakhek to Seno, a military base near
Savannakhet, losing on the way three battalions of infantry and one artillery unit. On
December 27. the Pathet Lao units of the Viet Nam People's volunteers entered Thakhek
and reached the bank of the Mekong. The liberated zones were extended to Road No.9.
This was the second important victory in the vVinter-Spring campaign. To face our
activity in time, the enemy had to withdraw mobile forces from the Red River delta and
from the South. to send them to Seno. To impede the Vietnamese and Laotian units in an
advance into Lower Laos. they strengthened this base. Navarre was obliged to scatter his
forces over several points.
Libera.tion of the Bolovens Highland and the Town of Attopeu
Simultaneously with the attack on the Middle Laos front. one unit of the Laotian and
Vietnamese forces crossed dangerous mountainous regions. and advanced into Lower Laos
where it effected a junction with local armed forces.
On December 30 and 31. the Laotian and Vietnamese units defeated an enemy
battalion in the region of Attopeu and liberated this town. Exploiting their victory. they
82
advanced toward Saravane, and liberated the whole Bolovens Highland to south of Road No.
9. The enemy had to send reinforcements to Pakse.
Liberation of Kontum and the North of the Western Highlands of Central Viet Nam
In spite of defeats at various points. the enemy remained subjective in making
estimations. Due to the easy occupation of Dien Bien Phu, the enemy thought we were
incapable of attacking it. According to them. the entrenched camp was too strong for our
troops. l\tIoreover they thought that the distance which separated it from our rear created
insuperable obstacles for us in the supply of food. They thought we had passed to the
attack at different points because we did not know how to deal with Dien Bien Phu; they
thought that shortly-we should be obliged to evacuate the North-West because of supply
difficulties; then they would find the means to destroy a part of our main forces and would
continue execution of their plan: the occupation of Tuan Giao and Son La and the return to
Na San.
It was this same subjective estimation which made them launch the Atlanta operation
against the south of Phu Yen in the Fifth zone. This well-prepared attack was the first
step in the occupation of our whole free zone in the south of central Viet Nam. as foreseen
by the If Navarre plan. 11
Our strategic principle was: "dynamism. initiative.
lI
Our troops in the Fifth zone
received the order to leave behind only a small part of their forces to cope with the enemy,
while the bulk would continue their regroupment and pass to the offensive in the north of
the western Highlands. We opened the campaign on January 26. The following day, we
took the l\IIandel sub-sector, the strongest sub-sector of the enemy. The post of Dakto
was taken and we liberated the whole north of Kontum province. On February 17, we
liberated the town of Kontum, wiped out the enemy in the whole north of the Western High
lands, and advanced as far as Road No.1 9. Meanwhile, we attacked Pleiku. The enemy
was at a loss. and had to stop the offensive in the coastal plains of the Fifth zone and
"--' withdraw many units from Middle Laos and the three Vietnamese provinces of Quang Binh,
83
Quang Tri and Thua Thien to reinforce the Western Highlands. [Bien-Tri-Thieu Provinces]
This was another victory for our forces in the Winter-Spring campaign. It proved
once more the correctness of the guiding principle of the Central Committee. The enemy
was more and more obviously driven on to the defensive. They had to mobilise forces
from the Red River delta to reinforce Middle Laos, and afterwards from Middle Laos to
reinforce the Western Highlands. They had concentrated forces to make a lightning
offensive against our Fifth zone but had to stop their action in order to protect themselves
against our blows.
Our offensive on the Western Highlands was victoriously carried on till June 1954,
and scored many more successes, particularly the resounding victory at An Khe where we
cut to pieces the mobile regiment No.. 100 which had just returned from Korea. thus
liberating An Khe. Our troops captured in this battle a large mllnber of vehicles and a
great quantity of ammunition.
Liberation of Phong Saly and the Nam Bu River Basin, the Push Forward Towards Luang
Prabang
Dien Bien Phu was encircled after the defeat of Lai Chau. The French High
Command tried to effect junction between the Dien Bien Phu entrenched camp and Upper
Laos by increasing their occupation forces along the Nam Bu river basin as far as l\![uong
Khoa. intending to establish liaison with Dien Bien Phu.
To put them on the wrong track. to annihilate more of their forces, to weaken them
more, and oblige them to continue to scatter their troops in order to create favourable
conditions for our preparations at Dien Bien Phu, orders were given to our units to
combine with the Pathet Lao forces to launch an offensive in the Nam Hu river basin.
On January 26. the Vietnamese and Laotian forces attacked Muong Khoa where they
destroyed one European rigiment; then. exploiting this success, they wiped out the enemy
in the Nam Bu river basin. and came within striking distance of Luang Prabang. while
one column pushed northward and liberated Phong Saly.
84
Before our strong offensive, the enemy had to withdraw mobile units from the Red
River delta to send them to Upper Laos. Thus, Navarre was obliged to scatter his forces
still further.
Our Successes in the Enemy Rear in the Red River Delta, the Three Provinces of Quang
Binh, Quang Tri, Thua Thien, and Nam Bo
While the enemy was in difficulties on all fronts, our local armed forces, people's
militia and guerrillas effectively exploited the situation in the enemy rear and strongly
combined activity with the front.
In the Red River delta, a series of enemy fortified camps was destroyed; and Road
No. 5 was seriously threatened, being sometimes cut for weeks together. In two great
attacks at Cat Bi (March 7, 1954) and Gia Lam airfields (March 8, 1954) our armymen
destroyed 78 enemy planes.
At Binh-Tri-Thien, ~ n d in the southernmost part of central Viet Nam, our army-
men's activity was intense; they expanded the guerrilla bases, increased propaganda work
directed to the enemy and won many successes.
In Nam Bo, through the whole winter-spring period, our armymen pushed forward
their combined action, and obtained very great successes: more than one hundred enemy
posts and watch-towers were either destroyed or evacuated, many localities were
liberated, and the number of soldiers crossing to our side amounted to several thousands.
The development of hostilities until lVlarch 1954 showed that to a great extent the
ltNavarre plan" had collapsed. The enemy1s plan to concentrate was essentially foiled.
At this moment, enemy mobile forces were nO longer concentrated in the Red River d e l t a ~
they were scattered over several points: Luang Prabang and Muong Sai in Upper Laos,
Seno in Middle Laos, the south of the "\-Vestern Highlands in the Fifth zone, and large forces
were pinned down at Dien Bien Phu. In the Red River delta, what was left of their mobile
forces amounted to only 20 regiments, but a great part of these forces was no longer
mobile and had to be scattered in order to protect the communication lines, particularly
Road No.5.
85
The situation of hostilities developed contrary to the enemy's will.
Navarre intended to concentrate his forces in the Red River delta with a view to
recovering the initiative, but we obliged him to scatter his forces everywhere and
passively take measures to protect himself.
He intended to annihilate a part of our main forces, but it was nat our main forces
but his that suffered heavy losses. He intended to attack OUr free zone, but instead his
rear was severely attacked by us. Thus we threatened his whole system of disposition of
forces.
However, the Franco-American generals did not want to recognise this disastrous
truth. They still thought our activity in winter 1953 -spring 1954 had reached its peak,
that Our withdrawal was beginning, that we lacked the strength to continue our activity.
and that their favourable moment was approaching.
As a result, in order to get back the initiative, on March 12
1
the enemy resumed
the Atlanta plan which had been interrupted
l
and opened an attack by landing at Qui Nhon.
Not for a momenl did they believe that on the following day, March 13, 1954, we
would launch a large-scale attack on the Dien Bien Phu entrenched camp. Thus
1
the
historic Dien Bien Phu Campaign began.
THE HISTORIC DIEN BIEN PHD CAMPAIGN (Map #4)
Dien Bien Phu is a large plain 18 kilometres long and six to eight kilometres wide in
the mountainous zone of the North-West. It is the biggest and richest of the four plains in
this hilly region close to the Viet Nam-Laos border. It is situated at the junction of
important roads, running to the North-East towards Lai Chau
1
to the East and South-East
towards Tuan Giao, Son La, Na San; to the West towards Luang Prabang and to the South
towards Sam Neua. In the theatre of operations of Bac Bo and Upper Laos, Dien Bien Phu
is a strategic position of first importance, capable of becoming and infantry and air base
of extreme efficiency.
86
At the beginning there were at Dien Bien Phu only ten enemy battalions but they were
gradually reinforced to cope with our offensive. \Vhen we launched the attack. the enemy
forces totalled 17 battalions and 10 companies. comprising chiefly Europeans and Africans
and units of highly-trained paratroops. Moreover the camp had three battalions of
artillery. one battalion of sappers, one armored company. a transport unit of 200 lorries
and a permanent squadron of 12 aircraft. Altogether 16,200 men.
The forces were distributed in three sub-sectors which had to support one another
and comprised 49 strong-points. Each had defensive autonomy. several were grouped in
"complex defence centres 11 equipped with mobile forces and artillery. and surrounded by
trenches and barbed wire, hundreds of metres thick. Each sub-sector comprised several
strongly fortified defence centres.
But the most important was the Central sub-sector situated in the middle of the
Muong Thanh village, the chief town of Dien Bien Phu. Two-thirds of the forces of the
garrison were concentrated there. It had several connected defence centres protecting
the command the artillery and commissariat and at the same time the air
field. To the East, well-situated hills formed the most important defence system of the
sub-sector. Dien Bien Phu was considered by the enemy to be an unassailable and
impregnable fortress.
In the central sub-sector did have rather strong forces, and the heights in the
East could not be attacked easily. Besides, the artillery and armoured forces could break
every attempt at intervention through the a system of barbed wire and trenches
would permit the enemy to decimate and repel any assault, and the mobile forces formed
by the battalions of paratroops, whose action was combined with that of the defence
centres, could counter-attack and break any offensive. The Northern sub-sector
comprised the defence centres of Him Doc Lap and Ban Keo. The very strong
positions of Him Lam and Doc Lap were required to check all attacks of our troops coming
from Tuan Ciao and Lai Chau.
87
As for the Southern sub-sector, also known as Hong Cum sub-sector, its purpose
was to break any offensive coming from the South and to protect the communication way
with Upper Laos.
Their artillery was divided between two bases: one at Muong Thanh, the other at
Hong Cum; they linked with Hanoi and Haiphong in an airlift which ensured 70 to 80
transports of supplies daily.
The reconnaissance planes and fighters of the permanent squadron constantly flew
over the entire region. The planes from the Gia Lam and Cat Bi airbases had the task of
strafing and bombing Our army. Navarre asserted that with such powerful forces and so
strong a defence system, Dien Bien Phu was !lan impregnable fortress ... It The American
general O'Daniel who paid a visit to the base shared this opinion. From this subjective
point of view the enemy came to the conclusion that our troops had little chance in an
attack on Dien Bien Phu. They even considered that an attack on our part would be a good
opportunity for them to inflict a defeat on us.
On our side, after the liberation of Lai Chau, the attack upon Dien Bien Phu was on
the agenda.
How to Attack Dien Bien Phu?
We had pledged to wipe out the whole enemy force at Dien Bien Phu but we still had
to solve this problem: How should we do it? Strike swiftly and win swiftly, or strike
surely and advance surely! This was the problem of the direction of operations in the
campaign.
In the early stage, when we began the encirclement of Dien Bien Phu, and the enemy,
having been newly parachuted into the area, had not yet had time to complete his fortifica
tions and increase his forces, the question of striking swiftly and winning SWiftly had beEn
posed. By concentrating superior forces, we could push simultaneously from many
directions deep into enemy positions, cut the fortified entrenched camp into many separate
parts, then swiftly annihilate the entire enemy manpower. There were many obvious
88
advantages if we could strike swiftly to win swiftly: by launching a big offensive with fresh
t r o o p s ~ we could shorten the duration of the campaign and avoid the wear and fatigue of a
long operation. As the campaign would not last long, the supplying of the battlefront could
be ensured without difficulty. However, on further examining the question, we saw that
these tactics had a very great, basic disadvantage: our troops lacked experience in
attacking fortified entrenched camps. If we wanted to win swiftly, success could not be
ensured. For that reason, in the process of making preparations, we continued to follow
the enemy's situation and checked and re-checked our potentialities again. And we came
to the conclusion that we could not secure success if we struck swiftly. In consequence.
we resolutely chose the other tactic: to strike surely and advance surely. In taking this
correct decision, we strictly followed this fundamental principle of the conduct of a
revolutionary war: strike to win, strike only when success is certain; if it is not, then
don't strike..
We patiently educated our men, pointed out that there were real difficulties, but
that our task was to overcome them to create good conditions for the great victory we
sought.
It was from these guiding principles that we developed our plan of progressive attack,
in whi::h the Dien Bien Phu campaign was regarded not as a large-scale attack on fortresses
carried out over a short period, but as a large-scale campaign carried out over a fairly
long period, through a series of successive attacks on fortified positions until the enemy
was de strayed. In the campaign as a whole we already had numerical supe riority over the
enemy. But in each attack or each wave of attacks, we had the possibility of achieving
absolute supremacy and ensuring the success of each operation and consequently total
victory in the campaign. Such a plan was in full keeping with the tactical and technical
level of our troops, creating conditions for them to accumulate experience in fighting and
to ensure the annihilation of the enemy at Dien Bien Phu.
89
Preparations for the Attack
Three months had passed from the occupation of Dien Bien Phu by enemy paratroops
to the launching of our campaign. During that time, the enemy did their utmost to consoli
date their defence system, gather reinforcements, dig new trenches, and strengthen their
entrenchments.
On our side, the army and people actively prepared the offensive, carrying out the
orders of the Party's Central Committee and the Government; the army and people
mustered all their strength to guarantee the success of the v,.'inter-Spring campaign, to
which Dien Bien Phu was the key. Our troops succeeded in liberating the surrounding
regions, isolating Dien Bien Phu, obliging the enemy to scatter forces and thus reduce
their possibilities of sending reinforcements to the battlefield. We made motor roads,
cleared the tracks to haul up artillery pieces, built casemates for the artillery, prepared
the ground for the offensive and encirclement; in short, transformed the relief of the
battlefield terrain with a view to solving the tactical problems. We overcame very great
difficulties. We called upon our local compatriots to supply food, to set up supply lines
hundreds of kilometres long from Thanh Roa or Phu Tho to the North-W-est, crossing very
dangerous areas and very high hills. Vle used every means to carry food and ammunition
to the front. Our troops and voluntary workers ceaselessly went to the front and actively
participated in the preparations under the bombs and bullets of enemy aircraft.
In the first week of March, the preparations were the artillery had solid
casemates, the operational bases were established, food and ammunition were available
in sufficient quantity. After having been educated in the aim and significance of the
campaign, all officers and soldiers were filled with a very high determination to annihilate
the enemy, as they were persuaded that only the destruction of the Dien Bien Phu
entrenched camp would bring the lINavarre plan11 to complete failure.
On March 13, 1954, our troop/? received the order to launch an offensive against
Dien Bien Phu.
90
The campaign proceeded in three phases: in the first phase we destroyed the
Northern sub-sector; in the second, the longest and bitterest one, we took the heights in
the East of the Central sub-sector and tightened our encirclement; in the third, we
launched the general offensive and annihilated the enemy.
First Phase: Destruction of Northern Sub-Sector
This phase began on lVIarch 13th and ended on March 17th. On the night of March
13th, we annihilated the very strong defence centre of Him Lam which overlooked the road
from Tuan Giao to Dien Bien Phu. The battle was very sharp, the enemy artillery
concentrated its fire, and poured scores of thousands of shells on our assaulting waves.
Our troops carried the position in the night. This first victory had very deep repercussions
on the development of the whole campaign.
In the night of the 14th, we concentrated our forces to attack the defence centre of
Doc Lap, the second strong defence sector of the Northern sub-sector which overlooked
the road from Lai Chau to Dien Bien Phu. The battle went on till dawn. The enemy used
every means to repel our forces, fired scores of thousands of shells and sent their mobile
forces protected by tanks from Muong Thanh to support their position. Our troops fought
heroically, took the strong-point and repelled the enemy reinforcements.
The third and last defence centre of the Northern sub-sector, the Ban Keo post,
became isolated and was threatened by us. This was a less strong position, manned by a
garrison chiefly made up of puppet soldiers. On March 17th, the whole garrison left its
positions and surrendered. After the loss of the Northern sub-sector, the Central sub-
sector, now exposed on its eastern, northern flanks, was threatened.
In the fighting in the first phase, the correctness of our tactical decisions, the good
organisation of our defence and anti-aircraft activity reduced the efficiency of the enemy
artillery and air force. Besides, our artillery fire, which was very accurate, inflicted
heavy losses on the enemy. The main airfield was threatened. Our anti-aircraft batteries
went into action for the first time and brought down enemy planes. But above all, it was
91
by their heroic spirit, their high spirit of sacrifice and their will to win. that our troops
distinguished themselves during these battles.
The great and resounding victory which ended the first phase of operations stirred
our army and people and gave each and everyone faith in final victory.
As for the enemy. despite their heavy losses, they still had confidence in the power
of resistance of the Central sub-sector, in the strength of their artillery and air force.
They even expected that we would suffer heavy losses and would be obliged to give up the
offensive; and especially, that if the campaign was protected our supply lines would be cut
and that the great logistic difficulties thus created would force us to withdraw.
Second Phase: Occupation of the Hills in the East and Encirclement of the Central
Sub-sector
The second phase was the most important of the campaign. Vile had to deal with the
Central sub-sector. in the middle of the Muong Thanh plain, and new difficulties arose in
the conduct of the operations. Our troops had to work actively to complete the operations;
they had to dig a vast network of trenches. from the neighbouring hills to the plain. to
encircle the Central sub-sector and cut it off from the Southern sector. This advance of
our lines which encircled the enemy positions was made at the cost of fierce fighting. By
every means the enemy tried to upset our preparations by the fire of their air force and
artillery. However. our troops drew closer to their positions with irresistible power in
the course of uninterrupted fighting.
During the night of March 30th, the second phase began. V..ie launched a large scale
attack of long duration to annihilate the heights in the East and a certain number of strong
points in the '!'v' est in order to tighten our encirclement, and to hamper and cut off the
supplies to the garrison. On this night of IVlarch 30th, we concentrated important forces
to attack simultaneously the five fortified heights in the East. On this same night, we
succeeded in capturing hills E-l. D-l and C-l. but could not take hill A-l. the most
important of alL The defence line constituted by these heights was the key to the defensive
92
system of the Central sub-sector: its loss would lead to the fall of Dien Bien Phu.
Consequently, the fight here was at its fiercest. Particularly on hill A-I, the last height
which protected the command post, the battle lasted until April 4th. Every inch of ground
was hotly disputed. Finally, we occupied half of the position while the enemy, entrenched
in casemates and trenches, continued to resist in the other half. vVhile this fighting was
going on, the garrison received paratroop reinforcements.
On April 9th, the enemy launched a counter-attack to re-occupy hill C-l. The battle
went on for four days and nights, and the position was occupied half by the enemy and half
by us.
\Vhile the situation in the East was static, in the North and in the West our encircle
ment grew tighter and tighter. The lines of both sides drew nearer and nearer. in some
points they were only 10 to 15 metres away from each other. From the occupied positions
to the battlefields northward and westward, the fire of our artillery and mortars pounded
the enemy without let-up. Day and night the fighting went on. We exhausted the enemy by
harassing them. firing constantly at their lines. and at the same time tried to take their
strong points one by one with a tactic of combined nibbling advance and full scale attack.
In mid-April. after the destruction of several enemy positions in the North and West.
our lines reached the airfield, then cut it from Vol est to East. Our encirclement grew still
tighter. the fighting was still more fierce. The enemy launched several violent counter
attacks supported by tanks and aircraft aimed at taking ground from us and obliging us to
loosen our encirclement. On April 24th, the most violent counter-attack was launched
with the aim of driving us off the airfield: after inflicting heavy losses on the enemy, we
remained the master, and the airfield stayed in our control.
The territory occupied by the enemy shrank in size day by day, and they were driven
into a two kilometres square. It was threatened by our heavy fire. The enemy's supply
problem became more and more critical. The airfield had been out of action for a long
time, all supplies were being dropped by parachute. But as the enemy, zone was so
narrow. and their pilots feared out anti-aircraft fire and dared not fly low, only a part of
93
the parachutes carrying food and ammunition fell into the enemy position, and the bulk of
them fell on our ground; thus we poured shells parachuted by the enemy on the entrenched
camp.
Throughout the second phase, the situation was extremely tense. The American
interventionists sent more bombers and transport planes to support the Dien Bien Phu
base. The enemy bombers were very active; they ceaselessly bombed our positions,
dropped napalm bombs to burn down the vegetation on the heights surrounding Dien Bien
Phu, and bombed points that they took for our artillery bases. Day and night they shelled
our supply lines, dropped blockbusters on the roads, showered the roads with delayed
action and rlbutterflyfT bombs, in an endeavour to cut our supply lines. These desperate
efforts did not achieve the desired results. They could not check the flow of hundreds of
thousands of vOluntary workers, pack-horses and transport cars carrying food and
ammunition to the front. They could not stop us from carrying out our plan of encircle
ment, the condition of their destruction.
The French and American generals clearly saw the danger of the destruction of the
Dien Bien Phu entrenched camp.
At this moment, the High Command of the French Expeditionary Corps thought of
gathering together the remaining forces for an attack on our rear and in the direction of
the Viet Bac. to cut our supply lines and oblige us to withdraw for lack of food and
ammunition. But it could not carry out this plan. Moreover, it feared that a still more
severe defeat could be the result of so foolhardy an action. At another time it intended to
regroup the Dien Bien Phu garrison in several columns which would try to break through
our encirclement and open at all costs a way towards Upper Laos. Finally, it had to give
up this plan and continue to defend its positions.
Third Phase: Annihilation of the Enemy
On May 1st, began the third phase. From May 1st to May 6th, following several
successive attacks, we occupied hill C-l. hill A-I which was the key of the last defensive
94
system of the Central sub-sector, and several other strongpoints from the foot of the hills
in the East to the Nam Gion river, and, finally some positions in the West.
The enemy was driven into a square kilometre, entirely exposed to our fire. There
was no fortified height to protect them. The problem of supply became very grave. Their
situation was critical: the last hour of the entrenched camp had come.
In the afternoon of May 7th, from the East and West, we launched a massive
combined attack upon the headquarters at Muong Thanh. At several posts, the enemy
hoisted the white flag and surrendered. At 5.30 p. m. we seized the headquarters: General
de Castries and his staff were captured.
The remaining forces at Dien Bien Phu surrendered. The prisoners of war were
well treated by our troops.
The I'Determined to fight and to win" banner of our army fluttered high in the valley
of Dien Bien Phu. On this very night, we attacked the South sub-sector. The whole
garrison of more than 2,000 men was captured.
The historic Dien Bien Phu campaign ended in our complete victory. Our troops had
fought with an unprecedented heroism for 55 days and 55 nights.
During this time, our troops were very active in all theatres of operation in co
ordination with the main front.
In the enemy rear in the Red River delta, they destroyed. one after another. a large
number of positions and seriously threatened road No.5.
In the Fifth zone. they attacked road No. 19, annihilated the mobile regiment No.
100. liberated An Khe, penetrated deep into the region of Cheo Reo, and threatened Pleiku
and Banmethuot.
Our troops were also very active in the region of Hue and in Nam Bo.
In Middle Laos, the Vietnamese and Laotian units increased their activity on road
No. 9 and advanced southward.
Our troops won victories on all fronts.
95
Such are the broad outlines of the military situation in Winter 1953 and Spring 1954.
On all fronts, we put Qut of action 112,000 enemy troops and brought down or
destroyed on the ground 177 planes.
At Dien Bien Phu, we put Qut of action 16.200 enemy troops, including the whole
staff of the entrenched camp, one general, 16 colonels. 1,749 officers and warrant-officers,
brought down or destroyed 62 planes of all types. seized all the enemy's armaments,
ammunition and equipment, and more than 30,000 parachutes.
These great victories of the Viet Narn People
1
s Army and people as a whole at Dien
Bien Phu and on the other fronts had smashed to pieces the l1Navarre plan. IT and impeded
the attempts of the Franco-American imperialists to prolong and extend the war. These
great victories liberated the North of Viet Nam
l
contributed to the success of the
Geneva Conference and the restoration of peace in Indo-China on the basis of respect of
sovereignty, independence I national unity and territorial integrity of Viet Nam and of the
two friendly countries
l
Cambodia and Laos.
These are glorious pages of our history, of our People's Army and our people.
They illustrate the striking success of our Party in leading the movement for national
liberation against the French imperialists and the American interventionists.
96
Chapter Four
ALGERIA (1954-1962)
by Major J. W. Woodmansee, Jr.
ALGERIA (1954-1962)
by IVlajor J. Vv'. V/oodmansee, Jr.
The French army responded to a widely-based
nationalist movement by the resourceful applica
tion of military strength and psychological tech
niques. Despite successful counterguerrilla
measures, the causes of the revolution could not
be removed. Unwilling to pay the high costs of
continued suppression of an alienated people,
DeGaulle, in the face of a dissident army,
granted independence to Algeria.
BACKGROUND
Although the country of Algeria spans some 900, 000 miles on roughly four
times the size of France, the populated sector, and thus the area involved in the insur
gene)' was limited to the northern area along the l\'1editerranean, extending for 100-200
miles inland. Scarred by several major east-west mountain ranges and numerous
secondary chains, the geography of northern Algeria also includes a fertile shoreline
crescent and inland valleys, spectacular wadis, and great dry salt lakes. To the south the
harsh Sahara desert forms an undisputed barrier to the physical capabilities as well as
the political a mbitions of man.
99
The cities were fairly modern, and were linked by a respectable communications
network of highways, railroads, telephone, and telegraph. Because of the mountains,
these communications only penetrated south at several locations. The insurgent
bands thus enjoyed most of the advantages which geography could provide: rugged moun
tains to permit well-hidden guerrilla camps and to act as a great equalizer against
modern, sophisticated armed forces; a proximity of rural villages and arable land to
provide intelligence, recruits, and food; proximity to vital communications networks
linking the nerve centers of government influence -- the cities; and (after 1956) con
tiguous borders on both the east and west with countries whose governments not only
provided sanctuary for the rebels but also established training camps and repair depots
as well.
The History of the Conflict
French involvement in Algeria dates from the 1830's. General Thomas Robert
Bugeaud after an extended campaign captured the excellent Arab leader Abd-el-Kader in
1847. Bugeand's methods of "pacification
1
! were admittedly harsh. Wrote Bugeaud, "Vie
have burned a great deal and destroyed a great deal. 1T1 Sporadic fighting continued until
1871 when the Algerians. encouraged by the results of the Franco - Prussian Vilar, again
tried unsuccessfully to overthrow their French conquerors.
Behind this conquest followed colonialization by people, whom Bugeaud referred
to as lTthe agricultural scum of the European countries. 1t2 The colons, as these settlers
were called, were crude but hard-working stock and soon extracted a prosperous yield
from the unwilling soil. They developed a love for the land that was at least the equal
of their Muslim compatriots.
In the Twentieth Century, Marshal Lyautey introduced his famous " oil_spotl!
(tache d'huile) concept of national development. Lyautey's military and social concepts
did much to give the country a national character. His handling, of the RIF Vl,.i ar in
Morocco in 1925-1926 established Lyautey as a combination J'soldier, nation-builder
J1
100
that was without equal. His profound thinking and valuable experience have been sadly
neglected at a time when the U. S. Army is groping for a doctrine of employing military
force in stability operations.
On 8 May 1945, local Muslims of Setif in the Kabylia area asked for and re
ceived permission to have a non-political parade celebrating the victory of World War II.
During the parade Algerian nationalist flags appeared; a clash with the police exaggerated
by wild rumors of police brutality precipitated mob violence. The French declared mar
tial law and crushed the revolt with heavy-handed tactics that included "bombing and
burning of villages and wholesale arrests. 113 Thousands of Muslim political leaders were
arrested, including the respected Ferhat Abbas who was not even present at the demon
strations. The handling of the Setif revolt, similarly to the British reprisals against
the "Easter MondaylT Irish rebellion, provided the spark, the rallying point, that was to
grow into the revolution of 1954.
Conditions in 1954
By 1954 the Muslim population had reached nine million; Europeans
accounted for an additional million. The colons however had developed most of the arable
land. and Europeans dominated the urban middle and upper classes of an increasingly
bi-polar social structure. Some of the Muslim population took advantage of the educational
opportunities and joined the progressive portion of society. Ninety percent of the Mus
lims, however, remained illiterate; one million were underemployed; another half
million were unemployed. Four hundred thousand males were forced to work in metro
politan France and support an additional two million dependents by remittance. 4 Many
of the Muslims gravitated toward the cities and lived in ghettos called bidonvilles because
they were made of bidons or tin cans. Wrote one observer, "Their grief, which must be
seen to be believed, drives them inexorably to despair. lTo
101
As previous experience has demonstrated, poverty is not the sale ingredient of re
volution. There must also be a recognition of some political goal and an obstruction to
the peaceful, evolutionary achievement of this goal. The Muslims, since 1845, had been
considered French subjects. Algeria was said to be a part of France. not an overseas
colony. Thus, the phrase "Algerie Francaise
lJ
was a French rallying cry to keep Algeria
as a part of France. Despite their status as French subjects, the Muslims could become
French citizens tJ only by abandonment of 'personal status I under Koranic law. which was
tantamount to renouncement of their religion. As French subjects, but not citizens. they
were governed by the rnative code' and could not vote. 116 In addition to the growing eco
nomic disparity between the races, there was political obstruction to the democratic rec
tivication of these ills.
The constitution of the Fourth Republic established provisions to eliminate the native
code. It also provided for a I\/Iuslin1 electoral college to select half the members of the
Algerian Assembly and half the Algerian delegates to the French parliament. But these
provisions threatened the prestige and the power base of the colons since the colons could
exert the most political pressure on France and the most influence on the French Army.
The provisions of 1944 were never implemented. By 1954 an Algerian government in
exile had appeared in Cairo, Egypt.
The ingredients of poverty, discrimination. French myopia, political frustration,
capable political-military leadership, and external assistance and encouragement had
driven the moderate lVluslim leaders to violence.
INSURGENCY
On 1 ::\rovember 1954, at one o'clock in the morning, thirty small armed bands of
Algerian IVluslims made simultaneous strikes against Europeans in various parts of Al
geria. Their targets were small army outposts, settler's farms, and government
buildings. fiAt the same hour, radio Cairo reported these attacks and announced the
formation of the National Liberation Front (FLN). 117
102
Initially the guerrilla forces were only about 300 strong; a far cry indeed from the Army
of National Liberation (ALl'l) that Cairo was extolling. The bands, at first, were isolated
from each other and were loosely coordinated from Cairo. But as the movement spread
from the Aures to the Kabylia ranges, further west to the Tlemcen mountains, the size of
the insurgent forces grew, and their organizational structure improved. At- their peak
the revolutionary army is believed to have numbered 40, 000 and was formed into conven
tionally structured battalions. The irregular forces estimated at 55,000 to 100,000,
assisted the regulars in limited operations, provided a replacement pool for the units,
and furnished guides and intelligence to the ALN. The rebel sanctuary in neighboring
Tunisia harbored some 15,000 men. Tunisia also established training camps. gunnery
ranges, and technical schools for armorers, radio operators, and demolitionists. 8
Organization of the FLN
9
Algeria was divided by the FLN into six wilavas which became operational
theaters as well as civil divisions. Each wilaya was in turn subdivided into four or five
zones (mintaka), each zone into five regions (nahia), each region into four or five sectors
(khazma), and finally each sector into a varying number of communes (douar). Vlilayas
were not former territorial divisions of the French administration, but were new divi
sions especially set up by the nationalists.
The region was the basic territorial unit of the FLN organization. The sectors
making up the region usually consisted of a town, which contained the bulk of the popula
tion and became the capital of the region, and three or four rural subdivisions comprising
the remaining area between the town and the outlying mountains. The extent and nature
of the terrain determined the number of sectors in a region.
A war council consisting of the commanding officers of the various wilayas
coordinated the entire war effort. Under the wilava commanders came the zone comman
ders, the region commanders, and the sector commanders. A political executive, a
103
-
TUM'S' ..
I V AlAfllOll
V _OllU'E
YI-OUIlUf
._.
ZOKES

w....... (_l )
J.. L.Il.
I
I .....
II COII.....
1lI.....u..
..,
e
o
o

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lower hel""", the orpnl..tl"" ...... hl.hly In ""',"...... 0 .ba. t .... <Ii.
.... 'n oho ..... 01 fnod "uPI'""."" pr".I.,,,,,"., ''''' Odmmu"",, Iu
.e.. dto..y. At.he ,....1n .... In obarC. 01 10clI... A oommlot of
Un membe... the moot lmpor"'" 01 ..hom.U "",.'ul or ..... """"Ibl. eo.outl.. ,
oell In OM commu"" would "CO _now 'he _mbe... I" the ",,>t,
"""" by dt.u"'lnall"ll p"'l"'pn" .od ultl". loo.lodmlnl.ot ..oU""", for ..
'0 .. polltlul 0"","01 o..r "'HI... .,. They .100 .ernd "'lll... .,. _ .....
an autonomous zone. Although Algiers never became a target of open attack by the ALN,
the FLN maintained an extensive underground unit in the city. Because of military and
security considerations, the FLN allowed the Algiers underground a large mea9ure of
autonomy.
The early success of the FLN and its military arm was probably as great a
surprise to the insurgents as it was to the French. Generally, the success was due to
the following factors: (1) the existance of real grievances within the Muslim population;
(2) ideal terrain for guerrilla operations within sight of a population base to serve as
cover and to provide support; (3) the application of sound politico-military tac tics and
techniques by rebel forces; (4) the virtual non-existance of French bureaucratic
structure in the rural areas; and (5) an inadequate and ineffective military response to
the initial insurgent challenge.
Revolutionary Techniques
The basic strategy for the revolutionary struggle had not, strangely enough,
been borrowed from Mao Tse-tung or Ho Chi Minh, although the rebels could recite
learnedly the proverbial relationship between guerrilla I'fish!! and the population 11 sea. II
Instead, the revolutionary struggle had a striking similarity to French lVlarshal Lyautey's
famous lIoil_spotl1 concept--only in reverse. 10 The rebels, moving into remote villages
outside the French control, would win over these villages to their cause. Then with a
broadening base of support and intelligence the rebels would spread their activity and in
fluence to neighboring areas until they reached larger settlements protected by French
outnosts. Force was then surgically applied to discredit the French presence and drive
French authority away or to antagonize the French into the harsh reprisal that would
unify the insurgents and the villagers in a common cause of hatred. The tactics most
frequently employed against these French outposts were the classic ones: hit-and-run
attacks, ambushes, selected assassination of French authorities and Muslim I'traitors",
and, in the larger communities, strikes, and economic boycotts.
105
Terrorism in the Urban Areas
In the urban areas the Iloil_spot
ll
process could hardly apply. The French
military forces there were too strong to be driven out, and the affluent colons and the
pro-French Arab businessmen were opposed to Arab nationalism. The rebel tactics and
objectives in these urban battlefields were similar to those used by Colonel Grivas on
Cyprus--terrorism to discredit the government and raise the national struggle to one of
international concern and involvement. The terrorism in populated areas was generally
divided into two categories: (1) the assassination of individuals and indiscriminate
shooting of Europeans and (2) indiscriminant bombings. 11 Assassinations were usually
carried out by a team of two executioners. Individual assassinations were usually pre
ceded by a thorough study of the individual's habits and detailed planning of the execution.
Indiscriminate shootings of Europeans usually took place near the Casbah or the Muslim
section of the city, so that the individual terrorist could return quickly to this urban
sanctuary and the jungle-like security of the crowd.
The bomb network was initially composed of an extensive organization of
chemists (who could obtain potassium chlorate), welders (who could make the castings),
and others who assembled the bombs and prepared detonators. After Ilplastique'l became
available the construction process was considerably simplified. 12 A large proportion of
women and children were used to place the bombs because they were less likely to be
suspected and were rarely searched. 13
The combination of political organization and guerrilla tactics in the rural
areas and terrorism in the urban areas was initially successful in gaining the willing
support of most l\.'Iuslims or in compelling them to cooperate ' .... ith the goals of the revo
lution. Failure to support these goals meant that one was a Iltraitor, l' and l'traitorsTl had
a life expectancy predictably less that Ilpatriots. II
By the end of 1956 the movement had spread with incredible speed until the
FLN ruled with greater authority in some areas than the government. Also, the
106
development of shadow paralled governments was so complete that a lTsubterranean Al-
gerian nation with widespread if inexpert administrative services had precipitously come
to birth. lT14
ALN Attempts Large-Scale Operations
During 1957, the FLN-ALN decided to continue the consolidation of the political
base Cloil-spot
T
' process) and to follow the military pattern set by the Chinese Commu-
nists and the Viet I\-1inh--evolution into largescale operations. Several factors probably
accounted for this decision. 15 First of all the rebels had been quite successful, and
their movement was gaining strength. Second, there was a grmving feeling that since
the problem had taken on international proportions (having been placed on the
United Nations agenda) -- the rebels needed to dramatize this struggle with a display of
strength and success. Finally, the rebel situation may have been somewhat similar to
the dilemma of the Greek communists in 1948-49. The French government forces by
1957 were fully aware of the insurgent threat and "vere responding to the challenge.
]\IIore veterans of Indochina were arriving to swell the French ranks from its initial
strength of 55, 000 to an ultimate force of over 400, 000. New tactics, the quadrillage':<-
and a zealous application of psychological \varfare, threatened to wrest the initiative frorn
the fellagha (Arab guerrillas). Finally, the rebels' flov/ of supplies and replacements
from the Eastern Base in Tunisia \vas being choked off by the construction of a complex
barrier system called the "Morice Line TI. ':VIilitarily, time seemed to be running out for
the and it was possibly their last opportunity to achieve a significant military
success and a quick political settlement. iUter several major battles in late 1948 and
early 1949, the rebels realized that their battalion sized units with machine guns and
supporting mortars were no match for French forces with artillery, airpower, and
armor support. Henceforth the French were militarily in an l'unbeatable
ll
position, and
*A grid system of occupying all key towns and villages and connecting the strong
points with adequate forces to control the intervals.
107
the ALN was forced to reorganize its units into small, elusive groups which could avoid
French military patrols. Thus, guerrilla activity for the remainder of the war, until its
end on 19 March 1962, was characterized by selective attacks and ambushes of these
smaller bands. Their strategy could no longer be one of victory through military force.
The alternative was to protract the war--to increase the external pressure on France
through the United Nations and increase the internal disunity of France through the costs
of maintaining three-fifths of the entire French Army in Algeria.
Summary
Revolutionary warfare in Algeria was primarily a two-pronged attack on the
French administration; both military and nonmilitary techniques were employed simul
taneously. The military aspect of the war was expressed in the armed struggle against
the French administration and military forces. The nonmilitary aspect was expressed
in political and social action directly involving the general population. Waging a 8llccess
ful revolutionary war in then, included the winning over of a large sector of the
population. Where the revoultionary organization failed to win over the local inhabitants
through the effective use of propaganda teclmiques, terror tactics were employed. Either
the local inhabitants were forced to take a stand on the question of violent revolution.
Without an effective system of defense agains t the threat of terrorism, many had no al
ternative to joining the rebel if only out of fear for themselves, their families,
and their property. The French Army and their resulting campaign, although success
ful in preventing an ALN victory, were never successful in regaining the loyalty of the
people.
COUNTERlliSURGENCY
The best means for achieving pacification in our new colony
is provided by combined application of force and politics ... We should
turn to destruction only as a last resort and only as a preliminary to
better reconstruction... Every time that the necessities of war force
108
one of our, .. officers to take action against a village or an in
habited center, his first concern, once submission of the in
habitants has been achieved, should be reconstruction of the
village, creation of the market and establishment of a school. 16
The officer propounding this concept was indeed a veteran of Indochina; Mar
shal Gallieni had served in Tonkin in the 1880's, and this quotation was taken from one of
his later directives, written as Governor General of Madagascar in 1898.
France in 1954 was hesitant to apply the military force required to stabilize
Algeria and unwilling to implement the political measures required to resolve the basic
causes. The violence in the Aures had erupted only four months after the end of the
struggle in Indochina. The impassioned search for a doctrine to counter la guerre
revolutionnaire and to save the honor of the French Army, was just beginning in the
detention camps of the Viet Minh, but in Algeria the army responded in an inept, conven
tional manner. Large-scale operations noisily thrown into the Aures to encircle and
search a djebel (hill) were exhausting and fruitless. The fellagha had plenty of time to
run away or simply to hide their weapons and return to grazing their goats. The French
military outpost system was too weak to really secure, and thus influence the people of
the area; patrols and ambushes were dispatched without adequate intelligence and under
the observation of a population which supported the stronger rule, the guerrillas. 17
In March 1955, five months after the revolt in the Aures Mountains and one
month after Jacques Soustelle had taken over as Governor General, the French assembly
approved a bill authorizing a "s tate of emergency.!' Under the provisions of this act,
M. Soustelle could establish curfews, conduct night searches, establish protection and
security zones, control the press, literature, and radio, and could expel any person
seeking to impede the action of authorities. 1 B But these new measures could not replace
the administrative void that 1\11. Soustelle found in the eastern mountains. French admin
istration was, in many places, virtually non-existent; huge areas were administered
by a single official. The rebellion, Soustelle said, llwas tending to become an endemic
evil. ... No one spoke .... Fear closed mouths and hardened faces. , .. The population, as
109
a whole, without throwing in their lot with the rebels ... remained frightened and noncom
mital. IllS
Soustelle also saw other conditions that alarmed him. In addition to the ad
ministrative vacuum (except for the rebels
'
establishment) and wide-spread terror, there
was appalling poverty. The Governor General realized that the solution to the problem
would require the ingredients of T!peace and security!' plus the social programs of Iljustice
and equality. 1'20 His new budget included a record proposel of $148 million for a II cru
sade against hunger,!1 four-fifths of the funds to be provided by France. 2l He also realized
that in order for the programs to be administered, a means of re-establishing contact
with the Arabs was vital. Thus, in September 1955, Soustelle formed the Service of
Algerian Affairs, (SAA) a modern version of 1\-1arshal Bugeaud!s Arab Bureaus of 1844.
22
Since the civil agencies of France were unable to expand rapidly enough to staff the SA.A,
and since the situation was as pressing militarily as it was politically, the mission even
tually was assigned to the army.
Changes in the Military Response
The war by 1956 had spread rapidly throughout Northern Algeria and had grown
from sporadic terrorist acts, to the development of guerrilla bases, and finally in
some areas, the formation of parallel shadow governments. The difficult situation was
aggravated further by tvvo international events. First, Tunisia and 1\-lorroco gained their
independence from France, and became ideal sanctuaries, training bases and supply
centers for the FLN. In 1957, the external FLN directorate \vas relocated from Cairo to
Tunis. Second, the abortive French-British invasion of the Suez "vas laW1ched in
November 1956. Although \lictory was in their grasp, pressure from the great powers
forced a withdrawal. The French army, sensing that a victory in Egypt would have
destroyed the leadership and external direction of the Algerian insurgency, felt that they
had been denied a military victory because of political timidity.
110
l' Quadrillage" - The Principal French Tactic
By the end of 1957, the French forces in Algeria swelled to 400, OOO--almost
80 percent of these were conscripts. The principal military tactic employed by General
Raoul Salan during 1956- 57 was one called the quadrillage, or grid. The system con
sisted of Pgarrisoning in strength all major cities, and, in diminishing force, all towns,
villages, and farms of Algeria. 1T23 About 300, 000 troops in all were assigned this
mission. These men were backed up by reserves in each of three territorial zones
(Gran, Algiers, and Constantine) and further supported by troops in general reserve.
These reserve units were usually composed of paratroop battalions, marines, mechanized
infantry, and the Foreign Legion. These troops did not suffer the unglamorous day to day
frustrations of the Tlgrid" units, and when committed into battle, they could expect to
fight and then return, well-publicized and well-decorated, to Algiers for restaging.
They were considered as elite troops and many stories and, no doubt, myths have evolved
around Illes paras!1 and the Legion. There was understandably some jealousy and ani
mosity between the reserve forces and the grid units. Grid forces also complained
that after the "paras ' ! operated in an area, their harsh application of force damaged the
subsequent process of pacification, and it was the grid unit which had to go in and face
the population and assist in the rebuilding. 24
The quadrillage system embodied military and non-military techniques in both
the urban and rural areas, In the cities a block system was established whereby an in
digenous chain of command was given the responSibility of controlling, through appointed
subordinates, all people on a block. The military units worked with the local police in
taking a census, establishing identities, issuing census certificates and also in setting
up spot checks to stop the flow of supplies from the city. In the rural areas, indigenous
self-defense forces (harka) were formed to.assist in the protection of their villages and
to relieve the regular units for deeper penetration into the hills. One veteran of Algeria
describes a typical quadrillage operation in this manner.
111
.. a typical unit first carried out police operations to
flush out subversive elements in the towns and villages of its
sector, all the while gathering information about revolutionary
leaders. armS caches, etc. It then penetrated deeply into the
sector, carefully searching the terrain, setting up ambushes
and assaulting guerrilla bands, always guarding its formation
to avoid ambushes. In case of unexpected major engagements
with guerrilla bands whose forces may have been underestimated,
or if elements of the sector units overextended themselves,
the intervention units at the zone level could be called upon
and transported rapidly to the troubled area. Some guerrilla
bands managed to es cape French operations and retreat to
shelter areas. Then the zone intervention units pursued the
retreating guerrillas while the sector units continued operations
in their own sectors until the political element of the guerrilla
band, which usually remained behind, was completely elimi
nated.
26
A French Chief of Staff later described quadrillage as an "attempt to put French troops-
to the last man, to the last private--in, direct contact with the Moslems, turning each
into a kind of ambassador to the Moslem population. 1126
The Morice Line
Because of the increasing importance of the Tunisian sanctuary, a decision was
made in the spring of 1957 to isolate Algeria from external interference by building an
electrified barrier along the eaBtern boundary from Bone south approximately 200 miles
to Bir el Ater; another obstacle later sealed off the Morrocan border. The eastern
barrier, named the Morice Line, consisted of an electrified fence with sufficient charge
to electrocute anyone who touched it. A master control board would also indicate, within
several meters, any portion of the fence that was cut. The barrier was protected with
barbed wire fences, anti-personnel riline fields, blockhouses. gun emplacements, flood
lights to illuminate the fence and blind approaching raiders, and radar sets to detect
movement beyond the floodlights. Armored patrols roamed the barrier 24 hours a day,
and troop reinforceInents were stationed at intervals along the length of the obstacle.
To prevent circUInnavigation of the barrier the French navy patrolled the coastal waters
to the north, while light aircraft flew reconnaissance missions deep into the desert in the
south. The obstacle was successful in isolating the FLN froIn outside assistance, but it
112
waS expensive to man. One authority reports that 80,000 men were required to secure
the Morice Line. 2 7 With the combination of the barrier and the quadrill age, the
guerrilla units in the rural areas were denied the external and internal support to wage
a guerrilla war of any significant size. Restricted by the amount of arms it could obtain,
and staggered by the paras and the Legionaires anytime they grouped together for large
scale operations, the guerrillas by 1958 found it necessary to break up into smaller
bands. Only in reduced numbers could they safely avoid the French military operations
and maintain an organization that would permit their subsistance.
The Battle of Algiers
In what has become a modern classic of urban warfare, General Jacques Massu
and his 10th Paratroop Division were ordered into Algiers in January 1957 and given
blanket police authority to reduce the 1500-strong terrorist organization led by Yacef
Saadi. For Massu, frustrated after Indochina and the Suez invasion of 1956, it was to be
a test of the new French doctrine for cOlUltering la guerre revolutionnaire. Algiers
had been racked with bombings of cafes, trolley cars, and theaters. The atmosphere
prevailing in the city was reaching a critical condition and could easily have exploded
into a blood-bath between the Muslim and European sections of the city. In January
alone there were 200 victims of bombings. 28 The FLN in a demonstration of power,
announced that there would be a general strike on 27 January 1957--all storeowners who
did not comply could expect punishment. Massu retaliated and threatened the store owners
with unrestrained plundering if the stores were not kept open. The strike did not ma
terialize. Massu then conducted a cenSUS of all 700,000 people in Algiers. The Casbah
district, * housing 75,000 Muslims and Saadi IS terrorist organization, was in for a special
treatment. One regiment cordoned off the Casbah and set up check points within the
crowded sea of humanity. Quick raking operations (rattisages) searched homes and
>t< An area of approximately 75 acres.
113
whole blocks. Arrests were made on the slightest suspicion; resistance was met with
death. Prisoners were taken to various paratroop headquarters for "questioningTT. The
questioning procedures were direct and if need be, brutal. But the paratroopers got
the information and were able to destroy the terrorist band. Their methods of interro-
gation drew criticsm upon the French army from all quarters. There is no doubt that
the strong-arm tactics left their own invisible mark on many of the soldiers who were
ordered to carry them out. One Captain has testified:
I don't know what hell the man went through who gave
the order. But I know the rape it was for the young men straight
from St. Cyr. All myths and illusions crashed together. They
were told that the end justifies the means, and that France's
victory depended on it. ""
Colonel Trinquier, one of General Massu's regimental commanders, feels that the use
of torture was justified. In his book Modern vVarfare, Trinquier explains:
The terrorist must be made to realize that, when he
is captured, he cannot be treated as an ordinary criminal, nor
like a prisoner taken on the battlefield. What the forces of
order who are arresting him are seeking is not to punish a
crime, for which he is otherwise not personally responsible,
but, as in any war, the destruction of the enemy army or its
surrender. Therefore he is not asked details about himself or
about attacks that he mayor may not have committed... but
rather for precise information about his organization. In par
ticular, each man has a superior whom he knows; he will
first have to give the name of this person, along with his address,
so that it will be possible to proceed with the arrest without
delay.
No lawyer is present for such an interrogation. If
the prisoner gives the information requested, the examination
is quickly terminated; if not, specialists must force his secret
-from him. Then, as a soldier, he must face the suffering, and
perhaps the death, he has heretofore managed to avoid. 3D
By September 1957 Yacef Saadi had been captured and Massu had won the battle of
Algiers. The FLN network that had terrorized the city for the past two years was de-
strayed and would not reform. Three thousand lVluslirns reportedly died in the Casbah;
another 5, 000 were placed in prison camps ar reeducation centers.
31
The Battle of
Algiers served to convince the French army of the validity of its new doctrinal approach
114
to revolutionary v.rarfare. It also generated a feeling of confidence that ultimate victory
would be gained if given the time and latitude to do the job.
Pacification Programs
The group of officers upon whom fell the demanding task of reuniting the French
and lVluslim population into a spirit of cooperation had perhaps the most difficult job in
the war. In retrospect, one might argue that it was an impossible task. Ho\vever, for
many the job was a most rewarding experience. As one lieutenant leaving Algeria re
marked, liThe future may hold great joys in store, but certainly there is no greater
happiness than having won back the souls of the 25, 000 persons placed in our charge for
the past year... "32 Each SAS team usually consisted of an officer. an KCO, one clerk,
one interpreter, and one radio operator. Occasionally, military or civilian assistants
for agriculture, public health or education were added. By late spring of 1958, some
800 teams \vere in operation. The average day of an SAS officer v,.'ould find hirn
checking plans for the building of a local school, arbitrating local disputes, and directing
the activities of the local self-defense forces (harka). The SAS team was meant to be
employed in places where the quadrillage tactics had reduced the guerrilla threat to a
level which could be contained by the self-defense forces and nearby forces of interven
tion. In areas v/here it was difficult to provide this security, natives were frequently
moved into a more secure area; over a million l\!Iuslims were relocated during the war.
SAS teams supervised the building and administration of the ne\v villages.
A great deal of attention was spent \vith the children of the village. In many
cases the boys in vocational schools lived with their teachers. The curriculum was
heavily laden \vith political and moral themes stressing citizenship, ethics, and good
manners. Despite this attention, many l\rIuslim youths were not alienated from the FLN.
As one author suggested:
liThe heroic naITles written on the blackboard were Jeanne
dTArc, )J"apoleon, and Foch--not Abel-el-Kader and Abd-el-Krim.
Children \vere taught to identify \i'O'ith alien masters and precepts
115
that held no favorable associations for them outside the classroom.
It was not surprising that they would translate the militant French
nationalism they were taught into militant Arab nationalism. 33
Another author suggests that the benefits of civic action merely "whetted the appetite for
more. And many Muslims interpreted the beneficial aspects of civic action as primarily
a response to the rebellion and thus to the credit of the FLN. 1T34
The urban counterpart to the SAS was the Sections Administratives Urbanes
(SAU). These teams were formed during the battle of Algiers and were designed to per
form a similar mission of controlling the population, providing a link between the civil
servants and the army, and also acting as a contact with the natives.
In the midst of a war whose reciprocal reprisals dishonored both combatants
the SAS-SAU cadres were universally applauded. Despite the outcome of the war, these
men did much for the reputation of the Army and had a lasting impact on an independent
Algeria.
Psychological Operations
Members of the SAS teams sought the integration of the French and Muslims
societies through programs of education and civic improvement. The proponents of the
new doctrine to counter la guerre revolutionnaire felt that stronger programs of
psychological indoctrination must be employed to sway the crowd and turn them against
their former allegiance. By November 1957, the importance of psychological operations
had developed to the degree that a fifth staff section (Ses Bureaux) was introduced into all
combat units and territorial commands.
35
These staff sections had two basic tasks.
npsychological action
lt
encompassed all measures taken to protect French morale and
unity of purpose. It was to include information sessions, pamphlets, periodicals,
movies, etc., to convince the French soldier of the virtue of his cause and to make each
soldier a veritable diplomat of the French nation.
The second task was called I'psychological warfare!'; its target audience was
the enemy. This task was sub-divided into three objectives: (1) to help destroy the
116
enemy's political network, (2) to help destroy the enemy's armed forces, and (3) to re
educate captured enemy personnel. 36 The first two objectives were aimed at influencing
enemy groups; the last objective involved the influencing of enemy individuals. The
techniques employed to influence groups were different from those used against indivi
duals. The theorist who had most influenced the new approach to the control of large
groups was Serge Tchakhotin, who in his book, The Rape of the Masses, argued that the
violent propaganda of the Bitlers and Mussolinis must be c01U1tered by equally effective
ideological rearmament. Morale reflexes built on principles of Truth, Freedom, etc.,
were necessary to provide the shield of invulnerability to alien doctrines. 37 French
loudspeaker and pamphlet companies were designed as the main tool for mass persuasion.
Symbols, slogans, demonstrations, repetition of a theme--all became standard techniques
used by these companies. The French were to learn, however, that calling people to
gether to hear these messages was not as profitable as using these techniques in places
where the crowd tended to form naturally, such as l1 marketplaces, festivals, ceremonies,
and public works projects where large numbers of workers were present. Tl38
Captured terrorists or suspects were screened into three separate groups.
The \'innocents
Tl
were, of course, released. The "irreduciblesTl would be placed in iso
lation or if circumstances warranted, brought before a tribunal. The "reducibles
lT
were
brought to one of ten reeducation centers.
39
The program for conversion consisted of a
period of brain washing (lavage de crane) where the subject must acknowledge his errors
and a period of brainfilling (bourrage de crane) in which he would assimilate his new
allegiancies.
40
In the latter period, there were lectures and discussions. Also:
Visits from relatives were permitted, vocational training
was encouraged, and considerable time was spent in political
classes. Reading matter was censored.. " and great pomp and
circumstance were attached to patriotic ceremony and the tmpre
dictable assault of loudspeaker transmissions, which followed
the internees about like a companion. 41
There has been no consistent evaluation of the success of the reeducation
camps. Opinions vary radically from 11humane
11
and \'effective'\ to "brutal
l1
and IIwasted
117
effort." As George Kelly suggests, "The soujourn in a camp... probably represented...
another disorienting experience in a life already studded with war, hunger, personal
tragedy and dislocation. 4 2
Large Scale Operations
In January 1959, General Maurice Challe of the French Air Force was appointed
as the Commander-in- Chief of French Forces in Algeria. Challe found the military tac
tics of quadrillage successfully protecting the populated areas but unable to S"I,>leep the
guerrillas from their mountain hideouts. He therefore created a highly mobile force of
some 20, 000 (taken from the general reserve). These units were equipped with new arms
and extensive signal communications; they were also provided with special logistical
units to enable them to remain on long-term operations. This reorientation of military
strategy resulted in the application of effective, large-scale encirclement (bouclage)
operations. General Challe habitually used squadrons of CH- 21 (the tandem rotor
Tlbanana
T'
helicopter) or CH- 34
T
8 to support the large-scale operations. Transport heli
copters moved units into blocking positions; armed helicopters provi.ded suppressive
fire to the landing zone just before and during touch-down of the transport ships. Aerial
resupply operations permitted the units to remain in the field for long periods of time.
Medical evacuation by helicopter was a great morale factor to the French soldier; over
7, 500 evacuations were performed. It is interesting to note that out of a fleet of Oller
250 helicopters operating in Algeria in 1959, none \vere lost that year to enemy fire. 43
Although French helicopter resources were divided between the Air Force and the Army,
there \vas no apparent conflict over the roles and missions of each. \'\Inile the United
States army was giving lip-service to airmobility, the French \vere cOITlmendably adapting
this concept to their Algerian struggle.
The first large-scale operation directed against lilayas IV and V was s\vift,
achieved the key element of surprise, and took a heavy toll on the enemy. After the
encircling forces were moved rapidly into place, observation posts and ambushes were
118
established within the enclosed area. Air observation was continuous. On Some occasions,
the maneuver forces would drive enemy bands into the encircling forces. On other occa
sions, depending on intelligence, the encircling forces would wait patiently until the sur
rounded prey attempted to break through and escape. In the Wilaya IV and V operation
2, 000 guerrillas were reported killed, 500 were captured, along with over 1, 000 wea
pons.
44
As one officer noted, liThe most notable result of this operation was the debunking
of the myth that the mountain bases \vere invulnerable rebel bastions. 1145 This operation
was followed by other similar sweeps into the Aures and Kabylia ranges.
Termination of the Struggle
Although the French devised effective military operations, and overpowered
the guerrillas, Algeria gained its independence. One is reminded of the old story of the
doctor who proclaimed the operation a success ... but the patient died. The army was not
happy to lose the war on a political settlement--knowing that any form of defeat would
again (as it did in Indochina) reflect on the professionalism of the army. It waS this
sense of professional frustration that caused the French army to take an increasingly
active part in the politics of Algeria and eventually to place the army above the state and
force one French government to fall and another to teeter.
On 13 IVlay 1958, after a series of events too amazing to be real, General
Massu formed a Committee of Public Safety and assumed control of Algiers (later, all of
Algeria) in order to preclude "an effusion of blood" and to prevent l'a diplomatic Dien
Bien Phu. 1146 The Fourth Republic, never a stable institution, crumbled. The Gaillard
Cabinet had fallen on 16 April; 1\11. Pflimlin, the new premier, came into office on 13 l\tIay
and lasted only two \veeks. Charles DeGaulle, meanwhile, had let it be known that, "in
the face of the trials that again are mounting toward it, ... I am ready to assume the
powers of the Republic. n47 On 1 June, President Coty appointed DeGaulle as premier,
and when the new premier flew to Algiers on 4 June, there was a spontaneous and un
briddled ovation for him.
119
DeGaulle's program for Algeria did not. however. follow the generals' scenario.
As premier and later as President. De Gaulle swayed from a position of ITAlgerie
Francais IT to a middle position of promising a referendum after four years of peace to
determine "integration, association, or secession. fT Finally. in 1960, after a so-called
routine tour of army mess halls, DeGaulle spoke of an !'Algerian Algeria!! and hoped that
she would maintain economic. and defense tie3 with France.
On 22 April 1961 the generals revolted again. Challe, Sa1an, Jouhand, and Zeller
took over Algiers in a bloodless coup claiming that Algeria was in danger of becoming
a Soviet base. The coup was short-lived; the Air Force remained loyal and flew all
transport aircraft back to France. The conscript units in Algeria would not support the
coup, and the French navy maintained a delicate neutrality. Challe was arrested within
three days. Salan organized the Organization of the Secret Army (GAS). but was also
eventually captured.
DeGaulle recognized the need to negotiate with the FLN. They have, he said,
"created a spirit; hence a people; hence a policy; hence a state. n48 In March 1962,
both parties agreed to a cease-fire. France recognized the right of Algerian self
determination. On 1 July 1962, the national referendum reflected that an overwhelming
majority of the people wanted independence from France.
CONCLUSIONS
Perhaps the main conclusion that can b2 drawn from the Algerian struggle is
the realization that the military response can only provide the environlnent of stability
under which the battle for control of civilian allegiance is fought. In the long run, the
battle can only be won or lost by the establishment of civilian support. In conditions
where there are serious grievances, these causes for revolt must be eliminated. It is
entirely possible for the military forces to establish a mantle of superiority over the
opposing guerrilla forces while the "forces of order!' lose the political battle to the
revolutionary movement.
120
The question of the morality and effectiveness of counterterror by the govern
ment forces continues to be a difficult problem for regular forces faced with the frustrating
requirement of fighting within a crowd. That the techniques used by the 10th Airborne
Division were that these techniques prevented continued bombings of cafes and
trolleys, there can be little doubt. It is also a matter of record that certain villages ceased
to support the rebels and began to warn the French forces of anti-vehicular mines, only
after a brutal French reprisal against that village. However, one must wonder what
effect these actions had in destroying the possibility of long-range political settlements.
Can a battle for the allegiance of the people survive such tactics? Furthermore, what
process takes place in the army of a democratic nation when the army attempts to pro
tect a country from an ideological enemy by using techniques that are contrary to its own
nation's mores and customs? Can this army defend democratic " ends!! by the use of in-
A final point suggested by the Algerian experience is of particular importance
to the American soldier of the 1960's and the 1970's. How much can or should an army
be asked to do in aiding a struggling nation to defeat a revolutionary movement? Should
the army assume the essentially civil roles of judge, urban
and nation-builder? In our nation, which seemS habitually to fear a threat of
military dominance over the civil authorities, should those same authorities require its
military establishment to assume non-military functions? How well can an army be ex
pected to do these functions? Is our military system of promotions and decorations de
signed to reward an Infantry lieutenant colonel who has done a truly magnificent job in
advising, pacifying, and rebuilding a section of a foreign nation? Or will the system re
ward the lieutenant colonel who commanded an American battalion engaged in military
operations? The prospects for career advancement decidedly favor the latter officer.
On the other hand, if the military establislunent should not perform these tasks, what
other national resources are available to do the job? One French embittered
after the outcome of Algeria argued that although the armed forces could and should
121
fight against the effects of subversion, they were neither organized nor equipped to com
bat the causes.
49
The same officer concluded: liTo recognize that war had become total
is implicitly to recognize that the Army can no longer handle more than a part of war. 1160
A military tragedy occurred in Algeria, a tragedy of an army fighting to re
gain its honor in a battle of physical and psychological persuasion against an imagined
international conspiracy--an army that eventually was to elevate itself above the state,
and so, alienate itself from its people. There was also a political tragedy involved-
the tragedy of an underdeveloped country with its natural wealth centered in the hands
of a few, with its illiterate masses and disease-ridden slums. Muslim Algeria, subjected
to a process of encroaching European "civilization, II yielded only the mutations of popula
tion explosion, economic destitution, social frustration, and revolution. But beyond the
military and political tragedies of Algeria, as George Kelly suggests, there was the poignant
" ... tragedy of two distinct peoples, united by their
love for a single soil, sundered by a fatal suspicion of each
other. Into this dilemma was interposed a bitter and ill
used Army, with consequences that [shook] the foundations
of France itself. n51
122
NOTES
lDorothy Pickles, Algeria and France (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc.,
1963), p. 17
2 Ibid., p. 31.
3Ibid., pp. 27-8.
4 Aerospace Studies Institute, Guerrilla Warfare and Airpower in Algeria 1954-1960
(Air University, Maxwell AFE, Alabama, March 1965), p. 6.
6Pierre Charrasse, liThe Army and the New Algeria, II Revue de Defense Nationale,
March 1959, pp. 420-432 (FTD Translation #63-879), p. 4.
6Guerrilla \Varfare and Airpower, p. 6.
7Ibid., p.9.
8 Peter Eraestrap, "Partisan Tactics--Algerian Style," Army, August 1960, P. 107.
9 The organization of the FLN is based on, primarily extracted from, an unpublished
study by Sano M. Stepanovich, "Algeria, 1954-1962" written for the Special Operations
Research Organization of The American University, under contract to the Department
of the Army.
10 Joseph Kraft, The Struggle for Algeria (Garden City: Doubleday and Co., 1961),
p. 70.
llpaul A. Jureidini, Case Studies in Insurgency and Revolutionary Warfare: Algeria
1954-1962 (Washington: Special Operations Research Office, the American University,
December 1963), pp. 98-9.
12 Serge Eromberger, Les Rebelles Algeriens (Paris: Librairie Plan, 1958), p. 154.
14 George Armstrong Kelly, Lost Soldiers--The French Army and Empire in Crises
1947-1962 (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1965), p. 168.
15 Discussion of this decision based primarily on Jureidini, Case Studies, p. 95.
1
6
Quoted by Jean Gattman, "Eugeaud, Gallieni and Lyautey: The Development of
French Colonial \\-carfare, !1 in Edward Meade Earle (ed. ) Makers of Modern Strategy
(Princeton, 1941), p. 243.
17Michael K. Clark, Algeria In Turmoil (New York: Grosset and Dulap, 1960),
pp. 130-1; Jureidini, Case Studies, p. 94.
18 Clark, Algeria In Turmoil, pp. 142-3.
123
19Quoted by Clark in Algeria in Turmoil, pp. 310-1.
21
Ibi
d., p. 133.
""Ibid., p. 134.
""Kraft, The Struggle in Algeria, p. 94.
""Kelly, Lost Soldiers, p. 178.
26 Sana Stepanovich, TlAlgeria. 1954-1962. II
86General Andre Zeller, Quoted in Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare
from Indochina to Algeria (New York: Frederick A. Praeger. 1964), p. 36.
2'7Quoted in Guerrilla Warfare and Airpower. p. 28.
2B
Ke
ll
y
, Lost Soldiers, p. 194.
""Taken from the Machester Guardian of August 3, 1962.
See also Le Mond, Au
gust 2, 1962. Quoted in Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare, p. 72.
SCRoger Trinquier, Modern Warfare (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1964).
pp. 21-2.
31Kraft, The Struggle for Algeria, p. 105.
3
2
Quoted in Kraft, The Struggle for Algeria, p. 109.
33paretJ French Revolutionary Warfare. p. 51.
""Kraft, The Struggle for Algeria, p. 109.
35Paret. French Revolutionary Warfare, p. 55.
36Ibid., pp. 96 -7.
3?For further discussion read Paret. French Revolutionary Warfare, pp. 57-62.
and Kelly, Lost Soldiers, pp. 126-40.
3BSlavko N. Bjelajac, IfPsyWar: The Lessons from Algeria
'
!, Military Review
(Ft. Leavenworth, December 1962), p. 3
39Paret. French Revolutionary Warfare. p. 6.
4"Kelly, Lost Soldiers, p. 190.
4:l
Ibid
.
42Ibid., p. 191.
124
4-3 Por a more detailed but perhaps slanted discussion, refer to Guerrilla \Varfare
and Airpower, pp. 55-9, 67-71, 102-10.
4-4 Claude Payat, Dossier Secret d'Algerie, quoted in Stepanovich, lTAlgeria 1954
1962" .
5 Ibid.
'5 Clark, Algeria in Turmoil, pp. 380, 384.
47
Ibid
., p. 390.
48Quoted in James R. Price, !TAlgeria (1954-1962), " Cneter for Research in Social
Systems, Challenge and Response in Internal Conflict (Vi/ashington: The American Uni
versity, April 1968), Vol. III - tiThe Experience in Africa and Latin America", p. 200.
49 Paret, French Revolutionary 'Warfare, p. 125.
50 LTC J. Rousset, 11A Propose de Subversion et dtlnsurrection, II Revue de Defense
Nationale, XVI. (March, 1960), p. 506, quoted in Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare,
p. 125.
5l Kelly, Lost Soldiers, p. 165.
i25
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY *
Books
Aerospace Studies Institute. Guerrilla Warfare and Airpower in Algeria, 1954-1960.
Maxwell Air Force Base, March 1965.
Behr, Edward. The Algerian Problem. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1962.
Brace, Richard and Joan. Ordeal in Algeria. Princeton, N. J.: D. Van Nostrand Co..
Inc., 1960.
Center for Research in Social Systems. Challenge and Response in Internal Conflict,
Vol. III TIThe Experience in Africa and Latin America. II The
American University, 1968.
Clark, Micbael K. Algeria in Turmoil. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959.
Cross, James Eliot. Conflict in the Shadows - The Nature and Politics of Guerrilla ,"",'ar.
Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1963.
Galula, David. Counterinsurgency v\7arfare - Theory and Practice. New York: Frederick
A. Praeger, 1964.
Gillespie, Joan. Algeria - Rebellion and Revolution. New York: Frederick A. Praeger.
1960.
Greene, (Lt Colonel) T. N. (ed.). The Guerrilla and How to Fight Him. New York:
Frederick A. Praeger, 1962. (Selected articles from The Marine Corps Gazette.)
Isnard, H. Algeria. London, WI: Nicholas Kaye, Ltd., 1955.
Kelly, George A. Lost Soldiers: The French Army and Empire in Crisis 1947-1962.
Cambridge: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1965.
Kraft, Joseph. The Struggle for Algeria. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1961.
Matthews, Tanya. War in Algeria: Background for Crisis. lViade in Great Britain:
Fordham University Press, 1962.
Paret, Peter. French Revolutionary Warfare From Indochina to Algeria, The Analysis
of a Political and Military Doctrine. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1964.
Pickles, Dorothy. Algeria and France. New York: Frederick A. Praeger. 1963.
Servan-Schreiber, Jean-Jacques. Lieutenant in Algeria. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1957.
*Bibliography selected from Guerrilla 'Variare and Airpower in Algeria, 1954-1960.
126
Special Operations Research Office. Casebook on Insurgency and Revolutionary Warfare.
\Vashington: The American University. December 1952.
Trinquier, Roger. Modern \Varfare - A French View of Counterinsurgency. New York:
Frederick A. Praeger, 1964. (First published in France in 1961 under the title
La Guerre Moderne. )
Articles and Periodicals
liThe Air Force in Algeria in 1959." Forces Aeriennes Francaises. (French). March 1960.
Air Force and Space Digest, May 1962, p. 6.
Air University Review, March-April 1964, pp. 64-68.
"Air War in Algeria," RAF Flying Review, (English), October 1956.
Army: August 1960, pp. 33-44; August 1962, pp. 50-53; January 1964, pp. 35-38.
Army Navy Air Force Journal, May 19, 1962, p. 20.
Army Quarterly: April 1960, pp. 108-115; October 1960, pp. 93 -101.
Arpurt, (Ll. Colonel) R. J. "Aspects of Helicopter Support Operations in Algeria,"
Forces Aeriennes Francaises, (French), April 1960.
Braestrup, Peter. "Partisan Tactics, Algerian Style, "Army, August 1960.
Calmel. (General) J. "Air Forces in Algeria: 1958. II Forces Aeriennes Francaises.
(French), March 1959.
Charrasse. Pierre. "The Army and the New Algeria. " Revue de Defense Nationa1e.
(French), March 1959.
Croizat, (Colonel) Victor J. liThe Algerian War. 11 Marine Corps Gazette. December 1957.
Dechert. (Major) Louis T. "Difficulty in Projection. II Artillery Trends, December 1964.
Ely. P. "France's Problems and the Balance of Power in the World. II Revue de Defense
Nationale, (French), November 1959.
"French Military Aviation: The Air Force in Algeria in 1959. II Forces Aeriennes
Francaises, (French), March 1960.
Germain. Louis. "Activities of the Air Force During the Course of the First Half Year
of 1960, II Forces Aeriennes Francaises, (French), December 1960.
Infantry. July-August 1962, pp. 8-9; 12-13; 30-31.
Kaippelin, Thierry. "Medical Evacuation by Air in AFN," Forces Aeriennes Francaises,
(French), March 1960.
Kamrass, Murray E. "Aircraft and Combat Mobility, 11 Research Trends. Spring 1961.
127
Marine Corps Gazette: December 1957, pp. 44-51; February 1958, pp. 61-62; January
1961, pp. 36-41; June 1962, pp. 15-16; July 1962, pp. 17-18; August 1962, pp. 15-16;
September 1962, pp. 19-20; October 1962, pp. 17-18; November 1962, pp. 69-70;
December 1962, pp. 17 -18; February 1963, pp. 15-16.
Menanteau, (Captain). IlBombing Operations in the AFN, It Forces Aeriennes Francaises.
(French), July 1959.
Merye. Jean. "Military Aspects of the War in Algeria, 1/ Revue de Defense Nationale.
(French), May 1959.
The Military Review: December 1955, pp. 3-18; January 1957, pp. 85-87; March 1957, pp.
86-90; December 1957, pp. 97-89; March 1958, pp. 49-54; September 1962, pp.
31-39; December 1962, pp. 2-7; December 1963, pp. 81-96.
NATO's Fifteen Nations, April 1961, pp. 108-111.
o 'Ballance, (Major) Edgar. "The Algerian Struggle," The Army Quarterly and
Defense Journal, October 1960.
Ordnance, January-February 1964, pp. 434-436.
RAF Flying (English): October 1956, pp. 19-21; June 1960, pp. 21-24.
RAF Quarterly, (English), Summer 1963, pp. 83-88.
"Some Thoughts on Subversive Warfare. II Forces Aeriennes Francaises. (French), May
1960.
"Territorial Troops and Guerrilla Bands in the Atomic Age." NATO's Fifteen Nations.
October-November 1964.
U. S. Army Aviation Digest, October 1962, pp. 3-8.
Vallet, (Ll. Colonel). "The Grand Kabylia, Serf of the Rebellion," Forces Aeriennes
Francaises, (French), July 1959.
French Documents
France, Ministere de la Defense. Counter-Guerrilla Operations for Maintaining Order in
French North Africa, Manual T. T.A. 123, 24 August 1956. U. S. Army Trans
lation I-llOlE, 1962.
France, Ministers des Arrnees IIAir, II 5eme Region Aerienne, Compte-Rendu Mensuel.
Monthly Reports of the French Air Forces - 1959, U. S. Air Force Translation
FTD-TT-63-875.
128
France, Ministry of the Armies. Employment of Helicopter-Borne Units in Maintaining
Order in French North Africa, Field Manual T. T.A. 152, 4 May 1956. U. S.
Army Translation I-llOI-A, 1962.
France, Ministry of the Armies. Notice on the Air Support in the Operations for the
Maintenance of Order in Algeria, Field Manual T. T. A. 172, 9 December 1960.
U. S. Army Translation I -llOl-C, August 1962.
France, Resident Minister in Algeria. General Directive, 19 May 1956, to all personnel
of the French armed forces stationed in Algeria.
France, Secretariat D'Etat Aux Forces Armees "Air," Provisional Manual for Hel
icopter Operation in French North Africa, 20 February 1958. U. S. Air Force
Translation FTD-TT-63 870/1+3+4, 1 May 1964.
Other
Counterinsurgency: A Symposium, April 16-20, 1962, R-412-ARPA. Santa Monica,
Calif,: The RAND Corp., January 1963.
Pierpoint, T. R. (ed.). French Anny Helicopter Operations in Algeria; June 1956
September 1959. SM-406, November 1959, Vertol Aircraft Corporation, 1959.
Report of the Operations Research Mission on H-21 Helicopter Operations in Algeria,
December 1956. Vertol Aircraft Corporation, translated April 1957,
(Confidential Document).
Special Warfare Area Handbook for Algeria. Human Relations Area Files, Inc. Under
contract with the U. S. Department of the Army, 1958, (Secret Document).
Symposium on the Role of Airpower in Counterinsurgency and Unconventional Warfare;
The Algerian War, RM 3653 PRo Santa Monica, Calif.: The RAND Corp.,
July 1963.
129
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